Message Design 9789185334261

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Message Design

Rune Pettersson

Message Design The illustration on the cover is part of an image from my video program “Life Patterns” presented at the first international exhibition “The Video Show” in London, may 1975. My “multimedia project” was one of two invited contributions from Sweden.

Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page.

Institute for Infology ISBN 978-91-85334-26-1 © Rune Pettersson Sweden, Tullinge 2022 2

Preface Information design is a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary, and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as design disciplines, communication disciplines, information disciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, art and aesthetic disciplines, business and law, as well as media production technologies. Message design is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge. It encompasses influences and facts from more than fifty established disciplines and areas of research. The main areas of research may be divided into six groups with “base disciplines” such as design disciplines, communication disciplines, information disciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, and art and aesthetic disciplines. The main components in message design are words, visuals and forms. These main components may be used in many different ways to produce, transmit and interpret messages of various kinds in different communication situations. Depending on the different objectives of the messages we can see different “message design genera.” These groups are graphic design, information design, instruction design, mass design, and persuasion design. Message design principles contribute to the design of effective and efficient messages. Since my retirement I have edited and revised sections of my earlier books, conference papers and reports about information design, message design, visual communication and visual literacy. Previous editions of this book were published in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022. Tullinge, Sweden Rune Pettersson, Ph.D. Retired Professor of Information Design

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Contents Preface 3 Contents 4 Communication 8 Many areas of research 8 Communication processes 9 Visual communication 10 Information 12 Design 14 Design families and design genera 17 Design processes and principles 19 General design principles 20 Design judgments 21 Design mottos 23

Quantitative information principles 24 Visual language principles 25

A few design areas 26

Emotional design 26 Industrial design 27 Information experience design 28 Interaction design 29 Interactive design 30 Light design 32 Packaging design 34 Participatory design 35 Sound design 37 Spatial design 39 User experience design 40

The message design family 43 Inter- and multi-disciplinary 44 Message design objectives 46 Graphic design 48 Graphic design objectives 49 Design by reduction 50 Modern graphic design 51 Information design 54 Some definitions 54 4

Information design objectives 56

Instruction design 58

Instruction design objectives 59 Audio-visual instruction 59 Educational technology 61 Instructional technology 67 Instructional design 69 Educational design 76 Instructional message design 78 Information visualisation 80 Instruction design summary 80

Mass design 81 Persuasion design 82 Advertising 83 Propaganda 89 Message design processes 95 Message design model 96 Analysis and synopsis 96 Production of draft 99 Production of script 100

Production of original and master 101

Competence areas 102 Message design principles 105 Selected research 106

Information design principles 106 Instructional design principles 107 Interactive design principles 108 Functional message design principles 109

Functional principles 112

Defining the problems 112 Providing clarity 115 Providing emphasis 115 Providing simplicity 116 Providing structure 116 Providing unity 117

Cognitive principles 118

Facilitating attention 118 Facilitating perception 118 Facilitating mental processing 119

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Facilitating memory 119

Aesthetic principles 120

Aesthetic proportion principle 120 Harmony principle 120

Administrative principles 121 Information access 121 Information costs 124 Information ethics 127 Securing quality 129 Message design tools 135 Selected research 136 Verbal languages 137 Visual languages 137 Combined verbal and visual language 139 Symbols as language 140

Representing reality 141 Traditional media 141 More possibilities 142 Social media 143

Representations 146 Categories of representations 147

Internal and external representations 147 Information messages 148 Symbols and abstractness 149 Lexi-visual representations 152 AV and combined representations 159

Objectives 163

Stringent demands 163 Informative entertainment 164 Brief messages 165 Administrative documentation 167 Factual information 169 Instructions 173

Production of representations 176 Production processes 176 Graphical media 178 Video 179 Databases and multimedia 180 Podcasting 181 6

Media-industry mappings 183 Efficiency measures 183 Media evolution chart 185 The receivers 188 Receiver processes 188 Finding information 191

Finding specific information 191 The information cone 193 Information navigation 195 Navigation in hyperspace 203

Media consumption 204

Media consumption vary 205 Specialized market segments 205 Media developments 208

Research and study 210 Research methods 210 Applied research 210 A research process 214

Other research methods 215 Creating a leverage effect 217

Study perspectives 219 ID Library 221 References 222 Appendix: Main concepts 251

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Communication Aspects of our society are becoming increasingly intertwined, and the need for communication between people is increasing. We need to communicate in order to establish contacts with one another, to maintain and improve those contacts, to exchange information and views, and to develop our societies. This chapter includes the following main sections: Many areas of research, Communication processes, and Visual communication.

Many areas of research Cuttings in bone, impressions in clay, incisions in stone, notches in wood, paintings in caves, and paintings on walls are all examples of visual cultural artefacts created in early human communities. They all represent thoughts. People express their thoughts for many reasons, often several simultaneous reasons (Tversky, 2011). Some reasons are aesthetic: to arouse emotions, or evoke pleasure. Some reasons are behavioural and affect action, or promote collaboration. Some reasons are cognitive and serve as reminders, to focus thoughts, to reorganize thoughts, and to explore thoughts. Many reasons are communicative and inform both self, and others. Communication is studied in many academic disciplines, and in many areas of research. Main areas include advertising, audience reception, audio-visual instruction, communication design, communication models, communication theories, computer science, cultivation, cultural studies, educational technology, entertainment, gender studies, gratifications theory, human-computer interaction, mass-communication, media and communication, media literacy, mediated communication, medium, one-way communications model, persuasive communication, planned communication, propaganda, technical communication, technical illustration, technical writing, technology of instruction, and many more. 8

At different universities, courses and complete academic programs in communication studies have many names, such as communication and media science, communication arts, communication sciences, communication studies, mass communication, media ecology, media studies, rhetorical studies, and speech communication. Programs may include elements of many disciplines. A few main communication disciplines will be mentioned briefly here. Advertising, audio-visual instruction, communication design, cultural studies, culture theories, educational technology, gender studies, human-computer interaction, instructional technology, and media literacy theories are mentioned later in this book.

Communication processes Many communication and information theorists have devised models to explain the way communication processes function (De Boer and Brennecke, 2003; Hagen, 1998; Hall, 1980; Lasswell, 1948; McGonigle and Mastrian, 2011; McQuail, 2000; Mesoudi, 2011; Morley, 1992; Piette and Giroux, 1998; Schramm, 1954; Shannon and Weaver, 1949; Wartella and Reeves, 2003; Wurman et al., 2001). Many communication models have both advantages and disadvantages. In the production of information materials, a sender conveys information on a part of reality via a representation to an information receiver who, via sensory impressions, is able to obtain a perception of that reality. This perception may then evoke a response that affects the reality and/or creates some feedback to the original sender. The receiver’s perception varies as a result of a number of factors, e.g., her or his current cultural and social status, the time and stage of development, mood, experience, memory, and other cognitive processes, such as creativity. Perception is divorced from the representation that, in turn, is divorced from the reality. Some of our sensory impressions give rise to “garbage” and some to learning. 9

Several activities are involved when an intended message (left red circle) is created, produced, and transmitted, from a sender to a receiver, and received, processed and understood (right red circle). These processes (blue arrows) are guided by principles (upper yellow pentagons), performed with the help of tools (lower dark green pentagons) and influenced by social context. In this model the active receiver may actively reach out and grab the representation with message/medium.

Visual communication The study of visual communication has developed independently within several fields of research. Thus, research on combined verbal and visual communication has had “no natural home.” Nowadays the study of visual communication is a multidisciplinary, multi-dimensional and worldwide consideration.

Müller, Kappas and Olk (2012, p. 322) noted that while pictures move easily between various media, their meaning does not always follow the same path. Moriarty (1996) made an extensive mapping of the study of visual communication. She developed a bibliography with 1,617 entries grouped in the following 30 main categories (in order of precedence): 1) Memory, 2) Photography, 3) Mental imagery, 4) Cognition and information processing, 5) Visual-verbal interaction, 6) Advertising, 7) Television and video, 8) Art and fine art, 9) Perception, 10) Development and children, 11) Film and cinema, 12) History, 13) Visual literacy; pictorial representation, 14) Graphic design, 15) Aesthetics; creativity; gender studies and 10

stereotypes, 16) Signs and semiotics, 17) Codes, decoding and encoding, 18) Broadcast and television news; research and methodology, 19) Audience factors, 20) Sociology and anthropology, 21) Rhetoric and persuasion, 22) Photojournalism, 23) Journalism and news, 24) Information and content, 25) Cartoons; the language metaphor (syntax, grammar, etc.). Visual communication has been defined many times. “The more you know, the more you see,” a common mantra introduced by Aldous Huxley, is a favourite among visual communication researchers (Lester, 2012). In my view, the group communication disciplines include disciplines such as advertising, audio-visual instruction, communication theory, cultivation, cultural studies, educational technology, gender studies, human computer interaction, instructional technology, journalism, mass-communication, media and communication, media literacy, media studies, persuasion design, planned communication, television, and video production. The dominance of the written word established during the Enlightenment ruled for centuries. It was first challenged by the invention of photography in the 19th century. Twenty-first century research is literally turning verbal dominance upside down by documenting the power of visual cognition in driving the processes human beings have long used to understand the world they evolved in, including the mediated world they have created (Grabe, 2020, p. 63). At present the Communication theory for ID includes, but is not limited to, the following four fields of knowledge: 1) Audience reception theories, with encoding/decoding model, post-structuralism, reader-response theory, structuralism, and uses and gratifications theory. 2) Culture theories, with cultural studies, cultivation, and gender studies. 3) Interaction theories, with and 4) Media literacy theories, with agenda-setting theory, media literacy, and medium and message. Read more about communication theories in my book ID Theories. 11

Information The term information is derived from the Latin noun informatio, which means “a conception or an idea.” Information has long been synonymous with 1) “Data, details, facts, and intelligence.” However, the term information has acquired additional meanings. Nowadays it may also refer to 2) “The import ascribed to specific data.” Then information does not arise until the receiver interprets the received data, e.g. a text or a picture. Furthermore, the term information is sometimes used for 3) “Data processed in a computer.” Yet another meaning is 4) “An internal structure which regulates processes.” According to The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Brown, 1993, p. 1364) the term information can also be used for, 5) “A formal written statement or accusation.” 6) “The action of informing against a person.” 7) “The giving of a form or essential character to something; inspiration.” Information is also 8) “The term for a group of information materials in the category named Brief messages.” The verb inform means “To supply or convey information or to provide knowledge of something and is therefore a unidirectional process, e.g., from one person to another.” From a terminological point of view information may be placed somewhere between data and knowledge. The terms data, information and knowledge are often used for overlapping concepts. It is not at all easy to draw any strict borderlines between these three concepts. There are many information areas. Some examples are administrative documentation, brief messages, business documents, conversational information, data, descriptions, directions for use, evacuation information, events, external information, facts, geographic location, goods and services, infodidactics, infography, infology, informatics, information access, information architecture, information competence, information credibility, information design, information economics, information ethics, 12

information industry, information literacy, information management, information materials, information needs, information processing, information quality, information retrieval, information science, information security, information set, information society, information studies, information systems, information theory, infotainment, intended audience, internal information, Internet, intranet, library and information science, maintenance documentation, management information, medical information, meta-information, news information, prohibitions, psychological information theory, reports, safety information, schedules, semantic information theory, sense-making, social information, technical information, verbal information, visual information, warnings, WWW, and even more. There are many information theories. In my view, the theories that are especially interesting for information design include the following four fields of knowledge: 1) Information architecture. 2) Information literacy. 3) Information quality, such as information access, information costs, and securing quality. 4) Information science, such as meta- information, sense making, and information studies. Read more about information theories in my book ID Theories.

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Design The term design is related to the Latin word designare, to mark out, define; de-, out, from + signare, to mark (Little, 1965). In various definitions authors note aesthetic and artistic properties, as well as functional properties related to articles for everyday use. In The Concise English Dictionary (Hayward and Sparkes, 1984) the word design is defined as (p. 303): v.t. To contrive, to formulate, to project; to draw, to plan, to sketch out; to purpose, to intend; to appropriate, to devote or apply to a particular purpose; to point out, to specify, to appoint. v.i. To draw, esp. decorative figures. n. A plan, a scheme; a purpose, an object, an intention; thought and intention as revealed in the correlation of parts or adaptation of means to an end; an arrangement of forms and colours intended to be executed in durable material; a preliminary sketch, a study; a working plan; the art of designing; artistic structure, proportion, balance etc.; plot, construction, general idea; artistic invention. Here v.t. means verb transitive, v.i. verb intransitive, and n. noun. In the The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Brown, 1993) the general meaning of the word design is defined (p. 645) as: “... plan and execute (a structure, work of art, etc.); fashion, shape; make a preliminary sketch for (a work of art, etc.); make drawings and plans for the construction of production of (a building, machine, garment, etc.).” In The New Websters Dictionary and Thesaurus (Ottenheimer, 1991) the word design is defined (p. 110) as: “v.t. draw the outline of; to plan; v.i. to purpose; n. sketch in outline (esp. in architecture): a pattern (as in wallpaper, printed cloth, etc.); scheme or plan; purpose.” Lauer (1990, p. 2) defined design as “the planned arrangement of elements to form a visual pattern. Depending on the 14

field, these elements will vary–all the way from painted symbols to written words to windows or furniture. But the result in each case is always a visual organization. To design means to plan, to organize. Design is essentially the opposite of chance.” Simon (1969, p. 130) viewed design as human-centered problem solving: “Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones.” In their book Instructional Message Design Fleming and Levie (1993, p. x) noted that the term design: “refers to a deliberate process of analysis and synthesis that begins with an instructional problem and concludes with a concrete plan or blueprint for a solution.” According to Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 6) the term design implies a systematic or intensive planning and ideation process prior to the development of something, or the execution of some plan in order to solve a specific problem. Fundamentally, design is a type of problem solving and it has much in common with problem solving in other kinds of professions. Design is the identification of a problem and the intellectual creative effort of an originator, manifesting itself in drawings or plans, which include schemes and specifications (Simlinger, 2007, p. 8). The concept design represents a large landscape of academic education, design practice, research, and training. However, the term design also represents the outcomes of each specific design process, such as products, services, processes, and systems. Design thinking is an iterative process in which the designer seeks to challenge assumptions, redefine problems, and understand the user, in order to identify alternative strategies and solutions. Design thinking provides a solution-based approach to solving problems. According to Norman (2018) “design thinking” is practiced in one way or another by all great thinkers, whether in art, business, engineering, literature, music or science. But the difference is that, in design, there is an attempt to teach it as a systematic method of creative innovation that 15

defines practice. It is intended to be the normal way to proceed, not the exception. In the past decade design thinking has been an integral part of many industrial jobs (Karaman Dundar, 2022). Design thinking has a base in various disciplines, and it concerns many different disciplines. It is seen as a process that includes multiple strategies to creatively deal with various everyday life problems. Recent studies have shown that design thinking show great promises to improve education. Design thinking has the potential to provide a multidisciplinary approach to complex everyday life problems. The “design thinking approach” promotes creativity, critical thinking, empathy, and teamwork. Design thinking in education contributes and fosters the 21st-century competencies essential in contemporary education and the workplace. The final design, or just design, represents the outcomes of each specific design process, such as processes, products, services, and systems. On a theoretical level the intention of the overall design process might be the same regardless of the specific design area. A well-designed information material makes everyday life easier for people, and it grants good credibility to the senders, or sources. Norman (2016) argued that designers are action-oriented people (p. 347): Today’s world of academia produces deep, thoughtful thinkers. Today’s world of design produces deep, thoughtful doers. We need both thinkers and doers. Just as we must take both paths at the fork in the road, designers must both do and think. The design philosophy is to think by doing.” This chapter includes the following main sections: 1) Design families and design genera, 2) Design processes and principles, and 3) Some design areas.

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Design families and design genera My classification of design disciplines has a “Design Order,” with six “Design families,” and five “Design genera,” each including a few “Design Species,” or “Design disciplines” (Pettersson, 2004). In my view, each discipline consists of a number of courses, with educational materials. Regardless of what we design there are common problems related to design processes, design principles, and design tools. In five of these design families the classification depends on the purpose with the design. We can design artefacts, different messages, performances, systems and processes, and our own environments. These five design families are called: 1) Artefact design, 2) Message design, 3) Performance design, 4) Systems design or systems development, and 5) Environment design. These families are hold together by the design family 6) Design philosophy.

Design (left) has six families/groups: 1) Artefact design, 2) Message design, 3) Performance design, 4) Systems design, 5) Environment design, and 6) Design philosophy. The concept design areas include a huge number of human activities. Main design areas include aesthetic design, apparel design, architectural design, ceramics design, communication design, costume design, craft design, data visualisation, design theory, document design, editorial design, emotional design, engineering design, environmental design, exhibition design, fashion 17

design, fine arts design, furniture design, game design, glass design, graphic design, image design, industrial design, information design, information experience design, information interaction design, instruction design, instructional message design, interaction design, interactive design, interior design, IT design, jewellery design, landscape architecture, landscape design, light design, manufacturing design, mechanical design, message design, molecular design, motivational design, ornamental design, package design, participatory design, pattern design, persuasion design, poster design, presentation design, process design, product design, publication design, service design, software design, sound design, spatial design, text design, textile design, transition design, type design, urban design, user experience design, user interface design, visual design, web design, and more. According to Head (2000) the concept of design language describes how interfaces communicate what objects are to users, what they might do, and how they should be used. Design levels includes areas such as design of projects, design of processes, design of tools, design of products, and design of systems. Design perspectives includes areas such as theory, craft, manufacturing, technology, and users. The design discourse includes all the design literature and research reports dealing with design matters.

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Design processes and principles The first century architect, author, and engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio presented three principles for good architecture in his book De architectura. A structure must exhibit the three qualities of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, it must be solid, useful, and beautiful. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. Lankow (2012) transformed these principles for design of modern information graphics. The first principle is soundness. It refers to whether the information presented is complete, correct, and valuable to the viewer. The second principle is utility. It refers to whether the design meets the designer’s objectives or not. The third principle is beauty. It refers to whether the design is appealing and appropriate or not. The Italian multi-talented classical scholar Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) published pioneering treatises on Architecture, on Painting, and on Sculpture. His book Della Pittura (On Painting), 1435, is the first modern treatise on the theory of painting (Kelly-Gadol, 1969). Alberti broke with traditional ideas and pointed to the modern era. The Italian translation became an “inspirational handbook” with detailed practical instructions for active artists. Alberti described Filippo Brunelleschi’s (1377– 1446) mathematical construct of the central perspective (Toman, 1999, p. 448). Design processes include cognitive as well as practical activities and aspects. Pye (1964, p. 7) noted that while a painter or a sculptor can choose any imaginable shape, a designer is limited by the function of the thing being designed. Mullet and Sano (1995, p. 9) noted that whereas art strives to express fundamental ideas and perspectives on the human condition, design is concerned with finding the representation best suited to the communication of some specific information. This main section includes the following sections: General design principles, Design judgments, Design mottos, Quantitative information principles, and Visual language principles. 19

General design principles A number of authors have offered design principles in different areas of design, such as general design (e.g. Rowland, 1993; Shadrin, 1992; Tufte, 1983), information design (e.g. Lipton, 2007; Pettersson, 2002), instructional design (e.g. Lohr, 2010; Smith and Ragan, 2005), instructional message design (e.g. Fleming and Levie, 1993), and message design (e.g. Pettersson, 1993, 2007; Wileman, 1993). Some of these design principles are rather broad and general, while design principles are quite specific. Shadrin (1992, p. 29) used the following seven design process steps, or “constants,” in his general system for problem solving: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Design activity (What is the problem?) Analysis (What is the purpose and function of the design?) Historical reference (How was it done before?) Visual communication (How can I communicate my idea?) Skills (What skills do I need for this design?) Technology (How will the design or product be made?) Evaluation (Is this the best solution I can come up with?)

Rowland (1993) has studied the process of design across a number of professions. According to Rowland main principles of design include the following characteristics: • • • • • • •

Design requires social interaction. Designing involves problem solving, but not all problem solving is designing. Designing involves technical skills and creativity and rational and intuitive thought processes. Designing is a goal-directed process in which the goal is to conceive and realize some new thing. Designing requires a balance of reason and intuition, an impetus to act, and an ability to reflect on actions taken. In designing, problem understanding and problem solving may be simultaneous or sequential processes. The design process is a learning process. 20

• •

The design process is dependent on the designer and on what he or she designs. The new thing that results from designing has practical utility.

Tufte (1997, p. 73) suggested using the design strategy of the smallest effective difference: “Make all visual distinctions as subtle, but still clear and effective.”

Design judgments Models for design processes include a number of cognitive as well as practical activities and aspects. The (final) design represents the outcomes of each specific design process, such as processes, products, services, and systems. On a theoretical level the intention of an overall design process, including process activities, might be the same regardless of the specific design area. Steps in a design process may be called design activities, such as conceptual design, embodiment design, detail design, and design reviews. What designers do There are many opinions concerning what designers do when they design. In many design disciplines people use formalized and systematic design methodologies, processes, and rules. During any design process the designer has to gradually make a number of decisions. Design judgments represent a key dimension in any design process. The ability to make solid design judgments is often what distinguishes a “stellar designer” from a “mediocre designer” (Nelson and Stolterman, 2012). Design judgment is not founded on any strict rules of reasoning. It is more likely often dependent on the individuals experienced consequences of previous design choices, and her or his tacit knowledge in the area. Designers have to adapt different theories, apply principles, and select among many design models. Designers continuously exercise design judgments in their practical design work (Gray et 21

al., 2015). In practical work with instructional design there are many theoretical models and also practical guidelines that will influence the actual work with creating different kinds of learning materials. During any design process any instructional designer will have to make many decisions, core judgments, or design judgments. Instructional designers are expected to choose appropriate instructional design models, or theories, for their projects. They are expected to adapt such models to fit their own needs for each design project. However, when Boling et al. (2017) interviewed 11 practicing instructional designers how they actually work via discussions of strong and weak designs. The study demonstrates that designer judgments are rarely discussed in the field. Designer judgments are complex in nature, and these instructional designers had not been provided with proper guidance. Boling et al. (2017) concluded that simply acknowledging that practicing instructional designers hold core judgments begs the question of the role of philosophy in this practice. Core judgments require further attention from scholars and design educators. This is probably also true for other areas of design. Several methodologies may be used in graphic design, in information design, and in instructional design. Such methodologies may consist of a number of compulsory characteristics, or steps, for example seven steps (Bull, 1999; Shading, 1992), nine steps (Rowland, 1993), or eleven steps (Roozenburg and Eekels, 1995). Design processes may also consist of a number of sub-processes including required activity documentation and review processes (Pettersson, 2002). When is a design completed? When is an artistic work or a design completed? Impressionist painters often received criticism from the art public. People did not consider their works as finished. However, artists always decide when their own works are finished. It is different when it comes to ordered jobs. Anyone who orders a portrait, or, for 22

example, an illustration for publishing in a book, can usually request that the artist, illustrator, or photographer, makes a number of corrections and continue working until the client is satisfied with the work, and is prepared to pay the agreed fee. In information design the main goal is clarity of communication. High-quality information is correct, credible, relevant, and easy for the intended audience to access, interpret and understand. A competent and skilled information designer is a professional communicator. He or she knows when an information material has good quality. However, in practise the paying client decides what is to be deemed acceptable as good information design.

Design mottos For some time, the design motto has very much been: “function can take any form.” However, Mijksenaar and Westendorp (1999, p. 34) concluded: “architects, engineers and designers rarely follow this rule.” Several authors have tried to develop firm rules, or regulations, on how to design information materials. However, in my view it is not possible, and not desirable, to develop any firm design rules telling the information designer how to best design a specific message and how to best develop specific information materials. Some authors say: “It Depends” (Lohr, 2010; Pettersson, 2002, 2007a). In each case the information designer must be able to analyse and understand the problem, and find one, or more, practical design solutions. Lohr (2003, p. 81) presented an “It Depends Rule.” She wrote: “Design decisions do not take a cookbook approach. Too many factors influence design. That is why it is considered an art as well as a science.” She further wrote: “What should you do? It depends … on the learner, the content, the task, the environment, other elements in the visual, and your level of skill.” In each specific case the information designer must be able to analyse and understand the problem and find one-or more-practical design solutions. In my view, the only 23

information design rule is: “Respect copyright, and other laws and regulations related to information” (Pettersson, 2010b). According to Baggerman (2000, p. 69) the first rule of interface design is “communicating with the user.”

Quantitative information principles According to Tufte (1983, p. 13) excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, efficiency, and precision. Incorrect information in newspapers deceives many thousands of readers, and incorrectness on television may influence millions of viewers. Tufte (1983, p. 77) offered six design principles that will result in graphical integrity in the display of quantitative information: 1. The representation of numbers, as physically measured on the surface of the graphic itself, should be directly proportional to the numerical quantities represented. 2. Clear, detailed, and thorough labelling should be used to defeat graphical distortion and ambiguity. Write explanations of the data on the graphic itself. Label important events in the data. 3. Show data variation, not design variation. 4. In time-series displays of money, deflated and standardized units of monetary measurements are nearly always better than nominal units. 5. The number of information-carrying (variable) dimensions depicted should not exceed the number of dimensions in the data. 6. Graphics must not quote data out of context. These quantitative information principles will also be very useful in information design, especially in schematic illustrations.

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Visual language principles Using a large number of visual examples Malamed (2009) offers designers six principles for creating graphics and visual language that people may understand. These principles are: •

•

•

•

• •

Organize for perception. (“By understanding how viewers initially analyse an image, designers can structure and organize graphic so it complements human perception.” p. 45) Direct the eyes. (“A designer or illustrator can assist this process by purposefully guiding the viewer’s eyes through the structure of a graphic.” p. 71) Reduce realism. (“There are times when the ideal expression of a message can be achieved through visual shorthand. An effective way to do this is to reduce the realistic qualities embedded in a graphic.” p. 103) Make the abstract concrete. (“Visual thinking is an integral aspect of cognition, and the visualizing of abstract concepts helps us understand the world and communicate about it.” p. 129) Clarify complexity. (Information is complex when it is voluminous, dense, and lacking in structure. p. 169) Charge it up. (The common assumption that art evokes emotion is reliably supported through brain research. When viewers look at both pleasant and unpleasant pictures, they consistently demonstrate an emotional reaction indicated by pronounced brain activity that does not occur when they look at neutral pictures.” p. 203)

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A few design areas Courses and complete academic programs are available in many design areas. Examples are communication design, graphic design, image design, information design, instruction design, instructional design, instructional message design, mass design, message design, and persuasion design. This main section includes the following sections: Emotional design, Industrial design, Information experience design, Interaction design, Interactive design, Light design, Packaging design, Participatory design, Sound design, Spatial design, and User experience design. (Also, see my book ID theories.)

Emotional design Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981) made a list of emotion definitions, and then defined emotion as “a complex set of interactions with both objective and subjective factors that are mediated by a hormonal/neural system”. Lacave et al. (2020) noted that emotions are present in many aspects of our lives, and argued that emotions are fundamental factors in education. In recent years empirical research has shown that emotion plays both a positive and a negative role in the learning process. The design of a product can strongly influence how the intended users perceive it. In his book Emotional design: why we love (or hate) everyday things Donald Norman (2004) used the term “emotional design” to explain why “attractive things work better.” Emotional design articulates the influence of the feelings that objects in our everyday world evoke in people. Norman (2004) argued that there are three different levels of experience and that these experiences can be triggered by three different “levels” of design: 1) Visceral, 2) Behavioural, and 3) Reflective. The term visceral is a reference to the concept of “gut instinct.” This is a subconscious level of immediate reactions to experiences. Visceral design deals with aesthetic aspects, the immediate “look and feel” and the perceived quality of a product. 26

Behavioural design deals with our own assessments and experiences of the product and if we can learn how to use it. Reflective design deals with our ability to foresee the future impact of the product on our lives. How do we really feel about the product? Emotional design may also implement four kinds of “pleasures” into products: 1) Physio-pleasure, 2) Socio-pleasure, 3) Psycho-pleasure, and 4) Ideo-pleasure. Physio-pleasure is input from our sensory organs, such as feel, taste, touch, and smell. Socio-pleasure is our enjoyment of social interaction. Psychopleasure is our pleasure gained from the satisfying experience when we have successfully finished a task. Ideo-pleasure is the pleasure we may experience with aesthetics and values in art, books, movies, music and theatre. According to Mayer and Estrella (2014) the emotional design hypothesis assumes that visually appealing learning materials in multimedia instruction will support cognitive processing. However, the cognitive load theory (Chandler and Sweller, 1991) assumed limitations in learners’ working memory and suggested the avoidance of decorative elements to reduce cognitive load. In emotional design designers create objects that elicit positive emotions and experiences for the intended users. These positive experiences may increase our curiosity, our pleasure and trust for a specific product. The negative experiences may cause anxiety and severe dissatisfaction with a product. Also see the section Emotional Design in my book 9 Learning.

Industrial design Modern design emerged in response to the Industrial Revolution. Reform-minded artists and artisans tried to impart a critical sensibility to the making of media and objects (Lupton and Miller, 1999, p. 67). Design took shape as a critique of industry. Industrial design is the use of applied art and applied science in the design of systems for mass production of industrial products. The design process may include generation of concepts, 27

drafting, sketching, rendering of three-dimensional prototypes, systems for production, packaging, and distribution (Barnwell, 2011; Heskett, 1980). Many areas, such as aesthetics, art, business, economics, engineering, ergonomics, functionality, manufacturing, technology, and usability influence the design processes. Industrial design can overlap with engineering design. Before the Industrial Revolution, single craftsmen carried out the manufacturing of individual items. After the introduction of large-scale machine production and the division of labour early in the 19th century, the need of skilled industrial designers started to develop. In 1901 the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright formulated the basic principles of modern industrial design. He rejected handicraft production as too expensive and forecasted that future designers would create prototypes for machine reproduction after becoming familiar with modern techniques and modern materials. The need to improve appearances of industrial products called for a combined knowledge of costs, design, engineering, market conditions and materials. Interest in design for mass production was strengthened in 1919 when Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus school at Weimar, in Germany. Wildbur and Burke (1998, p. 87) noted that surprisingly few product manufacturers retain the services of graphic designers with typographic experience. Neither do they attach enough significance to the detailed considerations of the lettering that will appear on their new products. As a result, many products suffer badly from inappropriate letterforms. Del Giorgio Solfa, Alvarado Wall and Amendolaggine (2021) consider people's experiences of design thinking, service design and user experience, especially in industrial design. They tried to identify how these areas influence design and development of new products.

Information experience design Nowadays the traditional ways we access, construct, design, and interpret information are changing rapidly. We are moving from 28

real-world way finding to the augmented environments and the navigation of digital systems. People receive information through multiple multi-platform information delivery sources. Royal College of Art in London offers a program in Information Experience Design (IED). Information experience design is transforming information into experiences through the pathways of experimental design, moving image design, and sound design (Triggs, 2016). Experimental design embraces cross-disciplinary practice, and it transforms information into experiences and strategies for future social and urban environments. Moving image design investigates moving image as a core and vital communicative force. Sound design investigates how to make sense of sound in our complex world. Information experience design includes data visualisation, exhibitions, experimental practice, and installations.

Interaction design Interaction design (IxD) includes both digital and physical environments, products, services, and systems. The main focus is on how a user might experience, interact, and use different designs. Interaction design is geared toward satisfying the majority of users. Behaviour studies and new designs improve the possibilities for easy interaction. Interaction designers are responsible for understanding and specifying how a product should behave in different situations (Cooper, Reimann, and Cronin 2007, Cooper et al., 2014). They often work together with graphical designers and industrial designers. The first academic program officially named “Interaction Design” was established at Carnegie Mellon University in 1994 as a “Master of Design in Interaction Design.” According to Shedroff (1999) interaction design is both an ancient art, and a new technology. In essence interaction design is story-creating and story-telling. 29

According to Saffer (2010) interaction design is a fusion of communication design, computer science, and product design. It is a design field rather than an engineering or a science field. According to Shedroff (1999, p. 268) information interaction design is the intersection of three different disciplines: 1) Information design, 2) Interaction design, and 3) Sensorial design. Sensorial design is the employment of all the disciplines, media, and techniques we use to communicate to others through our senses. In some cases, interaction design is very close to interactive design.

Interactive design According to Graham (1999, p. 4): “Interactive design is the meaningful arrangement of graphics, text, video, photos, illustration, sound, animation, three-dimensional (3D) imagery, virtual reality, and other media in an interactive document. It explains how to communicate effectively through interactivity.” Interactive design is focusing on efficient, intuitive, usable, and useful products. It involves the creation and design of both cognitive and physical interfaces. Interactive designers organise the content, design the interfaces, and develop documents that communicate the messages clearly, with a focus on user experience. Both design and engineering have moved towards a common interest in flexible use, and user experience of interactivity. In interactive design, focus is on different kinds of interactive documents, such as computer games, different multimedia products, and websites on the World Wide Web. Most people can communicate and interact on Internet. A successful interactive design has clearly defined and simple goals, and an efficient and intuitive screen interface (Saffer, 2010). Each design has a clear purpose. Tactile interface design and touch-screen technology is used in personal computers, smartphones, and many other common devices. Claypoole, Schroeder, and Mishler (2016) found that a 30

majority of touch-screen interface designs are not at all optimal for older adults. For example, the required actions and perceptions are far too precise, and feedback and other important information is difficult to find, or not at all noticeable. Most interfaces are complicated for older adults to use. In order to improve touch-screen usability for older adults Claypoole, Schroeder, and Mishler (2016) suggested the following nine guidelines to aid designers of all kinds of touch-screen interfaces: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Make it easy to find important information. Allow for alternative forms of input. Design functions after conventional mental models. Tolerate imprecise gestures. Show users what actions are possible and what will result from those actions. Feedback and saliency are necessary. Simple display designs are key. Legible displays are better than fancy displays. Avoid complicated computer-based interface designs.

It seems that these guidelines would be helpful for a broad range of users, not only “older adults.” Attributes such as customizability, legibility, simplicity, and transparency are generally desirable interface qualities. Weber (2017) discussed interactive information graphics, and gave this definition (p. 251): “An interactive information graphic is a visual representation of information that integrates different modes, e.g. image (which is the constitutive mode), written text, speech, sound, and layout into a coherent whole and offers at least one navigation option to control the graphic. Its communicative function is to inform, e.g. by describing or explaining something or narrating a factual story.” There are several academic programmes in Interaction Design. This is a rapidly changing discipline, dealing with the relation between people and different kinds of interaction with digital products. Design students learn to create comprehensible, 31

pleasurable, and sustainable information environments, products, and services, often in active design projects. There is a great creative potential in interactive design. It combines film, images, music, numbers, sound, video, and words. In some cases, interactive design is very close to interaction design, and also to information design.

Light design Light is essential to the appreciation of three-dimensional images. Whether the light is coming from the left or from the right, from the top or from the bottom, makes a crucial difference in the appearance of the forms. Soft light helps us appreciate subtle undulations. Strong light accentuates details on the surface. Light will articulate our outer orientation with respect to space, texture, and time. Without shadows, it may be hard to make out the basic contour of an object. Shadows define space. Light design, or lighting design, is the use of light and lighting in order to create different atmospheres in art installations, concerts, opening and closing ceremonies of public celebrations, sports competitions, theatre plays, water sculptures, and more. The van Eyck brothers, Jan and Hubertus, completed the Ghent Altarpiece in 1432. This is almost 600 years ago. The Altarpiece is a polyptych with 26 panels. It was the first large work to show the capability of oil painting. With oil paint and several very thin layers of transparent glazes it was possible to achieve complex lighting and shadows in the paintings. The Ghent Altarpiece was intended for an exact place in the “Vijd Chapel” in the Cathedral. Already from the beginning Jan van Eyck matched the implied source of light used to model figures in his paintings with the actual source of natural light that would have passed through the South windows and illuminated the Chapel for which the painting was made and in which it was intended to be seen (Seidel, 1993, p. 151). Every figure and every object in different paintings react to the natural light as they would do if they were real and three-dimensional. 32

In the painting of five angels playing music in heaven his masterly use of oil paint creates tiny vibrations of light within the dense, saturated colours, most of which are full of symbolic significance (Encyclopedia Of Art, 2018). One of the angels wears a gleaming brooch on which Jan van Eyck has simulated reflections of light shining through the South Gotic lancet windows (Seidel, 1993, p. 153). These “reflections” results from a source of daylight that is imagined to fall from the right through the actual South windows in the Chapel. Van Eyck showed reflections and refractions of light of various surface textures. He really was a very skilled and an early light designer.

This picture is a detail of the painting of singing angels. This panel is 164.5 x 69.3 cm large. Jan van Eyck has simulated reflections of natural light in their shining pearls and precious stones. The light seems to come through the South windows in the Chapel. Picture: Wikimedia Commons. 33

Almost a century later the Italian Renaissance artist Titian (1488/1490–1576) used advanced light design in his very large oil painting The Assumption of the Virgin (1518) in Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice. Here no less than 20 large Gothic windows, in four floors, surround the high alter and the painting. The natural light from the descending sun flows with force through these windows into the apse in the west. The light “joins” with the glowing yellow-orange backlight already present in the central and upper parts of the painting. The interaction between the natural light and the painted backlight in the painting increase the emotional impact of the painting. The Italian architect and sculptor Giovanni Lorenzo (Gianlorenzo) Bernini (1598–1680) used light as an important metaphorical device in his religious settings. He unified sculpture and richly polychrome architecture and the carefully effects of designed light and sound. Further see book 10. Predecessors and Pioneers.

Packaging design Modern packaging must meet legal and market requirements. It has to protect the content against contamination, damage, and loss. In the market packaging should attract the attention of customers, and stimulate sales of a product. According to Biegańska (2018) modern packaging symbolizes the lifestyle of consumers. Packaging is always subject to changes. Finding the appropriate packaging for a given brand/product has become the key element of the corporate marketing strategy in the increasingly competitive market (Biegańska, 2018). Market trends depend on different cultures, fashions, new concepts, and variations of style. According to Biegańska (2018, p. 187) the following are some of the new trends in the field of packaging design: •

Active, smart and functional (indicator) packaging.

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• • • • •

•

Clean label trend (meaning the minimalistic composition of a product reflecting simplicity and health.) Customization trend (unique products which express individual needs and taste of their owner). Ecological and eco-friendly packaging (green colour, earth, natural materials, recycling, minimalism). Gender neutral trend (products for him and for her). Premium trend (rich ornaments or, quite the opposite, minimalism, the use of high-quality materials or materials stylized to look like high quality ones). “Silver” trend (designing targeted at elderly people).

There are different approaches to packaging design in the market. Some firms have their own design offices. However, most companies, use outsourcing services.

Participatory design In the 1960s and 1970s the “city planning systems” did not consider opinions by dissatisfied members of the public. However, the area of participatory design, which is focused on design procedures and design processes, actively involves all kinds of stakeholders of an issue in each design project. Stakeholders can be e.g. citizens, customers, designers, employees, partners, and users. This way the results meet the real needs. Resulting designs are usable for the intended use and the intended users. The term participatory design is used in many areas, such as architecture, environmental design, graphic design, information design, landscape architecture, planning, product design, service design, socio-technical design, software design, spatial design, sustainability, and urban design. Various end users may have many different cultural, emotional, practical, and spiritual needs. Originally participatory design was called co-operative design. Now it is often called just co-design. At present, we are witnessing an ongoing paradigm shift of focus from (traditional) teaching to learning, and also an ongoing 35

paradigm shift from designing to participatory co-designing (Falcão & Almendra, 2017; Pettersson & Avgerinou, 2020; Taffe, 2017). Some research have suggested that a design team create more innovative concepts and new ideas when they are working in a “co-design environment” with others, compared with traditional situations when they have to create design ideas on their own (Trischler et al., 2018). According to Falcão and Almendra (2017) professional graphic designers acknowledge clients to be a very significant part of the final work produced and see them as “co-authors.” Graphic design students should be enrolled in tasks with a high degree of complexity. They need to analyse data, discover opportunities, discover problems and understand the environment. There should be no briefing but an open call for action in a certain area or context. In one study graphic designers and end-users worked together to design asthma information in Australia (Taffe, 2017). The end-users challenged graphic designers’ traditional use of intuition and made creative and rich contributions. Co-design was a valuable approach for the graphic designers. However, for this type of task information designers may be more suitable than graphic designers. Information designers are used to work with representatives of the intended users. Participants in an international design workshop with German and Japanese students continuously built and prototyped their ideas, rather than followed conventional design process stages (Innella and Rodgers, 2017). By developing quick and approximate prototypes, participants more easily expressed their ideas whilst overcoming language barriers. The concept community of inquiry concern the nature of knowledge formation, and the process of scientific inquiry. Joint inquiry is the collaborative exploration, and definitions of problems and possible solutions. Joint inquiry plays an important part in participatory design processes. Different tools are used to 36

support joint inquiry between different actors. These tools are usually used to make, or to use different artefacts in workshops. Gottlieb (2020) studied the relationship between joint inquiry and tools, and she performed nine design experiments. All experiments involved design and testing of tools to support the initiation of joint inquiry. These tools were primarily created and tested within an academic context with design students and researchers, with a focus on a close collaboration between academia and external actors. The research showed that the tools supported valuable “indicators” for initiating joint inquiry such as brainstorming, emotional expression, humour, recognising problems, and self-disclosure. The design experiments revealed ways of designing for such indicators through various artefacts, formats and framings. The research also indicated that some tools hindered the communities of inquiry when dominant participation occurred, and when the tools were considered to be inappropriate for the context.

Sound design Sound design is the process of acquiring, generating, manipulating, recording, and specifying sound elements in different kinds of audio productions. Sound design has been used since prehistoric times to evoke emotions, reflect moods, and underscore different actions in dances and plays. Nowadays, sound design is also used in art installations, filmmaking, live performances, radio productions, television productions, theatres, videogames, and more. The sculptor Bernini was a very conscious sound designer. He created several “naturalistic fountains” with carefully designed sound effects of rippling water. The basic building blocks of sound are the sine waves. There is usually more than one sine wave in a specific sound. Sound waves can travel throgh gases, liquids, and solids, but not throug a vacuum. A sound has amplitude, frequency, and phase. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. Amplitude is the peak 37

deviation from a starting position. Phase is the number of degrees between 0 and 360.

One of most beautiful fountains of Bernini is Fontana del Tritone (Fountain of the Triton) in Piazza Barberini (1642–1643). Different sounds are used to distribute many kinds of messages in work environments. Simple auditory signals can provide information about breaks, time, and work shifts. Auditory alarms are used to support visual displays and warnings. One example is various alarms built into medical equipment for intensive care in hospitals.

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It is a good idea to use auditory alarms when the message is short and simple, and calls for an immediate action. Two factors are very important in designing auditory alarms for work environments. Our ability to hear sounds is usually very good. However, it must always be possible to: 1) Detect and hear an auditory alarm, and 2) Locate the source of the auditory alarm. Edworthy (2017, p. 385) noted that it is a good idea to design abstract and coded alarms in some situations. An example is a hospital ward where it may not be tactful to make meanings of alarms too obvious. We need an “alarm philosophy.”

Spatial design Spatial design crosses the boundaries of traditional design areas such as architecture, exhibition design, event design, furniture design, graphic design, landscape architecture, landscape design, interior design, message design and performance design. One focus is on the flow of people between interior and exterior environments. Another focus is on visualisation and virtual environments. Spatial language brings information and impressions in both physical and virtual environments. Spatial design can also be used to improve productivity in industry. Sometimes management fail to listen enough to employees in industry. However, interaction of spatial design and visual artefacts can be used to reduce loss of ideas, loss of improvements, learning opportunities, skills and time (Andersson Schaeffer and Bellgran, 2009). The built spaces in manufacturing industry may be used for communication on two levels, both as places for interaction between employees and as a part of a communication process (Andersson Schaeffer, 2011). A study conducted in 153 elementary classrooms in the United Kingdom concluded that flexible spaces can boost academic performance (Barrett et al., 2015). Provided that flexibility is combined with such characteristics as acoustics, air quality, and a carefully selected number of relevant wall decorations, student achievement can be improved. 39

In an effort to create spatial learning designs that favour a multi-disciplinary approach and rejects traditional academic silos some schools in Finland have replaced traditional classrooms with open-plan learning arrangements (O’Sullivan, 2017). These schools support a new national curriculum and its equal emphasis on both skills and subjects. If used properly, flexible classrooms produce better academic outcomes among primary school children than more traditional, static classroom designs (Merrill, 2018). In one study Florin and Eriksson (2020) provided guidelines for constructing block layouts and diagrams for use in planning of factory layouts. They highlight the value of simple visualizations based on spatial relationships, utilizing information on available spaces, sizes of machines and their relationships to human proportions. The practical domain, as well as the theoretical domain of information design, can play a major role in planning collaborative working processes in factories. Florin and Eriksson (2020) concluded that visual awareness is essential to developing and implementing visualizations that meet the various needs of cross-functional teams.

User experience design The user experience architect Donald Norman coined the term user experience. According to Norman and Nielsen (2016) user experience encompasses all aspects of the end-user's interaction with the company, its services, and its products. The first requirement for an exemplary user experience is to meet the exact needs of the customer, without fuss or bother. Next comes simplicity and elegance that produce products that are a joy to own, a joy to use. True user experience goes far beyond giving customers what they say they want or providing checklist features. In order to achieve high-quality user experience in a company's offerings there must be a 40

seamless merging of the services of multiple disciplines, including engineering, marketing, graphical and industrial design, and interface design. User experience design is the process of enhancing user satisfaction by improving accessibility, pleasure and usability provided in the interaction between the user and the product. It is called UX, UED, UXD, and also XD. A UX designer is a person who analyses how users feel about the products or services and use this knowledge in order to ensure that the user has the best possible experience with a product. Usability is the extent to which specified users can use a product or a service to achieve specified goals in a specified context. User experience design has its roots in ergonomics and in human factors engineering. Since the late 1940s this field has focused on the interaction between human users and machines. It is addressing how users perceive all aspects of a product or service. This became an important concern for designers in the early 1990s. According to Lee et al. (2017, p. 4) human factors engineering improves people’s lives by making technology work well for them. Human factors engineering aims to improve human interaction with systems by enhancing performance, safety, and satisfaction. The relative emphasis of each goal depends on the particular area of each application. Kujala et al. (2011) developed a method for evaluating longterm user experience. User experience design has evolved into a multidisciplinary design branch that involves multiple technical aspects from animation and design of motion graphics to programming. In order to increase the awareness and retention of obesity related information by university students Lonsdale and Liao (2018) developed motion graphics based on design principles and theories. The choice to use a motion graphics as the communication tool was students’ easy access to the Internet. Lonsdale and Liao used a comprehensive user-centred process including a 41

focus group, observation, a questionnaire, a performance test, and usability testing of designs. Ninety-two students at the University of Leeds completed the performance test. The results showed that motion graphic design enhanced the delivery of information in a clear, effective, efficient, and quick way when experiences and opinions by users were determined. This study is the first step towards a more tailored, accessible and effective approach to tackle obesity among a high-risk group such as university students. This research is also a significant contribution to research in information design, and user experience design. Falconnet et al. (2021) collected and analysed 132 papers. After assessing quality and relevance they selected 41 papers. Then they classified, interpreted, synthesized the results, and reported the findings of a Systematic Literature Review of extant literature on Recommender Systems (RS) and message design. The authors generated a contemporary mapping of studies related to user-RS interaction. The report extend the body of knowledge regarding effective recommendation messages. The authors inform practitioners about the effect of recommendation message design choices on the user’s experience. They motivate researchers to conduct related future research on new RS message factors identified in the literature.

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The message design family The second group of design disciplines all deal with the design of messages. A number of definitions of the concept message may be summarized as: “A message is information content conveyed from a sender to a receiver in a single context at one occasion.” This group of design disciplines includes: 1) Graphic design, 2) Information design, 3) Instruction design, 4) Mass design, and 5) Persuasion design. Here the main components are words, visuals and forms. Some representations also have movement and sound.

The message design family (middle) has five design genera (right): 1) Graphic design, 2) Information design, 3) Instruction design, 4) Mass design, and 5) Persuasion design. There are different types of messages. Different combinations of linguistic expressions are usually employed in masscommunications. For example, a newspaper generally uses both the printed word and different kinds of pictures. A television programme employs words, images and sounds, such as music. Based on traditional, directional and process-oriented communication models we may study the concept “message” from several views, such as sender, representation and receiver. Graphic design is the art and craft of bringing a functional, aesthetic, and organized structure to different kinds of texts and illustrations. The main objective is to provide messages that are legible for the intended audience. 43

Information design comprises analysis, planning, presentation and understanding of a message, its content, language and form. The main objective is to provide information needed by the receivers in order to perform specific tasks. Instruction design is an umbrella term for a number of areas dealing with instruction, such as instructional message design. The main objective is to provide courses, lessons and materials intended for learning. Mass design, or entertainment design, is an umbrella term for mass design areas, such as mass-communication, and journalism. The main objective for mass design is to provide news, views, and entertainment. Persuasion design is an umbrella term for advertising, planned communication, and propaganda. The main objective is to persuade the interpreter of the message to buy a product or a service, or to change her or his behaviour. Information design is a more widely embracing one than the concept of instruction design. From a cognitive point of view, information design is less demanding than instruction design. In instruction design the receiver is to (usually) learn from the message. However, in information design the receiver only has to be able to understand the message in order to use the information in a “one-time practical situation.” In many situations, this will, of course, also result in learning, but here learning is usually not required. Should the need arise to once again deal with a specific practical situation the user can always read the manual again. This chapter includes the following main sections: Interand multi-disciplinary, Message design objectives, Graphic design, Information design, Instruction design, Mass design, and Persuasion design.

Inter- and multi-disciplinary Message design, MD, is an interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary field of knowledge. It receives contributions from a large 44

number of established areas of research. These contributions may be facts, influences, methods, practices, principles, processes, strategies, theoretical approaches, and design tools. The main areas of research may be divided into the following six groups with “base disciplines.” 1. Art and aesthetic disciplines, such as aesthetics, architecture, art history, film, fine art, iconography, iconology, illustration, painting, photography, and sculpture. 2. Cognitive disciplines, such as cognitive science, pedagogy, and psychology. The study of attention, perception, cognitive skills and memory are especially important. 3. Communication disciplines, such as advertising, cultural studies, gender studies, journalism, media and communication, persuasion design, television, and video production. 4. Design disciplines, such as game design, graphic design, interaction design, interface design, light design, package design, sound design, type design, and web design. 5. Information disciplines, such as information architecture, information literacy, information quality, information retrieval, information science, and information technology. 6. Language disciplines, such as drama, lexicography, lexicology, linguistic development, linguistic theory, linguistics, literacy, rhetoric, semiotics, terminology, and writing. Some of these disciplines may actually belong to more than one group. All message design disciplines have got theoretical as well as practical components. Thus, message designers need to have theoretical knowledge as well as practical skills. In order to perform sound reflections and make a qualified reflection regarding theory and practice, we need concepts both to structure our thoughts, and to describe them verbally.

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Message design objectives In the The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Brown, 1993) the term message is defined as (p. 1752): “brief communication transmitted through a messenger or other agency; an oral, written, or recorded communication sent from one person or a group to another.” Please note, that it is implied here that the interpreters actually receive the message. An objective refers to what the sender wishes to achieve with her or his message, i.e. the goal(s) the sender wishes to attain. In message design, it is important to define the purpose and the objective with the messages, always keeping the intended receivers in mind (e.g. Briggs and Wager, 1989; Fleming and Levie, 1993; Lipton, 2007; Lohr, 2003, 2010; Pettersson, 1993, 2002; Smith and Ragan, 2005; Wileman, 1993). Several researchers argue that it is always important to define clear objectives in message design or in instruction design (Fleming and Levie, 1993; Heinich, Molenda, and Russell 1982, 1993; Marsh, 1983; Wileman, 1993), as well as in information design (Mullet and Sano, 1995; Pettersson, 1998). It may be possible to test information materials with respect to different performance objectives. A performance, and a change in behaviour, must be observable. Thus, subjective objectives defined by verbs like appreciate, describe, discuss, know and understand should be avoided. A statement of information design objectives should include the conditions under which the required performance is to be observed and measured when such conditions are relevant. Time and accuracy are often meaningful dimensions in assessment of objectives. In an attempt to compare and visually classify different kinds of mediated products I have used a triangular diagram, based on perceived experiences of various kinds of media products. The corners in this message triangle represent A) Learning and new knowledge, B) Understanding of facts, and C) Experien46

cing feelings. Related products are 1) Teaching aids, 2) Information materials, 3) Ads, and 4) Art. The corners in a message triangle represents A) Learning and new knowledge, B) Understanding of facts, and C) Experiencing feelings. Related products are 1) Teaching aids, 2) Information materials, 3) Ads, and 4) Art. The message triangle was further developed to better cope with message objectives in different media. The message objectives diagram is a rhomb, divided in four parts of equal position and size. Each part represents different sets of objectives and receiver activities that may be noted as a cognitive state of mood. The first part, learning and new knowledge is located in the top corner. Knowledge may develop into insight and wisdom. The second part is the right corner. It represents experiencing feelings such as beliefs, delight, desire or willingness to buy something, distress, dread, eagerness, excitement, fear, fun, grief, happiness, mourning, opinions, pleasure, prejudices, romance, satisfaction, sorrow, and tension. The third part, at the bottom corner represents relaxation, such as ease, rest, and slackening. The fourth part, at the left corner represents understanding, including awareness, consciousness, and understanding of facts. The message objectives diagram may be used for an easy visual presentation of differences and similarities between the materials and products that are the results of work within various message design areas. It is quite obvious that the objectives for a phone book are very different from the objectives for an advertisement, a detective story, or a law book. There are also products with two, or even more objectives. As an example, the objectives for an educational TV-program may be to create an understanding, as well as learning of some facts. The objectives with entertainment in TV may be to provide relaxation and fun. 47

In the message objectives diagram the corners represent different objectives: A) Learning and new knowledge, B) Experiencing feelings, C) Relaxation, and D) Understanding of facts. Examples of eight message objectives diagrams: 1) Weather forecast in TV, 2) Ads, 3) Detective story, 4) Instructions, 5) Reference book, 6) Entertainment in TV, 7) Poster, and 8) Infotainment in TV.

Graphic design The practice of graphic design is as old as recorded history, and we see the results of graphic design every day. We see books, magazines, packages, papers, posters, symbols, and many other products. Hightower (1989, p. 7) noted that graphic design is a ubiquitous presence in our daily lives that can engage and inform us or simply add to the visual morass of contemporary culture. Important and unimportant messages are graphically communicated throughout the day. According to Lester (1995, p. 168) the American type designer William Addison Dwiggins (1880–1956) was the first to use the term graphic design. This was in 1922. During his career Dwiggins worked on more than 300 book designs. Hurlburt (1981, p. 22) defined graphic design in the following way: “Graphic design is an umbrella term that covers a broad range of printed and projected images. Its three principal functions are to persuade, to identify, and to inform.” A generally accepted view is that graphic design may be described as the art and craft of bringing a functional, aesthetic, and organized 48

structure to different texts and illustrations. Graphic design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process. The purpose of graphic design is to find a suitable presentation of the message with respect to the intended receiver, medium, and economic situation. A well-designed book appears as a “unified whole.” All design elements serve to enhance the content. Graphic design includes layout, typography, visual graphic design, and parts of architecture and industrial design. Often graphic design is thought of with regard only to the print medium, like books, exhibitions, magazines, newsletters, packages, papers, posters, signs, and many other products. But it is also used in several other media. Within a given area, such as a page in a book, a computer screen, or a projected image, we may alter the presentation of text (headings, running text, captions, lists), pictures, tables, and the background (margins, ornaments, page number, space). Deliberate typographic variation is used to present the content in the text in a clear way. Good graphic design is simple, bold, and direct. It ensures that significant design elements will be noticed by removing insignificant elements wherever possible. An “elegant design” must be reduced to its essential elements and each element reduced to its essential form (Mullet and Sano, 1995, p. 38). Graphic design is used as an important “tool” in the other four parts of message design. The most fundamental design technique is reduction. This main section includes the following sections: Graphic design objectives, Design by reduction, and Modern graphic design.

Graphic design objectives Any graphical message should be legible for the intended audience. (It should also be readable, and well worth reading for the intended audience.) As previously noted the main objective for graphic design is to provide messages that are legible for the intended audience. The intended individual information interpre49

ters might be seen as “readers.” They may develop new views, relaxation, emotions, awareness, attention, and understanding. In the writing of graphic design objectives, it may be an advantage to use verbs like find, identify, read, and recognise. These verbs all denote observable behaviour. A few examples of performance objectives in graphic design may be: • • • •

For a table: 100% of the users should be able to find the time for departure of the train to x. For a package: 100% of the buyers should be able to read the text on the package without any difficulty. For a non-fiction book: 100% of the readers should be able to read the text in the book without any difficulty. For a logotype: 60% of the readers should be able to identify a new logotype within six weeks.

Of course, we have to decide the actual numbers, with respect to percent and allowed time, in each specific case.

Design by reduction A message has good legibility if it is easy to read, and if the reader can easily see and distinguish all different parts of the message. A message has good readability when it is easy to understand. As previously mentioned good legibility and good readability are probably always economically advantageous, whereas the opposite may be a very costly business for all parts involved. Providing structure and providing simplicity are two of the functional principles in information design (Pettersson, 2010a). A clear and obvious structure will facilitate perception, interpretation, understanding, learning and memory of the message content. The designer should limit the number of levels in the structure, and clearly show this in the graphic design. The linguistic usage as well as the style should be correct to avoid distracting the readers. Style is dependent on the choice of words, consistency, expressions, picture elements, symbols, and also graphic design. Abstract words, jargon, long and complex 50

sentences, passive constructions, and stilted language may obstruct reading. Long and complex sentences require more cognitive capacity to process than short and simple sentences. It takes time to read a difficult text. We have to decode words and maintain new concepts in working memory (Petros et al., 1990). There are a vast number of publication manuals and style guides available. Such documents outline standards for design and writing for a specific publication or organization. The most fundamental design technique is reduction (Mullet and Sano, 1995, p. 38). Wherever possible the designer should remove insignificant elements in layout, pictures, and texts in order for significant design elements to be clearly noticed. An elegant design must be reduced to its essential elements and each element further reduced to its essential form. As an example, a good symbol for a sign is simple and clear. It has an optimal colour, dimension, form, and size (Barlow and Wogalter, 1991; Dewar, 1999; Wogalter, 1999). A text on a poster, and on a screen, shall be bold enough (Mayer, 1993; Ormrod, 1989; Pettersson, 1993; Wileman, 1993), and large enough (Ormrod, 1989; Pettersson, 1993; Wileman, 1993). Too small or too large lettering will impair reading. The text shall also have good readability (e.g. Kirkman, 2003, 2005; Klare, 1985; Lipton, 2007; Mackiewicz, 2004; Pettersson, 1989; Young, 1989).

Modern graphic design Traditional graphic design is a kind of all purpose-design used in the production of various media. Modern visual graphic design has its roots in the rational, functional aesthetics that evolved in traditional graphic design over the centuries for the print media, and are now used in industrial design, as well as in architecture. The graphic designers of today have even more freedom than the monks during the Middle Ages. Now, it is possible to combine words and pictures at will, in effective and efficient layouts, adopted for all media. Graphic designers work in persuasion 51

design, as well as in instruction design, and in information design. Graphic design is a natural part of these areas. Graphic designers are responsible for typography and layout in information and learning sets. The graphic designers may also produce the final master for printing. Modern graphic design emerged out of the modern art movement in the twentieth century. During several decades, graphic design was gradually consolidated into a design profession. The theoretical base for graphic design was developed from avant-garde movements such as the Russian artistic and architectural philosophy Constructivism, the Dutch artistic movement de Stijl, and the German school Bauhaus that combined crafts and fine arts. Bauhaus was famous for the approach to design. After World War II many art schools worked with elements and influences from these movements and practices. Design scholars like György Kepes (1944), Rudolf Arnheim (1954), and Donis Dondis (1973) wrote textbooks with design principles based on abstract painting and Gestalt psychology. All have a focus on visual perception. For these authors design is an abstract and formal activity. A theory of design that isolates visual perception from linguistic interpretation encourages indifference to cultural meaning (Lupton and Miller, 1999, p. 62). In his book Language of Vision György Kepes (1944) argued that visual communication is international and universal. Visual communication knows no limits of grammar, tongue, or vocabulary. This book was used as a college textbook, and had thirteen printings, in four languages. In his book Art and Visual Perception Rudolf Arnheim (1954) described picture perception as a matter of responding to basic forms such as gestalt laws. An important point is that visual perception includes the same behaviours that we commonly consider only as matters of cognition or thinking. In his book A Primer of Visual Literacy Donis Dondis (1973) discussed the use of several pairs of oppositions as techniques for visual communication. A few examples are: Balance–Instability, 52

Simplicity–Complexity, and Transparency–Opacity. These oppositions present the graphic designer with effective means of making expressive visual communication. According to Friedman (1989, p. 10) the taint of commerce has relegated graphic design to the status of a “second class” discipline in the academic realm. According to Horn (1999, p. 25– 26) information design is experiencing a variety of tensions. Graphic designers “learn in art school to worship the gods of Style and Fashion, Novelty, Impact and Self-expression.” Technical communication people “worship the gods of Clarity, Precision, Legibility, Comprehensibility, and (often) Simplicity.” In 2006 Bennett argued (p. 16): Graphic design is at a crossroads. Looking back, one sees designers engaged in a process where intuition informs the development of visual rhetoric intended to evoke a response from a target audience. Looking ahead, one sees them engaged in a process where research is integrated into the design of objects and experiences for and with the audience. According to Bennett (2006) the discipline of graphic design includes, but are not limited to, the following theories: alignment, colour, contrast, hierarchy, and repetition. These theories have been proven through a long history of successful experimentation in professional practice. Practitioners who do opt to inform their intuition with theory typically look to other disciplines within the humanities and sciences (Bennett, 2006, p. 17). Cognitive, cultural, literary, rhetorical, semiotic, and social theories for information have long been popular choices among graphic designers. Read more about graphic design in my book Graphic Design, and more about some graphic designers in my book Predecessors and Pioneers.

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Information design Information design is a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary, and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as design disciplines, communication disciplines, information disciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, art and aesthetic disciplines, business and law, as well as media production technologies. Information design has theoretical as well as practical components and information designers need to have theoretical knowledge as well as practical skills. This main section includes the following sections: Some definitions, and Information design objectives. Further see my book ID Theories.

Some definitions I have used the following definition of the general concept information design (Pettersson, 1998, p. 27; 2002, p. 19): In order to satisfy the information needs of the intended receivers, information design comprises analysis, planning, presentation and understanding of a message–its content, language and form. Regardless of the selected medium, a well-designed information material will satisfy aesthetic, economic, ergonomic, as well as subject matter requirements. Information design does not primarily include areas like advertising, entertainment, fine arts, news, and propaganda. There are many more definitions and descriptions of information design. As an academic discipline information design is written “Information Design” (with I and D in uppercase letters). Some descriptions of information design deal with design of communication, efficiency and effectiveness, interdisciplinary approaches, workability and usability. The phrase information design “is an umbrella term to cover the planning of everything– from user instructions to warning labels, from manuals to timetables, from official forms to invoices, from traffic instructions to 54

traffic signs, ... the term information design means communication by words, pictures, charts, graphs, maps, pictograms, and cartoons, whether by conventional or electronic means” (Passini, 1999, p. 83–84). According to Shedroff (1999, p. 268–269) information design is the same as common sense, information architecture, instructional design, and interaction design, and it originates in publishing and in graphic design. According to an international group of information design faculty, appointed by the International Institute for Information Design, IIID (Simlinger, 2007, p. 8): ... information design is the defining, planning, and shaping of the contents of a message and the environments in which it is presented, with the intention of satisfying the information needs of the intended recipients. Sometimes information design has been marketed as “simplification,” particularly in the USA (Waller, 2011). Simplification is an attractive concept, and more quickly understood than “information design,” because it at once calls to mind not only an action (simplifying) but also a desirable outcome (simplicity). There have been and there are many views about information design. Some claim that it is a practice. Some claim that it is a combined discipline. Some claim that it is quite impossible as a concept at all. Jacobson (1999, p. 3) noted: “there is no agreement that a practice called information design actually exists.” Jacobson argued: ... we need a reliable lexicon and a tried-and-true theory backed up by case studies. At present, the theory is sketchy and the case studies are scarce. Too few studies of information design have been carried out to support any broad generalizations about its practice. Jacobson (p. 6) concluded that it would take some time for a “compelling theory of information design” to be developed. This book was published in 1999. Later many more case studies have 55

been reported in the growing information design literature. However, we are still looking for a “compelling theory of information design,” and that theory is really hard to find. Information design certainly exists in many countries–both as a practice and also as an academic discipline. Darras (2016, p. 147) concluded: Information design is a permanent tension between many priorities on one hand, the translation of the wealth of information to be made visible and, on the other, the semiotic and aesthetic biases induced by this translation. Examples of important information design applications are administrative documentation, care and health care, crisis information, economic and financial information, geographical information, social information, technical information, tourist information, way-showing, and many public information systems. See my book ID Theories for a selection of more definitions and descriptions.

Information design objectives The main goal in information design and in instruction design should always be clarity of communication, even if we also expect presentations to be aesthetically pleasing, and in some cases also intellectually rewarding. To fulfil this main goal all messages must be accurately designed, produced and distributed, and later correctly interpreted and understood by most of the members of the intended audience. These different processes are guided by principles, performed with the help of tools and always influenced by the cultural and social context. In information design the main objective is to provide information materials, including the intended messages, needed by the receivers in order to perform specific tasks (Briggs and Wager, 1989; Fleming and Levie, 1993; Lipton, 2007; Lohr, 2003, 2010; Pettersson, 2002; Smith and Ragan, 2005; Wileman, 56

1993). The receivers may be seen as “doers.” They may develop new experiences, skills, and understandings. In the writing of information design objectives, it may be an advantage to use verbs like apply, arrange, assemble, build, change, code, complete, compose, conduct, construct, cut, demonstrate, develop, draw, explain, find, generate, get, identify, illustrate, install, label, locate, make, modify, name, operate, pack, paste, predict, prepare, produce, put, read, recognize, reconstruct, remove, revise, sort, specify, start, type, verify, and write. These verbs all denote observable behaviour. A few examples of performance objectives in information design may be: •

•

• •

For an instruction: 90% of the customers should be able to follow the instructions, put the different parts together, and build a complete set of furniture within 15 minutes. For a list: 90% of the users should be able to get correct information about flight departure and arrival times within two minutes. For a manual: 80% of the customers should be able to install the new computer software within 15 minutes. For a traffic information system: 100% of motorists should recognise the signs while they are passing during night.

Of course, we have to decide the actual numbers, with respect to percent and allowed time, in each specific case. When performance is qualitative rather than quantitative, the performance may be assessed by a group of experts. It should be noted that there is an increasing incidence of law suits being brought against manufacturers in the USA. These law suits claim damages as a result of accidents occurring, or products breaking because of poor quality in the language of instruction manuals (Helyar, 1992). The courts are demanding that technical manuals, brochures, information sheets, and labels be written in comprehensible language, and that descriptions and instructions be readable and legible. Everywhere, plaintiffs' counsels are searching frenetically for sections of text and parts of pictures that 57

might be interpreted in conflicting ways. If a manufacturer's technical documentation is difficult to understand, he can lose a lawsuit and then have to pay large sums of money.

Instruction design I have used the term instruction design (InD) as an umbrella term in order to bring related instruction areas together (Pettersson, 1998). Instruction design includes parts of the areas audiovisual instruction, educational technology, instructional technology, visual literacy, technology of instruction, instructional design, educational design, instructional message design, and design of instructional materials. According to Wurman et al. (2001, p. 199): Every successful communication is really an instruction in disguise-from love letters to company brochures. ... Only teachers and trainers think of themselves as instructors, yet we are all instructors every time we communicate. And, the more we think of communicating as instructing versus informing, the more satisfaction we are likely to find in the process. Instruction design is an evolving area of knowledge. It is interdisciplinary and it includes main aspects from several areas dealing with instruction and learning, but from different perspectives, and with different emphasis. Within each area the various definitions and descriptions have changed over time, which is sometimes very confusing. In instruction design the receiver is (normally) supposed to learn something from the message. The main intentions are to provide courses, lessons, and all kinds of teaching aids and materials intended for learning. We can note an ongoing paradigm shift from the traditional focus on teaching to a clear focus on learning, and from designing to participatory (co-)designing. This main section includes the following sections: Instruction design objectives, Audio-visual instruction, Educational 58

technology, Instructional technology, Instructional design, Educational design, Instructional message design, Information visualization, and Instruction design summary.

Instruction design objectives In instruction design the main objective is to provide courses and teaching aids, and materials intended for learning and needed by the interpreter in order to modify her or his behaviour with respect to learning. Here the information receivers might be seen as “learners.” In the process, they may develop new comprehension, experience, understanding, knowledge, insight, and finally wisdom. It may be an advantage to use verbs like apply, arrange, complete, compose, conduct, construct, define, demonstrate, explain, find, identify, illustrate, label, modify, name, predict, prepare, recognise, reconstruct, revise, specify, verify, and write in the writing of instruction design objectives. These verbs all denote observable behaviour. A few examples of performance objectives in instruction design may be: • • • •

For an exercise: 100% of the students should be able to complete an exercise within 15 minutes. For an experiment: 90% of the students should be able to explain the various steps in the experiment. For an educational video program: 90% of the students should be able to illustrate the main topic in the program. For a textbook: 90% of the users should be able to explain four ideas presented in the text.

Of course, we have to decide the actual numbers, with respect to percent and allowed time, in each specific case. These are just examples.

Audio-visual instruction Nowadays the term “audio-visual instruction” is more or less obsolete, and not often used. It is only mentioned here for “evolutionary” and historical reasons. De Vaney and Butler (1997, p. 4) 59

argued that within any discipline, the construction of knowledge, and its subsequent cultural practice is always elusive. Yet, within each field there are specific early primary and secondary texts that have been authored and received over time. If carefully read, these texts can yield voluminous information about the formation of a specific field, such as who the founders were, which discourses influenced their communications, and to whom and with what authority they spoke at the time. It is, however, not always easy to find those early primary and secondary texts, and it is not always easy to pinpoint a date, or even a specific person as the founder of an academic field. Basic concepts of audio-visual instruction According to De Vaney and Butler (1997, p. 6) the objects of study, the basic concepts of audio-visual instruction, and the notion of audience had been circumscribed already in the period, between 1918 and 1941. Interested educators, filmmakers, librarians, radio programme designers, school administrators, textbook producers, and other media enthusiasts promoted the area of audio-visual instruction for students during this period. World War II research on instruction and training indicated that films were adequate at developing attitudes, and good at teaching facts. The texts of the late 1920s and early 1930s were mainly concerned with operation of machines in public school classrooms. The audio-visual scholars of the 1920s and most of the 1930s followed prevalent theoretical and methodological trends in educational psychology. Instructional problems World War II created enormous instructional problems. Thousands of military personnel had to be trained rapidly to perform thousands of specific tasks that were critical to their own survival, and to the combined war effort. Agencies within the armed services produced a large number of instructional products, like audio recordings, filmstrips, instructor’s manuals, slides, and also motion pictures. For example, the United States Army Air 60

Force produced more than 400 training films and 600 filmstrips. During a two-year period, it was estimated that there were over four million showings of these media to military personnel (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p. 19). The basic instructional team We might say that audio-visual instruction has evolved into educational technology, and further into instructional technology. Saettler (1968, 1990) wrote a detailed history of educational technology and instructional technology, and he noted the emergence of the new role of the instructional technologist. This specific role emerged as distinct from that of the subject matter expert, and the technical expert in filmmaking. This new need for a professional who could contribute expertise in education to the knowledge of the subject matter expert, and the technical expertise of producers was clear to the military staff. Thus, the basic instructional team, with designer, subject matter expert, and producer working close together, was conceived during World War II.

Educational technology For many people the term educational technology is just another name for instructional media, or audio-visual aids. However, it is not. Only a small portion of educational technology is concerned with audio-visual aids. It is the word “technology” that causes problems here, because this word has different meanings. Technology includes the systematic study of technique, as well as the application of science to the solution of practical problems. Educational technology is concerned with making instruction more effective and more efficient. Members of this profession recognize that while educational technology is a dynamic emerging area, it is still seeking a definition. The various definitions and descriptions have changed over time, and as far as I know, people within this area have not yet reached an agreement.

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Programmed Instruction During the first half of the 20th century some research and development of theory in psychology revolved around behaviourism, learning, and teaching. Behaviour can be conditioned by rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns. Skinner’s research into operant conditioning and animal learning led him to suggest that human learning could be maximised by the careful control of reinforcement for desired behaviours (Skinner, 1953). Skinner (1954) applied the psychological principles of operant conditioning to academic learning tasks. At that time, learners, as well as teachers, were caught in a misery of the traditional “lock-step group lecture method” (Molenda, 2008, p. 57). Some understood that there was a distinct need for better teaching methods. Skinner developed a mechanical device that could replace the old teaching system with a new study system. In fact, Skinner moved the focus from the teacher to the student. In the future teachers could have a good understanding of what every individual student actually learned. The instructional format that was used in the new “teaching machines” became known as Programmed Instruction. Skinner’s elaboration of the theory of reinforcement and his advocacy of its application to learning established the so called Programmed Instruction Movement. Programmed Instruction was a method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of very controlled steps. Authors and publishers were rather quick to present required course contents divided into small bits, or frames, of information. Students worked with these frames at their own speed. After each step they tested their comprehension by answering an examination question. When students failed, they were shown the correct answer, or sometimes they got additional information. By the late 1950s this new technology became a popular subject of educational development and research. Programmed instruction could be a radical reconstruction of the traditional 62

procedures for teaching and learning. The system was devised to make the teaching–learning process more humane by making it more customized and effective to handle individual differences. Learners should mainly practice correct responses, so that they could experience frequent reinforcement. Teaching machines did not allow students to proceed in their tasks unless they understood the materials. Teachers were motivated to expand human dignity and freedom by giving learners more customized programs of instruction in a caring and humane context with frequent one-to-one contact. These teachers developed methods of instruction that were amenable to objective examination, revision, and continuous testing. They viewed “caring instruction” as synonymous with “effective instruction.” Technology of teaching During the 1960s the focus of the field educational technology gradually moved from production and use of AV-materials to designing and use of interactive self-instructional systems. From the early 1960s to 1966 many publishers produced programmed materials both in linear, and in branching formats. In order to describe programmed instruction as an application of the science of learning to the practical task of instruction Skinner (1968) coined the term technology of teaching. Other authors used the term educational technology. It became clear that instructional technology could be viewed as a way of thinking about instruction, not just a conglomeration of devices (Finn, 1965). AECT Task Force According to Dieuzeide (1971, p. 1) The National Academy of Engineering’s Instructional Technology Committee on Education described educational technology as the “body of knowledge resulting from the application of the science of teaching and learning to the real world of the classroom, together with the tools and methodologies developed to assist in these applications.” 63

The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT Task Force, 1977, p. 164) concluded that educational technology “is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization, for analysing problems, and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning.” Voices of the Founders Morgan (1978, p. 143) had dated the origin of educational technology from the work of B. F. Skinner and others on programmed instruction. De Vaney and Butler (1997) made an extensive overview, Voices of the Founders: Early Discourses in Educational Technology. In their overview they concluded (p. 3) that academic audio-visual and educational technology programmes started in the 1950s, and proliferated in the 1960s. However, the intellectual groundwork for this area had emerged already in the late 1920s. It had peaked in the 1940s with the capstone event of programmatic and extensive World War II research. What began with an emphasis on audio-visual communications media gradually became focused on the systematic development of teaching and learning procedures that were based in behavioural psychology. Learning Design and Technology During the 1980s the predictions from educational researchers included: a) better research syntheses, b) focus on central concepts, processes, and variables in teaching and learning, c) honest disclosure of weaknesses of research settings, d) emergence of the “field of instructional psychology”, and e) hopes for improved training of research workers. During the 1990s the educational research was evolving. Researchers wanted to immerse and investigate in the real world of teaching and learning. 64

In the early 2000s researchers realized that to understand learners and their experiences (cognitive, emotional, and physical), they needed to evolve from traditional ideologies of research to more intricate research methods that carefully considers “context.” Over the last decade research in education and educational technology has continued to grow and made important contributions to advance our understanding of the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance (Romero-Hall 2021, p. 6). Emergency remote teaching In many countries, schools were forced to stop their traditional face-to-face class-room teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Schools switched to emergency remote teaching (ERT), is a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate mode due to crisis circumstances. In Sweden Ringer and Kreitz-Sandberg (2022) studied how some pupils in Stockholm had perceived their ERT experiences. They made about half-hours long “semistructured interviews” with 13 secondary-school pupils (aged 16– 19 years) during two months in 2020. They found variations among pupils with regard to how they had perceived their new morning routines, the decreased control by their teachers in this entirely new situation for all, the flexibility to choose their workplace at home, and the sudden increased flexibility in structuring their own days. Some pupils perceived their increased flexibility as challenging. At the same time, other pupils appraised their increased flexibility. For them this was a possibility to be more independent. With regard to contacts with their classmates, all pupils in this study perceived difficulties learning from each other in Emergency Remote Teaching. It was difficult for the pupils to compare their own performances to those of their classmates. It was difficult to have any deep discussions in the group. Pupils found it

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hard to encourage each other, and to organize themselves in groups. Ringer and Kreitz-Sandberg (2022) drew several conclusions from their study. There is a variation among pupils in how they perceive their remote studying. Some pupils perceived the flexible structure, and the new daily routines as overwhelming, and difficult to manage. This study highlights that pupils need encouragement and support during remote teaching. In planning remote teaching teachers need to consider the difficulties pupils have in learning with and from their classmates. Furthermore, this study highlights relevant aspects related to designing learning environments and preconditions that have an effect on pupils’ learning experiences Practical concerns In the UK, at the University of Bath, Ericson (1998) used the following definitions and practical concerns for the concept educational technology: 1. The application of science to the problems of teaching and learning. 2. “A systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about more effective instruction.” (This definition “dates from 1970 and came from the USA.”) 3. In practice, educational technology is concerned with: – The formulation of educational aims and objectives; – The design and production of teaching and learning materials; – The sequencing of the teaching material and the guidance of the learner through it; – The development of appropriate strategies for teaching and learning; 66

– The choice and effective use of appropriate equipment and media; – The design and implementation of appropriate assessment procedures; – The evaluation of course effectiveness and its overall improvement; – The process of research and development related to all of the above. 4. “Essentially it is a rational, problem solving approach to education, a way of thinking sceptically and systematically about teaching and learning.” Ericson (1998) concluded that educational technology is as wide as education itself. In his view, cognitive psychology, management, perception psychology, psychometrics, and social psychology all are major contributing fields to educational technology.

Instructional technology The term instructional technology was introduced in the 1960s. Instructional technology has its roots in the use of audio-visual media and audio-visual instructions during World War II, in teaching and training, and research on educational technology. From 1953 the name of the scholarly journal published by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) was AV Communication Review for 25 years. In 1978 the title of the journal was changed to Educational Communications and Technology — A Journal of Theory, Research, and Development (ECTJ). In 1989, ECTJ and the Journal of Instructional Development (JID) were merged into Educational Technology Research, and Development (ETR&D). It is since the main publication of the AECT. Formal learning situations According to Dijkstra van Hout Wolters, and van der Sijde (1990) the term instructional technology was introduced in order to give a description of methods and procedures of instruction used to 67

promote the acquisition of knowledge and cognitive skills, mainly in classrooms and other formal learning situations. As previously noted the role of the instructional technologist and the basic instructional team, designer, subject matter expert, and producer, was conceived already during World War II (Saettler, 1968, 1990). The problem is that even these terms have quite different meanings for different people. The Commission on Instructional Technology (1970, p. 19) defined instructional technology in two ways: 1) as “the media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside the teacher, textbook, and blackboard,” and 2) as “a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in human learning and communication, and employing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about more effective instruction.” The Commission on Instructional Technology concluded that the purpose of instructional technology is to make education more productive and more individual, to give instruction a more scientific base, and to make instruction more powerful, learning more immediate, and access more equal. More definitions Gentry (1987, p. 7) discussed different definitions of instructional technology, and concluded that it could be defined in the following way: “The systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behaviour and physical sciences concepts and other knowledge to the solution of instructional problems.” In 1994 AECT published the following definition: “Instructional Technology is a field dedicated to the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.” Gagné (1987) and Anglin (1991) provided overviews of instructional technology.

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In 1994 the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) published Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field by Barbara Seels and Rita Richey. This book is a capstone of five years of collective work dedicated to developing a new definition of the field. The 1994 definition (p. 1) is: “Instructional Technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.” This definition describes the field in terms of five domains. In instructional technology the accelerated development of technology has affected the contribution of perception management on learning (Güney, 2019). It is important to integrate perceptual design language into the culture of the society. All these examples, and many more, show that this area is still diverse. Different people see instructional technology in different ways. We may conclude that instructional technology is a subset within educational technology. However, we can also see instructional technology as an evolution, and an outgrowth from educational technology.

Instructional design Heinich (1970) concluded that a unit of programmed instruction was, in fact, a small instructional system. In 1974 Gagné and Briggs introduced the term instructional design. They showed the influence of cognitive psychology on the description of different types of learning, and on the analysis of the learning task. Glaser (1978) showed that the study of acquisition of complex human behaviours in formal instructional settings will contribute both to: 1) the theory of knowledge acquisition within the science of cognition, and 2) to the technology of instruction. Instruction In 1982 Heinich, Molenda, and Russell (1982, p. 9) defined the term instruction as: “Deliberate arrangement of experience(s) to help a learner achieve a desirable change in performance; the 69

management of learning, which in education and training is primarily the function of the instructor.” Later (p. 19) they defined technology of instruction as: “the application of our scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning.” In 1990 Warries defined instruction as (p. 3): “Bringing about by means of a well-defined method, that, under given conditions, a learner within a system, will reach a predefined goal.” According to Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 5): “instruction is the intentional facilitation of learning toward identified learning goals.” Instructional materials According to Friesen (1973, p. 1), instructional materials can be created and designed in two ways. The first way requires a master teacher, working alone to create an inspired work of art. The second way requires the application of systematic approach and a system of logic in order to accomplish specified learning objectives. Briggs and Wager (1989) published a handbook of the procedures for the design of instruction. Here the central focus is on the design of instructional materials, whether print or non-print. The book is mainly written for the instructors who want to learn how to (p. v): “develop predesigned, materials-centred instruction, as distinct from teacher-centred instruction.” Nowadays, however, it may be time to focus on learner-centred instruction, rather than materials- or teacher-centred instruction. The process of planning In 1993 Wileman defined instructional design as (p. 112): “the process of planning lessons based on learning objectives.” According to Fleming and Levie (1993, p. x) Reigeluth (1983) defined instructional design as “the process of deciding what methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in 70

student knowledge and skills for a specific course content and a specific student population.” Later Reigeluth (1987) applied the models and theories to the design of lessons. There are three types of main variables in instructional design. These variables are methods, outcomes, and conditions. Paradigm shifts Cooper (1993) traced the paradigm shifts in instructional design from behaviourism to cognitivism to constructivism. Instructional design, as well as technology of instruction, may be seen as outgrowths from instructional technology if they are to be described as different areas. The study of predesigned, materialscentred instruction, whether print or non-print, makes instructional design very important and interesting for information design scholars. Andrews and Goodson (1980) described 40 models for systematic design of instruction. A systematic approach is characterized by an input-output-feedback-revision cycle. Andrews and Goodson concluded that because of the varying levels of quality of models, educators must be especially careful in choosing which model to follow when designing instruction. Instructional problems When a designer has to solve an instructional problem, he or she will use the available knowledge about the system and the conditions at hand. The designer will vary the method variables in such a way and toward such values that the desired outcome is achieved. Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 4) defined instructional design as a systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation. Smith and Ragan (2005) noted that an instructional designer is somewhat like an engineer. Both plan their work based upon principles that have been successful in the past—the engineer on the laws of physics, and the instructional designer on the 71

basic principles of instruction and learning. Both have a vast number of factors, which often interact, that they must consider. Models of instructional design Models of instructional design have descriptive, prescriptive, and/or explanatory elements. Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 8) recommended a simple model based on three phases: 1) Analysis, 2) Strategy, and 3) Evaluation. They termed this model A Common Model of Instructional Design. 1. Analysis. The first phase includes analysis of the learning context, analysis of the learners, analysis of the learning task, and writing of test items. 2. Strategy. The second phase includes development of organizational strategies, development of delivery strategies, development of management strategies, and production of the actual instruction. 3. Evaluation. The third phase includes assessments and formative evaluation. This may lead to revision of the instruction. According to Smith and Ragan it is common practice that designers modify the sequence of design activities. Many times, steps may occur concurrently. Facilitating learning Conveying redundant information through both linguistic symbols and iconic symbols facilitates information processing, reduces error and information loss, and increases the amount of information that learners can recall. Linguistic and iconic symbols make it possible for the learners to alternate between functionally independent, though interconnected and complementary cognitive processing systems. In the production of information and learning materials this is not always the case. Evans, Watson, and Willows (1987) interviewed editors, art directors, and graphic designers from nine major Canadian publishing houses. They concluded (p. 90): “Our interviews confirm Dwyer’s (1972) summary that the selection 72

and inclusion of illustrations in textbooks appear to be based on ‘subjective feelings of the designer about what is best, the accessibility of raw information, the availability of materials, the cost, the attractiveness of the finished product, and the availability of a ready market’ (p. 16).” Learning is facilitated and maximized when visual, audio, and print contain the same or similar information. The efficiency and success of an instructional design relate to its visual quality (Eristi et al., 2010). Marsh (1983) provided the following eight guidelines for selecting a visual channel (rather than a verbal channel) for a message. We should use pictures (p. 101): • • • • • • • •

When messages are complex. When refer ability is important. When messages are long. When environment is noisy. When arrangement is complicated. When precise spatial discrimination is important. When simultaneous presentation is desired. When more dimensions are required.

Lohr (2003, p. 41–44) offered three principles that can be used to create more easily understood pictures. The three principles are: 1) Figure/ground, 2) Hierarchy, and 3) Gestalt. 1. The figure/ground principle refers to the mind’s tendency to organize elements into figure and ground categories. To facilitate this process the information designer should make the most important information really noticeable. 2. The hierarchy principle is based on the mind’s tendency to process and remember “chunks” of information that in turn are arranged hierarchically. To facilitate this process the information designer should shape information structures to show subordinate, super-ordinate, and coordinate relationships.

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3. The gestalt principle encompasses figure/ground and hierarchy principles. Gestalt theory is based on the belief that the whole is other than the sum of its parts. The information designer should combine text and visuals to present messages. Simplicity is an organisation and grouping of data and detail that make the information clear and meaningful. Instructional design assumptions Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 22–23) provided seven critical assumptions underlying instructional design for instructional designers to follow in order to be able to produce “good instruction.” Their instructional design assumptions are: 1. To design instruction, the designer must have a clear idea of what the learner should learn as a result of the instruction. 2. The “best” instruction is that which is effective (facilitates learners” acquisition of the identified knowledge and skills), efficient (requires the least possible amount of time necessary for learners to achieve the goals), and appealing (motivates and interest learners, encouraging them to persevere in the learning task). 3. Students may learn from many different media; a “live teacher” is not always essential for instruction. 4. There are principles of instruction that apply across all age groups and all content areas. For example, students must participate actively, interacting mentally as well as physically with material to be learned. 5. Evaluation should include the evaluation of the instruction as well as the evaluation of the learner’s performance. Information from the evaluation of instruction should be used to revise the instruction in order to make it more efficient, effective, and appealing. 6. When the purpose of assessment is to determine whether learners have achieved learning goals, the learners should be evaluated in terms of how nearly they achieve those 74

instructional goals rather than how they “stack up” against their fellow students. 7. There should be congruence among goals, learning activities, and assessment. Along with learner’s characteristics and learning context, learning goals should be the driving force behind decisions about activities and assessment. Instructional Design and Technology Instructional Design and Technology (IDT) focuses on designing instructionally effective messages in different media (Januszewski and Molenda, 2008; Koszalka, Russ-Eft, and Reiser, 2013). Since the 1970s-visual literacy has been a special focus of IDT (Bishop, 2014). Visual literacy is a skill that IDT professionals really need (Sugar et al., 2012). Romero-Hall (2020) reviewed how traditional research methodologies have evolved in instructional design and technology. The educational landscape is changing with respect to design, learning and technology. There are new challenges and many new experiences in the instructional design and technology field. Multiple representations In instructional design the term “multiple representations” is used for diagrams, formulas, gestures, graphs, models, pictures, sounds symbols, texts and videos (Holsanova, 2014). Mayer (2019) argued that instructional design is a form of information design, in which the goal is to help people learn material so that they can use it later. Further see my book ID Theories. Zhu, Basdogan and Bonk (2020) examined the challenges, design judgments, and design practices of novice instructional designers majoring in the public health field. In an authentic instructional design project, the novice instructional designers designed and used handouts, infographics, instructional videos, online games, and PowerPoint presentation slides. 75

According to Endres et al. (2020) multiple studies have revealed the beneficial effects of emotional design on affective or motivational factors but not often on learning outcomes. Further see my book Learning.

Educational design Our education system tends to set students up for the ability to find one clear, right answer (Gabella, 1995). However, once students are able to work through ambiguous situations they find that their work is more meaningful. Many pedagogical practices stem from a time when schools prepared individuals to follow directions, adhere to a hierarchy, and integrate into a functioning system to support industrial society (Postman, 2011). Research in educational design is the systematic study of designing, developing and evaluating educational interventions as solutions to complex real problems relevant for educational practice and educational policy (Plomp, 2007, p. 13; Nieveen, 2007, p. 89). This research also develops the design processes. It is not a methodology, researchers use quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods to answer their research questions. Important research functions are to compare, describe, design, develop, explain, evaluate, and predict. The development of solutions to complex educational problems is iterative. Educational solutions According to McKenney and Reeves (2012) examples of educational solutions can be products, processes, programs, or policies. An example of an educational product is a multiuser virtual world learning game. An educational process can be a strategy for scaffolding student learning in online courses. An educational program can be a series of workshops intended to help teachers develop more effective questioning strategies. An educational policy can be year-round schooling. Studies of design research involve complex interactions and feedback cycles that can significantly blur the roles of assessment 76

experts, curriculum developers, instructional designers, researchers, and teachers (Bannan, 2007). We need comprehensive models to guide design research addressing the process of designing, developing and assessing the impact of an educational innovation. Design research cycles are dynamic and integrate multiple exploratory, constructive and/or empirical research methods as well as multiple design/development techniques. Design research Kelly (2007) discussed when design research is appropriate, and concluded (p. 75) that design research is recommended when the problem facing learning or teaching is substantial and how-to-do guidelines available are unavailable. It is most appropriate for open and wicked problems. In design research projects researchers strive after two types of main results. The first aim comprises high-quality interventions (such as programs, products and processes) designed to solve complex educational problems (Nieveen, 2007, p. 89). The second aim is the accompanying set of well-articulated design principles (Linn, Davis and Bell, 2004, and Van den Akker, 1999). Educational design research also includes Curriculum design research (Van den Akker, 2007). In order to enable learners, at the secondary school level, to resolve and visualize complex information Kibar and Akkoyunly (2018) developed a comprehensive process for design of infographics as a multi-dimensional learning strategy. In accordance with the generic model of research in educational design (McKenney and Reeves, 2012) they developed a step-by-step model and gradually evaluated and redesigned the process with collaboration of teachers with expertise in different areas. In educational design research the researcher establishes “micro cycles” of analysis and exploration, construction and design, evaluation and reflection. During the micro cycles the designers/students defined the problems and the aims, found relevant content, generated verbal and visual drafts, and “digital

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design.” Combining micro cycles provides “meso cycles.” Then the meso cycles are combined to “macro cycles.” The step-by-step model was an effective method for the infographic generation process. Learners were able to resolve and visualize complex information. The infographic design strategy entails a multi-dimensional learning process that can improve students critical thinking and higher order thinking, knowledge of information literacy, problem solving, the actual subject matter, and visual literacy. The teachers mostly reflected on the lack of time and the lengthiness of the infographic design process. Kibar and Akkoyunly (2018) concluded that the infographic generating strategy may be used in the learning-teaching process. Related areas are educational technology, instructional design, instructional message design, and instructional technology.

Instructional message design Fleming and Levie (1978) specified that the term instructional message design refers to the process of manipulating, or planning for the manipulation, of a pattern of signs and symbols that may provide the conditions for learning. It is assumed that practitioners in this domain can be more effective if they make use of appropriate generalised research findings from the behavioural sciences. Here, the term instruction refers as well to classroom contexts as to more informal contexts where attitudes, concepts, and skills are communicated. Fleming and Levie (1978, 1993) provided about two hundred “principles” for instructional message design. Here the main focus is on the receiver. These principles are related to the receiver’s attention, perception, memory, concept learning, and attitude change. Influence The influence of cognitive psychology on instructional message design was further developed by Gagné, Briggs and Wager (1988), and by (Dijkstra, van Hout Wolters, and van der Sijde, 1990). According to Fleming and Levie (1993, p. x): “A “message” 78

is a pattern of signs (words, pictures, gestures) produced for the purpose of modifying the psychomotor, cognitive, or affective behaviour of one or more persons. The term does not imply any particular medium or vehicle of instruction.” In principle, the term is valid for all media. And design (op. cit.): “refers to a deliberate process of analysis and synthesis that begins with an instructional problem and concludes with a concrete plan or blueprint for a solution.” Selander and Kress (2010, p. 24) used the concept didactic design both for: 1) How to shape social processes and create opportunities for learning, and for 2) How individuals constantly redesigns information in their own mental processes for creating meaning. Theories and principles Instructional design theories provide principles for the design of instruction. In a few cases they intend also to provide teachers with prescriptions. During the last two decades design models and theories of instruction have become important for the work of professional instructional designers. Although design theories frequently refer to descriptive theory and propositions, their main function is to guide the designers on how to design and how to produce courses and lessons. The International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) was established in 1968 to provide a multidisciplinary forum for the exploration, presentation and discussion of all aspects of visual communication and their applications through the concept of visual languaging, visual literacy, and literacies in general. The Journal of Visual Literacy (JVL) is the official scholarly journal of IVLA for presentation of theory and research in this area. For the first seven and a half years the title of the journal was Journal of Visual Verbal Languaging (JVVL). Further see my book Using Images.

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Information visualisation A visualization is a graphical representation that conveys complicated ideas clearly, efficiently, and precisely (Card, Mackinlay, and Shneiderman, 1999). Visualization, or visualisation, is also the actual process of creating that graphical representation. The primary goal of visualisation is to discover insights through the analysis, explo-ration, and communication of information in an acceptable form (Khan and Khan, 2011). Information visualization, or information visualisation, is used to study interactive visual representations intended for making sense of abstract data and reinforce human cognition. Abstract data include numerical and non-numerical data. This area has been defined in different ways. Many definitions focus on assisting people in analysing, evaluating, or under-standing data. Shiravi, Shiravi, and Ghorbani, (2012) defined information visualisation as an aid to users in analyzing, exploring, and understanding of data through continuous, iterative visual exploration. Bederson and Shneiderman (2003) traced information visualisation to computer science, graphics, human-computer interaction, psychology, and visual design. Card, Mackinlay, and Shneiderman, (1999) first used the term information visualization to describe it as an application area for Cognitive Coprocessor Architecture.

Instruction design summary In summary, the main function of audio-visual instruction, educational technology, instructional technology, instructional design, educational design, technology of instruction, and instructional message design is to guide designers on how to design and how to produce courses, lessons and materials intended for learning. All these areas are closely related to information design.

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Mass design I use the term mass design as an umbrella term in order to bring related mass design areas together. This group could also be called “entertainment design.” Mass design includes aspects from communication studies, mass-communication, media studies, photography, and journalism. This is a very large field. The main intentions are to provide entertainment, news, and views. The individual information receivers might be seen as “relaxers.” In mass design, it may be an advantage to use verbs like enjoy, feel, laugh, listen, look, read, and relax. These verbs all denote observable behaviour. A few examples of performance objectives in mass design may be: • • • •

For a magazine: 100% of the readers should be able to read the text in the magazine without any difficulty. For music on radio: 90% of the listeners should enjoy the selection of modern music. For news on television: 70% of the subscribers should look at the program at least once every day. For entertainment on television: 80% of the viewers should have fun and laugh at the jokes.

Of course, we have to decide the actual numbers, with respect to percent and allowed time, in each specific case.

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Persuasion design I use the term persuasion design as an umbrella term in order to bring the related persuasive areas together. Persuasion design is interdisciplinary and it includes main aspects from advertising, planned communication, and propaganda. Persuasion design comprises studies on carefully planned information activities, where the goals are related to some kind of change in the behaviour of the receivers. In persuasion design the main objective is to persuade the interpreter or receiver of the message to adopt a particular attitude, to become convinced of something, to change her or his behaviour and resemble someone else, to behave in a particular way, or to buy an idea, a product or a service. The information interpreters might be seen as “possible buyers” or “prospects.” They may develop apprehensions, beliefs, emotions, new prejudices, opinions and views, reinforced attitudes, and a willingness to buy. In all kinds of persuasion design, it may be an advantage to use verbs like appreciate, believe, buy, change (behaviour), desire, dread, fear, feel (relaxed), hate, and have (fun) in the writing of persuasion design objectives. These verbs all denote observable behaviour. A few examples of performance objectives in persuasion design may be: • •

• •

For a warning: 90% of the viewers should change their behaviour when they have seen the information once. For a new product: 75% of the viewers should desire their own sample of the product when they have seen the information twice. In propaganda: 90% of the population should hate a specific behaviour when they have heard the arguments. In advertising: 50% of the readers should buy the new consumer product within two weeks.

Of course, we have to decide the actual numbers, with respect to percent and allowed time, in each specific case. 82

As a minimal condition, to be tagged as persuasive, a communication situation must involve a conscious attempt by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviour of another individual or group of individuals through the transmission of some message (Bettinghaus and Cody, 1987, p. 3). Persuasion designers work with all kinds of verbal and visual representations and with media like films graphical media, radio, TV, video and the WWW. Sometimes persuasive messages are adopted and presented at the same time in several different media. Film, graphical media (such as brochures, labels, packaging, posters, and newspapers), radio, TV, video and the WWW are examples of media for advertising and propaganda. In some situations, graphic design and visual communication can intervene into problems on a functional level, which is similar to artefacts from design disciplines such as architecture, industrial and product design (Bichler and Beier, 2016). Here, graphic design has a role within design activism and a relation to commercial design culture in a consumerist economy. According to Bichler and Beier (2016) information design can challenge the status quo and range from conventional leaflets to interactive tools and data visualizations. This main section includes the following sections: Advertising, and Propaganda.

Advertising Nowadays children are often repeatedly exposed to massive advertising and other media messages in different media. Advertising is based on imagery, sound, and text that have replaced many of our old forms of communication (Green, 2000). Advertising history Advertising is not a new activity. Already around 5,000 years ago crude advertisements appeared as inscriptions in Egyptian tombs. Later the Greeks engraved theatre ads in stone in about

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500 BC. Signs of different kinds were hand painted on the limewhitened walls of buildings in Rome and Pompeii.

The multi-talented Jules Chéret created artistic posters advertising a wide range of products and became a major advertising force. Jules Chéret has been called “the master of poster design,” “the father of modern advertising” and also “the father of the poster.” This poster was published in 1890. The size is 117 x 82 cm. Picture: Wikimedia Commons. Nowadays we remember especially the artistic and very spectacular posters from the late 1800s, with advertisements for cabarets, restaurants and theatrical performances created by Jules Chéret (1836–1932) and Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (1864– 84

1901). We have forgotten all the posters that advertised everyday articles. These posters were printed in large editions, and the message reached many people. The average cost for contact was negligible. No article or product was too simple or too cheap not to be advertised on a poster. The artists that created all these posters with everyday messages for everyday products are more or less forgotten. Many of them were anonymous and worked quietly, without any attention. Objectives of advertising The objective of advertising is to attract attention, create a desire for products and services offered in the marketplace, and increase the sales (Berger, 2000). While propaganda often creates negative images, advertising presents positive images. Advertising is generally regarded as the means for persuasion, although at times its purpose may also be to identify or to inform. Bettinghaus and Cody (1987, p. 1) noted that persuasion is an important part of the daily life of every human being. What we eat, what we wear, whom we listen to, and what music we prefer, what church we go to, and whom we will vote for in the next election is all affected by persuasive communication. In fact, persuasion is used so frequently and is so pervasive in our daily lives that we often fail to recognize when we are using persuasive communication, as well as when we are exposed to it. It is not that much difference between information materials intended for advertising and information materials intended for propaganda. These two forms want to affect people and they have been around for a long time. Advertising literacy With respect to media education and research advertising literacy is an analytical concept (Malmelin, 2010, p.132). From the consumer point of view, advertising literacy is the individual’s ability and skill of observation, recognition and understanding commercial messages. For the communicator advertising literacy provides directions for planning of advertising. 85

The elements of an advertising message are graphic design, music, pictures, sounds, structure, words, and the action itself. Structure is the way the elements are combined to create an effect of a coherent message. In order to influence others, the senders must exchange information, accurately transmit their messages and intentions, and identify and understand the habits of the intended receivers. The more often a message is sent, the more familiar it becomes and the more likely it is to be remembered. Media for advertising It seems that all media can be used for advertising. People in the advertising business tend to think about the advertising process as a traditional communications model. The advertising process involves a source or a sender (the advertiser), encoding (the professional in advertising), a representation with a message (the advertisement) and one or more channels (the selected media), noise (various obstacles), receivers (listeners, readers, viewers), decoding of the message (understanding), and feedback (the viewer’s responses). Advertising messages According to Key (1977) the average adult in the USA was exposed to over 500 advertising messages daily, of which she or he consciously perceived around 75. This was in the 1970s. It is much more today. Weilenman (1999) reported that every person in Stockholm, Sweden, was exposed to over 2 000 advertising messages daily in 1999. According to Norén (1999) the figure probably was between 3 000 and 4 000. These authors did not report on how many messages people actually pay attention to. According to Saunders (1999) one estimate claims that American children have seen an average of 350,000 commercials on television when they reach the age of 18. With an integration of text-interpretive, experimental, and reader-response analyses Mcquarrie and Mick (1999) examined the impact of stylistic elements in contemporary American advertising. The ads—antithesis, metaphor, pun, and rhyme— 86

formed visual rhetorical figures parallel to those found in verbal language. Results showed that visual figures led to favourable attitudes toward the ads, without lack of comprehension, except for individuals who lacked the cultural competency. Several of the meanings generated by informants corresponded to those produced by an a priori text-interpretive analysis of the ads. Visual style has a persuasive impact in advertising. It is an attractive strategy to use metaphors in advertising. Metaphors in ads may have a significant verbal and visual impact on how intended consumers perceive the message and their attitude toward the ad and the brand. Metaphors make it easier for consumers to remember ads, and they influence the credibility of the ads (Jeong, 2008). Effects of advertising No doubt we are all influenced by advertisements. According to Piette and Giroux (1998) media have an indirect influence on us, and media tell us what to do and what to think about. Gerbner et al. (1994) argued that years of exposure to advertising messages would influence children’s symbolic environments. Moriarty (1991, p. 5) sees an advertisement as a conversation with a customer about a product. “It gets attention, it provides information, it tries to make a point, and it encourages you to buy, try, or do something. It tries to create some kind of response or reaction. It speaks to the heart as well as the head.” Advertising based on images is likely to appeal to both adults and children, but children lack the rational development through experience that would put rational brakes on the effects of advertisements (Barry, 1998). Persuasion tends to be accomplished in both children and adolescents almost exclusively through imagery. Visual messages with emotional appeals bypass logic. It is complicated to measure effects of advertising. People forget most advertising messages. However, advertising is used so frequently and is so pervasive in our daily lives that we often fail to recognize that we are exposed to these messages. As 87

previously noted Swedish TV viewers are critical of TV commercials. Only one out of ten (11%) people felt that TV advertising supplies correct information about goods and services. It is not at all surprising that some modern consumers have evolved into discerning decoders, automatically filtering out a mass of unwanted information (Saunders (1999). This may, however, not be true for large groups of people. Ethics in advertising de Lange (2021) advocates using advertising self-regulatory codes as an ethical framework for design practice. He wrote (p. 1): There is more to design than just being a vehicle for commercial communication. Designers do not have to act as the mouthpiece for unscrupulous marketers. They can and should use their visual communication skills to question, challenge, and contribute to a better world. These self-regulatory codes are universal, accepted by the developed world and some developing countries, and are based on decency, honesty, legality and truth. The broader marketing communication industry decides on these universal codes. These codes act as rules and guides for the marketing and advertising industry and constitute an ideal framework for ethical designmaking. As such, these codes provide an archetype for ethical design conduct and provide a rich area for research in design. The International Council for Ad Self-Regulation (ICAS), is an international body that offers a platform for self-regulatory organizations. Advertising self-regulatory bodies use the ICAS International Chamber of Commerce Marketing Code as the basis for advertising codes (ICAS, 2018). A powerful industry In the early 1970-s, the daily number of ads targeted at the average American was 560. In 1999, this number was 3,000 ads a day, and 88

more than one million ads per year. Years of exposure will influence children’s symbolic environments (Gerbner et al., 1994). According to Saunders (1999, p. 7) advertising of today is the world’s most powerful industry. In fact, advertising is more powerful now than it has previously been at any time in our history. Images often surpass words in communicating ideas, and the advertising business spends a lot of money and resources on production of images (Anderson and Milbrandt, 2005). It is clear that an advertising campaign can change the public opinion. It can make a company’s fortune, and it can put politicians in power. Lefler (2014) discussed the impact of advertising in our modern visual culture. Advertising is a pedagogy that teaches individuals what they need, what they should desire, and what they should think and do to be happy, patriotic, and successful. Advertising is not just part of the dominant culture; it is the dominant culture (Twitchell, 1996). As it uses “a series of appeals, symbols and statements deliberately designed to influence the receiver of the message towards the point of view desired by the communicator and to act in some specific way as a result of receiving the message” Jowett and O’Donnell (2012, p. 151) described advertising as a form of propaganda.

Propaganda Propaganda usually takes a stand for something or someone and against someone or something else. Broadly interpreted certain kinds of propaganda can be included in the concept “information material.” Many culturally and historically interesting messages, such as paintings in medieval churches and the design of castles, church buildings, and manor houses, can be included in this category of information materials. Art and lavish buildings currently convey a clear message about glory, influence and power. Nowadays, many people perceive propaganda in a negative way, but it was probably not the case in the past. 89

In his satire Brave New World (written 1931 and published 1932), with its cynical description of a centrally directed machine culture, Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) feared that there would be no reason to ban any books. There would be no one who wanted to read them because everyone was passive and self-absorbed. Huxley feared that we would become part of a trivial culture. In his nightmarish vision of the future Nineteen Eighty-Four (written 1948 and published 1949) George Orwell (1903-1950) gave a harrowing description of life in a totalitarian state. Information technology had penetrated all the way into our personal lives. An unknown older brother constantly supervised people. The effect was conformity, indifference, insecurity, stifled creativity, uncertainty, and a general state of ignorance in all citizens. Orwell feared people who would ban books, deprive us of information and drown the truth in a sea of irrelevant information. Orwell feared a prison culture. According to Pretorius (2016) it really is a complex task to define propaganda, and many authors have really attempted to define propaganda during different time periods. Balfour (1979, p. 421) defined propaganda as “inducing people to leap to conclusions without adequate examination of the evidence”. Laswell, Lerner, and Speier (1979, p. 5) described propaganda as “deliberately manipulated communication”. Pratkanis and Aronson (2001, 11) used the word propaganda to mean: … mass ‘suggestion’ or ‘influence’ through the manipulation of symbols and the psychology of the individual… involv[ing] the dextrous use of images, slogans and symbols that play on our prejudices and emotions; it is the communication of a point of view with the ultimate goal of having the recipient of the appeal come to ‘voluntarily’ accept the position as if it were his or her own. According to Pretorius (2016, p. 583) both persuasion and propaganda are forms of communication. Whereas persuasion is: 90

“interactive and attempts to satisfy the needs of both persuader and persuade”, propaganda “attempts to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist”. While propaganda does use persuasive strategies, it differs from persuasion in its purpose. Therefore, Jowett and O’Donnell (2012, p. 51) defined propaganda as: “the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.” Objectives of propaganda The objective of propaganda is to disseminate an idea, an opinion or a philosophy. The idea is for the receiver to emulate, imitate, or mimic, i.e. to intentionally try to resemble someone else, become convinced of something, behave in a particular way, adopt a particular attitude or buy a product or an idea. The “sender” use propaganda in order to propagate a political or a religious idea, opinion or valuation in a systematic way. Propaganda is often associated with concealed facts, exaggerations, false simplifications, and half-truths. Alternative views are not presented and obviously not respected. Propaganda often reinforces our prejudices and feelings regarding events, groups of people, or products in a negative or positive fashion. It seems that most persuasion scholars focus on messages that offer some evidence of having been designed for the purpose of influencing others. Simons (1986, p. 24) noted that it is possible to define persuasion both as a process of communication designed to modify the judgements of others, and as success at modifying the judgement of others in intended directions. The messages may be mediated efforts at interpersonal exchanges, mass persuasion, or one-to-many public communications. During World War II, the poster became an essential medium for propaganda. In all countries involved in this conflict posters played a major role in the struggle for public support of 91

the war effort. Seidman (2008) made an extensive study of the political poster as a medium of information and propaganda. He traced the impact that banners, billboards, broadsides as well as posters had around the world over the last two centuries. The examples range from American presidential campaigns of the early nineteenth century to contemporary political campaigns in Asia, Europe, and Latin America. It is of course very difficult to think independently under the conditions that may prevail in any dictatorships. In January 1996, Germany sent troops to the NATO-unit that was to secure peace in the former Yugoslavia. In a television interview, an officer stated candidly that both he and his colleagues had had considerable trouble to adapt to Western freedom of information when they moved from the East German armed forces to the army in the new, united Germany. The extensive propaganda regarding all the anomalies in the west had been very effective and very successful. Propaganda played a very important part of World War I but it was only successful as part of wider political and military strategies. Filmmakers are one of the social conduits reflecting and commenting about society and the times. Films can raise awareness, educate about cultures, and provide a broader political, religious, or social context. Many 20th century scholars have started rewriting the images, perceptions, and investigations into World War I (Oza, 2020). The most effective and important forms of propaganda, like Films and posters, were aimed at its domestic population. Media for propaganda We can regard a number of impressive monumental buildings around the world, as well as the great equestrian monuments made by Donatello (c 1386–1466), Andrea del Verrocchio (1435– 1488), and Pierre Hubert L'Archevêque (1721–1778) as propaganda. This also applies to some monumental paintings by Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640), and to huge glorifying and illustrated 92

national books by Erik Dahlberg (1625–1703) and by Olof Rudbeck the Elder (1630–1702).

There was a great interest in propaganda monuments of princes and kings in the mid-18th century. The French sculptor Pierre Hubert L'Archevêque (1721–1778) was called to Sweden to work on the decoration of a new castle. The most suitable motive for a large equestrian monument was the late King Gustaf II Adolf (1594–1632). After many delays the model was completed in 1789, and it was cast in plaster 1832. However, the bronze 93

monument was not put in place in Stockholm until 1906. This was 117 years later. The total height of the monument is over ten meters. In the Roman Empire, the ruling groups used architecture, art, literature, and music in a systematic way to demonstrate the imperial power and its sovereignty. Professor Martin Luther (1843–1546) used caricatures, cartoons and leaflets in the fight against Catholicism. In 1622 the Roman Catholic Church started the organization Congregatio de propaganda fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith). In printed media propaganda messages often consist of forms, symbols and words. The radio adds sound. Film and television add movement and sound. Demonstrations, sports events, and rallies can be effective ways to disseminate propaganda. The carefully organised Nazi mass meetings during the 1930s are well known. We seldom, or never, expect propaganda materials to be completely objective and not unbiased. Messages are often promulgated in a highly insidious fashion. Propaganda pictures and propaganda texts are one-sided and they reinforce our prejudices and our past perceptions. Both advertising and propaganda pictures speak directly to our emotional life in a direct way, without any deeper cognitive involvement. Then content is never critically analysed nor processed. It is sometimes difficult for people to shield themselves against propaganda messages, especially when the messages are frequently repeated. A definite “attrition effect” occurs. If a message is repeated often enough, we may lose our ability to be critical and analytical about it.

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Message design processes People have been designing, planning and executing information materials, and messages in all times. A message design process starts with a commission. The goal is to produce a “final design,” or just “design,” to be used as a master for production of a number of representations, or artefacts.

A design process starts with a commission (C). The goal is to produce a final design, to be used as a master for production of a number of representations (R) or artefacts. This chapter includes the following main sections: Message design model, and Competence areas.

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Message design model My own “information and message design model” include the following four process activities: 1) Analysis and synopsis, 2) Production of draft, 3) Production of script, and 4) Production of original and master. Each process activity includes a design subprocess, production of documentation, and a review process. Main information and message design tools will include words (printed and spoken), symbols, pictures (drawings and photos), typography and layout, light and light effects, sound and sound effects.

The “information and message design model” includes four process activities. Each process activity includes a design sub-process (P1–P4), production of needed documentation (1–4), and a special review process (R1–R4). The production activities are analysis and production (P1) of synopsis (1), production (P2) of draft (2), production (P3) of script (3), and production (P4) of original 4) and master (5). C = commission. This main section includes the following sections: Analysis and synopsis, Production of draft, Production of script, and Production of original and master.

Analysis and synopsis During an introductory analysis and planning phase it should be possible to analyse the intended message, analyse and define the intended information interpreters (or audience), their abilities, experiences, and goals. It is also necessary to analyse the information requirements, define the purpose and the objectives, organize the work, and select a suitable method for framing of the 96

verbal and visual message. Unfortunately, many production teams may spend far too little time and effort on this very important phase. When the objectives, the purpose, the receivers, and the type of representation for the intended message are decided, it is possible to start working on a synopsis. A subject matter expert or a work group produces the synopsis, an overview of the forthcoming information or learning material. It is important, already at this stage, to decide on a suitable structure of the material. This creates the conditions for the material to have a good reading value for the intended readers. However, as previously noted what is interesting to one person may be dull to another, and the same message may be interesting at one instance but uninteresting at another occasion. Each group of readers selects information material on the basis of their personal preferences. The contents and the structure of the synopsis may be reviewed and approved by an expert or by a special committee with sufficient subject matter expertise. The information designer needs to acquire deep knowledge about the broader context in which the final designs will take place in order to anticipate reactions of those who exert power over projects in large bureaucratic organizations (Schriver, 2011). Adams (1999, p. 19) concluded that designing good information-giving material is a difficult task, but it is one that can be assisted greatly by appropriate usability testing. Users of information products still largely blame themselves when faced with poor designs. Thus, a push for a research-based information design must come from the information designers. In each case members of the specific user group may be invited to evaluate preliminary texts and sketches for drawings, photographs, and video. Zimmermann and Perkin (1982) pointed out that the intended audience should have the final say about the content, illustrations and sequences that are used. Administrators and others indirectly connected with the project usually will have an 97

abundance of suggestions for revision, or state that they do not understand the message. But, the materials were not designed for this group. Not all kinds of technical information could be transferred primarily through illustrations. Members of the group intended users may form one or more focus groups. The focus groups should be asked to discuss and review the information material at the various steps in the production process. Focus group sessions may be helpful in answering questions of how and why people behave as they do, and how they understand the subject matter in an information material. It may often be a good idea to ask members of the group of intended users to actually use the product in a realistic situation. This exercise may be videotaped for further analysis. It is also possible to provide the test persons with a set of realistic assignments. They may be asked to communicate their thoughts on how and why they chose to proceed in certain ways. We may also interview the test persons, and give them questionnaires to fill in. Results from these tests should be the basis for revision of next generation of the information material. When text and pictures are produced for informative purposes, it is a good idea to start by trying to “visualize” the information to be conveyed to the readers. “Visualizing” a message means that you attempt to materialize it in an effective synthesis of words and pictures. Visualisation is usually a complex task, never a single act on its own, and it requires the collaboration of several different parties. Here we can note the following six steps: 1. Requirements. Analyse the commission and the requirements. Define what the sender wants to achieve. Find out about the project budget. 2. Receivers. Define the intended receivers of the information message. Consider age, gender, socio-economic factors, and views expressed by (previous) intended receivers. 3. Objectives. Define the objectives for the message.

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4. Production. Organize the work. Select a method for framing of the verbal and visual messages. Produce synopsis for text and pictures. 5. Reviews. A subject matter review will ensure that the content is relevant to the intended audience. A pedagogical review will ensure that the material is well structured. When applicable, the results from tests on previous editions of the information materials should be the basis for production of new information materials. Interviews with information designers showed that they feel that they have good possibilities to use their creativity during the first sub-process in the design of information. Usually this possibility will decrease during the work in the following sub-processes. The number of possible alternatives decreases during the process that restricts the creative possibilities. Another important reason for this is the substantial increase in cost for each sub-process.

Production of draft The subject matter experts produce the basis of the very first “raw draft” (sometimes simple sketches), from which the subject matter experts, technical writers, and graphics editors may produce a first draft with outlines for the pictures. Here we can note the following six steps: 1. Versions. Establish a system for control of the various versions of the documents. Use a document numbering system. 2. Text. Study the raw draft. Work with text design. Write the text. Create and use standard templates. Use only one word processing system within the project. 3. Pictures. Study the raw draft and the text. Work with image design. Draw simple sketches with clear explanations for drawings and photographs. 4. Integration. Organize interplay between text and pictures.

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5. Graphic design. Prepare work with typography and layout. Bring any last-minute ideas into the process. Prepare the preliminary manuscript. 6. Reviews. A subject matter review will ensure that the content is correct and relevant to the intended audience. A pedagogical review will ensure that the material is well structured and comprehensible. The information material must also be highly legible and readable and have a high reading value. When possible members of the group of intended users should be asked to review the draft.

Production of script All necessary work on the text and on the schematic pictures as well as ideas for important photographs arising from the comments made by the reviewers should be incorporated in the information material in this phase, the production of the script. When the script is ready, the information material looks like completed information or learning material. We can note the following seven steps: 1. Versions. Control the versions of the document. 2. Text. Edit the manuscript into its final version. 3. Drawings. Order or produce all the originals based on the previously approved sketches. 4. Photographs. Produce prints that are suitable for reproduction in accordance with sketches or test shots. 5. Graphic design. Work with typography and layout. 6. Reviews. Review the verbal and visual materials. Make an overall check of linguistic usage, writing style, terminology, typography, and layout before the script can be confirmed as the original. The design and testing of non-verbal material are more complicated and require much more time than the development of comparable verbal materials. Simple does not mean easy. It is a good idea to invite members of the intended

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audience to evaluate the final texts, drawings and photographs, and to listen to their comments. 7. Copyright. Be sure to check copyright clearance for all materials before the technical production starts. This may save a lot of trouble later on.

Production of original and master Before the original can be confirmed as the master, where the text and the visuals finally are brought together, there should be an overall final check according to the following six steps: 1. Versions. Make sure that the final versions of the various parts of the documents are used for the originals. 2. Text. Check the quality of the technical production. 3. Drawings. Check the quality of the technical production. 4. Photographs. Check the quality of the technical production. 5. Graphic design. Check the quality of the technical production. 6. Corrections. Correct any errors.

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Competence areas There are many different tasks and skills that may be needed in the design and production of information and learning materials. A number of tasks and roles, or “competence areas,” are the same for any information material. Different people work on different assignments, to some extent at the same time. In a large project, there may be a need for many different skills, such as a project manager, a subject matter manager, a project secretary, and a number of sub-project leaders. There may also be graphic designers, graphics editors, information brokers, illustrators, linguistic consultants, pedagogues, photographers, subject matter experts, subject matter reviewers, technical editors, technical writers, terminology experts, translators, and web-masters. In a small project, it is usually not possible to employ a large number of experts. However, also in small projects we need to organise various reviews. The project manager is responsible for the project budget, for coordinating and controlling the whole project, and for reporting to the management and to other control groups. He or she may be a skilled information designer, an infographer. The subject matter manager may be responsible for outlining the subject matter contents in the whole project and dividing the parts between the different information materials. In large projects, there may be several subject matter managers involved. The project secretary is responsible for maintaining continuous contact between the different sub-projects, for writing minutes from meetings, and for the final delivery of the completed information material. Sub-project leaders are responsible for their respective information materials and are ultimately responsible for making sure that their documents are ready on time. The sub-project leaders have continuous contact with all parties involved in the whole process. One very important aspect is copyright clearance for all materials; audio, text and visuals, brought into the design process. 102

Subject matter experts produce the very first, “raw draft” with the necessary subject matter facts and information: both text and pictures. Because it is important to secure the quality the subject matter experts may also take part in the reviews of the information or learning material. Technical writers, technical editors, technical communicators and information designers work on the texts and materials delivered by the subject matter experts and by the information brokers and they produce a finished text. This work encompasses the whole spectrum from simple editing of well-written text, to completely rewriting of text to convey the intentions of the subject matter experts to the readers. If there are many contributors to a particular section, it is important to bring a uniformity of linguistic usage and writing style across the complete information or learning material. Linguistic consultants may do this. In certain cases, it may be necessary to get the help from skilled translators. Linguistic consultants are responsible for the overall coordination of linguistic usage and writing style. The linguistic consultants, partly, check the linguistic usage to an agreed standard, and partly, check that the writing style is consistent to an agreed standard. The linguistic consultants may also look at whether the linguistic usage and writing style are used in a uniform way. Terminology experts may review the information and learning materials with respect to the use of consistent terminology. Graphics editors work on the schematic pictures that are delivered by the subject matter experts and writers. They produce the finished schematic pictures. The work encompasses straightforward editing of well-drawn pictures to creating completely new pictures, to convey the intentions of the subject matter experts. There may also be a need for filmmakers, fine art artists, illustrators, photographers, video producers, and several others to produce the visual images that are needed. Pedagogues should review any learning material. They will check that it is sufficiently legible and readable, and that it is 103

possible to understand. The learning material shall also have good reading value for the intended audience. Graphic designers are responsible for typography and layout in the information and learning material. The graphic designers may also produce the final master for printing. Subject matter reviewers review the subject matter contents in both text and pictures. It is very important that information and information materials are technically correct and relevant to the situation. Patents and other intellectual property matters are an increasingly important source of income for many commercial organisations. In commercial technology projects the patent officers should first review any information material, with respect to patentability matters. Members of the group of intended users should take part in the production process. They should be asked to discuss and review the information material at various steps in the process. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the problems that organizations face become more open and entwined. According to Björklund et al. (2017) it is time for designers to move beyond collaboration in a new way by: • • • •

Gather the three building blocks of passion. Build on a foundation of will and skill for collaboration. Experience and experiment to create. Act, connect, embrace, empower, and stir in order to co-create.

Passion-based co-creation is not discipline-specific. Anyone can use it. Typically, several different types of stakeholders are involved. According to Björklund et al. (2017) we should think of passion-based co-creation as the user interface for diverse expertise.

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Message design principles In message design, all principles should contribute to the design and development of effective and efficient messages, information materials and learning materials.

Design processes are guided by design principles. Message design processes and sub-processes are influenced by message design principles. These principles can be seen as a set of guidelines for design of verbal and visual messages and information materials. The sender needs to: 1. Adapt the verbal and visual messages to human attention and perception, in order to facilitate interpretation, understanding and learning for members of the intended audience. 2. Consider all the costs for the verbal and visual messages. 3. Edit the verbal and visual message for better comprehensibility and easier understanding. Editing a message for a selected target group includes clarity, consistency, message structure, simplicity, subject matter depth, and unity. 4. Respect copyright, ethical rules, and any media-specific ethical guidelines. 5. Secure the quality of the verbal and visual message. 6. Use the appropriate tools for message design.

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This chapter includes the following main sections: Selected research, Administrative principles, Aesthetic principles, Cognitive principles, and Functional principles.

Selected research There have been some attempts to formulate principles for different kinds of message design. This main section includes the following sections: Information design principles, Instructional design principles, Interactive design principles, and Functional message design principles.

Information design principles As previously noted Tufte (1990, p. 10) argued that the principles of information design are universal, and they are not tied to any unique features of any particular language or culture. The goal of communication-oriented message design should always be clarity of communication. Lipton (2007, p. 9) provided the following principles for information design: • • •

• •

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Consistency (is there a design style sheet at work-for example, does one headline look like another?) Proximity (does the amount of space between elements reflect the relationship between the elements?) Chunking (are related elements grouped and separated from others to make them digestible, instead of dauntingly unbroken?) Alignment (does every element line up with some other one?) Hierarchy (does the most important information look most important-placed at the top, bigger, bolder, or emphasized in some other way?) Structure (is the information presented in a sequence that will make sense to the audience?)

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Balance and eye flow (is there a clear starting place, and do the type and layout choices support the movement of your eye through the material?) Clarity (is the writing clear and concise, free of unnecessary jargon or undefined terms, and at the right level for the audience?)

It is clear that some of these principles for information design also are valid for other areas of message design.

Instructional design principles Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 22–23) provided seven assumptions for instructional design. These assumptions could also be regarded as principles for instructional design. 1. To design instruction, the designer must have a clear idea of what the learner should learn as a result of the instruction. 2. The “best” instruction is that which is effective (facilitates learners” acquisition of the identified knowledge and skills), efficient (requires the least possible amount of time necessary for learners to achieve the goals), and appealing (motivate and interest learners, encouraging them to persevere in the learning task). 3. Students may learn from many different media; a “live teacher” is not always essential for instruction. 4. There are principles of instruction that apply across all age groups and all content areas. For example, students must participate actively, interacting mentally as well as physically with material to be learned. 5. Evaluation should include the evaluation of the instruction as well as the evaluation of the learner’s performance. Information from the evaluation of instruction should be used to revise the instruction in order to make it more efficient, effective, and appealing. 6. When the purpose of assessment is to determine whether learners have achieved learning goals, the learners should be 107

evaluated in terms of how nearly they achieve those instructional goals rather than how they “stack up” against their fellow students. 7. There should be congruence among goals, learning activities, and assessment. Along with learner’s characteristics and learning context, learning goals should be the driving force behind decisions about activities and assessment. It is clear that some of these principles for instructional design also are valid for other areas of message design.

Interactive design principles Graham (1999) offered the following 18 principles for clear and efficient interactive design: • • • •

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• • • • • •

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Define your problem thoroughly. (p. 10) Test early and often. (p. 17) Know who your audience is. (p.21) Understand the capabilities and limitations of the playback technology, and build your document to work well with those capabilities and limitations. (p. 32) Design a clear navigation system that allows the user to understand where they are at within the system at all times. (p.52) Do not bury the user in too many levels of interactivity. (p. 60) Design interactive controls that react consistently. (p. 68) Be forgiving of user error. (p. 76) Let the user end the interactive experience at any time. (p. 76) Keep the design simple. (p. 77) The resolution of images in your interactive document should match the resolution of the audience´s display monitors. (p. 79) Type should be concise, legible, and should contribute to the overall look and style of the interface. (p. 115) 108

• •

•

• • •

Until the technology improves, you will have to weigh image quality versus playback speed. (p. 167) Don´t be afraid to experiment. This is still a new medium, and the rules are still being established. Don´t be afraid to push the envelope and help define a new way of working with interactivity. (p. 189) Construct prototypes with enough detail that everyone on the team and in the user testing group clearly understands how the rest of the product will work. (p. 190) Conduct usability and functionality testing to confirm that your project performs as desired. (p. 196) A well-defined set of project goals and specifications will help you know when to stop testing. (p. 204) Know when to stop testing and refining your document.

It is clear that some of these principles for interactive design also are valid for other areas of message design.

Functional message design principles My own studies of message design processes (Pettersson, 1993, p. 88) resulted in the following list with general message design principles to be used in the production of materials for information and instruction: • • • • • • • • • • •

Introduce novel or unexpected events at the start of instruction. Inform learners of expected outcomes. Recall relevant prerequisite information. Present only relevant information. Organise content and present “organisers.” Progress from simple to complex. Provide prompts and cues. Vary the information presented. Present examples and non-examples. Provide appropriate practice. Provide immediate feedback or knowledge of results. 109

•

Review and repeat.

Later I discussed eight functional message design principles for the presentation of clear messages in any medium (Pettersson, 1997, p. 110–118). These design principles were: • • • • • • • •

Facilitating learning. Providing a clear structure of the message. Providing clarity. Providing simplicity. Providing unity. Securing a high quality of the message. Limiting the total costs. Respect copyright

Some years later I added two aesthetic message design principles to the list: information aesthetics, and harmony and proportion (Pettersson, 2002, p. 44–45). Finally, my own studies of processes of message design and information design have resulted in four groups with a total of sixteen design principles (Pettersson, 2010b). These groups are: 1. Functional principles. This group includes six principles: defining the problem, providing structure, providing clarity, providing simplicity, providing emphasis, and providing unity. 2. Cognitive principles. This group includes four principles: facilitating attention, facilitating perception, and facilitating mental processing, and facilitating memory. 3. Aesthetic principles. This group includes two principles: harmony, and aesthetic proportion. 4. Administrative principles. This group includes four principles: information access, information costs, information ethics, and securing quality A total of 150 practical information design guidelines are linked to the sixteen design principles. These guidelines may be used in 110

the production of information and learning materials as well as in instructions.

This is one way to visualise the four groups with sixteen design principles. There are six functional principles, four cognitive principles, two aesthetic principles, and four administrative principles.

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Functional principles This group includes the following six functional message design principles: Defining the problems, Providing clarity, Providing emphasis, Providing simplicity, Providing structure, and Providing unity. Guidelines that are based on these principles will assist the information designer to design information materials that are well suited for the intended receivers.

Defining the problems During an introductory analysis and planning phase it is possible to organize the work, analyse the sender, analyse the intended receivers, analyse the intended message, and select a suitable medium. The message and the medium form the representation. The sender A sender, or “information provider,” may be an advertiser, an artist, a film producer, an instructor, a subject matter expert, a teacher, a television producer, or anyone else who wants to convey an intended message to one or more receivers, or “information interpreters.” Sometimes the sender will design messages and develop information materials. However, quite often these tasks are entrusted and left to other people who may be more qualified. The first parts may be left to an information designer, who needs to define what the sender wants to achieve, and when this is to happen. It is also important to find out about the project budget, as well as all other requirements. Within an organization it is usually necessary for the sender to employ a total view of information and communication. Information should be related to the overall activity goals for the organization. Messages in different media should be designed to work together. The representation The effectiveness of a message depends on the medium, on the type of information content, and also on the amount of time that receivers are permitted to interact with the information set. With 112

respect to the selected message the information designer must define the purpose and the objective of the message, always keeping the intended receivers in mind. It is also important to collect and review necessary facts for later use in the design process. The information designer needs to consider the use of words, images, and graphic form. There are always several opportunities to convey a message. Each medium has its own particular advantages and disadvantages. Audio, text, and visuals compete for our attention. Therefore, the information designer will have to select the most suitable medium for the message, produce synopsis for text, pictures, and sound, and also adopt the graphic design to the medium. The receivers The smaller a group of receivers is, the greater our ability is to describe it in a reasonable fashion. More individual characteristics are manifested in large groups. There are literally many thousands of possible groups of receivers. It is important for the information designer to carefully define the group of intended receivers. This includes collecting of data about age, culture, gender, and socio-economic factors. When possible, the information designer should consider any feedback that may be expressed by any previous receivers. The more information we have on a particular group, the greater our ability is to address this group in such a way that our messages are understood. The context The context in which a message is presented has a major impact on the way that a message is perceived. Each context will influence the interpretation of the message. The information designer will have to define the internal and the external contexts of the message. It is also important to define how the context may influence the interpretation of the message. Factors inside the medium provide the inner context. The inner context is an internal context. In a book, it is the relationship 113

between various text elements, pictures and layout. We may also discuss the relationships between the image elements within a single picture. When we view a film or a television program our attention is either on the image or on the sound. We may not be able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time. This is even more obvious when we look at a multi-image slide and film presentation. As soon as the film starts, our attention is directed towards the movement in the film from the surrounding stills. It is impossible for viewers not to be influenced by the film and the moving images. Some computer programs contain advanced animations with interaction between text, images, and even sound. When we read a book or view projected images the lighting in the room may exemplify the close context. The entire communication situation, i.e., the senders and the intentions of the message, the receivers and their circumstances all provide the social context. When students work together on assignments they take part in a cooperative learning process (Kristiansen, Bjørgen, and Jørgensen, 1994). Other students, teachers, the actual building, books, libraries etc. all provide important parts of the close context which is important for efficient learning. It was found that learners construct understanding by collaborating with classmates and interacting with the various tools, visuals, and information provided within a virtual reality environment (Donaldson and Acheson, 2006). The close context and the social context are both external contexts. Each receiver will place available information in a wider, expanded, personal context. Receivers are apparently capable of sensing far more information than is explicitly displayed in a given picture. Subjects express opinions about circumfluous events on their drawings. They also tend to feel that their particular interpretations are the correct ones.

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Providing clarity The legibility of a graphical message is how easy it is to read. This is determined by the technical design of texts as well as pictures. The information designer will have to make the content stand out clearly from the background. In general information materials should be as clear, simple, transparent, and unambiguous as possible. We should avoid unusual typefaces, as well as too small or too large fonts. We read words in a text as “pictures,” not letter by letter. Typeface and font size must always be adapted to meet the limitations of the medium and technical production. A message has good legibility if it is easy to read, and if the reader can easily see and distinguish all different parts of the message. Legibility can be measured rather objectively and its quality is assessable whether we understand the content of the message or not. Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message may also cause dissatisfaction with the content of the message. The information designer has to consider the legibility of text printed on paper, displayed and projected on screens, as well as legibility of pictures, legibility of layout, legibility of symbols, legibility of numerals, and legibility of colours. Read more about legibility of images, layout, and texts in my books Image Design, and Graphic Design.

Providing emphasis The most important elements in information set may be emphasized to enhance attention and perception. A dark dot in a light field, and a jog in a straight line are two good examples of emphasis. These contrasts attract attention. Emphasis may also be used to direct attention, and to keep attention, or dramatize certain points within information materials. Layout and typography will better show the hierarchy and the structure of the content in the information material when important parts are emphasised. The information designer should use clear contrasts, and specific elements for emphasis. It is also a good idea to use variables like complexity, directionality, exaggerated features, humour, 115

isolation, or motion for emphasis. Many different elements and unexpected changes or variations out of context can cause emphasis. Read more about emphasis of images, layout, and texts in my two books Image Design, and Graphic Design.

Providing simplicity Readability is determined by how well the contents and the presentation of the contents are adapted to the readers. Nowadays readability of a message involves the reader's ability to understand the style of text, the style of pictures and the style of graphical form. The choice of words, symbols, and picture elements creates the style. The readability is determined by content and formulations, and how well the language and style are adapted to the readers. There is a close relationship between guidelines that are aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines that are aimed at facilitating perception, processing and memory. Simplicity in a message will result in easier and more efficient perception, processing and memory of that message. The information designer has to consider the readability of text, the readability of pictures, as well as the readability of graphical form. Providing simplicity in text, illustrations, and graphical form is probably one of the most important principles in information design. It should be a priority for the information designer to make use of the guidelines related to these areas. Read more about simplicity, and readability of images, layout, and texts in my three books Text Design, Image Design, and Graphic Design.

Providing structure At the beginning of a book the list of contents provides the reader with an easy overview of the different parts of the book. The author develops the structure of the book. Later the editor, or the graphic designer, makes the structure clearly visible for the reader using typography and layout with distinct types of headings for each level. Therefore, the information designer will have 116

to develop a clear structure for the content and limit the number of levels in the structure. It is also important to clearly show the hierarchy and structure of the content in the graphic design. A clear and obvious structure of an information material will facilitate perception, interpretation, understanding, learning and memory of the content. Read more about structure in my book Text Design.

Providing unity Information materials shall have unity, an “overall togetherness.” All kinds of inconsistencies in a material may confuse the receivers. It may become unnecessarily complicated for them to interpret and understand the intended content of the messages. To provide unity the information designer should use highlighting techniques, layout, style, terminology, and typography in a consistent way. There is a close relationship between guidelines aimed at providing unity and guidelines aimed at providing harmony. Read more about unity in my book Graphic Design.

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Cognitive principles How we actually create meaning is an area where a lot of research is still needed. Complicated language, in both texts, pictures and graphical form will impair the understanding of any intended message. This fourth category of information design principles includes the following message design principles: Facilitating attention, Facilitating perception, Facilitating processing, and Facilitating memory.

Facilitating attention There are always far more stimuli than we can ever notice. Fortunately, most stimuli remain unheard of, unknown, and unseen. One of the message designer’s and information designer’s first problems is to catch the attention of the members of the audience. Then it is up to the designer to hold their attention. Any information set must constantly redraw the attention in order to hold the interest of the viewers alive. Read the sections Attention to text, Attention to pictures, Attention to symbols, Attention to layout, and Attention to colour in my book Cognition. These sections all provide “attention-oriented” guidelines that may be used in the design of messages in information and learning materials.

Facilitating perception Perception is a fundamental characteristic of life. In order to continue living, every organism has to perceive its environment, and the changes in this environment. The concept of “perception” is a collective designation for the different processes in which an animal or a person obtains information about the outside world. We organize and analyse information that we have paid attention to. Colours, illustrations, images, lines, pictures, sounds, symbols, texts, and words should be integrated in such a way that they can be interpreted as a meaningful whole rather than a number of individual elements. Perception of two- or three-dimensional representations entails fast, holistic, parallel, and 118

simultaneous processing. The sections Perception of text, Perception of pictures, Perception of layout, and Perception of colour in my book Cognition all provide “perception-oriented” guidelines that may be used in the design of messages in information and learning materials.

Facilitating mental processing There is no direct correspondence between groups of letters, words, sentences, paragraphs, texts, and reality. Understanding the concepts that words represent in various specialist areas and sub-cultures may be difficult or even impossible for all non-specialists. Thus, the information designer needs to know the audience. In general, one can state that information should be as simple, clear, and unambiguous as possible. However, in any presentation, information can be enriched with a wealth of details. The sections Processing of text, Processing of pictures, Processing of layout, and Processing of colour in my book Cognition provide “process-oriented” guidelines that may be used in the design of messages in information and learning materials.

Facilitating memory As previously seen there is a close relationship between guidelines aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines aimed at facilitating perception, processing and memory. Simplicity in a message will result in easier and more effective perception, processing and memory of that message. In order to facilitate memory, the information designer should only provide meaningful contents, and only present a limited number of information elements at the same time. Memory for pictures is superior to memory for words. This is called the pictorial superiority effect (Paivio, 1983; Branch and Bloom, 1995). Visuals can strengthen language fluency by enhancing memory and recall, as well as providing a visual schema in which information can be organized and studied. It is important to present text and illustrations in close connection. 119

Aesthetic principles Art is valued for its originality and its expressiveness. Focus is on individual artefacts crafted through the manual and aesthetic virtuosity of the individual artist. Design, in contrast, is valued for its usefulness for being appropriate for a particular user and a particular task. Aestheticians try to understand art in broad and fundamental ways. Aesthetically pleasing information materials may be noticed and used better than material without any aesthetic qualities. This third category of message design principles includes: 1) Aesthetic proportion principle, and 2) Harmony principle.

Aesthetic proportion principle Basically, proportion is a mathematical concept. The concept aesthetic proportion principle is very much a subjective concept. We may all have different ideas of what we find beautiful and rewarding, and what we find boring, disturbing, distracting or ugly. The information designer may find out receiver preferences of aesthetic proportions. Classical formats are based on the proportions of the golden section, or golden rectangle, 3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc. The proportions of the golden section are 1:1.618. For centuries, this golden ratio has been regarded as beautiful and very important in architecture, in art, in design, and in typography. The golden ratio has the status of a “design rule.” This rule is, however, not in accordance with the views expressed by subjects who took part in “aesthetic proportion experiments” (Pettersson and Strand, 2005). Thus, the information designer should be careful using proportion according to the golden section. Furthermore, we should never mix a decorative use of colour with cognitive importance. Read more about the aesthetic proportion principle in my book Graphic Design.

Harmony principle Certain design elements look good when they are placed together, while other design elements may be distracting and look 120

ugly. The term harmony may be used in all design disciplines to mean that the design decisions, and the design elements fit well together. Graphic designers and information designers often use the term harmony in discussions on typography and layout. There is harmony in an information material when all design elements fit well together and form harmonious relationships. In order to achieve harmony, the information designer should develop, and use, standard templates for graphic design, and also find a balance between the design elements. Harmony is often closely related to unity (Wileman, 1993). Aesthetics and usability are the yin and yang of interface design (Dreilinger, 1993). Read more about the harmony principle in my book Graphic Design.

Administrative principles This group of principles includes the following four message design principles: Information access, Information costs, Information ethics, and Securing quality.

Information access Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, major changes occurred in the way people have produced, stored, processed, searched for and found information in modern society. Monfils (1993) noted that regardless of the specific application of technology, consensus had been reached on the increasing impact of modern information technology on all aspects of our lives. The amount of available information in our visual cultures has been increasing every day. Research and development produce more information content than ever before. We need to be able to access, create, define, distribute, evaluate, interpret, locate, process, produce, revise search, sort, store, understand, and use information. However, so far only limited knowledge has been available about visual communications, pictures as a means of linguistic communications and the interplay between verbal and visual messages. Information access is research at the intersection of computer science, informatics, information science, information 121

security, language technology, and library science. Regardless of the selected medium and the system for distribution the intended receivers must have easy access to data and information when they need it. There are two quite different aspects of the concept “information access.” One aspect concerns the external access to information materials stored in an office and information contents stored within an information system. The other aspect concerns the internal access to relevant data and information contents within a specific information set. First, we have to find the correct source and then we have to find the interesting content. External access Wurman et al. (2001, p. 8-9) argued: “Information was once a sought after and treasured commodity like a fine wine. Now, it’s regarded more like crabgrass, something to be kept at bay. ... Living in an Information Age has profoundly altered our lives, and those who fail to recognize that the rules of information design are changing will find themselves left behind.” And we should not be left behind. The information designer is obviously not responsible for how the intended receivers store their information materials in binders and boxes on shelves in archives, or in computer based digital systems. However, when possible, the information designer should design for easy external information access. Information materials should fit the main systems for storage. It is important to use international standards, such as standard page sizes, and also consider aspects of information security. The information designer may also be responsible for the appearance of messages in various places, such as placements of signs in factory areas, in hospitals, sports grounds and other official buildings. Here, the information designer should provide warning signs with properties that are clear and easily noticed in bad and degraded conditions such as fog, smoke, and weak illumination (Lerner and Collins, 1983). It is also important to put 122

warning signs close to the real hazards, and to provide the warning signs with adequate reflectance and good lighting equipment (Wogalter, 1999). Internal access In printed books and reports it is a good idea to have a list of contents, and one or more indexes. Various indexes, such as a list of illustrations, a list of artists, a list of photographers, a list of references, and a subject matter index with references to page numbers may be very useful. These indexes are easy to compile using modern word processing programs. In computer-based systems it is possible to provide automatic search systems for words, for parts of texts, as well as for pictures. Thus, it is important for the information designer to create appropriate indexes and other search systems, as well as a supporting context for important information contents. Information stored in a computer system may be accessed in several different ways. The ease of use and the man-machine interaction are of vital importance. It is necessary to make the system as user friendly as possible by providing user support systems, standard function keys, and for example a possibility of full text search. Information and instructions should always be clear, concise, consistent, and simple. It seems to be very important that the user can have full control of the system, i.e., with respect to reading rate, and letter size when text is presented. Worldwide activities According to the information design principle information access the intended receivers must have easy access to data and information when they need it, regardless of their geographic location (Pettersson, 2010b). The information designer should design information materials to fit in main systems for handling and storage and use typefaces that are available as standard selections in computers and in laser printers. It is a good idea to vary the margins on the pages in documents to fit different standard papers. It is always an advantage for multinational 123

organisations to use international standards, such as standard page sizes. In Europe, the standard paper size is A4 (210 x 297 millimetre), whereas in the USA, US letter (216 x 279.5 millimetre) is the standard. Digital documents may be coded in accordance with the SGML standard, so that it is easy to use the information in different ways and in different formats. Printouts made by different printers will not be identical in appearance. Typography and layout should produce good results on standard paper. Digital documents may be coded in accordance with the SGML standard, so that it is easy to use the information in different ways and in different formats. Sometimes other standards may be used (like HTML and XML).

Information costs Good legibility and good readability are probably always economically advantageous, whereas poor legibility and poor readability may be a costly business for all parts involved. Good design models make the production of documents simple and inexpensive. In my view, it is not economical to cram too much information on a page. It is better to edit the text and increase its readability. The information designer must have control over all costs. It is, however, also important to consider and plan for future costs related to technical production, distribution and storage. This should be done early in the design process. A small mistake may prove very costly. The information designer will have to consider the costs for design and production of the information material, and also future costs for distribution and storage. It is also necessary to plan and execute continuous reviews of all costs for the information set. Engineering designers spend as much as 30% of working time on searching and accessing information (Liu et al., 2008). An average employee spends between 55% and 65% of the day working on documents (either producing or reading them). This 124

is a significant amount of time, representing a gigantic financial investment on the part of the employer (Stadler, 2003). When many people are to read and understand information during working hours, the cost incurred is great. It can be expensive to produce information and learning materials, but it usually costs more to store, find, and use it. The greater number of individuals who must partake of certain information is, the greater the cost will be. The cost of reading is determined by the type of documents, as well as by the groups that will read them. Thus, presenting information in a suitable way offers great opportunities for saving money in any organization. In the handbook called Plain Talk from the Cabinet Office in Sweden, EhrenbergSundin (1982) stated that judicious planning of texts can save millions of crowns. (At that time one Swedish crown was approximately 1/8 of a US dollar.) Ehrenberg-Sundin wrote as follows (in translation): It is expensive to read texts! The cost of reading is often many times greater than the cost of writing and printing the material. Besides, if readers do not understand the text, or if they interpret it incorrectly, it becomes VERY expensive! Planning texts better may solve this problem. It should have a purpose and the selection of its content must agree with that purpose. Thus, we can avoid the greatest reading expense. If we help the reader further by writing comprehensible language and giving the text a sensible presentation as well as an arrangement that is logical to him, we shall have saved still more time and money. The cost of reading and understanding text and pictures is in most cases many times greater than the cost of producing the information materials. Ehrenberg-Sundin offered an estimate: For a report that has cost Swedish crowns 80,000 to print and just as much to write (four months' salary for a committee secretary), the cost of reading it will be Swedish crowns 125

1,600,000 if 1,000 persons spend eight working hours each (at Swedish crowns 200 per hour) to read and understand it. The greater the number of people who are meant to read a text, the greater the incentive is to expend extra effort on making it easy to read! In private companies, the cost per hour is often reckoned at Swedish crowns 500 or even more, instead of Swedish crowns 200. (Since 1982, these costs have increased considerably due to inflation, however, the ratios remain the same.) Savings can be greater in industry than in the public sector. Melin, Melin, and Eriksson (1986) refer to a cost estimate that was carried out at the Swedish Telecommunications Administration (Televerket, now Telia). The total cost of a 20-page technical report was estimated in Swedish crowns per page as follows: writing 5.60, printing 1.40, storage 25.00, and reading 225.00. In other words, the cost of reading the report was many times greater than all the other costs put together. The author's work on the text represented only two percent of the total cost. In many countries, the public-school systems face limited budgets. Teaching and learning must be more cost effective. Here, linking information and instructional technologies at the school sites, and at the district level may provide substantial monetary savings. Jennings (2012) calculated the cost for reading of e-mail in large corporations. It takes, on average, about 90 seconds to read an email if it contains more than 10 sentences. Jennings concluded that this will be expensive: “If a company has 50,000 employees that receive twenty emails a day that do not contain relevant information, then the company is losing a lot of money! To be precise the company is losing 1,500,000 minutes, or 25,000 hours, of daily payroll time. If the average salary of those workers is $30/hour, then the company loses $750,000 every single day.” According to this calculation the cost for reading of e-mail is $15 per person per day. This sum will add up to substantial amounts also in small organizations. 126

Information ethics Information ethics is one of the administrative principles in information design. According to this principle the information designer must respect copyright as well as other laws and regulations that are related to design, production, distribution, storage, and use of information materials. This concerns the use of artwork, illustrations, logos, lyrics, music, photographs, specific sounds, symbols, text, and trademarks. It is also very important to respect different ethical rules, media-specific ethical guidelines, and honour all business agreements. Copyright As a rule, the information designer must respect copyright as well as other laws and regulations that are related to design, production, distribution, storage, and use of information materials. This concerns the use of artwork, illustrations, logos, lyrics, music, photographs, specific sounds, symbols, text, and trademarks. It is also very important to respect different ethical rules, mediaspecific ethical guidelines, and honour all business agreements. The rights of copyright holders are protected according to international conventions, terms of delivery and agreed ethical rules. Full copyright protection for a “work” or a “production” requires creativity, fixation, and originality. Literary works are protected for the length of the life of the author, plus another 70 years. In many countries all kinds of pictures, with artistic or scientific merit, also enjoy protection for 70 years after the death of the copyright holder. Drawings usually belong to this category. In practice, also almost all photographs can be said to have some “artistic merit” and thus have protection for 70 years after the death of the copyright holder. It may be hard to prove otherwise. When photographs are produced on commission, the client usually pays for and enjoys all copyright rights, including rights to prints made from the originals. The client can freely utilize the commissioned pictures in any way desired. Publishing rights to archive photographs are usually bought for each specific 127

publishing occasion. The buyer may not then transfer the publishing rights to any third party without written permission from the rightful copyright owner. As regards drawn illustrations, the client usually pays for the actual sketching and the drawing work, the originals and the reproduction rights for a particular publication. Then the physical drawings, the originals, usually remain the property of the artist. Thus, the artist becomes entitled to financial compensation, equivalent to the “re-acquisition cost,” if an original should be damaged or lost. The name of the picture creator or copyright holder must be stated in each printed document containing the pictures, preferably, but not necessary, in direct conjunction with the pictures. In order to convey high-quality information to the user the information designer sometimes will have to suggest modifications, and ask original authors, draftsmen, and photographers for permission to make changes in their original works. In many cases the information designer may also be a stakeholder as far as copyright is concerned. Image manipulation Image manipulation implies the improper control of people's perception of a given reality through the use of pictures. The ethical rules for the press, radio and television clearly warn against manipulation or falsification of picture content through misleading captions, odd montage, or suspicious trimming. Photo manipulation and stylistic embellishment can be used to create dishonest figures and tables. Presenting inauthentic pictures as though they were real documentary material is forbidden. Normally we are allowed to crop an original picture, as well as enlarge and reduce its size. The party purchasing the right to use pictures is responsible for their proper use. Despite these rules, clear violations occur all too often. In production of news the editors should ask themselves if every photo meets the ethical standards of responsible 128

journalism (McDougall, 1990). The Associated Press has adopted six photo manipulation guidelines to prevent dishonest reporting (Cifuentes, Myers, and McIntosh, 1998, p. 170): 1). The content of a photograph will never be changed or manipulated. 2) Only the established norms of standard photo printing methods such as burning, dodging, black-and-white toning, and cropping are acceptable. 3) Retouching is limited to removal of normal scratches and dust spots. 4) Serious consideration must always be given in correcting colour to ensure honest reproduction of the original. 5) Cases of abnormal colour or tonality will be clearly stated in the caption. 6) Colour adjustment should always be minimal. These photo manipulation guidelines can also be used in information design. A good summary may simply be: “Never engage in image manipulation.”

Securing quality In information design the content of the message is more important than its context, execution, and format. Data must be correct and also relevant to the situation. The information designer needs to establish a system for control of different versions of documents. It is important to review documents with respect to credibility, design objectives, graphic design, structure, style, and terminology before technical production. Sometimes it might be possible to invite future users to evaluate documents. All feedback is important. A document with good quality has a distinct structure, is legible, readable, and relevant for the intended audience. Different information materials may have multiple functions and more than one objective all at the same time. Good information materials make everyday life easier for receivers who need the specific information and provide senders with a good economic return and good credibility. Poorly designed learning materials Dawson (2012) noted that poorly designed learning materials, procedures, and other operations documents are not acceptable 129

in industries like aviation, healthcare, or the nuclear power industry. In the aviation industry 75% of accidents were attributed to human error, and 18% of these accidents were related to maintenance (Smith, 2011). Much of what most managers and technical professionals do every day is processing of information. If information is poorly designed, they operate inefficiently and their organizations are not as effective as they might be (Horn, 1999, p. 116). The top three causes for business problems are: 1) Poor training, 2) Employees not following procedures, and 3) Poorly written procedures (Anderson, 2012). Poor information design can easily be connected to the poor performance demonstrated by information receivers and interpreters. One study showed that 60% of track related accidents in the Swedish railway system were directly related to maintenance failings. Procedures provided to maintenance personnel were either poorly written or contained incorrect information (Smith, 2011). When we design information and learning materials, it is very important that the materials are reviewed and approved by people with expert knowledge in the appropriate fields. The effort put into training and learning may actually give a negative result, and the learner may end up less competent than before the learning experience (Pettersson, 2002, p. 53). A negative result of training and learning may happen when we use information and learning materials that: • • • • •

Is technically incorrect or irrelevant and provides the wrong information. Is badly structured and therefore is hard to understand. Has poor legibility of text and pictures, and therefore is hard to read. Has poor readability of text and pictures, and therefore is hard to understand. Has low reading value and is not at all worth reading for the intended audience. 130

• • • •

Is ungrammatical, badly spelt, and incorrectly punctuated. Have confusing and misleading pictures that are not at all relevant to the content of the text. Has a writing style that is inconsistent and does not conform to an expected standard. Is not consistent throughout all its sections with respect to text, pictures, typography and layout.

Unfortunately, all of these situations are quite common today. Using the “wrong” materials means spending extra time and extra money. In a company or in any other organization the technical departments should be responsible for ensuring that system descriptions, process descriptions, product descriptions, technical reports, course materials, and other documents to be used for learning and training purposes are technically correct and relevant to the situation.

In the worst case, training and use of poor learning materials can result in a lower level of competence, greatly increase costs, and delay projects. 131

The training and competence development departments should be responsible for ensuring that all learning materials are well-structured and understandable, as well as highly legible and readable, and have a high reading value. The production departments should be responsible for ensuring that language and style are used in a consistent fashion in all learning materials. The correct terminology must be used, and layout and typography must be used in a correct way. The result of every such review should be that a document is either approved or not approved. Documentation that is not technically correct and relevant to the situation must not be used as learning materials or course materials. Such materials should be barred. The documentation must be re-edited and re-edited again until it receives the appropriate approval. The aim must be that the learning materials and other documentation to be used for learning and training purposes receive approval. That is, the legibility, readability, and reading value of the learning materials are approved. It is a good principle in the production of information and learning materials to spend enough time and effort on editing text and pictures for better comprehensibility. As noted in the next section this will often pay back very well in less time used for reading and learning. Benchmarking Evans (2011) explained how the Simplification Centre, at the University of Reading, uses a system for benchmarking of everyday documents for their clarity and usability. Benchmarking is a process to establish a performance standard for organisations. The performance is compared with other organisations. At the Simplification Centre the benchmark process includes ratings of sixteen research-based criteria. The ratings are weighted to give an overall score. Language criteria assess the use of language in the document and how easy it is for people to understand the words. These criteria are: 132

• • • •

Directness. How clear is it who’s doing what? Plain words. How easy is it to understand the words? Grammar and punctuation. How does the text conform to good English? Readability. Will the intended reader be able to follow the argument of the text?

Design criteria assess the visual impact of the document and the way its design influences its usability. These criteria are: • • • •

Legibility. How is the legibility of text and layout? Graphic elements. How useful are bullet lists, charts, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, tables, etc.? Structure. How is the quality of the document’s organisation in relation to its function? Impression. How approachable and attractive is the overall appearance of the document?

Relationship criteria assess how far the document establishes a relationship with the users and support them in taking appropriate action. These criteria are: • • • •

Who from. Is it clear who is communicating? Contact. Are there clear contact points and means of contact? Audience fit. Is the document appropriate with respect to the knowledge and skills of the intended users? Tone. Is the style and language matching the context?

Content criteria assess how well the document deliver the content. These criteria are: • • • •

Relevance. How relevant is the content for the intended recipient? Subject. Is it clear what the communication is about? Action. Is it clear what action is required of the user? Alignment. How does the document comply with the intended aims and values of the organisation? 133

Preliminary studies of eight documents showed few problems with grammar and punctuation. However, many everyday documents had problems with readability and failed in clarity and usability. It was not always clear what the recipient needs to do, or when they need to do it. Most documents had good legibility. Evans (2011) concluded that the biggest challenge is to find a clear organising principle and use design and layout to guide users through documents.

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Message design tools There are different types of messages. A textbook or a newspaper generally uses both printed words and pictures. A television programme, and a multimedia presentation employ words, images and sounds, such as music. Message design processes and subprocesses are performed with message design tools suitable for the type of representation that is selected during an early phase.

Design processes are performed with the help of design tools. Main message design tools include words and text (printed and spoken), symbols, pictures (drawings, photographs and video), graphical form (typography and layout), sound and sound effects. These tools have different properties that offer and restrict the foundations for communication. This chapter includes the following two main sections: Selected research, and Representing reality.

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Selected research Any system used as a means of communication between people can be regarded as a language. While linguistic scientists distinguish between spoken and written language, graphic designers distinguish between verbal and pictorial language. From a design point of view, written, printed, or displayed texts, or verbal graphic language are important components of visible language. However, if the linguistic representation (e.g., the medium and its content) is placed at the forefront, another approach is natural. Linguistic differentiation may be based on the form of the messages: words, sounds, images, and other forms. Thus, verbal language has spoken (aural), written (visual), and tactile categories. Audial language comprises sound effects, music, and paralinguistic sounds (all aural). Visual language has symbols, pictures, and paralinguistic visual expressions (all visual). Other languages may be based on smell, on taste, and on touch. Languages differ in their ability to express concepts with precision and with flexibility. Only people who have the appropriate knowledge can understand a language. Chemistry, mathematics, and physics for example, employ non-ambiguous symbol and equation languages. Normal prose is often open to multiple interpretations, i.e., it is ambiguous. Fiction and poetry in particular offer abundant opportunities for individual interpretations. Pictures are normally ambiguous too. Baer and Vaccara (2010) explored the ways designers have used effective devices or tools such as colour, graphic elements, grouping, rhythm, scale, structure and weight, as well as motion and sound, to develop powerful information design solutions. Case studies range from print projects to interactive and environmental information systems. This main section includes the following sections: Verbal languages, Visual languages, Combined verbal and visual language, and Symbols as language.

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Verbal languages Verbal languages have “digital coding” using combinations of letters (including numerals) to represent content (Elkind, 1975). There is no direct correspondence between groups of letters, words, and reality. Each meaning is defined and must be learned. The properties of letters are limited. A letter has a given position in an alphabet. It has a name. It is represented by one or more sounds and is used in a specific context. Verbal languages have varying levels of meaning (Eco, 1971): 1) Phonemes (without meaning), 2) Morphemes (with meaning), 3) Syntagms, submeanings, and 4) Complete meanings. Semantic codes, grammar, and syntax must be exactly defined (Chomsky, 1959). A written text works well when the content of the message is analytical, detailed, logical, narrative, sequential, and theoretical. Text can describe facts as well as feelings as long as the language is comprehensible for the intended audience. People usually have no difficulty in reading the jargon used in professional or technical languages but understanding the concepts that the words represent may be difficult for any non-specialist. The more abstract a word is the harder it is to relate it to any activity. The use of visuals does not always automatically improve the achievements of the learners. For some objectives text is enough (Dwyer, 1972).

Visual languages A general principle of human communication is that the likelihood of successful communication increases when a concrete reference is present. In the absence of the actual thing, the next best reference is a visual representation of that thing. An image or a picture is sometimes a more pertinent reference for meaning than the spoken or written word. In contrast to spoken and written languages, pictures have no general and distinguishing elements that are not bearers of information. Visual languages attempt equivalence with reality. Visuals are iconic and normally resemble the things they 137

represent. Language and cultural differences could impact the effectiveness of visuals (Kovalik, 2005). Therefore, it is always important to select pictures with great care. Visual languages have “analogue coding” employing combinations of basic graphic elements (dots, lines, areas, and volumes). A set of basic elements can be combined to form completely different images. Meaning is apparent on a basic level, but the visual language must be learned for true comprehension. Each receiver will place available information in an expanded, a wider, “personal” context. Receivers are apparently capable of sensing far more information than is explicitly displayed in a given picture or text. Subjects express opinions about circumfluous events in their drawings. They also tend to feel that their particular interpretations are the correct ones. Most people believe that pictures tell the truth (Lefferts, 1982). At the same time familiarity with the depicted objects themselves is basic and crucial to understanding (Zimmermann and Perkin, 1982). The more familiar a message is to its intended audience, the more readily it is perceived. Visual messages are superior to verbal messages when content is emotional, holistic, immediate, spatial and visual (Boeren, 1994; Brouwer, 1995; Colle and Glass, 1986; Hugo, 1996; Lent, 1980; Zimmermann and Perkin, 1982; Van Aswegen and Steyn, 1987). Images and visual languages speak directly to us in the same way experience speaks to us: emotionally and holistically (Barry, 1998). Factors in visual languages are related to criteria such as the content and execution of a visual, its context and format, and the subsequent attention, perception, learning, and memory. Content is more important than context, execution, and format. Pictures have a strong emotional impact. The effectiveness of a visual depends on the medium, on the type of information, and also on the amount of time learners are permitted to interact with the material (Dwyer, 1972). All types of visuals are not equally effective. Line drawings are most effective in formats where the learner’s study time is limited. More 138

realistic versions of artwork, however, may be more effective in formats where unlimited study time is allowed. The realism continuum is not an effective predictor of learning efficiency for all types of educational objectives. An increase in the amount of realistic detail will not produce a corresponding increase in learning. No pictorial image gains the status of a “statement,” unless an explicit reference is made to what it is supposed to represent (Gombrich, 1969).

Combined verbal and visual language Texts and pictures represent completely different languages that complement each other when they are used at the same time. Both text and images can be designed, presented, perceived and interpreted in many different ways. The possibilities for using typography and layout, and for combining texts and pictures are virtually unlimited. The interplay between text, picture, and graphic form needs to be studied thoroughly before optimal combinations can be found. There are always several opportunities to convey any message. Readers often react in a positive way to “graphically complex texts.” Texts with good typography will be noticed. Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message may cause dissatisfaction with the actual content of the message. It is more likely that graphically complex texts will be read than “plain” texts. It also takes less time to read a graphically complex text than a “plain” text. Pictures that will be used for information purposes should always be supplied with captions. This is the only way to assure that information conveyed by these pictures is clear and unambiguous. Even simple pictures need plain captions for the contents and presentation to be conveyable in verbal form. Captions should be written with great care. They heavily influence our interpretation of image content. To a large degree, readers see what they are told to see in an image. To get maximum impact from a visual, the writer or the presenter should introduce the visuals 139

before presenting it. We create a “pre-understanding” of how a picture may be interpreted, based on the context in which the picture is shown (Pettersson, 1989). Despite all efforts during the past decades visual literacy has not been able to attract enough interest from society and enough interest from those who are responsible for the school curricula around the world. An important reason for this may be a general lack of focus. In my view, we need to consider combined verbal and visual representations, not only text and not only visuals when we study communication. This is where message design, and its different sub-areas, may play an important role for visual literacists.

Symbols as language In his discussion on “Presentation media for product interaction” Westendorp (2002, p. 48) noted that instructive elements in or near a drawing have evolved rapidly into a special “instructive language.” Instructive elements: “are purely symbolic: there are no physical hands, reference letters, numbers and lines, arrows, crosses, dotted lines, exclamation marks, circles, zoomlines or greyed-out or coloured areas on the products.” Apart from arrows, lines and pointing hands most instructive elements were introduced after World War II. Some instructive elements are “statements” comparable with individual words (Pettersson, 2000; Westendorp and Van der Vaarde, 2001) or even sentences. A good symbol is designed so it can be used in many different situations, and in many contexts (Pettersson, 2000). A good symbol is simple, clear, has optimal size, good contrast in form, dimension, and colour. There are, however, cultural as well as individual differences in interpreting the meanings of symbols. Graphical symbols may be intended to convey generalities of the same order of abstractness as verbal terms. In some cases, we can see graphical symbols as visual terms. Graphical symbols may be used to create an overview, identify information, illustrate position, illustrate size relationships, navigate in databases, 140

provide a holistic perspective, recognize information, and represent an organization, a service, or a product. Graphical symbols may supply information and supply instructions.

Representing reality Various media are undergoing comprehensive (technical) changes, changes in terms of production, duplication, stock keeping, and distribution or presentation of contents. Some of these developments are proceeding in the same direction and working together. Others follow separate paths. Some are even counteracting one another. This main section includes the following sections: Traditional media, More possibilities, and Social media.

Traditional media Visuals used for information and in instructional message design are usually representations of our external reality. However, fine arts are sometimes representations of our inner reality, such as thoughts and dreams. Different media are capable of representing reality with varying facility owing to differences in their structure, the kind of representation involved and the content in each specific case. The text (both spoken and written) is an example of a “onedimensional” representation. It flows in a relatively fixed and often unambiguous form along a time axis. A still picture is “twodimensional.” Its interpretation is less constrained. However, a still picture can be interpreted in more than one way. We extract different parts of the available information in it each time we view it. Dioramas, models, sculptures and stereo pictures have a third “dimension.” In film and television time is a fourth dimension. In fact, time is important for interpretation of all pictures. Current laser techniques make it possible to create three-dimensional images, holograms, enabling viewers to actually see “behind” the image objects. This is in fact a fifth dimension. Having 141

a one-dimensional and two-dimensional representation at the same time, or even one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional representation, at the same time, is possible, even commonplace.

More possibilities In the future, media also might be capable of representing smell, which would add still another dimension. Different media are also related to one another in regard to their level of structural complexity. The simplest form of a one-dimensional representation is a simple acoustic signal, such as a baby’s cry. A higher degree of complexity is found in texts, interactive texts or dialogue, monophonic music, stereophonic music, and stereophonic radio theatre with sound effects. If text is likened to a flow along a time axis, then music can be likened to a multitude of streams flowing along the same time axis at the same time. Music is always structurally more complex than text but can, of course, be very simple in content. The greater the degree of structural complexity, the closer the representation approaches reality at a given time, in a given place, and in a given context. Marsh (1983) used another terminology. He pointed out that audible dimensions include: frequency, amplitude, complexity, duration, and localization. Then all representations should be considered “multi-dimensional.” The sender, like the information receiver, can be a person, a group, a company, an organization, or an authority. A distinction is often made between private media, group media, and mass media. Each medium has its own particular properties. The selection of a suitable medium is important when an informative material is to be produced. Audio, text, and visuals compete for our attention. It is quite possible that we miss the information in which we are really interested. In addition to radio, television, books, newspapers, and magazines, vast amounts of information are distributed in the form of letters, advertising throwaways, placards, photocopies, 142

photographs, and posters. Literally speaking we may “drown” in this information flood. However, pictures, computer images, movies and television programmes should never be confused with reality. They are only representations and they always render a subjective, and selective view of reality. The “reality” of a printed page does not exist in real-life, but only on the page itself. Cochran (1987) distinguished between actual events/objects, iconic re-presentations, and arbitrary representations. Examples of iconic representations are film and TV-images, still photos, and realistic artwork. Symbols, signs, computer graphics, and words are all examples of arbitrary representations. Here, no cues from actuality are left. The contents of movies and television programmes are presented in a preordained fashion, decided on by the producer. This preordained fashion tends to encourage passivity in the viewers and to perform at a low cognitive level. The same is true of prepared oral presentations, like formal speeches and rigid lectures. However, the reader of a book or a newspaper digests the textual and the pictorial information at her or his own pace. Interested readers are active and perform at a high cognitive level. Readers that are not interested in the subject matter easily become passive. Interactive video programmes, and multi-media presentations, make it possible to combine sound and moving pictures in various ways. Thus, these media can arouse considerable activity, enjoyment and commitment in the user. Because an interactive video programme and a multi-media presentation can stimulate the user to perform at a high cognitive level, it has the potential to function well, both as a conveyor of information and as a teaching aid.

Social media Social media are digital channels based on interactive technologies. They differ from traditional media, such as printed newspapers, radio broadcasting, and television. Social media facilitate 143

the creation of information, expressions through virtual communities, and ideas, interests, networks, and sharing of information. Examples of popular social media websites include Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, TikTok, and Twitter. Some other popular platforms are called social media services. Examples are Microsoft Teams, Pinterest, Snapchat, and YouTube. Social media are used in order to advertise, create blogs, develop ideas, document memories, explore things, form friendships, inform, and teach others. Users of social media often access different services through web-based apps on their desktops, smartphones or tablets. Many users create interactive platforms which communities, individuals, and organizations can cocreate, discuss, modify, participate, and share with others online. Every day social media platforms connect users worldwide. These platforms allow users to exchange their opinions on topics like finances, politics, and many social issues. Thompson (2019) distinguished between two types of images on social media platforms. There are deep images and shallow images. Most “typical internet images” are shallow images. They do not purport to do more than entertain, and they do not require any additional thought. We all need to read deep images critically. With this method students can learn to analyse, interpret, evaluate, and comprehend images found on social media sites and around the web. Sánchez-Olmos and Viñuela (2020, p. 219) concluded that the dynamics of YouTube have allowed professionally made content, such as music videos, to coexist in the same space with amateur productions generated by internet users. In recent years videos created with users’ own material, or with materials taken from professional productions, have given rise to viral audio-visual phenomena, such as literal versions, music-less videos, and shred videos. In social media hate speech has become an increasing problem. Hate speech can affect both individuals and whole societies in very negative ways. According to Meske and Bunde (2022) 144

moderators on different social media platforms need to be technologically supported in order to detect, and react on problematic contents. These authors developed design principles that are suited for creating efficient user interfaces for decision support systems. These design principles use artificial intelligence (AI) to assist the human moderators. Meske and Bunde (2022) used both qualitative and quantitative methods to measure the intention to use, the perceived ease of use, and the perceived usefulness of various design options over three design cycles with a total of 641 participants. The results showed that for the constructs perceived ease of use and intention to use, more than 75% of the participants chose either agree or completely agree, and for the construct perceived usefulness the values were only slightly lower and over 73%. The participants perceived the proposed UI design in a positive way.

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Representations A representation is a medium with a specific message. Sometimes a representation is called “information set,” “learning material,” or simply “material.”

Here, in this book this picture is a representation of one of my photographs, which is a representation of a situation in which an artist in Paris (left) is producing a representation (a large painting) of a young girl. Here we have a chain of different representations. This chapter includes the following main sections: Categories of representations, Objectives, Production of representations, and Media-industry mappings.

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Categories of representations There are many kinds of representations, and there are many ways to form some kind of structure. This main section includes the following sections: Internal and external representations, Information messages, Symbols and abstractness, Lexi-visual representations, and AV and combined representations.

Internal and external representations Representations can be categorized into internal and external representations (Zhang and Norman, 1994; Zhang and Pater, 2006). Internal representations are mental images, mental propositions, mental schemas, mental connections and networks. They must be retrieved from memory by cognitive activities. Internal representations are not further discussed here. External representations are physical configurations such as various information materials. Kirsh (2010) noted that external representations might be manually duplicated, rearranged in different ways, and shared with other people. There are two types of external representations (Schnortz and Bannert, 2003). Descriptive representations include mathematical equations, spoken and written texts. Depictive representations include physical models, pictures, and sculptures. Together with the medium the message is the link between the sender or designer and the receiver or interpreter. The sender designs the message and sends it off or makes it available. The receiver receives the message and may try to interpret and understand it. Teleman (1991) pointed out that the systems of rules that govern spoken and written language are similar in many ways. Originally, writing was a way of depicting speech, but the two coded systems have later followed separate courses. The most tangible feature of the rules for written language is their standardisation.

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Information messages In most western countries, the written language is comprehensible throughout the country and does not reflect differences in dialect. Messages including visuals are preferred by most subjects and they attract attention. Generally speaking, humans, especially their faces, will get maximum attention in images. It is also known that objects and pictures of objects are remembered better than their names. Adding illustration to textual material, however, may fail to enhance attitude change. Results depend on how pictures are executed and how they are used. Association is facilitated when items are shown together. The American industrial designer and educator Jay Doblin (1920–1989) discussed three categories of information messages and three types of information content (1980, p. 89–91). The three categories of information messages were called 1) Verbal information messages, 2) Numerical information messages, and 3) Visual information messages. The three types of information content were called 1) Nominal information content (names or terms given for identification or classification), 2) Noumeral information content (conceived by reason, but not knowable through the senses), and 3) Phenomenal information content (known through experience rather than thought or intuition). Doblin combined the three forms of information messages with the three types of information content in a matrix and got a structure for non-textual communications with nine cells. 1. Verbal nominal information was called lexic. It is lexical definitions of words. 2. Verbal noumeral information was called logic. It is words used for definition, classification, and reasoning. 3. Verbal phenomenal information was called prosaic. It is words used to describe reality, as in reports. 4. Numerical nominal information was called numeric. It is numbers used for identification, such as telephone numbers 148

5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

and license plates. These numbers are not used for any calculations. Numerical noumeral information was called mathematic. It is numbers and symbols used for complex calculations. Numerical phenomenal information was called arithmetic. It is the “real world” encoded into numbers by instrumentation. Visual nominal information was called ideo-grammatic. It is “visual words” like marks, signs, and trademarks that convey a single meaning. Visual noumeral information was called diagrammatic. It includes charts, diagrams, and graphs used to visualise processes. Visual phenomenal information was called iso-grammatic. It is visual representation of reality such as drafts, drawings and photographs.

In this matrix the cell iso-grammatic, with visual phenomenal information, was divided in four levels according to an abstract to realistic scale: 1) Drafting and maps. 2) Drawings, 3) Photographs, and 4) Models. Then Doblin removed “the ladder of abstraction” from the matrix. Thus, the ladder of abstraction included six levels reaching from very abstract to very realistic: 1) Marks, 2) Charts and graphs, 3) Drafting and maps, 4) Drawings, 5) Photographs, and 6) Models. According to Doblin (1980) a message must fulfil twelve requirements in order to be successful. The message must reach the decoders, be powerful, have sufficient time, be perceptible, be decodable, have proper hierarchy, and have a decoder prepared, have integrity, be properly crafted, be credible, have congruity, and be exiting.

Symbols and abstractness For Wileman (1993, p. 17) all kinds of representations of an object are symbols. He argued that there are three major ways to represent objects, from concrete to abstract representations. 149

The first group, pictorial symbols, includes photographs and illustrations or drawings. Viewers should be able to translate a pictorial symbol to a real-world example. The second group, graphic symbols, has image-related graphics, concept-related graphics, and arbitrary graphics. Image-related graphics are silhouettes or profiles of the object. Concept-related graphics look like the object but have less detail than image-related graphics. Arbitrary graphics are abstract symbols for objects, constructed out of the designer’s imagination. The third group, verbal symbols, is divided into two subgroups, verbal descriptions and nouns or labels. Only people who comprehend the language used to describe the objects can understand verbal symbols. However, in my view there seems to be no major difference in “abstractness” between abstract arbitrary graphic symbols and verbal symbols. Thus, I prefer to distinguish between two main categories of representations: 1) Figurative, and 2) Non-figurative representations. Each main category includes two groups of symbols. Figurative representations include two groups: 1) Visuals, and 2) Graphic symbols. Also, non-figurative representations include two groups: 1) Verbal symbols, and 2) Non-visual and non-verbal representations. Main categories of representations Figurative representations

Non-figurative representations

1. Visuals Three-dimensional images Photographs Drawings Schematic pictures

1 Verbal symbols Verbal descriptions Nouns or labels Letters or characters

2. Graphic symbols Pictorial symbols Abstract symbols Arbitrary symbols

2. Non-visual and non-verbal representations (Sounds) Odours and scents

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Another view is based on how the verbal information is presented to the receivers (Pettersson, 1989, 1993). There are major differences in how we access the verbal information in various representations. Here I distinguish between three main categories of representations: 1) Lexi-visual representations, 2) Audiovisual representations, and 3) Combined representations. Verbal information in representations Representation Access activity Main media Lexi-visual

We read printed words

Graphical media, computer media

Audio-visual

We listen to spoken words

Broadcast media, film media, live media, sound media, telecommunications media

Combined

We read printed words, and listen to spoken words

Broadcast media, computer media, film media, live media, models and exhibitions, video media

We read the printed words in lexi-visual representations, such as books. We listen to the spoken words in audio-visual representations, such as radio programmes. We read printed words and listen to spoken words in combinations of lexi-visual and audio-visual representations in “combined representations,” such as interactive multimedia systems. Broadcast media include both audio and television services. Computer media include fields such as artificial intelligence, Internet, and WWW. Film media includes still pictures and moving pictures. Graphical media include groups of products like books, maps, and printed matter. Live media are personal communications in all kinds of meetings. The spoken word can be combined with body language, demonstrations, and pictures. Models and exhibitions are multidimensional, and exhibit models and real objects with a spatial relationship. Sound media include systems to record, store, and play music, and speech. Video media include 151

systems to record, store, and play still pictures, and moving pictures. Telecommunications media are able to transmit a wide variety of data and information.

Lexi-visual representations Information materials often consist of words. There is probably no other instructional device that leads to more consistently beneficial results than adding pictures to a verbal presentation, oral or written. There can be no doubt that pictures combined with words can produce strong facilitative effects on retention and learning. These effects prove to be valid for a broad range of learner characteristics, learning tasks, pictures, and texts (Levie and Lentz 1982, Levin and Lesgold 1978, Pettersson 1989, 1993). Text and pictures must both be easy to read as well as complement and reinforce one another. Informative words need pictures, and informative pictures need words. It is important that we use verbal and visual representations in an optimal way. What we see is very important for our experience and perception of the world. Seeing is direct and effortless. Making and understanding visual messages is natural to a point. However, effectiveness in visual literacy can only be achieved through learning. And the ability to read and understand pictures is learned. This learning takes place more rapidly in a culture where pictures are seen and used frequently. Pictures reinforce our knowledge when they are close to the real experience. It seems that most people, prefers visual information (Pettersson, 1993). According to Selander (1991) the analysis of a “pedagogic text” includes the text as well as the pictures and the interactions between these two different “languages.” A pedagogic text is produced to work in education and training. It can be a textbook, but also a film, a series of slides or any other form of teaching aid. Research on texts, their language, meaning, social meaning, and style has a long history. In contrast to the extensive research on text design, and text processing, there has been far less research on the visuals printed in textbooks (Houghton and Mandl 152

and Levin, 1989; Mayer, 1989; Pettersson, 1993; Willows, 1987; Willows and Houghton, 1987). All graphical media are produced using manual or technical methods. Graphical prints, paintings, signs and drawings are examples of manually produced images. Letters, manuscripts and signs are examples of manually produced text. Evening newspapers, morning newspapers, the popular press and comic books are examples of periodic publications. Children’s books, non-fiction, cookbooks, course literature, textbooks, periodic books, reference books, comic books and fiction are examples of books. Different types of packaging belong to the group graphical media, as they often have printed pictures and text. The main task of packaging is obviously to enclose and protect the contents. Text and pictures often describe both what packaging contains and how the contents are used. Blackboards and books Even if publishers of school textbooks in many countries have experienced difficulties and have complained frequently about the decline in sales of textbooks, there are still a great number of books in school storerooms and in classrooms. It is difficult to form a clear picture of just how many textbooks there actually are in the schools. In Sweden, it seems reasonable to suppose that there is an average of 15 books per student. Then there would be 18 million books in Swedish schools. In addition, both students and teachers may use the school libraries. The estimated number of books in Swedish school libraries is 28 million. School library loans amount to 17 million per year, which are around 14 loans per student per year. Local community libraries also lend books that are used for schoolwork (Statistics Sweden, 1995). During the latter part of the 1980s, the volume of information was growing at such a rate that conventional information storage and retrieval methods could no longer keep pace. Boyer (1987, p. 160) noted that: “Today, about one out of every 153

four undergraduates spends no time in the library during a normal week, and 65 percent use the library four hours or less each week.” This gap between the classroom and the library, first reported almost half a century ago, still exists for higher education. With the help of observations and long-term studies, Gustafsson (1980a, 1980b) and Sigurgeirsson (1990) have mapped how teachers use their time in the classroom. The result of both these studies, carried out in Sweden and in Iceland showed that textbooks were used more than anything else in the classroom, during 72% and 80%, respectively, of the lesson time. Textbooks were used both more often than anything else, and for longer periods. Sigurgeirsson found that 70–90% of teaching is based on teachers and students using textbooks and worksheets. The text received almost all the attention. The illustrations in the textbooks were almost never used as sources of information. A cross-cultural study (Pettersson et al., 1993) showed that the blackboard and the textbooks in geography had the highest rank order. In Sweden, this group of teachers used the blackboard every lesson (index=93), or every day. The same applied to Australia (83), and to Japan (100), while in the USA this was not the case (58), nor in Greece (40). The geography teachers in Sweden used textbooks every lesson or at least once a day (index=88). At least once a week, these teachers used a school atlas (57), other books (56) and wall maps (48). When Svingby, Lendahls, and Ekbom (1990) asked social studies and geography teachers in Sweden to what extent they used different media in their classrooms they got similar responses. For the study of geography and history, the textbooks were judged to be “important” or “very important” by around 80% of the teachers. Among 157 teachers, 60% used subject literature “once a week.” In Southern Africa deLange (1996) noted that textbooks and chalkboards are the main media that are used in schools. The lack of electricity makes most other kinds of media obsolete. 154

Research in Third World countries and in Southern Africa, found that smaller classes, science laboratories in high schools and increasing teacher salaries were some elements that did not raise pupil achievement. Increased educational expenditure on textbooks and libraries, which constitutes printed material, was some measures that raised pupil’s performance in classrooms (Mncwabe 1993, p. 216-218). In the USA Schiffman (1996) concluded that while encumbered by challenges, textbooks and other print materials continue to be a primary format for educational materials. Unlike many new technologies, they can be easily tailored to the needs of special audiences. The general conclusion is that textbooks are and will be important sources for verbal-visual information also in the future. We shall not make the mistake to “forget” the printed and copied media in the Information Age. At low cost blackboards, books, and compendia provide an impressive degree of flexibility. Illustrations in textbooks Mulcahy and Samuels (1987) provided an extensive history of the use of illustrations in American textbooks over the last three hundred years. In their section on 19th century textbooks, the authors underlined the importance of illustrations (p. 24): Illustrations, therefore, were considered central to the text rather than mere ornamental images on a page. Consequently, an important landmark in the history of illustrations occurred when these content area books in nineteenthcentury America used pictures to explain scientific principles and to describe the world. They pointed out that only as printing technology has progressed, it has been practical for publishers of textbooks to be concerned with semantic and syntactic text parallels between the illustrations and the text.

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Putting the right pictures in the right places in a textbook is a concern that is rather new. Textbooks influence a large part of the planning and the realization of the teaching. In the last century, textbook visuals were often placed vertically to provide better use of page space. Sometimes an already existing illustration, for example a woodcut was used. Often, one picture was used to depict several different persons or towns. Visuals were often a kind of “paintings” with little or no real interaction with the text. In most books, pictures served primarily as an artistic supplement to the text. However, visuals have been used in a more intentional way in non-fiction books. Comparisons between old and modern textbooks often show that both the number of pictures, and the space for pictures have increased. Correspondingly the space for text has decreased. Romare (1989) studied books on religion. She found that one primary school book on religion from 1945 had 25 visuals on its 288 pages, and one comprehensive school textbook from 1982 contained 114 visuals on 120 pages. Thus, the latter book had 11 times more visuals. Romare pointed out that wall charts were a fine complement to textbooks in the old days. Filmstrips, overhead transparencies, and slides superseded wall charts. In turn computers superseded filmstrips, overhead transparencies, and slides. But use of this material often requires extensive preparations by the teacher. Trotzig (1993) pointed out that illustrations in textbooks are extremely important means of communication. The pictures are often what first catch the reader’s eye and the last things he forgets from his schooldays. After the Second World War the typical textbook author is rather a teacher than a person doing research (Selander, 1992). Narrative texts have disappeared for the benefit of abstract, descriptive, fragmentary, and short texts. During the years, textbooks have more and more illustrations, and a new kind of layout. Berglund (1991) verified that for each generation the pictures of the textbooks have become larger, more colourful, more elegant, and more in number. An important reason for this 156

is the need for the publishers to be sales oriented. Many colour pictures are used as a competitive means in the continuous and hard battle for more customers. Modern textbooks often have a rich and varied graphic idiom. They include many different types of pictures such as black and white photos, caricatures, cartoons, collages, colour photos, diagrams, graphs, maps, and realistic drawings. Thus, there are plenty of pictures of different kinds in today’s textbooks, but how are they used, if they are used? Which attitudes have pupils and teachers to the pictures in the textbooks? To what extent are the pictures relevant to the text? A poll of teachers in Stockholm showed that they often consider the pictures in textbooks as “good,” but that many pictures quite simply are “unnecessary” (Lingons, 1987). Less than half of the colour photos (43%) and drawn illustrations (43%) in the textbooks were interpreted as relevant to the texts. At the same time, we know that colour pictures are very expensive to buy and to print, and they force up the price of textbooks. And often colour ads no pedagogical value to a picture. Levin and Mayer (1993), Mayer (1993), and Woodward (1993) all noted that although approximately one-third to onehalf of the space in science textbooks is devoted to illustrations, most textbook illustrations do not appear to serve any important instructional function. In an extensive paper Sims-Knight (1992) reviewed 88 sources on the use of pictures in textbooks. She found that visuals could be effective in their educational function, even if they are unappealing or dull, as long as there is appropriate subject matter content. Evans, Watson and Willows (1987) investigated 11,236 pages in Canadian textbooks. In the textbooks for the junior level of the compulsory school the pictures covered 60–80% of the pages. The figure was 50–70% in textbooks for the intermediate level, and 30–60% in textbooks for the junior high school. In many books for the junior and the intermediate level the pictures occupies such a large space that there is little or no space 157

left for the text. The lack of space combined with the unwillingness to delete information might be one reason for compressed and hard-to-read textbooks. Evans, Watson and Willows calculated a frequency index, the percentage of pages with pictures. The frequency index was 90–100% in textbooks for the junior level, 50-70% in textbooks for the intermediate level, and 3060% in textbooks for the junior high level. Melin and Pettersson (1991) studied how captions and illustrations co-operated in three textbooks for junior high school. The captions did not fill the purpose they could have filled. Captions were seldom the “bridges” between illustrations and text that would ease the understanding of the text as well as of the pictures. Digital textbooks In one book chapter Behnke (2021) analysed which attributes well designed German digital geography textbooks should include to meet the attitudes, learning requirements, and skills of students and teachers today. Here, the focus was on conceptual and media didactic thoughts, motivational aspects, and visual design factors in digital textbooks. Subject contents and education considerations were not discussed in detail. Behnke (2021) found that although today’s students extensively utilize digital devices and value digital technologies, their digital and visual literacy skills are still limited. There is a need for more instruction in how to utilize digital tools more effectively for learning and for problem-solving. The conception and the design of today’s digital educational media should not merely focus on technical features, but on carefully elaborated didactic concepts. These are concepts that integrate subject content with the capabilities of digital technologies fostering besides subject-specific knowledge, twenty-first century skills, such as digital literacy, information literacy, critical thinking, problem-solving, powerful concepts of analysing, explaining, and understanding 158

complex issues and relationships, and effective strategies to acquire new knowledge. This excludes unmodified or solely digitally enriched adaptions of existing printed textbooks. It requires the development of concepts, contents, design, meaningful synthesizing of pedagogy, structure, and technology, all tailored to learning-fostering and motivating digital educational media.

AV and combined representations An explanation for all the media hardware and software in schools, and the use of media in teaching can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s. The “realism theories” include the iconicity theory (Morris, 1946), the cone of experience (Dale, 1946), and the sign similarity orientation theory (Carpenter, 1953). The basic assumption from each of these theories is that learning will be more complete as the number of cues in the learning situation increases. Access to media Metallinos et al., (1991) studied the use of textbooks in schools in Australia, Greece, Japan, Sweden, and the USA. There were both interesting differences and interesting similarities between the five countries. A follow-up study (Pettersson et al., 1993) focused on the teachers and their actual use of media and pictures in their teaching. A total of 178 social studies and geography teachers made 4 358 statements in a questionnaire study. To be able to compare the use of each medium (and each picture type) we ranked the use of media (and picture type) and calculated an “index of utilization.” The media index ranges from 0–100 (Pettersson, 1990a). A medium that is used every lesson is assigned a media index of 100, once a week 50, once a month 25, once a term 12.5, and never has a media index of 0 (zero). Here results suggested that there is a substantial difference between different individual teachers. The blackboard and the textbooks have the highest rank order. They are used every lesson

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in all five countries. As noted in the following sections many media are seldom used at all. Computers and other media In Sweden, most schools have computer rooms for teaching computer studies. The cross-cultural study showed that teachers in geography and social studies in Sweden used computer programs in their lessons at least once per term (index=4) (Pettersson et al., 1993). Several teachers used the WWW and Internet. These teachers used wall maps (index=48) at least once per week. At least once per month, they used articles in magazines and newspapers (31). Svingby, Lendahls, and Ekbom, (1990) also found that more than half of the teachers used newspapers and magazines “a couple of times per term,” which is roughly once per month. They used flip pads and charts at least once per term. Hazelwood (2012) studied access to information and compared the use of traditional printed books with the use of Ebooks. She concluded that our younger generation prefer the ebooks to traditional books. Once the e-book is downloaded onto a mobile device, students have access to the information when they want and when they need it. The information in a traditional textbook is normally outdated before it enters a classroom, and the prices of e-books are cheap compared to traditional books. Film, television and video In Sweden Forsslund (1991) found that most schools had television sets (96%), video cassette players (94%), and video cameras (54%). Some teachers recorded school television programmes themselves, and also more general programmes, for use in their own teaching. A few teachers produced their own programmes with video cameras. Forsslund also found that only just over half of the teachers (56%) used television in their teaching at least once during the spring term. One cross-cultural study (Pettersson et al., 1993) found that the teachers of geography and social studies, in Sweden, used videocassettes in their lessons at least once per month 160

(index=18) and they used school television programmes at least once per term (10). Svingby, Lendahls, and Ekbom (1990) got similar results. In their study, most teachers (76%) used radio and television programmes “several times per term.” In accordance with Considine and Haley (1999), eight graders in the USA spent 21.2 hours per week watching television compared to 5.5 hours per week spent on homework. Overhead transparencies, slides and PPP There has been an overhead projector or a slide projector, or both, in most classrooms in Sweden (Pettersson, 1991). All schools have collections of overhead transparencies and slides. Some of these are series produced by publishing companies and other commercial producers, and the teachers themselves produce other series locally. The situation seems to be similar in many other countries. Despite easy access, overhead transparencies and slides have not been used very often during lessons. In accordance with Gustafsson (1980a, 1980b) and Sigurgeirsson (1990), besides textbooks, teachers seldom or never use any media other than overhead transparencies, and even these are used in only 6% (Gustafsson) and 7% (Sigurgeirsson) of lessons. The cross-cultural study (Pettersson et al., 1993) found that the social studies and geography teachers in Sweden used overhead transparencies (index=32) and overhead transparency maps (22) at least once per month. They also used slides (27) and filmstrips (21) at least once per month. However, in this study it was found that there were major individual differences between teachers in how much they used these media. It was clear that some teachers never use any media at all (except for blackboards and textbooks), while others may use media quite often. Nowadays PowerPoint Presentations, PPP, and similar digital presentation systems have replaced many series of old filmstrips, overhead transparencies, and slides. Illustrations are stored in computer files and projected with data-projectors. See my book Text Design. 161

Furthermore, some teachers may make use the abundance of images available on Internet in their teaching. It is also clear that some students use images from the Internet in their various presentations. Radio, sound tapes, and gramophone records Radios are found in every second classrooms in Swedish schools (Forsslund, 1991). There is a significant number and variety of programmes for the teachers to choose from. Radio programmes may be used at the time of their broadcast or may be borrowed later as sound tapes from the AV and teaching aids centres. In accordance with a study in which 800 teachers responded to a questionnaire, only one third of them (36%) used any radio programmes in their teaching at least on one occasion during the spring school term of 1990 (Forsslund, 1991). Since many classes may have several teachers, it is not possible to estimate to what extent each student has access to radio programmes during lessons from this total figure. In most schools, there are cassette players, tape players, and record players (Forsslund, 1991). Many schools, and even some teachers, have their own collections of sound tapes, cassette tapes, and records. Sound tapes are used particularly in the teaching of the foreign languages and of music. Gustafsson (1980a, 1980b) observed that sound tapes were used quite often in up to one fifth of the total lesson time (19%), for the teaching of English in the Swedish schools.

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Objectives The term objectives refer to what the sender wishes to achieve with a message, i.e. the goal(s) the sender wishes to attain. The objective of information material is usually linked to some utilitarian aspect in which the receiver is supposed to understand how something works or how to behave in a given situation in order to avoid or to resolve a problem. This main section includes the following sections: Stringent demands, Informative entertainment, Brief messages, Administrative documentation, Factual information, and Instructions.

Stringent demands A good information material has a distinct structure; it is relevant, legible and readable by the intended target group. Good information materials meet stringent demands on good economics, good contents and good linguistic and technical quality. Different information materials may have multiple functions and more than one objective all at the same time. As a result of the aforementioned properties and demands, good information materials make everyday life simpler for receivers who need the specific information and provide senders with a good economic return and good credibility. Differences between information materials are considerable within each group. There are usually clear and distinct differences between the seven groups: 1. Advertising and propaganda. 2. Informative entertainment. 3. Brief messages, such as prohibitions, simple instructions, and warnings. 4. Administrative documentation, such as administrative messages, business documents, and working materials. 5. Factual information, such as descriptions, facts, and reports. 6. Instructions, such as directions for use, good advice, and maintenance documentation. 163

This classification is based on the main objectives for information materials. However, some information materials simultaneously contain more than one kind of information message. Packaging may contain both factual information and one or more instructions. Packaging could well be assigned to a category with combined objectives. The term text when used in descriptions of these groups of information materials refers to words, pictures and shapes. The concept “informative texts” refers to the sum of “informative words, informative pictures, and informative graphical shapes.” This total is sometimes referred to as a discourse (Nordström, 1996). In some instances, different kinds of sound, music, movement, spatial rendition, special lighting or various effects are also involved. Broadly interpreted certain kinds of the first group, Advertising and propaganda, can be included in the concept information material. We might also add teaching aids, such as educational films, textbooks, video, and multimedia to this list of information materials.

Informative entertainment Several types of materials designed to entertain can be included in any interpretation of the concept “information material” (infotainment). The material should enable the reader to relax, obtain recreation, pleasure and enjoyment for the moment without making any major demands on her or his mental activity to achieve a deeper understanding. The following can be used for obtaining these objectives: fireworks, interviews, light shows, literary texts, narrative texts, poetry, prose, reportage texts. This group of information materials are mainly used within media design, journalism and, to some extent, even information design. We can easily comprehend fragments of individual events from around the world because television is a suitable choice for supplying fragments out of context, often without any real value. According to Postman (1985), television in the U.S. has made entertainment the natural form for all presentations of 164

reality. Postman wrote (p. 95): “The problem is not that TV supplies us with entertainment but that all subjects are supplied as entertainment.” In my view, a news program in North American TV is a kind of entertainment rather than a source of factual information. News programs in Europe are usually more factual information than entertainment. However, TV news broadcasts in Japan appear to me to have features clearly suggestive of popular education Examples of common media for infotainment are motion pictures, graphical media (such as books and magazines), radio, TV and video. We anticipate increasingly rapid development of infotainment on the Internet and WWW.

Brief messages Information materials and information messages in the “Brief Messages category” have two objectives. The receiver shall notice, i.e. direct her or his attention to, certain information, then perceive, i.e. become aware of, something and heed and respect e.g. bans and warnings. We can use the following in achieving these objectives: acoustic signals, body language, combined acoustic and optical signals, emergency signals, graphical symbols, instrument panels, instrument windows, olfactory signals, optical signals, planning boards, prohibition texts, prose, sensory signals, signal lamps, signal texts, symbols, warning texts. A message is information conveyed from a sender to a receiver in a single context on one occasion. A message is usually brief and clearly delineated in the form of a signal, i.e. transmitted characters with a mutually agreed meaning. This category of information materials is found both in persuasion design (especially in planned communications) and in information design. Today, graphical media, such as brochures, packaging and catalogues, signs, warning flags, signal systems and warning triangles, are examples of media commonly used for warnings and prohibitions. We can use our own bodies, body language and gestures to convey distinct messages to other people, not the least 165

when warnings and invitations are involved. However, the signals need to be interpreted in the right way. We can make a distinction between four kinds of brief messages: 1) Information, 2) Prohibitions, 3) Simple instructions and 4) Warnings. Information Here, information refers to a brief message intended to be of direct, practical benefit to the receiver. Information can be impressed or printed on different products, such as machinery and signs, in the form of words, letters or symbols. Much useful information is supplied in traffic, e.g. on route signs. Other examples of information are emergency signals, such as flares or signal rockets from ships in distress or hikers who get lost or injured. Prohibitions A prohibition is a regulation stipulating something that must not occur or be done, often because of the risk of injury to people or property damage. A prohibition may be impressed or printed on different products, such as fences, machinery, and signs, in the form of words, letters or symbols. Camping, diving from a trampoline, entering a construction site, trespassing on private property, and activities in traffic may all be examples of prohibitions. Simple instructions An instruction is explanatory information on an appropriate procedure in a given situation. Short, distinct instructions are involved. The instructions may be impressed or printed on different products, such as doors, signs and radios, in the form of words, letters or symbols. Distinguishing between “push” and “pull” may be appropriate when we open a door. In traffic, for example, many road signs provide instructions on how people should drive in different situations. Instructions can also be conveyed with systems of signals and characters. This may be the case e.g. when an umpire gives orders to players in a football match or when ground staff instructs a pilot in a taxiing aircraft 166

about the right gate, enabling passengers to disembark and making space for new travellers to go on board. Warnings A warning refers to the designation of a possible hazard that can be avoided by caution and responsible behaviour. Like other instructions, prohibitions and information, warnings can also be impressed or printed on different products, such as machinery in the form of words, letters or symbols designating e.g. an electrical safety hazard or high voltage. Warnings on signs may concern warnings for shallow water or thin ice, warnings to car drivers, pilots, locomotive drivers and machinery operators etc. Warnings of different kinds are often printed on packaging, such as warnings for hazardous substances and warnings on the use of certain drugs in conjunction with driving (as they would make drivers less attentive in traffic). Warnings can be conveyed with acoustic signals, e.g. fire alarms and fire-drill warnings. Warnings may also be issued in weather forecasts, e.g. warnings for icy roads, hail, storms or, at worst, a tornado, things we would rather avoid.

Administrative documentation We need administrative documentation in many situations, in our professional and private lives. Having your paperwork in order is important in contacts with banks, insurance companies, public health units, public agencies and even many organisations. Good administrative documentation and reliable routines create good conditions for satisfactory operation of various activities. Information components can be used in maintaining functional administrative documentation. Some examples are a standardized layout, systems for numbering documents and versions, addresses, account numbers, dates, and logotypes. In both graphical design and information design, people often work with “templates” for administrative documentation. Ready-to-use templates save considerable time and contribute to 167

the creation of a distinct and uniform structure for documentation and to a uniform identity for an organisation. Each organisation needs a carefully thought-out programme for its graphical profile. Many organisations utilize a set of governing “profile rules.” It must be easy for an organisation’s own employees, as well as external receivers, to find relevant information in each administrative document. This involves the organisation’s name and logo and other administrative information, such as the address, number of pages, the date, the type of document, the author, the approving party, the examiner, the version, the degree of confidentiality and the subject. Graphical media are still most common, but electronic mail and storage in databases are increasingly popular for administrative documentation. The need for carefully thought out typography and layouts is even greater in computer media than in traditional graphical media. This is mainly because of the major limitations still prevailing in the resolution of computer screens. As early as 1983, three Japanese electronics companies, Matsushita, Sony, and Toshiba introduced optical discs for recording, storing and displaying documents, such as letters, articles etc. with both text and pictures. Various forms of digital information storage can contribute to a solution of the archival capacity problem. One small optical disc is capable of storing thousands of pages of text. We can make a distinction between three types of administrative documentation: 1) Administrative messages, 2) Business documents, and 3) Working materials. Administrative messages Some of the objectives of administrative documentation are to show how to deal with various processes and issues, i.e. to explain, inform, report and describe. Examples of common types of administrative messages are: agendas (for meetings), calendars, directives (on work tasks), distribution lists, electronic mail, fax messages, letters, lists (of various kinds), lists of appendices, lists of documents, memos, minutes, summonses to meetings, tables. 168

Business documents Administrative documents are important for documenting, filing, storing and saving information on events, prices, processes and products. We can also use administrative documentation for monitoring and verifying various processes and products. Quality assurance, for example, always generates a great need for continuous contracts, cover notes, fax messages, forms, invoices, letters, memos, minutes, receipts, tables. Many contemporary business documents have their roots in the medieval bookkeeping conducted by churches and monasteries. We can learn a great deal by studying administrative routines in different organisations. Very important changes in administration took place in Sweden from 1500 to 1720. Svensson (1988) stated that control and information were then the predominant functions of all communications. The spoken language was still the predominant form, but written and printed texts ultimately began to make their influence felt. Working materials Commonplace objectives may be to work with information by revising, processing and structuring different data. Finding suitable forms for distributing certain information may be important. Examples of common types of working materials are: forms/blanks, lists (of various kinds), memos, minutes, notes (taken at meetings), tables, administrative messages.

Factual information Supplying information is by far the most common of all perceived objectives. This is the primary task of a large number of information materials, such as posters, descriptions, brochures, instruction booklets, information sheets, handbooks, web sites for the WWW, informative graphics, information systems, maps, catalogues, route signs, reports, schematic drawings, signs, symbols and certain exhibitions.

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We can use several information components in developing this kind of information material, such as: addresses, article numbers, bank giro account numbers, bar codes, dates, declarations of contents, delivery terms, descriptive texts, drawings, indices of various kinds, informative graphics, informative texts, ISBN numbers, ISSN numbers, lists of various kinds, maps and plans, narrative texts, non-fiction texts, postal giro account numbers, price information, product numbers, prose, registration numbers, schematic pictures, serial numbers, subject indices, summaries, symbols, tables. The group could conceivably even be referred to as “facts” or just “information,” but this would be needlessly confusing, as the term “information” is used in so many different contexts and in so many different ways. Factual information is always more comprehensive than brief, simple messages. This category of information materials is usually produced in the field of information design. The group is both very broad and very deep, i.e. many different examples of information material of the same type are found. This type of information is very commonplace. Information material in the factual information category can impinge on the advertising and propaganda group. Factual information is presented in all media, even if graphical media, such as booklets, brochures, catalogues, fact sheets, handbills, handbooks, information sheets, magazines, manuals, maps, non-fiction books, packaging, posters, product sheets, reference books, signs, and tables are still most common. However, the amount of information in different databases, on various kinds of optical discs, on the Internet and various intranets is increasing at a rapid rate. Information systems vary greatly in complexity and scope. Examples of “simple information systems” are systems for indicating arrival and departure times for buses, ships, flights and trains. These systems can be analogue or digital. Examples of more advanced systems are digital map and positioning or 170

navigation systems, “information towers” with stacks of video discs and databases etc. Cave art, petroglyphs, rune stones, picture stones and some of our church paintings are examples of historically interesting messages in this category. We can make a distinction between three types of factual information: 1) Descriptions, 2) Facts, and 3) Reports. Descriptions The purpose of descriptions is to enable the user to comprehend, i.e. understand, certain information with respect to its immediate or basic meaning. Descriptions are different kinds of materials that depict what something looks like or how it works. Examples of information fields or themes for descriptions are: anatomical descriptions, biological descriptions, company descriptions, consequence descriptions, construction descriptions, ecological descriptions, economic descriptions, event descriptions, historical descriptions, job descriptions, medical descriptions, physiological descriptions, process descriptions: courses of events and processes, product descriptions: goods and services, system descriptions, and technical descriptions. Descriptions can be related to facts, reports and instructions. Facts The objective of facts is for the receiver to comprehend, i.e. to succeed in understanding the meaning of something and possibly, but not invariably, forming her or his own opinion about it. Examples of information areas or themes for facts are: • • • • •

Consumer information. Current events, future events, historical events. Economical information. What is the cost for x? Geographical information such as geographical location; where something is, the best route to get there. Goods and services; delivery times, delivery terms, dimensions, performance, and prices. 171

•

• • • • •

•

Organisations, their addresses, bank giro account number, business hours, complete names, legal status, managers, postal giro account number, etc. Pharmaceutical preparations and drugs. Safety, e.g. evacuation from an aircraft, a hotel, a public building, and a ship in the event of a fire or other hazard. Social information. Technical information. Times. What time does the bus, flight, ship, or train depart? What time does the show begin? How much time do I have left on the parking meter? Tourist information.

Public documents Public documents are mostly difficult to understand, inconvenient to use, and uneasy (Sless, 2004). When Gad (2018) studied design of public documents she found that there is a lack in applying information design frameworks and methods. Designers had not applied the Gestalt principles to improve the possibilities for users to understand public documents. Reports The purpose of reports is often to help the receiver understand, i.e. to absorb conceptual concepts in reports and form an understanding. Understanding more or less complex relationships, comparing different alternatives with one another and reaching her or his conclusions about the way to act in other situations are examples of what is involved. Reports are formal accounts of studies and completed assignments. Examples in the information field or themes for reports are: conference reports, final reports, financial reports, inspection reports, interim reports, position reports, reports issued by experts, scientific reports, technical reports, test reports, traffic reports, weather reports. Reports can be closely related to descriptions.

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Instructions Instructions are directions and explanatory information on appropriate procedures for achieving specific results in a safe and reliable manner. This category of information materials differs from the Brief Messages group, which comprises information, simple instructions, prohibitions, and warnings, by demanding more comprehensive action in multiple stages. The purpose of instructions and directions is to enable the user to perform some concrete task. We can use the following in achieving this purpose: directions, drawings, explanatory texts, instructive texts, prose, subject indices, and symbols. Several media are appropriate for instructions. The text “Push” on a door is a brief message. However, this simple text on a door is an instruction with multiple steps.

In an emergency, turn the handle, open the door manually. Instructions sometimes place special emphasis on practice and learning. However, all you need to do is follow the instructions in directions for use, manuals or user handbooks on one or a few occasions. Instructions may be closely related to descriptions. People work with this category of information materials mainly in information design. We can make a distinction between six groups of instructions: 1) Directions for use, 2) Good advice, 3) Guidance, 4) Interfaces, 5) Production and maintenance documentation, and 6) Recipes. Directions for use Directions for use are written instructions explaining what someone has to do in order to use some device etc. This especially 173

applies to instruments, machinery and tools. The people who will be using the product in question are the target group for directions for use. Directions for use are often in the form of printed sheets or booklets as well as in digital media. Users often need the instructions in directions for use just to “get started.” Once a TV set and a videorecorder have been installed, using these products seldom presents any problem. “Incorporating” directions for use into technical systems is becoming increasingly common. Necessary information can then be viewed on a monitor. Since information cannot be accessed in the event of a power failure, we will still need to have some information in graphical media in the future. Good advice Good advice provides a simple explanation of how to perform various practical tasks. Newspapers, magazines and some TV programs offer good advice. They give us e.g. tips on how to arrange flowers, how to diet, how to build furniture and how to use makeup according to the latest fashion trends. Guidance Guidance aids and uses detailed written instructions to explain how to behave in a general, professional and appropriate manner e.g. in solving a problem or performing certain tasks. A handbook provides broad, summarised information on subjects, often practical in nature. It may deal with e.g. the art of angling, riding, painting, growing flowers, collecting stamps, bird watching in the field, drawing etc. Guidance in brochures and handbooks may be more than superficial. You often need to return repeatedly to guidance. Interfaces Many products have fixed interfaces in e.g. instruments and instrument panels. One example is the instrument panel in a car. The instruments consist of e.g. a speedometer, fuel gauge, thermometer, clock and tachometer. Words or simple characters or 174

symbols are impressed or printed on the product. They can be printed on labels or signs. Some messages from a fixed interface are brief messages, whereas others comprise instructions requiring action in several stages. Fixed interfaces are gradually being superseded by graphical interfaces in many products. Graphical interfaces differ from fixed interfaces by tailoring information to different situation, and e.g. only displaying information important for the moment. Graphical interfaces can supply instructions on when, where and how the user or operator should enter data in different computer systems and certain equipment, e.g. in process industries to ensure that equipment operates in a satisfactory and safe fashion. Instructions on the way the graphical interface operates are usually referred to as manuals that are actually the same as directions for use. Production and maintenance documentation We are accustomed to turning in our cars for periodic servicing. This also applies to many other products. Instructions for production and maintenance must be prepared for every new aircraft, car, computer, motorcycle, ship, telecommunications system, train, video camera and many other types of products. Some of these instructions are intended for people making routine use of the products. Other documentation, e.g. with instructions on how to perform certain functional tests, how to trace and find faults, how to replace or repair defective parts etc. so equipment operates reliably, is intended for specially trained service technicians. Production and maintenance documentation is often collected in binders but is also in the form of instruction films and databases accessible on CD or Internet. Recipes An increasing number of raw materials and semi-manufactured products are supplied with information on the contents inside packaging and ways to prepare those contents. This obviously applies to directions on preparing various dishes but also includes different kinds of chemical products, such as commercial 175

fertiliser and insecticides, Recipes and instructions on how to prepare food are frequent features in weeklies, cookbooks, and TV shows.

Production of representations A specified number of copies may be produced from the master. In principle, the production procedure is the same in the production of graphical products, AV-media, films, video, and television programmes. In non-graphical products, sound and motion are additional important qualities. Built in proper quality controls should always be a natural part of production systems. This main section includes the following sections: Production processes, Graphical media, Video, Databases and multimedia, and Podcasting.

Production processes The sender’s production processes are influenced by production principles and are performed with tools for production. Production principles can be seen as a set of guidelines for production of any message. Main production principles include principles for the production of live media, sound media, film media, broadcast media, video media, models and exhibitions, graphical media, telecommunications media, and computer media. Production processes include processes for the production of different media. All processes should include suitable quality reviews and quality controls. Main production tools include: pens, pencils and other materials for manual work, computers and software to process texts and images, printers, copying machines, printing presses etc., cameras (still, film and video). The sender’s distribution processes are influenced by distribution principles and are performed with distribution tools. Distribution principles include economy, efficiency, and timing. The processes include stock keeping, marketing, advertising, selling, distribution, billing and bookkeeping. Main distribution tools 176

include warehouses, stores, different databases and systems like Internet and WWW.

A design processes starts with a commission (C). The goal is to produce a final design, to be used as a master for production of a number of representations (R) or artefacts. The design process is guided by design principles and performed with the help of design tools, always in a social context. A great many people in different occupational categories are required for transmitting a message from writers to readers: people such as text and picture editors, graphic designers, typesetters, repro technicians, printers, bookbinders, stockroom staff, salespersons, order takers, bookstore employees, librarians, buyers, and administrators. The steps involved in publishing are time-consuming and jointly represent a major expense. About ten percent of the price of a book, not including tax, usually goes to the author. Electronic publishing could change this situation to some extent. It would reduce the distance between writers and readers. New opportunities for a dialogue could then develop in some instances. The term “production techniques” refers to how information materials are produced. The development from rather primitive methods to more advanced techniques can be studied for most 177

groups of information materials. These techniques are closely related to media and have made rapid advances in recent years. Computers and digital systems are being used to an ever-increasing degree. Once data have been stored in digital form, they can be easily presented in a manner tailored to the optimum conditions for different media. We will be able to follow some general trends in production techniques. A common world standard for television will be developed. Traditional areas of competence will be broken up and superseded by new ones. There will be shifts from goods to services, towards greater flexibility, increased segmentation, new channels for marketing, and new production systems. An international, integrated digital telecommunications system will replace today’s different systems. There will be increased competition for the individual consumer’s money and available time, as well as increased copyright problems. The borderlines between different groups of media will gradually disappear and many new media and new technologies will be developed by hybridisation. The production and distribution of media are not discussed in any detail at all in this book. A large number of “media-books” are available on the market. This section includes some comments on the technical developments that have made “publishing” possible for a large number of people. The rapid developments in digital communication technology have not only affected the visible side of our lives, but also transformed our ways of perception, interpretation, and thinking. Today communication with visuals is accepted to be the reality.

Graphical media Different types of books are affected in different ways by the information society. Books have a number of major advantages, but they also have “shortcomings.” One main advantage is the convenience and the size of books. A book can be used at virtually any time and place, without special equipment or preparations. 178

Readers do not have to give a thought to connecting cords, fuses, technical standards, and voltage requirements. These aspects often complicate utilization of new media. One disadvantage with books is the relatively long time for production. Economic considerations usually comprise restraints to illustrations. Books are heavy to transport in volume. They also tend to be in the wrong place when you need them. The lack of moving pictures and sound could also be described as disadvantages of books. An increasing number of people are working with information, and the amount of information available is increasing rapidly. The addition of new media represents increased competition for consumer time and money. Book-making techniques have been successively improved, making it possible to print large runs of better quality in less time. The constantly rising cost of labour, materials, technical production, handling, warehousing and distribution is a factor, which has contributed to the introduction of new technology and new media. Editing and technical processing of texts submitted in digital form is briefer, cheaper and more reliable than traditional ways. When both copy and pictures are stored in digital form in databases, direct production of printing plates for large printing runs is possible. The digital telecommunications networks make it possible to transfer all necessary data from central databases to any individual book machine. This may eliminate the need for physical distribution and warehousing of books. The development of Internet and the WWW has in fact made it possible for anyone to publish their own books as printed copies as well as electronic books.

Video Videogram is a collective designation for videocassettes and videodiscs, i.e. media for the storage and replay of TV programs at an optional time and place. The utilization of video can be said to comprise three main fields: 1) The recording of transmitted programs for subsequent replay. 2) Distribution and rental or sale of 179

pre-recorded programs, such as movies for entertainment and education. 3) Program production. In the beginning of the 1970s, expectations were high, especially in the electronic industry and from producers of programs. However, changes in patterns of behaviour are often slow. For a number of years video developments progressed very slowly because of factors such as the multiplicity of incompatible technical systems, i.e., a cassette recorded according to one system could not be played on using another. The earliest systems were not reliable. Playing time was also limited, in general no more than one hour. In 1980 there were 70 companies manufacturing 195 different kinds of videocassette recorders. There were about 50 different systems for video discs. Many of these are gone for ever but optical video discs are still used.

Databases and multimedia From the 1980s optical media developed at a rapid pace. Compact optical discs were used as “distributed databases.” A number of different systems with different characteristics have been available. Developments of Internet and Intranets have replaced many traditional databases, and the need for video tapes and many of the optical discs. Originally, the term “multimedia” referred to the use of several different media at the same time. A traditional example was a verbal presentation where the presenter used both slides and audiotape. From the 1990s, the term “multimedia” often refers to the use of several digital representations presented on one or more screens, controlled by a computer. Motion graphics are animations or digital segments which create the illusion of motion. This is usually combined with audio for use in multimedia projects, and often displayed via electronic media. Any form of abstract animation can be called motion graphics. Virtual reality (VR) is an interactive computer-generated experience within a fully artificial digital simulated environment. 180

VR incorporates auditory and visual feedback, sometimes also other types of sensory feedback. Virtual Reality replaces the real world with the Virtual World. Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive experience of a real-world environment where some real objects are “augmented” using computer-generated virtual objects. AR brings components of the digital world into a person's perception of the real world. Unlike virtual reality, augmented reality can ”co-exist” with the real world. Mixed reality (MR), or hybrid reality, is an environment where the real and a virtual world merge. Digital and physical objects form new kinds of environments where the users may interact with all objects in real time. According to Pinćjer et al. (2018, p. 583): "the mixed reality devices provide a completely new way of perception and understanding of the virtual space and objects. Since it is possible to interact with objects that exist in a virtual world in the same way as with objects that exist in the physical world, the high potential for the use of this technology for learning is evident."

Podcasting Williams and Tollett (2007) explained that a pod-cast is an audio blog that one can listen to rather than read. “It's like having your own radio show that everyone around the world can tune in to whenever they want, not just at the moment you happen to be recording or broadcasting” (p. 5). A definition of the term is found in the “podcasting entry” in Wikipedia (2006): Podcasting is the method of distributing multimedia files, such as audio or video programs, over the Internet using syndication feeds, for playback on mobile devices and personal computers. The term as originally coined by Ben Hammersley in an article in the Guardian on February 12, 2004, was meant as a portmanteau of “broadcasting” and “iPod.” The term podcast, like “radio,” can mean both the content and 181

the method of delivery. The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster. Though podcasters' web sites may also offer direct download or streaming of their content, a podcast is distinguished from other digital audio formats by its ability to be downloaded automatically using software capable of reading feeds like RSS or Atom. Wikipedia (2006) also informs us that the editors of the New Oxford American Dictionary declared “podcasting” the 2005 word of the year, defining the term as “a digital recording of a radio broadcast or similar program, made available on the Internet for downloading to a personal audio player.” Campbell (2005, p. 34) reminds us that: Streaming and downloadable video and audio are not as old as the World Wide Web… What's new about pod-casting is the ease of publication, ease of subscription, and ease of use across multiple environments, typically over computer speakers, over a car stereo, and over headphones–while the listener is walking or exercising or driving or travelling or otherwise moving about. Podcasting’s initial appeal was to allow individuals to distribute their own “radio shows,” but the system quickly became used in a wide variety of other ways, including distribution of school lessons, official and unofficial audio tours of museums, conference meeting alerts and updates, and by police departments to distribute public safety messages (Wikipedia, 2006).

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Media-industry mappings We live in a society in which our knowledge is frequently inadequate. The American media economist Parker (1975) showed that the labour market’s traditional subdivisions had changed strikingly. The number of people employed in the information sector had risen from less than 5% of all the gainfully employed people in the U.S. in 1860 to more than 50% in 1980. The agricultural and industrial sectors have been the subject of extensive measures to improve efficiency measures. This main section includes the following sections: Efficiency measures, and Media evolution chart.

Efficiency measures A number of measures aimed at making the service sector more efficient have also been implemented to some extent. For purely economic reasons, the same efficiency measures will also be introduced in the information sector. The number of people employed here will not continue to rise as quickly in the future. Nor will we be able to increase our information consumption very much in the future. The information must be more effective. We must analyse the factors that are important to the way information is designed, distributed, and perceived. Previously, information used to be produced by people who frequently had a vague idea about the objective and function of the information they were producing. In the future the production of information will probably be more objective-oriented. Several attempts have been made to make different kinds of “maps” or “models” of the media industry. These maps might be useful as tools for strategic planning for information businesses. It is by far not easy, or even possible; to make one single map that covers all aspects of the media industry. Thus, we have to work with a set of different maps at the same time. Such maps have been produced according to different criteria such as the needs of the users, time of delivery and number of receivers, growth of the information business, media evolution, and technical 183

development (several other possibilities may still remain). A few systems will be briefly mentioned here. We all have individual feelings towards media. Our media consumption depends upon factors such as interests and our perceived need for education, entertainment, information, and news. Our need for education, entertainment, information, and news can be visualized as areas partly covering each other. “Double” areas are the subjects of special interest for publishers since these areas are most likely to attract more attention from consumers than other areas. Thus, edutainment is education and entertainment. Infotainment is information and entertainment. Infocation is information and education. The BBC series about the life on earth by and with a noted naturalist is an example of a television program with elements covering all these needs. News is handled differently in different cultures. In the US news includes a good portion of entertainment. In Japan news is more related to education. In Sweden, news is related to information. In direct broadcasting, radio and television may reach a large number of receivers. Books and magazines may also reach many individuals, but much more time is needed. When Japanese researchers marked different media on a “time of delivery and number of receivers-map” in the 1980s they found empty areas, new segments for development. At that time videotex and other new media for telecommunication were developing fast to reach various market segments from a just a few to one thousand customers. McLaughlin and Birinyi (1980) developed “the information business map” at the Harvard University Center for Information Policy Research. The map is a rectangle in which the left side ranges from basic products like plain paper, file cabinets, and typewriters to various delivery services of parcels and mail. The bottom side of the map ranges from plain paper, and business forms to books. In the upper right corner, we find news services, financial services, advertising services, and professional services. All kinds of products and services related to the information 184

business are placed on the map according to their level of conduit–content, and product–service. Computers are in the middle of the map. The map is strikingly nice to look at. However, in my personal view, this model was not easy to use in practical work.

Media evolution chart In my view (Pettersson, 1983) we could view media from an evolutionary aspect, and I developed a “media evolution chart.” For many years the media situation had been very stable, only expanding a little bit each year. In 1950, we had live media, sound media, film media, broadcast media, models and exhibitions, graphical media and telecommunications media. In the 1970svideo developed into a new, competitive medium (between film media and broadcast media). At the same time the classical borders between the media groups began to dissolve. In 1982 several new technologies, most based on computers, and completely new media began developing. In 1982 I forecasted that demarcations would be even less pronounced in the future (the year 2000), and most media would interact and partly merge with each other.

In 1950, we had live media (1), sound media (2), film media (3), broadcast media (4), models and exhibitions (5), graphical media (6), and telecommunications media (7); the “leaves in the media flower.” In 1980 video was a new competitive medium (between film media and broadcast media). In 1982, several new technologies (black circles) and completely new media (white circles) began developing. By 2000 most media would interact and partly merge with each other (Pettersson, 1983). 185

Broadcast media Broadcast media include both audio and television services. Main products are radio, television, and data. Broadcast radio includes all kinds of radio, also alarm systems, and systems for military, and police. Broadcast television includes all kinds of television systems. Here data includes systems for mobile telephony. Computer media Computer media include fields such as digital conferences, expert systems, games, hypertext, Internet, multimedia, virtual reality, and WWW. Computer media may be found as parts of the other groups, especially in the telecommunications group. Film media Film media may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. Twodimensional film media include still pictures, like slides and overhead transparencies, and moving pictures, like school and training films. Three-dimensional pictures include still pictures, like auto stereo systems, and moving pictures, like systems with polarized light. Graphical media Graphical media are made using manual or technical methods. Drawings and paintings are manually produced images. Manuscripts are examples of manually produced text. Graphical media include groups of products like books, maps, pictures, printed matter, printed music, and security print. Books include groups like children’s books, comic books, fiction books, manuals, nonfiction books, periodic publications, reference books and textbooks. Different types of packaging often have printed pictures and text. The main task of packaging is obviously to enclose and protect the contents. Text and pictures often describe both what packaging contains and how the contents are used. Live media Live media are personal communications in all kinds of meetings like conferences, church ceremonies, lectures, and live music. In 186

oral presentations, the spoken word can be combined with body language, demonstrations, stills pictures, and even brief sequences employing moving images. Models and exhibitions Models and exhibitions are multidimensional. Here the depth dimension makes it possible to exhibit models and also real objects with an important spatial relationship. Acoustic media provides some idea of the chronology. Film and video contribute with courses of events, distinct processes, and movement. Lighting, smells, tastes, and texture can also be utilised. Sound media Sound media can be put into four groups that are based on the ways they can be used, and the technology involved. These four groups are audio tapes, firm memories, records, and sound cards, all with different characteristics. Telecommunications media Telecommunications media are able to transmit a wide variety of data and information. These media can be put into four groups: data, pictures, sound, and text. All groups have their specific characteristics. Since 1982 a tremendous amount of work has been done in technical laboratories around the world. This has resulted in a number of new techniques to produce traditional media, as well as many new media and new services. Video media Video media can be put into the two main groups still pictures and moving pictures. Both groups can be stored in systems with firm memories, videodiscs, video sheets, and videotapes. Video media provide a high level of information content in a simple-tounderstand form.

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The receivers In the receiving of a verbal and visual message, the receiver will use several processes and reception tools. The processes are influenced by reception principles. All receiver processes are influenced by prior experience in relation to age and gender, as well as by cultural, economic, historical, political, religious, and social factors. Such experiences will influence the selection processes, the mental processes, and the response processes. The influence of these factors has a major impact on how receivers relate to messages of different kinds, and on how meaning is constructed. This chapter includes the following main sections: Receiver processes, Finding information, and Media consumption.

Receiver processes The intended receivers of a message are sometimes referred to as “audiences,” “information interpreters,” or “demographic groups,” sometimes as “target groups,” or “target populations,” and sometimes as “users.” In extreme instances, some intended groups of receivers only consist of one or two individuals. Other groups, like a “general audience,” may at the same time include millions of people. However, most target groups are somewhere in between these extremes, but certainly a lot closer to the lower end of the continuum. Lifestyle is a term often used in advertising to describe groups of receivers on the basis of social and psychological factors. Psychologists and sociologists conduct comprehensive interview studies to elucidate the behaviour, expectations, needs, values and wishes of different groups. Some common target groups are different minorities, groups of adults, groups of children, groups of organisations, groups of pensioners, groups of teenagers, parents with small children, people in individual occupational categories, people with different levels of education, and the amorphous target group everybody. 188

The marketing industry has described the digital age of Facebook, Instagram, selfies, and YouTube as a visual economy (Kemp 2013). Many individuals are contributing to this visual economy every day (Adsanatham et al. 2013). It is important to have the clearest and most accurate picture possible of which of all the conceivable target groups senders are striving to reach with each message. The more information we have on a particular target group, the greater our ability to address the intended target group with our message, and thereafter be understood. See Smith and Ragan (2005) for an extensive discussion of the way different target groups are described! The receiver’s selection processes are influenced by selection principles and are performed with search and selection tools. Selection principles include areas such as a critical view and a natural suspiciousness with respect to the sender and the purpose of the message, an understanding of the role of media in society, available time, costs, credibility, cultural factors, ease of use, individual interests, language, personal needs, reading value, and socio-economic factors. Visuals have different purposes. This makes quite high demands on teachers as well as pupils and amplifies the requirement for a solid education in pictorial analysis and pictorial communications. The reader should always be keen to question what the artist, author, photographer, and the editorial staff intends with a picture. Why is the picture there? What is the function of the picture? What is the main message in the picture? Which are the secondary meanings? Which associations does the picture raise? All pictures can cause a discussion and be used to train the critical thinking of the students. We should discuss what the senders want to achieve with the pictures and how they can be used in different contexts. Receiver processes include search for information and selection of information. Search and selection tools include catalogues, computers, databases, and different kinds of indexes, directories, and libraries. The receiver’s mental processes are 189

influenced by attention, perception, and learning principles, and are performed with sensory organs and the nervous system. The interpretation of an intended message will be influenced by the experiences of the individual receiver. Often individuals will interpret the same representation in different ways. These principles include areas such as attention and perception, for example closure, common fate, constancy, context, continuity, contrast, figure and ground, objective set, principle of economy, proximity, similarity, and subliminal perception. Other principles concern processing, such as cue information theory, dual code memory model, and schema theory. Awareness and experience of the function of media in society are also important. Main mental processes include attention, perception, cognitive processing, application, reading, intellectual development, and understanding. The receiver’s response processes are influenced by principles and are performed with tools. Response principles include rules and guidelines, standards, and values. Response processes include application of knowledge, change of behaviour, and change of emotional status such as anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. In some situations, it is possible for receivers to provide the sender with feedback. This feedback may be of great value for the sender when updating the information material. However, in many situations it is not at all possible for the individual to give any feedback to the sender. Response tools include body language, verbal language, and visual language. When a message is internalized the receiver has a set of new emotions, new experiences, new feelings, new knowledge, or new understanding. The internalized message will influence the interpretation of new messages.

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Finding information Everyone has heard or read about the huge flow of information. There is often too much information, and may not be possible to find the information that we need. It is not always obvious where to look for information. This main section includes the following sections: Finding specific information, The information cone, Information navigation, and Navigation in hyperspace.

Finding specific information The possibility of finding specific information is much higher when we are interested in finding that information. When we browse through a newspaper, we will note those advertisements that we are interested in. In fact, we are seldom aware of the other advertisements in the paper. In an experiment, students taking a “Visual literacy-class” at the University of Stockholm were asked to write down the advertisements they could recall from the morning paper. Each year, only a few students could remember more than one or two advertisements so well that they could describe them in some detail. Using a systematic approach can increase the possibility of finding the information that we are interested in. Our previous experience can also guide us to look in the right place. We are good at remembering information we can relate to concrete, spatial concepts. One example is books in a library. We might remember that there is an interesting passage of text below a picture of a Unicorn in a big, red book on the second shelf, close to the door. This is, however, not very useful if we use Google and the Internet. Facts and information are most useful at exactly the time we need it. Information may be of no interest too early and too late. Thus, when we have access to information may be a very important factor. A daily paper quickly becomes out-of-date. Reading a three-days-old paper is usually not very interesting. We know that a text or a picture can give rise to many individual associations. People often make their own, individual 191

interpretations of a text or of an image. Why and how we make associations are not very well known. We know that context is an important factor. Studies of why and how we associate are important for making it possible to design information systems where we can find the right information when we need it. It is almost impossible to predict how people will react in each specific situation. There is an obvious risk that also multimedia-systems will be created according to traditional ways of structuring information for print media like books. Computer-based information systems have made it easier to find information, but there are also factors that can make it harder to find exactly the information we are interested in. One reason is that we associate words differently and give words different meanings depending on the context in which they appear. An example of this can be found in research on visual literacy. The Swedish word “bild” (visual, picture, image?) has seven different meanings in the Swedish language, and the word “färg” (colour, dye, hue?) has eight definitions. Thus, it is quite apparent that one may find a lot of superfluous information when searching for research papers in a bibliographic database. Furthermore, it can be almost impossible to know that we have found everything of interest to us after a search in a hypermedia or multimedia system. This is especially true for hypermedia systems since the information we want might be located in many different nodes in the web. Therefore, we must scan every information item in the database to ensure that we have not missed any important information of interest. This is often impractical or even impossible. Being able to execute search questions is thus desirable for hypermedia systems as a complement to browsing and navigation by pointing at various items in the display and clicking the right ones. It is important that the producer of a multimedia information system carefully plans which information to communicate, and how to communicate it.

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The information cone The amount of available information within different areas is growing every day. Research and development produce more information than ever before in our history. Some information is very important to us, some is correct but not at all interesting, and some information is wrong or even disinformation. This growth of available information can be described with a cone, the information cone, which is growing over time. When a subject matter is new, it is easy to have an overall view of all available information. Forty years ago, one person could have a good grasp of topics like “optical media” and “multimedia.” It is almost impossible to know everything that is going on within these areas. The need for new ways of navigating and browsing will increase when the amount of information grows, and it becomes easier and cheaper to store data and information. Design and colour signal different things. Typography and layout of text and pictures should be attractive and stimulate further reading. The graphic design should guide the reader and help her or him to access needed information. Graphical design for information has a clear focus on the primary message.

This is the information cone. Information within different areas is increasing rapidly. The information cone is growing. Some information is correct and very important to us (green circles), some is correct but not at all interesting (black), and some information is wrong or even disinformation (red). A good movie always starts with a clear presentation of the major elements of the story. The director knows that if the dramatic conflict is not clear, the story will appear meaningless and 193

boring to the audience. Clarity is one of the most important principles of filmmaking. The screenwriter must have a clear-cut idea of what the story is about; otherwise the resulting movie will be confusing. If the writer does not know the story, who does? A clear presentation of the subject matter is just as important in a multimedia system as in a movie. If the user does not understand right from the start what is going on, s/he can totally lose interest and/or get very confused. Even though many multimedia systems are not centred around a dramatic story line, there is a need to state the purpose of the system clearly and to make it clear which information the user can expect to find, where it can be found, and how it can be found. The greater freedom of a multimedia system makes it even more important that every part of the system brings the user forward towards the goal: finding the information s/he wants (Wahlman and Kindborg, 1991). Using more than one of our senses can enhance our experience, perception and understanding of a message, and make it easier to form a conceptually complete model of a topic. A general view can make it easier to understand detailed information. Multiple perspectives are also important. Rain, for instance, is not just an abstract meteorological phenomenon, we can feel it, it tastes and it sounds a special way, and it brings life to plants and animals. Many media can only convey limited “aspects” of the total information. Multimedia allows us to use all our senses and view information from different perspectives, which can improve understanding. Furthermore, the interactivity of computer-based media may inspire a passive observer to become an active explorer. Whether we actually succeed in finding the information we need is dependent on how interested we are in finding it, where and when we look for the information, associations we make, graphical design, presentation technique, and our experience.

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Information navigation It is possible to distinguish between different categories of variables, or “dimensions,” related to navigation, browsing, and search for information in multimedia systems, as well as in other information systems. Navigation is a goal driven search for some specific information, usually in a database or in a multimedia system. Navigation is a combination of visual, “human” browsing and computer-based search. Browsing is a rather ad hoc, random way for a visual, “human,” search for information. We can browse through information stored in a database in a way that is similar to browsing through a book, a newspaper, or an encyclopaedia. Search is a systematic computer-based search for information in a database using an exactly specified concept or search question. Pettersson and Kindborg (1991) discussed four dimensions: 1. Type of search and how to find information: from a regulated and restricted search to an unregulated and flexible search. 2. Experience and perception of information: from a directed and intended to a free and associative experience and perception. 3. Structure and organization of information: from linear positions in a defined order to non-linear positions in a flexible structure. 4. Type of signs and code-system for representation of information: from abstract alphanumeric characters, letters and figures to images.

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The four dimensions: 1) Type of search, 2) Experience, 3) Structure, and 4) Type of sign, form axes with a common centre. The terminal points are noted in the illustration (red). Every specific representation, for example a film or a multimedia system, can be categorized by assigning a value for each of the above four dimensions. If we connect the positions (dots) representing the values on each dimension, we will get an information navigation diagram, which shows the characteristics for that particular medium or representation.

Here are four examples of information navigation diagrams: 1) A bibliographic database, 2) An interactive videodisc, 3) A hypermedia system, and 4) A traditional newspaper. 1. Type of search The “Type of search-dimension” is based on man-machine interaction and restricted by systems design, technology, and computer software. Between the terminal points “regulated and restricted search” and “unregulated and flexible search,” there are 196

systems which can be characterized as hybrid systems. Bibliographic databases, hypertext systems, electronic encyclopaedias on CD-ROM and CD-I, daily papers, video programs, computer games, and expert systems, can be used as examples for illustrating the “Type of search-dimension.” Moving up the scale the systems become more unregulated and flexible. Regulated search Regulated and restricted search was the first type of search to be used in any database system. One classical example is databases containing bibliographic information about articles and books). These systems require the use of precisely stated search strings. A search string may be the name of author, the title of book, the name of publisher, an address, etc. If we search for one of my books and write my name as “Rune Pettersson” we will not be able to find books listed as “Pettersson, Rune.” Here the order of the names is important. Usually, there are also severe limitations on the number of fields which can be searched for, and also the number of characters in each field. Each search object has to be specified exactly in the correct field. Hybrid systems Several publishers have published their encyclopaedias on CDROM and CD-I. It is usually possible to search for names or titles, but it is also possible to do free-text search in the complete body of text, and to search for combinations of words, expressions, and combinations of words. In addition, the user can browse through sections of the text and copy interesting parts to a “note-pad.” This information can be printed or imported to various wordprocessing systems and used in new texts. Many CD-ROM discs can store both still images and animated sequences. However, since it is not possible to search for patterns or iconic structures in an image, one has to do an alphanumeric search for words in the captions for keywords in a special picture index, or illustrators index. 197

Unregulated search Medical expert systems for diagnosis of diseases are one category of database systems where one usually can search for information with great flexibility. Search is unregulated and flexible, allowing use of synonyms and even broad terms and concepts. The structure of an expert system is usually non-linear. The experience is usually directed and intended, though in more flexible systems experience is likely to be “more free,” and associative. In addition, expert systems might allow the user to search for images and various iconic signs. We can expect rapid developments in expert systems technologies. 2. Experience The “Experience-dimension” is based on the functions of human perception and our possibilities to experience the contents of the actual message. In many information systems, experience of information is somewhere between the terminal points “directed and intended” and “free and associative.” Movies and TV-programs, video-programs, expert systems, hypertext systems, daily papers, interactive video-programs, hypermedia-programs, computer games, music, fiction, and poetry can be used for illustrating the “Experience-dimension.” Moving up the scale the systems provide more of “free and associative.” Directed experience Movies as well as TV-programs and radio-programs are presented from the beginning all the way to the resolution at the end. In fact, movies used to conclude with the text “THE END.” Thus, the search possibility is regulated and restricted. If we want to study a particular scene in the movie, we will have to wait until it is shown. Our experience of the contents in a movie, a TV-program or a radio-program is to a large extent directed and intended. The directors and the producers are in complete control of the order and of the way the information is presented to us). As viewers, we are restricted to choose between watching and not watching the program. This is the case for programs intended for 198

education, information as well as for entertainment. Still, we can associate freely, and different people often make different interpretations of the same program. The location on the dimension axis is a bit away from the terminal point. The structure of a movie is linear. When looking for information we usually look for different images or sequences of images, but occasionally we can also search for a text passage or one or more pieces of music. Hybrid systems In contrast to film and television, video-systems makes it possible to freely scan forward and backwards, study pictures frame by frame, repeat interesting segments of a videotape or videodisc, or pass uninteresting parts (illustrations below). Here navigation is rather unregulated, totally linear, and based on visual browsing of images. Video can be characterized as closer to directed and intended than free and associative experience. Interactive video allows for a much more free and associative experience than videocassettes. Interactive video often incorporates techniques used in hypermedia systems, like navigation by pointing directly at images and words on the display screen. Thus, navigation is accomplished using a combination of images and alphanumeric signs. It is also possible to access information in a non-linear way. The contents, however, are often made up of a number of linear sequences or scenes. Optical laser discs make it possible to quickly access video segments. The computer software can be stored on a floppy disc, apart from the video information. When editing films and videotapes, we can use frame numbers and time codes to create a table of contents for the program consisting of numeric and verbal information. Thus, using a computer we can search for alphanumeric information in addition to the visual search for images.

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Free and associative experience The only true, free and associative experience is caused by reality itself. All representations of reality introduce some kind of restriction on our experience. However, associative multimedia systems have the potential for creating a relatively free and associative experience. Computer games are an example of a medium with very free and associative experience. The structure of a computer game can vary between linear and non-linear. Navigation is often relatively unregulated, and images are common in graphical adventure games. Fiction, poetry and music, all have a very high potential for free and associative experience. Our imagination is not restricted by existing visual images. 3. Structure The “Structure-dimension” is based on the actual organization of the information. There are several hybrids of linear and non-linear organization of information. Videotex, videodiscs, hypertext, papers, hypermedia, interactive multimedia systems, and expert systems can be used for illustrating the “Structure-dimension.” Linear structure Novels, radio-programs, audiocassettes, records, movies, and TV-programs are examples of linear media. The information is organized with a beginning, a main story, and a resolution. Tree structures Videotex systems, and other menu driven database systems, organize information in hierarchic tree structures. The user navigates by traversing the tree. In order to switch to a different branch, one usually has to move all the way back through the structure, and then go deeper into the structure again. The experience of the information is directed and intended, and navigation is regulated. Even though it is possible to have simple images in videotex systems, navigation is based on the use of alphanumeric characters.

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Semi-linear structure In a hypertext system, the text is organized into a web of nodes that are connected with links. Each node contains some text. There can be one or more links from one node to other nodes. Thus, the text can be structured into different layers, all with detailed definitions, explanations, and other kinds of information. Hypermedia systems also incorporate animations, sound, still images, and video into the nodes. Navigation in hypermedia systems is less regulated than the navigation in hypertext systems. Still, navigation is restricted to the pre-defined structure of nodes and links. However, experience can be relatively free and associative if the systems are well designed. To some extent it is possible to browse through hypermedia systems and look for images. However, any computer-based search is based on alphanumeric characters and not on iconic signs. Non-linear structure Hypermedia and expert systems might allow for almost totally non-linear structures. The user would then not be restricted by pre-defined structures, and thus be able to navigate freely between different nodes with information. 4. Type of signs The “Type of signs-dimension” is a “language-dimension” or “code-system” based on the signs used to represent the information with respect to storage, search, and display. Bibliographic databases, expert systems, hypermedia, papers, videodiscs, computer games, industrial robots, film and TV, cruise missiles, and image databases can be used for illustrating this dimension. Alphanumeric signs Traditional database systems are usually based on alphanumeric characters. It is possible to search for text strings and numbers. In an image database, e.g. on a videodisc some images are usually assigned key words and other alphanumeric information, which

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can later be used to find a particular image. However, it is impossible to search for iconic signs, structures in an image. Combinations of different signs When we browse through a paper, an encyclopaedia, or a hypermedia system, we navigate using a combination of alphanumeric information (headings and subheadings) and pictorial information. An interesting observation with respect to browsing, is that when we browse through a paper, we might find information that catch our interest, but is not at all what we primarily were looking for. Thus, browsing can result in “bonus” information. The positions for the different dimensions are very much located at the centre (below) if we use an information navigation diagram to categorize a paper. Image recognition In 1980, a total of 100.000 industrial robots were used worldwide. Since then the number has grown rapidly every year. Most industrial robots are used for assembling parts or sorting parts in some kind of factory. Image recognition technology has made it possible for robots to identify objects and to detect errors, such as misplaced parts. Robots have regulated search and operate in linear patterns. It is not possible to discuss an experience dimension of a robot. Digital maps Missiles, like cruising missiles, navigate by comparing radar-images, TV-images, and satellite data with stored, digital maps. Thus, the computer system of a missile works with information representing images and iconic signs. Search is likely to be relatively unregulated, and the structure is probably non-linear rather than linear. The computer systems are advanced and have to work very fast. Images Searching for visual structures in a database is still not very practical, but research in image recognition and image processing will 202

probably make this kind of search more common in new systems. One example is medical information system for detection of cancer cells. Another useful application is searching in image databases for illustrations. Information navigation summary Whether we succeed in finding the information we need, is dependent on how interested we are in finding it, where and when we look for the information, associations we make, graphical design, presentation technique, and our experience. We can identify several dimensions, or categories, which can be used to classify navigational characteristics of information systems. An information navigation diagram showing these dimensions can tell us how different media are related to each other. The diagram can be used both for analysing existing information systems, and for predict the characteristics of new systems. In an ideal information system, it is easy to browse, navigate, and search for information. Such a system should have unregulated search, free and associative experience, and make it possible to navigate in a non-linear structure. It should be possible to search using both images and alphanumeric characters.

Navigation in hyperspace Hypertext is text, not constrained to be linear, containing links to other texts within a document or between documents. Quite often hypertext documents and hypertext structures also include pictures. Hypermedia, or “multimedia hypertext,” may include text, graphics, sound and video. The links are usually indicated with “anchors,” special areas in a text or on a display. Clicking the mouse on an anchor causes the link to be followed to the anchor at the other end. After a while it is quite easy to get totally lost among the information, and among the documents stored in a hypertext structure. Many readers may find the hypertext and hypermedia disorienting and difficult to navigate through.

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The interest in hypertext systems other than the WWW has decreased during the last years. Around the world software designers are trying to create systems that combine the unique capabilities of computers and the human capabilities of understanding complex information structures. It seems to be a good idea to use a structure that is already familiar to the readers. The structure of a library, the departments, the bookcases, the bookshelves, the books on the shelves, the chapters in the books, and the sections in the chapters may be recommended in many cases. For large hypertext or hypermedia structures one or more indexes may be the best way to access information. Since any page in such a system may be printed on paper it is essential that each page include the necessary administrative data such as the company logo, the name of department, the document number, revision status, revision date, name of persons responsible for the contents, and name of persons responsible for the approval of the information, and security class.

Media consumption In the industrialized, cultural sphere, we are living in mass-media societies. Every day we are bombarded with information via the media, at home, in school, on the job, and in the society in general. It is rather hard to avoid information and just as hard to obtain the “right” information, the information that we need at the right time. Audio, text, and visuals compete for our attention. It is possible that we miss the information in which we are really interested. In addition to radio, TV, books, newspapers, and magazines, vast amounts of information are distributed in the form of letters, advertising throwaways, posters, placards, stencils, photocopies and photographs. This main section includes the following sections: Media consumption vary, Specialized market segments, and Media developments.

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Media consumption vary Media consumption vary considerably in different parts of the world, and in different groups. Media consumption is depending on many factors like these: • • • • • • • • •

Competition with new media and other activities. Costs. Cultural differences. Different needs of education, entertainment, and information during various periods in a person’s life. Different usage of the media at home, in school, and at work. Ease of use. Individual interests. Socioeconomic factors. Technical developments.

As previously noted the average US adult is exposed to over 500 advertising messages daily, of which s/he consciously perceives around 75 (Key, 1977). Well-established media will meet a lot of competition. Will people read books in the future? Will people listen to the radio? We have different profiles for media-consumption during our lives.

Specialized market segments We can hardly define one single media market. Instead there is a vast amount of specialized markets, or market segments. These market segments are dependent on factors such as: • • • • • • •

Different needs of education, entertainment, and information during various periods in a person’s life. Different usage of the media, at home, in school, and at work. Different user groups and needs. Geographical and political situations. Hardware, equipment and services, sales, rental. Languages. Populations and demographic data. 205

• • • •

Software, production, distribution, sales, rental. Technology trends. The information economy. Trade and customs regulations.

A specific market may be considered very large for one medium but at the same time minor for another medium. Obviously, the characteristics and the economics of different media are extremely different. It may be worthwhile to produce a newsletter as an on-line database-service for a few hundred subscribers but not possible to produce a spectacular superstar movie for less than millions of viewers. The activities needed to enhance the possible net profit per copy are different for various groups. For private media, a solution may be to get more customers. For mass-market media the producers should get better margins. It might be forecasted that the information economy will take an increasing part of the total economy in the future. Finance and business markets Finance and business markets are time critical. Services demand “real-time” communication. They may be available on demand or include an alerting service. These services will be concerned with financial matters such as stocks and shares, commodity trading, etc. Non-time-critical services will include a series of browsing and alerting services similar in purpose to the traditional newsletter-type publications. Media such as digital discs, electronic mail, Internet, and Intranet may supply these services. In-house publications such as manuals will be increasingly presented in electronic form, with greater interactivity and better quality of reproduction and presentation. Professional markets Professional markets have restricted and selective applications and special subject areas. Services are likely to grow out of existing requirements in answer to specific needs and will include 206

provisions of specialist information and data, fast updating, current awareness, software packages, complex information retrieval, and research dissemination linked to Internet and Intranet. The services may be provided by commercial umbrella information providers, professional organizations, or commercial publishers, and are likely to be mounted on host computers accessible via telecommunication networks or supplied on portable machine-readable files such as tapes and discs. Education markets Education markets have a number of features that are important to communication media. One of the most important is the degree of interactivity that is offered between modern digital/electronic media, traditional teaching materials, and the users. Others include the variety of media and the ability to deliver the information content where and when it is required. All kinds of electronic media must be expected to provide an increasingly important supporting role. Typical services and products will include books with machine-readable sections, modular material, audio tapes and discs, video tapes and discs, mixed media productions, personal computer software, authoring languages to enable teachers to prepare their own material, and on-line computer-based training. In further education, distance-learning facilities are important. Programmed learning and fault-finding routines, computer-based learning, television programs linked to other facilities such as software, simulation exercises, and teleconferencing with tutors will provide these. Consumer and leisure markets Consumer and leisure markets are expanding rapidly. A key marketing concept in new media is to create products that will stimulate consumers into buying, or sometimes renting, the necessary hardware. The organization and networking facilities will differ from country to country. Local or regional news and information services will emerge covering news stories, travel information, guidance on local authority services, advertising, 207

entertainment, shopping, and more. Relevant media are Internet and versions of cable TV.

Media developments It is unlikely that we will be able to spend as much time on the media in the future as in the past. Economic trends suggest that there is unlikely to be any scope for major cost rises, in addition to inflation, for the mass media in the next few years. So, new media will have to compete with the media already in existence. Now people all over the world are receiving far more audio-visual information than at any other time in history. And people working in audio-visual communications are striving to help people communicate, educate, train, and inform. Media likely to decline in relative importance are advertising throwaways, certain books, magazines, newspapers, posters, radio, television, and traditional AV media. Media likely to predominate are different digital telecom services, cable TV, satellite TV, and various computer services like Internet, Intranet, and virtual reality. Most media may be under voice-actuated, or image-actuated control, making it unnecessary to have complicated routines to enter information via keyboards. In 1985, I predicted the following long-range changes: 1. 2. 3. 4.

A transition from products to services. An increasing degree of segmentation. Increasing flexibility. Increasing competition for the individual consumer’s time and money. 5. Gradual disappearance of demarcations between different media. 6. Development of new media and new techniques through “hybridization.” 7. Replacement of the different systems currently available by one international, integrated digital telecommunications system. 208

8. Development of a single world standard for TV. 9. Increasing copyright problems. As we can see some of this has already happened, and the rest will probably follow.

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Research and study The study of message design is a broad area with contacts to several other areas of research. Many studies have mainly dealt with various aspects of verbal information in different media. Quite often pictures and images in the messages have been overlooked and forgotten. In many cases researchers have dealt with the text but not with the pictures. This chapter includes the following main sections: Research methods, and Study perspectives.

Research methods Message design has a practical as well as a theoretical component. The same is true for architecture, dance, economics, education, engineering, fine arts, journalism, medicine, music and theatre. In these disciplines, it is a major and difficult challenge to find a “good balance” between the “theoretical work” and the “practical work.” This main section includes the following sections: Applied research, A research process, Other research methods, and Creating a leverage effect.

Applied research In my own work, the goal has been to study the presentation of visual and verbal messages in information and learning contexts in order to gain a better understanding of the conditions related to the design, use, and interpretation of such information. Most of my own work has been related to audience interpretation and perception of verbal and visual messages, to visual literacy and to the question of a visual language and its representations. Lupton (2009, p. 6) noted: “Theory is all about the question “why?” The process of becoming a designer is focused largely on “how.” According to Palmer (1999, p. 46) a theory is an integrated set of statements (hypotheses) about underlying mechanisms or principles that not only organizes and explains known facts, but also makes predictions about forthcoming information 210

and news. A theory conceptualises diverse phenomena and systematises our knowledge about them. A theory illustrates how and why something is as it is. For the purpose of this book I have used the following definition. A theory is a branch of art, design or science that deals with methods, principles, and proposed explanations that are still subject to experimentation. A theory illustrates how and why something is as it is. A workable theory requires adequate knowledge of the specific discipline. Practice is performance or execution, as opposed to theory; custom or habit; systematic exercise for instruction; training; exercise of a profession. In established disciplines research is often based on one of many well-known theories. Researchers formulate new hypotheses and follow reliable processes for research. Sometimes results from research can be used to formulate principles. This may not be possible in brand new disciplines. Unfortunately, new disciplines may not have any established facts, hypotheses, methods, or postulates, and no theories.

Theories –> Hypotheses –> Research –> –> Results –> Principles –> Guidelines–> –> Improved design processes Findings and results from information design research can be used to formulate design principles. These principles are the fundamental sources for development of normative design guidelines. Improved design processes may result in better information materials and better communication. The study of information design is a broad area with contacts to several other areas of research. Historically many communication and language studies have mainly dealt with various aspects of verbal information presented in many different media. In the past pictures and images in the messages have quite often been overlooked and “forgotten.” In many cases researchers have 211

dealt with the text but not at all with the pictures. Thus, research on combined verbal and visual communication has had no “natural home.” Now information design has the ability to fill this gap. Findings and results from research in information design can be used to formulate design principles. These principles are the fundamental sources for development of guidelines. As previously noted a guideline is normative and aims to streamline design processes and practical work according to a set routine. Guidelines may be issued by, and used by, any organization to make actions more predictable, and of higher quality. By definition it should not be mandatory to follow a guideline. It is, however, mandatory to follow guidelines in many organizations. According to Batley (2007) evaluation research in information design may be approached as follows: 1) Experimental, 2) Goal orientation, 3) Responsive, and 4) User orientation. So far research in information design has often been oriented to solve distinct practical problems related to specific applications, rather than oriented to any known or unknown theory. Researchers are using a large number of different research methods in research on art and aesthetics disciplines, cognitive disciplines, communication disciplines, design disciplines, information disciplines, and language disciplines. It is only natural that several research methods are used in information design. Some research methods are based on deduction, and some on induction. Some researchers use qualitative methods, and some use quantitative methods. Nijhuis and Boersema (1999) studied the forms for co-operation between researchers in behavioural science and practicing graphic designers. They noted that it was not only possible to construct congruent strategic models of the two occupations, but it was also shown that the corresponding tactics were remarkably similar. Differences in attitudes towards time and money only existed at the operational level, where specific skills and methods are used to achieve intermediate results. 212

Researchers are using a large number of different research methods in research on language, art and aesthetics, information, communication, behaviour and cognition, business and media production technology–the “base disciplines.” It is only natural that several research methods are used in information design. The study of presentation of verbal and visual messages is a multi-disciplinary, multi-dimensional and worldwide consideration. Information literacy, visual language, visual literacy, perception and learning are important concepts.

To a large extent research in message design consists of applied research. The results may be new guidelines, which will be evaluated. Research in information design has a pragmatic perspective on different kinds of knowledge. Each research problem needs its specific research method. New findings are tested and the results are confirmed in different situations and environments. Research in information includes analysis of the problem, planning, study of literature, collection of data, analysis of data, interpretation and discussion, and publishing of a final report. To describe research in message design we may use words like flexibility, creativity and practical testing in both experimental and real-life settings. Working with research in message design is a challenging occupation partly due to this complexity. 213

Research in message design has a pragmatic perspective on knowledge. New findings are tested and the results are confirmed in different situations and environments. To a large extent research in message design consists of applied research. Critically selected results from other research may often be used as a starting point. It is possible to create guidelines for the production of effective information and learning materials. Evaluation of the use of these materials provides useful information for further studies.

A research process Research in message design is a challenging occupation, partly due to this complexity. It has a pragmatic perspective on knowledge. New findings are tested and the results are confirmed in different situations and different environments. Each specific research problem needs its specific research method. A process for research in information design always starts with the subprocess: 1) Analysis of the problem or the situation. The following sub-processes are 2) Planning and manning the project, 3) Study of special literature, 4) Collection of data, 5) Analysis of data, 6) Interpretation and discussion, and 7) Publishing. Study of literature is a parallel activity throughout the whole research process. A process for research in message design is the foundation for a certain stability and quality. Project planning; study of literature, collection of data, and analysis of data, interpretation and discussion, and publishing of the final report follow this sub-process. A process for research in message design is the foundation for a certain stability and quality. Quite often we need to disregard traditional praxis within the “base disciplines” and dare create new research methods that are exactly designed to fulfil the needs of the information design problem at hand. We need to be able to collect such data that are necessary to answer the research questions in each specific case. Obviously, this may include certain risks and it may be rather 214

complicated. However, it is necessary, in order not to get caught in dead ends.

This picture shows my research process for applied research in information design. The seven sub-processes between the formulation of a problem (P) and a finished report (R) are: 1) Analysis of the problem, 2) Planning the project, 3) Study of literature, 4) Collection of data, 5) Analysis of data, 6) Interpretation and discussion, and 7) Publishing. Study of literature is a parallel activity throughout the whole research process.

Other research methods Research in message design may be described in terms of flexibility when it comes to selection of methods. The researcher selects the most suitable methods depending on the project characteristics, such as research question, knowledge areas and purpose. This aspect calls on flexibility in mind and handling. The research activity is creative in several aspects. The greatest influence of a creative approach seems to occur mostly in the beginning of the project. The amount of influence seems to decrease as the project evolves. This may be due to the fact that more guidelines are taken into consideration as the project becomes more concrete. Analysis and performance are woven together but does not occur at the same time. In order to distinguish between academic research and practical and artistic work in the design of artefacts Simon introduced the concept “science of design” in 1969 (Margolin, 2002, p. 235). According to Cross (2001) science of design is the scientific

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analysis of the design activities performed via scientific methods. Every design discipline has a theoretical and a practical part. We only need to study conference proceedings and journals in order to understand that researchers around the world are using a large number of different research methods in their research on language, art and aesthetics, information, communication, behaviour and cognition, business and media production technologies. It is only natural to expect that several research methods are used in message design research. Research in information design included many different research methods. Some are based on deduction, some on induction. Some research methods use qualitative methods, and some use quantitative methods. Nijhuis and Boersema (1999) made similar observations when they studied co-operation between researchers in behavioural science and graphic designers. They noted that it was not only possible to construct congruent strategic models of the two disciplines, but it was also shown that the corresponding tactics were remarkably similar. Differences in attitudes towards time and money only existed at the operational level, where specific skills and methods are used to achieve intermediate results. Dyson (2017) proposed a set of six categories that encompass various research methods within information design. These categories are: 1) Historical accounts, 2) Application of frameworks, 3) Heuristics or expert opinions, 4) Diagnostic testing, 5) User research, and 6) Research studies. It may be concluded that the study of information design and the presentation of verbal and visual messages is a multi-disciplinary, multi-dimensional and worldwide consideration. Information literacy, visual language, visual literacy, perception and learning are important concepts. We should not only use one or a few accepted research methods in information design. We should use the research methods that are needed in order to answer the research questions in each specific case.

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Creating a leverage effect In any new academic discipline and in any new specific area of knowledge it is hard to create a basic and unanimously shared and common body of knowledge (Pettersson 2007b). What can we do to start the process? What can we do to boost research in a specific area of knowledge? A new area of research may engage a number of individual researchers. However, these researchers may typically be working in several different parts of the world. Furthermore, they may be working individually on their own projects and their own research problems. Most of these researchers may not have any contacts at all with other researchers with similar interests. Some researchers may, however, occasionally have some cooperation with one or more other researchers. All individual researchers produce their own papers and various reports. Typically, they have a hard time to find somewhere to publish their results. This is especially true for new academic disciplines and new areas of knowledge with no or limited prior traditions. Existing scientific journals often hesitate to publish the results generated by these researchers, scattered around the globe. It is also hard to distribute new findings and it will take a long time to build a common body of knowledge. Not many people will be able to read these papers. Obviously, the quality of these individual papers may be quite different. Since everything is new there are no systems for peer reviews. As a result, some of the papers may only have a very limited value. But, again, not many people will be able to read these papers. When a group of people with similar research interests meet, one of them may come up with the idea of organizing a meeting, a seminar or even a conference. This may be the beginning of a “special interest group,” a “SIG,” within an already existing organization. It may also, in fact, be the beginning of a new organization. When this group of people decide to study a common theme and present their findings at a future meeting they suddenly introduce a very strong way to boost research in this specific and selected area. 217

We have seen many times in business as well as in academia, that this may be a very good way to start work within a new area of knowledge, not yet developed. Organizing a conference may mean that 15, 20, 25 or even more people will focus on the same theme and the same problem at the same time. This is likely to result in an important “leverage” which may facilitate a major advancement in the area. Suddenly it is possible to get a combined and strong movement that may result in a major step forward. First of all, the people that are invited to the conference will produce a large amount of new knowledge. The economic value of this may be substantial. During the actual conference, it is possible for all researchers to get some feedback on their research. It is also possible to meet other people with similar interests and start new research projects. This is a quite common result. After the conference, it is important to produce some kind of documentation. It is important to make this documentation available for those with an interest in the area. When such a conference is successful, it is natural to discuss a new theme, but also to organize a subsequent conference. Next time there may be even better focused papers. Then some of the papers will be produced by groups of researchers. The area of research may gradually grow and possibly also drop off new areas.

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Study perspectives Message design is such a broad area. It is a good idea to study it from different perspectives, such content perspective, communication perspective, context perspective, design perspective, knowledge perspective, and representation perspective. It is important that the intended receivers are able to understand the intended content in any information set. A content perspective includes several types of information, such as: administrative documentation, brief messages, factual information, informative entertainment, and instructions. We could also include advertising and propaganda as well as teaching aids in this group. In information design, some studies are concentrated on the way a representation should be designed in order to achieve optimum communication between the sender and the receiver. We can study the whole communications process, for example with respect to economic or social aspects. We can also study the sender and the processes for producing an original, master, and edition. We need to study representations and the relationships of the message and media. How do the receivers understand and react to verbal and visual messages? The context in which a message is presented has a major impact on the way that the message is perceived. For example, the context may consist of music, and sound effects. A context perspective on information design includes the internal context (inner context), the external context (with close context and social context), and a personal context. Each context will influence the interpretation of the message. When our readers and listeners get the “wrong impression” it may be very hard to change this later on. Thus, it is important to design and prepare presentations for each specific situation. A design perspective, or an execution perspective includes graphic design, image design, light design, sound design, spatial design (or expo and event design), text design, and time design (the ability to deliver information when the user needs it). 219

Like architecture, dance, economics, education, engineering, fine arts, journalism, medicine, music and theatre, information design and message design have a practical as well as a theoretical component. Like the two faces of a coin, infography and infology are important areas in a knowledge perspective. A third area of knowledge is called infodidactics, the special methods that are used for education and for teaching the various aspects of information design. A representation can be designed in many ways. Based on how the verbal information is presented to the receivers, we can distinguish between three main types of verbal and visual representations (Pettersson, 1989, 1993). We read the printed words in lexi-visual representations, such as messages printed in a book or messages displayed on a computer screen. We listen to the spoken words in audio-visual representations, such as oral presentations with computer-generated images, and in television programmes. We read printed words and listen to spoken words in a combination of lexi-visual and audio-visual representations in combined representations, such as interactive multimedia systems.

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ID Library At the beginning of this millennium there was a huge lack of textbooks for the new academic discipline Information Design. At that time, I wrote some research papers, and also some basic texts about communication, design, and information. Already in 2002 John Benjamins Publishing Company published my book Information Design, An introduction in Amsterdam and Philadelphia. This was useful, but it was not enough. Of course, also, other people contributed with research papers, and after some time also with textbooks. Since I retired, 1 January 2009, I have continued working with research at the Institute for Infology. I have developed an Information Design Library with 12 e-books. These e-books include 3 650 pages, and together they constitute my digital Information Design Library, something I really wanted to have for my own teaching many years ago. • • • • • • • • • • • •

Message Design. ID Theories. Text Design. Image Design. Using Images. Reuse in Art and Design. Graphic Design. Cognition. Learning. Predecessors and Pioneers. It Depends. ID Concepts.

All these books are available at ResearchGate at: < https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rune_Pettersson >

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Appendix: Main concepts Many concepts may have diffused and sometimes even multiple meanings. For the purpose of this book I have used the following brief descriptions of main concepts related to languages and text design. Here these concepts are sorted in alphabetical order: Administrative documentation include agendas (for meetings), calendars, directives (on work tasks), distribution lists, electronic mail, letters, lists (of various kinds), memos, minutes, summonses to meetings, and tables. Administrative principles is the name of one of the four groups of message design principles. This category of principles includes four design principles: information access, information costs, information ethics, and securing quality. Advertising is generally regarded as the means for persuasion. Advertising presents positive images. It speaks to the heart as well as the head. When a message is repeated often enough, we may lose our ability to be analytical and critical about it. Advertising literacy refers to: 1) An analytical concept, 2) The individual’s ability and skill of observation, recognition and understanding commercial messages, and 3) Directions for planning of advertising. Aesthetic principles is one of the four groups of message design principles. It includes aesthetic proportion, and harmony. Aesthetic proportion is very subjective. We may all have different ideas of what we find beautiful and rewarding, and what we find boring, distracting, disturbing or ugly. When a design is out of proportion it may be disproportionate, exaggerated or overemphasized. Classical formats are based on the proportions of the golden rectangle (3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc.) and the golden section (1:1.618). Aesthetic value of a message is how the intended receivers perceive it with respect to its beauty. Material with a (sufficiently) pleasing form has greater potential for conveying a particular message than does non-aesthetic material. 251

Aliasing is a visual effect that occurs on a computer’s visual display screen whenever the detail in the image exceeds the available resolution. Analog signals may be continuously varied. So far, computers cannot process these signals, they must be converted to digital. Analysis is the first sub-process in the actual writing of a text. It is important to define the problem during an introductory analysis and planning phase. Applied research. To a large extent research in message design consists of applied research. This research has a pragmatic perspective on knowledge. New findings are tested and the results are confirmed in different environments and situations. Audio-visual instruction is more or less an obsolete term. Scholars of the 1920s and 1930s followed prevalent theoretical and methodological trends in educational psychology. Augmented Reality (AR) is an interactive experience of a realworld environment. Some real objects are “augmented” by computer-generated virtual objects. AR brings components of the digital world into a person’s perception of the real world. Bit is a place in a binary, on or off, represented by 1 or 0. Bits are arranged in groups of eight. Brief messages includes information, instructions, prohibitions, and warnings. Information can be impressed or printed on machinery and signs, in the form of letters, symbols, and words. Useful messages are supplied in traffic, e.g. on route signs. Other examples are emergency signals, such as flares or signal rockets. Byte is a unit of data made up of eight bits. Bytes are commonly used to represent alphanumeric characters from 0 to 255. CAD/CAM is short for computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing. CD-ROM is a compact disk-read only memory. This is a storage system with large capacity. Central Processing Unit, CPU, is the part of a computer system that contains the circuits that control and execute all data. 252

Cognitive principles, a group of design principles for information and message design including: 1) Facilitating attention, 2) Facilitating perception, 3) Facilitating processing, and 4) Facilitating memory. Communication. In information design focus is on clarity of communication of data, information and instruction. All messages must be accurately designed, produced and distributed, and later correctly interpreted and understood by most members of the intended audience. Communication design may be seen as the effective presentation of ideas in any media. It examines the role of the designer as a strategic architect/visual translator in producing language systems that focus on appropriateness, meaning, and the intended end user. Communication can be judged successful only when it conveys the information it sets out to convey. Communication disciplines include disciplines and research areas, such as advertising, cultural studies, gender studies, human-computer interaction, journalism, media studies, mediated communication, planned communication, technology of instruction, and many more. Communication models. Many information and communication theorists have devised models to explain the way the communications process operates. Several activities are involved when an intended message is communicated from a sender to a receiver and received as an internalized message. These processes are guided by principles, performed with the help of tools and influenced by the social context. Competence areas. In large projects there are use for different skills, such as project manager, subject matter manager, project secretary, sub-project leaders, subject matter experts, technical writers, technical editors, translators, information brokers, graphics editors, photographers, illustrators, fine art artists, reviewers, linguistic consultants, terminology experts, pedagogues, graphic designers and web-masters. In a small project it is usually not possible to employ a large number of experts. Also in small projects we need to organise various reviews. 253

Defining the problem. During an introductory analysis and planning phase it is possible to organize the work, analyse the sender, analyse the intended receiver, analyse the intended message, and select a suitable medium. The main goal in information design is clarity of communication. Design is: 1) The identification of a problem and the intellectual process (verb) of an originator, manifesting itself in plans and specifications to solve the problem. 2) The result (noun) and outcome of a design process. Design family. See Design science. Design genus. See Design science. Design judgments represent a key dimension in any design process. It is not founded on any strict rules of reasoning, often dependent on the individuals experienced consequences of previous design choices. Design motto. Today’s design motto is very much: “function can take any form.” This phrase is an adaptation of the famous rule: “form follows function.” Design perspective, or execution perspective, of message design and information design includes 1) text design, 2) image design, 3) shape design, 4) sound design, 5) light design, 6) spatial design (expo and event), and 6) time design (the ability to deliver information when the user needs it). Design philosophy. See Design science. Design rule. There is one information design rule: “Respect copyright, and other laws and regulations related to information.” Design science is a large field of academic education, research, and training. There are common problem areas regardless of what we design. In a common terminology, the top level may be named “Families.” Next level may be called “Genera.” The third level is “Species” (or disciplines). Each subject matter consists of a number of courses. In five design families, the classification depends on the purpose with the design. 254

Digital is a signal that only can be “on” or “off”. Domain name is a series of alphanumeric strings, separated by periods. Example: https://www.researchgate.net. E-mail, electronic mail sent between computers. This can be over a network, or with a modem over ordinary phone lines. Educational design is designing, developing and evaluating educational interventions as solutions to complex real problems relevant for educational practice and educational policy. Educational technology is concerned with making instruction more effective and more efficient. Definitions and descriptions have changed over time. Emergency remote teaching, ERT, is a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate mode due to crisis circumstances. In many countries, schools were forced to stop their traditional face-to-face class-room-based teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Entertainment design, or mass design, is an umbrella term for mass design areas, such as mass-communication, and journalism. The main objective for mass design is to provide news, views, and entertainment. ERT, Emergency Remote Teaching, is a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate mode due to crisis circumstances. In many countries, schools were forced to stop their traditional face-to-face class-room-based teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Experimental design embraces cross-disciplinary practice and transforms information into experiences and strategies for future social and urban environments. Facilitating attention. There are always far more stimuli than we can ever notice. Most stimuli remain unknown, unseen, and unheard of. One of the information designer's first problems is to catch the attention of the members of the audience. Then it is up to the designer to hold or keep their attention. Any information

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material must constantly redraw the attention in order to hold the interest of the viewers alive. Facilitating memory. There is a close relationship between guidelines aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines aimed at facilitating perception, processing and memory. Facilitating mental processing. There is no direct correspondence between groups of letters, words, sentences, paragraphs, texts, and reality. Simplicity in a message will result in easier and more effective perception, processing and memory of that message. Facilitating perception. We organize and analyse information that we have paid attention to. Colours, illustrations, images, lines, pictures, sounds, symbols, texts, and words should be integrated in such a way that they can be interpreted as a meaningful whole rather than a number of individual elements. Figure/ground principle is to the mind’s tendency to organize elements into figure and ground categories. File formats are systems used for encoding and storing data. Common file formats for storing images include JPG and TIFF. Functional principles is a term for one of the four groups of message design principles. It includes six principles: Defining the problem, Providing structure, Providing clarity, Providing simplicity, Providing emphasis, and Providing unity. Guidelines that are based on these principles will assist the information designer to design information and learning materials that are well suited for the intended receivers. Gestalt theory is based on the belief that the whole is other than the sum of its parts. GIF, Graphic Interchange Format, is a file format for transferring graphics files between computer systems via the internet. Gigabyte is a unit of measure to describe 1,024 megabytes. Goal is a measurable end result (the big picture) having one or more objectives (specific results) to be achieved within a specific timeframe. It is easier to measure objectives than goals. The goal 256

of communication-oriented message design should always be clarity of communication. The message must be accurately developed and transmitted by the sender and then correctly interpreted and understood by the receiver. Golden rectangle. See Aesthetic proportion. Golden section. See Aesthetic proportion. Graphic design is the art and craft of bringing a functional, aesthetic, and organized structure to different kinds of texts and illustrations. The main objective is to provide messages that are legible for the intended audience. Graphic design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process. Graphic design objectives. In graphic design the main objective is to provide functional, aesthetic, and organised structure to all kinds of information sets. The individual information interpreters might be seen as “readers.” Graphical media, or Graphic media, include manual and technical methods. Books, newspapers, and signs are examples of graphical media. Hardware are all physical components of technical systems, e.g. computers and video systems. This includes all electronic, magnetic, and mechanical parts. Harmony in design is a pleasing arrangement and combination of elements to form a consistent and orderly whole. Harmony is one of the aesthetic principles in information design. Hierarchy principle is based on the mind’s tendency to process and remember “chunks” of information that in turn are arranged hierarchically. HTML, Hyper Text Mark-up Language, is a “page description language” used to format documents on the Web. Hybrid reality, or mixed reality, is an environment where the real and a virtual world merge. The user may interact with both digital and real objects in real time.

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Hyperlink is a Web link to other documents that are “embedded” within original documents. A click on a link may take users to other documents or other Web sites. Indexed colour is an image mode of maximum of 256 colours. This may reduce file sizes of RGB-images for use in Web pages. Industrial design is the use of applied art and applied science in the design of systems for mass production of industrial products. Industrial design can overlap with engineering design. Infodidactics is an umbrella term for the methods used for teaching various aspects of information design. The huge spread among the different disciplines makes information design an interesting, but also a complex area of research and teaching. Infography is the practical component of information design. It is the actual, practical work with design and execution of structured combinations of words, pictures, and graphic design. Infology is the theoretical component of information design. It is the science of verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages. Information. In information design information is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the person receiving it. Information design comprises analysis, planning, presentation and understanding of a message, its content, language and form. The main objective is to provide information needed by the receivers in order to perform specific tasks. Information design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process. Information design objectives. The main objective is to provide information materials needed by the interpreter in order to perform specific tasks. The individual information interpreters might be seen as “doers.” They may develop new skills, understanding, and experience. Information design principles are universal. Like mathematics information design principles are not tied to the unique features of a particular language, nor are they tied to a particular 258

culture. Information design is a worldwide consideration. Information design is multi-dimensional. Information experience design is transforming information into experiences through the pathways of experimental design, moving image design, and sound design. Information interaction design is the intersection of three different disciplines: 1) Information design, 2) Interaction design, and 3) Sensorial design. Information visualization, or information visualisation, is 1) a graphical representation that clearly conveys complicated data or ideas, and 2) the process of creating that graphical representation. Instruction is the arrangement of experience(s) to help a learner achieve a desirable change in performance. Instruction design is an umbrella term for a number of areas dealing with instruction, such as instructional message design. The main objective is to provide courses, lessons and materials intended for learning. Instruction design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process. Instruction design objectives. The main objective is to provide courses and learning materials needed by the interpreter in order to modify behaviour with respect to learning. The individual information interpreters might be seen as “learners.” They may develop new understanding, experience, comprehension, knowledge, insight, and finally wisdom. Instructional design may be seen as an outgrowth from instructional technology. Models of instructional design have descriptive, prescriptive, and/or explanatory elements in varying degrees. Instructional design theories provide principles for the design of instruction. Instructional message design refers to the process of manipulating, or planning for the manipulation of, a pattern of signs and symbols that may provide the conditions for learning.

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Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. Instructions is a term for a category of information materials that includes the six groups: 1) Operating instructions, 2) Production and maintenance documentation, 3) Good advice, 4) Interfaces, 5) Recipes, and 6) Guidance. Intellectual unity is an idea-generated, and word-dominated method of unifying a publication. Interaction design, IxD, is the practice of designing interactive digital environments, products, services and systems. The main focus is on satisfying the desires and needs of the intended users. Behaviour studies and new designs improve the possibilities for easy interaction. Internet is an electronic network that spans the entire globe. Interpolation is a computer process that adds or deletes approximate pixel data when an image is resized. Light design, or lighting design, is the use of light and lighting in order to create different atmospheres in art installations, concerts, opening and closing ceremonies of public celebrations, sports competitions, theatre plays, water sculptures, and more. Link is a pointer in a HTML document. A “click” on a link takes the user to another location. Lossy is a conversion process for images where some data are lost. One example of a lossy compression method is JPEG. Market research is a study of business competition, and intended consumer groups. It is used to define projected markets. Instruction design is an umbrella term for a number of areas dealing with instruction, such as instructional message design. The main objective is to provide courses, lessons and materials intended for learning. Instruction design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process.

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Medium is an aid used in the transfer of data and information from a sender to a receiver. Each medium has its own particular advantages and disadvantages. Message is information content conveyed with a medium from a sender to a receiver in a single context on one occasion. Main components in messages are words, visuals and forms. Some representations also have movement and sound. Message design is an interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary field of knowledge. It receives contributions from a large number of established areas of research. Message design family. A group of design disciplines all deal with the design of messages. The main components in message design are words, visuals and forms. Message design genera are graphic design, information design, instruction design, mass design, and persuasion design. Message design objectives are important to define always keeping the intended receivers in mind. Message design principles exist in different areas, such as data graphics, general design, graphic design, message design, instructional design, instructional message design, information design, and persuasion design. Message design processes include cognitive as well as practical activities and aspects. My own model includes the following four process activities: 1) Analysis and synopsis, 2) Production of draft, 3) Production of script, and 4) Production of original and master. Each activity includes a design sub-process, activity documentation, and a review process. Message design tools. Design process and sub-processes are performed with design tools that are suitable for the type of representation that is selected during an early phase of the work. Main message design tools include text (printed and spoken), symbols, pictures (drawings and photographs), typography and layout, sound and sound effects. These tools have different properties that offer and restrict the foundations for communication. 261

Mixed Reality (MR), or hybrid reality, is an environment where the real and a virtual world merge. Digital and physical objects form new kinds of environments where the users may interact with all objects in real time. Motion graphics involves the changes in a position in space of an object, which create the illusion of motion. Any kind of abstract animation can be called motion graphics. Network is a connection of two or more computers. This allows computers to share data, software, and other resources. Path name is the full name of a file, or a folder listed with all parent folders. Persuasion design is an umbrella term for advertising, planned communication, and propaganda. The main objective is to persuade the interpreter of the message to buy a product or a service, or to change her or his behaviour. Persuasion design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process. Phosphor is a solid material coating the inside of picture tubes. The phosphor emits light, when hit by an electron beam. Podcast, or pod-cast, is an audio blog that one can listen to rather than read. Podcasting is a method of distributing audio or video programs over the Internet. Propaganda usually takes a stand for something or someone and against someone or something else. Protocol is a set of rules that regulates how hardware and software can communicate. Providing clarity. The legibility of a graphic message is determined by the technical design of texts and pictures, that is, their clarity. Providing emphasis. The most important elements in information material may be emphasized to enhance attention and perception. Emphasis may be used to attract, direct and to keep attention. 262

Providing simplicity. Readability is determined by how well the presentation of a message is adapted to the readers. It involves the reader's ability to understand the style of text, the pictures and graphic form. The choice of words, symbols, and picture elements creates the style. Providing structure. A clear and obvious structure will facilitate perception, interpretation, understanding, learning and memory of the message content. Clear headings make the subject matter readily apparent and aid comprehension of the text. Providing unity. Information materials should have unity, an “overall coherence and togetherness.” Inconsistencies may confuse the receivers. Use style, and terminology in a consistent way in each specific information material. Use pictures, layout and typography in a consistent way. Use accenting techniques in a consistent way. RAM is Random Access Memory. Reduction through successive refinement is the best way to reach clarity. To create an elegant solution, anything that is not essential to the communication task has to be removed. Receiver processes include search and selection of information, and mental processing of information. When a message is internalized the receiver has got new emotions, new experiences, new feelings, and new knowledge. Representation is a medium with a specific message. It may be a chart, graph, map, table, text, visual, etc. Sometimes a representation is called “information set,” or “material.” Together with the medium the message is the link between the sender or the designer and the intended receiver. Research. Message design and information design has a practical as well as a theoretical component. It is a difficult challenge to find a good balance between practical and theoretical work. Retail advertising is sponsored by retail establishments. RGB, red, green, and blue are the primary colours of the additive colour model. This system is used on the Web. 263

Scan line is one single traversal of an electronic beam across the picture in a monitor to a raster-scan computer. Screen font is low-resolution bitmaps of type characters on a computer screen. Sensorial design is the employment of all the disciplines, media, and techniques we use to communicate to others through our senses. Sound design is the process of acquiring, generating, manipulating, recording, and specifying sound elements in different kinds of audio productions. Synopsis. A subject matter expert or a work group produces the synopsis, an overview of the forthcoming information or learning material. It is important, already at this stage, to decide on a suitable structure of the material. Technology includes the systematic study of technique, as well as the application of science to the solution of practical problems. Technology of instruction is the application of our scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning. User experience design is the process of enhancing user satisfaction by improving accessibility, pleasure and usability provided in the interaction between the user and the product. VDT is Visual Display Terminal. Vector graphics is a type of computer graphics were graphic data is represented by lines drawn from coordinate point to coordinate point. Verbal languages are spoken and written languages. Verbal languages have varying levels of meaning: 1) Phonemes (without meaning), 2) Morphemes (with meaning), 3) Syntagms, submeanings, and 4) Complete meanings. Virtual Reality (VR) is an interactive computer-generated experience within a fully artificial digital simulated environment. VR incorporates auditory and visual feedback, sometimes also 264

other types of sensory feedback. Virtual Reality replaces the real world with the Virtual World. Visual languages attempt equivalence with reality. Visuals are iconic and normally resemble the thing they represent. It may take only a few seconds to recognize the content in an image. Meaning is apparent on a basic level, but the visual language must be learned for true comprehension. Unlike verbal language systems images and visual language speak directly to us in the same way experience speaks to us: emotionally and holistically. Visualization, or visualisation, is 1) a graphical representation that clearly conveys complicated data or ideas, and 2) the process of creating that graphical representation.

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