Masters Level Teaching, Learning and Assessment : Issues in Design and Delivery 9781137399373, 9781137399366

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Masters Level Teaching, Learning and Assessment

Palgrave Teaching and Learning Series Editor: Sally Brown Facilitating Work-Based Learning Facilitating Workshops For the Love of Learning Fostering Self-Efficacy in Higher Education Students Leading Dynamic Seminars Learning, Teaching and Assessment in Higher Education Live Online Learning Masters Level Teaching, Learning and Assessment Further titles are in preparation

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Masters Level Teaching, Learning and Assessment Issues in Design and Delivery

Edited by

Pauline E. Kneale

Selection and editorial content © Pauline E. Kneale 2015 Individual chapters © Respective authors 2015 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2015 by PALGRAVE Palgrave in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave is a global imprint of the above companies and is represented throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978–1–137–39936–6 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Masters level teaching, learning and assessment : issues in design and delivery / edited by Pauline Kneale. pages cm. — (Palgrave teaching and learning) Summary: “This comprehensive book provides advice and guidance to those seeking to develop and enhance Masters level programmes. Based on practice, experience and research, it covers issues in design and delivery, helping to ensure that programmes are fit for purpose and meet contemporary needs in a rapidly changing and highly-competitive global market”— Provided by publisher. ISBN 978–1–137–39936–6 (paperback) 1. Education—Study and teaching (Graduate) I. Kneale, Pauline E. (Pauline Estner), 1954– editor. LB2372.E3M37 2015 2015023489 370.71’1—dc23 Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India.

Contents

List of figures and tables

ix

Preface

xi

Series editor’s preface

xii

List of contributors

xiv

List of abbreviations

xxi

Part 1 1

The Master’s experience

Master’s perspectives

5

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Being a student and teacher, Bill Lindquist 5 My Master’s experience as student and teacher, Valerie Huggins 7 Researching the Master’s student experience, Louise Winfield 10 Understanding students’ needs in theatre practice, Sue Mayo and Katharine Low 14 1.5 Defining issues for mastery, Pauline Kneale 17

2

3

The diversity of Master’s provision, Pauline Kneale

22

The Master’s market Quality frameworks

22 28

Aspects of mastership

36

3.1 Master’s education in China, Danqing Liu and Jinghua Liu 3.2 The Master’s experience in Canada, Celia Popovic 3.3 The influence of Bologna on the student experience: a case study from Portugal, Ana Baptista and Ana Cabral 3.4 Exploring the experience of and support needs of part-time Master’s students, Julie Anderson, Valerie Huggins and Louise Winfield Conclusion

36 38

v

40

43 53

vi

Contents

Part 2 4

Transition matters

Transition issues for course designers 4.1 Transition to postgraduate study: overlooked and underestimated, Jane Tobbell and Victoria L. O’Donnell 4.2 Principles for reviewing the taught postgraduate induction curricula, Julie Rattray and Jan Smith 4.3 Effective interventions for maintaining Master’s student motivation, Michelle Reid, Sonia Hood and Kim Shahabudin 4.4 Issues and resources for transition: a personal reflection, Pauline Deutz

5

Effective induction activities 5.1 The Belonging Cube: an induction activity to recognise and celebrate diversity, Mark Sutcliffe and Ruth Matheson 5.2 Using formative assessment during induction, Ruth Cross 5.3 Exploring critical thinking with Chinese students during induction, Rong Huang 5.4 Study skills for Master’s level, ‘through the looking glass’ of Chinese students, Marina Orsini-Jones, Ying Zhao and Xuemei Wang Conclusion

Part 3 6

7

57 57 61

64 71 76 76 79 87

97 100

Effective experiential learning

Supporting international postgraduate learners across a business school, Gillian Byrne and Halina Harvey

105

Contextualisation of academic skills within subject specialisms Putting theory into practice Assessment Conclusion

105 108 111 115

Writing matters

117

7.1 Supporting students to develop Master’s level writing skills, Clare Furneaux 7.2 Reflective writing with students on an LLM for practising lawyers, Jane Ching 7.3 Teacher-student experiences of collaborative writing at Master’s level, Emily Beaumont and Ken Gale Conclusion

117 123 126 134

Contents

8

9

vii

Integrating university-wide support

135

8.1 Central support for Master’s student dissertation work, Tina Ramkalawan and Emily Danvers 8.2 Employability skills for Master’s students, Debbi Marais Conclusion

135 139 143

Problem-based learning in practice

144

9.1 Using problem-based learning in a Master’s level computing module, Chris Beaumont 9.2 ‘Real-world’ student experience at Master’s level in Art and Design: case studies from Glass and Ceramics, Kevin Petrie, Andrew Livingstone, Jeffery Sarmiento and Cate Watkinson 9.3 Issues for professional Master’s: bringing the real world into the classroom, Joanna Drugan Conclusion Part 4

145

149 158 169

Assessment

10 Assessing well at Master’s level, Sally Brown Introduction Distinguishing Master’s and undergraduate level expectations Assessment methods and approaches in use at Master’s level Good practice in assessment at M-level Conclusion 11 Creative assessments 11.1 Using blogs when assessing Master’s level Childhood and Youth Studies students to foster skills and confidence, Emma Bond and Stuart Agnew 11.2 Using portfolios to assess M-level Music Performance students, Laura Ritchie 11.3 Authentic assessment in an MEd Psychology of Education, Sue Palmer-Conn 11.4 A group work assessment for distance learners on an MSc Facilities Management programme, Chris Garbett 11.5 Patchwork portfolio assessment, Mark Sutcliffe and Ruth Matheson 11.6 Managing student diversity and learning through group formative assessment, Adam John Ritchie and Emma Plugge Mastering Master’s level assessment: beyond the dissertation

173 173 174 176 177 182 183

183 185 186 188 189

192 200

viii

Contents

Part 5

Curriculum design

12 Curriculum design to provide learning as a social practice, Andrew Cramp Pedagogical design Reflections and lessons learnt 13 Lessons learned from distance learning, Helen Durham and Linda See The MSc in GIS distance learning programme Lessons learned Are distance learning degrees as ‘good’ as face-to-face courses? Conclusion 14 Curriculum opportunities 14.1 Many amongst equals: the challenge of teaching and working in partnership with tutor-practitioners, Bernard Lisewski 14.2 Embedding reflective practice and creativity to link a modular curriculum, Muireann O’Keeffe and Roisin Donnelly 14.3 Designing a Master’s programme in GIST to meet professional expectations in the workplace, Chris Lukinbeal, Janice Monk and Iris Patten 14.4 Cross-crediting a Master’s programme in the UK and Pakistan, Janet Strivens and Ian Willis 15 Rethinking Master’s level design and support, Pauline Kneale, Sally Brown and Phil Race Pre-course design considerations Designing M-level programmes Advising Master’s students Conclusion

205 206 207

209 210 211 216 216 218

218

225

229 232

238 238 241 244 246

16 Afterword, Pauline Kneale and Sally Brown

248

References

252

Index

276

List of figures and tables

 Figures 5.1 The process of the formative assignment

82

5.2 Self-assessment form

85

6.1 Model for reflective teaching practice

109

9.1 Introductory PBL scenario

147

5.1 Pyramid of increasing involvement

202

 Tables 2.1 Descriptors defining Level 7 of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF, 2014)

31

2.2 Matrix for mapping engagement

33

5.1 Postgraduate Taxonomy of Skills

80

5.2 Instructions to students

82

5.3 Marking criteria and descriptors

83

6.1 Embedded scheme of work

112

6.2 Question analysis assignment

113

6.3

Subject-specific journal article analysis

114

6.4

Critical reading and note-making criteria

115

ix

x

7.1

List of Figures and Tables

Pedagogic implications arising from Johns and Swales’ (2002) layers of expectations

122

14.1 Mapping dimensions of blended learning to the programme

221

14.2 Aligning creative and reflective activities to support learning

228

Preface

There has been limited research and few papers discussing the style and nature of Master’s level teaching in higher education, Peter Knight’s (1997) edited text being the honourable exception. This book developed from a series of workshops held jointly for staff at the University of Leeds and Leeds Metropolitan University in the mid-2000s to explore issues around learning and teaching in taught Master’s programmes. Workshops on this topic have continued to be led by myself, and by Sally Brown through Assimilate, a three-year National Teaching Fellowship project which explored innovative assessment practice at Master’s level in the UK and internationally, and which is discussed here in Chapter 10. Some authors attended the original workshops and are able to reflect on their developing practice over the past ten years (see Chapter 9.3 by Druggan, and 13 by Durham and See). Other colleagues have got involved through later workshops, conferences, and through the Masters Theme Group in the Pedagogic Research Institute and Observatory (PedRIO) at Plymouth University. The outcomes of these many discussions are drawn on in Chapter 1.5. Authors were asked to bring the student voice to their writing where appropriate. Perhaps unusually, we have reflections by academic staff on their own experiences as Master’s students and now as lecturers. All the students we have worked with have in different ways contributed to our joint thinking around Master’s teaching. Student comments are published anonymously, but we are very grateful for these perspectives. Critical, cross-cutting issues are raised by a number of authors from different perspectives, including professionalism, assessment, distance learning, the international student dimension, course design, induction and employability. Clearly, there is lots of further work that can follow from these discussions and examples. I am extremely grateful to all the authors who have contributed to this volume, their speed in dealing with reviewers’ queries and meeting the deadlines for publication, and to Andrea Rayner for her excellent, very practical editorial assistance. The Higher Education Academy and Equality Challenge Unit gave permission to reproduce Figure 5.1, p. 202. Pauline Kneale June 2015

xi

Series editor’s preface

This series of books with Palgrave for all who care about teaching and learning in higher education has been developed with the express aim of providing useful, relevant, current and helpful guidance on key issues in learning and teaching in the tertiary/post-compulsory education sector. This is an area of very rapid and unpredictable change, with universities and colleges reviewing, and often implementing radical alterations in the ways they design, deliver and assess the curriculum, taking into account not just innovations in how content is being delivered and supported, particularly through technological means, but also the changing relationships between academics and their students. The role of the teacher in higher education needs to be reconsidered when students can freely access content worldwide and seek accreditation and recognition of learning by local, national or international providers (and may indeed prefer to do so). Students internationally are becoming progressively more liable for the payment of fees, as higher education is seen as less a public good and more a private one, and this too changes the nature of the transaction. Texts in this series address aspects of these and other emergent imperatives. Among topics covered are volumes exploring student-centred approaches at undergraduate and postgraduate levels including doctoral work; the necessity to work in an internationalised and transnational tertiary education context; the challenges of staff-student interactions where engagements are as likely to be through new technologies as face-to-face in the classroom; and issues about levels of student engagement, especially where study is in competition with other demands on their time including employment and caring responsibilities. I am particularly delighted to include this book in the series as I was involved with its genesis and have enjoyed seeing its development, as well as contributing a chapter to it. Pauline Kneale and I developed our thinking on M-level practice together when we worked respectively at Leeds Metropolitan (now Leeds Beckett) and Leeds Universities. Through conferences and other activities, we sought to foster dialogues in Yorkshire and beyond on the then under-researched area of what comprises good practice in teaching, learning and assessment at Master’s level. The work has advanced considerably over the last five years and I am pleased to see its culmination in

xii

Series Editor’s preface

xiii

this book which has been edited expertly to offer wide-ranging perspectives and diverse examples of good practice, many of them emanating from people we have worked with over the years as well as further contributors globally. I am confident that this volume will be helpful and illuminating to those working with Master’s level students in universities of all kinds. Sally Brown June 2015

List of Contributors

Stuart Agnew is Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Deputy Director for the Institute for Social, Educational and Enterprise Development (iSEED) at University Campus Suffolk and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (HEA). Julie Anderson is an associate professor in the Institute of Education, Plymouth University and the associate head for academic development. She led the International Master’s programme for three years and remains involved with both the Master’s and EdD work. Ana Baptista is a research fellow on the project ‘Non-traditional students in Higher Education’ at the Integrated Unit for Continued Education at the Research Centre Didactics and Technology in Education of Trainers, University of Aveiro, Portugal. She has recently moved to Queen Mary University, London. Chris Beaumont is Head of the Department of Computing, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, National Teaching Fellow (2013) and Faculty Senior Learning & Teaching Fellow with over 15 years’ experience in teaching and researching Problem-Based Learning. Emily Beaumont is Lecturer in Entrepreneurship at the Futures Entrepreneurship Centre within Plymouth Business School, Plymouth University, UK. Emma Bond is Senior Lecturer in Social Sciences and Director of the Institute for Social, Educational and Enterprise Development (iSEED) at University Campus Suffolk. She is a Senior Fellow of the HEA. Sally Brown is an independent consultant. She is National Teaching Fellow (2008), Principal Fellow of the HEA, Senior Fellow of Staff and Educational Development Association (SEDA), as well as Emerita Professor at Leeds Beckett University and visiting professor at Liverpool John Moores and Plymouth Universities. Gillian Byrne is Senior Lecturer in Academic Skills, based in the Learning Development Group in the Business School, Huddersfield University, UK.  xiv

List of contributors

xv

Ana Cabral was Director of the R&D centre and Coordinator of the Master’s programmes of the Instituto Superior Politécnico Gaya, and a member of the Research Centre Didactics and Technology in Education of Trainers, University of Aveiro, Portugal. She has recently moved to Greenwich University. Jane Ching is Professor of Professional Legal Education at Nottingham Law School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK and has worked with legal practitioners in Master’s and Doctorate programmes since the mid 1990s. Andrew Cramp is Head of Doctoral Studies in the Faculty of Education, Health and Well Being. He has worked across a range of MA Education modules and his current role includes the supervision of PhD students exploring digitally mediated learning. Ruth Cross is Course Leader for the MSc Public Health Promotion programme at Leeds Beckett University, UK. She has ten years’ experience of facilitating post-graduate learning. Emily Danvers is PhD student working with Tina Ramkalawan at Brunel University, UK. Pauline Deutz is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences at the University of Hull. She is Departmental Director of Postgraduate Teaching and Programme Director of the MSc Environmental Technology. Roisin Donnelly is Programme Chair of Postgraduate programmes at the Learning, Teaching & Technology Centre, Dublin Institute of Technology. Joanna Drugan is Senior Lecturer in Applied Translation at the School of Language and Communication Studies, University of East Anglia. She specialised in the use of translation technologies and translation ethics at the University of Leeds. Helen Durham is Senior Teaching and Research Fellow in the School of Geography at the University of Leeds. She has been Director of the GIS Distance Learning Programme at Leeds since September 2010. Clare Furneaux is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and a National Teaching Fellow (2009) in the Department of English Language

xvi

List of contributors

and Applied Linguistics at the University of Reading, UK. She teaches on and directs campus-based and distance-study MA programmes. Ken Gale is Lecturer in Education in the Plymouth Institute of Education at Plymouth University, UK. Chris Garbett is Principal Lecturer and Director of the Centre for Facilities Management at Leeds Beckett University. Chris has been involved in webbased distance learning since the 1990s. Halina Harvey is Senior Lecturer in the Business School Learning Development Group, Huddersfield University, UK. Sonia Hood is study adviser at the University of Reading, UK, Fellow of the HEA, and a steering group member of Association for Learning Development in Higher Education (ALDinHE). She is currently undertaking an EdD. Rong Huang is Associate Professor in Tourism Marketing in Plymouth University (UK), Guest Professor in Tianjing University of Commerce (China), and a Senior Fellow of HEA. Valerie Huggins is Lecturer in Early Childhood Studies and an Associate Head in the Plymouth Institute of Education. She leads the Master’s Level PGCE Primary Early Years course and also teaches on the MA in Early Childhood Studies. Pauline Kneale is Professor of Pedagogy and Enterprise, Pro Vice-Chancellor Teaching and Learning and Director of the Pedagogic Research Institute and Observatory (PEDRIO) at Plymouth University, UK. She is a geographer, with a longstanding interest in Master’s teaching, enterprise and problembased learning, a National Teaching Fellow (2002) and Principal Fellow of the HEA. Bill Lindquist is Associate Professor in teacher education at Hamline University, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA. He is committed to delivering studentcentred, constructivist learning for children and his students. Bernard Lisewski is educational developer working at the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching at Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK. His current research focuses on how practice-based knowledge can be made available to students.

List of contributors

xvii

Danqing Liu is Associate Professor in Tourism and Hospitality Management, Tianjin University of Commerce, China, and courtesy Professor of Florida International University, USA. Jinghua Liu is Professor in History. He is a distinguished professor of Tianjin Normal University. He was the director of graduate school of Hunan Normal University and PhD supervisor at Wuhan University, China. Andrew Livingstone is Reader in Ceramics and Programme Leader MA Ceramics at the University of Sunderland, UK. He is an internationally exhibiting artist whose artwork and writing focuses on the ‘expanded field of ceramics’. Katharine Low is Lecturer in Applied Theatre and Community Performance at the Royal Central School of Speech & Drama and a practitioner in the field of socially engaged theatre practice and health communication. Chris Lukinbeal is Associate Director and Associate Professor of the School of Geography and Development, University of Arizona, USA. Debbi Marais is Postgraduate Coordinator for Applied Health Science programmes at University of Aberdeen, Scotland and Fellow of the HEA. She has international experience in Master’s level teaching and a keen interest in e-learning. Ruth Matheson is Principal Lecturer in the Learning and Teaching Development Unit at Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK, a National Teaching Fellow (2012) and Senior Fellow of the HEA. Research interests include students as partners, belonging, creativity and pedagogy. Sue Mayo is convenor of the MA in Applied Theatre at Goldsmiths College and a freelance theatre maker working in participatory and collaborative ways. Janice Monk is Research Professor in the School of Geography and Development at the University of Arizona, long involved with issues of geography education. Victoria L. O’Donnell is Senior Lecturer in Higher Education at the University of the West of Scotland and Fellow of the HEA. She provides training and development for academic staff in postgraduate student supervision.

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List of contributors

Muireann O’Keeffe taught on the MSc in Applied eLearning at Dublin Institute of Technology. She lectures at the Institute of Leadership, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland. Marina Orsini-Jones is Director of the MA in English Language Teaching in the Department of English and Languages at Coventry University. She coordinates the cross-faculty Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) Network and is a National Teaching Fellow (2013). Sue Palmer-Conn is Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, UK, having previously been a Senior Lecturer at Manchester University, UK. Iris Patten is Associate Director of the University of Arizona Geographic Information Systems Technology programs in the School of Geography and Development, USA. Kevin Petrie is Professor of Glass and Ceramics and Team Leader for Arts at University of Sunderland, UK and a National Teaching Fellow (2010). Emma Plugge is Course Director for the MSc Global Health Science and Senior Clinical Research Fellow in the Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, UK. Celia Popovic is Director of the Teaching Commons at York University, Toronto, a Fellow of the HEA and a Senior Fellow of SEDA. Phil Race is an independent consultant, workshop facilitator and author. He is passionate about making learning happen. Based in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, he is a National Teaching Fellow (2007), Principal Fellow of the HEA and Visiting Professor at Plymouth University. Tina Ramkalawan is graduate tutor in the Brunel Graduate School, Brunel University, UK. Julie Rattray is Lecturer in Psychology and Education and Director of post-graduate taught programmes in the School of Education, Durham University, UK. Her research interests include threshold concepts and the affective dimension of learning in Higher Education.

List of contributors

xix

Michelle Reid is Study Adviser at the University of Reading, UK, a University Teaching Fellow and Fellow of the HEA. Adam John Ritchie is Lecturer in Science and Public Policy, and MPP Course Coordinator at the Blavatnik School of Government, University of Oxford, UK, and Senior Fellow of the HEA. He focuses on scientific education for non-scientists and scientific capacity strengthening. Laura Ritchie is Reader in Pedagogy and Coordinator of MA Performance at the University of Chichester, UK and National Teaching Fellow, with research interests in self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. Jeffery Sarmiento is Reader in Glass and MA Glass Programme Leader at the University of Sunderland, UK. He is an internationally exhibiting artist known for his exploration of culture from the perspective of the perpetual foreigner. Linda See is Research Scholar at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. She was Director of the Distance Learning Programme in the School of Geography, University of Leeds, UK, for seven years. Kim Shahabudin is Study Adviser at the University of Reading, UK supporting students of all academic levels. She is a Fellow of the HEA. Jan Smith is Lecturer at the Centre for Academic Practice at Durham University, UK. She teaches on the Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice and the Master’s/Doctoral programmes in Education. Janet Strivens is an Educational Developer at the University of Liverpool, UK, and Programme Director for the Master’s in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education and part of the programme team for the EdD. A National Teaching Fellow (2012), she is also Senior Associate of the Centre for Recording Achievement. Mark Sutcliffe is Postgraduate Programme Director and Senior Lecturer in Strategic Management at Cardiff School of Management, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK. He is a Senior Fellow of the HEA. Jane Tobbell is University Teaching Fellow at the University of Huddersfield, UK. A Fellow of the HEA, she contributes to undergraduate

xx

List of contributors

and postgraduate study programmes and is on the Board of the Huddersfield Teaching and Learning Institute. Xuemei Wang is Lecturer of Chinese as a foreign language and a student on the MA in English Language Teaching at Coventry University working with Marina Orsini-Jones on the needs of Chinese MA students in the UK. Cate Watkinson is Senior Lecturer and MA Glass personal tutor, University of Sunderland, UK. She runs Watkinson Glass Associates which designs and produces glass artworks to commission in urban, sacred, corporate and private contexts. Ian Willis is Head of the Educational Development Division at the University of Liverpool, UK. Until recently he was Director of Studies for the Postgraduate Certificate in Learning and Teaching and contributes to the MA in Learning and Teaching and the online EdD in Higher Education. Louise Winfield is Associate Head Innovation and Internationalisation in the School of Nursing and Midwifery, Plymouth University, UK and Fellow of the HEA. She has led the Master’s programmes within the school for the last five years. Ying Zhao is MA student in English Language Teaching at Coventry University working with Marina Orsini-Jones on the needs of Chinese MA students in the UK. In China, Ying teaches English at secondary school level.

List of abbreviations

APL

Accreditation of Prior Learning

CoP

Community of Practice

CPD

Continuing Professional Development

ECTS

European Credit Transfer System

EdD

Doctorate in Education

ELT

English Language Teaching

EQF

European Qualifications Framework

FT

Full-time

HE

Higher Education

HEA

Higher Education Academy, UK

HEFCE

Higher Education Funding Council for England

HEI

Higher education institution

HESA

Higher Education Statistics Agency, UK

IELTS

International English Language Testing System

IMP

International Masters Programme

JISC

Joint Information Systems Committee

LLM

Master of Laws

LT

Learning technology

MA

Master of Arts

MBA

Master of Business Administration

MEd

Master of Education

MEng

Master of Engineering

MFA

Master of Fine Arts

MGeol

Master of Geology

MGR

Magister

MM, MMus

Master of Music

MMath

Master of Mathematics

MOOC

Massive open online course

xxi

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List of abbreviations

MPhil

Master of Philosophy

MPP

Master in Public Policy

MPsych

Master of Psychology

MRes, MARes, MScRes

Master of Research

MSc, MS, MSci, MCA

Master of Science

MSN

Master of Science in Nursing

NGO

Non-governmental organisation

NHS

National Health Service

PBL

Problem-based learning

PDP

Personal Development Planning

PG

Postgraduate

PGCAP

Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice

PGCE

Postgraduate Certificate In Education

PGT

Postgraduate taught

PT

Part-time

PTES

Postgraduate Taught Experience Survey, UK

QAA

Quality Assurance Agency, UK

TNE

Transnational education

UCAS

Universities and Colleges Admissions Service, UK

UG

Undergraduate

VLE

Virtual Learning Environment

Part 1 The Master’s experience

Working with academics exploring issues in taught Master’s degree provision consistently indicates gaps in our pedagogic thinking and writing about higher education (HE) practices at this level. At the same time the nature of work is changing, problems that provide challenges in the workplace are becoming more complex, and our technologies are changing in ways that mean students starting a Master’s degree are likely to find themselves in three to five years working on issues that are currently unknown and with technologies that are not yet invented (Knight and Page, 2007; NMC, 2015). Our graduates need to be flexible, motivated and resilient. Policy makers in the UK are increasingly focusing on Master’s and higher degrees. Earlier policy reports highlighted skills, employability and market issues (BIS, 2010; HEPI, 2004; Park, 2008). More recently, accessibility and widening participation issues have been raised (HEC, 2012). The HEC report encapsulates aspects of the market that are equally true internationally: For many students, postgraduate education is a worthwhile investment. There is still a clear postgraduate wage premium relative to those possessing only undergraduate degrees. Postgraduate education also facilitates access to competitive parts of the labour market. There are a number of areas where it appears a postgraduate degree is becoming a de facto requirement for entry. HEC, 2012, p. 12

The evolving UK postgraduate picture is signalled by the report’s statement: Coasting on our past successes is not an option. Postgraduate capacity must be at the heart of our national plans for long-term competitiveness and growth. Failure to do so puts at risk our future prosperity. HEC, 2012, p. 18

2

Masters level teaching, learning and assessment

The ambition in this text is to draw together a diverse collection of ideas, practice and student provision, with the aim of inspiring colleagues involved with taught Master’s degrees. Sitting between the Bachelor’s and Research degrees, Master’s level (M-level) learning is a perfect space for developing research, professional and workplace expertise, and developing greater independence and confidence as a learner and creator of knowledge. The book excludes Research Master’s degrees, MPhil or PhD matters, which are considered elsewhere (Marshall and Green, 2010; Petre and Rugg, 2010; Phillips and Pugh, 2010). The intended audience is anyone teaching or supporting M-level learners, new lecturers and those creating or revising programmes or modules. Contributions vary widely in style and length with overview and reflective pieces on discipline and generic issues, and many practical examples of classroom practice. The contributions have been themed, but a number of chapters overlap theme areas, addressing for example curriculum design as well as assessment. While some readers may find this disjointed, it reflects the nature of pedagogic work in this area internationally at this time. Many contributions are deliberately short to enable us to capture a range of experiences, and enable colleagues to consider the different ways in which Master’s teaching can be approached, with some insights into the way students experience their programmes. The learning experience of any student is diverse and individual. The opening chapter aims to capture a snapshot of experiences through the authors’ reflections on their own experiences, as staff and as students. The unique narratives from Bill Lindquist and Valerie Huggins provide insights into working with and being taught as postgraduates in different contexts, and provide context for later chapters. The work of Winfield, and of Mayo and Low show how they have used different research approaches to tease out the evidence of student needs in Health and in Theatre Studies programmes. Their methodologies are widely applicable, and they also show how the student voice resonating through the findings can be used to provoke and lever further curriculum developments. The last section scopes the range of challenges that this book addresses. The Diversity of Master’s Provision, Chapter 2, surveys the frameworks in which M-level is situated internationally. The array of qualifications, markets, and marketing potentially presents a confused picture to the student, while quality is assured through national frameworks that have some commonalities, and distinctive features. Master’s programmes attract large numbers of international, part-time and professional participants. Chapter 3 aims to capture a flavour of the breadth of provision, and related issues. A short case study from Liu and

The Master’s experience

3

Liu reflects on their experience of M-level teaching and assessment in China and the USA, and gives an excellent insight into the growing market in China. Clearly, as Popovic reflects, the experience of Canadian students is very different, and from Portugal we get a flavour of the evolving curriculum as policy interventions drive curriculum change. Drawing on extensive experience from Education, Nursing and Midwifery, and amplified by research with academic colleagues and discussions with current students, the authors of Chapter 3.4 make suggestions for practice, challenging some of the taken-for-granted support structures for students’ professional development, questioning whether they may undermine rather than enhance a student’s progress. Their thinking, while drawn from first-hand experience with part-time, mature professionals, is readily applicable to many Master’s students.

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1 Master’s perspectives

Keywords: flexibility, motivation, part-time study, student experience, student-centred. The graduate students come with a wealth of experience that they contribute to the class. It is heartening to teach them. Madgerie Jameson-Charles, Lecturer, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago

The theme that most often emerges from research with those teaching at Master’s level is the pleasure and challenge that these students bring to the classroom experience; with students the research often surfaces tensions and concerns that they seek to hide. In this chapter, two authors reflect on their experiences as teachers and students. It is vital to remember that at M-level student diversity is huge (McEwen et al., 2008; Waller, 2006) and there is no ‘right’ approach to student support. While many students are content with their courses and experience, in 2014 the UK Postgraduate Taught Experience Survey (PTES) of taught Master’s students studying in 100 UK higher education institutions (HEIs) found that ‘almost 25% were not happy with the support they have received for their learning from staff members on their particular course’, and concerns around assessment and feedback, indicating there is opportunity for reflection and sharing of M-level practice (Soilemetzidis, Bennett and Leman, 2014, p. 29). Hearing the student voice and feeding it into course design considerations is essential. In the later parts of the chapter, Winfield and then Mayo and Low present short case examples of their research with their students and with employers. Their results reinforce the need for better understanding of the taught postgraduate student experience, and how it differs from the undergraduate story.

 1.1 Being a student and teacher Bill Lindquist, Hamline University, USA Disheveled with bushy grey hair and in a misbuttoned, brown cardigan sweater, the keynote speaker spoke of the power of rich dynamic 5

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learning environments to ignite the creative minds of students in our schools. For me it was a life changing moment as I sat spellbound listening to Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Professor Seymour Papert, the developer of the Logo computer language. Seldom has one speaker had such profound influence on my professional career. That next week, I attended an info-session at the University of St. Thomas, applied, and began my Master’s program with a focus in learning technology the following fall. I began to look forward to  Wednesday  evenings when I had the pleasure of stepping away from the management of 28 ten-year-olds in my fifth grade school classroom to gather with like-minded peers, who were excited to vision, discuss, and debate the grand ideas of learning. As an adult, graduate student, I had a profound appreciation for the opportunity to dedicate time and energy to advance my understanding of the foundations of my teaching profession. That spark ignited a path that brought me through my Master’s programme and directly into my doctoral studies. Today, I teach in the Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) programme at Hamline University, a private, liberal arts university in Saint Paul, Minnesota. I have the privilege of working with graduate level, pre-service teacher candidates that have chosen to return to school to pursue a second career or further their undergraduate work. Our students come from the ranks of Business, Law, Science and Engineering that speak to an awakened desire to serve in the human service sector with the potential to touch the lives of children and adolescents at a pivotal time in their development and maturation. These Master’s level students have made a conscious decision to commit vast amounts of time, energy, and financial resources to return to school. Like me, they have a deep-felt call and passion for the work ahead. I know that during my own undergraduate time I faced the competition between my studies and breaking away from my parents, experimentation with being an independent adult, and finding the ability to follow through with the expectations of a college education. I was a different person making a different student journey by the time I entered my graduate studies. I see many similarities in my current Master’s students, who not unlike me then, join together with me once a week to vision, discuss, and debate the grand ideas of educating children. Hamline is committed to a student-centred, constructivist approach to learning. We teach this commitment as powerful pedagogy for our candidates to utilise in their own classrooms. More importantly, we teach this approach through modelling within our classes on campus. This is built around a trust in our students’ commitment to learning, a grading practice that honours that trust, a responsiveness to student ideas, and integration of a language that promotes students at the centre.

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Approaching my teaching from a stance of trust in our students’ commitment and effort allows me to step away from the myriad ways we try to build in accountability to make sure they complete readings, consider ideas, etc. I am able to set out a schedule of readings and assignments with the knowledge my students will use them to advance their understanding. I post a due date for assignments to be submitted and my definition of what a due date means. The date offers an orderly time to submit work. I am prepared to respond with feedback and students remain on a sustainable pace. I work over the next week to offer feedback. Any submission during that week is respectful to my workflow and honours a differentiation of theirs. I accept the assignment for full credit. With rare exceptions, this policy has worked well. My students have appreciated the flexibility it allows as they manage full lives of work, family, and school. We discuss language supportive of maintaining students at the centre. I stay away from ‘directing’ them in what to do and ‘correcting’ their work. I describe a task with a focus on ‘we’ and ‘provide feedback’ to their submissions. The pursuit of M-level work carries a focus on the student as a scholar. My job is to provide a learning environment to help them to be successful. I have found great pleasure and satisfaction in working with Master’s level students. They carry the motivation and desire to excel borne out of an intentional commitment and sacrifice of their time, energy, and financial resources. They come to class prepared to fully engage, positioning themselves to gain as much as they can from the learning community surrounding them.

 1.2 My Master’s experience as student and teacher Valerie Huggins, Plymouth University, UK I had several motivations for undertaking a Master’s degree. I was a mature entrant into the teaching profession, having gained a Bachelor of Arts degree from the Open University over six years while raising a family of four children, followed by a one-year Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). I perceived my degree as not being as valid or high status as one from a ‘proper’ university. External pressures had led to my strategy of deliberately doing just enough to scrape through each module. My Master’s degree was a way to prove to myself that I could study at a higher level and to ‘top-up’ my degree. I sensed that in my career I was in competition with younger and perhaps better qualified colleagues, and this was a way to improve my prospects for promotion.

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The PGCE had been my first experience of being at a university. I had really enjoyed being a student, part of a learning community, but it went by so fast. I wanted more. The PGCE is a one-year course and we only touched on many topics briefly, with no time to consider issues in depth, so I was left unsure about many of the educational issues I subsequently encountered in the classroom. After a few years teaching children aged five to seven, I was appointed Foundation Stage leader with responsibility for teaching in the Nursery. At the same time, a Master’s in Education with modules on Early Years education was introduced at a local UK university. The degree consisted of five modules and a dissertation to be completed within five years. I was able to choose modules to fit my learning needs. These were delivered in ten weekly sessions from six to nine pm, after a day’s teaching. This offered me the validation I was seeking, the opportunity to study again and the promise of relevant subject knowledge for my new role. I was by no means happy with a number of aspects of the Master’s programme. On reflection, I was very much influenced at that time by ideas about teaching and learning based upon my own experience as a pupil at school and upon how I perceived the role of the teacher, and these were often challenged. I found myself frustrated in several sessions by the amount of group discussion and experience sharing. I did not value this sufficiently, seeing the tutor as the ‘expert’ there to impart her knowledge. I wanted to be ‘taught’. Having completed two modules successfully, I withdrew from the next one on inclusion, even though I knew it would set my progress back by at least six months, because of the tutor’s stance. He was a passionate advocate for a totally inclusive education system, with no special units or special schools. I was working at a school with a very successful language unit, and had also experienced working at a residential special school. At the time I fundamentally disagreed with his stance. However, I did not vocalise this in the sessions, just becoming increasingly passive, uncomfortable and resentful. I went so far as to decide that there was no point in submitting the assignment, as I would fail if I expressed my opinions, and so I withdrew. Looking back on it now, I recognise that my perspectives were equally valid but my refusal to listen to alternatives restricted my learning considerably. During the next module I again found myself in an uncomfortable place with a tutor whose favourite word was ‘paradigm’, and try as I might, I could not grasp the meaning of this. She clearly assumed that it was obvious, and together with other academic language examples this became a real barrier to my engagement and learning on the module, putting me back into the position of ‘my degree is not good enough, that

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is why I do not understand’. Once more I withdrew from challenging or asking questions. I found the thesis stage particularly hard, but I made it difficult for myself. I did not seek sufficient support, not wanting to be seen either as inadequate or as a bother. I had a lack of confidence in my own ideas and I was reluctant to share my writing with the tutor in draft form. As a result I had very few tutorials and so had to battle through very much on my own. I scraped a pass, but clearly opportunities were lost for much deeper involvement and understanding. The immediate impact of the degree upon my practice in school was limited. During the time I was studying I received mixed responses from my colleagues. Many were supportive but some were resentful. This meant that some of the benefits that could have been obtained by cascading and sharing my learning through explicitly drawing on it were lost, as well as the chance for me to strengthen and develop it by explaining and discussing it with others. Reading and the use of theoretical ideas were not valued, not part of the community of practice in the staff room, and I censored what I talked about. The outcomes of getting the degree were, however, positive for my career. It helped me to get promotion into advisory work and subsequently to enter HE as a Teacher Educator. It provided me with the status I needed to secure a year’s Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) secondment to work with Ethiopian Teacher Educators, who had issues with my gender, but huge respect for educational awards. It also developed my taste for and understanding of the benefits of underpinning my work with appropriate theory and research findings and so led directly to me undertaking a Doctorate in Education (EdD). Returning to study for the EdD has broadened and deepened my knowledge, and returning to the classroom for its taught modules has given me further insights into the experience of our students, as well as improving my understanding of the role of the tutor in facilitating and enabling learning at this higher level of study. My own experience as a Master’s student had made clear to me that many of the barriers to successful M-level study are personal, psychological and concern issues of identity, and I recognise this very clearly in many of the mature students that I encounter as a tutor. Often I am teaching a group of experienced professionals, who have considerable power in their working environments and are accustomed to having their views and opinions accepted. As a tutor in such a context one needs to be secure in one’s own ability to take risks in one’s teaching, to provoke discomfort and then to support the students in resolving their dilemmas. The benefits of engaging in an EdD is that not only have I

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experienced exactly this process and acknowledged the huge benefits for learning that emerge, but I now also have the theoretical frameworks that underpin and justify such an approach. Another aspect in which the EdD can be beneficial to a Master’s tutor’s professional development is that during the modular stage of the EdD, one has to submit work for assessment, not a common experience in PhD study. This can enhance understanding of the process and the difficulties around, for example, assessment criteria and deadlines, often a stumbling block for students. Moreover, during the thesis stage, I was engaged in an intense student–tutor relationship with my supervisors. This has made me keenly aware of a whole further range of issues, including the nature of the perceived power imbalance, the vulnerability of exposing one’s fledgling ideas for feedback and the potential difficulties and misunderstandings that inevitably arise during such a process. Engagement in a programme such as an EdD has shown me that, as well as the important dimension of developing a student’s content knowledge, considerable consideration needs to be given to the personal and psychological dynamics of learning and to the building of effective working relationships in order to effectively support a student through taught Master’s study. These personal accounts of the student and teacher experience raise a range of fascinating points, particularly about the need for student support to learn effectively. The next two short studies outline the research process used with Healthcare and with Theatre Studies students to better understand student needs.  1.3 Researching the Master’s student experience Louise Winfield, Plymouth University, UK This example provides an insight into students’ experience, elicited through a longitudinal study with part-time MSc Advanced Healthcare Practice students who are managing their studies around their workplace commitments. Exploring the personal and professional development of these students had the specific objectives of: 1. identifying the impact of M-level studies on: a. personal and professional development; b. improvements in knowledge, skills and enhanced clinical practice; 2. determining the perceived influence of these changes on the graduate’s working environment. The research design could be used to gain insights into the effectiveness of any programme.

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Research process Data were collected via a longitudinal study following one cohort throughout their three-year course, and a cross-sectional study collecting data from students in their second and third years via semi-structured interviews. In the longitudinal study, where all students were involved, data were gathered at the end of each year via focus groups, chaired by a neutral researcher, where students were encouraged to contemplate, discuss and scrutinise their practice. A semi-structured schedule of questions guided the discussion. This methodology encouraged participants’ interaction, including interaction with the researcher, to further explore and clarify their knowledge, experiences and perceptions. This is something that may be difficult to extract from a one-to-one interview. In the cross-sectional study, where students were off-campus, telephone interviews were used (Barriball et al., 1996; Cassani et  al., 1992). While this study primarily captured the views of one cohort, the results were sense checked with succeeding cohorts. Interview transcript analysis was based on Miles and Huberman’s (1994) inductive coding technique. The emerging themes in the data were identified initially by independent readers of the data, and then discussed, compared and refined to ensure there was agreement on the final selection of themes. Discussion The analysis elicited five major themes: the role and promotion, time management, clinical skills, confidence and credibility. The themes as exemplified by the student quotes below provided the teaching team with evidence that could be used to refine the programme, which in this case involved discussions with the National Health Service (NHS) commissioners and other stakeholders who have oversight of the programme. Role and promotion Promotion was cited as a motivator for undertaking the MSc, with some clinicians wanting to remain in the clinical area close to patient care. Graduates of the programme can apply for senior clinical positions and still care for patients: It gives me a ticket to be able to go on and do what I want to do which is eventually I would like to become a consultant nurse.

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Some students had encouragement from their employers to commence the course and others were ‘told to commence’. Being told to attend a programme is not uncommon, but the student experience is, in my experience, different when interest and enthusiasm are limited. A number of specialist clinicians wanted to broaden their skill set to help them look at a patient more holistically: I work in a specialist area as well and you can get quite blinkered and doing this does open your mind to a whole range of other things. A number of students changed their role in the second and third years, achieving posts that had more clinical autonomy and decision-making within them. Graduates can apply for specific, more senior posts that require this qualification, where they can impact on care delivery at a strategic level: I do a lot more strategic work, still clinically focused but using that clinical experience to really push service developments. Time management First-year students seemed all consumed with the amount of reading and work needed to complete the assessments. Students were almost in shock, and talked about not seeing families and feeling guilty if they went out for the day. It almost takes the enjoyment out of it because I think you should be able to enjoy this sort of course and the aspects of what you are learning. Isolation was raised as an issue and common problem for part-time students: You can’t sit at lunchtime and mull over different thoughts that go through your mind because there is no one there who even cares really, so that is the hard bit, it’s ploughing on when you feel like you are out there on your own. The more successful students tended to have structured and disciplined approaches to their studies. They understood that at times they had to prioritise their studies before social events; however, keeping a balance is really important to retain perspective: Losing your social life has been really difficult I think, just having to say no to friends when they say [they are] doing something this weekend and you have to think really hard about what is important. Support networks are vital to enable students to communicate when they are away from the university. The IT infrastructure of virtual networks allows effective peer-peer support.

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Clinical skills There were many examples, particularly in the second- and third-year interviews, which illustrated development in clinical skills. There is a greater sense of mastery in the language these students used: I think that like when I am admitting someone and I listen to their chest I am listening to that chest differently because I am looking for different things … I don’t think I would have done that I would have just said yes that child is wheezy. I don’t think I actually realise until I have find something or somebody asks me. I think I have got more systematic in my approach, I think through things, causes and symptom sorting, I am much more with it.

Confidence All students seemed to have gone through a confidence dip or some sort of self-doubt. This is not just related to their knowledge base but also involves the confidence to assert their opinions or feel on a level playing field with other colleagues: So to an extent I was intimidated by other healthcare workers and I found it hard to break into that and articulate my view point. Students seemed to go through a transition period which really affected their confidence and caused them to question their past practice: ‘Why am I here?’ and ‘Why on earth did I start this?’ The timing of this change is different for every student but is generally around the middle to the end of the first year and can last into the second year or beyond. Students begin not only to question their knowledge base but also to question how they have done things in the past, and how they might have acted if they had possessed the knowledge that they now have: It is a scary thought but I would have changed my actions with that patient. By year three this seemed to have turned around; not only did the students notice a change in themselves, but their colleagues also commented on a change in their practice: I’ve had comments on my clinical knowledge from colleagues – especially doctors, I think they are genuinely surprised as how I assess the patient and make management plans.

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Credibility Students felt achieving a Master’s gave them credibility in the workplace; they perceived colleagues treated them differently, with more respect. Have academic credibility because of the work that I have done. I know there has been a large volume of work but I really felt that I have achieved something completing it and that is probably what MSc should be or that level of study should be and I did not think that it was above and beyond what I would have expected, but I just hadn’t experienced it before and did not know quite what to expect at the beginning. Regardless of the discipline or style of the Master’s programme you are running, this research methodology will elicit the information you need to understand if you are to achieve the goals you have set. The results of this study highlighted to the team where we needed to add support, and what systems and processes we needed to put in place to enable an enhanced learning environment for our students. It gave us more than the standard end-of-module comments. We gained a much deeper understanding of what it is like to study with us, which is vital for future planning, and has materially changed certain parts of our programme. The student voice provided effective and compelling evidence that enabled us to also work more effectively with our external stakeholders. The theme of working with the wider stakeholder group is also raised in this next case where engagement with employers to understand the evolving nature of the theatre workplace and employment is essential.

 1.4 Understanding students’ needs in theatre practice Sue Mayo, Goldsmiths College, UK Katharine Low, Royal Central School of Speech & Drama, UK Students come with different backgrounds and experience, and needed research in a variety of settings to tease out different aspects. Our aim was to explore different approaches to teaching MA Applied Theatre courses and to develop additional teaching materials that would be supportive (Low and Mayo, 2013a, 2013b). While we both teach in academic settings, we recognise our own and our students’ different routes into teaching or taking the MA: the apprenticeship route (Mayo) and the academic route (Low). We were curious to observe what the differences

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were between these two routes, particularly in the current context where the field of Applied Theatre is becoming increasingly taught at MA level. Applied Theatre practice builds on a broad pedagogy (Hepplewhite, 2013; Leavy, 2009; Stuart Fisher and Oman, 2011) where active and problem-based learning and reflection are the main pedagogical features. Our research involved:  face-to-face interviews with leading practitioners in the field of applied and socially engaged theatre who had not come through the academic route;  an online survey of employers of freelance practitioners;  discussions at practice-based research events with current students and graduates of MA courses and with teachers of Applied Theatre practice. Towards the end of the research we curated a round table to further interrogate the key findings. In addition to the written report (Low and Mayo, 2013a), we produced three teaching films focused on particular themes with accompanying activities (see Gallery tab in Low and Mayo, 2013b). Findings Our research with both those engaged in the academic study of Applied Theatre, and practitioners who had learned through experience and mentoring, revealed three priorities common to all:  the need to experiment and to take risks in order to learn;  the need to take time to reflect and absorb the learning;  the need for students to form a support network with a wide range of people, both peers and influential figures, including teachers, mentors and key theorists. We then explored how these might best be achieved in the teaching of MA courses: The need to experiment and to take risks in order to learn While many students felt that they had expanded their skills and horizons during their MA study, others reported high levels of anxiety, caused partly by the discovery of the sheer complexity of the field of work, and the many issues needing to be considered when working in the community and/or with vulnerable groups. The assessment culture also contributed, with students understandably keen to get good grades, and therefore made more risk averse.

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If you want to get everything right you end up in an anxiety vortex, and you can’t do anything! Many of the teachers of Applied Theatre spoke of their own commitment to dialogic Freirian teaching approaches (Freire, 1970) which was crucial in terms of reflecting the values of the field of work itself. They underlined the need to maintain a commitment to the creation of a teaching space where students felt safe to try out alternative methodologies and approaches: It’s being responsive to them, talking to them, listening to them, creating a safe environment, creating space. (Experienced teacher/practitioner)

The need to take time to reflect and absorb the learning Practitioners who had not undertaken MA study saw it as a chance to reflect, and avoid the danger of just ‘tumbling on’, without adequate pause for thought and evaluation. Many teachers identified the sheer breadth of the field and the need to cover as much as possible as a factor that could lead to a sense of congestion. All underlined the need for time to think and to absorb, and for the need to learn how to discuss and to develop critical thinking. I had picked up bits of training along the way, I hadn’t had a rigorous training in applied drama and … I didn’t know the foundations of the theory behind it, and the MA really filled that gap really in my professional life actually, and it also … gave me a network of people … it gave me a slightly different, an academic and theoretical perspective rather than just a practical perspective and it contextualised everything I was doing and gave me much more confidence and also allowed me to reflect on my practice and hopefully allowed me to make it better and it continues to do that. The need for a support network, both of peers and of influential figures such as teachers, mentors and key theorists All our respondents cited the sense of a network, or a cohort, as key to their development and ongoing growth. Many students spoke of a sense of having previously been developing work alone, and finding that the course gave them a sense of a laboratory in which to build a good group with whom to learn and discover. This was clearly most possible when the numbers in a cohort of students were of a size that facilitated group identity. This also underlined the benefits of the students being aware of how

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much they could learn from each other, as well as from their lecturers. As one graduate noted: I think there is so much sort of, sociological, artistic, community led and academic force behind the applied field that it really needs to be in an institution that supports and recognises that completely. Indeed, academic reading provided a context and a sense of a community of researchers, with many graduates speaking about having these significant voices with them all the time. The experienced artists interviewed could all name both significant mentors and peers as absolutely key to their learning: the two things that run through all the people who I have admired in their work or the three maybe are, passion, absolute passion and enthusiasm and a connection with a bigger picture, a bigger agenda somewhere behind the work and hard work, and being prepared to absolutely slog it. Experienced artist filmed for the research

Our recommendations include:  finding ways of articulating success/failure differently, through forms of assessment that recognise the need to research and experiment;  building mutually beneficial relationships with arts organisations and practitioners;  articulating the MA courses as part of lifelong learning, rather than as a definitive training. For students, there was sometimes a sense of hope that the course would somehow be a ‘complete’ training, but all those we met who had graduated had a very clear sense that the learning was ongoing: it’s an ability to have a discussion about that what things to be looking out for in your work and to kind of develop a confidence to be open about things I thought I was coming to the end, but actually it is just the beginning!

 1.5 Defining issues for mastery Pauline Kneale, Plymouth University, UK Master’s students should be drivers, not passengers. Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013, p. 5

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In the highly competitive global market for M-level learning, there is a need for distinctive innovative Master’s programmes which enable students to develop to a higher level of academic learning, confidently tackling complex, ‘wicked’ problems (Balint et al., 2011; Conklin, 2003; Knight and Page, 2007). Pedagogic considerations to deliver this mastery agenda include students as researchers (Healey, Flint and Harrington, 2014); HEIstudent partnership concept delegating control of learning to students where possible (May and Felsinger 2010, p. 32); self-regulated learning concepts (Boekaerts et al., 2000; Zimmerman, 2000); and Rosenberg’s (2012) journey from novice to mastery. Rosenberg speaks of increasing fluency, learning agility and shareable knowledge developing through the stages of mastery; moving from education and training (show me how) at the novice stage through to collaboration and problem solving where ‘I create my own learning’ at the Master–Expert level. In essence, M-level practice should place emphasis on students doing with limited didactic telling. Sadler (2010, p. 542), in his excellent analysis of the problems with feedback, makes the point that ‘For many students, understanding the key concepts and their implications for practice are non-trivial. Simply being told, even through multiple messages, is rarely effective.’ Challenging issues raised regularly by academics who discuss Master’s teaching can be encapsulated under the following ten headings: 1. Entry requirements: are they at the right level; how can early modules challenge all students? Should there be pre-course activity for some students to ‘level up’, and parallel modules for those who have more background on entry? Should we provide something different for students with strong undergraduate or professional experience, avoiding any suggestion of students marking time as the class is ‘levelled up’? In essence, should there be some modules that reinforce or revisit undergraduate essential knowledge or skills, while other students tackle different projects or topics to build on their prior learning? This is especially an issue where a specific discipline background is not a degree prerequisite. Chapter 11.6 addresses this issue, the authors choosing group work rather than streaming. 2. Induction, transition and generic university support It is generally assumed that students have completed an undergraduate degree, know what they are doing, and therefore induction is brief or unnecessary. Many academic staff are unaware of how frequently Master’s students use university-wide learning development,

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study skills, counselling and writing support opportunities, often with a plea ‘not to tell my tutor’. Part 2 looks at examples of support available, and at ways to research students’ needs. What is clear is that course design needs to embed induction and transition practices, so that staff and students value and reinforce support. 3. Level and standards: what is the level of mastersness? How do you know when the level is achieved? Are Master’s more of, or just harder than, the feeder undergraduate scheme? How is professionalism captured and engendered? There are some general answers to this in Chapter 2 through consideration of the national quality frameworks, and from the many authors who come from education, healthcare and legal backgrounds where the professional elements are core. 4. How do we spotlight taught Master’s programmes for quality enhancement, when developments more often focus on undergraduate programmes? Peer review and team contributions at this level are generally described as ‘patchy’. Comments from two staff appear to be typical: Everyone just assumes that you can teach MSc. You just get on with it. It is where you do your own research thing, so I suppose people are taking it for granted that what you do will be fine We are all following our own specialities and it just seems to happen. I have a mentor who came to my undergraduate lectures but no one who comes to listen to the Masters class. Kneale, 2005, p. 13

Programmes can be slow to evolve, possibly because team teaching is rarer than at undergraduate level, it is harder to influence pedagogies with the ‘solo’ module teachers. Wicked and interdisciplinary problems need group inputs with experts from inside and outside the academy, which needs multi-disciplinary team teaching and support. 5. How do we manage diversity, international, home, part-time, mature or disabled students, high-flyers and others? It is important that students take risks in learning, thinking, research and writing. How do we enable this when they also want the security of a high mark? A number of chapters look at writing, but taking risks can be harder to manage. What is helpful is making assessment more about the process of discovery, and less about an expected outcome.

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Many engineering and environmental problems, for example, will have multiple future ‘solutions’ or ‘scenarios’. What matters is explaining how the solution has been determined, its advantages and disadvantages, costs and benefits, and expecting that every student’s solution will be different. 6. What do graduates really need? Is M-level genuinely transformative? Most Master’s graduates do not become PhD students. Never mind what is interesting academically; what does the workplace need in the next five to ten years? How do we balance curriculum activities for knowledge, professional and technical skills and attitudes? Wenger (1998, p. 226) suggested we could differentiate between learning and merely being active in that ‘learning – whatever form it takes – changes who we are by changing our ability to participate, to belong, to negotiate meaning’. This presents a challenging standard for staff delivering at this level, to recognise and reflect on how our students are changing through their Master’s learning process, and how it changes us as teachers. We should also reflect on whether that ‘change’ is sustained over time, where staff and graduates are enthusiastic learners taking ownership of the future developments in their discipline or professional areas. 7. People working together Currently there is generally an emphasis on solo work, but people in business and research need team players. Digitally literate graduates with experience of online and blended learning are needed in a globally connected workplace, where they can confidently build communities of practice. How do we know when online and blended working provides effective learning? Are our modules using the most appropriate, work relevant software and devices? 8. Assessment may, cynically, be considered to be best defined as more than final-year undergraduate What other options are there that will enable and reinforce learning? What approaches help students to really engage with the issues? The chapters in Part 4 provide a comprehensive set of examples, and make reference to many more. 9. Is a thesis still a relevant capstone assessment? Should a research journal article or business report, or other relevant output, replace it? Are programmes with no capstone research project, or equivalent, demonstrating mastersness? There are many texts that look at the dissertation process in detail, so we have elected not

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to cover it in this book, but it is a critical question in course design (see also Hill et al., 2011; Race, 2014, pp. 107–117). 10. Finally and perhaps most challenging is the question: are we using a pre-existing form to fit a new educational demand? Is the Master’s framework delivering what people, businesses and researchers need? If not, what could it look like? There are many shapes and styles of Master’s learning. M-level study can be a bridge between Bachelor’s and Research degrees, an opportunity for increasing research, professional and workplace capability, and for becoming more creative, independent and confident. The perspectives drawn together in this book do not answer all the questions above, but do cover aspects of most issues; there is clearly more to explore. Throughout this book authors recognise that effective learning at M-level needs to be at a high level, with students tackling complex problems, supported and facilitated through active learning and problem solving, and limited traditional content-delivery. Courses need to provide the right scaffolding to allow students to progress to Rosenberg’s mastery or expert stage, to let students take control of their learning and to understand how to tackle wicked problems, accepting that solutions will not necessarily emerge. The authors in the first part of this chapter have raised many issues including the need for supportive induction, networking, creating self-confidence, space to take risks, and allowing students to develop autonomy amongst others. This chimes with the comment that ‘You cannot expect autonomy on day 1 – but it is what you are aiming for’ (Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013, p. 5). The next chapter explores the diversity of Master’s provision in different countries and addresses crucial issues around curriculum marketing, design, delivery, assessment and evaluation. Academics are aware of their national quality standards, but perhaps these should be made more visible to students. Awareness of students’ needs, and the impact of the classroom approach, the experience of tutors, and the vulnerability of learners, all point to the need for careful course design and active support for Master’s students. As nations move ever closer towards congruence on standards, as students’ expectations rise and as employers’ needs become ever more prominent in setting the agenda for Master’s provision, the chapters that follow cannot answer all the associated questions but we seek to establish the main issues and provide a toolkit to enable thinking and development that will work towards resolving them.

2 The diversity of Master’s provision Pauline Kneale, Plymouth University, UK

Keywords: curriculum, funding, marketing, quality assurance, quality frameworks, skills, student experience. At master’s level, their knowledge should not be bounded by yours. Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013, p. 5

The style and delivery of taught Master’s programmes varies widely both within and between countries and disciplines. This section introduces the position in different international settings, focusing on marketing, course styles and qualifications, drawing on observations and data from the UK, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, China and the USA.

 The Master’s market In analysing Master’s level (M-level) education, considerations include curriculum content, students’ return on investment, employability, the mode of delivery, part-time, full-time or flexible, and the options for credit transfer. In the UK and Australia entry to taught Master’s programmes generally requires an undergraduate degree qualification as a prerequisite. Degrees which have a professional focus may include substantial work-based or practice-based learning. Some students also learn part-time while acting as tutors, moving between the tutor and student role with the complexities that this involves: At the moment I am a postgraduate student of distance education and still find myself slipping into bad habits of failing to read what the assignment topic was and leaving it until the last minute, while telling my own students not to do that. Tom Worthington, Adjunct Senior Lecturer, Research School of Computer Science, Australian National University, http://highereducationwhisperer.com

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The diversity of Master’s provision

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In Europe, the Bologna process, which established a level of comparability in higher education (HE) across nations, has resulted in some fundamental changes to the length and duration of study and the transferability of qualifications (Bologna, 2009a, 2009b; Bologna Declaration, 1999, p. 233). Germany, Norway and Spain have restructured programmes with an emphasis on quality (Clarke and Lunt, 2014). The impact of this process on an Education programme in Portugal is described by Baptista and Cabral (Chapter 3.3). See also Louvel (2013) discussing curriculum change in 20 Nanotechnology Master’s programmes in French universities, and Castillo et al. (2011), Collins and Hewer (2013) and Esyutina et al. (2013) discussing where competencies, learning outcomes and course duration are becoming aligned to enable student mobility through the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). Bauer and Prenzel (2012) argue that Bologna has increased transparency, upgraded the scope and standard of teacher education in some countries and introduced and reinforced research skills and project work. But essentially as Sin (2013) indicates ‘the devil is in the detail’. Taught Master’s awards In the USA, UK, Australia, Ireland and Denmark the awards for taught Master’s degrees are termed Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MSc, MS, MSci, MCA), Master of Education (MEd), Master of Engineering (MEng), Master of Business Administration (MBA) and Master of Research (MRes, MARes, MScRes). In Sweden, Poland and other parts of Europe, programmes gain Magister (MGR) awards. In Italy the Master’s degree prior to Bologna was called the Laurea, more recently referred to as the Laurea di Secondo Livello. These awards normally require an undergraduate, Bachelor’s degree or significant equivalent experience as an entry qualification. The degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) is usually reserved for Master’s courses entirely involving research. The MRes normally consists of taught components which prepare the student for the research dissertation, and typically a longer research project than is undertaken in other Master’s programmes. More recently, programmes have emerged which specify the discipline, for example Master of Laws (LLM), Master of Music (MM, MMus), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), and Master of Science in Nursing (MSN). A further complication in titles arises around the integrated degrees where undergraduate work leads immediately to M-level study and a single award. In the UK integrated awards are normally made at the end

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of a four-year full-time programme, for example Master of Psychology (MPsych), Master of Mathematics (MMath) and Master of Geology (MGeol). In Medicine there are international changes which will consider the later years of medical training as being at M-level (Cumming, 2010; Kaiser and Kiessling, 2010), and therefore effectively five- or six-year integrated degrees. Timescales Master’s degrees can usually be taken either full-time or part-time. In the UK they are normally one year full-time, but may be longer, 15 months to include the dissertation writing period, for example, or two years. These are taught intensively with students spending two-thirds of their time, 120 credits, in taught modules, and one-third on a 60-credit research dissertation (Shedd, 2003; Wolanin, 2003). The pattern varies with disciplinary needs, and may include work placements. Part-time Master’s degrees are usually taught across two to three years with a similar balance of taught and research components. By contrast, USA and Canadian programmes are normally taught across two years and as Popovic (Chapter 3.2) explains further, students may be partly or wholly funded or employed by their institution. In Europe, following Bologna, MGR degrees are typically integrated and follow on from the undergraduate degree, taking five years in total. In China, as explained more fully by Liu and Liu (Chapter 3.1), the norm is three years. Flexibility on the part of staff who manage part-time degree programmes can be very important when workplace pressures discourage continuation with the programme (Waller, 2006), especially where there is pressure from quality assurance colleagues to achieve completion within particular timescales. Huggins (Chapter 1.2), Durham and See (Chapter 13) and others highlight issues for participants, indicating the need for programme managers to actively encourage and support participants to continue and complete. This temporal variability in student engagement needs explicit consideration in curriculum design. Soilemetzidis et al. (2014, p. 4) found that UK students were most likely to cite location as the reason for choosing their institution, while international students were more likely to cite reputation. The most important reason for part-time students was flexible delivery (47%), which was cited by just 10% of full-time students. Courses which fail to offer flexibility may lose out on almost half of the part-time market and around a quarter of the overall postgraduate taught market.

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Student numbers In China, modern graduate education first emerged in 1921. The growth of university provision was interrupted in the 1960s and 70s, and was restored in 1978. 1984 saw graduate schools established in 22 universities, and the first professional MBA developed in 1990. By 1998 there were 55,174 graduate students on Master’s courses in China, a number which grew to nearly half a million by 2011 (He, 2012). Liu and Liu (Chapter 3.1) discuss the style of delivery of these programmes in more detail, but the numbers indicate the rapid growth of provision within China, which may in time reduce the numbers travelling to other countries for their Master’s education. In the USA, Australia, the UK and Canada, around 20% of students are registered on taught Master’s degrees. In 2010–11, 730,635 Master’s degrees were awarded to US residents, 19% of all degrees awarded in the USA (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012), although these data do not distinguish between taught Master’s and research Master’s. The largest provision was in Business Management (187,213) and Education (185,009). In the UK, 18% of students enrolled in HE were registered on taught Master’s degrees in 2011–12, reflecting a consistent trend of the past ten years of between 18–19%. Up to 2010–11 there were more part-time than full-time students, a position which changed in 2011 when the numbers of part-time students in English higher education institutions (HEIs) dropped by about 20,000, and the numbers have continued to decrease slightly in 2012, 2013 and 2014, primarily due to a reduction in numbers on Education programmes. The numbers of full-time students are more consistent with a small, 2% increase in 2013–14 as compared with 2012– 13 (HEFCE, 2014, pp. 5, 25–6). In 2012–13, 74% of full-time taught Master’s entrants came from outside the UK (including other EU countries), an increase from 66% in 2005–6. A further dimension to the market is transnational education (TNE), where students are taught in a country different to the awarding HEI. Approximately 27% of the English TNE market provision is in taught postgraduate courses (HEFCE, 2014, p. 33). In Australia in 2011–12, approximately 21% of total enrolment was on taught Master’s programmes. Of these, 188,755 students were enrolled on coursework-based Master’s programmes with a further 8,217 enrolled for Master’s by Research (Australian Government, 2012). In Japan the proportion of students enrolled on Master’s courses is lower on average at between 7% and 8%. This number has been

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The master’s experience

consistent over the last ten years, with 175,980 students enrolled on Master’s programmes in 2011 (RIHE, 2014). In South Africa in 2010, Master’s courses accounted for 5% (46,600) of the total enrolment in public HE, a small increase on the 44,312 students in 2005 (CHE, 2012, p. 20). In South Africa the undergraduate market is growing at a faster rate than the postgraduate market, with proportionally more Master’s students located in the ‘old’ university sector (CHE, 2012, p. 33). Fees There are huge variations in the fees associated with a Master’s degree, making any attempt to generalise entirely futile. Fees can vary significantly within institutions by discipline. Making decisions about where to undertake a Master’s degree on the basis of affordability is a continuous difficulty for students. The MBAs, medical and dental programmes tend to be the most expensive. In England, ‘the median net fee for full-time postgraduate taught courses registered and taught at HEIs in 2012–13 was around £8,000, and £5,900 for part-time’, with an estimated ‘increase of 7% in 2013–14’ (HEFCE, 2014, p. 26). In England, 73% of students are reported as self-funded (HEFCE, 2014, p. 26). There is some funding from businesses supporting their employees. For example in Australia and in the UK, health and education degrees may have employer support. For students in the USA and Canada, fees support and offers of work on campus help to make programmes affordable. Marketing Applications for Master’s programmes are normally made directly to a university, usually online, and may involve a fee. Universities have their own application forms, and deadlines for submission vary widely. Most faceto-face courses have one entry point in the year, but online programmes and some professional programmes have two or more entry points. The potential for confusion for the applicant is high, and universities don’t know how many applications to other institutions an individual may have made. Search engines enable students to explore opportunities internationally very quickly. These factors make effective online programme marketing essential. In essence, marketing should define and promote the programme content, style of delivery, teaching approaches, institution and benefits of successful completion for career development and the wider community. Sampling online information for some 60 Master’s programmes using the

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Schofield et al. (2013) methodology, it is clear that many programmes trade primarily on their university reputation, place in the national or international rankings, the age of the institution, the quality of the staff and their research record. For programmes in health and education the opportunities for practice and placements are foregrounded in some advertising, as is flexibility to pause study when workplace pressures are difficult. On other programmes, Master’s are characterised as a ‘refuge’ from the workplace and here the academic content is highlighted. There is less emphasis on employability than might be expected (Artess et al., 2014). Clarke and Lunt (2014, p. 182) state ‘research shows that those with graduate degrees are in growing demand from employers generally’ and that ‘the number of jobs typically requiring a doctorate or a professional degree for entry is projected to increase by 20% between 2010 and 2020, with employment opportunities typically requiring a Master’s degree expected to grow by 22%’ (Sommers and Franklin, 2012). Details of individual modules, their indicative content, style of student activities and assessment within programmes can be hard to find. Curricula are more typically discussed generically, referred to as state-ofthe-art, cutting-edge, highest quality, rigorously reviewed and recently revised, which makes it difficult for an applicant to discern real differences between programmes. The reality of choice varies hugely according to a student’s personal circumstances. In practice a student’s choice may be severely constrained by their personal geography. For part-timers the only face-to-face option is likely to be their local HEI, while others will be constrained by financial considerations. However, the growing online market, which in the UK is led by the Open University provision, is opening up many more opportunities. Information about programme fees is not always as visible in publicity as might be wished. Universities review their prices annually, but potential applicants need clarity if they are to choose wisely. As I-grad (2013, pp. 34–5) note, students need ‘an online step-by-step chronological guide’ to the application process, and clarity around eligibility and deadlines to avoid delaying their course by up to a year because they’ve missed a funding application date. There are some excellent examples of the value of the degree as measured by the jobs graduates have attained. There are some excellent showand-tell stories, often presented via short videos, but notably fewer than on the undergraduate programmes from the same university. The attention to marketing material for postgraduates would appear to be attended to after undergraduate marketing has been addressed.

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Hobsons’s (2014) analysis of the factors influencing students to study in another country concludes that ‘for both undergraduates and postgraduates quality of education compared to their home country and international recognition of qualifications are very important. These are followed by safety and the country’s attitude towards international students’ (Hobsons, 2014, p. 23). The least important factors are distance from home and the ability to gain residency in the destination country after studying. Hobsons concludes that the majority of postgraduates are seeking to improve their employment prospects in their home country, and therefore key questions for recruiters to address through their advertising are: 1. Will I get a better job in my home country? 2. Will I be able to demonstrate the quality of this course? Hobsons, 2014, p. 7

International comparisons of universities and disciplines are available through the many league tables which help students answer the second question. The first question is more rarely addressed in promotional material, and often a secondary consideration in programme design. An excellent exception is described by Marais (Chapter 8.2) which addresses career development activities undertaken with postgraduate students in Aberdeen. On the positive side, UK students holding postgraduate qualifications are more likely to be in employment 40 months after graduation than those without, and there is some evidence that they are better paid (HEFCE, 2014, p. 48; HESA, 2007; Lindley and Machin, 2013). Taught Master’s degrees are a crowded market, with some universities having more Master’s than undergraduate programmes. Comparison between courses presents a challenge, particularly to any student who hasn’t already decided on their discipline specialty, and while students seeking undergraduate courses can compare opportunities using national student surveys, these are not so widespread at this level.

 Quality frameworks Some insight into the minimum standards for Mastersness (UK Level 7, Australia Level 9) can be discerned from the expected outputs from degrees as defined by national quality assurance organisations. All the authors in this book work within their own national quality framework.

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Exploring the quality standard concepts during programme planning, and mapping curriculum to these concepts, offers an intriguing and thoughtprovoking opportunity in curriculum thinking. Asking students or graduates to map their experience in this way is enlightening: It shows you that the programme isn’t just what each of the teachers wanted to do. It is cool that there are people who decide how to make what you do more difficult each year, and I suppose it’s reassuring that what we do here is at the same standard as in other unis. … Looking at the docs has made me think about the skills sessions we do, and explains why a bit more. For students on programmes in England and Northern Ireland HEIs, the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA, 2010, pp. 12–15) states that Master’s programme graduates will typically have:  Subject-specific attributes  an in-depth knowledge and understanding of the discipline informed by current scholarship and research, including a critical awareness of current issues and developments in the subject. MA, MSc and some integrated Master’s students will also have:  the ability to complete a research project in the subject, which may include a critical review of existing literature or other scholarly outputs. Students on professional programmes will typically have:  the ability to apply research to professional situations, both practical and theoretical;  the ability to use a range of techniques and research methods applicable to their professional activities. Interestingly, the generic attributes acquired through taught and MPhil programmes are the same: A range of generic abilities and skills that include the ability to:     

use initiative and take responsibility; solve problems in creative and innovative ways; make decisions in challenging situations; continue to learn independently and to develop professionally; communicate effectively, with colleagues and a wider audience, in a variety of media.

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In Scotland the Quality Assurance Agency Scotland (QAA Scotland, 2013, pp. 3–7) framework highlights seven inter-related facets of the postgraduate student experience which together underpin mastersness: 1. Level of complexity: Recognising and dealing with complexity of knowledge – including provisionality, the integration of knowledge and skills, application of knowledge in practice – conceptual complexity, and complexity of learning process. 2. Degree of abstraction: Extracting knowledge or meanings from sources and then using these to construct new knowledge or meanings. 3. Depth of learning in a subject: Acquiring more knowledge and using knowledge differently – for example, engaging in a narrow topic in depth, engaging in up-to-date research, or taking a multidisciplinary approach and examining something familiar and presenting it in a new, innovative way. 4. Salience of research and enquiry: Developing critical research and enquiry skills and attributes. 5. Degree of learner autonomy and responsibility: Taking responsibility for own learning in terms of self-organisation, motivation, location and acquisition of knowledge. 6. Complexity and unpredictability in an operational context: Recognising that ‘real world’ problems are by their nature ‘messy’ and complex, and being creative with the use of knowledge and experience to solve these problems. 7. Professionalism: Displaying appropriate professional attitudes, behaviour and values in whatever discipline/occupational area is chosen (from academic to occupational subjects), including learning ethical behaviours, developing academic integrity, dealing with challenges to professionalism, recognising the need to reflect on practice, and becoming part of a discipline/occupational community. The European Qualifications Framework (EQF, 2014) defines a set of descriptors indicating the learning outcomes relevant to qualifications at each level in the system of qualifications. The M-level knowledge skills and competences are shown Table 2.1. Henning Bo Hoeier (see also www.adpp-angola.org), teaching in Angola, commented: We engage our participants in investigating, analyzing and solving real problems, finding sustainable solutions and implementing them. The old fashioned, didactic teaching that serves the knowledge on a plate will kill the

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Table 2.1 Descriptors defining Level 7 of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF, 2014) EQF Level

Level 7

Knowledge

Skills

Competence

Knowledge is described as theoretical and/or factual

Skills are described as: cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking), and practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools and instruments)

Competence is described in terms of responsibility and autonomy

Highly specialised knowledge, some of which is at the forefront of knowledge in a field of work or study, as the basis for original thinking and/or research; critical awareness of knowledge issues in a field and at the interface between different fields

Specialised problemsolving skills required in research and/ or innovation in order to develop new knowledge and procedures and to integrate knowledge from different fields

Manage and transform work or study contexts that are complex, unpredictable and require new strategic approaches; take responsibility for contributing to professional knowledge and practice and/ or for reviewing the strategic performance of teams

majority from becoming involved. The world cries out for actions in resolving the challenges of our generation, such as climate change. This broader role of integrating specific knowledge and skills with course elements that will matter at larger scales provides an additional challenge. It is worth recalling the four main purposes of HE as defined in the Dearing Report (NCIHE, 1997) when discussing programme development or evaluation: 1. to inspire and enable individuals to develop their capabilities to the highest potential levels throughout life, so that they grow intellectually, are well-equipped for work, can contribute effectively to society and achieve personal fulfilment;

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2. to increase knowledge and understanding for their own sake and to foster their application to the benefit of the economy and society; 3. to serve the needs of an adaptable, sustainable, knowledge-based economy at local, regional and national levels; 4. to play a major role in shaping a democratic, civilized, inclusive society. These frameworks, and others (Australian Qualifications Authority, 2014; Council of Ministers Canada, 2007; New Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2014; South African Qualifications Authority, 2012), encapsulate outcomes or facets of learning that set a teaching agenda that is active, encouraging a curriculum that gives many opportunities for students as researchers, co-researchers and practitioners (Healey et al., 2014). It is also interesting to consider the desired student learning experience, and ask what that might look like for optimal learning and whether it encourages risk-taking in learning. Ideas of flow experiences (colloquially: ‘being in the zone’) allow students to take greater responsibility for their learning and develop their knowledge and skills, which may result in greater enjoyment or more engagement in the task and further inspire students to take risks (Nakamura and Csíkszentmihályi, 2009; Egbert, 2003). Miller’s (2007, 2013) concept of transformation in the context of a holistic, balanced and connected curriculum links to seeing course participants in a rounded way. In seeking to create curricula that encourage people to be motivated, satisfied, more likely to take risks and have a broader world view, it is worth considering how a programme or module maps to the following matrix (Table 2.2). The quality frameworks present a tension and challenge to staff, new and experienced, teaching in their own research area, where they are seen as the ‘expert’. It is arguable that this can lead to greater didactic delivery than might be seen with undergraduates. Good questions to prompt module design thinking might therefore include:  How will induction and learning activities be configured so that my students appreciate that Master’s learning requires a strong commitment to engaging actively with the discipline?  How will my module provide students with knowledge, techniques and skills while also challenging them to answer the big questions for our discipline?  How are students encouraged to challenge current ideas and their own understanding so they really think about the issues, are inquisitive and critical?

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Table 2.2 Matrix for mapping engagement Student learning experience characteristics

Learner role – greater autonomy

Lecturer role – facilitation

Scale of opportunity and impact of activities and assignments

Optimal – Flow state

Makes decisions

Sets goals and challenges

Classroom-wide

Creates interesting tasks

City and regional National

Allows time

Global

Intense interest and total focus on tasks Confident engagement Transformation

Pursues agendas that matter to the individual Professional and personal skill development

University-wide

Provides feedback (frequently and immediately) Encourages and enables Offers inclusive learning

 How will students be instigators or partners in developing the research discussed in each module, because if we want students to think like academics, they need to work alongside academics?  How will students be enabled to build their skills? Writing well, for example, is a process not an event, developed through need, practice and opportunity.  How will these students further improve the module and programme structure and content to benefit future participants? Creating the curriculum space for module participants to create their own inputs and understanding seems to me to be absolutely essential. Moreover these students bring their own experience to the party: Very often Master’s level students have returned to University with experience from work, and have more to offer…. We tend to think of undergraduates as extended teenagers … at the Master level we are dealing with adult learners. Lisa McNee, Dean, Kings Park University, USA

There are several major differences between undergraduate and graduate students. Maturity, content knowledge, and academic capability are just some of the differences that come to mind. Graduate students often have life experience and can speak and participate much more in class because

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of this. Their level of experience also helps them, at least most of the time, in being responsible in completing assignments. With their experience and having already completed their first degree, graduate students also have at least an elementary understanding of whatever they may choose to study at the higher level. Now the goal is deeper learning rather than exposure when teaching. Additionally, graduate students are usually among the strongest students from the undergraduate programs. For many professors this is an opportunity to teach the brightest that the university has to offer. Darrin Thomas, Adjunct Lecturer, Asia Pacific International University, Thailand

Throughout this book colleagues recognise that effective learning at M-level needs to be high level, tackling complex problems, and the emphasis is strongly on active learning and problem-based learning, where essentially the academic staff are ‘limiting the telling’ element of their pedagogy. Pedagogic theories and options for learning abound. They are excellently mapped by Millwood (2012) in the context of technologyenhanced learning. We therefore find the approaches to teaching and the experience of learners are hugely variable. Tutors are well aware of the greater capacity of taught postgraduates, their experience and confidence which allow class activities to develop and become owned by the students: One thing that I notice regarding our Graduate Teaching Licensure program students and our online Master of Education and certificate program students is how much more quickly students can grasp some concepts. Much of this is due to life/work experience. In addition, graduate students seem to be more open to sharing and to discussing issues. They are not afraid to question the status quo. Chery Takkunen, Chair, Graduate Education Programs, School of Education, USA

The taught postgraduates may also provide a learning opportunity for staff: Teaching at the Master’s level is very fulfilling because it makes you to be more resourceful when dealing with undergraduates. It also gives you, the instructor, the chance to deepen your own knowledge and understanding of the subject. The ‘real world experience of the students’ in many cases cannot be found in text books. Besides, it is imperative, due to the nature

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of teaching Master’s level students, to be more prepared before you enter the lecture hall than you do with undergraduate students. Dziedzorm Asafo, Professor, Education Management, Valley View University, Ghana

By implication, programme managers need to be aware of discipline and workplace developments, anticipate the rapidly changing needs of the organisations which employ their graduates, and update their own and their students’ technical and professional skills, while having the pedagogic expertise to deliver appropriately and effectively with students from a diversity of backgrounds. This may be through formal and informal learning. In this book the examples are primarily from formal learning, but the co-curricular opportunities are also important for student development. If there is a general message about taught Master’s programmes, it is that they are diverse, difficult to generalise about, and from the students’ perspective provide a challenge in course selection. In practice many students are restricted by their geography and income, selecting from provision which is locally available or where some financial support may be acquired. Examination of a range of course websites suggests there is room for development in the promotion of programmes, with more focus on the academic elements, and less on the ‘spin doctoring’. Certainly it is a market where caveat emptor, ‘let the buyer beware’, is important, and students should seek appropriate support throughout the process. In Chapter 3 the authors comment on aspects of the teaching and learning experience in their diverse contexts which give further insights into the diversity of this market and the student experience.

3 Aspects of mastership

Keywords: Bologna process, dissertations, part-time students, induction, networking, study skills, student experience, support, transition. The four pieces in this chapter demonstrate in different ways the diversity of provision: three-year courses in China, one-year intensive teaching in the UK, students employed as part of their degree experience in Canada, and advice for those tutoring those negotiating the pitfalls of part-time study. The first case study picks up on similarities and differences in provision that may be helpful for those teaching international students. Danqing Liu has Master’s degrees from China and the USA, and works with UK colleagues regularly, making her very aware of the different approaches in Master’s education in these three countries. In Chapter 3.2 Popovic explains how Canadian courses may be created by students in the liberal arts tradition and comments on the funding available. By contrast Baptista and Cabral use data from their research with their students in Portugal to explain how the Bologna process has changed the nature of the education degree, and finally Anderson and colleagues explore issues for part-time students, based on their experience in the health and education sectors.

 3.1 Master’s education in China Danqing Liu, Tianjin University of Commerce, China and Florida International University, USA Jinghua Liu, Tianjin Normal University, China Master’s education in China has been growing continuously since 1978, with He (2012) noting that 3,180,000 Master’s degrees were awarded in China between 1978 and 2010. Master’s programmes are designed to provide advanced training, leading to teaching and research careers. Generally these are three-year courses, with two years’ course study and one years’ research and thesis writing. Admission requires applicants to pass the national graduate entrance examination, and then enter the ‘university interview’ phase, where suitable candidates are selected. Students

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are required to take two types of taught courses which consist of study of the fundamental and core curriculum. The fundamentals are designed to develop students’ basic academic and intellectual traits, to help build up a profound knowledge base including familiarity with research in their discipline. Core courses aim to broaden students’ academic horizons, and to help students acquire the necessary skills to conduct research. In the first two years, students must write their thesis research proposal and successfully defend the proposal in front of a number of staff and other students. Thesis writing and final defence are scheduled in year three. In 2009, professional Master’s degree programmes started to enrol students, with 39 majors approved by the China Ministry of Education in Accounting (MPACC), Applied Statistics (MAS), Architecture (MArch), Auditing (MAud), Business Administration (MBA), Education (EdM), Engineering (ME), Finance (MF), Fine Arts (MFA), Insurance (MI), Law (JM), Pharmacy (MPharm), Physical Education (MSPE), Policing (MP), Public Administration (MPA), Social Work (MSW), Taxation (MT) and Veterinary Medicine (VMM). With the introduction of more professional degree programmes we can anticipate more work-oriented research internships, skills training and research. Every Master’s student has an academic supervisor who mentors and advises. Students report their study and research progress to the supervisor, and seek academic advice and help as required. Students and their supervisors maintain frequent contact during the three years of study. In China, academic faculty members have to meet certain requirements set by the university, and successfully pass the university degree committee’s evaluation to be permitted to be a supervisor on a Master’s degree programme. Jinghua Liu’s case is typical. He was recognised as a supervisor for Master’s degree students in History and related subjects 20 years ago. His mentoring practice mainly follows the Chinese tradition, which includes lectures in his specialised research areas and supervision of students’ research. He has introduced Western style seminars to his classes. His lectures, which emphasise broadening and deepening students’ understanding of the subject, are organised and presented in a systematic and logical sequence. Contemporary issues in the subject area are also included. Jinghua encourages students’ participation in class by asking them questions, and then encourages students to read and write by assigning a list of reference books and detailed paper writing assignments. He grades all students’ papers himself and gives feedback to students in person. For research seminars, students receive a topic schedule at the beginning of the semester, and they are required to prepare presentations and discussions.

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In the Chinese system, the supervisor assumes the major responsibility for students developing their research skills, by supervising students as they conduct their research projects. Supervisors are expected to set a good example in their own research, and Jinghua follows the expected university processes and actively involves his students in his own research activities. Most of his students have participated in his research projects, and the majority of the students under his supervision were inspired by his research and developed their research within the scope of his specialised area and research interests. He provides excellent advice and makes positive suggestions for students’ research, which in turn enables students to learn how to undertake research more effectively. During the thesis writing process, supervisors give detailed and tailored advice and mentoring to each student. They help the students to learn the research process by doing the project and by writing up their papers. Supervisors provide flexible schedules for students to seek advice and help. After three years’ supervision, students and supervisors build up very good relationships for further collaborative research.

 3.2 The Master’s experience in Canada Celia Popovic, York University, Canada Funding for graduate courses is relatively generous in Canada, and particularly so at my own institution. York University was founded in the late 1950s with a strong sense of social justice and equity. This tradition has led to the current situation where graduate students on all but the most elite applied courses (e.g. MBA) receive generous funding. Students pay fees, but these are often significantly less than the funding, thus some graduate students are taught at a financial loss to the institution. In return for the income, students may work as Research or Teaching Assistants (RAs and TAs) for a maximum of ten hours per week, but many students work much longer hours in other locations. This combination of funding and expectation may be the reason that taught and researchbased Master’s take at least two years to complete. Full-time Bachelor degrees in Ontario take four years to complete. In the past the fourth year was optional for those students who wanted to gain an Honours distinction and who had a sufficiently high grade point average (GPA) to secure a place. Now, however, students take the full four years. It should be noted that the nature of the schedule and the need to fund themselves through paid work means that it is both possible and common for students to take longer than the minimum four years to

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complete. When the fourth year was optional this was seen as the recruitment ground for Master’s students. Now in some disciplines faculty say that the fourth year is less often seen as a stepping stone to Master’s, and consequently the transition to Master’s presents a bigger hurdle in many cases. In other disciplines such as Psychology this is not the case – in the fourth year students who are considering progressing to Master’s are likely to take a thesis course which is only open to Honours students. This involves students learning how to do research and sets the stage for graduate level research. That said, when I discussed this with a group of graduate supervisors, colleagues agreed that compared with undergraduate students, Master’s students are more mature, more focused on their learning and more likely to engage in self-directed study. In several cases the Master’s programme is tailored for professionals who continue to work full-time while taking the course. In this case students range from the super-motivated who want to explore every angle, to those who are solely concerned with gaining the credential since this often equates to a pay increase. Given this range of course type and student profile it is not easy to generalise about student teaching characteristics. Taught Master’s students are typically in smaller groups than most undergraduate classes. We have more opportunity for engaged discussion, and the shared knowledge of the students is greater than in many undergraduate classes. The result is that it is often more enjoyable for the faculty member to teach Master’s than undergraduate classes. In the case of the latter, huge classes, diverse motivations and different background knowledge on the part of the students can combine to create a sense that academics are concerned with crowd control and working on a factory production line. Undergraduate degrees in Canadian universities are made up of ‘courses’. In many programmes, students have considerable freedom to choose which courses to take and the order of some of them. For example, some courses for second-year (2,000 level) students may be required for successful completion of the programme, but a student may choose to take the 2,000 level course in the third or final year. This freedom is a strength in that students can work around their studies, discover unexpected paths and create a personally tailored course. However, it can also be a weakness in that there is much less sense of cohort than compared, for example, with UK courses. Master’s study also involves choice of courses, but because the groups tend to be smaller, and because of the frequency of professional courses, cohorts are more easily established. This also contributes to the likelihood of more deeply engaged discussion.

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 3.3 The influence of Bologna on the student experience: a case study from Portugal Ana Baptista, University of Aveiro, Portugal Ana Cabral, Instituto Superior Politécnico Gaya (ISPGaya) and University of Aveiro, Portugal Arguably the most significant recent policy impact on higher education (HE) came from the Bologna initiatives, starting in the 1990s, which aligned European HE standards. In this example we gain an insight into the impact on curriculum evolution within Portugal and capture a flavour of the students’ response to these changes. The Portuguese background The Bologna Declaration (1999) motivated major curriculum changes in the European Higher Education Area (Bologna, 2009a; Neave and Veiga, 2013). In Portugal it led to change in the Portuguese legal framework and the structure of Master’s degrees (Portuguese Republic Law, 2007). This legal change moved the emphasis from purely research-focused Master’s, to a professionally-focused research and practice approach necessary to achieve the qualification legally required to teach at all levels from Pre-School to Secondary Education. To meet the Legal Framework for Qualifications for Teaching (2010), Master’s programmes must be designed to promote the construction of the teacher’s professional identity, by including the development of research skills and an in-depth reflection on professional contexts, combined with a critical understanding of different dimensions of an educational career. They promote a strategic interaction between the teaching and research processes, with reference to the development of the teacher’s discipline knowledge, and approaches to activities in different pedagogical settings. These elements must be grounded in the evidence of effective practice, which will intertwine writings, for example, from educational, scientific, and classroom practice literatures. In practice, this means that, within the second cycle of Bologna (that corresponds to the Master’s degree), students on Education Master’s programmes will have three semesters with curricular units associated with Didactics (teacher and learning pedagogy in specific content areas: Portuguese language, Maths, Science, Geography, History, Arts, Design, ICT) on curricular development and organisation, and the epistemology of education. In the second and third semesters, the students will have a curricular unit that integrates and supervises a pre-service experience (teacher training internship) in a kindergarten (second semester) and

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primary school education (third semester). Simultaneously, the students have a specific curricular unit, the seminar series, where they reflect on the professional contexts of their pre-service practice. These sessions allow the students to develop research questions, from which their research projects evolve. This research project leads to a research report that integrates: (i) the answers to the selected research questions, and (ii) an integrated indepth reflection about the impact of the research and its outcomes on the daily life and practice of the future teacher. This approach allows the development of a clear interaction between theory, practice and action and a feedback from and to the professional setting. This project is considered to be the major asset emerging from the redesigned Master’s programme. The research we report here explores some of the perceptions and opinions of our Master’s students experiencing this new approach. Methodology Our study used a focus group to explore students’ conceptions of their experience in-depth, and simultaneously to analyse the coherence and proximities of their opinions. It sought to access the ‘voices’ of the students, aiming to discuss, reflect, share experiences, present and confront perspectives, sensitivities and perceptions. The strategy for data collection was chosen because it stimulates interaction, discussion, and self- and meta-reflection among participants. It encourages participants to engage in the ‘dynamic nature of the process’, be actively involved and ‘think conceptually’ (Greenbaum, 2000, p. 13). In order to provoke an intense and open discussion, groups of our students shared their experiences, values and beliefs in a comfortable setting. The engagement was semi-structured, providing space to engage with certain thematic frontiers, and scope for diversity and flexibility. The students were very open, sharing their perspectives on topics including course design and approach, course quality, the ideal quality profiles of Master’s students and supervisors, the teaching and learning processes, and their skills development. Their experiences were cross-calibrated, reinforcing the conclusions we describe in the next section. Results: some highlights In discussion the participants agreed that the new approach to the programme had transformed their experience. Specifically, they said it now involves ‘a great preparation to the practice’ where for example within the

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curricular units related to Didactics they ‘learn tools to apply in practice’. They appreciated this practical, professional active learning. Simultaneously, the internship provided ‘the best they can have from both worlds’, reinforcing the value of the relationship between theory and practice. They considered this was mainly due to two aspects: (i) ‘it drives the student, who is the future teacher, to apply previous theoretical knowledge into practical, professional situations and contexts’, and simultaneously (ii) it helps them ‘to overcome difficulties felt when only learning, and being in contact with, theoretical knowledge’. All the students noted that doing a research project based on a subject that had emerged from their own practice and reflections was important and ‘natural’. They considered that ‘research and practice are clearly in dialogue’, because, even before starting their research project, they had adopted the attitude of a researcher in their professional everyday life. They found this evident when searching, questioning and reflecting on (i) the tools and strategies to be used, (ii) the context where they would be implemented, and (iii) the impact they might have on the group and on each individual student. Nevertheless, they thought that the research project should have started in the first semester of the Master’s degree, so they would have had more time to develop ‘more in-depth reflections and take more mature decisions about their research object’. Nonetheless, they recognised that their research path, since it was integrated in practice and was embedded by the knowledge developed in the taught courses, led them to:  feel extremely involved and intrinsically motivated to work the subject with the great intent of enhancing the practice and the context;  become more autonomous, resilient and reflective, at both theoretical and practical levels;  collate, compare and systematise perspectives from diverse sources, and adopt a critical positioning towards them;  become even more curious, more enriched, and more passionate with their practice, as future teachers. Moreover, they saw that these were competences they would extend to other contexts and throughout their lives, to their future workplaces and had relevancy within their subjects. In fact, it was extremely clear to all of them that ‘research cannot exist without theory and practice, and vice versa: these three perspectives complete each other’. However, practice seemed to be even more important, since it strengthened their personal willingness to learn. Thus, researching practice implies the student (future teacher) to be more mature, to

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regard theory and practice with different eyes, from different, but critical and intertwined perspectives. The students considered that this configuration of the Master’s degree allowed them to observe research systematically and in-depth. It gave them a way of viewing the world, requiring a systematic analysis, suitable preparation, application, and evaluation. Therefore, it prepared these future teachers to become better professionals. Consequently, research and practice can be seen as a two-way interactive and intertwining process. Reflection and further questions Considering the results based on our Master’s students’ voices, we conclude that the way the Master’s degree has been redesigned responds to the needs of teacher training courses, where theory, practice, and systematic research should always be together. Despite the positive balance of the Master’s experience shared by those students, we also continue to question the place of research at this level, and how the frontiers between professional and research knowledge should be defined for educationalists. Finally, it may be stated that the new configuration of the Master’s degree has brought a whole set of differences, challenges and impacts in the way this new degree is organised and perceived within the postgraduate study cycles – for example, in terms of curriculum design; the choice of pedagogical approaches; and the definition of the ‘frontiers’ between teaching, learning and research contexts. Additionally, it leads us to question the learning paths ‘Bologna students’ experience in this postgraduate level of study. In particular, to what extent does the new design of the Master’s degree prepare the student both as a teacher and potential PhD student? For many students the challenge is to manage their programme while coping with a job, family and life in general. This facet of the student experience is discussed in the next section.

 3.4 Exploring the experience of and support needs of part-time Master’s students Julie Anderson, Valerie Huggins and Louise Winfield, Plymouth University, UK Part-time Master’s students from professional backgrounds are often drawn from positions of management, whose day-to-day work is in very challenging situations. This chapter explores the characteristics and key

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features of the enabling environment a tutor can aim to create which will support these students to be successful in their study and in their own professional practice context. Our students come to our programmes from a wide range of formal and informal Education and Health settings, predominantly in South West England. Typically they have heavy work schedules, a senior job, a strong professional grounding, a wide age range and bring a variety of life experiences to the courses. The majority of students are female, reflecting the current gender imbalance in both the Health and Education professions in the UK. At work they are usually embedded in a system that is policydriven, with little space for critical discussion and reflection on the deeper issues that may arise as policies are implemented in practice. As tutors on our Master’s programmes, we seek common ground with the students (the nurses or teachers), often emphasising where appropriate our own experience of past working in similar settings to the students’ own. In general we encourage our students to see us as facilitators of their learning, respectful of their own professionalism while also acknowledging that we bring a greater experience of marrying up practice and writing at Master’s level. This respect and developing understanding should also assist students in taking ownership and responsibility for their own learning. Motivations There is always a complex mix of personal and professional motivations behind each student’s ambition to complete a part-time Master’s programme. It helps if the tutor is aware of these so that they can guide the students on their choice of programme and modules that best suit their career needs. Some students encapsulate their drive to engage in further study as a love of learning, and will always put themselves forward for a challenge and learning opportunities. They want a deeper understanding of pedagogy and research. These students are potentially easy for the tutor to work with as there are plentiful opportunities to share similar experiences and attitudes towards academic study. Some students realise that professionally they may be hitting a plateau and need to refresh their skills and knowledge. This can come from a realisation that things are more complex than they originally thought, and they acknowledge the need to explore the reasoning behind some of the issues being raised in the workplace. The training available in their workplace can often be more skills- and competency-based, whereas the Master’s programme potentially offers a wider and more

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critical perspective. Master’s level (M-level) study can offer students the space to explore and resolve some of the ethical and moral dilemmas they are encountering. This aspect can be especially critical for Health professionals. Other students will come almost directly from their initial training on a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) with Master’s credits that they can accredit prior learning (APL) into a university Master’s programme. If they have achieved 60 credits, they take 60 further credits of taught modules and a 60-credit dissertation. Current students have told us that the opportunity to APL can be a considerable incentive to joining the programme. However, a tutor must recognise and manage people whose prior work is not as strong a foundation to work from as might be expected. In our experience the majority of professionals do not undertake a Master’s degree because of their love of learning, or of wanting to find new ways of approaching their practice. Some students are required to take these qualifications as part of their professional development, which can lead to resentment and conscious or unconscious attempts to sabotage the process. Others feel trapped in their current position and need or perceive a need for a qualification to gain promotion. These students provide a significant challenge for the tutor, who may be facilitating students who do not necessarily want to be there, or who only want to increase their competencies and practical skills to climb the promotion ladder. Such students may well see the theoretical underpinning as of little relevance to their work environment and see the faculty as being out of touch with the ‘real’ world. Indeed some students want to have a Master’s, not necessarily to do a Master’s. What do students bring to the course? There is considerable diversity in any student cohort. Some students have a first degree undertaken many years ago and a wealth of work-related experience, others are more recent graduates. Health students will have a Health-related degree, so the tutor can assume some shared prior knowledge and understanding, but this is not always the case for Education students. They will have a mix of degree discipline experiences, may have had a prior career in an unrelated field, and may be relatively new to teaching. These varying backgrounds can make it difficult for the tutor to create teaching and learning strategies appropriate for all. What is core at this level is that everyone is learning from each other and that everyone will

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have different skills to bring to the table. Establishing this at the beginning of the course allows for peer-peer networks, or communities of practice, to develop which may be useful in allaying the fears of those feeling less confident, or with less experience. However, some experienced professionals who are more confident in their identity and competence within their field find that crossing the border back into being a student causes feelings of insecurity and uncertainty. This can lead to the students becoming over-dependent upon the tutor with repeated requests for advice, information and reassurance on small issues. This happened with a General Practitioner on an Education Master’s. He was a successful UK doctor, yet he emailed or phoned the tutor virtually every lunchtime for advice, almost asking for each sentence of his dissertation to be approved. The tutor had to work hard to wean him away from such an over-dependent approach, but eventually he wrote a very successful dissertation and accompanying papers for journals, each of which acknowledged the considerable debt he felt he owed the tutor. As tutors we recognise that we may overestimate what students bring to the programme from their practice-based, professional expertise. Typically, because they come across as very able and in charge, we may then assume knowledge they do not necessarily have in sufficient depth. And, as with many students, they don’t know what they don’t know, and may cover up for this very ably. Students also change as the programme develops. Some students may have a sudden professional identity crisis at work or home, due to their acquisition of new knowledge and skills from their course. The pressure of a student’s wider family circumstances, work pressures and other commitments may lead him or her to look for short-cuts, a wish to do the minimum, and this may result in them being resistant to a tutor’s recommendations and requirements, for instance, to read more deeply or to engage in online discussions out of class time. A considerable barrier can be the use of academic terminology. For some students, starting a Master’s can seem like learning another language, especially if the student has not undertaken academic study for some time. This needs to be managed sensitively by the tutor, who equally needs to be confident enough not to ‘show off’ by using what could be termed academic jargon. For example the word ‘paradigm’, possibly considered a basic concept at this level, can be misunderstood or just not known by the student. Terminological misunderstandings potentially waste a session for any students who do not then really keep up with the learning conversations. It is vital that they feel able to

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indicate lack of understanding to the tutor, who in turn needs to be sensitive to the fact that individuals may not wish to make this known to all the class. In the case of international students who are already working with English as a second or third language, the difficulties can be compounded. One of us working with a mixed English-speaking and international group introduced a subtle hand wave signal for students to use when they were having problems understanding. The tutor was more able to recognise that further explanation was required, and rework the discussion, meaning that the students’ learning needs were more likely to be met and the students were not embarrassed. Moreover, it became clear that when someone waved, most of the students wanted further explanation, making this a subtle but valuable intervention. Some of the most challenging students are those coming into Master’s study with very rigid ideas that they may be unwilling to shift from, or with a ‘bee in their bonnet’ that they are determined to research. These students can struggle and may be less able to manage the complexities of the Master’s process overall, thus needing additional support. The most successful students are possibly those who are willing to co-construct the agenda and the focus of their work with the tutor and/or their peers. It is always worthwhile encouraging students to choose topics that are relevant to them in their workplace and potentially of use in the future. This is motivational, gives study real meaning and can have impact in their workplace. Professional part-time students have particular challenges in balancing a busy day-job with high-level academic study and those who have good time management skills are more likely to succeed. Ideally they need both family and work-based support, which may simply consist of allowing them to give up additional activities that might interrupt their studies. It is important for the students as well as the tutors to be realistic and to appreciate what the task involves. In the planning process we find more time and attention needs paying to the ‘how’, the range, scope and time needed, than to the academic content. The most successful students tend to have structured and disciplined approaches to their Master’s, with a healthy awareness of the time that data gathering, transcription and analysis can take, for example. These students do not leave too much to the last minute and take advantage of tutors who offer to comment on drafts of work, giving advice and constructive feedback. Getting the study-worklife balance right is a challenge for everyone. As tutors, we find we can help students to reach this through regular discussions about balancing demands and avoiding displacement activities.

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Historically in the UK, both Education and Heath have had significant funding for M-level work, but currently students are mostly or entirely selffunding. Some may receive help from their employers’ training budgets but usually with strings attached, such as needing to undertake study that directly supports their school or hospital agendas. Thus many students are very directly investing in their own careers and have high expectations. Tutors need to be fully aware of the commercial environment within HE, including actively marketing their own programme and modules. On the positive side, fee-paying students may be more motivated, focused and driven in terms of wanting to achieve, and therefore be very engaged in the course. Implications for the organisation and pedagogy of sessions and modules From the start, and indeed in pre-entry meetings, be explicit with the students that entering into M-level study will be a challenge both personally and professionally, but that it can also be a lot of fun. We don’t know of anyone who has successfully completed his or her Master’s and regretted it. Of course we acknowledge that some people stop along the way for various reasons, but in our experience the reasons are most often personal or arise through a change of circumstances. Students need to be aware that they will change on a personal level too. This will impact on their professional and personal identities. You need to be prepared to help support them, as this is typically not a linear process but an ongoing and interactive process. This means that as a tutor you need to be prepared to actively adopt a critically literate pedagogy, and specifically engage in identity work. The students should be expected to share examples of their practice during learning activities, and to do so from the start. This gives the tutor the opportunity to model ways of analysing such critical incidents (Rich and Parker, 1995) using theoretical perspectives, such as Lave and Wenger’s communities of practice (Wenger, 1998). This has several advantages for the students but in particular it gives them tools for analysis that help them to see the perspectives of others and provides a way of distancing themselves from the potential difficulties of criticising their work colleagues. Be aware that not all students are willing to participate fully in such learning activities. As a tutor you need to set the scene and actively use your own experiences to try to help people to feel at ease and unthreatened. We always emphasise that we are co-learners with our students on this journey, co-constructing new understandings and perspectives.

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We stress that this is a two-way process, with us learning from them, for example about current policy impacts in the Health and Education settings, while they are learning from us. But you also need to be explicit that at times you may adopt a ‘pedagogy of discomfort’ (Zembylas and Boler, 2002), presenting the class and individuals with ideas and scenarios that are tough and possibly seem unreasonable in order to probe critical issues. In order to achieve shifts in a person’s local and world views, it is essential to share ideas about academic philosophical assumptions, perceptions, beliefs, values and attitudes. This degree of challenge aligns with Brookfield (1991, pp. 43–4), who notes that when asked to describe significant learning events, adult learners often cite challenging experiences that they were able to ‘survive’, experiences which resulted in increased confidence and a sense of satisfaction. Discussion about the students’ motivations for engaging in M-level study, and associated fears and concerns, often proves to be a useful opening, creating an initial displacement space which can be ‘transformative’. Introducing a model using critical reflection, a well understood concept for most teachers and health professionals, can also be very useful and aid a systematic and deeper, reflective style of working. A good example is Brookfield’s (1995) four lenses (autobiography, our students’ eyes, our colleagues’ experiences and the theoretical literature). It is important for students to engage early with the institution’s technologies that support learning, usually the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). This is particularly essential for part-time students as they are away from the campus and arguably need to utilise the VLE to engage more fully with university life. Some though are adept at avoiding it and even the library, using instead poor sources of material such as that found on Wikipedia or general ‘googled’ sources. You must look from the beginning to counter such tendencies lest they become entrenched. Expecting students to keep a journal or reflective log of their learning journey may also be valuable, but you may need to be proactive in supporting the students in the process, to avoid it being a ‘Dear diary’ tokenistic exercise. There also needs to be a space away from taught sessions for such reflection. Online discussion boards, wikis or blogs can be useful, especially for those who have yet to find their voice within the face-toface encounters of the group. Giving new students brief access to the logs written by students from previous cohorts, with appropriate permissions of course, can be particularly helpful in encouraging people to write. It makes a ‘mysterious’ writing genre real for the participant. Similarly, you can use past assignments to help students gain some understanding of what is required for assessment.

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However, not all students find such public sharing of their thoughts on blogs or wikis comfortable, and are unwilling at first to engage for fear of exposing their ideas and/or their skills in expressing them to criticism. This is not dissimilar to the issue we raised earlier where students are reluctant to say that they don’t understand some of the language of Master’s work. Again there is an explicit responsibility for the tutor to set up such spaces as being a safe place for trying out ideas; this allows the student to explore riskier alternatives and possibilities that they could not do in the workplace setting. In developing the community of practice within the class it is important for the tutors to contribute to online discussions, as the students can then see that the questions they raise are taken seriously and can also see the style of writing expected of them. However, this engagement should be tempered by stating that as a tutor you are there more at the start, but expect to be much less prominent as the work progresses. An essential aspect of teaching at M-level is criticality: what it means to be thinking, working and reading at this level. This needs to be explicitly included in your teaching, and tutors need to understand what constitutes M-level work (QAA, 2011). Exploring critical incidents can help to develop criticality but it takes time initially to share them, and then it is important that students start to resolve any dilemmas, discomforts and unsettling issues that may have arisen from the exercise. Planning in time for this element is crucial, although easily overlooked, in initial session planning. Cohort cohesion is arguably a more important issue for part-time than full-time students as it can be difficult to achieve group student identity. As a tutor you have the responsibility to provide and promote the physical or online space for student discussion; for example you could facilitate opportunities for students to work in small groups and pairs to create their relationships with each other and develop peer support systems. Social media such as discussion boards and wikis that may be on the VLE can be valuable for students working at a distance with few opportunities for face-to-face meetings. However, arguably you do not have the responsibility to make this happen. There can be times when you are teaching part-time and full-time students together and there are real advantages to this in terms of a richer mix of people and experiences. However, it can raise problems. Full-time students tend to be younger and less experienced in terms of work placements, but are living and breathing the course. The part-timers can feel on the periphery, less confident in the university environment, which may lead to tension within the group. One strategy could be to encourage

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collaborative working with groups organised to incorporate the range of experience, while being aware of the possible tensions. Balancing distance and face-to-face learning is challenging because students seem to generally prefer face-to-face, whereas employers can be reluctant to release students during working hours and therefore prefer online courses. However, we are aware there are exceptions to this, particularly where the tutor comes to the students’ workplace, something our Education tutors do. Some part-time courses are taught in the evenings and at weekends. This is a positive factor for those in work, those who can study ‘out of hours’, but can lead to some difficulties, as some of the university support services are unavailable. The library, online access to VLE and IT services are likely to be readily available, but administrative support, finance offices and catering services for example may not be available or limited in scope. Letting students know at induction which services are available out of hours helps to alleviate anxiety. Given the information, we have found that most students work around the difficulties this can cause, glad of the chance to study at a time that suits them. The recruitment of student representatives from a part-time, M-level cohort is often problematic. It can be extremely difficult for students to take time out of work to attend scheduled meetings on campus. The Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) emphasis (QAA, 2011) on the student voice is potentially compromised and we have to work hard to try to address this. One way is by sending the agenda ahead of time and inviting students to send comments by email, phone, Skype or other media, which are then shared at the meetings. Inviting feedback throughout the module also enhances this process, but primarily when the tutor explicitly responds and is seen to use this feedback to inform future work. Most UK programmes are modular with different exit routes, awarding a Postgraduate Certificate after 60 credits, and a Diploma when 120 credits are successfully achieved. The final 60-credit dissertation element can be isolating and needs students to self-direct and self-motivate in order to reach a successful outcome. We celebrate each of the award stages with our classes, and encourage the stronger students to continue to complete the last stage. For those experiencing difficulties we will advise them to interrupt studies or take a break for a period, rather than exiting altogether. The role of the tutor again is vital here, and you will need all the facts about the individual student to advise appropriately. It is essential for tutors to liaise effectively with the wider programme team, including the programme administration staff, and to offer personal tutorial support. Those we have taught who have completed have never expressed any

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sense of regret, but we all have stories from students who did not complete telling us that they wished they had finished the course. Typically, on a Master’s programme, unlike the undergraduate programmes, a student may liaise only with their module tutor and the programme leader, as a designated personal tutor is not usually appointed for taught postgraduates. Whichever tutoring system you are working within, what matters is the quality of the face-to-face or remote support you provide. This involves establishing clear expectations and the boundaries of your role. You need to be prepared to be proactive in encouraging students to engage in this pastoral support, for example by being available immediately after teaching sessions, and to identify wider university support systems the students can access and direct them, for example, to counselling and learning skills and support. It is important not to allow the student to become over-reliant upon you, as signalled with the story of the GP earlier, and you may be wise to bring in your programme leader if you are concerned that this may be happening. Students need to have realistic expectations of the tutors. However, in our experience they are more likely to be reticent rather than over-reliant. Implications for the supervision of dissertations The significant shift in terminology from ‘tutor’ (‘teacher’) of modules to ‘supervisor’ of dissertations reflects the fact that while the former is more concerned with the management and pedagogy of teaching and learning, the latter is focused upon monitoring and supporting the student in undertaking their independent study. Thus, while there will be some small elements of direct teaching in the supervisor’s role, much will be concerned with establishing and maintaining appropriate parameters for the study. It is important that a good relationship is established by:  getting a clear and detailed profile of the student’s academic profile and skills;  establishing a clear and agreed ‘contract’ and boundaries for the relationship and the nature and degree of support that can be offered;  being clear about the distinction between the student’s professional expertise and knowledge (which on the topic being studied may be considerably greater than yours as a supervisor) and your academic expertise and knowledge, and being willing to be definite and forceful if elements of the student’s proposals or approaches seem unacceptable/ unworkable/inadequate in academic terms;  recognising that given the relatively limited and infrequent nature of tutorial contact, it is vital to keep clear records of what has been

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discussed and agreed and required of the student at each stage. In particular, a copy of any statements or warning about the limitations in the progress of the dissertation must be dated and kept for reference in the event of any dispute or appeal against failure arising. It is no good saying later: ‘I told her, and I told her ...’. As a supervisor, you will find it valuable to talk to module tutors who have previously worked with the students to gain valuable insights into their strengths and otherwise, styles of working and approach. To develop your own expertise at supervising dissertation research and writing, explore the possibility of observing and shadowing colleagues, as well as having training from your programme leader. Where you may be tutoring people researching an area that is not in your area of expertise, you need to negotiate to share the work with other colleagues, with the students’ agreement, to ensure that the academic content remains on track. Remember that supporting and teaching part-time Master’s students is an enjoyable process and you may well learn as much from the students as they do from you. There are challenges which hopefully the reflections in this chapter will help you to overcome, but in closing we would remind tutors to be kind to yourself, especially if you are new to this, and in time you will develop all the expertise you need.

 Conclusion Taught Master’s programmes are extremely diverse, difficult to generalise about, and from the students’ perspective provide a challenge in course selection. In practice many students are restricted by their geography and income, selecting from provision which is locally available or where some financial support may be acquired. Examination of a range of course websites suggests there is room for development in the promotion of programmes, with more focus on the academic elements, and less on the ‘spin doctoring’. Certainly it is a market where caveat emptor, ‘let the buyer beware’, is important, and students should seek appropriate support throughout the process. The insights from the authors in Part 1 have set the scene for the book, which essentially follows the student journey through transition into programmes, learning activities, and assessment, finishing with curriculum design matters.

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Part 2 Transition matters

Our graduate pre-service teachers come to class with a wealth of life experience and a clear dedication, commitment, and purpose to their studies. The discussions and participation in class are rich. One of the benefits they speak to is the level of dialog that occurs. Bill Lindquist, Assistant Professor at Hamline University, USA

Students come to Master’s level (M-level) work with a diversity of academic and career experience which challenges those seeking to provide support for them. We recognise that there are difficult problems to be addressed in the pre-university transition and early weeks of a course:  It is generally assumed that students have completed an undergraduate degree, know what they are doing, and therefore induction is unnecessary. Academic staff are generally unaware of how frequently Master’s students use university-wide learning development, study skills, counselling and writing support opportunities, often with a plea ‘not to tell my tutor’.  How do our students know about the level and standards expected of their programme, and how do we communicate this information effectively in the early weeks of a programme? What is mastersness? How do you know when this level is achieved? Are Master’s more of, or just harder than, the feeder undergraduate scheme? How is professionalism captured? In Chapter 4, authors highlight issues which have proved critical with their classes, reflecting some varied discipline approaches to study, and seeking to understand what matters for mature and part-time students. Tobbell and O’Donnell’s research into students’ experience of transitioning into further study raises a series of issues, some of which may not be well recognised by tutors. Rattray and Smith argue that induction should involve students in being actively engaged with university processes and practices through creating specific activities at induction for all taught postgraduate students, not just part-time and international students, that

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help everyone to develop self-regulated learning. Then Reid et al. respond to issues raised by students with study advisers. Their experience with students seeking support with their studies from staff outside their programme team leads them to suggest interventions that may help students experiencing problems with self-belief and academic identity in transitioning into and persevering in M-level study. Finally Deutz crystallises issues and resources for students from her perspective both as a Master’s student in the USA and as a Master’s teacher. This example sets the scene for the following chapter that addresses activities and services created to support Master’s students through induction weeks. Chapter 5, focusing on induction activities, collates four skills activities which have proved effective with student groups.

4 Transition issues for course designers

Keywords: cultural sensitivity, induction, motivation, study skills, self-evaluation, support, transition. Transition into university life and its teaching ethos can be challenging. Students are negotiating their way into a new culture of learning. At M-level they appreciate that greater learner autonomy is expected, but can find it difficult to understand the process and boundaries. The resilience that students acquire across a three-year or longer undergraduate programme is less easily acquired during a one-year intensive programme. Allowing students to raise issues to allay their concerns from the start is crucial, as is providing opportunities for students to network with all the course students and tutors. Many concerns arise from worrying about one’s personal performance in discussion, writing and where it is appropriate to ask for additional support. Providing opportunities for excellent communication to develop between the course team and the students is crucial, so equally is being clear where boundaries lie, and where ‘tough love’ is exemplified by expecting students to work independently to a high, professional standard.

 4.1 Transition to postgraduate study: overlooked and underestimated Jane Tobbell, University of Huddersfield, UK Victoria L. O’Donnell, University of the West of Scotland, UK Despite the wealth of literature covering other educational transitions, there is very little that focuses on the transition to either Master’s or Doctoral level postgraduate study and how that transition is understood. Recognising this lacuna, in 2005 we applied for a research grant to study this transition with staff and students. Over a 12-month period, our ethnographic approach led us to interview students and staff from five UK universities, observe classes, inspect documents, conduct focus groups

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and ask students to keep reflective diaries. We had ideas about the challenges of transition, but we had no idea what would emerge regarding the particular issues facing postgraduates. Lessons learned We had thought that students would inevitably find challenges in shifting to postgraduate-level work after undergraduate study or a period of time away from study, given the higher ‘level’ of postgraduate study. However, it became clear that this wasn’t really an issue; nobody identified that the acquisition of the knowledge per se was a problem. Instead what emerged was that the academic practices that surrounded that knowledge constituted the challenge. In fact there was some evidence that for some students a Master’s degree was less academically challenging than an undergraduate degree. In one focus group one student said: ‘My Master’s degree was no more difficult, in fact it was easier.’ Another student backed this up, saying: ‘I was actually producing essays without reading and got distinctions in them. I’ve got three out of four distinctions. I can’t see … there’s no real jump.’ The other group members agreed with this. Student identity and isolation However, even if the knowledge itself wasn’t a problem, a variety of other issues did emerge. Some students struggled with their identity as a student. As undergraduates they felt they had a clear status and role and were part of a defined community, but at postgraduate level this wasn’t necessarily the case: I don’t feel as though I have an identity as a student, and I don’t know whether that’s common in postgrad, ’cos I know when I was an undergraduate I went to [town], I stayed in halls of residence, there was a whole identity around it. It may be that identity issues were not helped by feelings of isolation reported by participants: And so we got only one friend and they are our supervisor. So I know the foundation course for the UK postgraduate study would be … focused on independent research, but sometimes this is really boring. To be alone is really boring. But when you do the Master’s thing, you find you’re kind of left on your own a bit. You’re doing your own research, and in a way you feel kind of, on your own.

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Practical hurdles identified On a more pragmatic level, students struggled with negotiating the practices of academia at postgraduate level. These struggles were at various levels, from meta-understandings of the nature of study, to institutional hurdles which students felt they had to negotiate on their own, to shifts in pedagogic approaches to writing essays. What I found with the postgraduate study was that it’s almost as if you’re kind of looking at the academic world from a different point of view. … the administration is ridiculous, but it was so disheartening, there were all these institutional hurdles that I had to jump over before I could get down to doing what I really wanted to. Comments around adjusting to teaching focused predominantly on the styles of learning, in this case through dialogue, presentation, writing and assessment practices. In the Master’s it was more about discussion and doing presentations, two whole days a week, sitting round in small classes and having informal discussion. You needed to make sure that before each session you knew your stuff … you couldn’t go into a discussion unless you knew your stuff and every week I’d have to present on a given subject and I’d managed to go through my undergraduate degree without presenting anything. But that flooding of presentations helped me, it did help me because when I went into the world of work … but it was difficult to adjust to. The first few months were just a torture. Because just having to get used to completely different style of learning. I can’t remember back to the last time I wrote an essay, where I went and looked for sources all by myself. Is it 6, is it 10, is it 14? And, obviously everybody’s answering with, ‘Well, there’s no set number because blah, blah, blah.’ Need for a personal tutor The important point for this case study is that there was a perception on the part of the students that the structures which had been in place to support them as undergraduates were mostly absent once they entered postgraduate study. One participant commented: ‘Nobody’s telling me anything, should I just know?’ Some students reported relying on the departmental secretary for support, but pointed out that such support relied on that person being willing to offer it. Looking back on their undergraduate experience, many of the participants identified the need for a personal tutorial system which would identify a person who

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would be there to answer their questions and to help them negotiate their study. Funding and support In our document analyses we identified that the requirement for self-management begins well before postgraduate study commences. In the UK there is no central system for applications, so students need to apply to individual universities (see Tobbell and O’Donnell, 2013a for a fuller discussion of this). In addition, there is very little in place to provide funding for postgraduate study. We have argued that the lack of both local and central support systems for postgraduate students suggests an implicit assumption on the part of universities, at the level of both individual academics and of institutional systems, that such students have achieved a level of competence in negotiating the academic world and that there is therefore no need for further help (O’Donnell et al., 2009; Tobbell and O’Donnell, 2013b; Tobbell et al., 2010). Our data demonstrate that this is not the case. In fact, postgraduate study presents some of the same challenges as other transitions:  understanding and acquiring new skills, fitting into a new environment;  particular obstacles in obtaining funding;  more complicated lives: many students in this study had families and mortgages; and  a number of students felt some guilt that their study was ‘self-indulgent’. Enabling transition When discussing factors that helped or facilitated the process of successful transition, student participants focused very much on relationships. Students from one university valued an induction event where staff left the room and new postgraduates were able to talk to continuing students. Participants who had bonded with others on their courses and formed study groups or just social groups talked positively about this. Despite the centrality of lecturers and tutors in students’ talk, the interview data from staff suggest that staff were more focused on pedagogy and the administrative challenges of running postgraduate programmes, and that they did not explicitly recognise the value of the individual pedagogic and pastoral support they provided for the students’ experience of transition. The data from this case study strongly suggest that there needs to be a specific focus on postgraduate transition at all levels involving: the state,

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the academy, central university systems and individual university departments and programme leaders. Postgraduate students, in this study at least, needed help in negotiating their identities, which is difficult if carried out in isolation. They need access to other students and staff and a clear induction programme, which institutional and programme structures could collaborate to provide. As one student commented, rather wistfully: I’m hoping there’s going to be a light bulb switched on somewhere, enlightenment. This study has established the value of researching the postgraduate student’s perspectives. The results have elements that will resonate for students in many disciplines. They provide a valuable input to discussions around redeveloping the early part of any programme as discussed in this next example.

 4.2 Principles for reviewing the taught postgraduate induction curricula Julie Rattray and Jan Smith, University of Durham, UK Students undertaking Master’s degrees in Education, as in many other disciplines, display enormous diversity: part-time, full-time, home or international, on campus or at a distance, from a range of disciplinary backgrounds, new graduates, or mature returners to study and highly experienced professionals. These characteristics are not mutually exclusive, so any cohort will contain students with various backgrounds. Despite recognising cohort diversity, induction programmes for postgraduate taught (PGT) students have traditionally focused on campusbased, full-time students. Activities are designed and developed to be used in class to introduce students to both the university and the core academic skills they need for their programme of study. Typically, these include an introduction to the library, a session on plagiarism, an introduction to the course team and information about the other facilities available on and around campus. Such programmes normally last for one or two weeks at the start of the academic year, are frequently disassociated with the programme of study and do not cater for the needs of part-time or distance learners (but see Chapter 13 for a distance learning example). The students experience this as a separation from their ‘real’ studies and their ability to embed the skills and competencies presented during induction varies. To support students, resources may be placed on a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) but commonly these are static

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materials, copies of presentations that have been used or a list of helpful references. The fact that distance and part-time students are, by virtue of their status, rarely physically present in a department means that they miss out on potentially supportive group-based induction activities which start to create communities of practice amongst the students. In this case study, we outline three key principles for designing effective induction that emphasises a more nuanced ‘becoming’ view of succeeding at PGT level: establishing an academic identity, developing expertise in self-regulated learning, and awareness and familiarity with academic literacies. Three valuable notions underpin our view of what comprises successful induction. First is the concept of ‘academic identity-trajectory [which] underscores the extent to which individuals tend to link past-presentfuture experiences in some fashion’ (McAlpine and Akerlind, 2010, p. 129). Given the possible permutations from the list above, identifying induction needs can prove challenging: what is relevant to one student may entirely miss the mark for another. Unfortunate assumptions are also possible, such as international students not being part-timers, meaning that some students with very different educational backgrounds and identities are never exposed to the real meaning of academic practices. This can be further complicated in the field of Education, where there is never one clear purpose for the Master’s degree itself, an issue reflected in its attraction to a diverse set of learners (see also Anderson et al., Chapter 3.4). Second, the concepts of self-regulated learning and meta-learning, we argue, support students to become self-evaluative and to understand how the academic skills introduced during induction actually link to their learning behaviour. The capacity for self-regulation fosters higher levels of autonomy in students and has been associated with increased academic attainment (Ning and Downing, 2012) and a more positive attitude to study (Zimmerman, 2000; Zumbrunn et al., 2011). Such students are not only capable of monitoring their own learning but are aware of their own limitations and when they need help (Newman, 1994; Zumbrunn et al., 2011). The ability to self-regulate has also been associated with increased academic self-efficacy (Tavakolizadeha and Ebrahimi-Qavam, 2011). It is essential, therefore, that we create induction programmes that don’t simply present students with information. All those necessary things – library tours, ethics, plagiarism, English language support, departmental and university regulations – have been issues to be ‘transmitted upfront’ so that ‘students know’. In order to support this ‘knowing’ we need to create activities that are contextualised within the discipline and help students to develop the self-evaluative or regulatory skills they need to

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be able to evaluate and monitor their own learning; in short we need programmes that support the development of self-regulated learning (Boekaerts et al., 2000; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001). If students are not simply presented with a definition of plagiarism, for example, but are able to internalise its meaning through group discussions, and working with exemplars of various standards, they understand the difference between replicating the literature base and using it to construct evidence-based argument. They are more equipped to identify instances of potential plagiarism, and the misuse of quotations in their own work and that of others, and are able to avoid such practices. By facilitating the development of meta-learning capacity (Meyer and Shanahan, 2004), students can develop a personally meaningful lens to appreciate the diverse and contested theories and practices of Education as a field of study. The third tool we draw upon is Lea and Street’s (1998) argument for ‘academic literacies’ which recognises the complex social practices embedded in academic writing for assessment, which is how student achievement and progression are measured. In Schools of Education the academic staff backgrounds can be as diverse as those of the students, with faculty drawn from many disciplines and with different national and professional origins. Appreciating this variability suggests that practices communicated through induction activities are likely to value particular disciplinary and experiential viewpoints. Nuancing is thoroughly dependent on who is doing the communicating. With many staff contributing to induction, as reflected in their expertise and interests, students notice conflicting messages. This can indicate to novice PGT students, sometimes inadvertently, what is valued, ‘what constitutes valid knowledge’ (Lea and Street, 1998, p. 169), and therefore what they should aim to produce. This can be problematic: establishing the necessary intersubjectivity can hinge on what is taken away from induction activities. Strongly competing paradigms mean that the induction process, in this very short time, may influence the whole study experience. A real challenge when designing induction programmes, then, is to create flexible activities that can be used in a range of situations and by a diverse range of students that take these key principles into account. Induction activities need to value all forms of knowledge equally, which can be a challenge to faculty schooled in particular epistemologies; learning activities and outcomes should enable choice. Activities need to be flexible, relevant, meaningful and seen as something integral to the students’ programme of study rather than a ‘one-off’ event. Acknowledging different forms of knowledge production and representation (Lea and

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Street, 1998) plays its role here, with the caveat that this approach, too, can be a challenge to learners from diverse backgrounds. It is in this diversity that a meta-learning approach can prove invaluable, as many perspectives can be contemplated and supported. By refraining from transmitting notions of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ during the pivotal induction process, plurality can be encouraged. Students can develop a deep engagement with their subjects and rather than being restricted to decontextualised transmission, induction can be seen to play a role in establishing authentic student positioning. The need to find an ‘academic voice’ may become subjugated to the perceived requirements of individual tutors (Lea and Street, 1998) in order to pass, and may not, therefore, support the growth and development of each learner (McAlpine and Akerlind, 2010). It is in the preparation of individuals to take forward their learning – which may but does not necessarily have its roots in a particular career aim – that induction must function responsibly. Induction cannot be accomplished in week one; it is an ongoing process to support individuals in their interests and motivations. Induction is a year-long process, with resources and activities communicated to all tutors so that they can refer students to them again, when the student ‘needs’ the information. Rather than feeding our students fish in a conceptualisation of induction as a one-off event, we support the notion of induction as an enduring process that gives our students the tools to fish for themselves in a potentially ever-enlarging ocean, and enhancing their motivation to engage effectively in their studies.

 4.3 Effective interventions for maintaining Master’s student motivation Michelle Reid, Sonia Hood and Kim Shahabudin, University of Reading, UK Transitions to higher education (HE) have been widely researched in recent years (Harvey et al., 2006; Keenan, 2008). However, transitions to a Master’s degree from an undergraduate level remain relatively unexplored. While tutors are well aware of the ‘step up’, students often perceive studying at M-level as a continuation of their undergraduate studies, without any clear idea of the specific academic requirements for study. It is often not the academic work itself that causes motivational issues, but the implicit changes in the context and nature of study, such as increased academic rigour; changes in identity; greater independence in learning;

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heightened critical feedback and academic socialisation; and the demands of starting to create new knowledge (Tobbell et al., 2008). Internalising these notions is part of a transformation of identity that Wenger (1998) describes as a ‘process of becoming’: in this case, becoming ‘Masterly’. However, these expectations often remain hidden to the new Master’s student, causing students to doubt their efficacy, leading to feelings of decreased self-worth, and challenging ideas of academic success. Self-efficacy is synonymous with confidence: consequently a drop in self-confidence can result in reduced motivation to face the difficult challenges that this level of study presents (Seifert, 2004). While academic tutors try to help students adjust to M-level study, it may be difficult to remember your own experience of that transition from the far shores of an academic career, and some tutors will not have taken a Master’s degree. It is all too easy to have implicit expectations which can indirectly challenge a student’s sense of efficacy on a Master’s course. For example a student comments: Your tutors will tell you they want ‘critical thinking’ but get ready because what they mean by critical thinking on a Masters course is entirely different to what they mean by critical thinking as an undergraduate. The authors of this section form a small team of study advisers providing a centrally-located learning development service based in the university library, working with students studying at all levels and in all disciplines across the university. In our work, we recognise the distributed nature of learning described by Lave and Wenger (1991), consequently situating our understanding of study difficulties in the context of the individual student’s past experiences and current situations, in addition to the conventions of the academy. As part of our work we frequently meet Master’s students from a variety of disciplines who are experiencing difficulties with motivation. This section will consider a range of student case studies, illustrating the kind of difficulties experienced, showing how they may arise, and describing some strategies that have proved successful in addressing them. Rapidly assimilating new ways of studying Unsurprisingly, Master’s students can feel overwhelmed by the volume of work and the expectation that they will quickly become expert in new academic practices. They can feel that however hard they work, they can never keep up. If students no longer feel capable, the impact on their motivation levels is clear, especially when they attribute the

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cause to something (e.g. time) they perceive they cannot control (Seifert, 1996). This can prompt a serious loss of motivation, and can be a cause of early withdrawal. Lecturers and tutors are well aware of the intensity of M-level study, and often suggest that students seek advice from learning development services to develop their time management practices in response to the increase in academic workload. Guidance on time management tends to be thought of as a matter of making timetables and work schedules. In fact most students have a perfectly good idea of how to do this for themselves. Problems arise rather in being motivated to make these schedules work, whether by being more realistic, by being able to stick to them, or by using their time more effectively (König and Kleinsman, 2005). We frequently observe students wrongly estimating the time they will need for their study. For example, a part-time student seeking advice on time management found that the time needed to get to grips with new knowledge and ways of studying was encroaching on time spent on his business and family commitments. The student was not unrealistic: he had postponed returning to study until both business and family were established and in less need of his time. In addition, he had worked out a work schedule that allowed time for all of his commitments. However, he found that his allotted time for study was rarely enough. Because he could not take more time from his business, he was ‘stealing’ time from his allotted family time, with the result that his family was resentful and he felt guilty. Having previously been adept at time management for his business, he was starting to doubt his efficacy (Bandura, 1993) which, coupled with his sense of guilt, was sapping his motivation. Although the student had made reasonably realistic estimates for study time, he had not taken into account the additional pressures of the theory- and research-driven nature of M-level work. Interventions included him consciously replacing the open-ended limits of academic research with more definite self-set limits to maintain a realistic and achievable balance, including advice on setting firm boundaries and staying within them, setting achievable targets for study sessions and breaking his tasks down into smaller chunks to help him pace himself. It was helpful to draw on the principles of project planning to which the student was accustomed in his business. The key to success with this intervention was in persuading the student to work within the scope of the time he had. However, he first had to reconceptualise the nature of the study he was doing and acknowledge the need to manage its potentially open-ended scope.

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From consuming to creating knowledge: changes in identity One of the purposes of Master’s courses is to train students in starting to create knowledge and in applying research-led approaches, often as implicit preparation for independent project work. The uncertainties involved in beginning to produce new knowledge can cause a significant challenge to students’ identities and their concepts of academic success. Students enrolling on postgraduate programmes will have already experienced study success (Lovitts, 2005). Those who have continued straight from successfully completing their undergraduate course may begin their Master’s with confidence and high levels of efficacy. This self-belief plays a key role in motivation (Bandura, 1993) but such high levels of self-belief can also have a detrimental effect on the propensity to take the advice and feedback offered by tutors. A key part of a very successful ‘A-grade’ student from North America, studying with the aim of continuing to do a PhD, was associated with ‘being academically successful’ and ‘being an academic’. He was used to an ongoing sense of high achievement and demonstrating his expertise in set pieces of work that could be completed relatively quickly, which can be typical of the ‘good course-takers’ who often continue to higher-level study (Lovitts, 2005). However, the demands of needing to be both creative and academically rigorous, coupled with the frustrations and failures inherent in independent research, caused him to question his academic identity. As Seifert (1996) notes, this can lead to loss of self-worth in people whose identity is intimately connected to their ability to perform. As a result, the student became very frustrated with his course and his markers, and was referred to a study adviser by his lecturer. Discussions with the student revealed that he was exceptionally eager to get on with his own research and had not recognised the value in developing the key research skills in order to be successful in his Master’s and then PhD. As a result, his writing often lacked the level of academic rigour required. The advice session focused on the importance of academic rigour and how this differs from that required when studying at undergraduate level. Modelling examples of this in his discipline helped to demonstrate what was required, as did the opportunity to talk through the issues he was facing with someone who was outside the marking and supervisory relationship, but who understood the postgraduate research process. Interventions also focused on reframing his expectations of ‘academic success’ in terms of the uncertainties involved in embarking on creating new knowledge. Previously he had associated his identity with the

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external ‘performance goal’ of achieving grades, but he started to see that in research he needed to sustain his intrinsic motivation by valuing the ‘learning goals’ that characterise mastering a new task or process (Dweck, 1986). Part of this process involved greater agency in being able to evaluate his own rationale and the quality of his own work. A turning point came when he attended a conference in his field which gave him greater exposure to the applications and underpinnings of research and a wider professional network. He was already fiercely independent in his views, but on returning from the conference he could see how he had to temper this with the meticulousness and rigour needed in the research process. Academic socialisation, supervision and critical feedback It is important to prepare students for the possibility that they may receive lower grades and harsher critique at postgraduate level. Study on a oneyear programme requires the development of vital skills at a fast pace. Students must become accustomed to receiving and acting on advice, feedback and criticism if they wish to develop effectively. However, criticism can be hard to take, especially where students have invested a lot of time and effort in their studies. If they are unable to attribute the results and negative comments they receive to a cause that they can control and change, this might lead to feelings of hopelessness and hence falling motivation (Seifert, 2004). The success or failure of the supervisory relationship in a Master’s dissertation can be a significant factor in student motivation. Unlike a PhD supervisory relationship which has a number of years to develop, a relatively inexperienced Master’s student has to adjust to an intense mentoring relationship in a short period of time (Symons, 2001). The supervisory relationship marks a particular form of ‘academic socialisation’ in which the supervisor models, scaffolds and offers feedback to the student on how to adapt to the requirements of the academy (Anderson et al., 2008). All these reasons mean the supervisory relationship can have a major impact on student motivation, particularly if students feel they are being ‘over’ or ‘under’ supervised, as this can have a significant effect on their sense of agency in the dissertation process (Anderson et al., 2008). This was the case for a student who returned to study in the same department with some of the same tutors who had been there when she completed her undergraduate degree, some years previously. She had deliberately chosen a member of staff she liked and admired as her dissertation supervisor, but found it hard to adjust to the change in their professional relationship from the teacher-pupil undergraduate focus to the

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more equal scholar-apprentice relationship of postgraduate study. This was especially apparent in her response to the level of critical feedback she was given on her dissertation proposal. She underestimated both the difference between undergraduate and postgraduate level feedback, and how much change there had been in the theoretical background literature she needed for her dissertation since she graduated. She could not understand why the reward (mark) was not commensurate with the perceived effort applied. Her focus on performance goals, combined with her attributing her low mark as a personal reflection on her intelligence, was having an impact on her confidence and motivation levels (Dweck, 1986; Seifert, 2004). She felt she was trying to meet the supervisor’s requirements but was only getting further criticism in return, and she came to meet a study adviser with very low confidence as a result. Interventions focused on reframing her expectations about supervisor availability, support and the nature of feedback received. When starting to rebuild her confidence, it helped to discuss the rationale behind the harsher critique she was receiving and make explicit the process of academic socialisation involved. She was able to see that this form of critical approach was integral to what academics do and was part of a process of developing a closer near-peer relationship to her tutors; a relationship that would continue to develop if she did a PhD. Her demotivation was also prompted by her attributing her academic success to fixed inherent qualities (Dweck, 1986): hence she took her supervisor’s feedback personally as a sign of her lack of intelligence. Supporting her in developing the higher-level study practices required for the theoretical and critical engagement involved in her dissertation helped build her confidence. Using examples of writing that engaged with theory to model how to integrate it, and encouraging deeper thinking by effective questioning, proved useful strategies. Developing these high-level practices demonstrated that the pursuit of a good qualification was under her control as long as she listened and responded to the advice offered. Sustaining resilience On a Master’s course the level and intensity of the work tend to increase as the course progresses. Dissertations or longer projects usually come at the end of a course in which students have often made great sacrifices to study, such as being away from friends and family and devoting additional time and money to the process. These sacrifices can sap students’ resilience and make the final assignment seem like an insurmountable hurdle. We tend to find that the students who are most able to

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sustain their motivation through the dissertation process are those who have the intrinsic motivation to know that they must be independent and proactive researchers, but who also have a good wider support network beyond their supervisor so that they are not alone in the process (Anderson et al., 2008). This was illustrated by a student from India who had left her husband and daughter to come to England to study. She had made a lot of effort to adjust her writing style to fit the expectations of a UK Master’s course in response to her lecturers’ feedback and had also worked hard at managing her expectations of how much she could do and achieve in the time she had available. She was finding that making these difficult adjustments to her own expectations, coupled with living away from her family and normal support network, had worn down her resilience. When she came to meet a study adviser, she was considering returning home early to complete her dissertation, even though she acknowledged she would probably lose academic focus once she returned home and was unlikely to finish this final crucial part of the course. Helping her find an alternative support network was an important intervention. She had worked as a teacher in India, so she was able to use some of her expertise to help her fellow Education MA students with their own dissertations. This resulted in the creation of an informal peer support network amongst the dissertation student cohort and helped all of the students to sustain a sense of collective motivation and shared experience. Consequently, the student decided to postpone returning home until she had completed the core literature review part of her dissertation and had received the necessary feedback from her supervisor. She returned home slightly later to do her empirical research and write up. However, before she left, she drew up a plan with a study adviser for managing the project, and arranged with her supervisor and course-mates to keep in contact via Skype to help maintain the support network they had created. Practice, interventions and curriculum design The case studies above have indicated some of the ways we have responded to individual Master’s students who seek support from a study adviser. Considering more general ‘prevention rather than cure’ responses, a comprehensive induction programme could help assist students with many of these transitional issues (Lovitts, 2005). Most taught and research-based Master’s programmes have some explicit scaffolding to help structure the transition to research, such as a ‘research skills module’ or the requirement to submit research proposals. Yet these

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tend to look like discrete pieces of coursework. They address the skills required in doing independent research, but they may be isolated in a module set aside from the rest of the degree, hence they can focus on the products of research, as opposed to the wider rationale and contextualisation of what Master’s study is for, and what it means to be masterly. It is crucial for effectiveness that induction and skills training is made context-specific, illustrating explicitly how an understanding of the principles of M-level study can inform and enhance practical learning in the discipline. In maintaining motivation level, tutors should build on the high levels of efficacy and self-belief that many of these students begin with and demonstrate that their pursuit of a good qualification is within their control. It is also important to make explicit the expectations of markers and the developmental nature of a postgraduate programme. Students can be assisted with this development by suggesting ways in which they can improve future assignments and by making transparent the implicit processes of ‘academic socialisation’ that underpin these practices. Providing ‘safe spaces’ within the course to discuss expectations and grapple with the challenges presented by M-level work can also help. These opportunities may be with staff outside the supervisory and marking relationships, such as learning development advisers, peers sharing similar experiences, or with alumni who have been through the process. Ultimately, if we want students to behave in an intrinsically motivated way we need to build on their self-confidence, resilience and give them a sense of control (Seifert and O’Keefe, 2001). By making our assumptions more transparent and supporting our Master’s students in unpicking the changes in the nature and context of their postgraduate study, we will have gone a long way to helping them sustain the high levels of motivation that they have when starting their degree. Taking a different approach in this last section, Pauline Deutz looks to her own experience as a student, and currently as Programme Director. She raises some complementary issues to those discussed above. The subheadings, particularly in the section on ‘Issues, pitfalls and resources’, could be adopted as discussion points with students.

 4.4 Issues and resources for transition: a personal reflection Pauline Deutz, University of Hull, UK My approach to supporting international students was and is influenced by my experience as an international MA student at Ohio State

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University, USA in the 1980s, and as the Programme Director for the MSc Environmental Technology at Hull. Possibly the greatest challenge for Master’s teachers is the academic ability range. International students range in experience from excellent, independent high achievers to those with particular educational and social needs, and in all cases require careful integration into campus life (Coates and Dickinson, 2012). Taught postgraduate programmes in the UK typically last one year, giving little time to become acclimatised. Fees, travel and living costs are significant; students need to get excellent value from their investment (Clarke and Lunt, 2014). There is no single international experience. It is my belief that success in supporting our diverse student community requires an inclusive environment, where staff are aware of diversity issues, and there are excellent communications and appropriate training available for staff working with international students. Issues, pitfalls and resources Signposting: In my experience students are generally keen to achieve the best possible degree qualification, and are concerned to make the most of all the support on offer. Our task is to signpost them to the information and help to interpret it. Signposting must be ongoing; to be successful, support needs to be highlighted throughout the programme. Pre-arrival advice: For applicants to UK universities there are two good starting points. The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) (2014), traditionally the clearing house for UK undergraduate applications, offers a gateway for postgraduate applications and has a wide range of advice available to international students. The UK Council for International Student Affairs (UKCISA) (2014a) has been providing application advice to would-be international students for 40 years on everything from choosing a course to preparing to go back home. Advice on how to study is included in addition to social tips. Induction and pre-induction: Activities are typically part of universities’ offerings to international students, serving the dual purpose of helping students to get to know each other and the institution (University of Hull, 2014a). From personal experience one’s first priority is simply to learn how to live in an unfamiliar culture – this seems to be quite enough to manage without having to study too. Practical local advice on social activities, shopping and some studying advice in the ‘Survival Guide’ (University of Hull, 2014b) is appreciated by students; it is a resource that I would have found very helpful at Ohio State University; most universities have similar web-based resources.

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Buddy schemes: Variously named peer-peer mentoring schemes feature in many programmes and universities. Typically, the University of Hull scheme ‘Go Connect’ offers social and employability events to all students, but home students need encouraging. The benefits are probably greater for international students; certainly a far higher proportion of them sign up and get involved in this dimension of university life. Some home students may feel they are being less adventurous than international students. Certainly, I was disappointed to find how many international students there were at Ohio State University, which diminished the sense of adventure for me, albeit I married one of the UK postgraduates I met there. Language: Effective communication is critical to academic endeavour and in recognition of this there are language requirements that in part protect people from their own over-expectations. It is important as a tutor to recall, and to make new staff aware, that the level of English required may be considerably below that of a native English speaker. The highest level is Level 9: ‘Has fully operational command of the language: appropriate, accurate and fluent with complete understanding’; as compared to Level 6: ‘Has generally effective command of the language despite some inaccuracies, inappropriacies and misunderstandings. Can use and understand fairly complex language, particularly in familiar situations’ (IELTS, 2014, p. 11). The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) entry tariff needs to be considered during course design and particularly in the first weeks of the teaching period. But my first language is English: For me, demonstrating my ability in the English language at Ohio was not too traumatic and a requirement which, fortunately, I was able to brush aside quite swiftly. But for some students, adjusting to accent, colloquial language and style can be a real shock, and an unwelcome distraction that knocks confidence in the early weeks. I recall my three-day induction to being a teaching assistant with other students at Ohio State. This explanation of expectations left an impression of the responsibility of being a teacher while simultaneously making the task seem manageable. Moreover, my postgraduate degree included taught modules complete with exams and other forms of continuous assessment, which I had not experienced since school. One of the biggest educational shocks for me came from watching a Hollywood campus movie and realising that a mid-term was not a half-term holiday, but an exam. This would come as less of a surprise for a UK graduate today, but there continues to be considerable diversity in university systems. Language support: Some universities offer extra support through language centres and reading groups. Consider factoring in the expense of a

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focused course such as ‘English for Academic Purposes’ to a programme, to give students a faster start, and introduction to other on-campus and online support. Our own Master’s students have found the course helpful, but there is a fine balance between specifics learned through such classes versus the time that thereby could not be spent on assignments. Cultural references and sensitivities: Awareness is critical. I realised too late that I should have been more careful referring to the ‘Energy Crisis’ of 1973 with a Saudi Arabian student in class. He appeared oblivious to cultural-centrism, possibly not relating the statement to his own reference points; certainly he was too young to recall 1973. I try to be alert to such cultural reference points – hoping that the UK students also learn the need for awareness. Prior experience: International postgraduate students may have to contend with a very different learning environment to that of their first degree (Brown, 2007). Arguably, this difference is what they have come to experience and too much effort to ameliorate the challenges would negate the purpose of travelling. At the very least, however, efforts need to be made to explain differences and to be very clear at outlining assessment requirements to avoid misunderstandings. As UKCISA (2014b) warns international students, UK HE prioritises independent work and critical analysis. The latter in particular can be new to international students who may simply never have had what is expected explained to them (Turner, 2006). Question and create: Undergraduates, ideally, learn during their first year at university that HE learning is not so much about memorisation as about questioning, often with no undisputed answer. Re-enforcing that message to postgraduates is always helpful. Assignments: As Hoadley et al. (2012) comment, there is generally a lack of institutional guidance on how to prepare and to word assessments to account for the cultural and linguistic diversity of students (in Australia in that case). In my experience we need to set extra clear assessment guidelines for the Master’s students. The ‘problem solving’ homework I undertook as part of the modules on my Master’s in Climatology at Ohio State was self-contained. One answered the questions, discussed the data as appropriate but was not expected to situate it in the context of academic literature. This did not cause any issues for me at the time, but I recently stumbled into the converse situation. The instructions did not refer to the need for literature, although it was alluded to in the marking criteria. But the latter are lengthy and are not geared in detail to specific assessments. While some UK graduates might be well versed

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in this expectation, it is not transparent to all. And explanations primarily intended to guide international students are helpful to all students. It is all too easy to slip into colloquial or culturally biased language; metaphors can be a minefield. The statement ‘waste management is the Cinderella of sustainable development’ caused difficulties to both an international student, and her English classmate who attempted to explain what was being asked. The need for close scrutiny of examination questions for cultural sensitivities may be greater than in other forms of assessment, because students have little opportunity to query the questions (Hoadley et al., 2012). Study skills support: I use the Research Design module to address some aspects of study skills, which can have the disadvantage of alienating some students, who then feel that the course is not really for them, and that they needn’t attend. However, it is a very useful opportunity to teach or remind everyone how to reference and use online resources. Overloading the first week: Coates and Dickinson (2012) suggest putting some activities into explicit induction sessions for international students. There is merit to this, although that week is already exceptionally busy for students, and staff are preparing for teaching and dealing individually with late arrivals. Furthermore, there is a risk of overwhelming the students in the early days, given all the many extra things that need to be digested by international students, accentuating the problems of all students (Billing, 1997). I find that being with and getting to know your peers is the most useful activity in this week, perhaps aided by some formal structure. My own experience as an international student has been a useful reference point in dealing with overseas students. Perhaps the American experience served chiefly to introduce me to the concept of students needing more support and encouragement than was ordinarily provided back in the 1980s. Expectations and provisions have certainly changed since then at the institutional level. People need to be sensitive to the variable cultural and educational backgrounds of students. Most importantly, international students should not be left to their own devices when induction week events are over. Having discussed a range of issues and ways of researching students’ experience of transition; the authors in the next chapter share a suite of activities that have proved useful in practice with their students.

5 Effective induction Activities

Keywords: assessment, critical thinking, culture, diversity, feedback, feed-forward, induction, pre-induction, reading, reflection, retention, self-assessment, student-centred, study skills. A cross-cutting theme of the four parts of this chapter is students working together with their programme team to understand the expectations and standards required for study. Firstly, Sutcliffe and Matheson describe the use of the Belonging Cube, which is deceptively simple in concept but a superb ice-breaker and networking tool. Cross discusses the value of writing for formative assessment as a critical element of the induction experience. The writing skills theme is then further developed, placing the focus on induction and skills support for international students. Huang and Orsini-Jones, writing with two of her students, both work with Chinese students transitioning to the UK for Master’s study. Huang’s action research project explores the experience of Chinese students who are grappling with the concept of critical thinking during an induction week activity. This enables her to make evidenced recommendations to support students in understanding the academic approach expected in the UK. Finally in this chapter, OrsiniJones has the delightful example of students reading a skills text in both their own language and in English, to tackle the nuances of meaning and expectations of study.

 5.1 The Belonging Cube: an induction activity to recognise and celebrate diversity Mark Sutcliffe and Ruth Matheson, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK The postgraduate International Business Management course offered by Cardiff School of Management is, like many in this field, dominated by international students recruited from around the world. The differences in culture, language and diversity in educational background and experience give a significant strength to the programme, but are also potentially a major weakness in determining its success. The

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programme teaching team aims to work with this diversity, to ensure that the diversity and difference do not become a barrier to learning, both at the academic level and also with respect to the social coherence of the group. The educational philosophy of the programme is very student-centred, where active participation and experiential learning are used extensively. Students are encouraged to have a voice and what they have to say is valued. For many, such an independent approach to learning is a totally alien experience, which is threatening, disconcerting, and even for some seen as a ‘hostile practice’ (Tobbell et al., 2010). In order to help overcome these negative feelings it is important that students quickly recognise that they belong on the programme of study they have selected, and that their feelings are widely shared by others. In order to achieve this goal we have developed the ‘Belonging Cube’. We introduce the Belonging Cube activity by asking students to recognise that individuals ‘belong’ in many different ways (Sumsion and Wong, 2011), and that such dimensions of belonging overlap and are interconnected. Feelings of belonging are often critical in aiding the transition into postgraduate study, and in turn helping to create an effective community of practice (Curtin et al., 2012; Tobbell and O’Donnell, 2013a). The Belonging Cube is a task set as a pre-induction activity. Students are requested prior to arrival to reflect upon and explore their belonging through pictures, to collect a series of images that they feel reflect different types or forms of belonging in a variety of situations or contexts. To prompt their selection they are asked to consider some of the following points:  We all belong to a culture that shapes our lives in so many ways. Take two pictures that you feel reflect your culture and your place within it.  Very often the biggest motivator in our lives is our family, or belonging to a close personal group. Sometimes it is our own aspirations and goals, but these very often come from somewhere, the consequence of events or someone. Take two pictures that you feel capture the biggest motivating factors in your life.  Education is important for you, otherwise you would not be here. Take a picture that reflects how education has motivated you to get to where you are today.  Here’s a slightly more difficult one, take a picture of what it means to you to become a student of Cardiff Metropolitan University, and be part of the group that will be the MSc International Business Management.

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 What expectations do you have about being a Master’s student? Take a picture that captures what you think will be your greatest challenge this year. Take another picture that you feel will capture your greatest hope from the year.  Upon entering this programme of postgraduate study at Cardiff School of Management you will have expectations regarding the year ahead. But what about your expectations when the year is over, where do you see your life going or your career taking you? What do you dream about? Take a picture that you feel captures your dreams and aspirations. In total students are required to select a final six photographs based around these points; the photographs are then mounted on a card cube. Once the cube is constructed students in small groups (as internationally mixed as possible) are asked to present their cubes and to discuss their photographs and the significance to them as an individual of their selection. The use of the Cube does not end here. Students are then asked to build a wall of culture, a tower of fears, and a pyramid of challenges. We require them to explore the relationship of the cubes to one another, to show that although cultures may be different, hopes, fears, aspirations and challenges may be the same. Culture, language and educational experience are no barrier to learning but should in fact be seen as a resource for creating a rich learning environment (Carroll and Ryan, 2005). Our experience is that this activity aids transition into postgraduate study, forcing students to reflect not only upon their own hopes and fears, but the hopes and fears of others, to recognise that they belong to a group, and are not alone, as two students in 2013 reflected: I learned that I am not going through this alone and that different cultures do not affect the way people feel. We are all in the same boat and need to work together to succeed. It was … just like watching the Discovery Channel. By contrast this next contribution outlines and critically appraises a formative mechanism for assessing new postgraduate students’ academic capability at the beginning of their programme. The key argument made by Cross is that this approach represents an example of best practice for postgraduate students at the beginning of a taught Master’s programme, whatever life or work stage they are at when they commence their studies.

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 5.2 Using formative assessment during induction Ruth Cross, Leeds Beckett University, UK Background and context The Health Promotion team at Leeds Beckett University has been delivering postgraduate training in Health Promotion and Health Education in the UK for over 40 years and in Africa for over ten years (Dixey, 2013). Historically, the course recruits a wide range of applicants. Students range from those who are coming straight from a three- or four-year undergraduate degree in a related discipline; to international students from different countries studying in the English system for the first time; to practitioners in public health and Health Promotion who may or may not have a first degree. Academic ability and personal experience vary enormously, although students are typically mature-age, part-time and professionals. More often than not, as is our experience, an increasing proportion of fulltime taught Master’s students are now from overseas. The course team employs a number of mechanisms to support students on the course particularly during the first semester when it is well documented that attrition is more likely to occur (Nelson et al., 2009). One of the strategies used is a formative essay (Laight et al., 2010; Taras, 2005). For the purposes of this chapter, formative assessment is distinguished from summative assessment as defined by Race (2014) as being concerned with improving and developing future work as opposed to ‘referring back principally to what was – and what was not – achieved in past work’ (p. 96). Race (2014) notes the intrinsic value of formative opportunities in academic progression as a means of feeding-forward. Such is the importance of this that formative feedback mechanisms are now commonly written into most modules on most programmes and this is viewed as best practice in higher education (HE) (Race, 2014; Wilson and Scalise, 2006). The nature of postgraduate writing Students new to postgraduate study typically grapple with the difference between writing an assignment for an undergraduate programme and producing a piece of work which is ‘Masterly’ (Casey et al., 2011). What distinguishes a Master’s level (M-level) piece of work from a very good or excellent final-year undergraduate piece of work is not always clear. An excellent essay in the final undergraduate year will undoubtedly meet some, if not all, of the requirements for a postgraduate essay. There is, however, general consensus that writing at the taught postgraduate level

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should demonstrate greater depth, a better level of critique, and more analysis and synthesis than would normally be demonstrated in an undergraduate piece of work (Athanasou, 1997; Casey et al., 2011). A number of skills taxonomies have been developed to extrapolate postgraduate skills. Our Health Promotion team use the Postgraduate Taxonomy of Skills outlined in Table 5.1. Early intervention A significant body of research indicates, particularly with undergraduate students, that the most likely time for new students to withdraw from

Table 5.1 Postgraduate Taxonomy of Skills Domains

Postgraduate level skills

Organisation & planning

Ability to set, negotiate and meet own objectives and deadlines to identified standards and involving the sensitive organisation and management of others.

Communication

Ability to select appropriate styles and modes of communication for complex tasks and purposes.

Group/ interpersonal

Ability to interact sympathetically and ethically with individuals and groups in varied settings to achieve a major research task.

Information & data collection

Ability to devise valid and reliable methods and instruments for data collection in relation to an extended piece of research.

Theory & principles

Knowledge and understanding of a range of subject-specific advanced and contemporary theory, and of strategies and methodologies for investigation/solution of professionally orientated research problems.

Analysis & reflection

Analyses problems objectively using the main theoretical perspectives of the cognate area and the appropriate research methods and strategies with appropriate and rational sensitivity to opinions and views of others.

Application & reflection

Applies theories, methodology and strategies in rational and valid ways, demonstrating empirical/experimental rigour in identifying solutions to complex and significant problems. Reflects both extensively/objectively on methods, process and outcomes.

Synthesis & evaluation

Critically evaluates outcomes and relates them to existing knowledge structures and methodologies. Reviews validity of theoretical perspectives, methods and strategies applied.

Creativity

Identifies modifications to and impact on existing knowledge structures/theoretical frameworks. Proposes new areas for investigation/new problems/new methodological approaches.

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their programmes of study is in the first few weeks (Grebennikov and Shah, 2012). It is difficult to find literature specific to attrition on taught Master’s programmes; however, anecdotally a similar pattern appears to exist. A strategy which seems to contribute to reducing this attrition is to signal early on how the student is doing, i.e. to give them timely feedback near the beginning of their course as to how they are getting on (Krause, 2005; Laight et al., 2010; Race, 2014). One way of achieving this is to provide detailed, individualised feedback on something that the student has done, usually a piece of assessed work. This is undertaken with a view to identifying areas where the student might need additional support or improvement and highlighting existing strengths and capabilities. On the Master’s programme at Leeds Beckett University, feedback on the formative piece of work is discussed in a one-to-one, face-to-face meeting. This personalised approach has added value. Ring-fenced one-to-one time with a personal tutor provides an opportunity for meaningful engagement (Krause, 2005). This not only provides an opportunity for students to engage in a detailed assessment of their academic ability, but also enables them to explore how they are getting on in general and identify any areas in which they might need additional support beyond the academic requirements of the programme. Process Pre-reading materials which give background to the essay/topic area are given to the students before the start of the course (four to six weeks prior) so that they come to the induction programme with some background knowledge that is both key to the course and forms the bedrock of the literature to which they need to refer within the formative assignment (Figure 5.1). From a choice of two essay titles, students write a short essay of 1,500 words, excluding references. This gives students an opportunity to receive detailed feedback on ALL aspects of their work. This is a formative exercise so the mark does not count towards their profile. While this essay is offered as an option, in our experience students almost always take up this opportunity. Exceptions occur when a student already has a postgraduate qualification, but even then (especially where the qualification is in an unrelated discipline) the student, more often than not, opts to take advantage of the opportunity. Table 5.2 outlines the instructions that are given to students. The students hand their essay in four weeks after the start of the course, which is well before any summative work is due. They receive feedback two weeks later. The work and reading that they do for the formative

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Pre-entry

• Minimum four weeks prior to the course – student receives relevant reading materials

• Beginning of programme (induction) – formative essay titles and detailed guidelines are given

Start

+4 weeks

• Student hands in essay and makes an appointment to see his or her tutor

• Within two weeks tutor reviews the work with the student • Student develops an action plan and reviews this, as appropriate, with his or her personal tutor +2 weeks • Student 'feeds forward' learning into summative assignments

Figure 5.1 The process of the formative assignment .

Table 5.2 Instructions to students Formative assignment Some of you will be returning to HE after a break, and most of you will be new to postgraduate study. We would like to provide you with an opportunity to write an essay that will be marked by your personal tutor, in order to give you feedback on the presentation, substance and structure of your work. Write a 1,500-word essay addressing one of the following questions: Essay Question 1: OR Essay Question 2: You need to include a reference list and reference your work correctly using the Harvard system for referencing. You need to include a word count (excluding the reference list) and number the pages. Hand-in date: You will be given the opportunity for one-to-one feedback from this piece of work with your personal tutor on … *insert date* Note that the mark for this piece of work will not contribute to your mark profile or degree award calculation.

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assignment directly feed into a larger summative piece of work for one of the first modules which is a 5,000-word essay. Students are given detailed written and oral feedback. The work is marked by their personal tutor and they have a one-to-one meeting with the tutor specifically for the purposes of going through the assignment in detail. Assessment and feedback cover writing style, use of English language and grammar, accuracy of academic referencing, ability to use relevant sources of academic literature, level of critique, and essay structure as well as the content of the essay itself. A set of marking criteria and marking descriptors is given to the students when they receive the instructions about the formative assignment, as shown in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Marking criteria and descriptors A good piece of work will demonstrate the following: • • • • • • •

• • •

Logical and coherent progression of argument throughout Sound overall structure with a clear introduction and conclusion Good use of English language and sound grammatical style Sound understanding of subject-specific knowledge (key values and principles of Health Promotion) Critical understanding of the key issues discussed which moves beyond description to analysis Evidence of wide reading (in addition to resources given by the course team) Use of at least ten academic sources referred to/used within the work demonstrating a spread of different types of material (for example, books, chapters in books, high quality academic journals – you must avoid sole reliance on internet sources and websites) Accurate referencing as per Harvard referencing system Few, if any, errors (i.e. typographical) Good presentation

>80% Very well argued. Draws on a wide range of literature to support the argument. Excellent understanding of theoretical principles and the ability to apply them constructively across a context. Shows sophistication of thought and both analytical and critical skills. 70–79% Coherent and very well thought out argument. Draws on relevant literature. Excellent theoretical understanding relevant to practice. Very good evidence of critical and analytical skills. 60–69% Clearly argued and well structured. Good grasp and thorough description of key issues, supported by appropriate references. Some critical analysis and appropriate application of theoretical principles to practice. 50–59% Clear but simple argument. Adequate description of key issues but limited understanding of theory and relatively superficial application to practical situations. 40–49% Some grasp of theoretical and conceptual elements, minimal supportive evidence with inconsistencies in places, limited application to practice. PM > translators. Pre-project  Staff: Select source materials for all the source languages (usually eight to ten); split students into four or five teams of translators, ideally with no more than one translator for each target language; select students to act as PMs; test the source materials using the translation software; draw up a translation commission for the project; and brief the PMs a few days before the project start date.  PMs: set up project materials for all languages; perform a pseudotranslation (automatic test using the software) for each language; brief their translator team on the project content, deadlines and deliverables; send the ‘client’ (i.e. the teaching staff) a professional quote for the job for all language pairs; explain professional working etiquette to team members (e.g. that translators should never contact a client directly but should always go via the PM).

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 Translators: send the PM a quote for the relevant translation; make sure an adequate level of competence in using the tool had been reached to complete the project tasks in time. During the project  Staff: receive project quote and send a purchase order to the PMs; respond to any PM queries; if PMs or translators reported technical issues with the software, contact the IT support technician to request assistance.  PMs: monitor translators’ workflow; maintain client contact via weekly updates on project progress; alert client speedily to any delays or technical problems; check and return deliverables; keep notes of all problems and solutions for report in the final project presentation.  Translators: follow the PM’s instructions; translate all files; compile any terminology lists or other data requested by PM; return deliverables in desired file formats; keep notes, and reflect on own and teammates’ performance; meet all deadlines. Post-project  Staff: respond to PM queries and final invoice; assess deliverables and team work; prepare group and individual feedback; attend PM project presentation, respond to questions raised and give oral feedback; meet students individually to discuss the feedback.  PMs: prepare final invoice and send to client; acknowledge receipt of ‘payment’; prepare feedback presentation; give feedback on each team member to staff; prepare notes for PMs involved in future team projects.  Translators: attend feedback presentation; use notes to reflect on own and teammates’ performance; save project materials for future use. Translation team projects: benefits Kiraly (2000) argues from a social constructivist perspective that individuals must actively construct knowledge about the real world if they are to learn effectively. In our experience, the student-centred approach, where they ‘learned by doing’, did begin to replicate real-world professional practice and lead to observable benefits, notably in the following ways. Workplace skills: Because they had to fit the project around other commitments, students generally worked remotely via email correspondence. Students who had previously chosen not to mix outside their language

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groups started working with students from different languages, often communicating in their second or third language. This mirrors working practice in the translation profession, where effective email communication in a foreign language is essential. Pricing jobs, then learning to send professional invoices and quotes, were challenging aspects for most students, but core business practices. Teamwork: In the real world, the translation industry is service-led: the client is at the top, PMs generally function as ‘middle-men’, co-ordinating large translation jobs and liaising between the client and multilingual teams of freelance translators, while the translators themselves represent the base of the pyramid. Freelance suppliers are often isolated, working independently from home with little direct personal contact with others in the industry. We found that the peer team approach was particularly helpful, giving the students insights into workplace hierarchies and laying the foundations of networks for future professional support. The diversity of team members’ backgrounds, prior experience, skills, abilities and, notably, technical proficiency benefited PMs in particular: they frequently relied on team members rather than coming to teaching staff when technical problems arose. A further benefit was that weaker students learned from the stronger ones. This was true not just of translation or technical skills: we observed students with strong business backgrounds teaching others the interpersonal skills which are important in the profession, such as friendly but formal expression in business English. Also important in the workplace, particularly when crossing language or cultural barriers and working remotely, is an awareness of intercultural communication challenges: for instance, how to work effectively with colleagues whose behaviour may seem rude, overly intimate or otherwise challenging. The mixed teams created multiple examples of such encounters which we were able to discuss as a group following the project. Problem-solving: A clear benefit of the team projects was increased independence in relation to solving problems and, particularly, student ownership of technical challenges. Most teams identified the most technically competent, or confident, student who became the team’s fixer. We repeatedly observed students learning to co-operate, although some teams developed intense rivalry, aiming to produce the best, fastest or most technically competent translations. The PM feedback presentations at the end of the projects focused on sharing best practice and global understanding of how project problems had been solved. Finally, students learned quickly how to approach colleagues for help in a professional manner, a useful skill for their future careers.

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Confidence and transferable skills: As González Davies (2004, p. 23) explained, task-based learning approaches train students in not only declarative knowledge (‘know-what’) but also procedural knowledge (‘know-how’). This is of special value when the ‘how’ changes frequently in the real world. Translation tools evolve, workplace workflow and use of different features will vary, so being confident that you can master new features or adopt different methods of working can be a significant asset. PMs in particular reported they had had to learn quickly about effective communication methods, both with their team members and for the final whole-group presentation. Technological prowess: Using the tools in context to carry out a ‘real’ job led students to explore different features and move away (at last!) from slavishly following the steps in their handouts. Unexpected aspects: Ethical challenges came to the fore repeatedly in ways the staff had not anticipated. Students faced real dilemmas in how far they ought to revise a very poor translation or keep helping a lazy colleague. When they revised each other’s work, they sometimes faced their own translations being corrected to poorer versions by less proficient colleagues. This actually happens regularly in the real world, so considering how to respond was helpful. Translation team projects: problems Over the ten years of the project we met new challenges and problems. In particular we would highlight the following: 1. Timing: Project work was moved to earlier in the year to give students more opportunities to practise and improve. 2. Task content: Finding enough source materials was a constant challenge, as was understanding workplace expectations for different countries. For example, invoice preparation and taxation practices vary widely, which made it difficult for staff to measure whether students were adopting accurate practice for Brunei, Madagascar, Thailand or New Zealand. 3. Technical aspects and infrastructure: Practical problems with laboratory support, out of hours use by students, and the cost of software packages restricted some language provision to specific computers (e.g. Arabic, Russian, Chinese and Japanese), which meant that students had to plan and co-ordinate their access to a workstation. 4. Artificial aspects: The PM roles and language groups were assigned rather than sought-after jobs, so some students were ill-equipped or unwilling to take them on. Students occasionally absented themselves during the projects. In the real world an unexplained absence would

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mean never working again for the same client or agency. Getting this message across was sometimes difficult. 5. Assessment: By far the biggest challenge was assessment. Identifying which elements should count: participation, translation skills, technical skills, time management, etiquette, leadership – these are all important and subject to negotiation. The grade needed, for example, to account for an excellent project manager but a weak translator. At various stages, we introduced some element of assessment of the team projects, usually in response to student concerns that they were devoting a lot of time and work that was not reflected in their grade. 6. Ethical aspects: Some students became highly stressed during the projects, but would then request references for real-world roles where they were likely to face far more intense pressures. One particularly determined cohort of students placed the team translation project as a real job at a range of professional translation agencies, to make sure their quotes were realistic, but were effectively lying to agencies who were bidding for non-existent work. In retrospect, we discovered through conversations with a small number of our graduates that they felt that their PM had been too ‘officious’ or ‘dedicated’. While there were no complaints at the time, we became aware that we needed to be more in touch with teams and members to make sure competition was not causing undue stress. Project review Moving from the University of Leeds to the University of East Anglia (UEA) enabled the module leader to review the experience of the previous ten years, and design an M-level module on translation technologies, but this time integrating professional expectations from the outset (instead of simply training students to use the technologies). This new module has been running for two years at UEA and the approach has been comprehensively reviewed by students, alumni, professionals and academic experts. The MA Applied Translation Studies at UEA attracts around 30 students each year in an unlimited number of language pairs, including rarer languages such as Hungarian, Kazakh and Ukrainian; translation feedback is provided by professional freelance translators when academic staff cannot cover less commonly taught languages. The approach which had been tested at Leeds was refined at UEA, to address challenges observed during the initial experiment, and to take account of ongoing developments in the translation industry over the previous decade.

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Timing was critical. By identifying peak times for other deadlines, we determined that we should run the training in the second semester, and time team projects when no other deadlines were imminent but when students had mastered at least two tools. This timing allowed for substantial student reflection and for the students to ‘do it again’ when they were introduced to further tools. The project source materials were integrated into later training materials, so students were able to re-use real translations, just as they will when they graduate. We used our academic networks to source current materials, recognising that training materials quickly become outdated. Students are not motivated to translate texts where a translation exists online. Our network of local enterprise contacts and various local centres supporting business innovation gave us access to real source texts in a wide range of languages, which would otherwise not be translated. A recent project involved localising a website for a specialist in passive housing; exactly the sort of translation specialisation and experience which is relevant training for the profession. Other academic trainers have used similar approaches, including integrating volunteer and ‘fan’ translation activities in their training (Bey et al., 2008, p. 135; O’Hagan, 2008, pp. 179–80). ‘Fan’ translators are self-selecting volunteers who offer translations for cultural products which would otherwise take too long to appear in their languages or not be translated at all; these products can add interesting diversity to the student’s portfolio. Some technical aspects and infrastructure problems have resolved naturally as technologies have become more powerful and less expensive. Students virtually always have their own workstations or laptops, removing pressure on lab space. The advent of floating licenses has also made it possible to install the tools in more than one location. Some software tools are available in trial versions. Students can download them for free on a temporary basis, and work on their own computers, replicating freelance translation more effectively. A related development has been some ‘tandem’ site project work. Here we co-operate with partner universities running similar training, letting students work with translators and project managers who were previously unknown to them, and usually operating in another language. This additional component has been highly valued by students in both institutions. We reflected carefully on how best to attribute project roles. The key lesson was to select PMs carefully, inviting interested students to apply for the roles. If the benefits and problems of undertaking this role are carefully explained from the beginning of the module, suitably motivated students with the appropriate skills volunteer to act as PMs, and often go

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on to work in these roles on graduation. We make clear that confidential feedback is welcome at any point from translation team members, and outline what sort of behaviour is not acceptable. We hope that this averts any bullying behaviour. Working in teams, however, remains of value, even if it is not entirely realistic, particularly as it allows for students’ own, and others’, errors to become learning opportunities. Kiraly (2000, pp. 18–32) shows how error analysis can be ‘empowering’ for students, who learn more deeply and effectively via ‘reflective action in a community of knowledge builders’. Peer support and community are necessary to do this. Over the last ten years we have tried a variety of assessment approaches, raising issues of consistency, external approval (required in the UK), fairness and student acceptance. We identified formative assessment as most appropriate for this sort of work: summative assessment risks making the students less willing to experiment or take risks during the project, which can lead to missed opportunities for learning. Making assessment formative means that students can engage in the project without fearing their grade for the module will suffer unduly if they get something wrong. Currently, assessment is via an assessed reflective log. Each student submits a record of their participation, including screenshots of key steps taken during the translation, so staff can check they are using the tools effectively. They also submit their translation files, and PMs report on team members’ participation, etiquette, punctuality and professionalism. From this, a global assessment of their work is made, a mark assigned, and, importantly, individual feedback given, ideally before the next translation tool is introduced. Restricting the reflective logs to 500 words plus screenshots makes this feasible for markers. In addition, students are encouraged to refer to errors made during the team projects and the lessons learned in the final summative assessment for the module, enabling them to feel their hard work contributes to their grade, but without feeling they ought never to make mistakes. Summary Our view, based on staff experience and feedback from students, graduates and employers over more than a decade in two institutions, is that the project benefits significantly outweigh the remaining drawbacks. Alumni and employer feedback is unusually consistent and positive, including copious examples of direct recruitment of our students on graduation. Students repeatedly stress that they thought they knew how to

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use the tools until the project forced them to do so, when they were better able to assess whether a translation tool suited their own needs, skills and preferences. Academics in Translation Studies or any other discipline preparing Master’s students for professional roles may wish to try a similar approach. We identify the following as essential elements, and important issues to consider before and during project implementation:  Committed teaching staff: Staff need to be motivated to reflect as they run the projects and develop the materials accordingly. It is helpful to have a strong network of industry contacts to source suitable learning materials, and to co-opt people with current professional experience to ensure projects remain relevant as the industry evolves.  Technical expertise and support: Systems break down in the real world, and students need to understand how to handle setbacks.  Careful attention to timing: To ameliorate competing demands on student and staff time, and to ensure skills introductions are sequenced appropriately.  Planning appropriate project content: Real-world conditions are not entirely replicable in the classroom. Defining the key experiences is crucial, as are up-to-date materials; creating ways to alert students to matters not raised within the case studies is also important.  Post-project review: Both student and staff feedback are important, but in the longer term maintaining strong relationships with graduates and their employers will highlight gaps in provision.  Assessment: Needs to align with institutional formats while integrating relevant professional skills. Self- and peer-assessment offer ways to engage students in the assessment process.  Academia-industry relations: A strong professional network is vital to the long-term success of the projects. Our work benefited from the author’s research into quality in professional translation, which led to connections between research and teaching, including access to relevant project materials and professional feedback on the suitability of project goals. For some academics, the annual cycle of review, updating and continuous engagement with professional partners can seem daunting. But as Fraiman (2002) concluded, after working closely as an academic and trainer for another industry: The effort is worthwhile because meeting with our industrial partners helps our understanding of business and filters new ideas and insights into our

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research agenda. And maybe, if we’re lucky, we will have an impact on our partners – perhaps even profoundly change them. Fraiman, 2002, pp. 54–5

Perhaps, as Cronin (2005) suggests, the impact might ripple out more widely through our effectively trained students: They will be both victims and agents of change and the need will be as great as ever for appropriate theory to inform their education as professionals in the marketplace and as citizens of the world. Cronin, 2005, p. 263

 Conclusion Savin-Baden (2003) argues that: Problem-based learning can offer students opportunities to learn how to learn, and to develop key skills, independence in enquiry and the ability to contest and debate. For staff it can offer a means of responding to the problem of ever increasing pressures on curriculum content, opportunities for interprofessional education, and for implementing teaching that is grounded in the world of work, which can stimulate students to engage with the complexity and diversity of everyday problem situations. Problem-based learning can provide a means of managing the kinds of diversity that, amongst other things, offers a range of choice for the educator and the learner. Savin-Baden, 2003, p. 26

Inspiration for developing learning materials in this style can be found through The International Simulation and Gaming Research Yearbook; the Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education; and the Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning in the first instance. Presenting students with contemporary issues, and the opportunity to exchange information, connect ideas, discuss and challenge relevant concepts and potential solutions is more representative of workplace problem-solving. Individuals bring different strengths to the exploration of the solution, which encourages the group to justify and defend arguments as they develop. Very interesting practices are developed where groups include students from different academic years, and different disciplines. These integrated team approaches also provide practical opportunities for leadership skills development, mentoring less experienced students into the research and problem-solving process. Unintended learning is often the most beneficial. Problems which have yet to be solved, derived from

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current research or business needs, can be the most exciting for students. Their research will be genuinely investigative and the outcome uncertain. It’s therefore important that assessment of such practical enquiry is as much about process (planning, reflection, research design, reporting) as the final outcome. In some cases it may be important that it is entirely about the process. If university teachers are to make the most of such invaluable opportunities to equip our students with the skills and capabilities they need in practice, we need to acknowledge the radical rethinking of curriculum design, delivery and assessment that this approach applies. It is to this latter area that the next chapter addresses itself.

Part 4 Assessment

In Chapter 1.5, we defined two significant questions revolving around standards, and the nature of assignments which are relevant to assess this level of achievement: 1. Assessment may be considered to be best defined as demanding more than is required of final-year undergraduates. But what other options are there? What approaches help students to really engage with the issues? 2. Is a thesis still a relevant capstone assessment – should a research journal article or business report, or other relevant output, replace it? Are programmes with no capstone research project, or equivalent, demonstrating mastersness? Brown’s Chapter 10 provides a comprehensive introduction to Master’s level (M-level) assessment issues. It incorporates the results of a threeyear programme to explore international practices in M-level assessment, including developing a compendium of interesting examples of innovative approaches. Then Chapter 11 showcases examples of different styles of assessment which are effective at assessing achievements at M-level. This includes portfolios and group assessments, and concludes with an example of group problem-based learning (PBL) with formative assessments which help students to settle into the programme and to share their prior experience and expertise.

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10 Assessing well at Master’s level Sally Brown, Leeds Beckett University, UK

Keywords: assessment, authentic assessment, innovative assessment.

 Introduction The Assimilate UK National Teaching Fellowship project was conceived in 2009 to address a perceived gap in understanding about M-level assessment and, in particular, anecdotal suggestions of a much narrower range of types of assessment methods and approaches in use than found on undergraduate programmes globally. The three-year project, extended for a further year to disseminate outcomes, did indeed discover relatively fewer types of assessment in use, but also located examples of diverse and innovative usage in eight nations, which were compiled into a compendium (Brown et al., 2012). Reasons for the relative paucity of assessment variety at this level were discussed with interviewees and a number of reasons were suggested. In particular it was suggested that since Master’s programmes are relatively short, typically 12–24 months in duration, and since recruitment to programmes includes students with highly diverse prior study experiences, many of them international, course teams tend to be relatively risk averse and hence choose mainly from a triad of conservative assessment methods: essays, unseen time-constrained exams and dissertations. The project sought more innovative approaches, but since innovation in pedagogic practice is a difficult concept to determine, for the purposes of this project it was defined as novel for the subject, the context, the level or the subject material. The project focused on taught Master’s programmes and hybrid programmes involving taught and research elements: research-led programmes fell outside the study as their assessment outputs principally comprise dissertations or project reports. Interviews were undertaken

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in the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, the Netherlands and Denmark. Not all nations contributed case studies for the compendium, since some nations yielded only the conventional triad of assessment methods. More than 80% of programmes encountered in this study were directly aligned to professional practice requirements, or were directly related to employment. Many of the students on these programmes were undertaking advanced study for potential career advancement or employment-related requirements. Many of the programmes were principally or partially directed to students learning alongside full- or part-time employment. A strong underpinning thread for the project was a commitment to ‘assessment for learning’; that is a recognition that assessment can be a powerful tool for enhancing student learning when it is fully integrated into the learning process (Brown and Race, 2012). The project built on the work of two UK Centres for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETLs) on assessment for learning, particularly Northumbria’s Assessment for Learning (A4L) and Oxford Brookes’ Assessment Knowledge exchange (ASKe), fostering assessment literacy (Price et al., 2012). Both these fiveyear funded projects convincingly demonstrate the potential for assessment to be an active vehicle for learning rather than just an end-point summation (Bloxham and Boyd, 2007; Brown, 2011; Sambell et al., 2013). As Sambell et al. argue: Assessment for Learning means that students benefit from assessment which does far more than simply test what they know. It ensures that students take part in the kinds of activities that are valuable, long term, help them to develop, provide them with guidance and feedback and ensure that students learn how to assess themselves as future professionals  Distinguishing Master’s and undergraduate level expectations Quality bodies in various nations set out what is expected of M-level programmes. The UK Quality Assurance Agency, for example, suggests that M-level students should be able to:  deal with complex issues both systematically and creatively, make sound judgements in the absence of complete data, and communicate their conclusions clearly to specialist and non-specialist audiences;

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 demonstrate self-direction and originality in tackling and solving problems, and act autonomously in planning and implementing tasks at a professional or equivalent level;  continue to advance their knowledge and understanding, and develop new skills to a high level. And holders will have:  the qualities and transferable skills necessary for employment requiring: (i) the exercise of initiative and personal responsibility; (ii) decision-making in complex and unpredictable situations; (iii) the independent learning ability required for continuing professional development. QAA, 2010, p.16

While this seems relatively clear cut, such clarity was not always fully demonstrated in our UK interviews. Central to discussions with interviewees within the Assimilate project was the issue of how academic staff in practice differentiate levels of achievement at undergraduate and Master’s level, especially when learning outcomes at both levels share similar wording. While discussions suggested a degree of fuzziness in such differentiation (Brown, 2014), the principal differences included the extent to which at M-level students are required to:  demonstrate critical thinking and critical analysis in order to achieve good grades;  work independently, autonomously, with minimal support;  work with incomplete information, moving away from following a ‘recipe book’ approach as widely used at undergraduate level, to an approach where students are expected, like apprentices of old completing training to produce ‘masterpieces’, to demonstrate their abilities to complete tasks reliably and on multiple occasions to a very high standard;  demonstrate, on the one hand, a significant breadth of knowledge and an ability to show cognisance of a broad overview of a subject area but also, on the other hand, to focus on detailed specifics within a subject area and to drill down deep into specialist topics;  cope with a rapid pace of study, a high volume of work, an extended amount of required reading, and to write at length with coherence and clarity;  demonstrate creativity, originality and the ability to innovate.

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In its entirety, this is of course a tall order, and not all programmes require all these things from their students in order to graduate at Master’s level. There is much further work to be undertaken beyond the scope of this project to establish clarity both on this matter and the expected differences between Master’s level and Doctoral study, where the boundaries are similarly blurred.  Assessment methods and approaches in use at Master’s level While the principal assessment methods in use in most nations made use of the conventional triad of essays/reports, unseen time-constrained exams and dissertations, many more innovative methods and approaches were found, including:  assignments where students are presented with learning outcomes and given considerable liberty to design and negotiate their own assessment tasks to demonstrate achievement of them;  patchwork assignments or other means by which tasks are completed and marked incrementally, then assembled to form an end-point output, such as a portfolio;  Objective Structured Clinical Examinations, where students in healthrelated professions undertake multiple, short, timed, diverse tasks under exam conditions alongside fellow students;  assignments that test skills and capabilities directly related to professional or job requirements. For example, some involved assessed roleplaying encounters with clients or service users, where qualities such as empathy and the ability to work with incomplete information to make informed judgements were required;  assignments requiring the demonstration of reflection on action to inform future practice;  assignments based around inter-personal skills, which require students to work in groups, and where individual skills of leadership and team work are assessed. The best of these involved training and risk-free rehearsal with feedback, prior to assessment;  authentic tasks where students take the roles of external consultants and presentations are given to service users or clients in a position to make a judgement about the value of the ideas and proposals presented;  purposeful written assignments (as opposed to essays) where reports or other papers are drafted within professional environments to influence or change practices, based on research-informed processes fostered by the programme;

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 other practices beyond the triad included open-book exams, shortanswer questions, take-away exams, multiple choice questions and other kinds of computer-based assessment (CBA), assessed diaries and blogs, writing funding bids under authentic time and resource constraints, placement reports, assessed exhibitions, displays and posters, packages of materials to support teaching, clinical vivas by medical consultants, literature reviews and designing simulations. More detail on the range of methods identified within the study is included in the project compendium (Brown et al., 2012).

 Good practice in assessment at M-level The Assimilate project enabled good practice examples to be sought internationally. From those located, it was possible to determine some features of good practice in assessment as proposed below. Effective assessment induction Since students frequently enter M-level programmes from widely diverse previous learning backgrounds, a period of induction at the start of a programme appears to be essential to help students reach a common level of achievement. Such inductions are likely to include:  providing advice and guidance to students prior to admission and from the outset of the programme concerning the types of assessment methods and approaches they will encounter within the programme;  giving students opportunities to see, handle and ask questions about examples of assessment outputs (for example dissertations, projects, case studies) produced by students who have undertaken the course previously. This will serve the purpose of demystifying formats not previously encountered and can give all students an idea of the standard and quality of work required;  discussion of the assessment criteria and weightings in use for each assignment within the programmes, hence fostering students’ assessment literacy, so that they can gain an appropriate understanding of threshold-level achievements required for each activity. Authentic assessment Too often assignments are designed within curricula that measure proxies of the learning outcomes rather than the learning outcomes themselves.

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Many students on professional or employment-related Master’s programmes are in related employment alongside their studies. Good practice in M-level assessment implies ensuring that assignments are genuinely fit-for-purpose and align closely with activities which graduates might encounter in the future. This might mean, for example:  setting assignments that link directly with the kind of tasks students are undertaking in current employment;  looking ahead to future, more challenging roles and providing rehearsal and training activities to enhance relevant capabilities and skills;  making the most of live or simulated learning environments around which to base assignments;  ensuring that assessment tasks constructively align with well-designed and appropriate learning outcomes (Biggs and Tang, 2011; Seymour, 2005). Multiple assessment opportunities Many Master’s programmes have assessment strategies that are excessively end-loaded, sometimes with a single final dissertation or set of assignments on which the success or failure of the student for the whole course rests. Instead, the project team proposes that assessment should offer students:  developmental support to practise and rehearse the skills they need to complete summative assignments;  early opportunities to gauge their entry-level capabilities and knowledge, so they can focus their energies appropriately;  incremental support through staged submission of elements to those undertaking substantial assignments such as dissertations or major projects to avoid risking everything in a single terminal assignment. Feedback to enable students to learn and improve Aligned to this requirement for more than one assessment opportunity, is the fundamental necessity for developmental and supportive feedback throughout a programme which can:  enable students to gain formative guidance on their work, so that errors can be remediated and the quality of the output be enhanced before final submission;  time assignments and feedback at early enough points so that students can learn from comments on earlier assignments and use them to improve subsequent ones;

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 require students to proactively respond to feedback and use it to improve the quality of their work, with monitoring by tutors to ensure that feedback is noted and acted upon. Activities that enhance employability and foster employer engagement As the vast majority of programmes in this study related to employment and professional requirements, the ability for students to demonstrate employment-relevant skills and capabilities is paramount. For this reason, it is proposed that such Master’s programmes should involve:  fit-for-purpose assignments that test actual competency rather than proxy tasks such as writing about what competency in this area entails;  assignment tasks where learning genuinely aligns with employability requirements. This inevitably requires regular discussion with employers about what kinds of activities enable students on professional programmes to develop the advanced skills they need in the workplace;  where possible, engaging employers in assignment design and ideally, with appropriate briefing, enabling them to act as co-assessors with course team members;  offering (if possible, mandatory) briefing and moderation opportunities for employers undertaking work-based assessment to assure the maintenance of standards. The involvement of team work and group work Since most work environments require students to be able to comfortably and effectively work as a member of a team, our research indicated that all Master’s programmes should:  provide training and support to foster good team work and effective group behaviour, rather than leaving such development to chance;  require students to work on tasks as teams or groups, with both the output of the team activity and the process by which it is achieved being assessed, so good team work in practice is identified, recognised and rewarded by building it into the assessment criteria;  clarify expectations that part of the task is to resolve inter-personal difficulties and to establish techniques to resolve in-team conflict. Making good use of technology Most undergraduate programmes in many nations include expectations of extensive use of technology by both staff and students and the project

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team argue that the same should be the case at Master’s level, although in practice this is less likely to be the case from our research. Potential elements include:  enabling (or requiring) students to submit work and receive feedback online: this has huge advantages in terms of assignment security and the avoidance/sanctioning of plagiarism and also has benefits for students with visual impairments, dyslexia and lesser familiarity with the hand-written script of the nation in which they are studying. It is not always popular with staff, but the benefits for all so strongly outweigh the disadvantages that we anticipate this practice to be ubiquitous within five years in most universities;  where relevant, using diverse forms of computer-based assessments and simulations, and, for example, providing feedback through virtual learning environments;  requiring students to engage with assessed virtual discussions and tasks online (Casey, 2002): this can build course cohesion, particularly where cohorts include significant numbers of distant or part-time learners, and can provide monitoring opportunities for staff to ensure students are engaging with programmes between formal assignments;  encouraging students to participate in Twitter-enabled groups for less formal networking;  providing tasks that require the retrieval and use of information online, which is particularly useful for students who can’t easily access on-site, hard-copy libraries. Institutions will thereby need to assure the reliable, robust and ready availability of online materials including journal articles, course readers, course handbooks and tutor-to-student and student-to-student communication. Peer engagement/peer assessment Sadler (1989), Boud and Falchikov (2007) and Race (2006) inter alia argue that students benefit significantly from sharing tasks with peers and participating in peer assessment, since a better understanding of what criteria really mean and a fuller understanding of how assessment works can ensue from such types of engagement. The project team therefore would argue for assessment activities which:  encourage students to review their own and each other’s work against the assignment criteria for formative or summative assessment purposes;

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 provide training and support in peer assessment techniques, so that students recognise the need to make judgements where evidence of satisfaction of criteria is demonstrated, rather than making snap decisions based on ‘gut reactions’;  provide opportunities for academic staff to give students detailed guidance and feedback on their own abilities to critique fellow students’ work, helping them to become better lifelong learners;  involve students in formative assessment of both group process and assignment outcomes, which can in turn nudge students towards productive group behaviours;  engage students where possible in summative assessment of both process and outcomes, where marks count towards final grades, since many in employment will similarly be required to judge their fellows’ performance in contexts that really count. Programme level approaches to assessment Many of the better Master’s programmes in this study adopted a coherent and synoptic approach to assessment, assessing at programme rather than at just module or unit level, as championed by the National Teaching Fellowship Scheme project on Programme Focused Assessment led by Bradford University (McDowell, 2012). This project sought to redress common imbalances within undergraduate and Master’s programmes, where assessment issues are primarily investigated and discussed at subprogramme level. Following a five-year investigative project, the Scheme has provided evidence-based guidance and exemplars to help programme leaders develop and implement effective programme-focused assessment strategies. The project team concurs that effective Master’s programmes:  ensure a coherent and co-ordinated approach to the design of all assignments to ensure that tasks are integrated and lead to high student achievements;  monitor the volume of separate assignments within a programme to avoid over-assessing students with resultant overloads for staff and students;  avoid over-using the same kinds of assessment task (for example, presentations) across several components of the programme, instead offering a balanced diversity of tasks;  include synoptic assignments where learning from different modules can be assessed within synoptic or ‘capstone’ tasks.

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 Conclusion In a highly competitive global climate, where students can just as easily choose to study a Master’s programme from higher education institutions like Central Queensland University in Australia, where all programmes are offered on a face-to-face, blended and distance learning basis, as to study at their nearest university, effective design of Master’s curricula and assessment is crucial. M-level courses that offer authentic learning opportunities and assessment tasks are likely to be highly prized by students and their funders, who are frequently their employers. Hence, using a diverse variety of highly effective assessment methods to assess students at M-level can give programmes higher satisfaction rates and a market advantage. Using innovative and authentic assignments as described in this chapter can enhance the quality of the student experience, as well as enabling transformative learning to take place.

11 Creative assessments

Keywords: Assessment, group work, formative assessment, peer-assessment, diversity, real-world problems, blogs, portfolios, resource packs. If, as argued in the previous chapter, we need to find better and more creative approaches to Master’s level (M-level) assessment in order to help students develop transferable skills at the right level, demonstrate that they can deal with complex and unpredictable problems, tackle and solve problems under their own initiative and work with incomplete data, simultaneously developing the capability to act autonomously and independently as lifelong learners, then we need to look beyond traditional assessment formats. The following examples propose authentic, practical and viable approaches to M-level assessment, using appropriate technologies and fresh assessment instruments which are designed to build self-efficacy, enable students to work both independently and in conjunction with one another, and to ensure that assessment is for not just of learning (Sambell, McDowell and Montgomery, 2013). The first exemplifies how students from very diverse backgrounds can benefit from communal formative feedback.

 11.1 Using blogs when assessing Master’s Level Childhood and Youth Studies students to foster skills and confidence Emma Bond and Stuart Agnew, University Campus Suffolk, UK Our students are mature, have often been out of formal education for some time, and the majority are juggling paid employment, family commitments and postgraduate study. The MA Childhood and Youth Studies course had been designed around a blended learning combination of traditional teaching methods and technology-enhanced learning and adopted a range of creative assessment strategies, mindful of the rapidly changing educational and wider professional environment to meet our students’ needs (Ellis and Goodyear, 2010; Garrison and Vaughan, 2008). Our decision to use blogs was influenced by the diversity of prior subject knowledge and student experience, skills, motivations and capabilities

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to engage with e-learning effectively (Bond and Goodchild, 2013).We needed to develop students’ confidence, foster meaningful engagement and encourage collaborative student endeavour from the outset. Holmes and Gardner (2006, p. 7) propose a non-hierarchical framework for learning in relation to understanding developing practices and skills – communal constructivism – and state that ‘one of the most powerful factors in promoting learning is this contribution to discussion and collaboration with others who are working towards the same goal’. Our prior experience with undergraduates gave us the confidence to introduce a module blog as both a learning and an assessment tool in the first MA module. Students were required to undertake 10 blog entries, one per week, in response to a question based on a taught conceptual or theoretical element studied in the module. The shared blogs enabled students to see each other’s work and as tutors, we could respond and comment on each blog entry quickly and effectively to provide timely feedback. Thus, active participation and the task-orientated mechanism embedded the student learning experience, in relation to assessment, into the course from the outset. The blog enabled students to learn and become comfortable with some new literacies that they will need in an expanding information society, while developing their ability to analyse and manage information and skills such as research, organisation and synthesis of ideas (see Richardson, 2009). This collaborative learning technique also enabled students to identify M-level expectations about, for example, how to write precisely, reference correctly and construct a logical argument, as responses to each question required appropriate academic sources. This online and ongoing assessment strategy empowered students to develop critical, concise, analytical writing and benefit from the immediate feedback opportunities from both academic staff and fellow students. The frequent feedback led to a rapid development of critical thinking, students’ engagement with module theory and confidence in their ability to succeed at M-level study. This further motivated students to engage meaningfully with the theoretical and academic aspects of the course, and created a thriving and successful community for learning. In the next example, Laura Ritchie demonstrates how authentic assessment can work well in practice, so that what is outlined in the learning outcomes is assessed rather than what is easy to assess, or proxies of what has been learned, rather than the learning itself. A valid assessment is one that has close relevance to the criteria, which are in turn constructively aligned to the stated learning outcomes of a

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programme. Effective assessment is highly relevant to ensuring that graduates can demonstrate the knowledge, behaviours, qualities and attributes that were described in the course outline or programme specification. Assignments that require students to write about something rather than be or do something may not be fit-for-purpose. Brown, 2015

While portfolios have been in use as higher education (HE) instruments for many years, their use at M-level is less prevalent, and here students are given realistic tasks to enable them to extend their critical thinking capacities in live settings, and to reflect on their resultant learning.  11.2 Using portfolios to assess M-level Music Performance students Laura Ritchie, University of Chichester, UK Through the Portfolio Experience module, students on the MA Music Performance programme at the University of Chichester learn to look at performance through different eyes. This module is designed to equip students with practical skills that enable them to undertake creative research methods, analyse current professional practice, reflect upon their own performance practice, and enhance their academic skills through various types of writing. The assessment has two complementary parts: critical reviews of professional performance and a reflective essay. During the semester students study the role of a music critic, which provides them with ‘high impact practices’ (Brownell and Swaner, 2010) because their direct experience relates to the real world (Kuh, 2008), as experienced by professional musicians. They consider what language is appropriate to different publications, and the impact concert reviews can have both on the reader as audience, and on the career of the performer. Students are required to choose, attend, and critique three professional concerts that are aligned with their specialisms. For example, a saxophone player may choose to see a jazz gig, a solo gig, and a big band, whereas a singer may go to the opera, hear a recital, and then listen to a soprano soloist with an orchestra. For the teacher, this is challenging because, depending on the type of music studied, the critical reviews may be written in completely different styles: the popular guitarist will use different language within his or her reviews from the classical violinist, for example. Each student has complete free rein to choose the events they want to attend, with the one stipulation that they should extrapolate a common ‘performance practice’ theme, such as communication on stage,

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to examine in their 4,000-word reflective essay. A particularly innovative topic from a 2010 student was: The Effect of Native Language and Nationality on the Pronunciation of a Foreign Language in Singing. Within the essays, students then refer to the reviewed concerts as further practical references. Each student is encouraged to use creative research methods, which could include interviews or analysis of current and/or historic performances, to unpick the nuances of their chosen topic. The bulk of the assignment can be completed early in the semester, and students submit one review in week six, which is not marked, but detailed written feedback is given. The order and presentation of the final submission is up to the students: the reviews can be integrated into the essay or might be presented separately as appendices. The assessment process builds students’ self-efficacy as they take responsibility and self-regulate the phases of their learning (Schunk and Usher, 2013) and encourages them to consider their own performances with a critical eye and from different perspectives. Having an awareness of current performance practices helps equip students to apply the learned concepts to their future performing careers: This module had a huge influence upon my performance analysis. It helped in so many ways to have a wider view on live performances by being part of the audience and not only on the performer’s side. It’s a great opportunity to learn from different musicians and get an opinion based on the performance. Before I would just enjoy a concert whereas now I can carefully listen and take into consideration some useful ideas for my playing. But most importantly the module definitely helped me be my own critic in my interpretation when I perform. Violinist, 2013 graduate

Assessment of subjects leading to professionally-relevant qualifications brings its own challenges, with a requirement to assess both theoretical knowledge and its practical application. In the next example, Sue PalmerConn shows how producing an assessment outcome with real and practical value to end-users can provide for a highly motivating and engaging assignment, which is valued by both the students themselves and the recipients of the learning packs produced.

 11.3 Authentic assessment in an MEd Psychology of Education Sue Palmer-Conn, Liverpool John Moores University, UK In the MEd Psychology of Education, one module was run as a case-based learning experience, where a professional paediatric clinical psychologist

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presented the students with a range of paediatric cases of abnormal development. The students were a mixed group of new graduates, experienced teachers, home and international students, full-time and part-time. The programme gave them a Master’s qualification and the ability to apply for a professional programme leading to Chartership with the British Psychological Society (BPS). The majority of students were aiming to become either educational or clinical psychologists, a role where they could expect to be dealing with teachers and parents whose children were diagnosed with a paediatric disorder. The real patient cases were given to the students to analyse and to prepare case notes for discussion in small groups on alternate weeks. In addition, the assessment was designed to be authentic to the students’ future professional activity, giving them the experience of writing for different audiences. For their assignment they were required to prepare an information pack for parents whose child was newly diagnosed with a paediatric disorder, or for a teacher who was being informed that there would be a child in their class with a specific paediatric disorder. The information pack had to contain enough original information, using non-technical language, to allow the parent or teacher to feel confident that they would be making informed decisions about treatment, education and lifestyle choices for the child. In addition, the student had to prepare an annotated reading list, ranging from books suitable for sharing with siblings and peers, to the latest research in the field. Students found this assessment both challenging and rewarding. Many of them contacted actual self-help groups to ask them what would be a useful additional resource and what was already available so that they did not duplicate readily available material. The standard of the end product was amazingly high. Some were good enough for publication and were given to the self-help groups for their use. The marks for this module were significantly higher than for modules assessed by more traditional means. The majority of marks, even for students for whom English was not their first language, were in the ‘merit’ and ‘distinction’ range (over 60%). This module was entered for and won a curriculum innovation prize, the prize money for which was shared between a number of charities that worked with children with special and additional needs brought on by the paediatric disorders. Achieving highly in assignments while undertaking distance learning can be a complex and demanding process, since studying by this mode,

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particularly part-time, is potentially an isolating and sometimes alienating experience. Group work can often be valuable in this respect, and is usually highly valued by employers, but it can be difficult to organise. In the next example, Chris Garbett describes how he sets out to resolve these issues by providing students with technologically-supported group work tasks in a globally aware environment that they can undertake together wherever in the world they are studying.

 11.4 A group work assessment for distance learners on an MSc Facilities Management programme Chris Garbett, Leeds Beckett University, UK Our distance learning students have identified isolation as a problem, and have asked, through their feedback, for more group work. Group work can be both an assessment tool, and an aid to developing group identity. Known problems with group work include students worrying that their marks may be affected by the poor performance of others, and, conversely, that under-performing members get a ‘free ride’ from the work of others. Employers, however, welcome ‘team players’ who can work in groups. Group work on the MSc Facilities Management programme seeks to resolve these dilemmas by using authentic, collaborative group work. The programme participants are all part-time students with no face-to-face contact, Management and may be drawn from a range of countries. Process Students are placed into groups of four and presented with an authentic scenario; in this example they are working for an organisation which is opening an overseas branch. Using set criteria, each group compares two cities as appropriate for the branch. For authenticity, the cities reflect the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) economies; one group may have St Petersburg and Moscow; another may have Delhi and Mumbai; another Beijing and Shanghai. The cities are compared for: office rents and availability, residential rents and availability, communications and transport, quality of life. Students collaborate to determine who will research each area. The deliverable is a wiki with joint introduction and conclusion, and separate pages for each research area. Marks are awarded for individual research undertaken and presented, plus some minimal marks for joint work.

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Student reaction Evaluating students’ comments and reactions shows:  students appreciate being judged on their individual contribution. If a student fails to deliver, that does not affect the marks for the rest of the group;  students are forced into contact with one another, forming supportive bonds which last throughout the programme. They ‘know’ at least three other students;  some students already work in international teams. This exercise gave them new insights into collaborative work at a distance. One reported that they intend to introduce a wiki at work. One graduate actually found herself subsequently with this project in real life, opening an overseas office. Features of the assessment In advocating this approach we see the value for learning as four-fold:  it is an authentic simulation of a complex workplace task, enhancing employability skills;  students are self-directed in approaching the task, corresponding with teaching and learning principles expected at Master’s level;  it makes good use of technology;  it encourages group collaboration. The selection of group membership is important: preferably members should be geographically distant, avoiding having three out of four members able to meet face-to-face, isolating the fourth. It is important to be conscious of sensitive political situations when dealing with international matters. The ability to write fluently, accurately and coherently is a high level skill Master’s degree designers are usually keen to foster and assess, but as discussed in the previous chapter, traditional long-form written assignments do not always offer a valid form of assessment, particularly on professionally-orientated courses. Here, Mark Sutcliffe and Ruth Matheson outline their approach to making written tasks meaningful and relevant to their students, in a feedback-rich environment.  11.5 Patchwork portfolio assessment Mark Sutcliffe and Ruth Matheson, Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK The diverse, changing and increasingly employment-focused postgraduate learner population calls into question the value of emphasising the

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prominence of (extended) written communication as the over-riding, predominant assessment method. Not only might we question the appropriateness of the traditional essay to the work environment and for most occupations (Brown and Race, 2012), as an assessment method it may also constrain learning and prevent students from attaining many other higher level learning outcomes which are desirable from postgraduate study. Research suggests that the dissertation in particular is seen as a ‘hurdle to overcome’ (Maisch, 2003), where enthusiasm and commitment for work dwindle and fade. The portfolio approach to assessment allows for a variety of alternative forms of assessment to be considered, drawing on a diverse set of skills, competencies, knowledge and understanding. Its structure and delivery as a series of fragments, patches or artefacts allow students to accumulate work, and subsequently mould, through reflection, a rationale that binds such components together. The patchwork or mosaic portfolio requires an integrated theme and cannot simply be a collection of random pieces, and it is this that distinguishes the patchwork portfolio from the portfolio approach in general. The links and themes are appraised via reflection and demand criticality. This approach to assessment encourages active and independent leaning, and amongst other things promotes the use and value of peer feedback. Examples of fragments, patches or artefacts which might be included in such a portfolio include: scholarly/technical/reflective/creative writing; critical evaluation of an idea/method/approach; audio recording of a structured interview; video recording of a tutorial or a topic being explained; excerpt from an online discussion/email exchange; a blog or podcast. The advantages of this form of assessment are that:  at a module level, work is produced throughout a module, and not at a single point, allowing for reflection and growth in student knowledge and understanding as a module progresses. Appropriately designed, such a portfolio can ensure that students engage with many aspects or topics of a course, improving attendance, and reflecting a move towards a ‘deeper’ learning process;  the writing tasks can be varied in style and genre, drawing upon a wide range of skills and attributes, allowing for success to be evaluated through a wider set of criteria;  each piece of work can be shared with other students; such work can be peer-assessed and evaluated, offering multiple peer-peer formative assessment opportunities. The summative assessment is made with the final retrospective commentary;

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 although the extensive use of formative assessment is time consuming, the ultimate benefits to the students are immense, providing an early warning device for those students who are struggling, avoiding the concealment of failure associated with the end of module essay, and allowing for early remedial support. In addition, this formative assessment helps to boost students’ confidence and motivation, giving students a clear and ongoing view of their performance and progress. The portfolio of work, once created, requires integration. A reflective commentary, and the index and mapping of evidence, provide navigation for the reader and offer reference to the module learning outcomes. Conventions that might be adopted could include:  all patches except the final patch are formative in nature. They must however be completed and are a formal requirement of the assessment process;  the final patch for each assessment is summative and will provide a reflective account of the formative patches and how they enhance understanding of the theme/module studied, and meet the stated learning outcomes of the module or assessment brief. The next example by Adam Ritchie and Emma Plugge brings together a number of the themes explored in this and the previous chapter, particularly in relation to making the most of opportunities for formative feedback and ‘feed-forward’ with high-achieving students working in groups which are characterised by considerable diversity. Once again, the importance of self- and peer-assessment is highlighted here as a means not only of building students’ understanding of the quality of work being sought, but also to build cohort cohesion and to provide a community of supportive fellow learners, with group members playing to their strengths and building their own expertise alongside supporting one another. Sadler argues that those giving feedback to students need to: provide the means by which students can develop a concept of quality that is similar in essence to that which the teacher possesses, and in particular to understand what makes for high quality…. Students need to be exposed to, and gain experience in making judgements about, a variety of works of different quality…. They need planned rather than random exposure to exemplars, and experience in making judgements about quality. They need to create verbalised rationales and accounts of how various works could have been done better. Finally, they need to engage in evaluative conversations with teachers and other students. Sadler, 2010, p. 543

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This example demonstrates how students can engage in dialogue about their work-in-progress in a structured context, which becomes truly part of the learning experience.

 11.6 Managing student diversity and learning through group formative assessment Adam John Ritchie and Emma Plugge, University of Oxford, UK At Master’s level, many academics are faced with the issue of students who have diverse educational and professional experiences and expertise. When teaching a cohort ranging from those who have just graduated to those with considerable experience in the workplace and expertise surpassing that of the teaching faculty in certain areas, how do you deliver material in a way that engages all students? This issue is most pronounced in Master’s programmes that are multi-disciplinary in nature, especially if the fields involved are taught separately at the undergraduate level, and also where these programmes attract candidates from across the world, as ‘culture’ becomes an additional source of diversity. While streaming may be one option, in two Master’s courses at the University of Oxford we have instead focused on group learning activities that allow students from across the spectrum of prior experience and expertise to advance their learning together. This example will focus on these two Master’s courses and how the curriculum of each has developed to ensure that diversity in the student body is capitalised upon to maximise student learning. Context The Master of Public Policy (MPP) and the Master of Science in Global Health Science (MSc GHS) are highly competitive, with approximately eight to ten applicants for each place on both courses. The MPP is an intensive one-year course that is global, practical, and multidisciplinary. It aims to produce public leaders and policy-makers who can reach across specialist fields to find more innovative solutions to difficult challenges. Teaching is delivered using methods ranging from lectures and seminars to intense practical sessions and policy simulations. The 2013 cohort of 64 students represented 39 different countries or territories, with around half coming from low- or middle-income countries. Practical skills are developed through training units including presenting, leadership and team building, and students take two in-depth optional courses in areas ranging from international development to security to global health. Simulations

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and in-depth policy challenges are faced by the students across the course, and they end with a policy placement of six to eight weeks, where they can apply what they have learned to real-world policy issues. The MSc GHS, also one-year and full-time, aims to promote in-depth understanding of global health issues by the study of a range of disciplines in the biomedical and social sciences. The programme is intended for individuals with significant commitment to health in low- and middle-income countries. The intake is about 25 students each year and therefore most teaching is conducted in small groups. The students are from diverse professional and geographical backgrounds. In 2012–13, the students came from 17 different countries with two-thirds from low- or middle-income countries. The MSc is based in the Medical Sciences Division but draws on the University’s strengths in a wide range of relevant disciplines. The breadth of modules enables the multidisciplinary student body to pursue study of relevance to their professional interests. In the third term, students undertake a project at an approved site in the UK or overseas where they apply their knowledge and deepen their understanding of global health. Student diversity: threat or opportunity? In an interview, Dr Jo Handelsman, recipient of the 2011 Presidential Award for Science Mentoring, reminded us that diversity in the classroom is a good thing, as it brings opposing views that need to be resolved and integrated into the problem-solving process during group work (Fischer, 2011). Diversity within university classes seems to lead to a more pluralist view of education and the world (Perry, 1999). Even at secondary (high school) level, diversity within teaching groups undertaking active learning techniques has been shown to improve overall educational achievement of the students (Palinscar and Brown, 1984). On both the MPP and MSc GHS, students bring their own experiences to the classroom through seminars and group work and this is one of the most valued aspects of the programmes; students consistently report that they learn as much from their peers as they do from their lecturers. However, diverse student bodies also bring challenges. With the growing internationalisation of higher education (HE) (Ninnes and Hellsten, 2005), much of the research has focused on students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Cross-cultural variation in learning styles, perceptions of student and teacher roles, and course evaluations amongst ‘overseas’ versus domestic students have been explored (Todd, 1997). Other authors have focused primarily on ‘non-English speaking

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background students’ and the challenges of supervising them in Englishspeaking programmes (Ryan and Zuber-Skerritt, 1999). However, more recent work has approached ‘international’ students as an opportunity for programmes to examine their own weaknesses and to respond with innovative curricula, supporting diversity and benefiting all students, no matter what their educational background (Ryan and Carroll, 2005). The approach taken in the curriculum development of both the MPP and MSc GHS draws on this work, embracing student diversity as an opportunity to develop excellence in learning with a specific focus on formative assessment. Formative assessment: capitalising on diversity Formative assessment is concerned with judgements about the quality of students’ work, pieces, or performances, and can be used to shape and improve students’ learning (Sadler, 1989; Torrance, 2012; Yorke, 2003). In an undergraduate setting, there is generally a drive to take those with little or no assumed knowledge of an area and develop their learning to a specific threshold, which can have the effect of neglecting the high achievers in favour of supporting struggling students (Hughes and Overton, 2009). At M-level, the educational goals are to produce better practitioners, such as policy-makers (for the MPP) and public health professionals (for the MSc GHS), regardless of their previous level of expertise. Once we accept that we are not trying to get all students to the same level and that different ones will have strengths and weaknesses that existed before and may remain after the course, then we can shift our pedagogy to improvement for all students against their own personal baseline. Examples of two formative assessments in the Master’s programmes are discussed in the following sections: Formative Assessment A – Science Research Project (SRP) for the MPP Students were split into pre-allocated groups of nine and given an essay topic (e.g. genetically modified (GM) crop safety) and an introductory seminar by a scientific adviser working in the field. Students then had three weeks to research the science behind their topic and produce an individual essay. The group of nine then split into three pre-allocated sub-groups of three, each of which was reporting on a policy issue (e.g. can GM crops improve Indian food security?) to a different stakeholder (e.g. Minister for Agriculture, Greenpeace, Monsanto). Each sub-group had three weeks to

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produce a policy memo for their stakeholder, during which time they met with the scientific adviser again. The three sub-groups then took part in a one-hour long policy panel, where each sub-group had five minutes to present the findings from their memo, followed by 45 minutes of debate and questions from the audience. During the panel, each sub-group was expected to attempt to advance the position of their stakeholder. Each student had to use published marking criteria to peer-assess the memo and panel performance of a sub-group working on another topic, so that everyone got three pieces of peer assessment on top of feedback from faculty and their scientific adviser. Finally, students produced a brief self-assessment reflecting on the task, what they learned, and what they would do differently faced with a similar issue in the future. Formative Assessment B – Public Health in Practice (PHIP) for MSc GHS A formative assessment, designed by Dr Karina McHardy (McHardy et al., 2011), challenged the students to work collaboratively. In pre-allocated groups of three or four, students identified a public health problem, such as smoking, and worked together for 15 weeks to design and roll out an intervention to address this problem within the university setting. They received detailed written guidance from the PHIP facilitator (a doctoral student and course alumnus) who also acted as a source of support for groups. However, responsibility lay with the student group for the original idea and for conducting all aspects of their initiative. At the end of the 15 weeks, a panel of four senior public health academics assessed the students by an oral presentation and a written report. Each student group received detailed verbal and written feedback on their presentation and report. Students also anonymously assessed each of their fellow group members on a number of team-working skills. Development of formative assessment tasks to address diversity The addition of the SRP occurred in response to a concern that the earliest drafts of the Science and Public Policy curriculum for the MPP were too heavily focused on traditional lectures, and thus had a lack of active learning opportunities. Its development effectively involved building layers of real-world engagement and peer- and self-assessment over a problembased learning (PBL) scaffold. PBL revolves around the provision of a problem and allows the students to build their own framework, encouraging

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more engagement with the process of acquiring and judging the quality of information (Eberlein et al., 2008; Feather and Fry, 2009; Hughes and Overton, 2009). It was designed to allow students to develop their scientific policy skills while engaging with policy considerations from other modules, such as Law and Economics. The inclusion of the PHIP exercise was the result of a student-driven change to facilitate improved integration of theoretical knowledge across the MSc GHS course. It was designed to enable the practical application of the knowledge and skills acquired in compulsory modules and to promote the development of students’ communication, collaboration and leadership skills (McHardy et al., 2011). One of the common cornerstones of both tasks was that students had to become active learners, that is, actively engaged in the learning process (Prince, 2004). There is a large body of literature supporting the positive impact of active learning (Hake, 1998; Michael, 2006; Prince, 2004). Active learning is often promoted as encouraging improved understanding of the subject material, and is associated with ‘deep’ learning and better learning outcomes (Hughes and Overton, 2009; Michael, 2006; Palincsar, 1998; Prince, 2004). We found that several active learning techniques have the potential to allow a diverse group of students to engage with the material on different levels. In undergraduate education, it has previously been noted that the employment of such active learning on introductory Biology courses improves outcomes for all students and acts to decrease the size of the ‘achievement gap’ (Haak et al., 2011). The ‘achievement gap’ is the gap in performance between students from different socio-economic backgrounds, which is thought to reflect prior opportunities to develop subject-specific thinking and deep learning (Haak et al., 2011). The important inference from this work is that while active learning improves outcomes for all, it may be especially useful in engaging students who do not have a background in the type of learning traditionally required for the course or module, thus decreasing the negative impact of classroom diversity. Students guiding students Pedagogies based on social constructivism, where the student’s natural building of knowledge process is aided by co-operation with other students (Eberlein et al., 2008), seem particularly well suited to allowing students to engage with education from varied starting points. As noted by Abercrombie (Abercrombie, 1993), ‘…man is essentially a social animal…’

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and it is in this evolutionary and sociological framework that teaching and learning occur. Obsession with belonging to social groups has been proposed as a significant factor in various aspects of humanity, from religion to nationalism (Haidt, 2013). This social group aspect of human nature can also be manipulated to impact on behaviours, as seen in advertising techniques and democratic politics, and this should be used to greater advantage in the educational setting. Although beyond the scope of this discussion of Master’s education, this group mentality is nowhere more apparent than in the sometimes inexplicable (to the outsider) behaviours of teenagers and young adults, who are the subject of significant educational effort, and this surely has major implications for secondary and undergraduate tertiary education. Students who consider themselves weak in a topic may be more likely to struggle with material presented by someone they perceive as an expert. Such students are more likely to engage through working with other students as they perceive the work to be closer to their zone of proximal development (ZPD). A student’s ZPD is the area of learning in which a student can carry out work with some scaffolding, but in which they would struggle unaided. It is effectively the concept of pushing a student beyond their comfort zone to work just outside it. How groups are constructed is very important for this approach, with different levels of expertise within a group allowing for an overlap between ZPDs that draws all students forward over time. Weaker students often improve in confidence as they see ‘stronger’ students in the group make mistakes or struggle with different aspects of the task, while confident students often need to re-evaluate what they think they know as it is challenged by others (Abercrombie, 1993; Griffiths, 2009). At Master’s level, the way in which the ZPDs between any group of three students come together is dynamic, changing as the focus of the task changes. Especially with a complex task, such as these formative assessments, it is unlikely that one student will become the default authority in the group. This is because the task relies on skills from numerous areas, and on both the SRP and PHIP, students are carefully allocated to groups to ensure that there is a diversity of experience and expertise within each. In reality this means that the members of the group will each come from a different country, have a different professional background, and have spent varying amounts of time in the workplace. For example during the SRP, students weaker in the sciences are given the chance to lead more in areas to do with law, economics or ethics. The more pluralist approach to education shown by these students, which develops through exposure to the diverse student cohort, means there is

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less need for direct academic supervision of the task than seen in similar settings with undergraduates, where techniques such as appointing a rotating chairperson within the group have been used to overcome this need for pseudo-authority (Abercrombie, 1993). While less faculty guidance is needed at times, there is still a need to make sure that tasks are challenging to students, and push the boundaries of their skills and knowledge. Thus some guidance is needed to ensure groups are heading in the right direction. On the SRP, the scientific advisers primarily filled this role in terms of the specific topic, while faculty provided support in general clarifications around the task and what was to be produced by each group. On the MSc GHS, the PHIP facilitator met regularly with the groups and required them to write email updates at specific times. The facilitator was available for day-to-day guidance, referring more complex issues to the course director for resolution. The available evidence suggests that a combination of expert- and peer-led discussion results in the best learning outcomes than either alone (Knight and Smith, 2010; Smith et al., 2011) and our experiences would confirm this. Linking course work to the real world Being more experienced, Master’s students tend to be amongst the most critical consumers of education. We have found our students to be very sensitive to just how real-world applicable learning activities are, with those poorly set up or seemingly artificial resulting in poor student engagement and weaker learning. The engagement of scientific advisers for the SRP and of the PHIP facilitator served to guide students in the most appropriate direction, but student feedback indicates that knowing that experts would assess the final ‘products’ led to significant student investment in the task. The focus on topics and challenges that were current rather than historical was also found to underline the real-world quality of both formative assessments. Across the MPP, other successful teaching methods often relied on similar engagement, ranging from in-depth policy challenges where a Minister from an African country engaged with students on a challenge they were facing, to the challenge of drafting a binding climate change treaty with 60 different stakeholders represented by the students, similar to the real negotiations that took place six months later. Peer- and self-assessment Another key aspect of engaging with a diverse student cohort and advancing the learning of all students is the use of peer- and self-assessment. Numerous authors promote peer- and self-assessment as a means

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to help students better understand what is expected of them by applying marking criteria to their own or each other’s work (Butler and Cartier, 2004; Rust, 2005; Sadler, 1989). We would support this analysis, but also note that this impact is most important to diverse student cohorts. Reviewing the work of several other students and groups allows each student to experience the diverse approaches and responses to tasks reflected by such a cohort, enriching both the depth of understanding that is inherent to this type of assessment, but also the breadth through the different focuses inherent to the diverse cohort. On the SRP, peerassessment also involved reviewing essays from other members of the same group before preparing a policy memo together, allowing students to have a better understanding of the knowledge and focus of their group members. PHIP students are required to rate members of their groups on process measures rather than the outcome of the group work: group participation, leadership, listening, feedback, co-operation, time-management and communication skills. The process of reviewing other students, both in terms of group performance and work produced, provides the reviewers with an opportunity to apply their judgement on what is a good or bad characteristic. They can then develop their own skills through a growing critical experience of approaches they felt did or did not work for other students. The success of these assessment tasks These interventions have shown that the students have an excellent understanding of the outlined tasks, objectives, and underpinning theory. On both courses faculty were impressed by the quality of the work produced by the students, which was much better than some of the work produced through less engaging activities (such as when there was no expert involvement or the task was perceived as too theoretical), and suggested that real learning had occurred. The students themselves evaluated each of their initiatives, their group work performance, and the exercises themselves. For both courses, the majority (90% for the MPP and 80% for the MSc GHS in 2012–13) felt it had been useful and all PHIP students felt that it had helped to develop their communication, collaboration and presentation skills. One PHIP student noted, ‘The group … gave us an opportunity to learn how to work with different people and build working relationships for the overall benefit of the team’, while one MPP student said the SRP ‘was a real highlight of the entire MPP’. Both comments are illustrative of numerous others from student feedback praising these activities and their impacts on student learning.

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Summary Both the MPP and the MSc GHS are well respected postgraduate taught courses within the University of Oxford and attract large numbers of applicants each year. The students on these two courses are intelligent, able and motivated. However, drawing some of the best students from across the world to two multidisciplinary courses means that the student body is also extremely diverse in terms of educational and cultural background and also in terms of experience in the workplace. We have shown that this diversity need not be an insurmountable challenge in the classroom, but rather it can be exploited for the benefit of the students’ learning. Drawing on concepts of learning by social constructivism, zones of proximal learning, and real-world relevance, we can understand why these group formative assessments have become amongst the most well received components of student learning in both programmes.

 Mastering Master’s level assessment: Beyond the dissertation In former times, having gone through from being a trade apprentice and for some years a journeyman, a craftsman would demonstrate mastery of a trade by producing a masterpiece as the capstone outcome of (normally but not always) his training. This artefact would demonstrate competence in creating rather than just following patterns and working independently without being overseen, as well as anticipating, identifying and overcoming problems and producing work of a consistently high standard. Similarly, a graduate of a Master’s programme should be able, through the assignments completed and passed during the programme, to demonstrate achievement at a high level, not just on a single occasion, but continuously, thereby developing the skills to continue to deliver excellent work throughout a subsequent working life. The challenge we face in designing effective M-level assignments is to enable participants to demonstrate learning at a high level, and integrate theory with practice and professional capabilities, as the contributors to this chapter exemplify.

Part 5 Curriculum design

Another realisation for me as a student has been how important the administrative arrangement for courses is. Missing study materials and confusing or incorrect instructions cause intense frustration and wasted effort. Being a student also reminds you how important person to person contact is, even for an online course. Your interaction with the tutor and your fellow students is very important. A student can spend hours, days or weeks trying to interpret a comment from the tutor. What might be just a throwaway comment from the tutor can be very important to the student. … As a tutor, I have tended to say less in forums, leaving it to the students to support each other. Tom Worthington, Adjunct Senior Lecturer, Research School of Computer Science, Australian National University, http://highereducationwhisperer.com

In Chapter 1.5 (p19–20), three points summarised critical issues that can be addressed in part through curriculum design:  How do we manage diversity, international, home, part-time, mature or disabled students, high-flyers and others? It is important that students take risks in learning, thinking, research and writing. How do we enable this when they also want the security of a high mark?  What our graduates need. Most students will not become PhD students. How do we balance curriculum activities for knowledge, professional and technical skills and attitudes? Never mind what is interesting academically; what does the workplace need in the next five to ten years?  People working together. Currently there is generally an emphasis on solo work, but people in business and research need team players. Digitally literate graduates will have experience of online and blended learning. These approaches are needed more; they build communities of practice, and can connect our students who have other life commitments. How do we know when online and blended working provides really effective learning?

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These final four chapters encapsulate the experience of colleagues in a wide range of disciplines in designing and evolving their programmes with blended and distance learning opportunities, and provide some insights into answering these questions. At Master’s level (M-level), it is even more true that students are ‘partners in the learning community’ than at undergraduate level (CHERI, 2009, p. 4). May and Felsinger (2010) map engagement and participation as students become increasingly involved and take control of their own learning (Figure P5.1). Greater student involvement requires the curriculum to offer the time to develop skills in leadership, self-management and project management, so that self-directed personal and team learning is effective. Where students are part-time, involved in professional jobs alongside their degree study, or have personal demands that limit their time, creating spaces for learning within the programme needs particular attention from the team. Modern course design must recognise rapidly changing technologies available to staff and students, and the changing ways in which students are working. Good design aims to provide students with a rich intellectual journey alongside the development of skills and workplace-relevant attributes. Collaborative working activities, whether face-to-face or at a distance, can replicate current business practices, and enable students to share, test and challenge ideas. Engaging students, who are often technologically savvy and aware of emerging tools, throughout the design process and annual reviews of curriculum content and process can help

Delegated control HEI – Student partnership Student involvement Consultation with students

Provision of information and feedback to students

Figure 5.1 Pyramid of increasing involvement Source: After May and Felsinger, 2010, p. 31; Morgan and Houghton, 2011, Figure 3.

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anticipate new developments, and recognises partnership in practice. Reviewing and reflecting with students helps everyone to understand the difference between what was planned (and stated in programme and module outlines and learning outcomes) and what is actually remembered in terms of new knowledge, skills and attributes developed and which students can readily exemplify in CVs or job interviews. This style of evaluation two to three years after graduation is highly desirable to understand the longer term impact of the programme. In this section Cramp, Chapter 12, explains how by systematically structuring an online module in three phases (formative assignment development, summative development work and independent study) MA students became part of a critically reflective and supportive online community. In his experience these social practices are particularly helpful for part-time students. Then Durham and See, Chapter 13, reflect on the evolution of a distance learning programme jointly delivered by staff in three universities over ten years. They give an excellent insight into programme management, including lessons learned in setting up, in working in partnership with others and evolving the curriculum. Chapter 14 collates four case examples offering insights into cultural issues, aligning curriculum design and accreditation. Kneale, Brown and Race, Chapter 15, collaborate to provide a series of challenges to people considering creating a Master’s programme, or revising their current provision. This is deliberately thought-provoking, drawing on evidence to provide a framework for discussion. Topics include the scope and scale of the programme, effective aims, students as researchers, constructive alignment of assessment, and support for students.

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12 Curriculum design to provide learning as a social practice Andrew Cramp, University of Wolverhampton, UK

Keywords: blended learning, curriculum design, formative assignments, online learning, social practice. The context for this case study was the MA Education programme which is a flexible part-time Continuing Professional Development (CPD) award aimed at practitioners in any sector of education. The majority of participants are teachers in schools and colleges looking to extend their skills and understanding of education and learning. These participants are always challenged by the time demands of their professional roles and the demands of the programme, so the more flexibly we can work together, the easier it can be for them to find the motivation and time to work with us. In this context we designed an online module to provide flexibility and challenge some of the assumptions made about learning online. Our thinking in designing the module was situated within a sociocultural perspective of learning, emerging from the work of Vygotsky (1978) and Lave and Wenger (1991) and endorsing the importance to learning in higher education (HE) of negotiated meaning and constructing shared understandings in socially-rich learning environments. Our underpinning principle for this development was the exploration of learning as social practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991). This is still an under-researched area in HE practice. We aimed to raise the importance of social and peer learning for developing educational cultures and employ the power of co-curricular learning spaces, informal learning and social interaction (Ryan and Tilbury, 2013). We explored the option of running the whole MA Education programme as an online-only award, but decided we and our participants valued face-to-face learning too highly to lose that mode of learning. So instead we began to design a blended programme where face-to-face sessions become key moments and are followed by two to three online sessions. To increase the flexibility of the award even further, we designed

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two totally online modules, one of which we titled ‘Learning as Social Practice Online’. This was developed using JISC Transformations Project funding. It explored how meaningful dialogue can be nurtured online in the spirit of learning as social practice. We aimed to put activity at the forefront of the learning experience online and challenge narrower conceptions of learning online as the individual consumption of digitised resources.

 Pedagogical design The module was structured in three phases: Phase 1: formative assignment development with high intensity engagement (weeks one to five); Phase 2: summative development with medium intensity engagement (weeks six to nine); Phase 3: independent study leading to summative assignment submission with varying levels of engagement according to participant needs (weeks 10 to 12). HE online learning discussion fora are often unstructured; sometimes threads are short and with little direct impact on a module’s learning outcomes and assessment. Our approach valued participants’ discursive engagement with assessment from week one by planning a structured approach to dialogue around formative assessment. Rather than leaving the community to chat without direction, this approach entailed clear actions, based around a meaningful formative assignment directly related to part of the summative assignment. This helped to drive motivation for the online activity and enhanced engagement. The module pace and structure were controlled by four keynote video conferences (VCs) during a nine-week activity period. Participants engaged in discussion and activity leading up to each VC. Between the four VCs, participants worked at a pace that suited them, supported by online discussion in a Facebook Group (open only to participants) with other participants and the Online Tutors. The module was underpinned by our principle of activity-led learning online and informed by compulsory and recommended readings. A VC introduced the module and the subsequent VCs drew the learning community together, focusing each time on the completion of an important aspect of the module. VCs began with a 15–20 minute presentation followed by discussion about how to apply learning to the formative and summative assessment tasks. The software used (WebEx) allowed the event to be recorded and a URL was sent to the participants for revision purposes. Essentially, the VCs formed the backbone of the module

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and were supplemented by preparatory and follow-up discussion via Facebook. For example, in week one , as an ice breaker, we asked participants to post images that best summed up their approach to learning (see also Sutcliffe and Matheson, Chapter 5.1). In subsequent weeks, each participant led a discussion around an assessment issue. From week one, ‘Wikispaces’ also provided an opportunity to work on a 600-word formative assignment. This was where learning from the VC and the Facebook conversations was captured. Participants read the developing formative work and posted comments endorsing and critiquing each other’s work and suggesting wider reading that might help. The formative assignment was then formally submitted in week five when the tutor provided feedback/forward to help students with their next, summative, assignment. As the module progressed from VC to VC, an aural, visual and written record of learning developed. This became very important during the independent study phase, giving students time to critically reflect on the sessions. They felt the module provided some clear advantages over faceto-face modes of learning, commenting: ‘I enjoyed the ability to add and comment when I have something to say rather than having to wait for a lecture or meeting.’ Another participant enjoyed ‘being collaborative when I felt like it’. Generally, participants seemed to feel more in control of the pace and mode of their learning.

 Reflections and lessons learnt Taking part in this module changed participants’ views about how they would design online learning themselves in the future. They reported in their assignments and in the module evaluations that they had developed a greater understanding of how important dialogue is in online flexible learning, especially between education professionals at M-level. Exchanges around sharing formative assignment work was seen by participants as particularly impactful on summative work, especially because they had the opportunity to comment and amend over a period of three to four weeks. One participant commented he was: … particularly impressed with it [Wikispaces]. We were actively encouraged to comment on each other’s pages to increase collaborative learning. In collaborative learning face to face it is sometimes harder to obtain this level of engagement. Participants appreciated the flexible ways in which the Online Tutors worked on Facebook. This was facilitated by the tutors’ frequent Facebook

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usage, making it easy to engage with participants while using social media in ‘out of hours’ time. This is controversial perhaps but participants did enjoy it. Another participant commented: The language and tone of the thread was informal [and] comfortable, but it was referring to academic practices and so is not naturally social in the traditional method of conversation you might see in Facebook. Here the academic began to merge with the social. The participant suggests that on Facebook she was talking to friends and taking the opportunity to post to the module community. This complex intermingling, making learning feel more like a social activity than an academic task or ‘chore’, could offer significant opportunities for extending meaningful engagement into some exciting social media spaces. Finally, and in particular, the issue of emotional connectedness proved crucial to the module’s success. The student voice in this module suggested that being in the same space together is much more significant in terms of meaningful learning if that space is infused with the spirit of respect, trust and responsibility, and the starting point is that Online Tutors have to be visible and set this example. This became a key principle of our approach. Participants felt their tutors were present and posts did not go into empty space. Denzin (1984) and Hargreaves (2000) argue that teaching is an emotional practice. Furthermore, as Cramp et al. (2012) discussed, Boler’s (1999) important work on emotion views education as impoverished by not accounting for the ‘particularities of emotions in relation to lived power relations’ (Boler, 1999, p. 2). These power relations are explored further by Reay (1998) and Reay et al. (2001) in the context of ‘institutional habitus’. Yet despite the strength of these arguments, the ‘emotional geographies’ (Hargreaves, 2000) of our HE working lives with colleagues and students remains unexplored and rarely becomes the subject of professional development or research within UK higher education institutions. This is especially the case for working online. We feel this module does attempt to develop the practice of taking seriously how participants actually feel about learning and teaching online. Moving from this example of design within a module, to insights from a programme evolving over ten years, we see an increased focus on active learning, communication, thereby enabling students to be successful distance learners. Importantly, the authors clarify the degree of commitment required from staff and the wider university to enable students to be successful.

13 Lessons learned from distance learning Helen Durham, University of Leeds, UK Linda See, Institute of Applied Systems Analysis, Austria

Keywords: communication, criticality, curriculum design, distance learning, GIS, programme administration, study skills. There is growing interest in setting up distance learning programmes, prompted by reductions in higher education (HE) funding, and the opportunities to reach a wider market. There are many perceptions about distance learning, including that it involves less, or more efficient, teaching and that it is a source of easy revenue generation. This chapter reflects upon the issues and lessons learned through setting up and running an MSc in Geographic Information Science (GIS) by distance learning over ten years. To produce a successful distance learning programme, we consider particular consideration is needed in: structuring the administrative systems to support learners; creating effective communication routes; addressing the need for formative feedback; and managing academic staff buy-in. The chapter will also cover educational partnerships issues because this is a collaborative programme between three higher education institutions (HEIs). This collaboration has great advantages in terms of brand coverage and variety of modules on offer, but makes administration incredibly complex. Distance learning in education has a long history that has radically changed from its early form as correspondence education in the nineteenth century (Schlosser and Simonson, 2009), to today’s highly technology-driven approach. The Open University in the UK is a prime example of an institution that has clearly met the needs of a part-time population wanting continuing education. Many other institutions worldwide have since developed distance learning programmes. In the USA, onethird of all HE enrolments were for online courses in 2009, while there are now universities with millions of distance education learners in India and China (Hanover Research, 2011).

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The increasing trend in distance learning prompted the British Government to invest 62 million pounds in the UK e-Universities (UKeU) initiative at the start of 2000. The UKeU was intended to offer a strong brand, an advanced e-learning platform and a centralised recruitment centre for distance learning programmes across the UK. The School of Geography at the University of Leeds entered into an agreement with the UKeU to offer their MSc in GIS as a distance learning programme. Although the UKeU was not ultimately successful, the MSc in GIS was launched in 2003–4 and is now in its eleventh year of operation.

 The MSc in GIS distance learning programme The original impetus for distance learning in the School of Geography, at the University of Leeds, was through funding secured from the European Union in 1999 to convert the face-to-face Master’s in Business and Service Planning into an online programme. With the launch of the UKeU, it was decided to create a more generic MSc in GIS by distance learning, where Business and Service Planning would be one of several streams of specialisation. At the same time relationships with the University of Southampton and Penn State University in the USA developed, and their modules were integrated into the programme. The Environment, Health and Remote Sensing streams are currently offered by the University of Southampton and students choosing these routes will obtain a degree from Southampton. The remaining streams (Business, Planning and Developer) result in a degree conferred by the University of Leeds. Penn State University has offered one of its GIS programming modules as an optional module. Completing this part-time MSc typically takes three years, with four modules in year one, four modules in year two and the final year for the thesis project. Students can also exit with intermediate qualifications (a PgCert after year one, PgDip after year two) or they can take individual modules in the programme for personal development, or for Association of Geographic Information (AGI) accreditation. Each module has eight to ten weeks of material, comprising downloadable PDFs and supporting materials online. The modules are served via a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), which contains support for assignment submission, marking, and checking for plagiarism via Turnitin. Each module has a discussion forum to support student engagement, but email and web-based chat facilities are also heavily used.

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A unique feature of the programme is the four entry points per year: October, January, April and July. This configuration provides flexibility for students who miss a traditional September entry point. Howell et al. (2003) recognise that distance learners will ‘shop around’ for a course that meets their needs; flexible entry points provide one mechanism to achieve this. Over 150 students have completed their studies on this programme, exiting with an MSc, PgDip or PgCert. The distance learning programme has also attracted people wanting a single module: more than 50 students have chosen this route. Overall the programme is considered to be a success, filling a clear niche in part-time education in the area of GIS. The staff members involved in the programme are also teaching on the face-to-face version of the MSc in GIS, and on undergraduate modules, integrating this distance programme into the School’s curriculum as a whole. This success, however, has been accompanied by many hard lessons learned. For those considering a move towards distance learning, our experiences may help to make the path easier, or possibly convince you that distance learning is a step too far.

 Lessons learned The administrative nightmare of square pegs in round holes Admissions to the MSc in GIS by distance learning programmes are via the normal University of Leeds application and registration system. However, the student registration system (both in terms of software and of staff support) was not designed for distance learners, the intake of students four times per year, transferring students to other institutions in the collaborative programme, accepting marks from other institutions, or accepting back the students if they changed their mind about their specialisation in year two. For full-time and part-time, face-to-face students the student management system has been automated where possible, but none of these processes worked as well for the distance learners. This means that most student records need to be updated manually and tracked very carefully, imposing a considerable additional administrative burden on the Programme Director and the support staff. This issue of lack of support and infrastructure has been raised by other researchers (e.g. McClary, 2013; Muilenburg and Berge, 2001) but the solutions tend to be ad hoc and specific to each institution. We advise that you define clear workflows to accommodate distance learners at all

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levels of administration and then work closely with administrative and support staff to determine how these workflows can be implemented. Administrative staff buy-in is as important as staff buy-in on the tutoring side. Teaching 24 by seven and 365 days a year Managing student expectations is not unique to distance learning, so a 24-hour response rate to emails and VLE forum postings is not an unusual expectation for both face-to-face and distance learners. The difference is that this expectation must be realised for distance learners wherever possible. Distance learners are more isolated than their face-to-face counterparts so the tutor may be the only real point of contact at any given time. Some students cannot make any progress if they do not have rapid feedback from their tutor. Students do help each other via forum postings on the VLE, but the dynamic has to be right in a given class for this to happen and some Master’s modules have small numbers. In larger distance learning undergraduate classes this might be less of an issue. A related factor is the importance of personal interaction with the tutor. This interaction builds a very important trust and responsibility relationship between the tutor and the student. From our experience, distance learners value this relationship immensely so the amount of both academic tutoring and pastoral care is usually much greater than for face-to-face teaching. The distance learning programme at Leeds runs all year with a number of modules running in each three-month block. For some tutors on the programme this essentially involves teaching 365 days a year. Arrangements therefore need to be made to cover holidays or time off when tutors are ill. A full-time teaching assistant is employed to help across all GIS modules and to provide general academic support. Some support requested is of a more specialist nature, and requires module tutor intervention. These tutors must therefore check emails and discussion forums even while away from the University. Students have complained when there are noticeable absences by the tutors, although part of the solution involves managing student expectations. If students are aware of tutors’ holidays they can be very accommodating. However, do not underestimate the amount of time needed to interact with distance learning students. Working beyond your borders: multi-institutional arrangements This MSc is unusual in that it is jointly offered by the two Universities. Students choose different streams of specialisation in year two of their study and this determines whether they graduate with an MSc in GIS from

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Leeds or Southampton. The students are offered a much richer experience through the exposure to different tutors and teaching styles, as well as expertise in a broader range of GIS-related subject matter. Kurasha et al. (2013) outline a number of additional positive aspects of collaborative partnerships in distance learning, including the potential for staff development and capacity building, and the reputational advantages afforded by offering courses from multiple institutions. However, our partnership was not straightforward to set up and has involved legal contracts that took a considerable amount of time to negotiate and approve. Once implemented, the arrangement has resulted in a great deal of additional administration in terms of transferring students between institutions; joint five-year annual reviews; translation of marks between institutions; joining up of disparate quality assurance procedures; development of joint handbooks; and alignment of exam board and mitigating circumstance procedures. With no precedents set for many of the queries that were raised during the years of working together, new institutional rules needed to be developed and considerable time was spent in trying to make progress on some administrative issues. Although we clearly recognise the benefits of the joint nature of the programme, we would recommend caution in implementing multi-institutional distance learning arrangements. Part-time to full-time: the failure of the accelerated route The MSc in GIS is designed in such a way that students complete one module per quarter in two years and the thesis project in year three. An accelerated route was proposed whereby students could take two or three modules each quarter and finish the MSc in less than two years. This was meant to broaden the market, appealing to students wanting an almost full-time experience but who could not attend face-to-face. However, it proved to be too difficult for the majority who attempted it and it was abandoned after a few years. Moreover, the niche was not filled by students wanting a full-time experience and who were unable to attend the University, but by full-time employees wanting to finish their degree faster. They found that the commitment to the course on top of their full-time job was simply too demanding. Given the additional administrative burden of implementing this variation of the programme, there were no real University benefits to the accelerated route. Striving to maintain a work–life balance Distance learning students frequently underestimate how much work the programme entails, and how it can seriously affect their work–life

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balance. This can lead to the need for multiple extensions, problems in being able to complete assignments, and health or stress-related issues. Unsurprisingly, the number of cases of students formally requesting extensions is much higher per capita amongst distance learners than on the face-to-face programme. We try to manage this in a number of ways. Work–life balance is flagged up in the induction materials so that students are aware of the need for time management. They are encouraged to communicate with us on a regular basis about their progress and we clearly communicate the need to declare mitigating circumstances and request an extension before the deadline if assignments cannot be submitted on time. Finally, we try to be as flexible as possible to accommodate individual circumstances within the limits set by the institution, but we recognise the need for having clearly communicated protocols. Otherwise, deadlines are taken less seriously and serial extension requests can become the norm. Communication, communication, communication We have already touched upon the importance of a timely response to student emails and postings in the VLE. However, more generally, we have learned that communication is one of the most important aspects of distance learning and good communication takes time. Answering student enquiries about the programme before they have registered is really critical. Students judge their interaction with the University as a way of determining their experience on the course. As the University administration system is not designed to handle this in a sufficiently personalised manner, we hired a doctoral student to answer all enquiries on our behalf, who forwarded them to us when more information was required. We then took all the most common queries and wrote them up as a series of easy-toread Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) that were clearly signposted from our main website. The student helped people to complete their applications and then worked with support staff in the School to manage the process of registration as smoothly as possible. This vital communication role is now undertaken by the full-time GIS teaching assistant, which has the benefit that when students start their studies, they are already familiar with a member of the academic support team. Communication after registration and before starting the programme is critical. We developed a series of induction materials to help manage expectations and prepare students for their first module. During modules, various modes of communication are employed including discussion forums, email and webchat. We know good, continuous feedback and

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interaction are key ingredients to the success of a module. The quality of the dialogue between the tutor and the learner has already been recognised by others as the key to success in distance education, e.g. by Moore (1990). For ‘blanket’ notifications, we send out a quarterly newsletter in which we share news and events, inform students of upcoming modules and tutor details and remind them of assignment deadlines. We include pieces written by academic staff members (a recent one was ‘Top tips on starting your dissertation’) and regular items on administrative matters and how to stay in touch. We are also exploring social media, in particular Twitter, to communicate important information. The Twitter feed is visible in the VLE, making it accessible to all registered students. It is important to avoid information overload for the students and spreading modes of communication too thinly. For this reason, direct email and the communication tools built into the VLE (particularly the discussion boards in each module area) are the primary way we stay in touch with students. Other communication methods are used to reinforce existing information rather than to disseminate new information. The need for formative feedback We introduced a formative feedback component into the induction materials. Although the first module had previously had one formative assignment, it was decided to shift this to the induction so that students could get feedback immediately on a small piece of work before starting the programme officially. Some of the students have not studied for many years so this provides a good opportunity to help refresh skills in essay writing, referencing and research more generally. Students are then encouraged to contact the Programme Director for a call or web-based chat to discuss the formative feedback either individually or in a group. This has really helped students start the programme in a very positive manner and tackled issues such as plagiarism and referencing early on. Unequal staff enthusiasm for teaching on the distance learning programme With current pressures to perform well in a teaching, research and administrative capacity, not all academic staff members have been equally enthusiastic about developing their face-to-face modules as a distance learning version or for teaching in this mode. Howell et al. (2003) acknowledge this as a trend that affects distance education. Most of the modules were developed using the UKeU funding, making extra staff and resources available to help academic staff. Subsequently, there have been

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issues in the frequency of module updating and the difficulty in mobilising some staff to teach on this programme. In both cases, additional resources have had to be channelled to manage the updating and to provide sustained levels of communication between the students and some of the tutors. Lack of communication, or even slow responses, from tutors can result in complaints by students; the lesson here is to ensure that measures are put in place to monitor communication and feedback on assignments for all teaching staff, particularly those new to distance learning.

 Are distance learning degrees as ‘good’ as face-to-face courses? One of the questions we are sometimes asked at application time is whether ‘the distance learning MSc in GIS is equivalent to the full-time face-to-face degree?’ This degree meets the same quality assurance requirements as any other programme offered by the University and is completely equivalent to an MSc in GIS awarded on completion of the face-to-face programme. The degree certificate states ‘MSc in GIS’ and does not refer to distance learning. Assessment is by coursework alone (as is the case for the face-to-face MSc) and the same rigorous examination procedures are followed regardless of programme or method of study. Unfortunately, that does not prevent some countries (and the authorities that are charged with the ‘recognition of higher degrees’) or employers looking less favourably on degrees earned by distance learning (Columbaro and Monaghan, 2009; Yick et al., 2005). A concern by students is that this attitude may reduce their employment opportunities where they have studied by distance learning. It is hoped that as more students graduate with degrees obtained by this mode, and as they take on more senior roles within their organisations, they become ambassadors and help eliminate any vestige of ‘negativity’ from this method of study. Meanwhile, awareness of these perceptions and prejudices is required.

 Conclusion Our experiences with this distance learning programme have been very positive overall and outweigh any negative aspects that have materialised over the last ten years. The nature of the intense interaction with these students and being part of their learning experience has been and continues to be extremely fulfilling. The price to be paid is the need for a very

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strong commitment to these students from all corners of the University. If one aspect does not function well, it can impact upon the whole programme. We recognise that the support systems today are still not designed for this type of learning. Until there is a noticeable shift in the way that universities provide their core programmes, particularly in traditional universities in the UK, we will continue to learn more lessons and to develop better coping strategies. Ultimately, our concern is to provide the best possible learning experience for lifelong learners.

14 Curriculum opportunities

Keywords: accreditation, assessment, collaborative learning, communities of practice, creativity, criticality, curriculum design, cultural expectations, ePortfolios, modularisation, peer learning, professional development, reflection, tutor-practitioners. In this chapter the authors call on their experience to comment on design and delivery in a range of disciplines and settings, starting with Lisewski who provides a valuable insight into teaching university teachers to teach in the context of fashion Institute professionals and the importance of managing the tensions between tutor-practitioners, professional practice needs and the understanding they should have of higher educational teaching processes and standards.

 14.1 Many amongst equals: the challenge of teaching and working in partnership with tutor-practitioners Bernard Lisewski, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK So here we were; a classroom full of experienced professionals with defined personalities, who weren’t buying into anything. The scrutiny with which we approached our tutors on the course was much the same as we would apply in the real world: you’re either someone I see myself working with from a human point of view and whose professional skills I appreciate, or you aren’t. Collaborative and blended delivery is essential for our part-time, 60 Master’s level (M-level) credits, Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice (PGCAP) programme delivered by a UK university and a privately-owned Italian fashion and design Institute based in Milan, Paris and London. Programme participants are employed part-time by the Institute, and appointed because of their professional expertise in fashion design, fashion styling and fashion business. In considering the nature and purpose of this M-level teaching, two issues are worthy of note: the variations

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in the relationship between professional practice and associated teaching approaches, and the need to establish programme tutor ‘legitimacy’ amongst the fashion industry professionals. Within various Art and Design teaching environments, Shreeve (2010, p. 700) identified the different ways to experience relations between practice and teaching, ranging from ‘dropping in’ (passing on practice knowledge to the student) to ‘integrating’ (where practice and teaching knowledge become one and the same thing). Hence, it may be relevant for practitioners ‘to be presented with variations in relations between practice and teaching in order to change the experience of the relationship and thereby improve their teaching’ (Shreeve, 2010, p. 700). Further to this, the PGCAP tutors faced the challenge of establishing their legitimacy, as prior to their involvement in the programme, the participants’ pedagogic and working practices had been largely formed by ‘their encounters in workplace cultures’ (Butcher and Stoncel, 2012, p. 151), and the rich craft-based heritage of the Institute. Shreeve et al. (2009, p. 346) have emphasised the challenges faced by tutor-practitioners working in higher education (HE) where they combine ‘teaching with active practice in their craft, art or industry; many are parttime or hourly paid staff with professional lives outside education.’ On the PGCAP programme, the main resources for student learning exist within the ‘tutor-practitioners’ themselves. Rowland’s (2000, p. 61) framework for collaborative enquiry underpinned the teaching approach adopted. This draws on participants’ knowledge from the:  public context of fashion industry practice, and sharing of teaching methodologies across the disciplinary nuances of Fashion Design, Styling and Business;  personal context of different teaching experiences, peer observation of teaching and microteaching;  shared context of ongoing participant interaction and reflective practice (Brookfield, 1995) throughout the programme. Much of this interactivity was conducted through learning groups, deliberately composed to include different nationalities and varied disciplinary perspectives and expertise in Fashion Design, Styling and Business. These learning groups work collaboratively through discussions, presentations and projects. This approach aligns with Danvers (2003, p. 47), who, in exploring a re-orientation of learning and teaching in Art and Design, argues that: ‘Multiple perspectives are to be welcomed. Diversity, difference and pluralism are factors to be affirmed in all educational contexts.’

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Teaching and learning through ‘blended learning’ at M-level The PGCAP programme’s design, teaching and learning methods had to meet the educational support needs of the participants who rightly demanded the same professional responses as they received in their Fashion industry practice worlds. As one participant revealed: This was the beginning of what turned out to be a developmental journey of both support and challenge that was given face-to-face, over email, telephone and on Skype. This way of working – or rather studying – was a way we were used to in the real world, where work isn’t divided into lessons and rigid structures, and where dealing with the global market means being reachable and operative at odd hours and wanting a quick answer to your emails. Moodle, Skype, email and the telephone are the essential tools for supportive delivery of the programme. In their critical examination of ‘blended learning’, Oliver and Trigwell (2005, p. 24) conclude that it is a term which is ‘ill-defined and inconsistently used’. However, in seeking to place learning rather than technology at the forefront of its theoretical underpinnings, they argue that it should be situated within a learning theory which is rooted in designing courses offering varied experiences to learners. They draw on variation theory (Bowden and Marton, 1998; Marton and Tsui, 2004) which asserts that if learning is to occur then ‘variation must be experienced by the learner’ (Oliver and Trigwell, 2005, p. 22). If variation is absent within the PGCAP blended learning context, it will be difficult for learners to develop discernment around different ways of conceptualising teaching and learning. Equally, it may be relevant for practitioners ‘to be presented with variations in relations between practice and teaching in order to change the experience of the relationship and thereby improve their teaching’ (Shreeve, 2010, p. 700). Hence, as Prosser and Trigwell (1999, p. 160) state: ‘Teachers need to become aware of the way they conceive of teaching and learning … [and] be continually revising, adjusting and developing their teaching in the light of this developing awareness.’ Oliver and Trigwell (2005) suggest that different blends of approach which offer varied spaces of learning – e.g. collaborative group working, mutually sharing different teaching approaches, online interaction and critically reflecting on one’s teaching (Brookfield, 1995) – can help to shift the emphasis from teacher- to student-focused learning experiences. To exemplify this assertion, they refer to Whitelock and Jelfs’ (2003) three definitions of ‘blended learning’:

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1. the combined integration of web-based online learning with traditional face-to-face teaching; 2. the combination of different media and tools employed within a given ‘blended learning’ environment; 3. the combination of a number of pedagogical approaches irrespective of the adopted learning technologies within a given context. Given the various interpretations of the term, Sharpe et al. (2006, p. 21) describe the following dimensions of ‘blended learning’, within which this PGCAP programme approach has been contextualised (Table 14.1). Table 14.1 Mapping dimensions of blended learning to the programme Dimensions

Practices

PGCAP programme approach

Delivery

Different modes (faceto-face and distance education)

Six face-to-face teaching blocks complemented by online preand post-block reading and activities

Technology

Mixtures of (web-based) technologies

Moodle, Skype, Pebblepad e-portfolio, email and podcasts

Chronology

Synchronous and a-synchronous interventions

Mobile phone, Skype, podcasts and email

Locus

‘Authentic’ work- or practice-based versus classroom-based learning

Fashion industry practices and collaborative classroom-based learning

Roles

Multi-disciplinary or professional groupings of learners and teachers

Fashion Design, Fashion Styling and Fashion Business professionals in mentor and consultancy roles

Pedagogy

Different pedagogical approaches

Collaborative peer observation and learning and reflective practitioner approaches – critical humanism (Brookfield, 1995)

Focus

Acknowledging different aims

Tensions between professional practitioner roles and HE tutor roles

Direction

Instructor-directed versus autonomous or learnerdirected learning

Combination of PGCAP tutordirected/facilitated study and collaborative group-directed study

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The ‘blended learning’ model adopted for the programme was driven by:  the need to accommodate the ‘tutor-practitioner’ status of the participants in balancing their professional practice priorities with their parttime HE tutor roles;  the geographical dispersion of the participants between London, Paris and Milan;  the need to maintain increased flexibility of provision and access to learning resources and different learning experiences (Ryan and Tilbury, 2013);  the easy availability of the Moodle Virtual Learning Environment to provide quick and mobile access to learning resources and programme/ unit documentation;  the need to maintain collaborative community interaction, face-to-face and online;  evidence that blended learning programmes could be effective for learning on the job and collaborating with other teachers (Owston et al., 2008);  the need to share practices across cross-cultural, international and disciplinary boundaries;  the need to both challenge and support mature professional learners with family and professional practice responsibilities in conjunction with limited time for academic study. As one participant remarked: It wasn’t easy (returning to essay writing, group work and presentations, submissions and evaluation – all the while juggling a job and a young family) but it was useful under many aspects … the pure discipline required to undertake such a course while working and looking after a family with children. It meant being extremely focused, driven and thorough … there was simply no time to go back and reread an article to get some quotes, or review an essay for the fifth time before submission … this type of concentration requires maturity. This participant’s reflection can be contextualised within Moore’s (1993) Theory of Transactional Distance. He defines transactional distance as the ‘psychological and communication space’ generated between the separation of the teacher and the learner. Given this separation there is the potential for ‘misunderstanding between the inputs of the instructor and those of the learner’ (Moore, 1993, p. 22). The development of the transaction revolves around three variables: teacher-student dialogue, programme structure and the degree of student autonomy. Within the PGCAP programme, ongoing dialogue was maintained principally

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through email and individual and group-based Skype meetings. As one participant reflected: It’s in the dialogue that the ‘magic’ happens … as it’s the same way we live/learn in other live situations, in human relationships, in the work place etc. I did a lot of reading, but it was when I spoke that I really got somewhere/moved. Also learning ‘around the coffee’ in an informal environment. The programme structure centred on six three-day face-to-face blocks with pre- and post-block readings and activities supported through the Moodle Virtual Learning Environment. Although the participants were very self-directed Fashion practitioners, they did require convenient and responsive access to the PGCAP tutors. As the principal tutor within this M-level ‘blended learning’ context, I was always aware of the need to maintain my online accessibility, availability and presence which sought to challenge but also support the programme participants. I had to constantly bear in mind that they were highly skilled within their Fashion industry working environments and used to working within a fast-moving professional context and as such they expected equally responsive processes from the PGCAP team. Simultaneously, I wanted to challenge them to ‘identify and scrutinise the assumptions’ (Brookfield, 1995, p. xii) that underpinned how they worked as teachers and how they sought to develop their professional identities in this part-time role. This dual approach was informed by the concept of ‘heutagogy’ (Hase and Kenyon, 2000) which focuses on the need to create the right conditions to nurture self-determined learning, particularly through the increasing use of social media within such ‘blended learning’ contexts. Ideally, given the professional capability of the participants, such PGCAP programmes should produce ‘blended learning’ environments where the tutor, according to Attri (2013, p. 461), Facilitates the learning process by providing guidance and resources, but fully relinquishes ownership of the learning path and process to the learner, who negotiates learning and determines what will be learned and how it will be learned. This is a challenge for the programme tutors, but gives the participants confidence in their ability to develop new practices, widen their pedagogic perspectives and begin to self-monitor their learning processes. Peer participation and dialogue Collaborative peer participation and dialogue through the different lenses of Fashion Design, Styling and Business were the dominant learning and

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teaching approaches within this Master’s programme. As Knight (2006, p. 28) confirms, within such programmes ‘peer learning is greatly valued, not least because of the part it plays in raising awareness of diversity of settings, disciplines, goals and practices.’ In effect, the teaching approach applied the same social constructivist learning theories (Lave and Wenger, 1991) as the participant ‘tutor-practitioners’ pursued in their own practice contexts. Shreeve et al. (2010, p. 125) refer to this as ‘a kind of exchange’ which conceives teaching as a dialogical relationship where the students’ experience is central to teachers’ concerns and learning is seen as a partnership … where tutors engage in exchange of ideas, conversation, knowledge and expertise with their students, rather than adopt didactic approaches based on certainty of expert knowledge. As a participant recalled: ‘I’m not here to teach you how to teach, as you know your class room better than anyone else. I’m just here to give you some tools.’ These were the very first words of my personal tutor, and they were an important message for a future relationship that would be based on mutual respect. However, this is not to say that there were no challenges to be addressed within the PGCAP tutor and ‘tutor-practitioner’ relationship. As parttime ‘tutor-practitioners’, most of the participants faced the challenge of managing the tensions between professional practice priorities and the perceived ‘pressure’ by the programme to be encultured into a more academic identity and role. This tension has been recognised by Shreeve (2009) where she examined the identity dilemmas faced by part-time ‘tutor-practitioners’ in seeking to reconcile different emerging priorities between professional practice and M-level tutorship. During the programme, unexpected yet welcome fashion consultancy opportunities, major sources of income, arose for some participants which needed to be flexibly accommodated irrespective of assessment submission deadlines. That said, participants came to realise that the programme provided opportunities, whether face-to-face or online, to mutually support each other in being able to achieve the right professional balance between their HE tutor and practitioner roles. These formal and informal collaborative support processes from both peers and tutors not only helped the participants to make more informed choices about their future professional directions but also developed their empathy with their own students’ learning experiences. Another participant reflected:

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It reminds you of what it is like to sit, listen, carry out assignments, it humbles you and makes you more tolerant of your students. It keeps your mind fresh and flexible. It keeps you informed and up to date with your profession at 360°. Most importantly, it makes you face your responsibilities as an educator … you have to make choices. These choices should be driven first by knowledge, then by an inner voice which we could call a personal ethic. You become accountable for your actions in this new professional self-awareness, something which requires a certain degree of maturity. Shreeve (2009, p. 158) concludes that tutor-practitioners need to be supported to engage in the HE community with particular importance placed on exploring ‘how their practice based knowledge can be made available’ to their students. For me, as a PGCAP tutor in the multiple roles of facilitator, observer, consultant, assessor and indeed friend, this can only be achieved in such M-level contexts by acknowledging the programme participants as ‘many amongst equals’ in an open, discursive, trusting and indeed what became a transformatory space. A number of authors have discussed the role of group work and networking as important learning processes, but with caveats around skilfully including distance and part-time learners. In this next section O’Keeffe and Donnelly use ePortfolios to integrate learning and to cement communities of learning practitioners within the class, a process that ideally needs to be embedded across all modules and central to the curriculum design and induction process.  14.2 Embedding reflective practice and creativity to link a modular curriculum Muireann O’Keeffe, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland Roisin Donnelly, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland While modularisation of the curriculum can offer increased flexibility and choice for students, some argue that modularisation ‘pigeonholes’ knowledge and actively discourages the transfer of ideas and learning from one module to another. A lack of continuity between modules can prevent students from achieving personal transformation in their learning (O’Keeffe et al., 2011). As a solution to this, ePortfolios can offer an opportunity for learner control and are capable of promoting deep learning, thereby enabling students to make connections between learning that occurs in different contexts: academic, workplace, and community (AePP, 2009; JISC, 2008; QAA, 2009). They can highlight participants’ work-based

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experience within their professional context and allow them to demonstrate engagement with scholarship (Gordon and Campbell, 2013). Additionally ePortfolios have been explored in the literature as a way to help nurture reflective practice, enabling learners to ‘stand away’ from problems arising in their studies and come to a clearer understanding (Brookfield, 1995; Fitch et al., 2008; Wakimoto and Lewis, 2014). In this MSc programme, our aspiration for the ePortfolio was to enable the integration and continuation of learning across the programme. Essentially the ePortfolio would be the glue that could bind learning from discrete modules together. We believed that the ePortfolio, as a process, could allow learners to understand the connections between modules and act as a creative tool demonstrating their learning. The MSc in Applied eLearning is a two-year, part-time taught Master’s programme offered in Ireland since 2007. It provides an opportunity for academic staff in further and higher education, private sector trainers, and independent e-learning consultants to develop their skills in technologyenhanced learning. During this programme, participants are required to formulate and develop an ePortfolio demonstrating their learning and reflection on learning across all modules. In 2011, in response to concerns and observations relating to ePortfolio development, and in consultation with the programme team, Muireann undertook an exploratory investigation of participants’ ePortfolios. The results indicated that they were lacking in the depth of content, deep learner reflection, creativity, multimodal artefacts, and the peer-participation that was anticipated at this M-level of learning. This case study arises from an initiative to address these concerns and illustrates the actions that were implemented to further embed ePortfolios into the programme curriculum and enhance participants’ engagement with the process.

Connecting reflective practice and creativity Jackson (2006) urges that we support students as they develop an awareness of their own creativity, and reflective practice is seen as a tool for developing creative abilities. Indeed, Craft (2010) describes creativity as a social process, dependent on participation in particular kinds of communities or environments. By integrating ePortfolios into the curriculum of this Master’s programme, it was believed that they would enable engagement and participation in a community of learners, with the added benefit of nurturing creative practices in student-led communities of practice (CoP) (Churchman, 2005; Lave and Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998).

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In order to embed the ePortfolio into the MSc curriculum, pedagogical activities were planned to engage the students in reflective and creative practices throughout the programme. Having researched nurturing creativity in the classroom (Beghetto and Kaufman, 2010) and derived a set of common features, these were subsequently integrated into pedagogical activities (O’Keeffe and Donnelly, 2011). Table 14.2 lists these features matched with pedagogical activities planned to encourage reflection and creativity in the learning environment. In all modules, participants were encouraged to play with diverse technologies and to be inventive and enthusiastic about the possibilities of technology as a tool for learning. Throughout the programme, a learning environment of psychological safety for participants was cultivated where students felt accepted, where empathetic understanding was present, and where they could become autonomous learners. The practices, behaviours and attitudes of the programme tutors would underpin this safe learning environment, so it was important to provide support, feedback and structure while also recognising the importance of empowering the participants to learn for themselves. Case study findings At the end of the first academic year, participants’ ePortfolios were analysed using a rubric developed from a combined set of creative and reflective criteria, and findings show clear evidence of increased creativity and reflective practice in the participants’ work. Focus group interviews were held with participants to explore if and how they considered the general learning environment and pedagogical activities could foster reflection and creativity in their ePortfolios. The focus group discussion highlighted that the learning environment was a safe, welcoming space, where participants felt empowered to take risks and try new things out: ‘in that space you could talk about your ideas and test them, that’s a really positive thing’ (focus group participant). The ePortfolios demonstrated evidence of students working together, asking questions of one another: ‘If you get the chance could you forward on the links that you were telling me about in class last week please’ (ePortfolio participant), and posting helpful feedback via the ePortfolio. The ePortfolios also contained enhanced reflections and artefacts and showed that participants were engaging in an online CoP through their ePortfolios. Participants reported that the diversity of activities across all modules enabled them to engage in different types of reflective practice within the ePortfolio. Interestingly, the participants reported that they

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Table 14.2 Aligning creative and reflective activities to support learning Features

Pedagogical activities

Rationale for activity

Safe environment

Welcome induction with continual reinforcement, refreshment and opportunities for informal discussion through the programme

Student opinions respected, voice given to each student, openness and tolerance of peers

Ice-breaker group activities

Connectivity amongst learners

Fosters comfort and familiarity in the group

Brainstorming activities (face-toface and online within ePortfolio)

Develops student-led CoP

Group ice-breaker

Students who are self-regulated learners collaborate with other students in exchanging ideas (CoP), eliciting assistance when needed, and providing support to their peers

Learner-centred group activities Positive team-building activity Encouraging online discussions within ePortfolio

Students can see the connection between their efforts and learning success Ability to think of diverse ideas

Brainstorming; improvisation activities; think-pair-share activities; pyramid discussions (face-to-face and online within ePortfolio)

Helps participants to be adaptable, innovative, to solve problems and communicate well with peers

Autonomy

Students enabled to work on small-scale e-learning projects that motivate them intrinsically

Knowledge is learned more effectively and participants are more motivated in skill development and personal transformation, which in turn can empower them to be active and autonomous learners in the future

Courage, risk-taking

Activity: encouraging students to try something new

Students allowed to try new ideas out and given permission to fail

Elevator pitch Student presentations to peers Peer evaluation of ideas Capacity to shift perspective

Activity: using De Bono’s (2000) Six Thinking Hats to think about a problem from alternative positions

Reflection enables standing away and thinking from a different angle

Develop diverse ideas

Activity: using smartphones to record quick descriptive reflections

Reflection enables deeper thinking

Voki tool to record reflections Be judicious of those ideas

Activity: writing critical reflections at critical times during the project Mind maps for reflection Online decision-making via Tricider tool

Reflection enables critical thought on which decision is most suitable

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considered that different tools enabled them to engage in different levels of reflection. They reported that quick reflections via smartphone enabled descriptive reflection, but recognised that they engaged in deeper reflective practice by on-going writing about their learning and experiences. The participants questioned the value of some tools for reflection: ‘if you save it to a phone or something, do you get the same value from it, as if you write it or type it out’ (focus group participant).

Future developments We believe that for students to really benefit from their ePortfolios, reflective practice should be continuously encouraged by tutors and supported in activities across all modules. Diverse activities highlighted in Table 14.2, using multimodal tools such as Voki (animated podcasts), video via smartphones and mind-mapping tools, can help the participants engage in reflective practice at different points on their learning journey. Variety in these activities helps to stimulate thinking and creativity. In the future the programme team hopes to continue to provide a variety of pedagogical activities to engage the participants with the ePortfolios and to encourage our graduates to speak about the value of the ePortfolios to current cohorts. As a result of this case study there has been increased engagement of students with ePortfolios, and the students in turn have recognised the benefits of using their ePortfolios for connecting learning across the programme curriculum. They now consider ePortfolios to be a useful tool in demonstrating their skill set and competencies for career and professional purposes. Professional development and workplace-relevant activities are stressed in this next section where Lukinbeal et al. place emphasis on these points in discussing their programme.

 14.3 Designing a Master’s programme in GIST to meet professional expectations in the workplace Chris Lukinbeal, Janice Monk and Iris Patten, University of Arizona, USA In this chapter the authors look at what makes this Master’s of Science in Geographic Information Systems Technology (MS-GIST, 2014a) program at the University of Arizona work, and emphasise the need to integrate professional development with academic education.

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Curriculum design to meet business needs The MS-GIST program integrates science and cutting-edge systems technology with management skills for use in government, corporate, non-profit, and academic settings. It is designed to meet the important educational needs of working professionals and recent graduates seeking employment in the high-growth geospatial industries. Participating students may have either extensive or limited experience in GIST. The MS-GIST program meets in the evenings (Monday–Thursday), does not require a Master’s thesis, and can be obtained in one calendar year as it begins in January and ends in December. The curriculum brings together technical and other professional GIS education that will lead to placement in the geospatial industry. The program began in 2011 and has graduated 30 students per year. In the first two years of the program, roughly 60% of students were employed in information technology or educationrelated fields. Beginning in the autumn of 2014, the MS-GIST program will be accepting applicants for a new online program and professional certificate. The MS-GIST program offers an integrative approach to graduate education that allows for deep learning, fostering a learning community and multi-faceted professional development. It uses a modular teaching platform for its 30 academic credit degree. Modules may be as small as one academic credit (one credit equals 15 direct student–professor contact hours). Each module is taught by a University of Arizona Graduate College–approved faculty member with eight faculty currently teaching on the program. Faculty come from the School of Geography and Development, supplemented by adjunct faculty who work in the professional GIS community in Arizona. Modular teaching allows us to adapt and evolve the program. It allows for fast integration of new scientific, technological and industrial changes. It provides an integrative and focused experience that is not often gained in higher education. New modules are built, adapted and move to the best timing within the program. They are sequenced to build on what was learned in previous modules as students advance through the program. Applied projects and professional development requirements are interspersed throughout the curriculum at key times to test student learning, challenge student skills, advance critical thinking, and sharpen professionalism. As needed, new modules are introduced and the best, most relevant and useful modules are integrated into the program while other modules can be shed quickly. The integrated modular education is different from a traditional USA Master’s education model which involves

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separate courses, usually one semester (15 weeks) in length, some of which are mandatory and others selected by the individual student, and commonly a capstone research thesis. The challenge in implementing the new approach remains making University policies on faculty workload and course scheduling work for this pedagogic model. What makes this MS-GIST a Master’s level program is both the subject matter and the emphasis on professional development (see MS-GIST, 2014b). While some of the subject matter introduces general scientific principles related to GIS, most of it focuses on graduate level work. The curriculum emphasises professional development and recognises the fact that simply obtaining a degree will not get you employment. Its underlying pedagogic philosophy centres on professional education. This is expressed both by having subject matter focused on professional applications and problems and by integrating the development of professional business skills that can aid a student in finding employment upon graduation. In other words, what occurs outside class during the degree program and how students engage with each other is just as important as the subject matter being taught. This perspective builds on research carried out in Geography as part of the Association of American Geographers EDGE project (AAG, 2013), including that by Solem et al. (2008) which emphasised that employers express a strong need for general skills including public speaking, writing, critical thinking, problem solving, time management, teamwork and more. The approach also draws on an industry competency model created by the United States Department of Labor designed to ‘promote an understanding of the skill sets’ that are ‘essential to educate and train a globally competitive workforce’ (DOL, 2013). The geospatial technology competency model is shaped like a pyramid. At the base are foundational skills (personal effectiveness, academic and workplace competencies), followed by technical skills (industry-wide, industry-sector), with management and occupational specific skills at the top. Skills obtained through HE predominantly fall within the academic and industry levels. What have not been emphasised in traditional M-level education are the nonacademic foundational skills. The MS-GIST emphasises these skills by incorporating internships, professional events, networking activities, and conference attendance. Annual networking activities include: an alumni reception at the same time that new students are entering the program, a GIS career fair on campus, GIS developer gatherings, guest speakers, and the Pima County GIS Day. Introducing students to relevant corporate events reinforces messages about on-going professional development, for example at Esri (2014) GeoDev Meetups, which are a combination

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networking event and a chance for professionals to give short, five-minute presentations about a recent innovation or application. The emphasis on professional education and development must extend beyond the classroom, however, while the importance of extracurricular activities can only be stressed but not required. Assessment outcomes for the program, student and faculty must equally emphasise normative practices (what should be taught, and are we doing a good job teaching it) and professional ones (job placement, industrial feedback about the program). All graduate GIS programs seek to be the best through staying current in GIS science and technology; the MS-GIST goes one step further by also being at the forefront of graduate education in explicitly incorporating professional development. These considerations for curriculum design, derived from a science degree, are neatly complemented by the experience of Strivens and Willis working with colleagues internationally to establish a Health Professionals Education Master’s in Pakistan. Working across national boundaries, transnational education is increasingly mainstream, for example through franchising, branch campuses and programme articulation (Baskerville et al., 2011; BIS, 2014). In programmes that are externally regulated by professional bodies these arrangements have an extra layer of complexity as this example shows.  14.4 Cross-crediting a Master’s programme in the UK and Pakistan Janet Strivens and Ian Willis, University of Liverpool, UK The context Under the British Council–funded International Strategic Partnerships in Research and Education (INSPIRE) programme, two senior educational developers from the University of Liverpool undertook a series of visits to the University of Health Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan from 2009–13, aimed at sharing our experience of learning and teaching development in HE. The University of Health Sciences (UHS, 2014) has a unique role in Pakistan: although it is a relatively recently established institution it is mandated by the Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC, 2014: equivalent to the UK’s General Medical Council) to accredit all the undergraduate programmes in Medicine and Dentistry in Government colleges across the Punjab (over 84.5 milliion inhabitants) (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2008). This gives it huge power in terms of both the syllabi and assessment methods the colleges must use. Since this gives

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it an important status in the region, many of the private medical and dental colleges also use it for the accreditation of their programmes. Consequently, UHS has 71 affiliated colleges and institutes which it effectively supervises, with 48,000 undergraduate and 4,000 postgraduate students registered with it (UHS, 2014). A major driver for the PMDC is to achieve global recognition for the quality of its healthcare training. Over recent years it has recognised the importance given globally to medical education as a discrete discipline. Consequently it has instructed all Government colleges to set up departments of medical education. However, in accordance with the respect given in Pakistan to academic qualifications, staff in charge of these departments need to have a recognised qualification in medical education. Anyone considering a career as a medical educator will be looking for the opportunity to take a Master’s level course. Pakistan offers some such courses internally: the most well-established is offered by the Pakistan College of Physicians and Surgeons; Dow University in Karachi (Sind province) offers another. However, distance learning is still regarded with suspicion in Pakistan and attendance in person is expected at such courses, which poses insuperable problems for many potential students in other regions of this huge country. A few individuals have taken such qualifications in the UK or Europe (mainly at Dundee or Maastricht Universities). These courses are very highly regarded and their graduates can wield a great deal of influence beyond their own institutions. Naturally, setting up such a course to service the Punjab was an important item in UHS’s development strategy. The focus for the UK educational developers was initial training for new staff in colleges, quite explicitly not at postgraduate level but designed to start a shift towards student-centred learning in this very traditional pedagogic culture, offering hints and tips to increase student engagement within the control of individual teachers. However, by our third visit we were being drawn into discussions on the new Master’s programme. (At Liverpool, one of us directed the Postgraduate Certificate in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, and the other directed the Postgraduate Diploma/Master’s programme which followed on.) The original aspiration of UHS was to have a jointly-accredited Master’s programme with the University of Liverpool since this would give the programme a status equal to or beyond the existing Pakistani programmes. However, despite a Memorandum of Understanding between the two Universities, the University of Liverpool was not willing to proceed on this basis. Its reasons were straightforward: quality assurance of a programme accredited by the University would require (quite apart from the other

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complications of running programmes between two institutions) a periodic validation visit by Liverpool staff. While the University was willing to allow members of its staff to visit Pakistan on a voluntary basis, it was not prepared to instruct staff to visit a country then regarded as potentially posing a danger to visitors; these visits were essential to complete proper validation processes. Having already met several of the potential students in our workshops, we realised the value to them of UK accreditation. One option would have been to offer our own programme online, a possibility we had discussed; however we were not yet ready to do this. We felt that this would not be in the spirit of our project’s mission, which was to grow local capacity. This left the final option: to design a programme at UHS to mirror as closely as possible the standards and practices of our own programme. In this way, any students who could afford the time and expense to come to the UK for any part of their study would be able to get credit under our accreditation of prior learning (APL) procedures for modules already completed and, more importantly, it would smooth the way for UHS to apply in due course for accreditation from both the UK Higher Education Academy (HEA) and the Academy of Medical Educators (2014). Although our own postgraduate-level programme at Liverpool was aimed at all University staff, we were well accustomed to healthcare staff amongst our students and had a good understanding (we thought) of how to tailor what we designed to this more specialised audience. The process There were of course a number of obstacles to overcome. The first was an issue of institutional politics and concerned who within UHS would ultimately be responsible for the new programme; this was seen as a prestigious role. Once this was clarified our content proposals were fairly uncontentious. Our model standardised contact hours and assessment load with credit, making sure that the total credit was equivalent to UK M-level requirements (QAA, 2008c). Thus (after translating the Pakistani credit tariff into UK currency) we proposed five 20-credit modules, two ten-credit modules and a 60-credit dissertation, and this was accepted. A much bigger obstacle was assessment. One reason that UHS had been entrusted by the PMDC with the accreditation of undergraduate degrees was that it had established a reputation for incorruptibility. The Examination Suite at UHS enjoyed a military-style level of security. The Controller of Examinations had been taught at Dundee, Scotland and was familiar with Westernised assessment methods in medical education, but

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the local culture meant that there was huge reliance on various forms of objective testing which could be made almost entirely corruption-proof. While this made some sense for the undergraduate degrees, multiplechoice questions and their like were (in our view) wholly inappropriate to M-level work. In common with most similar UK programmes, the design philosophy of our programme requires alignment of learning outcomes and assessment methods (Biggs and Tang, 2009). Typical assessment tasks on our programmes include reflective pieces on teaching episodes, critiques of assessment methods and strategies currently used, and a c.4,000-word curriculum review which is expected to critically consider such issues as alignment, inclusivity and evaluation approaches. We freely admitted our inability even to imagine how such tasks could be used as part of the assessment at UHS. As these discussions took their course, we were asked if we would be willing to offer some teaching to the prospective Master’s students. We had met several of these already on our workshops and were greatly impressed by their enthusiasm, hunger for knowledge and sheer capacity for hard work. Conscious that our visits would cease when the INSPIRE programme funding ended, we agreed. Over four further visits, alongside our entry-level classes, we taught the equivalent of three 20-credit M-level modules, covering learning, teaching, assessment and curriculum design. We used the same assessment procedures as for our Liverpool classes: students submitted draft pieces of work, we gave detailed written feedback and some verbal feedback (when this fitted in with our visits) and they then resubmitted final assignments. The experience of trying to teach our modules in the Pakistani context was enlightening. On the positive side, the students were extremely appreciative of our methods and approach. They made it clear that they valued the detailed feedback, both in relation to the content and perhaps more importantly, those aspects which were aimed at helping them to write more critically and analytically, to use referencing correctly and generally to respond to the requirements of M-level work as we saw it. In most cases we saw a significant improvement in the final submissions and felt able to confirm that they had reached a standard which would be acceptable as M-level at our own institution. On the negative side, the third big obstacle that we encountered concerned technology: both its lack of availability and attitudes towards it. Perhaps it would be more accurate to say technology and resources, but the resources issue could have been more easily overcome with the right technology. On our first visit, UHS had an IT network and a Director of Computing Services but no Learning Management System/Virtual

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Learning Environment. We had some influence in persuading UHS to acquire Moodle, but the concept of a learning technologist barely exists yet in Pakistan and it was difficult to find the right person to support our efforts to set up a site for the new Master’s programme. We argued strongly that the design of the programme had to take into account study time away from UHS, that resources must be available online and that ideally students should be able to communicate with each other online between face-to-face sessions. Like the assessment issue, this ran up against cultural expectations. Students were supposed to attend for a fixed number of hours for a particular level of accreditation – far in excess of what UK expectations would be on a similar programme. While our colleagues in UHS were sympathetic to the logic of reducing the face-to-face contact and supporting more independent study and even collaborative study online, there was a worry that the PMDC would regard this as inferior to hours spent in the classroom. A final obstacle, which we became conscious of more slowly, related again to cultural differences, this time in the understanding and implementation of quality procedures. This difference was evident at many points. We insisted that a module leader for each module was necessary to take overall responsibility for the students’ learning on that module, but this kind of staffing was simply not available within one institution. UHS had its own approval procedures, well understood by its academic staff and adapted to its political context; we, however, were unable to appreciate the nuances and found ourselves frequently confounded by processes and outcomes we had not been able to predict. In contrast to a system in which the student experience is paramount, the students there were expected to cope with changes, delays and sudden new requirements. We also had real difficulties on all our modules in explaining what we meant by evaluation. This was not terminology confusion, but a lack of appreciation that it was worth asking students what they thought. Hardly anyone undertook evaluation in this sense. The outcome UHS has a Master’s in Health Professionals Education (MHPE, 2014) programme, currently on its second intake. The first cohort of students have nearly finished their taught modules and some have started their research. The curriculum structure follows the UK model and the modules closely match the Liverpool modules in learning outcomes and assessment. The requirements for MCQs and Short Answer Questions, in addition to discursive module assignments, have been dropped for the second cohort.

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Almost all the modules have a recognised leader. The timetable is still uncertain for both cohorts but intentions appear to be more reliably implemented for the second cohort. Several of the original students have expressed an interest in completing their degree in the UK. We feel confident that in terms of quality, the completion of the first three MPHE modules would make it possible for the students to submit a successful APL claim for exemption from one-third of our Master’s programme, which is the maximum allowable under the University of Liverpool APL policy. This is not ideal: we are not yet at a stage where we feel we could accept the claim for prior certificated learning (APCL) for all such students until we have seen more of the work of those students we have not ourselves taught. However, we can envisage reaching this point. Of the three remaining taught modules, two may be completed at a distance. The main barrier for those students seeking a UK qualification is the expense in terms of registration and attendance at the remaining module (until this too is converted to a distance module). Meanwhile, we plan to stay in close contact with our Pakistani colleagues and when they are ready to proceed, to support their efforts to gain external accreditation from the HEA and Academy of Medical Educators.

15 Rethinking Master’s level design and support Pauline Kneale, Plymouth University, UK Sally Brown, Leeds Beckett University, UK Phil Race, Newcastle, UK

Keywords: constructive alignment, curriculum design, employability, evaluation, learning outcomes, mentoring, programme design, reflection, risk taking, student experience. For those either designing a new programme or refreshing an established one, this chapter proposes a checklist of potential ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’. The aim is to stimulate thinking around the many dimensions of a programme addressed in this book to create a programme ethos including:  support for students built in from the planning stage;  recognising the importance of building students’ confidence, ameliorating anxiety and creating networks of learners within a programme to enable effective learning;  thinking through induction processes, and ongoing learning styles, activities, assessment and support;  issues for part-time, professional, face-to-face and distance learners;  recognising that new technologies and approaches arrive every year (NMC, 2015) and students’ expectations change.

 Pre-course design considerations Probably the most difficult things to put on the agenda for a first programme development meeting are the aims and learning outcomes. These are better grown organically through the process of discussion, understanding the market and student needs, and refinement of the ambition of the staff who will deliver the programme. Essentially the programme team need to be able to define the scope and scale of their ambitions for their course. With approximately 80% of

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Master’s programmes directly related to enhancing the employment and promotion potential of the students who undertake them, linking the programme to the likely workplace demands of the next five years is probably a priority (Artess et al., 2014; Clarke and Lunt, 2014). While analysis of the market and assessment of student demand frequently figure in the business case for programme proposals, the business case should also clarify why potential students will be choosing to study, and the demands that will be placed on the students alongside this study. Master’s provision is generally expensive in university terms. Classes tend to be smaller, other than on programmes like MBAs. Teaching can often therefore be more individual, and students can be more demanding than undergraduates, in that they are frequently juggling their workplace and family commitments alongside study (Soilemetzidis et al., 2014). The following questions are designed to help you clarify the diverse cases you are making for your programmes: 1. Ask why students are doing Master’s level (M-level) study, and why would they do it in this particular institution? Answers may include (in no particular order):  because they need additional qualifications to gain the employment they are seeking;  because they wish to proceed into research in academia or industry;  because they wish to proceed into teaching posts in further or higher education;  because they don’t know what else to do;  because otherwise they would be unemployed;  because they are looking for challenges and fulfilment;  because they really enjoy advanced study;  because they know someone who got a Master’s degree, and think: ‘Well, I can do this too’ 2. Crucially ask: why are we providing M-level study opportunities at this university? What are the links with institutional mission and institutional reputation? Are we aiming to breed future researchers or academics for our own institution? Do we have the generic university infrastructure to make M-level study work well? What are the minimum and maximum viable and manageable class sizes? What are the real costs? Is this the right time to set up or continue a course? Should we in fact be gathering together small clusters of M-level provision to make them more viable? How does this link with our overall teaching profile? How does this link to our target research profile?

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3. How should the programme be delivered to best meet the needs of our students? Is the catchment for students large enough to enable an on-campus, face-to-face programme to be effective for a minimum of five years? Would distance learning or a blended approach better suit the lifestyle and career position of our students? Durham and See (Chapter 13) illustrate issues with running face-to-face and distance learning programmes alongside each other. Would blocked teaching fit better with workplace activities as exemplified in Anderson et al. (Chapter 3.4) and Cramp (Chapter 12)? Getting these issues right at the start can significantly affect recruitment and consequently the longterm viability of a programme. 4. What do the faculty team want to achieve academically? How will this programme fit with other programmes, career ambitions and personal development? How does the programme fit with the expertise of your staff (and how many new specialist staff would you need to recruit to run the programme)? How will these student researchers, through their projects and dissertations (Healey et al., 2014), explicitly support the ambitions of the School and Faculty? 5. Consulting potential students: To what extent have you entered into dialogue with alumni on your existing programmes and others to establish if there is a real need for your programme? Establishing the nuances of student expectations, and appreciating the practical circumstances and support students need, must inform course design and improve student satisfaction with the programme. Knowledge of what students will bring to the programme can be built on and shared to the benefit of everyone. Making students partners in collaboratively planning the initial curriculum (Bovill et al., 2011; Cook-Sather, 2011; Mihans et al., 2008), and in later updating it, acknowledges and reinforces the students’ role as a co-constructors of knowledge and the expectation that students will take control of their learning. What technologies will students expect and bring? Engaged students are likely to be more committed and successful. ‘We had to acknowledge that the students were, in fact, the experts on being college students’ (Mihans et al., 2008, p. 5.). How will you actively foster student engagement within your programmes? 6. Programmes evolve: see for example Drugan (Chapter 9.3). Have you anticipated evolution of the programme and planned to research the staff and student experience in the early years (see Winfield, Chapter 1.3), to enable iterative development so you can respond in a timely way to emerging issues and needs?

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 Designing M-level programmes As many chapters in this book illustrate, the enormous range in style and activity means Master’s programmes take many forms. At the very early stages of planning, what can most usefully be said about M-level study is that it is ‘greater’ than graduate level, and ‘lesser’ than doctorate level, in each particular discipline, while the boundaries between levels are often fuzzy (Brown, 2014). The quality descriptors may be helpful in the UK context (QAA, 2010; Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013), as are the Quality Assurance Agency discipline benchmark descriptors (QAA, 2014). It is worth keeping in mind the facets of Master’s work: greater depth and breadth, student autonomy, students creating knowledge and driving their learning; Dearing’s purposes of higher education (see Chapter 2, NCIHE, 1997); and remembering that: ‘At master’s level, their knowledge should not be bounded by yours’ (Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013, p. 5). Design needs to be thought about in the context of the discipline and students’ circumstances, and the university’s ambitions. The next section contains advice to help in framing your programme ‘mission’: 1. Focus on the student learning rather than the lecturers’ teaching: Please don’t start with ‘this is my research, it’s very important, it will be the key module’. The vanity element of some programmes, where erudite and expert staff teach exclusively about niche elements of their discipline, usually their own research, may be entirely appropriate. However, inclusion of these niche dollops of learning needs to be rigorously challenged to ensure that it delivers what the current students need. Primarily students need the right tools to be effective in the workplace, meeting the challenges of the next five to ten years, rather than reading about and understanding some excellent problem-solving from the past. If evidentially 90% of graduates will progress to PhD research they need academic research skills. If 90% progress to other businesses they need different, professional skill sets. 2. Do consider the appropriate balance between knowledge and skills: In many Master’s programmes students will gain a range of new skills, taught and practised while acquiring new knowledge. Students as researchers, working on problems which are critical to their industry, profession or discipline, need to understand and explicitly acknowledge the skills acquired. Mihans, Long and Felten (2008, p. 4) pose two questions which they brainstormed with students:

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 What enduring understandings (big ideas) are critical to this course?  What is essential for students in this course to know or be able to do? You therefore need to ask which pedagogic approaches best prepare people for the research elements and project, for the future workplace, and will challenge students to think? Will students be presented with enough complex real problems to ‘solve’, to gain the experience to tackle complex problems well? The choice is very extensive: action learning, problem-based learning, case studies, critical incident analysis, group learning, peer-peer critique, community-based and professional context learning, placements, reflection, debate, scenario development, project management, posters … and many others. Don’t try to include every style; repeating an approach in a couple of modules will deepen students’ expertise and increase their confidence. 3. Clarify what skills and knowledge your students will be able to evidence on graduation that will impress potential employers: What would put your graduates at the head of the shortlist for their next role? This type of question should encourage active engagement with potential employers. Are there university-wide or national strategic agendas, for example enterprise, employability, sustainability, or business awareness, which need consideration? Some research with programme directors, lecturers and graduates from similar Master’s courses elsewhere may be very worthwhile. Consideration of this range of skills and knowledge evidence will assist you in deciding how you will assess students’ achievements. Where the prospective workplace operates with teams working together to solve problems and write joint reports, then assignments should mirror this. Ideally, employability activities and skills will be integrated within the programme, but students will also need central university support (Chapter 8). 4. Aim for relatively few but challenging assignments which will test the students without burdening them excessively: Students need time and scope to develop and test their ideas, and the assignments need to be fully integrated to enhance learning (Brown and Race, 2012). Problem-based assignments, real-world problem-solving and assignments set by employers demonstrate different approaches to relevant authentic assessment. Aim for challenging assignments that test students’ ability to synthesise substantial amounts of information and be creative in presenting their own, or their team’s, insights and conclusions. Race (2014, pp. 38–40) defines seven factors underpinning

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successful learning. Design assignments to offer the opportunity for students to practise these varied approaches to learning. Consider the merits of alternative styles of assessment (Race, 2014, pp. 107–17), and of alternatives to the ‘traditional’ dissertation (Hill et al., 2011). 5. Don’t think of evidence of achievement only as written: Dissertations, theses, course assignments and exams as used in many nations are all in their various ways limited by what students can commit to paper in various circumstances, and these assessment formats only measure some of what students ‘have in their heads’. Continue to ask ‘what else will students be able to do to demonstrate that they have reached M-level in the specific context of the programme?’, and broaden the scope of evidence of achievement being linked to assessment. Does every module include a student research assignment that builds skills and confidence for dissertation or project work, for example? Does the programme use oral assessments (as widely used at this level in the Netherlands and Scandinavia) to test a different range of skills? Are you making good use of social and digital media to enable students to demonstrate their capabilities? Are students demonstrating their interpersonal and communicative capacities? 6. Having decided which forms of evidence of achievement are most suitable for measurement, strike a sensible balance between written evidence, practical evidence, collaborative evidence, presentational evidence and so on: Adjust the balance accordingly in line with the skills and attributes which successful graduates are likely to need in the next stages of their careers in the disciplines and fields involved. 7. When the skills and knowledge evidence and the assessment styles have been established, the intended learning outcomes for the programme can be clarified: These should be checked and aligned with the pre-course discussion outcomes (items 1–4 above), and the national and international standards (see Chapter 2; EQF, 2014; QAA, 2010; Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013). It can be useful to ‘translate’ the learning outcomes into studentfriendly language using ‘WIRMI …’ (‘what it really means is …’), so that prospective students have a clear idea of the targets for that level of study. Learning outcomes designed with the evidence of expected achievement in mind are less likely to be ‘woolly’ or ‘vague’, and should illustrate clearly the detail of targets students need to work towards. 8. Do consider students’ potential prior experience when designing both curriculum delivery and assessment: It may be appropriate to

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design pre-Master’s modules or a longer programme to help some students get ‘up to speed’ with necessary skills and competences, which can not only be useful for students but can also be an attractive financial proposition for universities. As the examples in the first two sections of this book indicate, students encounter substantial cultural and personal changes when moving to this level of study. Induction modules, diagnostic tests and early opportunities for formative assessment may be helpful in giving students a positive and supported experience which encourages them to persevere and succeed. Learning outcomes can be designed to ensure ‘step-up’ activities are mastered. Some students may need to join mathematics, statistics or language modules or use resources elsewhere in the university (e.g. Houston, 2010). Students should be encouraged to use university-wide learning support services (Chapters 7.1 and 8). Having established evidence of achievement and appropriate assessment criteria, plan the style of student journey. This includes decisions about part-time or full-time study, one-year or more, ‘taught’ or ‘by research’, length of practice or placement opportunities, and options to complete part of the programme in another university or research environment. Taking these elements into consideration should demonstrate the ‘quality’ of the programme. This quality is essentially defined by the evidence of achievement that will be measured, by the criteria against which this evidence will be judged, and by the intended learning outcomes that will set out the way the evidence will lead to assessment.  Advising Master’s students While postgraduate students usually expect that their study will be different from their undergraduate experience, the evidence is that they need support through the transition phase and beyond. Where degrees are completed in a year, that support should run through the year. What information from the deliberations that take place around programme design and annual planning will be explicitly discussed with students? Both staff and students need to understand each other’s expectations. Making space to discuss issues and concerns at the start, or pre-start (for example Chapter 5.1), can be hugely helpful. It is also vital for all tutors and students to attend such a discussion. The following list provides a potential agenda of discussion points: 1. This is your degree, and within it there will be a greater focus on you undertaking independent study than in your undergraduate

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experience. Your programme leader will advise you on starting points, but you need to be making your own decisions and setting your own agenda much more than on previous courses. 2. It’s imperative that you proactively plan your study, so organise your diary with deadlines and class times, and make sure you have planned space for your other commitments including work, sport, friends and family. There are likely to be problems and hitches, including perhaps extra unplanned work commitments that you will need to fulfil, so build some flexibility into your advanced planner to cope with the unexpected. 3. When you are preparing to complete your major assignments or theses, start big, read broadly, then hone down your ideas, and clarify where your thinking sits in the flow of research. Be sceptical about commonly held perspectives; ask if the ideas, views, concepts and conclusions you are reading about ring true in your particular context. Always consider the quality of evidence on which you are basing decisions, so know what you are basing your arguments upon, and recognise the quality of any experiments. Be particularly assiduous in ensuring that web information you use is trustworthy: for academic purposes this means a high reliance on peerreviewed journal articles rather than idiosyncratic websites. Check that there are logical links between your ideas and within the theories you use. 4. Find your own strategies to keep track of multiple ideas and theories, and to track relevant evidence. Be meticulous about recording your sources and the reference materials you use, using proprietary software packages as appropriate. 5. Be prepared to re-read, to revise your thinking about the literature, and to revisit your data on a regular basis. Do your original deductions still stand up? Are you sure your data are still telling you the same thing each time? Recognise that ideas evolve; published texts, particularly historic ones, may not reflect the current state-of-the-art thinking so you need to be prepared to question accepted understandings. 6. Be willing and able to seek feedback on your thinking, feedback on your evidence of achievement, and feedback on your writing from as many sources as you can. Seek feedback proactively as a continuous process. All feedback can be valuable, whether it comes from tutors, external people, fellow students, or indeed anyone who is prepared to listen to your ideas and talk to you, or read your written evidence and give you detailed comments. 7. Remember that developing your own thinking and understanding is an iterative process, so you need the time and space to develop and

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revisit your ideas. Recognise that place, context, and situations change and this may impact upon the data you are collecting and analysing. A theory that works in one place and at one time may have no validity in other places or indeed in the same place at another time. Recognise that statistical evidence may have flaws, since it tends to be the outcome of a particular experiment in a particular space at a particular time. 8. Develop your own discussion group of peers studying similar areas to share ideas, contest perceptions and develop your understandings. Ask other students on your programme to join you in live or virtual dialogue about complex topics. Learning is often best done in a group, and studying at Master’s level, particularly if you meet rarely or study online, can be an isolating experience. 9. Don’t leave the writing-up of your collected data to the last minute. Some of the best thinking is done while writing, and the process itself can be useful in helping you to clarify your ideas. It is better to write very regularly (ideally daily) even though you might edit and change the text over time, since it is possible on sustained tasks to forget earlier stages of thinking and process as the pressure towards completion builds.

 Conclusion The examples in these four chapters have illustrated curriculum design issues for effective learning. At M-level there may be a tendency to be very focused on skills and knowledge tied to a workplace or research agenda. Curriculum design should not ignore the wider ambitions of the university to develop students’ generic skills and attitudes. Attributes such as knowledge, communication, teamwork, innovation, reflective practice and creativity will probably be encompassed within most Master’s course design. Consideration of themes such as social and cultural responsibility, sustainability, global citizenship, community engagement, professional integrity, connectedness and other elements defined in the university strategy also need attention. Not all attributes will be appropriate for inclusion as desired learning outcomes, but critical appreciation of opportunities for integrating awareness of these broader themes into a programme, and reflecting on the richness they might bring to the students’ learning, is highly desirable. Knowledge has increased tremendously in the past years and will continue to proliferate. An individual cannot hope to master all the core

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information of a discipline. Creating a programme that tries to teach ‘all of it’ is not appropriate in an era where people can find information when they need it. Students know they can search for facts, which makes presenting material in ways where they see the application as relevant to them and their career is appropriate. Teaching something which is a personal research interest of the staff member is probably only justified where students engage in research in partnership with this academic and their research team during the course (Healey et al., 2014). It is challenging to create opportunities where students have delegated authority, as far as possible in shaping their learning in partnership with staff, but likely to permit deeper, more engaged learning.

16 Afterword Pauline Kneale, Plymouth University, UK Sally Brown, Leeds Beckett University, UK

Keywords: curriculum design, evaluation, networking, reflection, risk taking, student experience. Graduates at this level will apply knowledge and skills to demonstrate autonomy, expert judgement, adaptability and responsibility as a practitioner or learner. Australian Qualifications Authority, 2014

The capacity to (i) address complex issues and judgments based on established principles and techniques and (ii) apply an existing body of knowledge in the research and critical analysis of a new question or of a specific problem or issue in a new setting. Council of Ministers Canada, 2007

 Introduction The standards of learning required at Master’s level (M-level) are set by national qualifications frameworks. The two criteria above encapsulate some of the challenges that authors have discussed through the book. This text has in essence captured two overarching themes to be considered when working at M-level: students are not always as happy as they might wish to appear to those teaching them, and there are challenges in providing a university experience that is at the mastery or expert level. The reflections in Part 1 and from elsewhere have other authors evidenced the rather mixed lived experience of our students, and many authors have discussed the support needs of students. The sections on curriculum design and development support the notion that embedding wider student support is essential and practical. Comrie (2013, p. 22, 2015) identified five key inhibitors to the learning of direct entrant international students: language, academic culture, sense of isolation, not understanding expectations and assessment. These elements

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are mirrored in the chapters here and authors’ experiences with and as Master’s students. Throughout this volume experiential learning, assessment and curriculum design, induction and transition processes have been foregrounded as a means of allaying, to some extent, the concerns of students, with an emphasis on an integrated approach to planning curriculum and the broader student experience, thereby supporting a cohesive student journey. The Quality Assurance Agency Scotland (2013, p. 5) sets an interesting standard when it states ‘At master’s level, their knowledge should not be bounded by yours.’ Preparing postgraduates for what we already know will be an uncertain and changing future requires an approach that encourages students to be creative, to tackle the unknown elements of their disciplines, increasing their resilience and robustness in thinking and attitudes. The graduates of professional courses like Health, Education or Law, where developing specific technical skills and understandings are core requirements, will certainly be grappling with emergent skills and understandings in three to five years’ time. Those who argue that their programme is a haven from the applied aspects of professional jobs must still consider the rapidly changing technologies students encounter in their learning and will do in future research settings. Hence we argue that Master’s programmes should equip graduates to be critical about, and bring a questioning and critical approach to, the factual knowledge elements they encounter in their studies. As teachers we must recognise that our graduates will need to use technologies that are not yet thought of and are most likely to work in teams to solve problems. Interdisciplinary work is increasingly common. For example, as makerspaces evolve in all levels of education, it is critical that Master’s approaches also progress to meet new learning styles (Bajarin, 2014; Thompson, 2014). Makerspaces (NMC, 2015, pp. 40–1) can, if we choose, provide opportunities to nurture or enable creativity across Science, Arts and Engineering, drawing on people and resources from within and beyond higher education. At the start of the book we asked if the current Master’s programme structure serves modern students well. It is interesting to consider its relevance and future in the light of initiatives such as personalised learning, ‘wicked’ challenges, the advances in technology and need for greater digital literacy (Balint et al., 2011; Conklin, 2003; Knight and Page, 2007; NMC, 2015). The structure has enormous flexibility which enables teachers to shape it to their needs (QAA, 2010, p. 4). And there are certainly

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no straightjackets that limit opportunities for creativity in problem-setting and assessment. In design it is worth bearing in mind:  the balance of time involved in making sure students know something that has short-term relevance and value; as compared with ensuring that they know how to look it up and be sure they have found the most recent, or most accurate information. For their longer-term experience this is more valuable;  ensuring students have many opportunities to ‘explore’ information, to develop insights into being creative and innovative, to synthesise information and create an answer or suite of answers to genuinely difficult contemporary problems, and to communicate their ideas, issues, and conclusions clearly and effectively to specialist and non-specialist audiences. For any Master’s programme, it is worth ensuring you have worked with graduates and current students to confirm that:  curriculum design, delivery, assessment and evaluation are constructively aligned;  the language of your learning outcomes is sufficiently explicit to satisfy validation requirements, while being accessible to students and other stakeholders;  the subject material is pitched at the right level, is current, demanding and relevant;  the pedagogy by which you deliver the learning is fit-for-purpose;  the range of ways in which you assess your Master’s students is appropriate, and that your assessment strategy is integrated with, and adds value to, student learning;  the effectiveness of the programmes is evaluated and continuously enhanced. Master’s students should be drivers, not passengers. You cannot expect autonomy on day 1 – but it is what you are aiming for. Quality Assurance Agency Scotland, 2013, p. 5

Working with Master’s students presents an exciting and valuable research and practice opportunity for academic staff. Learning at this level should be challenging for students as they move from being predominantly consumers of academic information, to creating new knowledge. Students bring their own experiences to programmes which can be shared to the benefit of both staff and fellow students. We cannot assume that students

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will come to study with shared expectations, particularly around curriculum design, delivery, assessment and support, nor can we assume that their expected models of learning match our expectations for higher levels of autonomy and independence. These need careful scaffolding and support. As Sadler (2013, p. 54) recognises, ‘For students to become self-sustaining producers of high quality intellectual and professional goods, they must be equipped to take control of their own learning and performance’. This volume proposes a fresh approach to thinking about Master’s teaching, learning and assessment, suggesting that rather than occupying an uncomfortable and ill-defined space between undergraduate and doctoral education, Master’s programmes provide a unique and exciting opportunity for students to develop independence of thought, breadth of understanding and depth of study, enabling them to be critically analytic and to work confidently with incomplete information and in unfamiliar settings and to utilise current scholarship relevant to their practice. If we can challenge academic staff to bring their excellent knowledge and experience to the Master’s learning experience, in a way that lets the students take the maximum control of their learning, and incorporate assignments and research tasks that really stretch students’ thinking and experience, the programmes are likely to be attractive to students and other stakeholders including employers, enabling Master’s graduates to excel both individually and as part of the wider intellectual and professional community.

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Index

academic identity, 56, 224 accreditation, 123, 203, 210, 233–37 action plan, 84–86, 124, 143 active learning, 34, 195, 196, 208, See also problem-based learning Art and Design, 149–58 assessment, 171–200, See self-assessment employer engagement, 179 feedback, 178 group work, 179, 188 induction, 177 methods, 111, 176, 235 Assimilate Project, 173 authentic assessment, 173, 177, 178, 184, 187, 242 assignments, 103 experience, 149 tasks, 176 autonomy, 21, 33, 57, 222, 228, 241, 248 belonging cube, 77 blended learning, 20, 205, 220 blogs, 49, 177, 183 Bloom’s taxonomy, 91, 95, 97, 124 Bologna, 23, 40, 159 buddy schemes, 73 career, 48, 136, 139–43, 153, 231, 243 Ceramics, 149–58 China, 25, 36–38, 87–94 collaborative writing, 126–34 communication skill, 57, 73, 80, 107, 138, 140, 146, 164, 196, 199, 214, 246 communities of practice, 20, 46, 48, 50, 77, 99, 201, 218, 226

confidence, 13, 34, 65, 69, 100, 151, 164, 184, 238 CREAM, 99 critical thinking, 65, 87–97, 184, 231 curriculum design, 70, 105, 201, 209, 218, 248 deep learning, 145, 196, 225, 230 dissertation, 52–53, 68–69, 135–38, 139, 178, 200, 243 distance learning, 188–89, 209–17 diversity, 5, 19, 35, 45, 61, 72, 76, 192–200 employability, 27, 73, 139–43, 144, 179, 238 ePortfolio, 226, See portfolio ethical, 30, 45, 80, 160, 164, 165 ethics, 62, 197 ethnographic approach, 57, 118 European Qualifications Framework, 30 experiential learning, 77, 103, See problem-based learning feedback, 7, 33, 51, 68, 87, 94, 121, 122, 162, 178, 184, 191, 198, 215, 245 fees, 26, 38, 72 funding, 60, 158 flexibility, 24, 144, 205, 211 formative assessment, 79, 86, 111, 128, 167, 181, 190, 194, 195, 197, 206, 244 formative feedback, 79, 86, 113, 191, 215 Geographic Information Science, 209, 211–17

276

Index

Geographic Information Systems Technology, 229 Glass, 149–58 group work, 179, 183, 188, 193, 199, 220, See team work Healthcare, 10, 234 ice-breaker, 76, 228 IELTS, 73 Individualised Self-assessment to Enhance Employability (I-SEE), 140 induction, 18, 51, 60, 61–64, 75, 76–101, 150, 177, 214 internationalisation, 87, 193 internship, 40, 42, 157, 231 Kolb learning cycle, 124 Language, 73 learning portfolio, 124 marketing, 26–28 marking criteria, 74, 83, 110, 112, 119, 195 Master’s in Education, 8 Education programme, 23, 205 Master’s in Education, 43–53, 186 Medicine, 24, 140, 232 mentoring, 15, 37, 68, 73, 155, 169, 238 motivation, 7, 44, 64, 183 networking, 12, 16, 21, 36, 137, 166, 180, 225, 232 online learning, 205, 221 online module, 205 online programme, 26, 210 partnership, 18, 203, 213, 218, 247 part-time study, 10, 24, 36, 43–53, 123, 211, 224 patchwork assignments, 176 patchwork portfolio, 190 peer assessment, 180, 195

277

peer learning, 205, 218, 224 peer-peer assessment, 190 peer-peer discussion, 101 peer-peer learning, 242 peer-peer mentoring, 73 peer-peer network, 46 peer-peer sharing, 138 peer-peer support, 12 personal tutor. See tutorial PGCAP, 126, 218, 221 PGCE, 7, 45 plagiarism, 62, 85, 180, 215 portfolio, 124, 148, 185, 190–92, See ePortfolio pre-induction, 72, 77 problem-based learning, 144–58, 169, 195, 242 professional, 19, 22, 42, 43, 68, 126, 231 professional degree, 27, 37 professional programmes, 26, 29, 179, 249 professional bodies, 123, 125, 138, 232 professional development, 10, 208, 229, 230, 231 professional practice, 144, 149, 159, 185, 218, 222 professionalism, 30, 44, 55, 167, 230 programme design, 159, 220, 238, 244 Programme Focused Assessment Project, 181 Psychology, 186 quality assurance, 28, 174, 213, 216, 233, 241 reading, 110, 114 reflection, 41, 49, 80, 84, 105, 123, 128–30, 141, 166, 190, 222, 227 self-reflection, 101, 117 reflection on action, 176 reflective writing, 123–25 resilience, 57, 69, 144, 249 risk, 9, 15, 19, 32, 123, 167, 201, 228, 238, 248

278

Index

scaffolding, 21, 70, 124, 146, 197, 251 self-assessment, 76, 84, 86, 135, 140, 195, 198 self-efficacy, 62, 65, 84, 183, 186 self-regulated learning, 18, 62, 148 signposting, 72, 114 skills. See study skills taxonomy, 80 social media, 50, 208, 215, 223 student experience, 10–14, 22, 43, 115, 137, 149, 238, 248 student identity, 58 study skills, 75, 76, 97, 118, 209 summative assessment, 79, 106, 111, 167, 181, 190, 206

team work, 138, 146, 162, 163, 195, See group work technology enhanced learning, 34, 183, 226 Theatre Studies, 14–17 time management, 12, 47, 66, 108, 141, 160, 214, 231 transition, 18, 36, 55–75, 105, 136 Translation Studies, 158–70 tutor practioners, 218 tutorial, 9, 51, 52, 59, 84, 85, 111, 190 writing, 79, 84, 103, 106, 112, 113, 117–22, 136, 190, 228