Medieval Mythography, Volume Two: From the School of Chartres to the Court at Avignon, 1177-1350 1532688946, 9781532688942

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MEDIEVAL

MYTHOGRAPHY,

VOLUME

3

Also by Jane Chance

MedievalMythography,Volume 1: From Roman North Africa to the Schoolof Chartres,A.D. 433-u77 MedievalMythography,Volume 2: From the Schoolof Chartresto the Court at Avignon, u77-z350

~tdit\lal ~~thograph~ VOLUME THE EMERGENCE HUMANISM,

3 OF ITALIAN

1321-1475

JANE CHANCE

& STOCK,

E

Wipf and Stock Publishers 199 W 8th Ave, Suite 3 Eugene, OR 97401 Medieval Mythography, Volume Two From the School of Chartres to the Court at Avignon, 1177-1350 By Chance, Jane Copyright©2000 by Chance, Jane ISBN 13: 978-1-5326-8894-2 Publication date 4/17/2019 Previously published by University Press of Florida, 2000

CONTENTS

Illustrations vu Tables xi Acknowledgments xm Abbreviations and Citation Editions xix Chronology of Medieval Mythographers and Commentary Authors xxv Introduction

1

ChapterOne. Towarda SubjectiveMythography: AllegoricalFiguraeand AuthorialSelf-Projection 17 ChapterTwo. Dante's Self-Mythography:The InvertedOvid "Commentary"of the Commedia (1321)and Its Family Glosses 39 I. A Preface to Dante: His Sons' Glosses and His Medieval Commentary Authors (Inferno,Cantos 1-4) 47 II. Ovidian lnglossation (Inferno,Cantos 3-27) 71 III. Pilgrim Dante Metamorphosed (Inferno,Cantos 28-34) 90 ChapterThree. "Iohannesde Certaldo":Self-Validationin Boccaccio's"Genealogiesof the Gods" (ca. 1350-75) 126 I. The AllegoriaMitologica(1332-34) of Naples: Boccaccio's Personalized Ovid 138 II. The GenealogieDeorum Gentilium: Boccaccio's Quest for Authority in Epic Mythography 144 III. At Certaldo: Boccaccio's Unfinished Commentary on Dante (1373-74) 196

ChapterFour. Franco-ItalianChristine de Pizan'sEpistre Othea (1399-1401): A Feminized Commentaryon Ovid 206 I. Christine de Pizan Anti-Rose:Evrart de Conry and Finding a Female Voice 212 II. Righting the Rose.The Othea'sMoralized and Christianized Ovid 244 III. Othea, Minerva, and Other Mythological Women: Humanizing Ovid 258

CONTENTS

VI

Chapter Five. Christine de Pizan's Illuminated Women in the Cite des Dames (1405) 272

I. From Othea and Proba to "Je, Cristine," Une ClereFemme 281 II. Reading Boccaccio: Learned Women, Sibyls, and "Women Made Famous by Coincidence" 299 III. Arms and the Woman: Honorat Bovet, Jean de Meun, and Minerva in Le Livre desPaisd'Armes et de Chevalerie(1410) 352 Chapter Six. Coluccio Salutati's Hercules as Vir Petfectus: Justifying Seneca's Hercules Furens in De Laboribus Herculis (1378?-1405) 363

I. Reading Senecan Tragedies: The Origins of Salutati's

De LaboribusHerculis 371 II. Aeneas's Failed Descent into Virgil's Underworld: The Pythagorean Y 374 III. The Influential Boethian Descents: Hercules versus Orpheus, Ulysses, and Arnphiaraus 382 Chapter Seven. Cristoforo Landino's "Judgment of Aeneas" in the Disputationes Camaldulenses (1475) 396

I. Petrarch's Neoplatonic Aeneas, Vir Perfectus 398 II. Landino's Medievalized Aeneas and the Three Goddesses Conclusion Notes 425 Bibliography Index 613

420

539

405

ILLUSTRATIONS

r. Christine de Pizan presents the "Epistre Othea" to the dauphin. Christine de Pizan, "Epistre Othea," frontispiece 9 2.

The goddess Othea presents her letter to youthful Trojan prince Hector. Christine de Pizan, "Epistre Othea'' IO

3. Christine de Pizan presents her anthology manuscript to Queen Isabeau of Bavaria, her ladies seated around her. Christine de Pizan, Queen's Manuscript, frontispiece II 4. The Four Ages ofTime: Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Clay, with Justice departed. From Ovid, "Metamorphoses," book 1, French translation 28 5. Dante and Virgil in the Wood of the Suicides. Dante, "Inferno" 13. 43 "Divina comedia'' (with the Ottimo commento) 6. Dante meets Cacciaguida. Dante, "Paradiso" 15. "Divina comedia'' 44 (with the Ottimo commento) 7. Dante encounters and (along with Virgil) is transported by the monster Geryon; he meets the first fraudulent sinners. Dante, 46 "Inferno" 8. "Divina comedia" (with the Ottimo commento) 8. Dante and the Centaur Cacus. Dante, "Inferno" 25. "Divina 89 comedia'' (with the Ottimo commento) 9. Dante invokes Apollo and imagines himself as a laureate through Marsyas, stripped of his skin by God and used as his scabbard. Dante, 90 "Paradiso" r. "Divina comedia'' (with the Ottimo commento) IO.

Bertran dal Bornio (Bertran de Born) swinging his head and Dante with the schismatics. Dante, "Inferno" 28. "Divina comedia'' (with 92 the Ottimo commento)

II.

The death of Polyxena at the top of the page; the death of Hecuba at the bottom. "Histoire ancienne jusqu'a Cesar," part 3 of the second redaction 94

12.

Hecuba witnessing the deaths of Priam and her children. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees" n2

Vlll

ILLUSTRATIONS

13. Author Giovanni Boccaccio reads to the queen and her ladies. Boccaccio, "Des daires et nobles femmes" 134 14. Monk Boccaccio and Fortune. Boccaccio, "De casibus virorum illustrium'' 136 15. The Lover takes the rose/woman named Rose-both object and woman. Jean de Meun, "Le Roman de la Rose" 216 16. Author Evrart de Conty and Mercury at the gate to Nature's garden, with its three goddesses Pallas, Juno, and Venus. Evrart de Conty, "Eschecs amoureux moralises" 241 17. Reason, Rectitude, and Justice appear to Christine de Pizan; Reason aids her in building the foundation of the City of Ladies. Christine de Pizan, "Cite des Dames," frontispiece to book 1 275

18. Lady Rectitude welcomes righteous women into the castle, its walls and towers now visible. Christine de Pizan, "Cite des Dames," frontispiece, book 2 276 19. Lady Justice and the wise and righteous inhabitants welcome the just to the castle, its roofs now completed. Christine de Pizan, "Cite des Dames," frontispiece, book 3 276 20. Creation of Eve. French translation of Orosius, "Histoire universelle" 320 21. Temptation of Eve by the serpent. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 320 22. Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylonia, holding a sword, with son Nin us. French translation of Orosius, "Histoire universelle" 323 23. Semiramis with Ninyas. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 323 24. Amazons jousting. French translation of Orosius, "Histoire universelle" 326 25. Early Amazons Marpasia and Lampeto. Boccaccio, "Des deres femmes." Trans. Laurent de Premierfait 327 26. Amazons Marpasia and Lampeto. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 327 27. Ortygia and Antiope, the first Amazon queens. Boccaccio, "Des deres femmes." Trans. Laurent de Premierfait 329

28. Ortygia, daughter of Marpesia, jousts astride and in a dress. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 329

IX

ILLUSTRATIONS

29. Opis (Othea), queen of Crete. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 336 30. Almathea, Sibyl of Cumae. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 340 31. Sibyl of Cumae converting Caesar Augustus to Christianity. Christine de Pizan, 'Tepistre d'Othea la deese" 341 32. Sibyl of Cumae converting Caesar Augustus to Christianity. "Ovide intitule Metamorphose contenant xv livres" 341 33. Juno, goddess of childbirth. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 344 34. Juno, goddess of childbirth. Boccaccio, "Des deres femmes." Trans. Laurent de Premierfait 344 35. Europa, with a bull on the ship's flag. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 346 36. Europa, with bull-like men from the ship. Boccaccio, "Des deres femmes." Trans. Laurent de Premierfait 346 37. Pregnant Europa enthroned with Jupiter. "Moralized Ovid"

348

38. Medusa. Boccaccio, "Des femmes nobles et renommees." Anonymous French trans., 1402 351 39. Inside her house, Christine de Pizan writes about chivalry while gazing outside at Minerva, maker of armor from Magna Graecia in Calabria. Christine de Pizan, "Fais d'armes" 358 40. In bed, Christine de Pizan envisions Bovet. Christine de Pizan, "Fais d' armes" 360 41. Hercules rescuing Theseus and Pirithous from Cerberus in the underworld. Christine de Pizan, "Epistre Othea'' 385 42. The twelve Labors of Hercules. Reconfigured facsimile cover of Enrique de Villena (Henry of Aragon), Los doze trabajosde ercules compiladospar da,nenrique de Villena (1499), bordered by a 1520s Cologne woodcut print of Herodotus 392 43. Frontispiece for Virgil's ''Aeneid": the threat of war. Virgil, Works. French translation by Florius Infortunatus in Paris 403 44. Dido directs Sychaeus's treasure to be loaded onto her ships. Laurent de Premierfait's French translation of Boccaccio's "De casibus virorum illustrium" 412

TABLES

1. Classical Mythological Figures and Fables in Jean de Meun's Rose 23 2.

Classical Mythological Figures in Dante's Commedia 79

3. Mythological Figures Glossed.in the First Version of Pietro Alighieri's Comentumand His Citation of Epic Sources 82

4. The Major Classical Gods and Heroes of Boccaccio's Genealogy and Their Books 160

5. The Minor Classical Gods and Heroes of Boccaccio's Genealogie

deorum 166 6. Classical Gods and Goddesses in the Terrestrial World in Evrart de Conry, Eschecs amoureuxmoralises(ca. 1400), Part 2 229

7. Classical Mythological Figures in Christine de Pizan's Othea 254 8. Classical and Mythological Women in Christine de Pizan, Citedes Dames,Books 1-2 302 9. Classical Mythological Women in Boccaccio's Forty-SixLives (the Early Modern translation of De mulieribusclaris),Royal Manuscript Illuminations, and Christine's Otheaand CitedesDames, Books 1-2 305 IO. Famous Women in Boccaccio's De mulieribusclaris 308

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It goes without saying that I could not have produced this third volume without the support, industry, and encouragement of many institutions and individuals, some of whom I have previously thanked in my acknowledgments in the first two volumes and some of whom I would like to thank once more because of t~e long span of research into mythography that ends with this particular volume. I should begin with Rice University, for its generosity in granting leaves, travel and research grants, summer research assistance, and subsidies for images of manuscript illuminations, and especially Gale Stokest, former dean of humanities at Rice; the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Guggenheim Foundation, for funding research and sabbatical years at libraries in London, Rome, and Venice; the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, in particular, Giles Constable, emeritus professor in the School of Historical Studies; the Institute for the Advanced Study of the Humanities at the University of Edinburgh, and Peter Jones, director at the time I enjoyed a summer there; and the Humanities Center at the University of Utah, all of whom generously supported the research for this entire study with space to work and, in cases where teaching might have been demanded, funding for time away from home. In addition, I would like to thank Richard Emmerson, director of the Summer Seminars for College Teachers Program at the National Endowment for the Humanities at the time of my seminar on "Chaucer and Mythography" at Rice University in 1985; in that seminar I included the Middle English translation of Christine de Pizan's EpistreOtheaas a text, which transformed my understanding of the intertextual workings of the mythographic tradition, while I also became acquainted with participant Judith Kellogg, whose work on Christine de Pizan, like my own, dates from that venture. I am similarly grateful to David Murphy, former director of the Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, and also Dr. Gregory Pass, director of the Pope Pius XII Vatican Film Library, both at St. Louis University in Missouri, for their support of my project as an NEH and Mellon Fellow there for half a semester in spring 2003. Thanks also go to

xiv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

the Westfli.lischeWilhelms-Universitat Milnster, in Germany, who invited me to deliver the keynote lecture-the first in their series of lectures-at the Graduiertenkolleg symposium "Gesellschaftliche Symbolik im Mittelalter" and postgraduate workshop on "Continuity and Confrontation: Antique Traditions in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period," on 23 April 2008, preparation for which helped shape the concept behind this third volume. I most especially appreciated the two semesters I spent as a visiting scholar at the Institute for Medical Humanities at the University of Texas Medical Branch-Galveston in 2011-12, where I completed the writing and revision of several chapters of this third volume. To the following libraries and their helpful curators and staff, I owe many thanks once more: to Rice University's Fondren Library and its wonderful Interlibrary Loan and Document Delivery Department; the University of Edinburgh Library's Special Collections Division; the University of Glasgow Hunter Library; London's British Library; Oxford's Bodleian Library and Merton College and Corpus Christi College Libraries; Cambridge's St. Johns College Library and Trinity Wren Library; the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana; the Bibliotheque Nationale de France; the Bibliotheque Royale of Brussels; Florence's Biblioteca Nazionale and Biblioteca Medicea Laurentiana; Venice's Biblioteca Marciana; Det Kongelige Bibliotek of Copenhagen and its very helpful staff, especially Palle Ringsted; and Gregory Pass, director of the Pope Pius XII Vatican Film Library, St. Louis University. I am grateful to Agnes Stemler of the lncunables Department, National Szechenyi Library in Budapest, for her many kindnesses in helping me to obtain photocopies of early printed books; to Peter Banyo, of the Medieval Studies Department at Central European University, for his aid in facilitating a meeting with her; and to the directors of the Madrid and Lisbon National Libraries for the examination of a number of important manuscripts. Also helpful was Susan I..:Engle,at the Vatican Film Library at St. Louis University, who graciously answered many of my questions and brightened my stay there. To the Moody Medical Library at the University of Texas Medical Branch I am equally indebted, for their quick and generous loans. John Goldfinch, curator of incunabula, the British Library, provided crucial information concerning the likely provenance of figure 42, the twelve Labors of Hercules, on a facsimile copy of Enrique de Villenas 1499 print edition of Losdoze trabajosde ercoles. To various scholars, including the anonymous readers who critiqued early versions of these chapters for journals, I am beholden for their suggestions, recommendations, and sharing of materials, among them,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xv

Frank T. Coulson, Graciella Daichman, Raymon Farrart, Arthur Field, Robert Hollander, Judith Kellogg, Paul Oskar kristeller, Sherry Lindquist, Nadia Margolis, Michael Papio, Earl Jeffrey Richards, readers for the press Jon Solomon and especially J. Stephen Russell for their careful and considered suggestions for revision, and finally, the other anonymous readers for the press and for various journals that published portions of this book. For their help with research, documentation checking, and bibliographic compilation in support of this volume, I would like to thank the following former Rice University English graduate assistants: Ronit Berger, Andrew Dunham, Abby Goode, Maggie Harmon, Andrew Lazo, Amy Pollard, Jon Porter, Jacob Speaks, Susan White, and Jayme Yeo; and for their assistance in designing several tables in the volume, two Rice Century freshman scholars I mentored, Andrew Dimond and Chrystan Skefos. Rice University English Department clerical staff photocopied many of the articles and chapters gathered from so many texts over the years. Others who have contributed include Steve Iltus, computer technician at Fondren Library, and the staff at the Rice Image Center, who assisted in converting European manuscript images from various libraries for use in this volume. Various audiences provided helpful feedback in response to versions of chapter material in this volume delivered as keynote lectures and conference and symposium papers at the following universities and institutes, in chronological order of presentation. They begin with the Annual International Conference at the Medieval Institute of Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, with repeat visits on different aspects; the International Congress of Neo-Latin Studies at St. Andrews University, St. Andrews, Scotland; the Scientia Colloquium at Rice University, Houston, Texas; the Delaware Valley Medieval Association meeting that took place at Princeton; the Medieval Academy of America Conference at the University of Wisconsin-Madison; the annual Medieval Studies Conference at Barnard College-Columbia University in New York City; the English Department at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, as well as the Purdue University Conference on the Romance Languages; the symposium on Dante's monsters in Todi, Italy, to which I was invited to speak, the Convegno storico internazionale del Centro Italiano di Studi sul Basso Medioevo-Accademia Tudertina, supported by the Universita degli Studi di Perugia, Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualita Medievale; the Conference on New Trends in Feminine Spirituality, Universite de Liege, Belgium; the Medieval Studies Forum, English Department, Fu

XVl

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Jen Catholic University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.0.C., sponsored by the National Science Council of Taiwan; the Consortium in Medieval and Early Modern Studies and the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, California; the Central European University / CARA (Medieval Academy of America) Summer Institute on Eastern European Medieval Resources, which took place in Budapest, Hungary, and at other libraries and centers of scholarship in Poland and what then was Czechoslovakia; the International Congresses on Christine de Pizan held at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, and the University of Paris-Denis Diderot, France; the Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, St. Louis University, Missouri; and the American Association for Neo-Latin Studies session at the Annual Conference of the American Philological Association, Anaheim, California. Portions of this study have been extensively reworked, updated, and developed for use in this volume from articles previously published in Studies in Philologyand the RomanceLanguagesAnnual and from papers published by Rice University Press in colloquium or conference proceedings at Rice University, sponsored by Scientia: An Institute for the History of Science and Culture, founded by Salomon Bochner; at the Centro Italiano di Studi sul Basso Medioevo-Accademia Tudertina in Todi, published by the Centro Italiano di Studi'Alto Medioevo of Spoleto; and in Glasgow at an international colloquium on Christine de Pizan published by the University of Glasgow Press. References have been provided in notes and bibliography. Finally, I would like to thank the director and editorial board of the University Press of Florida for waiting so patiently for the completion of this volume, as well as members of the press and others who have facilitated its production in so many ways, notably, Dennis Lloyd, Director of Sales and Marketing, and his wonderful staff, Teal Amthor-Shaffer, Romi Gutierrez, Rachel Doll, and Ale Gasso; Marthe Walters, project editor; Frances Andersen, project manager at Newgen North America; and the other staff members at the press who contributed during its production, especially the cover designer, Larry Leshan. It takes a village to make a book.

*** In Latin passages throughout, where appropriate, u has been changed to v, v to u, i to j, and j to i; errors in editorial transcription or in published

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

XVll

translations (whether medieval or contemporary), where significant or misleading, have been noted and/or often silently corrected. All translations not otherwise identified are my own. Names of the gods and other mythological figures as conventionally accepted in English (as cited in mythological dictionaries such as those of H. David Brumble and Pierre Grimal) will be indicated parenthetically after the version of the name cited in a specific medieval source. Where the specific spelling or version of a name is not an issue, I will use the conventional name. Only works of scholarship used in this third volume will be cited in the bibliography, as in the first two volumes.

ABBREVIATIONS

AND CITATION

EDITIONS

Abbreviations included below refer to well-known journals or series and works frequently cited in the text of and notes for this volume. Full bibliographic information appears irr the bibliography. References throughout the volume to book, chapter, and line numbers of a primary text appear by author and/or short title in decimal form, for example, Aen. 1.10.11; references to multivolume primary works with page or column numbers cited will appear in colonic form, e.g., PL (for the Patrologialatina) 150:36.All translations, unless otherwise indicated, are my own.

AHDLMA

Archivesd'histoiredoctrinaleet litterairedeMoyen

Age Alberic, De diis

Alberic of London (third Vatican mythographer), De diisgentium. See ScriptoresrerummythicarumLatini tresRomaenuperreperti,ed. Bode. 2 vols. Rpt. 1 vol. Cited by fable or book and chapter number(s). Trans. Pepin, The Vtitican Mythographers. Cited by book, chapter, and line number(s) where appropriate. Aquinas, De genera- St. Thomas Aquinas, De generationeet corruptione. In AristotelisStagiritaelibrosnonnulluscommentioneet corruptione taria,vol. 2. In Operaomnia,vol. 23, ed. Frette, trans. Larchner. Cited by column and book and lecture number(s) in the edition; by section and page number(s) in the translation. Aristotle, De genera- Aristotle, De generationeet corruptione. Trans. tioneet corrupWilliams. Cited by book and line number(s), tione with original paragraph number(s) included in parentheses. Arnulf of Orleans, AllegoriaesuperOvidii MetaArnulf, Allegoriae morphosin.In ''Arnolfo d'Orleans: Un cultore di Ovidio nel secolo XII," ed. Ghisalberti. My translations. Cited by page number(s) and when possible by book and line number(s) of Metamorphoses as cited in the Allegoriae.

gentium

xx

ABBREVIATIONS

AND CITATION

EDITIONS

Bernard, In Theod.

Bernard of Utrecht, Commentumin Theoduli.Ed. Huygens. My translations. Cited by book and paragraph number(s).

Bern. Sil., In Mart.

The Commentaryon Martianus Capella's''DeNuptiis Philologiaeet Mercurii"attributedto Bernardus Silvestris.Ed. Westra. My translations. Cited by page and line number(s) of Dick's edition of Martianus Capella.

Bern. Sil., Sup. En.

Bersuire, Deformis

Bersuire, Ovidius

Bible Biblioteca Nacional B.L. B.N. Boccaccio, De

mulieribusclaris Boccaccio,

Esposizioni

Boccaccio,

Genealogie

The Commentaryon the FirstSix Booksof the '54.eneid" CommonlyAttributed to BernardusSilvestris.Ed. Jones and Jones. Trans. Schreiber and Maresca. Cited by book and line number(s) of the Aeneidin the edition and by page number(s) in the translation. Pierre Bersuire, Deformisfigurisquedeorum.Chapter I of Reductoriummorale,fiberXV: Ovidius moralizatus.Ed. Engels. Trans. Reynolds. Cited by page number(s) in the edition and translation. Pierre Bersuire, Ovidiusmoralizatus.Chapters 2-15 of Reductoriummorale,fiberXV: Ovidiusmoralizatus.Ed. Engels. Trans. Reynolds. Cited by page number(s) in the edition and translation. Biblia vulgata.Ed. Colunga and Turrado. 4th ed. Douay Rheims translation from the Vulgate. Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid British Library Bibliotheque Nationale de France GiovanniBoccaccio: FamousWomen.Ed. and trans. Virginia Brown. References are to chapter and page number(s). Esposizionisoprala Comediadi Dante. Ed. Padoan. Trans. Papio. Cited by canto of the Infernoand (where appropriate) paragraph and page number(s). deorumgentilium Giovanni Boccaccio, Genealogie libri. Books 1-5, ed. and trans. Solomon. Books 6-15, ed. Romano. Books 14-15, trans. Green. Cited by book, chapter, and page number(s).

ABBREVIATIONS

AND CITATION

EDITIONS

XXI

Bodl. Bodleian Library . Boethius, Consolatio Boethius, De consolatione Philosophiae.In Tractates;De Consolatione Philosophiae. Ed. and trans. Stewart, Rand, and Tester. Cited by book, prose or poem (metrum),and line number(s). CCSL Corpus Christianorum, series latina Chance, MM, I & 2 Jane Chance, MedievalMythography, vol. 1: From

RomanNorthAfricato theSchoolof Chartres, A.D.

Christine, Cite des

Dames

Christine, Othea

DAI Dante, Inf, Purg.,

Par.

433-rr77, and vol. 2: Fromthe Schoolof Chartresto the Courtat Avignon,rr77-r350.Referenceswill be cited by volume and page number(s). Christine de Pizan, La CittadelleDame.Ed. Caraffi and Richards. Trans. Richards. References are to book, chapter, and, if relevant, line number(s) in both works, with page number(s) as necessary. Christine de Pizan, EpistreOthea.Ed. Parussa. My translations. References are to fable and, where necessary for clarity, page number(s).

DissertationAbstractsInternational Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy:Inferno,Purgatorio,and Paradiso.Ed. and trans. Sinclair. 3 vols. Cited by canto and line number(s).

Eel. Theod.

EETS Evrart, Eschecs

amoureuxmoralises

Fulgentius, Cont.

Virg.

Fulgentius, Mit.

EclogaTheoduli.Ed. Osternacher. In TenLatin SchoolTextsof the LaterMiddleAges.Ed. Thomson and Peraud. Trans. Thomson. Cited by line number(s). Early English Text Society Evrart de Conty, Le LivredesEschezamoureux moralises.Ed. Guichard-Tesson and Roy. Cited by part and book, chapter, section, as available, and page number(s). Trans. Joan Jones. Cited by page number(s). Fulgentius, ExpositioVirgilianaecontinentiae.In Fulgentius, Opera.Ed. Helm. Trans. Whitbread, in Fulgentiusthe Mythographer. Helm cited by page and Whitbread by paragraph. Fulgentius, Mitologiae.In Opera,as above. Cited by book and fable number(s) and by page number(s) in the translation.

xxii

ABBREVIATIONS

AND CITATION

EDITIONS

AllegoriclibrorumOvidii Metamorphoseos. Giovanni del In "Giovanni del Virgilio espositore delle Virgilio, Allegoric Metamorfose." Ed. Ghisalberti. Cited by book and chapter and page number(s). Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun. Le RoGuillaume de man de la Rose.Ed. Lecoy. 3 vols. The Romance Lorris / Jean de of the Rose,trans. Dahlberg. Cited by author Meun, Rose and line nurnber(s) in the Old French; by page number(s) in the translation (Dahlberg's line nos. are thirty lines different from Lecoy's). Hyginus. Fabulae.Ed. Rose. In TheMyths of HygiHyginus, Fab. nus, trans. Grant. Isidore of Seville, Etymologiarumlibri XX Ed. Isidore, Etym. Lindsay. 2 vols. Cited by book, chapter, and line number(s). journal of Medievaland Renaissance Studies ]MRS John of Garland, IntegumentaOvidii:Poemetto John of Garland, ineditodefsecoloXIIL Ed. Ghisalberti. In "The InInteg. tegumentaon the Metamorphoses by John of Garland." Trans. Born; my emendation in some cases corrected from Ghisalbeni's text. Cited by book and Integumentaline number(s) of Metamorphoses nurnber(s), with Born page number(s). ]WCI

journal of the Warburgand CourtauldInstitutes

Loeb

Loeb Classical Library

M&H

Mediaevaliaet humanistica Macrobius, Commentariiin Somnium Scipionis.In Macrobius.Ed. Willis. 2 vols. Commentaryon the Dream of Scipio.Trans. Stahl. Cited by book

Macrobius, Somn.

Seip.

and chapter.

MAE Martianus,

De nuptiis

Medium Aevum Martianus Capella, De nuptiisPhilologiae et Mercurii. In MartianusCapella.Ed. Willis. Trans. Stahl, Johnson, and Burge, MartianusCapellaand the SevenLiberalArts.Vol. 2. Cited by paragraph (paragraphs are numbered continuously through the book, identically in Dick's edition as well as in those used for citation). Note: all citations are

ABBREVIATIONS AND CITATION EDITIONS

xxiii

to the Latin text ofWillis's more recent edi-

tion, although commentaries and other works of scholarship are keyed to pagination and line number(s) in Dick's edition and will be so listed with Dick's name in references.

MLN MLR MP MS

ModernLanguageNotes ModernLanguageReview · ModernPhilology MediaevalStudies

Mythogr. I & II

First two Vatican mythographers. MythographiVtzticaniI et 11.Ed. Kulcsar. Trans. Pepin. The VtzticanMythographers. Cited by fable number(s). Third Vatican mythographer. See Scriptoresrerum

Mythogr. III

mythicarumLatini tresRomaenuperreperti. Ed. Bode. 2 vols. Rpt. 1 vol. Cited by fable or book and chapter number(s). Trans. Pepin, The VtzticanMythographers. Cited by book, chapter, and line number(s).

N&Q NM Ovid, Ars amatoria

Ovid, Heroides

Ovid, Metamor-

phoses Ovid, Remedia

amoris

Ovide moralise

Notesand Queries Neuphilologische Mitteilungen Ovid, Ars amatoria.In TheArt of Loveand Other Poems,ed. and trans. Mozley, rev. Goold. In Ovid in Six Volumes.Vol. 2. Cited by book and line number(s). Ovid, Heroidesand Amores,ed. and trans. Showerman, rev. Goold. In Ovid in Six Volumes.Vol. 1. Cited by epistle and line number(s). ed. and trans. Miller, rev. Ovid, Metamorphoses, Goold. 2 vols. In Ovid in Six Volumes.Vols. 3 and 4; Cited by book and line number(s). Ovid, Remediaamoris.In TheArt of Loveand OtherPoems,ed. and trans. Mozley, rev. Goold. In Ovid in Six Volumes.Vol. 2. Cited by book and line number(s).

Ovidemoralise:Poemedu commencement du quatorziemesiede.Ed. de Boer. 5 vols. Rpt. 1 vol. My translations. Cited by book and line number(s) corresponding to the Metamorphoses.

XXIV

ABBREVIATIONS

PMLA PQ Remi., In Mart.

AND CITATION

EDITIONS

Publicationsof the ModernLanguageAssociation PhilologicalQuarterly Remigius of Auxerre, Commentumin Martianum Capel/am.Ed. Lutz. 2 vols. Cited by section and paragraph number(s) (derived from Lutz from page and line number[s] of Dick's edition of De nuptiis).My translations.

RES RF

Salutati, De

laboribus Servius, In Aen.

Reviewof EnglishStudies RomanischeForschungen Coluccio Salutati, De laboribusHerculis.Ed. Ullman. 2 vols. in 1. Cited by book and chapter or to page(s) and line(s), depending on the citation. Servius, Commentariusin Aeneidos.In Servii

Grammaticiquiferuntur in Vergiliicarmina commentarii.Vols. 1 and 2. Ed. Thilo and Hagen. My translations. Cited by book and line number(s).

SM SP Statius, Thebaid

Studi medievali Studiesin Philology Statius, Thebaid.In Statius.Ed. and trans. Mozley. 2

TAPA Thomas Aquinas Vat. Virgil, Aen. Virgil, Eclogues

Virgil, Georgics

William of Conches, Super

Macrobium

vols. Cited by hook and line number(s).

Transactions and Proceedings of the AmericanPhilologicalAssociation SeeAquinas, Thomas, St. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana Virgil, Aeneid. In Virgil.Ed. and trans. Fairclough. 2 vols. Cited by book and line number(s). Virgil, Eclogues[Bucolics]. In Virgil.Ed. and trans. Fairclough. Vol. 1. Cited by eclogue and line number(s). As above, vol. 1. Cited by book and line number(s). Glosses on Macrobius, Somn. Scipionis[excerpts]. In Fabula:Explorationsinto the Usesof Myth in MedievalPlatonism.Ed. and trans. Dronke. Cited by book, chapter, and line number(s) of Macrobius, and page number(s) of Dronke.

CHRONOLOGY OIF MEDIEVAL MYTHOGRAP}[ERS AND COMMENTARY

AUTHORS

Fourth through Seventh Centuries ITALIAN

Verona scholia on Virgil (late 3rd c.) Junilius Philargyrius (4th c.), commentary on Virgil's Ecloguesand Georgics (frag.) Charisius (365), Arsgrammatica Servius (ca. 389), Commentariiin Vergiliicarmina Boethius (b. ca. 48~524), De consolatione Philosophiae NORTH AFRICAN

Nonius Marcellus (fl. 373), De compendiosadoctrina Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius (ca. 36~ca. 435), Saturnalia;Commen-

tariusin Somnium Scipionis Martianus Capella (fl. 41~39), De nuptiisPhilologiaeet Mercurii Fulgentius Planciades (468-533), Mitologiae;ExpositiocontinentiaeVirgilii;

Super Thebaiden Lactantius Placidus (6th c.), Commentariiin Thebaida;Commentariusin Achilleida;Narrationesfabularum Ovidianarum(?) SPANISH

Isidore of Seville (ca. 560-636), Etymologiae(8.n.1-104, "De diis gen ti um")

Eighth and Ninth Centuries: Carolingian Renaissance IRISH

First Vatican mythographer (late 7th-8th c.) Adanan [Adamnan] the Scot? (ca. 624-704), Berne scholia on the Eclogues and Georgics Anonymous Galliensis [Anonymous of St. Gall], commentary on Boethius Anonymous Cambridge commentator, commentary on Martianus

XXVI

CHRONOLOGY

OF MEDIEVAL MYTHOGRAPHERS

John Scot Eriugena (fl. 846-77), Annotationesin Marcianum Martin of Laon ["Dunchad"] (819-75), Glossaein Martianum FRENCH

Second Vatican mythographer (ca. 9th-10th c.) Remigius of Auxerre (ca. 841--ca.908), Commentumin Martianum Capel-

/am; Expositioin libroBoetiiDe consolatione Philosophiae SPANISH

Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans (ca. 760-821), "De libris quos legere solebam et qualiter fabulae poetarum a philosophis mystice pertractentur" GERMAN

Hraban Maur [Rabanus Maurus] (ca. 780-856), "De diis gentium," in De

universo ITALIAN

Paul the Deacon (ca. 720-ca. 799), epitome of Festus's excerpts from Verrius Flaccus's De verborumsignificatu(10 B.c.)

Tenth and Eleventh Centuries: Post-Carolingian Period ITALIAN

Rather of Verona (ca. 887-974), glosses on Martianus Stephen and Gunzo of Novara, glosses on Martianus Liutprand of Cremona (ca. 920-72), glosses on Martian us Eugenius Vulgarius (d. ca. 928), glosses on Martianus Glossator of GestaBerengarii(10th c.) Papias the Lombard (ca. 1050), Vocabulistaor Elementarium,from the anonymous Liberglossarum(690-750) BELGIAN

Anonymous Bruxellensis (early 10th c.), commentary on Boethius GERMAN

Hrotsvit of Gandersheim (ca. 932--ca. 1000), dramas, legends, epics

EclogaTheoduli(ca. 10th c.) Notker Labeo (d. ca. 1022), commentaries on Martianus and Boethius Manegold of Lautenbach (1086-94), commentary on Ovid

CHRONOLOGY OF MEDIEVAL MYTHOGRAPHERS

XXVll

SWABIAN

Bernard of Utrecht (mh c.), commentary on EclogaTheoduli FRENCH

Bovo II of Carvey (10th-11th c.?), commentary on book 3, poem 9, of Boethius Baudri ofBourgueil (1046-1130), ~oem 216: "Fragment on Mythology''

Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries FRENCH

Anonymous commentaries on Ovid's Fasti(e.g., Glosulesuperlibrum Fas-

torum) William of Conches (1080-11541'60),GlosulaesuperBoethium;SupercommentariumMacrobiiin Somnium Scipionis;commentaries on Martianus Capella and Plato's Timaeus Bernard Silvestris (1085-1178),CommentumsupersexlibrosEneidosVirgilii; commentary on Martianus Capella Arnulf of Orleans (fl. 1170), GlosulesuperLucanum;AllegoriaesuperOvidii Metamorphosin;commentary on Ovid's Fasti ENGLISH

Osbern Pinnock of Gloucester (12th c.), Derivationes Pseudo-John Scot [Anonymous ofErfurt], commentary on Boethius Ralph of Beauvais (fl. 1170s),Liber Tytan;commentary on Lucan Digby Mythographer (fl. 1180),De naturadeorum John of Salisbury (m5ho-1180), Policraticus Alberic of London (fl. 1177) (third Vatican mythographer?), De diis gentium et illorumallegoriis,or Allegoriaepoeticae Alexander Neckam (1157-1217),CommentumsuperMartianum; De naturis

rerum John of Garland (1180-1252),IntegumentaOvidii ITALIAN

Anonymous Barberinus (late 12th c.), commentary on Martianus, books 1 and2 Huguccio of Pisa (fl. 1200), Magnaederivationes Giovanni Balbi of Genoa (fl. 1286), Catholicon

XXVlll

CHRONOLOGY

OF MEDIEVAL MYTHOGRAPHERS

Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries: England, France, Spain ENGLISH

Nicholas Trivet (1258-1328), Exposiciosuper librum Boecii Consolatione; commentary on St. Augustine's De civitateDei (books 11-23); commentaries on Seneca's Tragedies; Virgil's Bucolics;and Livy Thomas Wal(l)eys (fl. 1326-33), commentary on De civitate Dei (books Philosophiae(?) 1-m); commentary on Boethius's De consolatione John Ridewall (fl. 1331-40), Fulgentiusmetafaralis;commentary on De civitate Dei (books 1-3, 6-7) Robert Holkot (ca. 1290-1349), In librum Sapientiae;In librum Duodecim

Prophetas;Superlibrum Ecclesiastici; Moralitates Thomas Hopeman (fl. 1344-45), commentary on Hebrews Anonymous, De deorumimaginibuslibel/us(before 1380) Thomas Walsingham (d. 1422?),Archanadeorum John de Foxton (1369-1450), continuation of Ridewall's Fulgentiusmeta-

faralis FRENCH AND FLEMISH

Ovide moralise(verse; 1320-40?) Pierre Bersuire (fl. 1350), Ovid.usmoralizatus Evrart de Conry (ca. 133o-ca. 1405), Le Livre desEschecs[or Eschez]amoureux moralises[or GlosedesEschezamoureux],a commentary on what is believed to be his own early poem, the Echecsamoureux(ca. 1370) Christine de Pizan (Franco-Italian, 1364/65-1430/31), L'EpistreOthea a Hector,Le Livre de la Cite desDames Tholomaeus de Asinariis (14th c.), commentary on Boethius Pseudo-[False]Thomas Aquinas, commentary on Boethius Pierre d'Ailly (fl. 1372), commentary on Boethius Regnier of St. Tron (fl. 1381),commentary on Boethius Dionysius the Carthusian [Denis the Carthusian of Leewis] (1403-71), commentary on Boethius Colard Mansion (before 1440-after May 1484), a hybrid moralized Ovid (independent French prose version of the "Ovide moralise" plus French prose translation of early version ofBersuire) Odo Picardus (Picard) (15th c.), commentary on the EclogaTheoduli Arnoul Greban (15th c.), commentary on Boethius

CHRONOLOGY

OF MEDIEVAL MYTHOGRAPHERS

XXlX

SPANISH

William of Aragon (Guilelmus Medicus) (fl. 1335), commentary on Boethius (1305) Guillermus de Cortumelia (14th c.), commentary on Boethius Enrique de Villena of Aragon, marques de Villena (1384-1434), Los doze trabajosde ercoles(in Catalan, 1417; Castilian: Losdocetrabajos);translation of and commentary on Dante, Divina Commedia;translation and glosses on Virgil's Aeneid, books 1-3 ITALIAN

Dante, Commedia(begun 1307; finished 1321) Jacopo Alighieri, Chiosealla cantica;dell1nferno(1322-24) Graziolo de' Bambaglioli, Latin commentary on Dante (Inferno only) (1324) Fra' Guido da Pisa (Guido Sodalis), Expositioneset glose super Comediam Dantis (ca. 1323-28 to 1333?); Dichiarazionepoetica dell1nferno

Dantesco Jacopo della Lana, Comediadi Dante colcommento(1324-28?) Anonymous Lombardus (Anonymous theologus), Chiosedi Dante le quali face elfigliuoloco le sue mani (Purgatoriocommentary, previously attributed co Jacopo Alighieri) (1325?) Giovanni del Virgilio (fl. 1332-33), Allegorielibrorum Ovidii Metamor-

phoseos L'Ottimo commentodeltaDivina commedia(1333;1337-38) (Academia della Crusca; attributed to Andrea Lancia, 1290-1356) Anonimo selmiano (fl. 1337?) Chioseanonime allaprima canticadelta divina Commediadi un contemporaneo defpoeta, ed. Francesco Selmi [da Barberino] Petrarch (1304-74), Africa, 3.136-264; "De quibusdam fictionibus Virgilii," Rerum senilium libri 4.4; "Ad Publium Virgilium Maronem heroycum poetam et latinorum principem poetarum," Familiarium rerum libri, 24.11 Pietro Alighieri (b. ca. 1286), SuperDantis ipsiusgenitorisComoediamcommentarium (3 recensions: 1340-42, 1344-55, 1359-64) Giovanni Bonsignore (fl. 1370), P. OvidioMethamorphoseos vulgare Giovanni Boccaccio (ca. 1313-75), Genealogie deorumgentilium libri;Esposizionisoprala Comediadi Dante (Inferno1-17) (1373-75)

XXX

CHRONOLOGY

OF MEDIEVAL MYTHOGRAPHERS

Chiose Vernon (formerly Pseudo-Boccaccio, of Roveta) (fl. 1390?) Chiose

sopraDante Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406), De laboribusHerculis Benvenuto Rambaldi da Imola (b. 1336[?]-90), CommentumsuperDantis A/,digherij,Comoediam(1373; rev. 1377 after hearing Boccaccio lecture);

Expositiones superPharsaliaLucani (1386) Francesco da Buti (fl. 1385-95), Commentosoprala divina Comedia Anonimo fiorentino, Commentoalla Divina commedia(ca. 1400) Christine de Pizan (Franco-Italian, 1364/65-1430/31), L'EpistreOthea a

Hector;Le Livrede la Cite desDames Filippo Villani, Expositioseu comentumsuper "Comedia"di Dantis Allegherii (Inferno,canto 1 only) (1405) Giovanni da Serravalle Uohannis de Serravale], Latin Dante commentary (1416-17)

Giuniforto delli Bargigi, Lo Infernodella Commediadi Dante col comento

(Inferno1-24) (1440) Cristofaro Landino (1424-1504), Comentosoprala Comedia(1481); Dispucommentary on Virgil tationesCamaUulenses;

Introduction In this third volume of MedievalMythography,on the Late Middle Ages, the focus falls on the advent of hybrid mythography as a form of commentary (didactic exposition, often overlaid with exempla) in vernacular poetry and, alternatively, as restyled and reformatted Latin prose commentary, both forms of which reflect allegorical authorial self-projection. How did this unusual hybridization evolve from its commentary antecedents? Mythography, as the hermeneutical process of explaining, interpreting, or justifying classical myth through moralization or allegorization, had been intended originally in the Middle Ages as a means of rationalization of pagan works by Christian readers and for the elucidation of the moral or philosophical meaning of puzzling or complex mythological figures.1 During the course of the long Middle Ages, the major authors of classical epic whose works were read in the schools and universities and interpreted in commentaries included Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Macrobius, Martianus Capella, and Boethius (dominant during the period up to the twelfth century, the subject of volume 1, From Roman North Africa to the Schoolof Chartres,A.D. 433-u77). Their epics were joined by new commentary texts from the twelfth century on (the subject of volume 2, From the Schoolof Chartresto the Court at Avignon, II77-I350)-0vid's Metamorphoses, the EclogaTheoduli,Claudian's De raptu Proserpinae,and Seneca's tragedies. Ovid's Metamorphoses had become by the late twelfth century a Latin scholastic commentary text more important than his Ars amatoria,Heroides, and Remediaamoris(however influential these works may have been in shaping courtly poetry in the vernaculars); and in the later centuries of the Middle Ages, Ovid's epic was at least equally if not more important in the late development of the medieval mythographic commentary traditions than those other major authors of Latin epic. From both periods, early and later, the Latin genealogies of the gods and mythographic manuals also collected and organized myths from a variety of sources. Mythography per se did not generally appear in vernacular poetry, although central classical gods and goddesses sometimes figured as characters representing the psychological and social aspects of courtly love and chivalry, for example, Venus, Mars, and Cupid (or the

2

INTRODUCTION

god Amor), or in long fabulous narratives such as the Cosmographia of Bernard Silvestris (n45-53), in which pagan gods and allegorical personifications such as Urania, Noys, lmarmene, and Genius come to stand for cosmological processes and microcosmic faculties. As far as the mythological commentary is concerned, historically the concept of the inner self conceived as subject came to be mirrored in allegorical personification or pagan mythological figure in extension of what began explicitly in the Latin twelfth century with the development of the persona, or mask (as in the works of Baudri of Bourgueil and others who followed him in the twelfth through the early fourteenth century, as demonstrated in the second volume of MedievalMythography).At the same time, classical myth provided the vehicle for fabulizing subjectivity in the monastic and university schools of the arts, especially in relation to Ovidian image used as gloss, whether in commentary or in poem. By the fourteenth century the notion of the subject had come to conceal a range of private, self-authorized perspectives, often politicized, sexual, or heretical, beneath the cover of mythological fable, as seen later in volume 2 in the case of Ovid commentator Pierre Bersuire in his critique of the Church. 2 Representation of the gods, itself nontraditional and innovative, might conceal within it the personal, which, by its very embedding, challenged the authority of earlier mythographic conventions. The commentary traditions associated with the High Middle Ages did continue in the Late Middle Ages, with Virgil, Ovid, and Boethius receiving renewed attention in commentaries by scholars, by public officials such as a provost, and by notaries, trained to write. In addition, other, unlikely commentators-a physician, a manuscript copyist, a banker, all part of a rising middle class-provided innovative strategies in their mythographic works that alter the traditional polyphonic basis of mythography by emphasizing the literal and historical in place of the allegorical. Further, earlier, more traditional forms of commentary continued to blossom: Lucan and Statius are given increased attention during a time of war and civil unrest throughout Europe for their epics De bellum civile (or Pharsalia) and the Thebaid,respectively. And entirely new commentaries come into play. With the advent of Aristotelian-based long vernacular works such as Jean de Meun's late thirteenth-century Le Romande la Rose(The Romance of the Rose) and Dante Alighieri's early fourteenth-century Commedia, contemporary poems for the first time in the Middle Ages were themselves glossed in the scholastic manner accorded to the ancient classical and early medieval Latin epics and visionary dreams. Just as Jean de Meun's

INTRODUCTION

3

continuation of (or gloss on) the vernacular Rosewith its young lover as protagonist, Amant (Guillaume Lorris), attracted a vernacular adaptation and a commentary by Evrart de Coney in the late fourteenth century, so also Dante's Commediawould attract its own medieval commentary tradition, both in Latin and the vernacular, beginning with his own colleagues and sons, a trend that would continue into the late fifteenth century (see the Chronology of Medieval Mythographers and Commentary Authors at the beginning of this volume). Largely because of its attention to gender issues and the social role of women, the Roseinspired new kinds of commentaries and mythologically based manuals in which men or women are for the most part featured separately, ushering in yet another sign of changing times: the education of women and their increasing role as an audience and as commentary authors. The complexity of mythography leads to the compilation of myths unified by traditional means-genealogy and history-but new ones as well, often focusing on a seminal progenitor or epic hero or imaginary goddess who reflects a humanist ideal. Finally, with the rise of the vernaculars throughout Europe, the transmission of new works by manuscript copy and early printing spreads the awareness of both new and old commentary traditions, so that mythographic reception in Germany, Spain, and Hungary is important to acknowledge along the way in this volume. Most especially, this volume focuses on the rise of Italian commentators and, with them, the emergence of Tuscan Italian as the descendant of medieval Latin, accompanied by the debate over the appropriateness of one or the other for use in learned texts. An emphasis key to most of the mythographic works discussed in this volume is a burgeoning humanism. This phenomenon carries with it a privileging of the individual, the personal and subjective, and, most interestingly, a democratization (in the most general sense) that spurns the aristocratic, the ecclesiastical, and the allegorical as a mode founded on the conventional literal and historical level, but a mode that also distances itself from that level deliberately as a means of privilege. Indeed, much of what has been identified as "humanist" involves the recasting of education in postclassical terms, part of which occurred as a result of the so-called Babylonian Captivity, that is, the doubling of the papacy that allowed Avignon and France to become a meeting place that vied with Rome for ecclesiasts and scholars from other parts of Europe and that functioned in the fifteenth century as a conduit for the collection, copying, translation, and transmission of manuscripts, often back to Italy.

4

INTRODUCTION

Little wonder, then, that an emphasis on the human, and the personal, emerged in the fourteenth century, initially perhaps in France, but often led by Italian writers. Francesco Petrarca (Francis Petrarch) (1304-74) has often been acknowledged as having given birth to humanism,3 or at least having explicitly defined it, and certainly as having facilitated the French reception of Italian humanism. This acknowledgment derives largely from his role in reclaiming classical antiquity and instigating French scholars to "defend their cultural heritage," a mission that was fostered by the papal court at Avignon and by the Angevin presence in Naples and Sicily.4 In 1330 Petrarch had rediscovered in Liege Cicero's lost ProArchia, written on behalf of the poet Archias, and with it, a call to humanity and the humanities. At the beginning of the short speech, Cicero states that the arts that pertain to human existence share a common element, humanitas,or that which makes us human, the study of which should require a different kind of focus, on literature and culture. This study was antithetical to that required for the courts of law (as defined by the conventional training to be a notary at that time), which Petrarch, intending to be a notary at the school of law in Bologna, found irksome because of the curriculum's emphasis on Aristotelian science. Having had to return without his degree to Avignon, a city to which he had initially accompanied his father after the latter had been exiled from Florence and from there studying at Montpellier (1316-20), Petrarch embraced the studia humanitatis.This "study of the humanities," he felt, should depend upon the two traditional arts of grammar and rhetoric (part of the traditional trivium) 5 coupled with poetry, history, and ethics (moral philosophy), or what we might call today the liberal arts. Such a new form of study logically necessitated a new form of communicating humanitas. In accord with his rediscovery of humanitas, Petrarch was one of the first Italian poet-scholars to advocate a more personal mode of writing. Petrarch notably confesses in a letter to Cardinal Giovanni Colonna di San Vito written on 25 September 1342 that "michi scribo, et inter scribendum cupide cum maioribus nostris versor uno quo possum modo; atque hos, cum quibus iniquo sidere datum era ut viverem, libentissime obliviscor; inque hoc animi vires cuntas exerceo, ut hos fugiam, illos sequar" [I write for myself, and while I write I become eagerly engaged with our greatest writers in whatever way I can and willingly forget those among whom my unlucky star destined me to live; and to flee from these I concentrate all my strength following the ancients instead]. 6 Petrarch's personal identification in this statement with the great classical poetry of the past rather than

INTRODUCTION

5

that of his contemporaries may strike us as more medieval than modern, although his concern with the self and its integrity is indeed modern. In Petrarch's Humanismand the Careof the Self,Gur Zak argues that Petrarch was responsible for using writing as a means of transformation of the fragments of the self into a spiritual whole by means of the unifying strategies of Stoic, Ovidian, and Augustinian modes. 7 In this third volume of MedievalMythography,the writings of the ancients and, in particular, writing of a mythological or mythographic nature imbued with the personal, whether in Latin or the vernacular, is characteristic of most of the major Italian (or Franco-Italian) mythographers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They share what philosopher and historian of science Thomas Samuel Kuhn designated as a "paradigm shift," in his famous study of how innovation occurs in modern science, 8 he argued that advances in underThe Structureof ScientificRevolutions-. standing do not occur in a linear fashion but by means of a shift in the generally accepted model for scientific research, one that depends less on objectivity than on a subjective consensus by the (scientific) community. The mode and practice in the works of the late medieval mythographers in this volume thus also differ from those of the mythographers of France and England in volumes I and 2, chiefly in this personalization of mythography, whether as a rhetorical device or as a reflection of the intellectual understanding of the limitation on human knowledge as supplied by the fourteenth-century nominalism ushered in by William of Ockham and other philosophers in the aftermath of the reintroduction into Europe of Aristotelian materialism. Such limitation directed scholarly attention to individuals and the differences among them, necessitating a reclassification of what is meant by "human" (and by "man'' as opposed to God). To redefine the human also meant redefining speech and rationality as central characteristics of the human, which, in turning attention to various kinds of individual, gender, and group differences, offered new means of exploring irrationality, madness, eccentricity, and the failure to belong. Whether these differences were conceived as sin or individual aberration, they were of great interest to many writers of this period. One means of personal interjection within a mythological treatise or commentary was visual: the spread of elaborate illumination in manuscripts commissioned by royal or aristocratic patrons gave rise to the practice of authorial incarnation by portraiture within the text-not just in the frontispiece but variously, throughout an important translated or commentary work, as part of the narrative arc. Such self-figuration in the illuminations

6

INTRODUCTION

for allegorical and mythological treatises offers a variation on authorial interpolation, especially by commentary authors of some renown, but some examples are provocative because of the nature of the works in which they appear, which center on myth and human psychology. Physician and Boethius commentator Guilelmus Medicus (William of Aragon) (fl. 1335)repeatedly places himself as a figure, mustached, redhaired, and aristocratic, in illustrations of the various Ovidian gods and heroes and the virtues for his unpublished mythographic work ''Alie ymagines" (Other images) in what seems to be the author's/selfs journey to the Summum Bonum (in Vat. Pal. lat. 1066). Among the figures illustrated are Apollo, Phaethon (Phaeton), Neptune, Danae/Alceste, the goddesses of the Judgment of Paris (Minerva, Juno, and Venus), and the goddess Ops, or Cybele (Nature), who wears her usual turreted crown; their depictions appear along with descriptions of events from Trojan legend, such as the death of Priam, and portraits of Christian virtues such as Piety and Misericordia and the Summum Bonum, the God of Mercy, Christ, Holy Mary, and Charity. It is interesting to note that ''Alie ymagines" is conjoined in this Vatican manuscript with a shortened version ofJohn Ridewall's mythographic work, titled "Metaforalis Fulgencii," which reads the major gods through the lens of faculty psychology,9 and, like William's treatise on the vices and virtues, emphasizes the inner self and its cognitive and spiritual resources as projected into allegorical personifications and figures of the gods. It may come as no surprise that William also knew Jean de Meun's translation ofBoethius's Consolatio Philosophiae, a work that traces the narrator's recovery from despair; details from Jean's translation are echoed in William's own Boethius commentary (see pp. 383-84, 520072). 10 Medieval mythographic examples of the attempt to render the singularity yet complexity of the human self often surface in manuscript illustrations in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries of works in which the author or commentator appears with nonhuman but anthropomorphized figures or symbols, likely in order to emphasize that very difference between them. Among the figures represented are personified abstractions, like those in William of Aragon and John Ridewall, but also imaginary monsters and giants, or classical gods and goddesses, or even a classical author on whom the scholar-commentator is at work, imagined symbolically as a book/text. In these cases the very illumination can be seen to incarnate a personalized narrative by means of its details if one is familiar with the biography of the commentator. In one late manuscript illumination, the French fourteenth-century Ovidian commentator and mythographer

INTRODUCTION

7

Pierre Bersuire is identified with his text-in this case, a translation of Livy's Ab urbe condita, decade 1, written for John II the Good, around 1352.The illustrator authorizes Bersuire by means of the frontispiece to his book, in which the translator is portrayed both as himself, seated while he translates Livy from the Latin, and as his text, "Livy."11 Bersuire is surrounded by members of the court: an official verification of his idealized identity as the author of an approved and appropriate text, meaning a literal, true translation of a classical author, an important distinction after the mythographer's punishment by imprisonment and torture for his previous allegorical commentary on Ovid satirizing the ecclesiastical administration of his day. Similarly, a fourteenth-century French portrait from Avignon of Dominican scholar Nicholas Trivet, who commented on Seneca's tragedies while in Italy, blurs the boundary between author and text-between the person (or personal) and his subject-by appearing at the center of a tableau in an illumination that makes him part of his commentary, projected symbolically and literally into it. Trivet is surrounded by characters both mythological and fictional-Juno, young Amphitricon (Amphitriton), Megera (Megaera), Lieus, Hercules (with lion's skin), old Amphitricon (Amphitriton), Teseus (Theseus), and the Furies-from Herculesfurens, on which he has commented, generally more historically than allegorically, as was also the case with Bersuire's Livy translation adhering to the literal text in the depiction above.12 Notable also is a late fourteenth-century Italian manuscript depiction of Boethius as the author of The Conso/,ation of Philosophyand yet also as his text, in which he appears as a character, his persona "Boethius," both of whom educate students (upper panel, representing the Boethius who lives on figuratively as magister), but only as the embodied physical author (or his character) imprisoned (lower panel, the historical and fictional Boethius). 13 Here, the illustrator is also surely trying, implicitly at least, to reconcile an understanding of Boethius the accused traitor, who died in 524 after being imprisoned, with "Boethius," the author whose Conso/,atio became a famous and important commentary text in the schools beginning in the ninth to tenth centuries and subsequently taught generations of students: there exist, then, multiple "Boethiuses," multiple selves. But the reader brings to the illumination a familiarity with the biography to understand its iconography. More complex figurations of authority and authorship appear in illuminated works by early fifteenth-century Franco-Italian poet and treatise

8

INTRODUCTION

writer Christine de Pizan, a mythographer whose works will be discussed later in this volume. Her representations of herself in illuminations in her manuscripts have been perceived as a metaphor for or sign of her literary originality and authority, particularly in her autobiographical works, and therefore reflect her individuality: first, by means of personal detail; second, the figures with whom she appears (often themselves sages, scholars, or female deities); and third, writerly context (for example, her study and what it contains). 14 Notably for this discussion, her construction of herself as author adorns the frontispiece to a manuscript of her "Faits d' armes et chevalerie" (Feats of arms and chivalry), in which, depicted in the left panel as an author in the process of writing, she studies outside her "window" the projection of her subject, chivalry, in her idealized self as embodied in her Italian "countrywoman'' from Magna Graecia's Calabria: the goddess Minerva, the inventor of armor and exemplar of wisdom. 15 In the text of her mythographic EpistreOthea,Christine similarly projects herself into the role of "Othea," an invented goddess of prudence imagined as writing a fictional letter to the young prince Hector, himself a thinly disguised figure for the French dauphin (and depicted as being the same age as Christine's own son, fifteen years old). Accordingly, in the frontispiece to that work in at least one manuscript, Christine also appears as herself in the supplicant's kneeling position, offering a copy of the work to the chaired dauphin flanking her to the left in a superior position; this illustration is followed on the next page by the image of the goddess Othea, who floats on a cloud above and to the left of the kneeling prince, Hector (figures I and 2, "Epistre Othea," London, B.L. Harley 4431, fols. 95r and 95v). Othea is the wise superior of both Hector and the dauphin, imagined as a counselor by author and ingenitor Christine in her own fantasized role as advisor to heads of state (in the text, those princes of Troy, from whom present-day France and its dauphin draw their legendary ancestry). The wisdom being transferred in both illustrations is a book or, in Othea's case, a letter, with the youthful dauphin as intermediary. Thus the illumination for Christine becomes a visible but veiled means of commenting on the purpose of this text: a subtext about or iconographic gloss on the role of a mythographic or mythical female sage who offers compelling advice to a reader, whether the reader is a royal male superior or a young male mortal. And in figure 3, Christine presents her famous anthology manuscript in her own hand, now known as the Queen's Manuscript (London, B.L. Harley 4431), to her queen, Isabeau of Bavaria, as Christine kneels appropriately, in fol. 3 positioned more nearly on the

Christine de Pizan presents the "Epistre Othea'' to the dauphin. Christine de Pizan, "Epistre Othea," frontispiece. © The British Library Board. London, B.L. Harley 4431, fol. 95r (miniatures by the Master of the Cite des Dames and workshop). I.

, ,

.....,,,.,.,, ... ,..,~ l'dJ,ttt

&

"'~

.,.

mu&U:

:l'~

-ttt~«

r The goddess Othea on a cloud presents her letter to the youthful Trojan prince Hector. Christine de Pizan, "Epistre Othea. " © The British Library Board. London, B.L. Harley 4431, fol. 95v (miniatures by the Master of the Cite des Dames and workshop). 2.

INTRODUCTION

II

3. Christine de Pizan presents her anthology manuscript to Queen Isabeauof Bavaria, her ladiesseated around her. Frontispiece, Queen'sManuscript. © The British Library Board. London, B.L. Harley 4431,fol. 3r (miniaturesby the Master of the Cite des Dames and workshop). same plane with her queen than the authors depicted in the other two manuscripts. Christine's sense of gender roles and the sexes' difference in status (given class differences) appears remarkably modern. Such imaginative mythographic practice in the rendering of the self and of individual subjectivity is characteristic of the major Italian (or FrancoItalian) mythographers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, including Dante, Boccaccio, Christine de Pizan, Coluccio Salutati, and Criscoforo Landino, the major subjects of this third volume of MedievalMythography. Given these commentators' emphasis on the personal and on the persona as a character in their texts, it is no accident that they often viewed classical heroes and famous men and women with greater interest as prime subjects of mythographic exegesis than they did the gods who preceded them. For this reason, history, or historical interpretation and euhemerism, rather than allegorical interpretation, often predominates in their humanistic works. Euhemerism derived from the Sicilian Euhemerus's legendary late fourth-century B.C. history in Greek-predicated on the belief that the places sacred to the gods and goddesses represented burial places

12

INTRODUCTION

of actual men and women-which Ennius translated into Latin in the first century A.D. 16 Further, all of the Italian mythographers change and even invert the mythographic tradition in innovative and personal ways, Dante (and Christine de Pizan), at least in part, responding to Jean de Meun's own dramatic vernacular allegorical narrative, and the others-Boccaccio, Salutati, and Landino-reacting to the example that Dante set, to provide through their own contemporary intertextuality a humanistic coda to the medieval tradition of mythographic commentary. Accordingly, to understand better how their mythography reflects the personal, biographical information (where available) has been provided throughout this volume, often at the beginning of the chapter or else where relevant. As a mythographer, Dante Alighieri belongs with these authors largely because of the life-changing event of his political exile from his home in Florence, which brought disgrace and shame in addition to the kind of despair described so openly by his persona at the beginning of the Inferno. It is a group to which also belonged Giovanni Boccaccio, born illegitimately in Certaldo outside of Florence but living much of his life in the south, in Naples, who seemed to yearn throughout his life for praise and acceptance; and as well Franco-Italian Christine de Pizan, given her birth to a family Italian in culture and in education but living most of her life in Paris, banned as a female from a university education and from the kinds of resources accorded to a male writer, and given the chief authorities for her vernacular mythographies, markedly Latin and Italian in origin. This volume's first chapter clarifies the nature of the hybrid mythography characteristic of these authors, which can be said to have emerged at the historical conjunction of the condemnation of Aristotle by Bishop Stephen Tempier in 1277 with the near-simultaneous construction of Jean de Meun's Aristotelian-flavored poetic commentary on and critical continuation of Guillaume de Lorris's unfinished courtly Ovidian poem of the Rose.In Jean de Meun's paradigm-changing vernacular mythological romance, his allegorical personifications embody a variety of dramatic positions voiced individually (and often ironically, with author Jean stepping in) in their roles as glossators on the text of courtly love. Twenty-odd years later, in close imitation of its paradigm shift, Dante would merge the equivalents ofboth parts of the Rose,in their genres of courtly love autobiography and philosophic commentary, in his ¼ta nuova,by means of his autobiography's hybrid languages, Latin and Tuscan Italian. Chapter 2 continues with an analysis of Dante's early fourteenthcentury Aristotelian Commedia,a vernacular allegorical and mythological

INTRODUCTION

13

poetic epic whose central characters are the modern poet Dante, fashioned as a pilgrim, and the most famous object of the medieval commentary tradition, Virgil himself, as his guide. The underworld they tour in the Infernois peopled with a fantastic amalgam of contemporary and classical, real and fictional, and mythological and historical figures and characters. Other medieval commentary authors-Lucan, Statius, and the unnamed but much-used Ovid-play an important role in Dante's epic, with Lucan and Statius introduced along with Homer and Horace as part of the Bella Scuola in the "hem'' of Dante's underworld. Not only are they conceived of as characters, but, along with the unnamed Ovid, they are intended to represent for Dante the antique writers, mostly of epic, from whom he borrows details, images, figures, and ideas, from whose commentary traditions he borrows, and in whose company he means to place himself as the author of a medieval epic. Notably, in an extension of personalization into mythography, both his sons Jacopo and Pietro wrote actual (conventional) commentaries on their father's Inferno, as did Giovanni Boccaccio, who revered him, and Boccaccio's student Benvenuto Rambaldi da Imola-all in the family, so to speak. The "family glosses" of Jacopo and Pietro provide a supplemental gloss on Dante's use of allegory and the medieval commentary traditions of Virgil, Lucan, Statius, and Ovidfamiliar glossators from his own family, a knowledge of whose commentaries functions well as a prolegomenon to the placement of Dante and his self-mythography within the pantheon of medieval commentary authors. Dante, however, inverts the process of mythographic reading in allegorical exegesisso that the literal narrative text, or "history," comes to embody his own sdf-gloss, often ironic in nature, by means of the shorthand rhetorical device of epic simile, with likenesses drawn from classicalmythology (an innovation that I am calling "inglossation" to distinguish it from the conventional commentary gloss as a discursive explanation of a narratival or character event or detail in a classical myth). The Florentine uses mythography (especially the Ovidian) to inform his fabulous narrative as he projects his own life into his characters and text, in a wonderful inversion of Neoplatonic scholastic (twelfth-century) practice. Within the context of the turbulent opening of the fourteenth century in Italy and elsewhere and the hegemony of the political, humanist Dante casts himself as antihero in his "autobiography'' of the Infernoand, thereby, completes the mythographic cycle by making his life and exile a metaphor for that of Everyman. Mythographically speaking, for Boccaccio (in chapter 3) the major deorumgentilium (Genealogies of the gentile gods), work is the Genealogie

14

INTRODUCTION

on which he worked most of his life but never finished. He had started the Allegoriamitologica(Mythological allegory), an adaptation of Ovid's Metamorphoses,books I and 2, in the 1330swhile in Naples, but also left that work unfinished. Clear in both works is a mission to reconstruct a genealogy of the gods and a universal history, although what comes across as a subtext in these Latin works is an obsession with fathers and sons-Boccaccio's mother was unknown, apparently dying in childbirth, and unmarried-and with Greco-Roman mythology, which represented to him an ancient past of Italy, particularly in the south. He spent much of his adult life in Naples, a site that colored both his writing of the Decameronand also his own personal history, which seeps into the two Latin mythological works and one of his last, unfinished, vernacular works, the expositions on Dante's Inferno,cantos 1-17. Visible early on in these mythological works (along with his Latin Virgilian eclogues) is his practice of using classical myth and allegory as a vehicle for concealing the personal and political, as was true for both Dante and Christine de Pizan. The unique medieval female mythographer Christine de Pizan is the subject of chapters 4 and 5, her EpistreOthea and, most especially, Cite desDames,capping even Boccaccio's gender performance in De casibusvirorum illustriumand De mulieribusclarisbecause of her modern-seeming protofeminism in her treatment of classical women in both works. Taught by her court-physician father to read Latin and other languages and to write, Christine began both her scholarly writing career and her venture into the allegorical commentary tradition by responding with irritation to the misogyny and pornography concealed by allegory in Jean de Meun's Rose,she achieved this by means of a series of letters exchanged with important university officials (known today, famously, as the Querellede la Rose[Debate of the Rose]). From this Debate flowed her prolific writing career, including some of her early poems; from her catalytic reading of a mythographic commentary by Picard scholar Evrart de Conty, the Eschecs amoureuxmoralises(Moralized amorous chess), which granted an innovative role in the Rose'sGarden of Deduit to the goddess Diana, emerged her valorization of female classical deities through allegory (chapter 4) and her euhemerization and exoneration of legendary women (chapter 5). In the moral and Christian allegorizations of female figures in the EpistreOthea (1399-1401), Christine de Pizan rereads Ovidian glosses as protofeminist. Moving radically from allegory to history in her Cite des Dames several years later (1405), she adapts material from Boccaccio's De mulieribusclaris about famous women and deities, her texts markedly similar to the highly

INTRODUCTION

15

feminized and more positive figurations of women contemporary with illuminated royal manuscripts of Bo.ccaccio,Orosius, and Ovid. As the first woman mythographer, Christi~e de Pizan invests her allegorizations with personal and protofeminist concerns, and she "remythicizes" her history of women in CitedesDamesso that the allegorical often ironically empowers the historical and political. By the end of the Middle Ages there is a nostalgic scholarly return in mythographic commentary to what today might be termed the idea of the medieval, especially as embodied in the Virgil tradition reappropriated by scholars such as Coluccio Salutati (chapter 6). Despite the published title of the Florentine's work provided by his editor, De laboribusHerculis, which emphasizes Hercules's specific Labors rather than the allegorical frame of descents, Salutati "Vi~gilizes"his Boethian hero by focusing on Hercules's underworld descents. This commentary and its relationship with the medieval Boethius commentaries (and the emphasis on descents therein) demonstrate the continuing late medieval and early modern interest in Neoplatonic philosophy. Salutati, reacting to the newly rediscovered fourteenth-century versions of Seneca's plays about the violent and wife-murdering hero Hercules in Hercules forens and HerculesOetaeusand to commentaries on them by Nicholas Trivet, constructs two versions of his De laboribus,the latter, heavily allegorized, to exonerate his subject. Salutati draws on the Virgilian journey of Aeneas from his origins to his descent into the underworld in the first six books of the Aeneid, recast as an allegorization of the stages of existence as birth, life, and death. In addition, Salutati overlays Hercules's life, Labors, and death and apotheosis into heaven with an additional allegorization found in the medieval Virgilian commentaries by Fulgentius and Bernard Silvestris and in the Boethian glosses of William of Conches and his scholarly heirs, including Nicholas Trivet. In a triumph of medieval humanism, Salutati-on the basis of a comparison with medieval allegorizations of other Boethian classical heroes who descend into the underworld-namely, Theseus, Orpheus, and Amphiaraus, along with Virgil's hero, Aeneas-transforms his Hercules into a vir perfectuswho succeeds in returning from the underworld without the divine aid provided to Aeneas by means of the gift of the golden bough. One aspect of Salutati's life (his scholarly endeavors as a public figure) thus is allegorized as masculine heroism. After Salutati's death, another version of the personal-the political-is similarly reworked by the royal bastard and scholar Enrique de Aragon (Henry of Aragon) in northeastern Spain, this time to honor the king by means of

16

INTRODUCTION

the moralized, allegorized, and euhemerized Labors of the hero, Hercules, whom he perceived as the founder of Spain in his Catalan (and then Castilian) version of the "Labors of Hercules." Cristofaro Landino (chapter 7), whose commentaries on Virgil and Dante were renowned in his day, in a sense combines the oldest of commentary traditions with the newest in his late fifteenth-century readings. Landino uses the Ovidian myth of the Judgment of Paris as an overlay on his version of the Aeneas commentary, the DisputationesCama/,dulenses. Although his treatment would not end the mythographic traditionindeed, mythography burgeoned in the Renaissance in manuals such as the recently translated Mythologiaeof Natalis Comes-it would be the end of the medievalmythographic tradition. With Landino's penchant for sweeping allegorical frames to unify his specific glosses, he avoids scholastic pedantry and provides a model for later English and Italian mythographies. As was the case with Petrarch, whose Virgilian glosses also illuminate the human and humane, the older interpretations are recast in innovative frames: the Judgment of Paris, for example, is used to unify the Virgil commentary. Landino's humanistic approach opens the door to a new era and continues the rise of the individual perspective. Or, put another way, Petrarch ushers into what is known as the Renaissance the spirit of the Middle Ages.

GhaptrrOnr TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE ALLEGORICAL

FIGURAE

MYTHOGRAPHY: AND AUTHORIAL

SELF--PROJECTION

The earliest of the Italian prehurnanists, Dante authored commentary-like works and functioned as a commentator on himself, from his early autobiographical prosimetrurn La vita nuova (or nova) (The new life), in Tuscan Italian (ca. 1292-95), to his late epic Commedia (completed in 1321), often by means of his use of Ovidian myths and commentaries on them. With the Commedia he would inspire a new commentary tradition in late medieval Italy, the last in a series of medieval scholastic commentary traditions on a significant epic that began in the fifth century with Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Boethius, and Martianus Capella and continued in the twelfth century with the most important ancient work for commentary personalization, Ovid's Metamorphoses. But Dante's early Vita nuova signals his intention to transform the mythological commentary tradition by using hybrid techniques in language and mode that blend the scholastic with the courtly and the personal. From the beginning of the Vita nuova-Dante's "Book ofMemory"he traces the moments when, at the age of nine, he first saw and fell in love with Beatrice Portinari, daughter of Folco; he then continued to see her occasionally from a distance until she died in June 1290, at the age of twenty-four, at which time she reappeared to him mystically in visions. He inserts apparently personal sonnets inspired by her and he glosses in prose every stage of his infatuation and inspiration. Indeed, his very first comment is a little allegorical prose drama about the effect on him of that initial vision of Beatrice, one that introduces almost neuroscientifically the personified spirits of the faculties of his soul as the feelings of passion coursed through his body, beginning with the vital spirit in the heart, continuing with the animal spirit, the senses, the spirits of the sight, and the natural spirit, and ending with the soul (anima) and the imagination, until Love has fully captured him:

18

TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE MYTHOGRAPHY

In quello punto dico veramente che lo spiritode la vita, lo quale dimora ne la secretissima camera de lo cuore, comincio a tremare sl fortemente, che apparia ne li menimi polsi orribilmente; e tremando disse queste parole: "Ecce deus fortior me, qui veniens dominabitur michi." In quello punto lo spirit animale, lo quale dimora ne l'alta camera ne la quale tutti Ii spiritisensitiviportano le loro percezioni, si comincio a maravigliare molto, e parlando spezialmente a Ii spiritide/ viso,sl disse queste parole: ''Apparuit iam beatitudo vestra." In quello punto lo spiritonaturalelo quale dimora in quella parte ove si ministra lo nutrimento nostro, comincio a piangere, e piangendo disse queste parole: "Heu miser, quia frequenter impeditus ero deinceps!" D'allora innanzi dico che Amore segnoreggio la mia anima, la quale fu sl tosto a lui disponsata, e comincio a prendere sopra me tanta sicurtade e tanta signoria per la vertu che Ii dava la mia imaginazione, che me convenia fare tutti Ii suoi piaceri compiutatemente. [At that very moment, and I speak the truth, the vital spirit, the one that dwells in the most secret chamber of the heart, began to tremble so violently that even the most minute veins of my body were strangely affected; and trembling, it spoke these words: Eccedeus fortior me, qui veniensdominabiturmichi {Here is a god stronger than I who comes to rule over me}. At that point the animalspirit,the one abiding in the high chamber to which all the sensesbring their perceptions, was stricken with amazement and, speaking directly to the spirits of sight,said these words: Apparuit iam beatitudevestra{Now your bliss has appeared}. At that point the naturalpirit, the one dwelling in that part where our food is digested, began to weep, and weeping said these words: Heu miser,quiafrequenterimpedituserodeinceps {Oh, wretched me! For I shall be disturbed often from now on}. Let me say that, from that time on, Love governed my soul,which became immediately devoted to him, and he reigned over me with such assurance and lordship, given him by the power of my imagination,that I could only dedicate myself to fulfilling his every pleasure.] 1 Interestingly, while Dante writes in the vernacular, the faculties of his inner corporeal and psychological self appear to address him in Latin, in a reversal of the nature of medieval commentary, his interior representing the text on which the glossator inscribes his own modern comments. Here Dante brilliantly inverts the commentary process.

ALLEGORICAL FIGURAE AND SELF-PROJECTION

19

A monument to scholastic analysis (and reflective of a supreme narcissism typical of the excessesof fal'a~or as expe~ienced by Dante's persona), the passage suggests three important features of Dante's approach to poetry both in the Vita nuovaand later in the Commedia.First, his comment seems an absurdly personalized and interiorized examination of himself as the persona "Dante," based on various well-known Aristotelian anatomies of the inner workings of the soul's faculties in De anima and its commentaries. Second, the comment's raison d'etre is not actually Beatrice but his self's reactions to having seen her and fallen in love, the author at a later date recording that moment by means of a strategy that resembles that of Boethius in his autobiographical prosimetrum of the Consolatio Philosophiae--whichmakes Dante his self's own glossator. In other words, the seeming intimacy of this "autobiography" is an illusion: it is as carefully crafted in its artifice as the monumental Commedia,which has been read as spiritual autobiography but not as specifically and systematically personal in its use of mythological gloss of the narrator's progress-and, like the artifice that spurs the lyrics of the Italian dolcestil nuovo, "new" because of the way it makes personal what have become, by Dante's day, conventions in courtly love. Dante acknowledges in the Vita nuova the courtly-love conventions he and others of his generation in Italy inherited from the lyrics of the twelfth- and thirteenth-century trouveresand troubadours and reworked in the light of the less artificial late thirteenth-century Italian dolcestil nuovo.Indeed, in many of the works written by the Florentine "Durante agli Alighieri," the personal, or what appears to be the personal, remains uppermost-characteristic of the writings of those poets and scholars whom Dante had apparently met as a young man, among them his guardian and teacher Brunetto Latini (1220-94), Guido Cavalcanti (1250-59 to 1300), and Cino da Pistoia (1270-1336). Third, apparently it is the God of Love (having taken possession of "Dante" at every level) who speaks in Latin to him (necessarily, drawn as the god Amor is, straight from Ovid's Latin poems on love, chiefly the Ars amatoria), although the Vita nuova is written in Tuscan Italian; later, when the persona "Dante" has learned to write poetry from his heart, the God of Love changes to Italian. But also the persona's initial vernacular response to the Latin signals that Dante's response to love is intended to be analogous to a traditional commentary on a Latin classic. In this case the two languages reflect the subject, the narrator Dante and his life and soul, responding to Love, and, in the sense of differentiating the speech of a god from that of a human, Dante functions as a glossator on the god within himsel£ Later

20

TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE MYTHOGRAPHY

on, in the fifth canto of the first cantica of the Commedia,the Inferno, Dante similarly recontextualizes the self-absorbed medieval courtly love derived from the Roman Ovid's Ars amatoriathat the persona himself had appeared to espouse at the beginning of the Vita nuova, by means of the examples of adulterous courtly lovers Paolo and Francesca. The Commediais, like the Vita nuova,also a commentary, uniquely so, as a gloss on the text of the self, Dante's persona, but hardly traditional in this respect. Like the conventional late medieval Ovid commentary, it also relies on mythography and Aristotelian materialism (via St. Thomas Aquinas) in constructing a rhetorical form of "inglossation" based in an author's trust in his intended audience's familiarity with the glosses on well-known myths from the Metamorphoses which he has embedded with layers of metaphor, integument, and personification allegory. This incorporation of signification in his text was necessary to provide external indicators of meaning for changes in his alter ego "Dante" as he moves from circle to circle, primarily because his pilgrim self, depicted as despairing and suicidal at the opening of the Inferno,changes from circle to circle, in a progress recognized by readers but not yet by Dante the character.2 One of the clearest examples of how Dante uses scenes and symbols to reflect back on earlier stages in his persona's spiritual development occurs in canto 13, involving the suicides, one of whom his persona nearly became in canto I, when "Dante" was lost in a dark wood. That his pilgrim self needs to change cognitively and spiritually is indicated when pilgrim Dante is being led by Virgil through the dark wood of the damned suicides and callously breaks off the twig of a tree. The sinner incarcerated within who cries out in pain, suicide Piero da Vigne, refigures "Dante" as a previous near suicide for this stage in the persona's journey toward Mount Purgatory. In this instance, "Dante" exhibits insensitivity to others who are suffering as he has, a function of his own predominant sin of pride and lack of charity. Yet as scholars have recognized, in each circle of hell, as a type of Everyman this persona exhibits some aspect of the very sin being allegorized, for which he will receive an appropriate contrapasso, or retribution, just like the other damned sinners, in the corresponding penitential terrace of the Purgatorio.And also, as scholars have perceived, a sin manifested by the pilgrim Dante in the book of the Inferno will be echoed in the corresponding cantos of the later two books, the Purgatorio and the Paradiso,each progressive manifestation at a different level gradually reinforcing his self-understanding and spiritual growth.

ALLEGORICAL FIGU~E

AND SELF-PROJECTION

21

From what source did Dante draw in imagining his autobiographical works as commentary-like or as self-commentaries? The chief catalyst of this generic transformation was likely cleric Jean de Meun's ironic, anti-courtly, and Aristotelian seventeen-thousand-line continuation of Guillaume de Lorris's Roman de la .Rose(ca. 1230-35), written sometime between 1269 and 1278.3 In nearly three hundred extant manuscripts Jean's monumental satiric and mythological excursus sits uncomfortably with Guillaume's vernacular Ovidian courtly-love poem of four thousand lines.4 This bivalent Rosedoes share throughout its two parts an interest in the Ovidian, but doubly so, because of the difference between the poets' respective classical models in Ovid: Guillaume's aristocratic fantasy is a medievalizedArs amatoriain which Amant, the Lover, enters the Jardin de Deduit (Garden of Pleasure or Mirth) to woo (or pluck) his Rose. Jean's clerical critique of this fantasy contrasts with Guillaume's as an implicit Remediaamorisin which its portrayal of the character of love is both irrational and predatory, although its mythological model for the nature of Nature (and human nature) is ultimately that of Ovid's Metamorphoses. The dramatic focus in Jean de Meun is not, after all, on courtly love and the pursuit of the lady in an aristocratic setting but, more figuratively, on such love as involving a decadent, self-centered fulfillment of sexuality and, therefore, of irrationality, given the personification Raison as the chief adversary of Amant in the Garden of Deduit. If "Guillaume marginalizes [Reason's] voice," Douglas Kelly notes in InternalDifferenceand Meaning.rin the Roman de la Rose,then "Reason assumes a central role in Jean de Meun, where she is present and voluble for over three thousand lines. Furthermore, she is the cause of important interventions, notably by the God of Love who, like Amant, expresses the ongoing enmity between himself and Reason, and by Nature, who underscores the rule and purpose of reason in human conduct." 5 In response to the question, then, of why Dante uses Ovidian imagery so predominantly throughout both the Vtta nuovaand the Commedia,in different ways and inspired by different Ovidian works, the answer lies in the distinctly different Ovidian sources of the two Roseromances and their treatments of courtly love. Even the mythological typology of lovers in the Rose--mainly borrowed from the Metamorphoses and dominating the beginning and end points of the entire bifurcated work-is, according to Thomas Hill, intended to mark courtly love as pejorative.6 Early on, the Fountain of Narcissus in Guillaume de Lorris's Rosetypifies self-love:

22

TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE MYTHOGRAPHY

this mirror-like pool that reflects back to Narcissus a beautiful youth for whom he so yearns that he dives into the perilous waters is itself "glossed" by the circular mirrors of the lovers' hortus conclusus,the walled Garden of Deduit, and of Oiseuse (Idleness), porter to the Garden, which Idleness uses to gaze upon herself. Close to the end, Jean de Meun's Pygmalion represents fantastic but sterile love, a love of images, given his creation of a statue named Galatea that Venus brings to life for him. 7 Pygmalion's auto-eroticism-falling in love with his own creation-is not unlike that of Narcissus, especially given Galatea's cadaver-like state, which suggests that their unnatural (or perverse) love represents psychological death. 8 Given these glossaic representations of failed Ovidian lovers, it is no accident that Jean's Rose is, in itself, in mode and genre, more obviously mythography and commentary than it is romance. Paul Zumthor has described it as "moins la suite narrative qu'une immense glose interpretive additionelle" [less a continuing narrative than an immense additional interpretivegloss].9 Through Jean de Meun's use of the Ovidian metaphor in the title of the Ars amatoria--of love as an ars, or as a body of knowledge that can (ironically) be taught like any of the other school arts-from the outset his vernacular Rosecan be seen to bear some relationship in itself, no matter how ironically, to the Latin commentary tradition, as Alastair Minnis has demonstrated. 10 As a gloss on Guillaume de Lorris's Rose,Jean de Meun's continuation alters its tone and direction by reforming aspects of Ovid on love in the discourses of Ami (derived from books I and 2 of the Ars amatoria) and of La Vieille (the Old Woman; from book 3), 11 her discourses on mythological lovers also taken from the Heroides.In addition, throughout his summa, Jean de Meun himself borrows classical myths and their significations not only from commentaries on Ovid's Metamorphoses but also from other Latin sources, including Boethius, Virgil, and commentaries on them, and from Alan of Lille:12 see table I for a partial list of classical mythological images, allusions, and fables in Jean de Meun's Rose. Jean de Meun's typology provides an Ovidian frame for the drama of the pursuit of the Rose in both parts, by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun, with other myths from the Metamorphosesused primarily in the discourses of Reason, Nature, and Genius (as god of human nature) to explain mutability and human sexuality and in the narrator's assault on the Rose at the end. The initial Ovidian myth of Saturn's castration and the devolution of the Four Ages ofTime is used by Raison as a gloss on the origins of love and how it has degenerated into the artificial and courtly form so denigrated in the middle of Jean's poem by the goddess Nature

Table 1. ClassicalMythological Figuresand Fablesin Jean de Meun's Rose Line numbers refer to the Lecoy Old French edition [1965-70] of Jean de Meun's Rose, which begins at line 4029; in Dahlberg's translation, chap. 4; rubrics and chapter tides and numbers are taken from Dahlberg's translation. Longer passages are indicared by dashes after line number without definite end. Discourse of Reason (4029-), chap. 4 1. The Castration of Saturn, 5506-520 2. Zephirus, 59n, 6004, 6059, 8381 3. Jupiter and Phoebus, 65134. Ceres and Triptolemus, Fates, 10153-

The Assault on the Castle (10651-), chap. 6 5. Amor (Cupid, god oflove), son of Venus and Saturn, her father, 107976. Proteus, rn51

The Old Woman's Intercession (12947-), chap. 7 7. Jupiter and Juno, 131018. Dido, queen of Carthage, 131459. Phyllis and Demophoon (Demophon), 13181 IO. Paris and Oenone, 13185 11. Jason and Medea, 1320512. Vulcan and Venus and Mars, 138u-, 1413713. Io, Jupiter, Argus, Mercury, 14353-

Nature's Confession (15863-), chap. 9 14. Pygmalion, 16147 15. Genius (character), Nature's Priest, 1625516. Deucalion and Pyrrha and Themis, 17568 17. Bacchus, Ceres, Pan, and Cybele, 17921 18. Mars and Venus, 18031- (Genius's reply) 19. Virgil's Sibyl, 19139 20. Sisyphus, 19269

Genius's Solution (19412-), chap. ro 21. Orpheus, 19621 22. The sowing of serpent's teeth by Cadmus, 19706 23. Three Fates, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, 19738 24. Cerberus, 19805

(continued)

24

TableI.-

TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE

MYTHOGRAPHY

Continued

25. The Three Furies,Megera (Megaera),Allecto (Alecto),and Tisiphone, 19805-7 26. Rhadarnanrus,Minos, and Aeacus,sons of Jupiter and judges in hell, 19824 27. Jupiter, 20083 28. Cerberus, guardian of hell, 20281 29. Narcissusand the perilous fountain, 20381

Venus'sConflagrationand the Winning of the Rose (20681-), chap. 11 30. Pygmalion,20785 31. Daedalus, 213337 32. Herculesbattling Cacus, 21592

and her priest Genius, aided by Venus. At the very end, Amant's narrativized depiction of his sexual penetration of the virginal Rose in a quasipornographic passage compares the act figuratively to the heroic Labor of Hercules as he descends into the cave of Cacus. 13 Together, these two myths-Saturn's castration and the descent of Hercules (or the rape of the Rose) represent Jean de Meun's integumental version of a classical mythological fall of the human race into decrepitude and vice and its regeneration through human sexuality and reproduction. They are figuratively and philosophically analogous to the biblical Fall of Man and to the hope for renewal in the birth and resurrection of Christ in the Gospels. The latter is expressed by Jean de Meun's reconstitution of the courtly love garden of Deduit from Guillaume de Lorris's poem, or pleasure, as the Beau Pare of the Bon Pasteur, or the Beautiful Park of the Good Shepherd, in his continuation. By associating a classical myth-Hercules's Labor-with the most personal and sexual (even violent) of experiences, completely taken· out of context, Jean de Meun rather brilliantly reveals a new mode of allegorical and mythological inglossation: the inscription of gloss by means of classical integument as a feature of ironic personal characterization in allegorical narrative, here relating to the ignoble courtly lover Amant of Guillaume de Lorris, who is completely discounted by his author Jean de Meun for his overweening hypocrisy and self-deception, given his inordinate lust. Jean de Meun is not usually recognized as a humanist poet, much less one who imbued his text with the personal. Certainly from the commentarylike form and nature of his Roseit is clear that its author wrote out of his

ALLEGORICAL FIGURAE AND SELF-PROJECTION

25

training and experience as a schol.ar. Recent studies of his Rosehave exposed its acquaintance with scholastic branches of knowledge, including logic, rhetoric, and grammar. 14 As a devotee of translation of classicaltexts into the vernacular and of hermeneutics, Jean de .Meun translated two other scholarly Latin works into Old French, Roman Vegetius'sDe rei militari (in 1274) and Boethius's ConsolatioPhilosophiae(in 1303).Jean's prologue to the Consolatioresembles that of William of Aragon, a physician resident in Aragon around 1330who· also wrote a Latin tract on dreams, "De pronosticatione sompniorum," in his own Latin commentary on Boethius (1303-5). Likely both prologues borrowed from an earlier Latin prologue, probably that much-copied accessus(or introduction, opening) to the twelfth-century Boethius commentatory of William of Conches. 15 William of Aragon had taught in the Arts Faculty at Paris much earlier, like William of Conches; his commentary on Boethius was probably also a lecture course (it is called "lectura'' in the final rhyme of the commentary) and of Spanish origin, well known in the fourteenth century and having been used by Robert Holkot in his lectures on Wisdom. 16 Finally, both of Jean de Meun's scholastic translations were themselves translated and adapted: his Vegetius was translated into Middle French and modified by Christine de Pizan, as indicated above, in the first book of her own military treatise, Paisd'armeset chevalerie;and his Boethius, in excerpts, into Middle English, by Geoffrey Chaucer. These other influences notwithstanding, Jean de Meun's Rosedepends on an underlying Aristotelian philosophy that, in the century before (as described throughout volume 2 of MedievalMythography)had emerged in western Europe as a means of justifying the reading of Ovid's Metamorphoses, with its many classical myths of transformation of mortals and gods. Aristotelianism-that philosophy that dominated the thirteenth century and brought with it an emphasis on the empirical, the real, and the material-is key to both Jean de Meun and Dante (as we shall see in chapter 2). Jean de Meun's continuation of the Rose,according to Alan M. F. Gunn in his detailed examination, shifts to Aristotle for its view of nature as agent of materiality and metamorphosis, with corporeal laws ruling physical "mutation," or transformation. 17 Indeed, the cleric's Rosecoincides with the very end point of recovered Aristotelianism, that is, the Condemnation of 1277 by the· archbishop of Chartres, Stephen Tempier; the fear of an accusation of heresy may have triggered Jean de Meun's use of integument as a cover for suspect Aristotelianism. The advent into vernacular poetry of the Latin Aristotelian philosophic tradition as

TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE MYTHOGRAPHY

witnessed in his philosophical and ironic satire marks a paradigm shift from the Neoplatonic view of nature as the imprinting of the divine upon the corporeal to the primacy of the physical as efficient cause, tempered always by an exquisite sense of irony. Neoplatonism had underpinned two twelfth-century philosophical and cosmographic works from which Jean de Meun had borrowed his allegorical personifications Raison, Nature, and Genius-De mundi universitate(On the universality of the world), by Bernard Silvestris, with its two parts, titled "Macrocosmos" and "Microcosmos," and De planctu Naturae (The complaint of Nature), by Alan of Lille, about nonreproductive kinds oflove, especially homosexuality. 18 But it is likely that Jean de Meun approached Ovid's Metamorphosesthrough the Aristotelian-based commentary by Arnulf of Orleans, the Allegoriae super Ovidii Metamorphoses(ca. 1170-1203), in its conceptual emphasis on the layered word mutatio (metamorphosis, change, transformation). Arnulf's commentary also influenced subsequent Ovid commentaries and their early fourteenth-century redactions (or expansions) by John of Garland and Giovanni del Virgilio. 19 Jean de Meun employs the figures from Latin Ovid commentary as characters (and in exempla) to wed philosophy to poetry: to allegorize how narcissistic courtly love fails to advance Aristotelian generation of kind and forestall corruption, and to attack courtly love as untruthful and deceptive-unrealistic-by means of his ironic deployment of mythography in his use of classical myth. For Jean de Meun, what allows human choice to be guided in this classical "postlapsarian" age-the age of clay-is reason, allegorically, the female personification Raison. She attempts to guide the courtly lover, Amant (Guillaume de Lorris), to what should be (but is not, given his blindness to truth) a better understanding of the mission of the God of Love and of his own ideal role in Nature's process rather than of Nature in Love's. Mainly, the game oflove, once Jean de Meun's undermining of the courtly lover is understood, should offer the opportunity for female choice in galvanizing generation of kind, although this option was not one delivered in the cleric's Roseand would not be, until the advent of Evrart de Canty and Christine de Pizan in late fourteenth-century Paris, at least as far as the commentary tradition is concerned. This equality of voice was of course missing for the most part in twelfth-century vernacular troubadour lyrics and Anglo-Norman and French romances, except for those written respectively by the trobairitz and by Marie de France and Heldris of Cornwall, and in those Latin dialogues-by Baudri ofBourgueil and Marbod of Renn es, among others-that first introduced subjectivity,

ALLEGORICAL FIGURAE AND SELF-PROJECTION

27

at least a masculinized subjectivity, by means of the construction of gender difference (interestingly enough, given this early introduction of gender difference in France, Baudri himself also produced a "Fragment on Mythology" that renders Fulgentius's commentary on Ovid in Latin verse).20 Love, as the subject of both parts of the Rose,is in fact introduced philosophically by the catalytic event of Saturn's castration in Jean de Meun's Rose--according to John V. Fleming, the "major idea in the poem." 21 Although the declination of time and its accompanying change and corruption characterize the fallen world that results from Saturn's castration, from this castration love ensues logically as a potentially restorative agent, in both the human microcosm and the macrocosm. In a natural or physical sense, what might he considered the essence of mutation or transformation results from Jupiter's castration of his father in hook I of Ovid's Metamorphoses-temporality, mutability itself-after which Saturn's daughter Venus (Aphrodite) is horn from his severed genitals cast into the sea, or sea foam-that is, from Saturn's (Cronos's [Kronos's] or Time's) spume. In Jean de Meun's Rose,Venus illustrates the primacy of the physical as the efficient cause, etymologically suggesting by her myth of origin (Greek Aphrodite, Aphros+ Dite, that, after the fall, the release of semen through desire (Amor) will rectify the effects of mutability and death-the physical loss of the self and the diminution of human nature-by means of reproduction. In the narrative progression of events, after Raison lectures to Amant on the myth of the castration of Saturn by his son Jupiter (which duplicates Ovid's treatment in the Metamorphoses),three other personified gods in the allegorical drama of Amant explain to him the natural processes of Aristotelian regeneration: Nature, her priest Genius (human nature), 22 and Venus, with her hammer and anvil (the genitals). Within the macrocosm, at Saturn's castration, the First Age, the Golden Age, simultaneously and historically changes into the (postlapsarian) more degenerate Age of Silver, of Jupiter, followed by the progressively more degenerate Ages of Bronze and Clay (see figure 4, The Four Ages ofTime: Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Clay, with Justice departed. From Ovid, "Metamorphoses," hook 1, Oxford, Bodi. Douce 117, fol. IOr. [French, after 1531)).Morally and politically, the degradation of the spiritual and material world after the castration occurs when, anagogically and historically, Jupiter displaces his father Saturn and substitutes for the age of justice-the Golden Age23-an inferior age of pleasure and willfulness in the cycle of the three remaining ages:24 he "conmande et establist por regie / que chascuns pense d' estre aese" [commands and establishes as a rule that

4. The Four Ages ofTime: Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Clay, with Justice departed. From Ovid, "Metamorphoses," book 1, French trans. Oxford, Bodi. Douce 117, fol. ror (French, after 1531).By permission ofThe Bodleian Libraries, The University of Oxford .

ALLEGORICAL FIGURAE AND SELF-PROJECTION

29

each one think of living comfortably] (lines 20066-67, Dahlberg, p. 330). The problem is that "n'onques n'avoit assise bone la simple gent pesible et bone" [The simple people, peaceable and good, had never laid down boundaries] (lines 20093-94, Dahlberg, p. 330). In order to teach selfishness and the pleasure of the body, divisions and portions are created. Jupiter divides the seasons; even after him, men continue dividing (and quarreling) among themselves. The image of the dismemberment of the body politic further suggests social disorder that only harmony among all classes of men, particularly those with power, will resolve. Division as a sign of cupiditasand selfishness in the material, earthly world of Jean de Meun's Garden of Deduit does not apply in the morally visible world of his Beautiful Park of the Good Shepherd, where division allows the white lambs to be kept apart from the black in moral segregation. Fortunately, Jupiter's dismemberment of his father, Saturn-which causes justice to flee-is also followed by the arrival of Love, Amor (son of Venus). According to Jean de Meun, "sainte Venus" is daughter of Saturn, "qui ja l'angendra jenne touse, / mes non pas de sa fame espouse" [engendered ... as one who was already a young girl-but not on his espoused wife], just as the God of Love, Amor, or Cupid, is his grandson (lines 10799-800; Dahlberg, p. 191).The two Venuses of Alan of Lille'sDeplanctu Naturae better explain the ambivalence of love: one linked with Hymen, god of weddings, whose union produces Cupid, desire, and one linked with Antigamus (Anti-marriage), also identified as Antigenius (meaning "against generation"), whose union produces Jocus (Game, Play). Jean de Meun's philosophical and cultural paradigm shift from Guillaume de Lorris's more conventional courtly romance affected mythography as much as it did poetry, not only in the rather superficial idea of privileging the literal and historical text (which had always held an important foundational role in manif~sting and supporting the four senses of allegory, beginning with St. Augustine's De doctrinachristiana,through the concept of the historical). 25 Because Aristotelian materialism had brought to the fore an interest in the embodied soul and the individual, along with this borrowed Ovidian mythography came a focus on the personal, on subjectivity,26 the hallmark of late medieval humanism. In relation to the personal and autobiographical (or in this case, the subjectivizing of the mythographic) as inscribed in the genre of the commentary, Jean de Meun's Rose,as part of his Aristotelian emphasis on the generation of individual difference, introduces varied allegorical figures to project multiple voices (an early attempt at fictional character development), especially in

30

TOWARD A SUBJECTIVE MYTHOGRAPHY

the figure of the lover, Amant. Kevin Brownlee has identified the protagonist Amant as both "Guillaume de Lorris" in lines rn657-60, meaning both the ''.ie-protagonist" of the twenty-year-old lover in Guillaume de Lorris's narrative but also the ''.ie-narrator," Guillaume de Lorris as the twenty-five-year-old cleric who inscribes the first part of the Rose.27 So David Hult later argues that Guillaume de Lorris himself has become, in Jean de Meun's continuation, an allegorical figure. 28 This double nature of Amant permits Jean de Meun to maintain a philosophic and literary dialogue in voice within the Rose,as previously theorized in Abelard's Sic et non. Jean de Meun's programmatic support of contrary positions as voiced by various personifications, according to Nancy Freeman-Regalado, 29 reminds us to observe his significant ending note to the reader: "Ainsint va des contreres choses, / les unes sont des autres gloses" [Thus things go by contraries; one is the gloss of the other]. Jean explains: et qui l'une en veust defenir, de l' autre li doit souvenir, ou ja, par nule antancion, n'i metra diffinicion; car qui des .ii. n' a connoissance, ja n'i connoistra differance, san quoi ne peut venir en place diffinicion que l'an face. (lines 21543-52; my emphasis) [If one wants to define one of the pair, he must remember the other, or he will never, by any intention, assign a definition to it; for he who has no understanding of the two will never understand the difference between them, and without this difference no definition that one may make can come to anything.] (Dahlberg, p. 351; my emphasis) In his formal use of "les unes sunt des autres gloses" (one is the gloss of the other), Jean de Meun certainly refers to his own incorporation of Guillaume de Lorris's romance in his own Rost,;: "1!1f.lrl.t) :d\lbOO( nwstr•

42. The twelve Labors of Hercules. Repro_duction of a woodcut border from a 1526 Cologne print of Herodotus married to a facsimile of the 1499 print cover for Enrique de Villena (Henry of Aragon), Los doze trabajosde ercules(Burgos: Juan de Burgos, 1499; later facsimile copy).© The British Library Board. London, B.L. 899 .£i6. (r).

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393

treatments. 100 Morreale recognizes Villenas Hercules as a "liberator of humanity" in a prose that "makes him live on as he had lived, along with so many other heroes, humanized gods and biblical figures, in the Primera cronicageneral,in the Generalhistoria,in the Historiatroyana,and in so many other earlier and even later accounts of Spain's first glories."101 Within Losdoze trabajosand its epistolary frame--it is intended for "Muy honorable e virtuoso cavallero" Mosen Pero Prado, and, through the idealization of Hercules, who was believed early on to have been the founder of Spain as was Aeneas for Italy,102 a ''Mirror for Princes"-there are twelve chapters, each dealing with one of.the Labors. Each chapter is also devoted to one type among the twelve estados:the prince, the soldier, the teacher, the student, the merchant, the laborer, the citizen, the skilled worker, the courtesan, the hermit, the prelate, and the woman. Within each chapter, Villena includes for the respective Labor a four-part exposition that begins with a beautifully elaborated Historianuda, or "literal recitation," of the Labor; a traditional Alegorla,moral in nature; a Verdad(truth), or deeper meaning that often extends the euhemeristic and political aspects of the myth; and, finally, an Aplicacion,which, in his introduction, he indicates will help distinguish the artifice from the application. In that, he recasts the allegory as in some way educational or experiential, as in the tenth Labor, for example, when he interprets the allegory in the light of [pseudo-] Boethius's Disciplinaescolariumfrom the point of view of the student. 103 In Losdoze trabajos,Hercules's slaying of the thief and Centaur Cacus (or Caco, here) presents the latter as a murderer who hangs the body parts of his victim in his cave on what is the Aventine Mount in present-day Rome. After Cacus steals the plump Spanish cattle Hercules brought back with him after vanquishing Geryon and hides them in a cave, Hercules uses their calves' lowing to attract the cows away from the cave and reveal its opening. The hero, undeterred by the smoke Cacus spews from the hidden passage to conceal it, finds the means of descent into the cave and eventually routs Cacus, which overjoys King Evander and his mother, Carmenta, who along with the people of Rome have been brutally oppressed. Allegorically, the Aventine Mount represents the superiority of the human intellect; Hercules signifies consciousness and repentance for the obstinacy and intransigence of King Geryon's evil; Cacus, disorder and dissolution that overcomes reason, in particular, greed; the cattle, the rich fruit of knowledge, having been harnessed by Hercules on the mount of understanding for the use of good, but stolen away by evil thoughts; and so forth. The Verdad, the "Truth," extends the more historical or political

394

COLUCCIO SALUTATI'S HERCULES AS VIR PERFECTUS

aspects of this Labor, in particular focusing on the backstory of King Geryon as "un rey que usava mal de la sefiorfa e tortis;eramente regfa sus pueblos" [an arbitrary monarch deviously ruling his people], against whom Hercules marches to subdue him, although instead Geryon places himself under his command. 104 Villena points out that other versions describe Geryon as a tyrant over all of Spain, and Hercules as a fair and just liberator who apportions the cattle to the region, after which an annual victory celebration in Hercules's honor reminds other malefactors and people in other states of the world of the punishment or enlightenment that will follow similar wrongs. The fourth portion, the "Application," describes the student after childhood who, having been subdued, like Geryon by Hercules but bearing the burden of the oxen, "las disposis;iones juveniles o de la mans;ebez" (the proclivities of adolescence or early manhood), arrives at the Aventine Mount to learn from the river Tiber, where "la abundance de la ss;iens;ia"(the richness of science) flows.105 Such fruitfulness must be protected from the debasement of the mind (Cacus in the cave) so that they may become teachers: "Por esto dezfa Boes;io en ii libro De dist;iplinascolariumque disolus;i6n es el mayor embargo que los escolares aver pueden que quieren ganar el abito ss;iens;ialo moral" [For this reason Boethius in the De disciplinaescolariumnoted that dissolution is the major obstacle that confronts students who seek to wear the habit of science or morality] .106 The effects of the disasters caused by Cacus and other beast or tyrant figures in the twelve Labors, according to R. G. Keightley, "are remarkably like those of warfare, whether on a national scale or simply taking the form oflocalized baronial squabbles." 107 Keightley also stresses the exceptional learning of Villenas Hercules as an exemplarvirtutisof the vida contemplativa,who studies philosophy under Atlas and uses logic to quell the Hydra and reason and eloquence to overcome tyrants, as well as complete scientific treatises begun by Atlas that preserve the knowledge of Greek antiquity. 108 Villenas hero Hercules, in short, allows the author to project onto him the ideals he himself espoused. In this regard, Villena also aided the spread of classical humanism to Spain by translating the Aeneid into Catalan (1428) and, in his glosses on the epic, by interpreting it as a manual of good government, following the lead of Salutati in a letter to Iodoco, marchese di Moravia. 109 Villenas interest in the classics extended to Petrarch and Dante's Divina Commedia, both of whose works he translated and/or glossed in some way,110 although, unlike the highly regarded but more conservative Salutati, Villena was, understandably, much more vocal in his criticism of the tyranny of

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the government. However learned Salutati may have been in staging his philosophical treatment of the hero Hercules as an example of the uses of myth, he did not, like Villena, concentrate literally on the political reactions to a turbulent world-including critiques of tyrants-in constructing his allegory, even though he used his scholarship elsewhere to reveal his libertarian ideas of anti-republicanism. m In methodology, Villenas allegorical glossation, in separating the different interpretations of the historical, moral, political or. euhemeristic, and educational, looks back to twelfth-century Bernard of Utrecht in his commentary on the Edoga Theoduliand forward to Christine de Pizan in the EpistreOthea'sprosimetrum that combines mythological poems with moral, allegorical, and chivalric prose glosses in the overall framing device of an epistle of advice from the goddess of wisdom, Othea, to her nephew Hector. Salutati's true colleagues in the fifteenth century, in the sense that they preserved his medievalistic humanism, scholarship, and original contribution to mythography, were two commentators radically different from Enrique de Villena but both innovative in their recombinations of medieval commentary traditions: the Franco-Italian protofeminist Ovid commentator, Christine de Pizan, and the Florentine Cristofaro Landino, in his revivification of the journey of Aeneas and its overlay with the Judgment of Paris and the three lives topos. Both Christine and Landino emulate Salutati by following along the path established by Petrarch and Boccaccio in singling out illustrious men and women to construct a studia humanitatiswith medieval roots. Both exhibit as well the same interest in a mythography imbued with the personal and political, although Christine will reverse Salutati's movement from the literal and historical to the allegorical in De /,aboribus by the time she writes Cite desDames,and Salutati throughout his life regards allegory, in the words of Elliott M. Simon, as "ontological because it revealed both the physical and metaphysical nature of being in the world. . . . [I]t is a moral revelation of human experience in which the physical human being aspires to a transcendent perception of existence and descends into historical experience as an eternal cyclical process."112 For this reason, in particular, of the two humanists only Christine resembles Salutati in her resistance to Jean de Meun's witty use of allegory as a veil for immorality, meaning, in her view, pornography and the dehumanization of women. But both Salutati and Landino use mythography as a means of justifying that exemplar of the perfect man, Hercules, in Salutati's case, and Aeneas, founder of the Roman empire, in Landino's, in a conservative return to the most medievalized of myths.

Ohapter ~ t\ltn CRISTOFORO

LANDINO'S

OF AENEAS"

IN THE DISPUTATIONES

CAMALDULENSES

"JUDGMENT

(I

4 75)

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, interest in Virgil reemerged on the part of many Italian humanists, ranging from the scholar-poets such as Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio to commentators both great and smallthe great humanist scholars such as Coluccio Salutati (discussed in the previous chapter) and Cristoforo Landino of Florence (1424-98) (the subject of this chapter), as well as minor grammatical commentators such as Zono (or Zonys [Ciones]) de' Magnalis (mid-fourteenth century), Pomponio Leto, and Folchino di Borfoni (fl. 1401) of Cremona. Among these men, although all revered Aeneas, Petrarch and Landino shared a desire to idealize Aeneas as the vir perfectusand founder of the Roman Empire, returning conservatively to an older medieval Latin tradition of commentary on Virgil drawn from the great scholastic mythographic commentaries of the twelfth century. What is humanistic about their similar efforts is the promotion of Aeneas as a man-the human son of Anchises rather than the semidivine son of Venus. In part, the conservative aspect of this trend reflected the only-gradual return of important manuscripts of texts to northern Italy from other parts of Europe: both Petrarch and Salutati were instrumental in acquiring great libraries that helped bolster the growth of humanism in the fifteenth century and beyond. Thus, while the books they read may not have been the most current, they emphasized wisdom through education and fostered a means of re-imagining Aeneas-whatever his faultsas a more perfect man. Interestingly, even the most minor commentators on Virgil similarly manifested a rather old-fashioned understanding of his works drawn from Servius and Bernard Silvestris. Although little is known about any of them, the three minor Virgil commentators mentioned above-Zono

"THE JUDGMENT

OF AENEAS"

397

de' Magnalis, Pomponio Leto, and Folchino di Borfoni, if we exclude Leto-commented on both Virgil and Lucan, like Benvenuto Rambaldi da lmola. Zono de' Magnalis 1 and Pomponio Leto2 pursued a grammatical approach to Virgil, with minimal moralized comment, much that duplicated Servian or Silvestran material (particularly on the sixth book). 3 Folchino di Borfoni, although we have few facts about his life and nothing definite about his family, wrote a work tided De orthographiaand commented on Virgil's Eclogues,Georgics, and the Aeneid as well as on Lucan. 4 But Borfoni had virtually no interest in mythography, and his comments consisted primarily of plot summary.5 Of Borfoni's commentary on the Georgics,Fausto Ghisalberti has surmised that, with its grammatical comments and without allegorical interpretation or mythological exposition ("senza alcun tentativo di interpretazione allegorica, senza quelle ampie digressioni di ogni materia, specialmente mitologica''), the commentary must have been intended for use in a lower school of some sort. 6 In relation to the great Italian scholar-poets, Dante's interest in Virgil in the Commediahas been well documented, in this volume and elsewhere; in addition, Francesco Petrarca (1304-74), although primarily known as a poet, often found occasion to gloss Virgil and, in particular, his hero Aeneas, whom he conceived as an Everyman confronting himself in the form of personified virtues and vices, a moralized Stoic and Neoplatonic conception influential in shaping the heroic construction of Landino's Virgilian journey a century later. While Petrarch was still a young student (in 1325-26), his father, Petracco di Parenzo, and he had put together a complete Virgil manuscript known as the "Virgilio Ambrosiano." 7 Both Dante and Petrarch emulated Virgil as an epic poet in creating their own epics, Dante in the Commediaand Petrarch in his unfinished Latin epic Africa.8 Indeed, after Petrarch had read Virgil carefully in 1338, he expanded the Africa to center on the love of Massinissa and Sofonisba, influenced by the fourth book ofthe Aeneid (as well as by images of Fran9 The Africa in its nine books as cesco and Laura in his own Canzoniere). an epic poem shaped by Petrarch's learning also "glosses"Cicero's Dreamof Scipiovia Macrobius's commentary: an avid reader of Macrobius, Petrarch used the four classicalvirtues as a structural device in Africa-temperance, in book 5; prudence, in 6; justice, in 7; and fortitude, in 810-and also "glosses" Fulgentius's Expositioon Virgil, just as the Commedia"glosses" the Aeneid via the Lucan commentaries. In this more scholarly tradition, Boccaccio, as we have seen, inserts epic metaphors and analogies into his own mythographic compendium, the Genealogiedeorumgentilium, and

398

CRISTOFORO

LANDINO'S

DISPUTATIONES

CAMALDULENSES

Salutati substitutes Hercules for the Virgilian epic hero Aeneas in his various scholarly mythographies. Petrarch, as a scholar-poet who resisted the moderni logicians-the "offspring of Ockham" who held sway in mid-fourteenth-century Italyand who was therefore also opposed to Aristotle, subscribed instead to the philosophy of the Platonists and Stoics.11 Reactionary and in a sense old-fashioned in his return to the kinds of scholastic philosophy characteristic of the so-called School of Chartres (University of Paris), Petrarch in many ways resembles the other late medieval commentator on Virgil, the Platonizing Florentine Cristofaro Landino, as this concluding chapter will attempt to show, although Landino was also indebted to the other two Italian mythographers discussed in this volume, Boccaccio and Salutati. 12 I. PETRARCH'S

NEOPLATONIC

AENEAS, VIR PERFECTUS

In his Coronation Oration, delivered 8 April 1341, Petrarch intersperses quotations from Virgil's three works and discusses the allegorical throughout, although there is little in the way of mythological glossing of the Aeneid. His goal is to build on the construction of himself, and the poet laureate, as a type of Virgil the heroic poet whose pursuit is fame: dose to the end, Petrarch discourses on the rewards granted to the poet, especially the laurel crown, of which Virgil speaks (in Aen. 6.658 and Bucolics [Eclogues]2.54-55, and in Aen. 7.59-60; Petrarch, 2.512-14, 3.80-81). The story of the consecration of the evergreen laurel to Apollo, god of poetry, appears by means of Petrarch's one mythological glossing, on Bucolics 7.62 and Aen. 7.61-62: "Formosae myrtus Veneri, sua laurea Phoebo" and "Quam pater inventam, primas dum conderet arces, / ipse ferebatur Phoebo sacrasse Latinus" [To lovely Venus the myrtle, to Apollo his own laurel" and "Which Father Latinus, it is said, found while he was building the first citadel, and consecrated to Apollo]. The comment runs: And this gave rise to the story that Apollo loved Daphne, for according to Uguiccione [of Pisa] the Greek word daphne has the same meaning as the Latin laurus:this story may be read in full in the first book of the Metamorphosesof Ovid. Nor is this poetic fiction without a basis, for though every tree is dear to the sun, from which all life and growth descend, the one tree that is adorned with an eternal verdure most worthily holds the title of the loved one. And the immortality of this verdure, which symbolizes the immortality of fame sought

PETRARCH'S

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399

through warfare or through genius, was perhaps a reason why both Caesars and poets were crowned most usually with a laurel wreath. 13 Petrarch's reverence for classical poets, especially Virgil, is perhaps most evident in Africa, a 1342 draft of which closely followed the Coronation Oration. In this Latin epic of nine books, Petrar~h pays respect to the poet Homer (a poet he apparently knew directly, if at all, through a translation) in imitation of Virgil's practice as poet of Rome looking back to Greek antecedents. 14 If Virgil for Petrarch, in the generation after Dante, is the epic poet to emulate, Aeneas as Virgil's epic hero is also the appropriate human ideal to emulate. Petrarch's Aeneas is the Perfect Man whose heroic exploits illustrate the rational man's triumph of virtue over vice (specifically,concupiscientia,or passion). Petrarch declares, in a Latin letter from the Rerum senilium4.4 about the fictions of Virgil, "De quibusdam fictionibus Virgilii," that "subiectum, ut ego arbitror, Vir perfectus est" [Virgil's subject, as I understand the matter, is the Perfect Man]. 15 Petrarch interprets the voyages of Aeneas as a moralized figure for man's spiritual dilemmas, with most of his comments in this letter and elsewhere on the Aeneidcentering on Aeneas's problems with vice rather than the triumph of his virtue. The fall of Troy in particular epitomizes a descent into vice-passion, as represented by Aeneas's desire for battle, the influence on him of his mother Venus, and his association with the drunken old Trojans who do not anticipate the final attack of the Greeks. Venus is described by Petrarch as voluptas,pleasure: Venus obuia, sylvae medio, ipsa est uoluptas, circatempusuitae medium, seruentior atque acrior, os habitumqu'e uirgineum gerit, ut illudat inferiis, nam siquis ea, qualis est cerneret, haud dubie nisu solo tremefactus aufugeret, ut enim nihil blandius, sic nihil est foedius uoluptate. Succincta autem, quia uelociter fugit, & idcirco uelocissimis comparatur, nil nempe uelocius uoluptate, siue in uniuerso illam, siue inpartibus extimes, nam & tota citissime definit, nee dum exercetur, nisi ad momentum durat. habitu demum uenatricis, quia uenatur miserorum animas, arcum habet & comam uentis effusan, ut & feriat & delectet. [{P}leasure, ...

whose pursuit by us becomes hotter and keener

towardthe middleof our life. Her assumption of a maidenly look and

400

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CAMALDULENSES

air is for the purpose of deceiving the unwary. If we saw her as she is we should flee from her in fear and trembling for, as there is nothing more tempting than pleasure, so there is nothing more foul. Her garments are girded up because her flight is swift. For this reason she is compared to the swiftest of creatures and things. It cannot be denied that nothing swifter exists, whether you consider her comprehensively or part by part; for pleasure as a whole passes from us very soon, and even while it still abides with us each taste of it lasts but a moment. And then, finally, she appears in the garb of a huntress, because she hunts for the souls of miserable mortals, and she has a bow, and has flowing hair, in order that she may smite us and charm us.] (my emphasis) A similar view of Venus's vicious influence, on Aeneas and the Trojans, is provided by Petrarch's Secretum meum, a three-part dialogue on the theme of contemptus mundi, "contempt for the world," between the "homuncio" or "man oflittle strength" and St. Augustine, similar in form and theme to the dialogue between Boethius and Philosophy and between the homunculus and Virgil in the Expositio. Petrarch explains how Venus as passion clouded Aeneas's sight with love of the things of this earth, which he could see truly and more clearly only when her influence ended-a moralization which refers to Aeneas's passionate desire for battle in the fall of Troy, at a time when he is still guided by his mother, Venus (in Aen. 2.361-69 and 2.262). 16 Further, in the Third Dialogue, Petrarch interprets figuratively the imminent fall of Troy-the city with which Venus was associated in the Aeneid-as vicious. The Trojans do not worry about death because they are drunk with temporal pleasure; Petrarch's character, Augustine, relates this to man's viciousness in old age (again, note the relationship with a stage in life reminiscent of Dante's schema). When Petrarch the character asks Augustine why man wants to stretch out his short life, Augustine responds that one cause is man's love of pleasure. Augustine then provides an elaborate analogy between the old Trojans (representative of human nature) and the fall ofTroy (the fall into viciousness through desire for pleasure). Secundum est, quia inter iocos et falsa gaudia senescitis. ltaque sicut Troianos, qui supremam noctem inter talia transduxerunt, latuit dum fatalis equus saltu super ardua venit "Pergama et armatum peditem gravis attulit alvo" [Aen.6.515-16], sic vos senectutem, que

PETRARCH'S

NEOPLATONIC

AENEAS

401

securn armatam et indomitam mortem affert, incustoditi corporis menia transcendentem non sentitis, nisi tum demum quando dimissi per funem hostes "invadunt urbem somno vinoque sepultam'' [Aen. 2.265). Non minus enim vos et mole corporum et dulcedine rerum temporaliurn sepulti estis, quam illos somno inoque sepelivit maro. (Secretummeum, ed. Ponte, pp. 568, 570) [{Y}ouwill persist in letting old age find you still in the midst of games and empty pleasures; like the old Trojans who in their customary ways passed the last night without perceiving "The cunning, fatal horse, who bore within / Those armed bands, had overleapt the wall / Of Pergamos" {Aen. 6.515-16}.Yes,even so you perceive not that old age, bringing in his train the armed warrior Death, unpitying and stern, has over-leapt the weakly guarded rampart of your body; and then you find your foe has already glided by stealth along his rope-''And now the invader climbs within the gate/ And takes the city in its drunken sleep'' {Aen. 2.265}.For in the gross body and the pleasure of things temporal, not less drunk are you than those old Trojans were, as Virgil saw theni, in their slumber and their wine.] (Secretummeum, trans. pp. 158-59) Even though Aeneas is not explicitly mentioned in this passage, Petrarch glosses the Aeneid (books 2 and 6) itself in relation to old age, one of Dante's four divisions of human life. According to Petrarch, Aeneas's evolution into the Perfect Man is aided by the attacks of Aeolus, the god of winds, who in the poet's letter on Virgil's fictions represents "our reason, which curbs and controls these headstrong passions." In the Secr~tum,as well, Petrarch explains how Aeolus represents the rational soul lodged in man's head which controls anger in the heart and desire in the loins. Aeolus as the god of winds attempted to scatter the fugitive Aeneas and his fleeing Trojans at the request ofJuno, whose pride was still smarting over the Judgment of Paris, when Venus was selected as most beautiful instead of Juno or Minerva, and who was fearful over the prophecy that men ofTrojan blood would someday ravage her city, Carthage. For Petrarch in the letter and in the Secretum,this god of winds sits above mountains piled on top of deep caves to show that the home of reason, the head, is literally housed above angry passions.17 Throughout Dante's and Petrarch's moralization of Aeneas as the Perfect Man or Youth, the poets understand the Mediterranean landscape as

402

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LANDINO's

DISPUTATIONES

CAMALDULENSES

a metaphor for the human psyche and the hero himself as a type of Everyman torn between passion and reason during his exile from Troy, "multwn ille et terries iactatus et alto / vi superum'' [much buffeted on sea and land by violence from above] (Aen. 1.3-4), until he reaches Italy and the "Lavinian shores" where he builds the city of Rome (see figure 43, the frontispiece to a handsomely illustrated fifteenth-century manuscript of the Aeneid, which typifies the idea of journey but also conflict: it shows a flotilla of ships lined up at a city, poised to depart, likely in depiction of the first eight lines of the Aeneid cited in brief above, in Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh Library Special Collections 195, fol. 65r).18 Aeolus's home is the head; Venus's, presumably, is the loins. Indeed, Petrarch in Secretum meum interprets man in terms of the cosmos, as the microcosm, in commenting on the Stoic concept of the World Soul as fiery seed animating and generating all the universe (in Aen. 6. 730): "Per terras enim, quid nisi terrenam corporis materiam; per materia quid nisi humorem quo vivitur, per celum vero profundum, quid nisi interiore loco habitantem animam dedit intelligi, cuius, ut alio loco air idem, 'igneus est illis vigor et celestis origo?"' [In effect, he {Virgil}has given us to understand he means by the earth our bodily frame; by the sea, the water through which it lives; and by the depths of the sky, the soul that has its dwelling in a place remote, and of which elsewhere he says that its essence is formed out of a divine fire] (Secretum meum, ed. Ponte, p. 520; trans., p. 101). These views of the gods and heroes and of the Aeneid of course derive from the earlier medieval glosses and commentaries on the Aeneid, especially those of Fulgentius, the anonymous late tenth-century glossator on the sixth book of the Aeneid; possibly Remigius of Auxerre;19 and Bernard Silvestris (and in the use of descents, William of Conches's glosses on Boethius). Evident is the view of Aeneas as the Virtuous or Rational Man, a view dependent upon the interpretation of the Aeneid as an allegory of human life. Evident at least implicitly is the view of human life as a descent, at birth, through vice, and with virtue, into the underworld. Petrarch also characterizes Virgil as a Wise Man similar in his wisdom to his epic hero Aeneas in his Latin verses on the Aeneid, "Ad Publium Virgilium Maronem heroycum poetam et latinorum principem poetarum." He asks Virgil, confident of the latter's familiarity with the cosmos and comparable therefore to Aeneas in his descent into the underworld, where he abides now: "What region of earth or what circle of Avernus arrests thee now?"20 Petrarch goes so far as to compare Virgil, as the poet who

43. Frontispiece for Virgil's "Aeneid": the threat of war. Virgil, Works. French trans. by Florius Infortunatus in Paris. Edinburgh , University of Edinburgh Library 195, fol. 65r (ca. 1460). By permission of the University of Edinburgh Library, Special Collections Department .

404

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plumbed the depths of the underworld in his epic, with Christ, as the harrower of hell.

An potius celi regio tranquilla beatos Excipit, ingeniisque arrident astra serenis Post Stygios raptus spoliataque Tartara, summi Regis ad adventum, magno certamine victor lmpia qui pressit stigmatis limina plantis Stigmatisque potens eterna repagula palmis Fregit et horrisono convulsit cardine valvas? [Wert thou received thither after the conquest of the Stygian abodes and the plundering of the Tartarean regions, on the arrival of the Highest King who, victorious in the great struggle, crossed the unholy threshold with pierced feet, and, irresistable, beat down the unyielding bars of hell with His pierced hands, and hurled its gates from their horrid-sounding hinges?] (''Ad Publium Virgilium Maronem," lines 23-29, Familiarumrerum, p. 252; trans., p. 137) In this letter to Virgil, Petrarch refers to other poet-heroes who also descended into the underworld (Orpheus, line 14) and poet-pagan gods and places linked by Christians with the underworld ("fuscus" [swarthy] Apollo with his "raucam citharam" [harsh and grating lyre], line 7; the "nigre sorores" [sable sisters]; the Elysian groves and the Tartarian Helicon, lines 9-rn). Perhaps Petrarch was familiar with Bernard's discussion of the heroes Orpheus, Theseus, and Hercules, all of whom had descended into the underworld. 21 Thus Virgil, according to Dante and Petrarch, was a pagan poet whose own virtue and wisdom allowed him to explore the underworld in the Aeneid in the manner of his own character Aeneas. For Dante and Petrarch, Aeneas similarly appears to be a hero like Orpheus, Theseus, and Hercules. Like these heroes, Aeneas was confronted by two choices, the path of virtue or that of vice; like them he initially succumbed to passion, if in his case we substitute for Eurydice as loved by Orpheus or for Proserpina as rescued by Theseus-both women representing concupiscence-either Venus's influence, the effect of the old Trojans, or the desire for battle. Like them Aeneas

LANDINo's

MEDIEVALIZED

AENEAS

becomes the Wise Man after being buffeted by reason, or Aeolus, the god of winds, in humanist terms the Perfect Man who can arm himself with virtue in order to descend into the underworld in the sixth book. The emphasis of both Dante and Petrarch on the stages of life in their Aeneid glosses thus also derives from earlier moralizations and mythographized treatments of the epic, particularly the view of Aeneas as the perfect epitome of virtue and wisdom placed within the context of the "journey" of human life. This very medieval, very Neoplatonized conception of Aeneas, restoring 22 predates but most likely the Virgil that Dante left out of the Commedia; influenced the Platonizing conceptions of Cristofaro Landino. II. LANDINO's

MEDIEVALIZED

AENEAS AND THE THREE GODDESSES

A member of the so-called Florentine Platonists-that learned fifteenthcentury circle in Florence that also included Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, if they indeed existed formally at all as a group 23the nobly born Landino, married to a member of the Alberti family (a status that enabled him to enjoy the patronage of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici), was a wide-ranging and humanistic scholar whose public lectures demonstrate a long-held interest in both the classicsand Neoplatonism. In addition to translating Pliny, he wrote commentaries on Petrarch, Dante, Horace, and Virgil and then a second, allegorical commentary on Virgil which appears as part of his neoclassical DisputationesCamaldulenses, an ostensible imitation of Cicero's TusculanDisputations.The development ofLandino's Platonizing tendencies can be traced, in part, to his very first lectures on Dante at the Florentine Studio (1456),24 with the theme of Dante as an imitator of Virgil;25 and to the beginning, in 1462, of the Platonic Academy at Caregii, the same year as Landino's first lectures on the Aeneid 1-7, with their extended allegorical commentary on book 6.26 Although Landino had lectured at the university on other authors previously, beginning in the 145os--on Cicero's Tusculans(1458),Horace's Odes, and Juvenal and Persius (1461-62)-and although he would add lectures on Horace's Ars poetica, Petrarch's Canzoniere,Cicero's Familiar Letters, and Virgil's Eclogues(1468), he would return to lectures on Virgil again in 1463-64 and 1467. Within his various lectures on Virgil, Platonizing tendencies appear as early as the third set of lectures, delivered about the same time as the writing of the Disputationesand reported in a Laurentian manuscript: in this third set, most significantly, Aeneas "simultaneously advances through the Plotinian generavirtutum described by Macrobius:

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from the virtutes civiks to the virtutes purgatoriae to the virtutes animi iam purgati. "27 Despite Landino's publication of a more literal commentary on all of Virgil in 1488, developed out of his lectures over a twenty-year period, his Dante commentary (1481) is imbued with Neoplatonic interpretations, 28 and his Platonizing tendencies culminate in the heavily allegorical and philosophical commentary on the Aeneid in the Disputationes, written 1472-75 but published in 1480. This Latin work has been viewed as unique in the tradition of Virgil commentary in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. First, it is a continuous allegory that provides a single overall meaning for the entire epic in echo of an approach used previously only by Fulgentius in the sixth century and by Bernard Silvestris in the twelfth;29 second, it has been viewed as Platonic allegory derived from the late classical and Renaissance Platonists and Neoplatonists 30 (both views having been disputed as ignoring Landino's literal poetic narrative and the concept of the critic as hero). 31 The Platonic point of the epic for Landino centers on Virgil's understanding of the nature of the greatest good sought by the vice-purged and virtue-adorned hero, Aeneas: Quapropter pulcherrimis poeticisque figmentis eum nobis virum informavit, qui plurimis ac maximis vitiis paulatim expiatus ac deinceps miris virtutibus illustratus id, quod summum homini bonum est quodque nisi sapiens nullus assequi potest, tandem assequeretur. [Moreover, when he {Virgil} had learned from Plato the summum bonum consisted in the contemplation of the divine, he also learned that that goal is scarcely able to be anticipated before our souls, inwardly cleansed, are brought those virtues pertaining to life and mores.)32 In comparison to the Virgil commentators and scholar-poets mentioned above, Landino represents a kind of summa in Virgil mythography in that his extended commentary on the Aeneid and the travels of Aeneas is organized not by the concept of one but of three lives-active, contemplative, and voluptuous-each ruled by one of the three goddesses, Venus, Juno, and Pallas Athena, who participated in the Judgment of Paris. This important myth was used throughout the Middle Ages by mythographers and poets interested in examining the reasons for the fall of a civilization (Troy) or an individual (Paris)-namely, Evrart de Conty and Christine

LANDINO's MEDIEVALIZED AENEAS de Pizan-to offer more gendered choices within the Garden of Deduit as reconstructed by them in their vernacular works, whether commentary, in Evrart's case, or poem and epistle, in Christine's (see pp. 240-48). What is especially innovative about Landino's application of Platonism to this classical epic-for after all, much of the twelfth-century commentary by Bernard Silvestris on the first six books of the Aeneid contains Neoplatonic ideas-is that it divides the stages in Aeneas's actual journey toward the summum bonum into three parts based on the three major geographical sojourns of the hero in Troy, Carthage, and Italy. This means that Landino must begin his discussion with books 2 and 3 of the Aeneid, return then to book I, and conclude with books 4, 5, and 6. (Like Bernard, he discusses only half of the Aeneid,ending with the pivotal and important descent into the underworld in book 6.)33 To make his tripartite division significant, he uses the myth of the Judgment of Paris to structure its meaning.34In this myth, the Trojan Paris is appointed judge of a beauty contest among the goddesses Venus, Juno, and Pallas Athena (Minerva); he grants the prize of the golden apple to Venus, the goddess of love. Paris's decision thus anticipates his later adultery with the equally beautiful Helen, wife of the Greek Menelaus, and its devastating consequences-the war between the Greeks and Trojans. For Landino, this myth comes to assume far greater significance for the story of the Aeneid, and ultimately for the development of each man, when the same three goddesses are construed as having power over the specific countries or regions visited by Aeneas. Each goddess-and each phase of Aeneas's tripartite journey-comes to represent an allegorical stage in the psychological life of each man. And yet Landino has garnered the materials for his boldly original application of the myth from other sources, some contemporary and Florentine, possibly from Coluccio Salutati in his De laboribusHerculis,35 but most ultimately medieval in origin, whatever their contemporary construction. The most important mythographic, and even Neoplatonic, medieval sources may be associated with the twelfth-century commentaries of Bernard Silvestris and his teacher William of Conches, the latter of whose lectures on Martianus Publications > Electronic Journal (EBDSA) (posted 5 Dec. 2000).

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INDEX.

Boldface is used for illustrations; italics, for major sections on a topic; boldface italics, for tables. Aaron the Levite, in Boccaccio's Allegoriamitologica,143 Abad, Julian Martin, 525n98 Abati, Bella degli, 43 Abati, Bocca degli, 43, 47 Abati, Durante di Scoliao, 47 Abelard, Peter, Sic et non, 30 Accessus, 25; in Arnulf, on Ovid, 74-75; in Boccaccio, 146-47, 199-201; in Boethius, 384; in Christine, 244; for Dante, 67-71; in Giovanni del Virgilio's commentary on Ovid, 443nn9; in Jacopo Alighieri, 51;on Lucan, in Dante, 68; in William of Aragon, on Boethius, 384 Acciaiuoli, Andrea degli, Contessa, 301,496n9, 504n89 Acciaiuoli, Niccola (Niccola), 129, 132-33, 454n9 Acheron (infernal river), Charon the ferryman and, 84-86 Achilles, uo-u, 257, 270 Achitophel, in Guido da Pisa, 451m82 Ackerman, Laura, 52m78 Actaeon, 81 Acteur (Author/Actor), in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,228-30, 239-40, 243-44 Adalbold of Utrecht, commentary on Boethius, book 3, poem 9, French translation of, 382, 52on71 Adam (First Man): in Boccaccio's De mulieribusclaris,308, 317-18; in

deorum, Boccaccio's Genealogie Prometheus as, 199-200; in Christine's CitedesDames,318-21; in Dante, 84-85; in EclogaTheoduli, 244, 251, 488n171; in "Histoire universelle," 308, 319, 320; in Orosius, 307-8. SeealsoEve Adam of Brescia, 91, u9, 121-22 Adonis: birth of, u6; in Dante, 73; Myrrha and, 121 Aegisthus, u6 Aeneas: allegorization of underworld descent of, 419, 437n56; allegorization of, in vernacular literature, 5oon45; Bernard Silvestris on, 60-62, 380-82, 437n56; in Boccaccio, 148, 202; in Boethius, 387-95; in Christine, 283, 286; in Dante, 57-66, 132; descent into the underworld of, in the Florentine commentary on Martianus (by William of Conches?), 419; Fulgentius on, 60; genealogy of, 200; as homosexual, 500Il45; Italian humanist view of, as son of Anchises, 396; and Judgment of Paris, 405-19; on, 396, Landino's Disputationes 405-19, 536Il47;in Orosius and the Histoireancienne,246; Parisinus on, 62-63; in Petrarch, 396-405; in Remigius's Boethian commentary, 388; in Salutati, 15, 369, 372; Sibyls and, 337-38; as virperfectus,396-419. See also Descensus inferii

INDEX

Aenigma (rhetorical figure), and biblical allusion in Dante, 43m51 Aeolus: in Boccaccio, 155,164; in Christine, 268; in Petrarch, 401-2, 405; in Virgil, 65, 410 Aesculapius (Esculapius), in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,229 Aether (Aither; Brightness; personification), in Boccaccio, 156, 158, 202 Afterlife. SeealsoUnderworld Age, Golden, of Saturn, 27; in Dante, 73; Pietro Alighieri's comment on, 86-87 Ages of Man, 376 Ages ofTime, Four, 27, 28, 72, 140-41, 143-44, 159, 217-19 Agioso Theos,liturgy for Good Friday, and Christine's Othea as sanctus deus,259 Aglaia (one of the three Graces), in Landino, 415 Aglauros, in Dante, 73 Ailly, Pierre d', 383, 52m78 Ajax, 257 Alan of Lille, 22, 26; allegorical fiction of, 36; Christian Neoplatonism of, 39; Dante and, 43m48, 43m51; Jean de Meun and, 22, 26 -Anticlaudianus, 39, 105; Discordia and Concordia in, 105 -De planctu Naturae,26, 29, 104, 226, 232, 234, 236, 290; Genius figure in, 31, 104; on human nature, 31; Hymen in, 104, 290; Nature in, 104, 206,232;Venusin,29,176,449n176 Albericus (Alberic of London). See Vatican mythographers, third Albertus Magnus, 59 Alcmaeon, in Dante, 74 Alcmena, 387,418; in Boccaccio, 196; in Seneca, 367 Alcuin, 69

Aldheim, 69 Alexander, Jonathan J. G., 497m8 Alexander the Great, 96, 324 Alfonso de Arag6n (Villenas abuelo), 520073 Alfonso II of Aragon, 98-99 Alfonso VIII of Castile, 96 Alfred, King, West Saxon translator: of Boethius, u6-17; of Orosius, 504n83 "Alie ymagines," 6. SeealsoWilliam of · Aragon Alighieri, Aligero (Dante's son), 47, _433m8 Alighieri, Alighiero di Bellincione (Dante's father), 47, 84-86 Alighieri, Antonia "Bice," or Beatrice, 47, 433m8 Alighieri, Dante. SeeDante Alighieri, Eliseo, 47, 433m8 Alighieri, Giovanni di Dante, 47, 50, 52, 433m8 Alighieri, Jacopo, 47-57, 120, 433m8; Chioseall' "Inferno,"13, 198, 434025, 434nn27-29; date of, 434025; "Divisione," 50--51;dream of, in which Dante appeared, 434028; early commentary on Purgatoriomisattributed to, 435029; on Fortune, u3 Alighieri, Pietro, 5z-57, 120, 433m8; Boccaccio and, 200; unknown birth date of, 433m8 -Chiose all' '1nferno, "49, 51-57,198, 42er-21;on Charon, 83; epic source citation in, 82-83; on Geryon, on Phaethon, and on Icarus, 87-90; as glossator, 81-84; indebtedness of, to Dante's letter to Can Grande, 436045; mythological figures in, 81-84; on Old Man of Crete, 83, 86-87; on Phaethon, similarity of to Evrart's, 482m25; on underworld in, 63--64

INDEX

Allegoria, rn of Boccaccio, 130, 138-44; in Pietro Alighieri's Comentum, 54-55

Allegoriaet expositioquarundam fobu/arumpoeticarum,417. See Manuscripts and incunables, Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Conventi soppr. J .1.28 Allegorization: mythography and, 421-24; Pietro Alighieri's acknowledgment of, 81, 88; of underworld, 60 Allegory, rn Aeneas, transformed by means of, 484m50; Aeneid as, 60-62; of the Ages of Man, 375-76, 379, 382; in Boccaccio, 127-28, 130-33, 137-44, 149-50, 154-55, 161-65, 202-5; in Christine, 208-12, 247-58, 260-71, 277, 286--99; in Dante, 13, 20, 34-35, 45, 59-66, 68, 95, 161, 199-200; esposizione allegoricaand litterale,in Boccaccio's commentary on Dante, 197-98; etymology of, as word, 463n92; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises, 228-44; four-fold, 54; hermeneutic of, 43on37; individuation and, 31; in Jean de Meun's Rose,29, 31-34, 217-19, 224; in Landino, 405-6; literalization of, 32-33; moral, in Giovanni del Virgilio, 77-78, 159, 373, 427n7, 443nu9; mythography and, I, 423-24; ontological, 395; personalized, 274-75; personification in, 1, 20, 31; Pietro Alighieri's explanation of, 53-55, 81, 85'-86, 88; Platonic, 406; power of, in sociopolitical reform, 485m57; in Salutati, 364-71, 386-95; in Villena, 395. See alsoEuhemerism; Moralization; Self-projection Almathea (Almethea; Sibyl of Cumae), 207,284,303-4,337-39,340,341,378

Alpheus, in Landino, 416 Amant (Lover; personification), in Christine's the Romande la Rose-. repudiation of, 2u-13, 217; double nature of, 30, 123; Guillaume de Lorris as, 3, 24, 31, 224; as Hercules, 33, 214, 370; as Narcissus, 123; Ovidian lovers glossed by, 225; as a pilgrim, 213, 369; Raison and, 21, 26-27, 33-35, 472n39; sexuality of, 24, 33-35, 213-19, 216, 369-70. See alsoFol Amoureux Amazons: in Boccaccio, 200, 304, 322,323, 325,327,328,329;in Christine's Cite desDames,283, 301, 304-6, 322-28; in Christine's Othea, 262-63, 267-71, 304; in Orosius, 246,320,321-22,323,324,326 Amor (desire, love; God of Love, Cupid), 1; of Aeneas, 401, 416; in Alan of Lille, 326; in Boccaccio, 128, 157-58; in Christine, 209, 2u-13, 222-44, 291-92, 297,322,324; in Dante, 41, 52, 59, 63-65; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureux,236; in Hesiod, 158;in Jean de Meun's Rose,27, 29, 354-55, 359. SeealsoCupid; God of Love Amphiaraus, 15, 369, 373, 382, 387 Amphitricon (Amphytriton), 7,387 Amphytrites, in Boccaccio, 139 Andrew of Hungary, Prince, 129, 132 Andromache, III, 269-70 Andromeda: in Bersuire, 250; in Christine's Othea,261; in Ovid, 350 Anima (soul): Aristotle and, in De anima, 19, 228; in Boccaccio, 78, 390; in Dante, faculties of, 17-18; fury of, u6; Jerusalem as, 55:mundi, Jupiter as, 535n46, 537nm rational, 390; and Verbum, in Guillermo de Cortumelia, 523n84; World, 402

616

INDEX

Anonimo fiorentino, 197 Anonimo selmiano, 50, n4-15; on Troy, 451-52nr92 Anonymous Lombardus, 50, 435n29 Anonymous of St. Gall Minor, n6-17 Anonymous Teutonicus, 140, 457n42 Anonymous theologus, 49-50 Anselm, Boccaccio and, 165 Antaeus: in Dante, 40, 73, 78; in Landino, 416 Antenor, 269 "Anthropological theology," in Boccaccio, 200 Antigamus (Anti-Marriage), in Alan of Lille's De planctu Naturae,29 Antigenius. SeeAntigamus Antiope, 325, 328, 329 Aphrodite: in Fulgentius, 413; in Hesiod, 158;in Jean de Meun's Rose,27. SeealsoVenus Apollo: in Boccaccio, 143, 150, 155;in Christine, 256, 261-62, 290-91; in Dante, 74, 81, 89-90, 90, 124-25; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises, 228, 231;in the Florentine commentary on Martianus, and his wives the trivium and medicina, 419; Hercules and, 367; in Hesiod, 158-59; illuminations of, 6 Apollodorus, Bibliotheke(Library), 107, 135,152,154, 156-57, 386, 460-6mn70-71. SeealsoPseudoApollodorus Aquinas, St. Thomas: on alteration, 76; on Aristotle, 76-77, 103; Christine and, 468n9; in Dante's Commedia,as source, 20, 33-34, 121, 43m51; and Dante's Paradiso,41; natural philosophy of, 122 Arachne: in Christine's CitedesDames, 283, 303-4; in Dante, 73 Arden, Heather, 209

Arethusa, in Dante, 73 Argenti, Filippo, as Dante's double, 432n8 Argia, 498n26 Argus, in Dante, 73 Ariadne: in Boccaccio, 149; in Dante, 74 Aristeus, in Boccaccio's Eclogues,133 Aristotelianism, 25-26, 29-30, 37, 225; in Aquinas, 76; Arabic, 67; Boethius and, 383-84; Dante and, 20, 25-26, 33; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,226, 228, 230-44; humanism and, 4-5; in Jean de Meun, 29-30, 67; materialism of, 20-21; Ovidian glosses and, 74-75; vernacular works and, 2 Aristotle: on affection, alteration, generation, and transmutation, 75-76; Arnulf on, 75-76; Bertran de Born and, 120; in Boccaccio, 152;and Boethius, translator of and commentator on, 384; condemnation of, in 1277, 25; Dante and, 12, 34, 67, 105, 121,442nn8; in Evrart, 228, 231-37, 243, 477n75, 48on97; and Guido da Pisa, 105; Guillermo de Cortumelia, and, 384, 523n84; in Jean de Meun, 34; Leonzio Pilato's translation of, 131;natural philosophy of, 25, 122, 228; Petrarch and Salutati's opposition to, 398, 512nr8, 528nn; and Pierre d'Ailly, 52m78; "pseudo-Aristotelian" works and, 233; on rationality, n6; Trivet on Boethius and, 384. SeealsoAquinas, St. Thomas; Mutation -Ars poetica,199, 512nr8 -De anima, 19, 228 -De generationeet corruptione,76-77, 105, 228 -Magna moralia,233

INDEX

-Nichomachean Ethics,103, 52m78 -Physica, 228 -Poetica, 105 -Politics, 105 -Problemata, 225-26, 233-34 Arnulf of Orleans -glosses on Lucan's Pharsalia:and Dante, 72; and Lucan commentary tradition, 44on86; and Pietro Alighieri, 81; Rambaldi and, 69 -glosses on Ovid's Metamorphoses: Boccaccio and, 163; and Christine, 250, 299; and Dante, 72, 74; description of, 442mo9; Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralisesand, 232; Giovanni del Virgilio's use of, 36, 78; Hecuba's mutation and, 118; Jean de Meun and, 26; "Mutationes," 75; and Ovide moralise,212; 427n7; part of Ovidiusscholasticus, and Pietro Alighieri, 81 Arsinoe (queen of Macedonia and Crete), in Boccaccio's De casibus virorumillustrium,133-34 Arthemise (Artemesia), in Christine, 301 Ascanius (Aeneas's son), 59, 200 Asinariis, Tholomaeus de, 383, 52m76; sources of, in Ovid, Orosius, Plato's Timaeus,and Macrobius, 518n50 Assemblyof Gods,242, 259 Astrology, 150, 237, 290, 366, 391, 512n16, 521n78, 525n99 Astyanax, 111 Athamas, 257; in Christine's Othea, 268; in Dante, 73, 91, 107; Hecuba and, 107-8, 113-17 . Athena. SeeMinerva; Pallas Athena Athens, in Boccaccio, 164 Atlas, 164 Auctores(authors), on whose works commentaries were written, 1-16.

617

Forclassical,seeindividualauthors Boethius,Claudian,Lucan,Macrobius,Martianus,Orosius,Ovid, Seneca,Statius,and Virgil;for medieval,seeindividualauthors/works Augustine,Dante, Ecloga Theoduli, Evrart,andjean de Meun Auerbach, Erich, 32-33, 43on38 Augustine, St., 60; Boccaccio and, 139, 165; Dante and, 68, 81; De civitate Dei of, 138, 165, 252, 272-73, 278, 283; De doctrinachristianaof, 29; and Orosius, 493m; Trivet on, 372 Auto-representation, 47m33. Seealso Self-projection Aventine Mount, in Villena, 393-95 Averroes, Dante and, 67 Avicenna: Dante and, 67; Evrart and, 236 Avignon, 7, 34, 128, 131,138, 249, 365, 372, 485m59 Ayala, Pero L6pez de, 391, 524n95 Babylon: in Christine's Cite desDames, 283, 322; in Odo of Picardy's Liber Theodoli,251-52; in Orosius, 246, 321 Babylonian Captivity, 3 Bacchus, 113;in Dante, 74; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,229 Bacon, Roger, 69 Bade, Josse, de Assche, 522n82 Balbi, Giovanni, Catholicon,76-77 Balbus, in Cicero, 155-56 Baldassarri, Stefano U., 527mu Bambaglioli, Graziolo de', 48-49, 130, 198,434n25,436n45 Bandini, Domenico, 145, 454n7 Baranski, Zygmunt Guido, 445m36 Barberino, Francesco di ser Nardo da, 50, 52 Barbi, Michele, 435n29, 537n56

INDEX

Bardi, Leonardo, 127; banking house of (Bardi), 128-30, 132 Bargigi, Guiniforto delli, 116 Barlaam ofSeminara (in Calabria), 131, 146, 148,162,464n106 Baroin, Jeanne, and Josianne Haffen, 495n6 Barolini, Teodolinda, 444m26 Barolsky, Paul, 432n2 Barre, Jean de la, 280, 497m8 Barrili, Giovanni, 130 Barsella, Susanna, 46m74, 463n89 Bartholomew of Messina, 234 Bartolo da Buti, Francesco di, no, u3, 114;commentaries of, 197, 436n45 Battle of Agincourt, 361 Baudri ofBourgueil, 2, 26-27 Beatrice (character): in Commedia,35, 43-44, 56, 66, 70-71, 73, 123-24, 199; in Landino's commentary on Dante, 536n50; prophecy of, in Purgatorio,436n52; in Vita nuova, 17, 19, 37, 41 Beatrice (Portinari): and Boccaccio's commentary on Dante, 537n56; Boccaccio's family connection to, 128; and Dante, 128 Bede, Venerable, 69 Beer, Jeannette M.A., 502n58 Bell, Susan Groag, 468n8 Bella Scuola (in Dante), 13 Bellerophon, 250, 350 Bergin, Thomas, 144 Bernard of Chartres, St., 361 Bernard of Utrecht, 140, 153,247, 395, 46on63 Bernard Silvestris: allegories, natural, of, 58; on Boethius, u7, 383, 388-89 -commentary on Martianus: Boccaccio's use of, 198; Salutati's use of, 388-89; and third Vatican mythographer, 4 73n40

-commentary on Virgil's Aeneid, 198; Evrart's use of, 226; on Furies, u7; golden bough in, 60, 62, 437n56; Hercules's Labors in, 15; on Judgment of Paris, 413-14; Landino's use of, 406-8; Pietro Alighieri's use of, 64, 87; Salutati's use of, 372, 374, 379, 396-98. See also Descensus

inferii -Cosmographia (De mundi universitate), 26, 39, 226; in Dante's Inferno, descents in, 6o-62 Bersuire, Pierre: in illuminations, 6-7; Ovidian commentary of, 261-62, 289; personal and political commentary of, 2, 7, 287 -De formisfigurisquedeorum,book 1 of Ovidiusmoralizatus(Libel/us), 234; Christine's Otheaand, 287, 485m58; and Evrart's use of on the gods, 228, 479n90; and influence of on gods in Othea,234, 261, 490--91m89; and the Ovide moralise, 485m59; Petrarch and, 438n68 -Ovidius moralizatus:and Christine's CitedesDames,299; and Christine's Othea,248, 253, 266, 287, 289, 485m58, 489m84; as critique of church and state, 248; fifteenthcentury French prose translation of, 249, 486nm60-61, 487m66; fifteenth-century print of, 249, 487m66; French prose version of, reprinted by Antoine V erard in Colard Mansion ed., 249, 486m60; on Hecuba, uo-u; and the "Moralized Ovid" tradition, 248-50; and the Ovide moralise,249, 47m33; as source for Othea,248, 250, 485m58; statement on use of Ovide moralise in the second redaction of, 485m59 -Reductorium moralium,287

619

INDEX

Bertran de Born, 91-93, 91, 95-I25, 447-48nm58-61, 45om80, 45om82; birthplace near Cistercian abbey of Dalon, 446mm critique by of the Young King in poems, 97-98, 447nm59-60; Hecuba and, n8-25; and King Henry II, 97-98, 448m68; love of war of, 97,100, 448nm6162, 448m65; as monk, 96, 446m53 Bessarion, Cardinal, 46m71 Betussi, Giuseppi, La genealogiadegli dei de'gentili (translation of Boccaccio's Genealogie deorum),205 Bhabha, Homi K., 224 Bible: in Boccaccio, 140-44, 151-52, 202; in Christine's Othea,247-48, 253, 257-58; Salutati on, 377-78 Billanovich, Guiseppe, 515n33 Biscioni, Anton Maria, 462n86 Blamires, Alcuin, and Gail C. Holian, 477n68 Blanche of Navarre, Queen, 225 Block, Robert, 512m5 Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Renate, 226, 485m58 Boccaccio, Giovanni, I26-2os; authority, quest for, 144-96; banking career of, 128-30; belief in a Latin original of Dante's Commedia,203, 463n94; biographies by, 132; birth and early life of, 126, 128-29, 454n7; birthplace of, 454n7; career path of, 128-32, 453m; as civic servant, 131-32;conservative moral and religious trend in life of, 135-m death of, 196; euhemerism of, 152-53, 201-2, 258; exile of, 199; female patronage of, 133-35;hunting, in writings, 130; illegitimacy of, 128-29; ill health of, 135,196; importance of, in fifteenth-century French culture, 279-80, 498n2 7; influence

of Dante on, 13, 36, 49, 125, 128, 132, 137, 462n87, 463n94; knowledge of Greek, sources for, 131,135,146, 148, 152-53, 156-57, 162-63, 464mo6; Latin works of, 36, 127-28, 131-37, 152-53, 198, 200, 203-5; lectures in Italian by, 196; library of, 135,152, 197, 5nm4; mythological works of, 36-37, 127-28, 132, 137, 144; Neapolitan influence on, 126-27, 129, 132-33, 137, 453n2; and Paolo da Perugia, 135,138, 146, 152-53, 204, 456n27, 456nn31-32, 46on66, 464mo6; as "parvum hominem" (little man), self-identification of, 146; and Petrarch, 5nm2; portraits of, in illuminations, 134, 136; progeny through Fame, as deorum,162-65; in the Genealogie religious conservatism of, 136-37, 140-41; "Renaissance" humanism of, and classical models, 454-55m2; translations of works of, 34, 144, 165, 203-5; and violence, 126-27; war, experiences with, 126; wealth, portrayal of, 131;will of, 135,456n28; wisdom in, 131,140 -Allegoria mitologica,13, 130, I37-44, 149-50, 200, 421, 456n30; Christianity in, 141;Deluge in, 140, 159; Phaethon in, and Evrart, 235, 482n125; Sun in, 154-55 -Amorosa visione,130-31 -Buccolicum carmen,132-33 -Caccia di Diana, 130

-Comedia delleninfefiorentine (Ninfole d'Ameto),130 -Decameron, 14, 126-28, 131,150, 453n5; Prometheus in, 46m74

-De casdesnobleshommes(first Premierfait French translation of De casibusvirorumillustrium),204, 273-74

620

Boccaccio, Giovanni-continued -De casdesnobleshommesetfemmes

INDEX

342-43, 345-47; Nicostrata (Carmenta) in, 332; Petrarch's influence, 133-34, 455n24; Proba discussed in, 284-86; Sappho in, 328, 330; Sibyls in, 337-38; sources for, 300-301; table of famous women in, 308-IT, translations of, aside from Middle English, 134, 137, 203-4 -Des clereset noblesfemmes (French translation of Boccaccio's De mulieribusclaris,also known as Des femmes nobleset renommeesand Des

(Premierfait's second, expanded, translation of De casibusvirorum illustrium,to include women), 273-74,494-95114,495n6 -De casibusvirorumillustrium,34, 127; Dante comment in Premierfait's second translation of, 34, 43m48; Dido in, 4u, 412; in Glasgow, University of Glasgow Library Hunter 208, 4u, 412; as history and claireset noblesfemmes),112,134, biography, 133,134, 135-37, 136, 200; mythography in, 14, 271, 421; 204, 273, 274,280,305, 318-21, Premierfait translation of, 273, 274, 320,323,327,329,336,340,344, 412; sources for, 300-301; transla346,3s1,463n97,495n7,505n96; prologue to, used in Christine's lettions of, 203-4, 273-74, 4u, 412 -De mulieribusclaris:Amater to Gonder Col, 494n3. Seealso zon women in, 200,304,325, Christine de Pizan, CitedesDames -De vita et moribusdi FrancisciPe326-28, 327, 329; Christine and, 14-15, 210-12, 257, 273-81, 284-87, trarchae,198-99 -Eclogues, 127, 132-33, 421 300-328,350,362,422,494n4, 5001144,504n82; Christine's prefer-Elegia di MadonnaFiammetta,131 ence for Latin of, not French of, Des -Epistola adAndreamde Acciarolis, cleres femmes, 273, 494n4; classical 301, 504n89 and medieval influences in, 198, -Esposizioni soprala Comediadi 283-84; divina intellecta(divine Dante (unfinished Dante commenmind), in Boccaccio, 154; Europa tary), 137, 144, r96--205;accessus in, 199-201; Amazons in, 200; editing in, 343, 345-47, 346; Eve in, 307, 317-18, 320; Hecuba in, uo-u, and printing of, 197-98; fables and tales in, 202-5; and the Genealogie, 112, n3; as history and biography, 200; influence on commentary 133-34, 134, 137, 200, 206, 284-85; Io in, and Christine's Othea,257, tradition of, 197; Landino's use of, 489n183; Leontius Pilacus's influ537n56; quotidian in, 201 ence on composition of, 455n24; -Filocolo, 130-31, 150 Medusa in, 349-50; Middle English -Filostrato, 126, 130; French translatranslation of, as Forty-SixLives, tions of, 137, 495n7 -Genealogie deorumgentilium, 39, 304-7; Minerva in, 304, 334, 349, 357; misogyny in, 273-81, 285-86, 138,r44-96, 458n46; autobiographi328, 337-38, 5oon44; mythography cal elements in, 144-47, 453m, of, u-12, 14, 127, 271, 421; mytho455n13;Chicago manuscript of, 152; and Cicero's De naturadeorum,363, logical women in, 304-28, 330-32,

621

INDEX

460066; creation in, 160, 162-63; cultural legacy of, 204-5; defense of poetry in, 149-50, 154, 199, 205; epic heroism in, 423-24; Eternity in, as mother of the Four Ages, 154-55, 159-60; Florence autograph manuscript of, 152;genealogies of, I6o, I66-9;; geography in, 164-65; hermeneutics in, 161-65; as history and biography, 200; index and glossary for, 145-46; knowledge of Greek in, sources of, 157-65, 4640106; Landino's use of, 537056; literary reputation of, 145-46; meth- · odology in, 161-65; mythology in, 14, 135,137, 144-96, 206, 235, 28384; Paolino Veneto's influence on, 138, 456032; and Paolo da Perugia mentioned in, 204, 456027, 456031, 4640106; partial French translation of, by Jean Mielot, 284, 499041; poet-philosopher in, 198-99, 205, 376-77; prefaces to, 146-47, 152; progeny in, of the gods, 151-56; Prometheus in, 199; quest for authority in, 144-96; Roman gods in, 152-53, 164-65; Salutati and, 369, 372-73, 382; self-validation in, 144-96, 421; sources of, 152-63, 165, 459-60060; Spanish translations of, 204, 4640100; structure of, 152-rn study of at University of Athens, in Denys de Leeuwis, 522080; table of classical gods and heroes, I6o, 160-65; table of minor classical gods and heroes in, I66-9;; and Theodontius, 150, 152-54, 159-62, 165, 457033; translations and editions of, 203-5, 458046, 499-500041; Virgil in, 145, 152, 165, 397-98 -Ninfole fiesolano,131;poetry of, 127-28, 130, 133,135,144

-Teseida de/lenozzed'Emilia,39, 130, 132

-Trattatello in laudedi Dante,19899; and Jacopo Alighieri's dream of Dante, 51,434028; Landino's use of, 537056; vernacular writing of, 127-28, 130-32, 145, 204; on Virgil, 396 -Vita di Dante,45304 - ½ta sanctissimi patrisPetriDaimani, 198; marginality of Damian in, as hermit, 463089 - "Zibaldone Magliabechiano," 456027, 456031 Boccaccio, Iacopo (Jacopo), 130, 197 Boccaccio di Chelino of Certaldo, 128, 131 Boethius -Consolatio Philosophiae: Adalbold of Utrecht on, 520071; Aristotelianism and, 25, 122; Boccaccio and, 36, 198; Castilian and Catalan translations of, 383, 391, 4640100, 520073, 524096; Cerberus in, 384, 524088; Christine's glosses on, 206, 209-12, 257, 271, 286-99; commentaries on, 1-2, 17, 25, 49, 52, 55, n6-17, 519-23nn7o-86; commentary tradition of, 206, 49m191; Dante and, 19, 44, 62, 64, 67, 432013; Giovanni del Virgilio and, 443nu9; Hecuba and, n4-15; on Hercules and his Labors, 384-85, 524088; Jean de Meun and, 22125, 215;Jean de Meun's translation of (as La Consolacion), 6, 287, 520072; Judgment of Paris and, 239; Notker Labeo's glosses on, 116; Picard translations and editions of, 4870169, 520072; in Pietro Alighieri, 56, 515033;rhetoric curriculum of upper level and, in Italy, 515031; Salutati and, 15, 370, 373, 378-79,

622

INDEX

Boethius-continued 382--95,515n31;self-figuration in, 7; translations of, other than Spanish, 382-84, 52onn72-73, 524n96; Trivet's commentary on, 259, 372, 382-83, 518nn50-51, 519n70; William of Aragon on, 52on72, 523n83; William of Conches's glosses on, 418-19. Seealsoindividual commen-

Raponde family, 478n82; reception femmes, 497m8 of Des cleres Buhler, Curt F.,485m58, 489m82 Buoncampagno (da Signa), Rhetorica novissima,33 Buondelmonte, 104 Bureau de Dampmartin, 280 Busiris, 388; in Christine, 257 Buttenwieser, Hilda, 439n82

tatorson Boethius Bolton, Diane, 522n82 Bonet, Honore. SeeBovet, Honorat Boniface II of Montferrat, 96 Boniface VIII (pope), 140 Borfoni, Folchino [de, del, di], 58, 396-97, 527-28nn4-6 Borr6, Fra Pere, 383, 52on73 Bostichi, Bice del, 131 Bovet, Honorat, 352-62, 360, 507n112;

ApparicionMaistrejehan de Meun, 354;Arbredes batailles,353-56 Boyde, Patrick, 442n118 Boyers, H., 45om80 Bozwlo, Carla, 467n7, 495n6, 499-5oon41, 5oon42 Brabant, Duke of, 281 Bracciolini, Poggio, 536n53 Braga, Martin de, Livre des Quatre vertus,261 Branca, Vittore, 454n7 Bresseide (in Othea),from Histoire ancienne,270 Brown, Virginia, 518-19n54 Brown-Grant, Rosalind, 507n121 Brownlee, Kevin, 30-31, 207-8, 224, 469m6 Brunetto Latini, 19 Bruni, Francesco, 365, 376 Bruni, Leonardo, 448m68, 537n56 Brutus (founder of Britain), in Dante, 87 Buettner, Brigitte, 277-78, 494n3; on manuscript production of the

Cacciaguida degli Elisei (Dante's greatgreat-grandfather and character in Paradiso),in Dante, 44, 44-45, 124 Cacus (Centaur): in Boethius, 524n88; in Dante, 72-73, 88, 89; in Jean de Meun, 24, 214-16, 369-70; in Villena, 393-95 Cadmus: in Dante, 73; in Statius, 70 Caelus, 337; in Boccaccio, 155:in Cicero, 156;Saturn and, 86. Seealso Celius Caesar, Julius, in Lucan, 68-69 Caesar Augustus: in Christine's Othea, 257-58, 268,341; in Ovid, 134, 248, 341,424 Calchas, 270 Calliope, 290; in Dante, 73 Camilla (Camille), 200, 301 Campbell, Percy Gerald C., 485m58 Canacee, in Christine, 252 Carmentis (Nicostrata), 297, 304, 328, 332-34, 506mo1 Carthage: in Boccaccio, 202; in Christine, 245, 283, 303; in Landino, 407, 410-11, 415; in Orosius, 246; in Petrarch, 401, 423 Cassandra, m; in Christine's Othea, 258,267 Castrum Novum (Naples), 300 Catedra, Pedro M., and Derek C. Cair, 525n99 Cato: Fulgentius and, 372; in Lucan, 68-69

INDEX

Cavalcante, Guido, 19, 41 Caxton, William, 353, 360, 486m61, 507nn2 Celius (Sky), 154-55 Centaurs: in Boethius, 524088; in Dante, 57, 72-73, 81, 88; in Landino, 416; in William of Conches, on Boethius, 418 Cerberus: in Apollodorus, 386; in Bernard Silvestris, 61, 380; in Boethius, Labor 5, 384; in Christine's Othea,385; in Dante, 72-73, 81, 83; Hercules and, 380-82, 384, 385; in Macrobius, 57; in Salutati, 3, 61, 196, 368, 378, 381, 386-87; in Seneca, Labor 12,367,378 Ceres: in Boccaccio, 154, 301; in Christine, 257-59, 265-71, 283, 297; in Dante, 73 Certaldo, 12, 126, 128, 135-36, 138, 163, 196, 199, 454n7 Chance, Jane, 63, 64, 427n2, 428m9, 429022, 442mo8, 460061, 46onn63-64, 470026; on descensusinferii, in MM, 1, 437058; on Genius, from GeniusFigure, 457036; in LiterarySubversionsof MedievalWomen,496m5; MM, 2, 473n40, 516n36, 517n44; myth in MythographicChaucer,445m38; on Petrarch and Bersuire, 438n68; Pythagorean Y at the crossroads in Aeneidcommentaries, 533036;on Trivet, 518n51 Chansonsde geste,37 Chaos (personification): in Boccaccio, 154-55, 159-61; in Hesiod, 157-58 Charlemagne, 245 Charles, duke of Durazzo, 132, 455m7 Charles d'Angouleme-Orleans, 274 Charles III of Naples, murderer of and successor to Queen Joanna, 455m7

Charles V (king of Prance), 207, 225, 280-81, 352, 357, 358, 497n20; library of, 468010. SeealsoChristine de Pizan, Paiset bonnesmeursdu

sageroy CharlesV Charles VI (king of Prance), 246, 280, 359, 497020 Charon the ferryman, in Dante, 72-73, 81-86 Chartier, Alan, 248 Charybdis, 410 Chaucer, Geoffrey: Boccaccio and, 130, 202, 497m8; Boethius translation of, 25, 383; CanterburyTales,202, 497m8; Christine and, 245-46, 270, 286, 362; Dante and, 88, 246-47, 445m38; Housof Fame,Daedalus, Icarus, Phaethon, and Geryon in, 445m38; Knight'sTale,130; Legend of GoodWomen,497m8; on Lucan, 69; and manuscript glosses, 44m101; translations of Romande la Roseby, 212, 383; Troilusand Criseyde,130, 245-46, 484m53, 49m190; and use ofTrivet's commentary in, 52on72 Chaudhuri, Supriya, 443m19 Chess, game of, in the poem Echecs amoureux(also known as Eschecs d'amour),227-44 Chessof Love.SeeEvrart de Conry Chiamenti, Massimiliano, 52-53 Chiron (Centaur), in Dante, 72-73 Chivalry, in Christine, 261-71, 353-62 Chretien de Troyes, 212 Chretien Le Gouays (Legouais) (de Troyes) de Maure, 249, 299 Christianity: in Boccaccio, 140-44, 165, 196, 200, 204-5; Christine's allegorization of, 224, 250-51, 259-68, 339, 341;and Guillermo de Cortumelia, 523n84; in moralized Ovid, 339, 341;Virgil and, 284-85, 339, 341,375

INDEX

Christianization, in Salutati, 51008 Christine de Pizan, 206-362; allegory in, multivocal (autobiographical and political), 356, 507m21; authorial intentionality in, 224; birth and early life of, 206-7; canon of, 206-7, 466m; commentary on Ovid, Otheaas, 26, 37, 205, 341, 370-71; and Dante's Commedia, 207-9, 210-12, 272-73, 278, 295-97, 358-59; dissonant contexts in, 209; and EclogaTheodulitranslations, 484mss; epistolary genre, use of, 221-22; irony in, 224; knowledge of Latin of, 207, 273, 46809, 488m74, 49404; and Louvre Palace library, 207, 468010; and Odo of Picardy, 457-58042; "Ovid moralized" and, 2u, 245-71, 422, 47m33, 489m83, 491m89; patriarchal hegemony, critique of, 285-99; patrons of, 207, 246, 280-81, 360, 472035; portraits of, in illuminations, 9, u, 27s, 276, 3s8, 360; postcolonial theory and, 224-25, 476067; as protofeminist, 210, 277, 286, 351-52,470023; in Queen's Manuscript, 206, 286; Querellede la Roseand, 14, 36, 208-12, 220-25,244-45,273,277-78,286, 332, 370, 421, 469m2, 47m29, 472038, 473-740041-44, 49403, 515029;and Salic Law, 50mm Salutati and, 395; self-portraits of, 7-8, 9, u, 3S8, 358-59, 360, 426m4; self-projection into texts of, 281-99; warfare in, 352-62 -Advision Cristine,161,210, 262; autobiography in, 293-99; Boethius and, 287, 290, 292-98; dedication to Burgundians of, 281; and French translations of Boethius, manuscripts of, 5om47; Jean de Meun

and, 287, 290, 291-92; masculinization of Chaos in, 161;self-projection in,282,287-89,292-99,356-57;use in, of Aquinas's In metaphysicorum Aristotelisexpositio,46809 -Cent balades,208 -Chemin de LongEstude,207, 210, 287, 362; Boethius in, 290, 502058; importance of, given completion after Debateof the Rose,502058; and Ovide moralise,47mm Semiramis in, 506098 -Cite desDames,272-352, allegory in, 286-99;Amawnsin,283,301, 3047, 322-28, 357; antiphrasis (irony) in, 212, 224, 286, 294; Boccaccio's Decameronand, 284, 300, 500042, 504082; Boccaccio's De mulieribus clarisas source of, 273-81, 300, 328, 493m, 49404, 503081;Boethius and, 281, 286-87, 292, 295-98; Clytemnestra in, 49404; Dante's influence in, 207-8, 295; Des cleres femmes and, 137, 273-74, 277-300, 304-5, 326-32, 327, 329, 334-35, 337, 339, 342, 344, 346, 350, 49404; educational philosophy in, 361; Europa in, 343, 347; Eve in, 318-21; feminism in, 137, 220, 269-73, 294-95; Histoireancienneas source of, 279, 286, 300, 304-5, 485m58, 504082, 505097; illuminations in, 272, 27s, 276; and illuminations in "Des femmes renommees," 274-81, 299,319,320,322,323,327,328, 329, 332, 335,336, 340, 343, 344, 345, 346, }SI, 496m2; Jean de Meun countered in, 212, 240-44, 258, 273-81, 292, 294-95, 352-53; learned women and Sibyls in, 328-40, 356-57; lectiodivina in, 473041; Medeain,268,494n4;Medusa

INDEX

in, 304, 347, 349-52; Minerva in, 328, 334-35, 349; mythography in, 12, 14-15, 246-48, 271, 301-28, 421-22; mythological womeri in, 304-28, 340-352, 494n4; Nicostrata (Carmentis) in, 333-34; Ops (Rhea) in, 335-37; and the Ovide moralise, 47m33; and Premierfait's De casdes nobleshommesetfemmes, 493n2; Proba in, 284-99, 5oon43; prologue to, as subversive, 294-98, 496n15; Sappho in, 328, 330; self-projection in, 8, 282-99; Semiramis in, 252, 301, 304-28, 494n4; Sibyls in, 337-339; sources of, summarized, 300-301; table of classical and mythological women in, 302-3; women's history in, 209-12, 328-40. SeealsoManuscripts and incunables -Corps depolicie,352; "Mirror of Princes" handbook, 352, 356--57 -"Debat de deux: amans," 208 -Debat de la Rose,209, 221-22; letter to Gontier Col and use in of profemmes,494n3 logue to Des cleres -Dit de la rose,208-9, 240, 242, 356; Order of the Rose in, 280 -"Dit de Poissy," 208 -Ditie de]ehanned'Arc,361 -Due des VraisAmam, 209 -Epistles by Christine in Epistresdu

debatsus le Rommantde la Roseentre notablespersonnes,2I9-24; Boethius used in to repudiate Jean de Meun, 290, 502n58; Christine's changing voice in, 286, 5oon46; as counter to Jean de Montreuil, 220, 222, 473-74n43; debate and scholarly literary play in, 515n29;Evrart and, 226-31; Evrart's Eschecsamoureux moralisesas support for, 225-44, 422 -Epistre a EustacheMorel,352

-Epistre au Dieu d'Amours,208-9, 220, 244, 318-19, 362 -"Epistre de la prison de vie humaine et d'avoir reconfort de mort d'amis et pacience en adversite," 361 -Epistre Othea(as Othea),244-p; allegory in, 208-12, 247-58, 260-71; Amazons in, 265, 267; Bernard of Utrecht's commentary on the EclogaTheoduliand, 395; Boccaccio's Decameronas source for, 300, 504n82; Boethius commentaries as influence on, 49m191; Circe and Ulysses's men in, 491n189; Echo in, 491n189; editions of, 492n205; in England, through Sir John Fastolf, 498n24; and Euhemerus, 258; Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises as influence on, 226, 422, 478078; first manuscript of, 47on25; gods in, from Ovide moralise,257, 489n178, 491n189; Hercules in, as source for Mutacionde Fortune, 488-89n177; Hermaphroditus, from Ovid's Metamorphoses, 491n189; Histoireancienneas source for, 257, 49mm89-90, 492n205, 504n82; illuminations in, 8, 9-10, 11, 280-81, 299,496012, 503n79;Inachusin, 489m83; Judgment of Paris in, compared with Ovide moraliseand Histoireancienne,493n206; Latona in, 489n181; manuscripts, three, used in Parussa edition, 492n205; Medea in, 258-59, 268, 49om88; Middle English translation of, 277; morality and Christianity in, 244-58;Morpheusin,491n189;as mythographic commentary, 209-12, 260-71; mythological women in, 258-71, 286, 304-28, 351-52, 384, 385;Narcissus in, 489n181;and Odo

INDEX

Christine de Pizan-continued of Picardy's commentary on the EclogaTheoduli,251, 253, 457042, 484mm as Ovidian commentary, 206-12, 248-58, 384; Ovid's Metamorphoses as source, 491m89; Pallas Athena as figure in, 228, 242, 256, 258-59, 262-64; Patroclus and Achilles in, deaths of, 489m83; Pygmalion in, 489m81; selfprojection in, 8, 281-82, 286; Sibyls in, 339; sources of for figures, 485m58, 489-9mn178-91, 49om85; table of classical mythological figures in, ::1,54-56; translations of, 362 -Pais d'armeset chevalerie,256, 2~, 352-62; and Boethius, 355-56; Bovet in, and Christine, 360; female voice in, 245, 496m5; Frontinus as one source for, 507m13; influence of, 362; Minerva of Calabria in, as projection of Christine, 357-59, 358; and medieval translations ofVegetius, 353-54; and other manuscripts written for the Burgundians, 281; as a rewriting of Jean de Meun, 25, 352-62, 507nu3; sources of, 507nu3; Verard's 1488 printing of, and omission of her name, 508m23. Seealso Minerva

-Pais et bonnesmeursdu sageroy CharlesV, 352, 468mo, 508m23 -Heures de contemplacionsur la Passionde NostreSeigneur,361 -Lamentation sur !esmaux de la France(or Lamentationsur !esmaux de la guerreciviledu 23 aout r4ro), 281, 361

-Mutacion de Fortune,232, 243-44, 488-89m77; allegory in, 210, 29299; Boethius in, 287, 292; Jean de Meun and, 290-92; mythography

of, II, 36, 207-12, 245-71, 406-7, 421, 424; mythology in writing of, 207-12, 304-28; Ovide moraliseas source, 488-89m77; self-projection in, 282, 287, 289-92; Semiramis in, 506098; sieges in, 226; Theban history in, 245; transformation and mutation in, 232, 243-44 -Paix, 361 -Prod'hommie de l'homme,261 -Prudence, 261 -Sept psaulmesallegorises, 281; translations of Boccaccio and, 204, 328-40 -Trois vertus,209, 265, 361; as later titled Tresorde la CitedesDames, 209,362 Chrysoloras, Manuel, 363 Church Fathers, 522080; in Christine's Othea,247; Semiramis and, 321 Cicero: Boccaccio and, 152, 198, 460066, 5um2; Dante and, 67; Landino's translation of, 405; Petrarch and, 363, 51m12;Salutati and,363 -De naturadeorum,155-56, 165 -Epistulae ad Atticum, 363 -Epistulae adfomiliares,363, 405 -Pro Archia,4, 132,363 -Pro Cluentio,363; Salutati and, 363, 377 -Somnium Scipionis,57, 65,230 -Tusculan Disputations,36-37, 405. SeealsoLandino, Cristoforo Cimabue, as humanizing artist, and Dante, 43202 Cimeria (Sibyl), 303, 328, 338 Cino da Pistoia, 19 Cinyras (father ofMyrrha), 106, 121 Ciones de Magnali. SeeMagnalis, Zono de' Circe: in Christine, 283, 292, 301, 491n189; in Dante, 73, 81

INDEX

Claudian, De raptuProserpinae, 1; "Stilliconis," 159 Cleolis (Cloelia), Roman virgin in Christine's Cite desDames,301 Cleopatra, in Boccaccio's De casibus virorumillustrium,133-34 Climene: in Boccaccio, 142; in Dante, 74 Clytemnestra, III, u6 Cocytus (river), in Dante, 87, 92, 123 Col, Gontier, 222-23, 370, 475n57, 494n3; owner of copy of De casdes nobleshommesetfemmes, 495n6; owner of the exemplar of the Latin GenealogiePremierfait used in his second, much expanded, translation femmes, 5oon41 of Des cleres Col, Pierre, 220-24, 356, 370, 47m29, 475n60 Colonna di San Vito, Cardinal Giovanni, 4-5 Comes, Natalis (Natale Conti), Mythologiae,16, 465n107 CommentaBernensia,69 Commentaries: authors, medieval, 2-16, 67-71; introduction to late medieval, 1; inversion of, 18-19, 58; Italian reinterpretations of mythology and, 206; protocols of, 39. See

alsoindividualcommentatorsby name Conscientiasceleratorum,u6 Contidi antichicavalieri,97 Contrapasso: Alan of Lille on, 104; of Bertran de Born, 102-3; in Dante, 20; Furies and, n6 Conversini, Giovanni, of Ravenna, 515n31 Cook, Eleanor, 43m51 Copeland, Rita, 32 Corniffie (Cornifiicia), 301 Coronation of the Virgin Master (illuminator for Christine), 204, 495n7

Cosmology: of Bernard Silvestris, 2, 39, 61; in Boccaccio, 139, 153-58; in Christine, 207, 262; of Dante, 37-38, 58, 63, 67, 89, 123; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,226, 262; in Hesiod, 157-59;Jean de Meun and, ~6; and minor classical gods and heroes in Boccaccio's Genealogie deorum,I66-95", in Petrarch, 60-61; in Virgil, 57, 139 Cotta, in Cicero's De naturadeorum, 155-56 Coulson, Frank T., 444n121, 48687n161 Council of Narbonne, 448m61 Gouramoureuse(of Charles VI in 1401), 280, 497n18 Courcelle, Pierre, 518n50, 519n71, 522n82 Courtly love, 1; of Bertran de Born, 95; Boccaccio's portrayal of, 127, 130-31, 145; as chess game, in the poem

Echecsamoureux(Eschecsd'amour), 225-27; Christine's critique of, 20813,222,225, 242-45, 359,471n29; conventions of, 19-20; critique of, in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,225-44; in Dante, 35-37, 41, 43; in Guillaume de Lorris, 21, 29; in Jean de Meun's poetry, 21-24, 26, 71; medieval poetry of, 1, 29; origin of, in Ovid's Ars amatoria,21 Cowen, Janet, 466nn4 Creon (king of Corinth), 367, 387 Crespo, Roberto, 52on72 Cronos (Cronus), 138,156. Seealso Saturn Cropp, Glynnis, 5om47, 52on72 Crosland, Jessie, 438n75 Crystalline sphere, in Evrart's Eschecs amoureuxmoralises,231 Cumaean Sibyl. SeeAlmathea

INDEX

Cupid (Cupido): in Alan of Lille's De planctuNaturae,29; in Christine, 242; in Evrart's Eschecs amoureux moralises,236-37; in Judgment of Paris, 245, 5oon44; in Landino, 418; medieval, 1-2; two, in Florentine commentary on Martianus, 418. See alsoAmor; God of Love Curio, Scribonius, 104 Curnow, Maureen, 300, 494--95n4, 504n82 Curtius, Ernst Robert, 428m8 Cybele (Berecynthia; goddess of nature): in Dante, 86; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,229, 234; illumination of, in William of Aragon, 6. SeealsoRhea Cyclops, 410 Cydippe, in Christine, 252 Cyriaco of Ancona, 4u-12 Cyrus (king of Persia), 267-68, 325, 328 Daedalus: in Boccaccio, 148-49; in Chaucer, 445m38 Dame de la Tour (character), in Christine, 209 Danae/ Alceste, 6 Daniel, Arnaut, 96 Dante, J9-I2J; Aristotelianism and, 20, 37, 77; Arnulf and, 74-76; and Augustine, 432m3; autobiography of, 17-22, 41-43, 45-48, 90; and Beatrice Portinari, 17, 19, 35, 37, 66, 199-200, 436n52; Boccaccio's "Life of Dante" and, 198-205; and Boethius, 19, 432m3; Cimabue and Giotto and, as humanizing artists, 432n2; early life and family of, 47-48, 433m8; excommunication of, 434n24; exile of, 48, 51-52, 120-21, 199; Giovanni de! Virgilio

and, 77, 78, 444nm; Guelph Party and, 129; on Henry VII, 45m183; letter to Can Grande of, 48, 54-56, 161;Livy admired by, 199; and Macrobius's commentary on the Somnium Scipionis,437n55; Ovid and, 17, 19-22, 57, 72-90, 95, 107-u, u3, u5-16, 118,123-24, 145, 44m101; political conflict as context for writing, 68-71; portraits of, in illuminations, 43, 44, 46, 89, 90, 92; Rambaldi and, 58; in Ravenna, 434n24; and the Romande la Rose, 21-38, 431048; self-mythography of, J9-I2J; sons' glosses on, 47-71; "Suo Figliuolo" as commentator on, 50-57; twisted-wood symbolism of, 42-43; use of Aquinas, 442nu8; vernacular used by, 18-19, 33, 35-37, 127; on Virgil, 20, 35-36, 42-43, 43, 46, 56-66, 396, 402-5, 423. Seealso Alighieri, Jacopo; Alighieri, Pietro;

and otherindividualAlighierifamily members -Commedia, 17, 19-21, 34-38, 47-I2I; adaptation of commentary form in, 58-59; Aquinas as influence/source, 43m51, 442nu8; Aristotelianism in, 2, 20-21; artistry in, as fraud, 8790; as autobiography, 41-43, 46-48, 90, 144; Bartolo da Buti's commentary on, 197; Beatrice (character) in, 41, 43, 66, 73; Boccaccio's commentary on, 127-32, 136, 140, 144-45, 196-206; classical influences on, 67; commentaries on, 17-22, 45, 48-57, 67-71, 197, 206, 405-19, 433n20; as commentary subject for other commentators, 49-50; and diagram of circles of hell in Paris, B.N. lat. 7930, 53om9; double standpoint in, 40; Earthly Paradise in, sources

INDEX

of, 43m51; euhemerism in, 12, 258; exile as theme, 199; gloss and allegorization in, 247; habitusin, 72; humanist allegory of, 33-34; irony in, 122,124,424; Jean de Meun's Roseand, 34-35, 43m49; Landino's commentary on, 405-6, 4n, 414-19, 537n56; Latin original of, 203, 463n94; literary progenitors in, 57; lost cantos of, 197; Lucan and, 69, 438n74; medieval commentary authors and, 56-90; as moral allegory, 68; mythography and, 11-16, 20, 37, 46-47, 161;mythography in, 12-13, 20-21, 41, 46; myths of in, 73-75, 79-84, 124-25, 206; Ovidian influences in, 49, 72-75, 123-25, 247; personalization in, 37; Pietro Alighieri's commentary on, 48-57; pilgrim metamorphosis in, 66, 90, 122-25; Rarnbaldi's commentary on, 58; universe as constructed in, 231;Villena and, 394; Virgil's Aeneid in,57-66,397-98,436049.Seeako Persona; Self-projection; individual

commentary on, 14, 136-37, 143-44, 165, 199-200; Cacus in, 88-89, 89; carnal sinners in, 41, 43; Charon the ferryman in, 84-86; classical authors in, 67-71; the double in, 432n8; Florence portrayed in, 106-7; Geryon in, 46; Hecuba in, 94, 112.,120-25; Homer in, 13, 56, 67-71, 107-8; Io's transformation in, 123-24; lamp imagery in, 102; Landino's commentary on, 415, 537n56; Lucan in, 68-69; madness in, 117;mythography in, 12-13, 40, 47, 91, 420-21; Old Man of Crete in, 86-87; Ovidian inglossation in, 71-90, 123, 246-47; Ovidian parody of, in seventh bolgia, 88-89; Pietro Alighieri's commentary on, 48-57, 81-84; pilgrim metamorphosis in, 91-125; political conflict in, 68; Polyxena in, 94; Salutati and, 379; Statius in, 70-71; suicides in, 20, 41-43, 43; Ulysses in, 67-68, 438n74; underworld in, 62-66, 200-201; vernacular in, 127, 132; Virgil in, 57-66, 73, 122-23, 132; characters; mythological figures;spewomen in, 123, 201-2 cificDante commentators and sources -Convivio, 39; allegory in, 95; autobi- -Paradiso, 20, 35-36, 38; autobioography in, 41, 48; classical influgraphical elements in, 44, 44-45; ences in, 67; Lucan in, 69; Pietro Boccaccio on, 199-200; Cacciaguida in, 44; Christine and, 207, Alighieri and, 53-54; Virgil's Aeneid 262; Fetonte in, 142;Jean de Meun's and, 59 -De monarchia,48, 100, 105, 352, Roseand, 34-35, 43m49; lost last cantos of, and Jacopo Alighieri's 449-5om79, 536n53 dream, 434n28; love in, 41; Marsyas -De vulgarieloquentia,48, 447m58; in, 89-90, 90; mythological figures Bertran de Born and, 96 -Inferno, 35, 37, 47-I2I; autobiin, 73, 74, 79-80, 81-84, 125;Ovidian influences in, 72, 89--90, 123; ography in, 20, 40-41, 45-47, Petrarch and, 399-405; Pietro Aligh120-25; Beatrice in, 43-44; Bertran ieri's gloss on, 81, 82-83, 83-88; de Born and the schismatics in, pilgrim metamorphosis in, 66, 9I-I25, 92.,446m51, 447nm58-61, 90-125; on poetry and poet's status, 45om80, 45om82; Boccaccio's

INDEX

Dante-continued 197; poetry of, 19, 34, 38-41, 45, 71, 87, 137; political conflict in, 68 -Purgatorio, 20, 34-35, 37; autobiographical elements in, 43-44, 47; Beatrice in, 56, 441-42mo4; Boccaccio on, 140; Christine and, 207; Earthly Paradise in, as union of opposites, 43m51; Eden, lost, and, 442mo4; Jean de Meun's Garden of Deduit and, 34-35, 71; Landino's commentary on, 415-16; Lucan as source in, 44on87; myths in, glossed by Pietro Alighieri, 88-89; Ovidian influences in, 72-75, 123;Pyramus in, 44m104; Rachel and Leah (Lia) in, allegorized as the two lives in Landino, 415; Statius as character in, 70-71, 123;Virgilian influences on, 56, 65, 88--90, 123,436n52; women in, 123 -Vtta nuova (nova), and Aristotle's De anima, 19-20; autobiography in, 17-21, 39, 41, 43, 48; as commentary, 20; formal similarity of to prose razoand verse of Bertran de Born, 447m58; irony in, 424; as medieval neuroscience, 42 7n2; personalization in, 19; as prosimetrum, 17, 19, 35, 36 Daphne, in Dante, 74 Dardanus of Phrygia, 129; Boccaccio's genealogy of, 155,200 Dartmouth Dante Project, 433n20, 434n27, 434n29 David, King, 101, 106 Deadly sins. SeeSins Deduit (Deduis; Pleasure, Mirth): in Christine, 14, 242-44; in Evrart, 14, 236-44; in Judgment of Paris, 238-44. SeealsoGuillaume de Lorris; Jean de Meun

Deianira, 367-68, 388 Deiphobus, rn Deleuze, Gilles, and Felix Guattari, 225, 476n67 De Loyaute (Loyalty): in Christine's Dit de la rose,240; and Christine's Epistreau Dieu d'Amours,242 Delphica (Sibyl of Delphi), 303, 338 Demogorgon (Demiorigon, the Demiurge), 152-55, 159, 424, 46on63; progeny of, I6o, 160-65 Denis (Denys) de Leewis (Dionysius Cartusianus), 383, 522n80 D'Episcopo, Francesco, 512m8 Descensusinferii (descents into the underworld), 60-62, 64, 87, 437n58, 514n27, 524n92. SeealsoUnderworld Deschamps, Eustace, 212, 248, 352 "Des claires et nobles femmes" (B.N. fr. 598, 1403 copy of first translation [?] by Master of Claires Femmes,given to Jean, due de Berry, by Jean de la Barre; includes "Echecs amoureux moralises"), 137, 204-5; Boccaccio pictured in, 134

Des cleresfemmes (Desclereset nobles femmes, generic tide for the French translation of Boccaccio's De mulieribusclaris),Christine's Cite desDames and, 137, 273-81, 300, 328, 330-40, 5oon44; Europa in, 343, 345-47, 346; illuminations in, 274-81,304,320,323,324,326,327, 328, 329, 330-40, 336, 340, 344, 346, 495n7; Juno in, 342-43, 344; learned women and Sibyls in, 299340; Master of Berry's, 498n24; Medusa illustration in, 350, 3s1;Musee Conde 856 copy of, 494n4; production of illuminations for, 277-78; reception of, 497m8; Semiramis

INDEX

in, difference between, and Histoire ancienne,505097; success of, related to Gouramoureuse,497020. Seealso Boccaccio, Giovanni; Christine de Pizan; Premierfait, Laurent de "Des femmes nobles et renommees" (earliest, and anonymous, French translation of Boccaccio's De mulieribusclaris),manuscript of (B.N. fr. 12420): Hecuba in, m, 11::z.; inferiority of translation of, compared with Premierfait's, 49506; owned by Christine's patron Philip the Bold, 49507; Semiramis in, and Raison's fable in Christine's Citedes Dames,505096 Desire. SeeAmor; Deduit Deucalion and Pyrrha: in Boccaccio, 140, 149; in Dante, 123;in Ovid, 158-59 Deyphebe. SeeAlmathea Diana: in Boccaccio, 130, 155;in Christine, 14, 2u, 240, 257-59, 262, 265-71; in Dante, 73, 81; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,14, 228, .229, 237-44. SeealsoPhoebe Dido: in Boccaccio, 133-34, 202, 4n, 412; in Christine, 245, 259, 301; in Dante, 57-66, 81 Digby mythography (Liberde natura deorum),135,152-53, 457033 Diller, Aubrey, 461070 Dinter, Annegret, 42707 Diomede (Diomedes), 270 Dis, gates of: in Boccaccio, 1m Dante and,66 Discordia (Strife; personification), 160-61; in Boccaccio, 154; in Christine's Othea,270-71 Dolcestil nuovo,41; and Dante, 19, 35, 88-89, 122 Dolchin', Fra, 91, 104

Donati, Gemma di Manetto (wife of Dante), 47-48 Donatus, Life ofVirgil, 198 Donnino di Parma, 144, 146--48 DottrinaleQacopo Alighieri), 50 Droiture (Rectitude; personification), in Christine's CitedesDames, 274-81, ::z.75, ::z.76, 297, 299, 338, 361 Dronke, Peter, 33, 40, 431051 Duff, John Wight, 439081 Dulac, Liliane, 273, 426014, 46809, 488-890177, 49404, 5050096--97, 506098; and Christine Reno, 466m Durante agli Alighieri, 19. Seealso Dante Earth. SeeTerra Earthly Paradise, in Purgatorio,sources of, 431051 Echo: in Christine's Othea,4910189; in Dante, 74, 81 EclogaTheoduli:Bernard of Utrecht's commentary on, 395; Christine's use of, 244, 247, 251, 253, 424; commentaries on, 457-58042; correspondence in between classical and biblical, 473040; genealogical tradition in, 135,153;mythographic technique in, 1, 140-41, 251-52; progeny of Mother Earth and descendants of Adam in, 251,4880171; translations of, 4840155 Economou, George D., 428018 Edsall, Mary Agnes, 473041 Education: Christine's promotion of, 260-61, 266-71, 293-99, 361, 46808; humanism and, 42503; in Renaissance, 363-64; for women, 46808 Edward IV; 362 Egypt: in Christine's CitedesDames, 283; in Orosius, 324 Electra, Boccaccio on son of, 200

INDEX

Eliot, T. S., 72 Emerton, Ephraim, 512m5 Ennius, 12 Enrique Villena de Arag6n (Henry of Aragon), 15-16, 253, 259, 390-95, 39:1,416, 423, 520073

Ephialtes, in Dante, 40 Epic(s): ancient Latin epics, 36; in Boccaccio, 130, 144-65, 423-24; in Christine, 258-71, 287; commentary on, 17; in Dante, 145, 423; in Petrarch, 399, 423; Roman de la Rose and, 212; in Virgil, 399 Epicureanism: in Dante, 44; in Fulgentius, 413 Erebus (Erebos; Darkness}: in Boccaccio, 154-m in Hesiod, 158-59 Eriphile (Erophile, Eriphyle): in Boccaccio, 337, 339; in Christine, 303-4, 338, 339; in Dante, 74; in Salutati, 387 Eros: in Hesiod, 157-58; in Judgment of Paris, 245, 500045 Erysichthon, in Dante, 73 Erythraea. SeeEriphile Eschecsamoureuxmoralises.SeeEvrart de Conry Esposizionelitterale,in Boccaccio, 197--98, 204-5

EstoiresRogier.See Histoireancienne, second redaction of Eteocles, in Statius, 70 Ether, in Boccaccio, 154-55 Etienne du Castel, 207, 226, 292 Euhemerism: in Boccaccio, 152-53, 201-2, 349; in Christine, 258-82, 286, 349-50; in Dante, 258; Giovanni del Virgilio and, 78; and the Italian humanist mythographers, 37; in Jean de Meun, n; subjective mythography and, 11-12, 33, 37, 421-24; in Villena and Salutati, 391, 39:1

Euhemerus, 11-12, 258 Euphrosyne (one of the three Graces), in Landino, 415 Euripides: Hecuba,109; Herculesfurens,513024; translations of, 131 Europa: abduction of, 70; in Boccaccio, 201, 301, 304, 343, 345-47, 346; in Christine, 303-4, 340, 347; in Dante, 74, 81; in "Moralized Ovid," 347, 348; in Statius, 70 Eurydice: Charon and, 83; Orpheus and, 61, 64, 117, 292, 387, 404-5, 419; Remigius on, 388-90 Eurystheus (king of Argos), 325, 367 Eusebius: Chronicon(Chronicle), 152, 198, 200, 202; Temporum,165

Evander, 332, 334 Eve: in Boccaccio, 133-34, 301, 304, 307, 317-18, 3:10;in Christine, 318-19; in Dante, 152; in Orosius's "Hisroire universelle," 319, 3:10 Evrart de Conry, 26, 36; commentaries of, 228; portrait of, :141 -Echecs amoureux(or Eschecsd'amour, poem), 225-27, 477071 -Eschecs amoureuxmoralises(commentary), 211, 225-44, 229, :141; and Bersuire's Ovidiusmoralizatus, 479090; Christine's Otheaand, 210-11, 225-26, :141,260-71, 422, 485m58; classical gods and goddesses in, 229-44; compared with the Romande la Rose,225-44, 478081; Dresden text of, 479086; elements in as gods, 480094; gender and sexuality in, 14, 229-44; on Jean de Meun's Garden of Deduit, 228, 230, 237-44; Judgment of Paris in, 237-44, :141,264, 406--7, 483m43; major divisions of, 479089; manuscripts of, 479087; planets in as gods, 480093; taxonomy of,

INDEX

478n84; war, personification of, 239-44; Wisdom in, 228-29, 239 -Problemes d'Aristote,233

Fabula,fabulae (fable[s]): in Dante, 40-41; Jean de Meun and Ovidian, n; Jean de Meun's Roseas, 220; in Pietro Alighieri, 54, 56 Fajardo-Acosta, Fidel, 43m51 Fall of Man, in Jean de Meun's Rose,24 Fame, Boccaccio's portrayal of, 131,162 Family tree. SeeGenealogy

FamousMen and Wlmen ofAncient Times(Giotto frescoes), 300 Fastolf, Sir John, 277, 498n24 Fates (Parcae), 116-17; in Boccaccio, 154, 161; in Dante, 81; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises,232 Felipe, Jacopo da Bergamo (Boccaccio imitator), 463n95 Fenster, Thelma, 468n9 Ferrante, M. Joan, 468n8 Fetonte (personification), in Dante, 142. SeealsoPhaethon Ficino, Marsilio, 405, 409, 530-3m23, 532n30, 533n31,534n38, 537n55 Field, Arthur, 53mn24-25, 531-32n27 Fierge(queen), in Evrart, 237-44 Figura, in Auerbach, 43on38 Filelfo, Francesco, 411-13, 534-35044 Fin'amor,as "masculine eroticism," 246. SeealsoJean de Meun, Roman de la Rose;Venus Fine, Thomas R., 532n28 Fiore(by Dante?), 34 Flegeton. SeePhlegethon, in Boccaccio Fleming, John V., 27, 32, 212, 429n21, 43on37 Florence: Boccaccio in, 126-32; chair of Greek studies in, 455m5; Dante's characterization of, 106-25; Landino's image rehabilitation of,

537n56; reception of Boccaccio in, 453n4; Salutati and, 527m11; Signoria of, 196 Florentine commentary on Martianus (Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Conventi soppr. J.1.28), 416-19, 537n59. SeealsoKristeller, Paul Oskar; Landino, Cristofaro; William of Conches Florentine Platonists, 405, 417 Florentine Studio (or studium), 131, 405 Florio, in Boccaccio, 130 Florius Infortunatus, 403 Fol'amor,19, 36, 203. SeealsoCourtly love; Fol Amoureux Fol Amoureux (Amant, Lover), in Christine, 211,217 Foligno, Cesare, 51on8 Forsennata(fooresennata), of Hecuba, 107, III, II3 Fortune: Boccaccio's portrayal of, 130-31, 135,136; in Boethius's Consolatio, 293; in Christine, 226, 257-58, 289-90, 293; Dante on Hecuba and, 113-14;in Evrart's Eschecsamoureux moralises,227-28; Jacopo Alighieri on, 114 France: Boccaccio's importance in, 279-80; medieval legendary and universal histories in, 245-46, 260 Francia (founder of France), 245, 270 Frantzen, Allen, 493m Frati, Lodovico, 515n33 Freccero, John, 43m51, 432m3 Fredegonde (Fredegund), 301 Frederick of Aragon, 129 Freeman-Regalado, Nancy, 30 Froissart, Jean, 212 Frontinius, Strategemata,359; as source for Christine's Faisd'armes,507m13 Fubini, Mario, 446m51

INDEX

Fulgentius: Boccaccio and, 146, 152, 161, 165, 198; Christine's Othea and, 253; and Florentine commentary on Martian us (William of Conch es), 417; Gorgon in, 153;on Jove's gift of free will, 413; on Judgment of Paris, 413, 535nn45-46; Landino and, 413, 417; Petrarch and, 53om1

-Expositio continentiaeVirgilianae secundumphilosophosmoralis,15, 58-62, 147, 150, 263-64, 354, 372, 376,397,400,402,406, 532n29; Remigius and, 388 -Mitologiae, 88, u7, 264, 372, 413; Baudri's versification of, 27; Bersuire and, 249; and Landino, 413 Furies: in Dante, 72-73, 81; illuminations of, 7; rage and insanity of, 1I6-17 Gaia. SeeTerra Galasso di Montefeltro, 96 Gald6s, Victor Infantes, 525n98 Galen, Evrart's translation of, 233 Ganymede, 81 Gaye Cyrile (Gaia Cirilla), 303 Gedeon (Gideon), in Boccaccio, 140 Gemini, in Dante, 74 Gender: in Boccaccio's De mulieribus claris,133-34, 137, 165, 273, 328; in Christine, 14-15, 206-12, 222-44, 269-71, 301-40, 357-62, 406-7; in Evrart, Eschecsamoureuxmoralises, 237-44, 406-7; in Jean de Meun's Rose,3, 27, 215-16, 291 Genealogy: in Boccaccio, 14, 140-96, 200; in Christine, 207, 260-71, 281-92; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureux moralises,235; in Hesiod, 157-59; of nations, Christine's discussion of, 245-47; table of classical gods and heroes, z6o, 160-65. Seealso Parthenogenesis

Genesis, book of, Boccaccio and, 140-41 Genius: in Dante, as inspiration, 66; god of human nature and priest of Nature in Alan of Lille, 29, 31, 104; god of human nature and priest of Nature in Jean de Meun, 22, 24, 26-27, 30-31, 33, 35, 291, 354; Neoplatonic view of, 26; personification of cosmic begetter in Bernard Silvestris, 2; in Varro and Valerius Soran us as genius, universal begetter, of Jupiter, 457n36 "Gcntucca," as Dante's illegitimate daughter, 44 Gerson, Jean (first chaplain to Philip the Bold), 220; allegorical fiction of as concealment, 248; ally of Christine in Querellede la Rose,2n-12, 277, 370, 473n40; student of Pierre d'Ailly, 383, 52m78; Traitecontrele Roman de la Rose,31-32, 211-12, 370 Geryon (king of Spain): in Chaucer, 445m38; in Dante, 45-46, 46, 72-73, 78, 83-84; for Dante an emblem of the whole Commedia, Malebolge, and hell, 445m36; in Jean de Meun, 214; Pietro Alighieri's gloss on, 87-90; in Salutati, 386; Villena on, 393-94 Ghibellines, 68, 104; Boccaccio and, 129 Ghisalberti, Fausto, 397, 444m21, 528nn5-6 Giants: in Boccaccio, 154-55i in Dante, 40, 72-73, n9; in Odo of Picardy's Liber Theodoli,252 Gibbons, Mary Weitzel, 277 Gilson, Simon A., 453n4, 529m2, 537n56 Ginebreda, Fra Antoni, 383, 52on73 Giotto, 300-301; Boccaccio and, 130 Giovanna I d'Anjou. SeeJoanna

INDEX

Giovanni da Lodi, 198 Giovanni da Serravale, 197 Giovanni da Siena, Magister, 366, 368, 374-75, 509n6, 513023 Giovanni del Virgilio, 72; Allegorie librorumOvidii Metamorphoseos and expositio,26, 36, 77-78, 443-44m21; Boccaccio and, 132, 371, 51on8; correspondence of, with Dante, 4430120; Dante and, 72, 77-78, 443m19, 443m21; on Hecuba, u8; lntegumentaOvidii, 443m21; Latin and vernaculars of, 443m21; and Pietro da Moglio, 5rnn8, 515033;Prometheus in, 159;Salutati and, 510n8, 515032;similarity of Ovid glosses to Dante's, 443nn9; Venetian dialect used to gloss Galatea in Allegorie Ovidii, 443m21; and the vernacular poetic commentary on Ovid, 36 Giovanni of San Miniato, 377 Giraut de Bornelh, 96 Giustiniani, Vito R., 425n3 Glaucus, in Dante, 74, 81 Glosedesechecsamoureux.SeeEvrart de Conty, Eschecsamoureuxmoralises Glossation: Aristotelianism and, 2-3; by Boccaccio, 133,140-45, 163-65, 197-98, 365-71; on Boethius, 382-84, 388-95; by Christine, 14-15, 247-58, 292-99; by Dante, 20-21, 36, 41, 45, 58-66; by Dante's sons, 13,47-57, 71-90; ofEvrart's Eschecs amoureuxmoralises,240; Jean de Meun and, 21-22, 30-31; by Landino, 407-19; of Petrarch, 397-98; protocols of, 39; on Virgil's Aeneid, 58-66, 402-5. SeealsoInglossation;

and individualcommentators Goddesses. Seeindividualcommenta-

torsandfigures God of Love (Amor, Cupid), 19, 21, 26-27, 29; in Christine, 208-12,

242-44; mythography of, 2. Seealso Amor; Courtly love; Cupid; Fol Amoureux; and individual

commentators Gods. Seeindividual commentatorsand figures Golden bough, in Virgil's Aeneid, 62, 437056; Bernard Silvestris on, 62, 374, 378-80, 386, 437056; Fulgentius on, 374; Remigius on, 378; Salutati's use of, as symbol of crossroads for the hero, and the Pythagorean Y, 15, 374, 378-81, 418; Servius on, 62 Goldfinch, John, 525098 Gotoff, H. G., 439078 Gower, John, 489m79 Graces (three Graces), in Landino, 415 Greban, Arnoul, 383, 522081 Grendler, Paul F., 509n4 Griselda, in CitedesDames,300 Guelphs (Guelfs), 47-48, 68, 104, 129 Guichard-Tesson, Fran~ise, 477075, 479090; and Bruno Roy, 479087 Guido da Pisa, Fra' (Guido Sodalis), 49, 50, 103-6, I08-IO, U6-17, 447m54, 45om82 Guiffrey, Jules, 280 Guilelmus Medicus. SeeWilliam of Aragon Guillaume de Lorris, Romande la Rose:Jean de Meun's Roseand, 3, 12, 21-22, 24, 26, 29-30, 215, 224, 228, 356; women readers of, 225 Guillermus de Cortumelia (Guglielmo de Cortemilia), 384, 523084 Gunn, Alan M. F., 25, 478081

Habitus,in Dante, 72 Hades, and passions of the body, 437055; and Macrobius's commentary on the Somnium Scipionis, 437055. SeealsoUnderworld

INDEX

Hankey, Teresa, 456031, 457033 Hankins, James, 530023 Hanley, Michael, 5070112 Harf-Lancner, Laurence, Laurence Mathey-Maille, and Michelle Szkilnik, 487n165 Harpies: in Dante, 72-73, 81; in Landino, 410, 416 Haskins, Charles Homer, 439082 Hauvette, Henri, 504081 Hawkins, Peter S., 89 Hebe (daughter of Juno), 524087 Hector, 107-8, 110-11,129; in Christine's Othea,8, 9-10, 11, 209-12, 245, 247, 251, 253, 258-71, 282, 325 Hecuba: in Bartolo da Buti, on Dance, 451n186; in Christine's Othea, 269-71; in Dance, 73, 81, 91-93, 94, 95, 107-25, 11:2. Heldris of Cornwall, 26 Helen ofTroy: Boccaccio on, 202; in Christine, 257, 269-70, 304; in Landino, 407; Trojan War and, 114, 116 Helenus (prince ofTroy), 245, 257-58, 269 Helice, in Dante, 73-74 Helicon, 81 Helios, 88 Hell, circles of, 53on19; Dante's, and Aeneid,6, 53on19; diagrammed, in a manuscript of Remigius on Virgil, 437057. SeealsoUnderworld Hellesponcia, 303 Hemera (Day), 158; in Boccaccio, 154 Henry II (Henry Curtmancel), 96-101, 105, n5; and Bertran de Born, 448n168 Henry III, 97-98 Henry IV (king of England), 246, 362 Henry VII (Holy Roman Emperor), 106; Dante on, in Epistolae,45m183

Henry VII (king of England), 353, 360, 362 Hera, 386, 391, 524087. SeealsoJuno Hercules: Aeneas and, 373; Alpheus and, 416; Antaeus and, 416; in Boccaccio, 148, 155-56, 159, 165, 196, 325, 51m13;capture of Cerberus by, 83; and the Centaurs, 416; in Christine's Othea,253, 259, 362, 385; crossroads of, 373, 378, 381, 51on7; in Dante, 72, 81; defeat of the two snakes as infant by, 416; descent to cave of Cacus by, 24, 88-89, 214-15, 217; as founder of Spain, 393; Geryon and Labors of, 87; Greek plays and, 513024;and the Harpies, 416; in Histoireancienne, 246; and Hydra, 416; illuminations of, 7, 385, 39:2.,525098; Jean de Meun's gloss on, 216-17; and Judgment of Paris in the Florentine commentary on Martianus (William of Conches), 417-19; Labors of, 24, 33, 36-37, 72, 165, 196, 259, 367-71, 385, 385-95, 39:2.,416, 51m13, 524nn87-88; in Landino, 415-17; as nobilitas,415; Petrarch and, 51007; in Renaissance scholarship, 364-71, 510-un9; in Salutati, 205, 259, 363-95, 509-1007; second Vatican mythographer on Labors of, 513024;in Seneca, 367-68; Servius on, in Aeneidcommentary, 514024; and the Stymphalides, 416; third Vatican mythographer on Labors of, 513-14024; in underworld, 58, 61, 64, 380; in Villena, 390, 39:2.,395; in Virgil's Aeneid,403; as vir sapiens, in Salutati, 537055;in William of Aragon, 491n193 Hermaphroditus (Hermaphrodite): in Christine's Othea,256, 491n189;

INDEX

in Dante, 73, 81; in the Florentine commentary on Martianus, as Hermes-Aphrodite, sapientiaand

eloquentia,419 Hero (goddess), in Christine, 252, 303 Heroes and heroism: in Boccaccio, 139, 141-65, 423; in Christine, 210-12, 258-71, 287, 299; Dante's personalization of, 35-38, 58-66; in Giotto's frescoes, 300-301; in Petrarch, 399-405, 423; in Salutati, 369-71; in Virgil, 399 Hesiod, Theogony,135, 152, 154-59, 460-61070; genealogical tables for, 460-61070

Hesione, 270, 388 Heyworth, Gregory, 42607

Hicks, Eric, 475059, 475061 Hill, Thomas, 21-22 Himeros (Longing), in Hesiod, 158 Hindman, Sandra, 209, 496012, 499036

Hippolyta (Ypolite), 283, 301, 325 Hippolytus, in Dante, 74

Histoireanciennejusqu'a Cesar.See Orosius "Histoire universelle." SeeOrosius History: in Boccaccio, 133-34, 137; in Christine's CitedesDames,272-73, 283-99, 301-28; medieval legendary and universal, 245-46, 260; in Orosius, 246; Theban, in "Les Livres des estoires dou conmencement dou monde," 498023 -Greek: Boccaccio's study of, 131, 152-53, 156-57, 164-65; genealogy of gods in, 246; in Histoireancienne, 246; and Salutati's promotion of Greek language, 363; translations of, 131,135

-Trojan: in Boccaccio, 155, 202; in Christine, 245-47, 257-58, 269, 357;

genealogy of gods in, 246; Hecuba and, 105-25; in Histoireancienne, 246; in Landino, 406-7, 410; in Orosius, 246, 300; in Petrarch, 399400; Trojan War, 61, 81, 357, 407 Hoccleve, Thomas, Letterof Cupid, 362

Holkot, Robert, 264; lectures of on Wisdom, 25, 523083; and William of Aragon's Boethius, 523083. Seealso Minerva; Pallas Athena Hollander, Robert, 45, 54; on allegory, 436045

Homer: in Boccaccio, 135, 148-49, 152, 161, 165, 459060; Cicero on, 377; Dante and, 13, 56-57, 67-71; Hecuba and, 107-8, 111;on Hercules's 31 Labors, 165; Iliad, 56, 107; journey of and Hesiodic history in Boccaccio's Genealogie deorum, 135; Leonzio Pilato's literal translation of, 131,146; Odyssey,56, 67-68; Petrarch on, 399, 529014; Proba and his cento,in Christine and Boccaccio, 285; Pronapides of Athens as teacher of, 161; and Salutati on Ulysses in Hades, 376 Homosexuality: Aeneas and, 500045; in Alan of Lille, 26 Horace, 52; Arspoetica,54, 405, 502063; Dante and, 13, 56-57, 67-71; Landino's commentary on, 405; Odes,405

Hortis, Attilio, 137-38 Hortisdeliciarum(garden of delights; heaveg): in Boccaccio's Eclogue 15, 1mas the hortulis,in Boccaccio's

Allegoriamitologica,140 Houston, Jason M., 145, 463094 Hrotsvit of Gandersheim, 209, 424 Hugo N (king of Cyprus and Jerusalem), 144, 146, 151,154, 161

INDEX

Huguccio of Pisa: Boccaccio and, 152;on daphneand lauros,cited in Petrarch,

398;Magnaederivariones,76-77 Hult, David, 30, 59, 429n21, 473n42, 475n57, 502n63 Humanism: allegory and, 33-34; Aristotelian fostering of, 29; in Boccaccio, 126, 130, 132,135,137, 199, 205, 454-55m2, 465mo9; in Christine, 258-71, 278--81,395; classicism and, 425n3; in commentaries on Virgil, 396--98; in Dante, rn defined, 425n3, 425n5, 510n8; Earl Jeffrey Richards on, 515n29;ofEvrart, 240; French, Italian influence on, 514n29; Italian, 3-4, 50, 514n29; Italian, as medieval, 50, 425n5; and Jean de Meun, 33; in Landino, 395, 405-19; Petrarch and, 4-5, 130, 396, 51on8; poetry and, 33; in Salutati, 15, 363, 381,395-96, 5n-12n14, 512m5, 514-15n29;subjectivity and, 29; vernacular, 33, 468n9; in Villena, 394, 526mo9 Humors, in Evrart's Eschecsamoureux moralises,228, 234 Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and the manuscript of Salutati's second recension, 513n23,514n26 Hundred Years War, 357 Huot, Sylvia, 69, 215, 225, 427-28m2, 472n38,477nn68-69 Hybrid mythography. SeeMythography, hybrid Hydra, 416 Hyginus, Fabulae:and Boccaccio, 135, 152-53,156,46m70; Hecuba in, 109; and Hesiod, 46m70; and Salutati, 46m70 Hymen: in Alan of Lille's De planctu Naturae,29, 236; in Christine's Mutacionde Fortune,290 Hypsipyle, 498n26

lapetus (lapetos): in Boccaccio, 150, 156-57, 159; in Hesiod, 158-59 Icarus: in Chaucer, 445m38; in Dante, 73, 81; Pietro Alighieri's gloss on, 87-90 Ilium, 257 Illegitimacy, Boccaccio's concern over, 128-30 Imarmene (Fate; personification), in Bernard Silvestris, 2 Impersonation, impersonator: Christine as Ovid commentator, in Othea,259; in Dante's Commedia (Adam of Brescia, Bertran, Schicchi, Myrrha, Potiphar's wife, Sinon, Dante pilgrim), 91, 107, n5, n6, n9, 122; Semiramis, in Boccaccio on Dante, 202 Individuation, 31-32 Inglossation: of Christine, 207-8, 224-44; in Dante, 13, 17, 19-22, 24, 37, 40, 71-91, 123, 207; by Jean de Meun, 24, 31, 224. SeealsoGlossation; Individuation Innocent VI (pope), 128, 135,136 Ino (wife of Athamas), n3-14; in Christine's Othea,257-58, 268; in Dante, 73, 91 lntegumentum(integument): in Boccaccio, 127, 132;and Christine's Mutacionde Fortune,289, 502n57; in Dante's Commedia,20, 33, 40-41; in Dante's Convivio,95; in Jean de Meun's Rose,33, 46, 214-15, 219, 234 Io: in Boccaccio, 142; in Christine, 258, 297; in Dante, 81, 123-24 Iohannes de Certaldo. SeeBoccaccio, Giovanni Iole, in Seneca, 367-68 Iphigenia, in Dante, 74, 81 Irene (Yrane), 303 Iris, in Dante, 81

INDEX

Isabeau of Bavaria (Isabeau de Baviere; queen of France), 8, 11, 206, 280, 361 Isabel (queen of Portugal), 362 Isidore: Bersuire and, 249; Boccaccio and, 152, 165; Dante and, 81; on Lucan, 69, 439080; Remigius and, 388; on Virgil, 75-76 Isis: in Boccaccio, 150, 301; in Christine, 257-58, 265, 283, 297-98, 301 Iversen, Eric, 43208 Ixion: in Boccaccio, 453nr; in William of Couches, on Boethius, 418 Izbicki, Thomas M., 521078 Jacob, Henry, 251 Jacobus de Cessolis Gacques de Cessoles), Solatiumludi scacchorum,226 Jacobus Voragine, Legendaaurea,268, 485nr58 James III of Majorca, 133 Jason: in Dante, 73-74, 81; Medea and,268 Jauss, Hans R., 32-33, 245, 500045 Javitch, Daniel, 250-51 Jean, due de Berry, 34, 204, 246, 250, 274, 277, 280-81, 300, 49506, 497n18,497n20,498n24 Jean, prior at Besanc;on and poettranslator ofVegetius, 5070113 Jean d'Angouleme-Orleans, 274 Jean de Meun: Aristotelianism and, 2-3, 25-26, 29-30, 37, 225; Boccaccio's mythology and, 140, 143-44; Chaucer translations of, 25, 212, 383; on courtly love, 26-27; Dante and, 12, 21-22, 34-37; date of Boethius translation, 428nr5; defense of, 31-32; as humanist, 33; interest in hermeneutics, 25; Judgment of Paris and, 239; manuscripts of Boethius translation of, 520072; Neoplatonism and, 26, 37; philosophy and

poetry and, 26-27; translations by, 6, 25, 287, 353,383-84; use ofBoethius translation by Nicholas Trivet and William of Aragon, 520072; Vegetius translation of, 507nnr1213;vernacular narrative of, 3, 33, 37 -Roman de la Rose.allegory in, 29, 31-34, 217-19, 224; Boccaccio influenced by, 133,140, 165; Bovet's critique of, 354-55; Christine and, 12, 14-15, 209, 212, 240-44, 258, 273-81, 290, 292, 294-95, 352-62; epic paradigms in, 212; Evrart's Eschecs amoureuxmoralisesas commentary on, 225-44; Four Ages ofTime in, 27, 28, 217-19; Garden ofDeduit in, 14, 21-22, 29, 123, 223, 227-28, 237-44, 290; and Guillaume de Lorris, 3, 12, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29-30, 215, 224, 228, 356; Hercules in, 390; Hymen in, 290; illuminations of, 225, 278, 497020; individuation in, 31-32; irony in, 26, 32, 212; Latin sources of, 427-28nr2; manuscripts of, 472n35, 477068; misogyny in, 212-13, 241-44, 273-74, 352-62; as mythography and commentary, 12-16, 21-27, 29-30, 46-47, 71, 86, 104; mythological figures in, 23-24, 217-19; remythologization in, 24546; and romansantiques,212; Salutati and, 369-71, 386-87; Saturn, castration of, in, 22, 24, 429021, 472n39; sexuality in, 21, 24, 33-35, 213-19, 237-44; Venus transformed by, into Eros-Cupid, 500045; Well of Narcissus in, 290-92; women in, 3, 212-13;women readers of, 225. See alsoChristine de Pizan; Guillaume de Lorris; Qµerellede la Rose Jean de Vignai, "Jeu des echecs moralises," 226

INDEX

Jeanne de Champagne-Navarre, Queen, Burgundian patron for Ovide moralise,248, 486nr59 Jeanroy, Alfred, 273 Jean sans Peur Gohn the Fearless; due de Bourgogne), 281, 497n20 Jenaro-Maclennan, Luis, 434n25 Jerome, St., 133;translation of Eusebius, 152, 198, 200, 202 Jerusalem: in Dante's Inferno,54-rn in Landino, on Dante, 415. Seealso Martha; Mary (New Testament) Jewiss, Virginia, 87 Joanna (Giovanna I d'Anjou; queen of Naples), 126, 129, 131-34, 301, 422, 455nr7, 504n89; longer version deorumprepared for, of Genealogie 456n31 Jocasta (queen ofThebes): in Boccaccio's De casibusvirorumillustrium, 133-34; in Christine, 304 Jocelyn, Henry David, 453m Jocus (Play), 236 John of Bourbon, 246 John of Garland, 72; Giovanni del Virgilio and, 443n121; glosses and summaries of, 74; lntegumentaOvidii, 78; Ovid commentaries of, 81, 249-50, 299; as source for Dante, 442n108 John of Salisbury, 69 Jones, Joan Morton, 479n87 Jove. SeeJupiter Judgment of Paris: Bernard Silvestris and, 380; in Christine, 262-63, 269-71, 406-7; in Evrart's Eschecs amoureuxmoralises,238-44; in the Florentine commentary on Martianus, 417-19; French vernacular versions of, 5oon45; illuminations of, 6; in Landino, 406-19, 534n40; medieval treatments of, 533n34,

535nU45-46; Salutati and, 395; Virgilian commentary and, 16 Julius Silvius, 283 Juno: in Bernard Silvestris, on the Aeneid,380; in Boccaccio, 141, 143, 155,301, 342-43, 344; in Christine, 238-44,262,266,269,297,304, 340, 342, 343; in Evrart's Eschecs amoureuxmoralises,227-29, 239, :141, 242; in the Florentine commentary on Martianus (William of Conches), 417-18; in Fulgentius, 413; Hercules and, 417-19, 524n87; illuminations of, 6-7; Judgment of Paris and, 238-40, :141, 242-44, 407-19; in Landino, 406-7, 409-19, 534U40; in "Moralized Ovid," 304, 343; in Orosius, 304; in Ovid, 342, 343; in Petrarch's Secretum,401; in Salutati, 367-68, 386, 390; Saturn and, 86-87, 234; in Seneca, 367, 386; in Statius, 70; Thebes and, 91, n3, n6; in William of Conches, on Boethius, 418 Jupiter: adulteries of, 91; as anima mundi (in Salutati), 537n55;in Boccaccio, 140--44, 154-56, 165, 196, 201-2; and castration of Saturn, 27, 29, 72, 86-87, 217-19, 234, 343, 472n38; in Christine, 256, 261-62, 269, 297, 337; Cicero's multiple Jupiters, 155-56; in Dante, 81; in Evrart's Eschecsamoureuxmoralises, 228, 231, 234-36; first Jupiter (father of Liber), in Boccaccio, 154, 159; Hercules and, 367-68, 418, 524n87, 537n55; heroism and, 138-39; in Hesiod, 158-59; Judgment of Paris and, 418, 535n46; in Landino, 535n46, 537n55; in Leto, 527n3; Lycaon and, 75, 78, 140--41;in Odo of Picardy's Liber Theodoli,251-52; in Ovid, 159, 348;

INDEX

as Progenitor and Genetrix, 457n36; Prometheus and, 157;in Salutati, 368-71, 537n55;second Jupiter, in Boccaccio, 155,159;Semele and, u3, n6; in Statius, 70; third Jupiter, in Boccaccio, 155,159, 196. SeealsoJean de Meun, Romande la Rose;Saturn Justice (personification), in Christine's CitedesDames,274-81, 275, 276, 297, 299, 361 Juvenal, 32, 405 Kallendorf, Craig, 375, 454-55nr2, 518-19n54, 532n30, 533n35 Keightley, R. G., 394, 524n96, 525n97, 526nro3 Kelly, Douglas, 21, 477n70, 501Il46 Kennedy, Leonard A., 522n80 Kenney, Theresa, 41 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. SeeNaples Knox-Juel, Kristin, 217 Koning, Gustav, 479n86 K-Reviser, glossator ofBoethius, 388 Kristeller, Paul Oskar, 534n38, 537-38n59 Kronos (Cronos/Cronus, Time), 158. SeealsoSaturn Kuhn, Thomas Samuel, 5 Lactantius Placidus, 152, 163, 165 Laidlaw, James C., 496nr5 Laius, in Statius, 70 Lamelin, Jean, 274 Lampheto (Lampedo, Lampeto), 325-26, 327 Lana, Jacopo delta, 48, 50 Lancia, Andrea, 48, 50-51 Landino, Cristoforo (Christoforo): Aeneas and three goddesses in various works by, 405-19; and Boccaccio, 398, 51m12, 537n56; commentaries of, 16, 197, 405; on Dante, 405-6,

4n, 414-19, 537n56; and hermeneutics, 537n56; lectures of, at the University of Florence (on Dante, Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Persius, Virgil's Aeneid or his Eclogues),405, 53m24; and Macrobius, 405-6; Neoplatonism of, 405-6; and Petrarch, 396-98; and the Platonic Academy at Caregii, 405; and Salutati, 398, 4n; on Virgil, 405 -commentary on Dante's Commedia, 415; and Ernest Langlois, 486nr60; as Neoplatonic, 406; nobility as gift of the three Graces, 415; Rachel and Leah (Lia) as two lives in, 415; sources of, 537n56; and the three cities Troy, Carthage, and Rome and the three lives, 415; use in ofRambaldi's and Boccaccio's commentary on Dante, 537n56 -Devera nobilitate,4n, 415-16; Hercules as nobilitasin, 415 -Disputationes Camaldulenses, 16, 398-4I2, 533nn31-32;Aeneas in, 406-n, 413; allegory in, 406-n, 532n30; Bernard Silvestris's allegorization on the Aeneidand, 406, 407-8, 413-14, 532n29, 533nm and deorum, Boccaccio's Genealogie 529nr2, 537n56; and Boethius and glosses on book 4, poem 7, 416; and a brief manuscript "Genealogia deorum," 417; and Christine, 4n; and Cicero's TusculanDisputations,405; and Ficino, 405, 409, 532n30; and Filelfo on "arms and the man" as active and contemplative lives, 4n-13; and the Florentine commentary on Martianus, 407, 416-19, 53m27; and Fulgentius, 406, 413; Ganymede rejecting Juno in, 4n; on Hercules, 537n55;Judgment of Paris in, 406-9,

INDEX

Landino, Cristoforo--continued 413-14, 534n40; Juno in, and the active life (Carthage), 406-u, 413-14; and Mirandola, 405; mythography of, u-12, 36-37, 57-58, 423; Neoplatonic progression of the soul in, 406-8, 411, 532n30; Orpheus, Musaeus, and the priests of Apollo in, 4u; Pallas Athena in, as sapientia and the contemplative life (Italy, summum bonum),406-u, 414; Paris in, 407-8, 413-14; on Persius, 408; on Phoebus and the contemplative life, 534n42; Platonizing Virgil and Dante in, 406-9, 53m25, 532002830, 537nm Pythagorean Yin, 408; second Vatican mythographer in, 413;Sicily as the inferior reason in, 410; summum bonum,golden apple as Aeneas's goal, 413-14; Thrace in, and images of vice, 410; and the three lives, 406-7; two Venuses in, 409; as unique in Virgil commentary tradition, 406; use of, or like, Salutati in, 395, 401-2, 407, 4II, 533035;Venus in, and the voluptuous life (Troy), 406-9, 413-14; William ofConches in, 407, 416-19 Laodamia, 252 Laomedon, 114, 269, 388 Latona, in Dante, 81 Lavinia, 283, 303 Leah (Lia; biblical character), in Landino, 415-16 Lechat, Didier, 267, 471-72033, 500043 Leda, in Dante, 74 Le Fevre, Jehan, 484m55 Lemaire de Belges, Jean, 34 Lentzen, Manfred, 532n30, 536n47 Leontium (Greek philosopher), 284, 328, 331-32

Leonzio Pilato (Leontius Pilatus), 131, 148, 152,455n24 "Les Livres des estoires dou conmencement dou monde," 498n23 Lethe (infernal river), 379, 388 Leto, Pomponio, 58, 396-97, 527n2 Levine, Robert, 249-50 Lex talionis:Alan of Lille and, 104; Bertran de Born and, 102-3 Liber, in Cicero, 156 Liberal arts: in Christine, 328, 330-40; Dante and, 67; in Evrart's Eschecs amoureuxmoralises,228, 231;hero's education in, 61 Libica, 303 Lieus, 7 Liege, 4, 132, 521-22079 Lilia, 301 Litigio (Strife; personification), 160 Livy: Ab urbe condita,7; Boccaccio and, 131,199; Dante and, 199; Salutati and, 365;Trivet on, 372 Logan, George Meredith, 44on88 Logosspermatikos,139 Lopez, Pedro, de Ayala, 391 Lord, Mary, 372, 379, 517n43 Louis de Bruges, 274 Louis d'Orleans (dauphin and duke), 9,226, 246,260-61,280,47on25 Louis I (king), 132 Louis of Guyenne, 246 Louis ofTaranto (prince), 129, 133 Louvre Palace Library, 207, 468mo Lucan: antique critics of, 439n80; Boccaccio and, 165; commentaries on, 1-2, 17, 36, 49, 52, 55, 397, 439n82, 44on86, 527m, 527-28nn4-5; Dante and, 13, 56-57, 81, 438n74; heroes of in Pharsalia,439n81; Italian translation of, in 1310,518048; manuscripts of Pharsaliaof, 439n78, 439n82; in Pharsalia(De bellumcivile),2, 56,

INDEX

58,66,68-69,372,438n75,439n80, 528n5;popularity ofin the Middle Ages, 438n75; and Roman epic, 439n79; Salutati and, 517-18n48;_ unconventionality of, 439n81 Lucifer: in Dante, 78, 86-87, 122-23; falsification and, n9; Narcissus and, 83 Lucina, in Boccaccio, 162-63 Ludwig of Bavaria, 129 Lycaon, 75, 78, 140-41 Lycus, 367-68 Lydgate, John, Resonand Sensuallyte, 226 Machaut, Guillaume de, 212 Macrobius: Boccaccio and, 39, 152, 154, 161, 165, 196; Christine and, 355; on Cicero, 230; commentaries on, 1; Jean de Meun's Roseand, 21?; in Petrarch, 53om7; Salutati and, 387, 517n48;SomniumScipionis,57, 154, 161,196, 369,372-73,423, 517n48 Madness, of Hecuba, 105-25 Magnalis, Zono (Zonys, Ciones) de', 58, 372,379,396-98, 517n43,527n1 Mahomet (Mohammed), in Dante's Inferno,26, 91, 104, 4500180 Male Bouche (Evil Tongue; personification), in Roman de la Rose,209 Manalippe (Menalippe), 301, 325 Manetti, Gianozzo, 537n56 Mangieri, Cono, 44 Manitius, Max, 438n75 Mansion, Colard, 383, 486nm60-61, 522n79 Manto (Manthoo): in Christine, 301; Dante's refiguration of, 71 Manuscripts, illuminated: of Boccaccio, 14-15, 274-81, 32.0,321-22, 323,327,328-40,329,336,340,

346, 497m8; of Christine, 14-15,

274-81,275,276,299,304,307, 331,496m2, 497m8; of Jean de Meun's Rose,225, 278; of"Moralized Ovid," 299-300; ofOrosius, 277,320, 321-22, 323,326; of Ovid, 277; reproductions of, 525n98; selffiguration in, 5-8; Virgil's Aeneid, 403, 53om8 Manuscripts and incunables -Auckland, Public Library GMSS n9, 5om47 -Basel, Universitatsbibliothek F II 23,375 -Brussels, Bibliotheque Royale Albert ler: MS 4373-76, 495n7; MSS 4782 and 9576 (owned by Jean sans Peur, duke of Bourgogne, or his father Philip the Bold), 472n35,497n20; MS 9009-II, 359;MS 9509, 274, 498n24 -Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College 309 (707), 428m5; -Cambridge, University Library ii.3-21,49m193, 523n83 -Chantilly, Musee Conde: MS 492, 492n205; MS 856 (formerly 662) (dated 12 September 1401;contains incomplete CitedesDamesand Des cleres femmes),494n4, 496nn, 503n81 -Chicago, University of Chicago Harper Memorial Library 100 (lat. 46), 152,365 -Copenhagen, Royal LibraryThottske 399.2, 300, 341, 343 -Cremona, Biblioteca Governativa Cremonese 129, 527n4 -Dijon, Bibliotheque municipale 525, 5om47 -Dresden Oc 66, 479n86 -Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh Special Collections 195, 402, 403, 53om8

INDEX

Manuscripts and incunables-continued -Erfurt, Wissenschaftliche Bibliothek der Stadt Arnploniana F.358,428m5, 523n83 -Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana: MS 36, 442nuo; MS 51,10, 51m12;MS 52, 32, 53m27; MS 77, 6 (no. 19), 514028; MS Plut. 59.2, 152 -Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale: Banco rari 50, 456031; Conventi soppr. J.1.28, 416-19 -Florence, Biblioteca Riccardiana 152, 532027 -Glasgow, University of Glasgow Library Hunterian 374,411, 41:2.,426m3 -Lisbon, Funda