Meditation Works: In the Daoist, Buddhist, and Hindu Traditions 9781931483087, 2008005650

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"Meditation

^ 0 un ri =

inthe Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist Traditions

Meditation Works in the Daoist, Buddhist,

and Hindu Traditions

Livia Kohn

Three Pines Press P.O. Box 207

Magdalena, NM 87825 www.threepinespress.com © 2008 by Livia Kohn All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,-including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. 9

87654321

Printed in the United States of America

@ This edition is printed on acid-free paper that meets

the American National Standard Institute Z39.48 Standard.

Distributed in the United States by Three Pines Press.

Cover Art: Himalayan Salt Crystal. Author’s photograph.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kohn, Livia, 1956Meditation works : in the Daoist, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions / Livia Kohn. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-931483-08-7 (alk. paper)

1. Meditation--Taoism. 2. Meditation--Buddhism. 3. Meditation-Hinduism. I. Title. BL1923.K66 2008 204'.35--dc22 2008005650

Contents Introduction Forms and Effects of Meditation

Chapter One The Foundation: Breathing and Concentration

28

Chapter Two Sound Immersion: Chanting and Mantra

49

Chapter Three Insight: Vipassana and Observation

13

Chapter Four Immediacy: Oblivion and Zen

97

Chapter Five Visualization: Highest Clarity and Tantra

128

Chapter Six Body Awareness: Yoga and Daoyin

154

Chapter Seven Body Energetics: Inner Alchemy and Kundalini

181

Conclusion Meditation Today

210

Bibliography

215

Index

255

Acknowledgments This book is the result of over thirty years of study and practice. My interest in meditation arose in the mid-1970s when I was an exchange student at UC Berkeley. There I began to practice taiji quan, attended an introductory talk on Transcendental Meditation, and took a course in Mysticism by Stephan Beyer, a specialist in the Tibetan tradition. While learning to read Daoist texts under the guidance of Edward

Schafer,

I consumed

books by Aldous

Huxley,

Alan

Watts, Robert Ornstein, and Charles Tart, and generally immersed myself in mystical questions and alternate concepts of self and mind.

After receiving my Ph. D. in Chinese Studies with a minor in Religion from Bonn University in 1980, I moved to Kyoto, where my meditation horizon widened considerably and I came in contact with Buddhist practice: insight meditation, tantra, and Zen. I participated in a 10-day Vipassana course taught by S. N. Goenka, sat with the local Dharmadhatu group, read every book of Chégyam Trungpa I could find, and served as editor for the Kyoto Zen Symposium under Hirata Roshi and Nishitani Keiji. I also continued the practice of taiji quan and engaged in new forms of qigong transmitted by Chinese masters. While getting increasingly serious about the practice of insight meditation,

I undertook extensive research in medieval Daoism,

translat-

ing the “Discourse on Sitting in Oblivion” and the “Scripture of Western Ascension.” Under the guidance of Fukunaga Mitsuji, I also learned about the Zhuangzi, its commentaries and poetic developments, as well as the tradition of Chinese mysticism. I read both Eastern and Western texts on personal transformation and selfrealization and was particularly struck by modern scientific studies of

meditation, such as those collected by Deane Shapiro and Roger Walsh.

After returning to the U.S. in 1986 and joining the faculty of Boston University in 1988, I published several books on Daoist meditation and Chinese mysticism while continuing insight practice. In the course of the 1990s, I intensified it and participated in several longer retreats while academically exploring the ethical and communal aspect of meditation practice in the Daoist tradition.

In the late 1990s, two things changed my steadfast practice of insight meditation. One was a physical injury. I suffered from bursitis in my left shoulder, which healed nicely with acupuncture and qigong, but at some point required more serious work-outs. So I joined a gym, which also offered classes in Kripalu Yoga. Picking up on basic yoga I

had practiced in Japan, I enjoyed it greatly and, in 2002, took teacher training at the Kripalu Center in Lenox, Mass. From there I got interested in other forms of body work, such as Feldenkrais, Alexander,

and Hanna Somatics. All these are nowadays part of my practice, which has shifted from mere sitting to meditation in movement. The other change was academic. Inspired by Harold Roth at Brown University and the Center for Contemplative Mind in Society, I developed a college course on meditation,. In preparation for this course, I studied all kinds of meditation and visited various religious centers in the Boston area: from the Hare Krishnas through the Buddhist Culture Center, the Cambridge Insight Meditation and Zen Centers to Korean Sword Zen, Siddha Yoga, Shambhala, and Dzogchen. As a result, I came to appreciate the vast differences in culture, mind-body concepts, and concrete practice in what is commonly lumped together under the single heading “meditation.” After beginning to teach the course in 2002, I continued to explore the variety of traditions but was also confronted with the question of how meditation relates to hypnosis. Realizing that this was a fruitful avenue of inquiry, I took several training courses in hypnosis and neuro-

linguistic programming (NLP) and, in 2004, became a licensed hypno-

tist. Hypnosis—together with my background in comparative mysticism—has made me understand just how closely related meditation is to conscious goals and intentional direction and how much the practice shapes the way we think while, of course, the way we think determines what and how we practice. The key argument of this book has grown directly from this aspect, just as the book itself is the ultimate

fruit

of the

academic

class,

which

is

now

through the Boston University School of Theology.

available

online

Beyond this, my research in Daoism has continued to feed into the study of meditation. After completing a major project on ethics, monastic codes, and community structures, I turned to questions of health and body cultivation, exploring the tradition of daoyin, the precursor of modern qigong. All the while, I have continued to learn various Daoist practices under the guidance of Bede Bidlack, Roger Jahnke,

Michael Winn,

Paul Gallagher,

Frank Yurasek,

Caryn Diel,

Michael Wood, and the participants at my Daoism workshops in New Mexico—most notably Donald Davis whose carefully review and discussion of this manuscript has been truly invaluable. I am deeply indebted to them all for their guidance and encouragement as I am to my academic teachers and meditation students.

Meditation Works

Introduction Forms

and

Effects

of Meditation

Meditation is the inward focus of attention in a state of mind where ego-related concerns and critical evaluations are suspended in favor of perceiving a deeper, subtler, and possibly divine flow of consciousness. A method of communicating with hidden layers of the mind, it allows the subconscious to surface in memories, images, and thoughts while also influencing it with quietude, openness, and specific suggestions.1 It has an overall beneficial and often healing effect and has made major inroads in Western society, both in spiritual and medical contexts. Doctors increasingly recommend it for stress relief, pain management, and the alleviation of psychosomatic conditions.” While meditation with its general emphasis on mental focus and attention to breathing usually benefits the practitioner, its various forms are not created equal. Part of age-old mystical traditions, they have grown from vastly different historical and cultural environ1 This is the definition used in this book. There is no overall consensus

on a working definition of meditation that is applicable to the multiplicity of heterogeneous practices usually called by this name. Scholars and scientists

tentatively agree that meditation in general is a self-induced state that util-

izes a clearly defined technique with a specific anchor of concentration and invokes muscles relaxation as well as the easing of logic and preconceived assumptions (Cardoso et al. 2004; Ospina et al. 2007, 9). Some also define it as a “family of self-regulating practices that aim to bring mental processes under voluntary control through focusing attention and awareness”

and Shapiro 2006).

(Walsh

2 Proven medical results of meditation appear in conditions of hyperten-

sion, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse (Ospina et al. 2007, 4). Psycho-social effects on personality traits, positive emotions, and social rela-

tionships form a secondary level of outcomes (Ospina et al. 2007, 102). 1

2 / Meditation

Works

ments, which tend to be overlooked in scientific studies. As the Evi-

dence

Report

of the Agency

for Healthcare

Research

and

Quality

notes:

The spiritual or belief component of meditation practices 1s poorly described in the literature and it is unclear in what

way and to what extent spirituality and belief play a role in the successful practice of meditation. (Ospina et al. 2007, 3)

Each form of meditation, grown from different beliefs and cultural settings, has its own vision of the body-mind, espouses a unique goal, and accesses the subconscious through a different mode. More than that, the historical roots of meditation in the mystical traditions of the world’s religions makes it part of the Religious Studies debate on the nature of mystical experience. Is there only one universal, samefor-all mystical experience? Is there only one underlying divine reality that is merely named differently in different traditions? Or are there in fact multiple mystical experiences and large varieties of cosmic visions? And is the experience of union and inherent oneness culturally determined and thus dependent on the conscious intention and perception of the seeker?4 The dominant tendency in Religious Studies is toward the latter posi-

tion, and this book leans in the same direction. The argument is that

meditation in both practice and effects is culturally determined and that whatever the seeker sets out to discover he or she will eventually find, coming eventually to “live in a pleasant garden of one’s own creation.” The worldview and vision at the foundation of any training system determine the specific practices used, the way the subconscious is accessed, the transformation the mind undergoes, and the eventual results of the practice. People who desire healing and relaxation will receive just that; those who hope to be at one with a deity will move in exactly this direction. It is, as in mystical traditions

the world over, extremely unlikely that practices of one system lead 3 The Dalai Lama

places a series of “preliminary steps” at the founda-

tion of meditation. They include homage to the Buddha, offerings of body and self, contrition and confession of ill deeds, admiration for good virtues, an entreaty of the deities to support one’s practice, and a formal dedication to all beings, a sharing of one’s merit (2002, 110-11).

4 The position of the cultural determination of the mystical experience is

represented by Steven T. Katz (1978; 1983; 2000). The leader of the unitive position is Robert Forman (1990; 1997; 1998; 1999). A general discussion is found in Jones 1993. 5 Krishnamurti 1967,

9.

Introduction / 3

to realization as defined in another or, in more practical terms, that someone thoroughly immersed in a Christian context will experience visions of Krishna. While certain experiences of relaxation, increased focus, and heightened awareness may be related to physiological changes in brain chemistry, there is generally an apriori determination of the meditative path and outcome. This feature, as well as the basic nature of meditation as a state of mind where critical thinking is suspended and

subconscious

layers

of the mind

are accessed,

moreover,

meditation a close companion of hypnosis. Both place state of intense concentration or deep relaxation, work conscious layers of the mind to effect major change, memories and emotional patterns to emerge, and guide or clients toward a particular goal.

make

people into a with the suballow hidden practitioners

Both, furthermore, require the personal guidance of a teacher, master,

or hypnotist, at least in the beginning stages, and demand trust and obedience from the practitioner. The intimate relationship between guide and follower usually leads to a strong emotional connection which, if left unchecked, may cause patterns of transference and dependency, leading the disciple to attribute great powers of good and evil to the teacher. Described as a karmic bond over many lifetimes in Asian traditions, this closeness between master and disciple can be highly beneficial or lead to abusive relationships and even cult situations.

Based on these common points, most hypnosis books agree that meditation is another “doorway to the same room” of trance-induced “mental reprogramming,” and that both work by inducing a state of egoreceptivity, which “can best be described as a movement from secondary to primary process mentation (of images, sounds, and creative associations), combined with an attendant transient restructuring in a subsystem of the ego such that executive ego functions are suspended and receptive functions become figural.”” The main difference between the two, as Ormond McGill suggests, is that meditators still the mind to allow the divine to unfold from within while hypnosis clients intentionally program their subconscious (1981).

77.

6 Fromm and Nash 1997, 63; Spiegel and Spiegel 1978, 26. 7 Citations from: Fisher 2000, 179; Blair 2004, 5; Fromm and Nash 1997, On the importance of belief systems in hypnosis and personal transfor-

mation, see Heller and Steele 1987.

4 / Meditation

Works

However, there are plenty of meditation methods that use conscious, direct suggestions, notably metta (loving kindness), Jojong (conscious compassion), tonglen (assuming others’ pain and sharing goodwill

with them), and the various kinds of visualization.8 All forms of medi-

tation, moreover, have clearly expressed visions of body, mind, and world, and plant active ideas of what to expect as the final goal. At the same time, hypnosis practitioners frequently-speak about waking the inner wisdom, encouraging natural intuition, or even unfolding the true self in their clients.? The

difference, then, is one of degree:

meditation

is more

diffuse,

a

more long-term, general make-over of the self, while hypnosis and related practices like neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) are highly specific, fine-tuned, and often fast-working interventions. Both are essentially forms of self-hypnosis, aided by religiously inspired meditation masters or clinically trained hypnotherapists. Self-hypnosis, moreover, employs very similar techniques as meditation and, if used on a long-term, regular basis, has much the same effect.10 Both represent in essence ways of the conscious mind to communicate with the subconscious, planting concrete ideas of future states that manifest in reality over time. The more focused the effort and the better the method is suited to the individual practitioner—e.g., visualizations for visually oriented people—the easier the path is and the faster results come about. A pure, formless, and undetermined experience at the core of mysticism and at the end of meditation is not borne out by either literature or experience. Meditation masters eve-

rywhere strongly advise against mixing methods, and time and again people who try to combine forms that are conceptually incompatible come to encounter numerous difficulties. Studying forms of meditation in their cultural settings thus clarifies just how the techniques are used, what worldview adaptations they require, and where their practice ideally leads. Based on the theoretical background of mysticism studies, decades of research on Asian religions, long years of meditation practice, and 8 Metta consists of the extension of good wishes from oneself through a

friend, neutral person, to enemy,

to all beings. See Fryba

1989,

165-71; Ka-

malashila 1992, 192-206; Kulananda and Houlder 2002, 77-79; Salzberg 1995. On the conscious cultivation of compassion, see Dalai Lama 2001; Hopkins 2001; Kyabgon 2007. 9 See, for example, Banyan 2003; Emmerson 2003; Gordon 2000.

10 On self-hypnosis, see Alman and Lambrou 1992; Ansari 1991; Blair 2004; Fisher 1991; Hunter 1998; Powell and Forde 1995.

Introduction / 5

basic training in hypnotherapy, in this book I explore meditation from the perspective of access to the subconscious. In a distinct chapter on each form, I outline the different approaches to physiology, worldview, and practice, then describe relevant medical adaptations and modern settings. In each case, I try to present examples from the Daoist, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions. Before-delving into the depth of the different forms, moreover, I provide a brief overview of the main types

and main social patterns of meditation in this introduction, foHowed by a chapter on breathing and concentration, the foundations of all meditation practice.

Types of Meditation Deane Shapiro, following the Buddhist model, divides meditation into two types: concentrative and insight." Concentration (samatha zhi) is one-pointedness of mind. It involves complete control of attention and the absorption in a single object to the exclusion of all else. The object can be a sound, a visual diagram, or a concrete object (e.g., flame, vase, deity). Beginners in most traditions start with the breath, observing it with the help of counting either the number or the length of respirations. The goal is to still the conscious mind so that the subtle murmur of the subconscious can be perceived. Insight (vipasyana; guan), on the other hand, is mindfulness. It involves a general openness to all sorts of sensory stimuli and encourages a sense of free-flowing awareness with detached observation. Insight meditation usually begins with the recognition of physical sensations and subtle events in the body. It also means paying attention to reactions to outside stimuli, recognizing but not evaluating them. Often associated with notions of deeper understanding or wisdom, it encourages the appreciation of life as flow and lets practitioners see body and self as unstable, ever-changing energetic entities. Developing this fundamental division, the Evidence Report of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality proposes a division into 11 Shapiro

1984,

6. The

same

fundamental

distinction,

called “stabiliz-

ing” and “analytical” is made in Dalai Lama 2002, 118-19. It is also found, supplemented by an “integrated” form in the analysis of meditation by Daniel Goleman (1988). He begins his book with an outline of the Theravada Buddhist classic Visuddhimagga, then places the practices from different world religions into this twofold schema.

6 / Meditation

Works

five broad categories: mantra, mindfulness, yoga, taiji quan, and qigong.!2 Authors acknowledge that this classification is problematic, since it merges a number of essentially different methods into one group such as, for example, hatha and kundalini forms of yoga or breath awareness and chanting under the heading of mantra. It also completely ignores, as much as the ancient Buddhist system does, the important category of visualization.

Approaching the problem from a completely different angle and after examining many meditation methods in a comparative, cultural context, I propose to classify the various forms according to the venue they use to access the subconscious mind. Most obvious are three ways that match the major modes of human perception: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. That is to say, the meditation forms of visuali-

zation, sound immersion (mantra practice), and body awareness

Visualization, a key method in tantric Buddhism and medieval Daoism as well as the essential working tool of hypnosis, means the mental focus on a specific scene or sequence of events, such as energy

flows, deities, cosmic patterns, saints’ lives, or potential future events.

The scenes are either seen with complete detachment or involve the participation of the practitioner. In all cases, visualization opens consciousness to more subtle levels, allowing the powers of the unconscious to manifest and bringing new dimensions to the practitioner’s life.

Mantra practice, which I call “sound immersion,” is the vocalized or silent repetition of a sound, word, or phrase. First documented in ancient Hindu sources, it appears as scripture recitation in Daoism and

forms an important part of some Mahayana Buddhist schools, such as Pure Land and Nichiren. It approaches the subtler layers of consciousness through the auditory system, creating vibrations in the brain that have a calming effect and, especially if used in conjunction with deity devotion, lead to a sense of selflessness and connection to the divine. Body

awareness,

sometimes

also called kinesthetic practice,

centers

on the body as it is moved or placed into different postures. Although commonly undertaken in hatha yoga, daoyin, taiji quan, and qigong, most people think of this practice more as a form of body cultivation. Yet, while it does have distinct physical effects, body awareness also has clear meditative purposes. With its deep focus on the movements 12 Ospina et al. 2007, 3. This order reflects the frequency of healthcare studies undertaken so far.

Introduction / 7

both of the physical and the energy body, it can release emotional issues and lead to spiritual transcendence. Beyond these three fundamental types, three further modes include observation, immediacy, and body energetics. Each utilizes again a different

mode

of accessing

and

modifying

the

subconscious

mind,

sometimes but not necessarily in combination with one of the main modes of perception (e.g., awareness of physical sensations in obser-

vation). More and

specifically, observation,

Daoist

inner

observation,

used in Buddhist insight meditation establishes

a detached,

objective

ob-

server or “witness consciousness” in the mind, a mental position of

distanced seeing, the faculty of taking a step back from involvement with experiences and emotions. From this viewpoint adepts identify, observe, and cleanse negative emotions while cultivating positive states as defined by the tradition: compassion, calmness, and joy. They also see the world increasingly as a succession of changing phenomena and learn to relax into all kinds of different circumstances.

Immediacy is the practice of Chinese Chan, Japanese Zen, and Tibetan Dzogchen, originally based on ancient Daoism as documented in the Zhuangzi. Rejecting sensory perception and the conscious mind as inherently dualistic and potentially misleading, practitioners of this mode strive to access what they call pure experience by strengthening gut feelings and intuition, the power of the inborn, natural mind—a pure reflection of original cosmos in human beings. Unlike in other forms, posture and body control become essential and all critical thinking as well as connection to deities are radically overcome. Body energetics, finally, appears in Daoist inner alchemy, kundalini yoga, and Western alchemy (Hermeticism). The meditative refinement of tangible forms of body energy (most commonly sexual forces) into highly spiritual forms, body energetics activates subtle energetic powers that connect the person to the ultimate. The method works with an intricate network of subtle energy channels, centers, and passes that need to be opened and activated and ideally leads to the emergence of a new spiritual dimension, through which the adept can communicate and ultimately become one with the divine. Underlying all these different modes of meditation is elementary or access concentration, commonly reached through a sustained focus on

the breath. All meditative paths in one way or another begin with this.

8 / Meditation

Works

Practice

Goals

Meditation practice can be pleasurable or an excruciating cially if the mind wanders and is swamped with thoughts is in discomfort from prolonged sitting or awkward poses. continue to flock to meditation trainings because of the fect of the

practices.

These

effects,

moreover,

match

effort, espeor the body Still, people powerful ef-

specific

social

settings and allow a yet different kind of typology according to practice goals: meditation for self-improvement, spiritual transcendence, or release from responsibility.

Self-improvement is key to meditation in modern Western societies, be it in the form of healing, stress-reduction, pain-management, increased productivity, or a general calming of the mind. Thus, concentration exercises create better efficiency at work, insight meditation eliminates unwanted emotional baggage, and visualization can help in healing, pain-control, and past-life regressions, as well as in sports training

and business

management.

In some

cases, practitioners

go

beyond this; they “reach deeply into the experience of being to find something authentic, some real light” in a quest for a higher level of aliveness, but the goal ultimately remains personal fulfillment. Spiritual transcendence is the goal of meditation in traditional cultures and religions. Often joined by devotion, it forms a major part of mystical traditions in their quest to connect with the divine and to realize spiritual attainment. The mental calmness it provides and the

access it offers to the subtler levels of consciousness serve to awaken a greater power or universal force—the “divine,” defined in different

traditions as God, Dao,

atman,

buddha

nature,

and so on.14 Medita-

tion suspends conscious and ego-related thinking and thereby allows the divine or cosmic powers to come to the fore. It expands the vision and understanding of the practitioner and eventually transforms him or her from an ordinary to a sagely or enlightened person. A third and completely different goal of meditation is the release from responsibility. This is its effect as practiced in destructive cults, where

it is used to brainwash

followers into dependence

on the cult

leader. Often combined with a poor diet, sleep deprivation, acts of humiliation, and a lack of privacy, meditation can become a strong 13 Brazier 1995, 12.

14 A classic on Christian mysticism is Underhill 1911. On the mystical

tradition in Hinduism, see Zaehner 1961; for Buddhism, see Nanamoli on its Tibetan form, see Govinda 1960; for Daoism, see Kohn 1992.

1979;

Introduction / 9

tool of mind control and a key vehicle of indoctrination and personal dependence. Determined in content and methodology by the cult leader, meditation in this context leaves no personal freedom to the follower and often succeeds in the complete abolition of his or her critical thinking and sense of self-preservation, which may initially feel like a release but is ultimately harmful.15 In all these related

different modes

concerns

and

critical,

of meditation, intellectual

the suspension

evaluations

in a

of ego-

state

of

self-hypnosis forms a cornerstone of the practice and is the basis of its success. However, there is a distinct difference in degree. In its contemporary application as a way toward self-improvement and healing, critical evaluation is only suspended very lightly during the actual practice and remains

strong otherwise. The entire effort, after all, is

motivated and framed in terms of egotistic concerns and personal in-

terests, the vision of a well-adapted,

the guiding light of the effort.

successful,

and sexy self being

Traditional religions typically set harsh tests before they teach meditation and warn people off rather than encourage them. Practitioners have the clear and conscious intention to suspend their egos in order to attain a deeper, personal religious experience—defined clearly in the terms of their creed and often involving an encompassing awareness of the divine and a consciousness of detached altruism or compassion. The goal is the overcoming of the self, however sexy or successful, and merge with the divine as defined by the tradition. In cultic contexts, finally, the suspension of ego-based thinking is made permanent and replaced with a brainwashed dependency on the cult’s doctrines and the leader’s orders. Apparent benefits of this state include freedom from personal responsibility and decision-making, a sense of immersion in the group, a lack of doubt, a sense of community support, and a feeling of belonging. Although it may feel good at first, this state of dependency and uncritical surrender is harmful in the long run and often leads to ill health and psychological trauma.

15 On cults and their ways

of mind control, see Enroth

1999; Hassan 1988; Lane 1994; Langone 1993; lease from responsibility, strict obedience, and pendence are also characteristic of other forms monasteries, prisons, military bootcamps, and man 1961; Turner 1969.

1983; Galanter

Tobias and Lalich 1994. Rea high degree of personal deof total institutions, including Communist states. See Goff-

10 / Meditation

Works

Meditation

Characteristics

The various kinds of meditation differ significantly in terms of their understanding of the greater universe, the role of human beings in

the scheme of creation, the concepts of mind and body, the vision of the ultimate goal, the role and importance of the master, and the ad-

vanced methods they use. Yet underneath all these there are several common characteristics—besides the general suspension of critical thinking—which make all forms of meditation part of the same phe-

nomenon. These characteristics include a focus on the breath, ethical rules or requirements, the creation of social communities, the goal of

mental transformation, and certain physiological effects.16

The first thing most meditation schools teach is an awareness of breathing. This may be a count that accompanies inhalation and exhalation, a counting of only the exhalation, the silent repetition of “inout” as the breath comes in and goes out. Or it may involve a physical awareness of the feeling of the breath—either at the nostrils where it enters and leaves,

or at the abdomen

which

rises and falls with it.

The practice may also involve a pure awareness of breath, with no specific counts, vocalizations, or kinesthetic locations. Or it may be a special effort at lengthening or holding the breath, making it work in ways other than usual. In all cases, the breath is seen as a bridge between body and mind, as an expression of mental reality, closely linked to emotions, nervous conditions, and peace. The more the breath is deepened and calmed, the quieter the mind becomes and the easier lt 1s to suspend the critical factor and enter into the serenity of the meditative state. All forms of meditation also come with some kind of ethical code. In some cases it appears in specific rules, such as the five precepts of Buddhism or the yamas and niyamas of yoga. In others (as in Zen and Daoism), it is a general encouragement to cultivate goodwill and compassion, a sense of harmony and oneness with all beings and the world.17 Goodness in the broadest sense is one of the goals of medita16 A similar list of phenomenological characteristics, including breathing,

relaxation, attention, spirituality and belief, as well as criteria for successful practice, appears also in Ospina et al. 2007, 27-28. 17 On the ethics of Daoism, see Kohn 2004. For Buddhism, see Brazier 1995, 45-52; Keown 1992; Prebish 1975. On ethics in traditional Hinduism,

see Perrett 1998. On the four great moral rules, see Gert 1970. The benefits

of ethical behavior in Buddhism come in a sequence: acting well leads to freedom from remorse, which leads to the arising of joy within, which over a

Introduction / 11

tion and, with the exception of destructive cults where the methods

are abused, meditators not only become more sensitive to their own internal realities and feelings but they learn to be more sympathetic and considerate toward others and toward nature. The fundamental idea behind “meditation as an ethical process” 18 is that—whatever agency or force is at the center of the worldview of the tradition in question—one cannot connect to it unless one reaches

a certain level of purity and divinity within. This purity carries an ethical dimension and is, at least in the beginning, often expressed as moral rules and precepts. Most common are the four great moral

rules against killing, stealing, lying, and sexual misconduct, but most

traditions have more extensive and in some cases highly specific precepts and regulations. Negativity in any form, meditators find in personal experience, brings harm and is a great obstacle on the path. Being anxious, angry, aggressive, cheating, or distrustful feels bad in the body, and it takes large amounts of mental energy to suppress these unpleasant feelings. It is easier to be honest, straightforward, kind, and gentle—but that does not mean one can or should avoid forceful action when necessary. Ethics thus form a major gateway to liberation in all traditions. Even with proper ethical conduct and good personal discipline it is, as every practitioner of yoga, meditation, or other training will confirm, quite difficult to be consistent and strong in the practice on one’s own. It is also hard to learn it merely from audiotapes, videos, DVDs, or books. Thus likeminded people come together to form communities, often around certain teachers, whom they find compassionate, charismatic, or even enlightened. Traditional meditation communities are monastic and placed at a distance from the ordinary world. Both

there and also in centers today, the communities

are usually hierar-

chically organized, with the teacher and his assistants at the center of command and various kinds of administrators managing the group.!?

longer period results in rapture. This in turn, gives rise to profound calm, which leads to deep happiness, from where meditative concentration can fully arise. This causes further disentanglement from things and eventually leads to enlightenment. See Kulananda and Houlder 2002, 56. Some ethical effects

of meditation may have to do with changes in brain chemistry. See Pinker 2008.

18 Brazier 1995, 34. 19 On monasteries in Daoism, see Kohn 2003; in Indian Buddhism, see Dutt 1962; in Zen, see Buswell 1992. On Hindu institutions, see Creel and

12 / Meditation

Works

As long as the group is small, there may be weekly practice sessions in one or the other private home or in a nearby park, supplemented by monthly talks or get-togethers, and occasional larger retreats at rented facilities. Once the group becomes big enough to warrant an estate of its own, financial and other organizational tasks have to be addressed.

In some cases, these needs have led to excesses,

such as

forceful solicitation of donations, aggressive proselytizing, abuse of community funds, and/or improper relationships with members.20 In all cases, at this stage the administrative staff multiplies and some organizational conflicts arise, usually accompanied by negative emotions, such as jealousy and envy. Eventually the group settles down in an established setting and proceeds to grow and spread its teachings. Another facet all forms of meditation have in common is the dualistic vision that the mind we carry in our ordinary life is not the pure mind necessary to realize oneself or the divine.?! The practice thus sets out to transform the mind from its ordinary tendencies, which include various emotions and negative feelings, into a purer, gentler, and more positive agency. That it actually does this has been documented in modern brain research: people who practice insight meditation regularly activate the left fontal cortex more than those who do not and are accordingly happier, better adjusted, and more positive in outlook.22 The ultimate goal is formulated differently according to the traditions, but generally people are encouraged to cultivate compassion and Narayanan

1990. On the necessity of community in meditation,

1995, 259. 20 For documentation of some such cases, see Cope 2000; Gimian and Mukpo 2006; Hubner and Lindsey 1988; Sherill 1989, 199-252. The groups described here have all recovered, democratic forms of organization with a board of directors,

ence, and active member participation.

21 This concept matches the holds that there is an underlying ing and which gives rise to a pure ence that 1s not accessible with

see Brazier

Downing 2001; 2000; Tworkov often adopting local independ-

vision of the perennial philosophy, which Ground that pervades and supports all belevel of consciousness or immediate experiordinary sense faculties and the everyday

mind. For a description, see Huxley 1946; Happold 1970. By saying that meditators typically separate the ideal or pure from the ordinary mind, I do

not mean to intend that there in fact is one real universal Ground, but merely that there are highly similar assumptions of such an underlying entity in all meditation traditions. 22 Davidson 2002; see also Austin 1998; 2006; Begley 2007, 75.

Introduction / 13

kindness, calmness and equanimity, peace and joy. They are to see that others, who may still be in the throes of negative emotions, are only aggressive because they suffer and feel badly. The response should be one of kindness and sympathy, not of counter-aggression and hatred. Also, most traditions argue that the pure mind of the divine is our birth right and that we will never feel whole or truly ourselves until we realize a return to it. Only by transforming the mind can we achieve the great life we were originally meant to live. One way in which mental transformation is formulated in many traditions is as the release of memories of the past and fantasies of the future and the complete focus on the present moment. As Donna Farhi notes in Bringing Yoga to Life (2004), it is essential to appreciate everything that is happening as it is happening: the aroma of the tea when it is first brewed, the heat of the first sip, the different taste as we get to the bottom. Thich Nhat Hanh describes the same idea when he talks about the focused eating of a tangerine and the complete dedication to dishwashing in his The Miracle of Mindfulness

(1975).23

By being in the present moment, consciousness becomes clear and lucid, and each and every color can stand out distinct and vivid. Nothing can be boring when looked at with such a mind, nor can there be a critical mind that evaluates and classifies each experience into tidy pigeon holes. Any fixed identity, any limiting sense of ego is bound to dissolve as the mind focuses on the present and the person remains one hundred percent active in the now. A great enhancer of present-moment awareness is death, and many meditation traditions have practices that focus on it. Ancient Buddhists encouraged meditations on corpses at cremation grounds with the conscious

awareness

that they,

too, are nothing

but

ashes

and

bone fragments. Zen Buddhists speak of the overcoming of the limiting ego as the Great Death and use the image of a person hanging from a cliff until he has to let go. Tibetans use the mantra: “I am going to die today” to make the present a precious and unrepeatable experience. Yogis look at life under the perspective that they will die sooner or later and strive to make every moment of life a treasure.24

23 Chogyam Trungpa expresses the idea with the term “nowness.” See Trungpa 1988, 93-102. 24 On meditation and death, see Brazier 1995, 234-36; Dalai Lama 2002; Hopkins 2001, 47-59; Iyengar 1988, 35-36; Kamalashila 1992, 206-10;

Kapleau 1971; Rosenberg 2000; Thich 2002; Zopa 1994.

14 / Meditation

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Death is the great equalizer and when accepted fully in the midst of living can provide a strength, an impetus, a preciousness to life that is otherwise hard to find. The closer one gets to death and the clearer one realizes its potential presence in every moment, the more one wants to enjoy, relish, and taste all experiences. Meditation traditions often make use of this to encourage the mind to stay in the present. However different culturally and in terms of history, the various meditation traditions thus have a number of things in common that allow us to group them together in the same category. They see the world in contrast to a purer underlying force or being and strive for attainmentof this power and its realization in everyday life. To this end they make use of breathing, ethics, focus on the present, and death awareness. They also create communities that aid individuals in their efforts and set up paths and structures so that practitioners can orient themselves in terms of the ideal goal.

The

Mind

At the center of all meditation practices is the mind. There are numerous definitions of what exactly that is, from Freud through Jung to Pavlov and the many schools of modern psychology. Each of the meditation

traditions,

moreover,

has its own understanding

of what

the mind is, how it functions, and what about it needs to be changed. Yet there are a few things one can say generically.25

To begin, the mind can be divided into a conscious, subconscious, and unconscious part. The three work like a pyramid. The lowest is the unconscious. It matches the oldest part of the brain, sometimes called

the reptilian mind, that is located in the brainstem, the cerebellum, and next to the limbic system. It has been active since the first vertebrates crawled over the planet. It contains: basic movement coordination and posture control as well as the instincts that keep us fed and

watered, satisfied and rested. It is also responsible for the management of the autonomic nervous system in control of the inner organs and of breathing as well as of activity and rest. It manages all physi-

cal responses to emotions, sensations associated with fear, anger, and

25 The following discussion is based mainly on hypnosis literature. See Banyan 2005; Banyan and Kein 2001; Emmerson 2003; Hilgard 1970. For a presentation of brain anatomy in the context of meditation, see Austin 1998, 149-58; 2006, 89-105 and 158-78.

Introduction / 15

so on, as well as the potential of change through systematic conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov’s 0088.26 The subconscious mind is a slightly higher function of the brain. Associated largely with the right hemisphere, the anterior cingulate gyrus, and the hippocampus, it contains memories, emotional connec-

tions, and ingrained belief systems. Of high plasticity, it works to protect the body and will reject any suggestions not considered beneficial but can be reached through imagery, metaphors, and music, being particularly open to visualizations. This part of the mind manages habits and automated responses to certain situations and holds the emotions, both in their raw forms and in memory of previous experi-

ences.27

The conscious mind on top of the pyramid is the command center, an information-processing system located in the upper reaches of the brain and to a large extent housed in the left hemisphere as well as in the prefrontal cortex. It includes the language center, the critical faculty of reason, and the decision-making processes. It protects the person by rational analysis of information and placing it into distinct categories, rejecting ideas that seem impossible or useless. It works with set patterns that create projections of ideal or fearful situations, often distorting actual facts, then sends signals to all other agencies that either excite or inhibit their actions. Yet it also includes the ability to focus intelligently on one issue or the other, enabling people to think clearly and make positive decisions. Aside from acknowledging these levels of mental functioning, meditation and hypnosis literature often focuses on the ego, a term adopted from classical psychology yet used somewhat differently. Here “ego” describes the various regulatory and integrative functions of the personality, the constructs that surround conceptions of self and what cognitive psychologists call the “self-schema.” A complex set of fixed beliefs and reaction patterns, it is partially conscious but for the most part housed in the subconscious mind. The ego classifies information, activates

emotional

reactions,

and

demands

certain behaviors

from

oneself and others. Yet it has a strong power base in the subconscious and is mired deeply in ingrained patterns. It enjoys power and does not like change; nor does it like quietude, calmness, and rest. Almost

like a spoilt child, it needs its set patterns and predictable structures yet cannot be left alone for long. 26 Ratey 2002, 160-63. 27 Ratey 2002, 163-64.

16 / Meditation

Works

The established ego with its automatic patterns is the main adversary of the meditation process and many traditions speak of egodissolution,

the elimination

of set reactions,

and the deautomatiza-

tion of behavior. They ultimately do not aim at a complete dissolution, however, but rather at a restructuring and reintegration of the personality, leading to “an authentic individuality that is not compulsively driven by conditioned tendencies from the past” but encompasses a dimension envisioned as divine.28

Transformation

Process

Meditative transformation, it should be clear from all this, works largely with the subconscious portion of the mind. However, access to

this portion is guarded fiercely by the critical factor in the conscious mind, requiring the practice of calming and focusing methods to keep it in check. Most meditation practices as much as most hypnosis sessions accordingly begin with concentration exercises, usually involving the breath, to allow the conscious mind to take a break and thoughts to come to stillness. Beginners tend to be submerged in a torrent of thoughts that jump aimlessly from one to the next, ranging from distant memories of the past to wild expectations of the future. This is what meditators call the “monkey-mind” or the “mind like a galloping horse.” It is uncontrolled and wild and does not give the person even a moment’s rest.22

The rest acquired through concentrative practice, which works largely with the conscious mind and focused awareness, creates wellpublicized physiological effects: breathing deeply and keeping the mind still releases stress, reduces the heart rate, increases oxygena-

tion, and stops the production of stress hormones. Going beyond this, practitioners start to engage the subconscious mind. Gently drawing out the patterns of emotions and old habits, they release deeply ingrained ego-structures that were often accompanied by physical tension and unpleasant sensations. 30

28 Welwood 2000, 15. On meditation as deautomatization, see Austin 1998, 141-45; 2006, 90-94 and 239-50; Brazier 1995, 173; Deikman 1966. 29 This aspect of meditation is discussed in Brazier 1995, 54-63. 30 On emotions, meditation, and neuroscience, see Davidson and Har-

rington 2000; Ekman

and Davidson

1994; Goleman

1997; 2003; Lane

and

Introduction / 17

Once old patterns have softened or are eliminated, new tendencies are installed. This is where worldview becomes important, where eth-

ics are adopted, where the role of the guru is defined, where the new

person is created. Thoughts are changed toward positive, wellmeaning patterns, toward views in line with the teaching, such as nonaction in Daoism, impermanence in Buddhism, immediacy in Zen,

deities in tantric Buddhism, or the true self in yoga. Negative emotions are eliminated and positive feelings installed, typically involving inner peace, calmness of mind, trust, gratitude, generosity, compassion, sympathetic joy, and the like—but which in cult situations may also include unquestioning faith in the leader, rejection of former friends and family, and selfless giving to the group. Memories are purged. Things that seemed horrible and hard to bear are pulled out into the open—often through images or body sensations—and acceptedas a part of the past that has no more impact on the present.

The methods used to effect this transformation are ways to communi-

cate with the subconscious: muscle stretching and relaxing, energetic movements, breath control, creative imagination, visions and metaphorical images, repeated chanting and affırmations. They are used similarly in hypnosis, Gestalt therapy, and other methods that aim to alter behavior and affect the mind. However similar to psychotherapy, meditation is yet unique in that the methods are co-opted by specific traditions and linked with certain worldviews thatlead to the complete make-over of the person in the image of a specific tradition’s

saints.31

Meditation is also unique in that it requires a combination of active effort and passive surrender. It is essential that one practice with dedication, seriousness, and on a regular basis. One cannot slacken or the ego will recover its old dominance. On the other hand, one cannot

be too goal-oriented and spiritually ambitious—engaging in what Chégyam Trungpa called “spiritual materialism” (1985b)—or one will create a meditation-based ego with its own standards and selfcriticism, feeling superior when one’s sitting or mental states meet expectations and feeling inferior when one’s practice fails to meet

Nadel 2000; Pert 1997.

For various relaxation and organizational techniques

to reduce stress, see Smith 2002.

31 A possible confluence of meditation and psychotherapy was first ex-

plored in the 1960s when Erich Fromm worked with D. T. Suzuki (Suzuki,

Fromm, and DeMartino 1967). Since then there have been numerous publications on the subject. See chapter 5 below.

18 / Meditation

Works

N

these standards.32 Attainment in meditation appears on its own; one has to surrender to the process to let it happen. Yet one has to keep the process moving with a steady effort to ripen awareness. Many traditions formulate this facet as “practice is attainment” or, as in Zen, “sitting is enlightenment.” They do not mean that every one who sits zazen is actually enlightened, but that there can be no enlightenment other than in the very moment of sitting, that effort and surrender have to be one.33 Having. undergone a transformation of mind and liberation from old memories,

negative emotions,

and ingrained evaluations,

meditators

claim that they are immersed in a state that goes beyond ordinary consciousness but pervades all levels of the mind. This superconscious level is called no-mind, wisdom mind, true self, Self, Big Mind,

or cosmic consciousness. It universe and connects the state to be attained is what sciousness, where oneness longer apply. Some

traditions,

is part person mystics prevails

of the divine that underlies the with all existence. The ultimate describe as union or unitive conand the common separations no

such as Theravada

Buddhism

and Zen,

do not use

quite this terminology, speaking instead of complete cessation, pure experience, or true thusness, but the idea is still the same: practitioners overcome the limitations of ordinary forms of consciousness and connect to something more encompassing, subtler, and purer.34 This allows them to develop an open and loving presence in a state of unqualified intimacy with life. Anchored in the joyous awareness of the infinite and firmly established in wisdom, they are constantly aware of their true cosmic nature and remain undisturbed by the polarities of success and failure, pleasure and pain.

32 À case

in point is an experiment

by Herbert

Benson,

in which

he

asked subjects to focus on the breath and count each exhalation from one to

ten. “They became

so flustered when

they repeatedly

lost count

that they

could not elicit a relaxation response. All he was able to measure was their performance anxiety.” When asked just to say “one” with each breath, relaxa-

tion was achieved (Borysenko 1987, 40).

33 Iyengar formulates it in terms of “effort, awareness, and joy” or having both, “a sense of direction and a center of gravity” (1988, 41-45). In classical yoga, the two poles are called abhyasa and vairagya or “training and deconditioning.” See Feuerstein 1980, 78-80. 34 On the cosmic mind and the true self, see Austin 2006, 359-60; Bucke

1961; Cope 2000; 2006; Motoyama 1990;. On the mystical experience, James 1936; O’Brien 1964; Proudfoot 1985; Scharfstein 1973.

see

Introduction / 19

Western

Science

The connection of Western science and traditional meditation goes back to the 1960s when Zen representative D. T. Suzuki gave a lecture series at Columbia University in New York, which was attended by Erich Fromm and other important figures in the field of psychoanalysis. A dialogue and cooperative conference emerged which resulted in a first analytical volume on the subject, called Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis (1967). Around the same time, the Hindubased

mantra

system

Transcendental

Meditation

(TM),

under

the

leadership of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, made major inroads in West-

ern societies, inspiring the Beatles and Rolling Stones to meditate in

India and making converts among professionals, businessmen, and hippies alike. The counter-culture of the sixties, moreover, besides supporting the meditative efforts of new religious movements (e.g., Hare Krishnas; Bhagwan Rajneesh), also encouraged experimental research into altered states of consciousness (Tart 1969).

Both Suzuki and the Maharishi made strong claims that their systems were nonreligious and compatible with modern science. In this Suzuki followed the age-old rhetoric of Zen that it was completely different

from

other

Chinese

Buddhist

schools

with

their

devotion,

chanting, and official hierarchies and consisted of a “mind-to-mind” transmission “outside of the scriptures.”® The Maharishi, on the other hand, had been trained in Western physics before becoming a full-time meditation guru. He claimed that his method was a “science of consciousness” which would revolutionize the world and pave the way for the next level of human evolution.36 Soon first scientific studies were undertaken, consisting largely of EEG measurements of brain waves in meditators. While the conscious mind works largely in beta waves, when quieted it changes to alpha, a common state found even in beginning Zen and TM practitioners. More advanced disciples might also enter states dominated by theta waves that indicate a deeply calm, yet conscious state unique to meditation. Less frequent but also observed were delta waves, usually associated with deep sleep and hypnotic somnambulism. People in this state appear unconscious yet can perceive sensory stimuli.3” 35 This, of course, is nothing but rhetoric, quite unfounded in actual fact. For a detailed discussion of its aspects and functions, see Faure 1991.

36 For more on TM and its claims, see Mahesh Yogi 1995. 37 Early studies on brain waves in meditation are reprinted in Shapiro

and Walsh 1984, part. iii (363-534). Later studies also showed that an in-

20 / Meditation

Works

Studies at the time were rather simplistic and to a large extent suffered from conflict of interest, since the vast majority of experiments involved TM—usually either conducted or sponsored by the organization or supervised by dedicated practitioners. By the 1980s, meditation had begun its march through the healthcare institutions of the Western world and its relation to science changed considerably. Major researchers, such as Deane Shapiro, Roger Walsh, Jack

Engler,

Richard

Davidson,

Arthur

Deikman,

and Daniel Gole-

man were either working on or had completed dissertations involving the study of specific techniques, and first comprehensive volumes ap-

peared (e.g., Shapiro and Walsh 1984). In the same year, R. Adam Engle,

a North

American

businessman,

and

Francisco

J. Varela,

a

Chilean-born Paris-based neuroscientist, cooperated with the Dalai Lama in founding the Mind and Life Institute, which has since sponsored a series of dialogues on the neurological explanation of meditation and the possible application of Buddhist values and practices in the modern West.38 As, moreover, cultic groups lost in popularity while Zen and TM continued to develop, various new forms of meditation became available. Buddhist insight meditation centers arose, yoga and qigong gained popular attention,

and first training courses in kundalini and inner

alchemy were offered—greatly increasing the variety of methods and breadth of access to the general population. As a result, by the 1990s many Westerners had had some experience of meditation, usually undertaken for health and self-improvement. Scientists, notably psychologists and medical practitioners, had come to recognize the practice as an important factor in healing and begun to ask the two central questions that have become the subject of numerous studies: What is it good for? and: How exactly does it work?

With regard to the former, the Evidence Report of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, published in 2007, summarizes and evaluates 813 studies on the use of meditation in healthcare, 50

percent of which were conducted after 1994. Although concerned with the healing effects of the practice, the studies were undertaken mostly among the healthy population, testing students, professionals,

crease 1n gamma waves matched stronger feelings of compassion in monks. See Begley 2007, 234-36. 38 Reports on these dialogues have appeared with the common subtitle

“Conversations with the Dalai Lama.” Those focusing on the physiology of meditation include Hayward and Varela 1992; Houshmand et al. 1999;

Varela 1997;

Zajonc and Houshmand 2004.

Introduction / 21

and housewives.

logical functions,

Outcome

measures were largely limited to physio-

such as blood pressure, heart rate, cholesterol, in-

traocular pressure, visual reaction time, and breath holding ability.39

The Report finds that most of the existing scientific literature on meditation, in addition to offering basic physiological measurements, deals with its effect on psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety, panic disorders, binge eating disorders, and substance abuse. Studies acknowledge also that meditation is useful as a complementary treatment for medical conditions, including hypertension, cardiovascular disorders, pain syndromes, musculoskeletal diseases, respiratory disorders, dermatological problems, immunological diseases, and treatment-related symptoms of cancer.“ Only very few studies take psycho-social outcomes into consideration. Those that do show: a change in personality traits, such as an increase in extroversion and

self-esteem as well as an improvement of verbal creativity; some positive psychological outcomes, e.g., more empathy, assertive behavior, autonomy,

and

overall

happiness;

certain

social

and

interpersonal

effects, including a reduction in conflict level and an improvement in social functioning; as well as, in the fewest studies, a betterment of daily living.*!

Overall, scientific studies of meditation in healthcare “do not appear to have a common thread and are characterized by poor methodology.” In all 813 studies, the Report finds, there were “significant threats to validity in every major category of quality measured,” such as inadequate randomization, blinding, withdrawals, and concealment of treatment allocation. Trials tended to be small in number and lacked appropriate control groups.42 Studies usually neglected such important variables as patient character, timing, doses, and frequency of practice. They also for the most part ignored phenomenological characteristics of the specific practice, such as its inherent goals, the direction of attention, the type of anchor chosen in concentration, and the specific posture required.# In meta-analysis, the Report concludes that “meditation methods are no better or any more 39 Ospina et al. 2007, 5. 40 Ospina et al. 2007, 10. 41 Ospina et al. 2007, 102.

42 Ospina et al. 2007, 3, 5.

43 Ospina et al. 2007, 5, 10. Begley 2007, 215. The Dalai Lama emphaizes four key factors in the achievement of “calm abiding”: motivation and morality, time and place, diet and sleep, as well as physical posture (2002, 120-22). Few of these are considered in scientific studies.

22 / Meditation

Works

effective than other kinds of relaxation and stress-reduction techniques.” The overall results are “inconclusive with respect to the effectiveness of meditation practice.”#

The

Brain

While the actual effect of meditation in healthcare is thus neither properly defined nor conclusively proven to scientific satisfaction, every single method described in this book has made serious inroads in medical and psychotherapeutic settings and is used to great benefit by numerous people, self-improvers and patients alike. In addition, scientists have made a great deal of progress with regard to the second core question on how exactly meditation works. Recent technological advances, such as brain imaging (MRI), have made neurological processes visible, showing which parts of the brain are activated by what kind of practice and how this changes the overall patterns of neuro-activity.45 More precise measurements of brain chemistry, moreover, have revealed how an enhanced output of neurotransmitters enhances the function of attention while calmer thoughts and concentrated breathing induce a relaxed state and deeper blood oxygenation. As a result of meditative concentration, the

heart

rate

decreases,

urgencies

diminish,

and

tension

recedes—

explaining the sedative and stress-reducing effect of the practice.“ Concentration also has an effect on the endocrine system, reducing

the

accumulation

of stress hormones,

such

as lactate,

cortisol,

and

epinephrine in the bloodstream, while increasing melatonin which enhances good cheer, maintains health, and prevents disease. The frontal lobes of the brain are deactivated, and there is less activity in the parietal lobe. As a result, practitioners are able to immerse them-

selves in the present and do less judging and striving.47

For longer-term effects of meditation, other tests, such as the Rorschach, were administered. A series of ten inkblots, it invites subjects

to freely associate, showing what ideas and concerns are foremost in 44 Ospina et al. 2007, 4. #5 For studies on meditation and the brain, see Austin 1998, 78-99; 2006, 40-48; Begley 2007; D’Aquili 1999; West 1987, 81-132. 46 See Austin 1998, 517-30; 2006, 49-57; Khalsa 2001, 101-24. On stress

and its counteraction by yoga, see McCall 2007, 48-70.

47 See Austin 2006, 73-86; Johnston 1974; Murphy and Donavan 1999.

Introduction / 23

their minds. In one such study, serious insight meditators revealed that they were seeing reality more as a flow and a succession of changes rather than as sets of firm, clear-cut building blocks. Ad-

vanced

meditators

as well

as

Native

American

healers,

moreover,

presented a clear-cut outline of their worldview as they saw the inkblots, not revealing any distracting or extraneous ideas.48 Other longterm studies involve the effects of meditation on pain control and the testing of senior Tibetan lamas. The latter experiments are often fraught with cultural complexities and concerns that Western scientists cannot

address,

such

as whether

the

electrical wires

used

to

measure brain function during meditation affect the subtle energy body of the meditator and hence alter the meditative state.4

Another major breakthrough in brain research concerns the ways in which persistent and systematic training in meditation can change neurological pathways. Contrary to earlier notions that assumed a fixed, immutable wiring of the brain, scientists now acknowledge that there is a two-way street of causality between mind and brain, and that the latter has a great deal of neuroplasticity, i.e., the ability to change and transform. Neurological regeneration and reorganization are thus not only desirable but distinctly possible—although it becomes harder with age to remove and establish brain crcuits.50 Experiments both in monkeys and among humans have conclusively shown that consistent practice of certain movements or actions greatly increases the brain area dedicated to them.5! As a result, scientists are now convinced that “virtually every brain system we know about . . . is importantly shaped by experlence.52 It has also become clear that “perception and attention are not fixed constants; they can be changed through training.” Attention in particular is not only the key factor in meditation practice but also the very key to neuroplasticity.54 Closely intertwined with consciousness, 48 See Brown and Engler 1984; summarized in Austin 1998, 129-37. 49 Difficulties in studies of indigenous practitioners are detailed in Begley 2007, 216-18, 233-39. A survey of various meditation studies, with extensive bibliography, appears in Andresen and Forman 2000. 50 Ratey 2002, 44, 39. A history of the gradual emergence of the concept of neuroplasticity is found in Begley 2007, 26-48. 51 Begley 2007, 37, 131-60. 52 Helen Neville, quoted in Begley 2007, 75. For a description of numerous experiments confirming this statement, see Begley 2007, 79-109. 53 Begley 2007, xu; Ratey 2002, 20. 54 Begley 2007, 158.

24 / Meditation

Works

attention serves to filter out perceptions, balance multiple data, and

attach emotional significance to them. The intensity of attention is not a natural constant; it depends on the emotional alertness of the

person, whether there is interest, greed, anxiety, or another sense of serious involvement.>

Attention consists of four distinct components: arousal, the activating system that connects the frontal lobes, the limbic system, the brainstem, the sense organs, and the hippocampus (the seat of memory);

motor orientation, focused in the motor centers of the brain, such as

the cerebellum; novelty or reward detection, located in the nucleus accumbens in the forebrain and connected to the amygdala, the principal pleasure center that stores dopamine and is sensitive to endorphins and serotonin; as well as the executive organizer, the frontal lobe that blocks irrelevant stimuli and sustains focus and works closely with the anterior cingulate gyrus that assigns emotional significance and accordingly “tells us to forget one thing and go for another.56

Of special importance is the amygdala, which operates outside of conscious control and provides a preconscious bias of intensity to every stimulus. Once it consults the memory stored in the hippocampus, on the other hand, it provides judgments and anticipates events, allowing emotions to either lessen or intensify. It is in many ways responsible for the way we are as emotional beings. This is made most obvious in cases where this organ was removed. As John Ratey says: People without an amygdala owing to infection, stroke, or surgery have what we call the Klüver-Bucy syndrome, a bizarre set of symptoms with a tendency to react to all stimuli

in the environment without discrimination or learning. They also have a marked indifference to people and lose 060

121)57

emotional

attachments

to

family

members.

(2002,

Both these features are, in much lesser and more benign form, part of

the ideal meditator’s personality: an ability to appreciate all kinds of stimuli without prior evaluation and a thorough detachment from 55 Ratey 2002, 114. 56 Ratey 2002, 115-20. Meditators tend to show much increased activity in this area. Begley 2007, 237. 57 A related case is that of Phineas Gage, who was injured in the frontal lobes, lost all moral and emotional judgments, and turned angry and aggressive. See Begley 2007, 51; Ratey 2002, 231.

Introduction / 25

involvement and relationships. It is thus no accident that there are distinct changes in amygdala activity in dedicated, long-term meditation practitioners. Another important characteristic of serious meditators is their fundamentally happy outlook, combined with compassion for others and deep ethical concerns. Richard Davidson, assisted by Tibetan monks sent to his Wisconsin lab by the Dalai Lama, has repeatedly shown that insight meditation intensifies brain activity in the left frontal

cortex (with close connections to the amygdala), which is associated

with positive emotions, such as happiness, while a stronger activity in the right frontal cortex indicates negative emotions, such as anger, hatred, jealousy, or simple frustration. Monks practicing under laboratory conditions were clearly able to “move the needle” toward the left, implying “that happiness is something we can cultivate deliberately through mental training that affects the brain.”58 Vindicating the

claims

made

in ancient

meditation

traditions,

this

research

is

gradually putting an end to the notion of the “happiness set-point,” the baseline of a positive or negative attitude to life that we were all supposed to have due to genetic make-up and childhood experiences.5? Expanding this training toward a more positive outlook on life, other helpful emotions such as compassion can then be installed in the person, in the long run creating a population that is caring and supportive rather than competitive and distrustful.6 These emotions, moreover, are not limited to the individual but are deeply moral in nature, giving rise to the increasingly powerful suspicion that “ethics are implemented in the brain as moral emotions” and can accordingly be enhanced.61 This, in turn, connects actively with the notion of meditation as an ethical process and the traditional requirement that practitioners observe basic precepts and behave morally.

58 Begley 2007, 229.

59 A description of the happiness set-point and related experiments is found in Begley 2007, 8, 226-33; Ratey 2002, 226-30. 60 Begley 2007, 185, 195.

61 On the biological root of ethics and social implications of this notion, see Dawkin 1976; Pinker 2008.

26 / Meditation Works

Practice Applications Rather than being a boon to healthcare, meditation as supported by neurological advances may find its most potent application in modern Western societies in raising the standards of moral and altruistic living. The tendency of meditation traditions to envision the ideal human being and their active efforts to create him or her through systematic practice may come to replace the traditional Western outlook, common in medicine and therapy, that it is sufficient to get people to a basic state without acute sickness. As Alan Wallace says: Western scientists have an underlying assumption that normal is absolutely as good as it gets and that the excep-

tional is only for saints, that it is something that cannot be

cultivated. We in the modern West have grown accustomed to the assumption that the “normal” mind, in the sense of one free from clinical mental illness, is a healthy one. But a

“normal mind” is still subject to many types of mental distress, including anxiety, frustration, restlessness, boredom,

and resentment. (Begley 2007, 250)

Pushing oneself beyond limits and reaching for new heights are already important aspects in Western self-realization. Hypnosis, NLP, and visualization are essential methods applied in this context. They all serve to create a more powerful vision of oneself combined with a hopeful and positive perspective—a feature most vividly illustrated in cancer treatments, where people’s thinking often is that cancer means death or that the disease cannot be controlled. Replacing these thoughts with positive enhancements and visions of oneself as healthy can make the difference between life and death.62 In all its forms, and especially when

accompanied by an appropriate

worldview and ideal vision, meditation calms and restores people, empowers patients, and teaches them to see themselves as participating in their health, success, and good fortune by creating their own state of mind, attitude, and bodily reality. This, again, matches what

we now know of the brain, whose various activities and workings are closely related to people’s

Ratey points out:

preconceptions

and

experiences.

As John

62 On positive thoughts and visualization in cancer patients, see Simon-

ton 1978. More extensive research is presented in Simonton and Henson 1992.

The effect of thinking and emotions on health is also hypnosis.

See

Austin

2006,

57;

Epstein

McWilliams 1989; Spiegel and Spiegel 1978.

1989;

Fromm

a common and

theme

Nash

in

1997;

Introduction / 27

Sensations that come from the environment are fitted into

the categories or constructs that we have learned. We are constantly priming our perception, matching the world to

what we expect to sense and thus making it what we per-

ceive it to be. (2002, 55)

All perception requires a form of expectation, of knowing what is about to confront us and preparing for it. “Neurons do not sit around quietly waiting for incoming data to rouse them: they are always active and choose whether and how to respond to stimuli.” 6 Expectation is, therefore, a key factor in meditation practice. Not only do people select a form that suits them but they also shape their specific way of practice in accordance with their personal goals and the tradition’s worldview. Often this worldview encourages an awareness of the vibratory nature of the body and the close integration of the

body-mind.

This,

in turn,

matches

the

understanding

of quantum

physics, which has shown that matter is made up of vibrating energy and fields that change their state very rapidly—trillions of times in one second. Atoms are largely empty and consist of a tiny nucleus that is ten thousand times smaller than the rest of the particle—99 percent of parts being emptiness. Body and mind consist of the same vibrating atoms that are constantly oscillating, arising and dissolving: all empty, no solidity, no firmness. 64 As a result, reality is less a combination of solid entities than an interlocking web of fields that each pulsate at their own rate. These interlocking fields of vibration can come into harmony with each other and mutually support and increase their amplitude. But they can also interfere with each other and create disturbance. Since all fields are ultimately interlocked, even a small disturbance in any one

of them carries into all the others. This holds true not only for the body, but also integrates the mind into a vibrational body-mind totality. Just as bodily transformations are of unlimited possibilities, so the mind is ultimately nonlocal; it can be anywhere and exchange information with anything else instantaneously.© Engaging in meditation exercises, practitioners thus connect to the energy-fields of the greater universe and, as traditional mystics have claimed all along, establish a deep harmony with the essential energies of the cosmos. 63 64 Nadeau 65 prayer,

Ratey 2002, 56, 112. On quantum physics and the mind, see Bohm 1951; Gerber 1988; and Kafatos 1999; 2000; Tart et al. 1979; Varela et al. 1991. On the nonlocal mind and related concepts, such as intercessory see also Targ and Katra 1998; Dossey 1996.

Chapter One The Foundation:

Breathing and Concentration The first step in any meditation practice is to deepen the breath and withdraw the mind from sensory input. To focus attention inward, the mind has to become free from all engagements with outside activities and internal concerns.

At the same

time, breathing—one

of

the few functions of the body that is both automatic and voluntary— has to be calmed and steadied. A bridge to the mind, breathing is a clear indicator of mental states, so that its the shortness and rapidity show mental agitation while length and depth reveal serenity within.

For example, watching a scary movie, people hold their breath. Engaged in passionate embrace, they pant with excitement. At times of

fear, tension, worry, sorrow, or stress, breathing becomes tight, shal-

low, and rapid. On the other hand, when we lie down to relax or sleep,

we breathe deeply and slowly. Breathing is therefore an obvious and easily accessible tool for calming the mind, opening a state of relaxa-

tion, and allowing the inward turning of attention.

Breathing should be through the nose, because the nostrils contain fine hairs that serve as a filter in the intake of breath. The nasal passages also provide a channel before the air reaches the lungs, thus allowing it to warm up to body temperature. In addition, one should breathe with the diaphragm, inhaling deep into the abdomen and not stopping with the chest. The breath should be long and slow. Ordinary people breathe eight to ten times per minute, stressed people

fifteen or more times, but meditators slow their breath down to five or 28

The Foundation / 29

even only one or two respirations.! Beyond the slowing and deepening of the breath, different traditions use it as a meditation object: either in detached observation or through breath control, which may include various ways of exhaling or cessation, the holding of the breath either in or out.

Buddhists use the breath to calm the mind and establish concentration, then move on to the more advanced practices of their different schools,

such as insight, visualization,

and Zen koans.

Both Daoists

and yogis, on the other hand, have specific methods of breath control and additional ways of inducing concentration. They also see the breath as a manifestation of a larger cosmic power, a life force known as g1 or prana. For them, breathing connects not only to the mind but to the universe; it keeps the person alive not only in a concrete physiological way, but also through its role as cosmic energy. Extended focus on breathing, combined with a deepening of mental calm, moreover, leads to states of intense concentration or absorption. These states can be used as a basis for accessing other, more intricate forms of meditation, or they can represent goals in themselves, allowing a connection with universal power of whatever denomination.

Physiology of Breathing Breathing serves to bring oxygen into the bloodstream and the circulatory system of the body while at the same time releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. As the diaphragm, the muscle that divides the lungs from the intestinal cavity, contracts, air is sucked into the lungs and ideally spreads into their far reaches, widening the space between the ribs and oxygenating the entire torso. The lungs extract oxygen from the air and channel it into the bloodstream from where it goes into the heart and the brain and then throughout the body to nourish all of its cells. Blood that has been depleted of oxygen and instead carries carbon dioxide is then transported back to the heart through the veins, from where the lungs take over and expel the carbon dioxide in exhalation. 1 On breath as a focus in meditation and its healing effect, see Harrison 2000, 59-68; Wallace 2005, 11-21. Studies have shown that long expirations slow the firing of nerve cells in the amygdala, thus creating a sense of calmness and that many systems of the brain operate more efficiently at a lower speed. See Austin 1998, 461-62.

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The process of breathing is intimately connected to the autonomic nervous system, which “oversees the body’s vital functions through subconscious signals that originate in the anterior cyngulate gyrus and are relayed to the hypothalamus and spinal cord.”2 It has two branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system is the energizing part. It puts us into a state of readiness to meet challenges or danger, causing nerve endings to emit neurotransmitters that stimulate the adrenal glands to secrete powerful hormones which increase the heartbeat and the rate of breathing. They also influence our digestion, speeding up the metabolic function through increased acid secretion in the stomach. The parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, activates neurotransmitters like acetylcholine that lower the pulse and breathing rate. Its responses are comfort, relaxation, and sleep. Any relaxation method will stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system and thus slow down the breath. One can be either in one or the other mode. If the sympathetic nervous system is “on,” the parasympathetic is “off,” and vice versa. Both, moreover, connect closely to the endocrine system which manages the hormones that control growth, activity levels, and sexuality. Endocrine glands secrete hormones known as endorphins and enkephalins that modulate reactions to stress and pain, affect moods and appetite, and support abilities of learning and memory. The more one is in the parasympathetic mode, the better the endocrine system can do its work. The same holds also true for the immune system, which explains why so many people are suffering from stress related ailments.{

Meditation

activates

the

parasympathetic

nervous

system,

while

stress increases sympathetic activity in reaction to a perceived threat.

The emphasis here is on “perceived.” Originally built into the organism as the “flight or fight” response, stress served to put the body on high alert when primitive man was confronted with a saber-tooth tiger or similar life-threatening situation. It enabled him to marshal all the body’s powers into one focus, to become stronger than usual, more 2 Ratey 2002, 171. 3 Ratey 2002, 172-74. 4 On the physiology of breathing and the autonomic nervous system, see Loehr and Migdow 1986, 2026; Borysenko 1987, 55-68; Nelson 1982; Von Euler and Lagercrantz 1987; Altose and Kawakami 1999; Fried 1993; 1999.

The Foundation / 31

alert, and with higher endurance. Running for his life or getting ready to fight to the death, he was using every part of the nervous system,

increasing the force and the rate of the heart, looking with

pupils wide open, and quieting the bladder and the digestive system.

Today, the problem is that people react to quite ordinary situations as if facing a saber-tooth tiger. The mind perceives threats as more dangerous than they are and people go into high alert. Worse than that, they get used to being in high alert, with its increased adrenaline rush and intense mental capabilities. The moment the high lets off, they find themselves slackening and reach for caffeine or some similar stimulant to artificially prolong the stressful state. Then, after a day’s work, they have trouble relaxing and increasingly fall prone to all sorts of ailments.5 Breathing plays an essential part in this drama and can be a key fac-

tor in the regulation of stress. Every time one perceives a situation as

threatening, breathing becomes shallow and short, and rather than correcting this with conscious effort, people habituate to this pattern and accept it as the normal state of affairs. The vast majority of people in industrialized societies stop breathing naturally, relaxed, and deeply before they reach kindergarten. Instead, they only breathe as far as the chest, gasping out air as if they were pushing a heavy load. Doing so, they no longer use the deeper and subtler parts of the lungs, where the blood flow rate is faster and the renewal of energy greatest, thus depriving themselves of a great source of vigor. Breathing only as deep as the chest also speeds up the entire breathing process so that instead of ten or fewer deep breaths per minute, people often take fifteen or more. The heart accordingly beats that much faster; it begins to work overtime and comes to wear out that much sooner. Heart disease and cardio-pulmonary illness are the eventual result,

a common condition in the modern world.

By breathing in this stressful manner, people moreover prevent sufficient amounts of oxygen from reaching the cells. Instead of exchanging fresh oxygen for old carbon dioxide in the lungs and thereby giving new energy to the body, they only release a little and maintain an unhealthy amount of gaseous toxins within. This in turn causes the 5 On stress and its various causes and manifestations, Johnson 1983, 27-36; Benson and Stuart 1992; McDermott 1996, 122-43.

see Korn and and O’Connor

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blood to become more acidic and tension to build up. The hypothalamus and pituary glands are stimulated, stress hormones such as cortisone and adrenaline are released to further fuel the sense of urgency, tension, and anxiety. Then, of course, the breathing becomes even shallower and more rapid. It is a vicious circle that has no escape—until one gets sick and is forced to rest or decide that enough is enough and make some changes. Any form of focused, relaxed, and deep breathing, whether in a medi-

tative context or not, accordingly has a beneficial effect on this pathological pattern. It is physiologically impossible to breathe deeply and be stressedat the same time. Just the creation of breathing breaks by consciously breathing into the abdomen for a few minutes several times a day can have an immensely beneficial effect on overall health and well-being.6 People learning to take certain clues in their day, such as having to stop at a red light on their way to work, and using them to breathe fully—however short the period—find themselves coming gradually out of the stress cycle. One of the key healing effects of meditation has, therefore, nothing to do with meditation per se, but is the immediate result of deeper and slower breathing.

Qi and Prana Unlike in Western understanding, breathing in China and India is not just a mechanical process of oxygenation but a way to bring vital energy into the body and to activate the subtler levels of being. Both see the breath as the manifestation of a cosmic energy known as の 7 or

prana, which flows through special body channels called meridians (mai, nadi) and vitalizes not only humans but all beings. It is the material aspect of the divine power underlying the universe, described as Dao or Brahman, and as such serves as a bridge not just between body and mind—which are seen as one continuum of vibrating energy—but also between individual and cosmos.

More specifically, gi can be described as a bioenergetic potency that causes things to live, grow, develop, and decline. The basic material of all that exists, it animates life and furnishes the functional power of events. @ is the root of the human body; its quality and movement determine human health. @ can be discussed in terms of quantity, 6 On breathing breaks, their practice and lasting effects, see Loehr and

Migdow 1986, 46-52.

The Foundation / 33

since having more means stronger metabolic function. But more important than the amount of 07 is its overall balance and harmony, moderation and smoothness of flow. The flow of 07 is envisioned as a complex system of waterways both in nature and in the human body. In the latter, a central reservoir known as the Ocean of @7 is in the abdomen; rivers of az flow through the upper torso, arms, and legs; springs of gi sprout at the wrists and ankles; and wells of gi are found in the fingers and toes. In both nature and the body, even a small spot in this complex system can thus influence the whole, so that overall balance and smoothness are the general goal. Human life is the accumulation of gi death is its dispersal. After recelving a core potential of primordial qi at birth, people throughout life need to sustain it. They do so by drawing postnatal gz into the body from air and food, as well as from other people through sexual, emotional, and social interactions. But they also lose 07 through breathing bad air, living in polluted conditions, overburdening or undernourishing their bodies with food and drink, or getting involved in negative emotions and excessive sexual or social interactions. Breath control is thus the management of qi to the best of one’s ability and can lead almost seamlessly to physical health, extended longevity, and realms of spiritual attainment.’ The Indian notion of prana, too, connects the person to the central power of the cosmos. It can be translated as consciousness, life, energy, breath, inspiration—the exact meaning changes according to

the level considered. As breath, prana moves between the heart and a

point about twelve fingers’ breadth from the nose. As energy, it is the

factor that makes up the second sheath (kosa) of the body, the etheric

body nourished by breath which is slightly subtler than its gross outer sheath, the physical body nourished by food. Even more subtle are the remaining three sheaths: the astral body made up of sensory reactions and emotions, the causal body consisting of pure intellect and knowledge, and the bliss body, the level of the innermost and true self of the individual (atman). Yogic practice aims to work through the sheaths from the outside in to reactivate and recover the original bliss body of the true self. Breath control thus plays an important part in the Indian path of self-realization.

7 For details on gi, see Chang 1976; Kaptchuk 2000; Kendall 2002; Kohn 2005.

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Prana also governs the five senses and is the master of people’s interior being. It comes in five major forms called winds (vayu) that are classified according to movement. Inward moving (prana), it governs all types of bodily reception, such as eating, inhalation, and reception of sensory data. Outward moving (4pana), it governs all forms of elimination and discharge, of breath, digestive remnants,

ids, and negative sensory and emotional states.

sexual flu-

A third form of prana is upward moving (udana). It signifies the posi-

tive energy that moves us forward and up, both physically in the ability to stand and speak and psychologically in the tendency to grow and develop: Another form is centering (sämana); it moves from the periphery to the center and helps with digestion of all kinds: gastrointestinal, respiratory, sensory, emotional. The last form of prana is peripheral moving (vyana). This moves from the center to the periphery and governs circulation on all levels, pervading the entire body and distributing energy derived from food and breath.® The five forms of prana, as much as の 7 in its various phases of flow, are further connected to cosmic elements and geographical directions as well as to periods of time in daily and seasonal cycles. All these forms of energy and their correspondences are activated through the breath; they impact not only the basic systems of bodily functioning but have an immediate effect on the senses, emotions, and the mind.

Their main role is to connect all things together and create a sense of integration and oneness. Although primarily defined in terms of breath and bodily functions, they have significant mental and spiritual significance and play a key role in meditative practice.

Breath

Control

Both the Indian and Chinese traditions use various forms of breath control to induce calm and improve health. Called pranayama in India, the lengthening and expansion or restraint (ayama) of prana, and qifa or “methods of 97 in China, they can be divided according to an

8 For discussions of prana in its different forms, see Behanan 1964, 20112; Bernard 1968, 47-59; Silburn 1988, 39-40; Iyengar 1976, 43-54; 1988, 12431; Farhi 1996; 2000, 29-34; Frawley 1999, 119-34; Mohan and Mohan 2004,

121-23. For details of yogic breathing and the activation of pranic powers, see

McGill 1979, 43-73.

The Foundation / 35

emphasis on diaphragmatic breathing, a control of the exhalation, a holding of breath, and using the breath to access the energy body. Diaphragmatic breathing in China appears already in the Zhuangzi (dat. 300 B.C.E.), which notes that “the perfected breathe all the way to their heels, unlike ordinary folk who breathe only as far as their throats” (ch. 6). Han-dynasty medical manuscripts similarly emphasize that deep breathing is the first step toward the restoration and continued health of the body. The most detailed description of diaphragmatic breathing is found in a more recent source, the 1914 book

Yinshizi jingzuo fa (Quiet

Sitting with Master Yinshi)

Weiqiao, a forerunner of modern qigong.9

by Jiang

He calls it “natural” or “abdominal breathing” and describes it largely in bio-medical terms, noting that “every single inhalation, every single exhalation must always go deep down into the stomach area,” thus causing blood and body fluids to be fresh and active. Instructions for the practice begin with close attention to the abdomen—which he calls the “center of gravity” but which traditionally is called the Ocean of の 7 in medical literature and the cinnabar or elixir field (dantian) in Daoism. To begin, one should expand the abdomen on inhalation and contract it on exhalation to provide maximum flow of breath to the organs. Next, one should gradually lengthen and deepen the breath, increasing abdominal strength and settling the abdominal center in a low position. Following this, one can allow the respiration to “grow subtler and finer until the entering and leaving of the breath is very soft.” This leads to a state where the mind is deeply focused and one feels as if one were not breathing at all, with the qi subtly pervading the entire body. The yogic equivalent is called the three-part breath (dirgha pranayama), sometimes also known as the “energizing breath.” As Ramachakra Yogi describes it: Sit erect. Breathing through the nostrils, inhale steadily, first filling the lower part of the lungs, which can be accomplished by bringing into play the diaphragm, which descending exerts a gentle pressure on the abdominal organs, pushing forward the front walls of the abdomen. Then fill the middle part of the lungs, pushing out the lower ribs, breast bone, and chest. Then fill the higher portion of 9 On Jiang and his work, see Kohn 73; Miura 1989.

1993a; 1993b, 135-41; Lu 1964, 171-

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the lungs, protruding the upper chest, including the upper six or seven pairs of ribs. In the final movement, the lower part of the abdomen will be slightly drawn in, which movement gives the lungs a support and also helps to fill the highest part of the lungs.

(1905, 40; Fried 1993, 239)

While dirgha is typically used to create calmness and a connection with the breath in the beginning of a yoga session, another variant of diaphragmatic breathing is used while practicing body postures. The ocean-sounding breath (ujyayi) encourages the slight tensing and closing of the glottis at the back of the throat, thereby slowing the flow of breath and creating a subtle, rasping sound that resembles the surf of the ocean when one covers the ears with the hands and has a thoroughly calming effect on the mind.10 It, too, helps with the focus of attention and the attainment of concentration. Another way of breath-control works with the exhalation and serves to purify and cleanse the body’s organs, thus supporting concentration and meditative awareness. In yoga, a key method is the skullpolishing breath (kapalabhäti), a vigorous expulsion of air through the nose while contracting the abdomen in short, rapid pulls. The practice is undertaken in rounds, from thirty to eighty expulsions. It works the abdominal muscles and thus massages the inner organs and the digestive system, while at the same time clearing the sinuses and opening the nasal passages. In Daoism, practitioners use the so-called Six Breaths, also known as

the Six Healing Sounds. This involves exhaling through the mouth in various ways to release different kinds of energy from the inner organs. For example, exhaling with he, a forceful push with open mouth that is accompanied by a guttural rasping, not unlike

ujjayi, releases

dryness and noxious influences from the heart. Xu, a gentle expulsion of breath with open mouth, has a cooling effect and eases the liver. Chui, puffing out breath with lips almost closed, warms the body and connects to the kidneys. S7, a hissing sound, balances body temperature and eases the lungs, while Au, a blowing out of breath with rounded lips, relieves qi obstructions and stabilizes the spleen. The sixth and final breath is x7, the sound of sighing, a soft exhalation 10 This and the following methods of yogic breathing are described in most detail in Loehr and Migdow 1986. Other references include Desikachar 1999, 53-70; Farhi 1996; Frawley 1999, 248-60; Hewitt 1977; Iyengar 1976, 441-43; Walters 2002; Yasudian and Haich 1965.

The Foundation / 37

with the mouth slightly open that comes from deep It has an overall balancing effect and is linked with a purely Chinese organ located between the lungs that transforms qi as extracted from food into an combine with that won through breathing. Breath

control through

within the body. the triple heater, and the stomach energy that can

modified exhalation thus increases,

reduces,

or balances the energies of the body, allowing it to sustain a calm mind and support prolonged periods of meditation. Breath control through holding the breath, on the other hand, serves to create a pause between inhalation and exhalation, opening the mind-body system to an even deeper tranquility and allowing the internal energies to flow unimpeded by outward activation.

Advanced Breathing More advanced practitioners engage in stopping the breath. In yoga, breath retention is called kumbhaka. It involves holding the breath either in or out or both for a specific amount of time, usually measured by counting,

such as: four to inhale, four to hold in, four to ex-

hale, and/or four to hold out (4:4:4:4). Relaxation is deepened if the

exhalation is made longer than the inhalation, for example 4:2:6:2 or 4:4:8:4, which doubles the length of the exhalation. While the breath calms down and holdings lengthen with increased concentration, it 1s not necessarily better to go for longer periods. The point is to reach concentration, to still the body by creating a clear pause between breaths. In Daoism, holding the breath in is called “enclosing the gi’ (big), while holding the breath out is described as ”not breathe” (bux). Short holdings form a regular part of many daoyin exercises, the historical forerunner of gigong. Here, rather than creating stillness, the point of the practice is to let practitioners feel the spontaneous movement of qi, letting it flow where it will and expelling noxious influences in the process. For example, the seventh-century Yangxing yanming lu (On Nourishing Inner Nature and Extending Life), says: If the gi is internally cold, enclose it to cause sweating. When sweat emerges it regulates the body and the cold will 11 On the history of the healing breaths, see Despeux 2006; Kohn 2008. For a description of contemporary practice, see Chia and Chia 1993, 106-8. For details on the triple heater, see Kohn 2005, 31-32.

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be dissolved. Circulating and enclosing the 27 are the essentials of healing the body. . . . Circulating the 07 makes people develop superior gi. (2.1b-2a; Jackowicz 2006, 76)

In more advanced practice, the holding time is increased and the entire body-mind system is reorganized toward deep concentration and a subtler level of energy being. Again the Yangxing yanming lu: Lie down straight, close your eyes, and curl your hands into fists [to prevent gi from leaving]. Enclose the gi and do not breathe. Mentally count [the heart beat] to two hundred, then expel the gi by exhaling through the mouth. As you breathe like this for an increasing number of days, you will find your body, spirit, and all the five organs being at peace. If you can enclose the gi to the count of 250, your Flowery Canopy [lungs] will be bright. Your eyes and ears perceptive and clear, your body will be light and free from disease;

nothing pathogenic will bother you any more. (2.2a)

Lightness and full integration of the body form an essential condition of Daoist attainment, the realization of oneness with Dao and perfection of the self in immortality—an overall reorganization of the energetic structure of the self into a system that is free from ordinary food and breath. Advanced Daoists—as much as yogis—can breathe not only with their heels but through their skin, in a state known as em-

bryo respiration (éaixi) or suspension of the breath. In a state of deep

concentration, they stimulate the medulla oblongata, the regulator of breathing and heart beat in the brain. Thereby placing themselves in perfect harmony with cosmic energy, they can draw energy into their bodies without the normal process of respiration. As Stephen Jackowicz notes: “The individual returns to the primordial state of being and is like the embryo, but instead of being supported by a mother’s body, he or she is now nourished in the womb of the universe.”!2

Another advanced form of Daoist breathing that leads to higher spiritual states is reversed breathing, also known as regulated breathing. Here the movement of the diaphragm is reversed, so that the abdomen relaxes and expands on exhalation and the lungs open and widen on inhalation. Master Yinshi describes the effects: As

the lungs

are filled with breath

they will press

down,

while the stomach, contracted, will push up. The diaphragm is therefore pressed in from above and below, its movement

getting subtler and subtler. (Kohn 1993b, 138-39)

12 Jackowicz 2006, 82. See also Walters 2002, 284.

The Foundation / 39

This results in an increased subtlety of respiration and a greater degree of concentration, allowing an advancement in the practice of quiet sitting.

In yoga, a widely known breathing method that influences the energy body and effectively calms the mind is alternate nostril breathing, literally the “channel-balancing” breath (nadishodana). Balancing the two nadis at the right and left of the spine and thereby the two hemispheres of the brain, it calms the nervous system and opens deeper states of absorption. It is undertaken by using the thumb and ring finger of one hand to alternately cover the nostrils, inhaling through one and exhaling through the other. Often yogic breath control also comes with so-called “locks” (bandha), muscular contractions at certain key points that keep the prana in the body or the torso, not unlike the Daoist practice of curling the hands into fists. The three major locks are contracting the muscles in the lower abdomen at the base of the spine (perineum: the pelvic floor, also called the Kegel muscles), in the upper abdomen around the solar plexus, and at the top of the torso at the throat. They greatly enhance the power of the vital energy as it flows through the body and allow practitioners to guide it to areas they find blocked or difficult.13 In the long run, yogic breath work is a preparation for the advanced meditative stages, beginning with “withdrawal of the senses” (pratyahara). Practitioners usually experience a first taste of this at the end of a yoga session when they rest in corpse pose (savasana). Lying on their back, they are guided into a deep state of relaxation, often induced through a sequence of systematic tensing and letting go that closely resembles certain forms of hypnotic induction. If successful, they reach a light level of hypnotic trance felt as a state of deep calm and classically called yoganidra. Their senses are still functioning but withdrawn from the outside world. A softly altered state of consciousness, this is the entryway to deeper levels of absorption.

13 On the balancing breath, see Iyengar 1976, 445-48; Loehr and Migdow 1986, 20-26; Hewitt 1977; Yasudian and Haich 1965. On the locks in yogic

practice, see Iyengar 1976, 425-28 and 435-38; Swenson 1999, 8-11.

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Concentration Concentration, in mysticism studies described as the introvertive or

enstatic experience,!4 in meditation comes in two major forms, access

concentration and attainment concentration. Access concentration is the foundation of all meditation practice, the basic level of mental focus and sensory calm necessary for further practice. Attainment concentration is the complete one-pointedness of attention, the utter absorption in a single object, a state of inner bliss and the overcoming of ego. Important in both the yogic and Daoist traditions, concentration in both its forms is also explicitly found in Buddhism. Here access concentration is called mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), while attainment concentration is known as cessation (samatha) or absorp-

tion (dhyana).!5 While attainment goes beyond all sensory states, access begins with the detached observation of natural respiration— without any form of control and no effort to make the breath abdominal, hold it, or reverse it—yet by anchoring the mind to the breath with the help of kinesthetic, visual, or auditory awareness. Kinesthetically the breath is observed as felt in the body, either as it enters and leaves the nostrils or as it expands and flattens the abdomen. Nostril focus is most common in Theravada Buddhism and forms the foundational phase of insight meditation; abdominal awareness appears mostly in East Asian Buddhism as well in Daoism and Shinto, but is also used in some Burmese forms. Visually the

breath is linked with a simple and steady image (kasina), such as the

blue vase described in Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, a method still used in Sri Lanka. Auditorily the breath is associated with certain words matching the inhalation and/or exhalation. This can be a simple “in-out” or a counting of the length of the breath. The best known

version

of this,

found

in beginning

tantric

and

Zen

practice,

count the exhalations from one to ten, then begin again.16

14 On the distinction between ecstatic mystical states, see James

1911, 416-20.

is to

intro- and extrovertive or enstatic and 1936, 380-81; Roth 2000, 33; Underhill

15 For definitions and descriptions of samatha,

|

see Begley 2007, 214;

Brazier 1995, 66. 16 On kinesthetic breath focus, see Rosenberg 1998, 24-25. For Visuddhimagga, see Bucknell and King 1997, 41-52; Nanamoli 1979.

the For

The Foundation / 41

The kinesthetic appreciation of breath is the most difficult to attain,

since the mind wanders away even more rapidly and vigorously than in the other modes. For this reason, it is often achieved in a four stage process, beginning with an awareness of the sensation of breathing supported by soft counting, then switching the counting to the moment just before the breath enters the body. After having done this for three or four minutes each, one may stop counting altogether and simply experience the flow of breathing. Then one can move on to raising the awareness of body sensations, focusing on one point, usually at the nostrils, and paying attention to sensations there.17

In all cases, the point of the exercise is to develop a subtle awareness of the movement of the breath. While anchoring it with the help of one of the main modes of human perception, the key focus should be on the steadiness of awareness, the exact knowing of how one is breathing in and breathing out. The key document in this context, the Anapanasati Sutra of ancient Buddhism, accordingly says: While breathing in long, one knows: “I breathe in long.” While breathing out long, one knows: “I breathe out long.” . . One trains oneself: “Sensitive to the whole body, I breathe in. Sensitive to the whole body, I breathe out.”18

The text divides the practice into four sections, mindfulness of body, sensations,

mind,

and

wisdom.

In each

case,

one

should

sit cross-

legged with a straight back and neck, close the eyes (except in Zen, where they are lowered) and develop a keen awareness, observing the breath with detachment. Usually the mind will wander away, chasing after thoughts, memories, and ideas like a puppy after a ball or a bone. Rather than being exasperated and impatient, the point of the exercise is to become fully aware of the present moment, notice the

various objects of Buddhist concentration practice, see Humphries 68. On Zen practice, see ch. 5 below. dhist

17 Kamalashila

mindfulness

Humphries

1992,

16. Other

of breath

are

instructions

found

in

1968, 30-56; Solé-Leris 1986, 44-47.

and

Fryba

descriptions

1989,

114-23,

1968, 57of Bud-

208-25;

18 Rosenberg 1998, 8. See also Bucknell and Kang 1997, 26; Solé-Leris 1986, 78-81; Thera 1962, 108-13.

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mind’s shenanigans, times if necessary.!?

and bring it back to the breath—thousands

of

The goal is to refrain from all valuation and to leave one’s usual selfimage behind, as Rosenberg says: To allow everything to come up, with all its energy: all of, for instance, your anger and loneliness and despair, to allow these things to arise and be transformed by the light of

awareness. (1998, 7)

The combination of effort and surrender, noted earlier, is quite clear here: one has to make the effort to sit properly and focus the mind, then trust the teacher and the process. It is the ultimate paradox of meditation: “We want to get somewhere—we wouldnt have taken up the practice if we didn’t—but the way to get there is to be fully here,” to let go of expectations and evaluations, to allow oneself to enter the subconscious realm where alone lasting changes can occur.?°

Higher Stages Attainment concentration in the Buddhist tradition is formulated in a series of stages of absorption (dhyana), a concentration so deep that one is pervaded by feelings of happiness and bliss, explained as the complete overcoming of the five hindrances (tiredness, agitation, craving, aversion, and doubt) and a continued sense of excitement and deep joy. In general, these absorptions are characterized by a significant slowing of respiration, the absence of thought, an intensified awareness, an expansion of mental openness, a feeling of the disappearance of the bodily self, the closing off of sight and sound, and an overall deep and blissful serenity.21 In progressive advancement,

meditators in the first dhyana

still ex-

perience thought—not the fleeting, wandering puppy mind of the beginning, but sustained clear and conscious thought—while those in 19 Larry Rosenberg compares the wandering mind to a dog, then sug-

gests that we should attain a mind like a lion instead, sitting majestically and staying focused on the source (1998, 22). Stephen Cope calls it the Puppy

Mind and the practice of breath observation, notably when accompanied by sound, “tying the puppy to a post” (2006, 66). Other discussions are found in Brazier 1995, 61. 20 Rosenberg 1998, 21, 33.

21 Austin 1998, 475.

The Foundation / 43

the second dhyana are free from thought and only feel a deep inner confidence and singleness of mind. The third dhyana eliminates the factor of happiness as joyful excitement, leaving the meditator in a state of unified bliss. The fourth, finally, sees the emerging of a complete unity that is so deep that it is not even blissful any longer, but pure equanimity and steadiness of mind. 22 Following these, there are four further stages, known as formless absorptions, that involve extremely subtle states of consciousness that leave behind all component elements of existence. They allow the meditator to dwell in boundless space, boundless consciousness, nothingness, and in a state of neither perception nor non-perception. The stages have much in common with the higher levels of yoga which, after the practice of sensory withdrawal, leads to dharana, dhyana, and samadhr-stages of mental one-pointedness, absorption, and oneness with the underlying power of the cosmos.23 The ultimate dissolution of the self in the greater universe is also the goal in Daoist practice, where concentration is seen as a function of qi. A seventh-century text by the great physician and Daoist master Sun Simiao, the Cunshen liangi ming (On the Actualization of Spirit and

Refinement of Qi) describes it:

When 07 resides in the body, the spirit is calm and the qi like an ocean. If the 07 as ocean is full to overflowing, the mind is at rest and the spirit centered. When this centering is not lost, body and mind are gathered in tranquility. Tranquility then grows further into deep concentration, and the

body can exist for years eternal. (Kohn 1987, 119)

He further describes the development of concentration in five stages, beginning with the “ordinary mind” that “experiences much agitation and little tranquility,” running after thoughts, “accepting this and rejecting that without any constancy. Dreads and worries, plans and calculations keep racing on inside like mad horses.” In a second step, one experiences a little tranquility and much agitation, moments of calm that are immediately shattered by more scattered thinking. Still, it is a beginning which soon leads to “half agitation and half tranquility,” a somewhat more stable state where the 22 For

the

basic

four

Humphries 1968, 187-93; malashila 1992, 66-87.

Buddhist

King

1980,

dhyanas, 41-54;

see

Brazier

Solé-Leris

1986,

1995,

59-60;

56-73;

Ka-

23 On dhyana in yoga, see Feuerstein 1980, 81-85; Hewitt 1977; Iyengar 1988, 138-48; McGill 1979, 74-89; Walters 2002, 77-78.

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mind begins to see the benefits of restfulness and starts to “care about its own agitation and entanglement.” Next comes a level of “much tranquility and only occasional agitation,” which in due course leads to the fifth stage when the mind is turned entirely toward purity and tranquility.

Whether involved in affairs or at leisure, there is no agitation at all. From an efficiently controlled: mind, firmness and solidity of concentration duly develop. (Kohn 1987, 121)

Methods that lead to the complete calming of the mind involve the detached observation of breath, a focus on the Ocean of @ の 7 a visual-

zation of déities in the cinnabar or elixir field, and a constant purging of thoughts. The technique also comes with a change in diet to the exclusion of heavy foods and grains and a regular exercise regimen to open the grchannels in the body. The end result is bodily health and vigor combined with a mind that is truly boundless: “Whether confronting a steep cliff or a thousand miles’ distance, one goes or stays without obstruction.”24 The earliest form of concentration in Daoism appears in the fourth century B.C.E. in a text connected to the Daode jing (Book of the Dao and Its Virtue),

the oldest and best known

of all Daoist texts.

The

Daode jing itself praises states of mental quietude and sensory withdrawal, states of “guarding oneness” and empty consciousness, but does not present any specific methods. Practical instructions are found in the Neiye (Inward Training) chapter of a collection known as

the Guanzi (Works of Master Guan), redacted in the Han dynasty.25

The text begins by noting how vital essence (jing), a concentrated from of gi, is essential to all life: creating the five grains on earth and coagulating into the stars in the sky. @y, it says, is bright and dark, vast and lofty, and—like Dao—cannot be halted by force or controlled by rational thinking and speech. However, it can be secured by virtue or inner power (de), and brought into the self with the help of awareness or intention (y), the gentle conscious force that guides the gi through the body. Adepts bring az into themselves through physical control and moderation in lifestyle and diet, withdrawal from sensory stimulation, and sitting in meditation. Once seated comfortably, they begin by breath24 Kohn 1987, 120.

25 A detailed discussion and translation of this important text is found in

Roth 1999a. For more on the understanding of ancient Daoist psychology and mystical praxis, see also Roth 1990; 1991; 1997; 1999b; 2000.

The Foundation / 45

ing deeply and consciously, regulating the breath and practicing single-minded focus for the attainment of a tranquil mind, also described as the “cultivated,” “stable,” “excellent”, or “well-ordered” mind. This

well-ordered mind, in turn, allows the gi to flow smoothly through the body and Dao to pervade one’s life.26 Once filled with the power of qi, adepts achieve complete balance in body and mind. They reach a level of simplicity that allows them to let go of things and be free from sensory overloads. Finding a state of serenity and repose in detachment from emotions, they walk through life in harmony with all, free from danger and harm. At peace within and in alignment with the world, they reach a level of physical health that keeps them fit and active well into old age. Reaching beyond ordinary life, they gain a sense of cosmic freedom that allows them to

“hold up the Great Circle [of the heavens] and tread firmly over the Great Square [of the earth].”27

The practice of concentration, usually achieved with the help of breath observation, is thus not only essential to calm and center the mind in preparation of other forms of meditation, but when taken far enough also creates powerful attainments in itself, leading to health and wellbeing, happiness and bliss, and ensuring a secure and calm existence in the world despite all ups and downs one may encounter.

Modern Applications In the modern West, breath control dominantly appears in medical rather than meditative applications. Meditators make general use of breath to access deeper states, but there is no school that focuses entirely on breathing for higher attainments. In medical literature, moreover, breathing comes up mainly in relation to pathologies, the numerous pulmonary disorders that affect people in modern societies: breathlessness, asthma, chronic bronchitis, hyperventilation, sleep apnea, emphysema, and so on. Medical works that deal with breathing accordingly are either textbooks on lung functioning or inspired by the search for a cure, or at least the alleviation, of specific conditions: of hypertension in the case of Robert Fried; of emphysema in the case of Carl Stough; and of 26 Roth 1999a, 112-13. 27 Roth 1999a, 76.

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asthma in the case of Karen Butts.28 Yogic and Daoist practitioners have similarly centered their presentation of breathing practice on the healing aspect of the methods, emphasizing that “yoga beats asthma” or that one can “survive asthma naturally.”29 Only gradually do Western healing professionals realize that conscious, deep breathing enhances the parasympathetic nervous system and can have a thoroughly beneficial effect on health. Qnly very recently have physical therapists begun to coordinate the movements they teach their clients with conscious awareness and intentional breaths.30 Another, less well known area in Western societies where breathing is taken seriously is in the performing arts, notably in drama schools, among singers, and by professional players of wind instruments. They need diaphragmatic breathing and conscious control of respiration to do their jobs, enabling them to have enough breath during performances and correctly show emotional states as required by the script. For this reason, art and music schools frequently teach methods that involve intentional breathing.?! Concentrative meditation, on the other hand, is widely accepted as a

means

of stress release and the creation of inner calm.

However,

it

typically is combined with other meditation practices, such as chanting, visualization, or mindfulness.

Chanting practice, made popular through TM in the 1960s, is at the root of concentration practice as utilized in the relaxation response, developed by Herbert Benson of Harvard University. Its practice involves sitting or lying comfortably, and closing the eyes, breathing through the nose while repeating a word or phrase of choice—often inspired by religious beliefs—either vocally or mentally. The practice should be continued for twenty minutes while maintaining a recep28 See Butts 1980; Fried 1993; Stough and Stough 1970. For an overview

of contemporary breathing problems, see Francis 1998; Miller 2000. 29 Yogic works on breathing include Farhi 1996; Varna 1992; Weller 2003; Yasudian and Haich 1965. Daoist, or rather qigong, based breath work

is described in Cibik 2003; Cohen 1997; Jahnke 1997; 2002; Johnson 2000; Lewis 1997; Li 1999. A collection of historical sources on Daoist breathing is found in Huang and Wurmbrand 1987. 30 The one exception is the use of breath in giving birth. The Lamaze technique of consciously breathing with contractions during the delivery process is well known and courses are widely available. 31 One example is the Alexander Technique, a method of correct posture and breathing widely used by actors. See Alexander 1989; McEvenue 2001; Stevens 1987.

The Foundation / 47

tive, passive attitude and permitting relaxation to occur at its own

pace. The relaxation response has been found most effective in reliev-

ing pain and anxiety. Patients working with the repeated utterance of a word, chant, or prayer relax deeply. This state encourages natural healing or allows a gradual drifting into death. 32 Another modern method rooted in TM is Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM), developed by Patricia Carrington at Princeton University in the 1970s. Practitioners pick their own phrase, then sit with their eyes open and their gaze firmly focused for twenty minutes twice a day. They begin with a voiced repetition of the phrase, then lower the sound to a whisper, and eventually allow it to reverberate only in their minds. At this point they close their eyes and let the chant proceed at its own pace. Breathing is passive, thoughts are allowed to come and go, no belief system is required. The overall effect is a calming of the mind and a general sense of feeling better.33 Another method that uses concentration for healing is the Quieting Response (QR) by C. E. Stroebel. An adaptation of basic relaxation and self-hypnosis techniques, it consists of a series of ten exercises that should be practiced daily over a six-month period. The first exercise is to just lie down and be comfortable with eyes closed. Next comes deep, easy breathing, followed by a series of gentle arm movements and face massages. Now follows visualization: patients are to imagine a spot of warm sunlight above their heads and their body as a hollow vessel. They then imagine the warm sunlight slowly seeping into the vessel, moving freely through chest and abdomen, arms and legs. Another visualization, while still paying attention to breathing, is to focus on a spot before their nose where they imagine a ball of blue, cooling energy. Allowing their mind to be filled with this energy, they float in a space of suspended thinking, deeply relaxed. Beyond all this, from a state of deep relaxation they finally conduct a review of their day, seeing their activities in reverse order as if on a movie screen while remaining calm and detached.34 Yet another modern application of concentration practice appears in the Mind/BodyClinic, founded in 1981 by Joan Borysenko and Ilan Kutz. Developing Benson’s relaxation response, they use deep breathing and gentle stretches to alleviate anxiety and also work with mindfulness practice to restructure the mind. After achieving a relaxed 32 See Benson 1976; 1996; Benson and Proctor 1985; Fried 1993, 240-42.

33 A description is found in Ospina et al. 2007, 31-32. 34 See Fried 1993, 242-43; Stroebel 1982.

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state with the help of concentration on the breath, patients observe the functions and activities of their mind. They note negative emotions, critical thoughts, and catastrophic imaginings with detachment, then gently let them go to allow a release of stress and create an overall improvement of health. The method makes conscious use of meditation and uses it to rouse the inner healer, guiding people to deeper levels of awareness and helping them steady their responses to environmental challenges.35 Overall, conscious and deep breathing is central to all forms of meditation practice. Described as a bridge between body and mind, ordinary and-divine reality, it appears as 0710 China and prana in India. Deepening and calming the breath leads to a release of stress, calms the mind, and opens deeper states of concentration. These can be used as access to other forms of meditation or lead to deep trance absorptions where a direct connection with the ultimate is achieved.

35 Borysenko 1987, 36-52.

Chapter Two Sound

Immersion:

Chanting and Mantra A more elaborate and focused form of concentrative meditation is sound immersion, where practitioners use the steady repetition of a sound, word, phrase, or longer sequence such as a prayer or incantation in conjunction with the breath to induce a state of calm and absorption. Like concentration, this method encourages deep breathing and conscious awareness and evokes the relaxation response; unlike it, when continued over longer periods of time, it leads to the dominance of sound over the awareness of breath, lets the object of meditation pervade consciousness, and creates a state of deep unified oneness to the exclusion of all else. The primary meditation object in sound immersion is a verbalized sound or phrase activated in regular chanting and expressed either aloud or silently. After its Indian origins, this is commonly called a mantra. The word contains the root man, which means “to think,” and the suffix tra, which indicates “tool.” A mantra is thus a tool or in-

strument of directing and controlling thought. As Wade Wheelock says: “A mantra is not a set of words you create to express a thought. Rather, it is something passed down to you from a privileged source of authority that you recite in order to generate a thought.” It has the “power to remove ignorance, reveal truth, and realize liberation.”! Part of the Indian tradition since the Vedas,

mantra

“is a name

for

the formulas, verses, or sequences of words in prose which contain 1 Wheelock 1989, Arya 1981, 13-16.

100 (italics in original); Coward 49

1989,

172. See also

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praise, . . . are believed to contain magical, religious, or spiritual efficiency, are recited, muttered, or sung in the Vedic ritual, and which

are collected in the methodically arranged corpora of Vedic texts.”2 The absorptive chanting of the mantra, as it activates the auditory system to the exclusion of all else, induces a mental state that suspends critical thinking and allows the immersion in, and apperception of, a deeper level of being. In the Indian tradition this is understood as ultimate reality, of which the ordinary world of the senses is only a minor shadow, a mere apparent level of existence. Chanting was part of both Vedic and tantric ritual in India and still plays an important role in modern Hindu practice, where it appears not only in the ritual singing known as kirtan but also forms the

foundation of meditation in numerous

sects, some

of which have be-

come prominent in the West. It has also been adopted in Buddhism, where it plays a role in tantric schools, in Pure Land, and in the Japanese Nichiren school. In China, where the culture is more visually oriented, sound immersion plays a lesser role. Still, Daoists recite sacred texts for their empowerment, use affirmations to sanctify their lives, throw spells at demons, and chant incantations to the gods.

The

Power

of Sound

As all forms of meditation, mantra practice works by bypassing analytical, critical consciousness and making contact instead with the intuitive, subconscious mind to reprogram people’s habits, attitudes, and thoughts into a new and more beneficial direction. As Robert Gass points out, the auditory system is present even before birth—“in fact, the only bones fully formed at birth are those of the middle ear 一 and is also the one system that remains latest when the person dies.4 Along the same lines, the 7ïbetan Book of the Dead claims that hearing survives the death of all other parts of the body so that the

2 Gonda 1975, iv:251, cited in Alper 1989a, 3-4.

3 Indian thought, notably of the Advaita Vedanta school, distinguishes the real existent (ultimate reality) from the existent (ordinary reality) and

again from the illusory existent or apparent (dreams, hallucinations). See

Deutsch 1969, 20-24. 4 Gass 1999, 23. The following discussion is based on Gass 1999, 20-38 in combination with Arya 1981, 21-31; Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 106-15; Ratey 2002, 60-62, 88-97.

Sound Immersion / 51

person can still hear the admonitions of the priest while traversing the bardo state between lives.5 Studies by Alfred Tomatis and of the so-called “Mozart Effect” have further shown that children respond to sound in utero and in the very first stages of life and that the kind of sound they are exposed to can significantly influence their development and intelligence. Even adults who have suffered some hearing loss can recover their sense with exposure to proper auditory stimulation. Sound is a critical nutrient to brain growth and lies at the root of speech and vocal communication; the auditory system is important for our sense of balance, erect posture, and spatial orientation.’ Sound is not processed through the ear alone. In fact, studies of the nervous system show that the senses of hearing and touch are essentially the same. That is to say, sound works through vibrations which stimulate certain parts of the inner ear and are then perceived as sound. Certain frequencies are felt normal, notably between 15 and 60 decibels (dB). Humans can vaguely perceive sounds below 5 dB and experience anything beyond 60 dB as noise. Rock concerts can blast at sound levels of up to 120 dB, a noise level that, as experiments have shown, will boil eggs after twenty minutes of exposure.® The important part is the quality of the vibration which is not only affected by loudness but also by timbre and tone. Very soft or even

silently chanted sounds, such as the Indian mantra aum, can have as

much of an impact on the person as loud or penetrating sounds. Similarly rhythm, even if perceived only as beat and not even heard, can have an impact on the mind and well-being of the person. The repeated, steady application of sound creates a vibrational quality in

the brain which connects to the subconscious and causes established,

habituated mental patterns to dissolve and/or reorganize.

This can have a positive or negative effect. Constant exposure to traf-

fic,

airplanes,

construction,

or

other

unpleasant

noises—although

they may not be consciously noticed after a while—will create conditions of mental and physical stress, lower libido, reduce learning, and diminish the quality of life. Noise has the power to make people sick; 5 Freemantle and Trungpa 1974, 28. For other translations and discussions of this important work, see also Evan-Wentz 1927; Hopkins and Lati 1979; Lodro 1987; Mullin 1986. 6 For details on his work, see www.tomatis.net. 7 Gass 1999, 30; Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 106. 8 Gass 1999,31-32; Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 114.

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as in the story of the trumpets of Jericho, it can collapse walls and move mountains. But it can also be healing and aid in the creation of a more integrated and harmonious personality.? Sound waves, which look like

a mandala

when

made

visual, have

a

tendency to harmonize with other sound waves to match their frequencies. This phenomenon is called resonance. It is responsible for the fact that if several guitars or violins are in-the same room and a string is plucked on one, the same string on the others will begin to vibrate. Typically, when two sounds meet that are already on close frequencies, they join with each other and the sound is amplified and made stronger. When two sounds meet that have vastly different frequencies, where the high and low points of the wave are contrary to each other, they cancel each other out, and sound is diminished. 1°

Applied to mantra practice, this means that the meditator intentionally creates a certain vibrational frequency within his or her bodymind, reducing all frequencies that are contrary to this and resonating with others that are similar. Since the mantra sound is sacred, he or she firmly believes that it connects either to the creative power of the universe or to the specific energy of the deity. The meditator thus transforms his or her body-mind to hum in concert with the divine. The ideal brain wave frequency sought for this is about ten cycles per second, which is the state where alpha waves are dominant. If the frequency is too high, awareness tends to be externalized or caught up in active thought; if it is too low, one moves toward sleep and unconsciousness. In contrast to this, a persistent state of alpha waves leads to a sense of calmness and contentment in the mind, to the ab-

sence of anger and greed, as well as to the conquest of sleepiness and hunger. Over a prolonged period, moreover, the meditator’s individual vibration completely merges with that of the mantra while his mind at the same time is influenced by the suggestive effect of the words meaning. Subjectively felt as surrender, the entire process leads to a state of oneness that often manifests as intense ecstasy.

8 There is strong evidence that entities other than human and animals,

especially also plants, are affected by sound. See Tompkins and Bird 1973. 10 Gass 1999, 33; Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 113. See also Bentov 1977, 23. The Chinese, too see the world of gi in terms of sound waves and vibrations,

emphasizing the potential of different energies to harmonize or create distur-

bance. See DeWoskin 1982, 37-38; Kohn 1991, 102-04.

Sound Immersion / 53

Forms Mantras

come

of Mantra

in four levels and types. Most

elementary

are one-

syllable words, understood as primal sounds of the universe, creative

vibratory energies that brought the world into being. They can be single

vowels,

such

as

aaa,

or a combination

of letters,

such

as

the

sounds associated with the seven chakras or energy centers along the spine. These are known as the bija mantra or seed syllables, four semivowels representing the four elements in their most basic form:

yam (wind), ram (fire), Jam (earth), and vam (water). Their recitation in ritual serves to “actualize or make explicit a transmudane reality;” in meditation they identify the practitioner with his or her creative foundation, unfolding a new, cosmicized self-identity.

The most famous of all elementary mantras is om, which literally is spelled aum and is considered the sound of universal origin which links the meditator back to the root of creation and thus to his or her true self. dum is the key vibration of the cosmos, the sound of the infinite, and the vocalization of ultimate reality (Brahman). The three letters are accordingly imbued with a deep symbolism:?2 a | waking

speech

| past

u | dreaming | thought | present m | sleep energy | future

desire

| fear anger

| Brahma | creation

Vishnu | Shiva

| growth decline

Through these and other symbolic connotations, aum is thus a potent connector to ultimate reality that underlies the known world and can bring the meditator into an expanded state of being. Another elementary mantra commonly used is soham or hongsau, which essentially represents the sound of inhalation and exhalation

but also translates into words meaning “I am that,” or “that I am,” a

reference to the oneness with brahman

at the center of the Indian

universe. Sau, moreover, is the bia mantra of the heart, where it cre-

ates a vibration of quietude while absorbing

all the objects of the

greater universe.!? 11 Wheelock 1989, 103. For other, byalike mantras connected to specific body parts, see Wheelock 1989, 104. 12 Gass

1999,

69-70

and

126-27; McGill

1979,

104-6.

For other deities

and body sections associated with aum in classical Hinduism and Tantra, see

Rocher 1989, 179-80; Silburn 1988, 49. 13 Silburn 1988, 57. Part of the Vedic tradition,

this is not only a key

practice of the Vedanta Society, but has also been adopted by schools of yoga.

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A second type of mantra is found in more complex chanting that consists of multiple rather than single words or vowel sounds. These, too, come in two forms. One consists of words that are immediate reflections of divine reality and do not make sense in the human realm, a sort of secret language (dharani); the other involves words that formally express the divine connection. Most mantras of this type are linked to a deity, believed to be the most potent representative of universal oneness. A famous mantra of this kind is Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, the incantation used by Krishna devotees; another is Om

Nama Shivaya, dedicated to Shiva.

Also used in kirtan performances, such chants are often sung first by the leader, then repeated by the group. The same words are sung twice, then the mantra is slightly altered to invoke different aspects of the deity. In addition to being strongly rhythmical, the chanting tends to get faster as the singing continues, and the rhythm becomes more intense as the mental absorption of practitioners 1ncreases.14 This form of mantras is closest connected to chanting and thus to its definition by Robert Gass: the worship and celebration of the sacred through simple vocalization to discover spirit in sound. Beyond India, complex mantras include the Tibetan chant Om mani padme hum or “Hail, the Jewel in the Lotus.” This is the mantra associated with the savior bodhisattva Avalokitesvara,

one of the most

powerful deities in the Tibetan universe whose voluntary incarnation, the Dalai Lama, takes care of the Tibetan faith and people. Another important Buddhist chant is Gate gate para gate para sam gate, bodhi swaha, found at the end of the Heart Sutra, a popular sutra in Mahayana Buddhism. The mantra invokes nirvana: “Gone, gone, gone beyond, gone greatly beyond! Enlightenment! Hail!” 15

See Arya 1981, 52-61; Walters 2002, 283-86 and 315-19. Classical texts asso-

ciate the pratyahara stage of yoga with mantra practice (Oberhammer 1989, 209). For the tantric application of chants, see Kalu 1995, 111-18.

14 An example of kırtan appears in the music of Krishna Das, an American trained as a traditional singer in India. It is popular both in concerts and

on CDs, and played in yoga studios and spiritual centers alike. For details, see www.krishnadas.com.

15 On these two important mantras, see Gass

1999, 80, 83-84, and 127-

28. The Heart Sutra is a short, terse version of the key teachings of the Per-

fection of Wisdom (see Conze 1978; 1990; Brazier 1995, 216; Dalai Lama 2002, 159-63), developed in 7th-century China and exported back to India. On its compilation and history, see Nattier 1992. For a collection of studies, see Lopez 1996.

Sound Immersion / 55

The

most

widespread

chant

in Buddhism

is the invocation

of Ami-

tabha, the central deity of the Pure Land who transports people to paradise after death. It consists of the deitys name, sung as Namu Amida butsu in Japan and as Namo Amitofo in China. Another important Japanese mantra is Namu myoho renge kyo, which invokes the title of the Lotus Sutra. First developed as a devotional focus by

the Buddhist prophet Nichiren (1222-1288), it is today the central mantra of the Soka Gakkai (see below).

A third type of mantra is found in short, vocalized prayers to certain deities. More sonorous and less speedy than the basic chants, these are gentler,

calmer,

and more

thoughtful,

inviting a softer relation-

ship to the divine. An example is the Indian Gayatri Mantra, a chant to the sun god, the power that animates all life. As many potent mantras, it first appears in the Vedas where it is a prayer to awaken the intellectual powers of the person. The text runs: I meditate on the most brilliant splendor of the divine sun.

May he stimulate our intellect,

So that we are inspired to take right action at the right time. May there be peace on all the planes: mortal, immortal, and divine. (Rocher 1989, 187)

Beyond India, all kinds of prayers are used as mantras. Eknath Eas-

waran outlines an 8-point program to happiness and inner peace that

focuses on mantra practice. He recommends the Prayer of St. Francis

as a starting point:

Lord, make me an instrument of your peace.

Where there is hatred, let me sow love.

Where there is injury, pardon. Where there is doubt, faith.

Where there is despair, hope. Where there is darkness, light. Where there is sadness, Joy. Oh, divine Master,

Grant that I may not so much seek

To be consoled as to console, To be understood as to understand,

To be loved as to love. For it is in giving that we receive, In pardoning that we are pardoned, And in dying that we are born to eternal jife.16 16 See Easwaran 1990, 15-16. A sample selection of different kinds of mantras, including aum as well as Jewish and Christian prayers, is also

found in Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 120-24.

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This is not unlike the Jesus Prayer that was chanted in mantra-like

fashion by the early desert fathers of Christianity plays an important role in Orthodox practice.17

and which

still

Whichever prayer one chooses, it should become an inherent part of one’s life, a constant presence at the back of the mind. The mantra should chant itself continuously day and night, whether one is awake or asleep, working or relaxing, eating or bathing. The person gradually dissolves into the mantra, becomes one with it, and surrenders to it, so that he or she can be carried by its cosmic power. A fourth and last form of mantra is found in affirmations. These are simple sentences that are neither cosmic sounds nor directed to a deity but make a positive statement about oneself. A form of hypnotic suggestion, they can be formulated as facts in the present tense or as orders in the imperative mode. Examples are “I am at peace,” “I am filled with love,” or “I

am healed.” Through their constant repetition,

either vocalized or silent, they not only create a certain sound vibration but more importantly a mental attitude that will reflect the desired state of the practitioner.18 “Affirmations,” Robert Gass says, “are a form of conscious reprogramming in which we seek to counterbalance some of our less-useful beliefs and habits of mind.” He then tells the story of his experience with cancer in the left eye that he combated with the affirmation “I choose life.” He practiced it everywhere, walking in the hills, taking a shower, holding his child, undergoing tests at the hospital. The mantra came to reside in the depth of his mind, forming a subconscious background to all his experiences and. “It permeated my mind and heart and filled me with the energy I needed to face my fears and engage with my struggle for physical survival and spiritual awakening.”19 Affirmations are also used successfully in hypnosis, cognitive therapy,

and with cancer patients. Working directly with people’s thoughts, they serve to replace a negative inner voice with positive reinforcements. Therapy begins with patients writing down negative thoughts, such as “I am a bad person” or “I can never do anything right.” They then consciously create counter-thoughts, such as “I take things one 17 On the Jesus Prayer and the meditation practices of Orthodox Christianity, see Lossky 1957; Meyendorff 1974; Vatopaidi 1999; and Leloup 2003. 18 McGill 1979, 188-90. 19 Gass 1999, 35-36. See also Harrison 2000, 152-59.

Sound Immersion / 57

step at a time” or “I have valuable strengths.” They keep the affirmations in their minds continuously for at least twenty minutes a day, in fact practicing a form of mantra recitation. Over time, the practice changes the pattern of negative thinking and people gain a more posi-

tive attitude and better self-esteem, which in turn leads to changes in

their lives.20

Mantra practice, as other forms of meditation, also demands a combination of effort and surrender. One has to choose the mantra or join a group to receive one, then practice it relentlessly until it is an automatic sounding within the mind and becomes part of who one is. At the same time, one should let go of conscious striving and commit fully to the practice to allow the underlying power to effect the necessary opening, healing, or spiritual transformation.

History and Society Mantra chanting, although found in cultures all over the world, is first documented in ancient India, where it forms part of the sacrificial culture in the Aryan or Vedic period around 2000 B.C.E. The main texts surviving from this time are the four Vedas, collections of sacrificial hymns, sacred sounds, and prayers to be chanted during sacrifices to feed the gods and maintain the order of the world. The texts each arrange about one thousand hymns according to a different system. The oldest and most important among them is the Aig Veda, which arranges them by families of Brahmin priests. It contains twenty-one references to mantras. The latest among the texts is the Atharva Veda which also contains numerous spells for sickness and good fortune. Both types of chants, whether for cosmic sacrifice or popular use, could consist of lengthy incantations and retellings of myths or be simple vocalizations of sacred sounds.?! Sacrifice, ideally an act of pure giving in which the giver does not expect anything in return, creates a powerful impact on the practitio20 On affirmations in hypnosis, see Fisher 2000; Blair 2004; in cognitive therapy, see Beck 2000; 2004; in cancer treatments, see Simonton 1978. They are also commonly used in self-help strategies, such as those expounded by, for example, Marianne Williamson and Wayne Dyer. 21 On the Vedic period in Indian history, see Basham 1975; Kinsley 1989; Stein 1998; Thapar 2002. On mantras in Vedic texts and ritual, see Findly 1989; Staal 1989. On the use of mantras in ancient Indian healing and exorcism, see Zysk 1989.

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ner’s moral stature and personal karma.22 The ritual actions, vocahzations of mantras, and visualizations of cosmic events during the sacrifice all connect him with the underlying ground of the universe or the specific deity addressed.23 Indian sacrifice usually involves feeding the deity after receiving him or her as an honored guest. It may be a large-scale public event that serves to keep the world going or a small, domestic rite to maintain prosperity, fertility, and good fortune. Beyond the surrender of dear objects or precious foodstuffs in a formal ceremony, sacrifice—when applied to devotional forms of self-cultivation—can also mean the delivery of the self to the divine. The words spoken or sounds uttered during either form have to be said just right, lest the power of the action is compromised and the gods do not receive the offering and fail to respond. Sacrificial words therefore are sacred sounds, words that come from the divine itself.

In India, Sanskrit was the language of the gods, and the chanted during sacrifice (puja) were holy spells that required preparation, moral purity, and a formal setting. 24 During chanting, moreover, there should be no extraneous thoughts tractions. The ritual demands total absorption in the object

words special ritual or disof wor-

ship and the practice of the moment. In a meditative self-cultivation context, moreover, this total absorption became the state of oneness

and ultimate goal of the practice.

The worldview underlying classical mantra practice is that of Vedic and Upanishadic philosophy and its later development in Advaita Vedanta. According to the Upanishads, there is one truly real force that creates and pervades the universe (Brahman), described as “not coarse, not fine, not short, not long, not glowing like fire, not adhesive like water, not bright, not dark, not airy, not spacious, not sticky, not

tangible,” and so on.25 Completely other, an utterly transcendent force, Brahman is also in everything that exists; it makes the world what it is and connects all existence in ultimate oneness. Within individuals Brahman is present as their eternal soul or true self (ätman),

a transcendent

autonomous

principle

that

is unique,

fundamentally real, solidly substantial, and eternally free. The core of the individuals inner being, the divine moment

within, 4tman is in-

22 On mantra as ritual, see Alper 1989b, 260. On the nature and role of

sacrifice, see Henniger 2005, 12: 7997-8008; James 1962. 23 Findly 1989, 17; Wheelock 1989, 105; Staal 1989, 59. 24 On the need for exactness in empowering a mantra, see Findly 1989,

19. On Sanskrit as a sacred language, see Arya 1981, 65-77. 25 Radhakrishnan 1953, 216.

Sound Immersion / 59

destructible and exists from the beginning of time to the end of eons.

However often reincarnated and immersed in material existence, it is forever free from evil, grief, hunger, thirst, old age, and death. While

the true self is always pure and always there, its presence can only be fully actualized in a state of ritual purity and meditative absorption.26 Since Brahman,

moreover, is also manifest in deities, such as Krishna,

Rama, Shiva, and the mother goddess, one can equally connect to it through devotion and by chanting the deity’s mantra. Followers of mantra practice thus tend to be devotees of one or the other god or have a firm belief in the underlying creative ground that can be activated through cosmic sound. They also tend to be involved with certain sets of rituals that may range from simple bowing before an altar to hour-long ceremonies and formal banquets. While the practice should be continuous and can be done at home, followers usually prefer a group setting since it intensifies the experience and

allows for more splendid ceremonies. The combination of group set-

ting, surrender to the deity, and mental vibrations, moreover, creates

a fertile soil for cult situations. As a result, although other forms of meditation may also support dependency on a group or master, among all the different types described in this book those that use mantra have the greatest incidence of cult accusations.

Another aspect of mantra practice that supports potential cult development is the importance of the guru (master, teacher). Although some people choose their own mantra and work with it successfully, most come to the practice within a group and are instructed by a guru. In traditional Indian thought, the guru is seen as having attained complete oneness with the deity or cosmic ground. He thus has extraordinary powers (siddhi), such as knowing the specific personality and spiritual needs of a given student as well as what mantra and what intensity of practice will be most appropriate in each case. Find-

ing the

right

teacher

is thus

of central

importance,

and

often

the

claim is made that the guru-disciple relationship in this life is nothing but the continuation of a similar connection in previous lifetimes. 27

Once the aspirant has found a teacher in whom he can trust, he undergoes a formal ceremony of becoming a disciple, during which he not only receives the mantra but also a particle of divine knowledge 26 On the philosophy of Brahman and atman, see Deutsch 1969. 27 See Arya 1981, 147-59. Snow suggests that “a guru is like fire: if you stay too far away you can’t feel the warmth, but come too close and you get

burned” (2003, 22).

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from the guru’s mind. This ceremony is called an initiation. It is a sacred occasion, an impregnation of mind, during which the guru and

the disciple establish (or re-establish) their formal relationship, which is both karmic and cosmic. For the disciple, this may feel like a new beginning, a rebirth, a completely new phase of life.28

Following this, the guru, with infinite wisdom and compassion, continues to monitor the disciple’s progress. The main task of the disciple is to surrender to the guru’s guidance and follow his advice in all things. On the other hand, the guru himself has to surrender to the cosmic force which he embodies. Ushabudh Arya tells of his experience as a budding meditation teacher: In the beginning phase of teaching meditation under Swa-

mijis [my guru’s] guidance, I went through a short period

when I would struggle a little at the time of initiation, wondering whether or not I was giving the right mantra. Sometimes

it happened

that as soon

as I finished

a particular

session of five or six initiations, the phone would ring. It

was Swamiji calling to reprimand me:

“Who do you think you are? Why do you think that you are giving a mantra? Is it within your power? Why do you not simply surrender? Why do you struggle so much? Why do you not let it come entirely of its own when I am here help-

ing you and guiding you?” (1981, 150)

The idea here is that, whether student or teacher, the ultimate state

is one of unknowing and not judging, a letting go of the conscious mind and all emotional states in favor of complete trust in the deity and/or cosmic force which one activates through the mantra and which will run one’s thinking and life perfectly. The eternal soul or true self, which matches the all-powerful core of the universe and is identical with the ultimate mind of the deity, is the final goal of the practice. The individual is merely an outward manifestation of various levels of divine purity. The complete immersion in sound— whether voiced or silent, expressed in syllables, words, or prayers, and whether directed to a force or deity—will lead to a selfless and holy way of life on earth.

28 For more on classical initiations, see Arya 1981, initiation into TM is described in Hadden 1983, 139.

161-76.

A modern

Sound Immersion / 61

Chanting in Daoism Chinese culture being dominantly visual, the written word tends to overshadow spoken utterances. Thus in meditation, visualization is dominant, and rather than chanting repetitive mantras for the sake of auditory harmonization, practitioners invoke spells and recite scriptures for their meaning and connection to the divine.29 The most important text recited on a regular basis and with great devotion ever since antiquity is the Daode jing. Compiled on the basis of aphoristic sayings around 300 B.C.E., it soon evolved into a sacred, ritual classic recited by Han-dynasty aristocrats for the greater benefit of self and state. By the second century C.E., the text had become a key scripture of early communal Daoists known as the Celestial Masters, who recited it regularly both as a devotional exercise and for its magical effect. To ensure the proper efficacy of this recitation, practitioners had to be morally pure. Accordingly the Celestial Masters also used the text also as the inspiration for certain behavioral rules, outlined in conjunction with a commentary of the early third century.30 In the middle ages, recitation of the Daode jing was widely practiced among followers of various Daoist schools and linked closely with the attainment of immortality. For example, Yin Xi, the Guardian of the Pass and (according to legend) the original recipient of the text, recited the Daode jing ten thousand times over a period of three years. As a result, he “gained eternal life and the state of no death.” According to another source, he “attained inner sincerity in his essence and pervasion in his meditation so that he could pervade the mystery.31 Other sacred texts were deemed similarly efficacious, so that a mere ten recitation of the Duren jing (Scripture of Salvation) would deliver a person to the higher reaches of heaven.32 29 On the importance of the written word in China, see Chaves

1977. In

Daoism, scriptures—written in the hidden language of Great Brahma and stored in the highest heavens—are considered part of the true essence of the universe at the time of creation. Their recitation accordingly connects the adept with the root of the Dao. See Bokenkamp 1997, 385-92; Bumbacher 1995; Robinet 1984, 1:107-22; 1993, 19-30; Zürcher 1980, 110-12. 30 On the history and ritual uses of the Daode jing, see Kohn and LaFargue 1998. The text that provides a set of moral rules based on the Daode jing

is the Xiang’er commentary. For a translation, see Bokenkamp 1997, 78-148. A discussion of the rules is found in Kohn 2004a, 58-60. 31 On Yin XYs efforts, see Kohn 1995, 69-70; 1997a, 129; 1998, 267-68.

32 Bokenkamp 1997, 411.

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In contemporary China, the Daode jing is still widely revered and there are numerous recordings of its recitation on CDs and DVDs.

Monastics of the Complete Perfection (Quanzhen) order chant it regu-

larly along with various devotional incantations and the @ingjing jing (Scripture- of Clarity and Stillness) a Daoist adaptation of the Heart Sutra that goes back to the ninth century.?3

Another form of Daoist vocal practiceis the focused recitation of affirmations in various situations of life. Thus Daoists chant formal incantations while performing various mundane tasks. For example, when cleaning the teeth, found first in the Shishi weiyi (Ten Items of Dignified Observances) of the seventh century: Brushing with ashes to remove the dirt, Using the ashes as a primary means: May foulness go and perfection arise. Cleansing the heart and cleansing the mouth, Realizing the Dao and saving others, Heaven is great and Earth everlasting! Swiftly, swiftly, nances!34

in accordance with the statutes

and ordi-

Chants such as this—matched equally by verses recited while combing the hair, donning the robe, entering the bath, using the outhouse, and so on—serve to raise the performance of common daily activities to acts of benevolence for all beings, not only making the recluse conscious of his or her physical actions, but also acknowledging the value of the utensils used and intensifying the desire for the liberation of all. They are further expanded to various circumstances of life, so that an affirmation is prescribed for every possible situation. A list of fiftyeight of such “prayers” or "vows to be recited when encountering certain types of people, social phenomena, or natural features, appears in the Wushiba yuanwen (The Fifty-eight Prayers) a Numinous Treasure (Lingbao) text of the fifth century. For example:

33 A translation of the Qingjing jing appears in Kohn 1993b, 24-29. For

the role of the text today, see Wong 1992. 34 Kohn 2003, 116; 2004a, 106. A complete translation of this text appears in Kohn 2004a, 235-52. The practice of daily affirmations was probably adopted from Buddhism, as the first verses appear in the Avatamsaka sutra

(Kohn 2003, 118). They have persisted in both traditions: very similar chants

reappear in Dögen’s (1200-1253) Shöbö genzö (The Eye of the Treasury of the

Right Dharma; see Yokoi 1986, 594-95) and are still chanted by Japanese Zen monks today (Kennett 1976, 302). In Daoism, they reappear in the Zhongji jie

(Precepts of Medium Ultimate), translated in Hackmann 1931; Kohn 2004b.

Sound Immersion / 63

5. When I encounter women, I shall pray that all may restrain and curb their fleeting beauty and instead enjoy the Dao and spontaneity. 27. When I encounter a marketplace, I shall pray that the

crowd of wise ones be as thick as a hornets’ nest, all widely

spreading the orthodox Dao.

34. When I encounter the sea, I shall pray that all may have wisdom without measure and support family and state.

(Kohn 2004a, 195-98)

Again, the occurrence of any event in real life is used as an opportunity to raise awareness to the Dao, thus expanding the practitioner’s consciousness to a celestial level and lifting him or her above the mundane reality of bodily existence. A yet different form of vocal practice in Daoism is the recitation of sacred spells either to connect with a divine realm or to exorcise nasty forces. These recitations tend to be less repetitive and done more in specific ritual settings, creating a sacred aura with the help of sacred sound.

For example, the Zhutian neiyin (Esoteric Sounds of All Heavens) of

the medieval Numinous Treasure school has the spell Ze /uo jue pu tai, yuan da luo qian, which activates one of the major thirty-two heavens and allows practitioners to attain personal perfection and survive the cataclysmic changes at the end of a world age.35 The 77gヵ guan sandu (Three Ways to Go Beyond the Heavenly Pass) of the Highest Clarity (Shangqing) school prescribes a series of formal chants to the gods, undertaken during visualization practice with the intent of reaching immortality by having oneself and one’s ancestors registered in the ledgers of life in the Southern Palace: Oh, Yin Essence of Northern Womb!

Spirit Soul and Spirit of the Celestial Jade! Oh, Nine Lords of Highest Jade! Merge and transform ten thousand times into one single spirit!

Delete all my yang sins from the registers of Great Yin! Transfer all my yin energy into the Realm of Great Yang! Let me traverse the seven stars to cut off death! Let me open up the six harmonies at the Heavenly Pass!

35 Kohn 1995, 95-96.

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Let me free my ancestors for seven generations from the

three bad rebirths! Let us all come back to life in the Southern Palace!36

Another use of chants was to disperse demons. An early record of spells used against nasty supernatural forces appears in a Handynasty manuscript that lists noxious powers and various efficacious methods against them.37 Continued actively among the Celestial Masters, founded in the second century c.e., such spells—not unlike medical mantras in India—eliminated demons and cured diseases.38 Believing that disease was caused by the invasion of a demon due to moral laxity of the person, the Celestial Masters healed solely through ritual and magic, prohibiting acupuncture, herbs, and other medical treatments. First the sick person was isolated in a so-called quiet chamber, an adaptation of a Han institution for punishing wayward officials involving solitary confinement. There they had to think of their sins going all the way back to their birth to try and find a explanation for the illness. Once certain sins had been identified, a senior master would come to

write them down—in triplicate and together with a formal petition for their eradication from the person’s divine record. The three copies would

then,

in a formal

ceremony,

be

transmitted

to Heaven

(by

burning), Earth (by burying), and Water (by casting into a river),

whose officials supposedly set the record straight and restored the person’s good health. Additional measures of purification involved the ingestion of “talisman water 一 the ashes of a talisman dissolved in water—healing exercises, and meditative reflections.39 An example of ture of Spells practitioner is bers of coiling warriors while the moon” and

a demonifuge spell appears in the Zhougui jing (Scripagainst Demons) of the third or fourth century. The advised to visualize himself surrounded by large numdragons, fierce tigers, hovering birds, and mysterious he himself “shines with the radiance of the sun and is in complete control of the gods of earth and soil.

Spontaneously you bring forth strongmen, lads and maids, Several tens of thousands,

36 Kohn 1993, 260. For more on Highest Clarity practice, see ch. 6 below. 37 See Harper 1985. 88 On Indian medical mantras, see Zysk 1989. The Atharva Veda lists

123 that remove demonically caused maladies, such as internal diseases, ex-

ternal ailments, poisons and toxins, plus 129 that conquer demons. 89 See Stein 1963; Tsuchiya 2002.

Sound Immersion / 65

All holding knives and swords To skewer whatever obstructs your path... . Let them devour the multitude of demons In the tens of thousands,

So that the host of sprites and ghouls Does not dare appear before you.

The spell ends with the formula “swiftly, swiftly, in accordance with the statutes and ordinances” which concludes all ritual chants of the Celestial Masters. Again, as in most Daoist chanting the vocalization alone does not carry the power, but the spell is activated in a formal ritual setting and in conjunction with active visualization.

Mantra Practice Today In the West today, mantra meditation is practiced in various religious groups of Indian origin, such as the Vedanta Society, Transcendental

Meditation, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.

It is also central to some East Asian forms of Buddhism, notably Pure Land and the Soka Gakkai development of the Nichiren school.

Vedanta The Ramakrishna Vedanta Society goes back to a Hindu movement that began in India around 1880, was first brought to the West in 1893 during the World Parliament of Religions, and soon established

a firm foothold in the U.S. Its roots lie with Ramakrishna (1834-1886),

a Bengali ecstatic and mystic who integrated traditional devotion with mystical visions and tantric ritual under the umbrella of the radical nondualism of Advaita Vedanta. His disciple Vivekananda

(1863-1902), trained as a lawyer and businessman yet dedicated to a

religious quest, developed and formalized the teachings and brought them to the West. 4° Here they were embraced by American thinkers under the influence of Theosophy, which taught that all religions are one and that one can transform consciousness toward mystical union with the all-embracing divine. Spread throughout the world in Ramakrishna Missions, Vedanta teachings closely follow the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the nondual worldview of Advaita Vedanta. Taught in a monastic setting in India 40 On Vedanta, see French 1974; Muller 1975; Williams 1974.

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and in various local centers elsewhere, practices involve regular services, scripture classes, and meditations that work with the mantra soham, affirming the oneness of self and cosmos. In addition to weekly neighborhood activities, the Society also offers week-long ıntensive summer retreats on a variety of themes at rural facilities. These retreats involve daily prayer and meditation as well as lectures and discussion groups. Transcendental Transcendental

Meditation

Meditation

(TM)

goes

back

to Maharishi

Mahesh

Yogi (1917-2008), a physicist turned religious. After having become a disciple of Brahmananda Sarasvati in 1941, he progressed steadily and in 1953 entered a two-year silent meditation period. Concluding, this, he began teaching his specific approach to spiritual fulfillment. Combining scientific understanding and language with traditional Indian approaches to the purification of consciousness, he developed a simple method of mantra recitation which he claimed enhanced indi-

vidual evolution and benefited both the person and the planet. Traveling widely, he attracted followers all over the world and can be credited with first bringing the idea and practice of meditation to popular Western attention.*

Practitioners of TM receive an individualized and usually deitycentered mantra from their personal guru in a formal initiation ceremony. The disciple then goes back home and begins to silently recite the mantra for at least twenty minutes twice a day. He comes back for further instruction in a series of follow-up seminars and advanced lectures, and undergoes regular meditation checks. Gradually he or she learns about the ultimate goal of the practice, the development of cosmic consciousness: This

state

[of cosmic

consciousness]

is brought

about

by

regularly interrupting the constant activity of the waking state of consciousness

with periods

of silence in transcen-

dental consciousness [via TM]. When, through the practice,

the

nervous

system

has

been

permanently

conditioned

to

maintain these two states together, then consciousness re-

mains always centered in the [true] Self. 43

41 For details on current centers, see www.vedanta.org. 42 For details on the Maharishrs life, see www.maharishi.org; www. tm.org. 43 Haddon 1993, 140, citing the Maharishi.

Sound Immersion / 67

In the process, the meditator releases old forms of conditioning and supersedes normal, rational thinking with the vibrations of the new mind. His thinking is reprogrammed with the belief that advancing in the practice will not only his make his life better and bring peace to the world but also that it is the next stage of human evolution and the first step toward the new world to come. Once thoroughly immersed in the practice, the next step can be taken in a so-called residence course, a retreat away from the disciple’s normal life. During this course twice-daily meditation is replaced by “rounding,” a process of frequent and intense mantra sessions, breathing techniques, yoga postures, and repetitive videos of the Ma-

harishi. As in traditional monasteries and modern meditation centers,

participants are subject to a dress code, dietary restrictions, and a

tight schedule,

and have

no access tc newspapers,

television,

radio,

telephone, or other means of outside contact. As a result, they may undergo a variety of mental states geared to opening them to the divine while dissociating from their previous life and personality.“ The next stage of advancement might be enrollment in one of study the world of TM in more Siddhi Program. Named after

after taking several residence courses many Maharishi Vedic Universities to depth or particination in the so-called the Sanskrit word for “supernatural

powers,” this teaches meditators to levitate, fly, walk through walls,

read thoughts, and find lost objects. It is another intense course that deepens participants’ identification with TM teachings and encourages them to enter states of bliss. Most followers of TM never undergo advanced training or reach elevated mental states. Instead, they use regular mantra practice to activate the relaxation response and become more efficient and caring members of society. Among those who attain the higher levels, some happily remain in their supernatural bliss; others come to suffer conflicts with their previous upbringing, critical consciousness, and goals outside of the organization. They have to undergo exit counseling and often have a difficult time adjusting back into ordinary life.46

44 Ryan 1993, 130-31; Kelly 1994, 86. 45 Ryan 1993, 132; Kelly 1994, 87.

46 On cults and their ways of mind control, see Enroth

1983; Galanter

1999; Hassan 1988; Lane 1994; Langone 1993; Tobias and Lalich 1994.

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ISKCON The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), also known as the Hare Krishnas, is the modern Western development of a devotional movement that goes back to Chaitanya (ca. 1485-1533), a Bengali mystic, poet, and preacher. He established a practice of complete devotion to Krishna that included daily rituals and formal mantra chanting with the goal of awakening Krishna consciousness within. He also mystically rediscovered the location of Krishna’s activities in Vrindaban, a major pilgrimage center north of Agra and the seat of ISKCON’s Indian headquarters today.47 Having lost zeal over the centuries, Chaitanya’s movement

was re-

vived by Bhaktivinod Thakur (1938-1914), a law graduate and civil servant in Bengal, who obtained the founder’s works and translated them into several Indian languages and into English. He also received a vision about Chaitanya’s birthplace in Gaudamandal which he substantiated with historical research. He later built a temple there, supporting the dissemination of the teachings. His disciple

Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati (1869-1937) spread them even further,

initiating all members as Brahmins regardless of their social background and sending first emissaries to Western countries.*® In 1982, he initiated a Bengali business man called Abhay Charan De (1896-1977). A student of philosophy, English, and economics, he was an avid Indian nationalist and follower of Gandhi who turned his considerable energies and fortune to spiritual attainment. Bhaktisiddhanta made him his lead disciple and ordered him to preach Krishna consciousness in the West. Dedicating himself fully to the organization Abhay renounced his family and business and reorganized the Krishna movement. In 1944, he took the religious name Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada and began to publish various pamphlets and books in English in the hope of spreading the teaching westward. When this had no major impact, he decided to go west himself. Recelving free passage on a steamer, he arrived in New York City in 1965 with about

$7 in rupees,

the clothes on his back,

and the ad-

dress of a friend. He began to lecture on the Bhagavad Gita in a rundown, slum section of the city, attracting followers among the growing hippie movement. Invited to set up shop in California, he started a center there and within a few years had groups in most major

47 On Vrindaban and its history, and the role of Western Krishna follow-

ers in Indian society, see Brooks 1989. 48 Brooks, 1989, 86; Gelberg 1983, 121.

Sound Immersion / 69

American cities as well as in London, where he was supported by the Beatles, notably George Harrison (“My Sweet Lord”). Still attracting mainly hippies, he also began to train some serious religious seekers,

especially because of his severe demands of discipline.

This discipline includes abstention from animal food, onions, sex, pos-

sessions, greed, and negativity. One has to be totally committed to the practice, sleeping on the floor in sleeping bags with no heat, rising at 4:15 a.m., and taking cold sponge baths. One must, moreover, perform morning services to Krishna, recite the Hare Krishna chant

(mahamantra) 1,728 times every day (16 cycles of 108 chants), attend

lectures on the Bhagavad Gita, and perform the evening services with chanting, dancing, and prayers. In between, there is community work and the solicitation of donations. Married lay followers can also live in a temple, but are housed in separate quarters and allowed sexual intercourse only once a month on the fifth day after the end of the woman's period for the purpose of creating devout Krishna children.“ After its inauguration in the 1960s, the movement continued to grow vigorously in all parts of the world, devotees chanting in public and soliciting at airports and other traveling hubs. It entered a major crisis after Prabhupada died in 1977 without having designated a single leader as his heir. Eleven members of a central board split up the world among them and then engaged in serious infighting to consolidate power and become the movement’s head. For about a decade, the Hare Krishnas became corrupt, leaders resorting to all sorts of means—including murder, abduction, drug trafficking, and other criminal acts—to

secure funds, retain devotees,

and enhance

power.

The movement received bad press and followers began to leave, until local temple leaders ousted the central power mongers and established more democratic forms of leadership which still rule today."

Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism in America The leading school of Buddhism in its teaching focuses on the Buddha created a Pure Land paradise as a

is mostly Japan and Amitabha haven for

an immigrant religion. a major force in China, (Unlimited Light) who people to be reborn and

49 For discussions of the Hare Krishna American movement, its history and practices, see Bromley and Shinn 1989; Daner 1976; Gelberg 1983; Levine 1973; Stillson 1974. A psychological evaluation of Krishna followers is found in Poling and Kenny 1986. 50 On the crisis period of the Hare Krishnas, see Hubner and Gruson 1988. For a case study of the abduction of a 12-year old boy, see Yanoff 1981.

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wait until the world as a whole is ready to transcend into nirvana. They live in comfort and equality, equipped with direct cognition that can create precious substances, delightful food, music, and dance. The

goal of Pure Land practice is to gain rebirth in this paradise. To do so, followers chant the nembutsu (Namu Amida butsu; Namu Amitofo)

either in conjunction with a visualization of the Pure Land and scrip-

tural study or solely with high frequency to the point where the Buddha pervades the practitioner’s consciousness.

Pure Land practice occurs both at home before a small Buddhist altar or in community settings at a temple or congregational hall. In addition to chanting, followers listen to the scriptures, read the sacred texts, give money to have them copied for salvational merit, and perform devotional rituals. Also, as they approach death, they meditate on Amitabha and envision the Pure Land, often represented in art work. They may in fact see Amitabha descend and take them up to the Pure Land. Once there, they are reborn from a lotus blossom, faster if they were more spiritually perfect.5!

Soka Gakkai While Pure Land chanting aims to secure a happy existence after death, the other major Japanese school that uses mantra practice fo-

cuses on benefits in this life. Founded by Nichiren (1222-1282), origi-

nally called Zennichimaro, it combines his two main focal points re-

flected in his name: a devotion to the nation of Japan (nich? and a strong belief in the powers of the Lotus Sutra (ren), the ultimate essence of cosmic truth. Claiming that he was the incarnation of a bodhisattva and had heard the Lotus Sutra first in the celestial realms as preached by the Buddha himself, he rose to the fore when the Mongols attacked Japan in 1281 and, allegedly through chanting with his followers, managed to raise a typhoon, the so-called “wind of the gods” (kamikaze) to disperse the invaders’ fleet.52

The core teaching of Nichiren Buddhism is that all reality is absolutely one and that all distinctions of space and time, inner and outer, spirit and matter are illusion. All realms of reality are contained in every single concentrated thought, thus the dedicated recitation of the daimoku, the title of the Lotus Sutra (namu myoho renge kyo) is 51 For a summary of traditional beliefs, see Corless 1998. On chanting,

see Fujiwara 1974. For death practices, see Becker 1983, 46-83. On its role in

America, see Saeger 1999, 51-69. 52 On the life of Nichiren, see Anesaki 1916. A vivid retelling of the events is found in the popular novel by Robert Shea, called Shike.

Sound Immersion / 71

so powerful and can create change in one’s karma, the cumulative effect of past thoughts and actions that determine one’s life’s conditions. Focusing one’s mind on a specific goal while chanting will bring it about in material reality; right faith combined with right practices produces concrete, tangible results in the here and now that have a lasting effect on self and world.53 In recent years, Nichiren’s teachings have spread world-wide through a lay organization called Soka Gakkai, the “Value Creation Society.” It was founded in 1937 by Makiguchi Tsunesaburo (1871-1944) as a movement to spread education and better value judgments. By 1943, the group had about 3,000 members but since its ideals and practices were not compatible with State Shinto, the founder and his immediate associates were

imprisoned

and the movement

was

suppressed.

After Makiguchi died in prison in 1944, Toda Jôsei (1900-1958) took over the leadership and, in 1951, started the movement anew.

It was not until its third leader, Ikeda Daisaku (b. 1928), that Soka

Gakkai mushroomed into a huge international organization with as many as 90 million members worldwide. In 1964, it founded its own political party in Japan, the Komeitd (now dissolved), which campaigned on a platform of moral uprightness and a battle against corruption and used to get about five percent of the vote. In 1991, the lay organization officially broke with its monastic parent and has since been an independent religious entity. Its American branch, with centers all over the country used to be called NSA (Nichiren Shoshu of

America), but is now known as SGI (Soka Gakkai International). At the same time, Ikeda (involved in some accusations of immoral behav-

ior) was forced to step down and the organization handed the leadership over to local senior practitioners.™4

Soka Gakkai is the most successful new religion of Japan. It strives for international understanding and world peace, using the newest technologies,

mass

media,

and

mass

events.

Aside

from

numerous

schools, universities, and institutes in Japan, it sponsors the Boston

Research Institute for the 21st century in Cambridge, Mass., and has

its own Soka University in California. It is among the most ethnically diverse religious groups in the U.S., and is present everywhere.>

53 Hammond

54 On

Soka

and Machacek 1999, 27-28.

Gakkai

in Japan,

see

Brannen

1968;

Dobbelaere

Metraux 1988; 1994; White 1970. For Ikeda’s teachings, see Ikeda 1981.

2001;

55 On Soka Gakkai beyond Japan, see Hammond and Machacek 1999; Metraux 1997; Wilson and Dobbelaere 1994.See also Saeger 1999, 70-89.

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Members begin by chanting for health and practical benefits but once they have achieved these goals move on to chant for becoming calmer and more peaceful people, dealing with various emotional issues and personality traits that become obvious to them in their practice. Going beyond. even these personal goals, followers often move on to chant for better communities and world peace, taking the practice from the individual to the universal. Ideally followers chant twice daily for twenty minutes each in front of their home replica of the chant (gohonzon), reciting both the daimoku and selected chapters of the Lotus Sutra. They may meet weekly with other practitioners or join assemblies at a Soka Gakkai center. Some form closer communities than others, but all are united in their devo-

tion to the teaching

and their admiration for Ikeda.

On the other

hand, there are also disenchanted believers who accuse Soka Gakkai

of having a cult-like structure and exploiting its members, and there is an organization of Soka Gakkai Victlms.56

To conclude, the practice of sound immersion can take a variety of forms and be undertaken at various levels of intensity. Ranging from the silent repetition of a mantra through the chanting of prayers and scriptures to the encouragement

of good qualities in affirmations,

it

works dominantly with the auditory system, a primary dimension of human life. Chanting suffuses consciousness with a new and harmonizing

vibration

rituals

and

while

installing

certain

conscious

concepts

in the

mind. Its clearest description and most extensive use are found in self-cultivation

movements

of the

Hindu

tradition,

but

there is also a very lively mantra experience in certain forms of Buddhism. Daoists, on the other hand, make little use of repetitious man-

tras and use chanting mainly to activate the power of sacred scriptures and spells, emphasizing the meaning of words and the visual presentation of deities over their sound.

56 One example is documented in Fujiwara 1970.

Chapter Three Insight: Observation and Vipassana A completely different access to the subconscious appears in a form of meditation that arose from the early Buddhist tradition in India and is known by its Pali name as Vipassana (Skt. vipasyana). The term consists of the word passana which means “to see,” joined by the prefix vi which indicates “in depth,” “thoroughly,” or “as things really are.1 The practice was transmitted into China where it is called “observation” (guan) and has made major inroads in the West under the name of insight or mindfulness meditation. Not using any of the sense doors as its key mode, the practice works instead with developing a new dimension of the conscious mind. It establishes a detached, objective observer or “witness consciousness”

in the mind, a mental position of distanced seeing, a faculty of taking a step back from involvement with experiences and emotions. This detached observer is something all people have at times, such as the ability to laugh at themselves when in a strange situation or the faculty to take a step back and examine circumstances from a distance. Through insight meditation, practitioners strengthen this observing faculty and make it accessible at all times. Learning to both feel an 1 Another term commonly used is sats, “mindfulness.” The key text on

the practice is the Satipatthana sutra, based on a discourse by the Buddha,

which divides it into four types: contemplation of body, sensations, mental

states, and mental contents. On the text, see Brazier 1995, 70; Bucknell and

Kang

1997,

19-25;

50-54;

Fryba

1989,

245-73;

Silananda

1986, 74-78; Soni 1980; N. Thera 1962; S. Thera 1998. 73

1990; Solé-Leris

74 / Meditation

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experience immediately and see it from a distance, they begin to identify, observe, and cleanse negative emotions while cultivating positive states, such as compassion and kindness, calmness and equanimity, peace and joy. They also come to see the world increasingly in Buddhist terms, understanding that neither mind nor self are immutable, firm entities; that life is constantly changing and essentially unsatisfactory; and that true contentment can only be found in the present moment. As a result, mindfulness meditators engage with reality in a detached yet intensely present way. They are freed from emotional baggage and can focus on experience as it is. They no longer find reality overwhelming but can take it one experience at a time and look at

it with critical awareness and from different points-of-view.

This ability has proven extremely helpful medically both in pain control and the transformation of emotions. It has also proven to be an effective method of transforming the lives of many people, creating more overall stability and joy. In the West today the method is taught in three variants that match different geographical branches of the Buddhist tradition: in Vipassana Meditation as taught by S. N. Goenka, which continues the Burmese heritage; in Insight Meditation as taught by Western teachers such as Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, Sharon Salzberg, and Larry Rosenberg, which is based largely on Thai developments; and in Mindfulness Meditation as taught by Thich Nhat Hanh, which represents its Vietnamese adaptation under a certain degree of Chinese Chan influence.

The Observing Self The notion of the witness consciousness at the center of insight meditation matches several Western psychological theories regarding an “entity in the mind that has the ability to move among various personality patterns.”2 These include Sigmund Freud’s “ego-splitting,” Anna Freud’s “endopsychic perception,” Richard Sterba’s “therapeutic dissociation,”

Roberto

Assagioli’s

“disidentification,”

as well

as the

concept of “1 in psychosynthesis as described by John Firman and Ann Gila.> Closest to the witness consciousness of insight meditation

2 Firman and Gila 2002, 93.

3 See Assagioli 1965; Firman and Gila 2002, 38-40; A. Freud 1946; S. Freud 1978:.

Insight / 75

is Arthur Deikman’s understanding of the observing self as opposed to the object self.4 According to this, when children first become conscious they begin to see outward, recognizing other people as objects. On this basis, they also come to see their bodies as objects and from there, reinforced by control structures imposed by parents and society, they understand themselves in this manner. Being outside, these objects of body and self are strictly separate from inner perceptions and feelings and can be controlled and subdued, structures.

made

to fit the social and environmental

The cognitive characteristics that come with the object self are essential for survival. They involve clear outside vision and recognition of friend and foe, opportunity and danger; a good sense of time; a detailed and easily accessible memory of the past, a recognition of the present, and the ability to anticipate the future; the faculties of remembering and planning and thereby organizing one’s life and activities; the power of logical thought and reasoning that can predict potential boons and dangers; as well as the power to act on the environment and make it both accessible and useful. The self in this process becomes a mere vantage point from which the world is seen, the headquarters of an essentially object-focused life. The faculties encouraged and developed through the object self tend to be centered in the left brain hemisphere. Involving language, logic, linear time, causality, and calculation, they activate the sympathetic nervous system, which in turn stimulates beta waves and creates patterns for action on the environment. However, human beings also have a right brain hemisphere, which works with a more receptive mode of being. It activates the parasympathetic nervous system and stimulates alpha and theta waves. Its expressions are music, art, and poetry; it sees time as cyclical, senses past, present, and future all at once, and tends to focus on the present. Its faculties are paralogic, intuition, fantasy, and sensual impressions. It encourages a merging of opposites, an undifferentiated way of seeing, a blurring of boundaries, and allows an overarching sense of oneness. This right hemisphere way of being is dominant at birth and needed for the deep inner satisfaction of the person as well as for a feeling of empathy and connection to others. In its own way, it is just as important for survival as the left hemisphere abilities, but in modern socie4 The following discussion of the observing self follows Deikman 1982. A brief outline also appears in Harrison 2000, 145-51.

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ties tends to be neglected. To grow into a complete human being, both hemispheres have to be activated and integrated. They communicate with each other and can be linked in experience. In fact, most exDerences people have draw on the activity of both hemispheres, combining a good- memory with an appreciation of the present and a sense of separation with a feeling of connectedness. The observing self is a way of allowing both sides to integrate harmoniously. It is not part of the completely subjective oneness of the right hemisphere, nor can it be objectified as an outside entity. It is deeply part of the person and represents a totally subjective answer to the question-of “who am I,” yet it also has the detachment and distance needed for critical awareness and decision-making. Matching the witness consciousness developed in insight meditation, the observing self stands apart from the content of consciousness and cannot be affected by outside world. Featureless and formless, it has no limits. It allows people to be deeply involved in the activities of life while at the same time maintaining distance and creating a sense of detachment to thoughts and feelings. It can be activated by noting thoughts, feelings, and reactions, as well as by encouraging awareness of automated responses that have replaced the choices of truly autonomous individuals. Once one realizes this—what Buddhists would describe as the inherent structure of personal suffering—one can go about changing it, replacing the way one used to do things with new patterns. Understanding how things happen and how we tend to react and be in the world allows a new level of being, a transformation through deautomatization, fully taking charge of life. Creating a strong observing self in our consciousness, according to Deikman, allows people to go beyond the object self and learn not to act from fear or desire. Aware of themselves as resting between the inner self and the outside world, they can strengthen moment-tomoment awareness, learn to use intuition, and develop wisdom rather than knowledge. The activation of the observing self, in this view, is integral to the process of becoming fully human and gaining complete health. It is the opposite of psychosis, fis, and character disorders, which diminish personality function and place the relation between people and objects on a mere use or be-used basis. Disconnecting from automated responses in the observing mode, people can become unselfish,

altruistic,

and compassionate,

man beings in all aspects of life.

fuller and more

complete

hu-

A very similar mode of transformation also appears in the work of Abraham Maslow, who speaks about the contrast of object and ob-

Insight / 77

serving self in terms of Deficiency-cognition versus Being-cognition. To think in terms of deficiency means to concentrate primarily on outside objectives. It leads subjectively to such emotions as anxiety, fear, worry,

anger, and the like. Being-cognition,

on the contrary, is

self-justifying, cheerful, and compassionate. People moving in that direction often experience times of complete happiness called peakexperiences. The most thrilling moments of life, such peakexperiences are also times of greatest maturity, individuation, and selflessness. Full of joy and meaning, they transcend the ego and give people a sense of unity with all-that-is, a state close to the ideal of the awakened one in the Buddhist tradition. 5

Insight Practice To reach this lofty goal, practitioners train in insight practice. They can do so gradually in weekly one-hour sessions or through several day-long seminars at meditation centers, but the most effective and most

common

way

of learning

is in ten-day

retreats,

where

people

step outside their lives and immerse themselves completely. They meditate for about eleven hours a day, interrupted only by meals, rest

periods, question-and-answer sessions, and a lecture.®

The first thing they learn, after agreeing to standard five precepts of Buddhism is that, concerned first and foremost with the mind, completely still in all practice sessions and

the rules and taking the as insight meditation is the body should be held moved only with great

awareness at other times. This precludes vigorous exercise and exposure to major sensory input. Trainees accordingly have no contact

with the outside world, maintain complete silence, keep their eyes lowered, use unscented soaps, and in general try to keep their attention within. Another way in which practitioners keep control over the body to allow a complete focus on the mind during these training retreats is by limiting food intake. They have vegetarian food and eat only breakfast and lunch, and even then fill the stomach to no more than three

5 See Maslow 1964, 73, 97.

6 For retreat

www.dhamma.org

1996; Goldstein

and

rules

and

schedules,

www.dharma.org.

1976.

go to the main

Retreat

outlines

For reports on experiences,

insight websites

appear

in Boorstein

see Bucknell and Kang

1997, sect. iv (193-263); Clements 2002; Nelson 2001, 69-90.

78 / Meditation Works

quarters. Afternoons and evenings are a time of fasting for more intense meditation. Again, the concept is that any major disturbance of the physical equilibrium will remove the mind from its task of internal observation. Usually the practice begins with conscious breathing (anapana) to establish access concentration. Allowing the breath to flow naturally and using kinesthetic rather than auditory or visual anchoring, meditators quickly begin to observe their mind.’ They find that it is like a wild monkey, run-away horse, or excited puppy that never stops for an instant, but produces one thought after the next—usually thoughts that have nothing to do with the present: memories of the past or visions of the future. The mind keeps jumping around and begins to calm down only after days of patient guiding. Another thing beginners soon realize is that they are not comfortable at all sitting still. They can sit cross-legged or on a chair, even in an armchair, as long as the back and neck are straight.’ Yet however comfortable they start out, after five to ten minutes an ache starts

here, an itch begins there, a subtle sense of disquiet makes itself felt

in different parts of the body. They tell the mind to be calm; they try to make the body comfortable. But the truth they come to realize is that they have control over neither, that body and mind consist of impersonal process that go on changing with very little control.

From the observation of breath, insight meditators next move on to feel the sensations of breathing: the rising and falling of the abdomen, the flow of respiration passing through the nostrils, the warmth or coolness of the breath, the openness or stuffiness of the air passages. Thereby they become aware of a subtler reality than that of mere breathing. From here they enter the practice of insight proper and learn to undertake the detached observation of sensations in all different parts of the body, scanning systematically through the body time and time again, noticing the different sensations in the different parts and becoming aware of the changes theses sensations undergo. They also learn to take this detached awareness into other aspects of life, practicing walking meditation, mindful eating, and generally maintaining calm observation at all times.

7 While most Vipassana masters focus the breath at the nostrils, Mahasi

Sayadaw of the Burmese tradition centers it at the abdomen. See Bucknell and Kang 1997, 113; King 1980, 132-37; Sayadaw 1994. 8 On proper meditation posture, see Kamalasila 1992, 121-32; Khalsa 2001, 77-100.

Insight / 79

Remaining still and nonreactive, meditators allow subconscious patterns to emerge, become conscious, and evaporate. Gradually painful and unpleasant sensations and various accompanying destructive emotions—also observed with detachment—give way to subtler and more pleasant feelings. Piercing through the apparent solidity of the body, practitioners become aware of an underlying pulsation, an ubiquitous flow of vibration, a sense of subtle energetic oscillation. Realizing that this is the true nature of their selves, they see how little stability and solidity there is and start taking themselves less seriously, seeing their identity in a larger context.? They come to see their thoughts as independent entities, relating to them as clouds in the spacious sky of the mind: “The clouds do not affect the sky, and the sky does not affect the clouds.”10 This practice leads to the appreciation of the three elementary Buddhist truths. First practitioners realize that everything is changing and in a state of impermanence (anicca), that the mind is never still even for an instant while the body consists of nothing but fleeting sensations. Soon they understand that there is no permanent self (anatta), no firm structure and identity that one can rely on in all situations and over many years. There is only process, nothing else, which means that there is no way one can ever reach stability, permanence, or lasting peace. All embodied existence has to be forever unsatisfactory and remains a source of suffering (dukkha).1 Realizing these three elementary truths helps to further detach the mind from experience and thus strengthens the practice of insight. A sense of deep calm and joy emerge, concentration increases, and the mind stays firmly rooted in the present. This does not mean one cannot make plans or evaluate options—it is just that at this moment planning is going on or evaluation and that one is aware of this happening. Mindfulness means being present fully at all times, not distracted, not absent-minded, not wishing one were somewhere else. Thich Nhat Hanh describes it with the example of doing the dishes: While washing the dishes one should only be washing the dishes, which means that while washing the dishes one should be completely aware of the fact that one is washing 9 The change of perception toward a more flowing understanding of reality is documented in a Rorschach study of mindfulness meditators. See Austin 1998, 129-37; Brown and Engler 1984.. 10 Godwin Samararatne in Bucknell and Kang 1997, 139. 11 See Brazier 1995, 67-69; Goldstein 1976, 17-43; King 1980, 82-103; Rahula 1974, 17-20, 51-66; Wallace 2005, 49-106.

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the dishes. At first glance, that might seem a little silly: why put so much stress on a simple thing? But that’s precisely the point. The fact that I am standing there and washing these bowls is a wondrous reality. I’m being completely myself, following my breath, conscious of my presence, and conscious of my thoughts and actions. There’s no way I can be tossed around mindlessly like a bottle slapped here and there on the waves. (1987, 3-4)12

Made a constant part of one’s being, this focused awareness leads to awakening or enlightenment, the ultimate goal of Buddhism. While opening_the person to the state of nirvana or final cessation, on a more practical plane it creates a stable state of deep relaxation and calm detachment. It precludes having any strong emotions, since one is always present with what is and does not actively react to it. Or if there is an emotional reaction, one is aware of the feelings in one’s body—such as increased heart rate, faster breathing, clammy hands—and by rooting in the physical can again detach from the content. Emotional outbursts and panic attacks are rare among advanced insight practitioners. Focused awareness also allows full concentration on one item at a time, making one’s work much more efficient and allowing better decision-making. Insight meditators are the ultimate monotaskers. Unlike people who do heavy multitasking and use Brodmans Area 10 in the frontal lobes of the brain, they are more active in their medial parietal lobes, the so-called default regions.14 Their powerful concentration allows them to do a job completely and without error, able to do eight-hours’ work in three and needing much less sleep than ordinary people. The Buddha Sakyamuni himself is said to have not slept at all, and practitioners

commonly

find that three or four hours

of

relaxed, lying-down meditation are more effective than ten hours of

normal sleep.

12 Further examples are presented in Brazier 2995, 155. 13 Nirvana is a state beyond the senses and beyond all description. Dis-

cussions are found in Rahula 1974,35-44; Solé-Leris 1986, 112-18. More tech-

nical analyses are found in Griffith 1986; Harvey 1995;

Johansen 1965.

14 On associated brain areas, see Begley 2007, 112-13.

Insight / 81

Mind

and

World

Insight meditation arose with Buddhism in the sixth century B.C.E. as part of the renunciation culture of ancient India, providing a major means to heal the fundamental suffering of human life.15 Its key truths stand in active contrast to the Upanishadic vision of a permanent underlying power and eternal soul. However, its ethical principles match the Brahmanic precepts and certain concepts, such as the notion of karma and reincarnation it shares with other Indian traditions. Matching these, it also emphasizes three major factors of mental impurity (klesas) and four states of the pure mind, the “natural

dwellings of Brahma” (brahmaviharas).

More specifically, the three mental factors are ignorance (avidya), the inability to see the true nature of self and world as changing and impermanent; craving (raga), the pursuit of things conceived as liked or pleasant, the attraction and attachment to objects and people, health and status, that prevents a fluid and flexible approach to life; and aversion (dvesha), the rejection and active avoidance of things conceived as unwanted or unpleasant that prevents people from delving into deeper layers of self and world.16 The four sublime states of mental purity are love, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. Expressions of the highest goodness in the universe, they are the only mental activity a fully enlightened being is capable of.17 Beyond all these, a uniquely Buddhist concept is the dynamics of the human mind. They do not see it as a single entity or function, but as

consisting of five “aggregates” (skandhas). They are: 1. Form

(rupa),

the

outer

reality

which

creates

physical

stimuli

through the senses. It is made up of the four elements (fire, earth, water, air), which manifest in the body as temperature, solidity, mois-

ture, and lightness.

2. Consciousness (vij#ana), the mental faculty that notices that a sensory event has taken place but neither classifies nor evaluates.

15 The Buddha is called the great physician, curing not only ordinary ailments but the human condition itself. See Brazier 1995, 19; Gyatso 1990, 19; Tatz 1985. 16 For more on the klesas in Buddhism, see Brazier 1995, 87-91. 17 See

Farhi

2004,

59-65;

Solé-Leris

1986,

49-54.

Brazier

details

four

other kinds of goodness based on Zen master Dogen: generosity, loving words, goodwill, and identification of self and others (1995, 218).

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8. Perception (sanna), the aspect of the mind that evaluates depending on previous experiences and karmic predisposition according to good and bad, pleasant and unpleasant, desirable and undesirable. 4. Sensations (vedana), the physical feelings in the body triggered by this evaluation, such as a flow of pleasant sensations when positive and a wave of unpleasant feelings when negative. This part of the mind explains why the same outer event can trigger massively different feelings in people. 5. Reaction (sankara), volition developed on the basis of the sensations, most commonly a will to extend pleasant experiences and stop negative-feelings.18 The way this works in practice is clarified in an example: a loud rockand-roll song is being played on the beach. Both persons À and B hear this. Their consciousness says: “Hey, sound has arisen.” Next the perceptive function becomes active in both. Person A is a great fan of this music, his perception says: “Good. I like it.” He immediately experiences a great rush of pleasurable sensations through the body. He reacts by tapping his feet and moving his arms, thoroughly enjoying the experience and hoping the owner of the tape turns it up some more. Person B, on the contrary, leans more toward classical music and has come with the expectation of listening to the surf. Her perception says: “Noise. Don’t like it.” She feels a great wave of revulsion and tension cursing through her body. The reaction is to run away, to shout at the radio owner, even to call the police. Two people, the same situation, yet vastly different reactions. Only the last of the five aggregates creates deep inner patterns and causes karma, literally “action.” Seen predominantly as a mental factor in Buddhism, karma means the intentional action people undertake in relation to reality on the basis of established reaction patterns, which then leads to matching situations that reinforce the patterns further. In other words, someone who is prone to anger will create anger patterns inside his or her mind and thus come to attract more 18 For a presentation of the five aggregates,

Rahula

1974,

20-23; Solé-Leris

1986,

see Brazier 1995, 84-86;

99-100. A most

detailed examination,

with extensive comparisons to medieval and other Western concepts, appears in Hayward 1987. Feuerstein calls sankara “subliminal activation,” referring to the subconscious nature of the reaction patterns (1980, 68). They also closely match the “four theaters of the brain” as described in neurological research: perception, attention, brain function, and identity & behavior. See Ratey 2002, 343-45.

Insight / 83

situations that are potentially anger-invoking. In concrete terms this means that people tend to run into the same or similar situations time and time again, attracting a certain kind of reality because of their inner patterns. Karma is thus a continuous cycle: mental reaction, physical action, outside events, leading to the next set of mental reaction, physical action, and outside events—life after life after life.19 The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice is the complete cessation of these patterns through the annihilation of karma and the end of rebirth.

to

Mindfulness creates the awareness

break

the

cycle,

gradually

and detachment necessary

overcoming

the

five

hindrances—

tiredness, agitation, craving, aversion, and doubt20 一 and inserting a buffer between outside events and mental reactions or, as Buddhists

say, replacing perception with wisdom.

The specific Buddhist path to this achievement, then, consists of eight types of right action which are divided into three overall divisions: morality (si/a) through the five precepts and overall consideration; concentration (samadhi) through the dedicated practice of breath observation; and wisdom (pra/ña) through the development of the witness consciousness, the unfolding of insight, and the appreciation of the three fundamental Buddhist truths.21 Eventually persistent mindfulness results in a pervasive state of wisdom and compassion, encouraging feelings of respect, gratitude, and support for others. The latter aspect finds formal expression in the concluding practice of insight meditation. Called “loving kindness” (metta), this consists of allowing positive, pleasurable, and subtle vibrations to course through the body and extending these good sensations outward together with a feeling of kindness toward everyone and the conscious affirmation of happiness, security, and peace. Often this is done in expanding circles over several levels: from oneself to

benefactors, and then to neutral persons and enemies, to finally reach

to all beings. The entire cosmos is included in this radiant mental wish to be free from danger,

19 For discussions of karma,

anger, fear, and tension, joined by the

see Brazier 1995, 162-69; Hall 1986; Keyes

and Daniel 1983; Neufeldt 1986; Nyanatiloka 1975; Rahula

1974; Reichen-

bach 1990. 20 On the hindrances, see Goldstein 1976, 51-60; Kamalashila

1992, 235-

stein 1996, 80-98. 21 For an outline of the Buddhist eight-fold path, see Bramer 81; Rahula 1974.

1998, 131-

62; Solé-Leris 1986, 93-95. Exercises to counteract them also appear in Boor-

84 / Meditation

Works

positive impulse to have overall well-being.”

mental

happiness,

physical

health,

and

The benefit of metta practice, as described in Buddhist sutras, is that people sleep well, wake easy, and enjoy nice dreams. As their good vibrations expand throughout the universe, the forces of nature and karma become supportive and one is well liked, successful, and at peace. The mind in a constant state of deep- serenity mind, there a sense of security at all times, and death becomes a smooth and harmonious transition to whatever comes after.

The realization of how we create our own inner heaven and hell combined with the daily spreading of good wishes to the universe in many meditators results in the desire to act increasingly with generosity, kindness, and compassion. A drive arises to give service to families, friends, neighbors, community, and eventually to the world at large. Many insight practitioners, far from being isolated practitioners sitting on far-off mountains or in lonely caves, accordingly work hard in all sorts of community projects. They have contributed widely to the spread of a more socially conscious form of Buddhism, engage in prison projects and, as in the case of Thich Nhat Hanh, serve at the forefront of Buddhist-inspired peace movements.”

Daoist

Inner Observation

Insight meditation was first transmitted to China along with Buddhist sutras and precepts around the beginning of the Common Era. However, only after the imperially sponsored translation project under Kumarajiva in the early fifth century had produced technically correct and highly readable translations of major key scriptures, did Buddhism spread widely and exert a strong, pervasive influence on Chinese culture.24 In its wake, insight meditation—translated as “cessation and insight” (zhiguan)—spread widely to eventually become the dominant practice of the Tiantai school, founded by Zhiyi (536-597) in the mid-sixth century. He is especially famous as the au22 See Kamalashila 1992, 23-36; Salzberg 1995; Solé-Leris 1986, 50-52, 119-24; Wallace 2005, 107-22. 23 On socially engaged Buddhism, see Badiner 2002; Eppsteiner 1988;

Kraft 1992; Kulananda and Houlder 2002; McLeod 2006; Whitmeyer 1994. 24 On the early history of Buddhism in China, see Ch’en 1973; Tsukamoto and Hurvitz 1985; Zürcher 1959.

Insight / 85

thor: of several major treatises on the practice, notably the compre-

hensive Tongmen zhiguan (Cessation and Insight for Beginners) and the highly complex Mohe zhiguan (The Great Compendium on Cessa-

tion and Insight).25

As soon as Buddhism became a major force on the Chinese religious scene, Daoists adopted numerous teachings and practices from it, so that entire areas of medieval Daoism—notably precepts, ethics, repentance rituals, sculpture, karma

and rebirth, as well as the belief

in savior figures—can be traced back to Buddhist precursors.26 Insight meditation appears in a Daoist context only in the mid-Tang dynasty, after the publication of Zhiyi’s treatises and the evolution of Mount Tiantai as a major religious center of both religions. Rather than “cessation and insight,” Daoists speak of insight meditation as “inner observation” (neiguan), “concentration and observation” (dingguan), or “true observation” (zhen’guan). These terms are documented in relevant scriptures of the period associated with Sima Chengzhen (647-735), the twelfth patriarch of Highest Clarity and leading Daoist of the country: the Neiguan jing (Scripture on Inner Observation), the Dingguan jing (Scripture on Concentration and Insight), and a section on “True Observation” contained in the Zuowang

Jun (On Sitting in Oblivion).27

As described in these works, the Daoist adaptation of insight meditation closely resembles its Buddhist counterpart in that it, too, begins with the establishment of access concentration with the help of the breath and aims for the establishment of a detached observer in the center of consciousness. It similarly encourages the transformation of emotions, supports a detached attitude toward the changes of life, and acknowledges that there is no permanent entity that makes up the self or affords a solid identity. As the Zhuangzi already says:

25 On Zhiyi, his life and work, see Hurvitz 1962. A passages from the Tongmen zhiguan appears in Lu 1964, sion of Zhiyi’s take on evil and its treatment in meditation 1987. For collections of studies on Buddhist meditation in see Gregory 1986; Kiyota 1978. 26 For a study of Buddhist influence on Daoism, see kenkamp 2007. 27 Translations

of these

documents

are found

translation 111-56. A 1s found in China and

of key discusDonner Japan,

Zurcher 1980; Bo-

in Kohn1989b,

203-222;

Kohn 1987a, 125-43; and Kohn 1987a, 97-104. A summary appears in Komjathy 2007, 188-95. On Sima Chengzhen, his life and works, see Engelhardt 1987; Kirkland 1986; Kohn 1987a.

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The hundred joints, the nine openings, the six organs, all

come together and exist here [as my body]. But which part

should I feel closest to? I should delight in all parts, you say? But there must be one I ought to favor more. If not are they all of them mere-servants? . . . There must be some true lord

among them, yet try as I may, I cannot find him. (ch. 2, Watson 1968, 38) The Zuowang lun echoes this when it says: If there is suffering or disease, one should first realize by observation that it originates in the fact that one has a personal body. Without a body the vexations would have no place to dwell. As the Daode jing states: “If I had no personal body, what vexations would I have?” [ch. 13] Next you should turn to observe the mind and find that there is no true lord. Even though you search for him inside out, you

can’t find him anywhere. (Kohn 1987, 101-2)

Beyond

these

obvious

similarities,

however,

there

are

also

several

points of significant difference. For one, rather than seeing the mind in terms of the five aggregates that work largely independent of the body, Daoists understand it as consisting of several dynamic functions associated with the five inner organs, further assisted by a variety of energetic forces understood as different aspects of gz. The main mental aspects, as also defined in Chinese medical literature, are: The the the the

spirit soul in the liver; material soul in the lungs; essence in the kidneys; intention in the spleen;

the spirit in the heart.2®

Among

these, the spirit associated with the heart and the essence

(ing) associated with the kidneys are most important, considered the

pure manifestation of original heaven and earth, fire and water. Executive functions secondary to them are the spirit and material souls (Aun and po) which govern moral-spiritual and instinctual-survival dimensions respectively. The intention at the center, associated with

the spleen, then, is the force that connects the mind with outside real-

ity and governs its interaction with the world.29

28 Neiguan jing 2a; Kohn 1989b, 207. See also Ishida 1989; Liang and Wu 1997, 26-27. 29 For a more detailed discussion of the Daoist understanding of mind,

yin-yang souls, and other forces, see Kohn 1997b.

Insight / 87

Further forces or forms of cosmic qi that supplement these energetic entities are arranged in yin-yang pairs: blood and personal gi which flow in the deeper reaches of the body and keep it alive at its root; constructive and defensive gi which move along the surface and protect it on the skin level; light and heavy body fluids, such as saliva,

tears, sweat, nasal and oral mucus which lubricate the skin and the

flesh plus more internal lubricants (such as lymph) which supply necessary nutrients to joints and tendons, bones and brain. These various forces, which at first glance seem highly organic and more physical than mental, form an essential part of the mind in Chinese medicine and Daoism and are at the root of spiritual transformation.

Daoist insight meditation is thus not only about the modification of perception and emotions——although that plays an essential part in the practice—but ultimately aims at the complete energetic reorganization of the person. The way Daoists speak about this is by contrasting a pure level of existence at the level of original Dao, where one

had a bodily form (xing) and a celestial spirit (shen) which functioned in perfect harmony

and connected the person directly to the divine.

These two, then, were defiled and distorted through life in the world

and grew into their lesser, world-oriented counterparts, the personal

body (shén) and the evaluative mind (xrn).30

The practice of calming the mind and establishing a witness consciousness accordingly serves to overcome the limitations of a personal, body-motivated identity and of the critical, judgmental nature of the mind in favor of a state of no-body and no-mind. As the Dingguan jing says: Once you have achieved a little self-purification, Continue the practice Whether walking, staying, sitting, lying down. Whether you encounter excitement Or meet with upheaval, Make strong efforts to remain at peace.

Whether involved or at leisure,

Always maintain a state of no-mind! (Kohn 1987a, 134-35)

This state of no-mind in due course becomes the foundation for the calm apperception of the true nature of the self. As in Buddhism seen as impermanent, ultimately unstable, and the cause of a general dissatisfaction, it is yet in its very physicality also the vehicle, the host,

the foundation of the Dao. The Dao, moreover, manifests in numerous 30 For a detailed discussion, see Kohn 1989a; 1991, 88-105.

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body gods, whose active visualization creates a tangible connection to the paradisiacal realms of the immortals, the ultimate goal of Daoist practice. |

Emotions and Healing The main way in which insight practice changes the individual is through transformation of emotional patterns and structures. Emotions “provide a quick, general assessment of the person’s situation that draws on powerful internal and external values,” relaying essential information to the amygdala, which provides an immediate classification into whether the response should be aggressive or defensive.?! As understood in modern psychology, emotions have three key components:

e

a felt bodily experience of more or less dominant sensations;

@

aconscious cognition or thought regarding the cause or object of the emotion;

e

a expressive reaction, a clear behavioral move that can be as subtle as a facial expression and as obvious as an aggressive punch or loving embrace.°2

Westerners typically pay most attention to the conscious thoughts regarding the cause of the emotion and secondarily consider their possible reaction, although if the emotion is strong enough, they usu-

ally react without thinking. They pay little if any attention to their

bodily sensations, although they may be aware that they have “butterflies in the stomach” when they are nervous or afraid.

Emotions divide into two types: bad and good, pleasant and unpleasant. Usually the bad, unpleasant emotions are afflictive, negative, and destructive; they tend to cause people to withdraw or move away from the object or circumstance that caused them. Good, pleasant emotions are beneficial, positive, and engaging; they make people approach and seek out the object or circumstance that caused them.33 In terms of brain chemistry, withdrawal reactions are located in the right frontal cortex, while approach reactions are activated in the left 31 Ratey 2002, 171, 174. 32 Goleman 1997, 84. 33 Goleman 1997, 34.

Insight / 89

frontal cortex. People are born with a tendency toward one or the other dominant activation, but this inherent pattern can also be changed through learning and systematic training. Overall, people who have more right frontal cortex activity are more emotionally volatile. They get sick easier, have a harder time recovering, suffer from numerous ailments, have difficulty in their community because of their actions, and die earlier. People with dominantly left frontal cortex activity are more positive, don’t submit to stress, will not catch colds even if exposed to germs, and live longer and happier lives.*4 Withdrawal reactions or negative emotions include anger (cynicism, disgust, negative views, hostility, aggression), depression (sadness, self-pity, hopelessness),

anxiety (stress, agitation, restlessness, fear),

and repression (denial). Each of them has, in exhaustive studies, been linked to major health issues, notably heart disease (anger), failure to

recover from surgery and illness (depression), blocked arteries (anxi-

ety), as well as asthma, high blood pressure and frequent colds (repression). Greed should be added to the list, but “there are no studies of the effect of greed on health, because greed is not considered a problem or a pathology in the West; it’s a cultural norm.”5 They also, as a group, tend to be exacerbated by stress, a state of high arousal without rest that eventually leads to exhaustion and dysregulation of the body’s systems. Approach reactions or positive, health-enhancing emotions include equanimity or calmness of mind, happiness and joy, optimism, confidence, friendliness,

social connection,

and loving kindness. All these

help people be connected to their communities, have positive experiences in their lives, and mitigate stress whenever it occurs. Mindfulness practice has been found particularly effective in enhancing the activity of the left frontal cortex and thus the creation of positive, community-connecting emotions.*¢ A key person working in this area is Jon Kabat-Zinn, director of the Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center in Worcester. There he runs an eight-week course for all kinds

42.

34 Goleman 1997, 68-69. See also Begley 2007, 226-33; Ratey 2002, 23235 Goleman 1997, 35. On negative emotions, see also Goleman 2003. An

overview

of emotions

and meditation is also found in Brazier

1995,

125-31;

De Silva 1979, 35-79; Humphries 1968, 131-41; Nairn 1999. On the way emotions are stored in the muscles and tissues of the body, see Rothschild 2000, 56-64. 36 Goleman 1997, 69-71, 75-76.

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of patients, suffering from heart-disease through Lupus to chronic pain who are referred by local physicians. In weekly sessions, reinforced by audio tapes for home practice, he teaches concentration on the breath, mindfulness in daily living, awareness of inner dialogue,

as well

as

some

gentle

stretches

and

slow

movements,

offering a variety of practices to release tensions. His success rate is phenomenal and patients tend to stick with the program, even though the entire concept of doing nothing and looking inward for an hour a day is as alien to them in the beginning as the idea that by relaxing the mind one can open clogged arteries of the heart. 37 In terms of emotional attitudes, he teaches nonjudgment, patience, acceptance, and trust, with a particular emphasis on nonstriving,

letting be, and allowing things to happen. The first thing patients learn is that they should not try to make their problem go away but instead cultivate a beginner’s mind, the ability to see every moment afresh and with new eyes. This alleviates tensions and releases stress-related symptoms. The detached observer at the center of consciousness allows the gradual unraveling of negative emotional patterns and the transformation of life away from suffering and toward health. Understanding the underlying truth that one’s pain or negative thoughts are not eternal and not ultimately personal, moreover, liberates people from the burden of limited identity and creates the space for more wholesome and happier living. Another modern adaptation of insight meditation is the Japanese therapy of Naikan (Chin. neiguan), literally “inner observation.” Developed in the 1950s by Ishin Yoshimoto, a follower of the Pure Land school, it involves an intensive introspection and release of emotions in a retreat-like setting. Practitioners gather in centers tp

meditate quietly, reviewing their lives in relation to others and asking themselves the following three questions, spending a certain percentage of their time on each: e e

What did this person do for me? (20%) What did I do in return? (20%)

37 A comprehensive summary of the method is presented by Sharon Salzberg and Jon Kabat-Zinn under the title “Mindfulness as Medicine” in

Goleman

1997,

107-44. For more

detailed outlines of the course, see Kabat-

Zinn 1990; 2005; Santorelli 1999. The effect of mindfulness on pain control is also discussed in Harrison 2000, 69-81.

Programs for depression developed

by Zindel Segal and John Teasdale are described in Begley 2007, 143-46. On mindfulness in cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder that help modify the workings of the orbital frontal cortex, see Begley 2007, 139-41.

Insight / 91

e

What trouble and worries did I cause this person?

(60%)38

Usually the practice begins with a focus on the parents and the early years of childhood, then gradually progresses to various other people—teachers, friends, colleagues, spouses—and to later periods of life. Findings are reviewed in an interview with the therapist (mensetsu), who listens calmly, confirms the validity of the memories, and encourages deeper introspection, but refrains from active suggestions. The practice typically leads to a thorough re-evaluation of one’s deeds and relationships and greatly enhances feelings of gratitude, contrition, and forgiveness, smoothing the future path of the person’s life.

Contemporary Groups The teachings of the Buddha Sakyamuni in India changed from their original form through the development and increasing dominance of the Mahayana in the early centuries B.C.E. This new form is called the Greater Vehicle because it opens liberation to wider sections of the populace.

In addition

to meditation,

it also includes

devotional

chanting and the belief in savior figures and paradises, such as the

Pure Land of the Buddha Amitabha.

Over the following centuries,

Buddhism continued to grow closer to established forms of Hinduism and engaged in massive cross-fertilization with various indigenous schools. As a result, by the tenth century

C.E., Buddhism

had been

completely reabsorbed into indigenous Hinduism and ceased to be a presence on Indian soil. The ancient practice of Buddhist meditation, on the other hand, survived in adjacent countries, such as Burma and Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. In a secondary way, it was recovered in China in the

tradition

of Chan

(Zen),

which

focuses

38 The last question may also be supplemented deceits have I indulged in?” For a brief discussion, see Extensive presentations are found in Reynolds 1983; similar application of insight in Japan was developed

recourse

to Western

psychotherapy:

Morita

therapy

on

self-reliance

and

by “What thefts and Brazier 1995, 131-35. Krech 2002. Another, with more conscious

of constructive

living,

which emphasizes acceptance of one’s feelings, doing whatever needs doing, and knowing one’s purpose. See Brazier 1995, 108-10, 131-35; Reynolds 1989, 14, 22-30; Fujita 1986.

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strict meditative discipline. Especially the Burmese, isolated in a warrior mountain kingdom, claim legacy to an unbroken transmission of practice, undiluted by additional methods and various modifications—such as meals after noon—common in other places.3? In the West today, Buddhist insight meditation is practiced in three major forms and organizations that match the main areas of distribution of the ancient teachings: e

Vipassana as taught by the Burmese meditation master U Ba Khin and, since the 1970s, spread into a worldwide organization by his main disciple S. N. Goenka;

e

Insight Meditation as formulated by a group of American Peace Corps volunteers who studied under masters from Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Korea;

e

Mindfulness as expounded by the Vietnamese monk and peace activist Thich Nhat Hanh, who has his main headquar-

ters (Plum Village) near Paris but also runs centers in the U.S. and spreads his teaching worldwide.

Vipassana In Burma, a prophesy prevailed that 2,500 years after the Sakyamuni Buddha’s passing, i.e., in the middle of our 20th century, a new and powerful burst of Buddhist meditation would begin and that Burmese teachers would be at the core of this new unfolding. Acting on the basis of this prediction, several major Burmese meditators and monastic lineage holders began teaching select lay people in the late 1930s. Among them was Sayagyi U Ba Khin (1899-1971), a civil servant under the British colonial government, who began his practice under Saya Thetgyi in 1937. Growing as a meditator, he rose in government service and established a first Vipassana

meditation

center in Ran-

goon, where 10-day courses were held that allowed lay people to get intensive training without joining a monastery for months or years. He also brought the practice into government offices and, for a period at least, eradicated corruption and cheating.? In 1955, he took on S. N. Goenka

as his student.

Goenka

(b. 1924)

was a member of a successful Indian business family in Burma who suffered from crippling migraines that no drugs could cure. He de39 On the Burmese tradition, see King 1980. On Thai modifications Buddhist practice, see Ward 1990. 40 For more on U Ba Khin’s life and work, see www.ubakhin.net.

of

Insight / 93

cided to try meditation for his ailment and was at first rebuffed by U Ba Khin who told him that the practice was too precious to be used for medical purposes and that the only true motivation for it was to purify the mind. Overcoming both his self-seeking motivation and his hesitations as a devout Hindu, Goenka began the practice and progressed rapidly, soon becoming U Ba Khin’s personal disciple. In 1969, he taught his first course in India, consisting mostly of family and friends. Continuing due to increased demand, he later relocated his family near Bombay and established the Vipassana headquarters

(Dhammagiri) in Igatpuri. In 1979, encouraged by Western students,

he first ventured beyond India, visiting France and Australia. Other countries followed, and today Vipassana is among the largest and fastest growing Buddhist meditation forms worldwide.41 Not limited to Western societies, Vipassana has recently made inroads into mainland China and Eastern Europe. It has also taken Indian society by storm, especially the middle and upper classes. Its most powerful successes are in Indian prisons, where it was first offered in 1975 in Jaipur through the initiative of the Rajasthan home secretary Ram

Singh. Later, in 1993, the woman chief of police, Kiran

Bedi, introduced the practice in Tihar, India’s largest jail. The following year, in the largest-ever Vipassana course, conducted by Goenka, 1,000 prisoners participated. Since then, Tihar Jail has established a separate Vipassana Ward where prisoners can take courses on a regular basis. The most pronounced effect, on both guards and prisoners, is the release of aggression and thoughts of vengeance, changing prison culture for the better and massively reducing the rate of repeat offenses.42 | Vipassana courses have been called the “boot camp” of meditation. During the ten days, meditators do not speak, keep their eyes lowered, eat no dinner, and practice, practice, practice. Beginning on Day 4, they have to sit one hour without moving three times a day, and there is no let-up through the entire period. Instructions are given by Goenka via audio tape while the evening discourses appear on video. Formally appointed assistant teachers meditate with the students, inquire regularly about their progress, and are available for questions. 41 For a short biography of both leaders, see Solé-Leris 1986, 136-52; www. dhamma.org. For a record of Vipassana’s early years, see Coleman 1971. 42 See “Doing Time, Doing Vipassana,” video presentation (Karuna Films Ltd, 1997). Prison courses are increasing in other parts of the world. 43 A summary of the discourses appears in Hart 1987. On the effects of the practice in daily life, see Fleischman 1999.

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Staff members are advanced practitioners who use the opportunity to give service and deepen their mindfulness in ordinary activities like cooking, cleaning, and serving. Nobody gets paid for their services and the courses are free of charge. After completing the course and taking instructions in loving kindness, practitioners can give a donation to express their appreciation and make future courses possible.

Insight Meditation Insight meditation was developed by a group of young Americans who found themselves in Asia in the 1960s, partly as Peace Corps volunteers, partly on a quest for spiritual practice. Some inherited the Burmese

tradition,

others

were

educated

in Thailand.

All followed

several teachers and developed their own brand of the practice.

Joseph Goldstein was a Peace Corps volunteer in the 1960s. After studying with the Burmese master Mahasi Sayadaw (1904-1982) and the Sri Lankan Anagarika Sri Munindra, he began to teach meditation in 1974.“ In 1976, with Jack Kornfield and Sharon

Salzberg,

he founded the Insight Meditation Society (IMS) in Barre, Mass. followed by the establishment of the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies in 1989. He is currently developing The Forest Refuge, a center for long-term meditation practice. He has written several seminal books outlining the practice and effects of insight meditation (1976, 1993,

1994).

Jack Kornfield joined the Peace Corps after graduating from Dartmouth College in 1967. Rather than in Burma, he worked in Thailand where he studied with master Achaan Chah.4 He is a cofounder of the Barre Center and currently runs the Spirit Rock Center near San Francisco. With Joseph Goldstein, he has written a clas-

sic in the field (Goldstein and Kornfield 1987) and is also the author

of three practical manuals 1993; 2000).

and guides to insight meditation

(1977;

Sharon Salzberg was first introduced to the idea of meditation in a college course on Asian philosophy in 1969. Inspired, she went to India as a student and did her first intensive Vipassana course at Bodh Gaya in 1971, after which she practiced in Burma and with

various

began

Tibetan

to teach

masters.

and

After her return

co-founded

the

IMS

to the U.S.

in Barre.

in 1974,

She

has

she

since

44 On the life and work of Mahasi Sayadaw, see King 1980, 132-37; SoléLeris 1986, 127-36. For Sri Lankan mindfulness, see Gunaratana 2000.

45 For his take on insight practice, see Chah 1985.

Insight / 95

remained on the East Coast, taught and lectured widely, and gotten

involved with all sorts of studies involving meditation, including also the Dalai Lama’s Mind and Life Institute. Her main published work is on loving kindness meditation (1995). Larry Rosenberg,

a social psychologist at Harvard Medical

School,

took courses with Goenka but also followed other teachers, most notably the Hindu master Krishnamurti, the Vedantin Shivananda

Saraswati, the Korean Zen master Seung Sahn, and the Japanese Zen master Katagiri Roshi. After extensive travels, he returned to the U.S. and founded the Cambridge Insight Meditation Center in 1985.

He has written a book on the Anapanasati sutra (1999) and one on mindfulness of death (2000).

Insight meditation follows a similar routine as Vipassana.

Courses

last ten days, are conducted in silence, and require discipline. How-

ever, the discipline is less stringent, and students can also approach the practice more gradually by taking 3-day courses or joining weekly sittings,

instructions,

and

lectures.

Unlike

verbal

labeling

Vipassana,

the

courses

teach walking meditation besides seated practice, offer long periods of metta,

and

encourage

the

of activities— "walking,

walking” as one walks, “thinking, thinking” as thoughts go through the mind. Lectures and instructions are not standardized on tape but created fresh by the resident teacher, providing a more Westernized approach and more unique takes on its application.“

Mindfulness The practice of mindfulness for a better life and more peaceful world is also widely propagated by the third major leader in this area, the

Vietnamese peace activist Thich Nhat Hanh (b. 1926). Ordained as a monk in 1949 in a tradition that mixes ancient Buddhist practice with Chinese-inspired Zen, he became an active opponent of the Vietnam war and was banished from his country. He set up headquarters in Paris and traveled widely in his quest for peace, teaching mindfulness at the United Nations and other international organizations. He was first allowed back into Vietnam on a visit in 2005.

His organization consists of both monastic and lay followers. Monastic practitioners are full-time residents in his French headquarters (Plum Village) and various international centers. L2ay followers take retreats of varying length, if possible meet for joint weekly sittings, and apply mindfulness in daily life. His thrust is less personal satis46 For more details, see www.dharma.org.

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faction and the overcoming of individual suffering than the creation of an intact community and peace on the planet. At the beginning of the practice all followers take the fundamental five precepts, then commit to fourteen mindfulness trainings. They include admonitions to remain open to various views and unattached to one’s thoughts, to live a simple life away from strife for gain and fame, to place others first and cultivate compassion, managing one’s anger and being truthful and kind in all forms of communication. Meditation practice on this ethical foundation, then, involves close attention to breathing, cultivating awareness in all activities and states of the body, honoring the physical structure through mindful bends and stretches, and developing a keen awareness of community both locally and in the wider world. The teaching carries a clear social message and involves active work for peace and the environment.“ To sum up, insight or mindfulness meditation goes back to the Buddhist tradition as founded by the Buddha Sakyamuni around 600 B.C.E., and from there spread to various countries in Southeast Asia as well as into China and, more recently, to Western and other coun-

tries. Its key focus is the development of a detached, internal observer or witness consciousness, described variously in modern psychological theory, that will reorganize the emotional household of the individual toward more harmonious and altruistic patterns. The practice comes with a view of the human body-mind as consisting of various entities and being in constant flux. The practice has proved very effective in healing and pain management, and is increasingly recommended by physicians and psychologists. In its more organized form it appears today in three major forms, based on its Burmese, Thai, and Vietnamese developments.

47 See www.plumvillage.org. 48 For more details on

www. plumvillage.org.

the

group,

its

teachings,

and

activities,

see

Chapter Four Immediacy: Oblivion

and Zen

Moving historically in the opposite direction as insight meditation, that is, beginning with a Chinese technique that was in due course adapted into Buddhism, is a practice best described as immediacy. Like insight, it employs conscious breath awareness for the attainment of access concentration; like sound immersion, it uses an adaptation of mantra practice in its requirement to focus on one verbally repeated object for extended periods of time. Unlike these two, it places a strong emphasis on the body in its demand for a specific posture that is to be held in complete stillness. It also goes beyond all other meditation methods in that its central focus is the complete overcoming of both the conscious and subconscious mind, the eradication of all sensory evaluation and dualistic thinking, and the achievement of immediate presence in ordinary activities. The first documentation of this practice is found in the ancient Daoist classic Zhuangzi (Book of Master Zhuang), containing the thought of a master of the same name who lived in the third century B.C.E. and is considered the second major sage of ancient Daoism after Laozi. The text describes states of mind that go completely beyond sensory and conscious perception; it proposes a pure level of experience at one with the underlying Dao at the root of creation; it works with paradoxes and probing questions to implode the conscious mind; and it praises unmediated experience of ordinary living in a state of perfect happiness as the ultimate goal of spiritual practice.

Zhuangzi’s vision continued in religious Daoism in close connection with inner observation and gave rise to a formal meditation practice 97

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known as “sitting in oblivion” (zuowang). Formalized in the early Tang school of Twofold Mystery, it was described in detail by Sima Chengzhen in the eighth century and is still actively practiced in Daoist monasteries and centers today. Beyond that, Zhuangzrs vision also merged with fundamental tenets of Mahayana Buddhist thought and, in the sixth century, became the inspiration for a number of radical monks who objected to the set ways and rigid patterns of established Buddhists. These monks wished to return to the original Buddhist pursuit of personal enlightenment rather than serving the aristocracy with devotional rituals and enjoying the luxuries of sponsored living. They took to the mountains where they practiced deep meditative absorption, called chan after the Sanskrit word dhyana, and eschewed the use of scriptures, rituals, devotion, and formalized training. They inspired young seekers and before long grew into substantial groups. In the late seventh century they gained official court recognition and began to establish formal lineages and patterns of transmission. Known as the Chan school of Buddhism, this new and radically iconoclastic way to enlightenment was documented in the “Recorded Sayings” of various masters and grew into several branches. Soon the school began to spread: to Korea under the name of Son and, in the thirteenth century, to Japan where it was called Zen. From

there it

has made major inroads into Western countries and culture and given rise both to extensive training institutions and a widely known literature on the efforts and benefits of immediacy.!

In addition to developing in Chinese Chan and spreading to Japan, the practice of immediacy also manifested in the Tibetan school of Dzogchen, which literally means the “totality of the perfected state.” It, too, developed under Chinese influence, claims an Indian lineage,

rejects all verbalization and intellectual analysis, and focuses on nondual being and pure experience.

1 For a general history of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, see Dumoulin 1965. On

the early schools and lineages, see McRae 1983; Yampolsky 1967. On the or-

ganization of Zen in Japan, see Collcutt 1981. A survey of Zen’s transition to the West is found in Fields 1981.

2 On Dzogchen, which I will not describe in detail, see Chögyam

Dechen 2002; Dalai Lama

Surya Das 1999.

2000; Lawless and Allan 2003; Norbu 1986;

and

1996;

Immediacy / 99

Fundamentals The essential features of immediacy appear first in the Zhuangzi, a composite work of thirty-three chapters that was compiled around 250 B.C.E. It contains the teachings of various early Daoist schools, such as the primitivists who wished to abolish all government and culture and return to the stone age; the hedonists who saw the perfection of the Dao in fulfilling all whims and pleasures; and the syncretists who combined ancient Daoist thought with yin-yang cosmology and Yijing (Book of Changes) speculation. A large portion of the text, most prominently the first seven or “inner” chapters, represent the thought of Master Zhuang himself. Originally called Zhuang Zhou, he wasof lower aristocratic background, highly erudite, and a minor government

servant.

He worked

for a local southern

Chinese

state,

then withdrew to dedicate himself to his speculations, teaching his ideas to disciples and inspiring them to commit them to writing.3 The Zhuangzi has long been recognized as one of the major sources of Zen Buddhism. Numerous terms and concepts are identical in both, and there is clear historical evidence of early Chinese Buddhists resorting to Daoist ideas to express their worldview.‘ Like Zen, the Zhuangzi proposes an experience beyond bodily awareness and conscious perception at one with the underlying Dao, described as “making one’s body like dried wood and one’s mind like dead ashes” (ch. 2), which echoes the classical Zen phrase of “dropping off body and mind.” Another description has:: “I smash up my limbs and body, drive out perception and intellect, cast off form, do away with under-

standing, and make myself identical with the Great Thoroughfare. 5 The end result of a practice called “sitting in oblivion,” this describes a state where all visceral awareness of emotions and desires is lost and all sense perception is cut off. Completely free from dualistic thinking or bodily self-consciousness, it represents a state of no-mind where there are no boundaries between things and where the person

3 On the composition and textual history of the Zhuangzi, see Graham

1980. Complete translations appear in Graham

1981; 1982; Mair 1994; Wat-

son 1968. A collection of relevant studies appears in Mair 1983.

4 The Daoist connection is made in Brazier 1995, 191; Kasulis 1981, 29-

38; Watts 1957, 3-28. Historical studies relating Zhuangzi to Chan appear in Fukunaga 1969; Kohn 1986. A recent analysis of the intricate interaction of the traditions is found in Sharf 2002. 5 Ch. 6, Watson 1968, 90; Graham

1981, 95; Roth 2000, 37.

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as person has “lost himself’6—a feature that also occurs in the writings of the Zen masters. For example: Zuikan was a Zen master who always used to address him-

self. “Zuikan?” he would call. And then he would call “Yes!” “Zuikan!” “Yes!” Of course he was living all alone in his small zendö, and of course he know who he was, but sometimes he lost himself. (S. Suzuki 1970, 81)

Self-loss or no-mind marks the complete absence of conscious evaluation and an utter lack of feelings—a way of being in the world that is equal to Dao. As the Zhuangzi says: Although “the Dao gave him a human face and heaven gave him a human body, he does not let [feelings of] likes and dislikes enter and harm himself’ (ch. 5). Instead the ideal person preserves his essence, attains long life, and finds a peace of mind that matches heaven and earth. Rather than working through ordinary senses, people who have attained this level use pure mentation or even gi to interact with the world. As the Zhuangzi says: “Don’t listen with your ears, listen with your mind. No, don’t listen with your mind, listen with your gz. Listening stops with the ears, the mind stops with recognition, but 07 is empty and relates to all. This is where you find the Dao” (ch. 4). This transformation

of conscious

and

sensory experience

toward

a

subtler, deeper, and no-self level is also central in Zen, where the ac-

tive agent is not the gi but the belly (Aara) or cinnabar field (fanden). As Ian Willem van de Wetering recalls: “Listen with your belly,” the old teacher in Kyoto had said. “Think with your belly. Forget your ears, your nose, your eyes. Don't be guided by the imagination of your brain. All answers are right there!” And he had poked me in the stom-

ach with his short blunt stick. I fell over. The master had laughed. “You arent sitting well. If you sit properly I could

never push you over.” (1975, 150)

Sitting firmly in a full or at least half lotus posture without moving and calming the breath to a very slow rhythm is at the core of zazen (seated meditation) training as well as essential to Daoist oblivion. Keeping the body stable, the mind comes to rest, but thoughts continue to arise and pass away. To break the addiction to conscious evaluations and critical judgments,

Zen practitioners as much as the

sages in the Zhuangzi resort to paradoxes and absurd inquiries.

6 Ch. 2; Watson 1968, 41, 36.

Immediacy / 101

For example, in the Zhuangzi, adepts are encouraged to ask themselves: “What is really me?” “Where is there a true lord in the body?” “What.is real?” “Am I Zhuang Zhou dreaming that he is a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he is Zhuang Zhou2”7 In chapter 4, Zhuangzi tells Yan Hui to consider what it would mean to “fly by being wingless, know by being ignorant.” The relation of self, others, and language is constantly questioned: “Without an other, there is no self; without a self, there is no choosing one thing over another.”? And: “The one and what I said about it make two, and two and the original one make three. If we go on in this way, then even the cleverest mathematician can’t tell where we will end, much less an ordinary person . . . Better not to move, but to let things be!”10 This radical questioning conscious evaluation also zuki says: “When the fish nothing but fish. . . You

and eventual dismissal of reasoning and play a key role in Zen. Thus Shunryu Suswims, water and fish are the fish. There is cannot find buddha nature in vivisection.”

Similarly the Japanese master Bassui (1326-1387) asks: “Look! Look!

Who is the master that is seeing and hearing right now?”!! Zen koans are the ultimate development of this inner work to implode the conscious mind, to make it come up against impossible barriers time and again, until it gives up and lets go. Once the mind has let go, the person is free in a new and ultimate way. He or she has come to see the world anew and reached a state of inner peace. Following the perfect mind within, he can pervade and unify all things.12 Free from the tensions of life, the perfected—like Rinzai’s “true man of no status’—returns to ordinary society as a better being. Without pretensions, he does whatever is necessary, menial or noble, important or petty.13 Shunryu Suzuki sums it up: “Zen is not some kind of excitement, but concentration on our usual everyday routine.” Similarly, “the ordinary heart is the Way;” “whatever I am, I have nothing further to seek.”14 “When hungry, I eat; when thirsty, I

7 Ch. 2; Watson 1968, 38, 41, 49. Graham 1981, 58, 59, 61. See also Hansen 1983. 8 Watson 1968, 58; Roth 2000, 36 9 Ch. 2; Graham 1981, 51; Roth 2000, 42. 10 Ch. 2; Watson 1968, 43; Graham 1981, 56; Roth 2000, 45. 11S, Suzuki 1970, 134; Braverman 1989; Austin 2006, 37. 12 Roth 2000, 43-44.

13 Yearley 1983, 130-31.

14 S. Suzuki 1970, 57.

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drink,” as Rinzai says. “Nothing special, living Zen,” in the words of Charlotte Boko Beck.15 Along similar lines, the Zhuangzi describes the realized life: The-perfected does not fight if he has little, does not grow proud if he has much. He never plans his affairs. He is able to make a mistake and not feel bad about

it, attain success

and not claim credit for it, climb into high places and not get nervous, enter water and not get wet, enter fire and not get burned.... The perfected sleeps without dreaming and wakes without worrying. He eats without delighting in the taste and breathes very deep. .. . He does not know how to delight in life or loathe death. He comes into the world without pleasure and goes without refusal. (ch. 6; Watson 1968, 77-78)

This is closely echoed by leading American Zen master Kapleau citing the experience of a Japanese garden-designer:

Philip

Nowadays whatever I do I am completely at one with it. I accept pleasant things as wholly pleasant and distasteful things as completely distasteful, and then immediately forget wi reaction of pleasantness or distastefulness. (1965, 234-44

The full immersion in the present without conscious evaluation and dualistic likes and dislikes is thus at the core of immediacy meditation. All its different forms of training, from breathing through sitting and walking to physical labor and koans, aim solely at this. Thus, echoing the Daode jing which insists that “a good traveler leaves no

track or trace” (ch. 27), Shunryu Suzuki says: “When you do some-

thing, you should burn yourself completely, like a good bonfire, leaving no trace of yourself.” “If you leave a trace of your thinking on your activity, you will be attached to the trace. For instance, you may say: This is what I have done!” Thus, “when you bow, you should just bow; when you sit, you should just sit; when you eat, you should just eat. If you do this, the universal nature is there.”16

15 Rinzai’s sayings are found in Schloegl 1976, 37, 52; 62; see also Wat-

son 1993. Nothing Special Living Zen is the title of Beck 1993. See also Brazier 1998, 164. Thich Nhat Hanh expresses the same idea when he speaks of

“nothing to do, nowhere to go” (2007). 16 S. Suzuki 1970, 62, 75.

Immediacy / 103

Despite the intentional avoidance of leaving any traces, accomplished Zen practitioners have an impact on their surroundings. A Japanese

film story illustrates the point:

Two petty thieves, an old beggar couple, a stuttering idiot, and a prostitute occupy a ramshackle house in an inner-city

slum. A wandering monk, a bald old man with only a staff

and bowl, asks for shelter and they agree to put him up as a

sign of good luck. He sits down in a corner, while the inhabitants argue about whose turn it is to do the cleaning. As soon as he realizes what the problem is, he gets up and begins to clean.

As time goes on, the monk continues to be fully present in the moment and do whatever needs to be done. By just being there, polite and friendly, he gradually turns the house around. He helps. When the old invalid dies, the monk holds

his hand. When the idiot cannot find his flute, he discovers

it for him. He never criticizes, never praises. When the bur-

glars get jobs as laborers, he says nothing. When the prostitute becomes a cleaning woman, he merely smiles. The story ends with a New Year’s party. Everyone contributes and all join into the fun. Honesty, harmony, and care prevail where discord had been the norm. 1

The point of the story is that by just being oneself, staying in the present moment, and doing whatever is needed without thinking, evaluating, or arguing, one can effect powerful transformations in the world. There is no need for formal rules, regulations, sermons, or punishments. People will naturally gravitate toward harmony and peace, toward being with the flow of Dao rather than going against it. But they need to be shown the way, and that is the role of the realized one—the perfected in the Zhuangzi, the sage of the Daode jing, the Daoist immortal, Rinzai’s true man, and the enlightened master of Zen.

Sitting in Oblivion The Daoist practice of sitting in oblivion takes its clue from the passage in the Zhuangzi that speaks of smashing up bodily self and abandoning mentation. Over the centuries, various commentators 17] heard this story from a Zen master while living in Japan. It 1s also summarized in Wetering 1975, 39-41.

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expanded on this, specifying concepts and process. For example, Guo

Xiang (d. 312) says:

In a state of oblivion, what could there be not forgotten? First one forgets the outward manifestations, then one forgets that which causes these manifestations. On the inside one is unaware that there is a personal body; on the outside one never knows there are heaven and earth. Only thus can one become fully vacant and unify with the changes, and there will be nothing that is not pervaded. (Kohn 1987a, 41)

This interpretation distinguishes between oblivion of the self on the inside and of the world on the outside. It proposes a twofold pattern: the forgetting of outward manifestations, i.e., the things one sees and hears and notes, followed by a complete oblivion of the root of these manifestations, both in terms of the perceiving agent within and the potential cosmic speculation without. In the early Tang dynasty, this two-step understanding of Daoist realization was formalized in the school of Twofold Mystery (Chongxuan), which picks up on the expression “mysterious and again mysterious” found in the first chapter of the Daode jing. “Mysterious” here stands for profundity, silence, and no obstruction: it is also used as a verb in the sense of “to make profound,” “to make mysterious,” or “to obscure.” In that sense, it connects further with the

phrase “decrease and again decrease” (ch. 48).18 The decreasing is then explained in terms of desire. This connects back to chapter 1 of the Daode jing, which says, “Let there be no desire so that the subtle may be observed.”

Twofold Mystery, under close influence of the Buddhist school of Madhyamika, the Middle Way which works with the basic dichotomy of two levels of truth (worldly and absolute), envisions the meditative process of discarding desires in two steps, true to the structure of its fundamental statements: mysterious/decrease and again mysterious/decrease.!9 As Cheng Xuanying notes in his commentary to the Daode jing:

18 Robinet 1977, 108; Kohn 1991, 190.

19 On Twofold Mystery, see Kohn 1991, 189-96; Sunayama 1990. On the two truths and four propositions (affirmation of being, of nonbeing, of both, and of neither) of the Madhyamika, see Liu 1994; Ng 1993; Robinson 1967. On the use of the two truths in Tibetan Buddhism, see Dalai Lama 2002, 142-

48.

Immediacy / 105

A practitioner must first discard all desires, then proceed to discard the level of no-desires. Only then can he truly accomplish twofold discarding of the two sides and wondrously merge with Dao of Middle Oneness. “Beings and ego looked

upon in equalized fashion, mental states and wisdom both

forgotten—when

someone

makes

such a

state his principle

of government, then everything will be well ordered.” (ch. 3;

Kohn 1991, 191)

The process outlined here consists of a twofold decrease, a double obscuring, which is also described as “double forgetfulness” Yianwang). First all mental states have to go, i.e., mental projections constructed in the mind yet erroneously regarded as solid reality. Then wisdom and

mind,

the

inherent

functions

of active

consciousness

are

dis-

carded. Twofold Mystery thus aims at a reorganization of ordinary consciousness toward absolute consciousness and again from absolute consciousness to no consciousness at all, to neither consciousness nor no consciousness. Yet the sagely state aimed for is not a state of nothingness; rather, it is the “embodiment of Dao of Middle Oneness,” a state of radiance and surging activity. Building on this understanding of oblivion, Sima Chengzhen in the eighth century gave a series of lectures on the practice that—not unlike the “Recorded Sayings” of contemporaneous Zen masters such as the Sixth Patriarch—were first recorded in an inscription (dat. 931) and later compiled in the classic text on the method, the Zuowang lun, (On Sitting in Oblivion). Integrating inner observation methods as adopted from Tiantai forms of insight meditation and adding ecstatic flight and ascension into heaven as the ultimate goal of the practice, he provides a detailed outline in seven steps. According to this, practitioners begin with “Respect and Faith,” 1.e.， they have to have heard of the practice, believe that its promises are real, and trust that they have the capacity and energy to attain them. Next, they work on “Interception of Karma,” which in essence means

detaching themselves from society and, at least for a practice period, withdraw from ordinary life. Third, they dedicate themselves to “Taming the Mind,” which means the establishment of access concentration with the help of breath observation combined with an increased awareness of just how jumpy and fickle the ordinary mind is. Adepts here go through the five phases of the mind described by Sun

Simiao (and also found in an appendix to the Zuowang Jun) that even-

20 For the history and compilation of the text as well as a translation of the inscription, see Kohn 1987a.

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tually lead to a state when “the mind is turned entirely toward purity and tranquility.”2! Next, “Detachment from Affairs” sees the first conscious turning away from things, an initial level of forgetfulness, where one can let go of worldly achievements which are now merely “superfluous gratifications of passions and desires.”2 Step five is called “True Observation.” Integrating the basic tenets of insight meditation, it leads practitioners to a reorientation within self and world, gaining a deeper appreciation of the workings of karma, letting go of attachments to body and self, and increasingly overcoming dualistic evaluations and value judgments. It sees the completion of the first state of oblivion, closely followed by the second, a deep trance state called “Intense Concentration.” Here even the inner agent that gave rise to the various mental states is actively forgotten. Practitioners find themselves in deep, stable serenity, a restfulness within that needs no stimulation or outer action, but is at the same

time accompanied by a radiant heavenly light, the pure energy of the Dao shining through, the power of penetrating wisdom and sign of enlightenment. Finally, in the last step called “Realizing the Dao,” adepts attain oneness with heaven and earth, a life as long as the universe, and various spiritual powers. As perfected beings they can live among fellow men and spread the purity of the Dao by just being themselves; or they can ascend spiritually to the heavens where they take up residence among the immortals.” Neither ancient nor medieval sources provide a concrete description of the actual practice in terms of posture, eye position, breathing speed, or length of sessions. Modern practitioners who claim to continue the tradition both in China and the West tend to sit for one hour at a time. They encourage a straight-backed seated posture: legs are crossed or folded, eyes are lightly opened with relaxed gaze, hands are folded in a circle with thumbs touching, the tongue touches the roof of the mouth,

and the breath flows slowly, smoothly and si-

lently. The breath is counted from one to ten to achieve access concentration, the gaze is fixed yet relaxed, and all that presents itself in the present moment is experienced as such. Much like in shikantaza 21 Cunshen lianqi ming, Kohn 1987a, 121. See also ch. 1 above. 22 Zuowang lun, sect. 4; Kohn 1987a, 96. 23 Kohn 1987a, 107-10.

24 This description appears in Liu 2005 as instructions for Western stu-

dents. It is corroborated by Louis Komjathy

who practiced zuowang among

Daoists on Mount Hua in 2006. Personal communication, Sept. 2007.

Immediacy / 107

or “just sitting” in Zen, there is no effort, no thinking, no evaluation.

The goal is “returning to the source”: holding on to the oneness of Dao in choiceless awareness while deeply joining in the flow of nature.

The

World

of Zen

Zen follows in the footsteps of the Zhuangzi and in many ways compares to Daoist oblivion, but being part of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition it draws on a much richer foundation of philosophical specu-

lation and analysis.

For example, in addition to working with the two truths and four propositions of the Madhyamika, Zen adopts the vision of Avatamsaka sutra and sees the world as one integrated whole. Unlike ancient Buddhist worldview where nirvana is the “other shore” but quite similar to the vision of quantum physics, the universe here is a complex network of energies and activities where every single part is interconnected with every other part and where all is mirrored endlessly in all else. Each individual takes part in the entirety of the universe at all times and is, gua being human, fundamentally already

enlightened. The world as it is in all its instability (samsara) is al-

ready and essentially the same as its ultimate state (nirvana). There is nothing to do, nothing to attain, nowhere to go. All aspects of exis-

tence are mirrored in all other aspects, without permanence, stability,

or individual nature. This is what Zen Buddhists, following the lead of the Prajñaparamita sutra, mean by “emptiness,” the recognition of the interconnectedness of existence and the ultimate identity of samsara and nirvana.» The human mind, in its natural and pure form, connects to the versal network without effort. Part of the underlying storehouse sciousness (mind-only), the Ultimate Being or universal mind, described as big mind, original mind, or true nature that is at the

uniconalso root

25 The Avatamsaka sutra (Flower Garland) was translated by Kumarajiva in the early fifth century. It is translated in Cleary 1984 and presented in Cook 1977. For a collection of studies see Gimello and Gregory 1983. The Prajnaparamita sütra (Perfection of Wisdom) consists of several texts, some of which are excessively long. For a summary and translation, see Conze 1978; 1990. The Heart Sutra is a short summary

of their core ideas. For a discus-

sion of emptiness and the Heart Sutra as relevant in Zen today, see Glass-

man 2000, 29-35. On the concept of emptiness in Nagarjuna, see Kasulis 1981,

16-28.

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of all existence as described in Yogacara philosophy,” it conducts all activities of life to perfection, knowing spontaneously and immediately what is what and what needs to be done—without reflection, interference, or conscious thoughts.2” As D. T. Suzuki says: Zen discipline consists in realizing the Unconscious which is at the basis of all things, and this Unconscious is no other than Mind-Only in the Avatamsaka sutra as well as in the Lankavatara sutra. When Mind is attained not as one of the attainables but as

going beyond this existence dualistically conceived, it is found that buddhas, bodhisattvas, and all sentient beings are reducible to this Mind, which is the Unconscious.28

Zen practice accordingly reduces conscious activity and sensory mediation to zero in order to break through to this underlying connectedness, to the pure existence of mind-only. On the way to this breakthrough, practitioners work hard and sit intensely, undergoing a variety of distracting experiences: from heat and cold through trembling and shaking to hallucinations of light, visitations by specters, and

visions

of buddhas.22 The

eventual

breakthrough,

then,

is often ex-

perienced as a sudden opening of consciousness and not as the gradual emergence of a new state. Thus Zen practitioners speak of “sudden” enlightenment and, unlike Daoists who emphasize the slow, one-

by-one overcoming of inherent patterns, denigrate the idea of gradual progress. In sitting one is already enlightened and becomes prone to the sudden opening of the mind to immediacy. As Katsuki Sekida says: The activity of [ordinary] consciousness conceals the real nature of existence and represents it in a distorted way. .

.

26 These various names of the perfect mind appear in S. Suzuki 1970, 21,

47, 93-94, 134. On the storehouse consciousness (alaya vijñana) as defined in

the Yogacara school, see Chatterjee 1962; Keenan 1993.

27 The activity of the perfect mind is also spelled out in the Lankavatara sutra, another Mahayana text venerated in Zen. It is translated in D. T. Suzuki 1978 and discussed in Goddard 1983; Sutton 1991. 28 1). T. Suzuki 1976, 74; Sayama 1986, 81.

29 See Dumoulin 1981, 142. Visions of an enveloping light have been linked with the enhanced visual transmission of acetylcholine nerve cells and with a mental state between slow-wave and REM sleep. The overall Zen practice, with its often radical schedule, tends to destabilize bio-rhythms, giving

rise to strange phenomena while opening consciousness to new options. See Austin 1998, 462-63.

Immediacy / 109

When the activity of consciousness is reduced to zero level, you can vividly see existence in its nakedness. After experi-encing this, you once again come back into the world of the ordinary activity of consciousness, and at that moment consciousness will be found to be brilliantly illuminating. 3°

The ultimate goal of Zen is a mind that is completely spontaneous and

immediate

in

all

situations,

described

as

“no-mind”

(wuxin,

mushin)A It signals the ultimate overcoming of critical thinking and dualistic consciousness, the end of all distinctions between I and not-I,

between thinking, feeling, and action. The initial experience of this state is called kensho, which literally means “seeing one’s [buddha] nature,” that is, realizing one’s inherent connectedness to pure existence. After continued practice and several kenshö experiences, this eventually leads to enlightenment, a permanent state of open buddha nature, of total immediacy, described as “body and mind drop off.32

Austin sees it as “illumination of awareness shorn of all prior subjective conditionings;” Sekida calls it “absolute samadhi?’ in contrast to “positive samadhi,” which indicates the deep absorption in a specific outside object or activity. Beyond these, there are two further modes of activating absolute samadhi. The first is deep absorption, an introverted or enstatic state of complete nothingness: no hearing, no seeing, no feeling. Zen practitioners describe it as the “Great Death,” the complete cessation of all awareness and sensory activity. The second is pure mind in action, a more extroverted or ecstatic way of being in the world: free from all hindrances, desires and emotions, judgments and evaluations. In this state of mind, one will completely involved in the present moment, act in pure immediacy, and spontaneously do what is needed. Both the humble serving of society and the more eccentric actions of Zen masters arise from this state.

30 Sekida 1975, 161. See also Brazier 1995, 58, 154; Kasulis 1981, 139-53.

For a detailed analysis of sudden enlightenment, see Park 1983.

31 See Suzuki 1969.

32 On

kensho,

see Abe

1985;

Austin

1998,

536-42;

Brazier

1995,

236;

Miura and Sasaki 1965a, 37-51; Sayama 1986; Watts 1957;. The characteristics of the experience in many ways match those of the mystical experience (Austin 1989, 543). For a series of personal satori experience reports, see Kapleau 1965, 215-80. On scientific studies of the state of blackness and sensory cessation, see Austin 1998, 480-502. 33 Austin 2006, 9; Kasulis 1981, 42; Roth 2000, 34; Sekida 1975, 93.

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The attainment of this ultimate state of experiencing complete oneness in ordinary life is called satori or awakening. Both the method and the goal of practice, it signals the experience of a more immediate level of life, described as “pure existence.” Through ultimate immediacy and something called “pure experience,” the meditator connects to the universal mind, the storehouse consciousness, the network of the

world at its deepest level, the perfect buddha nature. He or she reaches the eternal silence at the depth of all there is and participates in the inherent quality of enlightenment present in all beings.

At the same time the person undergoing the experience is so involved with being in it, so submerged in immediacy that he or she cannot tell: “T am enlightened.” In fact, the statement “I am enlightened” is an expression of the very dualism that Zen wishes to overcome: it involves an “I” as a discrete entity and the quality “enlightened” as a definite state. Neither are perceived any longer at the accomplished level, thus the need for the master

knowledge attainment.*4

to make

the evaluation

and ac-

The enlightened Zen practitioner has no need for moral guidance or precepts since the fully realized mind in its quality of immediate connectedness to pure existence will at all times do the right thing— which may or may not be acceptable in terms of a mere human set of rules that were consciously created. There is thus the notion that enlightened masters are beyond the restraints of common ethics and can engage in what Tibetan Buddhists call “crazy wisdom.”35 However, they are bound by four essential vows that they take at the beginning of practice and which inform all Zen progress: All beings, without number: I vow to liberate. Blind passions, inexhaustible: I vow to uproot.

Dharma gates, manifold: I vow to enter. Buddha-way , supreme: I vow to attain.36

This creates a fundamental framework of compassion and dedication

to the Buddhist

teaching for the entire Zen path.

aided by a set of ten basic Mahayana

It is, moreover,

precepts which serve to reveal

the pure mind within and to guide appropriate actions without. They

84 On the role of the master in Zen, his authority and ultimate validating powers, see Austin 1998, 119-21; S. Suzuki 1970, 87. 35 On crazy wisdom, see Trungpa 2001; on Zen eccentricities, see Faure 1991; 1998. 36 Brazier 1995, 15, 180, 182; Dalai Lama 2002, 151; Kapleau 1965, 256; Miura and Sasaki 1965a, 36; S. Suzuki 1970, 45.

Immediacy / 111

include the five precepts of ancient Buddhism (to abstain from killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and intoxication) together with five that encourage proper speech, humility, generosity, forbearance, and respect for the Three Treasures of buddha, dharma, and sangha. Beginners scrupulously observe these precepts together with their vows to keep their minds pure and focused on the path.

Activating Immediacy The path, then, consists of intentionally and ruthlessly reducing conscious activity to a zero state. Zen—as Daoist oblivion—is most concerned with stillness and inner silence and works by creating unwavering stability in body, breath, and mind. In terms of the body, it requires a specific posture to be held for the entire period of zazen, which usually lasts about fifty minutes. The lotus posture, or at least half lotus posture is required, as is a completely straight spine, with the chin tucked in to compensate for its natural curve. The hands are held at the navel, one palm on top of the other; eyes are lowered, not closed. The posture requires openness in the hips, a tightening of the muscles around the back and abdomen,

and a certain tension in the

arms to hold up the hands. It is demanding and, at least for beginners, often excruciatingly painful.9” Zen practice begins with a focus on the breath. Practitioners count exhalations, usually from one to ten, then beginning again at one. The key is not only to keep the mind steadily focused on the count, but also to make the exhalation and thus the mental count as slow and lengthy as possible. Normal people breathe about ten times per minute, with six breaths signifying a resting state. Zen practice encourages as few as two (or even just one) breaths per minute, creating a deep inner quietude through the control of breath. The practice, as studied variously in laboratory settings, encourages the predominance of alpha waves, a restful yet alert mental state.38 To make

such slow exhalations one cannot possibly just breathe in

the chest. The abdomen

has to be involved,

causing

practitioners to

37 On the proper posture and timing of zazen, see Aitken 1982, 13-23; Brazier 1995, 54-56; Enomiya-Lassalle 1990; Kapleau 1965, 327-53; Sayama 1986, 119-25; Sekida 1975, 38-46; S. Suzuki 1970, 25-28; Uchiyama 1973.

38 On Zen breathing, see S. Suzuki 1970, 29-31; Sekida 1975, 53-59; Ait-

ken 1982, 24-28; Sayama 1986, 126-28; Austin 1998, 75-77; 2006, 33-37.

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gain strong control over the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, a control also aided by the tightly. held upright posture. As the abdomen is used actively in breathing practice, the energy center in the

belly (Aara) is roused, understood—not unlike in Western concepts of the abdominal brain—as the seat of inherent, spontaneous intelligence. As Sekida says: “Mental action is exercised through the oscilla-

tion [of energy] from the brain to the [abdominal muscles] and from the muscles to the brain” (1975, 84). Much of Zen practice thus serves to activate gut consciousness and interior energies while requiring complete overcoming of the conscious mind and ego-based reaction structures.>?

To achieve the ultimate goal of complete immediacy, Zen practice does not stop when zazen ends but is continued in walking meditation (kinhin) and throughout all daily activities. As a result, life in Zen institutions and during intensive retreats known as sesshin is tightly regulated and highly formalized, using ritual to create a special space and room to grow, as well as to elevate all movements to sacred actions.“ Practitioners hold their hands at chest level throughout all movements; they maintain silence and abstain from all nonverbal communication; they keep their eyes lowered at all times; they step, stand, bend, and act in a prescribed way; they put on and take off their garb in a specific order; they do everything on an exact schedule without any deviation; they have no private time and are continuously part of the community; they fold their bedding in just this way and none other; they bow and prostrate themselves at specific times and in a clearly prescribed way; they take their meals, called oryoki (lit. “That which contains just enough”) in silence, with every gesture and movement exactly prescribed.41 Through the formalization of daily activities that attention, institutional and retreat life creates a experience of body and self that breaks previous the person radically into the world of immediacy.

requires continuous completely different habits and catapults The physical reality

39 On the activation of the fanden, see Austin 2006, 58-61; Brazier 1995,

142; Sayama 1986, 128-31; Sekida 1975, 84-85. % Brazier 1995, 22; 138.

41 On the ritual life of Zen, see Kennett

1976. On monastic discipline

and sesshins today, see Aitken 1982, 28-40; D. T. Suzuki 1965; Sato 1973; Austin 1998, 138-40. Reports on personal experience appear in Wetering 1974; 1975; Kraft 1988, Maguire 2000; Austin 1998, 137-38 The blueprint for

the Zen life is found in Dögen’s Shobogenzo of the 13th century. See Bielefeldt 1988; Cook 1978; LaFleur 1985; Leighton and Okamura 1996; Yokoi 1986.

Immediacy / 113

of everyday life becomes paramount and there is no chance of turning attention away from the present moment. The normal verbal and purposive self becomes a hindrance to success; a new level of being emerges, one that is a part of pure experience.

Advanced Zen practice takes two major forms: shikantaza and koan. Shikataza means “just sitting” and is the preferred method of the Soto school. Closely reflecting instructions given for Daoist zuowang, the practice involves taking the correct posture for a prescribed period of time and allowing oneself to just be. The mind may notice various

thoughts

and

sensory

impressions

but

in essence

remains

stable and uninvolved. As Shunryu Suzuki says: “In zazen, leave the front door open. Let thoughts come and go. Just don’t serve them tea!”4 Shikantaza is thus an exercise in keeping the mind stable without a particular object to hold on to, a letting-go of everything that paradoxically leads to increased firmness in one’s inner being and eventually opens access to immediacy.

Koan

Practice

The word koan (Chin. gong’an) literally means “court case.” In Zen

practice it refers to a riddle that cannot be solved by reasoning and rational thinking and is designed to produce deeper meditative absorption and a break-through to enlightenment through an intense focus on it to the point of becoming one with it. Koan practice, while also undertaken in Soto settings, is dominant in the Rinzai school.“ Koans go back to recorded dialogues between a Zen master and disciple with the intention to pull the disciple out of an abstract, classificatory way of thinking and into present, physical reality. For example,

e

“What is buddha nature?” A pound of flax. “Why did Bodhidharma come to the east?” I have a pine tree in my garden. “What is the true teaching of the Buddha?’ Beating the drum.

42 Austin 2006, 33; Chadwick 1999, 301.

43 As they let go of trying, blocked energies are released and practitio-

ners experience a new view of life. Brazier 1995, 46, 48.

44 For a history of koan practice, see Foulk 2000; Miura

and Sasaki

1965b. For a practice-oriented book, see Loori 2006. For a collection of studies,

see Heine and Dwight 2000.

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While these contrast an abstract, inquiry with a pointing to an immediate physical reality, other koans are simple, absurd statements or unanswerable, penetrating questions geared to overcome the conscious, rational mind. Examples are: “What is the sound of one hand clapping?” “What was your face before you were born?” “The eastern hill keeps running on the water.” “Empty-handed, yet holding a hoe; walking, yet riding a water buffalo.”*

Aside from verbal retorts that change the level of communication to the present, answers often were also shouts, stomps, or slaps. An example is the following story: Once when Baizhang and his teacher Mazu were taking a walk, a wild duck flew by. Mazu asked: “What is that?” — “A wild duck.” “Where did it go?” — “It is gone.” At that moment, Mazu tweaked Baizhang’s nose violently. He yelled with pain. “There,” said Mazu, “where can it go?” He was suddenly enlightened. About

1,700 koans were collected over the centuries,

most in books

like the Hekiganroku (Blue Cliff Record) and Mumonkan (The Gateless

Gate).

The

17th-century

Japanese

Rinzai

master

Hakuin

ranged them into six classes: universal oneness; dynamism

ar-

and spon-

taneity; limits of words and analysis; truth hard to penetrate; imperturbability; and equanimity. 4”

Later collections also provide correct answers, although the point is not to “know” anything but to gain immediacy through the paradox. For example, the “sound of one hand clapping” can be understood as the one hand that pervades the entire universe, and one can answer with posture and gesture. One can remind the master of the sound

45 See Miura

and Sasaki

1965a. More

koans are discussed in Austin

1998, 110-19; Dumoulin 1979, 65-76; Heine 2002; Loori 2006; S. Suzuki 1970,

80-83; Watts 1957. 46 From the Baizhang yulu Cleary 1978. 47 For translations of these kida 2005; Shaw 1961; Yamada ther collections are presented in

(Recorded Saying of Baizhang), translated in important texts, see Cleary 1977; 1993; Se1979. On Hakuin, see Yampolsky 1971. FurCleary 2005; Tanahashi and Loori 2005.

Immediacy / 115

with a slap, use natural analogies, or can speak about the world being an illusion: all things are here, but fleeting in every moment.48 The most commonly used first koan in Rinzai practice is “Joshu’s Mu.” The story goes that a disciple asked Zen master Joshu: “Does this dog have buddha nature?” The master replied: “Mu.” The word mu in Classical Chinese essentially means “to have not;” it is the opposite of you, “to have.” In more philosophical discourse, however, the term mu—as first formulated in Wang Bi’s commentary to the Daode Jing—designates a state of universal existence. It refers both cosmologically to the level of creation before there were beings and soteriologically to return to oneness. In this sense, mu means “nonbeing” or “nothingness” and is a highly charged abstract concept. In the koan, the answer “Mu” can thus be taken literally as in: “This dog does not have buddha nature,” which stands in blatant contrast to Zen doctrine that everything is already enlightened and has buddha-nature, “even the piss and shit,” as Rinzai so graphically notes. It can also be seen as changing levels of discourse and move from the concrete evaluation of a dog to the highly abstract concept of nonbeing or nothingness, a state of existence underlying reality that is, in effect, what Zen practitioners want to connect to.*?

In concrete practice, disciples use Mu to focus their mind completely on one object; they give it their undivided, complete attention and thereby create a great deal of stability in the mind, which is matched by their unmoving, stable bodies and their long, slow, and firmly controlled breathing. An experience that starts with words turns into a nonverbal state and with prolonged practice not only settles the mind but opens it for the ultimate breakthrough.50 The result is a state free from critical evaluation and conscious activity, a level of mentation before the construction of dualistic patterns and ego-identity. The practitioner is wholly absorbed in whatever activity, so immediately connected to it that he or she becomes the ac48 For a collection of koans with answers, see Hoffman 1975. On capping phrases to be composed after the solution of a koan, see Hori 2003. 49 Extensive personal records of a struggle with “Mu” are found in Kapleau 1965; D. T. Suzuki 1965; Wienpahl 1970; Wetering 1975. Discussions of this important koan appear further in Aitken 1982, 95-109; Magid 2002, 25-33; Sekida 1975, 66-82. A commentary by Yasutani Roshi is re

corded in Kapleau 1965, 69-88. See also Austin 2006, 61-63.

50 In modern Western practice, a key question in the practitioner’s life may take the role of the koan, such as taking leave from parents or overcoming another major transition. See Brazier 1995, 244-50.

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tivity itself: when listening, be one with listening; when gardening, be pure and simple gardening. There is no more reflective action of consciousness whatsoever, the mind is no-mind, and one is spontaneously connected to pure existence.

Zen and Psychotherapy The main way in which immediacy practice has made inroads into broader Western society is through the link between Zen and psychotherapy. The earliest active connection was formed in the 1960s, when D. T. Suzuki’s lectures at Columbia University attracted the attention of prominent psychoanalysts such as Erich Fromm. In their joint book, Zen Buddhism and Psychotherapy, they point out a number of ways in which Zen is similar and can make a contribution to modern Western psychotherapy. Just like Western rationalism, they note, Zen focuses on enlightenment which is ultimately the same as the “know thyself’ of Greek philosophy. Just as Zen reduces the amount of mentation, so psychoanalysis helps people to dominate the irrational aspects of their minds and to reconcile the conscious and the unconscious. Either way helps people to greater personality integration and to ultimate salvation. Whether described as one’s inner nature, buddha nature, or un-

derlying instinctual structure, once opened up, it will liberate all kinds of life energies and allow people to find self-realization by overcoming greed and developing love and compassion. All neuroses and evil desires will melt away.51

Over the years, parallels between Zen and Western thought were found among various philosophers (Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty) and psychologists (Jacob Moreno, Fritz Perls, and Roberto Assagioli, and especially Carl Rogers52). Also, numerous works were written that strove to integrate the two. Still, there are extensive differences, only gradually overcome as psychology moves toward a more humanistic and transpersonal outlook. 51 See Suzuki, Fromm, and DeMartino 1967, ch. 1. 52 See Rogers 1967; 1980. 58 For a discussion of thinkers and psychologists in relation to Zen, see Brazier 1995, 40-43. Further presentations on Zen and psychotherapy include Aaronson 2004; Brazier 1998; Dumoulin 1992, 87-102; Epstein 1995; 2007; Hirai 1989; Kawai 1996; Magid 2002; Molino 1999; Safran 2003; Watts 1961.

Immediacy / 117

In overall theory, the Eastern understanding of mind and body sees them as a single subtle process, while Western biomedical models think of them as gross substances, machine-like systems that may happen to be in somewhat the same place but do not totally mash. Westerners,

moreover, tend to see the person in terms of a relatively

stable inner entity, a strong self, or even a soul. Zen masters, on the contrary, see the individual as a manifestation of cosmic forces and all interior events as mere processes that have no self-identity and are connected to all. Similarly, traditional psychotherapists understand the ego as a positive power and work to develop and reinforce it, seeing it as entitled to certain qualities and attributes. In Zen, the ego has a bad name: the work is to lessen, reduce, or loosen it toward ultimate dissolution in favor of the underlying true self. While, thus,

the ego in Western thought is all there is, in Zen it is compared to a stone box that contains buddha nature, the mirror of perfect reality and its actualizing tendency active in all human beings.°{ In addition, modern Western thinking is dominantly causal and linear, and tends to be reductionistic, trying to find one cause for one result and then working from there. Zen, on the other hand, is expansive, inclusive, and circular in its thought, opening to the wider cosmos and delving into the underlying power of buddha nature. People’s

inborn nature, moreover, is seen as weak and problematic in the West,

a reservoir of selfish and dangerous potentials that have to be harnessed, controlled, and trained, so that the person can cope with outside conditions. In Zen, inner or buddha nature is originally pure and whole; it is the ultimate source of wisdom, the root of enlightenment, and the key to being as one is, never mind what the outside situation may be like.5 As a result, Westerners often view ethics as restrictive, codes that set boundaries and block personal expression and spontaneity. In Zen, on the other hand, ethics are a positive force, markers

that show the road to truth, illuminate the true self within, and allow

perfect expression of buddha nature in society.56

Similar differences also abound in practical application. In the Western psychotherapy, the goal is usually to change and shift attitudes, eliminate frustration, and better adapt the person to be productive in society, while Zen practice strives for a more transcendental realm, 54 Brazier 1995, 35, 31, 33, 172-75. 55 Brazier 1995, 44.

66 Brazier 1995, 36. Along the same lines, there is hardly any contrition in Western psychotherapy, while Zen strongly emphasizes repentance and taking on responsibility for past actions (Brazier 1995, 183).

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opening inherent buddha nature and creating harmony with the unı-

verse.57 The two are at different ends of the spectrum between society

and the cosmos, personal and transpersonal realms. Therapy enhances and strengthens personal self-assertion, while Zen hopes to wipe all kinds of emotions and attitudes clean and create a person who is ultimately beyond social patterns and rules, even if he or she chooses to return and serve. Psychotherapy thus focuses on filling where Zen moves toward emptying; therapy works toward adjustment and improvement while Zen's goal is liberation and enlightenment.58 Also, and in connection with the issue of social relevance, therapy is a setting where a person is actively helped and supported by another, while Zen practice is the ultimate state of aloneness, fighting one’s battle with the inner demons and the hardships of body rituals. Beyond this, the work of the therapist tends to deal with the larger issues of life, problems encountered after major trauma and life changes, while the dominant focus of Zen is on the little things, the day-to-day ordinary activities (getting dressed, drinking tea, driving a car), and the way to do them with as much focus and no-mind as possible. Along the same lines, much of psychotherapy helps people achieve competence at multitasking, a skill widely used and expected. Zen, in contrast, is the ultimate training in monotasking, the complete absorption in whatever single thing one is doing at the time. The perceived overlaps between psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism have become widely accepted in Western societies. They have not only shaped how Westerners view Zen but also how they practice it. Rather than working toward an immediate connection to pure existence, many followers expect a clean-up of their various neuroses and personality problems. They think enlightenment means the complete dissolution

of all difficulties,

internal

and

external,

and a

life

of

smooth sailing. They do not realize that life will continue to have its ups and downs and that the main change will be in their perception of these ups and downs and their flexibility in coping with them. Also, rather than seeing Zen masters ing the way, they work with them as ors, creating a meditation setting that tains the same potential dangers of abuse. They expect the teachers to be 57 Brazier 1995, 39. 58 Brazier 1995, 34, 25, 30.

as advanced meditators pointhelpers, advisers, and counselis much like therapy and contransference, dependence, and perfect in every respect and do

Immediacy / 119

not realize that even after many years of meditation practice certain aspects of the personality may remain unresolved—an enlightened master may still be neurotic but actualize his or her neuroses in the present moment. Especially Asian masters, often conceived (in an Orientalist paradigm) as ideal “oriental monks,” are often flabbergasted by the internal negativity, self-hatred, and neuroses of Western disciples and ill-prepared to deal with them in a psychotherapeutic manner.” The result is a widespread failure in the West to create the proper detached atmosphere of meditation, a tendency that has resulted in various scandals. Only recently have practitioners begun to overcome the notion that Zen (or meditation in general) will clear up all personal issues and that the master is actually a therapist in a fancy robe and may not, after all, still be in need of therapy himself.

Modern

Masters

In the West today, Zen is practiced among groups of Japanese, Korean, and Chinese origin. The earliest and most dominant wave of Zen migration was Japanese, beginning in the late nineteenth century and spreading widely in Western culture to flourish in a major Zen boom in the 1960s. Korean Son arrived with Seung Sahn in 1972 and has made considerable inroads into the Western religious scene. Chinese Taiwan-based groups, such as Master Sheng-Yen’s Dharma Drum and the Fo Guang Shan lineage of Master Hsing Yun, began to spread in the late 1970s; they are still heavily Chinese based, but

work eagerly to increase Western participation.

Japanese Zen The first Zen master ever to arrive in the U.S. was Soyen Shaku (1859-1919) who represented Zen at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. He had been a disciple of the Soto monk Ekkei since 1871 and reached satori in 1884. Enrolling as a student at Keio University in 1886, he combined academic and literary studies with Zen training. In 1905, he immigrated to the U.S., teaching Zen in San Francisco and joining D. T. Suzuki on a Zen lecture-tour in 1906. His form of Zen was highly philosophical and he came across as

59 On Orientalist views of Eastern masters, see Komjathy 2006, 210-13. Various reports suggest that the Dalai Lama and Tibetan masters are often shocked at the intense negative internal reality of Westerners. See, for example, Dalai Lama 1998.

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snobbish and high-brow; his main appeal was to artists and intellectuals.60

Daisetz or D.T. Suzuki (1870-1966) arrived shortly after Soyen Shaku, in 1897. For eleven years he worked as a translator of Buddhist materials from the Chinese for Open Court Publishing, run by Paul Carus in Illinois. After returning to Japan, he became a professor at Otani University in Kyoto in 1921 and soon after began to study Zen practice with Shinichi Hisamatsu. For many years, he traveled back

and forth between the U.S. and Japan, writing numerous books and lecturing variously.

Suzuki’s heyday came in the 1960s, when he served as lecturer at Columbia University in New York. Here his work attracted the attention of popular magazines like 7ime and Vogue and caught the attention of intellectuals (Erich Fromm, Karen Horney), artists (John Cage,

Alan

Ginsberg,

Jack

Kerouac),

and

American

Zen

masters

(Maria

Farkas, Philip Kapleau). Witty, gentle, and bemused, he was quite a

popular figure and, aided by his numerous publications, set in motion the Zen boom of the 1960s. He also significantly shaped the perception of Zen in America as the ultimate philosophy.61

A more practical approach to Zen was propagated by Nyogen Senzaki (d. 1958). A student of Soyen Shaku in Japan, he had become disgusted with the corruption of Japanese Zen monks, who were interested only in money, power, and women. After arriving in the U.S. in 1905, he taught a purer and more ascetic version of Zen, running centers (the so-called floating zendo or “Mentorgarten”) in San Francisco and Los Angeles from hotels, where he worked as bus boy, manager, and cook. He became quite popular and gained a steady following, but lost some of his influence after Pearl Harbor, when he was interned

in Wyoming until 1945. His main student was Robert Aitken, a poet in the tradition of R. H. Blythe and the founder of the Diamond Sangha in Hawaii. Often called the dean of American Zen, he spread zazen and encouraged readings of original sources through his translations of sutras, hymns, and poems.62 Both lines of Zen continued, supported by further masters arriving in the U.S. and Westerners moving to Japan to study the practice in its original setting. Best known among the latter are Philip Kapleau, 60 On the early transmission of Zen to the West, see Fields 1981.

61 On the life and work of D. T. Suzuki, see Abe 1986.

62 See Fields 1981. A biography of Robert Aitken appears in Tworkov

1989, 23-64. His main works include Aitken 1978; 1982; 1984; 1993.

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founder of the Rochester Zen Center and a student of Hakuun Yasutani (1885-1973) who represents a modern Japanese development of Zen in that he trained in both Rinzai and Soto lineages, worked as an educator,

and

raised

a family

of five

children.

Other

Westerners

trained in Japan include Gary Snyder (b. 1930), California poet and friend of many members of the Beat Zen generation, so named by Alan Watts; and Janwillem van de Wetering (b. 1931), Dutch police officer and mystery writer who trained variously with Japanese and American masters and created a vivid record of Zen experience and effect. Following these pioneers, in the 1950s and 60s Japanese masters arrived who created less an intellectual and artistic fashion than organized lineages and Zen centers. Among them are especially the Soto leaders Shunryu Suzuki and Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi and the Rinzai master Joshu Sasaki.

Shunryu Suzuki (1905-1971) came to the U.S. in the late 1950s as a

priest for the

San

Francisco

Soto community.

Dedicated

to zazen

practice, he started a meditation circle which soon attracted Western

followers. In 1962, this group incorporated into the San Francisco Zen Center, which in due course rose to national importance. It is today

famous for its hot spring retreat center at Tessajara (and the 7essa-

jara Cook Book), its organic Green Gulch farms in Napa Valley, its pioneering hospice, and its later sex and money scandal. In its wake, in 1983 the SFZC became the first Zen institution ever to be run by a board of directors, elected for a limited time period, rather than by a single, authoritative abbot who ruled for life. As Richard Saeger says in Buddhism in America, this “pioneering elective leadership” was “an important turning point in the Americanization of Zen.” Another important contribution of Suzuki was his book Zen Mind, Beginner's

Mind (1970), which came to define Zen for many Americans.

Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi (1931-1995) had received both Soto and Rinzai transmission as well as an ordination from Hakuun Yasutani. He, too, arrived in the late 1950s as a priest, serving the JapaneseAmerican community, and soon assembled a meditation following. He 63 Philip Kapleau is best known for his early documentation of Zen teaching and training in The Three Pillars of Zen (1965). Gary Snyder's most Zen-inspired work is the poetry collection Turtle Island. Wetering’s record on Japanese Zen practice appears in The Empty Mirror (1974). He also wrote a follow-up on training in America and the later life of Zen adepts (1975). 64 A detailed account of Suzuki’s life is found in Chadwick 1999. A selection of his works appears in Tyler 1977.

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founded the Los Angeles Zen Center in the mid-60s, which grew into

a sizable community of both resident and visiting followers and today owns an entire square block of houses and apartments in west central L.A. Not an author himself, Maezumi created a lasting scholarly legacy by establishing the Kuroda Institute for the Study of Buddhism in 1976, which sponsors conferences and workshops and today is one of the leading publishers (through the University of Hawaïi Press) of academic books on Buddhism. His other main legacy is through a nation-wide organization, the White Plum Sangha, which brought forth a number of powerful disciples, such as Bernie Glassman, Charlotte Boko

Beck,

Genpo

Merzel,

Peter Mathiessen,

and John Daido

Loori

who grew-into leading masters in American Zen. Glassman also created the Zen Peace Makers, a resident and retreat community in Montana.®

Joshu Sasaki is the leading figure in American Rinzai Zen today. He was born in 1907, trained at Myoshinji Temple in Kyoto and came to the U.S. in 1962. Fairly traditional in his approach, he is today, at age 99, still actively teaching at his various centers: Cimmarron Center in Idyllville, Calif., Mt. Baldy Zen Center east of Los Angeles, and Bodhi Manda Zen Center in Jemez Springs near Santa Fe. His numerous disciples, moreover, established a network of meditation cen-

ters throughout the country as well as in the Caribbean .s®

The work of these masters and the efforts of their Western disciples have changed Japanese Zen considerably, adapting it in many ways to its new cultural habitat. Unlike in Japan, in the West there are more lay followers than monastics; women are equal and, for the first time in the history of Japanese Zen, serve as masters and community leaders; and democratically elected boards increasingly replace the rulership of single autocratic abbots. There is, moreover, a widespread culture of Zen in ordinary activities and numerous books proclaim to teach the Zen of business, motorcycle maintenance, child rearing, and so on. Just as Zen has changed by coming to the West, so Western culture has undergone changes through its encounter with this Eastern meditation practice.

65 On Maezumi, see www.mro.org. Glassman’s life is recounted in Tworkov 1989, 109-52. For more on the retreat community, see www.zenpeacemakers.org. 66 For details of Sasakrs life, see Radin 1987.

Immediacy / 123

Korean

Son

The Korean version of Zen is undergoing very similar developments. Unlike in its homeland, where it is dominantly an elite form of monastic practice, in the West it serves wide-ranging community and helps numerous people. This transformation is largely the work of a single person, Master Seung Sahn (1927-2004).67 Born near Pyongyang, Seung Sahn was the son of Protestant Christian landowners who grew up with a strong interest in science and engineering. However, he suffered from the suppression of Korean life and culture under the Japanese occupation and, in 1944, joined the underground Korean independence movement, making short-wave radics for spying on Japanese troops. He was soon caught and sentenced to death, but saved in the nick of time by his school principal. Following this, he stole money and, with a group of friends, fled to Manchuria to join the Free Korean Army. After World War II, Seung Sahn moved to Seoul and enrolled in Dong Guk University to study science. He was cut off from his family and many friends who were still in the north and decided that helping his country was more important than academic learning. Searching for a way to be of most use, he came across the Diamond Sutra, like the Heart Sutra a condensed synopsis of the Perfection of Wisdom literature and essential Zen document. Inspired by this work, he decided to become a Buddhist monk and enrolled as a novice at Magoksa Temple in 1948. After some basic training, he underwent a hundred-day retreat on Wongak Mountain. Here he engaged not only in deep meditation but also—as is common in Korean and Chinese Zen because over the centuries they integrated Pure Land and Daoist practices—chanted the spells of Great Compassion and purified his body with austerities, such as eating pine needles and standing under waterfalls. After undergoing profound experiences of bone-deep doubt and immense physical weakness, he had visions of demons and bodhisattvas and eventually broke through to an enlightenment experience where he found himself in infinite space beyond body and mind. “The rocks, the river, every-

67 On

monastic

life in Korean

Zen,

see Kusan

1985;

Buswell

1992.

A

detailed biography of Seung Sahn appears in Mu 1994. On his teachings and community, see www.kwanumzen.com.

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thing he could see, everything he could hear, all this was his true self.

All things are exactly as they are. The truth is just like this.”

After his return from the mountain, he served as a lay meditation instructor at his home temple but was soon adopted by the major Zen

Master Ko Bong (1890-1961), well known for his unorthodox Zen

methods. He gave Seung Sahn formal instruction and a proper religious name; he also taught him to replace mantra practice with koan training. At his first koan interview, upon hearing the question, Seung Sahn answered honestly and simply: “I don’t know.” His teacher, rather

than

shouting,

hitting him,

or sending

edged this by saying: “Only keep this ‘don’t Zen practice.” The “don’t-know mind” in due ture of Seung Sahn’s practice, which advises question and exhale with “don’t know” in a plicity dominant.®

him

away,

acknowl-

know mind.’ This is true course became a key feastudents to inhale with a steady effort to keep sim-

In 1950 Seung Sahn received formal transmission from Ko Bong and became the 78th patriarch of his line in the Chogye Order. After serving as an army chaplain during the Korean war, he took over the abbot’s duties in 1954 and instituted various organizational changes. In 1961, he founded the United Buddhist Association and was appointed to the Board of Directors of the Chogye Order. At this time it became known that during the war the bodies of 500 Japanese had been interred at his temple. Unlike his parishioners and other monks, who were full of hatred against the occupational forces and wanted to destroy the bones, Seung Sahn elected to honor the remains and ensured their proper reburial, even holding a traditional 49-day memorial service for them. As soon as the Japanese heard about this, they came to retrieve the bones and, in gratitude, invited him to establish

a temple in Japan.

In 1962, Seung Sahn left his homeland to become a priest for the Korean-Japanese community. In 1972, he moved from there to the U.S.,

where he took up residence in Providence, R.I., choosing this location

after meeting a man laundromat business. while teaching Zen to His fame soon grew, temple in the nearby monastery

on the airplane who offered him a job in his He started out by repairing washing machines a small number of Brown University students. and in 1979 he was able to open a residential countryside which grew into a Korean-style

called Diamond

68 Mu 1994, 212-13. 69 Mu 1994, 213.

Hill and was completed in 1985.

During

Immediacy / 125

all this time, he continued to give lectures and meditation instructions, encouraging students to write to him and conscientiously answering every letter. Seung Sahn also traveled widely and founded centers in Cambridge,

New

Haven,

New York, Berkeley, Los Angeles,

as in Europe and South called Kwan Um Zen to authored a number of active until his death in

and Toronto,

as well

American. In 1983, he started his own school unify the over fifty affiliated centers. He also highly popular books, remaining strong and 2004.70

His teaching emphasizes the “don’t-know mind” and the inherent simplicity of classical Zen immediacy. Practice includes counting of the breath to establish access concentration, chanting of scriptures (notably the Heart Sutra in Korean and English), and “just sitting” meditation in combination with physical labor and community work. Centers are co-ed and serve both residential and walk-in members who are often active not only locally but also in wider interreligious dialogue and communication.”! Chinese

Chan

There are two leading organizations of Chinese Chan in the West today: Master Sheng-Yen’s Chung Hwa Buddhist Cultural Institute and Dharma Drum Retreat Centers; and Master Hsing Yun’s Fo Guang Shan temples and community associations. Both were founded by well-educated and renowned Buddhist masters who were born in mainland China, became monks at an early age, underwent serious

ascetic training for a number of years, fled to Taiwan in 1949, rose to

prominence due to their intellectual acumen and organizational skills, and created world-wide networks of Buddhist practice and service.

More specifically, Master Sheng-Yen was born in Shanghai in 1931, joined the Guangjiao Monastery at age thirteen and soon joined the Shanghai Buddhist Academy. After fleeing to Taiwan, he served as a telecommunications officer for the army, then returned to his religious calling and lived in various Buddhist institutions. He underwent a solitary retreat on Mount Chaoyuan from 1961 to 1968, then moved to Japan where he earned several advanced degrees in Bud-

dhist Studies

at Risshö

University

(1971-75).

He received formal

transmission in both the Linji (Rinzai) and Caodong (Soto) lineages, then founded his major organizations. They are active both in Taiwan 70 Mu 1994, 209-24. For books, see e.g., Seung 1976; 1987; 1997. 71 See

www. kwanumzen.com.

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and in the U.S.(New York) and include cultural institutes, community organizations, Buddhist colleges, and retreat centers. Master ShengYen has written over ninety books and, although failing in health, he is still actively lecturing and serving the community.” Master Hsing Yun joined Mount Jixia,

was born Li Guoshen in Jiangsu in 1927. He a monastery of the Linji lineage, at age twelve. In

1941, he became a

fully ordained

Taiwan,

served

monk;

in 1945,

he enrolled at the

Jiaoshan Buddhist College for advanced education. In 1949, he fled to where

he

in various

institutions,

started

to write

books, and developed his particular brand of Buddhist thought called Humanistic Buddhism, which aims to make Buddhism relevant in the world. In 1967, he and a group of fellow monks purchased a large tract of land near Kaohsiung in southern Taiwan, where they built a major monastery called Fo Guang Shan (Buddha’s Light Mountain). The group attracted numerous disciples, especially among educated middle-class youth and women, because of its emphasis on the integration of spiritual practice and social service. Its outreach programs include Buddhist universities, colleges, libraries, publication houses, translation centers, homeless shelters, and a medical institutions.

Since its inception, Fo Guang Shan has spread into 173 countries and today owns about 3500 monasteries often organized under the name Buddha’s Light International Association (BLIA). Most prominent among them are Hsi Lai Temple near Los Angeles, Nan Tian Temple in Australia, and Nan Hua Temple in South Africa.’ It is still dominantly a Chinese organization, although it is beginning to make Western converts. Hsing Yun served as abbot of the original Fo Guang Shan until 1985, then stepped down in accordance with the democratic principles of the group which elects the abbot from among its members. He dedicates himself to spreading Buddhist teaching, participating in interreligious dialogue, and writing books.”4 7 On

Sheng-Yen’s

life, see www.chan1.org . On

www.dharmadrum.org. Among

his

his numerous books, Zen

organization,

see

Wisdom (1993) and

Dharma Drum (1996) spell out his teachings in most detail. See also his recently coauthored word Sheng-Yen (2002; 2002b). His main influence was

Master Hsu Yun

(1840-1959?),

an inspiring leader of modern

Chinese Bud-

dhism who spent most of his life traveling. See Hunn 1988. For his medita-

tion teachings, see Lu 1970, 1:19-117, 149-206, 209-23. 73 On Hsing Yun and Fo Guang Shan, see www.fgs.org.tw; www.blia.org.

74 See www.buddhanet.net. His latest publication is a translation and com-

mentary on Zen poems (2005).

Immediacy / 127

The meditation practiced in Fo Guang Shan institutions, like other forms of Chinese Chan that tend to integrate the practices of various schools, works largely with Tiantai cessation and insight, or as Hsing Yun calls it, “ceasing and contemplating.” It retrieves the ancient Buddhist model in following the traditional three parts of the Buddhist

path

(morality,

concentration,

and

wisdom).

It also

practice of the eight dhyanas and of fivefold contemplation:

involves

of un-

cleanness, compassion, conditioned arising, buddha, and breath.”5

To conclude, immediacy is first documented in the ancient Daoist text Zhuangzi, which emphasizes the ultimate nondual state of “body and

mind both forgotten.” It also first presents the twofold thrust of the

practice: the overcoming of the conscious mind by butting it repeatedly against paradoxes and unanswerable questions and the complete stilling of body and breath in a state of absorptive trance. The model of the Zhuangzi was continued in religious Daoism under the name of “sitting in oblivion.” Linked with Madhyamika thought, insight practice, and visions of immortals in the Tang, it is still a mainstay of Daoist practice both in China and the West. In Buddhism, Zhuangzis vision was integrated with the major tenets of Mahayana philosophy, such as emptiness, perfection of wisdom, the interconnected reality, and the identity of samsara and nirvana. Adopted by radical monks who dedicated themselves to solitary meditation in the mountains, it eventually grew into the worldview of the absorption or Chan school. Chan Buddhism rose within Chinese Buddhism over several centuries, then was transmitted into Korea as Son and into Japan as Zen,

flourishing particularly in two main lineages, Rinzai (Linji) and Soto

(Caodong). It developed unique meditation practices and organizational structure, including “just sitting,” koan resolution, sesshin retreats, and an emphasis on ultimate realization through immediate presence in all ordinary activities. Today it is widely practiced not only in Asia but also increasingly in the West, where it was first introduced in its Japanese forms but has, since the 1970s, also flourished in its Korean and Chinese traditions. The latter tend to integrate the practices of other schools, such as Pure Land chanting and Tiantai contemplation. At the same time, being in a Western cultural setting, many patterns have changed, so that ritual formalities are less important and lay followers and women play a much greater role. The Zen spirit and way of relating to the mind, moreover, has also inspired numerous psychologists and been actively connected to psychoanalysis and other forms of psychotherapy. 75 An outline of Fo Guang Shan meditation appears in Hsing Yun 1999.

Chapter Five Visualization:

Highest Clarity and Tantra Unlike insight and immediacy, which work with the conscious mind after accessing concentration through deep breathing, visualization accesses the subconscious through the visual system. It can be defined as the active, intentional use of imagery to alter or transform mind and emotions. Objects of visualization can be colors or colored energies imagined to pervade parts of the body; they can involve

static objects, such as a vase, a diagram, a landscape, or the statue of

a deity; and they can be focused on an entire sequence of activities and events, almost in movie fashion, either for detached viewing or active engagement. Since the brain does not distinguish outside stim-

uli from imagined ones, visualization is a powerful mode of accessing the subconscious mind to retrain brain mechanisms and transform emotional reactions.! Visualization is the dominant mode of meditation in the Daoist tradition. Already Han-dynasty sources describe the activation of the five inner organs with the help of color visualizations, later enhanced by the imagined presence of deities, often seen as innocent infants equipped with spiritual scriptures. The practice came to the forefront in the fourth-century school of Highest Clarity, whose followers added the ingestion of cosmic potencies, envisioned personal—even sexual— 1 See Begley 2007,

9, 151-52. In visualization the brain uses the same

regions as 10 physical actions; it recreates the experience as if done physically

(Ratey 2002, 147).

128

Visualization / 129

interaction with deities, and engaged in ecstatic travels to the stars and paradises of the immortals. The term for visualization in Daoism means

“to be,” “to be present,”

is cun, a verb that basically

or “to exist” and is here used in its

causative mode: “to cause to exist” or “ to make present.” It thus means that the meditator by an act of focused intention causes certain energies to be present in the body or makes specific deities or scriptures appear before his mental eye. For this reason, some translators prefer to use “actualize” or “actualization” to render the term. Aside from its single usage, the word cun also occurs in the combination cunxiang, “visualization and imagination.” The eighth-century

Tianyinzi (Book of the Master of Heavenly Simplicity) defines it: Visualization

means

producing

a

vision

of

one’s

spirit;

imagination is to create an image of one’s body. How is this accomplished? By closing one’s eyes one can see one’s own eyes. By gathering in one’s mind one can realize one’s own mind. Mind and eyes should never be separate from one’s body and should never harm one’s spirit(s): this is done by visualization and imagination.?

The result of this activity is “tranquility,” by means of which one can “recover life” and attain transcendence. Cun here means the creation of an intentional inner vision of the spirit energy in the body, combined with that of xiang which allows one to also see one’s bodily presence and thus attain longevity both physically and spiritually. In Buddhism,

visualization is used variously such as, for example, in

the use of a static visual object (kasina) to anchor the breath in access

concentration? Its most elaborate and conscious application is in tantric Buddhism, the dominant practice of Tibet. A late and highly integrative sytem, this combines Mahayana doctrine with different kinds

of meditation (mindfulness, mantra practice, absorption) as well as

with a vivid pantheon of multiple deities and methods of mysticism and magic that can be traced back both to Hindu and to indigenous

Tibetan (Bon) sources.

Within the development of Buddhism, tantra is considered a separate branch of the Mahayana known as Vajrayana. Yana is the word for “vehicle” or major school, while vajra means “diamond” or “thunder2 Sect.

3. For

a full translation

1987a; 1987b. 3 See chapter 1 above.

and

discussion of this text,

see Kohn

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bolt” and by extension implies the idea of indestructible, adamantine, or diamond hard. The term refers to the unshakeable,

diamond-like,

pervasive, penetrating awareness generated in the enlightened state and produced with great efficiency through tantric practice.‘ The word tantra, moreover,

literally means

“thread,” “continuity,” or

“stream” and refers to a network of interwoven strands. In its religious context, it indicates a complex system of spiritual disciplines applied uniquely by each individual to reach the desired goal speedily and efficiently. Tantra is originally part of Hindu culture, where it stands in opposition to the formalized, orthodox rituals of the Vedas, signifying

more popular, heterodox, and variegated sorts of practices.

It also claims to deliver the practitioner faster to the goal and to enhance the development of magical powers.5

Imagery and the Brain Imagery is universal. In the development of both the individual and cultures, it is one of the earliest forms of cognition that connects to deep levels of the brain. Part of primary process thinking, it is the dominant mode of cognition in preverbal children. Imagery creates a more immediate experience of a situation, memory, or vision than the

more distant experience conveyed by verbal communication or abstract thinking. Activated in dream states, imagery is located dominantly in the right brain hemisphere and thus connected to myth, poetry, and chanting. As it bypasses the left-brain, conscious, and abstract mode, it is a primary method of accessing the subconscious.® Internal physical that the perience

images are just as real, emotionally and physiologically, as experiences in the external world. Various tests have shown body reacts in exactly the same way to an actual outside exas to an internal imagined one. “The purely cognitive process

one uses to visualize

an action is carried out by the regions

of the

brain responsible for actual movement.” 7 Making use of this feature, people use visualization in various modes. For example, the golfer 4 On Tibetan Buddhism, its characteristics, and history, see Cozert 1986;

Dawson 1978; Ray 2000a; 2000b; Waddell 1972.

5 On Hindu tantra, see Evola 1992; Feuerstein 1998a.

6 On imagery and the brain, see Korn and Johnson

1983, 4-11; Ratey

2002, 97-108; Samuels and Samuels 1975, 56-63. 7 Ratey 2002, 147. See also Samuels and Samuels 1975, 64-66.

Visualization / 131

Jack Nicklaus estimates that the mental image is 50 percent of his game. He imagines the ball where he wants it to finish, then visualizes the exact path, trajectory, and shape of the ball as it gets to its goal. One study has even shown that weight lifters could increase the size of the muscles by imaging their practice rather than going to the gym. Creating a complete mental image of both where one wants to

be (result) and how one can best get there (process), optimal learning and performance can be achieved.8

There are many different types of images and visualizations. One classification is according to spontaneous and induced images. Spontaneous images arise in the mind without conscious effort and may come from a part considerably deeper than the ego; they may relate to a person’s fundamental needs and create an awareness of changes to be done. Induced images are created on the basis of conscious input; used in Tibetan practice, they are a focused and controlled way to communicate with the subconscious and modify the mind. 9 Another important distinction is between abstract and concrete images. Abstract images consist of geometrical shapes, squares and circles, and do not represent any object in particular. The mandala, commonly used in Tibetan practice, is an example of abstract imagery. It also plays an important role in the integration of the psyche, as found in particular by C. G. Jung (1875-1961) who made ample use of visualization—under

the name

of creative

imagination—and

dream

analysis in his approach to psychotherapy.!° Concrete images are pictures of people, states, or conditions that we would like to achieve or work with. But even they often come with a heavy dose of symbolism and tend to change easily from one picture to the next.!! The deities activated in Daoist and Tibetan practice belong into this category. A third classification of images is according to end-result and process. End-result imagery consists of the desired result as having already taken place. This is used very powerfully in therapeutic situations. Its function

is not unlike

that

of the

affirmation,

which

creates

a

mental state of fait accompli through its continued repetition. Process imagery includes visualization of the goal and the means to reach it. 8 Korn and Johnson 1983, 121-22. 9 Korn and Johnson 1983, 64.

10 On the activation of the mandala in Tibetan practice, see Amipa 1987, 125-29; Kalu 1995, 130-34. For Jung ‘s work with creative imagination see Jung and Chodorow 1997. 11 On the types of symbols and the importance of symbolism in images, see Samuels and Samuels 1975, 78-99.

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It could be, for example, a concrete situation of actual giving or serving in the course of the attainment of the goal of compassion.!2 In addition, one can also distinguish imagery in terms of present, past, and future. Present imagery is guided imagery; past images are called memory imagery; and those of the future are classified as imagination imagery. That is to say, in guided imagery the practitioner visualizes whatever is required in accordance with the guidance of a counselor or meditation master, staying fully in the present. This type is most commonly used in therapy Memory

imagery conjures up images from the past. It can be sponta-

neous, as the images evoked by the Madeleine pastry in Marcel Proust’s famous novel, or induced such as when we try to figure out what in the world we did with our keys last night. We actively bring forth the image of what we did when we got home, mentally retracing our steps. Therapeutically memory imagery is used to uncover childhood traumas or find a safe place in one’s early life, from where to explore more difficult situations. Imagination imagery tends to move into the future. It can be based on past experiences or guided by a counselor. It can also appear spontaneously, when we see all too clearly where we are headed or what we would like to accomplish. Essentially both end-result and process images fall into this category.!?

Daoist

Forms

Visualization is central to Daoist practice, both cultivation and ritual. An early form of concentration through visualization is called “guard-

ing the One” (shouy1), first described as focusing the mind on the organs as centers of primordial gi. The Taiping jing (Scripture of Great Peace),

a sixth-century

reconstitution

of a second-century

text,

de-

scribes it as full mental fixation on the inner light of the body which represents the cosmic forces of creation. It is preceded by basic concentration exercises. As the text says:

12 The classification of images follows Korn and Johnson 1983, 65-68;

Samuels and Samuels 1975, 38-55. 13 This distinction is outlined in Samuels and Samuels also Korn and Johnson 1983, 66-68.

1975, 39-42. See

Visualization / 133

To keep the Dao lin the body] one has to prepare a meditation chamber. One must lock the doors securely and never let anybody enter. Then one should examine oneself. If one finds oneself unable to concentrate properly, one had better leave again. There is no way to enforce the practice. Only by gradually attaining concentration and by slowly maturing in the practice will one eventually attain peace. In a state of mental peace one does not wish to move again

from body. wise with

the room and the mouth has no desire to speak to anyOne will still need food and drink, but one can othereasily be without others’ company. Concerned only inner refinement one accumulates goodness. Then one

can turn one’s mental gaze to the inside and observe one’s body and physical appearance. They should be seen as if in a mirror, one should be able to inspect oneself as if one saw one’s reflection in clear water.14

Gaining a basic level of concentration, practitioners begin to see internal lights. The practice is described in a meditative supplement to the Taiping jing that probably dates from the Tang dynasty. Thus the Taiping jing shengjun bizhi (Secret Instructions of the Holy Lord

on the Scripture of Great Peace) says:

A radiance or light will arise. It will shine brilliantly in the four directions. . . .When the light first arises, make sure to hold on to it and never let it go. First it will be red, after

some time it will change to be white, later again it will be green, and then it will pervade all of you completely. When you further persist in guarding the One, there will be nothing within that would not be brilliantly illuminated and the hundred diseases will be driven out.1?

Each light, moreover, relates to an organ within so that the green light is connected to the liver, the red light to the heart, the white light to the lungs, the black light to the kidneys, and the yellow light to the spleen and stomach.

It is, moreover,

the radiance of the cen-

tered harmony of the universe and signifies true peace.

The same match of energetic colors with organs is also activated in

the fourth-century school of Highest Clarity (Shangqing), which arose 14 The original text of this passage is found in Wang 1979, 723; Yoshioka 1976, 317. For a discussion of the Taiping jing and its worldview, see Kaltenmark 1979. The theory and practice of shouyz are presented in Kohn 1989a. 15 Kohn 1993, 195.

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among a group of disenfranchised southern aristocrats after a mass migration of the imperial court and northern nobles (caused by the invasion of Hunnish tribes in 317) took away much of their political clout. Having retired to.their estates, unemployed officials engaged in an active social life, enjoyed poetry and philosophy, and—in some cases—began to dabble in the occult. One popular pastime was to establish communication with the family’s ancestors through a shaman or spirit-medium, mainly to find causes for unexplained illnesses and misfortunes, but also to learn of their fate in the otherworld and obtain advice on current affairs. In the 360s, two brothers of the Xu

family, Xu Mai (b. 301) and Xu Mi (303-373), hired the medium Yang Xi (330-386?) to establish contact with Xu Mi’s wife who had died in 362. She appeared and told them about her status in the otherworld, explained the overall organization of the heavens, and introduced the medium to various other spirit figures.16

Among

them were underworld rulers, divine officers of the dead,

spirit masters of moral rules, denizens of the Huayang grotto on nearby Mount Mao, as well as some leaders of the Celestial Masters, notably the former libationer Lady Wei Huacun (251-334). Together they provided the medium with a detailed description of the organization and population of the otherworld, and especially of the top heaven of Highest Clarity. They also revealed specific methods of visualization,

ecstatic

soul travel,

and

alchemical

concoctions,

gave

thorough instructions on how to transmit the texts and their methods, and provided prophecies about the golden age to come with the arising of the Latter-Day Saint, a deity known as Lord Goldtower.17 Inspired by these visions, Highest Clarity Daoists expanded Chinese cosmology to include an entirely new layer of existence between the original, creative force of Dao, represented by the Heavenly King of Primordial Beginning, and the created world. This celestial layer consisted of several different regions, located both in the far reaches of the world and in the stars. It was populated by various divine figures: pure gods of Dao who were emanations of original cosmic op immortals who had attained celestial status through effort and the proper elixir; demon kings, converted spirits who had risen to rank and power; and ancestors who had entered via death. These divine figures, moreover, were arranged hierarchically, transforming the Daoist oth16 On the origins and first sources of Highest Clarity Daoism, see Strick-

mann 1978; Robinet 1984, 1:11-34; Bokenkamp 2007.

17 On the messianic nature of Highest Clarity and the figure of Lord Goldtower, see Strickmann 1981.

Visualization / 135

erworld into a vast celestial bureaucracy—the dead were administered in the Six Palaces of Fengdu, immortals under the rule of the Southern Palace beyond the Northern Dipper, and pure gods of Dao through Highest Clarity itself.18 To enter this complex realm practitioners had to accumulate virtue and establish a firm foothold in the otherworld through incantations, visualizations, and ecstatic excursions. They had to become close friends or even sexual partners of the gods who resided in the starry constellations above but who were also present in the human body— now seen as a veritable storehouse of divine agencies, palaces, and figures. With this change came an entirely new nomenclature for bodily parts, first documented in the meditation manual Huangting jing

(Yellow Court Scripture).19

For example, the head was now called Mount Kunlun or the Yellow Court; it contained nine palaces, each the residence of a divine being and thus matching starry mansions. Most important among these nine palaces were the Hall of Light, located in the center of the eye-

brows

about

one inch into the head;

the Grotto

Chamber,

one inch

further in; and the Niwan Palace in the very center, also known as the upper cinnabar or elixir field. There are altogether three such cinnabar or elixir fields in the body: the upper one just mentioned: the middle one in the solar plexus or heart area, also known as the Numinous Terrace, the Scarlet Palace, and the Square Inch; and the

lower one in the abdomen, an area also called Mount Kunlun, the Gate of Life, the Primordial Pass, and the Ocean of @ı. In all three, celestial rulers reside, the so-called Three Ones, whose presence en-

sured the practitioner’s successful ascension.?°

The meditation practice that went with this was mainly a technique of visualization—of the different colors associated with the organs to strengthen their qi, of the inner pass ways and palaces to learn the layout of cosmic geography, of gods and immortals to acquire familiarity with the divine figures, and of the planets and stars to merge with their power. A set of instructions found in the Zhengao (Decla-

18 The cosmology of Highest Clarity is examined in most detail in Robinet 1984, 1:126-46. A summary appears in Kohn 2001, 89-92. 19 On this important text and its body vision, see Homann 1971; Kohn 1993b, 181-88; Kroll 1996; Robinet 1993, 55-96. 20 On the visualization of the Three Ones in the cinnabar fields, see Andersen 1980; Kohn 1993, 204-14.

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rations of the Perfected), the key collection of Highest Clarity docu-

ments by Tao Hongjing (456-536), says:2!

On the fifth of the month, at midnight, of the sun in your heart. Make the sun through your mouth and let it radiate heart. Become one with the radiance of it in harmony.

visualize the shape enter into the heart all throughout your the sun, merge with

Once done, you should become aware of a warm glow and brightness in your heart. Continue to practice this for an extended period, then recite the following incantation: Great Brightness, nourish my essence. Refine my cinnabar heart within. Radiant glow, merge with my light. Let the divine perfected come to me. After you have pursued this [three times a month] for fifteen years, the Great One will dispatch a heavenly chariot to receive you and you will ascend to the Great Empyrean

above. (ch. 9)

Practitioners thus used meditations on their bodies to establish closer contact with the larger cosmos and align themselves with the stars and divinities above. This practice of visualization, moreover, could lead to a deep trance state, during which adepts left their ordinary environment to go on ecstatic journeys into the supernatural realm, both on the earth, exploring its far-off corners, and in the heavens, visiting the gods. Their goal was to become so familiar with the otherworld that their main reality was over there, to experience—by seeing and feeling the gods and their palaces—a cosmicization of self and world.22

21 A detailed textual analysis of the Zhen’gao appears in Robinet 1984, 2:313-45. A translation of the last two chapters that describe Tao’s efforts at

identifying Highest Clarity texts and his compilation is found in Strickmann 1978. For a translation of the first chapter and exploration of the shamanic

nature of the practices mentioned, see Hyland 1984. A description of Tao’s

life and his spiritual and alchemical efforts is found in Strickmann 1979. 22 On the practice of ecstatic excursions, see Robinet 1979; 1989a,

171-

226. On the complex relationship of Daoists to the stars, see Schafer 1977.

Visualization / 137

Tantric Buddhism Less focused on bringing the cosmos into the body, the visualization practice found in tantric or Tibetan Buddhism dominantly works with uncovering and activating inherent aspects of enlightenment that lie deep within the person but are normally obscured by desires, emotions, and established personality patterns. Although vastly different in its approach to the subconscious, tantric Buddhism yet has the same Mahayana roots as Zen and thus shares certain characteristics. For example, both traditions assume the presence of an underlying quality of enlightenment in everybody—the inherent buddha nature—which is the essential aspect of each being’s mind. The Dalai Lama describes it as “a potential which allows us to awaken into buddhahood and attain omniscience.” Chögyam Trungpa calls it our “basic goodness” and characterizes it as unconditioned and fundamental. “It is there already, in the same way that heaven and earth are there already. . . . There is nothing that threatens or promotes” it in any Way.23 Another common point is the notion that in order to attain buddha nature one has to cut through the ordinary mind with various radical means. One has to “replace one’s limited self-identity—which, when analyzed, is seen to be the product of ignorance and the source of suffering—with a new, expansive, and enlightened identity.”24 In both tantric and Zen training, the powers of concentration and meditative absorption thus have a profound impact on the way one is in the world and in one’s body. A third major common point is the importance of the master or guru (roshi, Jama) for selecting the right practices at the right time, prodding the disciple along, and confirming progress and mental states. “The most important function of a realized spiritual master or guru is to reveal to us the true nature of our own mind.” One cannot possibly tread this path alone: “Reliance on the guru is of utmost importance and devotion to the guru is held to be the very root of the path.”25 In the highest sense, guru refers to the indestructible union of the clear light mind of great bliss with the non-conceptual, 22 Dalai Lama 2000, 15; Trungpa 1988, 29. 24 Landaw and Weber 1993, 122.

25 Landaw and Weber 1993, 8 and 153. On the practice of guru yoga and

its importance, see also Amipa 1987, 130-33; Kalu 1995, 27-32; and Rao 1979, 63-70; Sangpo 1982, 167-82; Yeshe and Zopa 2000, 67-69.

134-40;

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unmistaken wisdom of emptiness: the ultimate nature of reality. In this sense, therefore, the guru 1s synonymous with the fully awakened mind of enlightenment itself, the

unconditioned dharmakaya

[dharma body] experience be-

yond thought or expression. . . .

The purpose of the outer guru [the actual teacher] is to introduce us to our own inner guru: the innate wisdom dwelling without our heart, uncontaminated by the delusions that currently obscure but cannot obliterate the fundamentally pure nature of our mind. It is this inner guru that is

our final refuge. (Landaw and Weber 1993, 154) ~

The tantric vision of the mind, too, is based on Mahayana

models but

is slightly more complex. It distinguishes three major kinds and eight levels of mind: the gross (sensory), subtle (reflective), and very subtle (karmic). The gross mind consists of six levels, made up the five forms of sensory consciousness and the mind that coordinates incoming

data. The subtle mind is the seventh leve: called manas in Sanskrit, it

is the cloudy mind that instigates subjectivity and self-consciousness, the agency that reflects and comments on the gross level.

The very subtle mind, third, is explained in terms of Yogacara philosophy as the storehouse consciousness (alaya viyñana), another concept that Tibetan Buddhism shares with Zen. This remains largely unconscious to ordinary thinking. It contains minute traces of previously acquired karma that will eventually grow into seeds of future actions. Only when this very subtle level of the mind has been purified and all karmic

seeds have been eradicated can buddha

the underlying cosmic light, begin to shine forth.26

nature,

Beyond these general common points, Tantra moves into completely different realms and methods of practice. Three characteristics in particular make it unique within the larger world of Buddhism: e

the visualization of deities as representatives of various internal states and potentials of mind;

e

the active and positive embrace of powers commonly

associ-

ated with ordinary living, such as long life, good health, and

abundant wealth as well as the use of magic to obtain these; e

the use of the shadow side of the personality, the various destructive and negative impulses as triggers of enlightenment.

26 For a detailed discussion of the mind in tantric Buddhism, 2000.

see Ray

Visualization / 139

Deity Practice Deity practice means the active envisioning of a given deity with his or her specific physical characteristics, attributes, and symbolic signs as the personification of one or the other aspect of the mind and/or enlightenment. Using devotional paintings known as tangkas, practitioners study the deity in every detail, color, and feature, then—on the basis of deep concentration and in conjunction with the chanting of sacred mantras—learn to see it vividly in the mind’s eye and without any outside props.27 Next, the deity—which consists of pure, vacillating rays and is cosmic, radiant, and transcendent—changes from an inert statue into an interactive agent. It emanates certain emotional and spiritual powers, often visualized as light rays or an enveloping mist, that descend first onto the meditator and cover him or her completely. The deity’s energy then oozes into the disciple who begins to feel the very same qualities and thus absorbs that particular aspect of enlightenment. In some cases, the deity may also relate to the disciple in words and actions, providing advice and support: or it may merge completely (maybe sexually) with the disciple and become one with him. In deity practice, meditators project one or the other enlightened quality that is already deeply inherent in their being onto the deity and then consciously merge with it to enhance their good potential and reduce negative mind states. Every time they imagine in deep meditation that they are perfect, loving, compassionate, or fearless

beings,

free from the delusions of craving,

aversion,

and ignorance,

they emerge slightly changed. With repetition, the practice habituates the mind to more positive states. But it only works if the deity is completely real to the meditator. As Lama Yeshe says: When you see yourself as a deity, you should feel that you are the real emanation of the deity. Don’t think that you are just pretending; you should be convinced. Then, like the actor who remains in character even after the play is finished,

27 The following discussion is based largely on Landaw and Weber 1993. For more on Tibetan deity visualization, notably the fundamental purification practice of Vajrasattva, see also Amipa 1985, 105-24; Breaux 1989, 11522; Dalai Lama 2002, 183-98; Kalu 1995, 126-30; McDonald 1984, 109-38; Sangpo 1982, 141-53; Tarthang 1977, 123-34. A summary of the Tibetan pantheon is found in Ray 2000a, 17-27. For a study of the psychology of Tibetan symbolism, see Paul 1982.

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you might surprise yourself to find that you have actually

become the deity. (Yeshe 2001, 121)

Deity practice is described in terms of the “Four Purities:” to see one’s body as the body of the deity; one’s environment as the pure land or the deity s mandala; one’s enjoyments as bliss of the deity; and one’s actions as being done only for the benefit of others. The practice thus ranges from the initial identification of self and deity through the creation of an ideal environment around oneself and the transformation of personal attitudes into divine attributes to the ultimate state, the selfless and compassionate service of others. The highest stage of purity in the Mahayana tradition is the ideal of the bodhisattva that forms the ultimate goal of tantric practice. A bodhisattva is a person who, after developing a strong will to reach enlightenment, takes a vow expressing the motivation of the “mind to enlightenment” (bodhicitta). In this the person acknowledges that he or she is already, intrinsically enlightened and vows not to leave the rebirth cycle for ultimate nirvana until all beings have been liberated. This means that, even if a bodhisattva reaches an exalted level of at-

tainment, he or she will continue to take voluntary rebirth to keep working toward the salvation of all. The prime example of this is the Dalai Lama,

said to be the continued incarnation of the bodhisattva

Chenrezig (Avalokitesvara), the embodiment of compassion and love. But there are many senior leaders in the Tibetan community (tulku, rinpoche) who are the voluntary incarnations of highly evolved bodhisattvas.2®

In addition to taking a vow of service to all beings, bodhisattvas per-

form the so-called six perfections of morality, concentration, charity,

patience, effort, and wisdom. The work of the bodhisattva is described

as “perfection of wisdom” (prajñapäramita), a quality is personified in

Tibet as a goddess: she has a body of golden light and four arms, one of which holds a golden thunderbolt that will cut through ignorance and other hindering factors. The practice associated with the goddess involves taking refuge in buddha, dharma, and sangha, generating bodhicitta motivation, paying homage, making suitable offerings, and chanting the Heart Sutra.2?

28 On the ideal and practices of the bodhisattva, see Dayal 1975; Kawamura 1981. For more on bodhicitta, see Dalai Lama 2002, 148-51. 29 Landaw and Weber 1993, 49-53. See also Brazier 1995, 212; Trungpa 1985b, 167-79.

Visualization / 141

The bodhisattva path as guided by Prajnaparamita, then, culminates in three qualities essential to all enlightened beings: compassion, wisdom, and power. This means, one feels subtly connected to all beings; draws upon Buddhist insight to understand and approach them; and has the ability to use right opportunities and proper means to guide them to enlightenment. All three are visualized as deities: compassion as Avalokitesvara; wisdom as Manjusri; and power as Vajrapani. They each abound in symbolism and have associated stories. They are also each connected to unique ways of visualization and empowerment, the mantra of Avalokitesvara, Om mani padme hum, being the best known and most powerful among them.30 While these three qualities are part of unfolding buddha nature, the next set of deities, known as the five buddha families, represent ten-

dencies of the subconscious mind. They dominate most people in one way or the other and should all be transformed into appropriate virtues and aspects of wisdom.?! The first quality is that of the diamond (vajra) family, represented by

Vairocana,

the element

and penetrating,

water,

and the color white.

Cutting,

sharp,

it appears as powerful intellect and the ability to

explain arguments. In a more neurotic version, it 1s aggression, anger,

and intellectual fixation, a rigidity possessiveness rather than the cutting-through of obstacles. Through focused practice, this quality is

transformed into a determined,

indestructible, and concentrated wis-

dom that gives rise to equanimity and thoughtfulness.

The

second quality belongs to the expansive

sented by Ratnasambhava,

(ratna) family,

repre-

earth, and yellow. It signifies enrichment,

opulence, and plenty, a sense of expansion, richness, and wealth— personally, emotionally, or spiritually. In its more negative expression, ratna is pride, arrogance, and acquisitiveness, an expansion without limits and beyond reason. In the practice, though, it changes into a reflective and gentle wisdom that creates a broad sense of calm, equanimity, and generosity. The third quality connects to the lotus (padma) family, represented by Amitabha, fire, and red. It is passion or craving, an inherent grasping quality, a desire to possess. In its negative expression, this quality is seductive, sexy, yet predatory, an excessive potency of pas-

30 Landaw and Weber 1993, 54-68. See also Brazier 1995, 193.

31 The five buddha families are presented in Landaw and Weber 1993, 69-78. See also Sangpo 1982, 154-60.

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sion. In practice, it is transformed into a compassionate and discriminate wisdom that gives rise to well-intentioned love and care. The fourth quality is part of the action (karma) family, represented

by Amoghasiddhi, wind, and green. It is the natural fulfillment we

find through action and interaction, which can be turned into the difficult tendency of being overly efficient, constantly doing, and intensely organized. One constantly compares oneself with others and is never free from jealousy and envy. The ultimate neurosis of this quality is the desire to create a uniform world. The wind, however,

the element associated with it, will never just blow from one direction,

and uniformity is not ultimately possible. On the other hand, if worked with properly, the quality of arma will mutate into a wisdom that is open, fulfilling, active, and wholesome. It allows the unfolding

of well-wishing and abundance.

The last quality belongs to the enlightenment (buddha) family, represented by Akshobya, space, and blue. It signifies ignorance or stupidity,

a spaced-out, uncommitted

state, a lack of involvement and con-

cern, a laziness that avoids effort and cannot be bothered by the hassles of life. If trained in the right way, this quality can change into an encompassing, open-minded wisdom that gives rise to freedom of thought and an unobstructed mind, the great, empty space that is the element of this family. Each of these five buddhas therefore represents a psychological tendency that is ultimate part of wisdom and virtue inherent in everyone but buried deeper in some than in others and overshadowed by negative emotions or attitudes. Practitioners need to embrace and incorporate all of the buddhas and qualities to reach complete enlightenment, but they focus on the aspect that is most potent for them, an aspect that is identified by their guru and activated in a formal initiation ceremony. As the Dalai Lama says: There

dwells within us all a potential which

allows

us to

awaken into buddhahood and attain omniscience. The empowerment process [of initiation through a guru] draws that potential out, and allows it to express itself more fully. When an empowerment is conferred on you, it is the nature of your mind—the buddha nature—that provides a basis upon which the empowerment

empowerment,

can ripen you. Through the

you are empowered into the essence of the

buddhas of the five families. In particular, you are “ripened”

within that particular family through which it is your per-

sonal predisposition to attain buddhahood. also Dalai Lama 2002, 189-90)

(2000, 29; see

Visualization / 143

Other Gods Besides deity practice and closely connected with it, the second main characteristic of tantra is that it actively embraces powers of ordinary living, such as health, wealth, and long life, rejecting the traditional Buddhist leaning toward asceticism and the denigration of pleasures. Part of the reason is a contrariness toward mainstream Hindu and Buddhist practices; but even more important is the practical consideration that without physical health, a reasonably long life, and a material cushion one will not be able to pursue the practice and thus forfeit enlightenment even before one begins. Six deities are specifically venerated and activated to ensure a good physical and material base of the practice. The first among them is Green Tara, the principal manifestation of enlightenment in the Buddhist tradition who, like a kind and caring mother goddess, will remove obstacles from the way. She interferes in human affairs to make the progress on the path smoother and easier. The next three deities are associated with long life: White Tara, Ushnisha Vijaya, and Amitayus. They remove all problems that might stand in the way of leading a long and prosperous life, serving to fulfill wishes and improve karma. In many ways, they are popular because they empower those who ask for their help and make life for them.32 The remaining

two deities in this group are the Medicine

(Bhaishajyaguru)

and the God of Wealth

(Vaishravana).

Buddha

Both are

venerated by the general populace for the healing and affluence they bring, helping people attain their goal of being strong and healthy, successful and prosperous. In the more specific path of the tantric meditator, of course, these deities have a more spiritual role, granting healing from the three fundamental afflictions of craving, aversion, and ignorance, and providing wealth in the form of insight and enlightenment. The various symbolic items associated of the God of Wealth are accordingly interpreted in a more Buddhist fashion: the two golden fish, instead of being merely symbols of money flowing in, represent release from the ocean of suffering; the treasure vase, rather than a cornucopia of material blessings, is the source of an endless supply of long life, health, and wisdom; and the banner of victory, far from signifying a win over one’s competitors, signals overcoming the forces of ignorance. 32 On these deities and their images, see Landaw and Weber 1993, 79-98. 33 See Landaw and Weber 1993, 99-107.

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The third major characteristic of tantra is that it uses people’s limitations and destructive tendencies .as fertilizers on the path. This reflects the idea that whatever blockages and negative patterns we may have, they all contain enormous amounts of energy which, if channeled properly, will enhance the work toward enlightenment. Rather than banishing negativity and destruction, tantra makes it visible in so-called wrathful deities, gods and goddesses that seem at first glance terrible and frightening yet whose potent energy can greatly enhance the adept along the path of spiritual cultivation. As the Dalai Lama says: The practitioner utilizes hatred or wrath for a specific purpose. This technique is based on the fact that when we become angry, a very energetic and powerful mind is generated. When trying to achieve a fierce activity [for beneficial purposes], the energy and power make a difference. (1998,

248; see also Dalai Lama 2002, 219-21)

The mental energy of anger is accordingly transformed into powerful and forthright action, desire is transformed into compassion for others, ignorance into omniscience,

and so forth. This transformation is

entirely different from repressing or subduing delusions and aggression; on the contrary, it requires transforming deluded and misdi-

rected internal energies. It also necessitates a direct, honest look into

the depth of the world within, the head-on recognition of inner monsters, and the work of pulling out the shadows that were suppressed for so long.

Wrathful deities associated with the destructive side of human nature are usually depicted with various details symbolizing their powers and intensity. They are commonly shown with multiple (sometimes animal) heads over strong bodies, covered in garlands of skulls, and standing before a fire-wall of busting flames. Their feet crush humans and beasts, and they wield all sorts of terrifying weapons in their numerous arms, with which to slay selfishness, ignorance, and defilements. Visualizing them in deep meditation can rouses powerful inner energies for the enhancement Trungpa says:

of enlightenment.

As

Chögyam

The skilled bodhisattva will acknowledge and accept all these negative things. Doing so, one for the first time really knows that one has all these terrible things in oneself. And

although it is very difficult and unhygienic,

work

as it were, to

on [these negativities], that is the only way to start.

Eventually

one

[enlightenment].

will

scatter

Having

them

studied

on the

all

one’s

field

of bodhi

concepts

and

Visualization / 145

negative patterns, when the time is right, one does not keep

them anymore, but scatters them and uses them as manure.

So out of these unclean things comes the birth of the seed

that is realization. (1970, 104)

Then negativity simply becomes food, pure strength. You no longer relate to negativity as being good or bad, but you continually use the energy which comes out of it as a source of life so that you are never defeated in a situation. Crazy wisdom cannot be defeated. If someone attacks or if someone praises, crazy wisdom will feed on either equally. As far as crazy wisdom is concerned, both praise and blame are the same thing because there is always some energy occurring.

(2002, 78)

The symbolism of the deities’ features matches their role. Thus, Vajrayogini, the potent consort of the wrathful god Heruka, is depicted naked to show her freedom from ordinary conceptions and appearances. She is shown with nipples erect, symbolizing the arousal of desire and her support of those with strong passion for the path. Her hair is long, straight, and black, indicating her straightforward truth and unchanging power. Her body ornaments represent the first five of the six perfections of bodhisattva practice, while her body itself is the sixth perfection, that of wisdom. The bleached skulls of her garland, finally, indicate that her internal powers create a fierce, fiery arousal,

that will burn and bleach everything in their way.34

In a similar way, the six arms of Mahakala (Great Black One) represent the six perfections, symbolized by a hooked knife, a skull-cup

filled with blood, a rosary of skulls, a sword, a trident, and a lasso. All

these are means to cut through ignorance, subdue evil-doers, tie up evil, and serve humanity. He, moreover, sits on the corpses of demons which represent the paralysis of ego. The powers of ordinary personality have diminished and the spontaneity of buddha nature rules, the “crazy wisdom” of being enlightened in the world. As practitioners see, feel,

and

become

one

with

the wrathful

deities,

they

not only

openly confront the unsavory, destructive, and repressed aspects of their personalities but make them accessible for the ultimate transformation of enlightenment. They grow into the powerful god, harnessing all untamed energies and vigorously cutting through all obstacles.35

34 Landaw and Weber 1993, 139-44. See also Sangpo 1982, 161-66. 35 Landaw and Weber 1993, 147-52.

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Therapeutic Applications Visualization and imagery have been used widely in psychotherapy. The best known exampleis C. G. Jung and his work with dreams and creative imagination. Noting that many of his patients came up with highly similar images, he proposed the concept of the collective unconscious and of universal archetypes. That is to say, he suggested that all people gua being human shared the same common unconscious patterns that would then manifest in typical standard images. An example is the mandala as a representation of psychological integration and wholeness.36 Other therapists using imagery are: Wolfgang Kretschmer, who developed meditative techniques that included full-body relaxation and symbolic fantasies of the desired state; Joseph Wolpe, a behavioral therapist who applied a systematic desensitization in which the patient would use relaxed visualization of threatening or difficult situations; Aaron T. Beck, the creator of cognitive therapy who taught control of spontaneous visualization and forward time projection to enable the patient to see beyond the moment of anxiety; Roberto Assagioli, whose method of psychosynthesis used symbolic visualization to allow people to build their personalities like they would a house, step by step, stone by stone; and Gerald Epstein, who created easy and quick visualization exercises for numerous medical conditions and life-improving situations.37 Visualization has also been used as a diagnostic tool, particularly by Carl Happich and Hans Carl Leuner.38 They both induced a state of deep relaxation in their patients, then instructed them to visualize themselves in a series of situations, mostly consisting of natural environments (mountains, meadows, water) and some elementary buildings (walls, chapel, house). On the basis of how exactly the person visualized certain parts, the analysts could tell what their problems were and what they should work on to gain psychological well-being. For example, the meadow represents the present mood or state of the

patient,

the mountain

shows

career

and achievements,

the body

of

36 See Samuels and Samuels 1975, 180-83; Jung and Chodorow 1997. 37 For the work of these therapists, see Assagioli 1965; Beck 2000; 2004; Epstein 1989; Kretschmer 1977; Wolpe 1990; Firman 2002. An overview is

found in Korn

and Johnson

1983. Other psychological uses of visualization

include help with phobias and other irrational fears.

38 For a presentation, see Samuels and Samuels 1975, 195-98.

Visualization / 147

water indicates the current sensual or sexual situation, the house is a

symbol of overall personality, the wall represents obstacles lying in the path, and the vision of a door, a key, or another means of getting to the other side of the wall shows how well the patient is prepared to deal with difficulties.

Another therapeutic use of visualization is in hypnosis and Neuro-

Linguistic Programming (NLP). While hypnotists guide their clients

into a state of deep relaxation, then proceed to work with different types of imagery to induce desired results, NLP practitioners keep the person fully conscious and use very fast and often deceptively simple techniques to change mental patterns.39

One method is static. The client is instructed to see himself as he is now (fat, anxious, phobic) on the right panel of a TV screen that is divided ınto three segments. He then sees himself as he would like to

be (slim, calm, phobia-free) on the far left panel. Next, he is taught to

merge the two images in the center panel. This new image of himself (with the memory of the past state but incorporating his new self) is then made larger and, not unlike in tantric practice, seen in vivid color and moved closer to the patient who eventually merges with it. The entire exercise takes only a minute or two and should be performed repeatedly for best success. Another NLP method uses movie features. The client sees herself on a movie screen undergoing a phobic or difficult situation or being successful in a certain endeavor. She is taught how to modify the image, making it smaller or larger, more or less colorful, moving faster or slower, forward

or backward.

If more

distance is desired, the client

can also see herself sitting in a movie theater looking at the screen of herself in the difficult situation. Gradually the client modifies the image to her perfect satisfaction, then merges with it, making it her new reality. The success rate of these various therapies and mind-altering practices is quite high, attesting to the power of visualization and lending credence to Tibetans’ claim that they can reach enlightenment faster and more effectively with their methods. In a healing context, very few medical procedures and conditions cannot be alleviated or influenced with the help of visualization. Childbirth and surgery are classic examples: they are much easier with hypnotic preparation and the active visualization of both the end result and the successful process. But other procedures, too, can be 39 On NLP, see Andreas and Andreas 1987; Grinder and Bandler 1975; 1981; McDermott and O’Connor 1996; O’Connor 2002.

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helped with the method. An example is the case of a 64-year-old woman who has to undergo esophageal dilation, a rather unpleasant procedure, once every three months. Getting ready for the procedure, she would be guided into_a state of deep relaxation, then instructed to mentally go.to a pleasant place. She chose Las Vegas. Prior to the dilation procedure, she would image herself in a large casino by the dollar slot machine. She would drop the dollar into the slot machine, hear it register, and hold the arm, ready to pull. When the doctor was ready to do the dr lation,

she would

pull the lever and watch

the dials

spin

around and then stop on the winning jackpot. She would then.see lights flash, hear the sound of the coins dropping from the machine, and experience exuberance as she watched and felt the people gather around her. The time required to produce this effect has been reduced to a few seconds: She is simply asked to close her eyes and imagine that she is in Las Vegas. 4

Not only finding great relief from an unpleasant medical procedure, the lady did in fact win the jackpot in just the visualized fashion after about a year of this practice.41 The best known medical work with visualization is by Oscar Simonton(1978) with cancer patients. He demonstrates how attitudes, in-

ternal dialogue, and visions of health or sickness can make the differ-

ence between life and death. Patients who read their cancer diagnosis as a death sentence, think of themselves as hopeless, and see themselves declining, die much sooner than those who understand cancer as controllable, think of their bodies as strong and vigorous, and see themselves living long and happy lives. More specifically, he also shows how visualizing cancer cells in one color or as soldiers of one army and good, nurturing, healing cells in another color or as fighters of another troop and then engaging them visually in internal battle can actively reduce the size and presence of tumors.

40 Korn and Johnson 1983, 191.

41 Another common application of visualization is to coach athletes to peak performances. See the story of the golfer Jack Nicklaus above.

Visualization / 149

Shadow Psychology Like tantra, modern therapy and medicine structive personality traits as the shadow, Debbie Ford says:

healing not only uses visualization in psychobut also works with the transformation of detraits. Psychologists described such hidden a term originally developed by C. G. Jung. As

The shadow wears many faces: fearful, greedy, angry, vindictive, evil, selfish, manipulative, lazy, controlling, hostile, ugly, undeserving, cheap, weak, critical, judgmental . . .

The list goes on and on. Our dark side acts as a storehouse for all these unacceptable aspects of ourselves—all the things we pretend not to be and all the aspects that embar-

rass us. These are the faces we don’t want to show the world and the faces we don’t want to show ourselves. Everything we hate, resist, or disown about ourselves takes

on a life of its own, undermining our feelings of worthiness.

When we come face-to-face with our dark side, our first instinct is to turn away, and our second to bargain with it to leave us alone. Many of us have spent vast amounts of time

and money in an effort to do just that. Ironically, it’s these hidden aspects we've rejected that need the most attention. When we locked away those parts of ourselves we didn’t like, unknowingly, we sealed away our most valuable treasures.*

The idea is that when we are born, we have the indeterminate potential to be many things. But as education proceeds, we are taught that this or that aspect is bad, this or that behavior unacceptable, this or that trait not desirable. We then lock these potentials away, literally closing the door on them, and try to ignore and dispel them. However, they do not leave but remain hidden and crop up in unsavory tendencies, compulsive behaviors, aggressive traits, and patterns we would like to change but cannot control. Shadow psychologists, like tantric practitioners, see great value in these hidden, negative, and apparently destructive forces. They agree that all suppressed aspects contain enormous energies that can be used positively and successfully to enhance life and well-being. They also note that the act of suppression takes a lot of work and removes

42 Ford

1998,

11. See also Ford 2004.

and psychology, see Tarthang 1975.

For more

on overlaps

of Tantra

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vibrancy and enthusiasm from other aspects of life. What ‘they use visualization to bring these forces to the light.

is more,

Rather than as wrathful deities, however, shadow psychologists, as much as followers of psychosynthesis, see the destructive elements as subpersonalities, different aspects of the dominant personality that were found unacceptable at some point and have come to linger in the dark underground of the psyche.4 One way of bringing them to light is to visualize oneself going on an imaginary bus ride. One enters a relaxed state and visualizes a bus full of people. Then one gets on the bus with them and acknowledges that they are all different aspects of oneself. After this, one can begin to talk to one or the other, ask them

what they would like from the dominant self and what gift they might be bringing. Debbie Ford recounts her experience: We were told to let ourselves get off the bus with one of our subpersonalities. And Big Bertha Big Mouth was right there reaching out to take my hand. She was the first subpersonality who wanted to have a conversation with me... . She was in her sixties, and was my worst nightmare in terms of appearance. She had thinning gray hair, which was poorly cut and sticking up in front of her face. She reeked of hair spray and cigarettes. She was wearing a beige muumuu with large, orange polka-dots. Wrapped around her shoulders was a beige polyester sweater held together by an old, rusty pin. Her legs were fat and her stockings were torn. On her feet were badly worn plastic shoes. . . . She said that she was not going away

and if I would only

be spiritually

by external

open my closed mind, I would see that she had a lot to offer. Then the teacher guided me to ask Big Bertha what she had to teach me. Big Bertha told me I shouldn’t judge people by their looks. . . . She reminded me that Td always judged people whom I considered fat and that the only people in my life were those whose external appearance I felt comfortable with. Deep inside I knew Bertha was right. I pretended to evolved

and

not swayed

things

like appearances, but I was lying to myself. . . . Big Bertha said her gift was wholeness. She said I would have to look in the eyes of everyone I met with love and compassion to see myself fully. 44

43 On working with subpersonalities in psychosynthesis, see Firman and Gila 2002, 67-92. 44 Ford 1998, 95-96. On multiple aspects of the personality, see also Lippitt 1975, 145-59

Visualization

/ 151

Big Bertha in Debbie Ford’s case was a creation of her psyche based on an aspect of herself that she found hard or impossible to accept. Learning to realize that even Bertha was part of herself, she found the ability to be more accepting toward people who did not have her approved looks and to create interchanges with others from a loving and

compassionate

mind

instead

of from a

critical and judgmental

position. It is interesting to note here that shadow psychology as much as tantric deity practice leads not only to an integration of the person and a sense of wholeness, but also to the prime qualities of the bodhisattva: wisdom and compassion. The true understanding of who we are, the in-depth experience of all our aspects, however apparently wrathful, destructive, or threatening, thus opens the path to buddha nature and enlightenment, in modern terms expressed as wholeness and a sense of integrated well-being in oneself and the world.

The Living Tradition Buddhism reached Tibet from both China and India in the middle of the seventh century C.E., especially under the guidance of the Indian saint Padmasambhava. Merging gradually with the indigenous Bon religion, it came to dominate Tibetan life and culture by the eleventh century. In time four distinct schools developed: Nyingma (Ancient

Ones), Kagyu (Oral Lineage), Sakya (Pale Earth), and Gelug (Way of

Virtue).

The Nyingma School traces itself back to Padmasambhava; it relies on early esoteric scriptures known as tantras and emphasizes the practice of various forms of Buddhist meditation. Dzogchen, the Tibetan adaptation of immediacy practice, belongs to this line. The Kagyu School represents an oral tradition; it focuses on the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa (1052-1135), a cruel man converted to Buddhist mystic who meditated for many years 1n mountain caves. The Sakya School, founded in 1073 by Konchol Gyelpo, represents the scholarly tradition; it encourages exegesis of scriptures and monastic debates. The Gelug School was founded by Gyalwa Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), the first Dalai Lama; it integrates the teachings of the various other schools, and to the present day is the spiritual home of the Tibetan leader.

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Until the seventeenth century, the religious institution of Tibet was separate from the state, with the king ruling the country and the Dalai Lama serving as the head of monks. The fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682) decided to take a more active lead in the country’s politics. With the help of Mongol armies, he overthrew rival schools and secular.authorities and established himself as king, setting up the system that still survives today. He was supported by the Chinese, who since the Tang dynasty had claimed suzerainty over Tibet. This claim led to the more aggressive establishment of Chinese garrisons on the Tibetan border in 1949 and to a full-fledged invasion of the country in 1959. Then, and even more violently during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), monasteries were destroyed or reassigned to secular purposes, monks were defrocked and returned to the laity, and millions of Tibetans were killed. The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), together with 80,000 followers went to exile in Dharamsala

in northern India, where

live. Many Tibetan lamas also moved

today about

120,000 Tibetans

to the West, and especially to

the U.S., for the first time leaving their monastic seclusion and teach-

ing their wisdom and practices to lay populations.

The Dalai Lama, a very popular figure in the West, has become the key representative not only for non-violent resistance against the Communist take-over (for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989), but also an important mover in the increasing integration of Buddhist thought and meditation into Western culture and especially science. In the 1980s, he founded the Mind and Life Institute in cooperation with the neuroscientist Francisco Varela and the businessman and Buddhist meditator R. Adam

Engle, and since then has par-

ticipated in thirteen international dialogues on the practical application of meditation in modern science. A number of important publications have come out of these meetings, including Healing Emotions, Visions of Compassion, The New Physics and Cosmology, and Train Your Mind to Change Your Brain.* Far removed from other countries for most of its history, Tibet for the first time is making a major contribution to world culture.46

45 References to these volumes are: Goleman 1997; Davidson and Harrington 2002; Zajonc and Houshmand 2004; Begley 2007. 46 The life of the Dalai Lama is recorded in his autobiography (1990). In addition to the Institute’s series, he has authored a number of important

works on how to transform life with Buddhist practice (e.g., 1998; 2001; 2002). See also www.dalailama.com; www.mindandlife.org.

Visualization / 153

Besides the Dalai Lama, the most important Tibetan leader in terms

of Western influence is Chégyam Trungpa (1939-1987), a representa-

tive of the Kagyu School who fled Tibet in 1959, moved to England in the 1960s, and arrived in the U.S. in the 1970s. He founded the Dhar-

madhatu or Shambhala group, with headquarters in Boulder, Col., from which also a major study center and Buddhist university grew, the Naropa Institute. He died in 1976 from alcoholism and under the shadow of a scandal. Today the organization is hale and healthy, under the leadership of Trungpa’s son, Sakyong Mipham.47 Beyond these central figures there are numerous other Tibetan lamas who have made their home in the West and are teaching various aspects of tantric Buddhism.48 They all combine devotional practice with deep meditations, beginning with breath observation and basic instructions in the complexities of Tibetan ritual, art, and symbolism.

Only after several years of series committed practice are adepts guided into visualization practice, and then often in retreats of longer duration, such as one to three months. Working with deities as aspects of the subconscious can be quite harmful and has to be done after extensive preparation, under the guidance of an experienced teacher, and with great caution. Unlike in self-help psychology, sports training, business seminars, and hypnosis, where visualization is used with great ease, in its religious setting the practice—although the landmark of Tibetan tantra as compared to other Buddhist schools—is not popular or widespread, and certainly not offered to beginners.

47 On the life and work of Chögyam

Trungpa,

see his autobiography

(Trungpa 1985a) and a recent account by Gimian and Mukpo (2006). He au-

thored numerous works on meditation that had a great impact on its Western

perception (e.g., Trungpa 1970; 1976; 1985b; 1988; 2001). His son and successor, too, has begun to write (Mipham 2003). See also www.shambhala.org. 48 Lama Yeshe and Lama Zopa are a good example (www.lamayeshe.com)

as is the Kurukulla Center for Tibetan Buddhism (www. kurukulla.org).

Chapter Six

Body Awareness: Yoga and Daoyin Body awareness, the subjective consciousness of body sensations in mental absorption, is similar to concentration and insight meditation in that it, too, requires deep and steady breathing and the development of a detached observer in the mind. It goes beyond both, however, as it works predominantly with the muscles, tendons, and joints of the body and accesses the subconscious mind through kinesthetic apperception.

Unlike all other forms of meditation, in body awareness practitioners do not sit still in one—at least initially—comfortable posture, but put their bodies through slow, conscious movements and into particular poses. The movements can range from simple repetitive exercises to complex and challenging sequences; the postures may involve anything from straightforward, simple poses to intricate, almost acrobatic contortions. They can be done in fairly quick succession or held for a minute or more. One first relaxes the body then releases trauma stored in it. The point of the practice is to access and release past

conditionings retained in the muscles and joints while enhancing the

body’s

natural wisdom,

creating

inner

peace,

well as an ultimate connection to the divine.

freedom,

and

ease

as

Body awareness developed in the Indian tradition under the name of yoga; in ancient China it was called daoyin and is today known as qigong. The term yoga comes from the Sanskrit root yug and originally means “union.” This refers to the union of the seeker with the divine power of Brahman through the uncovering of his or her true 154

Body Awareness / 155

self (atman). The word yug, however, is also related to the English word “yoke” and indicates discipline and control. This part of the definition refers to the work that has to be done in order to achieve union: a regular discipline that gradually provides control over a person’s behavior, body, breath, emotions, and mind until the ego-based

identity can be transcended in favor of the cosmic true self.

The Chinese term daoyin consists of the two words dao and yin. Dao means “to guide” or “direct,” and appears originally in a political context in the sense of leading the people in a certain direction. In selfcultivation it implies to guide the gi through the body in order to establish harmony with Dao, realizing the inherent polarity of yin and yang and aligning oneself with the cosmos. The second character, yin, originally means “to draw a bow” and indicates pulling to create tension while activating strength. It means to stretch the body and release trauma by limbering up muscles, opening joints, and extending the limbs. Qigong, finally, means the “effort” or “work” of g As a term it was coined in 1947 by the Chinese Communist Party to indicate the modern, de-spiritualized version of traditional exercises.! As these terms already indicate, there are some fundamental worldview differences between the two: the Indian tradition emphasizes stillness and stability and aims for union with a firm, solid, everlast-

ing Self; the Chinese tradition works with the ever changing flow of gi and envisions the creation of harmony through movement. The understanding of body and mind in yoga and daoyin as well as their history and social setting are thus quite dissimilar 2 Nevertheless, they have in common that they both represent body awareness meditation and link health and well-being as much as long life and spiritual attainment intimately with body strength and flexibility. Both, moreover, have been found immensely helpful in medical settings and are increasingly popular in the West, where both indigenous and Western masters are developing ever changing forms of the practice.

1 On the word yoga, see Bernard 1968, Dychtwald 1977, 66. On the meaning of daoyin,

15; Iyengar 1988, 3, 141; see Ikai 2003, 33-34; Kohn

2008, intr. On the committee effort to create the term gigong, see Palmer 2007, 31-32. A very similar system also developed in the Tibetan tradition,

called “Kum

Nye Relaxation;” it consists of breathing, massages,

and gentle

movements and serves to balance and integrate body and mind. See Tarthang 1978. Another Tibetan counterpart is Magical Movements, which have a lot in common with Yoga and Daoyin. See Chaoul 2007. 2 For a general overview of the differences in terms of history and worldview, see Kohn 2006a.

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Mind in Body After giving prevalence to the brain for the longest time, modern scientists increasingly recognize that personality and mental activity also happen in other parts of the body. Thus findings show that heart-transplant patients are taking on certain characteristics of their organ donors, such as a predilection for certain foods or a fasci-

nation with motor cycles; some also substantiate the traditional Eastern emphasis on the hara or dantian as a center of personality by suggesting the presence of an “abdominal brain.” In psychology, Gestalt therapy by Fritz Perls makes use of body structures and positions to release mental traumas and neurotic patterns; Ida Rolfs Structural Integration, better known as Rolfing, uses systematic deep-tissue massage of the body’s musculature to open new venues of personality; and studies of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder show details of somatic and kinesthetic memory stored deep in the muscles. 4 These and other body-mind methods find personality issues seated in the very tissues of the body, connecting psychological content and physical stature. Neuropeptides being present in all body tissues, one may conclude with Candace Pert that “memories are stored not only in the brain, but in a psychosomatic network extending into the body . . . all the way out along pathways to internal organs and the

very surface of the skin.” As a result, as has become quite clear by now, “certain kinds of exercise can produce chemical alterations that give us a stronger, healthier, and happier brain.” An avid student of these various theories and practices, Ken Dychtwald has made the effort to link specific parts of the body with

certain types of personality in his book Bodymind (1977). He finds that people tend to split their bodies in various ways, reflecting domi-

3 On studies of heart transplant patients and changes in their personal-

ity, see Sylvia 1997; Pearsall 1998; Schwartz and Russek 1999. For a comprehensive summary, see www.alternative-doctor.com . The “abdominal brain” was a popular idea in medicine around the turn of the 19-20 centuries (e.g.， Bedell 1885; Dumont 1920). Recent research connects “gut feelings” and intestinal aspects of mental ailments to the enteric nervous system. See McMil-

lin et al. 1999. 4 On Gestalt therapy, see Perls 1969; Perls and Perls 1973. For a presentation of Rolfing, see Rolf 1977; Brecklinghaus 2002. On PTSD and notions of somatic or kinesthetic memory, see Rothschild 2000. 5 Pert 1997; Ratey 2002, 178. It is also well documented that breathing has a calming effect on the emotions (Ratey 2002, 222-23).

deep

Body Awareness / 157

nant or latent personality patterns. Thus, for example, the right side of the body in most people is the “masculine” side, characterized by assertiveness, aggression, and authority. The left side is more feminine, holding personality aspects of emotionality, creativity, and receptivity. Similarly, the lower half of the body is concerned with stability, support, and groundedness, while the top half works more on communication, and interaction with others. People with a strongly developed lower body are typically more private, family-oriented, and in general less outgoing, while people with a larger upper body tend to be more active in socializing and running businesses. Another split is front/back. The front of the body represents the conscious, social self, while many aspects of our being and experience that we do not want to deal with are literally pushed to the back. Unwanted emotions, negative experiences, desires that seem inappropriate, forms of self-expression not allowed by family or society— all those show up as tensions on the back, where they remain present and can lead to illness and discomfort. Another way people separate physical sections within themselves is to divide the head from the rest of the body. The head contains the social aspects as well as the mind, intellect, and reason, while the body is the private sector with

emotions, feelings, and intuitions. People tend to either be headless— following their emotions and intuitions blindly—or completely given to logic and intellect, ignoring their inner voices. 6 People can gradually overcome these splits through the practice of body awareness. They achieve greater balance by strengthening the extremities and reducing weaknesses in upper or lower body. Performing every pose on both sides of the body, they develop a greater awareness of the differences between the two sides and increasingly integrate them. As they advance in posture training, they learn to be conscious in space and are perfectly oriented even in inverted or head-down positions, joining head and trunk in new ways. At the same time their practice of various forms of back openers allows them to make contact with repressed feelings and desires. It is thus not surprising that yoga and qigong teachers often see tremendous change in their students and that practitioners time and again become emotionally vulnerable during practice.

In his book, Ken Dychtwald proceeds through the entire body, linking physical patterns to mental and emotional attitudes. For example, the feet typically represent the person’s contact with reality and the 6 Dychtwald 1977, 26-46.

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ground of existence. They are the foundation of balance and stability, and many body practices emphasize keeping the feet active, spreading the toes, and consciously feeling contact with the ground. Flat feet in general indicate an ungrounded way of relating to the world, difficulty in putting down roots and sticking to one thing. Clutching feet represent the other extreme: they are a sign of enforced stability and immobility. Often in times of emotional crisis the impulse to flee is not followed; instead, the person holds tight, literally clamping on to the earth. The tension in the feet, moreover, also translates into mus-

cular tightness along the backs of the legs, knees, and lower back. Other ways to use the feet are by placing the weight largely on the heels andby tiptoeing around. Heel-pushers tend to have an exaggerated sense of determination and a false sense of stability; they seem strong, but are in fact “pushovers.” Tiptoers, finally, are floaters and dreamers, who prefer to not make too much contact with reality.” Along the same lines, the body’s joints are communicating nodes and psychosomatic crossroads. The more open the joints are, the easier it is to adjust to change and live healthily. As yoga or qigong practice opens the joints, there is a greater flow of life energy and progress toward new dimensions. It also increases the awareness of internal patterns, practitioners realizing that injuries or pains in the joints are an indication that certain areas of life are not properly balanced, that the flow of things is interrupted, and that they are doing harmful things to themselves. Working the body in a series of moves and poses thus goes far beyond simple bends and stretches and serves to create release and opening on emotional and spiritual levels of being.’ The muscles similarly are tensed in response to stressful situations and tightened as a form of protection or to favor certain ways of dealing with the world. For example, tension in the pelvic area has to do with the holding of sexual energy; immobility in the upper back shows the presence of repressed anger; tight, raised shoulders indicate

an attitude

of fear, while

bowed

and

rounded

shoulders

show

that the person carries the weight of the world; a stiff neck and forward-holding of the head reflect the tendency to encounter the world head-on; a clenched jaw is a sign of tight self-control, and eyes that are deeply set within the sockets often indicate withheld selfexpression and withdrawn sadness.?

7 Dychtwald 1977, 51-63. 8 Dychtwald 1977, 64-69. 9 Dychtwald 1977, 80, 180, 167-68, 193, 201.

Body Awareness / 159

Muscular Reflexes and Proprioception Muscles, tendons, and joints connect to the nervous system through the proprioceptor nerves, called muscle spindles because they curl around the main body of the muscle like a spindle used in spinning. Each spindle has two kinds of receptors, primary and secondary, that link the muscle to fusimotor nerve fibers at the spinal cord. The receptors coil around a thin muscle layer, representing thicker and thinner nerve fibers, and come in groups of around ten per muscle. The nerve fiber from the primary receptor is the fastest conducting fiber in the body.10 Muscles are thus constantly active and intimately connected to men-

tal states, none more so than those associated with stress. Most cen-

tral among them are three large muscle groups at the core of the body: the abdominal, back, and side muscles. Abdominal muscles are tensed

in times of flight or fear; back muscles are activated in times of fight or action;

and

side muscles

react to trauma,

when

one turns

away

sharply from a violent impact. The stress-related tensing of these muscle groups, morevoer, is described in terms of specific reflexes: the Startle Reflex (abdomen), Landau Reflex (back), and Trauma Reflex

(sides).

Thomas Hanna (1928-1990), the founder of Somatics and a student of

Israeli physicist and body worker Moshe Feldenkrais (1904-1984), calls these the Red Light, Green Light, and Trauma Reflexes, referring to their effect of either stopping the person by tensing the abdominal muscles, activating a vigorous response by tightening the back, or shying away from assault by twisting the sides. 11 In modern societies, he says, as people are subject to innumerable stressful situations, they activate major contractions of the core muscles at an alarming rate and often become habituated to these contractions. Many people have that sinking, tight feeling in the stomach throughout their lives, being stopped by the Startle or Red Light Reflex; they

10 Similar proprioceptors are also found in the tendons and joints, all constantly firing impulses that maintain posture and movement. For a pres-

entation of muscle structure and workings,

see Adams

2004; Giunti Editors

2002, 28-29; Simon 1998. They connect closely to the brain: fear to the amygdala, anger to the frontal lobes, sadness to neurotransmitters, and joy to the hypothalamus and brain chemistry. See Ratey 2002, 232-50. 11 Hanna 1988. For details on the Trauma Reflex and somatic memory, see Rothschild 2000, 53-56. For Moshe Feldenkrais and his understanding of the body, see Feldenkrais 1970; 1972.

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tense the back muscles every time they get ready to do something, working the Landau or Green Light Reflex; and they turn away from shock by twisting to one side or the other, activating the Trauma Reflex. Over time they forget how to release the muscles and live withconstant tension that impoverishes range of motion and causes permanent fatigue and exhaustion. It also may lead to chronic pain and the physical signs commonly associated with old age: a stooping posture, protruding belly, creaky joints, and overall stiffness. Thomas Hanna accordingly calls aging “a myth,” and describes it instead as a learned response to years and years of adopted muscular tension, an_acquired proprioceptive illiteracy that is caused by “sensory-motor amnesia” (SMA).12 This means that people through years of stress-induced muscular contractions have forgotten how it feels to be relaxed. The ability to control a certain muscle group is surrendered to sub-cortical reflexes and becomes automatic in the worst possible way. As a result, people live with muscles chronically contracted at 10, 30, or even 60 percent. These muscles become sore and

painful, tense with constant exertion, and too strong for their own good. They cause clumsiness, represent a continuous energy drain, and create postural distortions such as_ scoliosis, swayback,

hunchback, or flat back.

Tension in the core muscle groups, moreover, impacts other functions of the body. As the abdominal muscles are held in, the diaphragm cannot move, and people no longer take deep breaths, which leads to all the symptoms associated with shallow breathing: increased heart rate, high blood pressure, adrenaline overdose, and so on. From constantly contracted back muscles the tension spreads upward into the shoulders and neck where it leads eventually to tension headaches, blurred vision, and other symptoms. Essentially many conditions in industrialized societies are thus due to this overactivity and constant contraction of the body’s muscles. They are functional, not structural problems, due to the body’s compensation for distortion of the core.13 Not only internal problems and tension aches, various skeletal conditions can also be linked to the misalignment of the body due to chronic muscular contraction. Most obviously affected are the eight load-bearing

Egoscue

joints:

shoulders,

hips,

points out, people often have

knees,

and

excruciating

ankles.

As

Pete

pain in one of

12 Hanna 1988, xiii. For a short description of Somatics, see also Hanna 1990. A more philosophical approach to the problem appears in Hanna 1970. 13 For case studies of various modern conditions and their response to

Somatic treatments, see Hanna 1988, 3-36.

Body Awareness / 161

these joints, caused primarily because the joint is pulled out of alignment by muscles that are no longer functioning as they should.14 As a secondary effect the bones are impacted and the joint itself is weakened or has “arthritis,” which he says is not an incurable disease but “really symptomatic of musculoskeletal problems and as such perfectly treatable.”

Most

so-called

stress

fractures,

moreover,

are

an

indication of the same fundamental misalignment, and there is really nothing inevitable about the increasingly common condition of a fracture after a minor stumble or twist.15

The remedy for both Hanna and Egoscue is found in a series of gentle bends and stretches that relax overly tense muscles and strengthen their weakened counterparts, usually done in combination with deep breathing and attentive awareness. Somatic exercises are undertaken while lying on one’s back with the legs bent and the feet flat on the floor. The back and stomach muscles are activated, first in slow spinal movements, arching and flattening the lower back, then in abdominal crunches and twists to the right and left. Back bends are added while lying on the stomach; hip openers involve putting the feet or knees together in inverting and everting movements; neck and shoulders are freed in a series of seated twists to the right and left. The key to success is the close attention paid to the mutual relationship of contraction and expansion on different sides of the torso plus the conscious awareness and slowness of each posture’s release. While people have forgotten how to relax a muscle, they are very good at tensing it. The practice thus encourages conscious tensing in com-

bination with slow, conscious release.16

E-cises similar work with the relaxed holding of poses that make no demands on the overworked muscles followed by gentle movements that accustom the body to their original uses. The practice, too, 1ncreases conscious awareness of how the muscles work together, realigns the body’s overall structure, and alleviates undue pressure on the joints.17 14 Pete Egoscue runs the Egoscue Clinic in San Diego. After being severely injured in Vietnam, he healed himself with gentle exercises and later developed his own technique of muscular relaxation and realignment, called E-cises. See Egoscue 1998. 15 Egoscue 1998, 101, 34-35. 16 See Hanna 1988; www.somatics.com. Audio tapes and CDs provide instructions for different parts of the body. The most general is the series “Myth of Aging.” 17 See Egoscue 1998, 31-34.

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Through persistent practice of body awareness, whether in these modern or more traditional forms, various intrinsic body-mind patterns thus begin to unravel and the person becomes aware of different experiential and interactive possibilities. Patient and persistent practice releases long-held tensions from different parts of the body and opens the person to new dimensions of being. Rather than always having to meet the world head-on or always being private and withdrawn, the practitioner begins to have choices and learns to move, feel, and behave differently. This opening of inherent strictures, moreover, releases a flow of energy in the body-mind which leads to changes in self-perception, new ways of self-expression, and a greater sense of overall balance. What the Indian tradition describes as the true self and the Chinese express in terms of harmony with Dao is thus felt by people today as a sense of integration and inner wellbeing, complete with the courage to express oneself individually and creatively in the world.

Yoga Historically there are six major kinds of yoga: karma yoga, the realization of the divine through work and duty in society; JAäana yoga, the actualization of perfect oneness through knowledge and wisdom: bhakti yoga, the attainment of oneness through devotion and deity adoration; and kundalini yoga, the awakening of cosmic energy at the base of the spine and its conscious guiding through a series of energy centers.18 The last two forms of yoga represent the dominant forms of the tradition practiced in the West today. They are Hatha Yoga, the training of physical strength and flexibility, and Raja Yoga, a meditative system in eight steps or “limbs” (ashtanga) that leads to deep meditative trance and union with the divine. Raja Yoga is at the core of yoga as meditation. Its eight steps begin

with five ethical restraints (yama), which prohibit negative behavior

in the form of aggression, lying, stealing, sexual misconduct, and coveting. The second step internalizes these restraints into positive attitudes (niyama) and requires the practitioner to cultivate purity, contentment,

ardor, self-study, and deity devotion. These ten basic ethi-

cal principles are at the root of yogic practice and after being observed

18 Karma, Jñana, and Bhakti Yoga are outlined in the Bhagavad Gita. On the text, see Brodbeck and Mascaro 2003; Hawley 2001. On Yoga, see Vivekananda 1955. A discussion of Kundalini Yoga is found in ch. 7 below.

Body Awareness / 163

outwardly are to be internalized deeply and form the backbone of everything the practitioner 0068.19 Building on this ethical foundation, yoga next requires the discipline of body and breath through body postures (äsana) and breath control (pranayama). As Iyengar says: “A steady posture produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind,” while working with prana activates the soul aspect of being, the cosmic breath that vitalizes the person.20 As one places oneself into one or the other yoga pose, as one slows, interrupts, or holds the breath, the mind focuses inward and inner wisdom, the true self, an internal cosmic connection begin to arise.

The last four limbs of the yogic system are meditative stages. They

are withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), concentration (dharana), absorption (dhyana), and ultimate oneness (samadhi). Withdrawal of the senses means the elimination of strong reactions to sensory experiences. Desires and fears dissolve and the mind becomes purer. It is practiced in quiet sitting or in the relaxation stage of physical yoga practice through the conscious withdrawing of sensory faculties. Concentration,

next,

is

reached

through

one-pointed

awareness.

The

practitioner enters into the realm of thought rather than emotion and sensory reaction. He or she recognizes that the normal mind is scattered, agitated, and distracted, and through gradual taming of thought processes and a repeated return to the object of concentration

guides it to being quiet and restrained.

Absorption, or what Iyengar calls “meditation,” is the complete mental merging with the focused object. There are no more feelings or thoughts, only a general absorbed awareness, accompanied by a sense of bliss, a vision of cosmic light, and a perception of the purity and goodness

of the universe.

This leads, in turn, to samadhi,

the final

stage of yoga and complete oneness with the divine, the true self, the underlying power of all21

19 Cope 2000, 321-22; Farhi 2000, 7-16; 2004, 29-35; Frawley 1999, 50-51; Iyengar 1976, 31-40; 2005, 246-64. 20 Jyengar

1976,

20. See

also Iyengar

1988,

46-77;

2005,

ch.

2. Other

outlines of the eight limbs are found in Wood 1966; Bernard 1968; Brahmachari 1970; Hewitt 1977; Feuerstein 1998; Cope 2000; Farhi 2000; Fields 2001; Walters 2002. 21 On the meditative stages of Yoga, see lyengar 1976, 45-52; 1988, 137-

39; Behanan 1964, 213-24; Desikachar 1999, 107-11. For discussions of samadhi, see Bernard 1968, 75-96; Feuerstein 1980, 85-96.

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The main document that describes this path is the Yogasutras, ascribed to Patanjali who may or-may not be identical with a wellknown Sanskrit grammarian who lived around 300 B.C.E. The date of both author and text is unclear, and some scholars have placed them as late as the third century C.E., but all agree that the text is later than the Upanishads and early Buddhism and probably came after the Bhagavad Gita. The text divides into four main sections on “Yogic Ecstasy,” “Discipline,” “Miraculous Powers,” and “Isolation,” and consists of 196 sutras or short half-sentences that are more mnemonic aids than clarifying explanations. It is largely philosophical in nature and inherits key doctrines from the Vedas and Upanishads. Developed in the environment of renunciants and full-time seekers, the practice of yoga remained largely esoteric until a group known as Nath yogis, who flourished in northern India from the tenth century onward, brought it into the larger populace under the name of Hatha Yoga. Without foregoing the spiritual aspects, they placed greater emphasis on physical fitness, developed various forms of martial arts, and engaged in psychic experiments. They also made attempts at reform, treating women and outcasts as equals and trying to unite Hindus and Buddhists. Their efforts were not greatly appreciated by the ruling classes, and they were soon relegated to a lower caste. Still, the legendary Gurkha fighters are said to be their heirs, and their transformation of yoga into an art of practical living has had a profound impact on the tradition. The main document of the Nath yogis is the Hathayoga pradipika (Light on Hatha Yoga)—the model for the various books by B. K. S. Iyengar that all start with “Light on.” The text was compiled in the fifteenth century on the basis of earlier instructions by Svatmarama Swami. Arranged in five sections, it is written like the Yogasutras in a series of short instructions that need further personal elucidation, but presents materials in a more practical and concrete manner. It warns against excesses that will hinder the practice, including overeating,

exertion,

useless

talk,

extreme

abstinence,

public

company,

and unsteadiness of mind. Instead it encourages persistence, knowledge, courage, and determination. It follows the eight limbs but places a stronger emphasis on moral discipline and posture practice than on deep absorptions and meditative trances. It provides detailed

22 On Patanjali’s Yogasutras, see Wood 1966; Eliade 1969; Brahmachari

1970; Taimni 1975; Feuerstein 1979; 1980; 1988; Iyengar 1988, 119-23; Desi-

kachar 1999, 143-216; Cope 2006.

Body Awareness / 165

instructions on the performance of fifteen key poses, then moves on to a discussion of breath control.23 Both Hatha

poses,

and Raja Yoga work with six kinds of poses: standing

balancing

poses,

back

bends,

forward

bends,

inversions,

and

twists. Most practice sessions today present them in this order, accompanied by deep breathing exercises and detached awareness and succeeded by an unmoving meditation while lying down in relaxation or “corpse pose” (savasana). Yoga practice provides a complete body work-out, strengthening tissues and releasing muscle tension, while enhancing mental quietude and meditative awareness. The practice leads to a release of inherent tension patterns and an opening to spiritual progress.24

The World of Yoga The worldview of yoga matches that of ancient India in that the fundamental goal of the practice is the ultimate and permanent union of one’s true self (äfman) with the underlying force of the universe

(Brahman). In addition, yoga also distinguishes a more material from

a more spiritual reality, described in Vedic terms as prakrti and purusa, has its unique take on the understanding of the human body, and works with specific notions of the mind,

and potent factors.

To begin,

material

reality described

its inherent tendencies

as prakrti is real and

eternal,

dynamic and creative, inert and primordial. It is the underlying sub-

stance of all that exists, the “noumenal matrix of creation,” “the realm

of the multitudinous phenomena of contingent existence.” It lies deeply underneath the surface of natural everyday reality, representing its ultimate ground and creative potential, yet it is also the concrete, material world as it exists with all its different forms,

modes,

23 On the history of yoga, see Worthington 1982; Eliade 1958; 1969. Ex-

tensive translations of the Hathayoga pradipika are found in Bernard 1968.

24 See Iyengar 1980, 46-77; 2005, 27. On specific postures and sequences,

see

Behanan

1964,

41-62;

Bernard

1968,

24-32;

Desikachar

1999,

45-52;

Farhi 2000; Hewitt 1977; Iyengar 1976. McCall adds three further types: side

bends, relaxation poses, and meditative poses (2007, 14-15). 25 Feuerstein 1980, 29. For further discussions, see also Eliade 1969, 31;

Behanan 1964, 28-40; Iyengar 2005, 9-10.

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and transformations. Prakrti at the root of all being is not accessible by ordinary sensory means but can be reached through yogic introspection after long periods of training and meditative immersion. The spiritual counterpart to prakrti is purusa, best known from Rigveda hymnsas the cosmic giant whose body is dismembered to create the world. Purusa is the original man, the cosmic creator, the cause of all material being and existence of the universe, the source of the source, the power behind even the underlying ground. A representation of sheer awareness that transcends even pure consciousness, purusa is the authentic, ultimate being of humanity, the far-off and detached seer.of all psychic and physical processes, the perfect knowledge of all, the ultimate mirror of reality that is utterly apart, completely other, unmoving, unthinking, unfeeling, and unintending.”6 In many ways this understanding of purusa as the ultimate detached awareness matches the Buddhist notion of witness consciousness, but

it is more permanent and stable in yoga, an aspect of the true self.

This true self, moreover, in yogic understanding is surrounded by four types of body called sheaths (4092) that may distract from it but cannot prevent it from always being present, however deeply hidden. These sheaths are, from the inside out:

the causal body consisting of pure intellect and knowledge; the astral body made up from sensory reactions and emotions; the etheric body that exists through

vital energy or prana

(breath); the physical body that is nourished by food.27

Yogic practice aims to work through the sheaths from the outside in, starting with the physical body to reactivate and recover the original bliss body of the true self at the very center of the person. Thus postures work on the physical body, breath control deals with the etheric body, sensory withdrawal is concerned with the astral body, and concentration with the causal body. The last two stages of the eight limbs activate and realize the ultimate bliss body of atman. However, as many yogis today attest, in the concentrated and meditative practice of the physical postures and breathing exercises, all the other stages are activated and the various sheaths of the person begin to shine through. There is release of emotions, there are floods of 26 Feuerstein 1980, 15-24. See also Behanan 1964, 41-62.

27 Tyengar 2005 follows the structure of the five sheaths in his presentation of Yoga. See also Frawley 1999, 83-86

Body Awareness / 167

thoughts that come and go, there is a sense of inner calm and bliss. All these are part of yoga as meditation and lead through the eight limbs in simultaneous rather than consecutive fashion. While the body consists of five sheaths, the mind has three major characteristics or qualities called gunas. They are sattva, intelligence or luminosity that leads to clarity and mental serenity; rajas, mobility, passion, and activity that makes the person active and energetic, tense and willful, and can bind people to wealth and pleasures; and tamas, static inertia or ignorance, a dark and restraining quality that creates sloth, laziness, and delusion, thus counteracting the tendencies of the other two.28 Most people combine all three aspects in their personality and have periods where they are active, times when they laze around, and moments of balance and inner truth. The goal of yoga is to diminish and eventually eliminate the hyperactive and slothful aspects of the personality and guide the practitioner toward luminosity by strengthening balance, inner intuition, and a sense of harmony. As the person

adapts more to a serene state, action and rest will still occur, but the

sense of being driven or deeply inert will gradually disappear.

The reason, moreover, why people do not automatically enhance their inherent luminosity and limit the other tendencies is because they are subject to five fundamental mental factors (klesas) or attitudes to reality that create instability and difficulty in life but which are part of the workings of the mind. They include the three factors of mental impurity already spelled out in Buddhism (ignorance, craving, and aversion) plus a misguided sense of separateness and a tendency toward clinging, an instinctive attachment to worldly life and physical pleasure. The five klesas, according to the yogic model of the mind, bring forth

certain “modes” or “modifications” (vritti) of the “mind” (citta) which

further distort reality beyond the A/esa-based evaluation of things in terms of likes and dislikes, benefit and harm, gain and loss. These five include the creation of ideals or standards, the tendency to jump to conclusions and make assumptions without firm evidence, the active engagement in imaginary ideal scenarios, running on automatic

28 For a presentation of these qualities, see Eliade 1969, 31; Feuerstein 1980, 33; Farhi 2004, 169-70; Frawley 1999, 27-35; Iyengar 1976, 46-47; Lad 2004, 36; Worthington 1982, 51. 29 See Farhi 2004, 186-87; Feuerstein 1980, 63-67.

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pilot without conscious awareness, and the pattern of sticking to the past in a variety of ways.°? The goal of yoga is the complete cessation of all these modes of the mind, as the Yogastitras say: Yoga citta vritti nirodha or “Yoga is the cessation of the modifications of the mind”

(J.2).31 That is to say, the

ideal yogi judges every person, object, and event on its own merits; looks at all different angles of a problem or listens to at least two sides of any argument; sticks to the facts and does not let his imagınation run wild; remains conscious and aware at all times; and sticks to the present as the only moment in which life can be lived and in which positive changes can be made. A mind with these qualities is inherently free and unhindered, can range widely and process tasks with speed and efficiency, unhampered by mental modes that are not needed for survival and only cause difficulty and misunderstanding. It is ready to reach for spiritual fulfillment by cultivating the four positive attitudes (brahmaviharas) also central in Buddhism: love, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. Cultivating them consciously and actively, practitioners find a connection to their ultimate true self and realize themselves in ever new and more creative ways..

Daoyin Unlike yoga which grew from the Indian tradition of renunciation, daoyin is first documented in Han-dynasty medical works which encouraged people to relish the world in all its aspects, to find greater

health, and to enjoy physical and social pleasures. As a result the ear-

liest works on daoyin are immensely practical in nature and can be precisely dated. Found among manuscripts unearthed from southern China,

they include the silk manuscript

Daoyin

tu (Exercise

and the bamboo tablets of the Yinshu (Stretch Book).

Chart)

The Daoyin tu was found at Mawangdui, in the tomb of the Marchioness of Dai who died in 168 B.C.E. The text consists of forty-four color illustrations of human figures performing therapeutic exercises

that

are

explained

in brief captions

which

are

for the

lost.As shown in a sample illustration of the Daoyin

most

part

tu, the figures

80 On citta vritti, see Feuerstein 1980, 61-63; Iyengar 1988, 134-35. 31 On this sutra and its interpretation, see Eliade 1969, 51; Taimni 1975,

6-10; Feuerstein 1979, 21.

Body Awareness / 169

are of different sex and age, variously clothed or barechested, and shown in different postures (mostly standing) from a variety of angles. In many cases, one arm reaches up while the other stretches down, or one arm moves for-

ward as the other extends back, possibly indicating rhythmical movement.’

A written rather than pictorial outline of daoyin appears in the Yınshu, discovered in a tomb at Zhangjiashan and dated to 186 B.C.E. The text divides into three parts: a general introduction on sea-

sonal health regimens; a series of about a hundred exercises, divided

into three sections; and a conclusion on the etiology of disease and ways of prevention.33 The presentation makes it clear that daoyin at the time was the domain of the upper classes, serving to alleviate physical discomforts as well as to provide greater enjoyment of daily luxuries and faster recovery after raucous parties. While daoyin in the early manuscripts consists largely of rhythmic body movements performed in a standing position, postures that are performed while seated and reclining appear increasingly with the emergence of organized Daoism, notably the school of Highest Clarity in the fourth century. This school also developed more meditative and religious forms of the exercises and included spiritual practices, such as the activation of talismans and the chanting of deity incantations. Followers adopted an early-morning routine of stretches, breathing, and self-massages as part of their spiritual discipline of ecstatic visualization and trance-induced interaction with the gods. Daoyin practice thus came to serve several goals besides overall improvement of health: dispersal of obstructive and demonic forces, self-purification in the face of the divine, clarity of vision and keenness of hearing to 32 On the Daoyin tu, see Despeux 1989; Harper 1998; Engelhardt 2000; 2001. For a general discussion and history of Daoyin, see Kohn 2007; 2008. 33 For a complete translation and study of this important document as well as of the accompanying Maishu (Vessel Book), see Lo forthcoming. Partial translations and discussions are found in Lo 2001; Kohn 2008, ch. 1.

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open otherworldly perception, extension of life expectancy, and preparation for ascension into heaven.

After being adopted by Highest Clarity Daoists, daoyin developed equally in medical and meditative forms that were combined into a complex integrated structure of immortality in the Tang dynasty. Not quite as formalized as the eight limbs of yoga, the system as proposed

by Sun Simiao (582-683) and Sima Chengzhen(647-735) similarly be-

gins with ethical guidelines or precepts, a requirement of moderation in all aspects of life, and an adjustment of diet and daily habits to the changes of the seasons. On this basis, then, practitioners stabilize their physical condition with herbs and medicines, open the energy channels with appropriate breathing and exercises, and enhance their sensory functions with self-massages. Only when the body is fully opened, do they engage in quiet forms of meditation, such as concentration, insight, absorption, visualization, and shamanic excursions.? Quite like asana practice in yoga, daoyin therefore serves as a basic meditation that lays the foundation for more advanced forms. In the Song dynasty (960-1260), another integrated system called inner alchemy emerged as the dominant form of Daoist meditation.?® Daoyin continued to serve in its context as an initial foundation of spiritual states; at the same time it developed further as part of popular, preventative medicine. Four major styles emerged, which are still officially supported in the People’s Republic of China and widely practiced among Westerners: the conscious breathing system of the Six Healing Sounds, the complex movement practice of the Five Animals Frolic, the standing series of bends and stretches known as the Eight Brocades, and the deceivingly simple postures of the Sinews Transformation Classlc.37

34 On Highest Clarity history and practice, see chapter 6 below. 35 Kohn 2008, ch. 4.

36 Like Kundalini Yoga, this works with the energy body. See chapter 7

below.

37 On the Six Healing Sounds, see chapter 1 above. The Five Animals Frolic (movements pattered after the crane, bear, monkey, deer, and tiger)

goes back to the physician Hua Tuo of around 300 c.E. It later developed into more complex forms, recorded in different versions in Tang and Ming dynasty sources. See Kohn 2008, ch. 5; Miura 1989; Wang and Barrett 2006. The

Standing Eight Brocades (unlike their seated counterpart which is a daoyinstyle sequence in preparation of inner alchemy) probably emerged from a martial context; the set involves upward stretches and forward bends plus some punches, and have been found very effective for healing. See Liu and

Body Awareness / 171

In addition, daoyin also impacted the martial arts, most famously those known as Shaolin gongfu and taiji quan. Both go back to vigorous training in monasteries and among the wider populace for health and defense against marauders. In the seventeenth century, in connection with the Manchu conquest that led to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, both began to emphasize unarmed combat, formalized their present styles, created associations with legendary founders (Bodhidharma, Zhang Sanfeng), and developed more intricate philosophical systems.38 Compared to more medical or meditative forms of daoyin, the martial systems use its patterns exclusively in standing poses, teach complex sequences rather than repetitious movements, are interested in strength rather than healing, and keep the mind in an alert, wide-open state instead of using it to move qi through specific channels. Still, in this as in all other forms of daoyin, the key purpose is the opening of the body’s energy channels and the practical realization of cosmic og7 in all that exists.

Chinese Visions of the Body In the Chinese worldview,

the human

body as much

as the universe

consists entirely of gz, the cosmic vital energy that pervades all as the material aspect of the Dao. This energy is in constant motion; it divides into two aspects yin and yang, which signify its phases of resting and moving, slowing and accelerating, descending and rising, dark and light, strong and weak, down and up, and so on.

These two aspects are further subdivided into five energetic phases of rising yang, peak yang, yin-yang in balance, rising yin, and peak yin. In the larger cosmology of traditional China, these are then associated with various other phenomena, most prominently physical objects as their main symbols, geographical directions, appropriate colors, and annual seasons. In the human body, they furthermore match Perry 1989; Yang 1988. The Sinews Transformation Classic, often also called

Muscle-tendon Changing Classic (Yijin jing) goes back to the seventeenth century and is linked with Buddhist martial arts practice. Its twelve postures, held to the count of nine breaths, strengthen the tendons and increase stamina. See Berk 1986, 148-51; Liu 1990, 122-28. On their standing in the People’s Republic of China today, where many qigong forms are outlawed, see Palmer 2007, 280. All these forms are taught actively in the West today. For

videos and workshops, see www.nga.org.

38 On their history and legend, see Shahar 2000; 2001; 2007.

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five storage organs (yin) and five processing organs (yang), plus a matching series of emotions, senses, tastes, body fluids, and so on. The complete chart looks as follows:39 yin/yang minor yang major yang yin-yang minor yin major yin

phase wood fire earth metal water

direct. east south center west north

color season yinorg yangorg emotion green spring liver _ gall anger red summer heart sm.int. exc.joy yellow spleen stomach worry white fall lungs lg.int. sadness black winter kidneys bladder fear

sense eyes tongue Hps nose ears

Balanced through breathing practice, such as the Six Healing Sounds,

the key organs and their associated features are also connected to the

extremities in a complex network of energy lines, known as channels or meridians. Q flows through them to moisten the bones and tendons, provide nutrition to the joints, and balance internal yin and yang. The various body movements of daoyin all serve to enhance and harmonize the grflow in these channels. There are twelve main meridians—related to the five yin and yang

organs plus the triple heater (yang) and the pericardium (yin). The

six yin meridians move qi deep inside the body, connect to the spirit, and contribute most to overall health. The six yang meridians run closer to the surface of the body, digest food, and transmit fluids.

They are: hase

| yin mer

wood | liver

fire earth

heart | spleen

| yang merid.

gallbladder

sm. intestine stomach

phase | yin meridian

| yang meridian

water | kidneys fire pericardium

bladder | triple heater

metal | lungs

lg. intestine

There are two complete sets of meridians in the body, one on the right and one on the left side. In general, yin meridians run on the inner (medial) side of the extremities; they begin or end in the chest. Yang meridians follow paths on the outer (lateral) side of the extremities; they begin or end in the head. Meridians alternate between upward and downward movements, and go to or from either hand or foot, so that typically yin meridians move down the arms and up the legs, while yang meridians move up the arms and down the legs.40 39 On the diagnostic importance and application of this system in Chinese medicine, see Chang 1986, 51-66; 1987, 83-90; Kaptchuk 2000, 75-104;

Kohn 2005, 18-30. A most detailed exploration, including also of psychosomatic and even spiritual effects, is found in Jarrett 2000; 2003; 2006.

40 Chang 1986, 20-40; Kaptchuk 2000, 75-104; Kendall 2002; Kohn 2005, 51, 52. See also www.tcm-central.com.

Body Awareness / 173

Beyond these twelve main meridians, there channels through the body. Most important extraordinary or unpaired vessels, which containers of primordial gi and serve both practice.41 Four

of them

are most

are various other sets of among them are the eight are pre-organ functional in medical and spiritual

important

because

they represent

energy lines that are present at the root of embryonic formation.

First is the Penetrating or Thrusting Vessel (chongmai), which runs through the center of the torso from the perineum to the crown of the head, connecting all three cinnabar or elixir fields (dantian). The main conduit of primordial qi, it is essential in meditative and religious practice, whose adepts send their intention through it into the depth of their cinnabar fields and thus open their centers and connect to higher levels. The second prime energy line is the Belt Vessel (darmai), which runs horizontally around the abdomen a few inches below

the navel, connecting the lower cinnabar field (Ocean of Qi) with the kidney area (Gate of Destiny). It is the vessel that first outlines the shape of the human being.

Next are the Conception Vessel (renmas yin) and the Governing Vessel (dumañ yang), which run along the front and back of the torso respectively, reaching from the perineum to the head. They are of great importance both in healing and religion, serving to mix qi and blood and to guide the 07 along the major centers of the body. Unlike the Penetrating and Belt Vessels which are never needled in acupuncture, these will be used in treatments, especially for deep-rooted and longterm conditions. They are also activated in daoyin, especially in exercises for the back and abdomen as well as in various forms of spinal twists. In seated meditation, moreover, they are used to open an energy circuit in the body known as the Microcosmic Orbit.

Modern Developments Today body awareness appears in many variants and even combinations of yoga and daoyin. Generally types can be divided according to their dominantly martial, meditative, or medical uses. In terms of martial systems, the most prominent are taiji quan on the

Chinese side and ashtanga yoga on the Indian side. Both developed in

41 On the eight extraordinary vessels, see Chang 1986, 40-46; Larre and de la Vallée 1996; Matsumoto and Birch 1986.

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a quasi-military context: taiji quan in the need to defend against pillaging armies during the Manchu conquest and under the prohibition of all weapons use; ashtanga yoga in the 1920s when Krishnarajendra Wodogar IV, the Maharaja of Mysore, asked Sri Tirumalai Krish-

namacharya (1888-1989) to open a yoga school and develop a basic

work-out for his troops.42 Both systems may be taught with military discipline; both emphasize strength training and endurance; both work with conscious breathing and deep mental focus; both, if performed regularly, enhance health, balance, and vigor: and both—if practiced slowly and with an inward focus—can turn into medical and even meditative exercises.

Still, they are also significantly differences: yoga students stretch and bend to the full extend of their muscles and tendons, while taiji quan disciples keep their muscles relaxed and create flexibility more through the joints and tendons; yoga practitioners tend to hold each pose for at least five breaths.and perform vigorous jumps between them, while taiji followers move smoothly from one to the next; yogis do a fair amount of floor work and also practice inversions, while taiji practitioners stay rooted in their feet and keep their heads up. Also, ashtanga yoga is a workout in preparation for martial training, while talji quan is a martial practice in and of itself. Above and beyond all this, the worldview at the root of the practices ultimately determines their specific form, nurturing focus on oneness and stability in yoga and developing openness, fluidity, and energetic harmony in taiji. Meditative forms of body awareness are those that use the technique as a preparation, foundation, or physical supplement of seated meditations. Here we have yoga moves and stretches used by Hindu or Buddhist meditation schools, such as the Ramakrishna Vedanta Soci-

ety, Thich Nhat Hanh’s mindfulness system, and the school of Siddha Yoga; as well as daoyin as practiced in the temples of Complete Perfection Daoism in China and applied to Westernized inner alchemy systems, such as those by Ni Hua-ching and Mantak Chia.

42 On the history of taiji quan, see Bidlack 2006; Despeux 1976; Liang

and Wu

219-29;

1997; Wile 1999. On Krishnamacharya,

Kadetsky

2004.

Both forms

see Desikachar

also appear in various

1998;

1999,

developments,

such as taiji sword taught in the Esoteric Yang tradition (Rodell 2003); Power

Yoga developed by Patthabi Jois, a disciple of Krishnamacharya (Birch 1995);

Hot Yoga created by Choudhury Bikram (Bikram 2003); and the strengthening series taught by Baron Baptiste (Baptiste 2002). 45 On Yoga practices in these meditation

www.plumvillage.org;

Brooks

1997.

For Daoyin

groups,

in modern

see www.vedanta.org; Daoism,

see Kohn

Body Awareness / 175

The most common and best known use of body awareness in modern societies, however, is medical. Already wide-spread, it is gaining increasing acceptance among the general populace as well as among physicians and physical therapists. In addition to taiji quan which has a number of healing effects, three major forms are available today: yoga, qigong, and combinations of both.

Yoga Yoga is at the forefront of bringing body awareness into the general populace, breaking the practice out of traditional ashrams and specialized yoga studios and moving it into the mainstream: into gyms, corporations, colleges, churches, and increasingly health care facilities. This trend is most clearly demonstrated in Timothy McCall’s

book Yoga as Medicine (2007). A student of Patricia Walden, the leading Western disciple of B. K. S. Iyengar (b. 1918), a relative by mar-

riage and prime student of Krishmayacharya who was instrumental in bringing yoga to the West,44 Dr. McCall emphasizes that he cannot twist himself into a pretzel and is not a representative of anything acrobatic or mystical. By following a simple routine, adapted to his particular ability by his teacher, and putting his faith into daily practice (fifteen minutes a day being better than two or three hours once a week), he found that his posture straightened, his energy increased, his tensions loosened, and—the meditative aspect of the practice— there were marked mental and psychological benefits. “I didn’t seem to worry as much. Without even consciously trying, more and more I seemed to be doing what yoga philosophy teaches: to give your best

effort without being attached to the result” (2007, xvi).

Yoga comes in numerous different forms and can be adjusted to match all kinds of health conditions.* Those who are fit already and looking for a serious work-out that will induce sweat and create strong muscles and energies use military-based methods, such as Ashtanga, Power, Baptiste, or Bikram Yoga. All these forms are undertaken in a heated environment; they work with series of poses (vinyasa) without the help of props to activate all major muscle 2008, ch. 6. On Daoyin forms in Westernized inner alchemy systems, see Ni 1989; Chia 1999. Inner alchemy is discussed below, in ch. 7. 44 On the life of B. K. S. Iyengar, see Buria 2007; Iyengar 2005, xvi-xx; Kadetsky 2004, 69-86. His major works include lyengar 1976; 1988; 2001; 2005. 45 A broad survey of different forms appears in McCall 2007, 102-14. See also www.yoga.com.

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groups; and they emphasize the strong application sounding breath to enhance the cleansing of the body.

of deep

ocean-

Those who are fundamentally healthy but need more strength and flexibility work best with Iyengar, Kripalu, Forrest, or basic Hatha Yoga.4 These forms involve moderately strenuous exercises that focus

on alignment, muscle release, and strength building. Students take

great care to enter and exit the posture correctly, holding it anywhere from a few breaths to one or two minutes—longer as they advance. Props are used on occasion, in some forms more than others. The emphasis is on body awareness and focused breathing while creating an opening in the body’s joints and musculature. Healing is of central importance and teachers adapt poses to the needs of individual practitioners.

People who have serious health issues should begin by working with Viniyoga or do restorative practice. Moving gently with the breath or remaining calmly in a pose that opens the body but is not strenuous, these forms maximize personal adaptation and, in a gentle and nonintrusive way, allow the muscles and nerves to release tension and renew themselves.” Often people also move back and forth between these forms. Dr. McCall recounts the story of one dedicated Iyengar practitioner who suffered an accident that made it impossible for her to continue her practice. By moving to Viniyoga she regained much of her flexibility and eventually became a teacher in this tradition.{8 Yoga is helpful for all sorts of conditions, from anxiety, arthritis, and asthma through back pain, cancer, depression, diabetes, headaches, heart disease, high blood pressure, to infertility, insomnia, meno-

pause, multiple sclerosis, and weight 1068.49 There is no question that

46 For more on Iyengar Yoga, beyond the books by B.K.S. Iyengar, see www. bksiyengar.com; www.iyengar-yoga.com. Kripalu Yoga goes back to the teach-

ings of Swami Kripalu. It spread in the West under the leadership of his dis-

ciple Amrid Desai and is now taught by Westerners. For a history of the Kri-

palu center and its main yoga teachings, see Cope 2000. Forrest Yoga is the

brainchild of Ana Forrest, available on video (www.forrestyoga.com). 47 Viniyoga was

developed by T. K. V Desikachar,

the son of Krishna-

macharya. He describes the practice in several books (1998; 1998). His lead-

ing American disciple, now training further teachers, is Gary Kraftsow (1999;

2002). Restorative Yoga is the most relaxing of all forms. See Lasater 1995. 48 McCall 2007, 102-4.

49 McCall has a chapter on each of these and more conditions, in each case giving an overview of the disease, outlining “how yoga fits in,” providing ample scientific evidence and summarizing controlled studies, to then focus-

Body Awareness / 177

regular

appropriate

practice

affords

tremendous

improvement

in

most cases and that modern science is coming to furnish valid reasons of why certain procedures work. Yoga in modern society is thus a tool for health maintenance and improvement, a way of empowering individuals to become responsible for their own well-being.

Qigong The same can easily be said for qigong, which tends to be even less strenuous and more clearly directed toward certain health conditions. Like its forerunner daoyin and like Indian yoga, qigong is a system of slow body movements done in coordination with deep breathing and the mental guiding of gi that releases tension, effects healing, and contributes greatly to overall well-being. Unlike the other two, it is executed largely while standing, works with continuous movements, and has comparatively few holding poses. Also, it bears no relation to traditional religious or spiritual goals but was systematically stripped of all ancient cosmology and “superstitions,” as the Chinese Communist Party developed it as a medical technique and strove to make it compatible with modern science. Although intended as a purely medical system with no beliefs attached to it, qigong has mutated into some quasi-religious forms over the five decades of its existence. In the 1980s, it gave rise to a frenzy of extraordinary powers: clairvoyance, telepathy, telekinesis, and the like.50 In the 1990s, it formed the backdrop of various new religious movements dedicated to transcendent salvation. Typical groups were Tantric Qigong, for all intents and purposes a new religion based on Tibetan Buddhism; Central Qigong, an extensive organization that led practitioners to ultimate liberation through eight levels of increasingly religious practices; and the notorious Method of the Dharma Wheel (Falun gong), a messianic cult set to rid the world of demons and prepare a generation of purified and highly empowered followers.>1

ing on one physician who works with yoga to alleviate or cure the condition. Each chapter also gives one or several series of yoga poses that are particularly helpful and work from all different positions of the body (2007, 133-492). 50 The development of extraordinary powers through qigong is discussed in Liang and Wu 1997, 87. 51 For a detailed description and analysis of the history of qigong in China, see Palmer 2007. Other important works include Miura 1989; Hsu 1999; Chen 2003.

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Driven by millenarian zeal comparable to that of other militant cults in Chinese history, Falun gong in 1996 went on a collision course with the Communist Party and since 1999 has been severely persecuted, its leader living in the、United States and its overseas followers actively and openly pursuing the downfall of the Chinese government. The fall-out from this is that in China today “meditation” is a dirty word and qigong is subject to stark controls that have caused it to vanish from the public sphere. This stands in contrast to taiji quan

and other martial arts (and also increasingly yoga), which are still

widely practiced in parks. Understood as sports rather than potentially spiritual activities, they are highly lauded by the government and cultivated as Olympic disciplines.

The main venues of qigong, on the other hand, have returned to being medical: hospitals, health spas, healing centers. Masters refrain from using new techniques and instead go back to ancient documents on daoyin in their development of practices. At the same time Daoist institutions are picking the methods up with increasing fervor, and a number of health centers are linking themselves with Daoist tem2168.54 New spiritual dimensions are evolving, and it is anybody’s guess how they will fare under the present regime. In the West, on the other hand, qigong has taken on a life of its own, fueled by Chinese masters who emigrated for economic reasons or went into exile due to the latest persecution. But it is also increasingly developed by Westerners who often started as practitioners of Chinese medicine or were impressed with the methods in a personal healing experience.55 They tend to work in three different dimensions: using the practices for specific self-healing and overall well-being; adopting them as a foundation of a harmonious life-style, which also

involves home design (Feng Shui), diet, sleep habits, sexual relations,

and so on; or applying them to others in medical qigong which con-

52 On Falun gong, see Schechter 2000; Chang 2004; Ownby 2007. 58 On the role and vision of sports in China today, see Morris 2004; For

the new Yoga craze, go to www. yogiyogacenter.com.

54 On daoyin and qigong in China today, see Kohn 2008, ch. 6. 55 An example

of an acupuncturist turned qigong master is Roger Jah-

nke who studied with Daoist-trained Lily Siou in Hawaii, currently works out

of Santa Barbara and widely trains qigong and taiji quan teachers. An exam-

ple of a convert through experience is Michael Wood, who recovered almost miraculously after a stroke when touched by an external 07 healer and now does qigong healing in Tennessee. For a survey of qigong in America, including main masters and organizations, see Komjathy 2006.

Body Awareness / 179

sists of conscious energy infusion in combination with the teaching of healing exercises.56 Compared to yoga, qigong is hardly known at all among the general

populace.

With

its gentler movements,

it appeals less to the young,

active crowd and more to middle-aged or older people who are suffering from the symptoms of “aging.” However, the tendency among these folks is to resort to Western medicine, with its pills, injections, and surgery, rather than to seek healing in gentle body movements and meditation. The idea of waving one’s arms about while breathing deeply in order to alleviate a bowel syndrome or bad back seems as ludicrous to them as the Feng Shui notion that by moving furniture one can improve wealth and well-being. Unlike yoga, which works quite obviously with muscles, joints, and tendons, qigong effects its cures to a certain degree through the body’s internal energy and requires at least a basic appreciation of qi, if not an actual belief or experience. It represents a powerful dimension of body awareness which, if used to its full potential, can revolutionize perceptions of health and the medical system in even more profound ways than what is already happening through yoga. Combinations Beyond yoga and qigong and Western-based systems such as Somatics, there are several new forms of body awareness that combine the two forms, most notably Acu-Yoga and Yin Yoga. Acu-Yoga was founded in the 1970s by Michael Reed Gach with the express purpose of creating greater efficiency of health maintenance by combining yogic stretches with the Chinese meridian system. According to him, tension accumulates in certain specific acupuncture points and blocks qi from flowing. As a result, people become unbalanced and experience sickness and fatigue. To counteract this, AcuYoga

works

to stimulate

nerves,

muscles,

and

acupuncture

points,

“awakening the meridians and releasing tension,” nourishing all systems of the body, and leading to “radiant health.”57

The exercises focus on simple stretches but also involve a centering meditation and deep breathing. They aim to increase spinal flexibility, open the chakras, activate the eight extraordinary vessels, and stimu56 On qigong as self-healing, see Garripoli 1999; Jahnke 1997; Liang and Wu 1997; Yang 1997. The different aspects of the qigong lifestyle are described in Cohen 1997; Jahnke 2002; MacRitchie 1997. Medical applications are featured in Cibik 2003; Johnson 2000; Liu and Perry 1999. 57 Gach and Marco 1981, 15, 17; www.acu-yoga.com.

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late the twelve meridians. Practitioners assume postures—adapted from yoga and daoyin—that open specific areas, then press acupuncture points while mentally sending gi along the channels. They develop an awareness of the energy body and create a sense of wellbeing and self-integration. Other Acu-Yoga practices treat specific ailments, both physical and mental, reaching from abdominal weakness to spinal disorders. To give one example, to release frustration practitioners should lie on their back, interlace the fingers behind the neck, inhale and bend the left leg up, then exhale and roll to the right side while exhaling with aaahA. On inhalation, they return to their back, then repeat on the other side.58 Yin Yoga, the other major combination form, was developed in the 1990s by Paul Grilley, a yoga practitioner and student of Chinese medicine, who also studied with Paulie Zink, a martial arts practitioner of the Monkey Gongfu style and of traditional daoyin (“Taoist Yoga”).59 Grilley’s combination system is a meditative, restful practice where students place themselves into certain postures that open the body but are not strenuous and can be supported by a variety of props, such as pillows, blankets, straps, and bolsters. Students stay in a pose for five to twenty minutes to allow tendons and nerves to release tension and find renewal. Mental engagement through the detached observation of various body sensations and/or active visualization of the flow of healing energies is key to the practice. As in Acu-Yoga, the main work is in the release of blockages and the opening of flow.60 Yin Yoga

represents

a restful, yielding, and softening approach

in

contrast to more active or yang styles. As practitioners hold one or the other pose, their main task is to remain calm and in a state of

simple being, relaxing into the present and letting go of all urgency. This aspect of the practice closely reflects a key characteristic of Chinese internal martial arts: the letting go of all extraneous zeal as one applies only the amount of effort necessary. Practitioners in this state feel relaxed but are alert and active, thus allowing the gi to move through areas that were otherwise blocked by tension. 6! An overall release and great improvement of well-being are the eventual result—like various other forms of body awareness opening the person to new dimensions and creating new venues of personality unfolding.

58 Gach and Macro 1981, 124-232, 169. 59 See www.pauliezink.com.

60 Grilley 2002, 12.

61 Bidlack 2006, 183; Cohen 1997, 98.

Chapter Seven

Body Energetics: Inner Alchemy and Kundalini Body

energetics

is the meditative

refinement

of accessible,

tangible

body energy into highly spiritual forms combined with the awakening and activation of subtle powers that connect the person to the ultimate. It is similar to body awareness in that it too centers on the physical body and works in a kinesthetic mode of accessing the subconscious. It is different, however, in that body energetics does not aim to release muscle memories

and uses only gentle or no physical

movements. Especially in its advanced forms, it is a meditation in complete stillness, performed in a seated or reclining position, that

leads to enstatic trances or ecstatic states. The main agent moving in

this form of meditation is the mind, conscious intention guiding energies through centers and into complex interaction patterns—only in the beginning stages assisted by gentle, often circular movements of arms and hands.. Body energetics utilizes sexual energy as the starting point of the exploration of the subtle energy body, seeing it as a key location where higher consciousness is trapped and chronically constricted.! It acknowledges an intricate network of energy channels—subtler and finer even than the meridians of Chinese medicine—as the ultimate reality of the body. And it works with a series of energy centers and passes that need to be opened and activated. Usually the practice leads to the emergence of a new spiritual dimension of the person,

1 Wilber 1979, 130. 181

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through which he or she can communicate and ultimately become one with the divine. In China, this form of meditation appears in inner (or internal) alchemy, a complex system of Daoist practice that has been prominent since the Song dynasty (960-1260). Integrating Highest Clarity visualization, medieval inner observation, and sitting in oblivion with the symbolism of operative alchemy and the Ying (Book of Changes), it guides practitioners through a series of energetic transformations with the ultimate goal of mutating the subtle energies of the person into a spiritual entity known as the immortal embryo, in which form he or she attains immortality in an ecstatic otherworldly existence.? The word for inner alchemy is neidan, consisting of nei, “inner” or “internal,” and dan which literally means “cmnabar.3 Cinnabar is a mineral found along the rivers of China, a mercury-sulfite that dissolves into its parts when heated, then reconstitutes itself back into cinnabar (i.e., “reverted cinnabar”). This property of reconstitution made it magical and potent in the eyes of the Chinese and gave rise to the use of the term dan for “elixir” and, by extension, “alchemy.” Mercury, of course, is highly poisonous. Taken in small amounts, it causes delusions and brain damage: in massive doses, it is fatal. Daoists who undertook these practices were well aware of this and still followed through with their experiments, setting their hearts onto the otherworld and willingly giving up their worldly goods and life.4 The practice of operative alchemy always came with inner visions and deep meditations. It moved into full-fledged internalization after several Tang emperors died of elixir poisoning, giving the practice a bad name. Inner alchemy, as it emerged in the Song, thus represents a continuation of proto-chemistry with meditative means; it is also the result of integrating various meditative techniques the Chinese had at their disposal at the time.

2 On inner alchemy as a combination of various traditional methods, see

Pregadio 2006a, 210, 219; 2006b, 123. 8 On the term neidan and its role in Chinese documents, see Robinet 1989b, 299; Baldrian Hussein 1990, 187; Skar and Pregadio 2000, 465.

4 Daoist alchemy is presented best in Needham et al. 1974. A comprehensive summary appears in Pregadio 2000. A detailed study of its early history is found in Pregadio 2006a; 2006b. The main original source on the subject is Ge Hong’s (283-343) Baopuzi (Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity), translated in Ware 1966. Account of actual alchemical endeavors of Daoist adepts appear in Sivin 1968; Strickmann 1979.

Body Energetics / 183

In India, body energetics is called kundalini yoga. Even though the name includes the word “yoga” and is sometimes taught in modern yoga classes in a diluted form, it has originally nothing to do with Patanjali’s eight-limb system. Rather, kundalini, which literally means “the coiled one” or “serpent” and refers to the primordial energetic power that les coiled and dormant at the base of the human spine,5 is part of the tradition of Hindu tantra. A forerunner of Buddhist tantra and an alternative tradition to the dominant Vedas and Upanishads, it was first formulated in texts called Agamas or Tantras around the fifth century C.E. and later became central in Kashmiri nondualistic schools, such as the Kaula, Trika, and Krama.6

Hindu tantra incorporates some significant differences from classic Hindu thought. To begin, it maps the body as a microcosm of the universe containing the forces and powers of the entire world. Most fundamental among them are the gods Shiva and Shakti, the ultimate male and female who represent the principles of consciousness and creativity. The power of these principles is present in the body in the form of various energies which need to be consciously guided and activated. The ensuing system, entered under instruction from a guru, is a complex mixture of physical, meditative, and devotional practices. Unlike many other spiritual techniques, however, it does not require the suppression or elimination of ordinary living, but rather encourages “indulgence with awareness,” including also the practice of ritual

sex—for which tantrais best known in the West.’

Working with complex levels of cosmic symbolism, a multitude of energy channels and centers, and the systematic awakening and refinement of body energies, both inner alchemy and kundalini—as well as traditions of Western alchemy—are dedicated to opening the self to universal consciousness at the subtlest energetic level.® They subscribe to a vision of body and world that denies the existence of any solid permanent entity and understands everything as consisting of subtle, swirling, ever changing energetic patterns. In that they closely 5 On the word kundalini,

burn 1988, 15.

see Harris 2001,

117; Sanella

1979, 306; Sil-

6 On the main historical sources of Hindu tantra, see Silburn 1988, xv.

For a highly detailed and extensive presentation of all different aspects of kundalini, traditional, historical, and scientific, see www.biologyofkundalini.com. 7 For a general survey of Hindu tantra, see Evola 1992; Feuerstein 1998a; Urban 2003. 8 On Western alchemy and its work with the human energy body, see Ploss 1970; Stavish 2006; Thompson 2002.

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match recent discoveries in modern physics and the newly developing field of energy medicine.

The Energy Body That the universe, and thus also the human body and mind, consists

ultimately of fine particles that are simultaneously energetic waves is the fundamental discovery of quantum physics. It has shown conclusively that the subatomic world is in no way like the world we inhabit. All matteris made up of vibrating energy and energy fields which change their state very rapidly—trillions of times in one second. Atoms are largely empty and consist of a tiny nucleus that is ten thousand times smaller than the rest of the particle—9,999 parts being emptiness. Body and mind consist of the same vibrating atoms that are constantly oscillating, arising and dissolving: all empty, no solidity, no firmness.? | As a result, reality is in fact not a combination of solid entities but an interlocking web of energy fields that each pulsate at their own rate. These interlocking fields of vibration—described in China as patterns of gi-flow—can come into harmony with each other and mutually support and increase their amplitude. But they can also interfere with each other and create disturbance—matching the Chinese contention that grflow can be proper or wayward.’ Since all fields are ultimately interlocked, even a small disturbance in any one of them carries into all others. This holds true not only for the body, but also integrates

the

mind

into

a vibrational

body-mind

totality.

Just

as

physical transformations are of unlimited possibilities as they move

in slower, grosser vaccilations, so the mind or spirit, the subtlest form

of vibrating energy, is ultimately non-local and can be anywhere to exchange information with anything else instantaneously.

Picking up on the discoveries of quantum physics, scientists in biology and medicine are beginning to look at the human body differently. 9 On quantum physics and its fundamental view of the world as energies,

see Bohm 1951; Zohar 1990. A summary of the same ideas that makes reference to kundalini is found in Bentov 1977. A detailed analysis of wave and frequency patterns in relation to deep meditative states appears in Bentov

1979.

10 The connection between modern physics and the traditional Chinese view of the universe as consisting of 7 in its various modes is pointed out in Capra 1975; Zukav 1979.

Body Energetics / 185

Rather than seeing it as a combination of bones, muscles, and nerves,

they now understand it as consisting essentially of bioelectricity or bioenergy, a vibrating force that all living beings give forth. Measured by new,

finely tuned

machines,

this biogenergy

often occurs

in ex-

tremely low frequencies and manifests in energy currents that crisscross the human body not unlike the meridians of acupuncture or the nadis of Ayurvedic medicine. Separate from and, in evolutionary terms,

more

ancient

than the nervous

system,

these

currents

flow-

through the so-called cytoskeleton, a complex network of connective tissue, a continuous and dynamic molecular webwork.11

Also known as the “living matrix,” this webwork contains so-called integrins or trans-membrane linking molecules which have no boundaries but are intricately interconnected. When someone’s skin is touched or receives an acupuncture needle, the integrins make contact with all parts of the body through the matrix webwork. Based on this evidence, wholeness is becoming an accepted concept, which sees “the body as an integrated, coordinated, successful system” and accepts that “no parts or properties are uncorrelated but all are demonstrably linked.”12 Mental and emotional states are accordingly integrated into the larger picture, and directed mentation or intention appear as a kind of directed vibration that can have a disturbing or enhancing effect on health. Mental attitudes give rise to specific patterns of energy, increasing or decreasing, harmonizing or disturbing vibrational frequencies, so that magnetic activity in the nervous system can spread through the person into the energy fields and bodies of others. This understanding accounts for the efficacy of therapeutic touch and distant energy healing, during which the practitioner goes into a meditative state and directs healing thoughts toward the patient. Experiments have shown that the field emanating from the hands of a skilled healer is very strong, sometimes reaching a million times the strength of the normal brain field. It can, moreover, contain infrared radiation, creating heat and spreading light in the healing effort.15 The body’s connective tissue, which is at the root of this webwork, pervades the entire structure. In addition to the outer sheath of the muscles known as myo-fascia, a layer of such tissue surrounds the 11 On the new energetic vision of the body, see Becker and Sheldon 1985; Gerber 1988; Oschman 2000; 2003. 12 Oschman 2000, 49, 55-56. 13 Oschman 2000, 107-10.

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nerves,

Works

the blood vessels, the lymphatic

system,

and the bones.

It

holds the skeleton together, connects muscles to bone, and keeps the

organs in place. It not only conducts energy, but it also produces it. As James Oschman notes;.“connective tissue is an ubiquitous and versatile biological material that forms and interconnects all of the components of the living body.”14 Thus every aspect of internal energy work—as much as every movement of the body—creates a vibratory impact that pervades the entire living matrix and, if done in the right way and with the right intention, changes the body’s system to greater subtlety and receptivity.

Daoist Immortality In Daoism, the goal of this activation and mutation of subtle body energies is the attainment of a state called immortality. The Chinese character is xian, which in one variant shows a person next to a mountain, indicating the ancient hermit ideal and a vision of human perfection beyond ordinary society. In another variant, the character shows a person dancing with flying sleeves, depicting the ecstatic state of complete freedom from worldly constraints and connecting to ancient patterns of shamanic communication with the otherworld.15 Immortals are beings of pure energy and light who live in far-off paradises and among the stars, where they nourish on subtle vapors and reside in palaces of glittering jewels and precious metals. On occasion they may come to visit humans and provide them with the means of transformation, handing out magical peaches of immortality, revealing secret recipes for alchemical elixirs, or providing new meditation methods for superior attainment.!® The religious ideal of immortality in Daoism means that one leaves the world behind in ecstasy and survives, in an ethereal yet concrete body, in paradises and heavens among the stars. Refining themselves to higher levels of subtlety, immortals as described first in Handynasty sources become etheric beings, feathery, sometimes hairy, with no need to eat or drink and completely invulnerable to heat and cold, fire and water. Light as ether, they can appear and vanish in an instant, and despite highly advanced years typically look young, fresh, 14 15 16 Penny

Oschman 2000, 151. Despeux 1989, 238; Kohn 2001, 49. On immortals, their personality and legends, see Kohn 1990; Lai 1998; 2000.

Body Energetics / 187

and radiant. The main techniques leading to this wondrous state involve the refinement of gi, which is taken into the body in its postnatal form as breath, food, or sexual exchange. Many fundamental prac-

tices, both in antiquity and in the training of inner alchemy, accordingly involve breath control, dietary restrictions and fasting, as well as the refinement and restructuring of sexual energies.17 The key to becoming immortal is the refinement and purification of postnatal or earthly az in order to recover and activate the deeper and more original energy of the body, known as primordial gi. The parent of yin and yang, the power of the universe at creation, this is the original purity of the cosmos in its most potent form. It is the ultimate neutral energy, the highest creative power, the most essential force of all existence. Everybody at birth receives a set amount of primordial. 07, but even that amount is miniscule compared to the intensity of ultimate cosmic power. The Daoist endeavor, then, consists of the refinement of the tangible

energies of the body to enhance the tiny spark of primordial qi that is buried within all human beings. All 07 continuously moves in the body in a smooth regular rhythm dictated by the cosmic patterns of yin and yang. It is in a state of ongoing flux, continuously changing, constitutes health

or sickness,

moods

and tempers,

and

determines

how we work, eat, and sleep. As and when the spark of primordial 27 is ignited and strengthened, it will “gradually dissolve one’s suffering and struggle and restore life to its innate state of grace and effortless, nonactive communication

with heaven,

earth,

and all nature.

vating primordial 07 16 growing heaven and earth within.”18

Culti-

The recovery and enhancement of primordial 07 is the uncovering of the materia prima of the alchemist, the intimate personal connection to the very ground of being, the origins of the universe. Alchemy, and thus also inner alchemy, aims to reverse the course of creation, to re-

treat back to a state of undifferentiated primordiality, and from there to recover the potencies of the universe and create oneself anew in a more celestial fashion. The Daoist understanding of creation, as formulated already in the Daode jing, is that primordial chaos or Dao in its nascent state gave rise to the One, the wholeness of the universe at the brink of creation. The One then brought forth the Two, the forces yin and yang which swirled around each other and separated to 17 A presentation of these various methods is found in Kohn 2006c. For more on traditional Chinese sexual practices, see Wile 1992. 18 Winn 2001, 14.

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form heaven and earth. The Two next combined in fruitful cooperation and created the Three, the state of interlinked energies which is at the root of all beings. This state, moreover, manifests in the energetic cycles of the five phases, moving continuously from rising to falling and again to rising and falling. The Three, yin and yang in productive interaction, in turn are responsible for the creation of the

myriad beings, the multiplicity of life on earth.19

Alchemy with its operative techniques and inner alchemy on the level of body energetics both aim to reverse this evolution. In close match with cosmic rhythms and seasonal changes,20 practitioners engage in concentration methods to make the mind one-pointed and live in seclusion to reduce distractions from living in “the world of dust and grime.” They focus on the five inner organs, storehouses of the qi of the five phases, to create a stable, systematic rhythm in their working. From there, they move gi up and down along the energy lines of the torso and isolate pure celestial fire and water as present in the heart and kidneys, thus working closely with yin and yang im their raw energetic state. Eventually all these energies are reduced to a single focus in the lower abdomen, the elixir field where the immortal embryo begins to grow. A pure entity of spirit, this becomes the adept’s match of perfect oneness, his or her materia prima in the Dao. As this grows and develops, the adept creates a completely new life and establishes a firm foothold in the heavens of the immortals.

Stages of Practice The first step toward this lofty goal is to cultivate cosmic energy as it appears in the body in its most tangible and concrete form—as jing or essence.

Essence is the indeterminate

aspect of gi, also described as

“unattached structive energy” or as の 7 in transition from one form to another. In Western terms, it may be understood as primal energy, the raw fuel that drives the pulsating rhythm of the body’s momentto-moment cellular division and reproduction of itself.21 Governed in the body by the kidneys and by water among the five phases, it is also closely related to the psychological power of the will or determination,

19 Daode jing, ch. 42. On creation cosmology and numerology in inner alchemy, see Robinet 1989b, 309-14; 1994; 1995. 20 On the importance of timing in inner 316-17;. See also Pregadio 1995.

alchemy,

21 Porkert 1974, 176-79; Winn 2002, 20; 2006, 157.

see

Robinet

1989b,

Body Energetics / 189

the innate power to seek pleasure, and to fulfill a specific destiny. The source of a person’s charisma or magnetic power, it governs sexual attraction and an innate sense of wholeness. In its most concrete form essence appears

as sexual energy,

i.e., se-

men in men and menstrual blood in women. It is produced from internal gi, stored in the Ocean of Qi (the lower elixir field in the abdo-

men) in men and in the Cavern of @ (the central elixir field in the

solar plexus) in women. From here, if left to its natural devices, this stored gi transmutes into essence on a regular basis, in men whenever sexual stimulation occurs, in women with the menstrual cycle. This in turn leads to a discharge of valuable primordial qi and to loss of vitality when men ejaculate during orgasm or women experience menses. Inner alchemical practice in its first stage, therefore, aims to restore essence back to its original form as qi and to prevent its fu-

ture loss by retaining semen in men and stopping menses in women.22 To do this, one must avoid the downward

movement

of essence. For

men this means that they should get aroused almost to the point of ejaculation, then mentally concentrate on making the semen flow upward and along spine into the head. This is called “reverting the semen to nourish the brain.” Once a man has reached proficiency in the practice and will no longer ejaculate, texts say that he has “subdued the white tiger.” Men then proceed to circulate the reverted energy (parallel to reverted cinnabar in alchemy) along the meridians that follow the spine and run down the front of the body (the Governing and Conception Vessels of Chinese medicine), in a cycle known as the Microcosmic Orbit. Eventually the gi will form a divine “pearl of dew” in the lower elixir field. This is a first coagulation of stronger and purer qi that lays the foundation for the next level. In women the first stageof reverting essence back to energy begins with daily breast massages (moving the hands in various ways and directions), a change in diet to lighter foods, microcosmic orbit practice (often done in reversed order, by guiding the gi up the front and down the back), and a series of meditations in which the red menstrual blood is visualized rising upward and transforming into clearcolored gi. After several months of this practice, energy will be refined and menstruation will cease, an effect called “decapitating the red 22 Brief outlines on the process of inner alchemy are found in Kohn 2001, 145-59; 2005, 213-17; 2006b. For more detailed general surveys, see Needham et al. 1983; Skar and Pregadio 2000. The progress of women is outlined in Despeux and Kohn 2003, 221-43.

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dragon.” The same pattern also applies to women after menopause, except that, with the help of the same basic methods, first recover their menstruation, then proceed to stop it. The 02 thus stabilized which will then come to. nurture the “pearl of dew.” The pearl is naturally present in women from birth, but if left untended it will dissipate with every menstrual cycle. The beginning of inner alchemical practice is, therefore, the reversal of this natural tendency. The second stage sees the transformation from this recovered primordial gi into a yet subtler and more cosmic power known as spirit (shen). The “pearl of dew” is developed into the “golden flower” with the help of transmuted energy.23 To do this, yin and yang are identified as different subtle energies in the body and described with different metaphors, depending on the level of purity attained. Typically there are the following: yang = heart = fire = pure lead = dragon = red bird; yin = kidneys = water = pure mercury = tiger =white tiger. At each stage of the transmutation process, the energies are given a different name, and new metaphors are employed. Beyond mixing basic forces in the abdomen, adepts also revolve them through an inner-body cycle that goes beyond spine and breastbone all the way to the feet; this is known as the Macrocosmic Orbit. Refined gradually to every subtler levels, the energies become as pure as the celestials and the immortal embryo in the lower elixir field. The process is complex and time-consuming, and must be timed in exact correspondence with the cosmic rhythms of yin and yang. Once the embryo is present, adepts switch their practice to employ a method called “embryo respiration” to nourish it for ten months. This is an internal form of breathing, combined with the meditative circulation of gi, which allows the embryo to grow and makes the adept increasingly independent of outer nourishment and air. Unlike the first phase, which was easier for men, the process at this stage is easier for women because they are naturally endowed with the faculty to grow an embryo. After ten months, the embryo is complete. Adepts then proceed to the third stage, described as going from spirit to Dao or emptiness. The as yet semi-material body of the embryo is transformed into pure immortal spirit and becomes a body of pure yang and cosmic life. Nourished to completion over ten months of 23 Detailed descriptions of this phase Cleary 1992; Lu 1970; Wilhelm 1962.

of the

Great

Work

appear

in

Body Energetics / 191

meditative gestation, the embryo begins to have an independent existence. It begins to move and, while the adept is in a deep, absorptive and unmoving trance that may last as long as a week, it rises along the spine and is born by exiting the adept’s physical frame through the top of the head, known as the Heavenly Gate. Moving about the celestial spheres, first hesitantly then with increasing confidence, it becomes the adept’s spiritual alter ego and allows him or her to exhibit various magical powers. Continuing to nurture the divine child for three more years, the adept eventually learns to blend his or her existence with emptiness and dissolves into Dao.

Kundalini The practice of kundalini yoga in the Indian tradition has much in common with Daoist inner alchemical transformation. It, too, strives

to reverse human evolution and recover the oneness at the beginning of creation, moving toward the dissolution of mental and physical duality. To do so, it similarly works with breath control to establish a new and purified rhythm, moves energy through channels in the torso and focuses on a series of potent energy centers. Kundalini, like primordial qi, is a latent cosmic force at the root of strength and power. It, too, divides into two aspects, forming the root of vital energy (prana) in its expanding aspect and of virile potency (virya)

in its adamantine

intensity.24 These

two

aspects,

moreover,

are represented by the core deities Shiva and Shakti, key productive forces of the universe that are represented as lingam and yoni and often depicted in a state of sexual embrace, Shiva standing with Shakti clinging to him, her arms around his neck and her legs around his hips. Shiva is the first principle of ultimate reality, the basis of all existential categories, and the the fundamental power of consciousness. Beyond space and time, the deity is the universal agent that underlies the multidimensional universe. Shakti matches this foundational principle as the bliss aspect of ultimate reality, pure vibrational energy and creative force. She brings about the process of evolution and the manifestation of pure consciousness in material reality. The two interact in patterns of concealment and revelation and can be matched with the left and right hemispheres of the brain—the ana24 Silburn 1988, 3.

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lytical and the creative, the purely conscious and the visually and artistically present. At creation, Shiva and Shakti separate and Shiva comes to rest in the celestial dimensions above the head, from there to contemplate Shakti who takes up residence in the human body in the form of coiled serpent energy. The awakening and activation of kundalini is thus the reunification of Shiva and Shakti, the reintegration of the physical, personal, and cosmic levels of creation. The underlying vision is that there is no reality beyond these forces, that in fact “all aspects of the real are nothing but rhythms of the divine energy and its all-pervading vibration.”26 Like Daoists, tantrikas thus acknowledge the division of the existing universe in two fundamental energetic patterns but emphasize that ultimately there is no opposition between spirit and matter, body and soul, microcosm and macrocosm.

Kundalini begins with conscious breathing practice through which subtle body energies are felt and moved. The most basic is prana kundalini, manifest in the rising and falling of inhalation and exhalation. Next is adhah kundalini, the power at the junction between the in and out breaths, when meditators—while holding the breath—take one part of the energy and move it up and out, while spiraling the other down into the central channel, softening and refining their subtle being. And there is urdhva kundalini, the ascending, reverting movement of energy, with conscious breathing guided upward along the spine, moving slowly and systematically to open the central power vortexes that were clogged up by energetic knots in the course of ordinary living. 2” Eventually the energy takes on a power of its own, centering at the solar plexus and rushing down to the root center at the perineum. From there it moves with enhanced power, waking the coiled serpent of Shakti to new life, passing through the energy centers along the spine and finally exiting through the top of the head to reunite with the celestial force represented by Shiva.28 The classical description of the process sees it primarily as a linear opening of the centers along the spine, a one-way movement which is complete once the energy reaches the top of the head. When examined in a clinical setting, on the other hand, and also as noted in certain traditional reports, “the 25 26 27 28

Feuerstein 1998a, 74-81. Silburn 1988, 8. Silburn 1988, 64-67. Silburn 1988, 63.

Body Energetics / 193

energy rises up the feet and legs, the body, back and spine to the head, but then passes down over the face, and through the throat, finally terminates in the abdomen,” moving in a cycle rather than along a straight line and being thus closer to the Microcosmic Orbit of inner alchemy.22 Both methods are effective in their own way, the key factor

in all cases being the opening of the energy centers or chakras along the spine.

The Chakra System The chakras, literally “whirling wheels” or “vortexes,” are energy centers located in the torso and activated by moving kundalini energy up along the spine. They are, as Ken Wilber notes, “specific areas of the body that seem best to contain the different degrees of ‘freed up’ bliss,” “/ocated to specific areas or organs but not identical with those areas.30 Examined critically, they turn out to be pure abstractions in the sense that they are energetic representations of certain stages of spiritual growth. On the other hand, they are also real in the sense that the locations in the body where they supposedly reside tend to knot up with particular tensions and thus give the greatest feelings of release when opened. Thus stability and groundedness are felt in the feet; orgasmic ecstasy in the genitals; joy, vitality, and laughter in the belly; sadness, openness, and love in the chest; intellect and insight in the eyes and head, and spirituality in the crown.*! The standard system acknowledges seven chakras, located between the pelvic floor and the top of the head. Each of them is named formally, precisely located, associated with colors, geometric forms or yantras, and aspects of the personality. >2 They are:

29 Sannella 1979, 308.

30 Wilber 1979, 126, 128

31 Wilber 1979, 127. 2001,

32 This list and description of the chakras followes Khalsa and Stauth 177-265.

See

also

Breaux,

1989,

174-93;

Feuerstein

1998a,

150-59;

Selby and Zelig 1992.. The Trika school of Kashmiri tantra has only five chakras, joining those at the heart and solar plexus into one and recognizing the crown as a separate entity. See Silburn 1988, 26.

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Name

Location

Sacral

abdomen

Root

perineum

Central Heart

throat/pineal

Brow Crown

the chakras

Personality Aspect

orange

semi-circle

creativity

triangle

logic/thought

square

ellow pink

triangle star

violet gold .

circle _ triangle

blue

third eye top of head

In addition,

Yantra

red .

solar plexus _ | chest/thyroid

Throat

Color

are also connected

survival

ego/confidence love/compassion

intuition spirituality

to the major

elements,

represent psychological tendencies and physical organ systems, and may be responsible for particular physical conditions. Name

elem.

| psychology

Root Sacral Central

earth | greed, jealousy water | desire, creativity | fire ambition, fear

Throat Brow Crown

| ether

Heart

air

grief, joy

| pride intuition cosmic vastness

physical

colon | kidney, penis stomach

conditions

constipation | impotence, infertility ulcers, heartburn

heart, lungs

| asthma, palpitations

thyroid pituary pineal, brain

voice issues memory loss | limitation

More specifically, the Root Chakra is located at the perineum between the genitals and the anus. In the Chinese system, this point is called Meeting Yin and forms the beginning of the Conception Vessel. In Patanjali’s yoga, it is the location of the root lock (mulabandha), the place where muscle constriction helps maintain firmness of posture and keeps energies in the body. In kundalini yoga, it is the triangular sanctuary of will, knowledge, and activity; the residence of the dormant kundalini; and the potential seed of dissipating passions and greed. When stabilized, it can create a feeling of security and restfulness, a certainty of survival even under difficult conditions. 33 The Sacral Chakra matches the lower elixir field or Ocean of Qin the Chinese system. Situated slightly below the navel and connecting to the kidneys, it controls sexuality and creativity, thrives in contact and collaboration with others, and can give rise to great anxiety and fear. The Central Chakra, next, is located at the upper end of the stomach, near the solar plexus. Like the Yellow Court in the Chinese system, it connects to stomach,

spleen, and pancreas and controls di-

gestion and the thinking mind, giving rise to ego, ambition, and worry. 33 Silburn 1988, 27; Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 178.

Body Energetics / 195

If properly opened and stabilized, on the othe rhand, it may also afford a strong sense of security and centeredness.34 The Heart Chakra matches the central elixir field or Cavern of Qin Daoism. Energy that reaches here becomes very subtle, connecting to the remaining centers located further above.35 The nexus of feelings and an emotional sense of self, this chakra can be blocked by grief or opened to joy, but in all cases remains in close interaction with outside forces. The Throat Chakra, next, is connected to the thyroid gland and the vocal cords. It governs all vocal actions and can give rise to encouragement and praise as much as to slander, gossip, and lying.% In Daoism the location matches the middle one of the Three Passes, areas of energetic commingling that need to be opened through the Microcosmic Orbit. The sixth chakra is often called the Third Eye. It governs the intuition and is a major area of spiritual opening. It matches the upper elixir field in the Chinese system, located inside the head at eye level. The residence of pure Dao gods, it serves as a central area for communicating with divine forces. In medical understanding, this chakra relates to the pituitary gland, which in turn has a major impact on other systems of the body. As Khalsa and Stauth point out: Pituitary secretions literally inform all the body’s other glands and organs about what the brain wants the body to do. These other glands and organs, in turn, have a funda-

mental thinking capability all their own (mediated by neu-

ropeptides, neurotransmitters, and neurohormones). This nonbrain thinking that occurs throughout the body plays a role in intuition. Your intestinal neuropeptides probably

contribute to your proverbial gut feelings. (2001, 243)

Unlike other chakras so far, the Third Eye center thus connects to the entire body and relates the person to higher dimensions, going far beyond survival and status. It represents the cosmic spark in the self and is a center of truth and dignity.?” The seventh and highest center, the Crown Chakra is also called the Abode of Light. It is known as the Hundred Meeting point in acupuncture and the Heavenly Gate in Daoism. Located at the very top of the head, the area that remains soft in a newborn baby (fontanelle), 34 35 36 37

Khalsa Silburn Khalsa Khalsa

and Stauth 2001, 189, 197. 1988, 28. and Stauth 2001, 225-26. and Stauth 2001, 244..

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it is a classical exit gate for the spirit. It represents personal vastness and infinity, the ultimate connection to cosmic energy, the point

where the immortal embryo takes birth, where Shakti is set free to reunite with Shiva. Activated in a feeling of bliss, it is the passage to eternal power and a cosmic sense of self.38

The practice works from the root to the crown, beginning by focusing on the lower centers, then gradually waking the upper ones. Besides the fundamental control of breathing and mental guiding of energies, other techniques may include: various forms of purification, both physical and mental; the use of spells and amulets to protect against hostile forces; concentrative meditations with the help of sacred sounds or mantras; visualization of deities either as abstract symbols (yantras) or on the basis of a detailed, standardized iconography; internalization of the deity and placement in the person’s body; the construction of a sacred chart or mandala that often contains an entire pantheon and symbolizes different aspects of personality and the sacred; the practice of specific bodily movements and hand gestures to activate energies and deities; the regular worship (pü/a) of the deity central to one’s endeavor (not necessarily Shiva or Shakti); holy pilgrimages to inspired saints and the sanctuaries of key deities; and the systematic training in supernatural powers (siddhi) that allow the practitioner to influence self, others, and nature.?? In addition,

in a form called “left-handed tantra,” practitioners will

also indulge in various substances commonly prohibited by shadic and yogic rules. Followers thus partake of the “5 M”

Upanimadya

(wine), mamsa (meat), matsya (fish), mudra (grain), and maithuna

(sexual intercourse). The first four of these are commonly known as aphrodisiacs and will lead to an increased sexual libido. The last is the physical manifestation of the ultimate union of Shiva and Shakti, undertaken usually in a group setting as formal ritual sex.40 Which of these methods an adept uses at what time in the process depends on his or her constitution and the guidance of the guru. Whatever methods are chosen, the awakening of the kundalini has to be undertaken with great care, lest it moves at the wrong speed or through the wrong channels, causing major symptoms and discomforts. It is quite normal that people have sensations of heat, tingling, 38 Khalsa and Stauth 2001, 262. 39 For details on these various tantric techniques other forms of meditation, see Feuerstein 1998a. 40 Feuerstein 1998a, 225-39.

that involve various

Body Energetics / 197

numbness and the like; the classical texts mention startled jumping, sleepiness,

and

ecstatic feelings;

and

in some

cases,

even

epileptic

episodes, migraines, and temporary mental disorders can be the result of kundalini practice.41 As Lee Sannella says: In its rise, kundalini causes the central nervous

system to

throw off stress. The stress points will usually cause pain

during meditation. When kundalini encounters these stress points or blocks, it begins to act “on its own volition,” engag-

ing in a self-directed, self-limited process of spreading out

through the entire these blocks. . .

physiopsychological

system

Just as an electric current produces light when through a thin tungsten filament, but not when

to remove

it passes it passes

through a thick copper wire, because the filament offers ap-

preciable resistance while the wire does not, so also does the kundalini cause the most sensation when it enters and area

of mind or body that is blocked. (1979, 306-7)

The ultimate goal is to bring the kundalini through all seven chakras until it reaches the Crown Chakra at the top of the head, on the way gradually burning up and dissolving the material elements of the adept’s identity. Once there, the ideal is to maintain the energy permanently in this elevated position, where it joins the pure celestial deities Shakti to Shiva and restores the adept to the purity before crea-

tion, bringing about ultimate liberation. As the modern mystic Gopi Krishna records:

I experienced a rocking sensation and then felt myself slipping out of my body, entirely enveloped in a halo of light. I felt the point of consciousness that was myself growing wider, surrounded by waves of light. I was now all consciousness, without any outline, without any idea of a corpo-

real appendage,

without

any feeling or sensation coming

from the senses, immersed in a sea of light. (1985, 59)

Practice Today Body energetics is still actively practiced in various forms and tions today. In its Daoist form, it appears both in China and the In China, it tends to be dominantly monastic and is part of the ing of the Complete Perfection school of Daoism. In the West, it 41 Bentov 1977, 148-49; Feuerstein 1998a, 182..

tradiWest. trainis un-

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dertaken by lay followers, who often come to the practice for reasons of health or to increase sexual potency, and is represented mainly by Healing Dao, founded by Mantak Chia and transmitted by Michael Winn. In its Indian form; it is undertaken by various tantric teachers as well as most prominently in Siddha Yoga. In addition, there is also a Western tradition of body energetics in the form of meditative and operative alchemy.

Complete Perfection Inner alchemy is central to Daoist monastic practice in the still dominant school of Complete Perfection (Quanzhen), which goes back to

the twelfth century. Its founder Wang Chongyang (1112-1170) at age

forty-eight resigned from an official career and withdrew to the Zhongnan mountains near modern Xi’an, where he built himself a thatched hut and began to lead the life of an eccentric hermit. After a revelatory experience, during which he was made privy to religious Daoist secrets, Wang intensified his asceticism, losing his sanity to the point where he dug himself a grave called “the tomb of the living dead.” In 1167, he burned his hut to the ground while dancing around it and moved to Shandong in eastern China, where he preached his visions and began to win followers. He founded five religious communities, all located in northern Shandong, and continued to spread his teaching until his death in 1170.22 His work was continued by seven disciples, six men and one woman, known collectively as the Seven Perfected. After observing the standard three-year mourning period for their master, they went separate ways to spread his teaching in different parts of north China, each founding various communities that developed into separate branches or lineages. The most important among these disciples is Qiu Chuji (1148-1227), better known as Master Changchun, the founder of the Longmen lineage which became dominant under the Mongols, is still the central agency of Daoism in mainland China today, and making increasing inroads in Western countries.

Complete Perfection Daoists live in monasteries and follow an ascetic lifestyle, ruled by a tight hierarchy and strict organizational regula42 On Wang Chongyang, his life and teachings, see Komjathy 2007; Yao 1980; 2000. 43 On the Seven Perfected, see Wong 1990; Yao 2000. Qiu is famous for his travels to see Chinggis Khan in the early 1220s (see Waley 1931). The Longmen lineage in the West is represented in the British Taoist Association and the American Dragon Gate Lineage.

Body Energetics / 199

tions. Their daily schedule is long and rigid: a typical day begins at 3:00 A.M. and ends at 9:00 P.M. It consists of several periods of seated meditation, worship, meals, and work, including manual labor

in gardens and fields. Not unlike in Zen institutions, everybody is kept busy at all times, and all movements throughout the day are exactly prescribed and have to be executed with utmost control. Usually meditation, sleep periods, and meals are times of complete silence, and even at other times words are to be used with care and circumspection. Daoists, moreover, observe the natural cycles of the seasons and often eschew the use of artificial lights, so that their winter days are a great deal shorter than those in summer, allowing for more extensive rest in the darker phases of the year.“ After disciplining themselves in the monastic routine, opening their bodies through qigong and taiji quan, and calming their minds with breath observation, Quanzhen followers engage in inner alchemical training. They learn to identify themselves with the immortal embryo and become cosmic people with a higher consciousness and a new, refined level of qi. Spending their lives alternating between high celestial states and monastic work, they eventually go beyond all sentient existence, find their true subtle bodies, leave the world behind

in their minds, give up the physical body, and ascend to the immortals as pure spirits.

Healing Dao The same process is also pursued by Westerners who come to the practice for health reasons or to enhance sexual potency.® Its main representative is Healing Dao, a group founded by Mantak Chia (1944-). Originally from Thailand, he studied Buddhist insight meditation as well as various martial arts and also trained in Hong Kong, where he met a Daoist master and learned inner alchemy. In 1978, Chia established a first Western foothold in Huntington, NY; in 1983, he opened a center in New York City. Today he resides in northern Thailand but travels widely to give lectures and workshops. The main Western teacher trained by Chia is Michael Winn, who founded the

44 Details of Daoist monastic life and institutional clergy are found in Goossaert 2003; 2007; Yoshioka 1979. 45 An example of a couple who came to the practice for health reasons and found it very rewarding is documented in Wik and Wik 2005. The increase of sexual potency is the key factor in books like Abrams and Chia 2000.

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Healing Dao University in upstate New York and supports local centers that can be found in all metropolitan areas.* The Healing Dao system organizes inner alchemy into several levels. On the first. level, practitioners engage in qigong and taiji quan, loosening joints and breathing deeply to release contracted muscles and enhance energy flow through the meridians. On the second level, they

practice meditations to further open grflow and clear negative emo-

tions from the organs, notably the Six Healing Sounds, Inner Smile, and Microcosmic Orbit. The Six Healing

Sounds,

as described in chapter

1 above, consist of

distinct exhalations to cleanse the 07 from the inner organs. The Inner Smile is a visualization of the inner organs in their respective colors while smiling at them and consciously letting go of negative emotions. The Microcosmic Orbit is the mental circulation of 7 up the spine and down the front of the torso, opening major energy points and centers. Typically practitioners experience certain physical sensations in the process. As Mantak Chia says: Most people have some sensations during their meditation.

These may be warmth, heat, or tingling at the sacrum, Gate

of Life [point at kidneys], Third Eye, or tip of the tongue, or

cold or numb areas. Some people feel effervescence like champagne bubbles. You may experience mild electic-like

shocks anywhere in the body; the body may shake rhythmically or suddenly jolt.

Also, the hands, feet, or whole body may become unusually hot;

in fact,

you

may

feel strong

sensations

of heat

any-

where in the body. Those who are visually oriented may see a light inside their heads, or points along the orbit may light up. If you have any of these sensations, you may conclude

that 0718 circulating. (Chia and Chia 1993, 478)

The reason for these various sensations is that, as he says, “we have

begun to absorb

qi from heaven,

earth, and the higher self, and our

channels are widening to absorb additional bursts of 7"47 This is considered very beneficial and an important step on the way, leading to a sense of self and body that is no longer limited to ordinary consciousness but grows into a dimension of subtle energetics and cosmic connection. The mystical dimension of existence here is opened through the physical experience of the body and the reorganization of self in 46 On these leaders, see Kohn 2005, 218-19; www.healingdao.com. 47 Chia and Chia 1993, 478.

Body Energetics / 201

terms of giflow and the perception of subtle energies. Experience is determined entirely by the body—but the body is transformed into a more subtle, more cosmic, more divine entity. Following this fundamental opening of the organs and energy channels, Healing Dao practitioners move on to practice “Fusion of the Five Elements,” a meditation in which the separate energies of the organs are joined together to return to a primordial level. From here they, too, create an immortal embryo, which they nurture with the help of embryo respiration. Once the embryo is ready to exit the body, practitioners move through five levels: 1. the birth of the immortal child through the absorption of higher forms of yin and yang, the sun and the moon, and by opening communication with the five spirit centers and the divinities of the four directions; 2. the maturation of the immortal child through feeding of the true elixir of the sun, a series of meditations arranged according to one’s astro-

logical birth elements that involve the absorption of planetary power and ecstatic travels to the solar system; 3. the crystallization of the primordial spirit by focusing on the center in the head and there absorbing and interiorizing various astral forces, such as the Big Dipper, the Polestar, and the four Great Star quadrants, eventually attaining the ability to travel freely around them; 4. the merging of Heaven and Earth through opening a cosmic void within, where Heaven and Earth come together in primordial unity and where the physical body and personality of the adept fully dissolves into primordial gi 5. union with the Dao, a spontaneous event that occurs when virtue, des-

tiny, and cultivation are complete.*

Incorporating the classical structure of inner alchemy and using highly similar techniques, Healing Dao is thus an active continuation of Chinese body energetics that yet also manages to bring it into a modern context by advertising practical benefits in terms of health, well-being, and sexual bliss.

Kundalini A very similar dual structure of popularization and serious continuation of traditional patterns also holds true for kundalini in the modern world. There are numerous teachers and organizations that make use of the practice, some in more Hindu contexts than others. They range from hypnotists that promise the safe awakening of kundalini energy for physical bliss and power of mind through various self-help 48 See Chia and Chia 1993; Kohn 2006b; Winn 2001.

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centers and yoga groups that combine energy work with Hatha Yoga, death preparation, and astrology to a Kundalini Support Network that organizes retreats and provides help for people who spontaneously have kundalini experiences or intentionally wish to do so. 49 According to founder and main representative Susan A. Carlson, Kundalini is a natural, biological phenomenon, a matrix that transforms the body-mind-spirit complex for health, peacefulness, and blissful living. Although kundalini causes at times profound, spiritual experiences it is not the exclusive domain of any spiritual tradition or religious body. Kundalini’ purpose is to start and finish a process of transformation of making a complete and natural human being who is at peace with him/herself and with the natural world. Kundalini activation is a teachable and reproducible process 00

The website also claims that kundalini, the “liquid light of sex,” is known to all sorts of cultures and expressed in forty-seven different languages. Matches in Western cultures include Holy Spirit among Christianity, Shekinah in Judaism, and Secret Fire in Kabbalah.

Among more Hindu-focused groups there is, for example, the Ipsalu Tantra Kriya Yoga organization, founded and led by Bodhi Avinasha and located in Loveland, Ohio. Their goal is to prepare the body and mind for an enhanced life force through the conscious and careful activation of kundalini, to help people “explore how creative (sexual) energy, once amplified, focused, and transmuted, brings transformation,” and how the body can become a “temple of dynamic Tantra bliss.”51 A South Asian variety that focuses more on meditation and spiritual rather than sexual transformation is represented by the Kundalini Yoga Center in Kuala Lumpur under the leadership of the Hindu saint Ghanavallal Paranjothi Mahan. The group provides in49 An example of a hypnotist promising kundalini activation through self-hypnosis is Steve G. Jones with a practice in Beverly Hills. See www.better

livingwithhypnosis.com. A group that integrates kundalini practice with various

other new age activities, such as astrology and yoga, is Orbis Farm in Indi-

ana run by Helen McMahan. See www.orbisfarm.com. 50 See www.kundalinisupportnetwork.com.

51 The website of Ipsalu is www.tantrabliss.com. They are also represented on www.tantra.com, a site that otherwise advertises sexual improvement and various forms of creative coupling that has nothing to do with kundalini.

Body Energetics / 203

struction in concentrative meditation and focused breathing, recommending 15 to 20 minutes of practice several times a day and warning against rash tinkering with powerful inner energies. Matching the traditional Hindu system, they encourage close connection to the guru, provide personalized guidance, and have formal initiation ceremonies called shaktipat, during which the guru, through his connection with the divine, activates the disciple’s dormant kundalini.52

Siddha Yoga The most prominent and most seriously religious group among kundalini practitioners is Siddha Yoga, founded by Swami Muktananda and today led by Swami Chidvilasananda. Muktananda (1908-1982) was born in a wealthy family in Karnataka. At age fifteen, he encountered Bhagawan Nityananda who became a guiding influence in his life. He proceeded to study the Hindu classics, practice yoga, and eventually withdrew from the world as a renunciant (sannyasin). In 1947, he received shaktipat from his guru who also gave him the religious name Muktantanda. Spending the next eight years in solitary meditation, he experienced a full kundalini awakening and became a swami in his own right. In 1956, he purchased land near Ganeshpuri with the help of some wealthy donors and established his own ashram. In the 1970s, he spread his teaching westward and began to give shaktipat initiation to thousands of followers in public ceremonies—a major break from traditional Indian practice, justified by the claim that the world needed spiritual awakening too urgently to handle it one by one. In 1974 he founded the non-profit SYDA Foundation dedicated to the dissemination of Siddha Yoga teachings and practices.’ After his death in 1982, the leadership of the group went to Swami Nityanand and his sister Swami Chidvilasananda, who has been the group’s sole leader since 1985. Born in 1955 in Mumbai, she became a follower of Muktananda at an early age and soon was chosen as his assistant and English translator. After accompanying him on tours and lecture engagements for a number of years, she took formal vows as a sannyasin, received the title swami, and was nominated as a successor in 1982. Coming across as gentle and giving as well as spiritually powerful, and lovingly called Gurumayi by her followers, she has inspired numerous devotees and expanded the group to include over

52 See www.kundaliniyoga.com.my.

53 For more on Muktananda,

see his autobiography (1978). A critical

historical and scholarly study of the group is found in D. Brooks 1997.

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600 centers and ashrams worldwide, in 1997 founding the Muktabodha Institute with its own publishing house called Agama Press.54 The practice of Siddha Yoga emphasizes meditation, chanting, and selfless service. Meditation comes in a series of practices, beginning with Hatha Ydoga to loosen the body and stimulate internal energies. Kundalini is awakened in formal shaktipat ceremonies that bind the follower to the guru. The main meditation practice, then, is the con-

tinued cultivation and systematic

ascent of kundalini through

the

chakras. To this end, there are physical movements, various kinds of

chanting, devotional practices to a variety of Hindu deities, and the traditional methods associated with kundalini: controlled breathing and internal energy circulation. The techniques are taught ideally in Siddha Yoga intensives, during which practitioners are completely cut off from their ordinary lives and can immerse themselves fully. But there are also local centers, where people can acquaint themselves with the methods more slowly and where followers congregate for mutual support.

Western Alchemy In the West, body energetics appears in three major venues: as part of the Western alchemical tradition; in Jungian depth psychology; and in new developments called energy psychology. Western alchemy began as part of the stimulating mix of religions and practices in the early centuries of the Common Era. In the middle ages, 1t was taken up by the Muslims, who created an extensive literature on the subject, and continued vigorously throughout the Renaissance and Enlightenment—notably in orders such as the Rosicrucians. In the eighteenth century, under the impact of rationalism and the Enlightenment, it fell into disrepute in and was essentially extinct in the nineteenth. Reviving again in the twentieth century, there is now an active alchemical community in the West, organized in the U.S through the

American

Rosicrucian

Order

(AMORC)

in

New

York,

Rose+Croix

University (RCU) in California, and the Institute for Hermetic Studies in Pennsylvania. Like contemporary Daoists and neidan followers, its practitioners engage in a combination of religious rituals, herbal concoctions, kabalistic speculations, and deep meditations. What is

54 For details on Gurumayi, see www.siddhayoga.org. Her autobiography is found in Chidvilasananda 1990. 55 Ploss et al. 1970, 11. See also Newman 2005; Thompson 2002.

Body Energetics / 205

more, they have begun to reach out and acknowledge the similarities of their practices with kundalini and qigongsf. Like

Chinese

and [Indian practitioners,

they work with the energy

body, described as subtle, astral, and etheric, and divide it into three

layers or “levels of light”: the spirit body which is closest to physical being; the radiant body which is the medium through which we appreciate beauty and interact with nature; and the resurrection body, the subtlest entity and the medium through which one can access higher realms. The latter is also called the “pure body of light” or technically the cowan. It is so superior and strong that a large part of the practice is to control it. The advice is to go slowly, remain secure in a sacred space or protected environment, prevent it from wandering too far off, and make sure it learns to obey conscious commands.57 They also recognize that the full development of the cowan can lead to supernatural or extraordinary powers—a common result of inner alchemical and kundalini practice. Like Asian body energetics followers, they emphasize the essential power of sexual energy, which they describe as the secret fire deep within the human being, the force that can be most easily transmuted into subtler energies and the body of light. They engage in cosmological speculation involving the kabalistic Tree of Life and practice energy circulation exercises such as the activation of the Middle Pillar, the path of divine energy through the person—similar to the central 72407 in kundalini and the Penetrating (Thrusting) Vessel in inner alchemy.58 In addition, they also perform elaborate initiations, which in many ways match Hindu shaktipat and Daoist ordination ceremonies, and engage in making and taking

of various

herbal

concoctions,

another

feature

Daoists

and

Hindus

excel in—although they think of them more as preparatory health measures than a part of the inner alchemical work proper. °°?

56 57 58 59

On modern and especially American alchemy, see Stavish 1996; 2006. See Stavish 1997a. Stavish 1997b. Herbs in modern alchemy are matched with the planets and include

things like horsetail, watercress, basil, fennel, and lemon balm. Any concoc-

tion is to be undertaken in the planetary hour of the appropriate heavenly body and should begin with a ceremony and prayer. Then the adept grinds and powders the herb while visualizing the release of its inner potencies. After that, the powder is placed in a sealable jar and submerged in alcohol, then left in a lightless place for a set amount of time to develop its full powers. Any taking of the herbal concoction follows similar ritual procedures. See Stavish 2006, 24-27. A comparative example in the Daoist tradition is the concoction

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Most

Works

importantly,

like other

masters

of body

energetics,

they

are

aware that their central work is the activation, conscious arousal, and

sublimation of the energy body, its restructuring toward a being of light, an immortal embryo, an existence of pure spirit. The ultimate goal is oneness with the root force of the universe, the underlying power of all existence, the greater divinity of eternal life. Health and longevity, physical vigor and mental acuity, supernatural powers and divine revelations are all part of the Great Work.

Jungian Psychology Western alchemy is also at the root of the integration of body energetics in modern depth psychology as developed by C. G. Jung (18751961). Interested in ways of relieving psychological distress and transforming and integrating the psyche, Jung made ample use of the methods and metaphors of the alchemical tradition and also went further afield, studying inner alchemy and kundalini.©

When his friend Richard Wilhelm translated the Zazyi jinhua zongzhi

(Great Unity Instructions on [Developing] the Golden Flower) under

the title Zhe Secret of the Golden Flower in 1929, Jung was fascinated by the Daoist document and wrote a lengthy preface to the translation. The Golden Flower is originally an eighteenth century text that was received in revelation through automatic or spiritwriting at a Daoist altar in Jiangsu. Transmitted widely in various lineages, its earliest editions date from the nineteenth century,

and

its teachings had a wide impact on Daoist worldview and practice.61 The work outlines the major stages and transformative pattern of inner alchemy, culminating in the birth of the immortal embryo through the practitioner’s head. In his preface, Jung analyzes the alchemical progress in terms of the increasing integration of the psyche, identifying the fundamental forces yin and yang as the anima and animus of his system, i.e., as inherent aspects of the personality that reflect fundamental male and female characteristics and that pull the person into different directions. As practitioners progress along the alchemical path, not only do they—like psychotherapeutic patients—learn to recognize and accept the various different parts of themselves, but they also do vigorous of immortality elixirs on the basis of herbs, described in some detail in a fourth-century text. See Arthur 2006. 60 For Jungs work on Western alchemy, see Jung 1967; Jung and Schwart-Salant 1995. 61 On the text, see Esposito 1998; Mori 2002.

Body Energetics / 207

work on harmonizing and integrating the contrary forces. Eventually they give rise to a vision of internal unity that Jung often associated with the geometrical structure of the mandala and that in the Daoist text is described in terms of the newly created embryo and its ascent to immortality.62 Jung’s first encounter with kundalini similarly occurred through an academic work, in this case John Woodroffs The Serpent Power (1919), followed by readings of related studies and a personal threemonth journey to India in 1937. Highly impressed by the chakra system, which he saw as a series of mandalas and images of completion, and the potent symbolism of kundalini practice, Jung related the transformative process to his concept of personality integration. In this he matched the power at the base of ultimate unity with the collective unconscious and linked—often in great detail—specific symbols, images, and metaphors to his idea of universal archetypes. Kundalini as the coiled serpent thus connected with the serpent in Western mythology, the treacherous beast of Genesis as much as the coiling snakes on the staff of Asclepius. In both manifestations, the serpent symbolizes the chthonic aspect of matter, a dark and unconscious function that can wreak much havoc but also be the source of great healing. The lotus image of the chakras similarly connects to the archetype of the flower: it can be closed and dormant or open and blossoming but it has to be nurtured to fully come into its own.®

Energy Psychology Just as Jung adopted some fundamental understanding and major concepts from Asian body energetics, so is the evolving field of energy psychology a Western venue of this form of meditation. Following classical models, it sees the body as consisting of “various interrelated energy systems... which each serve specific functions.” According to this understanding, the visible and measurable material body is supported by an underlying network or skeleton of living energy that forms the foundation of all bodily systems. 66

62 See Wilhelm 1962, pref. For a study of Jung’s concept of the anima, see also Hillman 1985. 68 Jung 1996, xxvi-xxvil. 64 For these basic concepts of Jungian psychology, see Jung 1968. 65 Harris 2001, 119-121, 137.

66 Feinstein et al. 2005, 197. Other works on energy psychology include Gach and Henning 2004; Gallo 2004; Pert 1997.

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Supported increasingly by electromagnetic measurements as devised in energy medicine, followers of-this new method distinguish seven major aspects of the internal network: the meridians, the chakras, the aura (a protective energetic atmosphere that surrounds the person), the basic grid, the celtic weave (a spiraling, twisting energy pattern that creates a “kaleidoscope of colors and shapes”), the five

rhythms (matching the five phases), the triple warmer

(a Chinese

organ that transforms air and food into qi, and the radiant circuits (an adaptation of the eight extraordinary vessels, “operating like fluid fields and embodying a distinct spontaneous intelligence.” On the basis of this model, practitioners then propose that people should enhance their “energy aptitude,” perform daily exercises to harmonize the energies, and use specific tapping techniques to release tensions, emotional trauma, and even physical ailments. Energy aptitude means the ability to work effectively with one’s internal energies. It has four components: a fundamental awareness of one’s energetic patterns, the ability to influence these patterns in a beneficial way, the faculty to perceive energies in other people and outside objects, and to join or transform these outside energies in a beneficial way.6 Daily exercises involve pressing key acupuncture points while breathing deeply and visualizing energies flowing through the body. Tapping

means

the activation of certain core cen-

ters by lightly knocking on them with the fingers while voicing healing affirmations and seeing oneself in the desired state.

Also known as Emotional Freedom Technique (EFT), the method has patients measure a problem on a scale from 1 to 10, then imagine the feeling associated with the issue, create a positive affirmation, and repeat this while tapping a set of eight acupuncture points. The points range from the center of the forehead through the face, neck, and upper torso to the sides of the hands. After completion, patients remeasure the feeling, then repeat the technique—often with a slightly modified affirmation until the tension goes down to zero. Not only are urgent issues immediately relieved with this method, but even long-standing issues resolve with persistent tapping.6 The tech67 Feinstein et al. 2005, 200-5. 68 Feinstein et al. 2005, 204-5. same

69 Feinstein et al. 2005, 47-53. A more religious Daoist version of the practice involves

tapping the three cinnabar fields and the third eye

while chanting an incantation to the powers of chaos underlying all creation. See Kohn 2008, intr. Qigong forms Johnson 200, 703-7.

of tapping for healing

are described

in

Body Energetics / 209

nique works in a large variety of psychological problems, from anxiety through ADHD, depression, obsessive-compulsive behavior to a whole gamut of unwanted habits and addictions. It also has distinct physical effects and has been found to afford significant (even permanent)

relief in cases of asthma, headaches, back pain, allergies, constipation,

morning sickness, and many more.”

This active work with the energy body, utilizing techniques of deep breathing and conscious energy guiding developed in traditional systems, thus makes the methods accessible to a wide audience, moving meditation once again beyond its original religious confines into a greater, even universal sphere of physical healing, emotional stability, and harmony of self and world.

70 Feinstein et al. 2005, 84-112. See also www.emofree.com.

Conclusion Meditation Today Meditation is a form of self-hypnosis learned through personal instruction by a qualified teacher, then self-applied in accordance with specific frequencies and dosages. Initially inducing a state of muscle relaxation and mental letting go through concentration and breathing, it is ultimately a method of accessing and reprogramming the subconscious mind. Access to the subconscious occurs in one of six dominant modes that are largely incompatible with one another. They include first the three main venues of sensory perception: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. In addition, there are three further ways: through the conscious mind, gut feelings or intuition, and the body’s subtle energy systems.

Thus, yoga, taiji quan, and qigong work through muscles and joints; mantra and chanting use the auditory system; while tantra and most forms of modern hypnosis are dominantly concerned with visual apperception and right-brain imagery. Similarly insight meditation, whether Buddhist or Daoist, focuses on the left brain and establishes

a detached observer; Chan, Zen, and Dzogchen center the practice on the belly to enhance gut responses through quieting all body systems; and

inner

alchemy,

kundalini,

and

Western

structure, and refine subtle body energies.

alchemy

activate,

re-

Reprogramming of the subconscious mind occurs in accordance with the personal goals of the individual practitioner and under the auspices of the tradition’s worldview, which usually is either medical or religious in nature. Personal goals range from self-improvement, success, and healing in the modern West through the realization of transcendence and oneness with the divine in traditional religions to re4

210

Conclusion / 211

lease from responsibility and merging with the group in destructive cults. Dominant worldviews that guide meditation ideals and practices include the doctrines of suffering, impermanence, and no-self of ancient Buddhism, the proposal of an underlying world force and eternal personal soul in Hinduism, the vision of the Dao as ultimate perfection in Daoism, the understanding of buddha nature as the core of the self and the root of pure experience in Zen, and many others more. Each, moreover, has its own vision of the ultimate result of the practice. The goal in most traditions is to create the perfect person: one who is at peace within and calm and compassionate without. They see this person as being morally good, physically healthy, mentally calm, and psychologically integrated. Full of inner harmony, the ideal human is ready to attain salvation. It is this quality of inward restfulness and outward kindness, combined with the promise of health and harmony, that attracts so many people to the practice today. Nevertheless, the vision of human

perfection is different in the traditions,

relating closely to the way they access the subconscious and to the way they understand the universe. Thus yoga followers find perfection in the access to an underlying true self, a bliss body that is buried deep within one’s ordinary bodymind and that will create a sense of oneness with the universe, opening the path for ultimate liberation and freedom from karmic rebirth. Mantra chanters have a similar vision of finding oneness with underlying truth, but they work through the devotion to a specific deity and/or cosmic force, relating to the divine through sound and submerging themselves in its power. Insight meditators, quite differently, negate all permanent structures and seek to find enlightenment through penetrating the subtler structures of the universe while letting go of concepts and attachments. Their ideal of perfection is to move along with the continuous changes of the world in a state of complete equanimity, expressed as wisdom and compassion.

Zen followers would agree with much of that, seeing underlying reality as emptiness, yet instead of penetrating subtler structures with the conscious mind, they activate gut awareness and try to connect to pure existence and buddha nature in a sudden flash. Their vision of the total person is one who is in immediate connection to the deeper layers of reality and responds vigorously from the Aara without con-

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scious interference. Any of the Indian systems of yoga, mantra, and insight would still be deemed dualistic in Zen thinking. In a yet different mode, tantric practitioners find perfection in the complete integration of all different aspects of consciousness and the transformation of emotional patterns into aspects of enlightenment. Their vision is realized not by piercing through to the depth but by opening up and embracing different personality parts, by reaching out and encompassing all ways of being. The ultimate or divine is the totality of all there is, which may rest on emptiness but is still there and still real as a product of the complex mind. Daoists who practice inner alchemy or followers of kundalini, finally, strive to attain oneness with cosmic forces in energetic sublimation. They overcome the limitations of self and world by identifying with increasingly subtle forms of energy, flowing with the cosmic energies and partaking of their potency. Their perfection is to be immune to heat and cold, to have overcome hunger and thirst by being able to live on pure qi, to acquire magical powers of multilocation, telepathy, and the like, to bypass death, and to ascend to the heavens

munity with gods and immortals.

in com-

Even though modern healthcare professionals and meditation teachers frequently claim that no belief or devotion is necessary for the successful practice of meditation, everyone undertaking the effort— especially if sustained with some degree of serious dedication—comes to the practice with specific goals, hopes, and expectations. These may only be partially conscious, but they form a decisive presence nevertheless. Entering an initial state of relaxation, actively suspending dualistic thinking, and letting go—at least for some period—of critical evaluations, practitioners moreover become highly susceptible to hypnotic suggestions. These suggestions, in combination with the initial motivation, then determine the effects of practice and instill a particular vision of self and world in the meditator. The overwhelming majority of meditation teachings enhance healing

and wellness, increase positive emotions and ethical behavior, and in

general instill a well-balanced understanding of human existence in the person. They—and through them the practice of meditation in its various forms—usually lead to an overall improvement in self-esteem, physical well-being, and happiness, thus giving rise to the positive image meditation has in the modern world. There is no doubt that for

Conclusion / 213

the most part meditation contributes significantly to the growth of healthier, happier, and better adjusted individuals. However, this is not the complete picture. Serious dedication to one or the other practice requires acceptance of the underlying worldview, since the practice cannot be separated from its related understanding of self, mind, and universe. It is quite true that, as many meditation

traditions claim, practice creates belief. Changes, therefore, are bound to happen, but they do not appear overnight. The impact on the body-mind system occurs in small increments, a few minutes every day being more powerful than hours once a week or a longer retreat once a year. Regular practice, therefore, creates gradual transformation in perception, cognition, and worldview, and most people slowly change their views as they progress. On the other hand, practitioners unaware of this reality may find that, as they advance in the practice, it increasingly demands a certain understanding of the world that may be quite different from their initial concepts. Cognitive dissonance may be the result, and meditation may become the source of a completely new set of internal conflicts and difficulties. For example, someone may come to think:

“Since I meditate, I should feel no more fear or anxiety, I should al-

ways be calm and composed, I should be happy in all circumstances.”! This may soon become a way to suppress and disown actual feelings and a rejection of internal reality, a feature of the self perfectly acceptable and expressiblein secular Western understanding.

Destructive cults make good use of this feature and often instill a sense of guilt and self-loathing in their followers. Often they are found to think: “I am no good at this practice, 1 am unworthy of the attention of the teacher, what I am suffering now is a just punishment for my failure and inability to sustain the practlce. Internalizing the dominant doctrines of the group—that the leader is infallible and the technique superb—places the responsibility for all failure and bad feelings squarely upon the practitioner, taking away whatever self-esteem there might have been. Destructive cults thus use meditation techniques in combination with active indoctrination to create dependent and obedient followers who 1 This rather typical, self-critical internal dialogue among meditators was described in terms of ten new hindrances by Jack Engler in a lecture at Boston University, Fall 2005. 2 See Engler 2005. Mental justifications for a cult leader’s abuse are also vividly documented in Sherrill 2000.

214 / Meditation

Works

are fearful, disoriented, and often of ill health. Even well respected meditation systems often support a degree of teacher veneration that precludes self-assertion. Problems may also arise when the method

chosen, due to whatever influence or information, does not match the

personal make-up or perceptive preference of the individual. In all these cases, the realization of the ultimate goal remains elusive and initial hopes come to nothing. Even if goals are reached and hopes realized, moreover, they may not grant ultimate satisfaction. All too often initial promises stand in no apparent relationship to later states. As Jack Engler points out, the mystique-of enlightenment is such that many modern practitioners believe its attainment to be the end of all worldly troubles, when in fact all it creates is greater stability and balance of mind in dealing with them. Even the Buddha,

after all, still suffered from illness and

defamation after his superior attainment.

Taking all this together with the fact that scientific studies of meditation in healthcare remain inconclusive with regards to its specific benefits,? the conclusion is inevitable that meditation is not only poorly understood and insufficiently researched but often overrated. It has benefits and should be taken seriously—not having any mental training at all is definitely not an alternative—but rather than praise it as the great panacea, it should be critically examined, carefully tested, and competently taught: in controlled settings, with reasonable goals and expectations, and properly matching the methods to individual practitioners.

3 As outlined in the Evidence Report of the Agency for Healthcare Re-

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Index absorption, see dhyana

Achaan Chah, 94 Acu-Yoga, 179-80 administration, celestial, 64,

35

Beatles, 19, 69 Beck, Aaron T., 146 Beck, Charlotte Boko, 102 Benson, Herbert, 46-47, 48

134-

Bhagavad Gita, 68-69, 164 big mind, 18

Advaita Vedanta, 58, 65-66 affirmations, 56-57, 62, 208-9

Blythe, R. H., 120 Bodhidharma, 113, 171 bodhisattva, 140, 143, 145 body awareness, 6-7, 154-80, 210; see also yoga, daoyin, qigong body energetics, 7, 87, 181-209, 210, 212; see also alchemy, inner alchemy, kundalini

Agamas, 183

aggregates, see skandhas

AHRQ, 2, 5, 20-22, 214

Aitken, Robert, 120 Akshobya, 142 alchemy, 7, 182, 187-88, 204-5v

Amitabha, 55, 69-70, 91, 141 Amitayus, 143 Amoghasiddhi, 142 amygdala, 24-25

body, analysis of, 86-87, 205; control of, 112; energy, 184-86

gods 1n, 135, 139-40, 183, 195; and personality, 156-58, 19495, 207; physiology of, 159-62 body-mind, 2, 10, 12, 27, 86-87, 117, 184, 211 Borysenko, Joan, 47 Brahman, 32-34, 53, 58-59, 165-66 brahmaviharas, 81, 168 brain, abdominal, 112, 156; and breathing, 30-31, 38; chemistry of, 3, 12; and glands, 195; hemispheres, 15, 75-76, 19192; and mind, 14-16, 22-25, 112, 185; and muscles, 159-62; and sound, 50-52; and visualization, 128, 130-32; waves, 19-20, 52 breathing, advanced, 37-39, 11112; and concentration, 5, 7, 16, 27, 28-48, 78, 96, 166, 199;

anapana, 40, 78 Anapanasati Sutra, 41-42, 95 animals, divine, 64 anterior cyngulate gyrus, 30

Arya, Usharbudh, 60 Asclepius, 207

Assagioli, Roberto , 74, 116, 146 Atharva Veda, 57

atman, 8, 17, 33, 58-59, 155, 165-

66, 211; see also self, true attention, 22, 24, 77 aum, 51, 53 aura, 208 Avalokitesvara, 54, 140-41 Avatamsaka sutra, 107-8 Avinasha, Bodhi, 202

Baizhang, 114

bardo, 51 Bassui, 101

255

256 / Meditation

Works

conscious, 1, 6, 10, 23; control of, 17, 21, 34-37, 187, 191-92, 196; effects of, 22; in medicine, 45-46; energy, 183; centers, see chakras; methods of, 10,

28-29,

40-42;

physiology

of,

29-32; and sound, 49-50, 67; and stress, 14, 31 buddha families, 141-42 buddha nature, 8, 102, 109, 113, 115-18, 137, 141, 145, 211 Buddha Sakyamuni, 80, 91, 92, 96,

113, 214

Buddhaghosa, 40

Buddhism, ancient, 5, 6, 13, 17, 20, 29, 81-84, 164, 166, 167;

breathing in, 40-43; history, 91, 92; Humanistic, 126; Ma:

hayana, 6, 54, 91, 98, 107, 127, 129, 137-38, 140; precepts of, 10, 77, 83, 96, 110; Theravada, 18, 40, 91; Tiantai, 84-85, 127; truths of, 79, 81-84, 211; visualization in, 129; see also in-

sight meditation,

Pure Land,

Soka Gakkai, tantra, Tibetan Buddhism, Zen Butts, Karen, 46 Cage, John, 120 Carrington, Patricia, 47 Carus, Paul, 120 Celestial Masters, 61, 64-65, 134 Chaitanya, 68 chakras, 192, 193-97, 200, 204, 207-8 Chan, see Zen chanting, 6, 17, 19, 46, 49-50, 5455, 61-65, 72, 169

Cheng Xuanyin, 104

Chenrezig, see Avalokitesvara Chia, Mantak, 174, 198, 199-200

Chidvilasananda, Swami, 203-4 Chinese Communist Party, 155,

177 Christianity, 56 cinnabar field, see dantian citta vrıttı, 167-68

Clinically

tion, 47

Standardized

Medita-

cognition, 77, 130

colors, 128, 133, 139, 172, 193-94, 208 community, 10, 11-12, 69-72, 8384, 96, 101, 103, 122, 198-99 compassion, 13, 60, 74, 83, 116, 141, 211 Complete Perfection, 62, 174, 19799 concentration, 40-45, 210; and breathing, 29, 40, 41; and insight, 5, 78-80, 85; in medicine, 43-45; state of, 3, 106,

188; types of, 40; and visuali-

zation, 128-29 connective tissue, 185 consciousness, altered, 19, 39, 197; and brain, 19-20, 22; in Buddhism, 81-84, 107-8, 137-38; bypassing of, 1, 5, 44, 50, 97, 98, 130, 212; cosmic, 13, 18, 42-43, 45, 70-71, 104-5, 108, 191, 200; definition of, 14-16; and emotions, 88-91; as factor, 9, 87, 101, 181, 185, 212; levels of, 6, 8, 14-16, 18, 190; and sound, 49-50; storehouse, 1078; witness, 4, 7, 73-74, 76, 90, 166, 211 cosmology, 10, 187-88 cowan, 205 creation, 187-88, 191-92 cults, 8-9, 17, 59, 67, 213

Cunshen liangi ming, 43-44

Dalai Lama, 20, 25, 54, 95, 137, 140, 142, 144; institution of, 151-53 dantian, 34, 111-12, 156, 173, 18990 Dao, 8, 17, 32, 87, 99-100, 106, 133, 162, 171, 211 Daode jing, 44, 61-62, 86, 102, 104-5, 187 Daoism, 6-7, 10, 17; body in, 16973, 186-91, 194-95; and

breathing,

29,

40;

Buddhist

Index / 257

influence on, 85; chanting in, 50, 61-65, 135-36; concentration in, 43-44; ethics in, 133;

immedicacy in, 97-98; insight

in, 84-88; schools of, 99, 134, 198-99; visualization in, 61, 64-65, 128-29, 132-36; world of, 212; and Zen, 99-103, 123;

see also Highest Clarity, immortality, inner alchemy Daoyin tu, 168-69 daoyin, 6, 154, 155, 168-71, 177

Davidson, Richard, 20, 25

death, 10, 13-14, 50-51; great, 109 deautomatization, 16, 75 Deikman, Arthur, 20, 75-76 deities, in body, 88, 134-36, 183, 195-96; in chanting, 59-60; visualization of, 128, 134-35, 138, 139-45; wrathful, 144-45

detachment,

6-7, 9, 24, 29, 40-41,

45, 47, 73-74, 78-79, 80, 90, 105-6, 119, 154, 180 devotion, 58-60, 162, 183, 196 dharani, 54 dhyana, 40, 42-43, 98, 113, 127, 129 Diamond Sutra, 123 diet, 44, 77-78, 186, 196, 205

Dingguan jing, 85, 87 double forgetting, 105 Duren jing, 62

Dychtwald, Ken, 156-58 Dzogchen, 7, 151, 210

Dzogchen, 98

Easwaran, Eknath, 55 ecstasy, 136, 169, 181, 190-91, 201 EFT, 208-9 ego, definition of, 15-16, 117; sus-

pension

of,

8-9;

transforma-

Eight Brocades, 170

131,

Ekkei, 119 elixir field, see dantian embryo respiration, 38, 190

193, 212; psychology of, 88-91;

transformation of, 17-18, 76, 79-80, 85, 88-91, 96, 139-42, 144-45, 149-51, 162, 166; see also brahmaviharas energy fields, 27, 183-85; see also の7 Engle, R. Adam, 20, 152 Engler, Jack, 20, 214 enlightenment, 18, 102, 108-10, 116, 118, 137, 189-40, 154, 211, 213

enlightenment, 80

Epstein, Gerald, 146

essence, see jing

ethics, 10-11, 17, 25, 117, 133, 162-63 Evidence t, 2, 5, 20-22 exorcism, 64, 169

experience,

and

body,

58,

77,

201;

137,

83,

kun-

dalini, 197; peak, 77; pure, 18, 97, 108-10; in Zen, 108 extraordinary powers, 59, 67, 71, 164, 177, 191, 196, 212

Falun gong, 177

dualism, 12, 97, 109-10, 115

tion of, 16-18, 78, 182 Egoscue, Pete, 160-61

embryo, 190-91, 201, 206 emotions, and brain, 24-25, 88; and breathing, 31-32; in Daoism, 43-44, 87, 100, 187; and master, 3; negative, 14-15, 89, 157; positive, 12-13, 74, 83, 89,

Farhi, Donna, 13 Farkas, Maria, 120 Feldenkrais, Moshe, 159 Feng Shui, 178-79 Fengdu, 135 Firman, John, 74-75 Five Animals Frolic, 170 five phases, 172, 187-88, 201, 208 flow, 79; see also vibrations Fo Guang Shan, 119, 125, 126-27 Ford, Debbie, 149-51 Freud, Anna, 74 Freud, Sigmund, 14, 74 Fried, Robert, 45 Fromm, Erich, 19, 116, 120 frontal lobes, 24, 80, 89

Gach, Michael Reed, 179-80

258 / Meditation

Works

Gandhi, 68 Gass, Robert, 50, 54, 56

Gayatri Mantra, 55 Gelug, 151

Genesis, 207 Ghanavallal, 202 Ginsberg, Alan, 120 Goenka, S. N., 74, 92-93 golden flower, 190, 206 Goldstein, Joseph,74, 94 Goleman, Daniel, 20 Grilley, Paul, 180 Guanzı, 44 gunas, 167

Guo Xiang, 104

guru, see master

Gurumayi, 203-4

Hakuin, 114 Hanna, Thomas, 159-61 happiness, 25, 89 hara, see dantian Hare Krishnas, 19, 54, 68-69 Harrison, George, 69

Hathayoga pradipika, 164

healing, 8, 210, 212; in Daoism, 64; physiology of, 50-52, 185; see also medicine Healing Dao, 199-201 Heart Sutra, 54, 123, 125, 140 heavens, ascension to, 134, 182;

spells of, 63

Heidegger, Martin, 116

Hekiganroku, 114

Hermeticism, 7 Heruka, 145 Highest Clarity, 63-64, 85, 128, 133-35, 169-70, 182 hindrances, energetic, 197, 200; five 42, 83; new, 213; transformation, of, 144; in yoga, 164; in Zen, 112-13 Hinduism, see Brahman, kundalni, tantra, Upanishads,

Vedas, yoga

hippocampus, 24 Hisamatsu, Shininchi, 120

Horney, Karen, 120

Hsing Yun, 119, 125-26

Huangting jing, 135

Husserl Edmund, 116 hypnosis, 3-4, 5-6, 9, 16-17, 26, 39, 147, 153, 210

hypothalamus, 30 ignorance, 81 Ikeda Daisaku,71

imagery, 128, 130-32

imagination, 129, 131-32 immediacy, 7, 97-128; definition of, 97, 210; see also Zen immortality, 38, 182, 186-88, 190, 199, 207 impermanence, 79, 87

impurities, see klesas

initiation, 59-60, 66, 205 inner alchemy, 7, 20, 170, 188-91, 210, 212 Inner Smile, 200

182,

insight meditation, 73-96, 210; and breathing, 29, 46; centers

of, 20, 77, 92-96, 126-27; in China, 84, 190; definition of, 5, 7, 73; in medicine, 47-48, 8990; practice of, 77-80, 90, 93-

94, 96; and therapy, 90-91; vi-

sion of, 211

Insight Meditation, 92, 94-95

Ipsalu, 202 ISKCON, see Hare Krishnas Iyengar, B.K.S., 163, 175 Jackowicz, Stephen, 38 Jericho, 52 Jesus Prayer, 56 Jiang Weiqiao, 34 jing, 44,86-87, 188-89 Jung, C. G.,14, 131, 146, 149, 204, 206-7 kabalah, 204-5 Kabat-Zinn, Jon, 89-90 Kagyu, 151, 153 Kapleau, Philip, 102 Kapleau, Philip, 120-21 karma, 3, 82-84, 105-6, 138, 14244, 211; yoga, 162 kasina, 129 Katagiri Roshi, 95 kensho, 109

Index / 259

Kerouac, Jack, 120 Khalsa and Stauth, 195 kinhin, 112 kirtan, 50, 54 klesas, 81, 139, 143, 167

medicine, 1, 21, 45-48, 74, 89, 175, 196-97; Ayurvedic, 185; Chinese, 86-87, 168-69, 171-73; energy, 208; visualization in, 147-48, 208-9; yoga as, 175-77 meditation, characteristics of, 1014; definition of, 1-3, 210; forms of, 2, 5-7; goals of, 2-3, 8-9, 12-13, 25-27, 72, 210-14; in healthcare, 20-22, 214; and

Ko Bong, 124

Komeito, 71 Kornfield, Jack,74, 94

Kretschmer Wolfgang, 146 Krishna, 59, 68 Krishna, Gopi, 197

hypnosis,

Krishnamacharya, 174-75 Krishnamurti, 95 Kumarajiva, 84

kundalini,

6-7,

20,

162,

182-83,

191-93, 201-2, 204, 207, 210 Kunlun, 135 Kutz, Ilan, 47 Lankavatara sutra, 108

Lappich, Carl, 146

Leuner, Hans Carl, 146

locks, 194 locks, 39

lojong, 4

longevity, 143-44, 178 Lotus Sutra, 55, 70-72

loving kindness, see metta

Madhyamika, 104, 107, 127 Maezumi, Hakuyu Taizan, 121-22 Mahakala, 145 Maharishi, 19, 66-67

Makiguchi Tsunesaburo, 71 mandala,

128, 140, 146, 207

Manjusri, 141 mantra,

6, 49-50, 51; 97; forms of

53-55; history of, 57-60; in Ti-

bet, 141; vision of, 211; in Zen, 115 Maslow, Abraham, 76-77 master, 3, 10, 202; and mantra, 59-60, 66-67; as therapist, 118-19; in tantra, 137-38, 183; Western, 122, 212; in Zen,

114, 117

Mazu,

114

McCall, Timothy, 176-78

McGill, Ormond, 3 Medicine Buddha, 143

3-4;

physiology

of,

16, 22; posture of, 78, 100, 106, 111, 154; process of, 1618; and science, 19-27, 66-67, 208; visions of, 2, 4, 211 menses, 189-90 meridians, 32, 39, 44, 135, 172-73, 179-80, 181, 183, 185, 189, 194, 205, 208 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 116 metta, 4, 83-84, 95 Microcosmic Orbit, 173, 189-90, 200

Middle Way, 104-5

Milarepa, 151 Mind and Life 152

mind,

puppy,

Institute,

41,

42-43,

also consciousness

20,

95,

78; see

Mind/Body Clinic, 47-48

mindfulness, 5, 92, 95-96; see also

insight meditation mind-only, 107-8 Mipham, Sakyong, 153 Mohe zhiguan, 85

Moreno, Jacob, 116 Mu, 115 Muktananda, Swami, 203 multitasking, 80, 118 Mumonkan, 114

Munindra, Anagarika Sri, 94

muscles, 158-62, 181, 185, 200 mysticism, 1-5, 8, 40 nadis, see meridians Naikan, 90-91

Nath yogis, 164 neidan, see inner alchemy Neiguan jing , 85, 86

260 / Meditation Works

neiguan, see observation

Neiye, 44

nervous system, 14, 30

neuropeptides, 157

neuroplasticity, 23-24, 89 neurosis, 76, 116, 118-19, 141-42 neurotransmitters, 22, 24,30 Ni, Hua-ching, 174 Nichiren, 6, 50, 55, 70-71 Nicklaus, Jack, 131 nirvana, 70, 80, 83, 107, 127 NLP, 4, 26, 147-48 no-mind, 18, 100, 109

nothingness, 115

Numinous Treasure, 63-64 Nyingma, 151

Nyogen Senzaki, 120

oblivion, 98, 99-100, 103-7, 113 observation, 7, 73, 84-88, 105; see also insight meditation Ocean of の 7 33, 34, 44, 135, 173, 189, 194 One, Great, 136; guarding of, 13233 ordinary life, 79-80, 101-2, 105-6,

118;

deified

aspects

of,

138;

integration of, 183, 196 organs, inner, 86, 128, 133, 172, 188, 200-1, 208; Daoist names for, 135; and kundalini, 19495 Orientalism, 119 Oschman, James, 185-86 Padmasambhava, 151 Patanjali, 164, 183, 194 Pavlov,14, 15 Peace Corps, 92, 94 peace, 13 perception, 6, 82, 87 perfections, six, 140 perineum, 39, 192 Perls, Fritz, 116, 157 Pert, Candace, 157 Prabhupada, 68-69 Prajnaparamita, 140 Prajnaparamita sutra, 107, 123

prakrtı, -66

prana, 29, 33-34, 166, 191-92

pranayama, 34, 35-36, 163 prayers, 55, 63 prefrontal cortex, 12, 15 present moment, 10, 13, 76, 79-80, 101-3, 109, 113

prisons, 93

Proust, Marcel, 132 psychology, and body, 156°58, 188;

cognitive,

15;

energy

204,

207-9; humanıstic, 116; Jungian, 131, 204, 206-7; mind in,14-16; Gestalt, 17, 116; shadow, 149-51; tests in,

22-23, 146-47; and yoga, 167;

and Zen, 116-19 PTSD, 157 Pure Land, 6, 50, 55, 69-70, 90, 91, 123, 127

purification, 64 purities, four, 140

purusa, 166 qi, 29, 32-33, 44-45, 86, 135, 171, 184, 186-90, 200; and mind, 100, 155; primordial, 33, 87, 187, 189-90, 191, 201 qifa, 33-34 qigong, 6, 154, 155, 177-79, 200, 210

Qingjing jing, 62

Qiu Chuji, 198 quantum physics, 27, 183-86

Quieting Response, 47

Rajneesh, 19 Rama, 59

Ramachakra Yogi, 34-35

Ramakrishna, 65 Ratey, John, 24, 26-27 Ratnasambhava, 141 reflexes, 159-60 relaxation, 2°3, 22, 28, 30, 32, 37, 39, 80, 210, 212; response, 4647, 49, 68

Religious Studies, 2, 4

reprogramming, 3, 50, 67, 210 resonance, 52

hig Veda, 57, 166

Rinzai, 101-3, 115; 121, 125-27

School,

113,

Index / 261

ritual, 50, 57-59, 61, 112 Rogers, Carl, 116

Rolfing, 157 Rorschach study, 22-23 Rosenberg, Larry,74, 95 Rosicruceans, 204 sacrifice, 50, 57-58 Saeger, Richard, 121

Sakya, 151

Salzberg, Sharon,74, 94-95 samadhi, 43, 83, 109, 163 samatha, 40

samsära, 107, 127

Sanella, Lee, 197

sankara, see karma

Sanskrit, 59, 67, 98, 138, 164 Sarasvati, Brahmananda, 66 Saraswati Bhaktisiddhanta, 68 Saraswati, Shivananda, 95 Sasaki, Joshu, 121-22 satori, 109, 119

Sayadaw, Mahasi, 94

scriptures, 61-62, 70, 128 Sekida, Katsuki, 108-9, 112 self, higher, 200, 211; loss of, 99100; no, 79; object, 75; observ-

ing, 74-76; in psychology, 117; questions of, 101, 113-14; true

17-18, 155 sensations, 82, 88 session, 112 Seung Sahn, 95, 119, 123-25 Seven Perfected, 198 sex, control of, 69, 196,199; energy of, 181, 187, 188-89, 205; with gods, 128, 135-36, 139; and kundalini, 191, 202 shadow, 138, 149-51 Shakti, 183, 191-92, 196-97

shaktipat, 204-5 Shaolin gongfu, 171 Shapiro, Deane, 5, 20

sheaths, 33, 166-67, 185, 205 Sheng-Yen, 119, 125-26 shikantaza, 106-7, 113 Shinto, 40, 71

Shishi weiy1, 62

Shiva, 59, 183, 191-92, 196-97; mantra of, 54 Siddha Yoga, 174, 198, 203-4

siddhis, see extraordinary powers

Sima Chengzhen, 85, 98, 105, 170 Simonton, Oscar, 148 Sinews Transformation Classic, 170 Six Healing Sounds, 36-37, 170, 172, 200 Sixth Patriarch, 105 skandhas, 81-82, 86 sleep, 80

Snyder, Gary, 121

soham, 53, 66 Soka Gakkai, 55, 70-72 Somatics, 159-61

Son, see Seung Sahn, Zen

Soto School, 113, 121, 125, 127 sound immersion, 6, 49-72, 211 Soyen Shaku, 119-20 spells, 54, 61, 63-64 spirit, 86-87, 106, 129, 190-91; and matter, 192 spirituality, 2, 181 St. Francis, Prayer of, 55 Stavish, Mark, 205 Sterba, Richard, 74

Stough, Carl, 45

stress, 1, 22, 30-31, 159-61, 193, 197, 200 Stroebel, C. E., 47 subconscious, 1, 15, 79, 210 suffering, 76, 79, 81-82 Sun Simiao, 43, 105, 170 surrender, 17, 42, 57 Suzuki, D. T., 19, 108, 116, 119-20 Suzuki, Shunryu, 101-2, 113, 121 Svatmarama Swami, 164 symbolism, 141, 143-45, 190, 196, 207 taiji quan, 6, 171, 173-74, 178, 199-200, 210

Taiping jing shengjun bizhi, 133 Taiping jing, 132-33 Taıyı Jinhua zongzhı, 206

talisman water, 64 tangkas, 139

262 / Meditation

Works

tantra, 17, 40, 50; definition of, 130; meditation in, 137-45; world of, 183, 212

Tao Hongjing, 136

Thich Nhat Hanh, 13, 92, 95-96, 174 Three Treasures, 111

74,

79-80,

Tianyinzi, 129 Tibetan Book of the Dead, 50-51 Tibetan Buddhism, 14, 17, 129;

chanting in, 54; his-

tory of, 151-53 Tibetan lamas, tests of, 23 TM, 19-20, 46-47, 66-67 Toda Jösei, 71 Tomatis, Alfred, 51 tonglen, 4

153, 189-90, 208; see

17, 137,

Walsh, Roger, 20 Wang Bi, 115 Wang Chongyang, 198

Watts, Alan, 121 wealth, 141, 143-44 Wei Huancun, 134 Wetering, Ianwillem van de,

121

144-

Twofold Mystery, 98, 104-5, 127 U Ba Khin, Sayagyi, 92-93

unconscious, 6, 14, 19, 52, 108, 116, 207 Upanishads, 58, 65, 81, 164, 183 Ushnisha Vijaya, 143 Vairocana, 141 Vaishravana, 143 Vajrapani, 141 Vajrayana, 129-30 Vajrayogini, 145 Varela, Francisco J., 20, 152

Vedanta Society, 65-66, 174

Vivekananda, 65 vows, 110, 140 Walden, Patricia, 175 Wallace, Alan, 26

100,

Wheelock, Wade, 49 Wilber, Ken, 193 Wilhelm, Richard, 206 Winn, Michael, 198, 199-200

Tongmen zhiguan, 85

transcendence, 8 transference, 3 Tree of Life, 205 Trungpa, Chôgyam, 45, 153

146-47,

Visuddhimagga, 40

Tianguan sandu, 63

137-45;

4, 6, 128; and mind, 15, 46, 130-32; uses of, 8, 24, 27, 131,

also Daoism, NLP, tantra, Tibetan Buddhism

Tara, 143 Thakur, Bhaktivinod, 68

Theosophy, 65 Thetgyi Saya, 92

visualization, 128-53; definition of,

Vedas, 49-50, 55, 57-58, 65-66, 130, 164, 165, 183 vibrations, 27, 51-52, 79, 112, 139, 183-86, 192-93, 207 Viniyoga, 176 Vipassana, 5, 73, 92-94 virya, 191

wisdom, crazy, 110; inner, 4; Buddhist, 5, 18, 73-74, 79, 83, 141; of guru, 60; perfection of, 140

Wolpe, Joseph, 146

Woodroff, John, 207

World Parliament, 65, 119 Wushiba yuanwen, 63 Xu Mai, 134 Xu Mi, 134 Yang Xi, 134

Yangxing yanming lu, 37-38

yantra, 192 Yasutani, Hakuun, Yeshe, Lama, 139 Yijing, 182

121

Yijing, 99

Yin Xi, 61

Yin Yo ga, 179-80 Yinsh1z1 jingzuo fa, 34, 38-39 Yinshu, 168-69 yin-yang, 87, 99,

190, 206

171-72,

187-88,

yoga, 6, 17, 154, 162-68, 210; ash-

tanga, 174; and breathing, 29, 35-39; differences to daoyin,

Index / 263

155; ethics in, 10, 162; Hatha, 6, 162, 165, 176, 202; history of, 154-55, 162-65; kinds of, 175-76; poses of, 39, 163, 165; Raja, 162, 165, 194; stages of, 39, 43, 162-64; term, 162, 182; worldview of, 165-68, 211; see also kundalini Yogacara, 108, 138

yoganidra, 39 Yogasutras, 164

Yoshimoto, Ishin, 90 zazen, 18, 111-13 Zen, 7, 17, 91, 199, 210; breathing in, 40-41, 111-12; and ego, 18, 115-16; ethics in, 10, 110, 117;

history of, 98, 105, 137; and insight, 95-96; koans, 29, 101,

113-16;

and

psychotherapy,

19-20, 116-19; rhetoric of, 19, 98; in the West, 19-20, 119-27; world of, 107-11, 211; and

Zhuangzi, 99-103 Zhang Sanfeng, 171 Zhen ‘gao, 135-36

Zhiyi, 84

Zhougui jing, 64-65 Zhuang Zhou, 98, 101

Zhuangzı, 7, 34, 85-86, 97, 99-104, 107, 127

Zhutian neiyin, 63

Zink, Paulie, 180 Zuikan, 100 Zuowang lun, 85, 86, 105-6

Meditation is the inward focus of attention in a state of mind where ego-relat-

ed concerns and critical evaluations are suspended in favor of perceiving a

deeper, subtler, and possibly divine flow of consciousness. Usually accompanied by muscle relaxation, it has an overall beneficial and often healing effect.

As such, it has made major inroads in Western society, aiding in stress relief,

pain management, and various psychiatric conditions.

Research in meditation tends to focus on the concrete healing effects of the

practice, working either with a single form or using an indeterminate mixture of practices. So far studies work with minimal typologies often poorly defined

and tend to neglect historical and cultural aspects.

Meditation Works remedies this shortcoming. Based on extensive cultural studies and long years of practice, the author creates a new typology of meditation based on six distinct ways of access to the subconscious. In a special chapter on each type, she then outlines the physiology, worldview, and traditional practice as well as its modern medical adaptations and organizational settings. In each case, she substantiates her presentation with examples from the Daoist, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions. Providing a thorough theoretical framework combined with a comprehensive, analytical overview, the book greatly advances our understanding of meditation.

“In a masterful way, this book highlights the concepts and practices of Daoist, Buddhist, and Hindu meditation. Supported by personal practice, scientific research, and years of study of classical texts in each tradition, Prof. Kohn pro-

vides a clear explanation of the similarities and differences between these an-

cient approaches to self-cultivation and spiritual growth.’ —Don Davis, Old Dominion University and Tidewater Tai Chi Center

Livia Kohn is Professor Emerita of Religion and East Asian Studies at Boston

University. Her specialty is medieval Daoism and the study of Chinese longevity practices. She has written and edited numerous books and is a long-term practitioner of taiji quan, yoga, and insight meditation.

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