Mastering Primary Geography 9781474295529, 9781474295512, 9781474295543, 9781474295505

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Mastering Primary Geography

Mastering Primary Teaching series Edited by Judith Roden and James Archer The Mastering Primary Teaching series provides an insight into the core principles underpinning each of the subjects of the Primary National Curriculum, thereby helping student teachers to ‘master’ the subjects. This in turn will enable new teachers to share this mastery in their teaching. Each book follows the same sequence of chapters, which has been specifically designed to assist trainee teachers to capitalize on opportunities to develop pedagogical excellence. These comprehensive guides introduce the subject and help trainees know how to plan and teach effective and inspiring lessons that make learning irresistible. Examples of children’s work and case studies are included to help exemplify what is considered to be best and most innovative practice in primary education. The series is written by leading professionals, who draw on their years of experience to provide authoritative guides to the primary curriculum subject areas. Also available in the series Mastering Primary Design and Technology, Gill Hope Mastering Primary English, Wendy Jolliffe and David Waugh Mastering Primary History, Karin Doull, Christopher Russell and Alison Hales Mastering Primary Languages, Paula Ambrossi and Darnelle Constant-Shepherd Mastering Primary Music, Ruth Atkinson Mastering Primary Physical Education, Kristy Howells with Alison Carney, Neil Castle and Rich Little Mastering Primary Religious Education, Maria James and Julian Stern Mastering Primary Science, Amanda McCrory and Kenna Worthington Forthcoming in the series Mastering Primary Art and Design, Peter Gregory, Claire March and Suzy Tutchell Mastering Primary Computing, Graham Parton Mastering Primary Mathematics, Andrew Lamb, Rebecca Heaton and Helen Taylor Also available from Bloomsbury Developing Teacher Expertise, edited by Margaret Sangster Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools, edited by Andrew Pollard Reflective Teaching in Schools, Andrew Pollard

Mastering Primary Geography Anthony Barlow and Sarah Whitehouse

BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2019 Copyright ©  Anthony Barlow and Sarah Whitehouse, 2019 Anthony Barlow and Sarah Whitehouse have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work. For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. xiv constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover design: Anna Berzovan Cover image © iStock (miakievy / molotovcoketail) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: HB: 978-1-4742-9552-9 PB: 978-1-4742-9551-2 ePDF: 978-1-4742-9550-5 eBook: 978-1-4742-9553-6 Series: Mastering Primary Teaching Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters.

Contents About the Authors

vi

List of Figures

vii

Series Editors’ Foreword

ix

How to Use This Book

xii

Acknowledgementsxiv 1 An Introduction to Primary Geography

1

2 Current Developments in Geography

23

3 Geography as an Irresistible Activity

59

4 Geography as a Practical Activity

91

5 Skills to Develop in Geography

131

6 Children’s Ideas – Promoting Curiosity

155

7 Assessing Children in Geography

171

8 Practical Issues

193

Bibliography223 Index238

About the Authors Anthony Barlow is Principal Lecturer and Programme Convenor for the BA Primary Education QTS programme at the University of Roehampton, London. He worked in primary schools for twelve years in Hillingdon and Bolton before entering teacher education. Anthony has been Co-Chair of the Early Years and Primary Committee of the Geographical Association (GA) for four years. He is a GA consultant and has led teacher development sessions for teachers around the country as a Primary Geography Champion. Anthony has been involved in various projects such as Making Geography Happen (DfES/Geography Action Plan) and Young Geographers (TDA), worked with the BBC Class Clips (now Bitesize) and with Channel 4 on Grid Club Geography. He has written regularly for the Primary Geography journal published by the GA. He contributed a chapter to the award-winning Teaching Geography Creatively (Routledge, 2013/2017). His co-authored book in the popular Scholastic series 100 Geography Lessons: Years 3-4/Years 5-6 was published in September 2014. Rising Stars published his Geography KS1 resource Voyagers KS1: Geography with lesson plans and online teaching materials in 2016. His research interests are pupils’ understanding and perception of their immediate school surroundings, students’ ability to undertake exploratory enquiries and the links that can be made between the humanities subjects. He tweets @totalgeography; see also www.primarygeography.wordpress.com. Sarah Whitehouse is Senior Lecturer in Primary Humanities and Education at the University of the West of England, Bristol. She is Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy and an active member of the geography community. She has regularly written articles for Primary Geography and presented many times at the Geographical Association’s annual conferences. Sarah is co-author of the award-winning publication Jumpstart! Geography and has recently published ‘Primary Humanities: A perspective from Wales’ in the journal Education 3–13. Sarah worked in primary schools in South Wales before entering higher education, and was the first teacher in Wales to be awarded the Primary Geography Quality Mark (Gold Level). Sarah is a member of the Geography Teacher Education Special Interest Group of the Geographical Association.

List of Figures 1.1

Don’t forget Northern Ireland map

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1.2

McD Moscow

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1.3 Cars

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1.4 Shanghai

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1.5 Flags

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1.6

Mudchute City Farm, Isle of Dogs

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1.7

London’s Southbank

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3.1

Trees canopy

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3.2

OS map pattern

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3.3

‘Directions on Trig Point’

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3.4

Butchery; Bath; Chipping; Lands End

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3.5

BB age 7

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3.6

Map of bridge

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3.7

Northern Line

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3.8

Planned Paris

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3.9

Planned Washington

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3.10 Hong Kong

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3.11 Brindley Place, Birmingham

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3.12 ‘OS map real world’

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3.13 The London Eye: SE1 7PB

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3.14 Central Park, Manhattan Island and Central Park, New York City

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3.15 This is Land’s End

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3.16 Barnaby’s journey stick

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3.17 Talk string

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3.18 Nested hierarchies

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3.19 Junk

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3.20 Collage maps local area

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3.21 Clay Street scene

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3.22 Charney map

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List of Figures

4.1 Bath

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4.2

Tobermory Mull

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4.3

Den building

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4.4

Play space in central London

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4.5

The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park and Queen’s Jubilee

109

4.6

Seville Festival

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4.7

Learning outdoors

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4.8

Damming a river

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4.9

This shows the nested relationship with different layers of place

121

4.10 Landmark trees, Sherwood Forest

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4.11 Map of trees in Russell Square, London

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5.1

Air pollution cleaning

132

5.2

Edinburgh view towards the Firth of Forth

134

5.3

The Highway Code – common UK road signs and what they mean

138

5.4

Abbotsbury, Dorset

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5.5

Hastings, Sussex

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5.6

Anne Hathaway’s House, Stratford

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5.7

Fossil hunting

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5.8

Olympic Park, 2012

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5.9

Salisbury Crags with Arthur’s Seat behind, Edinburgh

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5.10 Village Green, Broadway, Cotswolds

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5.11 Lewes pub

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5.12–5.15  Stick Man

153

6.1

Coke fridge and Buddhist

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6.2

Great Wall of China at Badaling

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6.3 Starbucks

160

6.4

China traffic

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6.5

Blackpool Tower or Eiffel Tower?

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6.6

Nuwra Eliya, Sri Lanka

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6.7

Stereotypes of London

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6.8

Hong Kong

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7.1

Faces at More London Scoop

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7.2

Examples of different forms of feedback

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Series Editors’ Foreword A long and varied experience of working with beginner and experienced teachers in primary schools has informed this series since its conception. Over the last thirty years there have been many changes in practice in terms of teaching and learning in primary and early years’ education. Significantly, since the implementation of the first National Curriculum in 1989, the aim has been to bring best practice in primary education to all state schools in England and Wales. As time has passed, numerous policy decisions have altered the detail and emphasis of the delivery of the primary curriculum. However, there has been little change in the belief that pupils in the primary and early year phases of education should receive a broad, balanced curriculum based on traditional subjects. Recent Ofsted subject reports and notably the Cambridge Primary Review indicate that rather than the ideal being attained, in many schools, the emphasis on English and mathematics has not only depressed the other subjects of the primary curriculum, but also narrowed the range of strategies used for the delivery of the curriculum. The amount of time allocated to subject sessions in Initial Teacher Education courses has dramatically reduced, which may also account for this narrow diet in pedagogy. The vision for this series of books was born out of our many years of experience with student teachers. As a result, we believe that the series is well designed to equip trainee and beginner teachers to master the art of teaching in the primary phase. This series of books aims to introduce current and contemporary practices associated with the whole range of subjects within the Primary National Curriculum and religious education. It also goes beyond this by providing beginner teachers with the knowledge and understanding required to achieve mastery of each subject. In doing so, each book in the series highlights contemporary issues such as assessment and inclusion which are the key areas that even the most seasoned practitioner is still grappling with in light of the introduction of the new primary curriculum. In agreement with the results attached with these books, we believe that students who work in schools and progress onto their Newly Qualified Teacher (NQT) year will be able to make a significant contribution to the provision in their school, especially in foundation subjects.

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Series Editors’ Foreword

Readers will find great support within each one of these books. Each book in the series will inform and provide the opportunity for basic mastery of each of the subjects, namely English, mathematics, science, physical education, music, history, geography, design and technology computing and religious education. They will discover the essence of each subject in terms of its philosophy, knowledge and skills. Readers will also be inspired by the enthusiasm for each subject revealed by the subject authors who are experts in their field. They will discover many and varied strategies for making each subject ‘come alive’ for their pupils and they should become more confident about teaching across the whole range of subjects represented in the primary and early years’ curriculum. Primary teaching in the state sector is characterized by a long history of pupils being taught the whole range of the primary curriculum by one teacher. Although some schools may employ specialists to deliver some subjects of the curriculum, notably physical education, music or science, for example, it is more usual for the whole curriculum to be delivered to a class by their class teacher. This places a potentially enormous burden on beginner teachers no matter which route they enter teaching. The burden is especially high on those entering through employment-based routes and for those who aim to become inspiring primary teachers. There is much to learn! The term ‘mastery’ is generally considered to relate to knowledge and understanding of a subject which incorporates the ‘how’ of teaching as well as the ‘what’. Although most entrants to primary teaching will have some experience of the primary curriculum as a pupil, very few will have experienced the breadth of the curriculum or may have any understanding of the curriculum which reflects recent trends in teaching and learning within the subject. The primary curriculum encompasses a very broad range of subjects each of which has its own knowledge base, skills and ways of working. Unsurprisingly, very few new entrants into the teaching profession hold mastery of all the interrelated subjects. Indeed for the beginner teacher it may well be many years before full mastery of all aspects of the primary curriculum is achieved. The content of the primary curriculum has changed significantly, notably in some foundation subjects, such as history and music. So although beginner teachers might hold fond memories of these subjects from their own experience of primary education, the content of the subject may well have changed significantly over time and may incorporate different emphases. This series, Mastering Primary Teaching, aims to meet the needs of those who, reflecting the desire for mastery over each subject, want to know more. This is a tall order. Nevertheless, we believe that the pursuit of development should always be rewarded, which is why we are delighted to have so many experts sharing their well-developed knowledge and passion for the subjects featured in each book. The vision for this series is to provide support for those who are beginning their teaching career, who may not feel fully secure in their subject knowledge, understanding and skill. In addition, the series also aims to provide a reference point for beginner teachers to always be able to go back to support them in the important art of teaching.

Series Editors’ Foreword

Intending primary teachers, in our experience, have a thirst for knowledge about the subject that they will be teaching. They want to ‘master’ new material and ideas in a range of subjects. They aim to gain as much knowledge as they can of the subjects they will be teaching, in some of which the beginner teachers may lack in confidence or may be scared of because of their perceived lack of familiarity with some subjects and particularly how they are delivered in primary schools. Teaching the primary curriculum can be one of the most rewarding experiences. We believe that this series will help the beginner teachers to unlock the primary curriculum in a way that ensures they establish themselves as confident primary practitioners. Judith Roden James Archer June 2017



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How to Use This Book This book is one of twelve books that together help form a truly innovative series that is aimed to support your development. Each book follows the same format and chapter sequence. There is an emphasis throughout the book on providing information about the teaching and learning of geography. You will find a wealth of information within each chapter that will help you to understand the issues, problems and opportunities that teaching the subject can provide you as a developing practitioner in the subject. Crucially, each chapter provides opportunities for you to reflect upon important points linked to your development in order that you may master the teaching of geography. As a result you can develop your confidence in the teaching of primary geography. There really is something for everyone within each chapter. Each chapter has been carefully designed to help you to develop your knowledge of the subject systematically and as a result contains key features. Chapter objectives clearly signpost the content of each chapter and these will help you to familiarize yourself with important aspects of the subject and will orientate you in preparation for reading the chapter. The regular ‘pause for thought’ points offer questions and activities for you to reflect on important aspects of the subject. Each ‘pause for thought’ provides you with an opportunity to enhance your learning beyond merely reading the chapter. These will sometimes ask you to consider your own experience and what you already know about the teaching of the subject. Others will require you to critique aspects of good practice presented as case studies or research. To benefit fully from reading this text, you need to be an active participant. Sometimes you are asked to make notes on your response to questions and ideas and then to revisit these later on in your reading. While it would be possible for you to skip through the opportunities for reflection or to give only cursory attention to the questions and activities which aim to facilitate deeper reflection than might otherwise be the case, we strongly urge you to engage with the ‘pause for thought’ activities. It is our belief that it is through these moments that most of your transformational learning will occur as a result of engaging this book. At the end of each chapter, you will find a summary of main points from the chapter along with suggestions for further reading. We passionately believe that learners of all ages learn best when they work with others, so we would encourage you, if possible, to work with another person, sharing your ideas and perspectives. The book also would be ideal for group study within a university or school setting.

How to Use This Book

This book has been authored by Anthony Barlow and Sarah Whitehouse, who are experienced and highly regarded as professionals in their subject area. They are strong voices within the primary geography community. By reading this book you will be able to benefit from their rich knowledge, understanding and experience. When using this ensure that you are ready to learn from some of the leaders within primary geography today.



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Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank many colleagues and friends who have helped, supported and advised in a professional capacity over many years. It also should be said that the authors owe a profound debt of gratitude and stand on giants’ shoulders, having been informed and enlightened by innumerable books, journals and teacher-directed publications over many years. For J and J.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Primary Geography Chapter objectives ●●

to introduce mastery and place it within the domain of the discipline of geography

●●

to consider some historical perspectives surrounding the term ‘mastery’

●●

to discuss mastery in primary geography and whether this is possible or desirable

This chapter offers a brief introduction to primary geography and its connections to mastery learning. While mastery might be seen as a new idea, championed recently by governments and schools alike, this chapter shows that the idea is not new and that the current mastery discussion needs context to be understood. This chapter includes a rationale to this book, that geography is taught best through allowing time for dialogue and through what primary geographers call an enquiry approach. While a mastery approach might foreground individual and (possibly) atomized attainment, shared understandings, debate and criticality could be said to be important in this approach. With reference to research and theory, we invite the reader to think about how these debates frame issues teachers should consider when teaching, their values, motivation and expertise, and encourage them to examine their own understanding of these before forming an opinion to use in their own contexts.

Introduction Welcome to Mastering Primary Geography! This book’s authors hope that we have compiled a synthesis of geography as a subject. We hope this book will provoke thought about the value of the subject for your pupils in their first decade of schooling and so you can reflect and adapt ideas to design your own curriculum. We hope that you will be much more than a deliverer of geography education but will become what the Geographical Association (GA) calls ‘curriculum makers’, something we discuss in this chapter.

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This book has been written with a number of principles in mind. It is both a source of geographical knowledge and a way for you to reflect on geographical ‘knowledges’, the plural being important to our way of thinking about the multiplicity of views on the subject and the world. Remember when teaching geography, you already have knowledge, as do your pupils! These knowledges need to be aired, shared, discussed and matched against the world as you find it and against the knowledge that is found in others’ views, books and teaching resources, maps, atlases and globes. Context, where you are teaching and with whom, is always important in a humanities subject. Geography exposes children to the environment and helps them reflect themselves within it and value their growing experiences. Ultimately, we want to value and revel in their growing geographical imagination. As this opening statement makes clear, this book should allow you to start seeing yourself as a geographer and allow you to build your (and your learners’) subject identities. It has an in-built toolkit to help develop your career as a subject lead (particularly through the regular ‘pause for thought’ sections). You should not be afraid to ‘be on the side of primary geography’ and to privilege it over other subjects in your classroom if you are enthusiastic about it. As Griffiths argues: ‘After all, you want fairness and justice for this subject in the curriculum, so be honest about your bias and stance’ (Griffiths cited in Catling 1999, p. 34). To this end, as authors we should not be seen as impartial, or as being the fount of knowledge on this subject; all this book can be is just one more public declaration of principles and intentions about the potential of geography in primary education. While being founded on practice-based and wider research evidence, it is also a view of the world and should be read as such. Engaging with the ‘pause for thought’ sections will help you tease out your own views, developing understanding and attitudes. Make a note of your ideas and consider responses to some of the longer passages we quote in the main text. Write to us too if you think you have something to say and think we have missed the point entirely! As we start on our journey together, look at this first Pause and consider these ten reasons geography teaching could ‘change your world’. These might be fun but hint at the depth of world knowledge that the subject includes.

Pause for thought You’ll know the way to Amarillo and San Jose

History will You’ll know make sense that the Continental Shelf is not a supermarket aisle

You’ll understand that climate change isn’t just about better BBQ weather

Which other subject links the highest mountain and deepest ocean in one lesson?

An Introduction to Primary Geography

You won’t get Outdoor trapped in a learning paper bag could take you quite literally anywhere in the world

Buying Fair Trade coffee doesn’t just give you a caffeine buzz

You can escape the embarrassment of your SatNav not working

You can prove that corduroy trousers can be both practical and fashionable

PS. You will also always get picked to play on the pub quiz team! Adapted from a leaflet published by the Geographical Association, 2010.

Formative experiences in your geography How did you ‘form’ as a teacher? How have you been prepared to be a geography teacher? As we begin, it is important to think about how you have been educated as a geographer. How much geography have you done prior to being educated as a geography teacher? In many cases it is a subject that is ‘dropped’ in your early teenage years in England. Catling et al. (2010) wrote about the formative experiences of primary geography educators. You might wish to read about these and reflect on them or look at A Different View (2009), a geography manifesto published by the GA which establishes a set of principles from the ‘trusted voice’ and ‘international community of practice for teachers of geography’ (GA 2018). Do you agree with them? The people cited in this document, found easily online, are from all walks of life and talk passionately about how they use geography in everyday life and have mastered the skills in geography and see its potential. Often their school geography gave them a love of the subject; what they say will make you think more about yours.

Geography in the nations of the UK Interestingly, even in the UK, different nations do not agree on where this subject sits or what it should be called. The Northern Ireland curriculum has a composite subject called ‘The world around us’, while Scotland has Social Studies with ‘People, place and environment’ and ‘People in society, economy and business’. Wales has a cohesive Key Stage 2–4 geography curriculum, similar to the former National Curriculum for England. Similarly, in other jurisdictions, geography does not exist as a specific subject. What does this say about us mastering it? It’s not like a nation’s language or mathematics; all countries with education systems cover these subjects. What does it say about geography that it is there or not there? Is there something about the UK that would suggest that we feel that it is important (or was in the past). We discuss the British Empire–based origins of geography later.



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 1.1  Don’t forget Northern Ireland map. Mastery is less of an issue or ‘hot topic’ in other nations of the UK.

Introducing mastery and geography Pause for thought This book considers mastery in geography, but can we ever master a subject? Are there some subjects you feel more of a master in than others? Why is this? Might it to be to do with your level of education, who taught you, what your hobbies are or is it your general interest to know more? Which is most important for children? One thing is for sure, familiarity helps. With the images of people, places and environments that we now have access to it is interesting what we recognise most readily. As this image shows, it is often what we can recognise in the built environment. Symbols from geography such as flags and location names (think of University-branded hoodies) are often dominant aspects of our visual culture.

An Introduction to Primary Geography Figure 1.2  McD Moscow. How do you view this image? Most people will be able to recognize it from a high street near you. Almost every child shown this would be able to recognize this too. What does it say that this was taken in Moscow? Could it be anything else but McDonald’s red and yellow arches? While it starts us on a journey to understanding the Russian capital, we need to have other images to be able to make connections and move beyond stereotypes we might have already of the fast-food chain.

Geography today A high-quality geography education should inspire in pupils a curiosity and fascination about the world and its people that will remain with them for the rest of their lives. (National Curriculum, DfE 2014)

We will return again and again to this fantastic phrase ‘curiosity and fascination’ that opens the geography National Curriculum (NC) document. In many ways it



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 1.3  Cars. Geography is in so many aspects of our world and in what we see, feel and consume. While this image shows toy cars it can be hard to imagine what impact we are individually having on the environment. It is only when we see row upon row of cars or lorries or shipping containers full with items for consumption that we might begin to realize how much we collectively consume.

sums up the attitude that we wish readers of the book to adopt and for the geography they teach. Who would not want to study a subject like this? How can we make it irresistible? Being bold, we think this clearly suggests a pedagogical approach of enquiry, where geography is a way to stimulate thought. It’s as though the curriculum is to be found or discovered. Ryan and Deci (2000, p. 68) discuss that the construct of intrinsic motivation is essential to cognitive and social development and describes a natural inclination towards ‘assimilation, mastery, spontaneous interest, and exploration’ which can lead to a source of life-long enjoyment. We believe that the best geography comes from a connection with learners, and while lofty aims can often pepper a curriculum, one purpose that should be remembered in any curriculum (and this is not different) is that it is expansive rather than restrictive. ‘Time and space’ to range beyond the NC specifications and ‘exciting and stimulating lessons to promote the development of pupils’ knowledge, understanding and skills’ should be your clear aspiration (DfE 2014a, p. 5).

Geography, mastery and learning theory How does any theory of mastery fit into all of this? We have written this book with a view that good education is underpinned by developmental learning theory. This is the basis for much teacher education in the UK and has a long history.

An Introduction to Primary Geography

Mastery is not necessarily against this. We recognize that as products of a school system, and then university or school-led training route and then a workplace culture, these cultures will have had an effect. This will affect what and how we teach and we need to recognize this rather than just doing what was done to us! The mastery agenda for us is one in a long line of new ideas that have gained traction in education over the decades. As Jones (2003) argues, anyone writing about education is involved in a political business and people like us writing a book have a strong social motivation. We, trained in the 1990s, were schooled in a more centrally directed ‘standards agenda’ world where primary education was ‘delivered’ with a focus on National Strategies. While you might argue we are still in this phase, with testing also driving the system, there has been a deregulation of curriculum exemplification. The agenda now is where ‘schools and teachers know best’ backed up by a ‘knowledge-rich’ core curriculum, of which more later.

Pause for thought Take some time to examine your theory of learning. How has your schooling affected this? What underlying motivations do you have? Do you have a strong social motivation for teaching? How do you express this? How are your opinions formed? If you read the TES online (www.tes.com), newspapers, educational blogs or Twitter, you will see a range of comment pieces from teachers or advisors alongside ministers and academics (like us) stating a case for their version of what education is for and how it should occur. While we are all motivated to do this for different reasons, always look carefully at who is writing and what they might be doing this for. What interest, product or service might they be trying to ‘sell’? This is not easy sometimes to spot and requires careful and critical navigation and thought.

Our motivation: We love geography! While this might be a trite thing to say, it is true. Our strong social motivation is developed within our own professional development. We also attend conferences and committees, write for journals and undertake projects in schools. Our aim is to pass on and develop the best practice in geography. As Jones explains, education writers write in terms that not only outline a direction but evoke a history, imagine a community and go on to construct a subject’s future. ‘Exploring such discourses ... and seek[ing] connections with or distinctions from predecessors and



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Mastering Primary Geography

opponents – is a way of recognizing the richness of educational arguments and their links to a more general social imagination’ (Jones 2003, p. 6). If this book contributes, we hope the debate continues online as what Jones argues is perhaps even more true today with social media. To sum up, we hope that this book persuades you that mastering geography is a conversation both with yourself and your influences alongside people ‘out there’ whom you can meet (like us or the community we represent) who might just share your passion too! So join us!

Mastery: So what’s the debate? Mastery is a concept that is much more clearly defined in subjects such as language teaching (English) and mathematics. It has been the title of training courses and continuing professional development packages, and the focus of numerous books and websites. Schools sometimes use the term when speaking with parents: ‘Over the past few years, research has looked at ways that highly successful countries (often in the Far East) teach their pupils Maths. [One teacher] was selected to join a group of 70 primary teachers from across England to spend two weeks in Shanghai in November, observing Maths lessons and learning more about what makes their teaching so effective. We are excited that in January two teachers from Shanghai will spend a fortnight ... working with pupils in year 1 and year 5. … This will mean that all of our staff have the chance to learn from the experts.’ Wow! This is quite a claim and shows that a good deal of investment in time and money has gone into, in some settings, this idea of mastery within mathematics! Interestingly, thus far though there is only ‘moderate security’ that pupils made more progress when being taught with mathematics mastery methods compared with similar pupils who had not adopted the programme (Educational Endowment Fund 2016a). ‘The small positive effect can be estimated as equivalent to approximately one month’s additional progress. The findings were substantially lower than the average effects seen in the existing literature of “mastery approaches”’ (EEF 2016a, p. 2). While a whole book could be written on mastery, simply that the term is being used in discourse in schools and as the title for a series of books (these!), it shows that it has had, already, quite an impact on education. What we are gently critical of is that such terms taken wholesale to brand any curriculum is worrying and possibly misleading for teachers, and it might lead them to lose practice that is established (and might work) and adopt new practices that are contradictory or less effective. Just because other jurisdictions are showing success by using any strategy, it does not mean it will work for England’s schools. As ever, context and consideration of a range of factors, is all.

An Introduction to Primary Geography Figure 1.4  Shanghai. This shows the Chinese megacity Shanghai from the Huangpu River with the Oriental Pearl Radio and TV tower in the distance. Visits to Shanghai schools have been made by individual teachers, groups of teachers and, in some cases, whole departments in a quest to learn about mastery methods. Chinese teachers have also been brought to the UK to demonstrate or be filmed for instructional materials for English teachers. How much about the context of these cities and nations do we consider when we import their teaching methods?

The mastery model The mastery model emphasizes whole-class teaching, systematic progression and – crucially – the expectation that every child can succeed. (Gibb 2015a) Thanks to their [teachers’] commitment and our new knowledge rich curriculum, thousands more children will arrive at secondary school having mastered the fundamentals of reading, writing and maths, giving them the best start in life. (Gibb 2017c)



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‘Mastery’, ‘mastering’ and becoming a ‘master of ’ are all used quite synonymously in political referencing of the idea of mastery. As the quotes above show both Michael Gove, as England’s Secretary of State for Education 2010–2014, and Nick Gibb, schools minister for over a decade, have been influential in suggesting mastery as a pedagogical tool. As Gove stated at the outset of the NC review process, it was the most successful South-East Asian education systems that were suggested as ones we should model our schooling on. These ‘ensure that every pupil has mastered the subject content before the class moves on to tackle the next part of the curriculum’ (Gove 2011b). However, what is the subject content and who decides this? This is one of the big debates of this book and will be returned to again and again. The idea of control is one of the reasons why mastery of the curriculum isn’t currently attained by teachers because the centrally dictated and ‘authoritative status’ of the curriculum means that teachers are strategic, arguments are foreclosed and educational purpose is debated less (Jones 2003, p. 136). A problem with the term mastery is that it will always be that some have it and others strive to attain it. Can you keep it once you’ve ‘got it’ in geography as it is such a dynamic subject? Or are there essential and eternal truths to master? As a teacher this can feel very confusing and de-professionalizing. As authors, we have not been full-time classroom teachers for five years or so now, have we lost it? We would argue not and it is only since we have been in this role that we feel we might have started to attain mastery due to the amount of reflection on and about what and how we might teach. Such thinking suggests that where a doctor, nurse or surgeon might have access to authoritative sources (e.g. research, experts) about how to treat their patients and could make decisions based on this, the teaching profession rarely has such opportunities. This might be said to be particularly the case in subjects such as geography. It does seem odd that teachers can train, can qualify and then practise and then have no further professional learning in what might be called good geography teaching. We also do not need to prove ourselves (and our mastery in subjects) after qualification. If anything good comes from the mastery debate, it might be that teachers are encouraged to think more deeply about how they teach, be research-aware/informed and know how to tap into good practice. Time for teachers to do this, as ever, and investment in teachers’ post-qualification practice is at the heart of this as it is unlikely that most teachers would be against this.

Pause for thought Is it just a teacher’s knowledge that needs to be developed? Is it more than that? What makes an effective teacher? You might want to read Sam Twiselton’s thoughts online from The Conversation news and views website where she lists 1. They embrace their powers, 2. Encourage pupils to shoot for the stars, 3. Face challenges head-on, 4. Know how to listen, 5. They show a love of learning, 6. They can adapt and overcome, 7. Are able to connect the dots and 8. Recognize the privilege (Twiselton 2018).

An Introduction to Primary Geography

Defining mastery The Oxford English Dictionary’s definition of mastery suggests comprehensive knowledge or skill in a particular subject or activity. Echoing the previous discussion, the Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science and Medicine (2007) suggests that mastery in that field is more about ‘control or superiority over someone or something’. As in sport, ‘Mastery may form an intrinsically motivated achievement goal in which an athlete evaluates success or failure based on how well he or she has performed, regardless of winning or losing.’ The idea of performance in teaching is not new and many schools have their teachers in yearly conversations for their ‘performance management’. Indeed, in discourse about teaching practices, performativity has been written about, most notably by Ball (2003), and for us is a worrying development. ‘Performativity is a technology, a culture and a mode of regulation that employs judgements, comparisons and displays as means of incentive, control, attrition and change. ... The performances (of individual subjects or organizations) serve as measures of productivity or output, or displays of “quality”, or “moments” of promotion or inspection’ (Ball 2003, p. 216). Increasingly, too, Ofsted is wary of such displays or moments of quality such as in their pronouncements about not judging teaching by grading or by lesson observation alone, preferring ‘triangulation’ (Ofsted 2018b). Performativity, then, might mean a teacher might just respond to ‘targets, indicators and evaluations’ and set aside personal beliefs and commitments and live an existence of calculation (Ball 2003, p. 215). While none of us want to fail our pupils, this might strike a note of familiarity with you if you have been working in schools over the past few years. What we prefer mastery to be a definition of is being about a motivation to succeed, perhaps against the odds and about reflection not just calculation to certain ends. It is also about self-motivation and bringing a sense of belonging and agency to the subject. As humans, we could be said to be one with geography. Indeed the Oxford English Dictionary continues that mastery is ‘a metamotivational state in which a person is focused on power, control and dominance’ (Ball 2003), again something we find problematic. Control is an interesting way to think of geography and mastery: it suggests that we can overcome our geography and be dominant over it.

This book’s rationale to mastery in geography This idea of being at one with the subject is one which situates geography within developmental learning theory, alongside the idea of social construction of knowledge. While geography contains eternal knowledge (sometimes called powerful disciplinary knowledge, of which more later), this view of geography, being partly of us and about us, is a common view among primary geographers.



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Pause for thought Are Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) and Jerome Bruner (1915–2017) names you are familiar with? Are there others who you might call learning theorists? What ideas did they suggest and how is this related to children’s learning? (See Recommended Reading.)

Social constructivism is about interaction and refers to how culture is transmitted through language and social interaction where knowledge is actively and socially constructed. Theorists like Vygotsky argued that if we are to discuss how knowledge is constructed in education we must pay ‘careful attention ... to the ways in which humans construct meanings (or … “discourses”) to make sense of our world’ (Hickey and Lawson quoted in Rawding 2015, p. 67). This will be discussed more in detail below. This book argues strongly that as we’re educating developing, growing and maturing human beings, it is a complex task and is especially the case when working with those between the ages of 3 and 7. Where the previous NC were said to be progressive in tone with ‘a mix of residual and emerging ideologies’ they at least represented a ‘better balance of what Marsden (1995) has called education-focused, society-focused and subject-focused emphases than at any time in the past twenty years’ (Rawling in Smith 2002, p. 20; DfE 2014a). The new curriculum is more focused on individual attainment within subjects and harks back to previous curricula, suggesting more formal and teacher-directed teaching styles with less of a social/ society-focus. This is interesting in the context that mastery of subjects is seen as a way children do not fall behind and ‘the attainment gap’ is closed (EEF 2015, p. 6). Once schools give pupils the basic skills, they are then said to be ready to ‘master’ a wider repertoire of knowledge and skills. Mastery is said to support social mobility and thereby promote social justice (Gibb 2016a). This social justice/mobility agenda is said to be particularly important so that all children can be seen to succeed and fulfil their potential, as previous ideas that have persisted where intelligence might be fixed by genetics are now widely seen as problematic (Gibb 2016a). What this points towards is what you as a teacher probably already know, learning is quite a complex and individual thing, something which a wide range of factors can influence, and to suggest there is a systematic way through this that can be imposed and taught by practitioners from experts in the ‘Far East’ (see school quotation on p. 8) is problematic. Indeed, if we are not careful, we are returning to a system not dissimilar to that espoused in 1898: ‘Our schools are, in a sense, factories, in which the raw materials – children – are to be shaped and fashioned into products. … The specifications for manufacturing come from the demands of 20th century civilization, and it is the business of the school to build its pupils according to the specifications laid down’ (Ellwood P. Cubberley, Dean of the Stanford University School of Education, quoted in Black 2017). Where is the individual, a personal view or appreciation of (some) self-actualization (Maslow 1988) in all this?

An Introduction to Primary Geography

Pause for thought Read the following and look at the ideas below. Typically, mastery approaches involve breaking subject matter and learning content into discrete units with clear objectives and pursuing these objectives until they are achieved before moving on to the next unit. Students are generally required to show high levels of achievement before progressing to master new content. This approach differs from conventional approaches which often cover a specified curriculum at a particular pre-determined pace. (EEF 2015; author’s emphasis)

The key here might be the idea of pursuing until things are met, something which in the hands of a time-pressed teacher (possibly poorly educated themselves in geography’s concepts and knowledge) might find it very hard to achieve. All subjects contribute to a pupil’s education but the recent Standards-driven agenda for testing at ages 7, 11 and 14 in England gives us a challenge when pushed for standardized outcomes in a dynamic (or contextually localized) subject like geography. While primary geography can undoubtedly contribute to developing pupils and to raising attainment and high standards, in our current system this is very hard to quantify. This is largely because of limited support in how to actually do this. Interestingly, Chapter 7 on Assessment was the hardest one for us to write! This is not to excuse poor teaching and pupils’ poor experiences, but thirty years after the Education Reform Act (1988) brought in a National Curriculum for England, it might seem odd that this was not always part of this agenda for all subjects.

Pause for thought Are you surprised we have not come to a clear view about how to support pupils’ progress or attainment yet? What does pupil progress and progression mean in the school/s you have worked in? Is it very different to core subjects?

What makes geography a subject? Perhaps a key issue with mastery learning is an idea that learners move on once they have achieved something. This would be useful if geography was taught as regularly as other subjects and such programmes could be easily tracked. Other foundation subjects would have similar issues. Indeed, if each part of the curriculum was atomizeable, unrelated and able to be broken down into bits, then this would make sense. However, any view of curriculum knowledge as not interconnected or where parts did not contribute to a greater whole is anathema to us with



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our ‘world’ subject. Geography is not something to be ticked off, completed and not again to be revisited. This has been something that is apparent with some interpretations among teachers and schools related to the 2014 curriculum.  

Pause for thought Learned the seven continents at age 6? Tick. Let’s move on! We’ve done those now. ‘Done’ the local area in KS1? No need to do it again. Next!   Is this an exaggeration? Is it a danger in the curriculum you see in school? Is this a danger with mastery teaching or with all teaching? How do we mitigate against it? Geography learning about countries must be more than just capitals, landmarks and flags (Figure 1.5).

Bruner and a spiral curriculum So, our argument about mastery is that it must be seen that learning builds on prior learning. Put another way, educational theorists such as Jerome Bruner see learning as a spiral, where the basic ideas are revisited to build up a bigger picture (Arthur and Davies 2015, p. 161). ‘A curriculum as it develops should revisit the basic ideas Figure 1.5  Flags. Geography as the world subject is more than just flag learning to be ticked off and ‘done’.

An Introduction to Primary Geography

repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them’ (Bruner 1977, p. 13). Revisiting the basic ideas needs excellent grasp of these ideas and (while this might be a very pessimistic view), with the limited training teachers get in individual subjects during their training years (Catling 2004), this must be a barrier to geographical mastery. The basics crop up a lot in the debate over how children learn. Mastery is said to be about ‘deep, secure knowledge and understanding’ (Gibb 2015a) and a ‘back-tobasics’ approach where ‘a knowledge-based curriculum that ensures young people master the basics, and then introduces them to all of the very best that has been thought and said’ (Morgan 2016).

Pause for thought ‘A geographical concept or skill has been mastered when, through exploration, clarification, practice and application over time, a person can represent it in multiple ways, has the geographical language to be able to communicate related ideas, and can think geographically with the concept so that they can independently apply it to a totally new problem in an unfamiliar situation’ (adapted from Helen Drury’s book where we have substituted geography for Mathematics; Drury 2014, p. 9). What it shows is a much more comprehensive explanation of what mastery might involve is needed before it is adapted by other subjects. Have you allowed any pupil the chance at Primary level to represent learning in ‘multiple ways’?

Considering what you have read, how have you come across mastery learning (if at all) in settings you have been in? Have you been on ‘Maths Mastery’ training? Has ‘Shanghai Maths Mastery’ been something that has caught your attention? You might want to read more about maths mastery online (there are numerous websites) or in Drury’s book cited above. Is mastery, perhaps, more about a core of ‘basic’ knowledge and content, not the ‘periphery’ where geography might be seen to sit? Finally, be careful with mastery being used as a convenient tag for teachers, schools (or even publishers!) to rebrand what they were doing anyway to appear current without any notion of what the key concepts behind the idea are. Take the National Centre for Excellence in the Teaching of Mathematics’ definition of mastery as ‘something that we want pupils to acquire, or rather to continue acquiring throughout their school life ... mastery … means a deep, long-term, secure and adaptable understanding of the subject ... by-products of developing mastery ... are a number of elements: ●●

fluency (rapid and accurate recall and application of facts and concepts)

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a growing confidence to reason mathematically

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the ability to apply maths to solve problems, to conjecture and to test hypotheses



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The process of mastering maths – a gradual, accumulative process experienced as a child goes through school – creates a tool for life. It is immeasurably more valuable than the short-term ability to answer questions in tests or exams’ (NCETM 2017). Something we’d say about any subject, hopefully? The remainder of this book will enable you to start on this quest yourself to see if you agree with our definition of what a ‘masterful’ teacher might be. As Benjamin Bloom suggests, this is through the task as teachers to ‘search for the methods and materials which will enable the largest proportion of our students to attain such mastery’ (Bloom 1968). Before we continue, consider these other definitions of mastery.

Figure 1.6  Mudchute City Farm, Isle of Dogs. Children need to be involved in making meaning in geography. They should not be quite ‘free-range’ but should be involved in their own learning and decisions surrounding it. As Andrew Pollard (2014) says, this is the product of interaction between knowledge and individual development.

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MASTERY Q and A Where is mastery mentioned in the curriculum documents? PE: ‘master basic movements’ (2014, p. 221) English:  ‘mastery of language’ (2014, p. 42) and ‘mastery of art and design techniques’ (2014, p. 183). Where does it come from? The 1920s: educators wanted to systematize, modernize and professionalize teaching. It was seen as a way to improve outcomes for pupils and challenge educators to move beyond ‘traditional’ ways of teaching. It was also a reaction against Dickens’ book Hard Times describing children in rows, copying in awe of a dominant teacher. John Dewey-founded Laboratory Schools (University of Chicago) used the term in 1922.  Subsequent developments: Carroll (1963), Morrison (1926), Skinner (1954) and even Bruner (1966) (Fox, in Moran et al. 2004, p. 202). More recently? Professor Benjamin Bloom (of Bloom’s taxonomy) in 1968 popularized the term. He saw the concept as a way to remove the educator’s expectation of failure of some students. Here 90–95 per cent should be expected to learn the basic principles, concepts and skills given enough time (Palmer 2007, p. 86). This concurs with the DfE’s description. The term ‘mastery’ relates to an expectation that learning has been consolidated to such a degree that it is known, understood and embedded thereby leading to fluency. Mastery statements relate to individual aspects identified within programmes of study that have been fully achieved. Within this structure the young person either can, or cannot, perform the required task. There is no room for ‘almost’ or ‘sometimes’ within this system. (DfE 2015, p. 24) And few strategies have been implemented as broadly or evaluated as thoroughly during the last forty years (Gurskey 2010, p. 52). And today? The emphasis seems to be on testing pupils to gauge attainment as these two excerpts show: The basic mastery learning approach is to specify clearly what is to be learned, organize the content into a sequence of relatively short units, use a variety of instructional methods and materials, allow students to progress through the material at their own rate, monitor students’ progress in order to identify budding problems and provide corrective feedback, and allow students to relearn and retest on each unit until mastery is attained (Snowman et al. 2009, p. 164). Students must demonstrate a high level of success on tests, typically at about the 80% level, before progressing to new content. Mastery learning can be contrasted with other approaches which require pupils to move through the curriculum at a pre-determined pace. Teachers seek to avoid unnecessary repetition by regularly assessing knowledge and skills. Those who do not reach the required level are provided with additional tuition, peer support, small group discussions, or homework so that they can reach the expected level. (EEF 2016) (Continued)

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MASTERY Q and A

Pause for thought What are the implications here for geography? Could this be achieved at primary level? Would a much longer sequence or planning of geography be needed? See more on the variety of instructional methods for geography in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. Do you test in geography? How? Is it mainly summative or formative? How much control of the learning do you have in your geography lessons? Is it simply what fits into the half-term? See Chapter 7 for more on assessment in geography.

Some final considerations for mastery in geography Mastery as all-knowing Can we ever really know the world, know each other and know environments? They change, are redefined and (as will be argued in Chapter 2) that is part of the nature of geography. However, we do need to know something, learn some facts and have some experiences; it is this idea of 80–95 per cent of children knowing everything before we move on that is problematic for a subject like geography. We believe there is a major issue when a theory like mastery might seek to dominate the pedagogical underpinning of all subjects. The idea of the individual is lost Andrew Pollard talks of education being ‘the product of interaction between knowledge and individual development’ (DfE 2011, p. 11). Curriculum structures must enable teachers to use their expertise to manage this interaction beneficially.  This is the real lesson of international evidence. It is this individual development that is echoed in Bloom’s original discussion. Time The element of time is crucial to the understanding of a mastery model: you have to give pupils some time to grow and develop and they will all need different levels of it! The time given to subjects is the key determining factor of success. Is mastery masculine? Some ideas being promoted in schools recently have been criticised for being overly masculine and against supposed ‘softer’/feminine subjects. It can sometimes be said to be against ‘the discourse of the other, of the feminine [which] is about nurturing, uncertainty, chaos. ... Without challenge, true understanding of the complexity of life is impossible, and education stops being worthy of the name’. Manzone finishes by saying: ‘Go on, let’s add some mystery to all this mastery. The woods are lovely, dark and deep’ (Manzone 2015).

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Some further considerations for mastery in geography The idea of mastery lacks flexibility Again with a subject like geography where the teaching is sporadic, half-termly and does not take into account that field trips need significant organization and cannot be repeated. Mastery in the core subjects dominates Despite what politicians say, ‘writing at length’ is built into the new curriculum and while it is often called a ‘false choice that you have to decide between a broad education and a solid academic core. Children who have mastered the basics in English and maths are more likely, not less likely, to be able to flourish in these other areas’ (Laws 2014). It is very easy to say this when you are not managing the curriculum yourself and should some subjects come ‘first’? Money is being invested disproportionately For maths mastery a large sum of money is being given to roll it out to 8,000 schools so it becomes a ‘standard fixture in England’s primary schools’ (Gibb 2016b). This will then impact on governmental pronouncements on mastery in mathematics more than other subjects and their supposed/reported success.  

Conclusion: Mastery and primary geography – poles apart? The case for mastery Geographical study cannot be contained by libraries and laboratories. It is about our world, and demands that we get out into the world. This makes geography a difficult discipline to institutionalise or corral. (Bonnett in Jones 2017, p. 15)

Or we might argue, master! Without wishing to argue against the whole premise of this book before we begin, for geographers (like other foundation subjects) this is an important part of our argument for our subject. We need to recapture some of the excitement of the beginning of the chapter and the ‘curiosity’ of the curriculum. As Harm de Blij says, Geography’s umbrella is large … as I used to tell my students, the Age of Discovery may be over, but the era of geographic discovery never will be. (De Blij 2012, pp. 10–11)

This quote sums up perhaps the biggest paradox with mastery outlined in this chapter. Mastery seems predicated on getting the hang of something which can, essentially, never fully be held: the world subject. As Bonnett says, ‘Geography is constantly urging us to step out of the door’ and a ‘journey into the world in search of the new … a preparedness to physically encounter the world’ (2008, p. 81). Mastery suggests a more fixed idea or opinion of something, something we can rarely have with a subject that is so much to do with human-informed and -influenced definitions of the

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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 1.7  London’s Southbank. There is much to be celebrated in the everyday geography we see: people in places create, sustain and impact on environments. Geography should be seen or experienced to be understood best. Can we ever really master places?

world. To conclude, perhaps the best example of this is for us to agree that whatever seems simple is often fraught with layers of political, cultural and social of meaning. See below for an illustration of this.

Pause for thought What is the name of the continent including hundreds of islands centred on the central Pacific Ocean. Is it Oceania or Australia/Australasia? Who says? Why? It depends on who you speak with! For the current curriculum we have no agency to tell us. So who do we trust? There is no completely right answer as both might be used. We use Oceania (coined in the 1800s but little-used or understood) following the 1999 English curriculum revision and direction from documents from the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). However, who outside education uses this? Look online and there is an almost equal split. Does a term such as this have any currency (or use) if it is not in common parlance? Is it fair to New Zealand? Or more to the point Indonesia, with a population more than ten times as big! Australia’s landmass is much bigger. Ultimately, Oceania would seem to make more sense as it simply means: ‘a large body of water’ (Wikipedia). This is to be learned by 5–7-year-olds and if we cannot agree on something like this, a notion of mastery seems to fall flat, at least in geography. It is all

An Introduction to Primary Geography

in the interpretation, the context in which it is being used and who is using it. This is the rub: context is everything; if I was an Australian teacher teaching in London I would struggle to reconcile if Australasia is the term I used at home but when teaching in the UK I had to use this term Oceania, for example.

Summary Mastery is about all children achieving their best and moving on in the curriculum at an appropriate pace. This is relatively uncontroversial and attaining well is certainly possible in geography. However, given the current focus of the curriculum (in terms of curriculum time and funding) on core subjects, this is difficult, due to many factors. Mastery, like all concepts, is misunderstood, is aligned with other agendas and ideas and is a current ‘word of the moment’. As a political concept, allied with the return to more traditional values around education, it chooses to extend practice on core subject areas to the whole curriculum. Geography (as Chapter 2 shows) has its own unique and valid signature pedagogy on offer which has aspects of mastery but which does challenge some of the ideas behind it about the dominance of the teacher or adults being the controllers of the curriculum.

Further reading The first handbook for teachers of geography in England is said to have been published by the subject association for geography, the GA, in 1932. The successor to this first book (and perhaps for us the most influential statement of what geography is in book form) was edited by Roger Carter over twenty years ago and was called the GA’s Handbook of Primary Geography. Since then there have been a number of new syntheses of primary geography including two further editions of this Handbook. Like most of the so-called foundation subjects, the number of publications written as guides to the subject is small and the authors feel privileged to be able to contribute to this distillation of thought about what primary geography is and might be. Other seminal texts we should reference at the outset are Teaching Geography in Primary Schools by Fran Martin (Chris Kington, 2005) and Understanding and Teaching Primary Geography by Simon Catling and Tessa Willy (Sage, 2018). They have been joined by books by Susan Pike (Routledge, 2015) and Stephen Scoffham/Paula Owens (Bloomsbury, 2016). Alongside this is the inspiring (and award-winning) Teaching Geography Creatively (Routledge, 2013/2016) and the always excellent Primary Geography journal published by the GA. This continuum of publications has undoubtedly inspired us while writing,



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supported us through our individual study and research, and guided both our times teaching in school and now. Just as this book hopes to do, these have provided signposts and a way through the curriculum maze for trainee, newly qualified and established teachers. Any mistakes in the text are our own and any acknowledgement of others’ work is cited in the text; if there are omissions or credit is not given, we apologize and would encourage contacting us individually. The geography community is strong, diverse in age, gender and viewpoint, and immensely supportive of each other’s work. We are lucky to have a group of colleagues who gather at various points in the year including at one of the country’s largest education conferences, the GA’s Annual Conference. We hope that reading this book will spur you on to join us as part of this community and we hope you can get to know, as we have, many authors who have contributed towards these publications. The many hours at conferences, in committees and on fieldwork learning about the potential of geography with these people have been much valued. The quotation often attributed to Isaac Newton about ‘standing on giants’ shoulders’ is certainly true and is something we again acknowledge at the outset. Having said this we acknowledge that the challenge in a book like this one is to do justice to the ‘world’ of geography. So, to teacher and university colleagues, to students past and present and most of all to colleagues in the GA and Geography Teacher Education community, a hearty thanks.

Recommended reading Blyth, A. and Krause, J. (1995). Primary Geography: A Developmental Approach. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Catling, S. (1999). Raising Achievement in Geography. Occasional Paper No.1. Blackheath: Geographical Association. Catling, S. and Willy, T. (2017). Understanding and Teaching Primary Geography. London: Sage. Geographical Association. (2017). Why should a geography teacher know about learning theories? https://www.geography.org.uk/write/mediauploads/teacher%20education/523_ ga_ite_sft_learning_theories.pdf (Last accessed 28 February 2019). McCulloch, A. (2015). Can Chinese Teachers Improve our Maths? http://educationdatalab. org.uk/2015/09/can-chinese-teachers-improve-our-maths/ Pike, S. (2015). Learning Primary Geography: Ideas and Inspiration from Classrooms. London: Routledge. Scoffham, S. and Owens, P. (2016). Bloomsbury Curriculum Basics: Teaching Primary Geography. London: Bloomsbury.

Chapter 2 Current Developments in Geography Chapter objectives ●●

to consider in more detail the status of primary geography today

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to look at the current practice and at the research and academic thinking behind what geography pedagogy is

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to consider key concepts in geography

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to consider how geography fits in with the rest of the curriculum

This chapter will consider in more detail the status and state of primary geography, primarily focused on the English geography curriculum. It will consider concepts that are explicit, implicit as well as those easily overlooked. It will go beyond the ‘locational, place, human and physical geography’ quorum currently suggested for England’s KS1–KS3 schools. This chapter will look at debates within academia, among teacher educators and among school teachers and leaders as to the nature of geography to try to give an up-to-date view of where geography is today.

Introduction Like with many subject disciplines, there is a healthy debate about what might be constituted as ‘geography’ and where the boundaries lie. It usually boils down to by whom the geography is being taught. Academics teaching in universities are unlikely to agree with Early Years teachers and government ministers might not be in agreement with Subject Associations. If they did, it would make for a very static subject! Does this matter? It does, when we are trying to formulate what are the most important aspects and when we are aiming to create cohesion and progression and consider that compulsory schooling in England ends at the age of thirteen. Most geography happens at primary level. Competing interests means there is pressure and, as was suggested in Chapter 1, teachers can often feel told by others what to do. This is why this chapter focuses on both the underlying concepts of geography and an appropriate pedagogy that might be applied to primary pupils’ schooling.

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SECTION 1: GEOGRAPHY AND PEDAGOGY Pedagogy underpins ‘teachers’ ideas, beliefs, attitudes, knowledge and understanding about the curriculum, the teaching and learning process and their students, and which impact on their “teaching practices”, that is, what teachers actually think, do and say in the classroom’ (Westbrook et al. 2013, p. 13). So, while there is debate to be had on the knowledge in geography, it is clear that pedagogy might be even more important, and among the primary geography education community, there is a significant singularity of thought about this. While you might be reading this book and hoping we’d tell you what to teach, in our view there is little point listing what geography is (or might be). This is increasingly the focus of the Primary National Curriculum or even the many books that proliferate on the subject. One that binds knowledge and approaches (pedagogy) together is the book Bloomsbury Curriculum Basics: Geography (2017) by Stephen Scoffham and Paula Owens. This book is a ‘hands-on guide to planning and delivering primary lessons that will inspire your class and extend their knowledge in lively and effective ways. By providing a succinct and accessible overview to over thirty geographical topics, it meets the needs of practitioners across the country and provides a single reference point for informed and creative geography teaching’ (publisher’s blurb online). Ultimately, these books can have a good impact on your classroom but there is much in the implementation of what they suggest that will need to vary from setting to setting. Knowledge (what) can just be ‘taken off the shelf ’ and fitted around and through a pedagogy (how) but it is important to know how this debate has evolved so you can make choices yourself. As the end of Chapter 1 showed, this knowledge should always be open and subject to debate. What these authors believe is that those who choose their knowledge and pedagogy with an informed view use the significant amount of power they hold to influence their learners’ responsibly.

Views on primary pedagogy: Coherence? There is coherence (as mentioned above) in what pedagogy might be most useful in primary geography. This is largely due to teachers and academics who meet regularly through the GA. While this is not necessarily reflected in the 2014 iteration of the NC, many resources published to exemplify it and many teachers working with it are used to the former document. Now, through conferences and committees, through teacher professional development and through the GA’s Primary Geography Quality Mark, there are regular ways this is then exemplified and amplified to the teaching profession. This book is yet another way this might occur. Increasingly, too, the Royal Geographical Society with IBG (www.rgs.org)

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is also a source for practitioners of knowledge and pedagogical approaches and often advocates an enquiry approach too. Other key texts are mentioned at the end of Chapter 1. In the early 2000s the Register of Research in Primary Geography (Bowles 2000, 2002), whose content and research is now published online (see link at the end of the chapter), was also useful in coalescing ideas about what geography might be. These books will have influenced what geography teacher education you have already received, as well as those formulating each curriculum alongside nascent bodies such as the QCA/QCDA. As we argued in the previous chapter, any pedagogy is far from neutral and has strong (often unacknowledged) values. These values here could be said to centre around a view of the subject which might be described as child centred and research informed, rather than the (sometimes disparaged) child-led or, just ‘what works’, research-led modes of operation.

The debate over pedagogy – Pause for thought ‘Learners are active and curious: they create their own hypotheses, ask their own questions, coach one another, set goals for themselves, monitor their progress and experiment with ideas for taking risks’ (2020 Review Group, cited by Gibb 2015b). What do you think of this?

This quotation comes from a document celebrating the agenda for ‘personalized learning’ in the mid-2000s produced by the Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group. It was said to be part of ‘a whole industry of unfounded advice, leading teachers up the garden path and towards the false dawn of informal teaching methods’ (Gibb 2015). The informality is said to be because the teacher has little control of the learning, as it has become largely ‘self-directed’. As often when taken out of context, such quotations can be seen as a damaging misinterpretation of the variety of practice of schools and settings teaching 3–11-year-olds. Central to this type of critique from ministers is that the ‘facilitator’ mode of working as a teacher, however prevalent in primary practice, is wrong (Gibb 2015). While these authors would never argue it is always right, mostly right or even most desirable, it can in some schools and some situations be the most appropriate. It is also important to see that while the teacher might be seen in a situation, such as having no role, this is to misread the complex ways educational settings’ spaces and learning opportunities are constructed and how their working practices are built up over time. It is not hard to take snapshots from a document (or lesson plan) and show it is a questionable practice and that it wouldn’t work everywhere. As the dictum says, ‘everything works somewhere and nothing works everywhere’ but what is the most effective practice for many places? If we read the full 2020 document, it says just before this excerpt the quotation below, and this is something that this book looks to enshrine in a mastery pedagogy for geography.



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Pause for thought Study the quotation below, these are our emphases and might signify good teaching and might connect back to themes identified in the first chapter on what mastery learning might be. Close attention is paid to learners’ knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes. Learning is connected to what they already know (including from outside the classroom). Teaching enthuses pupils and engages their interest in learning: it identifies, explores and corrects misconceptions. (Gilbert et al. 2005)

What we argue (see more in Chapter 3 on enquiry as a signature pedagogy) is that to attain mastery yourself you have to attain mastery alongside your pupils. This doesn’t mean you know nothing and are relying on them to find out (or tell you); equally it doesn’t mean they know nothing and are relying on you to tell them. What we consider as vital is that for learning and teaching to work in any context, we need to understand and value pupil perspectives and gain an insight into their world/s.

Understanding pupils’ ‘everyday’ and ‘personal’ geographies How we gain this insight in primary geography could be where we utilize ‘everyday’ and ‘personal’ geographies; deceptively simple coinages which suggest that pupils’ experience, knowledge and understanding are worth recognizing (Catling and Martin 2011). They concur with Paulo Freire’s notion that learners and their teacher/s should co-construct knowledge and make decisions together (Freire 1972, 1994, as well as theorists already mentioned in Chapter 1 such as Vygotsky and Bruner). Scoffham writes that new knowledge (as Bruner also points out) ‘is much more secure if it is keyed into existing patterns of understanding’ (Scoffham 2010, p. 21). While the locus of control over learning when considering personal and everyday geographies might rest more with pupils than some are comfortable with, it is vital to stress that it is far from wholly surrendered as Gibb (above) and others might suggest. It is (as ever with these debates) a delicate balance teachers make: of time (through sequences of learning), based on age, topic studied and context. It is neither ‘sage on the stage’ nor ‘guide on the side’ (Gove 2013). As teachers of geography we need to recognize that all pupils have prior knowledge; this can be elicited and forms a platform for further knowledge. If anything, this actually saves time, starts a conversation (dialogue is important) and, as Gilbert suggests above, engages their interest in learning.

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Everyday geography as lived experience Essential to notions of everyday geographies is that pupils’ lived experience is taken into account. Freire ‘developed a socially constructed, dialogic pedagogy in which learners and teachers learn from each other and together construct knowledge in ways that are meaningful to both’ (Catling and Martin 2011, p. 4). Earlier than this in 2005, Catling wrote that we need to be attuned to pupils as these geographies are: ‘Largely unnoticed by teachers and their impacts and potential are ignored. While this is less the case in relation to children’s personal geographies of the local environment, the requirements of national curriculum geography for younger children are enacted largely through an adult interpretation of the world-at-hand and only in a limited way make use of children’s experience, perspectives and interpretations’ (Catling 2005, p. 325). As Catling suggests, local geography is very important and easy to experience but this should not preclude pupils thinking about places on a larger canvas: everyday geography should not be limited to what they can see and experience. This ties in with thinking from Greenwood: ‘Focusing on small places does not preclude interest in the larger world. The point, rather, is that the world is only knowable as a collection of diverse experiences with places ... a developmental view of learning that begins not with abstractions about the environment, but with direct, local experience’ (Greenwood in Stevenson et al. 2013, p. 94).

Pause for thought Do you agree? What is local? Check with someone else and see if they do. Abstractions allow us to make generalizations but are young children able to make these conceptual leaps? How many ‘cities’ have they seen? We will have seen a number, even if they are only in our native country. However, looking at things on a more local level: streets, areas, boroughs and cities as collections of experiences is a valuable way to develop pupils’ knowledge and understanding through geography.

Teaching geography virtually? The difficulty with much teaching today is, in a way, that it is done virtually, via resources that you have not created, via a screen and it is not directly relatable to the world we and the children can (or would ever) experience. Their responses to these stimuli out of context might be valid and interesting but might be quite ill-informed. Ours might well be too! Roger Carter, an earlier primary geography writer, termed these the ‘little’ and ‘big’ stories of a discipline (Carter 1998), and as Palmer discusses we must be careful not to always jump to the big picture.



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A learning space should not be filled with abstractions so bloated that no room remains for the small but soulful realities that grow in our students’ lives. In this space there must be ample room for the little stories of individuals’ personal experience in which the student’s inner teacher is at work. (Palmer 1997, p. 76)

Helpfully, Joy Palmer checks our excitement at allowing pupils to develop their sense of individualized geography by saying we must not just rely on ‘my little story’ or yours as our only point of reference; this way we become lost in narcissism: ‘So the big stories of the disciplines must be told in the learning space ... that frame our personal tales and help us understand what they mean. We must help students learn to listen to the big stories with the same respect we accord individuals when they tell us the tales of their lives’ (Palmer 1997, p. 76). Such respect is not seemingly accorded by Minister Gibb on p. 25.

Pause for thought Reflect on any teaching you have done or remember from your educational past. Can you tell which was more effective? Are big picture narratives or personal experiences/anecdotes and case studies the best? Can you think of some dangers of teaching through everyday experience only? When do you know you are forming a narrative in your teaching, a ‘story’ that you get a sense of engagement with?

Personal geographies Everyone’s ‘personal geographies’ will make them different and unique. They might not form a large part of a unit of study and might just start a conversation (particularly with a new group of children). We need to understand that at any given time there is a lot occurring on ‘all sorts of levels’ as Horton and Kraftl argue: ‘Geographies’ are always already encountered, and lived in and of particular, everyday moments, in ways which are inherently personal, partial, individual, subjective, embodied and contingent (upon all sorts of things, some of them knowable and sayable). That is (although one would perhaps never guess from much of what is written about ‘geographies’) ‘geographies’ are ‘up here’ [taps head] and elsewhere, at least as much as they are ‘out there’. (Horton and Kraftl 2005, p. 136 cited in Lambert and Owens 2013, p. 99)

Our own mental maps, then, are important and our ‘mind-place knowledge’ and perception of place should be celebrated. For more on mental maps (sometimes called Cognitive Mapping) see p. 71.

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Pause for thought Are you good at getting to know your pupils? Knowing our pupils as a teacher helps start conversations and opens up understandings about the world. Why not use these ideas (below) with children? You could even try with staff in a geography CPD session. The purpose is to create connections: within the group and with how you feel about the world. The key to these geographies is many of these things might be hidden, rarely discussed or not explicit in the taught curriculum. They could be discussed in a past, present, future format with older children reflecting on how their perspectives have changed.

Examples of personal geographies to build knowledge of pupil geographies Where I was born.

Where I have been to.

Where I have lived.

Where I find joy.

What I choose to wear outside.

Where I enjoyed living most.

Where I want to live.

Where I avoid/fear.

Where I am not allowed to go.

Where I hide away.

Where I love to be.

Where I know most people.

What I eat.

What I am not allowed to do.

Where my family is.

Where I go wild.

Where I find peace.

Where I feel comfortable.

Where I buy things.

Where I meet friends.

Many of these tap into an affective domain in geography (Tanner 2010) of which more will be discussed later.

How does the current curriculum frame this? Many commentators and ministers (see Chapter 1) have not considered how the freedom afforded to the under-fives switches as teachers take charge of learning as learners age. Older children, counter-intuitively perhaps, become subject to more and more control and structure.

Pause for thought Reflect on the transition from the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) to KS1 with the following statements on the control of children’s learning: EYFS ‘Every child is a unique child, who is constantly learning and can be resilient, capable, confident and self-assured ... children learn and develop well in enabling environments, in which their experiences respond to their individual

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needs and there is a strong partnership ... children develop and learn in different ways and at different rates. ... Practitioners must consider the individual needs, interests, and stage of development of each child in their care, and must use this information to plan a challenging and enjoyable experience for each child’ (EYFS 2017, p. 9). However, then, ‘as children grow older, and as their development allows, it is expected that the balance will gradually shift towards more activities led by adults, to help children prepare for more formal learning, ready for Year 1’.

Formal learning is a way for children to go back in their place, and we again have notions of power over learning raised, something recent politicians (Gibb 2015; Gove 2015) have been keen to give back to ‘teachers who know best’. While we certainly do not argue that children know best, they do have motivations, interests and knowledge of their own which we can easily overlook, hence a focus on personal and everyday geographies. The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS), arguably, strikes the best balance and in the best settings there is a harmonious relationship of learning together, pupils’ agency and acceptance of each other, something sometimes not seen in formal learning later at all. So to reflect again on Catling and Martin’s notions, the argument is that children’s naïve knowledge, at whatever age, can be a pedagogic starting point to initiate them into a subject like geography as ‘children’s ethno-knowledges provide powerful learning bases of equivalent authority to subjects’ (Catling and Martin 2011, p. 317).

Critics of personal and everyday geographies Some do dismiss these notions as of limited value. ‘Everyday geographies’ are said to reduce geography lessons or specialist teachers to being of ‘little point’ (Lambert 2017, p. 20) and that schools should be places where the world is a place of an ‘object of thought’ not a ‘place of experience’ (Young cited in Lambert 2017, p. 20). Nick Gibb, too, argues that pupils need new knowledge, as he suggests they have little so far: ‘Knowledge begets knowledge. It does not suffice to provide pupils with tools to find knowledge. Decades of research tells us that in order to make sense of and retain new information, pupils must have pre-existing knowledge with which to link this new information’ (Gibb 2017a). However, this is our exact point, they do have knowledge and this is exactly the way to build on what they know already. There is also the sense that critics of everyday geographies misunderstand the play-focused, nurturing, holistic and cross curricular nature that typifies much early years’ practice described above. Much learning here is through discussion

Current Developments in Geography

and experience as opposed to formal recording. The 2014 curriculum then is a ‘knowledge-rich’ curriculum which lays a foundation for pupils in the core following the influential writings of E. D. Hirsch (Hirsch 1988, 1996) and we are in an age of the ‘knowledge turn’ (Lambert 2010). The shift has been from what Firth saw in 2007 as a ‘constructivist (presentational) pedagogy’ moving back to an ‘instructional (representational)’ pedagogy (adapted from Firth 2007, p. 13).

A knowledge-rich curriculum This new focus on knowledge is said to move geography teachers on to focus ‘on academic rather than socio-political goals, which necessitates moving beyond some of its post-modern assumptions, especially the idea that all knowledge is subjective’ (Standish 2006). Frank Furedi argues that previous curricula had interpreted education as a set of skills and competencies which avoided ‘the challenge of engaging with an academic, challenging, and subject-based curriculum’ (Furedi in Standish 2012, p. xii).

Pause for thought What do you think? Is all knowledge subjective? Can you think of examples where there is discussion and debate about issues? What about huge issues like climate change? What about plastic waste recycling? Or air travel?

One reason why geography could be said to be facing a challenge to its pedagogy is that it is not until recent decades that geography has had much of a research tradition like other subject areas (Mackintosh 2017a; Bowles 2011; Catling 1999). As Bowles argues: It is not just that little has been published; there has been reluctance on the part of both higher education and the primary teacher to become involved in time-consuming observation. The introduction ... of the National Curriculum and associated national strategies and later changes has been protracted not least because of increased accountability. Yet, it is because of these changes that active research observation is required and its dissemination essential over a wide audience. (Bowles 2011, p. 1)

Added to this is what Bowles describes are the short-term goals of strategies and measures that follow on from government edict, Ofsted inspections and increased public accountability. As in the oft-quoted phrase, politicians ‘campaign in poetry but govern in prose’ with the resultant impact of prose policy pronouncements that lack depth, are unsuitable for all settings/age groups and are rarely well referenced to research. While the idea of a ‘ED Hirschian-style’ traditional curriculum which is



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deep with content is not a bad thing, as Mackintosh argues, this leads to a ‘list’ of things and areas to tick and cover as we outline on page 14. Such itemization of content, she argues, creates problems such as a ‘human/physical’ divide in the curriculum and has outdated references, for example, with the current curriculum’s reference to regions which is a ‘dated’ view of geography (Mackintosh 2017a, p. 54). But why does all this matter to you as a teacher?

Geography as a dynamic subject In geography teaching, perhaps more than other subjects, authenticity and flexibility are key. While we think that any threat posed by ethno-geography is not a viable challenge or alternative to the authority of the discipline of geography itself (as Catling and Martin suggest too), it is true that in some parts of the 3–11 curriculum (such as the EYFS) the sense of pupil agency is very much greater than in others. Indeed, this way of thinking has a long heritage and has sympathy with ideas circulating for over fifty years. The, arguably, influential Plowden report in English education of 1967 suggests: ‘Learning takes place through a continuous process of interaction between the learner and his [sic] environment, which results in the building up of consistent and stable patterns of behaviour, physical and mental. Each new experience reorganises, however slightly, the structure of the mind and contributes to the child’s world picture’ (Plowden 1967, p. 522). Today this is perhaps best seen in the EYFS’s idea of ‘enabling environments’ which are those where ‘experiences respond to their individual needs and there is a strong partnership between practitioners and parents and/or carers’ (DfE 2017, p. 6).

Pause for thought Consider what Andrew Pollard argues: ‘From a teacher perspective we need to acknowledge that children probably know a lot more than we think they know. If only we could tap into the funds of knowledge that are sustained in the social practices of families, communities and networks, then pupils’ learning might become much more authentic, flexible and sustained’ (2014, p. 63). Do you agree? What funds of knowledge and social practices do you know of and tap into? Could you do this more?

Other researchers concur with this and it is backed up by research into social and cultural capital (e.g. Bourdieu, Coleman and Putnam cited in Field 2003). Such research examines the importance of ‘norms, networks, and the relationships between adults and children that are of value for the child growing up. Social capital exists within the family, but also outside the family, in the community’ (Coleman cited in Field

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2003, p. 24). Such things are valuable not just for cognitive and social development but could impact on our curricula as well. As Biggs argues, learning is a way of interacting with the world. As we learn, our conceptions change and we see the world differently. ‘The acquisition of information itself does not bring about such a change, but the way we structure that information and think with it does … Education is about conceptual change, not just the acquisition of information’ (Biggs 2003, p. 68). To end this section, it is worth taking a very practical example of this interaction. John Grindod in his memoir-travelogue written about the outskirts of his South London childhood, he memorably pinpoints the acuity in which children remember. He argues though it is not always the significant things that adults might wish them to remember: Going to new places, staying with friends, [this] … means comparing swings, pitches, slides and facilities. The children remember idyllic moments at the park they’ve only been to twice, where, say there was a flat concrete surface where you could ride around and round with bikes, or an especially high slide, now built with health and safety thoughts in mind into a mound.

He goes on to argue that this is important and that we could argue that teaching and discussion about these places is important. The power that ‘authorities’ have towards those who will in the future put them in power is vital. ‘It’s not often that children can get a full sense of how government works in relation to something that they want and care about, but in parks and playgrounds it’s stripped bare’ (Grindod 2013, p. 136). Our job, then, is perhaps to find out about and tap into these experiences for the benefit of their understanding of the world.

SECTION 2: DEFINING BOUNDARIES – SO WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY? Pause for thought ‘Geography is everything ... everything is geography’. ‘To me, that’s the best part of geography: there’s almost nothing in this wide, wonderful world of ours that cannot be studied geographically’. (De Blij 2012, p. 7) ‘Geography is about the world. ... Its horizons are just too wide. ... The world is geography’s logo’. (Bonnett 2009, p. 1–2)

What is your view on the debate above and the idea that geography does not have boundaries? Before we go on to define the state of geography today in detail, to what extent do you agree with the above statement? Can one subject be ‘everything’? Can there be such a thing as a world subject? Could one subject cover everything? Are



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there dangers in ‘everything’ being geography? There is a danger in ‘everyday’ geography (as discussed above): we could navel-gaze and never move children beyond what they already know. So, to start, it is far from easily defined where geography’s boundaries are: Geography, it is commonly held, has an image problem as an academic discipline. It is poorly understood, ill-defined, definitely ‘unsexy’ – and this image problem has contributed significantly, it is argued, to the sidelining of geography expertise ... it is still struggling to shake off associations of maps and anoraks. (Bell 2009, p. 434)

John Morgan, a secondary geographer, agrees and says, reflecting on the past hundred years of geography, that ‘one of the problems of Geography as a school subject faced in gaining status within schools was its expansiveness, its tendency to take on new vistas, with the result that the boundaries of the discipline were ill-defined’ (2002, p. 46). Interestingly, geography has always had these problems of defining its ‘territory’ as this territory has transformed over time (De Blij 2012). Some of what we have found today could be said to be the fault of the curriculum planners, agencies and publishers who have supported teachers since the NC began in 1988. Some might suggest teacher educators are to blame or those responsible for the sporadic teacher continuing professional development since then. It could also be suggested that geographers (or the lack of them) in the media are to blame (Halocha 2010). However, with a longer view, geography can be seen to have had this problem since its early days, mainly because of the way it has been seen as part of the ‘earth sciences’.

Geography: Some more history Geography first became an examined school subject in grammar schools in 1902 and as part of the Secondary regulations in 1904 (Morgan 2002). Interestingly, given the number of university geographers who have constructed what geography is since, at this stage geography was ‘virtually non-existent in the universities’ (Mackinder cited in Morgan 2002, p. 40). Originally, De Blij suggests that geography was essentially about discovery (2012), interesting in the context of the debates of the previous chapter. ‘Several centuries later, geography was propelled by exploration and cartography’, he argues, and this only came to a close more recently when geography as an organizing, descriptive discipline changed to focus more on ‘analysis and decision-making’. De Blij, writing in the North American context, calls culture history obsessed ‘from archaeology to geology and paleontology to linguistics, we tend to focus on the temporal ... spatial science gets short shrift’ where presidential historians talk about when not where (De Blij 2012, p. 26–7). In the UK the pre-eminent organization that led an ‘exploratory’ push for geography was the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), founded in 1830. This was the country’s first institution to have the word geography in its title. It was founded to provide a ‘forum for the promotion of geographical knowledge, for gathering together maps, charts, images, and other materials of geographical importance, for

Current Developments in Geography

servicing the needs of the British government, for providing would-be travelers with relevant information, and for advancing the cause of empire’ (Mill cited in Johnston and Williams 2003, p. 19). Note that it is a London-based institution servicing political needs, for supporting those on ‘grand tours’ who could afford to travel and to advance imperial power. Indeed, as one of the founders of the parallel organization promoting geography in education the GA (interestingly sited away from London for all of its history), Harold Mackinder was said to think that ‘geography had the potential to halt the relative decline of British power and renew the idea of Empire’ (Morgan 2002, p. 41). We might reflect that today we have not come that far from this when we are tasked as teachers to promote fundamental British Values (DfE 2014b). In its early days the RGS held classes in geology, botany, photography and later in zoology, meteorology and anthropology (Morgan 2002, p. 41) – quite a mixed bag of subsets of science and areas which are now thought of as quite separate disciplines but all linked to the idea of earth science, as mentioned above. The modern human/ physical schism might be seen to have emerged from this and (at primary level at least) be seen as trying to unite several of these disciplines, while at the same time not competing with an often much more dominant science curriculum. Geography has also always had another facet, a set of moral aims placing it in the camp not just for naming and explaining the world but also for reflecting it and understanding it. Indeed, the RGS partnered with other organizations such as the Ordnance Survey (OS) in its early days as Hewitt (2009) recounts in her history of the OS. Explorations of the Sinai Peninsula were ‘driven by the idea that detailed knowledge of the area’s geology, botany and zoology might elucidate the precise route that had been followed during the biblical Exodus’ (2009, p. 304). Indeed, Pauline Couper cites the ‘Christian understandings of nature’ as being part of the nature/ culture divide which had existed for millennia (2015, p. 212) in the subject. So, geography and its explanatory journeys have often been bound up with telling a particular story of the world, where geography is often thought of as a way of ‘writing the world’ (Blunt 2009, p. 68). Even at the turn of the twentieth century it was being argued that ‘While the “old” geography was concerned with the collection of mere “useless” information about places, the new geography was about “training the faculty of sight in a detached pictorialisation of the drama of the world”. The geographical eye is panoptic, elevated, disembodied and able to roam freely over the globe’ (Mackinder cited in Morgan 2002, p. 42). Interestingly, Barwell (cited in Hicks 2016, p. 16) says ‘stories have a beginning, a middle and an end that promises some kind of resolution or closure’. And this links us back to Bruner (1996) who calls this an interpretative narrative and is ‘an effective contextualization of what is being studied to ensure that geographical thinking, themes and skills are being continuously developed to ensure that pupils can see the linkages’ (cited in Rawding 2015, p. 76–7). It is these linkages as stories which the author argues (Barlow 2017) that are important whatever abstract concept or context you are trying to get over to learners. However, the challenge for geography is how compelling our stories are, can we compete with Science and History? To do this we need to have a sense of the storylines, what we might call geography’s main concepts.



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Testing your understanding of geography concepts Question

KEY CONCEPT – Cover this when you look at the questions

1) Which is further west – Bristol or Edinburgh?

Although it is on the East coast of Scotland, Edinburgh is more westerly than Bristol, in the South-West of England, because of our perception of direction.

2) Coton in the Elms in Derbyshire is the furthest place from the coast – how far away is it? (50/70/110/250 miles)

Having a concept of how far things are from the coast is important. Did you know we are never more than about an hour’s drive from the beach wherever we are in the UK?

3) How many deer live in the UK? (100,000, 2m, 9m, 13m)

Deer are wild animals in most cases and are not bred. They have capitalized on the upland areas where they can roam free as well as hinterland areas between urban areas where there are plentiful sources of food.

4) How much of the UK is woodland? (1.2 per cent/ 4.8 per cent/12.7 per cent/21.9 per cent)

The tree cover that we see when we see an aerial view of the UK is an important image to get into pupils’ heads. We are, put simply, a very green nation, even if where you are is not. This cover continues to increase as we do not use the wood we would have used for fuel as we would in past centuries and woodland conservation is expensive.

5) Which has the largest population?

How big the location we live in is another important concept. Do we have a community? How defined is this? Where is the centre? Is our city almost a series of villages surrounding a transport hub (as London is often regarded to be) or is our city more atomized as many cities where there is less established public transport?

Newcastle upon Tyne/ Croydon/Reading/Milton Keynes

How far are you and your pupils from the sea?

6) How many counties border Wales? (2/4/8)

We must never forget to teach that we are both an island nation and a ‘country of countries’ or sovereign nations. Both individual and UK at the same time!

7) Which is the wettest city in the UK?

Again the concept here is ‘wetness’ is important. Is this constant rain/drizzle or infrequent bursts of rain? Different counties vary because of their topography, closeness to the sea or high ground. For more information, see https://www. metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/observation/rainfall-radar and the associated pages related to different county areas.

Source: Questions adapted from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28686546. See this link for a full list of questions. Data correct as of October 2014 Answers: (1) Edinburgh; (2) 70; (3) 2 million (approx) RSPCA; (4) It’s 12.7 per cent; (5) The London Borough of Croydon is the largest – with a population of 364,800; (6) Four – Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire; and (7) Glasgow is the wettest city on average, according to the Met Office.

Current Developments in Geography

Defining geography concepts When discussing concepts, it is important to see any set of these storylines of how the world is as one articulation of geography: there are many other competing visions of what geography might be. While such debates (sadly) do not happen in some primary classrooms (or university teacher training colleges for that matter). We, as teachers, have largely spent the past thirty years enacting a given curriculum and while the GA wishes us as teachers to be ‘curriculum makers’ (Lambert 2012b; more of this later), this is a hard and time-consuming task for many primary teachers to undertake. A book like this has an aim to try to stimulate this process for you as a teacher. This is where the enquiry process comes in (see Chapter 5). It is difficult to understand the place you are from. You grow up so much a part of it, and yet your home, street and town remain mysterious, full of questions no one seems able to answer. Why is one of our bedrooms so small? Why can’t we play ball games on that grass? Could we live in a tall block of flats like those kids do? For the most part you put up with these unanswered questions. ... These things just are. (Grindod 2013, p. 5) Geographers have a tradition of being curious explorers of both places and ideas. Where does that highway go? Who lives in this big house and why? How did we arrive at where we are? When are we going to learn to live together? Can you really consume more and more and does it really make you feel better? Geographical questions are never stand-alone ones. All the questions we ask lead to other questions. Geography is about joining up the dots that help make the big picture. Connections are everywhere. (Dorling and Lee 2017, back cover)

We can forget what it is like to be a child and how important it is that geography explains the world around them. There is much in geography that is relational: comparing what we know and pupils know as prior knowledge and their ‘curiosity and fascination’ (DfE 2014). If geography concepts are about anything, they are about the study of places and people (Grigg and Hughes 2013). This is why the maxim that it is about ‘everything’ has been used so often. ‘Geography is all around us’ or ‘connections are everywhere’ as Dorling and Lee say, are other terms used. While true, this is incredibly unhelpful unless you are already well-trained, well-informed and a passionate teacher for geography. The challenge always is for primary practitioners; who can be such an advocate for every curriculum subject in the primary school?

Pause for thought Consider this extract from David Lambert’s paper Education for geographical understanding (Lambert 2012a) which builds on the idea of geographies as story teller. ‘Geography is one of humanity’s big ideas. It literally means something like “writing the world”. Thus, traditionally, geography is associated with rich descriptions of places. For many years geographers were almost synonymous with explorers, bringing back data of all kinds which could be added to the evolving



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maps and the world. To this day, atlases and globes are a source of endless fascination; the names, the shapes, the distributions, the relationships … and these days brought to life through Google Earth and such like. As with all subject disciplines, classifying these data about the world is vital. Hand-in-hand with this is the development of organizing ideas, which helps us make sense of the world and all its diversity. In this way, concepts such as place, region, location and interdependence have been developed which enable us to think geographically. For example, “tropical rainforest” has particular characteristics and is found in certain regions around the world. Coniferous forest has different characteristics and distributions’. You can find the whole paper online (Lambert 2012b). Geography, described as the world subject, can be broadened to relating ‘the local and the global, the near and far, the physical and the human, people and environments, the economic and the social, time and distance’ (Lambert 2012b, p. 1). Geographers have to be comfortable with uncertainty and change, something more quantitatively, scientifically-centered subjects requiring ‘proof’ might not require and this is a key differentiator we should consider.

Concepts and symbolic value To understand the world we subdivide it into small pieces and assign them with symbolic value. These pieces have social and psychological meanings, from splitting sounds into syllables through to segmenting time, space and meaning and value to measurable units. (Madanipour 2007, p. 3)

This idea of segmenting into units could be what geographers usually call locational knowledge and any of the nouns we give to aspects of our world that are worthy of naming and study. Madanipour goes on to describe the next phase as being ‘synthetic, in which we reassemble these pieces to constitute new things, in a new cycle of interpretation, in ways that our minds can understand’ (ibid.). This is what I would class as place knowledge, the way that we build up knowledge of locations into an idea about the notion of ‘village’, ‘city’ or ‘National Park’. ‘The synthetic process is often what builds our material world, using as its building blocks the measurable units that our interpretive endeavours have produced. ... Through this process of segmentation and reconstitution, we construct concepts, which form our knowledge, and objects, which form our material world’ (Madanipour 2007, p. 3; our emphasis). This is when concepts of ‘town’ or ‘coast’ become real as we have a collection of such references and build our idea of the similarity or difference within and between them. It is this giving meaning to concepts which is where geography is so valuable. In the authors’ experience, damage was done to our concepts of geography when we were given simple models of the world such as concentric circle models (essentially theories) of urban growth at a young age in school. These were not something we

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could map onto our own slowly developing mental models of the world. For primary aged children, we would argue such abstract world description is particularly too soon. Ultimately, as Mandanipour suggests, these concepts are synthetic units – just what we have chosen to call them. Through our teaching segmentation, reconstitution and ordering of the everyday, pupils can view (through various media) how concepts are formed and the world understood. Yi Fu Tuan concurs with this ‘sense of’ a place and broadens a description of geography to explain why it is both a study of spatial relations and ‘an enquiry into nature and culture, the transition from living close to nature to living in an artifactual world, and, in the case of the individual, from biological being to cultural being. Geographers study such transitions, but at a group level, they attribute the changes almost solely to impersonal forces. I, by contrast, introduce individuals. Their stories are personal, more driven by emotion and ideals, more likely to depart from group convention, more romantic’ (Tuan 2015, pp. 148–9). It is this sensory geography, led by feelings and emotion and, yes, even ‘romanticism’, that forms an important part of the debate about what primary school geography should be.

Primary geography pedagogy: It starts with them? As has been argued previously, everyday and personal geographies are important to geography teachers. To repeat, again, the opening lines of the NC for geography, if we are to inspire them with a curiosity and fascination it must be from their level and to then raise them beyond what they already know.

Pause for thought What are your memories of childhood? Read this poem extract and reflect if your childhood was like this. The poem is especially good at describing a sense of scale and what might be in a child’s experience. I was talking with a teacher recently where her pupils were 90 per cent English as an Additional Language speakers; consequently, their local ‘worlds’ were much smaller than those from other schools. Down by a shining water well I found a very little dell, No higher than my head. The heather and the gorse about In summer bloom were coming out, Some yellow and some red. I called the little pool a sea; The little hills were big to me; For I am very small. I made a boat, I made a town, I searched the caverns up and down, And named them one and all.



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And all about was mine, I said, The little sparrows overhead, The little minnows too. This was the world and I was king; For me the bees came by to sing, For me the swallows flew. I played there were no deeper seas, Nor any wider plains than these, Nor other kings than me. At last I heard my mother call Out from the house at evenfall, To call me home to tea. ‘My Kingdom’ by Robert Louis Stevenson 1903 (cited in Mills 1991)

Blyth and Krause (1995) talk of strands of local/nearby/distant and the wider world. This is especially important with a subject like geography; other subjects might start with the subject content or key concepts. However, as a subject where a key focus is people, the subject itself (us, it might be argued) is as important as the subject matter. There is more on geography as a humanities subject in Section 3 of this chapter. This is a controversial view (Standish 2007) but arguably true with younger children much more than with older children; as Catling argues, working with children as participants, partners and responsible members of the local and global community (Catling cited in Standish 2007, p. 46) is important. Standish’s view is that geography needs boundaries which we would agree with: ‘Geography is a profound reflection on how we live now, why, where and how others do the same; sometimes having a very different start in life, where their daily lives can concur with ours as well as be divergently different. The twin totems of similarity and difference need to show convergence for us to be able to avoid exoticism or “global saming” which even when we consider fast food is far from similar.’ This book disagrees with this view and wants to suggest mastery is achieved by both first including children and then comparing their individual experience against the world. Therefore, children asking questions about the world is so very important. Carrying out and enacting their own geographical enquiries is what geographers call this. Pickford, Garner and Jackson (2013, p. 22) argue that ‘children need to behave like geographers’ to be fully engaged in the enquiry. Roberts agrees saying ‘When students learn geography they are learning to see and understand the world as geographers do’ (Roberts in Jones 2017, p. 48). Again, this is a mildly contentious notion, where in the NC we are implored to stick to the facts, ‘essential knowledge that they need to be educated citizens’ and the ‘core’ (2013, p. 6), being a humanities subject, it is the pupils themselves who are at the core of the study. Writers such as Hunter (in relation to geography) have criticized ‘progressive educators’ who ‘tend to cast skills and knowledge as a dichotomy, when in reality they are a sequence, and knowledge must come first. … It is like trying to run before you can walk. Pupils find the whole

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process frustrating and confusing’. Standish (2004, p. 9), writing about the experience of post-primary age pupils, also says, ‘Part of the problem is that students have come to expect lessons to be relevant to their personal experience, either now or in the future. They ask, “how is this going to be of use to me?” (meaning of direct relevance). Unfortunately, too many teachers have brought their lessons down to this level instead of trying to take students beyond their personal experience and show them that there is more to the world than their lives. Teachers creatively search for ways to teach the subject so that it “relates” to the students.’ As we have argued already, it is both/and, a balance between the two, not either/or.

Pause for thought Reflect on the above with this description from Simon Catling from the Geographical Association website about children’s early geographical experience: Children’s turning, crawling, toddling and walking in their home environment introduces them to features, locations and movement. Initially experienced in the home, this widens into the local environment, around home and into the community, involving such activities as shopping, visits to family friends and trips to the play area. For very many children this is controlled and constrained by parents and child-minders, though for some young children there may be greater freedom to roam in the urban or rural environment. Children observe and become aware of the features of their micro-world, using their senses to explore, discover and begin to make sense of their environment. This exploration and activity introduces them to the layout and uses of the environment. It provides for the beginnings of spatial understanding of that environment. As children grow and mature, they widen the extent of their encounters of the world. Some of this increased movement may arise from work – helping out at home, in the community – or going to school. As features and sites become familiar and children become more adventurous, they develop preferences for parts of their environment and make greater use of their home range, as parental controls are both loosened and occasionally slipped. Use of the area may be in dens or at local meeting points with friends, in going shopping or just wandering. It might include, if available when older, taking a bicycle ride a little further afield. (Catling n.d., p. 1) What does it make you consider? What were your early ‘encounters’ with the world? What are your pupils’ encounters like? Are they constrained by parents, by setting or by geography? (Is there a lot of traffic, a railway, a suburban development, a lack of open space?) What is our role as primary teachers to build on this?



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Space and way-finding as a skill to develop in young children The final thing in this section relating to geography’s boundaries and concepts is the interaction between our mind and environment. Neuroscientists such as Professor John O’Keefe have shown how we build a cognitive/mental map and how this enables us to navigate through space. His Nobel-prize-winning work alongside others bears close reading, and it suggests we all have an ‘inner GPS’. Even from his early writing, O’Keefe talks of space playing a role in all our behaviour. ‘We live in it, move through it, explore it, defend it. We find it easy enough to point to bits of it: the room, the mantle of the heavens, the gap between two fingers, the place left behind when the piano finally gets moved’ (O’Keefe and Nadel 1978, p. 5). O’Keefe and Nadel note that while philosophers have often had answers to how humans perceive space and place, there is now an emerging science of the mind that suggests that time spent moving round locations allows a cognitive map to build up. In O’Keefe’s work he talks of ‘place cells’, helpful for geographers to consider that the brain creates a sense of what is around us. O’Keefe (2014) cites Maguire whose research on the brains of London taxi drivers shows an increase in size directly related to the amount of time spent driving round London’s complicated street patterns. The conclusion is that ‘London cab drivers are probably not born with bigger hippocampi [part of the brain] but develop them’ (Maguire cited in O’Keefe 2014, p. 304). Just imagine the times when you have been to a new city, did you venture to walk around and build up that mental picture of signs of significance or landmarks or did you stick to a smaller, more defined area? When we consider the work we do with children, we should perhaps consider ways we can develop skills to navigate through complex environments: what exposure do or can we give? Some of the research O’Keefe cites has been completed in virtual environments, so it offers us insights into how we as educators could build pupils’ cognitive capacity not just outside but inside too. If children were to use Virtual Reality-type glasses (such as ones demonstrating Google Street View data with a smartphones) we might support their emerging spatial development. There is more on space in geography from p. 52.

SECTION 3: HUMAN AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The formulation of the primary curriculum is clear with two overarching aspects of a pupil’s geographical understanding: the human and the physical. This binary distinction has a long history. As Rawding says this is a (re)articulation of the Purpose of Study requiring pupils to ‘acquire a deep understanding of the Earth’s key

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physical and human processes. ... The study of environments is clearly circumscribed’ (Rawding 2015, p. 74). As with many school subjects, the influence of academic geographers has, from time to time, influenced school geography. However, as already alluded to, the two are said to ‘inhabit different worlds’ (Bonnett 2003, p. 55). For a chart showing these influences, see Table 2.1.

Table 2.1  Who and what defines (or might define) the content or vibrancy of the geography curriculum you teach (in a suggested order of influence)? This table also offers some ideas of who might positively support or influence your curriculum based on the ideas found in this book.

School culture

Wider culture

‘Curriculum consultant’ or expert gatekeepers

Ofsted or another impending inspection; previous perceived needs and whether geography is something to ‘be addressed’.

Local networks: Geographical Association/Geography Champions, Royal Geographical Society, Development Education Centre networks.

Government ministers, their interest in the curriculum and additional burdens/support provided; for example Sustainable Schools (2006–2010).

The testing regime and its dominance of the curriculum.

Other networks which bring the ‘Expert groups’ consulted about community together such as Parish the curriculum (Mansell 2013). Council if in a smaller settlement. These might include: teachers, people in Initial Teacher Education, University Academics. Sites such as ncgeography.wordpress.com have been set up.

The National Curriculum and associated complementary resources, planning aids and add-ons (bought or free).

Free resources through resource Funded projects for example DCSF providers for example TES, Twinkl. The Action Plan for Geography Paid resources such as Discovery (2009–2011). Espresso.

Curriculum history – ‘We do it like this’.

The traditional news media Local universities and their out(Halocha 2010) where famine, reach networks or their hosting of; drought or disasters (man-made for example TeachMeets, CPD. Free, Academy or Independent or human) are a focus for example schools not following the statuEthiopia in 1984. Free newspapers tory National Curriculum. as a source of material to use with children. The school’s traditions/foundation: Religious foundation, Academy school, Independent, Special or community school.

Holiday advertisers and charity appeals.

Academic geographers influencing the above or setting the agenda the following might follow. (Continued)

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Table 2.1 (Continued)

‘Curriculum consultant’ or expert gatekeepers

School culture

Wider culture

Local initiatives such as Fairtrade town, links to aid efforts related to religious groups (e.g. ‘Send a Cow’, Christian Aid or Islamic Relief).

Adult, television Documentary makers (Halocha 2010). Locations featured on BBC David Attenborough series or anything by the BBC Natural History Unit such as Springwatch, Autumnwatch or Countryfile.

Local Authority support or regional networks; for example the London Schools Curriculum.

Government ministers (Wintour 2013).

Film documentary makers, for example March of the Penguins.

Courses/conferences run by the Geographical Association/Royal Geographical Society with IBG.

Curriculum consultants (LEA, Independent).

Local topography Studies Significant events Olympics, related to landmarks, curricula Football World Cups, local can be related to what is nearby. ‘heroes’.

Publishers and resource providers, for example textbook writers, providers of lesson plans or worksheets.

Visitors to the school, for example LEA consultants, guest speakers, local faith groups, school governors, Academy chain priorities.

Interests/doctoral theses of key writers, for example I have a strong interest in plastic waste recycling.

Social networks, for example UKEDChat, people you follow on Twitter/Facebook (if done for professional purposes).

Funding available, for example News media and their edua small budget will mean out-of- cation provision, for example date or lack of resources. BBC, Channel 4, Sky as well as You-Tube where all manner of resources could be found. Ofsted spans all of these and can influence what everyone does. It is interesting that they have not produced individual subject reports since 2011 and the Best Practice case studies have over the past few years been archived and withdrawn. Until 2018 they adhered to the mantra that ‘schools know best’ how to teach but have now started to define what a good or better curriculum might look like (Ofsted 2018a, b).

Geography: An integrated discipline? I’m proud of the fact that I now understand human and physical features. On the Isle of Coll there are lots of physical features like beaches, cliffs and mountains because it’s near the sea. In Corsham there are more human features like houses, shops and roundabouts because Corsham is a town. (Child from Year 2, quoted by Ofsted 2013, p. 2)

What this child of 6 or 7 years old says is undoubtedly true, and as an excerpt of what they said, there would be no major debate. However we should consider, does

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it help pupils’ future understanding that they are making such binary distinctions at age 6 between we = human, physical = it/them? The authors have encountered this binary a lot with teachers enacting the new curriculum and it could lead to misconceptions, in our experience. It is good that pupils are looking at difference/contrast but then the similarity can easily be lost as can be seen in the grid (Table 2.2) exemplifying the pupil’s comment below.

Table 2.2  Comparing two locations: look at the details carefully, they may be more similar than you think

 

Corsham, Wiltshire

Coll, Inner Hebrides

Population/ general landscape features

13,000 – although near a number of parishes and towns spread over the county.

195 – A clear island town contrasting difference. Arinagour Primary School, Coll, used as a comparative example.

‘Physical’ aspects

Landscape of steep hills (sudden rises of 40–50 metres), farms, large parks and steep hilly areas (up to 139 metres high – compared with the valleys being around). Near the Cotswold AONB. Corsham is surrounded by farmland, so the outlook could be similarly of green vegetation.

Landscape of undulating land from sea level near the school up to the highest points on the island but these are gradual and are only 100 metres; that is, they are not mountains. The landscape is rocky, near the sea with beaches, dunes and rocky coastline.

What’s nearby (within a km of the school)

Houses, pub, accommodation, general businesses.

Houses, Post Office, accommodation, cafe.

Human features

On the B3109. Much higher population and On the B8070. Three major roads. a lot more housing, densely packed. The Limited housing and wider open spaces. roundabout is a good feature to spot and contrast with.

It is a good process to go through this sort of comparison yourself when comparing supposed different places; are they as different as you are making out? A good series of contrasts could be built up by looking at the OS maps, and if taking the same number of grid squares that the sparsely populated Coll shows and laying them against each other, the differences become much more marked. So it is less the differences in human and physical aspects but the difference in spatial distribution and the physical landscape which become a point of discussion and possible enquiry. An integrated discipline beyond the school years is seen as no more than an idealized notion and in the past fifty years it has both fractured and aimed to unite again (Couper 2015). Indeed, anyone applying for university courses can face a bewildering array of sub-disciplines related to geography as well as just geography.

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Speaking to an audience at the GA in 2013, the ‘rock star’ and public face of geology in the media, Professor Iain Stewart talks of the ‘schism’ between physical and human geography. ‘They don’t often talk to each other and use different methodologies and all the rest of it. But for a lot of the key issues that we deal with – climate change, shale gas – that dichotomy about whether it is about understanding the human system or the natural system is completely pointless. It is an artefact for the 20th century’. Geography, says Stewart, should position itself as an interdisciplinary subject. Matthews and Herbert (2004 cited in Couper 2015, p. 212) agree, stating that ‘space, place, environment and maps as points of commonality’, as we suggest in this chapter. It is likely from Stewart’s insights from his understanding of geology that these things become intertwined and mixed. Stewart, for example, thinks of disasters as anything but natural; they are man-made. If people have chosen to live in a fault zone, near a volcano or have a job working in a dangerous field such as oil extraction and their environment is not managed to protect them, then they are at risk. Human geographers study the world of human society and culture, and physical geographers study the world of non-human entities. Embedded in this is a notion that humans are somehow different from non-human beings, with culture (and hence humans) irreducible to nature. (Couper 2015, p. 212)

Pause for thought Couper goes on to cite that this has been a ‘divide’ between nature and culture since the sixth or seventh centuries BC (Urban and Rhoads 2003). Have you taught about physical and human worlds with children? What have they said? Have you been unsure sometimes? Have you thought how hard it is (especially when most of us live in crowded, built-up areas) that there is little that could be classified as physical geography, natural or part of nature? What is your concept of nature?

Human and physical together: An example Energy is one topic that is part of the KS2 national curriculum and shows how a simple concept might demonstrate links between human and physical in geography. As Amanda Little says in her book Power Trip (2009): Since nearly all plastics, polymers, inks, paints, fertilizers, and pesticides are made from petrochemicals, and all products are delivered to market by trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes, there was virtually nothing in my office – my body included – that wasn’t there because of fossil fuels. There I sat at a desk made from Formica (a plastic), wearing a sweatshirt made of fleece (a polymer) over

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yoga pants made from Lycra (ditto), sipping coffee from Zimbabwe, eating an apple trucked from Washington, surrounded by walls covered from oil-derived paints, jotting notes in petroleum-derived ink, typing words on a petrochemical keyboard into a computer powered by coal plants. Even the supposedly guilt-free whole-grain cereal I had for breakfast and the veggie burger I ate for lunch came from crops treated with oil-derived fertilizers. (2009, p. xiii)

Pause for thought So many aspects of our daily lives have key components derived from oil. This is why connections that Dorling and Lee discussed earlier in the chapter (p. 37) are often a concept that geographers wish to stress in a discussion about what geography is: both parts of the human and physical worlds are intertwined.

SECTION 4: OTHER KEY CONCEPTS IN PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY This section will look at other key concepts that help us to tell the story of geography within the human and physical divide. First, more information on locational and place knowledge, followed up by space and scale which are two implicit aspects of the curriculum but are of vital importance.

Locational knowledge in primary geography Pause for thought Consider what is specified in the national curriculum. KS1: name and locate the world’s seven continents and five oceans; name, locate and identify characteristics of the four countries and capital cities of the UK and its surrounding seas. KS2: locate the world’s countries, using maps to focus on Europe (including the location of Russia) and North and South America, concentrating on their environmental regions, key physical and human characteristics, countries and major cities; name and locate counties and cities of the UK, geographical regions and their identifying human and physical characteristics, key topographical features (including hills, mountains, coasts and rivers), and land-use patterns; and understand how some of these aspects have changed over time. Identify the



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position and significance of latitude, longitude, Equator, Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic Circle, the Prime/Greenwich Meridian and time zones (including day and night) (DfE 2014).

The phrase ‘locational knowledge’ identifies people’s capacity to know where places are, both in our everyday places and places regionally, nationally, and globally. The term ‘mental map’ has already been used to refer to a cognitive framework for locational information we carry in our heads. We use it to get around a room, our house, to familiar places as well as make judgements in unfamiliar settings. We use it to find our way without using a map or asking directions. We also use it to fix an idea of a location when we see them in the media. (Catling 2013a)

Locational knowledge is much more than knowing names and putting a pin in the map. The box below shows some of the skills and perspectives that can develop from a series of activities we could use with pupils.

How do we give pupils a sense of locational knowledge? Concept or idea

Pupils will know when this might first be appropriate.

EARTH SENSE

Know locations are on this planet and not elsewhere in space* (KS1).

GLOBAL SENSE

Know earth’s shape (KS1), distributions (KS2) and key features (KS1).

INDIVIDUAL SENSE

Locate yourself locally (KS1), regionally (KS2), nationally (KS1), continentally (KS1) and globally (KS2).

MENTAL SENSE

Build, discuss and enhance a personal mental map of the earth (KS1).

LOCATE and SEPARATE SPATIALLY

Understand proximity (near/far KS1) or distance of places (e.g. numerically KS2); develop a sense of global scale (KS2).

COMPARE and CONTRAST

Make connections and contrasts between locations (KS1); appreciate diversity and variation (KS2).

SENSE OF PERSPECTIVE

Globes, maps (paper KS1) (online KS2), atlases (KS1).

SENSE OF TECHNOLOGY

Understand Global Positioning Systems (GPS) (KS2).

SENSE OF WONDER

Fascination and curiosity about locations (KS1); realize you do not know where everywhere or everything is! (KS1).

SENSE OF US and OTHERS

Challenge ignorance, partiality and stereotyping (KS1).

Source: Adapted loosely from Catling (2014, slide 4). *I have taught Year 3 children who believe getting in an airplane took them to a different planet and not another country/continent.

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PLACE in primary geography To be at all – to exist in any way – is to be somewhere, and to be somewhere is to be in some kind of place. Place is as requisite as the air we breathe, the ground on which we stand, the bodies we have. We are surrounded by places. We walk over and through them. We live in places, relate to others in them, die in them. Nothing we do is unplaced. How could it be otherwise? (Casey 2013, p. ix)

One key concept in the curriculum and one that resonates in academic discourses and beyond is that of place. You will see this section is much longer than that on locational knowledge. This concept, perhaps more than any other, is subject to debate and discussion among geographers and provides much that you can ponder when you are considering your planning.

Pause for thought What is specified in the national curriculum? KS1 and KS2: Understand geographical similarities and differences through studying the human and physical geography of a small area of the UK and of a small area in a contrasting nonEuropean country (KS1), a region of the UK, a region in a European country and a region in North or South America (KS2) (DfE 2014). Can you see potential problems here? Place knowledge is not defined sufficiently for teachers in the curriculum.

A sense of place (and time) is created through an area’s history, physical landscape and human community. Tuan (1975) argues that all places are both human constructions and highly localized ‘centres of meaning’. This idea also applies to pupils that we teach: they develop their own meanings, knowledge and understanding of places. It follows that the subjective element – the pupil voice – should not surprise us and should not be ignored. At the same time, we argue, we need to recognize the validity of pupils’ own identity and knowledge. In reality it is difficult to conceive of an effective geography lesson without reference to place. ... This does not mean that a coherent curriculum will result simply from ensuring that place is covered in every lesson. ... In a worst case scenario, pupils could complete their geographical education considering geography to be simply a long list of case studies from around the world. (Rawding 2015, p. 76)

Rawding’s description shows how place and location are used relatively interchangeably. Furthermore, you might agree that it’s inconceivable that a lesson could occur without reference to a location, however it is often the case that this does occur. If when teaching about, say, capital cities, it’s essential that it is more than just the name and some notable landmarks (cf p. 14, Figure 1.5). What makes a capital city? How are they different and similar and how have they developed over time? As Castree notes, there is much disagreement about place and it is ‘amongst the most complex of geographical ideas’ (Castree 2009, p. 151).



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Castree goes on to cite Agnew’s (1987) definition to suggest three meanings: ●●

PLACE as location: a specific point on the earth’s surface

●●

A sense of PLACE: the subjective feelings people have about locations including the role of place in individual and group identity

●●

PLACE as locale: a setting for people’s daily actions and interactions (Agnew 1987 cited in Castree 2009, p. 155; adapted by the author).

In the same text, Gregory, writing about physical geography, states that ‘place has not explicitly been a primary focus for physical geographers (2009, p. 171) and ‘until recently has not been given explicit attention’ (2009, p. 194) and that integrated relationships are sought especially in urban environments. This is particularly important for primary geographers as this is likely where most fieldwork will occur.

Further definitions of place Sense of place has a complicated meaning from ‘the Latin genius loci ... not so much the place itself as the guardian divinity of that place. It was believed … a space ... derived much of its unique quality from the presence or guardianship of a supernatural spirit … [today] we recognize that certain localities have an attraction which gives us a certain indefinable sense of well-being ... that original notion of ritual, of repeated celebration ... is still inherent in the phrase’ (Jackson 1994, p. 24). Cresswell (cited in Grigg and Hughes 2013, p. 183) calls this ‘a way of seeing, knowing and understanding’. It has many other definitions but this is one helpful one from an architectural lecturer. Place is a term over which no discipline has a monopoly; it is an amalgam … [including] identity, embracing what UNESCO calls the tangible and the intangible when attempting to define another slippery term – ‘authenticity’. (Littlefield 2012, p. 7)

Pause for thought What is notable about this description is the intangibility and authenticity of place, something that we recognize and pupils need to develop skills in noticing. Place is an amalgam of overlapping concepts, and locating or fixing place in one limited area is bounded as much by one’s imagination as by any definite line on a map, physical border or boundary.

Further ideas around place We’ve all got one. A secret, special place. Hidden. Enclosed. A little greener and more fertile than the world outside. Here the birds are slightly more exotic, slightly

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more confiding, the grass greener and the fruit sweeter. To know such a place, to love such a place, is part of being human. Sometimes it’s a place of myth, like the Garden of Eden. Sometimes it exists in fictional form, like Narnia or Shangri-La. Sometimes it comes in memories of a golden day in childhood, or in a glorious, doomed love affair. Sometimes it’s a real place that we daren’t go back to, for fear that it – or we – had changed. And just occasionally it’s a real place. A place where you leave a small piece of your heart and return as often as you can so as not to lose it. It’s a place of privilege. (Barnes 2016, dust jacket)

Pause for thought In his book the Sacred Combe, above, Simon Barnes explores the special places of the mind and the world. It is said to be a book about the quest for paradise and how we can find such a paradise everywhere. Books like this can suggest that places can be better without people. Others argue that place is nothing without people and it is people that give character to a place. What do you think?

Richard Sennett contrasts with Barnes by describing a walk around Greenwich Village, New York (cited by Knox and Pinch 2006, p. 72), saying ‘the squares, streets apartment houses, townhouses, bars, stores and institutions along his walk are given character and meaning by people’. It is the same for any location. Once inhabited, even by animals, once there is movement it becomes more than the sum of the buildings that are there.

Pause for thought Compare an open-air market to a mega mall, shopping centre or ‘big box’ retail destination. Their locations could be anywhere and the movement of people is defined and possibly restricted. Compare this to the special nature of an English town square, a Moroccan souk or South East Asian food market: the sounds, smells and experience (while often recreated in a mall) bring drama, a real sense of spectacle and sensory perspective to a location. This might be why such locations have existed since Greek and Roman times in their ‘food courts’, ‘street food’ quarters where smaller, quirkier retailers can sell their products giving a sense of performance and authenticity. The meaning of England is different for everyone who lives in it. Whether the real England, for you, is the local newsagent or the local church, the thatched cottage or the city terrace, the hardware store that clings on in your high street, the struggling street corner pub, the patch of overlooked waste ground, the chaotic street market, the hedgerows or the downlands, an old farm or an urban canal, you can be sure that if it is not sufficiently profitable or obedient, then it is not safe from



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the accelerating forces of homogenisation and control. It, too, will be Bluewatered in time. (Kingsnorth 2008, pp. 6–7) Kingsnorth exhibits a familiar commentary that you might recognize. Is this how you feel? Any sense of what is unique about a place and its people is something that we do not think about often enough. Perhaps this is because in the UK we might be surrounded by unique and special locations with a strong sense of place. Start with a familiar place to you: What is it about your locale that’s special?

Then think of the people near you: what’s special about them? You might want to look up the ethnicity of the area in which you are teaching looking at data from the previous census from the Office of National Statistics. There might have been changes in the intervening years (incomers such as those from Eastern Europe for example). In the UK a place might be as big as a town, city, county, region or even a country or continent; it depends on who is doing the defining. Entering Scotland, the signs, symbols, dual language and icons signify a clear sense of place which is different to those that you would have seen in Wales or Northern Ireland which might have similar (yet different) signs in Welsh or Gaelic. Place can often transcend purely physical characteristics. A mountain in Scotland, the United States or Austria might have a very different sense of place due to its infrastructure, signage or because of its historic or cultural associations. A mountain in South Asia such as China’s Mount Tai has a very specific sense of place being ‘associated with sunrise, birth, and renewal ... [being] a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and … one of the most important ceremonial centers of China’ (Wikipedia). A place might be somewhere where ethnically similar people are located. It also could be where industries cluster. Again, China is a good example reflecting industries in times past in the UK where they cluster together in ‘Shoe town’, zip and button town or the sock capital of the world (Watts 2005).

SPACE in primary geography Pause for thought ‘When space feels thoroughly familiar to us, it has become place’ (Tuan 1977, p. 73). The connection between place and space is difficult sometime to quantify but Tuan sums it up well. On a map all we see before we have inhabited that location and place by being there is ‘empty’ space. Empty not in terms of locational (name) recognition or having seen images of it beforehand or even (if we have gone on virtual tours there) with Google StreetView, but empty in terms of its reality and day-to-day nature, what it’s really like.

Current Developments in Geography

We geographers look at the world spatially … historians look at the world temporally or chronologically. ... Geography is a discipline of diversity, under whose ‘spatial’ umbrella we study and analyse processes, systems, behaviours, and countless other phenomena that have spatial expression. It is the tie that binds geographers, this interest in patterns, distributions, diffusions, circulations, interactions, juxtapositions – the ways in which the physical and human worlds are laid out, interconnect and interact. (De Blij 2012, pp. 9–10)

Space is perhaps problematic today because of our connections with each other (via telephone), with locations round the world (through the media) and the speed at which we absorb bits of information. As Dorling and Lee first pointed out in this chapter, the way we perceive the connections between places is extremely important for our understanding of the whole. Ever since we were born we have seen amazing sights from across the world through television programmes but we don’t often consider this geography. This might be because while the immediate place knowledge and context seems clear, when watching a series like the BBC’s Planet Earth, unless the annual migration of millions of wildebeest is put into a spatial context, we have little sense of East Africa as a whole. The spectacle out of context is not very helpful for teaching pupils the geography of a location, place or region. That’s why we need geography’s supplementary tools: maps, atlases, satellite images and photos to give pupils a perspective of a country’s and, indeed, a continent’s spatial connection. Only then can the spatial significance of such animals’ 1800-mile treks be fully realized. This is supplemented with stories, urban scenes and people inhabiting these landscapes, and we get a much clearer view of the landscape in the round.

Pause for thought Consider what has been said above and read what Dan Raven Ellison says: ‘We should not see childhood just as a period of time; we should see it as a place. I had a big childhood, with the space I needed to play, develop, learn, grow and be active’ (Raven-Ellison 2015). What was your childhood like? How is your sense of place now? What experiences are you giving children in your care?

SCALE in primary geography Look at the sources below trying to explain what scale is. The first is from the previous version of the NC and the second from an academic geographer. Scale refers to the geographical extent of a study, that is, local – a small area like a village or small town; regional – a larger area like the midlands of England or a stretch of coast; and national – a whole country. (DfEE/QCA 1999)



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Scale is the ‘zoom lens’ attribute of geography that shows how decisions and events at a local level can have global consequences and global processes can have differential affects locally. (Jackson cited in Lambert 2012, p. 5)

The extract below shows how this might be exemplified in a school context: In an outstanding Year 5 lesson, pupils were studying London with the use of a topological map of the London Underground. The lesson started with a quick review of what pupils already knew about London. The teacher then made excellent use of the interactive whiteboard to get pupils to locate London at the scales of continent, country and region. Pupils then studied the topological map, comparing it with a real map. Very good, challenging questioning enabled pupils to use the maps together to develop their geographical skills. Additionally, they developed numeracy skills through working on travel, time and distance. Learning was reinforced by the use of a ‘treasure hunt’ which familiarised them with places in London as they solved the clues. This was a fast-paced lesson with pupils fully enthused by the tasks and making excellent progress. (Ofsted 2009, p. 14)

You can see in the above example how many different aspects of study enabled children to gain a sense of scale: location of the city, topological map versus OS map, questioning to give a sense of place, distance to give a final sense of connection or scale.

Pause for thought Consider your relationship with cities and how you teach them. What sense of a city do you give? Is it the rounded view given in the lesson above? Read the quotation and consider how the connection between the place you teach in and cities might have changed even over your lifetime.

The ten-thousand-year flow of people to cities has become a torrent. In 1800 the world was 3 percent urban; in 1900, 14 percent urban; in 2007, 50 percent urban … . We are now a city planet. (Brand 2009, p. 25)

NATURE and ENVIRONMENT in primary geography So far in this chapter we have discussed location, place, scale and space. The final section in this chapter is all about two final aspects of what geography is about – nature and environment. Look at the chart on the next page that shows how much of the UK is ‘made from’ different landscapes. You might want to watch an insightful video you can find online produced by the geographer Dan Raven-Ellison called ‘The UK in 100 Seconds’ which shows the wide range of landscapes that you might see in a bird’s-eye view across the country.

Current Developments in Geography

The dominant habitat in the UK is pasture land 22 per cent

Pasture 22 per cent Cultivated areas 17.7 per cent Semi-natural grassland 17 per cent Woodlands 11.8 per cent

Urban areas make up just 11.6 per cent of the UK

Open wetlands 11.5 per cent Shrubland, bushland, heathland 5.4 per cent Other 3.1 per cent

Source: Office for National Statistics http://visual.ons.gov.uk/uk-environment-facts/.

Nature is a notoriously difficult concept to define and when working with children they can easily define anything green as nature or ‘natural’. Nature is often thought to be socially determined and the modern concept of nature is said to have been devised by the explorers who travelled the world in the seventeenth century in search of new forms of knowledge. The way they categorized the world was less about measurement but more about ‘sight and sensation’. ‘Unlike earlier generations of explorers, they were not keen on classification for its own sake: they were more interested in analogies, continuities and hidden links. They wanted to evoke them not in lists, catalogues and tables but through narratives, drawings, charts and poems’ (Ree 2017, citing Wulf 2015). This is a powerful evocation of what geography could be.

Pause for thought Some writers argue that nature has ‘ended’ and that in our world (which has been so affected by humans) that this was not 200 years ago but ten thousand years ago with the agricultural revolution. As Brand argues, ‘Farm and pasture land now takes up over a third of the world’s ice-free land surface’ (2010, p. 19). What do you think of this? Can you see the effects of humans on nature wherever you go? Look up the word anthropocene. Do you agree with the concept that we have entered a new ‘geological epoch’ which demonstrates we have had so much impact?

Pause for thought We might imagine there are wild places in the UK, Europe and elsewhere but as Evans argues, there is little evidence of this. Britain has no wilderness. ... Scratch farmers of the Neolithic and forestclearing axe-men of the Bronze Age began the attrition of what we imagine of the wild wood. In more recent centuries, moorland was purged of people



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as well as trees for sheep farming and grouse shooting. The lowlands turned into countryside. ... Something like wilderness is restricted to cliffs, estuaries and dreams. ... Despite appeals to re-connect the urbanised, industrialised consumer with Nature and think differently about the non-human world, the war against nature intensifies. … Floods, droughts, storms, desertification, melting ice-caps, and tundra, oceanic pollution, atmospheric pollution, deforestation, urban sprawl, intensive agriculture, over-fishing, globalisation species extinction. (Evans 2015, pp. xi–xii)

Conclusion: Geography as a humanities subject? We experience a burst of pleasure when we share our thoughts, and this drives us to communicate. It is a useful feature of our brain, because it ensures that knowledge, experience and ideas do not get buried with the person who first had them, and that as a society we benefit from the products of many minds … . The problem with an approach that prioritises information is that it ignores the core of what makes us human: our motives, our fears, our hopes, our desires, our prior beliefs. In fact, the tsunami of information we are receiving today can make us even less sensitive to data because we’ve become accustomed to finding support for absolutely anything we want to believe with a simple click of the mouse. Instead, our desires are what shape our beliefs; our need for agency, our craving to be right, a longing to feel part of a group. It is those motivations we need to tap into to make a change, whether within ourselves or in others. (Sharot 2017)

Pause for thought Consider the implication of what Tali Sharot, an experimental psychologist, says in the context of this chapter about how we form geographical knowledge: everyday knowledge where humans are situated is an important part of the subject, against knowledge that is seen as separate to us. Often geography, history, RE or the arts are subjects that might be classed within the ‘humanities’. Our argument is that geography should be about a human desire to understand, know and be part of a human race; celebrating difference as well as (mostly) similarity. Geographers alongside teachers of the humanities are people who link aspects of the world together and it is helpful there are such subjects: strongly separate as well as making connections in thinking about the human condition. Humanities are often said to ‘explore ethical issues, ask challenging questions, inform the way we view each other. We live in a culture defined by images and multiple stories’ (Churchwell 2004). Ofsted, as one body who helps define subject disciplines, thinks this is one of geography’s roles: ‘Geography has a distinctive role in the curriculum in linking the disciplines of science and humanities. In

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those schools where geography was strong, the subject contributed effectively to curriculum coherence as well as satisfying pupils’ curiosity about people and places. Geography also offered opportunities to develop a wide range of skills and knowledge’ (Ofsted 2011c, p. 5). What do you think? Is it important to have separate or combined subjects?

Humanities subjects collectively muse on what it means to be a human, in the past, present and (particularly with geography) in the future. Blunt writing about geography and the humanities says: ‘Geographers ... address critical questions about the production of space, the politics of representation and embodied knowledge and identities’ (Blunt 2009, p. 78). To conclude this second chapter, then, geography, alongside RE and history particularly in English primary education, explores human experience and promotes thinking by stimulating debate, questioning and reflection (Grigg et al. 2012, p. 6). As already discussed in Chapter 1, geography’s interdisciplinarity can be both an advantage and disadvantage.

Geographical idea or concept

Meaning for teaching 3–11-year-olds

Production of space

Who defines where you can go, how it is used and what you can do there. How long is a space open? Who controls the space? How is it related to other spaces – is it part of a lot of public/shared space or little? Who owns it? Think of an example like football in the playground. Does this dominate, does everyone agree with this? Could/should something be done about it? What about places for children to meet in the evenings – are there spaces for them? Why? Why not?

Politics of representation

Consider this in relation to power and control. Do we ask others to do things or delegate? Do we have a school council? Who represents our parents? Do they vote? Who do they vote for (discuss the local council, general election)?

Embodied knowledge and identities

Are you allowed to walk on the grass? Why? Why not? Are there rules in the school? How do we know them? What are the rules of society? Rules of the road? Rules when you ride a bicycle (Have they heard of the Highway Code, Country Code)? What are the current British Values? Who are they meant to protect or represent? Why are they important? (There are people in the world who might not share these and these are the ones the government want us all to share.) Are there some things that boys and girls can/can’t do? Why? Why not?

Pause for thought Why these subjects might be said to share perspectives so well is that geographers not only take a wide view they also take a long view. Consider Younge’s quotations on the next page in the light of what you have read in this chapter.

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Everybody has a story. Not, for most of us a grand overarching narrative that draws together the various strands of our life into one neat, consistent thread but a collection of unique, discrete and occasionally contradictory chapters that come together only in the telling. Few of these tales belong to us entirely. We arrive in the middle of a random variety of stories and then set about weaving some together and discarding others in a bid to write our own. (Younge 2010, p. 17)

Summary This chapter has considered in more detail the status and state of primary geography, primarily focused on the English geography curriculum and has related it to the humanities. It has considered various concepts that are explicit in the curriculum but also those implicit and easily overlooked. It has sought to go deeper and beyond the ‘locational, place, human and physical geography’ quorum which now is suggested for KS1-3 schooling. The chapter has introduced the concepts of space, environment and nature alongside spatial perspectives and has considered debates within academia, between teacher educators and among school teachers as to the nature of geography.

Recommended reading DfE (2014a). National Curriculum for Geography. London: DfE. Grigg, R. and Hughes, S. (2014). Teaching Primary Humanities. London: Pearson. Martin, F. (2006). Teaching Geography in Primary Schools. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing. Pike, S. (2016). Learning Primary Geography: Ideas and Inspiration from Classrooms. Abindgon: Routledge. Scoffham, S. and Owens, P. (2016). Bloomsbury Curriculum Basics: Teaching Primary Geography. London: Bloomsbury.

Recommended websites Find the ethnicity of your local area: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationand community/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinengland andwales/2012-12-11 ‘The UK in 100 Seconds’ from Dan Ravel Ellison in collaboration with Friends of the Earth, Jack Smith and Benjamin Zephaniah: https://vimeo.com/291108273 Royal Geographical Society: www.rgs.org Geographical Association: www.geography.org.uk The research library below contains links to papers and reports containing research evidence in geography education, from the GA and other organizations. The library is split into research themes covering research in primary and secondary phases and cross-phase research: https://www.geography.org.uk/Support-Guidance/Geography-education-research

Chapter 3 Geography as an Irresistible Activity Chapter objectives ●●

to broaden perspectives and consider attitudes in teaching geography to 3–11-year-olds

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to establish some principles about teaching thinking about creativity

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to show how an understanding of (and creative use of) maps can support children’s understanding of local studies

Introduction This chapter introduces aspects of geography that make the curriculum come alive and make it irresistible. We define this as making the curriculum creative and relevant. Creativity in particular will be shown through explaining and exemplifying work with maps in new and interesting ways.

Introduction: How do we make geography irresistible? This chapter links strongly to your and your pupils’ personal geographies, discussed in Chapter 2. It is about us as humans responding and reacting to their (and our) world and ideas we share about it. The idea of co-construction of the curriculum is nothing new in schools and some schools do this already. We discuss more about the pedagogy behind this in the current chapter. What this chapter aims to encourage is for you to go beyond clever topic titles or tenuously linked topics on, say, ‘adventurers’, ‘festivals’ or ‘journeys’ which can offer limited opportunities for good geography. As our experience shows these can be problematic for good geography. Ofsted agrees and has found that such topics can limit geographical understanding (2011a).

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Teaching geography: It is hard! There was an image on the internet recently showing a juggler at the top of a flight of stairs where he was receiving rapturous applause from the audience. What they couldn’t see was the steps leading up to the stage were littered with broken glass spheres: these were his many failed attempts. For him, it had been tough to get to the top. Teaching in many ways is the same, you will have more and more success the more you practice, but you do need to practise first, to have a go at geography! Another animation we have seen recently showed a moving target with a teacher holding an arrow desperately trying to hit the bullseye – and failing. We all know the education world moves at a pace and that change is inevitable. So how do we mitigate against this?

Pause for thought Consider lessons you have taught yourself which have not gone well. Were they creative, topical or relevant? Consider this in relation to these two quotations: As the old joke goes How do you build good judgement? Experience! How do you build experience? Bad judgement! (Brand 2010, p. 21) ‘However high we climb in the pursuit of knowledge we shall still see heights above us, and the more we extend our view, the more conscious we shall be of the immensity which lies beyond’ (Lord William Armstrong, creator of Cragside, Northumberland, the first home in the world to be lit by hydro-electricity. https:// www.nationaltrust.org.uk/wallington)

It is very hard to make all your teaching like this! However, as the examples above suggest, through experience as teachers we get better. Sometimes researchers call this deliberate practice (Deans for Impact 2017) which we will discuss more in detail in Chapter 8 when we discuss subject leadership. This will always also be easier with subjects you teach regularly and get guidance on teaching such as core subjects. Here you are teaching concepts and skills throughout the year, and the idea of the ‘spiral’ curriculum can be fully embedded. For both yours and your pupils’ development, it is important to consider the sense of flow this provides (see below for reference), what you get when things go well. Being creative with geography might be one way that geography lessons can promote this sense more readily.

SECTION 1: CREATIVITY Creativity is a concept that is highly valued but perhaps over-used in discussions within primary education. Creativity is often ascribed to subjects which have some sort of clear outcome (the expressive arts are good examples), where there is a

Geography as an Irresistible Activity

demonstrable, performative element. ‘Creativity is not just art or music, something else to tick off in our plans for Tuesday afternoon. It is not even an ingredient to add to the curriculum diet but the inspiration and motivation integral to the process of learning. In fact it is the underpinning and expression of true learning’ (Peter Dixon in Burgess 2006, p. 4). So how can it underpin what we do in geography? It is true that it is less often referred to when we consider non-arts subjects which deal with other aspects of experience. Why do you think this might be? Is it something to do with our relationship to the subject matter? Is it that we don’t all feel (in Peter Dixon’s words) inspired and motivated by it? Don’t forget this underpins the 2014 NC in geography, as we are charged to give pupils ‘curiosity and fascination’ (DfE 2014). The lack of creative possibilities in education was argued against by Michael Gove, former education secretary in England, suggesting that creativity was not being removed from the curriculum: ‘So does that mean scientists from Rutherford to Dawkins are arid and uncreative mechanics? Mathematicians from Pythagoras to Turing are enemies of creativity? Historians like Schama or Gombrich are dull philistine souls? Explorers, cartographers and geographical pioneers from Mercator to Palin are presumably humdrum intellectual backmarkers and the study of authors such as Dickens or Eliot, Günter Grass or Alain-Fournier a form of spiritual imprisonment?’ (Walker quoting Gove 2013).

Capitalize on creativity: Developing pupils’ imaginations Creativity as a concept is very appealing to teachers and pupils and has underpinned different government documents (such as Excellence and Enjoyment, DfES 2003) over the past two decades. In the current curriculum for England it is (despite what Gove argues) perhaps least evident and its importance does, perhaps, need restating. So, what does creativity offer to geography as a ‘real-world’ subject? Teaching Geography Creatively (Scoffham et al. 2012, 2017) in which one of the authors of this book has a chapter, perhaps shows us where Scoffham and other authors outline many aspects of creativity in and through geography. As Scoffham says, creativity can be a way to engage children and lay deep foundations for a lasting interest in the subject. ‘By devising a challenging but supportive environment, teachers can help pupils develop their creative potential and to actually be more creative in their thinking’ (2012, p. 12). Therefore, it is about us as well as a response from us to the wider world. This will, in turn, liberate teachers and will enable them to help pupils be flexible and responsive, to solve problems and achieve fulfilment (2012, pp. 12–3). The emphasis on thinking about and around the subject is important here. In Chapter 5 we discuss skills to develop in geography with a focus on enquiry which covers this in more detail. Ultimately creativity happens when ‘we nourish and develop our geographical imaginations, necessary to better understand the world and the ways that human and



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physical environments are interrelated. We use authentic contexts and direct experiences, such as through fieldwork, as opportunities to make and apply knowledge about the real world’. Lambert and Owens continue and say that subject knowledge underpins this and ‘enables and enhances’ discovery (2013, p. 100 in Jones and Wyse 2013). So, what creativity in geography is not doing is rejecting a rigorous, underlying knowledge base (just as with everyday geography, discussed in Chapter 2), it is simply providing opportunities for children to work on this knowledge (and develop new insights) in real contexts. It gives them a chance for their impressions of the world to count.

Pause for thought Sparking a geographical imagination as a form of creativity might still be a vague concept. Consider this definition by John Stilgoe in his book Outside Lies Magic where he calls it a search for the ‘extraordinary in the ordinary’. Seeing intently means scrutinizing, staring, narrowing your eyes, even putting your hand across your forehead to shade your eyes in one of the oldest of human gestures. The hand over the eyes shields them from some sideways, incident light; cupping your hands around your eyes works even better … trees become suddenly greener because you see their colors as saturated, free of the blanching caused by dispersed light. And since the human eye evolved to see saturated color, cupping your hands around your eyes makes possible more precise scrutinizing even of distant things. Shielded eyes pierce the haze that afflicts most places nowadays and reveals distant slopes not so much as brownish or gray, but Figure 3.1  Trees canopy. Don’t forget to look up, scrutinize the pattern shapes and wonder how and why. Trees are amazing architectural features and landmarks in our landscapes which are easily missed.

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as darker blue, and the trees as blue-green. Any explorer learning how to look soon discovers the astounding interplay of light, shadow, and colour. Exploration encourages creativity, serendipity, invention. So go without purpose. Go for the going. (Stilgoe 1998)

Creativity and geography: Definitions Creativity might be defined as ‘imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both original and of value’ (NACCCE 1999, p. 31). There is a danger that what underpins a lot of the practice exemplified as creative is that we have a commonly accepted, theoretically underpinned framework for creativity like that described above. As Cremin argues: Without common understanding, new myths will develop, like the one currently circulating about the so called ‘creative curriculum’. I keep hearing this described by teachers as if it were an entity, a planned and prescribed monolithic given – delivered in the afternoons – as a form of respite from the morning rituals of literacy and numeracy. (Cremin 2015)

A key document influencing the debates around creativity and one that influenced the work of bodies such as Creative Partnerships (http://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/creative-partnerships) came from the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE 1999). This offers four important features of creativity that we can consider alongside some commentary we have added for geography.

NAACE 1999

Commentary relating to geography

1. Using imagination – thinking/ behaving imaginatively. Expanding the possibilities of a situation. Taking a fresh look and envisaging alternatives.

This is what Stilgoe was suggesting above and what Chapter 5 suggests through teaching through enquiry. While geography looks at the world as it is, it also looks at it from a ‘What if?’ future perspective with issues such as change and development.

2. Pursuing purposes – creativity carries with it the idea of action or purpose/objective.

All good geography might think about how this relates to people, to real-life settings and to change and development. Even the EYFS refers to People and Communities: How do we live a better life? How can we improve our area? Why do people choose to live in dangerous places near volcanoes? Working with pupils having some sort of output is a good way to demonstrate outcomes, even if this is not assessed. (Continued)

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NAACE 1999

Commentary relating to geography

3. Being original – creative ideas are always completely original or have never been conceived by an individual or group.

Being open to pupils’ geographies allows us to look through their eyes. Fieldwork with pupils will bring surprising insights. Every day you see the world differently in geography due to small changes, improvements/developments, the weather and who you are with.

4. Judging value – the outcome must be of value in relation to the objective. Creative thinking involves playing with ideas, trying out possibilities and rejecting those that do not work.

This is most possible in geographical fieldwork or, again, through enquiries carried out in relation to people, place or environments. How? Why? Might? Should? These are questions that everyone, even young children, can and should ask and answer.

For more on creativity and ideas for creative fieldwork, see Primary Geographer journal (issue 50) ‘Focus on creativity’ (2003).

Part 1: A case study of creativity Burgess (2007) carried out research for the National College for School Leadership (NCSL) on a series of schools. We highlight this to show that creativity is clearly not necessarily a ‘bolt on’ to the curriculum, but something central to some schools’ ethos. This is, then, a way that it can be brought into all subjects, including ones where it might be absent like geography. ‘It’s about taking the ordinary and making it extraordinary!’ said the head teacher (Burgess 2007, p. 7) which references Stilgoe’s arguments above. Furthermore, this particular school used the school grounds, a hands-on approach and as you can see below, they had a significant proportion of learning occurring outside of the classroom. Staff here were encouraged to be learners and had a sense of shared vision and ownership (Burgess 2007, p. 7). The key features of the curriculum are clearly rooted in geographical concepts of place, space and environment and the leadership treats the pupils and teachers as an important part of developing the curriculum.

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Use of the outdoor learning environment The grounds have developed over many years and incorporate large slabs of stone, labyrinths of willow, ponds, gardens, fruit trees and forts. The whole ethos of the school is rooted in its environment. When the recently retired head teacher first came here thirty years ago, it was a new school with a blank playground and mowed field, just an ordinary place. Over the years, with vision and hard work it has become extraordinary and continues to change. The head explained they had been thinning some of the trees recently and used the cuttings to create a story circle of logs in an arbour. We stepped up into it and she made me sit on the ornate leader’s log. ‘As you step up you have to slow down. We need to slow down in education. Life long learners need deep roots!’ (head teacher). A curriculum based on the natural world and seasons The head talked passionately about getting the environment right for learning inside and out, about making sure the curriculum is authentic and rooted in the child’s experience and the natural world. The National Curriculum is seen as a base line, a springboard to be creative from. The school’s mission statement says ‘We teach the requirements of the National Curriculum but we go beyond this by offering a stream of experiences which anchor education in the real world’ (head teacher). Their curriculum is linked inextricably to the natural rhythms of the year. They link the learning to the seasons, the festivals and the real events that punctuate the lives of their children and help them make sense of their surroundings. It is this, the school believes, that offers many opportunities to be explored and experienced creatively. Learning by doing and touching Children weaving willow into baskets or knitting with wool shorn from the school sheep, groups having tea parties on top of ‘Schoolhenge’ with fruit picked from their own orchards. A photograph of a dead deer being buried showed children gathered reverentially round to look and talk and touch. Poppies picked from the grounds and placed into a massive cross on the hall floor marked Remembrance Day, and a fire destroying a model of Pudding Lane in the playground with support from the local fire brigade helped bring 1666 to life: ‘We try to make the learning memorable here!’ (head teacher). Understanding of the importance of play Play is central to the children’s approach to learning, channelling their natural curiosity: ‘There’s no such thing as a right answer – learning is daring!’ (head teacher). The classrooms exhibited open-ended tasks and exploratory learning and this also extended to playtime. Forts, frames and dens are dotted everywhere. I joined a girl and her fellow chalk artists making patterns on the floor and she told me how much she loved playtime. ‘We can do anything we want!’ she proclaimed. Flexible groupings and freedom The curriculum planning here is detailed and complex. Children are in family groups for 40 minutes at the beginning and end of each day. This ensures the cross-phase ethos and pastoral emphasis. They spend the rest of their time in learning groups that can be flexible and focused and allow for an integrated day model where activities can complement each other and teachers can use individual strengths and expertise. Often whole days are given over to projects so the learning can be deeper and extended. ‘Our timetable isn’t a straight jacket, it’s a springboard – we plan for freedom!’ (head teacher). This flexibility and freedom is seen as essential for children and staff to be creative. There is an expectation that as professionals they must allow the curriculum to grow and flourish. ‘We are created to be creative so we have tried to create a culture where you have permission. It’s all about freedom to be creative’ (head teacher). (Continued)

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Emphasis on the whole child and spirituality [Creativity is] something that unifies the learning experience and provides motivation and enjoyment and enhances self-esteem. ‘Our intention is to educate the school community in a holistic way, joining together spiritual, moral, aesthetic, physical, social and intellectual strands in our everyday practice,’ says their mission statement. Involvement of the community The school is near a large army camp and their intake reflects the transient population; however, the school enjoys positive links with the community and over the years has been very proactive in cultivating these. There are regular visitors to the school from a local man with birds of prey to the fire brigade, from Morris dancers to basket weavers. The school has an open door policy and parents and friends are actively encouraged to come in and help. ‘We couldn’t do it without them. They have expertise we don’t have. It’s all about a learning community’ (head teacher) (Edited from Burgess 2007, pp. 7–8).

Pause for thought What do you think? Have you ever worked in a school with elements of what this school offers? How do you think this school has achieved so much? Is it just the leadership? Could it be the school’s setting? How do school grounds mitigate against these sorts of approaches? Are there schools where urban environments can be equally rich? One final consideration you might wish to consider when teaching creatively is what Cremin refers to as the ‘creative curriculum’ and its possible downsides. As Ryan et al. found in 2010: Several teachers spoke about the emphasis in Britain on the ‘creative curriculum’ – learning including maths and literacy may take place through topics with lots of art, drama and creativity. Some newly arrived pupils find this very difficult initially, it is not the rigidity they are used to or expect from schooling. (2010, p. 15)

Part 2: Creativity through maps and mapwork If there is one aspect of geography that most people know about, it is the maps. Look at the image created by a 7-year-old pupil in Figure 3.2. Maps can be informative and useful but they can also be wonderful works of art in their own right. … Maps tell a story. ... Children need to be taught this pictoral story in much the same way as they are taught to read word stories. (Mackintosh, in Scoffham 2017, p. 84)

Geography as an Irresistible Activity Figure 3.2  OS map pattern. This was created from a close study by the pupils where they drew the various lines that they observed from an OS map in the style of the abstract artist Piet Mondrian. Some of the objectives of this task were: How can we get pupils to really look at the detail of the map? Can pupils still read the map, even when the locational knowledge is removed? Which landmarks could they still pick out? What is lost when we look at a landscape this way? As Brotton argues, you cannot understand a map without writing, but a map without a visual element is simply a collection of place names. ‘A map draws on artistic methods of execution to create an ultimately imaginative representation of an unknowable object (the world); but it is shaped by scientific principles, and abstracts the earth according to a series of geometrical lines and shapes’ (Brotton 2012, p. 5). Mackintosh argues similarly that maps can be informative and useful but they can also be wonderful works of art in their own right. ‘Maps tell a story. Children need to be taught this pictoral story in much the same way as they are taught to read word stories’ (Mackintosh, in Scoffham 2017, p. 84).

Pause for thought What is a map? Where do you use maps in your daily life? If you travel by car, do you have a built-in SatNav? How does this affect how you drive? Do you use public transport? Read the following text from geographer Harm De Blij: It is often said that a picture is worth a thousand words. If that is true, then a map is worth a million, and maybe more. Maps are the language of geography, often the most direct and effective way to convey grand ideas or complex theories. The mother of all maps is the globe … A globe reminds us of the limits of our terrestrial living space when about seventy percent of its surface is water or ice, and much of the land is mapped as mountains or deserts. (De Blij 2012, p. 33) How often do you look at maps? Is it something you used to do? Have we lost a fascination with maps that (perhaps) we once used to have?



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Where does this fit into the curriculum? Working with maps is a new focus for the curriculum and is the tool (and a skill) we need to use to help develop pupils’ understandings of the world. Children need to build on their knowledge of globes, maps and atlases, and apply and develop this knowledge routinely in the classroom and in the field; interpret Ordnance Survey maps in the classroom and the field, including using grid references and scale, topographical and other thematic mapping, and aerial and satellite photographs; use Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to view, analyse and interpret places and data; use fieldwork in contrasting locations to collect, analyse and draw conclusions from geographical data, using multiple sources of increasingly complex information. (DfE 2014; KS1 and KS2 amalgamated) Figure 3.3  ‘Directions on Trig Point’. The tops of Trig Points on high points of hills are useful. Some have directions to many other places such as this one. Trig Points are the common name for ‘triangulation pillars’. These are concrete pillars, about 1.25 metres tall, which were used by the OS in order to determine the exact shape of the country. Generally located on the highest bit of ground in the area, they provide a direct line of sight from one to the next. Using a theodolite (an accurate protractor built into a telescope) on the top of the pillar, accurate angles between pairs of nearby Trig Points could be measured. This process is called ‘triangulation’. In Great Britain this began in 1936 and the OS maps we use today are based on these. (Adapted from www.trigpointing.uk.)

Geography as an Irresistible Activity

Maps, described above by Blij as worth a million words, can be said more specifically to be graphical representations ‘that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes, or events in the human world’ (Harley and Woodward cited in Brotton 2012, p. 5). We see this as liberating for primary geographers wanting to move beyond just looking at and learning about how to read the map. Here the map is described as being embedded with a story where concepts, conditions or processes can be shown. This tells a powerful truth about maps: they are far from fixed, unchangeable or inert. The best maps and atlases (essentially, a map collection), show patterns in the world to help pupils understand not just place names, capitals or ‘where the mountains are’. They are much more powerful and their power is in telling ‘spatial stories’, explaining the way the world is over great distances. Good examples of atlases might be those such as the Collins Atlases edited by Stephen Scoffham or his UK in Maps or World in Maps collections (Scoffham 2014). For younger children you might look for more picture-icon-led atlases such as the Usborne Picture Atlas (2016)/Usborne Big Picture Atlas (2017) or Maps by Aleksandra Mizielinska and Daniel Mizielinski and Atlas of Animal Adventures (2016) by Rachel Williams (Author), Emily Hawkins (Author) and Lucy Letherland (Illustrator). Figure 3.4  Butchery; Bath; Chipping; Lands End. The best maps and atlases (essentially, a map collection) show patterns in the world to help pupils understand not just place names, capitals or where the mountains are. While location names and signposts in the UK and beyond can be fascinating in their own right (as these examples suggest), they are only one part of what the location might have to offer. They might show how the location has changed over time, supporting conversations and enquiries about place knowledge. It is useful to show these alongside the location name.



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Maps as creative documents Fitting in well with the theme of this chapter, we need to appreciate that a map on screen, on paper or in a book is always a creative interpretation of the space it claims to represent. ‘Maps are always images of elsewhere, imaginatively transporting their viewers to faraway, unknown places, recreating distance in the palm of your hand. Consulting a world map ensures that faraway is always close at hand’ (Brotton 2012, p. 14). Even if that faraway is in front of you, it is something that you are seeing through the imaginative lens of someone else. Essentially, for children, we need to teach that a map is a representation of the world but in graphical form. It is less accurate than an aerial photo taken on the day but even aerial photos mask, hide and manipulate. These might mask – if we think of trees covering what is really on the ground, for example, a fixed bench, pond or earth feature might be hidden. They hide – a forest floor might contain a building that’s hidden or it might be taken from an angle that can make something look a different size/shape. They manipulate – although they look like they were all taken by an ‘all-seeing eye’ at the same time, they are (often) many images stuck together taken at different times (or even different seasons/years); aerial photos are rarely dated whereas good maps are. Ultimately, a map is a representation of the earth’s surface and shows how things are related to each other by distance (e.g. m/km), direction (N, S, E, W) and size (which can often be misleading as some features are much larger than they are in real life). Maps show certain aspects but not others. They could be said to be a flat picture (in 2-D) of a landscape or area of a country (in 3-D). Jerry Brotton argues that maps only ever manage the reality they show and can never show everything (Brotton 2012). We do need to impress this on children as this is especially the case when they are drawing their own maps! They can’t include everything, so choice is important. Whose choice? Why that, but not this?

Uses of maps Maps can be used to help us get around and gain scale, perspective and an overview of a place. They are for using on a journey, thinking about or planning a journey, to imagine a journey or simply for their beauty! Think about how many estate agents use them for wallpaper, or use them as designs on items from pencil cases, T-shirts or posters. Today, though, the maps we use are increasingly online and must never be seen as benign or without a perspective or viewpoint. To the early OS, a map meant the government knew where important military outposts of the country were; what they were not used for was to locate picturesque views or footpaths of churches with a steeple. Online maps from providers such as Google or Bing are equally produced for a purpose and this is not just navigation. Primarily online maps are devices that allow us to see places where we might wish to consume or buy products from advertisers willing to ensure they are featured by paying an

Geography as an Irresistible Activity

advertising fee. So, it is less about a shared sense of significance (or a state-body’s sanctioned significance like featuring a church not a mosque) and more about who is the highest bidder to promote their significance.

Pause for thought Read this quotation and consider the key words and phrases you would use when talking about maps to children, their history and uses today. To set the scene, Brotton (2012) remarks that you cannot understand a map without writing but without symbols it is essentially just locations. Wayfinding is popularly thought to be among the primary uses of a map. But the historical record shows that, with perhaps the major exception of navigational sea charts, the use of maps by travellers for wayfinding became common in the modern era ... maps were used mostly for planning journeys in advance not for guiding travellers on the road. … Written directions ... were the preferred form for communicating navigational information. (Akerman 2006, p. 1–2)

Cognition and mapping From early childhood we make sense of ourselves in relation to others and locations we are in by processing information spatially. We have described this previously as mental mapping but psychologist would call this ‘cognitive mapping’ which is the way we acquire, order and recall information about our spatial environments (Brotton 2012, p. 4). Of course, just like map use has changed from the past, it will change in the future too. In schools we should promote talk about journeys, go on journeys, record journeys, as well as understand the ‘mechanics’ of reading adult-oriented maps.

Pause for thought You will have heard of literacy, oracy or numeracy? I am sure you have. What about graphicacy? This is an essential aspect of what we are doing when we are ‘reading’ and decoding maps. As Mackintosh says: Graphicacy can be thought of as the sub-set of visual-spatial thinking that applies particularly to geography. It refers to the essentially pictorial ways, from photographs to diagrams and maps, in which we communicate spatial information about places, spaces and environments. Its most refined form is, perhaps, the OS [Ordnance Survey] map with its distinctive style and conventions, e.g. plan view, symbols and contours. ... Graphicacy is, however, an important life skill ... the conceptual leap from a young child’s experience of crawling round the floor or riding in a pushchair is huge ... by asking questions. (Mackintosh 2011, p. 7)



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Children and their creative maps As a child, one of the authors (we’ll let you guess who) liked to draw maps of intersecting roads stretching off into the distance and (strangely) vast undersea worlds with thousands of fish. I think back on this and wonder what was it that stimulated me to do this. Research has found that when given the choice, children in general are likely to draw maps of familiar places: their home, neighbourhood and play areas. The maps that children freely draw are often very ‘topographic narratives’ that tell the story of a child’s discovery of a favourite place (Hutchinson 2004). Hutchinson goes on to say that ‘from a developmental perspective, the design of children’s maps conforms less to the professional geographic standards established by adults and more to children’s unique perceptual, spatial, and emotionally resonant ways of perceiving the world around them at various stages’ (Hutchison 2004, p. 40). This might tie in with what psychologists call ‘flashbulb moments’ which are where emotion triggers a mechanism that conserves what occurred at that instant, so that the memory stays true to the original incident.

Pause for thought Have you ever drawn maps? What sorts of drawings did you make as a child? Do the children you see have the chance to draw freehand or are they constrained by colouring books? Look at this one below. Can you make out what is in it? Does it use symbols and have other aspects an adult map might have?

Figure 3.5  BB age 7.



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The big picture: Using globes How you make children aware of the different countries of the world is very important in geography and essential for any classroom is a globe. Even better is a set of globes. Many suppliers (such as TTS/Wildgoose; see recommended websites at the end of the chapter) can supply these. A globe is perhaps even more useful than an atlas and can work out cheaper. After all, no maths classroom would be without calculators in KS2 or mini clocks to aid telling the time: So why should a geography classroom be without this, too? The best globes are perhaps the inflatable ones (cheap) or those which are the size of a small ball (hand-held for pupils to hold and examine). Having a set of fifteen so the children can work together on them is helpful.

Games and activities using globes First, allow looking (and spinning) time. See how children respond when given a globe. They will start to point and discuss it. Where have they seen one before? Do not forget the level of detail it contains that we might take for granted! There is so much detail to see and wonder about. Develop ideas meeting the needs of your class using the ideas below.

KS1/2: Globe guesser

KS2: Find on the globe

Pass it round and use repetitive phrases. Children can repeat/copy/ develop ideas for example, Q. Point to … (location, feature, descriptor: hot/cold/busy/empty place). KS1 focus: UK, Continents, Oceans. KS2: Significant features like rivers, mountains, capital cities. General knowledge: Q. I’m touching ‘India’, what’s a nearby country, river, landmark?

Print a list of the major world cities off an internet source like Wikipedia. Cut out and set a whiteboard/ computer timer. Practise in pairs finding and ticking off locations. Q. Can we improve our score? Q. Which are the most important places in the world?

KS2: ‘CCC’ Hemisphere Challenge (Two teams) Spin the Globe on the table/floor. The first team have to name a ‘City, Country or Continent’ in the hemisphere touching the table. If the opposing team can do the same for the other half, both teams score. If not, only one scores. Facilitate discussion about lines of latitude and longitude as well as the tropics and equator with older children. (Continued)

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KS2: Globe dice – ABC Using a large dice throw a number. If a four then that is the fourth letter in the alphabet – Can you think of a place with that letter? For example, Denmark Q. Can you find it? Throw again: six (six letters on from D is J) Where could that be? For example Jamaica.

KS2: Distance globe Compare distances in travelling around the world. Use the list of places above. Estimate first if children are confident. Then: Choose two locations and place the string from the departure to the destination locations following longitude or latitude. Give directions, for example, London to Sydney.

KS1/2: Alphabet globe Cover a plastic globe with place names starting with different letters of the alphabet. Or have twenty-six post-it notes per group and then find places on the globe for each letter.

KS2: Spot the Biggest/Smallest/ and so on Use the globe to look for ‘large’ and ‘small’ features. Children could be asked to find the largest continent or ocean; smallest of four named islands; countries bigger or smaller than another country; the longest mountain range or river or the largest lake or inland sea. They can set each other features and places to find.

KS2: Discover a route to Australia! Argentina! Ask children to trace a route with whiteboard pen to go to places and write down with a partner the countries they would pass through. Can they go through as many as possible or as few as possible? Can they go through the whole alphabet?

KS2: Where would I like to go? If children had the chance to travel anywhere in the world, where would they visit? Use the inflatable globe to support discussion. Explain why. If they have limited ideas about where and why – or even misconceived ideas – challenge the children to find out about that or another place and report back in a later lesson.

KS2: Five seas, three oceans Start at a major world city (London, Paris, Berlin, Rio de Janeiro, Beijing, New York, Sydney, Lagos, Mumbai). Ask children to go across the oceans.

KS1: You can’t swim! Ask children to write down and count the number of countries they can travel through before they have to swim. Rules: They can only go into each country once.

KS2: In the news Give children a free newspaper and ask them to highlight any countries mentioned. Look especially at the Sport and Business sections. Why are more places not mentioned?

KS1/2: Hot then cold

KS2: Other extremes Using the website https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/ show this on a screen and ask: Who can see the hottest place today? Coldest? Cloudiest? Who can find these? Change the tabs, see the capitals, most popular. Then sort by Continent.

Children start at a cold place for example, Arctic, Antarctic and then visit a hot place for example Sahara desert. In KS2 they can try to include mountain ranges. You might want to use a list.

Highest/Lowest/Largest? Using the Wikipedia page below to guide your discussion prepare some questions for the children. Can they guess? Lowest electricity consumption per capita (Afghanistan). Largest exporter of pears (Argentina). Largest orange producer (Brazil). Largest number of lakes and Longest border (Canada). Largest wheat, garlic, rice, plum, salt tractor, gold producer (China) and so on. Most mobile phone connections (China). This will help embed some of the key terms related to world trade. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_top_ international_rankings_by_country

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Maths (size and relevance of number), distance and scale can be developed through pupils’ understanding of different ways of recording locations in the world.

Creativity with maps and children’s books Many children’s stories are based around a journey and are therefore perfect for us to make creative connections to geography! As author David Macaulay says, all books are journeys: ‘the best books take us to places we’ve never been, be they distant lands or uncharted internal realms’ (Macaulay in Silvey 1995, p. 424). The much loved (and used) book We’re Going on a Bear Hunt (Rosen and Oxenbury 1993) has inspired many imaginative journeys through its illustrations and pupils are often tasked with overlaying the journeys undertaken on their own world in creative EYFS classrooms. The story ‘map’ outlined below could be used for just such a purpose. This enshrines what the NACCCE (see above) shows about creativity – using imagination through a purpose and being original, as every journey will be different.

Long wavy grass →

A deep cold river →

Thick oozy mud →

A big dark forest →

A snowstorm →

A cave! →

Back through the long way grass ←

Back through a deep cold river ←

Back through thick oozy mud ←

Back through a big dark forest ←

Back through a snowstorm ←

Back through the cave ←

↓ Back home to my bedroom. Source: Adapted from the story structure in the book We’re Going on a Bear Hunt by Michael Rosen and Helen Oxenbury (Walker Books, 1993).

The power of this sort of frame for thinking in geography is that it could allow them to be, as Macaulay suggests, distant lands or uncharted internal realms as well as related to a real location. Here is an example of one I have done in a nearby school: We’re Going on a Headteacher Hunt!

A BEAR! →

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Short, cut football grass

A deep, dirty pond

A rainstorm

→

Feet-stamped A dark window mud → →

→ Back through the short, cut football grass

Back through deep, dirty pond

Back through Back to look the feetthrough the stamped mud dark window

Back through the rainstorm

←

←

←

←

→

←

A climbing frame!

The Head teacher!

→

→

Back over the climbing frame ←

↓ Back ‘home’, to the classroom

Barlow and Witt (2014), in an article titled ‘Joy of the Little Journeys’, recount a similar journey where young children might show their natural curiosity about environments and engage in ‘encounters with place’. As television explorer Ray Mears suggested when thinking about his own childhood explorations, ‘Big journeys start with little journeys … and as your confidence grows the trails grow longer’ (Moss 2013). Barlow and Witt suggest that the article in the Rosen book is used alongside a simple framework to consider with pupils how they might record what they find, of Explore > Organize > Guide > Record which is exemplified further below. Barlow and Witt then go on to exemplify a photostory exploration of a small country house estate imagining pupils taking a sensory journey through active engagement with place. Figure 3.6  Map of bridge. A map, whatever its medium or its message, is always a creative interpretation of the space it claims to represent like this one drawn by a 7-year-old of a journey. ‘Maps are always images of elsewhere, imaginatively transporting their viewers to faraway, unknown places, recreating distance in the palm of your hand. Consulting a world map ensures that faraway is always close at hand’ (Brotton 2012, pp. 14–15).

Geography as an Irresistible Activity

START: Explore possibilities.

DEVELOP: Organize ideas.

Explore the site and identify key features. Make links to prior knowledge, stories, find opportunities to highlight geographical issues and develop vocabulary.

Consider exciting contexts for the pupils’ geographical explorations. Think of journeys through a trail, treasure hunt or purpose: searching for something or for someone.



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GUIDE: Guide explorations.

CAPTURE: Record Decide how pupils’ journey/s explorations. will be scaffolded. Consider Support the development how you need to or might of geographical limit pupils’ interactions. knowledge, understanding, Ensure time/space for skills and vocabulary. observation, ways to pause. Consider how this can be Consider if you need to shared with others or uses model respect for places or adult interpretation to with/for other users. enable all to share views.

Further books to inspire pupil journeys and maps Through illustrations or photographs that paint a ‘picture of place’, picture books can do this much more vividly than just through a description. This helps to add to the imaginative potential of what could be drawn out and imagined by pupils. KS2: Where the Bugaboo Lives by Sean Taylor and Neal Layton (illustrator) (2015) London: Walker.

Example locations: Tree – Field – Floyd’s House – The Valley – Paths (Summer/ Winter/Autumn/ Neat) – Rickety Bridge – River – Grand House – Cave – Tree with the tyre Tell Me a Dragon by Jackie Morris (2009) London: Frances Lincoln Silver moon-path in the sky/Castle/City / Village River/Sea-dragon/Ice-dragon/ Bird, Butterfly, Eel by James Prosek (2009) New York: Simon and Schuster Farm/Meadow/Pond/Barn/Downstream> Ocean/SW> Coast/Southerly Winds> Over land and sea/Back North/Up the creek/ North: The Greatest Animal Journey on Earth by Nick Dowson and Patrick Benson (illustrator) (2011) London: Walker Wild place, Arctic/Icy desert/Frozen seas/Tiny algae/Tundra/Mexican lagoon/Pacific Ocean/Los Angeles/ San Francisco/Vancouver Island/Anchorage/Arctic Circle/Antarctica/New Zealand/Mexico/Chinese lake/ Canadian Forests/Arctic Ocean floor/Alaska/Norwegian Sea/Spitzbergen/North/South Just imagine that this was the view from your bedroom window. Where in the world could it be? Just imagine being a child in such a large city with a huge park on your doorstep.

One Day: Around the World in 24 hours by Suma Din and Christiane Engel (illustrator) (2013) London: A&C Black/Bloomsbury Have you ever thought about what a child in South Africa is doing when you’re waking up? Maybe you’ve wondered what a child in Australia is doing when you’re eating your breakfast. And where in the world do children wake up just as you are going to bed? Follow fifteen children through their day and night and see what they all get up to. While Victor’s fishing in Peru, Mini is walking all the way to his uncle’s house in the D R Congo. At the same time, Paige is looking out for the Southern Star at night in Australia and Chica’s baking sweet bread after school in Portugal. (2013, p. 3) The traditional tale of the Three Little Pigs is a useful ‘journey’ to different types of property and these could be in specific locations, possibly in different continents.

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Other ways you could use models of journeys from stories are using images of particular habitats and pupils’ knowledge of the creatures that inhabit them. Excellent books to stimulate thought are Usborne’s Look Inside (London, The Sea, Jungle, etc.) series. Good examples of the many types of habitats you could use can be found online at http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/habitats and could be adapted to suit any learning about different landscapes throughout KS1 and KS2. The following are the examples from this site: Beech wood/Broadleaf forest/Brownfield land/ Chalk grassland/Coniferous forest/Desert Farmland/Flooded grassland/Heathland/ Hedgerows/Limestone pavements/Mangroves/Mediterranean forest/Moorland/ Mountain grassland.

Pause for thought Look through this list and see if you could describe or visualize what these habitats look like or where in the world you might find these. Classifying places according to habitat is very important in KS2 geography as we are to talk to children about biomes. These are very broad brush descriptions of locations and place knowledge, but move us away from just thinking about political boundaries and more about physical geography.

Going beyond Google: Creative ways with real maps What is the map?

Things you can do with children

Train maps. The following map (Figure 3.7) of the Northern Line on London’s ‘tube’ network is similar to maps that are used around the UK and the world and echo Harry Beck’s classic electrical circuit-style design. This design for London’s Underground railway has become so influential that it is regularly regarded as a style icon. It is worth going online to learn more about what a big development in our ability to understand sometimes difficult city interconnections this was. Crucially for children we need to remind them that this removes any sense of time, place and topography only leaving the (often confusing and esoteric) names of the stations. How far is it from Goodge Street to Green Park? On the tube it might be ten minutes but that does not take into account how deep underground it actually is, where it actually takes you (Green Park is a big place) and which end of Goodge Street you might need.

Get children used to counting numbers of stops and writing questions for each other based on stops. Q. If it takes five minutes to get between each station, how much time would it take to travel along the whole line? Using these transport maps and showing children the reality of how they snake underground or overground can be quite revealing. Show children appropriate maps for where you are studying: the London Tube Map, Glasgow Subway, or Liverpool, Newcastle, Greater Manchester Metro Map and its real overground route.



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What is the map?

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Things you can do with children Figure 3.7  Northern Line. Linear maps of transport lines: image of Northern Line Southern Spur.

Bus maps. These can be found online for London buses and most major cities and could be used to plot journeys. They can also be useful for you and children to get familiarized with the major routes. Buses usually go along … (main roads, busy streets, shopping routes, often in poorer/established areas). There is no bus service near us because … (it’s not needed/there used to be one/everyone has a car, etc.).

Many children might not have been on a bus, especially outside of a large city. The same could be said of a train or tram. Do a survey of children’s transport before you use this as you might need to use some drama techniques to enhance how you teach this so children have some concept of what you are talking about.

You could also look out for cycle maps for cycle hire schemes. Many of these maps can be picked up at Transport interchanges. If you’re visiting London do collect them for free from libraries, stations or Transport for London information centres. They can also be found and sometimes ordered online! Walking Maps. These are usually the Ordnance Survey maps in the Explorer series. These are at 1:25,000 scale, so every 4 cm on the map equals 1 km in the real world. They show the best detail including footpaths, rights of way, open access land and the vegetation on the land. You can get them centred on your school, landmarks and on wipe clean/almost indestructible plastic for use outdoors.

These are essential for fieldwork and for children to get a full oversight. Don’t forget you can find them free online as well as through Bing Maps or via the OS themselves. https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/ opendata/viewer/ (Continued)

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What is the map?

Things you can do with children

Pattern maps. These are maps where the locational geography is less important. Put simply, this is removing all the labels and focussing on the land use and patterns and processes in the locations. The best place to find these online is maps.stamen.com. You can view the world using Google Maps’ interface but overlay either a Terrain level, Watercolour or Toner display.

The latter two are most useful for saying: Is this a city, town or countryside? (See the number of streets and their density.) How does Manhattan, New York, compare to London (e.g. grid-iron patterns vs historical twisty and windy streets in London)? How is our location different to a similar village, town or city? Using the Stamen Maps (online) Watercolour feature, can we identify the names of the different green-spaces and water courses near us? Where does the river start and stop?

Patterns in human geography through aerial images, for example, from Google. There are many websites where you can see patterns that can be seen from above in aerial photographs. These are similar to those seen in Yann ArthusBertrand’s Earth from the Air (2002) photographs.

An example website: ‘From artificial lakes and densely populated sprawls, to circular developments and incomplete projects (abandoned due to lack of funding), this gallery of aerial captures shows the fascinating patterns of human development that can only be found when seen from above.’ http://twistedsifter.com/2012/09/patterns-ofhuman-development-on-google-maps/

Figure 3.8  Planned Paris. A similar grid pattern to other cities, following revolutionary times and clear rules governing how cities should grow and develop.

Also the planned development of cities based on concentric circles and wide boulevards from Paris, copied by North and South American cities such as Washington and Buenos Aires. Contrast these with those in Hong Kong which chose not to redevelop after a major change (fire, war, revolution: political, economic) in this way. Figure 3.9  Planned Washington. A grid-pattern design with clear vistas signifies the centre of the US capital.

Geography as an Irresistible Activity

What is the map?

Things you can do with children Figure 3.10  Hong Kong. Planned and developed in a much different way to American cities which aped their European neighbours.

 

Figure 3.11  Brindley Place, Birmingham. Choosing locations where there is lots of variety is always useful for using alongside a map. Urban environments where there is water (canal), a range of low and high buildings as well as features such as bridges and open public spaces have a clear sense of place and will include many types of map symbols.



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Developing spatial awareness Using maps, looking at images from different perspectives and looking for patterns in the landscape might develop pupils’ spatial awareness. It always helps if they can relate it to the real world, a sight in front of them so they can make the connection between space and scale as in Figure 3.12. The curriculum asks pupils to be able to ‘analyse and communicate with a range of data ... interpret a range of sources of geographical information’ as well as locate cities, towns and regions and types of settlement and land use (DfE 2014). One way of doing this is to familiarize children with scale in particular through deliberate exercises. Here are some ideas of how you might go about this. Comparing the real world with a map is an important skill to develop the connection between space and scale.

Figure 3.12  ‘OS map real world’. This image shows an OS map being used in a real setting showing the exact location in North Yorkshire that is being featured. Considering what is excluded, included or surprising is a useful strategy with pupils.

Geography as an Irresistible Activity

How far is it between? KS1: Distance between London and Edinburgh? 332 miles as the crow flies; 414 miles by land transport. KS2: Comparing the UK to the US? How far is London, UK, from Los Angeles, CA? 5450 miles.



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Choose two UK locations and find out the distance between them including using land transport. It is good for children to realize here that there are counterpart locations with the same name elsewhere in the world. There is more than one London, Birmingham, Manchester, and so on in other locations in the UK in different parts of the world. They need to select the right one. https://www.freemaptools.com/how-far-is-it-between.htm

These are particularly important as SatNav in the UK uses these to Distance between UK postcodes? Children can compare two places they navigate to the correct place. know and estimate the postcodes. https://www.freemaptools.com/distance-between-uk-postcodes.htm Notable UK postcodes to search out London: 10 Downing Street: SW1A 2AA; Buckingham Palace: SW1A 1AA; The London Eye: SE1 7PB; Houses of Parliament: SW1A 0AA; Children can practise putting these into a search engine and finding out The Shard: SE1 9SG; St Paul’s Cathedral: EC4M 8AD; Kings Cross Station – where Harry Potter’s Platform 9¾ is: N1 9AP; UK: Scottish where these places are. Can they Parliament, Edinburgh: EH99 1SP; Welsh Assembly, Cardiff: CF99 guess from the above method? Can they find out the postcodes of nearby 1NA; Stormont, Belfast: BT4 3XX; Giant’s Causeway, Antrim: BT57 8SU; Eilean Donan Castle, Scotland: IV40 8DX; Lands End: TR19 landmark buildings? Certainly for some children the postcodes of foot- 7AA; Old Trafford Football Ground: M16 0RA (Manchester United).

ball grounds could be a very fruitful way for them to study the geography of the UK.

Figure 3.13  The London Eye: SE1 7PB. This image is in South East (SE) London and looks towards the London Eye. It also includes a large area of tourist-popular London including Bankside, Bermondsey, Borough, Newington, North Lambeth, South Bank, Southwark, Waterloo.

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Famous world postcodes/addresses 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington DC (Home of the US President);中国的长城 (Huairou, China); Uluru (Ayer’s Rock) It is worth discussing why these Lasseter Highway, Uluru NT 0872; Table Mountain Aerial Cableway places are so famous. What are the places famous for? Is it power, fun or Tafelberg Rd, Gardens, Cape Town, 8001; Red Square, Moskva, Russia, 109012; Palácio do Congresso Nacional – Praça dos 3 places that are very special. When you search online there is a Western Poderes, Brasília – DF, 70160-900, Brazil; Imperial Palace (皇居, bias to this so we have supplemented Kōkyo); 350 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10118 (Empire State Building); 221B Baker St, London, England (Sherlock Homes with other locations. Museum); Tour Eiffel Champ de Mars, Paris (Eiffel Tower); 4059   Mt Lee Dr. Hollywood, CA 90068 (The ‘Hollywood sign’); Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island New York, NY 10004; Manager Square, Bethlehem, West Bank; 2 Macquarie Street, Sydney (Opera House). Figure 3.14  Central Park, Manhattan Island and Central Park, New York City 10023, 10065, 10024, 10025 are just some of the zip codes (post codes) here.

Pause for thought Have you ever wondered how UK postcodes work? Investigate this by looking at the UK postcodes above and any that you know yourself. Can you guess what a postcode might be for a famous city. Look it up here: http://www.royalmail.com/ find-a-postcode

SW1

A

2

AA

Area

District

Sector

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Using Google Maps’ aerial view and OS’s Opendata app online (https://www. ordnancesurvey.co.uk/opendata/viewer/index.html) look up these different places and see if you can work out some enquiry questions you could ask children about each of them. What strikes you as you look at them? What is significant?

Five most desirable places to live in England

Five most desirable places to live in Scotland

Five most desirable places to live in Wales

Five most desirable places to live in Northern Ireland

1. CH63 – Bebington, Wirral

1. G78 – Neilson, East Renfrewshire

1. CF63 – Barry, Vale of Glamorgan

1. BT65 – Craigavon, County Armagh

2. NR6 – North and North West Norwich

2. G64 – Bishopbriggs

2. CF24 – Cardiff Central

2. BT16 – Dundonald, Belfast

3. SA1 – Swansea 4. SA5 – Swansea

3. BT64 – CraigavonLurgan

5. SA72 – Pembroke Dock

4. BT66 – Lurgan, County Armagh

3. BH18 – Broadstone, Bournemouth

3. G66 – Lenzie/ Kirkintilloch, East Dunbartonshire

4. M33 – Sale, Greater Manchester

4. G76 – Eaglesham, East Renfrewshire

5. PO32 – East Cowes, Isle of Wight

5. G62 – Milngavie, East Dunbartonshire

Source: Royal Mail

2017 Royal Mail analysis identified ‘the postcodes with the best work-life balance in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales’. It took the following factors into account, using data from government agencies, the Office for National Statistics and the Land Registry Employment opportunities, Health, Education and training opportunities, Levels of crime, Homelessness, Household overcrowding, Ease of access to local services, Quality of the physical environment, Housing affordability (Source: BBC)

http://www. royalmailgroup.com/bigcity-suburbs-win-out-mostdesirable-place-live

5. BT10 – Finaghy, Belfast

Figure 3.15  This is Land’s End. Address and postcode: Sennen, Penzance TR19 7AA.

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Further pause for thought What else could you do with this list? What makes a good place to live? Why do we like/dislike living where we live? Use the search engines above to find out about these. This is important as it gets children away from seeing a ‘chocolate box’ image. These are places where children just like them live. Give the range of locations such as coastal, island, peninsula, central city, suburb, country – that would give a lot for children to discuss and find out further about. They could present their findings and crucially think about similarities and differences between where they live and these places. Using some of the ideas in Chapter 5 (the Michael Storm-originated enquiry questions, for example) would be useful.

Final thoughts on creativity in mapping Here are some ideas you could use to develop pupils’ creativity in mapping and their graphicacy.

Journey sticks

Most often used with EYFS and KS1 children.

‘Journey sticks are created when pupils walk around an area and collect items that interest them, attaching these in chronological order to a stick, thus marking the journey they have taken (Figure 3.16). The items are personal to each pupil, which encourages a sense of personal geographical experience. Once back in the classroom the pupils transfer their journey sticks onto a linear map showing the start and end of a journey. At this stage, pupils can draw on their feelings, to begin to introduce the concept of affective mapping’ (Whittle 2006). See a video of this online: https://www. tes.com/teaching-resource/teachers-tv-journey-sticks-6048401 Figure 3.16  Barnaby’s journey stick. Take a bear on a journey and see what you and (they) see. Record it in a variety of ways including on a stick itself!

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Journey talk strings

An extension to the above idea for KS2 children. See Figure 3.17



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Similar to the above idea but children are given a piece of string of any length with 5 cm by 2 cm labels attached to it. This provides a finite writing/drawing surface for them to spot aspects of place knowledge worth talking about. They can be given a finite area or set of aspects to look for and record using words, pictures or numbers. It is a good idea to have the children place the string in their pockets for a period of time before they go to explore the area first so they think carefully about what is worth recording. This can be done in any environment including an urban environment where there might be a multitude of things they could record. What they did not select can be as important as what they did! Figure 3.17  Talk string. An alternative to the Journey stick idea and easier to carry. Suitable for older children they mark, sketch, count or write their impressions and do so in a linear and chronological fashion so that they can recount a journey once completed. Both sides of the stickers can be used – there and then back! This promotes quality talk between children about what they saw, what they found significant and why.

Nested hierarchies These are like Russian dolls and tell the story of a place through its connections with other places.

See Figure 3.18 for the multitude of names a location can have. The idea is deceptively simple, that smaller places are located inside larger places. These can be very personal and could be called a geography of me. Here is an example: Table 4, Room 12, Building C, City School, Froebel Road, Londonton, South Westville, Ericston, Southern UK, UK, Great Britain, Europe, The World! They can be written as a list or drawn in concentric circles on a paper plate and cut up in a spiral for even more effect and a useful display. See Storey (n.d.) for more on nested hierarchies and pupils’ understanding. Figure 3.18  Nested hierarchies.

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Sound mapping

A simple way for children to concentrate and map sound pollution.

Affective mapping This is a map that records feelings and emotional responses to places.

Take a square piece of card and record all the sound you can hear from different directions. Turn over and do in a contrasting place. Build up a series of sound maps. Each child can do one for their home learning task. Can anyone guess where they were when they recorded their findings? An alternative idea is to go for a sound walk by giving them a strip of card and recording a set number of steps where they should think of a dominant sound. Can the children think of an interesting sound walk near them? Can they think of a sound walk to maximize loud noises/quiet noises? A sound walk for someone new to the area? An alternative is to make a paper fortune teller and put directions on it to send children to explore the environment in a defined area. This could include looking for shapes, patterns, colours or textures in the environment. It would be especially useful for EYFS children. Similarly, a good alternative is to give children sets of emoticons you can find easily via image searches online. Choose them carefully and discuss the reactions the faces are showing beforehand. Alternatively give the children a blank map of the school in outline and ask them to rate places they go to on a scale of happiness, security or other aspects you wish to discuss. You could also talk about improving the environment in this sort of task.

Myriorama endless Search online for these to see what they look like. They are a folded picture story of a particular (usually fictional) place. You could make these. They might mirror the books landscapes! Window or Belonging by Jeannie Baker which show how a location can change and develop over time. Junk mapping Any cardboard waste can be used for children to create representations of places!

This is a way that children can visualize an area they are familiar with and build it so that they create landmark buildings or aspects. The project this refers to is described in more detail in Chapter 5 and on the Geographical Association’s Young Geographers website where you can find resources produced by one of the authors while at St Peter’s Primary school. Figure 3.19 also shows a (for comparison) high street in Spain. Figure 3.19  Junk. This is an example of a two-day junk modelling exercise by a group of Year 3 pupils who after a series of local walks then made a map of their journey. They could explore this map, compare it to ‘adult maps’ and examine issues related to their area by placing key landmarks on it. They included roads and fields on the map and could appreciate the variety that their area had to offer. More details can be found on the Young Geographers Project website.

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Shoebox miniworlds/Landscape in a Box A shoebox and creative ideas are all that are required.

Children create a representation of a location they have been studying. Based on researching images, maps and learning about the location beforehand, they select and then create significant landmarks, physical geographical aspects and add aspects that could be labelled with suitable vocabulary. Older children would need less guidance; younger ones might need more attention to create a poster as they might not have the skills. This could be taught in conjunction with Design Technology lessons. Excellent examples from Year 7 can be found online on the blog of Secondary geographer Alan Parkinson.

Collage maps Using collections of images taken to re-create a sense of place.

These images of human and physical features can be taken by adults or children. They are then cut out and arranged in large collages and used to discuss aspects of place as well as contrasts. In this example a town and city are compared, with major landmarks included as well as lesser known, local aspects. Using Google images is another way of doing this quickly. Figure 3.20  Collage maps local area.

Linear maps of a street Go on a walk and represent the buildings and create a sequence.

In this particular example with a group of 7-year-old children in Year 3 we created a street scene with an artist in residence who was very good at getting pupils to notice aspects of the built environment that they might not have noticed such as the shape of window frames or whether there was vegetation on the outside or not. These often were not noticed on the pupils’ first visit. With thanks to Joy Kilptrick: https://joykilpatrick.wordpress.com/ Figure 3.21  Clay Street scene. 7-year-olds’ street scenes building up their sense of the human geography environment. What are the details we often miss? Fail to appreciate?

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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 3.22  Charney map. This hand-drawn map represents a sensory journey. Look at the video created from the photostory here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bqPY6RsY9Dg. Can you match the images of place to the representation on the map? The story is told through the form of a hunt: ‘Who is Charney Bassett?’ (with the answer being the place you’re being shown around). Using this as a basis for your own teaching (maybe as a contrasting place study) you could ask similar questions. You can see an online map of the site by typing into a search engine: Wantage OX12 OEJ.

Summary This chapter has discussed how maps are a vital way for us to understand and locate ourselves in the world. It has shown ways that geography can be made interesting and irresistible through maps, atlases and globes. It has had children at the centre of its focus as creative actors in their own worlds with personal geography at its heart. The games, activities and photographs allow teachers to build their own models of practice and to share perspectives from human and physical geography, both near and far.

Recommended reading Scoffham, S. (ed.) (2017). Teaching Geography Creatively. Abingdon: Routledge. Scoffham, S. and Owens, P. (2017). Bloomsbury Curriculum Basics: Teaching Primary Geography. London: Bloomsbury.

Recommended websites TTS: http://www.tts-group.co.uk/ Wildgoose: http://www.wildgoose.ac/ Young Geographers Project: https://www.geography.org.uk/Young-Geographers-Project-St-Peters-Smithills-Dean-CE-Primary-School-Bolton

Chapter 4 Geography as a Practical Activity Chapter objectives ●●

to establish principles about thinking geographically through practical activities when teaching outdoors

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to widen perspectives about the full range of practical activities in outdoor environments

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to exemplify ideas for activities in outdoor environments including school sites, grounds and urban areas and to consider their human and physical geography

Introduction This chapter will consider what many adults recall fondly about their geography teaching from childhood: geography as a practical activity outdoors. It is true not all adults the authors have worked with do recall it as such, but crucially even decades on they do recall it. This suggests something profound about working in places other than the classroom which we will discuss. The status of learning outdoors in geography has rarely been higher, and ‘fieldwork’ is now one of the four key elements of the NC for children aged 5–13. This chapter argues that learning outdoors is uniquely placed within the geography curriculum and it also builds on many skills developed in the EYFS. However, as with many other areas of geography, competing interests such as science experiments outdoors, Forest Schools (FS) or school trips are alternatives, have captured wider attention and can crowd out geography. Cross-subject connections will need to be made (in particular with science) and time needs to be allocated for this which we discuss. The chapter shows through examples and case studies the potential of going beyond the four walls of the classroom and broadening your outlook as to what might be considered the outdoors and gives practical suggestions. Overall, we recognize that being outdoors can mean many different things to different people, and for us to attain mastery, we need to accept this.

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Pause for thought Before reading this chapter, think about the following: Why shouldn’t every child spend a week in the countryside every term? Why shouldn’t everyone be allowed to develop the kind of skills the children I met were learning: rock climbing, gorge scrambling, caving, night walking, ropework and natural history? Getting wet and tired and filthy and cold, immersing yourself, metaphorically and literally, in the natural world: surely by these means you discover more about yourself and the world around you than you do during three months in a classroom. What kind of government would deprive children of this experience? (Monbiot 2017b, p. 42)

Do you agree that this is possible or desirable? Have you ever gone rock climbing, gorge scrambling, caving, night-walking and done ropework? Do you immerse yourself in the natural world? What are the barriers to you doing these sorts of activities? More widely, is this the job of a school? If not, might some children never do these sorts of activities? Are there skills or attitudes that doing such activities beyond the activity itself that these promote? Where the ‘countryside’ is will depend on where you live and your (and your pupils’) experiences: one person’s scene of the country or (as already discussed in Chapter 1) ‘nature’ might be another’s urban jungle.

Figure 4.1  Bath: Countryside, city? Natural or not?

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Figure 4.2  Tobermory Mull: Town, village, city? Rural, urban, countryside? How can we tell? What informs our view?

Introduction This chapter supports the English NC for geography (2014) and refers to the ‘fieldwork and skills’ section in particular. This states the following: In the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS):

‘Understanding the world involves guiding children to make sense of their physical world and their community through opportunities to explore, observe and find out about people, places, technology and the environment’. Understanding the world is split into two parts pertaining particularly to geography:

People and communities: They know about similarities and differences between themselves and others, and among families, communities and traditions. The world: Children know about similarities and differences in relation to places, objects, materials and living things. They talk about the features of their own immediate environment and how environments might vary from one another. They make observations of animals and plants and explain why some things occur, and talk about changes (DfE 2017). (Continued)

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In Key Stage 1 the Fieldwork and Skills part builds on what has already been said about locational, place and Human/Physical geography by saying children should:

Use simple compass directions (north, south, east and west) and locational and directional language (for example, near and far, left and right), to describe the location of features and routes on a map; Use aerial photographs and plan perspectives to recognize landmarks and basic human and physical features, devise a simple map, and use and construct basic symbols in a key; Use simple fieldwork and observational skills to study the geography of their school and its grounds and the key human and physical features of its surrounding environment (DfE 2014a, emphasis ours).

In Key Stage 2 the Fieldwork and Skills part builds on what has already been said about locational, place and Human/Physical geography by saying children should:

Use maps, atlases, globes and digital/computer mapping to locate countries and describe features studied; Use the 8 points of a compass, 4- and 6-figure grid references, symbols and key (including the use of OS maps) to build their knowledge of the United Kingdom and the wider world; Use fieldwork to observe, measure, record and present the human and physical features in the local area using a range of methods, including sketch maps, plans and graphs, and digital technologies (DfE 2014a).

When you imagine the sites in which outdoor learning might occur, you might consider images like those conjured by George Monbiot earlier in this chapter. Outdoor learning is a very broad title and as you will see below there are many synonyms for this. The risk is with any outdoor learning that it is left for one season, usually after Easter in the UK. It is also reliant on good weather and is liable to cancellation on health and safety grounds. Even worse, as we will see with many activities, they are often not badged as geography at all. This can, in some schools, leave a gulf between the often excellent EYFS experiences – the high street, shops, park, pond and farm – while much of pupils’ primary learning might remain fieldwork-free. Often when we speak with children, they challenge us as to what they want out of time spent outdoors. As Jay Griffiths reports in her book Kith: The Riddle of the Childscape: ‘In England, an environmental play project called “Wild about Play” asked children what they most wanted to do outdoors, and the answer was to collect and eat wild foods. ... For years of evolutionary history, children have trapped, grown, found, hunted or fished for themselves’ (Griffiths 2013, pp. 45–6). How revealing – a return to a more rooted, land-nature relationship is what the children wanted. Maybe there is something in all of us that makes us think that living in and from the land is our ultimate ‘good life’ aspiration. An EYFS good practice example in outdoor learning can be found in this extract from Corsham Primary School, found by Ofsted in 2013: In the Early Years Foundation Stage, there are six topics – one each for the six terms. Some topics, like ‘Caring and sharing’ and the ‘Seaside’ have a specific geographical

Geography as a Practical Activity

focus, but geography is also clearly evident in other topics. Throughout, there is a clear focus on the environment, the local area and sustainability. Pupils also go on weekly ‘welly walks’ to develop an awareness of their surroundings. In term six, there is a fieldwork visit to Warleigh farm. (2013, p. 3)

Pause for thought How much experience of the EYFS curriculum do you have? How many young children do you know or how many settings have you been to? What is their provision for the under 5s compared to the over 5s? Why do you think this is? Why might geography (and outdoor learning) feature more heavily in the EYFS than in other age phases?

Ofsted’s views in 2011 about ninety-one visits to primary schools in general found: In just over half the schools visited, opportunities for fieldwork had decreased substantially in recent years. In the primary schools visited, fieldwork happened more often in Reception classes and Key Stage 1 than in Key Stage 2. Fieldwork with younger pupils used the school grounds and local area very effectively to meet the requirements of the programmes of study. (2011, p. 41)

What makes this all the worse is the experiences pupils have in the upper years of primary education where outdoor learning might just be for a ‘school journey’ or celebratory post-SAT test visits. As Ofsted found: ‘Most of the activities were linked to physical and team-building activities such as caving and archery and much of this work had little to do with geography.’ They also said of their sample of schools from the period 2007 to 2011 that ‘in other classes, fieldwork was limited. Visits to the local woods in Key Stage 1 tended to focus on science by looking at leaves, seeds and plants. The visits provided a context for writing in various genres, but there was no real evidence of learning in geography’ (2011, pp. 40–1). What this suggests is there is both a crisis of confidence and a lack of time, regular time. Especially devoted to learning beyond the four walls of the classroom. This concurs with the Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment Survey which found that in an average month in 2013–14: ●●

Only 8 per cent of all children in England (aged 5–16) visited natural environments with their schools.

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Interestingly, too, in children’s leisure time, the area that they explore and play around their homes has reduced by 90 per cent over the past twenty years.

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A similar decline in opportunity has been observed in children’s access to the outdoors from Foundation Stage onward, and many thousands of children across England have not even been to their local beach, park or woodland.



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Using experts to teach outdoor learning through geography As is alluded to above, going on a residential might be one way a school might justify time and space for learning outside the classroom and to build geographical skills and knowledge. Allowing your geography to be taught by outdoor education providers can be mixed in these authors’ experience. Organizations like the Field Studies Council can excel at both meeting curriculum requirements and those of the visiting school alongside providing inspiring experiences in wonderful locations. This sort of provision can remove the worry about covering aspects of the curriculum as teachers are provided with curriculum-linked documents for proof that the curriculum has been ‘met’. Indeed in the introduction we mentioned these sorts of experiences being particularly memorable for adults due to their total immersion but they still might not contribute to pupils’ long-term development of geographical concepts if not repeated regularly. If we consider mastery in learning to be, as Chapter 1 suggests, something that is more gradual, takes all children with you and has a clear sense of progression, this is problematic. Can mastery of the ‘outdoors’ be done and absorbed in a single, week-long experience?

What is outdoor learning? As ever, we have been using this term so far in the chapter and have not hazarded a definition. Read the following from guerilla geographer Dan Raven-Ellison and see if you see anything of yourself in what he writes: From an early age I had the freedom to go exploring. Along with my brothers and friends, I would play well-organized games of ‘hide and seek’, ‘forty-forty’ or ‘capture the flag’ over large areas of woodland … . I would imagine myself as a lynx, a shadow in the woodland’s canopy, quietly watching as people passed below without noticing me. In the heat and excitement of the games, I used these quiet moments to tune into the wild around me … I do remember the smell of damp earth, the comfort of being protected from the elements, the relief of being adultfree and a great sense of achievement. The woods felt as though they were ours. (Raven-Ellison 2015, n.p.)

One thing that Raven-Ellison conjures up is something this chapter seeks to remove from readers’ minds: that of idealized childhoods and bucolic countryside settings as being the place that such experiences can take place. Raven-Ellison’s was not necessarily such (it was the suburbs of London) but it was still ‘advantaged’ compared to many children we might teach today. Griffiths links childhood unhappiness today to a lack of universal rites of passage and the freedoms of ‘space, time and deep play’. While I might not have had such a rich childhood as the one which she describes,

Geography as a Practical Activity

this author’s view of place formed through books describing how things are made. These glossy, photo-stories showed a series of processes leading to milk, bread and breakfast cereal being made. What I saw reassured; endless, swaying wheat-fields, cows in green pasture, and rustic bakers baking: it was geography for my soul. One phrase I have grown to like recently is ‘Open spaces. Open minds’ the motto of the university in which I work when I joined. It reflected the spaces for learning that surrounded the different buildings rather than just the buildings themselves. It conjures up feelings many of us might feel about working outdoors, that allow us to develop our minds differently and promote academic achievement. Indeed, research has suggested this recently (Flouri, Papachristou and Midouhas 2018). As the images on the next two pages are of very different settings, even the seemingly most unpromising sites for learning which are ‘on your doorstep’ can be useful. All of these are examples of what you might find near your school or a short walk from it and show examples of what potential such settings might have. Allied to these examples is an interesting survey in the Times Educational Supplement (TES) where 2,500 teenagers were asked for ‘100 things you should have done at school before the age of 11’. It is interesting to see the focus on the school when one might argue that many of these could/should be done by parents and guardians. However, what is interesting from the personal selection on the next page is how many could be met through the geography or wider ‘outdoors curriculum’ (TES 2016). Below is a personal selection (see the full list online).

Figure 4.3  Den building. Increasingly popular, den building is sometimes criticized for disturbing the rotting wood which promotes a biodiverse wood and means children stray off the path in sometimes protected areas. However, if a balance is between children engaging with their local environment and not, surely it is worth continuing? If they are taught ‘gentle footsteps’ and to ‘leave no trace’ that they were ever there once they are gone, then their dens, special spaces and sources of immense pleasure outdoors might be maintained.



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Get covered in paint/mud/chalk; Have a water fight; Go swimming; Throw a paper plane; Learn how to get on with everyone; Grow some flowers or vegetables; Learn to feel confident in front of your class; Be a leader of a group; Feel like you can trust someone; Teach part of a lesson to your class; Take part in outdoor learning; Fail so that you can improve on your mistakes; Feel happy and safe; Find out about different cultures; Be caring; Take part in a special event; Be inspired by a teacher; Read a book on the grass on a sunny day; Run around in the rain; Play conkers; Make a daisy chain; Go pond dipping; Try different types of food; Eat your lunch in the rain on a school trip; Learn to look after yourself. (TES 2016)

It is also true how many of these things to do, even from older children mirror those skills the EYFS develops which the wider national curriculum for older children does not address explicitly, hoping that the schools will be doing these as well.

Pause for thought See Figure 4.4, a children’s play space in central London. The EYFS often has dedicated spaces for play but once children are in KS1 they are often not provided with in-school facilities to be imaginative and creative outdoors. Football can, in many schools, dominate. Is this a problem? Is it only when children are away from familiar environments on, for example, an upper KS2 school journey that children experience a freedom and chance to play creatively and roam? What is a school’s role here? Should we expect some experiences to be provided by parents/ guardians?

Figure 4.4  Play space in central London.

Geography as a Practical Activity

Bruner and a spiral of experiences outdoors This chapter argues that a spiral of experiences outdoors (like that advocated by Jerome Bruner) where children revisit their experiences, build knowledge and understanding and practice new and previously learnt skills (GTC 2006) is required. This chapter also argues that, despite Key Stage 2 arguing that we should move children ‘beyond’ the local area (DfE 2014a), it is of vital importance. This chapter will also allow you to embed your practice locally and for you to consider the riches on any doorstep, riches which can help you and your pupils to ‘think geographically’ (see Chapter 3 for more on this).

Examining your attitude to the outdoors The type of outdoor learning described in this pack is something quite different from ‘outdoor pursuits’. It is not rock-climbing or kayaking. It is about taking your normal everyday curriculum and teaching it outside. The outdoor areas you use could be very close to the school and within walking distance – it might be the school grounds, a local park or a nearby patch of woodland. So, no long bus journey, no cost and no high-risk activity! (Woodland Trust n.d.)

So often, as this pack from the Woodland Trust attests to, we need reassurance we are on the right track! Teacher confidence in teaching outdoors is certainly one key reason why it is more challenging. As teacher educators, we find students who are well-suited to teaching children from age 5 are not always people who find they can work within the specific requirements of the EYFS, with its ethos of ‘enabling environments’. These provide ‘opportunities for young children to be active and interactive; and to develop their co-ordination, control, and movement ... guiding children to make sense of their physical world ... enabling children to explore and play. ... Play is essential for children’s development, building their confidence as they learn to explore’ (DfE 2017). This can be a challenge for some. Maybe as a society we have got out of the habit of allowing children the freedom to play in natural and built surroundings? Consult the websites at the end of the chapter for more inspiration for working with children in cities.

Pause for thought So what is at the root of our inability to try teaching outdoors? Try this exercise loosely based on a questionnaire from the RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) which is part of their Connection to Nature campaign for 8–12-year-olds. It might make you think about what it is you like or dislike about the outdoors or what are your personal barriers to taking children outdoors.



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Definitely Maybe Not really Score: 7, 8, 9 or 10 Score: 4, 5, 6 Score: 1, 2, 3 or 4

I enjoy being outdoors I enjoy different sounds outdoors I appreciate trees and their settings I enjoy seeing wild plants/flowers I enjoy looking up/at the stars I enjoy the outdoors/nature to ‘get away’ The outdoors makes me feel peaceful/switch off I’m happy outdoors for long periods Being outdoors makes me happy I like to plant, grow and garden I spot/might collect natural materials, rocks or shells I feel sad when wild animals are hurt I like to see wild animals living in an appropriate environment I make sure I touch animals and plants Taking care of animals is important to me Humans are part of the natural world People cannot live without plants and animals My actions change the outdoors Picking up litter makes a difference We don’t have the right to alter the natural environment You could use this with fellow staff or children. Consider your answers and compare them with others. If you score 140–200 Wow – are you sure you need this book? You can call yourself a geographer! 100–140 You’re likely to be a brilliant role model for the pupils in your care and like the outdoors. You’re an emerging geographer! 60–100 Being outdoors and allowing yourself time to ‘think geographically’ is not something you do regularly. Why not set yourself a target to work through more of the exercises in this book and see the potential of geography?

Geography as a Practical Activity

Pause for thought Read the following quotations and consider if you can see the perspective they are arguing from. Do you agree? Do you think it is quite a simplistic view? I see a love for the diversity and richness of nature as an aesthetic and cultural impulse identical to the love of art. It is a form of culture as refined and intense as any other, yet those who profess it tend to be regarded as nerds, not connoisseurs (that’s true snobbery for you). (Monbiot 2013) If we called protected areas ‘places of natural wonder’, we would not only speak to people’s love of nature, but also establish an aspiration that conveys what they ought to be. Let’s stop using the word environment, and use terms such as ‘living planet’ and ‘natural world’ instead, as they allow us to form a picture of what we are describing. (Monbiot 2017c) Children’s view of nature is increasingly distant, abstract, and utilitarian. However affluent, their lives are impoverished by diminishing contact with nature. Their imaginations, stimulated by television and computers, are being impoverished ecologically, socially, and spiritually. (Professor David W. Orr, Environmental Studies and Politics, Oberlin College, Ohio, cited in RSPB 2010, p. 10)

Geography – a love of the world? There is a danger that the 2014 curriculum takes us back to what Professor Orr describes: a click-based, virtually viewed, literal and non-experiential view of the world. As Monbiot argues above, there is perhaps a shift in our perception of geography from its quantitative scientific roots (as discussed a little in Chapter 2) to a more holistic view of it which can aid our thinking of it in creative terms. There are others who concur, as in the past decade there has been a resurgence in writing about the natural world (Macfarlane 2013). As Macfarlane argues this is because ‘people are spending increasing amounts of time in atmosphere-controlled environments, hunched at keyboards. An inevitable consequence of this has been a longing for wildness and nature: the feel of wind and sun upon the face, or the sight of a stooping falcon, or of an oak tree in spring leaf’ (2013, p. 166).



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Pause for thought There is a useful list in Macfarlane’s 2005 Guardian article about place-specific UK writers who you might go to for inspiration for your teaching of the outdoors. You can find named examples at the end of this chapter. As Macfarlane goes on to say: ‘literature possesses certain special abilities, very different to those of science. It can convey us into the minds of other people, and even – speculatively – the minds of other species… . Crucially it can ... make us feel things “in the gut” – fear, loss and damage, certainly, but also hope, beauty and wonder ... . We will not save what we do not love’. (2013, p. 167)

So these writers are bridging a possible gap in our imagination about the world. There are a lot of other things going on here – a narrative that values the nation-state against external threats might be one – but overall they are perhaps a romance for past times. In the New Statesman in 2015 Macfarlane cites Gregory Bateson who talks of this separation where his remedy was the development of an ‘ecology of mind’. The steps towards such a ‘mind’ were literature, art, music, play, wonder and attention to nature (Macfarlane 2015). I would sound a note of caution here with drawing too many parallels to what is possible in primary education but we should see this as a challenge to move traditional modes of teaching geography.

Pause for thought Read the following and think how conducive your area is to getting outdoors. As well as maintaining a healthy diet, the government recommends at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity per week. Examples of moderate exercise include cycling and fast walking. More than half of adults in England (57%) were meeting this guideline in 2013 to 2015. York was the most active area in England, with nearly 70% of adults meeting the exercise guideline. Healthy life expectancy is above average at 66 for males and females in York. Meanwhile, the Olympic legacy is yet to materialise in the London borough of Newham. Despite hosting the Games in 2012, Newham was the least active area for adults in England (less than 45% of adults met the recommendation). People born in Newham in 2013 to 2015 are likely to live only 60 years in good health. (ONS 2017)

Now consider how accessible or safe is our area for exercise for all ages, aptitudes, abilities and disabilities. Search http://visual.ons.gov.uk/what-affects-an-areashealthy-life-expectancy/to find current exercise patterns. A good debate to have with children is what types of exercise you might have. Walking is always an excellent exercise, as is using a bike.

Geography as a Practical Activity

Current trends when considering outdoor learning In the reflections above you might have started to consider your personal attitude to the outdoors. This is important: whether you are regularly outdoors or not, many would agree that more engagement with the outdoors is desirable. The reasons and justification for this are many and might include some of these below used to justify why children should spend more time outdoors. Perhaps the major trend in working outdoors with children and schools today is ‘FS’ practitioners and their activities in and with schools. As authors who lead courses in geography for teachers and work with trainees in hundreds of schools, we have seen a trend for discussion of geography to quickly turn to FS when outdoor learning is mentioned. This is, in our experience, inner London schools or those in our experience in large metropolitan areas in the North of England or the South West and is worth considering the impact or possibilities of this before we continue.

Pause for thought Read the extract below of a ‘thrilling and inspiring’ example given by Ofsted of Forest Schools. [Forest Schools is a] thrilling and inspiring environment for children to explore and take risks. Children thrive in this inclusive, exciting and stimulating setting, because practitioners focus their attention upon their unique and individual needs ... . It’s not about the forest it’s about putting skills in place for the children – personal skills, team work, environmental skills, physical skills, writing and early numeracy. ... But the woodland is not essential – with imagination any school could develop this approach. (Ofsted Case Study 2011a, p. 1)

Another example showed that Forest School was used as ‘a way of engaging a small group of boys who were underachieving and were not keen to be at school. These boys showed an interest in the natural environment and we capitalized on this by providing practical learning sessions working outdoors in the school grounds and woods’ (Ofsted Case Study 2011b, p. 1). What is your view of this? Do you agree? Are there dangers here? We will discuss these below.

Forest Schools The apparent success of the FS approach over the past ten years suggests a new stimulus for working outdoors with children that shows little sign of slowing down. This can be no bad thing? It might be that there is a particular need being met, or just



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that it is new or well marketed and backed by credible organizations. If it is measured by Google searches alone, the term FS has continued to rise since Google records started in 2004. At the same time, interestingly, searches for primary geography have fallen (Google Trends data, author research). Searches show that FS is up to ten to fifteen times more popular a search term than primary geography. It is up to fifty times more popular than geography fieldwork or the term primary fieldwork. Interestingly, FS as a term is almost twice as popular in England as Wales and three times as popular than in Scotland (Google Trends, personal analysis 2017). Where there might be argued to be less woodland in England, there is oddly more interest. This might suggest something of the dilemma of the more urban South: what we feel an absence of, we wish more to include. (Note on analysis: The population density (one measure of the absence of natural space) is six times lower in Scotland and almost three times lower in Wales (National Records of Scotland, Office for National Statistics 2012).) While this is only one way to quantify FS, the pro­liferation of books, journals and organizations offering this as well as our anecdotal evidence suggests a powerful new movement. Of the many books recently published on the history, practice and possibilities of FSs, those by Sarah Knight are some most highly recommended (Knight 2012, 2013, 2016).

What are the key features of Forest Schools? ●●

the use of a woodland setting

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a high ratio of adults to pupils

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learning linked to the National Curriculum and Foundation-Stage objectives

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the freedom to explore using multiple senses

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regular contact for the children with FS over a significant period of time (O’Brien and Murray 2006, p. 3)

Practitioners training schools and teachers in FS have bold claims: ‘Forest Schools is fundamentally one of the most important educational developments in the world today. It is changing the way people think about education and about our connection to nature’ (Forest Schools Education Ltd n.d.). FS is ‘an inspirational process that offers children, young people and adults regular opportunities to achieve, and develop confidence and self-esteem through hands-on learning experiences in a woodland environment’ (Forest Education Initiative cited in O’Brien and Murray 2006). If you are interested in this area, it is worth looking at the myth-busting website of the Forest Schools Association (FSA) to verify and test these claims. Whatever FS’s benefits or prescription for accessing learning outdoors, it does suggest that you need to be trained in a ‘process’, it is a way of thinking (something a subject itself like geography might claim to be) and it is largely limited to woodland. In addition, the impression given on some websites is that outdoor learning is an exclusive, complex, difficult and ‘health and safety nightmare’ of a proposition. As the most prominent writer on FS said in 2013, FS can be a ‘constraining influence rather than

Geography as a Practical Activity

an inspiring one, as practitioners hide behind their lack of Forest School training as an excuse for not engaging in any outdoor learning. It has always been the case that it is the adults rather than the children who have been reluctant to go outside, with reasons stated variously as weather, temperature, mud etc. If the experiences of all children included what is essentially sensory and messy outdoor play and gardening, then there is no reason why this can’t be achieved in all settings, then the pressure is lifted from Forest School training to legitimise such everyday experiences. ... This doesn’t need special training, only an open mind and a commitment to do what is in children’s best interests’ (Knight 2013, pp. 36–7). This need not be the case. Research has shown that FS is said to develop the following skills. Those highlighted are ones we think any geographical teaching outdoors, done well, can contribute to as well: ●●

Confidence: children had the freedom, time and space to learn and demonstrate independence

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Social skills: children gained increased awareness of the consequences of their actions on peers through team activities such as sharing tools and participating in play

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Communication: language development was prompted by the children’s sensory experiences

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Motivation: the woodland tended to fascinate the children and they developed a keenness to participate and the ability to concentrate over longer periods of time

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Physical skills: these improvements were characterized by the development of physical stamina and gross and fine motor skills

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Knowledge and understanding: the children developed an interest in the natural surroundings and respect for the environment (Adapted from O’Brien and Murray 2006)

Finally, the risk is that making access to the forest so dependent on adults could lead it to be ignored as a place for a simple exploration and the sort of fun that RavenEllison describes at the start of this chapter.

Other recent movements promoting outdoor learning While FS has certainly filled a gap with its growth in the new millennium, there have been many other campaigns with varying success which have helped fix a wider public gaze on the importance of learning outdoors. These authors wonder if much of this is down to the lack of leadership and direction from the DfE/QCA/QCDA and so on, on learning outdoors and the flux in the English NC up to its revision in 2013. If this area interests you, you might wish to look up the various bodies, charities and groups whose links are suggested below for ways to inspire you. We have linked to a research base if there is evidence backing these up.



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Name

Link/details/research base and connection to geography

Online database of experiences which ‘all children should have’. They are worth National Trust Fifty Things to do by the time reflecting on: when was the last time you rolled down a hill or climbed a tree? https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/50-things-to-do you are 11¾. Perhaps the most successful of these campaigns and with an aim of shifting perception of the Trust as more than just a stately homes and landowner organization and being much more ‘family friendly’.

Research: Natural Childhood Report 2012: ‘Climbing a tree – working out how to start, testing for strength, feeling how the breeze in your face also sways the branches underfoot, glimpsing the changing vista through the leaves, dreaming about being king or queen of the jungle, shouting to your friends below once you’ve got as high as you dare – is an immersive, 360-degree experience that virtual or indoor settings simply cannot compare with’ (Tim Gill, child play expert, cited in https://nt.global.ssl.fastly.net/documents/read-our-natural-childhoodreport.pdf)

Geography Collective/Mission: Explore/ExplorerHq (2007-ongoing) a collective of Guerrilla Geographers who encourage (young) people to see and think about our world in new ways.

https://ravenellison.com/portfolio/missionexplore/ and http://www. geographypods.com/using-missionexplore.html: The aim is to create young explorers. Challenges might involve creative or emotional responses. The aim is similar to the National Trust – build up a bank of experiences. Another aim is for teachers to think differently when planning fieldwork activities: an environmental quality survey in the local area could give the house with the best kept garden a certificate!

RSPB Every Child Outdoors Children need nature. Nature needs children.

‘Our Every Child Outdoors research ... draws together the findings from the wide range of research that has been carried out into the positive impacts that contact with nature has on children, as well as on the environment. It also explores some of the consequences of the loss of such experiences. ... Over the last decade, a large amount of research has been carried out into the diverse benefits for children of contact with nature and outdoor experiences. These benefits include positive impacts on education, physical health, emotional wellbeing and personal and social skills, including the development of responsible citizens’ (https://www. rspb.org.uk/Images/everychildoutdoors_tcm9-259689.pdf). Ofsted has cited: ‘When planned and implemented well, learning outside the classroom contributed significantly to raising standards and improving pupils’ personal, social and emotional development … [and] could make an important contribution to pupils’ future economic wellbeing and to preparing them for the next stage of their lives.’ ‘Learning outside the classroom can also help to combat underachievement. … Pupils whose behaviour in other circumstances had been reported as poor often responded well to involvement in high quality, stimulating activities [outdoors]’ (2010, p. 5).

‘Set free their wild side with our 50 things to do activities. Explore the outdoors, learn new skills and try something different’

Human and physical worlds are included as evidence. Physical Health, Mental Well-being and Evidence of contributions to personal and social skills are developed. Conclusion: ‘Enshrine the value of outdoor learning and environmental responsibility in national curricula’ (RSPB 2010, p. 12).

Geography as a Practical Activity



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Name

Link/details/research base and connection to geography

Natural England’s Childhood and Nature report: a survey on changing relationships with nature across generations (2009).

‘Children spend less time playing in natural places, such as woodlands, countryside and heaths than they did in previous generations. Less than 10 per cent play in such places compared to 40 per cent of adults when they were young. ... There is little difference in attitudes across the country and little difference in attitudes based on whether adults and children live in urban or rural communities’ (2009, p. 5). ‘Parents would like their children to be able to play in natural spaces unsupervised (85%) but fears of strangers and road safety prevent them from giving much freedom to their children. Children would like more freedom to play outside (81%). Nearly half of the children say they are not allowed to play outside unsupervised and nearly a quarter are worried to be out alone’ (2009, p. 5).

Project Wild Thing/The Wild Network https:// www.thewildnetwork. com/ (2013–ongoing) ‘a collaboration of more than a 1,000 organisations – from schools and children’s charities to the NHS and the National Trust – committed to getting children outside more’.

‘Rewilding childhood’ ‘The reasons why kids, whether they live in cities or the countryside, have become disconnected from nature and the outdoors are complex. Project Wild Thing isn’t some misty-eyed nostalgia for the past. We need to make more space for wild time in children’s daily routine, freeing this generation of kids to have the sort of experiences that many of us took for granted. It’s all about finding wildness on your doorstep and discovering the sights, sounds and smells of nature, whether in a back garden, local park or green space at the end of the road’ (David Bond speaking to Burns 2013). Barriers to ‘wild time’ FEAR: Stranger danger; Risk-averse culture; Danger streets; Calamity. TIME: Time poor parents; Nature Starved curriculum; Lack of free-range play. SPACE: Vanishing green space; Play INC; Kidvertising Technology: Rise of screen time. Explanation of these terms. https://www.thewildnetwork.com/ inspiration/breaking-down-the-barriers-to-wild-time

Empty/Outdoor Classroom Day https:// outdoorclassroomday. org.uk/

‘Outdoor Classroom Day is a day to celebrate and inspire outdoor learning and play’. On the same day in May thousands of schools around the world will take lessons outside and prioritize playtime. ‘Why? Outdoor learning improves children’s health, engages them with learning and leads to a greater connection with nature. Play not only teaches critical life skills such as resilience, teamwork and creativity, but is central to children’s enjoyment of childhood’.

Beach School Teach on the Beach Various organizations. For example https://www. beachschoolssouthwest. co.uk/

‘Research carried out by ourselves and partners in the south west currently is adding to the mounting evidence of the health and well-being benefits of engaging with the marine environment. ... There are potentially no limits to the power of a prescription of “a bit of sea time”. Paul Cox, National Marine Aquarium. “The results of their outings adorn the walls – poems on the theme of “winter beach”, talk of “the taste of the salty sea air” and “a snapped cuttlefish bone as white as snow and paper”. Making their experiences real and using their senses improves their science, speech, writing and art’, says deputy head teacher Jo Halley. http://www.lyndhurstfirstschool.co.uk/page/?pid=189 Wider curriculum links https://www.beachschoolssouthwest.co.uk/what-we-do/education/ 11,000 miles of shores that surround the British Isles; marine beach ecosystems as a learning resource; development of understanding of the management methods of local marine ecosystems. Practicalities: Tidal forecasts Seasons and tides; Fires and landowners; Safety.

Forestry Commission: Love Outdoor Play/Play England ‘Freedom To Play’; see evidence below from Learning in your forest Forman 2017.

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SECTION 1: IDENTIFYING THE OUTDOORS Part 1: Locating the outdoors Part 2: Evidence for teaching outdoors Part 3: Other claims for the outdoors

Part 1: Locating the outdoors Where is the outdoors? So far we have deliberately chosen to describe what it is, but in geography we need to consider the location of it specifically. Ultimately this is simply working beyond the room where most of the teaching you do with your pupils takes place. This is usually called fieldwork. Other synonymous phrases you will see include ‘fieldtrips’, ‘countryside’, ‘environmental learning’, ‘living geography’, ‘real-world’ learning, ‘residentials’, ‘Learning Outside the Classroom LOTC’ and ‘Learning in Natural Environments’. None are inherently wrong but they do create problems of perception which ‘outdoors’ removes. Such terms are imbued with meaning for teachers and the many practitioners who work in outdoor settings. As said before, it also does not need to be in nature, as this, too, is a very contested term. Definitions might include:

●● ●●

●●

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Urban nature: nature in urban settings (e.g. gardens, parks, leisure parks)  gricultural nature: a primarily agricultural landscape with small, set-aside A patches of nature  atural forests: nature in woodland where management is geared towards N more authentic vegetation  ild nature: nature in an environment that develops spontaneously and W can be maintained with minimal management (natural rivers, marshy woodlands, etc.).

Source: The Health Council of the Netherlands and Dutch Advisory Council for Research on Spatial Planning Nature and the Environment (2004, p. 25).

Pause for thought How many of these types of ‘nature’ can you identify near you? Will this impact on the type of geography you can teach?

Geography as a Practical Activity Figure 4.5  The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park and Queen’s Jubilee (1977) Greenway near Stratford, London, are arguably good examples of urban nature in a big city environment.

There are also very different levels of contact we might have with the outdoors and nature – one that we advocate is a very active, analytical and experiential approach. Pretty suggests three levels of engagement with nature. ‘The first is viewing nature, as through a window, or in a book, on television or in a painting. The second is being in the presence of usually nearby nature, which is incidental to some other activity, such as walking or cycling to work, or reading on a garden seat or talking to friends in a park. The third is active participation and involvement with nature, such as gardening or farming, trekking or running’ (Pretty 2004, p. 68). Which do you do? Which can your pupils easily access? Ultimately, this should not lead us to just think this should occur in a field either just because we are calling it fieldwork. It might be the local park but it could equally be using your school building and grounds, the housing estate/development your school is on/near, a landmark or nearby green space. We think it could and should particularly apply to your local residential and high streets, where pupils are given the choice and chance to discuss what sort of street/s they want to live in. David Harvey argues, ‘The freedom to make and remake our cities and ourselves is … one of the most precious yet most neglected of our human rights’. Mastering local geography can do this. Harvey continues that the city you get to cannot be divorced from that of what kind of social ties, relationship to nature, lifestyles, technologies and aesthetic values there are. This is ‘a common rather than an individual right since this transformation inevitably depends upon the exercise of a collective power to reshape the processes of urbanization’ (2008). What we need to work on is children’s understanding that streets around them should primarily be for people and our safety is something that can be examined and studied. Mastering geography outdoors, therefore, needs to remove any limits



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we might have on outdoor working being in just ‘natural’ spaces, places where green is the predominant colour. This way the full range of human-impacted spaces can be considered. This is very important for the possibilities these places give as pupils’ understanding of the everyday world is enhanced when they can revisit, reflect and revise their opinion of such settings on future visits. There can be, in our opinion, issues with the processes usually studied in outdoor work in geography. This typically could be a river study looking at ‘deposition’ or to look at a particular significant rock outcrop showing processes that sometimes happen over a very long time. Geological time can be measured in tens, hundreds or thousands of years. This is an imaginative leap we must help children take, but in early experiences of geography for children to understand the concepts of change, we need to allow them to see change happening all around them. This is something young children can find very hard to grasp.

Pause for thought Did you play in the street as a child? What facilities did you have near you that you could have to play in? Is the street a good place to play? Why? Why not? Interestingly, 13 per cent of 10–11-year-old children’s monitored time after school is spent outdoors but just 2 per cent of this is ‘spent in green spaces, with the majority of their time outdoors spent on built surfaces including streets’ (Wheeler et al. cited in Page et al., cited in Play England 2016, p. 9). Look at the work undertaken by Living Streets (formerly The Pedestrians’ Association). They promote the Walk to School weeks particularly: https://www.livingstreets.org.uk/ what-we-do/walk-to-school

Figure 4.6  Seville Festival. Life on the street. Non-UK settings have very different relationships with public spaces such as the street.

Geography as a Practical Activity

The value of the street Streets account for 80% of London’s public spaces. They play a fundamental role in moving people around safely, and well-designed streets can help enhance quality of life. (Transport for London 2017) Streets are places for people. Successful streetscapes are inclusive and provide for the competing requirements of their users, including pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, bus operators, bus passengers, private vehicle owners, and freight vehicle operators. (Transport for London 2016)

In London and major cities there has been huge investment in streets making them much better for walkers and cyclists. In smaller towns and villages this is sometimes less of the case. With children you might wish to investigate road-calming schemes as an example of why aspects of the world need not be always as they seem.

Listed below are examples of road calming you might look for or suggest ●●

●● ●●

 oad Humps (sleeping policemen). Road humps are used to stop people R speeding up rather than slowing them down. Speed Tables. Road humps with a flattened top.  oad Width Restrictions/Build Outs. Sometimes with trees and plants growing R in them.

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Lane Width Restrictions.

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Gateways/Entry Points.

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 umble Strips and Dragon’s Teeth. A change in the road surface which R alerts the driver by a change in the sound and feel of the car. Dragon’s teeth provide a visual change and narrowing of the road.

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Pedestrian Crossings.

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Pedestrian refuges.

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Roundabouts.

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One-way roads.

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Severed roads. Roads where posts are put in to close a road at one end.

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Parking restrictions. Often found outside schools.

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Signs. Directing traffic to a particular speed.

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Interactive Sign. Flash when the correct/incorrect speed is achieved.

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F ootpath. This can be introducing or re-introducing a stretch where there is none currently.

Source: cornwall.gov.uk



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These impositions on the built landscape can take a long time to plan and can be controversial with local opposition. You can find images for all these online to show children as well as take images yourself locally. It would be an interesting exercise to map your locality for these features. As you can see in the example enquiry as part of the GA Young Geographers Project (see p. 90 for reference) this is what children asked most questions about when they were really attentive to their local area on a fieldwork one of the authors carried out. These are all human aspects of the environment and are important for how our streets, towns and cities work.

Road safety campaigns Anyone teaching in the UK around the turn of the millennium might have used the ‘Hedgehog’ road safety campaigns to help teach road safety. These brilliant minutelong animations for 3–9-year-olds can now be found on YouTube and for younger children they are invaluable to teach them road safety lessons. They are the much more appropriate counterpoint to the more recent, hard-hitting teenage-aimed films of recent years. Animated hedgehogs show how you should cross the road carefully to the memorable tune of the Bee Gee’s ‘Stayin’ Alive’ and the song ‘King of the Road’. They show how children should ‘Stop. Think. Listen. Live’.

Pause for thought How were you taught road safety when you were at school? Did you also do cycling proficiency tests, have the fire service and police to come and visit? All of these services do, still, in some areas have an excellent programme of engagement, but in many others the provision has been severely cut back where it relied on local authority support. Check your local council’s website; there may be a ‘highways officer’ who still does school visits or there might be road safety schemes that you and your children can opt into. Is this geography? When we are educating children about their own locality, the people who care and are responsible for it and how it can be managed and changed, this is definitely geography and can fit into the curriculum in many different ways. There are obvious cross-overs with the citizenship and PSHE curriculum. The focus on geography is processes, key human features of the landscape, and using fieldwork and observational skills.

Other ideas for street-level geography The chart opposite shows ways you could do street-level geography. Here children judge the walking quality on a series of local footpaths or streets to form an overall view.

Geography as a Practical Activity

What to look for

>Driveways/ Junctions Convenience – How easy is it to walk? >Is it direct? Are there desire lines or elephant paths? Why? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_path >At junctions: Is there priority over cars? >Is there a Pelican crossing? How long do people have to wait? How much time do people have when crossing? >How much control do people have (e.g. do they have to ‘apply’ to cross)? Comfort >Is the footway level, smooth, non-slippery? >Is the route at a continuous level? >How is the air quality? >What is the proximity to moving traffic? >Is there absence of footway parking? >Is it uncrowded? >Is the route broad enough for its use, and unobstructed? >How is the lighting quality? >Is there weather protection/overhanging trees? Appearance >Diversity of activity (walking, dog walkers, strollers) >Times at which there is activity >Cleanliness >Quality of design and landscaping >Equipment for walking/ ‘staying’ (e.g. seating, litter bins, public toilet)  

>Street clear, visible from eye level, well lit >Property numbers comprehensive >Public buildings and other key locations signposted >Bus stops and stations signposted >Local map provided at bus stops and stations >Bus stops and stations have display board, kiosk, etc. >Other walking routes waymarked >Less obvious routes signed (e.g. through housing estates to local centre/school) Source: Adapted from Gardner et al. (1996).

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An interesting piece of research cited by Owens found that children might benefit from naming places outdoors. As she says: ‘All practitioners realise the value of indoor signs as an aid to learning and yet often, little use is made of the outdoors ... . This would convey a sense of value of both child and environment. Signs could incorporate labels for features, directions to places within the grounds and information panels. Children could also be involved in deciding what is labelled, and by giving names to areas that reflect their personal engagement. Young children are known to enjoy personalising private play areas by giving them names’ (Matthews 1992 cited in Owens 2004, p. 15).

Pause for thought What is your perception about the range of experience that children have? Reflect again on Raven-Ellison’s on page 96.

Children’s experience in the outdoors: Do children choose the street? Overall, the evidence does show that over the last five decades there has been a reduction in children’s independent outdoor activity. Forman cites that in 2010 only 25 per cent of English primary age children were allowed to travel home from school alone in 2010 compared with 86 per cent in 1971 (Shaw et al. cited in Forman 2017). In 1971, 71 per cent of adults played out in the street or neighbourhood as children, compared to only 21 per cent of children today (Lacey 2007 cited in Forman 2017, p. 1). While we might think they would choose a nice park to play in if it is available, the use of the street to play seems to be through children’s choice as much as necessity. Natural England found: ‘The most popular place for children to play is in their home, while for adults it was outdoors in local streets. Sixty-two per cent of children said they played at home indoors more than any other place. Forty-two per cent of adults said they played outdoors in local streets more than in any other place. Three quarters of adults claimed to have had a patch of nature near their homes and over half went there at least once or twice a week. Sixty-four per cent of children reckon they have a patch of nature near their homes but less than a quarter go there once or twice a week. The favourite places to play have changed over time. In the past these were in the streets, near home (29%), indoors (16%) and in some natural places (15%) whereas nowadays children like playing indoors best (41%) and, to a lesser extent, in the garden (17%)’ (Natural England 2009, p. 5). The following factors were found to be (and might impact on) how you teach about the local area and what factors you might consider. This research is particularly focused on housing development, what you might call estates rather than individual dwellings.

Geography as a Practical Activity

Proximity to home

Residential streets were the most valued play space; children preferred to play in open view rather than in more hidden areas. Their range increased with age but security and convenience were important.

Social contact

Locations where interactions are found are popular and children want to be where they are likely to meet up with their friends (front wall/street corner).

Accessibility of key Children’s key locations in their neighbourhood were friends’ houses, destinations shops and play areas, often unsupervised. The second most popular activity was simply walking or cycling around. Children valued playing in a broad range of places and safe routes improved their satisfaction. Children’s independent mobility (it is suggested) has been overlooked in the design of cities. The range of play opportunities

A variety of places stimulate outdoor play and children value having access to a variety of spaces as sites for different types of play experiences.

Traffic

Traffic speed and volume has an effect on street use: light traffic meant more neighbours were known and a greater sense of belonging and familiarity with physical features was shown. Speed of traffic was a factor in the social function of the street. Low traffic speed and volume led to the most play.

Based on two main surveys and edited from a comprehensive literature review compiled by Helen Forman (2017, pp. 4–5), the whole document is well worth reading.

Part 2: Evidence for teaching outdoors The evidence for fieldwork’s efficacy in pupils mastering geography has been established for at least forty years and it is such a strong development that it is now named explicitly in the curriculum. ‘Children are instinctively drawn to nature, and nature can provide the opportunity to develop spatial awareness and relationships that form some of the building blocks of higher order thinking. Being free to roam is a concept that we know our children treasure; our job is to provide the safe position from which they can, and in some circumstances, this means bringing nature inside’ (Hay 2015, p. 143). As Hay suggests, often grand claims can be made for fieldwork which this section will outline, but instinctively when teachers are asked it is seen as a ‘good thing’. It is also, often, seen as a way to get children to ‘think geographically’ in the real world.



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Pause for thought What are your views and opinions on fieldwork? Read these two sources of evidence and think about your view. The evidence suggests that fieldwork, as part of what is being taught, is better than no fieldwork.

Substantial evidence exists to indicate that fieldwork, properly conceived, adequately planned, well taught and effectively followed-up, offers learners opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills in ways that add value to their everyday experience in the classroom (Rickinson et al. 2004, p. 5). The full document, A Review of Research on Outdoor Education, is worth reading. Students who receive either form of fieldwork will perform better on a test of knowledge acquired for a learning program in geography than those who receive no fieldwork. … With respect to performance on a test of retention of knowledge, fieldwork which encourages processing will be superior to fieldwork which does not, and both will be superior to instruction without fieldwork (MacKenzie and White 1977, p. 625). Importantly this study found that: * The students use all appropriate senses, not just sight, in interacting with their environment. * The students become an active part of the scene rather than observers of it. * The students experience a few unusual and striking events which illustrate key, not peripheral, principles. * The students generate information rather than receive it. * The students construct their own records of the scene rather than accept the teacher’s version. * The teacher ensures that students link events with principles instead of leaving students to form their own links (1977, p. 626).

Geography as a Practical Activity

This later research paper is most interesting as it starts to suggest a pedagogy for teaching, that it should be facilitated, be where pupils generate findings and data and should be guided and not be didactic. Interestingly this was contrasted to a situation where ‘the teacher dominated ... . No unusual events were arranged ... [and] in general they were recipients of information’ (1977, p. 626). The recent LINE (Learning in Environment) report (Waite et al. 2016) agrees with the conclusion that ‘outdoor learning isn’t a subject or topic; it’s a way of teaching’. Skates says that it is a ‘tool for teaching and learning’ which should be part of a planned, frequent, progressive sequence of activities which build on previous learning (Skates in Waite et al. 2016, p. xvii). This is discussed more in the next chapter relating to enquiry in the geography curriculum.

Pause for thought Think of outdoor learning you have done with children and think about the way learning occurred. What settings were you in, who was in control, who set the boundaries? Were children engaged more or less than being indoors? This quotation suggests a specific pedagogy for outdoor learning; do you think this is the case? Has anyone ever taught you how to ‘do’ outdoor learning? Your response might be different if you work with early years children. Is geography the only subject in which to ‘do’ learning outdoors? Why? Why not?

The Ofsted view on fieldwork has been clear: ‘Schools should recognise the value of fieldwork for improving standards and achievement in geography’ (Ofsted 2008). So often in geography this is not the case.

Part 3: Other claims for the outdoors As you can see from the Natural England ‘Natural Connections Demonstration Project’ below alongside campaigns from such notable bodies as the National Trust and RSPB earlier in the chapter, a lot of superlatives for the benefits of being outdoors can be made. The sense that simply being outdoors is good for you is a common theme. There is now a substantial body of evidence which tends to demonstrate a positive association between learning which takes place in the natural environment and delivery of a diverse range of learning processes and outcomes, including cognitive outcomes and attitudinal, social and developmental outcomes in people of all ages. There is less evidence available on individual outcomes, how these are enabled, or whether these outcomes are more likely to be delivered through learning outdoors



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than in the classroom. There is also a small body of evidence which indicates that a greater quantity of natural environments in or around the living or educational setting is associated with positive learning, behavioural and emotional processes and outcomes. The majority of the evidence relates to children. (Waite et al. on behalf of Natural England 2016, p. 1)

Again we would counsel that you are careful when interpreting this and not discount the many opportunities that urban spaces can hold for working on pupils’ geographical development. There is much less research on pupils’ understanding of their locality or urban areas. We should not be swayed as geographers that this has to be a green space, as the report says a natural environment is ‘learning that took place outdoors in natural environments either within school grounds or within walking distance from school’ (2017, p. 16) and that ‘playgrounds and tarmac spaces, although not part of the natural environment, were also important for providing spaces for teachers new to LINE to develop their confidence and outdoor practice and as (often larger) spaces for group demonstration and/or discussion’ (p. 70). Indeed the report says that embodiment of ourselves in place, experiential learning somewhere and enjoyment are important (2017, p. 8). Authenticity or it being ‘real’ is also cited by Waite (2010, 2017); again if it is very local this is a good thing. Evidence shows that giving children the opportunity to discover, learn about and experience the natural world is hugely important – it can help create a sense of belonging rooted in their local environment, enhancing their health, wellbeing and educational outcomes. For example, greater amounts of natural space in or around living or learning environments is associated with higher levels of physical activity, better emotional, behavioural and cognitive outcomes and with children developing a greater sense of connectedness to nature. (Waite et al. 2016, p. 6)

Another important report giving us evidence for the value of outdoor learning is ‘The Marmot Review’ into health inequalities in England published in 2010. It proposes an evidence-based strategy to address the social determinants of health, the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age and which can lead to health inequalities. It argued about space outdoors: Access to good quality (quality is very important as access to poor quality ‘green’ space doesn’t show the same benefits) green space has a clear effect on physical and mental health and well-being. Many studies show the positive effect of good quality green space – it helps to decrease blood pressure and cholesterol, improve mental health and the ability to face problems, and reduce stress levels. Green space also encourages social contact and integration, provides space for physical activity

Geography as a Practical Activity

and play, improves air quality and reduces urban heat island effects. Considering the strong evidence around the relationship between green space, health and wellbeing, it is perhaps worrying that there is a significant difference in the frequency of different classes visiting a green space. (Marmot 2010, p. 11)

Further benefits cited in Marmot (2010). ●●

Improves physical/mental health and well-being.

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Lowers blood pressure and cholesterol.

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Reduces stress levels.

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Leads to better perceived general health and ability to face problems.

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Encourages social contact and integration.

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Provides space for physical activity and play.

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Improves air quality and reduces the urban heat island effects (taken from Marmot 2010, pp. 81–2).

‘A natural play environment at school also helps reduce bullying, increases creative play, improves concentration and a feeling of self worth in children’ (Marmot 2010, p. 132).

Figure 4.8  Damming a river. An example of natural play where a child is damming a small stream. How many children have had this sort of experience? Is it important?



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Pause for thought The Marmot Review brings aspects such as social contact, mental health, class and integration into the discussion. Thinking of the open spaces near you, who uses them, how and when? Are they ‘open all hours’ or are they closed at certain times? Are there group/collective activities that occur there (e.g. Fairs, Saturday football, ParkRun, etc.)? Are there areas for children to play in, a skatepark or nature trails?

Other health benefits Researchers have repeatedly shown that bright white light has the power to mitigate depression and other maladies of mood. An emergent recent literature suggests that natural blue light may be particularly potent for such applications. (Holman 2010)

A right to roam There has been much said about modern children’s lack of a ‘right to roam’ their neighbourhood like their parents did (e.g. Derbyshire 2007) and a subsequent (perhaps undiagnosed) ‘nature deficit disorder’ (Louv 2010) have caused. Indeed, this is suggested by our focus on the street above; why can’t children roam like Raven-Ellison did? The danger with this is that we pathologize change and we start to get overly concerned as Dickinson argues about urbanization, anxiety and disconnectedness and about effects which might include physiological, emotional and social problems (Dickinson 2013, p. 1). However, she goes on to argue that any diagnosis that children are separated from nature must return as a ‘misdiagnosis’:

Pause for thought The problem is not caused by technology, urbanization, fear or by decreased contact with nature but by over-rationalization, objectification, suppressed emotion, a decreased sense of place, and anthropocentrism … . Obesity, ADD/ADHD, depression, and behavioral difficulties are still problems, but they are not caused by a nature deficit. (Dickinson 2013, p. 15)

The argument here is that geography could be one area in the curriculum that could return children to a realignment with ‘nature and place’. To allow us to consider this, consider the suggestions of how we might use the outdoors in different ways. Does your geography consider all of these?

Geography as a Practical Activity

As learners for creativity: Use the outdoors to create poetry, art, music or develop deep place knowledge in geography. As learners to study/classify: Use the outdoors to quantify and name as a scientist, geographer, naturalist, birdwatcher, botanist. As learners for fun or recreation: Use the outdoors for walking, cycling, climbing, swimming. As consumers: Use resources from the outdoors such as water, food, materials or as above if payment is exchanged through structured activities (e.g. canoeing, riding, ‘Go Ape’ experiences). As workers: Use the outdoors to farm, conserve or for sport (e.g. game). (Adapted from Talbot-Landers 2015, p. 149).

SECTION 2: TEACHING THE OUTDOORS GEOGRAPHICALLY Much of this chapter so far has been about defining the outdoors, the value of working outdoors, current debates and reasoning behind the situation schools now find themselves in. The final section of the chapter will cover more about the geography of teaching outdoors. There is more on the specific pedagogic underpinning this, using questioning in the next chapter on enquiry learning. It looks at three examples to support you: local area studies, landmarks that are not buildings and using technology.

Teaching the outdoors locally I can think of few better ways to help young people become more knowledgeable, engaged with and perhaps respectful of their local environments and communities Figure 4.9  This shows the nested relationship with different layers of place. Source: Authors.



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than to get them studying their local area – from its historical geography to the current social, environmental and economic processes shaping the places they live in. (Dr Rita Gardner, Director, Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) in Gardner and Lambert 2011).

The NC is clear that we do need to teach through fieldwork and that this should be the ‘school and its grounds and the key human and physical features of its surrounding environment’ (DfE 2014a) in KS1 and ‘observe, measure record and present the human and physical features in the local area using a range of methods’ (DfE 2014) in KS2. How do we start to define a local area? An interesting set of definitions comes from the Department for Food and Rural Affairs as ‘environmental conditions’ criteria: river water quality, air quality, green space, habitat favourable to biodiversity, flood risk, litter, detritus, housing conditions, road accidents, regulated sites (e.g. landfill) (Marmot 2010, p. 31). How can we find out about such aspects as these are not common knowledge, and the risk is we focus more on the built and human not the physical aspects of the local geography? As some useful RGS lesson plans state ‘most urban localities in the UK will have physical features underlying their human landscape, be it local streams, rivers or lakes, hills or valleys or areas of woodland and forest’ (reference below).

Pause for thought How much about these conditions do you know about in your own local area? Where would you find this information? A lot of information can be found from local council websites. Sometimes it is quite impenetrable but it can start to give you a sense of local place. There are also good sources of information from the Office of National Statistics (ONS) allowing you to compare areas you might know to give you one picture. Review the RGS lesson plans online here, especially the annotated photographs: https://www.rgs.org/schools/teaching-resources/primary-fieldwork/. There are some good examples of pupils’ work here in urban London (Enfield) as well.

Perhaps the best source of information is the Natural England Character Area Profiles, a little known but excellent source of detailed information on different geographical locations. Now for a quiz! Look at these different descriptions and see if you can match them up with the area.

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Area 1 The [area] is largely within the ... National Park. It is a dramatic upland landscape, carved by past glaciations, with rugged peaks, ridges and open fells, separated by U-shaped valleys with a radiating pattern of lakes and rivers. Area 2 The area is characterized by dense urban and industrial development, commercial, financial, retail and administrative centres, commuter suburbs and housing. ... The conurbation is centred on low hills, crossed by several river valleys that thread through the urban fabric. ... River valleys form important corridors of semi-natural habitats and natural greenspace. ... The industrial heritage now provides sites of wildlife interest in the urban environment. Canals that weave through the conurbation not only offer opportunities for access and recreation … . Woodland cover is generally low ... . New areas of community woodland have been created in the Red Rose Forest and Pennine Edge Forest. Area 3 The [area] ... is predominantly a remote and tranquil landscape of shallow creeks, drowned estuaries, lowlying islands, mudflats and broad tracts of tidal salt marsh and reclaimed grazing marsh … [it] contains some of the least settled areas of the English coast, with few major settlements and medieval patterns of small villages and hamlets on higher ground and the marsh edges. This provides a stark contrast to the busy urban and industrial areas ... where population density is high and development pressures are increasing. Sea defences protect large areas of reclaimed grazing marsh and its associated ancient fleet and ditch systems, and productive arable farmland. Historic military landmarks are characteristic features of the coastal landscape. Area 4 The area comprises a narrow ridge of rounded hills, with hill forts rising above the Vales to the east. To the west these subside to the Lowlands, and to the north-west they subside to the Plateau. The area is one of great contrasts. These range from the majestic height of the hills themselves to the undulating swells and low wooded escarpments ... and to the jumble of rolling hills and woodlands marching away to the west. Most of the area lies within the Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). Area 5 The area is an Island situated south of England, separated from the mainland, covering an area of 380 square kilometres. ... The chalk spine crossing from east to west stretches out at the western tip in a series of three chalk stacks. ... The Island exhibits, at a small scale, the key characteristics of much of lowland England. ... Almost 50 per cent of the Island falls within [an] Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, divided into five separate parcels, and around half of the coastline, is recognized as Heritage Coasts. The Island has a range of internationally, nationally and locally important nature conservation sites, including Special Areas of Conservation. ... National Nature Reserve, 41 Sites of Special Scientific Interest and 395 Local Wildlife Sites recognized for their important habitats and species. Source: Natural England Character Profiles (abridged). http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/ category/587130 Note: This is tough and a challenge! Answers on p. 129.

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CASE STUDY: Pick a local tree Pick a local tree. Your favourite. Got it? Now think about where it is. Richard Jeffries, explorer of London’s marginal spaces in the late nineteenth century challenged people to do this in his 1879 book Nature Near London and to name the specific location being thought of: ‘Why have you not indicated in every case the precise locality where you were so pleased? Why not mention the exact hedge, the particular meadow? Because no two persons look at the same thing with the same eyes. To me this spot may be attractive, to you another; a third thinks yonder gnarled oak the most artistic. Nor could I guarantee that everyone should see the same things under the same conditions of season, time, or weather. ... To traverse the paths day by day, and week by week; to keep an eye ever on the fields from year’s end to year’s end, is the one only method of knowing what really is in or comes to them. ... The richest locality may be apparently devoid of interest just at the juncture of a chance visit’ (Jeffries 1879/2012, Preface).

Figure 4.10  Landmark trees, Sherwood Forest. The European Tree of the Year 2015, ‘The Major Oak’.

Geography as a Practical Activity

This is important because our own experience of significance and location, allied to place knowledge, is very important. As Jeffries says, no two people look at the same place with the same eyes. What we would encourage you to do is go to your local park, woodland or clutch of trees on a roundabout near you. Look, really look and see how old they might be. Here are some examples similar to ones you might be lucky enough to have on your doorstep. Example 1: The Major Oak, Edwinstowe, Mansfield (Figure 4.10) is part of the fabled Sherwood Forest (search for a picture online) and is an example of a significant tree of at least 800 years old. It weighs an estimated 23 tons, its trunk circumference is 33 feet (10m) and its branches spread to over 92 feet (28m). Example 2: While not on the same scale as the Major Oak, ‘Barney’ the Tree I would nominate as a special local tree to me is at least 400 years old. Search online for ancient trees of London and Barnes and you will see a picture (weblink at end of chapter). There are suggestions it is London’s oldest tree of its type. What is special about it is how well hidden it is. Surrounded by a much smaller canopy of trees from online aerial photos you can pick it out towering above the rest of the trees. However, a nearby path ends there and few people would know it was there. There are no signs to it, no roadside evocation directing you, just a metal sign once you approach denoting its significance. Barney is a London plane tree situated at Barn Elms, London SW13. It is 35 metres high and over 8 metres in girth. When we talk about the Great Fire of London, Barney was a sapling as it was thought to have started to grow between 1680 and 1685. If you think there might not be such a notable tree on your doorstep, look on the Ancient Tree Hunt website; you might be surprised.

Figure 4.11  Map of trees in Russell Square, London. Example of urban tree canopy covering a large area.



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Questions you might ask of a remarkable, old tree Why has it lasted so long? In the Barnes example above it was planted on protected lands then belonging to the Archbishop of Canterbury. It is London’s oldest and largest plane. What is protecting it now? Chains have been attached between the tree’s main branches to guard against damage under storm conditions. Once you start to spot such supportive braces you can see them in corners of parks and gardens all over. A ten-minute walk from my house one tree has a remarkable ‘bole’,* yet is completely unremarked upon by any signage (http://www.treetree.co.uk/notable. html). Then there’s the remarkable ‘elephant trunk’ plane in nearby Beckenham. What is so special about this tree is the London Wetland Centre at Barnes which charges a fee for entrance is right next door to this free, natural wonder. (* a bole is another name for trunk or stem) To conclude, what is it about trees, woods and forests that’s special and suggests them as suitable landmarks? Barnes (2007, p. 92) calls it our need for wildness that places like forests might provide, so they feed us spiritually and emotionally at a deeper level. A very influential geography teacher to me (and lay preacher at a local church) talked passionately about the power of trees. It perhaps helped that he was so tall! Most people respond positively to trees, whether that positivity expresses itself in a desire to climb, shelter, hug or contemplate (Knight 2016, pp. 38–9). It is something that I have found can have an impact on children as well as adults. Colin Tudge (2006, p. 369) states that ‘trees are right at the heart of all the necessary debates: ecological, social, economic, political, moral, religious’, again something we’d concur with.

Using technology to support learning outdoors The final part of this chapter focuses on using technology to support learning. These apps usually require a data signal, so are useful if your staff have a phone. Organization and pre-planning here is the key. They do drain the battery as location services can be energy intensive. App name and details What you need to know Pokemon Go http://www.pokemongo. com/

When this launched in the summer of 2016 it caused a slew of news stories about its dangers and adults (usually) getting into trouble. The idea is characters called Pokémon are out there and you need to find them! As you walk around a neighborhood, your smartphone will vibrate when there’s a Pokémon nearby. Take aim and throw a Poké Ball. … You’ll have to stay alert, or it might get away! Search far and wide for Pokémon and items. Certain Pokémon appear near their native environment; look for Water-type Pokémon by lakes and oceans. Visit PokéStops and Gyms – found at interesting places like museums, art installations, historical markers, and monuments – to stock up on Poké Balls and helpful items.

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App name and details What you need to know Wildtime by Fieldwork https://www. thewildnetwork.com/wildtime-ideas

This app is a great choice if you’ve got children. The app offers a lot of choices of activities for young children to help them engage with nature. It’s simple to use, colourful and allows you to set time limits for activities. Upon opening the app you’re asked how long you’d like to spend enjoying nature – 10, 20, 30 minutes? Maybe you have half a day? From there you’re offered a selection of activities from looking at birds in the garden, to tasks that take longer like building a wild den. This app is brilliant fun and will tear even the most TV dedicated tots away from their screens.

British Trees by The Woodland Trust Free https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/ visiting-woods/treeswoods-and-wildlife/ british-trees/identify-treeswith-our-tree-id-app/

Identify the UK’s native and non-native trees. It’s an A-Z tree guide in your pocket. Identify trees by their bark, twigs, buds, leaves, flowers or fruit. What’s that leaf? What kind of tree is that? Is it a native species? These are all questions that can be answered in this fantastic app by The Woodland Trust. It is easy to use and includes plenty of information on different species of tree. You can identify trees by their features such as leaves, branches or fruit, or you can browse through an A-Z of British trees. The app allows you to save your ‘favourite’ trees, and also tells you about their features and threats they face.

NatureTale £2.99 http:// Naturetale provides information on around 200 of the more widespread and www.naturetaleapp.com/ visually distinctive flowers, and groups of similar flowers that are likely to be seen on walks in the UK countryside. Between them these groups cover all but the rarest flowering plants and berries. ‘Nature Finder’ app Free https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/30DaysWild/ App

A map of more than 2000 nature reserves including woods, meadows, moors, heaths, lakes. Includes a map and list of nature reserves with search and geo-location. ‘Once you’ve selected a destination, the app will tell you about the kinds of wildlife you’d expect to find there and why it lives in that location. There is also information on more than 900 UK species and habitats, at your fingertips. If you’re keen to get more involved, you can see upcoming events near you to join in with too’.

50 things to do before you’re 11 and three quarters by The National Trust, Free. https://www. nationaltrust.org.uk/50things-to-do

This app uses ‘geo-location data’ (GIS) to tell users where their nearest National Trust site is and gives them ideas of things to do there. You can complete achievements along the way; parents then get a certificate saying the achievement has been completed.

Go Jauntly

Find new walks based on your location. Simple photo guides help you navigate while nifty tips point out things of interest and places to eat and use the toilet. Save the walks you love so you can enjoy them again and again.

https://www.gojauntly. com/ Virtual App: Toca Nature £2.99

‘“Build hills and dig channels for rivers and lakes, all without getting your hands dirty. Observe your creation from above or use a magnifying glass to get close.” https://tocaboca.com/app/ Walk through different landscapes and become friends with a fox. Capture the moment of woodpeckers zigzagging between trees, and watch the day turn toca-nature/ into night’ (Information correct at time of publication).

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Other ways to collect data: Data loggers Using hand-held data-logging devices such as Log-it Explorer can show the light (lux), heat (oC) and sound (dB) in areas assessed on fieldwork. These devices are easy to use and provide a way to complement the environmental indexes described earlier. The resulting data is also relatively easy to plot in bar charts and graphs, allowing an evidence-informed discussion of pupil views and perspectives on an area.

Conclusion Ever since I was a child I have sensed my impermanency in scenes which, compared with human transcience, are, as the psalmist said, everlasting. Here and there, now and then, a poet, a liturgist, a novelist, a hymn-writer, an allegorist, makes a few miles of often quite ordinary countryside his, and it is towards these that I have over the years often directed my steps. (Blythe 1998, p. 12)

Blythe is discussing the power certain writers have imbued a particular landscape with. When completing learning outdoors it is often worth considering who might have walked those tracks before you; who in the local area can show or describe what the location is like. This is ultimately what we are trying to do through this chapter, by defining and re-defining geography as not only being about nature and/or FS but also being about the urban highways and byways surrounding wherever you are. The chance is yours to grasp this potential and to go out, find and categorize and see the significance of your own locale anew.

Summary This chapter has considered geography as a practical act through fieldwork outdoors. The concept of fieldwork is often thought of as work done in natural settings. We hope this chapter has redressed this balance and encouraged readers to think much beyond this and consider the possibilities of urban studies. While the status of learning outdoors in geography varies over time, it has arguably rarely been higher with ‘fieldwork’ being one of the four main headings in England’s 2014 Curriculum. While new and popular innovations such as FS might have captured wider attention, the examples and case studies in this chapter have shown the many and varied ways that if you broaden your outlook, you can have practical experiences outdoors.

Geography as a Practical Activity

Recommended reading Reading about place and nature from the perspective of writers who are not specifically from an education background can give you a very different sense of perspective. If you don’t often read non-fiction, consider looking out for writers such as Robert Macfarlane, Roger Deakin, Richard Mabey, Kathleen Jamie, Philip Hoare, William Fiennes, Sara Maitland or Helen Macdonald. There is a useful list in Macfarlane’s 2005 Guardian article about place-specific UK writers who you might go to for inspiration. What these writers do is bridge a place-knowledge gap in our understanding and build our imagination about the world. While it might be seen as a romance for past times, Macfarlane suggests that the best of these books are ‘still deeply concerned with the relationship between knowledge and environment’ (2005) today.

Recommended websites http://www.ancient-tree-hunt.org.uk/discoveries/newdiscoveries https://www.childinthecity.org/ https://rethinkingchildhood.com/tag/child-friendly-cities/ Barn Elms Plane tree link: http://www.treetree.co.uk/old-plane-trees.html For further lesson plans and ideas on work in your local area for KS2, see the following weblink: http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Fieldwork+and+local+learning/Local+ learning/Fieldwork+in+the+local+area/Fieldwork+down+your+street.htm Quiz answers from p. 123: Isle of Wight (NCA Profile, p. 127, NE561); Malvern Hills (NCA Profile, p. 103, NE361); Greater Thames Estuary (NCA Profile: 81, NE473); Manchester Conurbation (NCA Profile: 55, NE463); Cumbria High Fells (NCA Profile: 08, NE343)



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Chapter 5 Skills to Develop in Geography Chapter objectives ●●

to consider enquiry as a key geographical skill and an enquiry approach to geographical learning

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to consider the role of the teacher in facilitating geographical enquiry

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to look at planning for enquiry, using stimuli to generate curiosity

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to consider how enquiry questions and key questions support enquiry

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to look at progression from and across the age phases

Introduction In all classroom learning the agency of the teacher is central, but in no aspect of children’s learning, or of the curriculum, is this more true than in relation to talk. Talk has to be with someone; that ‘someone’ may be other pupils but it is usually the teacher; and because of the power differential ... it is mainly through and in response to the teacher’s talk that the child’s own talk is facilitated, prompted, inspired, probed or otherwise orchestrated; or indeed inhibited, restricted, ignored, prematurely terminated or persistently channelled along the narrow tramlines of recitation and factual recall. What the teacher says partly conditions what the child says. (Alexander 2012a, p. 10)

In this chapter we wish to demonstrate how Robin Alexander’s call for us to be agents of classroom talk is allied with the signature pedagogy in Mastering Primary Geography of geographical enquiry. Good enquiry, as Birch and Palmer (2004) suggest, respects the individual but is ultimately a dialogical exchange. It is how we see mastery in primary geography teaching being enacted. Facilitating talk to allow us to ‘think geographically’ will support us in allowing pupils to combine the content (what) and pedagogy (rationale for how) and the purpose of the learning experience (why). This chapter ties in strongly with pupils’ personal geographies

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(Chapters 2 and 4). This is not counter to what is being discussed currently as a knowledge-rich curriculum, but allows for space for the possibilities of child-led and co-constructed learning, where the knowledge exchange flows two ways. Many writers in primary geography including Rowley (2006) and Roberts (2003) comment that an enquiry approach to learning has been widely accepted as one of the most desirable ways of learning. This chapter will outline approaches to developing effective enquiry, the role of the teacher and how stimuli can support the development of children’s geographical enquiries.

Pause for thought Be curious. Endlessly curious. Go on asking questions. Never stop wondering why. Or how. Or when. Or where. Never stop wondering why, how or when one thing links to another. How something changed. How one thing turned into another? How something died out. How something else started up. Be curious. (Advice the author Michael Rosen was taught by his parents and older brother; 2013, p. 1.) Is there a sibling or parent who encourage you like this? If you saw a sight like Figure 5.1 would it spark thoughts, a conversation and you to take a photograph like I did one Sunday afternoon!

Figure 5.1  Air pollution cleaning. What is happening here and why? How would you discuss this image with children? How might we prevent this being needed in future? Would you have taken this photo? Would you have seen its potential for linking to ideas you might teach in geography? The image shows an office block near London Bridge, London, being jet cleaned so that the pollution that had accreted over time was removed. It would have likely been caused by atmospheric pollution from the thousands of cars (particularly diesel cars) that went past it on a daily basis. Taking a cue from Alexander above, how could images like this facilitate, prompt, inspire, probe (understanding) or otherwise orchestrate discussion?

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Enquiry: First reflect yourself How curious are you? Do you think it is a skill you have? How could you develop this more in relation to people, places and environments? A good idea is to go for a walk on a familiar route you know, even if this is just ‘round the block’. Go again on another day. Challenge yourself to write down ten things you haven’t seen, heard or touched before. Then come back from your walk and formulate these things you spotted into questions – Who? What? Where? Why? The power of getting to know your own school grounds or local park or noticing when things are changing on the local high street is a great way into geography. Examples of general questions and then suggestions about what might be suitable enquiry questions are given below. The trick is to look at the everyday anew.

Spotted

Possible question

Well-trimmed hedge on publicly accessible land

General questions: Who planted it, cuts it? Why? How often? How old is it? What would happen if it was not trimmed? Enquiry Questions: What is the purpose of this hedge? Where else do we find hedges and should we put more hedges near us? Are there many hedges on streets with houses? Why? Why not? Has this changed over time? What human, ecological or ‘way things look’ benefit do hedges provide?

New phone box

Who uses this? Is there any evidence? Why would anyone replace (replacing the red, then black/glass it when we have mobile phones? Is this an important landmark locally? Enquiry Questions: What makes a landmark? What other old BT phone box) landmarks are nearby that are used/not used? What do you think will be the oldest one we could find? Should we preserve landmarks? Are there any other landmarks which tell the story of how our lives have changed? Can we use a map to help us? Why does it now house a computer, mini library, or defibrillator? Raised bed of herbs near shopping parade. (These are new and look/ smell attractive. They have a sign encouraging use by the public.)

Is this a good idea and is this the best place for them? Who do you think put them here? Could we help? Are there some things that we could not grow here and some that we could? Do these need watering? Enquiry Questions: What can we do to improve the environment near us? Where do we grow food and can it be grown anywhere? How do we feel not buying things in shops in plastic bags?

Dumped bed/sofa/chair (Eyesore on street corner)

Who might have dumped them? Whose job is it to move them? What damage could they be doing? Enquiry Questions: Where does our waste go? What happens to bulky waste? Should we always think about re-use and recycling first? (Continued)

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Spotted

Possible question

Allotment gardens

What food can you see growing? How long do you think this has been here? Where does our food come from? Do you know anyone who has a garden like this? Would you like one if you lived in a flat? Enquiry Questions: If we think about all our food we eat today, where does it come from? Has it travelled a long distance?

Electricity pylon

Why can we not see them everywhere? What are they made of? Why are they constructed like that? Enquiry Questions: Where else do we see them (show image of pylons in countryside)? Talk about electricity distribution.

(This is a large landmark near here.) Tram line crossing

Where does this tram come from/go to? Is it safe having a level crossing? What are the rules for a crossing like this? Enquiry Questions: Is travelling by tram a good way to travel? Which is the best, why?

Bridal wear shop next to newsagents/chicken shop

This shop is boarded up. Why did it close? Enquiry Questions: What other shops do we have near here? Do we need more? What and why? Who do they cater to?

Figure 5.2  Edinburgh view towards the Firth of Forth.

When you are going on your local walk and asking yourself questions, try to get up high and see the perspective of where you have walked from a local high point, shopping centre or car park. Can you see how the streets are laid out? Is there a pattern? Can you see hills in the distance or (if you are lucky enough like in Figure 5.2’s case of Edinburgh) the Firth of Forth? Any of these questions could be the start of a geographical enquiry and could be a model for what you might do with children: being acutely aware and being attentive to our sense of how things connect, link or are related to each other, as Rosen (2013) suggests, is of vital importance. This ties in with mastery learning as it is said

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to be better when pupils collaborate and think together, part of what enquiry is all about as we will discuss below. Recent research by the Educational Endowment Fund found that ‘mastery learning appears to be particularly effective when pupils work in groups or teams and take responsibility for supporting each other’s progress’ (EEF 2016). Having initial ideas, scaffolding learning with a teacher and their peers and then working towards a resolution, solution or understanding knowledge better is the underpinning of this process. Roberts agrees as she says this is part of geography’s twenty-first-century incarnation: ‘Whereas traditionally geography was concerned with the questions what, where, why and how, geography in the twenty-first century asks, additionally, what might, with what impact, what ought; so geography as well as describing and explaining patterns and processes, now has a futures and values dimension’ (Roberts, in Jones 2017, p. 48).

Is enquiry in the curriculum? You might wonder why the chapter on skills in geography is devoted to a process or pedagogy that is not in the current English NC! We justify this as the best way to ensure the NC’s aims which are to provide a high-quality geography education which inspires ‘a curiosity and fascination about the world’ and gives the ‘knowledge, understanding and skills’ alongside the ‘the frameworks and approaches that explain how the Earth’s features ... [and] deepen their understanding of the interaction between physical and human processes … [and] explain how the Earth’s features at different scales are shaped, interconnected and change over time’ (2013, p. 1). It is a style that many schools use, do well and are familiar with. As one recent outstanding school which wrote to us for a teacher reference said, the third bullet point of their ‘job specification’ was that they needed a teacher who could: ‘work collaboratively with staff to deliver units of work through enquiry-based learning’ across the curriculum. Enquiry in geography has a strong history, and the 1999 Geography National Curriculum for England featured it as the signature pedagogy.

Pause for thought: Why is this important? Enquiry is about children taking an active role in their learning by formulating new ideas and approaches to the world. We do not see the world through their eyes. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of the curriculum as we enact it is allowing children to ‘deepen their understanding of the interaction between physical and human processes’ (DfE 2013, p. 1) Seeing how things interact is often hidden and we must give them time and space to think through, pose and create questions; to wonder and hypothesise. An example might be with an everyday process such as travel. This might happen locally, regionally and worldwide but could lead to questions about who travels, what access they have, when and how they travel, why or how often they travel and by what means they travel.



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It is important for children to ‘know their place’ and we do not believe it is enough to just put up with these unanswered questions. Geography, as we discuss in Chapter 6, is about far flung places but it must also be about the ‘home and heart’ as well. Rowley (2006, p. 18) suggests geographical enquiry is unique as it ‘relies upon a range of skills and concepts which, used together, help us to understand the relationship between people and their environment’. Sometimes explore or investigate might also be used, but among primary geography writers of the past two decades enquiry has almost been universally used to describe the process through which learning about the world is done. It is perhaps Margaret Roberts who has written most often about this process and she talks of there being a number of definitions of enquiry with it meaning different things to different people, as we can see below. Pike (2016) refers to UNESCO’s (2010) definitions of enquiry-led learning where it is seen as a learnercentred approach that emphasizes higher-order thinking skills which might take a variety of forms: problem solving, analysis, creative and discovery activities. Pickford, Garner and Jackson (2013) state that enquiry as a term can be perceived as a process of questions and research, with a view of reaching a reasoned conclusion. Catling and Willy (2009, p. 62) suggest that this would mean that children are able to find out about the world through: ●●

Observation and research

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Critical evaluation

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Putting forward solutions

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Considering values and attitudes

They further state that the process of enquiry is of significance to the learner. Roberts (in Jones 2017) suggests that enquiry is a process, where we start with questions and reach conclusions, we use a hypothesis and it is often associated with fieldwork. Its essential characteristics are: ●●

Enquiry is question driven, it fosters curiosity and questions are asked throughout the enquiry process.

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Enquiry is supported by evidence from the real-world evidence or data is collected in a variety of forms such as photographs, sketches, maps, film and statistics.

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Enquiry requires children to think geographically – children are required to make sense of the information or data that has been collected, this requires conceptual understanding.

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Enquiry involves reflections on both the outcome of the enquiry and the process.

An enquiry approach, therefore, fosters a questioning attitude to geographical knowledge, where children need to be encouraged to engage critically with this knowledge and question assumptions about how things are and how they work. With this in mind, Martin (2006) states that the purpose of enquiry is ultimately to do with ‘good’ teaching and learning, providing the right approaches to developing

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children’s’ geographical understanding. If we are to plan successful enquiries there is a need to adopt enquiries at different levels, scales and perspectives.

Pause for thought What does/did the term enquiry mean to you? Can you come up with a definition of enquiry? What commonalities do the approaches on enquiry have?

Enquiry, geography and the science curriculum Perhaps the subject closely allied with geography in the way that it seeks to interpret and explain the world is science. As Catling and Willy (2009) argue above, observation is a key facet of geographical enquiry and all scientific enquiry is said to begin with this too. The dictionary defines observation as ‘the action or process of observing something or someone carefully or in order to gain information. The ability to notice things, especially significant details. eg. “his powers of observation”’ (Oxford Dictionaries online). It can be good to frame it like this as a skill or ‘power’ geographers have. You have heard of Magneto (X-Men), Superman or Batman? They are often known for knowing when someone is nearby, something is going wrong or is happening. Children might imagine they are a superhero, ‘Observo-boy’ or ‘Observo-girl’. Building this idea of children having a power of observance is cited by Johnson who says that ‘very young children sometimes make the most pertinent and creative observations. ... These types of observation can be overlooked by older children, who may be much more focused on one aspect of what they are observing and miss the “bigger picture”.’ Johnson (2009) goes on to cite research showing that older children might be influenced by what they have been taught, personal theories and interests.

Examples of using observational skills in geography to meet the curriculum aim to ‘use simple fieldwork and observational skills’ (National Curriculum, DfE 2014) KS1 Let’s go on a sign hunt! An essential part of my childhood was the visit from the Road Safety officer. This made me look at the world in a different way and made me pay attention to the road signs and to why the traffic, pedestrians or landscape was ‘made’ in the way it was. ‘There are three basic types of traffic signs: signs that give orders, signs that warn and signs that give information. Each type has a different shape. A further guide to the function of a sign is its colour. All triangular signs are red’ (Department for Transport 2007). Such knowledge has to be, as Alexander might argue, ‘facilitated and prompted’ or such knowledge will not be developed by pupils. Further enquiry questions could be: Should we have more signs, whose job is it to look after the signs and what if these signs were not there? (Continued)

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Figure 5.3  The Highway Code – common UK road signs and what they mean.

Circles give orders

Triangles warn

Rectangles inform

Blue circles generally give a mandatory instruction, such as 'turn left', or indicate a route available only to particular classes of traffic, for example buses and cycles only

Red rings or circles tell you what you must not do, for example you must not exceed 30 mph, no vehicles over the height shown may proceed

Blue rectangles are used for information signs except on motorways where blue is used for direction signs

Green rectangles are used for direction signs on primary routes

White rectangles are used for direction signs on non-primary routes, or for plates used in combination with warning and regulatory signs

There are a few exceptions to the shape and colour rules, to give certain signs greater prominence. Examples are the 'STOP' and 'GIVE WAY' signs

KS2 Observing to classify: Get a collection of pictures which can be sorted in multiple different ways with the aim that such an openended task could be classified in different ways. Discuss observable similarities and difference between groups of landscapes, buildings or people. All classification activities require hypothesizing and this needs to be practised. Use enquiry questions like the list below to help. I have worked with many adults that do not hypothesize about different landscapes and need prompts like these questions to start to get beneath the surface of what is there, the detail and the sense of time that has passed. This is much easier in urban environments with physical landscapes that look ‘natural’ are much harder to decode. Figure 5.4  Abbotsbury, Dorset.

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Figure 5.5  Hastings, Sussex.

Enquiry Questions: What does the location feel like? What might it smell of? Taste of? What sounds do you hear? Are the sounds the same in every part? How can you measure what you see? How far is it across the picture? What’s the tallest object you see? Is everything in proportion? Does something dominate? Why? What shapes do you see? Are they tall and slender? Are they flat/round/wide? Are they as a whole or in bits? Is there symmetry? Who are the buildings for? How are they made? Is anything here made by hand? Are there impacts from humans? Are there natural or manufactured materials? Is it day or night? How would it be different at different times? Is the place for old/young people? Does it include everyone? What about animals? What colours do you see? Could it be more colourful; would it be so in a different season? Describe what you can see in five words. Imagine someone couldn’t see it. How could you best sum up the place? What is the landmark feature? What did you not notice when you first looked? What would this have looked like a week, year, ten years or a century ago? Is this a good environment? How can you tell? Who cares for it? What would be your top three things to improve? Is it a high value place? Would everyone value it the same? Would you like to be there? On your own or with other people? Would you like to take an expert there? What would you ask an expert about this place? Are there any symbols or signs? What do they mean? Loosely adapted from a display in the ArtDes Museum, Stockholm (2017). Use in conjunction with a series of pictures. Can you think of any more? Considering vernacular architecture. This building style is based on local needs, availability of construction materials and reflecting local traditions. Examples you might find locally (even if you can’t visit them) are: a Wealden house (Kent) late medieval and early Tudor homes, ‘box’-framed (Figure 5.6), tiled roof Longhouse (‘found in Cumbria, Dartmoor, the Hebrides, Northern and Western Ireland and South Wales’) where the animals were sheltered at one end and their owners at the other Cotswold house (southern England) Jurassic limestone walls and stone slate roofs. You might want to learn more by looking at the Open University’s site to learn more. http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/ high-street-history# This site is also useful http://www.buildinghistory.org/style/vernacular.shtml (Continued)

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  Figure 5.6  Anne Hathaway’s House, Stratford.

Enquiry and a constructivist approach to learning Constructivism is a theory of learning which has its foundation in the work of educationalists such as Vygotsky, Piaget and Bruner. We discussed this briefly in Chapter 2. At its basic level, constructivism might happen where children are actively engaged (as Alexander suggests above, possibly through talk). They make sense of their experiences in the world. Constructivism assumes that knowledge cannot be just delivered or transmitted. Therefore, if we consider how knowledge is constructed in and through the enquiry process, we are thinking of questions about and in the world. Roberts (2003) relates geographical enquiry to constructivism as this places an emphasis on actively enquiring into questions, problems and issues. The use of questions enables learners to respond to questions that are of interest to them and also to create a personal lens through which they can examine the world. Information (facts) is not irrelevant but they become relevant when they are put into a relationship with other facts, checked against the real-world and individual and group perspectives: what we have referred to already as ‘thinking geographically’ and personal geography. Palmer argues that learning demands solitude but this is not learning alone as they need time alone to reflect and absorb, ‘but also in the deeper sense that the integrity of the student’s inner self must be respected, not violated, if we expect the students to learn’. She goes on to argue that learning also demands community ‘a dialogical exchange in which our ignorance can be aired, our ideas tested, our biases challenged, and our knowledge expanded, and exchange in which we are not simply left alone to think our own thoughts’ (Palmer 1997, p. 76). This is,

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perhaps, what is sometimes suggested by education ministers, such as Nick Gibb, and has again been discussed previously in Chapter 2.

An overarching set of questions for enquiry? Through the process of enquiry, children are actively involved in creating shared and personal meanings about the world (Dinkele 2004). This is particularly the case when geographical questions challenge children’s thinking. Dinkele argues that geographical enquiry can only be as good as the questions that support it, and he refers to the seminal work of Storm (1988) who suggests that five basic questions can be applied as a starting point: ●●

What is this place like?

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Why is this place like this?

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How is this place connected to other places?

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How is this place changing?

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What would it feel like to live in this place?

These questions should always be seen as an opportunity to develop further questions.

What is this place like?

Where is it? What do you expect it to be like? What is it actually like? What does it look like?

Why is this place like this?

What made this place as it is? Who lives here, and why? Why do people visit this place? What journeys do people make? What jobs do people do? What do people do in their spare time? Can the environment be improved? If so, how? What services are there? Do tourists affect this place? If so, how?

How is this place connected to other places?

What links does this place have with other places? How does it interact with them? What global connections are there? (Continued)

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How is this place changing?

Is it? How? Why? How do people use and care for the environment? What issues affect the people who live there? What are the views of the people who live there? Who should decide what happens in this place? What would it feel like to be in this place?

What would it feel like to live in this place?

Why is this place special? What are the main similarities and differences between this place and where we live?

The question which is often missed off this list is ‘Where is this place?’, the locational knowledge question which is of increased importance given the 2014 primary curriculum.

Models for planning enquiries In this section we are going to show you two models of the enquiry process that might help you with planning. While the questions above are good for individual stimulus, how do we plan for enquiry in a clear way? We suggest these examples as a starting point but they can be adapted to the individual nature of any enquiry and to meet the needs of all learners in your class. Each one will be illustrated with an image with possible suggestions about how it could be used or what enquiries could be made if you were there. The images have all been taken by the author and therefore have that authenticity that only using images whose provenance you know, their date, time, conditions and (most importantly) limitations, in what they exclude, don’t show or hide. Figure 5.7  Fossil hunting. These are fossil hunters on a Lyme Regis beach in Dorset, England in 2015.

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Two models for enquiry Model 1: A geographical enquiry framework by Owens and North (2006) Engage – Enter into the location/image by giving it your full attention. Being in the location helps. Notice – Give it some time, stop and begin to sense how it looks, smells, feels and appears to you and others. Question – Why is it like it is, how it is changing and why (Storm 1988)? Understand – Form some ideas about the key ideas and concepts acting on this setting, what vocabulary can you use to describe and define what is going on here? Investigate – Turn round, wait for some time, return, go further. Reflect – Search for similar places, make connections. Your view? – Give an opinion, share this, draw parallels and conclusions. Be prepared to be challenged!

Example enquiry using this image Engage – Give this scene (Figure 5.8) a title – we like ‘Travel in all directions’. Fold the image in half and imagine what is in the other half. The story of the image is the Olympic Games 2012, so it is already a historic image although the view is still there. What do you think has changed about the view (buildings have been added to as well as taken away)? Trees will have grown. There might be blocked or even new views. Notice – Children might describe it as noisy. There is an absence of people though. Why? Interestingly this is the first park in London to open in 100 years. Does it look like a park? Why? Why not? Are there are any features which were not put there by humans (e.g. the river). Are we sure? Can humans put rivers through the landscape (discuss canals)? Our memory is that the flowers there that summer did smell very nice. Question – This is an important one because of the history, development and legacy of the Olympic Games. Why do we need space to relax in cities? How do we relax? Is a park important? Understand – Where are people travelling to/from? Is this a good use of energy? Where do you see this park in 100 years’ time? Can you think of any parks which were there 100 years ago? How could we prove it (trees, etc.). Investigate – This is an odd place in the winter or when it is cold. It is very windy. What would we do to prevent this? (See Figure 4.5 for an example.) Reflect – Search for similar places, make connections. Your view? – Give an opinion, share this, draw parallels and conclusions. Be prepared to be challenged!

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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 5.8  Olympic Park, 2012.

Pause for thought Look at the above example and review it in light of what Dinkele (2010) suggests that teachers should ask themselves: ●● ●●

How often are my questions posed clearly and succinctly? What proportion of my questions is open and closed? (both are needed in the enquiry process)?

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Do I deliberately arrange my questions in a logical sequence?

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How am I encouraging pupils to ask their own geographical questions?

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How are my questions used to develop children’s learning in geography?

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Do I use questions that allow children to explore attitudes, values and beliefs about geographical issues?

Reflect on your own experiences as a learner and as a teacher.

Model 2: Adapted from the Geographical Association website This model is particularly useful for teachers to use as they are planning a unit of work.

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Collaborating and selecting: Which are the best question tools and techniques? Doing: Fieldwork research active data collecting? Reflecting: What has been learnt? What does it mean? How reliable is the data collected? Communicating: How will this be communicated, and with whom? What will be the purpose of this? Evaluating: What have we found out? What new questions do you still have? Asking: What do I already know? How do I know this? What do I want to know and why?

Example of this framework in action An Enquiry Framework examining Mount Etna and Sicily, KS2 Asking: What do I already know?/How do I know this?/What do I want to know and why? What do we already know about Etna? Are there any staff who have visited with artefacts/experiences? Are there any links between where we live? Who is Sicily twinned with? (Kermanshah in Iran.) Collaborating and selecting: Which are the best question tools and techniques? Which sources could we use? Are there fiction/non-fiction books we could use? Are there any ‘a day in the life of’ books written for children? Are there news clips we could watch (recent BBC News clips where crew got hit by flying debris, for example) to give sensory impression of the mountain. Doing: Fieldwork research, active data collecting? Not appropriate. However, we have got a phone call with a tour guide who leads tours up the mountain. We have also got lots of number data from the internet. Reflecting: What has been learnt? What does it mean? How reliable is the data collected? What is it like for a person who lives there? Why do they live there (tourism/fertile soil, etc.). Have we considered the weather and climactic conditions? Is there enough focus on physical geography as well as human geography? Communicating: How will this be communicated, and with whom? What will be the purpose of this? Is role play too difficult? Should we get pupils to write a descriptive piece about Etna rather than imagine they were in someone else’s shoes? Which is better? Evaluating: What have we found out? What new questions do you still have?

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It is interesting to reflect here on Simon Catling’s proposal that we consider a ‘3E’ approach to developing children’s geographical enquiry. The above example was with Year 4 pupils, and while their prior knowledge was surprisingly good, their misconceptions were still very noticeable by teachers. If we had not used an enquiry approach these would never have been found out. Catling’s ‘3Es’ are: ●●

Enabling Enquiry – the teacher’s role here is one of enabler or facilitator and helps children develop their enquiry questions

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Enhancing Enquiry – the teacher’s role here is to challenge children’s questions so that they are able to take a more responsible attitude to developing enquiries

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Empowering Enquiry – the teacher’s role here is to support children in refining their enquiries.

It could be argued that you use all three in the process of an enquiry. Catling (2003) argues that the ‘3E’ approach promotes a ‘community of enquiry’, something that supports developing geographical values as part of the enquiry process. Following the Etna enquiry you could examine different volcanoes around the world as well as extinct ones more locally such as Arthur’s Seat in Edinburgh (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9  Salisbury Crags with Arthur’s Seat behind, Edinburgh.

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Final thoughts on models for enquiry The early stage of learning through enquiry requires some sort of ‘hook’ to suggest possibilities to enquire about: What might be the outcome/s? Why might the geography be like it is? If nothing is off limits it might suggest that there is a liberation in the way pupils learn. Littleton and Mercer (2013) suggest that speculation when pupils are working together works well and refer to this as ‘interthinking’ if individual thinking is challenged in a productive way and talk can be used to allow creative and productive thinking together.

Enquiry through using and collecting data Good enquiries ask questions as well as collect data. It is helpful here to consider data in its broadest sense; data does not need to be quantitative (numbers) and a variety of data sources will support different enquiries. Here is a list of possible qualitative data sources that could be used: Photographs/Diagrams/News reports/Videos/Experts/ Sketches/Newspapers/Letters.

Pause for thought Using the list of data sources above, what could be the advantages and disadvantages of each source? One example might be the Etna enquiry above (Model 2). Here, pupils could handle examples of ‘gneiss’ volcanic rock (which is helpfully found all over the UK upland areas and samples can be bought online). Without this, the volcano does not ‘come alive’ and images and videos can supplement this along with first-hand accounts. Is this always necessary? Why?

The data collected will need to match the enquiry question in order to generate data to analyse later in the enquiry process. There is an opportunity for children to collect data from more than one data source through the enquiry. Providing each group with a different data source would produce a deeper analysis and allow children to consider different evidence that each data source produces. There is also the possibility that children can use secondary data such as census information, websites and government statistics. In deciding which data suits the enquiry there would be a need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of each data source. Further thought will be needed in considering when and how children will collect data. The final section of this chapter goes into more detail with some case study examples of planning for enquiry.



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 5.10  Village Green, Broadway, Cotswolds. ‘Townplanners describe character as the totality of a place’s physical traits and land uses, including the way people move through (or not), and the interaction of buildings and landscape features. We appreciate character through the senses which create a mental impression. The process is aesthetic in the philosophical sense’ (Miele 2017). What is the character of a place you know well? Can you sum it up in words? It’s quite hard!

CASE STUDY: Enquiry on the high street In Chapters 1 and 2 we outlined what mastering primary geography might mean and we feel that a teacher with good subject knowledge is vital in supporting children’s enquiries. What better way to exemplify this than somewhere we all know: our local high street? This section builds on pages 82–90.

Developing observation through looking at buildings and features is important and as Littlefield argues, regeneration struggles over the role of place. ‘Traces often survive comprehensive development, through street patterns, names, the shape and size of plots or conditions of topography’ (Littlefield 2012, p. 11). The following is adapted from an Open University OpenLearn resource which provides much more detail about the individual aspects to look out for.

Aspects to look for Houses

You may be able to tell when a house was built from its architectural features.

Cinemas

Cinemas were a major part of a growing leisure industry in the first part of the twentieth century. Few high streets now have these. Why?

Restaurants

Restaurants may occupy buildings that once had very different uses. Can you guess what they were?

Plaques

Plaques may remind us of our national heritage but do they celebrate the right things?

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Aspects to look for Religious Heritage

Is Britain’s religious heritage under threat? Is it just changing?

Churches

Churches offer glimpses of periods in which Britain was a much more religious country.

Brickwork

Styles of brickwork might give us an idea of a building’s date.

Street Signs

Signs can provide hints about urban development and historical transport links.

Advertisements

Old painted or metal plate advertisements can hint at what people bought in former times.

Shops

Shops could provide evidence of former patterns of local trade.

Post-war Buildings

Should we be saving ugly buildings or demolishing them?

Railway Stations

Stations can help us to understand how patterns of transport developed.

Factories

Factories might give us clues about goods produced in the past.

Street Furniture

Street furniture may be suggestive of technological development or traffic management.

Statues

Statues might commemorate famous local people from the past or war heroes.

Pubs

The past of many pubs may be closely intertwined with local social history.

Libraries

Libraries often provide examples of the historical development of education.

Clock Towers

Clock towers are good examples of historical civic architecture.

Municipal Buildings

Old municipal buildings may say something about the growth of local government functions.

War Memorials

How should war be commemorated?

Figure 5.11  Lewes pub. Part of the importance of locational knowledge vocabulary can be covered in enquiries like this: What’s in a name? Why is the school or pub called that? Make a list of local schools, roads or places of worship; do you know why they were given their names? Sports stadia, leisure centres, shops and squares will all have a sense of place imbued on them by their name. Who are the local heroes now forgotten apart from their name?

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  Location

Possibilities for study Many of these are applicable for the sites below

  Enquiry questions you might ask

The setting

Size, scale and height of the site.

Age? Has it always been a school? What are the materials that have been used? Is it similar/different to nearby buildings? How does it ‘fit in’? Which are the most/least explored areas? Hidden areas? Dangerous areas? Who has easy access? Which different groups have access? Is there good disabled access?

Its importance/dominance/significance in its surroundings. Boundaries and barriers: walls, fences, entrances, pathways. Number/age of shrubs, planters, trees and green space/ fields. Hard and soft play spaces. Segregation according to age or type of activity. Use after hours/at weekend/general access.

Immediate surroundings

Range of building types: Residential, industrial, commercial, derelict. Same/similar to each other? Street furniture presence/importance? Litter/graffiti. Evidence of wildlife. Impact/ responsibility the setting has on these. Are there other facilities on site: Library, nursery, school? What’s the physical geography – nearby water, green space?

Do houses have gardens? Are there shared gardens? Are there places to deposit rubbish? Is there public or shared space? Who shares this? Is it hilly, flat or undulating? Can you see far? Why? How many steps is this? How can you get to X from here?

Nearest green space, recreation ground or ‘pocket park’

Are there places to play sport? Who plays here? Who cares for this? Why? Is the Size and purpose. Trees and … ? Threats? grass cut regularly? Why? How old Fly-tipping? are these trees?

The local park

As listed above and consider other park users. Open, closed or protected space/s. Benches and other street furniture. Natural and fixed play equipment; green gym.

Does it have a play area? For who is this appropriate? Are there facilities for those with limited mobility? Are there other, bigger places to play near here?

The nearest farm

Purpose: Cereal/arable crops and/or raising livestock. Dairy, fish, poultry or even solar? Are visitors allowed? Farm visits? Distance from population. Local specialities. Farm shop? ‘Pick your own’?

How important is farming to the local area? What is local produce? Why is it important to ‘buy local’? Are there negatives about a farm (smell, farm traffic, visitors)?

The High Street

Types of shops and services. Different places to work. Range of individual shops chain-stores. Bus stops? Parking? Where in the world can we link to from here?

Why are there empty shops? Which is the most popular shop? Why? Most significant building? Oldest [Look for date stones]? Building types: Can you tell which is a bank?

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Possibilities for study Many of these are applicable for the sites below

  Enquiry questions you might ask

The local town

Physical geography: river, canal, hill? As the high street but with a focus on transport interchanges and major buildings of local or historical significance (town hall, religious buildings, retail developments). Main roads/bypass/ dual carriageways/ motorways.

What are the problems with shopping in this area? (e.g. overcrowding, traffic congestion) Are there issues with flooding?

The nearest city

Shopping and leisure pursuits. Major employers. Industry. Major transport interchange/ airport and motorways.

What is special about this city? Does it have a major sports team?

The region

Major physical geography: coast, river, hill, moor mountain, national park.

What is the most common land use? How can we find out?

  Location

In all these settings consider the role that the senses can play in pupils’ understanding. This is especially the case if you are spending a significant amount of time there. Consider making smell or sound maps of the area.

CASE STUDY: Local area enquiry for EYFS Enquiry in the park: Using a picture book stimulus Dolan (2014) states that picture books are ideally placed for developing children’s critical thinking and therefore useful to support children’s geographical enquiries. While regularly used in the literacy lessons, they are perhaps less well used in geography lessons but there are many opportunities to do so. Picture books connect children’s personal ideas and experiences to geographical ones. Children’s literature has the potential to play a powerful role in children’s creative development (Cremin 2009) and Dolan argues that ‘the creative potential of geography teaching through picture books is substantial’ (2017, p. 30). The skills of the teacher in developing the interaction with the book is of utmost importance, the use of visual literacy can be very powerful in children being able to interact with picture books. Whitehouse and Jones (2013) argue that engaging with new texts can stimulate creative thinking in teachers and pupils and bring the geography alive. This is supported by Whitehouse and Vickers-Hulse (2016, p. 6) who state that bringing texts alive involves engaging in dialogue: ‘the issue lies in ensuring that talk is purposeful so that it becomes embedded in learning. Developing purposeful talk is something that needs to be modelled and scaffolded, and, done effectively, it can be a transformational way to support and enhance learning in all aspects of the curriculum. This allows the teacher to become a facilitator who supports pupils’ autonomy, independence and ability to critically engage with their own development as learners’. We have used a number of books to generate enquiries; the following book by Julia Donaldson, Stick Man, will provide a case study.

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Stick Man (Donaldson and Scheffler 2009) tells the story of a Stick Man and his adventures to find his way home. He travels through a park, down a stream to get to the seaside before eventually returning to his family. As he journeys to find his way home he experiences different seasons. The book is useful for geography as it covers environmental issues and Stick Man journeys along different routes. The vibrant images are good for asking pupils questions about the various routes. This book has been used in different ways with children in the EYFS and the enquiry question was What has happened to Stick Man? A range of smaller enquiry questions or key questions were used to support the enquiry. A sample of these is listed below: What has happened to Stick Man?

  Activities

How can we find our way Following maps around the local area to Stick Man? How can we help Stick Man find his way home?

Making maps and giving directions both verbally and pictorially

Where has Stick Man been on his adventures?

A3 images from the book, children engaged in visual literacy activities

Where is the best place for Stick Man to live?

Creating a home from natural materials in the forest, children built different homes and analysed them for their effectiveness in keeping Stick Man safe

If I was Stick Man what is Children made individual Stick Men and followed and used emomy favourite place? tional mapping using emojis to find their favourite place What was Stick Man’s best adventure?

Children used images from the book and compared his adventures to decide on which one would have been the best

The theory behind using such figures as Stick Man (or another familiar character) has been considered by various people. Birch and Palmer (2004, p. 102) maintain that utilizing a character like Stick Man is fundamental in developing children’s spatial units of attachment because ‘children develop a sense of distance associated with travel, by identifying the nearest and furthest places’ that the character has been to. In this case they were researching ‘Barnaby Bear’, a popular character that travels to multiple localities with the pupils who care for him (see www.geography.org.uk for more details on Barnaby). This also links to pages 75–78 referring to creative ways with picture books.

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Figures 5.12–5.15  Stick Man. Consider the ways pupils are learning here. Think of how their bodies are positioned and their subsequent relationship with the space, each other and the teacher. Its learning but in a very different form to being in any classroom and likely to provoke new interaction, feelings and questions – sometimes called ‘affordances’ or relationships to place.

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Summary In this chapter we have aimed to consider the term enquiry and how it is an umbrella term for a variety of activities that involve collaboration and valuing pupils’ voice through questioning the world around us. We have outlined the need for children to be challenged into thinking geographically through the enquiry process and how teachers are able to facilitate this by encouraging the use of a variety of questions. A range of questions have been provided and we hope that this will inspire an environment of creativity and curiosity in the classroom. Various frameworks of enquiry have been outlined and can support teachers’ thinking through the process at each stage of their enquiries. Guidance has been provided for each stage, and explicit examples of stimulus have been discussed by looking at the opportunities within picture books, images and schemes of work.

Recommended reading Catling, S. and Willy, T. (2009). Teaching Primary Geography. Exeter: Learning Matters. Pike, S. (2016). Learning Primary Geography: Ideas and Inspiration from Classrooms. Oxon: Routledge. Roberts, M. (2003). Learning through Enquiry: Making Sense of Geography in the Key Stage 3 Classroom. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Roberts, M. (2013). Geography through Enquiry: Approaches to Teaching and Learning in the Secondary School. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Roberts, M. (2017). Planning for Enquiry. In Jones, M. (ed.) (2017) Secondary Handbook for Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

Chapter 6 Children’s Ideas – Promoting Curiosity Chapter objectives ●●

to establish some principles about teaching with children’s ideas and stereotypes about places beyond ours and pupils’ experiences

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to consider children’s natural curiosity for people from other places and how to teach this appropriately

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to show ways that attitudes, values and perspectives influence us when teaching about people, places and environments in geography

Introduction This chapter covers children’s ideas in geography and how to promote curiosity. It will do this by looking beyond what has been covered so far in this book, largely geography that is local and national in context. Focussing on the wider world and distant place geography, in particular, illuminates values and attitudes we hold around interpreting the world and the impact this can have on children’s own geographies. This chapter will look at concepts of mastery in geography and consider the idea that casting ourselves as different to others with a focus on difference is problematic. The concept of ‘othering’ people (as discussed by Edward Said et al.) is important here. With reference to practice-based approaches, research and theory, we examine case studies to allow readers to consider aspects of their ingrained and unexplored or unspoken values so they can be aware of these before forming strategies to teach that are appropriate given their particular contexts. Rather than focus on lots of specific examples here, it is better to build a sense of yourself as a teacher of places beyond in your context, rather than just focus on examples that you might look at within the curriculum.

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Introduction Before reading this chapter, think about the following quotations. How might these relate to the teaching of geography? Seeing ‘the entire world as a foreign land’ makes possible originality of vision. Most people are principally aware of one culture, of one setting, one home; exiles are aware of at least two, and this plurality of vision gives rise to an awareness of simultaneous dimensions. ... For an exile, habits of life, expression, or activity in the new environment inevitably occur against the memory of these things in another environment. (Said 2013, p. 186) No man is an island, Entire of itself; Each is a piece of the Continent, A part of the main. (John Donne) The world is a book and those who do not travel read only one page. (St Augustine, fourth century BC)

SECTION 1: US, THEM AND DIFFERENCE ‘Foreign lands’ and ‘different cultures’ – it’s just like what the tourism ads, websites and glossy brochures try to sell us for our ‘exotic’ holidays. What is our relationship to these locations and, more importantly, the people there? Edward Said has written regularly on the sense of the other in society, those who are ‘over there’, excluded and separate; most definitely, not us. Said says that all cultures spin out a dialectic (sense of truth) of self and other, ‘the subject “I” who is native, authentic, at home, and the object “it” or “you”, who is foreign, perhaps threatening, different and out there. From this dialectic comes the series of heroes and monsters, founding fathers and barbarians, prized masterpieces and despised opponents that express a culture from its deepest sense of national self-identity to its refined patriotism, and finally to its coarse jingoism, xenophobia, and exclusivist bias’ (Said 1999, p. 40). So it is much more than considering when we go on holiday and how we view others; it is how we view different people and places from afar via any news media, through stories and by sharing views and opinions about the world everyday. Said’s writing on the geographies of ‘self’ and ‘other’ shows an interplay between power, knowledge and representation. Blunt (2009) says that Said argues that our attitude (sometimes called Orientalism) ‘produced knowledges about colonized people and places as inferior, irrational and “other” to a powerful, rational, Western “self ”’ (Blunt 2009, p. 70). Geography, even from the primary school level, might support a correction to this if not only as a way to avoid isolationism and provincialism as ‘spatial solitude means little in this fast globalizing world’ (De Blij 2012, p. 29). Who the us Said talks of can never be clear, as any group (however big) will be made up of individuals with criss-crossing and shared likes and dislikes, family connections and some (or no) religious heritage and a sense of what their culture is (or is not). As teachers we should seriously consider the challenge that this gives us: there will be

Children’s Ideas – Promoting Curiosity

children in our schools who might be themselves ‘exiles’ in Said’s terminology and I/we might call them recent emigrants to the UK. You might even be said to be one yourself if you were not born and brought up here. A key part of the geographical approach to these pupils and the settings they have come from and to is that these learners should feel that we consider (and value) them. We must recognize that everything they do occurs against the memory of these things in their previous environment, as Said (1999) puts it, especially if it might be different to our own experience.

Others, distance and globalization A way for any distance between an ‘us’ and ‘them’ in geography might be narrowed might be through discussing our globalized and interconnected world. If we were teaching the geography of people in Amazonia, and no child has a connection to Brazil, might we easily ignore that these are real people, people alive today facing real issues with concerns that geographers should investigate? Even if you did have a child from Brazil (or even a parent) in your class, would this solve the issue? The problem arises that if we are not careful, we are practising the ‘saming’ Said warns us of. After all, why would a person from urban Rio, Brasilia or São Paulo have any more sense of a person living in the jungle than a child from rural Wales? Of course, this presumes the image in your mind of an Amazonian I described above was a tribal figure, living a remote life, cut off from the world. I’m presuming it was, and you were not thinking of a person living in the buzzing two-million-person city of Manaus, situated deep in the Amazon jungle. Neiman (2016) argues that we need to be careful with any sense that globalization gives us any better impression of knowing other cultures than we actually do. His observation is that travel is at least as important for learning about yourself and your own culture as it is for understanding others (2016, pp. 151–2). This might then be broadened out to us as teachers: the geography we learn about others teaches us just as much about ourselves as them. It allows us to gain perspective and reflect on ourselves anew. The issue we should reconcile is that (perhaps) so often in the Western Hemisphere (we/us), have portrayed ourselves as civilized, technologically advanced and developed, while other societies (the them, in the Global South) are inferior, uncivilized, undeveloped and even savage in their way of life.

Pause for thought Said’s work prompts all sorts of questions: Where is home to you? Have you ever thought of yourself as an ‘exile’? Am I an exile from the North West of England because I now live in London? What are ‘foreign lands’ to you? What are they to your pupils? What might be ‘beyond our experience’? When can we be said to have fully experienced a place? How long should we have lived there first to truly know a place? When can one be truly called a local? What are a child’s influences about people and places?



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 6.1  Coke fridge and Buddhist. ‘Global South meets West’ is an image of a man in a flowing cloak, something which would be unusual to many in most Western European contexts. How does this make us react? How do we feel when we see the familiar symbols we recognize from our home territory? Is the sight of Coca-Cola reassuring or reductive of what might be considered unique and ‘local’?

Finally, as we embark on thinking about teaching about the wider world we must consider the issue that the ‘other’ changes over time: One implication of the widespread anti-immigration discourses (including by the mainstream political parties portraying immigration as a problem) is that most young people from Eastern Europe are seen as a new ‘Other’ in English schools both by the white majority and more established minority ethnic groups. (Tereshchenko 2014, p. 5)

One person’s other is another’s neighbour, friend or relative. Immigrants and immigration constantly reframe this debate.

SECTION 2: TEACHING BEYOND OUR AND PUPILS’ EXPERIENCE In the more than 125 years that geography has been a subject in the English school curriculum (Kinder 2017), it has had a particular focus on considering people and places beyond pupils’ experience. This has, arguably, been much more important than teaching about everyday or personal geographies and experiences. Distant place studies in the curriculum are often the pre-eminent aspect that would be thought of as ‘geography’ in the public’s mind. The reasons for this are many and various. Some of these might be traced to the long history of learning about and from people and places in the past five centuries. Think about the following statements.

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Pause for thought Which of these do you think could be said to be the most important considerations when we consider how we view the world? How have they influenced (implicity and explicity) how you think?

Is it the major (Western) ‘voyages of discovery’ of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries … Or the ‘grand tours’ of those with wealth and power … Is it the colonising powers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries … Or contact made by many more artists, authors and travellers with places and people from the eighteenth century onwards … Is it the explosion of ‘views of/from the world’ from great exhibitions, museums and newspapers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries … Or it is the growth of the media from film, radio, television, internet … Is it widespread national or world travel (or maybe global conflicts) such as the First World War and Second World War … Or possibly global trade, food from across the globe and the world’s riches being dug up, processed and sold. All of these still have an ‘us’ and ‘them’, Western-European focussed lens. What was happening in China, Japan or South America during these years? North America and Australia did not need to be discovered or ‘found’ as there were many people already there. Of course, this delves into historical geography and world history, but this is not a focus in the KS1 and KS2 history curricula in any great emphasis, so it is important to see how an understanding and consideration of these influences might affect what we teach to Primary.

Pause for thought How do we consider the Chinese or China when we see familiar images such as China’s Great Wall? (Figure 6.2.) How much else do we know about the country? Consider your media habits. Consider how these cultural influences can both engage us (and young learners) but also think carefully about their use and if they raise up a particular sense of exoticism and a remote other.

What is a simple story of what China is like? Can we tell such a story suitable for an 8-year-old? It is surely just as right as the China that is pictured in Figures 6.2–6.4.



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 6.2  Great Wall of China at Badaling.

Figure 6.3  Starbucks.

Children’s Ideas – Promoting Curiosity Figure 6.4  China traffic.

How should we consider our ‘world’ understanding? It is perhaps the media, travel and, in particular, trade (consumption) which has had the greatest impact on how we view the world differently now to how we would fifty, hundred or two hundred years ago. This all started with global Victorianera brands like Lipton or Horniman tea, Quaker oats or Coca-Cola alongside manufacturers of new desirable machines like the Ford Motor Company. Today, in retail and online shops, global chains such as Starbucks (Figure 6.3), McDonald’s and Amazon dominate trade in what we might call the Global North. It is only sometimes countries like China that have held back from some of the Western global corporations due to its political and cultural development. Here smaller local and national brands dominate alongside the KFC, fast food shops, Walmart stores and Coca-Cola machines. Figure 6.1 shows an interesting juxtaposition of East meets West. Such companies are undoubtedly building their brands and eyeing increased trade too in African nations, South America and countries which have so far not fallen under as much of a homogenizing spell.



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Children’s ideas of the world and a single story This view of the world from a consumer’s view will not be one that pupils might have unless they are particularly well travelled. Their views of the world come from many sources but media representations will be very important. Some writers argue that the colonial ‘hang-over’ from explorer’s views of the world (referenced several times already), and a focus on exoticism, means we should give consideration to ‘de-colonizing’ ourselves and our geography teaching (Martin and Griffiths 2013). The trouble with any representation of place is that it requires simplification; we can never get the ‘whole picture’. We would suggest that we might perpetually see some parts of the world in a positive light (America: prosperity, shiny cities, Hollywood and ‘land of the free’ rather than, a contrary negative view, a place with high gun violence or prison populations). Other countries, though, might be seen in wholly negative contexts, and their affliction by war, natural and human disasters (drought, famine, floods, earthquakes) (Scoffham 2007) would be something we would choose to focus on. This is probably more to do with our ignorance and lack of exposure to international news as there is much that could be said about any country before you come to any single view or ‘story’. Indeed, to suggest that the UK is consumed by homogenous retail outlets of similar types is increasingly true but not the whole picture. To turn to pupils’ understanding, Wiegand (1992) cites a 1951 paper by Piaget and Weill where it is said that pupils have an understanding of places that is the result of a ‘complex relationship between development in the cognitive and affective domains’ (1992, p. 36). While an old reference this is likely to be true. Affective here means an ability to empathize and feel and have a degree of acceptance rather than cognitive which is more about comprehending or applying what they know. The former also might involve categorizing or naming (rather than understanding) in a methodical way rather than thinking about value and values and attitudes. They have much more experience of the former in their primary age years than the latter: they might form stereotypes based on how places, people and environments make them feel rather than what they have been taught or learned. Wiegand goes on to discuss the idea that we would suggest develops over time (and through knowledge and experience) that of reciprocity as important, which is the ability to ‘look at the world from someone else’s point of view’ even though they find that pupils often look upon even those they do live with or near in their own ‘homeland’ as other and less than themselves. Martin and Griffiths (2013) build on this and discuss ‘a relational logic’ alongside the affective when understanding pupils’ personal geographies which leads to a more open-minded, non-judgemental stance towards difference. From this perspective, culture and identity are understood through relating to difference, and as dynamic, fluid and plural (Brah 2007 cited in Martin and Griffiths 2013).

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How might an understanding of difference be taught? It is, therefore, important to teach similarity alongside difference as there are, and will be, some differences. But how might this be done? Walker agrees with our contention that children in English schools have ‘existing, and probably muddled, fleeting and improbable ideas about unfamiliar places; there exists potential for teachers to challenge these perceptions towards more clear, stable and probable ideas’ (2002, p. 1). A further insight comes from Grigg and Hughes (2013), arguing that the affective is completely ignored so when we do teach distant place studies solely focussing on facts and figures and not the rich and complicated interplay of people and their environment, it is problematic. Matthews links this to everyday and personal geographies which can be built upon if children have a strong ‘affective sense of place’ and that they ‘develop feelings and emotions which induce powerful positive and negative images’ (Matthews 1992, p. 236) which can then be discussed and debated.

SECTION 3: RESOURCING TO TEACH DISTANT PLACE AND THAT WHICH IS BEYOND PUPILS’ EXPERIENCE Walker (2002) suggests that case studies of real places and people should be used to teach children about distant and unfamiliar places. This is a familiar teaching approach and allows us to present images and ideas to match and conflict with children’s initial ideas and they should be encouraged to reconsider them. He goes on to suggest that activities ‘that explore children’s values and attitudes, providing opportunities for them to express opinions should be sought. Photographs should be at the core of place studies in class-based tasks’ (Walker 2002).

Using virtual or our own experiences of travel to teach One way to do this is from what experience we have ourselves as teachers. The difficulty is that from the first experiences of learning about geography in education in the EYFS, children are learning about ‘big picture’ geography: continents, countries and physical geography environments such as Antarctica. Most of them will not have visited these and neither will you. Consider the following scenario:



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 6.5  Blackpool Tower or Eiffel Tower?

Blackpool Tower or Eiffel Tower? From this vantage point (Figure 6.5) – it is easy, but it is fascinating that a video you might show which was artfully produced by the tourism site Visit Blackpool (easily found on You Tube) fools most people who watch it, carefully manipulating place impressions we have about the very similar towers. Why do we have strong sensory and emotional attachments to the French capital’s tower but, for many of us, we have different associations for the Northern British town’s tower? Have you been to Paris? It is perhaps more likely that you have been there than have been to Blackpool. So how would you teach them both if you had to? Will you teach them better if you have been there? Should you teach them and do you have more knowledge if you have been there? It is always a difficult conundrum for geography teachers! Take this example: you might have visited ‘Africa’ on a safari holiday, via a Tunisian beach or on a city-break to Cape Town; but do you know Africa? What we need to realize is that we never really know any place, even our own street, never mind our own town, city or country! As we have argued before, can we ever really know geography? The message to take away is to be aware of any sources of information, whether they are ones you have created (pictures you have taken) and be careful to show these in the spirit of enquiry. Who? What? Where? Why? When? How? Whose perspective? Not all opinions are valid, but some should be sought from the pupils that you are teaching. Neiman argues that mass tourism presents what he calls a ‘democratic veneer’ and we must keep our ‘senses open to other ways of being in the world’ (Neiman 2016, p. 159). Quoting George Santayana, Neiman says ‘all tourists are dear to Hermes, the god of travel, who is patron also of amiable curiosity and freedom of mind. There is

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wisdom in turning as often as possible from the familiar to the unfamiliar: it keeps the mind nimble, it kills prejudice, and it fosters humour’ (Santayana in Neiman 2016, p. 158). So, building on this ‘amiable curiosity’ (a nice counterpoint to our idea of enquiry, outlined in Chapter 5) we need to avoid stereotypes. Stereotypes are usually most apparent in relation to human geography (people, place knowledge – what it is like there) but can also relate to how we refer to teaching about physical geographical aspects of the world. Are all hot places the same? What about cold places? We all know that for some places the cold or heat might be seasonal, but for others it would not be and that wind can affect a place quite markedly.

Pause for thought Write down a hot, cold, wet and dry place. Look below and see the possible misconceptions and stereotypes you might have. Compare the line of latitude for different places you have been and think about the temperature you experienced; what are the extremes through the year? Did you go at the right (holiday) time and at other times of the year, would it be inhospitable? Dry: The Sahara desert? This is true but it is not just hot places which are dry. Antarctica is dry (it is a desert as it gets little rain). This one in particular surprises a lot of people. Look online for the definition of how little rain is little. Hot: Our concept of hot will be very different to others’. A hot day in the UK is 25 degrees centigrade. That would be a very average day in many equatorial countries. Equally, places much further North than us can have similar summers (e.g. Stockholm compared to London). Do we know why this is? Are we curious about this? Wet: Again, concepts are contested. The wettest places in the world will receive many metres of rainfall. They might get this through the year. This links to seasons: how many places in the world do you know with 1, 2, 3 or 4 seasons? NB: Due to the axis of the earth and our orbit round the sun, no location has a truly single season with consistent conditions, particularly in terms of temperature and precipitation. According to the Köppen climate classification system, the closest environment that would have minimal seasonality is the city of Andagoya, Colombia, South America (latitude 5N, elevation 65m) (EarthScience.com/ Wikipedia). Cold: Is this air temperature or wind-chill? Inhabited or uninhabited? What might seem like a simple question comes up with many different answers. Once you start to research this online (try it) you can come up with some very varied answers. Of course you will refer to children that these are sparsely populated areas of the world, often areas of high ground.

Look at Figure 6.6. Where in the world? This is in Sri Lanka’s tea-growing region and the house was built in the style of mock-Tudor houses in the UK. It is not the typical image of a beach or even Sri Lanka’s tea-growing region that the tourism board would publicize. Most people would instantly think this is the UK. So what is the story behind this? What aspects of the colonial history of ‘Ceylon’ could we link to?



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 6.6  Nuwra Eliya, Sri Lanka.

Resourcing human geography teaching (landmarks) What the discussion above shows is that when teaching about distant places, we need to consider much more than just their most significant places which usually means their capital cities. However, when we search for materials, this will often be what we find – in tourism brochures, videos, Google image searches – just the highlights of a country. Often this will involve a focus on landmark buildings. Do we ever critically evaluate cities and urban areas when we teach them? How do we present landmark buildings to children: is it always with a sense of ‘wow’? How tall, shiny and amazing? Might we think: would we want to live in a big building’s shadow? Do we consider that buildings like this cause an increase in winds below and around them and very shady parts of the city where little can grow? Imagine if London was seen as just the ‘Shard’, ‘Gherkin’, St Paul’s or the Houses of Parliament. What relationship do these have to the daily lives of Londoners? Even for KS1 children this is a problematic image of the city, surely? It is helpful for some context which you might wish to consider when next teaching about a large city like London. Such reification and glorification of the built environment overlooks the fact that all these buildings are built along the banks of a long, impressive river: the city’s essential physical geography. Many buildings would not look as impressive if they did not have this river alongside or if they were not built on higher ground on either side of the river’s floodplain. Allied to this is the fact that it is in the bowl-shaped Thames Valley. As many world

Children’s Ideas – Promoting Curiosity Figure 6.7  Stereotypes of London. Photo taken from the viewing gallery of the ArcelorMittal Orbit, a (perhaps) less successful way of creating an iconic structure than in Figure 6.5?

Figure 6.8  Hong Kong. Its physical geography amplifies its impressive and towering buildings.

cities would be the same, remember, their physical situation adds to their sense of drama. What is Manhattan, New York, if we don’t discuss it being at the mouth of the Hudson River where it empties into New York Bay and into the Atlantic Ocean? This is one of the largest natural harbours in the world, but do we teach this? What is Hong Kong if we don’t consider the various bays such as Kowloon Bay, Hong Kong Island itself and its position in the South China Sea? (See Figure 6.8.)



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Pause for thought Think of major world cities you have been to. Look on their Wikipedia profile and look at the description of their ‘geography’, one of the easiest places to see a description of their natural setting. Cross-reference with the CIA World Factbook online too if you wish to contrast this with the country’s geography. Have you noticed that lots of cities have settlements built on hills (Rome, Edinburgh, Moscow, San Francisco), that they were by a lake or the sea (Chicago, Barcelona, Cape Town) or that they are very flat (Las Vegas, a hot desert) easy to build on or surrounded by hills with a river running through it (Paris and many European cities).

Examples of Case Studies to use with children to build their concepts of distant places Use individuals: While one person’s story can never be fully representative, using guest speakers can enliven the rest of your pupils’ learning about the human and physical geography of a location. If they have photos of their life, travels and opinion on the country it can broaden this out and not remain just one story.

Use media produced for children: BBC Learning, BBC Teach (via You Tube) and Bitesize and Schools have a wide range of individual stories produced for children’s school use. Living in the suburbs – Birmingham and Johannesburg and Living in opposite climates – North England and North Australia.

Little Human Planet is an earlier series and Channel 4’s Africa’s Child in the Eureka! series, although now dated, is a wonderful series.

Use books: Among many individual titles on almost every country, city or setting in the world two series are worth highlighting. Dorling Kindersley has been publishing for over two decades series of regularly updated books on the theme of What are other children like in the world? and Children Just Like series (DK/Penguin/Random House, 2016 and 1995/1997/1999). They have also started to add in new books like Food Like Mine (Children Just Like Me) (DK 2017). The outstanding picture-led World Alphabets series started with Ifeoma Onyefulu’s A is for Africa (1997) and has now many titles including W is for World (2007) (Frances Lincoln). The books have been praised for their incisive view of the respective country’s rich heritage. Use series of images from photographers: James Mollison is a photographer whose provocative images might prompt interesting conversations with children about their lives, their homes and what their aspirations are. Without context, they will prompt discussion about haves and have nots. http://jamesmollison.com/books/where-children-sleep/

Playground is his series of images of where children play round the world. Taken from above, they show different landscapes, seasons and children in or not in uniform as well as tantalizing glimpses of the school buildings in the backgrounds. http://jamesmollison.com/books/playground/

Children’s Ideas – Promoting Curiosity



Resourcing physical geography teaching Volcanoes, earthquakes and natural disasters are popular topics in schools. In the main, these are often a good and successful aspect of schools’ geography teaching. The non-fiction books used to resource these topics are often very good examples of how to convey quite complex information well. Some pitfalls you need to avoid when teaching these topics are as follows. Ensure there is locational and place knowledge built into the topics. Children should be able to name more than one specific location of a volcano and that there is a pattern to their distribution. They should also be able to say that there are extinct volcanoes in this country (Figure 5.9). Similarly, earthquakes should be taught with the appreciation that they are normal, happen all the time and occur in this country. What is different is their magnitude and how disastrous the consequences are when they occur in populated places, especially if they do not have adequate building controls or warning systems. Ask children the question: Is it possible that buildings kill people because they have been badly designed, rather than them being killed by the earthquakes? In Chapter 5 we have included an example of the enquiry framework in action related to the teaching of Sicily and Mount Etna. You can also refer to excellent fully resourced lesson plans produced by the RGS with IBG online: http://www.rgs.org/ OurWork/Schools/Teaching+resources/Key+Stage+1-2+resources. Here you will also find resources to teach the following: Hong Kong – Key Stage 1 & 2

United States of America – Key Stage 2

Australia – Key Stage 1 & 2

Brazil – Key Stage 2

Exploring Shackleton’s Antarctica

Kenya – A changing nation

Discovering Galapagos

China – Snapshots in Time

India – Pictures of the past

There are also useful animations and posters on topics such as Weather and climate: http://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Teaching+resources/Key+Stage+1-2+resources/

We would also recommend the GA’s teacher support books to help support teaching: Geography Plus: Amazon Adventures: Investigating the South American Rainforest; Living in the Freezer: Investigating Polar Environments; Australia Here We Come!; and SuperSchemes: A Journey through the Americas: Investigating Latitude and Longitude, and Investigating Mountains and Volcanoes. You can use these alongside the amazing images and lesson plans in their manifesto A Different View: http://www.geography.org.uk/resources/adifferentview/imagesandactivities/

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Summary Teaching about places beyond our and pupils’ experiences is a challenge. In a study by Catling (2001) ‘only about one in twenty children made reference to distant places’ when questioned about the geography they do, so it is perhaps not something that they are doing or think they are doing in school! However, to counter stereotyping and a single story of a people, place and environment it is essential that we give children high-quality experiences of distant place learning. What is important is that we examine our views as soon as we make the conceptual leap to consider anywhere we have never been before: what are our ingrained attitudes and what are the pupils’? This can tell us a lot but is not the whole story. A very powerful evocation of the ‘single story’ narrative that is told is in the TED talk video that Chimamanda Ngozi Adiche gave over a decade ago and has been used by many primary geographers in the intervening period (Martin, Catling, et al.); it’s a great way you might finish your understanding of what is in this chapter.

Recommended reading Scoffham, S. et al. (2010). Primary Geography Handbook, Sheffield: Geographical Association.

Chapter 7 Assessing Children in Geography Chapter objectives ●●

to consider the idea of the plan-review-assess cycle in relation to the curriculum, at the individual and at the school level

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to consider issues surrounding inclusion as they relate to the geography curriculum and planning for inclusion

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to consider assessing the subject within the difficult parameters of current school priorities where core subjects predominate

Introduction This chapter offers suggestions about the range of possibilities for assessing pupils in the primary classroom. It pays particular attention to pupils who might not be able to attain well and suggests further activities which could lead to mastery for all. An understanding of the values and attitudes we hold around interpreting the world is important especially in relation to inclusion for all. With reference to research and theory, we examine some of the potential and relevant characteristics of a geography teacher. Through the use of examples, we invite the reader to think around issues of values, motivation and expertise, and examine their own understanding of these before forming an opinion to fit their particular contexts.

SECTION 1: ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING Part 1: Beginning with the child and their personal development This book has argued that to meet children’s needs we must work with them to understand their perspective/s alongside the curricula we choose (or are directed) to teach. The idea of formative assessment is important and this is ongoing assessment on a daily basis. An important aspect of this is knowing the child who is in front of you,

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as it is not just their record of learning or programme on a tracker in front of you. We need to understand that their progress in geography might be shown in many different ways. We need to think carefully and wonder: can we assess pupils’ values, perspectives and or understanding of their or others’ identity? All these have been argued so far as being of importance to the geography curriculum. Catling argues that these are the essence of building a motivating and effective primary geography curriculum, one that focuses on working with children ‘not on behalf of them, or to them, nor ignoring them’ (Catling 2005, p. 340). To this end, geography is uniquely placed to support inclusion of all children whatever their current attainment level, cultural or socioeconomic background. As has been argued already, understanding their own patch (their own place knowledge), where they are located and giving them a sense of being ‘rooted’, regardless of how long the children have been in the school, area or even country. This ties in well with notions surrounding British values, citizenship and the ideas around civic values, now being promoted by Ofsted or around character education touted by various politicians and bodies.

Inclusion in geography We must start with general notions around inclusion in terms of including the subject: with a limited amount of curriculum time, is there enough time to ‘include’ geography at all? As an excluded, ‘othered’ subject from the core, does its status give it problems in including all learners? We hope that through the ideas espoused in this book, learners of all types are at the heart of any geography that is (or can be) taught. Interestingly, up until 2014 in England there was a clear expectation of entitlement of the amount of time that should be devoted to each curriculum subject but this has been removed. Schools are said to be ‘free to choose how they organise their school day, as long as the content of the national curriculum programmes of study is taught to all pupils’ (DfE 2014). Current DfE guidelines go on to say more broadly about individual pupils that ‘teachers should set high expectations for every pupil. They should plan stretching work for pupils whose attainment is significantly above the expected standard. They have an even greater obligation to plan lessons for pupils who have low levels of prior attainment or come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Teachers should use appropriate assessment to set targets which are deliberately ambitious’ (DfE 2014, p. 8). So, how can we be ambitious for all children in geography? The best way that we argue in this book is through high-quality questioning and differentiation as shown through the enquiry process, discussed in Chapter 5 particularly. The sorts of questions you might ask would depend on age and attainment level, as well as your knowledge of their prior understanding. This is why it is important that we build up this knowledge wherever we can. When planning learning we must be careful not to group children simply based on their performance in other subjects such as reading or mathematics as this will underestimate their potential. We advocate mixed attainment grouping at the outset to bridge any ‘expectation gap’ in geography. Teachers should be aware of the

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research that suggests that for lower attaining children, flexible within-class grouping is preferable to tracking or streaming. ‘It is important to recognise that a measure of current attainment, such as a test, is not the same as a measure of potential’ (EEF 2017). We would also go further and remind readers that the EEF also suggests that overall, setting or streaming appears to benefit higher attaining pupils and be detrimental to the learning of mid-range and lower attaining learners. ‘On average, it does not appear to be an effective strategy for raising the attainment of disadvantaged pupils, who are more likely to be assigned to lower groups’ (EEF 2017).

Attainment in geography Inclusion with individual pupils is particularly about how well all pupils attain in their lessons. This might be you assessing the attainment of a child at risk due to their home circumstances as well as those who are disabled or have a specific special need or who need additional adult support. In geography, it might also be to do with an activity’s gender specificity. For example, could activities that take place in outdoor environments such as a forest be more orientated to boys or girls? How do you frame them? Do you consider gender at all? Should you? Are all children encouraged to interact in the same way with mud, minibeasts or nature? Watch what roles children assign each other and try to challenge these. Geography, as an ‘outdoor’ subject, has a part to play in making sure all activities are suitable for all learners, not just those who are ‘outdoors’-orientated or -experienced children, if such children exist! Pupils’ orientation to the outdoors is always going to have more to do with social and familial exposure than anything else and schools should provide equal access for all.

Part 2: Thinking about your pupils’ prior experiences We have talked in previous chapters about pupils’ prior experiences and how these might influence what is taught. What if these are more than just living elsewhere and moving for family or economic reasons? How do we include and work with (and for) children who have moved for reasons which are more complex?

Pause for thought Look at this mass of people (Figure 7.1). It might represent the parents of the children you teach. How much do you know about their family heritage? In some schools a lot will be known about pupils, their lives and connections outside school. In other schools, especially those located in cities or locations with high numbers of traveller children, much less might be known because of a more rapidly changing school population. Consider a definition you might give for the following words: Immigrant/Refugee/Asylum seeker.



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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 7.1  Faces at More London Scoop.

Now read these official definitions: Migrant: ‘Any person who lives temporarily or permanently in a country where he or she was not born, and has acquired some significant social ties to this country’ (United Nations online). This is often conflated with ethnic or religious minorities and with asylum seekers (Migration Observatory online) as well as migrant workers (which might be temporary). Refugee: A refugee is someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war or violence. A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they cannot return home or are afraid to do so. War and ethnic, tribal and religious violence are leading causes of refugees fleeing their countries (UNHCR online). Asylum seeker: An asylum seeker is someone whose request for sanctuary has yet to be processed. Every year, around one million people seek asylum (UNHCR online). For more detailed discussion on this, it is worth reading the following Guardian article: ‘Migrants, refugees and asylum seekers: what’s the difference?’ (Travis 2015). What impact do children from such family circumstances have on our classrooms? What influence and impact should they have on our teaching of geography?

Assessing Children in Geography

What do you know about the heritage of citizens of the UK? Nearly one in ten people living in the UK in 2016 were foreign citizens. Numbers rose by 6.4 per cent to reach 5.95m between 2015 and 2016 (OECD 2017). This means 9.2 per cent of the population are from overseas and in cities, coastal towns and some rural areas (with seasonal workers) might be much higher. Over a million citizens of Eastern European heritage currently reside in the UK and pupils who speak an Eastern European language as their mother tongue are the fastest growing group in English primary and secondary schools (Tereshchenko 2014, pp. 11–12). In London, 36.7 per cent of the population is born overseas and some London boroughs have more than 50 per cent. The geographer Sorkin sounds a note of caution related to the ‘othering’ of people and groups that we discussed in Chapter 5, as while we might have a large population from individual Eastern European countries (or maybe some African countries) it is more likely that they are from many nations. ‘We need to be careful revelling in the diversity and multiculturalism of places like London. When we hear that over two hundred languages are spoken, how does that help us? The dominant language is English, possibly followed by Bangladeshi, Gujarati, Urdu or Polish. Multiculturalism is a constant and accelerating process of juxtaposition of genes and memes, of people and understanding’ (Sorkin 2011, p. 249). How should this affect how we teach?

Migrant children It is very hard (and possibly dangerous) to generalize about the impact of this, but Ofsted has concerns over children in these circumstances and the way schools work with migrant children in particular. They say successful support depends on a range of factors ‘whether or not the school has a history of addressing the issues raised by ethnic or religious diversity; whether it’s in a dispersal area; or whether the migrant children find themselves in a predominantly white school with little experience of the issues they face … trying to foster compassion among pupils towards migrant peers by introducing their stories into the curriculum. For example, during events like Refugee Week, Holocaust Week and in citizenship studies, teachers were talking about the effects of war and why migration happens, there’s much more work that could be done in terms of developing interesting course material and resources for schools that could then have some positive images about migration and how the world looks today, and the positive side of migration, which is the creativity of migrants’ (Arnot cited in Creasey 2017). Any child who comes into this country from elsewhere will be from a specific country and we need to be mindful of developing some locational knowledge to support our teaching. We can enhance this through discussions with use of globes, maps, atlases and online mapping tools. We must guard against just referring to pupils as for example Somali/Afghani children, directing pupils’ gaze towards locations they might only have vague ideas about, giving any sense of context. If a child came



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from Edinburgh, Antrim or Cornwall they might have very different experiences, as would children in different parts of Somalia, Syria or Iran. They will also have had many different experiences getting to the UK, as varied as any you can imagine of home life in their origin country. If you find putting yourself into shoes of a family in such circumstances difficult, we strongly recommend that you watch the 2016/17 BBC series Exodus: Our Journey which showed first-hand accounts of migrants and refugees who came from a variety of countries and crossed Europe or speaking to colleagues or parents about their heritage when sharing your own.

Pause for thought Other questions we might ask or consider when thinking about a pupil’s personal geography, as with any geographical enquiry could be: do not presume city, countryside or that their life was ‘war-torn’ as they might surprise you! Did they go to school? [Presume that they did as it is more likely they did than they did not.] What sort of neighbourhood did they come from? [Show pictures if they are pupils with limited grasp of English. Try to make connections between here and there with a focus on similarity not difference.]

Further examples of resources to help children My name is Navid. This is the story of my journey from Iran. The reason we left Iran was that my dad disagreed with the government and how things were going. I remember a visit from some Government officials one day. My dad’s life was in danger. (Glynne and Topf 2016) Navid’s, Ali’s, Hamid’s, Juliane’s, Rachel’s stories, all individual books by Andy Glynne et al. are part of the series Seeking Refuge (2016, Wayland). This was first broadcast by the BBC in 2012 and is now available on their YouTube BBC Teach channel (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eUHqP8ZfuVg) confusingly under the grouping of ‘Modern Studies’. They are made for KS2 and KS3 children, so watch beforehand and consider their usage carefully. The older BBC resources on Migration and Movement are also helpful here for prompting discussion and putting what is regularly in the news into context: https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/clips/zbrd2hv

We must bear in mind with pupils born or (who have travelled) from overseas that while there might be a media-fuelled perception that new children in schools make it a poorer experience for the children already there, there is no evidence that EAL children lower standards in schools (Tereshchenko 2014, p. 12). Indeed, teachers themselves report that it enriches the school environment and can provide a breadth of experience some other children might lack. Schools might share their experience/s in the curriculum and work alongside families to raise issues. Special weeks such as Refugee Week or Black History Month might be a feature of their wider curriculum. As one teacher reported to Ryan et al. the children they had taught contribute to the

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diversity of the school: ‘Another teacher observed that many migrant and refugee children have rich storytelling traditions and this should be used by teachers in boosting those children’s confidence and academic performance’ (Ryan et al. 2010, p. 18).

Considering identity: Planning for pupils If we were to plan for these children by using an internet search, just searching ‘Bangladesh’, as an example, would tell us little about the lives of the individuals and their families. As we have consistently argued about geography, it is a very personal and individual aspect of who we are. Once again, we get into that very tricky position of how to represent a group of people in geography when it is ultimately made up of contrasting individuals! What’s clear is we should ensure that personal identity and not group identity is respected. This might be termed their social capital, a phrase we discuss more below, and is accepting who you are, where you come from and being proud of and being able to explain one’s heritage. This is challenging terrain.

Pause for thought Read what journalist Gary Younge has to say about this issue of identity in his book, Who Are We? And Should It Matter in the 21st Century? ‘The urge to express one’s identity, and to have it recognized tangibly by others, is increasingly contagious and has to be recognized as an elemental force even in the shrunken, apparently homogenizing, high-tech world of the end of the twentieth century’ (Hooson cited in Younge 2010, p. 201). On the one hand, we all have more in common than we used to. We drink Coke, wear Nikes and eat at McDonald’s, and many of those who cannot, generally speaking, would like to ... . As consumers we have never had more in common. In India, call-centre workers have to flatten their vowels, take Western names and learn the plotlines of American sitcoms to make customers in a continent they have never visited feel more at home. (Younge 2010, p. 211)

Younge would disagree with Sorkin (as quoted above) as he says, ‘those who would like to deny the complexity, fluidity and multilayered nature of identity thrive, by flattening out the landscape into us and them ... solidarity is most crucial. ... Identity is not seeking a role in politics. It is already there. Nor is it seeking a role in our lives. It is there too. For better, or worse and usually for both, it is an integral part of how we relate to people as individuals and groups. The choice is whether we want to succumb to its perils amidst moral panic and division or leverage its potential through solidarity in terms of common, and higher, ground’ (Younge 2010, p. 231). This is where we should perhaps consider the cultural capital the children bring rather than the individual country and any view we might have of them.



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Assessing children and cultural capital Cultural capital is of prime importance for socialization and education. Bourdieu (1996) describes three types of cultural capital: incorporated, objectified and institutionalized cultural capital. It is the first which is most helpful for us to think about when teaching children. ‘Incorporated cultural capital is the sum and the quality of the learned skills, knowledge, values, preferences and standards which have to be acquired and which are manifested in a certain habitus of the person. The incorporation process takes effort and time. Its content and quality are heavily dependent on the cultural capital of the family in which the person grows up. [This] is transferred and acquired in a long-lasting process starting with primary socialization. The transfer involves many forms of unintentional and intentional learning that happen in daily family interaction and creates learning potentials that enable the person increasingly to acquire and incorporate the culture of his or her environment’ (Heckmann 2008, p. 23). This echoes the quotation from Andrew Pollard cited in Chapter 2 about us having to acknowledge that children probably know a lot more than we think they know and that they have ‘funds of knowledge’ that built from their family, community and other relationships. The Marmot Review on health inequality (discussed in Chapter 3) has said that as well as physical places, these communities and social networks to which individuals belong over their life course also have a significant impact on inequality. The links that connect people within communities, often described as social or community capital, can bring a range of benefits. Social capital can provide a source of resilience, a buffer against particular risks of poor health, through social support and connections that help people find work or get through economic and other difficulties ... we live, grow, learn, work and age in a range of environments, and our lives are affected by residential communities, neighbourhoods and relational communities and social structures. (Marmot 2010, p. 127)

So what might the cultural capital be in geography? The reason this is important is we must consider what children are exposed to before we plan. There are perhaps three areas of pupils’ culture we might consider: the impact from school, their home life and peer relationships.



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School culture

Home culture

Peer culture

The importance of the foundation subjects in the curriculum Foundation subjects can broaden the views, perspectives and values that children are exposed to. There are claims to objectivity that some subjects (science, maths) have that are not there with subjects like geography, as explained in earlier chapters.

Amount of media children watch This could be the length of time but also the ‘quality’. While this is very subjective, if pupils only watch fictional television and not factual television like that provided by the BBC or cable/online channels they (we might argue) are being deprived of alternative perspectives. Online watching is more popular than TV set watching with YouTube, a particularly important player, with 37 per cent of 3–4s, 54 per cent of 5–7s, 73 per cent of 8–11s using it (Ofcom 2016, p. 1).

The number of children with a social media profile doubles between the ages of 10 and 11 With 8–11-yearolds (43 per cent) children most likely to consider Facebook their main social media profile. SnapChat continues to grow while many fewer say they use Twitter. The children were more likely than in 2015 to be using group chat services to chat with both family and friends, including SnapChat, WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger and Instagram (Ofcom 2016, p. 5). What people are they then contacting and what material are they seeing?

Pause for thought Consider the sorts of news alerts you get and from whom. How does this affect your own thinking about topics and issues in the news? There has been a lot of concern about ‘fake news’. Do you think this is an important issue with younger children?

The school traditions/ foundation: Religious foundation, Academy school, Independent, Special or community school. All of these might have an impact.

Quality of media they consume ‘There are concerns about the lack of children’s new and original programming being produced in the UK. Between 2006 and 2011 the number of hours of original UK children’s programming halved. ... This is important because parents show a preference for programmes that are clearly British in nature. The BBC has declared that it will focus on “greater resources for fewer programmes”, putting quality over quantity and reducing the amount of cheap entertainment content, such as imported animations’ (CMF 2013).

Curriculum consultants (LEA, Independent) These are now few and far between but many will be associated with subject associations such as the Geographical Association. You can contact one here: http://geography.org.uk/ cpdevents/ga-consultancy/ Courses or conferences run by the Geographical Association/Royal Geographical Society with IBG or alternative providers.

(Continued)

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School culture

Home culture

Local initiatives such as Fairtrade town, links to aid efforts related to religious groups (e.g. ‘Send a Cow’, Christian Aid or Islamic Relief).

Choice over the media they consume Reading is the third most popular activity with primary school aged children (62 per cent) beating newer activities such as watching online video clips (47 per cent), instant messaging (10 per cent) and watching music videos (11 per cent) (Ofcom 2016).

Subscriptions to services like Espresso (Discovery Education) or use of EducationCity, GridClub, and so on.

Accessibility to local library services with good non-fiction stocks.

Local topography If children near prominent physical geography features, for example, rivers, mountains, the coast and so on.

Newspapers in the home especially the familiarity with free newspapers such as Metro, the London Evening Standard or other free papers in large, city areas.

Publishers and resource providers for example, textbook writers, providers of downloadable materials on websites.

Visitors to the school for example LEA consultants, guest speakers, local faith groups, school governors, Academy chain priorities.

Social networks for example UKEDChat, people you follow on Twitter/Facebook (if done for professional purposes).

Interests/doctoral theses of key writers for example.

Funding available For example, a small budget will mean out of date or lack of resources.

Free resources teachers use, as opposed to those from a trusted voice (publisher/subject association).

Accessibility to school News media and their educalibrary services in school or tion provision for example, BBC, visiting a nearby library. Channel 4, Sky as well as You Tube availability where all manner of resources could be found. Training in use of internet Magazines in the home for examservices for example, Google ple, National Geographic Kids or to find out information. National Geographic.

Peer culture

Assessing Children in Geography

Considering values and geography All schools have a duty to ‘actively promote’ the fundamental British values of democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty, and mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs. These values were first set out by the government in the ‘Prevent’ strategy in 2011; ‘all schools must now have a clear strategy for embedding these values and show how their work with pupils has been effective in doing so’ (DfE 2014c).

Ofsted inspection and values The Ofsted Handbook for inspection states the social development of pupils is shown by their use of a range of social skills in different contexts, for example working and socialising with other pupils, including those from different religious, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds ... [their] ... acceptance and engagement with the fundamental British values ... and mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs; they develop and demonstrate skills and attitudes that will allow them to participate fully in and contribute positively to life in modern Britain. The cultural development of pupils is shown by their: understanding and appreciation of the wide range of cultural influences that have shaped their own heritage and those of others understanding and appreciation of the range of different cultures within school and further afield as an essential element of their preparation for life in modern Britain ... willingness to participate in and respond positively to artistic, musical, sporting and cultural opportunities ... interest in exploring, improving understanding of and showing respect for different faiths and cultural diversity and the extent to which they understand, accept, respect and celebrate diversity, as shown by their tolerance and attitudes towards different religious, ethnic and socioeconomic groups in the local, national and global communities. (2016, pp. 35–6)

In 2017, Amanda Spielman, Chief Inspector of Schools, said that ‘“the active promotion of British values” means giving young people a real civic education. As I have said before, it is the kind of education that teaches young people not just what British Values are, but how they were formed and how they have been passed down from generation to generation. So, a strong civic education includes a rich and deep curriculum in subjects such as history, English and geography – to name just a few. ... And while we don’t necessarily teach these subjects with promoting British Values in mind done well they should encourage those very debates. Through them, pupils should learn how we became the country we are today and how our values make us a beacon of liberalism, tolerance and fairness to the rest of the world.



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They should emerge as educated adults with a broad, informed perspective on the world. So, to sum up, I don’t see British Values as a distraction from the curriculum, but at the very heart of it’ (Spielman 2017b).

Pause for thought Is your school more mono-cultural or very multi-ethnic? Have you ever considered this? Do these recent pronouncements from Ofsted give you some clarity and comfort as an individual teacher? Does this provide a challenge for you and any settings you have been in?

This section has dealt with assessment for learning, the next section deals with assessment of learning in geography.

SECTION 2: ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING Pause for thought How much assessment of pupils have you done in geography? How important is it? How would you start it if there is nothing there already? Schools will be able to introduce their own approaches to formative assessment, to support pupil attainment and progression. The assessment framework should be built into the school curriculum, so that schools can check what pupils have learned and whether they are on track to meet expectations at the end of the key stage, and so that they can report regularly to parents. (DfE, June 2013)

There has been much confusion and debate about what should replace the previous published ‘levels’ showing pupil attainment, following their removal from England’s schools in 2013. Put simply there was no new ‘system’ to assess and link with the 2013 curriculum. For geography, schools have in some cases simply used the curriculum as a way to tick off that the subject matter has been taught and create an end-of-year report that might simply reflect this. This is a dangerous way to assess pupils (as you might imagine this book would argue) as this would record factual (‘pub quiz’) knowledge but not, as the aims point out, any deep understanding and skills. How could schools show ‘how the Earth’s features at different scales are shaped, interconnected and change over time’ (DfE 2014)? It is difficult and

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anecdotal evidence suggests that for some schools and teachers this ‘tick list’ is enough for them to feel they have done geography. For others this has become a possibly meaningless duty of compliance to prove they have been doing some geography. This highlights one of the authors’ fears that unless teachers and schools have a rationale that underpins how they are teaching geography (a pedagogy), then pupils assessment is unlikely to be little beyond factual recall, labelling and surface understanding. The problem for KS3 and KS4 colleagues taking these pupils on is the wide variation; some schools do great work with whatever curriculum they are using and turn it inside out and cherry-pick the bits that are most applicable to them. Other schools might use the post-hoc curriculum mapping strategy; they do the teaching, then go back to the curriculum and tick off the attainment targets for the bit that they have covered. This approach has been criticized for some time, such as by the National Union of Teachers as ‘entirely deadening and not the purpose of a curriculum’ (NUT cited in Hansard 2009, p. 60). How to avoid this is to not leave assessment to the end and is why we started this chapter with the idea that ongoing understanding of your pupils and discussion with them throughout is the best way to gauge understanding. While summative assessment has a place, the power of the formative process as you go through a sequence of learning, adapting, clarifying and discussing should not be underestimated and (as we are keen to point out), this goes hand-in-glove with the whole process of enquiry-informed learning.

Best practice assessing in geography If good geography excites and arouses curiosity, then having something to start pupil thinking off so you can assess pupils’ prior knowledge is important. Eliciting and developing talk around vocabulary and key concepts is important here. As the NC states: ‘It is particularly important to induct pupils into the language which defines each subject in its own right’ (2013, p. 11). How can we do this? Here are ideas you might wish to assess as suitable for different age groups in the primary years. Put simply any setting, site image or video material would do; these are all ones you can access via a computer and digital display.



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Resource Age and link

Geographical concepts

3–4

Thinking about the world Images of the whole world – earth from space: Images from NASA https://www. nasa.gov/topics/ earth/images/index. html

Develop knowledge about the world and understand basic subject-specific vocabulary relating to human and physical geography. Use observation to enhance their locational awareness (National Curriculum).

5–6

Thinking about the UK Royal Mail special stamps celebrating the landscape: http:// www.royalmail.com/ millstamps

Curiosity and fascination, similarities and differences. Use photographs to recognize landmarks and basic human and physical features.

Windmill examples from: East Sussex; Dumfries and Galloway; County Down; Staffordshire; Ashford, Kent and Gwynedd. See also: http://britainexplorer. com/windmills-inengland/ 7–8

Thinking about specific cities and locations

Aspects of creativity that could be met through questioning What are these images of? How can this be taken? What are the swirls of white? Show me the land/sea and what would where we are look like from up there? Group the images where people are making a difference. Draw what would happen if we didn’t look after this scene. Imagine you were in this picture, what would you say to the people there?

‘Some windmills still operate and are over 400 years old and are usually used for milling grain for food production. They also pump water among other uses. They became widespread throughout Britain from the end of the 13th century. They convert Characteristics of the four countries of the United Kingdom wind energy into rotational energy through their vanes (sails/blades)’ (Royal Mail 2017) (National Curriculum). What they do? What else could they be   used for (e.g. housing)?

Locate the world’s countries using maps. What are their key physical and human characteristics? Name and locate They Draw and counties and cities of the United Travel website Kingdom, geographical regions http://www.theydrawandtravel.com/ and their identifying human and physical characteristics, key search topographical features (including Excellent website to find examples of hills, mountains, coasts and rivers) and land-use patterns; and hand-drawn and child-friendly maps. understand how some of these aspects have changed over time (National Curriculum).

If we were building one near here, where would this be? What sort of landscape would we need? Do we have similar things today? (Wind farms.) Do they do similar things? How do we mill grain today? Would you want one near you? Why/why not? Think about Brighton, Edinburgh, Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, London, Sydney, Tokyo, New York, Antarctica and so on. Write three things you’d expect or draw what you’d expect a map of these places to be like. Compare it to hand-drawn maps on this site. What should a good map include? Can it include things like food, animals and people? Why? Why not? Let’s have a debate between those who agree these things can/should be on maps. Should a map always have symbols?

Assessing Children in Geography

Resource Age and link 9–11 Thinking about specific cities and locations Hyperlapse films from Rob Whitworth https://vimeo.com/ robwhitworth and the sixty-second videos MOVE, EAT and LEARN from Rick Merecki. https://vimeo.com/ rickmereki

Geographical concepts Extend their knowledge and understanding beyond the local area ... characteristics of a range of the world’s most significant human and physical features. Develop their use of geographical knowledge, understanding and skills to enhance their location and place knowledge. (National Curriculum)

 



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Aspects of creativity that could be met through questioning Merecki’s films cover 38,000 miles and 18 flights through: Peru, New Zealand, France, Thailand, Argentina, France, Australia, Spain, USA, Italy, UK. Rob Whitworth is an urban filmmaker and through time-lapse photography ‘the constraints of time and space’ are lifted to capture the vibrancy of destinations on a grand scale.

How can we identify a particular country? Are there certain colours? Is this related to the landscape? Which order would you take this route? How could we work it out? Which would be the shortest route? Which countries are in the Northern Hemisphere? Which in the Southern?

Marking in geography Assessment is about improving pupils’ outcomes and progress. Day-to-day feedback has been proven to be much more important than summative feedback. For geography it is important that what is assessed (marked) does relate to the geography curriculum. This means that vocabulary used is a focus of what is being assessed. Even with young children, this is important: What words are used to describe the journey to the shops? Can they name the long streets they went past, the nearby park and bus stop, the people they met, the directions they took, the hill they went down and the pedestrian ‘Zebra’ crossing they went over? You might be marking a field sketch: are you considering the graphicacy in the field sketch or emergent map through the descriptive, place-rich labels or symbols used? Such marking should support the range of aspects of an overall feedback cycle (Figure 7.2). This figure comes from A Marked Improvement? A Review of the Evidence on Written Marking, a report by the EEF and University of Oxford (Elliot et al. 2016). This cites other research showing that high-quality feedback leads to an additional eight months’ progress over the course of a year for a child. ‘While it is important to note that written marking is only one form of feedback, marking offers an opportunity to provide pupils with the clear and specific information that the wider evidence base on feedback suggests is most likely to lead to pupil progress’ (Elliot et al. 2016, p. 6).

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Mastering Primary Geography Figure 7.2  Examples of different forms of feedback (Elliot et al. 2016, p. 6). Selfassessment

Marking by teachers

Written feedback

Teacher assessment, for example presentation

Peer assessment

FEEDBACK On written work (e.g. books, homework and formal assessments)

Re-teaching a concept in class

Provides information to learners about their performance and how to improve it.

Guidance from teacher during class time

Verbal feedback

On other work (e.g. answers in class or presentations)

Pupil–teacher dialogue and questioning

Merits/ demerits from teacher

Pause for thought Look at the feedback grid on the previous page. Are there others that you might add? Why?

An alternative, geography-specific grid is below and was published by the GA to support the revised curriculum. Scale and focus

What?

Progress and standards

Short term Lesson-by-lesson

Assessment for learning for example, formative feedback, questioning, marking

Evident in teaching and learning, in pupils’ ongoing development, pupil response to feedback Geographical thinking is developing.

During the sequence of learning Frequent basic knowledge/skills

Short quiz/test Home learning task In-depth marking and feedback Adapting planning as necessary

Progress check with individuals/groups Loosely level children working towards, met, exceeded Geographical thinking is clear.

Medium term Half/Termly conceptual, procedural knowledge

Short research task, problemsolving exercise, and so on. Access to work at particular standards, for example, display Peer/self-assessment

Success criteria marking and feedback linked to working towards, met, exceeded expectations Geographical thinking is embedded relating to this unit.

Long term (year to year) substantial, conceptual development and progression of skills clear

Final assessment for reporting purposes, whole school projects, a high-profile theme week, end of year presentation.

Opportunity to develop a portfolio of geography work, pupils pass on their workbooks to the next teacher so standards can be exemplified. Geographical thinking is connected to previous learning explicitly.

Source: Adapted from An Assessment and Progression Framework for Geography, GA (2014).

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Frameworks for assessment There are many frameworks for assessment on the market and some that are free to download. Often, though, they are little more than a way to organize and classify the different elements of the curriculum, as the new curriculum does not do that. They are, therefore, not such a bad thing and are a good way to start. So, what might be an underpinning rationale for assessment in geography? The assessment and progression framework for geography (GA 2014) states: ‘Long-term planning and assessment depends upon teachers having a very clear notion of “standards” within their minds, and a clear vision of what they are trying to achieve. There are three aspects of achievement or “big objectives” of teaching geography’ (GA 2014, p. 2).

The three aspects of pupils’ achievements in geography: Contextual world knowledge of locations, places and geographical features.

This is the first three sub-headings of the curriculum.

Understanding of the conditions, processes and interactions that explain features and distributions, patterns and changes over time and space.

This is where the geographical concepts are and is the difficult part. This is where your subject knowledge is likely most stretched if a non-specialist.

Competence in geographical enquiry, the application of skills in observing, collecting, analysing, mapping and communicating geographical information.

This is the element which we argue strongly in this book underpins excellence in geography education.

Search online for the whole document: An Assessment and Progression Framework for Geography, GA (2014)

Ofsted and standards in geography An arbiter of what is good geography must always be the schools’ inspectorate. Although a partial view of what is going on, their reports and collations of best practice studies have been useful over the years to draw out some themes for what geography might look like. The following two excerpts are from 2009 about good schools:

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They should: ensure that they do as much as possible to provide access to an expert subject leader or the resources to nurture one for each subject review their policies on the role of a subject leader so that these are comprehensive and include the role of training other staff within the context of the school development plan, develop teachers’ subject knowledge, taking account of the demands of different subjects identified in this and Ofsted’s subject reports seek links with neighbouring schools to share good practice and capitalise on local expertise take advantage of subject-specific opportunities for continuing professional development, such as those available in science. (Ofsted 2009) Where teaching in geography was good or outstanding, it was characterised by: effective use of the local environment to raise pupils’ awareness of the immediate world around them, the use of topical issues relevant to pupils’ lives, purposeful use of a good range of appropriate resources including ICT, such as geographical information systems (GIS), to bring learning to life, the use of a variety of types of maps to develop a sense of place and space through enquiry and discovery. (Ofsted 2009)

SECTION 3: ASSESSMENT OF SCHOOL QUALITY: SUBJECT LEADERSHIP It is likely that much of the way the quality of teaching in your school is judged will be done by the senior leadership team. However, you must be prepared to contribute towards this by having a good sense of the quality of provision for pupils through the subject as well. ‘The very best teachers make their craft look easy. To the untrained eye, the underlying complexity and difficulty of teaching is easily missed. To the uninitiated, the wealth of experience and expertise that goes into constructing examples; the moment by moment decision making necessary for successfully managing a classroom; and the intellectual intensity of teaching, is difficult to appreciate’ (Gibb 2017a). It is good that the difficulties of teaching are noted by Nick Gibb, schools’ minister. As we have said there is little support for staff in providing the support for them to develop the ‘wealth of experience’ of ‘constructing examples’. The GA agrees that having a sense of good geography is very important: ‘Long-term planning and assessment depends upon teachers having a very clear notion of “standards” within their minds, and a clear vision of what they are trying to achieve.’ Dylan Wiliam talks about the ‘dark matter’ of teacher quality. He references what all politicians have done in recent years, that it is teacher quality makes all the difference (Gibb 2017b; Morgan 2016). What you shouldn’t become despondent about is fellow teachers’ lack of subject knowledge as Wiliam argues that we know that teacher quality makes a difference, but what makes the difference in teachers? (Wiliam 2008, p. 5). What he found was that subject knowledge advocated by

Assessing Children in Geography

some (Gove 2011; Gibb 2017b) accounts for less than 5 per cent of the difference in student outcomes. What does make a difference is how the subject is taught, the pedagogical content knowledge, what we would describe in geography as an understanding of the enquiry process and an ability to, for example teach fieldwork successfully.

The role of subject leader Being a subject leader, often from the second year of teaching, is always something that some teachers look forward to. If you get the subject you feel confident in and some sort of specialist in, then you will be looking forward to making your mark on the profession. It might be that you trained on an undergraduate or PGCE/School Direct route which had a specialist essay often in more than one subject. It might be that you did a Teach First route and your training in many subject areas is minimal.

What Ofsted has said about the best-led schools in geography They should: ensure that they do as much as possible to provide access to an expert subject leader or the resources to nurture one for each subject review their policies on the role of a subject leader so that these are comprehensive and include the role of training other staff within the context of the school development plan, develop teachers’ subject knowledge, taking account of the demands of different subjects identified in this and Ofsted’s subject reports seek links with neighbouring schools to share good practice and capitalise on local expertise [and] take advantage of subject-specific opportunities for continuing professional development, such as those available in science. (Ofsted 2009)

How might you assess quality of teaching? If you put on a course for teachers that has the ‘Ofsted’ in the title then you can guarantee a good turnout. Sometimes you can feel that any view on the quality of teaching and pupils learning should be in thrall to ‘Would Ofsted want that?’. Good geography goes beyond the requirements of Ofsted. There is also a helpful set of myths that has recently been debunked by Ofsted which is worth considering. The following is adapted and re-purposed for a context considering primary geography.



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Removing the myths from Ofsted inspections and relating this to geography education:

What Ofsted says (2016)

What this might mean and what you might consider in geography

1. Lesson planning Inspectors are interested in the effectiveness of planning. Ofsted does not: require schools to provide individual lesson plans or previous lesson plans; specify how planning should be set out, the length of time it should take or the amount of detail.

What does effectiveness mean in your context? Pupil progress and learning during a lesson and a sequence of lessons remains important. How often do you assess pupils learning or is all learning fixed at the start of the unit of work? Do you share and discuss planning at staff meetings? Are last year’s plans re-purposed as well as considering the individual needs of a cohort of pupils?

2. Self-evaluation Ofsted does not require self-evaluation to be provided in a specific format. Any assessment that is provided should be part of the school’s business processes and not generated solely for inspection purposes.

Self-evaluation in geography might be done through ensuring progression through the school is clear. With the new curriculum this is far from assured due to the lack of detail of how this might ‘look’. Use the GA’s Assessment Framework (cited below) as a guide. Do you have a clear curriculum map? Have you thought about the transition between EYFS and KS1. Take one idea such as skills of using, understanding and drawing maps. Start with this and then each year add to the knowledge of what pupils can do.

3.  Grading of lessons Ofsted does not: grade quality of teaching/outcomes in the individual lessons or grade individual lessons.

It will be more helpful to use a grid to focus on the teacher’s confidence and look at Subject-Specific Pedagogy, Planning/Assessment, Teaching/organization, Learning and Assessment.

4.  Lesson observations Ofsted does not require schools to undertake a specified amount of lesson observation.

In my experience there are very few observations of teaching that occur by geography subject leaders. This is not a bad thing but the opportunities for team-teaching or shared planning is often an opportunity which is lost in many schools.

5. Pupils’ work Ofsted does not expect to see a particular frequency or quantity of work; the amount of work in books and folders will depend on the subject being studied and the age and ability of the pupils ... marking and feedback to pupils, both written and oral, are important aspects of assessment ... these are for the school to decide through its assessment policy...

See the inspection handbook for full information this section. This is welcome news for geography as it is often a subject where it has been thought that because there was little recorded formally that everything would need to be recorded. This led to absurd lengths being gone to in recording pupils’ responses in some cases and providing large case files. While this can be sometimes the only way such information can be gathered in the EYFS, this is not appropriate for other children in other year groups.

Assessing Children in Geography

What Ofsted says (2016) 6. Evidence for inspection Ofsted will take a range of evidence into account when making judgements ... unnecessary or extensive collections of marked pupils’ work are not required for inspection. Ofsted does not expect performance and pupil-tracking information to be presented in a particular format ... . Ofsted does not require teachers to undertake additional work or to ask pupils to undertake work specifically for the inspection. Ofsted will usually expect to see evidence of the monitoring of teaching and learning ... but this should be the information that the school uses routinely and not additional evidence generated for inspection.



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What this might mean and what you might consider in geography Again, see the inspection handbook for the full information. Pupil tracking is often up to individual schools. However, clear learning outcomes from good planning. A good suggestion might be to have main objective per lesson and some subsidiary ones; this might amount to six to ten objectives per unit of work. A key vocabulary or concept list is also helpful. The evidence of monitoring of learning will usually be the responsibility of the subject leader, as delegated responsibility from the headteacher. This should be an ongoing process and not something that is suddenly produced for inspection. If you are new to the role, having a clear timetable of bi-monthly tasks showing intentions can be as good as tasks that have been carried out. As a minimum sets of curriculum maps and plans would be highly advisable, as would be your familiarity with these should you can talk with confidence about what does go on in the school; something that is sometimes no easy feat. Do not forget the EYFS and their contribution to this.

Source: Adapted from Ofsted inspections: Myths (Ofsted 2016a); available at https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/school-inspection-handbook-from-september-2015/ofsted-inspections-mythbusting

Summary This chapter has offered a series of suggestions about the range of possibilities for assessing pupils and assessing the quality of provision in the primary classroom. It has paid particular attention to pupils who might not be able to attain the levels that other pupils might. It has suggested activities which could lead to mastery for all. We would like to reiterate the values and attitudes we hold around interpreting the world are of great importance and we encourage readers to consider these. We trust readers are now clear what some of the potential and relevant characteristics might be of a geography teacher, but these are not exhaustive! We always encourage readers to examine their own understanding of these before forming an opinion to fit their particular contexts.

Recommended reading Halocha, J. (1998). Coordinating Geography Across the Primary School (Subject Leaders’ Handbooks). Abingdon: Routledge. Ofsted (2011c). Geography learning to make a world of difference. http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/ resources/geography-learning-make-world-of-difference Travis, A. (2015). Migrants, refugees and asylum seekers: What’s the difference? Guardian, 28 August. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/28/migrants-refugees-andasylum-seekers-whats-the-difference

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Chapter 8 Practical Issues Chapter objectives ●●

to examine principles about planning in geography with an eye to mastery learning

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to establish further context to the current geography curriculum with an eye to previous curricula

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to explore how day-to-day as well as medium- and long-term planning can be carried out

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mastering the role of the subject leader and considering a practical approach to managing risks when planning geography

Introduction This chapter offers an introduction to practical issues in mastering planning your curriculum for Primary Geography. It will explore the importance of good planning and the major obstacles to this. This chapter is a place where the key ideas of the book come together to allow you support to tackle the different forms of planning: short (lesson-by-lesson), medium (sequences of lessons) or long term (unit to unit and year-by-year). Planning what, how and having a rationale of why will be considered. The role of the subject leader of geography is also considered. Helpful advice and guidance will be provided to support new teachers in this role so you can achieve an impact which permeates the whole school.

Pause for thought Before reading this chapter, think about the following questions. Webb Young suggests the following five-step plan to generating great ideas: Step One – Gather the raw material Step Two – Digest the material Step Three – Don’t think

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Step Four – Wait for the ‘Ah ha!’ moment to appear (and be ready when it does. Keep a notebook by your bed) Step Five – Expose your idea to the light of day and see if it stands up to the glare. ‘What we overlook is the need to feed our brains with all sorts of “raw material” and not just the sort related to our work. “Genuine creativity needs a collision of ideas, something that will never happen if all your thoughts travel in the same direction”’ (Gilbert in Beadle and Gilbert 2011, p. iii).

When you have planned geography yourself, where does the planning derive from? If you have worked with others, where is their source material? Have you heard of (or used) the government agency QCA’s schemes of work (QCA 1999)? (If you have never seen the schemes, view them here on the National Archives: http://bit. ly/2oNFKT3.) These might underpin many of the lessons, themes, choices and locations studied in primary geography over the past twenty years and you might not realize it. Such arms-length bodies informed much teaching alongside what publishers published and exemplified the NC documents (1988, 1995, 1999) as well as running various curriculum development projects. These ceased with the demise of the QCDA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) in 2010. What has filled this inevitable gap? What might well be familiar to you from this is an issue that you therefore face when planning for geography – the lack of support from school and established staff. Schemes of work (as medium-term planning) need to be created from scratch and there is likely to be minimal opportunity for networking opportunities and LEA support. However, if you know where to look there are opportunities and a book like this should be one that can signpost you to such opportunities.

Part 1: How did we get here? With the 2014 NC for England currently in use, it is worth reflecting how much current knowledge, understanding and skills in schools rely on what was in place in the previous two decades through previous curricula. While these might not appear useful to you as a forward-looking teacher of geography, it is only through examining how we got here that the debates outlined in this book so far will start to make sense. One of the most frequent comments from some jaded teachers when these authors were training was the idea that all ideas ‘come round again’ and are re-invented for a new generation. There is some truth in this and it is arguably usually to do with political whim through curriculum change. Read these reflections from Margaret

Practical Issues

Mackintosh (2017a). They might help you understand some of the developments in geography education over the past half century. I started in 1968 with randomly chosen topics, then environmental studies and integrated topics, increasingly better planned with … [the] Place, Time and Society 8-13 project ... and topic teaching ideas and approaches. Then from 1991 came successive iterations of the National Curriculum that safeguarded geography’s place in the primary curriculum and introduced an enquiry approach with changing content expectations. Despite some really excellent teaching, as evidenced by the Primary Geography Quality Mark, geography has become increasingly side-lined, along with other foundation subjects. National strategies, ‘political bandwagons’, curriculum overload, assessment burdens and resulting time pressures in primary schools have led back to integrated topics with the inherent dangers that HMI identified in the 1980s. What has been lost is teachers’ skill in planning crosscurricular topics – experienced teachers have been to some extent deskilled and younger teachers did not develop the skills as they taught ‘national curriculum’ prescriptions. (Mackintosh 2017a, p. 55)

While many of the documents Mackintosh refers to were only ever guidance (the ‘icing’ on the curriculum cake as I like to call it), they will have influenced what and how teachers teach quite profoundly. The QCA Schemes of Work (1999) mentioned above were documents where teaching understanding of concepts in primary geography through issues (e.g. sustainability) or fair trade became prominent. Also, a character that might be familiar to some of your experiences as a child in school or through teaching in KS1, that of Barnaby Bear, became part of what teachers thought geography was about (see www.barnabybear.co.uk; see also Chapter 5). The current primary geography curriculum (as it is not exemplified with schemes of work) gives far less prescription in what should be taught (its missing big ideas like sustainability, for example) but it does list what knowledge, concepts and skills that are important at the different age groups. Geographers have had mixed views on the curriculum with Catling, arguing that while ‘opportunities are not always easy to see … it provides a chance to explore the possibilities that change such presents ... . It is just a list, not a curriculum. It appears quite spartan in what it lists, though not in what is involved to teach the subjects well. It is supposed to be leaner, but it is probably fuller’ (Catling 2013a, p. 361). It’s this spartan nature that can give reassurance, but as we have shown in Chapter 6 the word city, for example, suggests a concept that is much broader than we might imagine and must not be seen through a simple, ‘single story’ lens with us needing to give it a broad perspective. The idea that this is a list of competencies to tick off, easy things to assess and measure is something that we need to examine when using it to plan within the whole curriculum. Secondary geographer Graham Butt argues that education has come to be seen as part of the neoliberal drive for global competitiveness and this explains the focus on standards arguably embedded in this new curriculum. Butt argues ‘countries must become highly competitive to survive ... [as] pressures on



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politicians to be seen as having “successful” education policies’ have increased (Butt 2015, p. 68). Previously at primary level it could be argued that some temporal, topical or, some might argue, ‘on trend’ agendas such as sustainability were more to the fore. It is interesting from where we see the planning of the curriculum has removed such big picture agendas (which are hard to define) but remains wedded to ones like fair trade, recycling and (especially since late 2017 and the BBC’s Blue Planet II) ocean plastics. So, with the new curriculum having a more focussed entitlement, what we might view as a set of ‘core competencies’, there is plenty of scope for us as teachers to develop things further. So, to consider mastery in geography we need to ensure that even with this curriculum we move from what might be a pupil-centred learning experience (personal geographies, shared enquiry as explained in this book) alongside a breadth of responses and not to what the curriculum might suggest, a more standardized, atomized individual (and testable) curriculum. The full shake-out of this agenda that is suggested by a number of the curriculum documents is still to be assessed in the (relative) curriculum backwaters that are the humanities.

Conclusion: Initiative overload Mackintosh discussed curriculum overload (above) and Catling concurs that when reviewing the decade from 2000 in English schools, we see a large number of governmental initiatives. Throughout the 2000s these emphasized the development of children’s literacy and numeracy capabilities while seemingly constraining the wider curriculum (Catling 2013c, p. 1). Tatto (cited in Wyse and Torrance 2009) discusses this might be because reform of education systems which have increasingly focussed on teacher quality (we’d argue rightly) but then has tried to improve this through a top-down operationalization so the control in education is taken away. Tatto continues and says that ‘by pursuing “standards”, governments in England have influenced the curriculum primarily through the mechanisms of the statutory testing system, although other factors such as changes to the inspection system have also strengthened top-down control. There are recent signs, however, that the “standards” agenda is becoming exhausted and that top-down control has run its course’ (Wyse and Torrance 2009, p. 217). Do you agree?

Pause for thought In light of the above, read this from the National Association of Head Teachers: There has been a danger that the guidance documents and resources for the National Strategies have been seen as THE [sic] way to deliver the curriculum and, where teachers have lacked confidence or experience, there has been a tendency to view these as ‘teaching by numbers’, leading

Practical Issues

to a generation of teachers who are curriculum deliverers rather than curriculum developers. This leads to a detachment from the process and a move towards ‘de-professionalization’. (NAHT cited in Hansard 2009) Has it got better or worse (if you have been teaching this long) since this time?

So, finally, what damage has this done to geography? Mackintosh, cited earlier and a former editor of the Primary Geography journal, argues in Reflections on Primary Geography that her first teaching experiences in 1968 were with ‘randomly chosen topics’ which were followed by environmental studies and integrated topics (Mackintosh 2017a, p. 54). She argues that despite some excellent teaching she agrees with the NAHT about the lack of confidence: ‘Evidenced by the Geographical Association’s Quality Mark, geography has increasingly become side-lined, along with other foundation subjects, political “bandwagons”, curriculum overload, assessment burdens and resulting time pressures in primary schools have now led back to integrated topics. … What has been lost is teachers’ skill in planning cross-curricular topics ... teachers have been deskilled and younger teachers did not develop the skills as they taught to national curriculum “prescriptions”’ (Mackintosh 2017a, p. 55).

Pause for thought This ebbing and flowing of power and control is one of the defining features of reflections on curricula and is worth considering in relation to your own practice today. What is your view on this? Would you like to have more or less power over the curriculum that you teach? Who holds the power where you work? Is Twitter and online blogs and education chats such as #UKEdChat democratising this process?

Part 2: Medium-term planning in geography – broad and balanced As we describe in earlier chapters, there is much debate about what should constitute the basis for curriculum: is it a basis in knowledge from which application through skills leads to understanding? We argue, yes, but we must not forget the careful weaving together of an approach to curriculum which has a context of valuing enquiry and pupils’ personal and everyday geography. Welcome discussion in recent times has come from the head of the school’s inspectorate for England, Ofsted, Amanda Spielman. Spielman and the inspectorate argue firstly that we should have a full and coherent NC that’s broad and rich (Spielman 2017a). She writes, ‘Education



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should be about broadening minds, enriching communities and advancing civilisation. Ultimately, it is about leaving the world a better place than we found it. As Professor Michael Young wrote in his article, “What are schools for?”: Schools enable young people to acquire the knowledge that, for most of them, cannot be acquired at home or in the community. Yet all too often, that objective, that real substance of education, is getting lost in our schools. I question how often leaders really ask, “What is the body of knowledge that we want to give to young people?”’ (Spielman 2017). She goes on to say in a further update that ‘a rich web of knowledge is what provides the capacity for pupils to learn even more and develop their understanding … [which] does not preclude the importance of skill. Knowledge and skill are intrinsically linked: skill is a performance built on what a person knows. That performance might be physical or cognitive, but skills matter and they cannot be separated from knowledge. They are, if you like, the “know-how” in applying the “known”. Knowledge and the capacity it provides to apply skills and deepen understanding are, therefore, essential ingredients of successful curriculum design’ (Ofsted 2018). This seems to back up the approach that we have outlined above, not something that always happens when we compare the school’s inspectorate against the aims we might wish for education!

Pause for thought ‘Ultimately, the curriculum is the yardstick for what school leaders want their pupils to know and to be able to do by the time they leave school. It is therefore imperative that the new inspection framework has curriculum as a central focus’. (Ofsted 2018)

Consider this quotation from Ofsted. Further information about curriculum is being published by Ofsted as this book goes to press (Ofsted 2018) and is well worth reading. It might be that you have a limited amount of confidence in your ability to plan for geography. As Spielman suggests, and we would agree with, we should ask: What is the body of knowledge we want to pass on? We have articulated a vision for what pupils already know, their individual and shared story/ies and knowledge/s is very important.

What might planning look like? In this chapter we cover planning in some depth. You may have been lucky enough to go into a school and find some planning exists and that there are good resources with which to start teaching. This is not the case in some schools. In fact, in many schools in England the planning for geography (as Ofsted suggest in Chapter 3) does not stand up to much scrutiny.

Practical Issues

Pause for thought There have been moves by the DfE to tackle workload associated with planning. Do you think this has had an impact? What is the purpose of planning? This is what the government’s Independent Workload Review Group said which was accepted in 2016: Planning is critical and underpins effective teaching, playing an important role in shaping students’ understanding and progression. It is the area of work where teachers can bring their passion for a subject and their desire to make a difference together. There is a key distinction between the daily lesson plan and lesson planning. Too often, ‘planning’ refers to the production of daily written lesson plans which function as proxy evidence for an accountability ‘paper trail’ rather than the process of effective planning for pupil progress and attainment ... . Highquality resources, including textbooks, can support teaching, reduce workload by teachers not having to ‘reinvent the wheel’, and ensure high expectations of the content of lessons and conceptual knowledge. We recognised that there are cultural issues at play which should be challenged ... time is spent searching for ‘silver bullet’ resources, and this can be seen as a proxy for the development of effective sequences of lessons. This time could be more effectively spent in collaborative planning, and engaging with a professional body of knowledge and quality-assured resources that can be shaped to specific classroom contexts. This time needs to be valued by school leaders. (Report of the Independent Teacher Workload Review Group/DfE 2016, p. 5)

As the DfE workload report suggests, printed schemes are used by some schools and increasingly medium-term plans, which have been downloaded from online portals in series. TES, PlanBee, Twinkl and Hamilton Trust are just four examples. Rather than these being recommended wholesale, the difficulty that we have in recommending any of these as a solution to planning is that we find they vary markedly depending on the individual contributors, between subjects, depending on their age (e.g. some were written and re-purposed for the new curriculum). In the authors’ experience while these might be popular as they pop up on an internet search, they could lead to quite poor geography. Using resources from a subject association might be preferable than the ‘wisdom of the cloud’.

Pause for thought Are you engaged in planning for geography? Why? Why not? If we simply take the number of Google searches for primary geography, compared to other foundation subjects it is interesting what you find. The interesting trend is for all subject searches to have reduced since 2013, as the new English primary curriculum has embedded. While the primary age population (and numbers of teachers/classes has risen) and internet use for resources has gone up exponentially, the rate of searches for geography has actually gone down in fifteen years. What might explain that?



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2004–2009

2009–2013

2013–2017

Overall searches and Downward trend of PG, PA comparisons and PH searches. Highpoints: March 2004 and Feb 2005. Low-points in 2004/5 for PG are now the best number of searches in the following decade.

PG very consistent; History grew by 10 per cent in 2013 and 2014, then dropped back. History more than halved between 2014 and 2016 in peak searches. PA/PG’s downward shows it is about a quarter of its peak; PH.

Searches for Primary Geography (PG) versus Primary History (PH)

Feb 2005: less than double the number of searches for History. Usually double the searches for History than Geography.

History started to rise from 2010 from slight decline in previous five years; decline less than Geog. Sept 2013 and 2014, 10 times as many searches for PH.

Little change in geography while history rose rapidly once new curriculum was suggested and politicians began to talk about the subject.

Searches for Primary Geography (PG) versus Primary Art (PA)

PA’s highpoint was at the start of the recording period; it has been in decline like PG ever since. There have been regularly double and triple the number of searches for PA versus PG across the time period.

In March 2013 PA searches were more than five times greater than PG, this was both their highpoint of the year.

May 2016 PA searches were more than three times greater. PA had a 20 per cent drop between 2016 and 17; PG was about 15 per cent.

Source: Google Trends search on 31 July 2017 by the authors. NB. Google Trends only shows the figures as a percentage, not as an absolute.

The trusted voice The issues you will face when planning for geography are lack of support from all sides: school, wider established patterns of working (schemes of work being nonexistent) as well as a lack of wider networking opportunities. However, if you know where to look these can be found. This is largely due to the profile of geography and lack of curriculum time. The result of this must be one or a mixture of the following: teachers are content with their planning; they are getting their information from elsewhere or simply not teaching geography at all! If the issue is that teachers are not searching for planning resources at all, what can you do?

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Reading this book is obviously a start! The GA’s Early Years and Primary Committee has been concerned about the issue of the quality of what can be found online and recommend resources such as those mentioned at the end of Chapter 7. Indeed, the GA now likes to brand itself as the trusted voice for geography in their vision for 2020 (2015). Do consider who is publishing your planning or resources. Can they be trusted? What is their perspective?

Using textbooks or teacher books Textbooks or teacher books such as those written by Scoffham and Bridge (2014) published by Collins in the series Collins Primary Geography, Catling’s Mapstart Geography (2010) or Primary Connected Geography by David Weatherley (2017) are to be used. At worst examples found online provide little more than a PowerPoint from which to teach but they often have a very linear sense of geography where teaching through is not at their core. Rising Stars publish Voyagers: Geography and History (2014) by one of the authors of this book alongside Gemma Kent and Margaret Mackintosh and is one example of a resource that does feature enquiry at its core. Then there are series from the GA which cover aspects and might be more flexible that follow a set scheme with series of lessons such as The Everyday Guide to Primary Geography: Maps/Art/Local Fieldwork.

Planning from scratch This is the major focus of this chapter and is the place where most teachers find themselves when faced with a new group of children to work with. If you don’t want to go down the ‘off-the-shelf’ option, this is the best way forward. The reason for this is that planning for geography is important if children are to make progress in their geographical understanding. While throughout the book we have placed a great deal of importance of pupils’ geographies and personal geographies, there is no replacement for good planning and preparation. While we never advocate a script, we do think that possibility thinking (Craft 2005), considering pupil misconceptions as point for learning, should go hand-in-hand with preparation. Clearly, planning for learning in geography will look different in the EYFS compared to Upper Key Stage 2, but we advise that lesson plans are only ever working documents, ones that can be annotated to show the direction of the learning.

Pause for thought To get us started, here are some thoughts from Ofsted about geography planning. Read them and reflect on your own experience of planning learning.



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‘When planning the task, she only considered asking for a description or lists of ways of saving water rather than a more challenging activity. Her lack of expertise in the subject affected the precision and challenge of the questions she asked pupils’ (2011, p. 14).

‘In these weaker schools, although the planning might have been in place on paper, the teaching rarely reflected it with sufficient rigour. The high turnover of geography coordinators in at least half the schools meant that often schemes of work were only partly complete or poorly planned. Just less than half of the schools visited had tried to personalise some units of work to reflect their pupils’ specific requirements, the context of the school and the locality. In these schools provision was generally better than in the others and reflected more established and active leadership of the subject’ (2011, p. 18).

‘Often such an integrated curriculum had themed headings which provided the focus for each term; geography links were identified in most of these themes, but the time allocation was often unclear and the amount of geography provided appeared to be at the teachers’ discretion. The work in pupils’ books clearly showed that the geography content in many units was very thin, and geographical experience was fragmented’ (2011, p. 19).

‘She ensured that geography was timetabled during one afternoon, as a block, so that she could monitor all the year groups and focus on a theme. Recent monitoring had included planning, observing teaching and learning, and scrutiny of pupils’ work. Marking in geography, involving both the headteacher and deputy, had also been a focus’ (2011, p. 21). ‘In the 44 schools where the quality of provision was no better than satisfactory, this was because of weak curriculum planning’ (2011, p. 31).

One particular Ofsted subject inspection which highlighted good practice also said the following: ‘There is a clear and shared vision for the subject in the school. Effective collegiate planning underpins what is being delivered in the classroom. There is a constant focus on improvement. The subject has a high profile in the everyday life of the school. This is visible in the many colourful displays around the school which celebrate pupils’ work and achievement in the subject. There is a cumulative legacy of constant improvement based on a very comprehensive and detailed analysis of strengths and the identification of areas which need further resourcing or development. Currently, the whole school focus on the global dimension is embedding a real sense of place, and stressing the value of diversity, into the curriculum’ (Ofsted 2011, p. 4).

Planning: Asking why We argue that asking why questions throughout the planning process is important. Why this content, why this approach and why am I teaching it in this way. Counsell agrees: ‘Curriculum is all about power. Decisions about what knowledge to teach

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are an exercise of power and therefore a weighty ethical responsibility. What we choose to teach confers or denies power. To say that pupils should learn “the best that has been thought and said” is never adequate. Start the conversation, and questions abound: “Whose knowledge?”; “Who decides on ‘best’?”’ (2018). We did this particularly in Chapter 5 on enquiry. Why questions prompt both beginning and experienced teachers to consider their geography curriculum in a more progress-focused and critical way. Catling argues that the most effective teachers plan a high-quality curriculum that offers ‘progression in learning within topics and across the year from one topic to the other and a school’s overall scheme of work and to show how children’s learning is expected to progress’ (2017, p. 357). Pike (2016) argues that we shouldn’t forget how educational theorists might influence our practice: enquiry has a clear connection to the work of Vygotsky where teachers are crucial in scaffolding and supporting learning. Dewey, too, with notions of experiential learning or Bruner (where learning is a social process), should be remembered too. Then, finally, there are the advocates (described in Chapter 2) of a core knowledge curriculum which is what the curriculum is based around such as current government minister Nick Gibb. Michael Young says of these ideas that just like Bruner and Dewey a knowledge-rich curriculum is a theory just like the other competing (and sometimes complementary theories) (Young 2018).

Where do I start with planning? Biggs (2015) states that in order to plan for effective lessons there are a number of essential components of planning that need to be considered; below are the suggested components: ●●

The School Curriculum and National Curriculum

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Children’s previous experiences

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Previous experiences of the topic being taught

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Teacher’s subject knowledge

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Key vocabulary

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Resources

In addition to these considerations, in order to engage critically with your lesson plans there is a need to address the following questions; these questions have been designed to challenge your thinking. What will the children learn (the learning objective or content); How might it be achieved (activities); Who is the lesson for (your particular pupils); Why is it important that the children learn about this.



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The grid below explains these four questions in more depth.

Learning objective/ subject knowledge content

Pedagogy

How will I meet the needs of all the learners?

What key concepts, principles or processes are being explored in this lesson?

What models do I need? Example or case studies? What resources will I need or have access to?

How will I engage children in thinking geographically?

What frame, scaffold What is their prior or enquiry question knowledge, what are their can I use? personal geographies how will they support the lesson?

How can I ensure that all children can access the learning? SEN, EAL, disabled children?

How will I organize children: individual, pairs, groups? How can I show How can I take the learner beyond what they progression in the activities? already know?

How will I challenge children’s thinking?

Overarching aim or reason for teaching Is it in the National Curriculum/school scheme of work?

Does it support children in critical thinking? Can they understand the world they live in and how we are all interconnected at a range of scales? Does it inspires a fascination and curiosity about the world?

Pause for thought Imagine you were taking pupils to the local museum with an aim to look at aspects of the local environment. Use the grid to plan for learning in geography: did the questions enable you to think critically about your planning?

Curriculum maker or deliverer? Martin (2013) and Swift (2011) state that planning for geography is a professional activity and they refer to the term as curriculum making. This powerful idea has been re-purposed by geographers such as Lambert and Morgan (2010). Catling suggests that the idea has existed for a hundred years and suggests that it is a ‘rigorous and well-structured approach to curriculum design and content decisions’ (Catling 2013, p. 1). This was, even then, seen as a ‘scientific method’ to plan for pupil learning and ‘to go beyond their everyday life experiences and knowledge’ (Catling 2013, p. 1). Catling cites Draper’s ‘Principles and Techniques

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of Curriculum Making’ ‘which identified an intermediate stage in planning between school and year programmes and lessons, which he termed “units of work”’ (2013, p. 1). The rest of the article is excellent in retelling the concept’s history and is well worth reading. Mastery and curriculum making work well together as it requires teachers to draw on different types of professional knowledge (Martin 2013, p. 10): ●●

subject knowledge and understanding;

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knowledge of how pupils learn, of both the teaching and learning approaches (pedagogy) and the most appropriate resources to support them;

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knowledge of pupils – their prior experiences, interests and concerns as well as their individual learning preferences.

Part 3: Long-term planning – setting the agenda As we have suggested in this book so far, putting pupils at the heart of the primary geography curriculum is important so that questions (enquiry) can flourish. Successful planning for mastery will ‘sustain learning through extended lesson times and by blocking topics across several weeks, increasing time for depth of study’ (Catling 2017, p. 358). To do this, flexibility is key and the ability to support emerging geographical thinking is important. Flexibility also allows for critical thinking among pupils. Any scheme of work for geography should have clear routes of progression. Owen and Ryan (2001) state that for progression to have an impact the following three factors should be evident. ●●

Increased breadth of geographical knowledge

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Increased depth of geographical understanding

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Extending the scale of the areas studied.

When we create long-term plans we need to have some idea in our mind of what it is we want pupils to learn. In our experience, just three overarching learning intentions (LIs) for a whole block of six lessons can suffice to get you started. This allows you to focus on location, then develop thinking about place knowledge and human and physical aspects in tandem. Of course, deciding on these can prove difficult but the process of sorting this out in your head can be useful. Such LIs can be seen as targets for children’s learning (Hattie 2012). Hattie talks of there being two parts to good LIs: Part A and B. Part A is being clear about what is to be learned and Part B is knowing how this learning has been achieved; this is sometimes referred to as a criteria for learning. These both are essential for both the teacher and the children as they need to be transparent to the learner.



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Pause for thought Do you use LIs? In geography or elsewhere? Consider the following points when you consider this.

Thoughts on LIs, adapted from Hattie (2012)

Implications and thoughts for mastery in geography

Do you share LIs? Do you have a shared understanding of what is to be learned and what might be the best way of doing this?

How might you do this with enquiry-led learning? Do you want to surprise the learners? How do you do this in the ‘field’? Is there preparation for this you can do the day before/with parents? Is the key to formulate a question as the LI and ask for possible answers?

How do you make your planning inclusive? Children in the class might be working at very different attainment levels.

Planning in geography should be based on some sense of what their prior attainment is. What have you just started teaching the group? Have you got a baseline assessment task you can give them? Are you going to have a working wall for key vocabulary? Children good at core subjects might have an interest or talent in geography based on books they read, travel they have been on or an interest in, for example, football teams, flags or physical geography. Don’t underestimate their skills, especially when grouping them.

Learning does not always happen neatly. How can I prepare for this?

This is especially the case in geography! Enquiries might come up with new or novel solutions that would be impractical. How will you deal with these? What feedback would you give them? We might have underestimated pupils’ prior knowledge; do we have enough knowledge to extend their learning and challenge them?

Lessons (or sequences of learning) should finish with the learning intention How can I ensure that this has impact? 

The end of the sequence of learning should say: did we achieve everything or more than we set out to? Plenaries can teach aspects of new knowledge but should reinforce or show where misconceptions have occurred.  

Pause for thought Use the questions above to reflect on your own experiences as a learner: has the learning always been made explicit? Have you sometimes left the lesson with more questions? Is this a bad thing? As a learner how do you know if you have learned something new?

Practical Issues

Making the learning clear: Short-term planning Catling and Willy (2009, p. 158) suggest that the following points are useful to consider. ●●

What is the focus of your study (and why)?

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What do the children already know (where is this information from)?

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Where in the world is this place? How does it relate to the locality?

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What do we want to find out (and why): who decides this?

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How are we going to find out about this place?

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How will the study be organized?

Similarly Owen and Ryan (2001) state that attempting to answer the following questions should make planning for geography more effective. ●●

What do I want the children to learn? Set clear and specific objectives.

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What will my key questions be? How will I involve children in this?

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How will you organize the children, individual, pairs, groups?

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What activities will the children do to support their learning?

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How will the learning be differentiated?

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What resources will I use?

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What will progression look like?

Connecting the learning: Planning for cross curricularity The term cross-curricular learning may be a familiar one but it might be that you have not really been fulfilling what cross curricular might be. Barnes (2011, p. 10) states that cross-curricular learning takes place ‘when the skills, knowledge and attitudes of a number of different disciplines are applied to a single experience, problem, question, theme or idea, we are working in a cross curricular way’: quite a challenge! Pickford, Garner and Jackson (2013, p. 152) support the teaching of geography in a cross-curricular way as it is reflection of the real world ‘in which learning is not defined, classified and pigeonholed by separate subject disciplines. A cross-curricular approach allows children to make natural connections between content areas without being limited by artificial boundaries’. What this book has been doing is exactly that: pigeon-holing. However, in practice, geography is often taught with a cross-curricular approach. Rowley and Cooper (2009, p. 3) state that cross-curricular learning involves making robust links between subjects and that these links ‘take account of the discrete thinking processes at the heart of different subjects and relate them,



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through children’s experiences’. Iwaskow warns of the danger of not planning thoroughly for geography as then learning can be ‘chaotic and superficial with geography providing the content for learning in other subjects’ (2013, p. 25). Barnes (2011) also states that poor cross-curricular practice results in constructing misconceptions. Catling (2017) found that the best humanities curricula, often extended beyond national guidance and requirements, were adapted for the school’s community and usually were enriched (see our earlier comments on curriculum making). Previously we have discussed the need for children to use an enquiry approach to learning, this is developed ‘when teachers encourage curiosity and use questions, investigations hypothesising and problem solving while balancing teacher led and child initiated learning … children learn best when working cooperatively in pairs and teams balances with independent studies, an approach which underpins a strong learning community’ (Catling 2017, p. 360) which would support a cross-curricular topic. In order to adopt good practice it may be helpful to use one of the Barnes (2011) models outlined below to help with the planning process.

Model 1: Hierarchical cross-curricular teaching and learning A hierarchical cross-curricular model involves making progress in one subject by using another; this is one of the models that you may be most familiar with. In this model there is one dominant subject where clear progress is made in learning while the subsidiary subject is used as a tool to provide the context. Geography is often the subsidiary subject, not the dominant one.

Good example

Bad example

Geography with English

English with geography

Lesson objective: To understand the journey of the river

Lesson objective: To understand the journey of the river

Lesson focus and stimulus: river fieldwork

Lesson focus and stimulus: river fieldwork

Lesson outcome: To write a description of the journey of a Lesson outcome: To write a story about ‘a day in plastic duck from source to sea using specific geograph- the life of the river’. ical vocabulary learned from the fieldtrip. Commentary: This is likely to be better geography because it is taking the specific experiences and putting them into a bigger, spatial context using specific vocabulary. It would need quality teaching before and after and to be supplemented by images of the river’s upper, middle and lower course. Children who were lower attainers would need some sort of writing frame and key words to support their learning.

Commentary: This need not be a bad example if this was a specific particular location studied, had aspects of human geography they had seen for example litter, the people who use or live on the river or featured the jobs that people did. It would need to be supplemented by images taken on the day to act as stimulus for writing.

Practical Issues

Model 2: Multidisciplinary crosscurricular teaching and learning Multidisciplinary cross-curricular learning aims to use a single experience to develop learning in more than one subject. Barnes (2011) found that the single experience in this model is most effective when it is shared by both the teachers and the children. In this model the subjects are introduced separately and the subjects are not blurred or combined; they retain their individual characteristics. It is the single experience that is shared. Barnes (2011) states that for beginning teachers this model is particularly useful as it does not involve the planning of complex transferable skills and interrelationship issues with other subjects.

EXAMPLE Geography, history, English and ICT skills Lesson objective – geography: to understand the patterns and process of the local area Lesson objective – history: to understand how and why the local area has changed in the last 100 years Lesson focus – field work investigation with a specific geography and history focus Lesson outcome – to make a series of images with captions to denote locational and place knowledge.

Model 3: Interdisciplinary crosscurricular teaching and learning Interdisciplinary cross-curricular learning aims to provide a model where progression can be achieved in two or more subjects. This is supported by creative thinking and making connections between the subjects involved. The subjects are combined to describe or explain an idea, problem or issue with a collaborative response. While this model may present challenges, it is important to consider the role of subject knowledge across subjects, clear and robust LIs and the need to maintain subject integrity if the learning is to be successful. Without these important considerations learning is likely to be inconsistent, bland and misunderstood ideas and increased misconceptions about ideas.



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EXAMPLE Geography, history, English Collaborative issue, experience and stimulus Visit to the school from a teacher from Peru Lesson objective – to locate Peru and where we live on a world map. To focus on Peru as a contrasting locality. Lesson objective – to understand the contributions that the Mayans made to South America; to understand that that people still live in Peru today. Lesson outcome – to produce a fact file on Peru looking at similarities and differences between Peru and England. To produce a ‘living museum’ with pictures and information that represent the Mayan way of life.

Pause for thought Using the models and examples above, how does each one support children’s geographical understanding? What are the advantages and disadvantages of learning in this way?

This next section looks at the vital role some of you might be taking on, that of the curriculum lead in geography.

Part 4: Becoming a subject leader of geography It is expected that teachers will coordinate a subject once they have passed their NQT year in England. A subject co-ordinator is an integral part of school leadership and will provide an opportunity for you to demonstrate your leadership skills. Becoming a subject leader of geography may at first be a daunting prospect, however the role is a very important one. The role involves both leading the subject such as supporting other staff with lesson ideas, team-teaching with less confident colleagues or providing guidance. It also involves managing the subject in terms of collating and ordering resources, managing the budget or organizing risk assessments. A good subject leader will be able to identify high-quality geography education that teachers

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value and have enthusiasm for. Catling found that high-quality geography in schools was underpinned by subject leaders with a positive attitude and approach that ‘engenders children’s curiosity and interest and fires children’s imaginations and stimulates their learning. The most effective teachers of humanities hold high expectations of their children and ensure that their strengths and needs are supported and challenged’ (2017, p. 358). Successful leaders of geography are committed individuals who engage in regular personal and subject professional development. Such leaders monitor practice across the school and provide well-evidenced and improvement focused direction for the humanities. An effective subject leader uses action planning to develop and improve resources and undertake curriculum development to support children’s progression and depth of learning.

Leading primary geography will involve ●●

Collaboration: Team-teaching is exposing but can be rewarding

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Understanding requirements: Do you have a sense of the whole curriculum including EYFS?

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Ability to plan: Planning short-, medium- and long-term plans will not be all your work but might in geography be more of a role than elsewhere. Always start with something that already works and go from there.

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Budgeting: Argue for much more than £100 as this will barely pay for a set of atlases. In these times of constraint, this might prove difficult. Approach your school governors if struggling or parent–teacher association.

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Audit staff knowledge: Get staff to both share knowledge and resources as well as identify their training needs. Do not give them the sense that they are helpless; they have a lot of embedded personal geography that could come out!

Other key responsibilities The role of the subject leader has challenges and opportunities and the subject leader has a number of responsibilities; these are now discussed.



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Planning: Checking this might be your role. However, you should match against curriculum expectations and ensure progression and that there is limited repetition.

Resources: Up-to-date and accessible are the watchwords. Audit and use an action plan to judge what’s needed next. Don’t forget to include the school library; this might have a treasure trove of non-fiction in particular. List resources for staff so they can see what you have.

Progress – This can be hard to assess for geography but choose a range of ways: pupil conferences, book scrutiny, annotating lesson plans and observing teachers’ practice. This final one should come last, as a necessity as it is the one which might prove most controversial. Team-teaching and support should come before this unless you are a senior manager.

Supporting colleagues – This is perhaps the most challenging and rewarding part of the role. Support could involve providing insight by yourself or by an organization, running staff meetings, observing practice and being observed by modelling good practice.

Self-evaluation framework – Any school action plan/evaluation framework should be a starting point. Any review could contain information or actions needed on the following: ●●

Teaching and learning quality

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Pupils’ attainment based on set criteria and assessments (levels, etc.)

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Pupils’ responses to learning outside the classroom and specific fieldwork visits

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Geography’s contribution to spiritual, moral, social and cultural development (SMSC)

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Leadership and management

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Inclusive geographies including SEN and Disabilities

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Safeguarding children and risk assessments

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Consider further study – a course or an MA – so you can have some quantifiable or qualitative action research based on your setting

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Undertake the Primary Geography Quality Mark from the Geographical Association which provides a ready-to-use framework.

Source: Adapted from Krause and Millward (2010, p. 339).

Developing as a teacher In the measure that he has mastered the occupation, it has mastered him. Body and soul, from head to foot he has – or one may say he is – the array of habit which constitutes proficiency in that sort. (Bryan and Harter cited in Bisanz 1987, p. 242)

Practical Issues

Developing as a subject leader Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is an essential part of a teacher’s role and you should push for this to be prioritized in a performance review. It is useful to work with colleagues who are also leading geography to develop a community of practice as this could potentially be an important area of personal professional development. Are there local networks you could join? What should you look for in CPD provided externally? A number of consultants have reported that opportunities for teachers in England are insufficiently evidence based, do not focus sufficiently on specific pupil needs, are too inconsistent in quality and lag behind those experienced by colleagues elsewhere internationally (Teacher Development Trust 2015, p. 6). The Teacher Development Trust says that effective professional development should be underpinned by a number of ‘key building blocks’: Subject knowledge/Subject-specific pedagogy/Clarity around learner progression, starting points and next steps/Content and activities dedicated to helping teachers understand how pupils learn, both generally and in specific subject areas. Programmes should also put forward: Alternative pedagogies for pupils with different needs and a focus on formative assessment, to allow teachers to see the impact of their learning and work on their pupils (Teacher Development Trust 2015, p. 20).

Where do I start as a subject leader? Getting started requires both commitment and enthusiasm. The following list below will provide practical ideas to get started in leading geography: ●●

Create a file of good practice including photos of displays/fieldtrips as well as work samples.

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Pair up with another humanities colleague in school or in another school; ask for support from a Secondary teacher or join the Geography Champions Network. http://www.geography.org.uk/cpdevents/curriculum/champions/

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Join a subject association for support like the GA or the RGS with IBG.

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Enrol on the GA Primary Geography Quality Mark. http://www.geography. org.uk/cpdevents/qualitymarks/primaryqualitymark/

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Ensure you have a regular slot in staff meetings to share new resources or ideas; make a noise for geography, even if this is just ensuring you ‘Walk on Wednesdays’ or recycle or compost regularly as a school.



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Create a geography display board that is visible to colleagues, children and governors. Encourage all to have their own boards in their classrooms.

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Model, team-teach and encourage at least one fieldwork visit a year, especially in the summer term.

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Create an action plan for improving geography in your school and ask for a budget to implement your action plan; atlases and a globe per classroom can be reasonably cheap but a full set can easily cost a year’s budget!

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Write a mission statement and policy that has been co-constructed with colleagues and children.

Getting better As the initial quotation that started this chapter suggests, getting better is as a result of practice. However, if you are not teaching well in the first place, how can you get better? Deans for Impact in the United States (2016), a group trying to ensure teachers get the best access to teacher development, argues in Practice with Purpose: The Emerging Science of Teacher Expertise that there are five principles of deliberate practice. PUSH BEYOND one’s comfort zone

Work towards well-defined, SPECIFIC GOALS

FOCUS intently on practice activities

Receive and respond to HIGH-QUALITY FEEDBACK

Develop a MENTAL MODEL of expertise

I am going to take each of them and consider the implications for geography teaching below. 1 PUSH BEYOND one’s comfort zone. Pupil and teacher learning cannot be left to chance. Discuss and set staff goals to, for example, teach mapwork outside once during the year, use the atlases once per term (and check back that they have) and provide the support necessary if there are any challenges. Staff will have particular gaps or worries, so you will need to work with these. For more on supporting fieldwork, see below. 2 Work towards well-defined, SPECIFIC GOALS. Lead a staff meeting on an aspect of teaching and then ask them to practise that in the next week with their children. An aspect of working with maps would be a good example. Goals should be sequenced, starting with basic skills and progressing to more sophisticated ones, so provide staff with a progression grid and see if they can see where their pupils fit within this. 3 FOCUS intently on practice activities. Deans for Impact talk about two types: decompositions and approximations of teaching. ‘A decomposition of teaching isolates a specific element of classroom practice for a novice

Practical Issues

teacher to practice, such as focusing on transitions between activities within a lesson’ (2016, p. 8) and ‘an approximation of teaching imitates a classroom situation and provides opportunities for practice similar to actual teaching experiences – but with lower stakes’. This is where the applicability and chance to repeat these aspects is more tricky when applied to geography teaching. The latter could be a small group and one of the most successful examples I can think of was when I did fieldwork with a TA and groups of six children at a time for fifteen minutes while another adult managed the class. The idea here would be to borrow a TA for the afternoon over a couple of weeks to manage this. You could also do some very valuable assessment work if you did this. 4 Receive and respond to HIGH-QUALITY FEEDBACK. ‘Feedback should occur immediately or as soon as possible after practicing a specific skill’ (2016, p. 10). After feedback is given, there should be opportunities to attempt a similar task involving the same skill again – and with adjustment by the novice based on that feedback. Again a challenge for geography teaching unless you took the example given above where you could repeat the task with another group. Again with a core subject you get this chance as you might teach a subject such as fractions several times within one year, while the gap might be challenging the opportunity is useful. 5 Develop a MENTAL MODEL of expertise. ‘Novice teachers and teacher educators should have a clear idea of how they will know students are learning, and compare evidence of student performance with their mental model of student learning’ (2016, p. 12). The important thing here is assessment; do you do it, is it successful? You might consider assessing different classes. Do you learn more when you are not working with the children you are usually working with?

Supporting fieldwork As part of your curriculum planning, once you have considered location, place and human and physical aspects of geography you need to consider if and how you would include the ‘fieldwork and skills’ aspect. As mentioned above, supporting fieldwork might be one way that you aim to develop teacher expertise through deliberate practice. This should be seen as much more than simply supporting fellow teachers in risk assessing their trips. The Natural England Natural Connections Demonstration Project found that schools which most likely engaged with LINE displayed strong leadership for LINE and were open minded about trying new things. They did this by:



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Schools started off small: Initial LINE development in schools focused on activity delivered within school grounds rather than local greenspaces. It is better to have a couple of people, but you can inspire on your own. Cross-curricular working helps. Wider recognition can help staff develop LINE (such as Quality Marks or accreditation such as Forest Schools). It can be a stepping stone for their career. Partnership working and collaboration/networking with other schools. LINE was used most regularly and consistently in the core subjects of science, English and maths (regrettably, and bizzarely, not geography!). Schools valued LINE for enabling pupils’ wonder and creativity, supporting teaching and learning of particular concepts, and bringing subjects to life. Source: Adapted from Waite et al. 2016, p. 78.

Pause for thought What are your concerns about LINE particularly? Are they similar to your colleagues’?

Where else can teachers go for good practice and support? The argument of this book is that the curriculum has got increasingly narrow in many schools and there has been little focus on pedagogy (the how such as enquiry; see Chapter 5) that would have been evident in exemplified planning such as the QCA planning documents. However, teachers are increasingly being encouraged to be more in charge and in the immortal phrase, ‘take back control’. Michael Gove famously said that this could be the last NC: ‘In the months and years to come the best curriculums will be developed – and refined – in schools across the country by teachers for teachers. And that is why I think this national curriculum may well be the last national curriculum. Because in future teachers will be doing it for themselves’ (Gove 2013). Even Ofsted, who have for almost two decades provided reports on quality and good practice, are now finding that ‘the accountability system is so high stakes at the moment that if Ofsted publishes anything that is designed to be best practice, then there is an assumption that is exactly what every school should be doing to get a big tick from an inspection’. Malcolm Trobe, interim general secretary of the Association of School and College Leaders, thinks this has left it ‘between a rock and a hard place’ (Camden 2016).

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Pause for thought Margaret Mackintosh presented a report on seven primary schools in Devon which we have used and adapted below (Mackintosh 2017b). We have adapted and added thoughts of our own in relation to our own observations of schools in London, Bristol and Wales. How does this compare to schools where you have been? What might the reasons be?

Subject leadership

Position of geography

When is it taught?

Wide variation, usually due to size of school. Sometimes a single subject leader, sometimes a Humanities role. Sometimes it is a grouping of staff. Some schools only have leads for core subjects.

Some schools retain single subject lessons, some have Humanities lessons, some topic or creative curricula that meet National Curriculum requirements. Forest school and Beach schools are add-ons. English can often be used as a lead theme with books reflecting areas of the curriculum. Writing at length an issue for driving outcomes in some geography lessons.

There is a ‘light touch’ to teaching in some schools and possibly less time now than ever. This is often different to history lessons. A variety of rolling programmes on a two- or three-year cycle. It can mean pupils miss out on some themes. The lead subject might be geography but might more often be Science or History, possibly relegating geography to mapwork or visits.

Resourcing [in this sample]

Fieldwork

Is the word geography used?

Atlases, photopacks, globes, but a lot of electronic clips and videos from various sources including Discovery Education’s Espresso. Twinkl and Hamilton Trust are widely used as well.

There is often a strong commitThere was no clear pattern. ment but this cannot always be seen in practice. It can sometimes not use the local area beyond the EYFS or KS1. ‘Reading the street’ or tackling local issues to draw pupils in can be something.

Conclusions Some geography is well structured, some haphazard and ‘hit-and-miss’ or ‘as-and-when’. There was lots of geography being done but it often was not labelled as such or linked explicitly to the curriculum and this was not always for all children (e.g. Beach School/Forest School). ‘Theme’ weeks, ‘Walk to School’ or ‘World of Wonder- WOW’ weeks sometimes had other objectives, which was ironic as staff often said they didn’t have enough time for everything in the curriculum. It was felt that the schools knew their children well and were adding where the curriculum was deficient, hardly a criticism. However, if this could be brought under the ‘umbrella’ more clearly of geography, this might be better for the viability of the subject and for pupils’ future choices. Source: Adapted from Mackintosh (2017b) The Position of Geography in a group of Devon primary schools. Report for Charney Manor Primary Geography Conference, February 2017.

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Supporting your school’s development Here are some things you can look for when assessing quality teaching and learning in geography. It is not meant to be exhaustive or something that should be done by every lesson or teacher. It is meant to be a guide to the principles enshrined in this book.

Ways you might assess quality in geography teaching Teachers >Have a sense of the knowledge required to teach successfully >Develop pupils’ understanding about the key processes in geography for example use a range of     terminology correctly, define key words >Exemplify key concepts through real-world examples

    Include concepts such as location, place, space, scale, human and physical processes. >Use the enquiry process/key geographical questions used to frame lessons >Understand progression through prior learning and next steps >Have expectations, challenge and provide appropriate support for all learners >Teachers anticipate barriers to learning, potential misconceptions and stereotypes >Feedback is given and relates to the key concepts and processes, not just literacy skills >If necessary, links are made between geography and other subjects

Learners >Experience and share each other’s personal geographies >Develop, use and understand geographical vocabulary >Ask geographical questions

Knowledge and understanding is developed through: >Enquiry which can enhance pupils sense of engagement in the subject >Fieldwork which can enhance pupils understanding of key concepts >Real-world contexts and case studies which exemplify principles and processes >Graphicacy which develops children’s understanding of maps >Spatial awareness is enhanced through different maps, plans and experiences >Vocabulary which is assessed in use as well as in recording learning >Assessment which demonstrates pupil progress

This list is not exhaustive and you might want to look on the GA website or the RGS’s website for more up-to-date examples.

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Part 5: Risk assessment Geography ... is about our world, and demands that we get out into the world … . Geography wants to take children outside the school gates; it wants to take keyboard tappers out of their gloomy bedrooms and make them confront the raw and diverse world. This yearning for physical sensation and real life makes geography an awkward customer in contemporary societies that tend to be risk averse, remorselessly monitored and highly bureaucratic; but that might just be to its advantage, for it makes geography both unique and refreshingly troublesome. (Bonnett, in Jones 2017, p. 15)

As Bonnett, an academic geographer, makes clear above geography is awkward! We have discussed at length the possibilities of fieldwork and learning outdoors in Chapter 4. As Bonnett makes clear, geography is ‘refreshingly troublesome’ in the way it wants you and your pupils to interact with the world. How worried should we be?

Pause for thought Consider this statistic. Does it make you reconsider taking children out from school? ‘The single major avoidable cause of death in childhood in England is unintentional injury – death in the home for under-fives and on the roads for overfives’ (Marmot 2010, p. 82).

The grid below is adapted from an excellent resource, the Woodland Trust, which shows some tips for what to do when you leave the comfort, safety and control of the classroom. It shows that we should never underestimate the risks but that if we plan for and mitigate for eventualities, we will be well prepared.

INDOOR What’s usual!

OUTDOOR What’s different!

Walls

Set clear physical boundaries

Plan your route. Know where you will have space to stop and round up the class. Visualize your own ‘boundaries’ and then define the edges of your teaching area verbally or using physical markers (i.e. tie tape around some trees)

Emergency

Emergency procedures

Agree a meeting point and when. Ensure all staff and children are aware of procedures (i.e. fire, if anyone gets lost). Know where the access points would be for emergency vehicles.

COMMENTS

(Continued)

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INDOOR What’s usual!

OUTDOOR What’s different!

Chairs and tables

Sit-mats on the ground Stops shuffling feet!

Who will carry these? Is it practical? If the weather is going to be fine, sitting on the grass will be okay. If the weather is poor, where will you eat lunch/shelter?

Prepared paper materials

Found natural materials

Twigs, fallen leaves, stones, earth, rain … the list is endless!! Promote talking, thinking time and discussion. Practise memory techniques. Non-standard ways of recording can always be photographed and are likely to be very memorable.

Warmth (heating)

Warmth (clothing) Get a bank of clothing in school

‘There is no such thing as the wrong type of weather, just the wrong sort of clothing’ Warmth waterproofs, wellies and warm gear or ask (radiators) (appropriate clothing) for parents to donate old articles of clothing.

First Aider/ First Aid Kit

First Aider (ideally you, another adult, parent)/ First Aid Kit (essential)

Be aware of any relevant medical information – for example nut allergies, hayfever, etc. Take a rucksack with: First aid kit, water, phone (check reception), emergency contact numbers (inc. all adult helpers’ mobile numbers in case groups separate), risk assessment and hazard tick list.

Risk assessed and managed (shared responsibility)

Risk assessed and managed (signed off by Senior Leadership Team, but your responsibility)

As usual for off-site visits – risk assess site, route and activity beforehand. Complete last minute hazard tick list on the day as a final check. Check your school’s child: adult ratio. Guided by legislation: http://www.hse.gov.uk/ services/education/school-trips.htm

Planned lessons

Planned lessons and routes. Pre-visit essential

Good planning is the key. Toilets: Bushes (away from water ensure children are prepared; that they know how long they will be out and that at source and working area) there will be NO TOILETS!!

Agreed expectations Agreed expectations (set, reminded, (set, reminded, enforced enforced as as appropriate) appropriate)

Will you do this the day before? Will you write the risk assessment with the children (especially KS2 children?) Setting expectations together beforehand will increase enjoyment for you with golden rules. Involve other staff as well as the children.

Staff ratios = low

Staff ratios = higher

Get supportive parents on board – as with the children, this will engage some that indoor teaching doesn’t. As usual, ensure they are checked through DBS or (more likely) not left alone on a one-one basis.

Strategies for rewarding

Strategies for rewarding will differ

Strategies for rewarding. Be clear about how you will respond to all behaviours to ensure consistency and managing behaviour and managing behaviour and fairness. Share your strategy with other adults as well the children.

COMMENTS

Practical Issues



INDOOR What’s usual!

OUTDOOR What’s different!

Closed, predictable

Open environment

Children’s parents and teaching assistants feel uncomfortable

Children’s parents and Address their fears and reassure them by holding a teaching assistants feel meeting to explain why the school feels it is important. uncomfortable taking the ‘Outdoor Learning’ is often confused with ‘Outdoor class outdoors may make Pursuits’ so outline some of the activities. some parents and other adults feel unsure.

221

COMMENTS Good planning and pre-visits to site will make things more ‘predictable’ environment. Don’t be afraid to let things be child- or nature-led!

Source: Adapted from The Woodland Trust Scotland/Forestry Commission Scotland, online. https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/mediafile/100146207/Getting-outside-the-classroom-learning-pack.pdf

Summary This chapter has examined a range of practical issues in geography from planning, to leading primary geography to organizing risk assessments. We have outlined the importance of planning in geography, whether short-term (day-by-day) or a wholeschool approach, and how to have the most impact progression needs to be embedded in all forms of planning. Geography is a fabulously versatile subject and there are many opportunities for geography to work in a cross-curricular manner with other like-minded subjects. We have discussed the need for geography to be made explicit when linked with other subjects so that there are clear learning opportunities for children to make progress in their geographical understanding. The chapter then outlined onto the rewarding role of leading primary geography; helpful guidance has been provided in order to provide a useful starting point for new subject leaders. Finally the chapter finished with providing advice on writing risk assessment to support children’s outdoor learning and fieldwork.

Recommended reading Knight, S. (2012). Risk & Adventure in Early Years Outdoor Play: Learning from Forest Schools. London: Sage. Rickinson, M., Dillon, J., Teamey, K., Morris, M., Choi, M. Y., Sanders, D. and Benefield, P. (2004). A Review of Research on Outdoor Learning. Shrewsbury, UK: National Foundation for Educational Research and King’s College London. http://www.fieldstudies-council.org/documents/

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Steel, B. (2010). ‘Primary fieldwork’ (Geographical Association Think Piece). http://www. geography.org.uk/gtip/thinkpieces/ (accessed 8 January 2016). Storm, M. (1989). ‘The five basic questions for primary geography’, Primary Geographer 2, pp. 4–5.

Recommended websites Rising Stars Geography: https://www.risingstars-uk.com/subjects/geography Woodland Trust and Woodland Trust Scotland/Forestry Commission Scotland Outdoor learning for primary teachers: https://woodlandtrust.org.uk/scotland and forestry.gov.uk/ scotland https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/mediafile/100146207/Getting-outside-the-classroomlearning-pack.pdf https://www.geography.org.uk/Early-Years-and-primary-resources https://www.rgs.org/schools/teaching-resources/?categories=Keystage1 https://www.rgs.org/schools/teaching-resources/?categories=Keystage1, Keystage2

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Index academic geography  34 ADD/ADHD  120 Adichie, Chimamanda-Ngozi  170 aerial photos  36, 68, 70, 80, 85, 94, 125 affective domain/s  29, 162–3 geography  86, 162 mapping  88 Afghanistain  74 Africa/n  161, 164, 168 East Africa  53 Alexander, Robin  131ss2, 138, 140 Amarillo  2 Amazon  161 rainforest  157 teaching resources  169 Antarctic  74, 163 anthropocene  55 anthropocentrism  120 anthropology  35 architecture  139, 149 Arctic  74, 77 Argentina  74 assessing geography pupil assessment framework  186 ‘single story’  162 in your school  218 assessment approaches to  171 assessment, frameworks  187 assessment, key principles  186 assessment for learning (AfL)  171 of learning  182 atlas/atlases  2, 38, 48, 90, 94, 175, 211, 214, 217 types of  68 Attenborough, David  44 Australia  20, 74, 77, 159, 185 teaching resources  168–9 authenticity  32, 50–1, 62, 65, 108, 118, 142, 156 Baker, Jeannie  88 Ball, Stephen. J. performativity  11

Barlow, Anthony  35, 37 Barlow and Witt  76 Barnaby Bear  86, 152, 195 Barnes, Jonathan  207–9 Bath  92 beach school  107 Berlin  74 Bertrand, Yann-Arthus  80 beyond academic discourses  49 the classroom  91, 95, 108 clever topics  59 comfort zone  214 factual recall  183 Google  78 just reading maps  69 knowledge beyond  34, 39, 60 local area  99, 185 modern assumptions  31 National Curriculum  6, 65, 208 Ofsted  189 personal experience/everyday  41, 157–8, 163, 170, 204 places beyond  155 the quorum  23, 58 stereotypes  5 traditional teaching  17 the UK  69 bias  140 personal bias  2 Said on bias  156 Western  84 Bing Maps  70, 79 Biomes  78 bird’s-eye view  54 Birmingham  81, 83 Blij, Harm De  19, 33–4, 53, 67 Bloom, Benjamin  16, 18 Blue Planet II  196 Bolton Barrow Bridge  72, 76 St Peter’s Smithills Dean  90 Young Geographers  88, 112 Bonnett, Alastair  19, 33, 43, 219 Bourdieu, Pierre  32

Index Bowles, Rachel  25, 31 lack of research base  31 British Values  57, 172, 181–2 Brotton, Jerry  67–8, 70–1, 76 Bruner, Jerome  12, 14, 26, 99 constructivism  140 spiral curriculum  14, 60 bus  79 Butt, Graham  195–6 Cambridge Primary Review  ix canal  80 Carter, Roger  21, 27 Castree, Noel  49 Catling, Simon  15, 21, 31 on a child’s early geographical experience  41 on curriculum  172, 195, 204 on distant place teaching  170 on enquiry  146, 208 on high-quality geography  211 Mapstart  201 on mental maps  46 on needing to be attuned to pupils  27 on progression  203, 205 research on pupils’ views on distant place  170 on teacher training  15 and Willy  136–7, 207 Charney Manor Charney Bassett  90 Conference  217 childhood  33, 37, 39, 76 remembered  32, 53 China  52, 74, 159 Badaling, Great Wall  160 Hong Kong  80–1, 167 Huangpu River  9 Shanghai  8, 9, 15 teaching resources  169 traffic  161 Churchwell, Sarah  56 climate  2, 46 change  31 Köppen classification system  165 opposite climates  168 weather and  169 coast  53 cognitive development  6, 33 cognitive mapping  28, 71 Coll  45 community geography community  7 local community  32 constructivism shift to instructional pedagogy  31 social constructivism  12

consumption  6 Cooper, Hilary  207 Corsham  45, 94 Cotswolds  148 Counsell, Christine  201–2 Couper, Pauline  35, 45–6 CPD (Continuing Professional Development)  213 Craft, Anna  201 creativity, making geography irresistible definition  60 Cremin, Teresa  63, 66, 151 cross-curricular  208 cultural capital  178 curiosity  19, 25, 37, 132, 204 in National Curriculum  5 curriculum exemplification  7 1999 curriculumn  20, 53, 135, 194–5 Northern Ireland curriculum  3 Scottish curriculum  3 Welsh curriculum  3 Deans for Impact  214 decolonizing  162 den building  97, 153 Denmark  74 desert  67, 164 cold desert  165 Sahara  74, 164 developmental learning theory  6 development education centres  43 Dewey, John  17, 203 difference  40 Different View, A  3 teaching resources  169 Dinkele  141, 144 distant place/s  155, 158, 163, 166, 168, 170 Dolan, Anne  151 Donaldson, Julia  152 Dorling, Daniel  37, 46, 53 Dorset Abbotsbury  138 Lyme Regis  142 Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS)  32, 63, 91, 98, 163 curriculum  29, 93–5 enquiry in  151 examples of practice  75 Edinburgh  36, 83, 134, 146, 168, 176 education as conceptual change  33 writing as a political business  7 Education Endowment Foundation (EEF)  8, 13, 135 description of mastery  17



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Index maths mastery  8 on testing  173 effective geography teachers limited training  15 enabling environments  29 energy examples of  46 England  184, 210, 219 meaning of  51 English as an Additional Language (EAL)  39, 176 enjoyment  6 enquiry-approach  1, 218 analysing data  147 and the assessment framework  187 asking questions  37, 133, 136, 139 enquiry models  142 as signature pedagogy  26 3 E’s, Catling and enquiry  146 environment  54 impact  5 valuing pupils’ experience in  2, 27 equator  48, 73 equatorial  165 ethno-geography  32 Etna  145 everyday geography  20, 26, 163 Catling and Martin  26–7, 30, 32 critique from Young  30 evidence-based research  10 Fair Trade  3, 195–6 feedback  215 fieldwork  22, 50, 62, 64, 94, 95, 108, 112, 128–9, 214–15, 217, 221 activities  106 apps for  127–8 books for  201 in the curriculum  68, 91, 93–4, 122, 138 definitions  108–9, 145 and enquiry  136, 189 essential for  79 and mastery  115 Ofsted and  117 opinions on  116 planning for  218–19, 221 research evidence  104, 116 supporting it  215 Firth, Roger  31 Forestry Commisson  107, 221 Forest Schools  91, 103–5 Ofsted view  103 formal learning (KS1)  30 formative assessment  18 formative experiences  3 free-range children  16

Freire, Paulo  26–7 FSC (Field Studies Council)  96 Fuerdi, Frank  31 futures  135 games  37, 73, 90, 96, 135 Olympic Games  44, 102, 109, 143, 144 Garner, Wendy  40, 207 geographers comfortable with uncertainty  38 Geographical Association  1, 21, 24, 41, 58, 144, 187, 213 Conference  24, 44, 179 Early Years and Primary Committee  201 Mackinder  34–5 resources  3 trusted voice  3 geography about connections  37 about distribution  38 Champions  213 and Christianity  35 concepts  15, 35–7, 47, 64 concepts as synthetic proceses  38 difficult to corral  20 as earth science  34–5, 101 expansiveness, ill-defined  34 ‘extraordinary in the ordinary’  62 key concepts  204 love of  7, 101 as physical encounter  19, 219 ‘refreshingly troublesome’  219 romanticism of  39 as school subject  34 Gibb, Nick  12, 15, 19, 26, 28, 140 against discovery learning  25 informal teaching methods  25 mastery  9 pre-existing knowledge essential  30 ‘teachers know best’  30 on teaching  188 Gilbert, Christine  25–6 globalization  56, 156 Global South  158 globe/s  67 games with  73 having multiple  73 Google Earth  38 go beyond  78 images  89, 166 Maps  70, 80, 85 StreetView  52 Trends  103–4, 200 Gove, Michael  10, 26, 61, 216 graphicacy  71

Index green space health benefits  118 Greenwich Village  51 Greenwood, Richard  27 Griffiths, Jay  94, 96 Grigg, Russell  163 Grindod, John  33, 37, 135 grouping of children  65, 172–3, 206 habitat  78, 122–3, 127 dominant in the UK  55 Halocha, John  34, 44 Harvey, David  108 Hastings  139 Hattie, John  205–6 health and safety  220 heathland  78 hemisphere  48, 73, 157, 185 Hirsch, E.D.  31 historical geography  122, 159 holiday/s  43, 156, 164, 165 Hollywood  84, 162 human geography  42, 46, 218 humanities  56 identity  49, 156, 172 cultural  162 group  50 place and  50 when planning  177 imagination geographical imagination  2, 61–2 inclusion  172 in planning  206 Indonesia  20 Iran  176 Iwaskow, Leszek  208 Jackson, Elaine  40, 207 Jackson, Peter  50 Jeffries, Richard  124 journey sticks  86 jungle  78, 157 Kant, Imanuel  42 Kent, Gemma  201 Key Stage 1 (KS1) curriculum  30, 94 Key Stage 2 (KS2)  99 curriculum  94 Kilpatrick, Joy  89 Kinder, Alan  158 Kingsnorth, Paul  51 Knight, Sarah  104–5 knowledge beyond personal experience  41 embodied knowledge  57

funds of knowledge  32 knowledge-rich  7, 9 knowledges  2 knowledge turn  31 powerful knowledge  11 social construction of  11 Standish  31 teacher knowledge  10 and understanding  218 Young  30 Krause, Jeremy  21 and Blyth  21, 40 and Milward  212 Lagos  74 Lambert, David  28, 30–1, 37–8, 54 and Morgan  204 and Owens  62 latitude  74 leadership  188, 211, 213 Learning in Natural Environments (LINE)  117, 215–16 reduces bullying  119 learning intentions (LIs)  206, 209 and Hattie  206 Lee, Carl  37, 46, 53 Living Streets  110 local area/s  14, 95, 114, 121–2, 128, 150 beyond the  99, 185, 217 children’s exposure to  27 in the curriculum  94 defined  122 ethnicity  58 examples of learning in  89, 94–5, 209 exploring  106 how to teach  129, 151 learning about  122 Young Geographers  112 local area studies collections of experiences  27 nested hierarchies  87, 121 locational knowledge  23 definition  48 misconceptions  48 sense of  48 in taxi drivers’ brains  42 Log-IT Explorer  128 London  42, 53, 78, 78, 83, 98, 132 Barnes  125 landmarks  166 South London childhood  33 Underground  78 longitude  74 Los Angeles  77, 83 Louv, Richard  120



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Index McDonalds  5, 161, 177 Macfarlane, Robert  101–2, 129 Mackintosh, Margaret  31–2, 66–7, 201, 217 graphicacy  71 on the long view  195, 196–7 report from Devon schools  217 Madanipour, Ali  38–9 Manhattan  80, 84, 167 maps  67 as creative documents  88, 90 in the curriculum  68 digital  80 examples of activities  152 hide-mask-manipulate  70 images of elsewhere  76 manage reality  70 nested hierarchies  87, 121 pupil-drawn examples  72, 87 as works of art  66, 88–9 worth a thousand words  67, 90 Marmot Review  118–20, 122, 178, 219 Martin, Fran  21, 137, 204 mastery  15 agenda  7 as a conversation  8 in the curriculum  17, 108 and curriculum making  205 discrete units  13 as fluency and confidence  15, 17 gradual and accumulative  16, 25 lacks flexibility  19 as masculine  18 maths mastery  15 as metamoticational state  11 and misconceptions  26 needs time  18 problematic for geography  18, 19 and testing  17 well-funded  19 mastery learning about control  11 compared to medicine  10 definitions  11 mental maps  28 meridian Prime/Greenwich  48 meteorology  35 migration  53, 158, 174, 175 resources to teach  176 misconceptions  26, 45, 146, 165, 201, 206, 208, 209, 218 Misson:Explore  106 mobile devices  133, 220 apps to use with  126–7 Mollison, James  168 Monbiot, George  92, 101 moorland  55, 78

Morgan, John  34–5 Morgan, Nicky  15, 188 Moscow  5 Mull  93 multiculturalism  175 myriorama  88 NACCCE (National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education)  63, 75 National Curriculum  ix, 6, 40, 43, 47, 93, 138 national park  38 National Trust 50 Things to Do  106, 127 Natural England  107, 114, 117 quiz on character profiles  122–3 nature concepts of  46, 54 deficit  120 definitions  55, 108 ecology of the mind  102 NCSL (National College for School Leadership)  64 nested hierarchies  87, 121 New Zealand  20 observation/s  93, 94, 112, 136, 137, 138, 148, 157, 184, 217 enquiry through  77 lesson observations  11, 190 research through  31 weather  36 ocean  20 plastic  196 Oceania  20–1 Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education)  44, 216 Amanda Spielman  181–2, 197 and British Values  181 case studies  44, 54, 56, 59, 94–5, 188 changes in  11 concerns over migrant children  175 on fieldwork  117 and Forest Schools  102 on inspection myths  191 on knowledge  198 on leadership  189 on planning  190, 201–2 ONS (Office for National Statistics)  122 ethnicity data  52 getting outdoors  102 land use data  55 Ordnance Survey  45, 68 creativity with  67 history of  35 map and children  71 online mapping  85 Trig Points  68 use of mapping  54, 79, 82

Index Orientalism  156 outdoor/s  116 defining  108, 220 environment  64 health benefits (blue light)  120 learning  105–6 local areas  121 rating the  100 research  221 Owen, David and Ryan  205, 207 Owens, Paula  21, 24, 28, 114 and North (enquiry model)  143 Oxenbury, Helen  75 Palmer, Joy  28, 140 Paris  74, 80, 168 Eiffel Tower  164 Parkinson, Alan  89 pedagogy of geography  39, 131 enquiry  6 personal geographies  27–8, 59, 162 examples of personal geographies  29 pupils’ inner teacher  76 Peru  77, 209 photographs  35, 53, 65, 68, 70, 90, 94, 122, 125, 127, 132, 136, 147, 163, 168, 213, 184 photopacks  217 photostory  90, 97 time-lapse  185 physical geography  42, 46, 169, 218 and physical  46 themes  169 Piaget  140, 162 Pickford, Tony  40, 207 picture books  77, 151, 152, 154 exploring local areas through  77 Pike, Susan  136, 203 place knowledge  28, 38, 49–52, 69, 78, 87, 121, 125, 129, 165, 169, 172, 185, 205, 209 Agnew’s three definitions  50 authenticity  50 definitions of  38, 47, 49, 69 given character by people  51 Gregory’s definition  50 learning about through pictures  77 in the National Curriculum  49 place names  68 Planet Earth (BBC)  53 planning aspirations  6 curriculum-making  37, 204 planning primary geography how to guides  24, 203 long-term planning  188, 205 short-term  207

plastic sources and uses of  46–7 play essential for development  99, 119 Play England  110 playing with ideas  64 Plowden report  32 Pokémon  126 Pollard, Andrew  16, 18 funds of knowledge  32, 178 pollution  132 population  36 postcodes  83, 84 Prevent strategy  181 Primary Geography/Geographer (journal)  21, 64 progress and attainment  12–13 as a tick list  13 progression  187, 205, 211 progressive educators  40 Project Wild Thing  107 promoting curiosity  155 Quality Mark Award  24, 212 questioning  57, 136 ratios  220 Raven-Ellison, Dan  53–4, 96 Rawding, Eleanor  12, 42 on place knowledge  49 refugee  173–4 Register of Research in Primary Geography  25 RGS (Royal Geographical Society)  24, 43, 122, 213 founding  34 lesson plans  122, 169 Rio De Janeiro  74, 157 Rising Stars Voyagers  201 risk assessments  220 risk taking  25 road safety campaigns  112, 138 Roberts, Margaret  132, 135–6, 140 Roehampton University  97 Rosen, Michael  75–6, 132, 134 Rowley, Chris  132, 136, 207 RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)  99 Every Child Outdoors  106 Russia  5 Said, Edward  155 the world as a foreign land  156 San Francisco  77 San Jose  2 SatNav  67



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Index scale  53–4 example of practice  54 examples of  36 and maps  70 in National Curriculum  53 schemes of work 1999 curriculum  135 QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum ­Authority)  20, 25, 53, 194–5 school as factories  12 Scoffham, Stephen  21, 24, 26, 66 creativity  61, 90 Scotland  52 images of  134, 146 seasons  65 SEN/D  212 sense of place  50 sensory geography  39 settlement capital city  49 town  151 village  53 Seville  110 Sharot, Tali  56 similarity  40 skills and knowledge  17, 56 social capital  32, 178 social constructivism  140 social justice  12 Sorkin, Michael  175, 177 space  41, 52–3, 57 and wayfinding  42 spatial  53, 71, 72, 108 attachment  152 awareness and perspectives  58, 82, 115, 218 connection  53 information  71 solitude  156 thinking  71 understanding  69 spiral curriculum  14, 60 Sri Lanka  164 Nuwra Eliya  166 standards agenda  7, 13 clear notion of  188 Standish, Alex  31 geography needs boundaries  40–1 Steel, Ben  222 stereotypes  5, 167 Stevenson, Robert-Louis  40 Stewart, Iain  46 Stick Man  152 Stockholm  139, 164

Storm, Michael  86, 143 and enquiry  141 story analogy and continuities  55 geography as story  35, 57–8 maps tell a  66–7, 72 Stratford  140 street high-street  150 street-level geography  112–13 Streetscape Guidance  111 value of  111 subject associations  23, 199, 213 subject knowledge list of case studies  49 sequencing 40 ‘taken off the shelf’  24 subject leader/ship  188–9, 210–12 summative  18 assessment  183 feedback  185 sustainability  95, 195, 196 sustainable schools  43 Sydney  74 talk dialogic learning  140 talk string  87 Tanner, Julia  29 Teacher Development Trust  213 teachers and deliberate practice  60 expertise  214–15 as facilitators  25 what makes effective?  10 teaching for creativity  60, 66 examples of practice  75 making geography irresistable  60 teaching pedagogy  24, 25 everything works somewhere  25 terrestrial  67 TES (Times Educational Supplement)  7, 43, 86, 97–8 theodolite  68 theory of learning personal theories  8 thinking dialogic approach  27, 131, 140 geographically  15, 204 possibility thinking  201 time zone  48 topics  59 topographic narratives  72 traditional learning Dickens  17 traffic  41, 115, 138 road calming  111

Index trees  36, 62, 70, 100, 106, 124–5 tropical  38 Tropics  73 Cancer and Capricorn  48 TTS  73 Tuan, Yi-Fu  39, 52 on place knowledge  49 tundra  77 Twinkl  43, 19 Twiselton, Sam  10 Twitter  7 UNESCO  50, 136 United States  80, 185 urban  81, 120 planet  54 values  1, 21, 25, 35, 136, 144, 146, 155, 162–3, 171, 172, 178, 179, 181, 191 vocabulary  77, 206, 218 importance of  203 volcano  46, 169 Vygotsky, Lev  12, 26, 140 Waite, Sue  118 LINE report  117–18, 216 Walker, Greg  163

Washington  80 water  20, 67, 81, 98, 121, 122, 126, 133, 150, 184, 220 saving  202 wayfinding  71 We’re Going on A Bear Hunt  75 wetland  55 Whitehouse, Sarah and Jones  151 and Vickers-Hulse  151 Whittle, Jane  86 Whitworth, Rob  185 Wiegand, Patrick  162 wild/wilderness 56, 101 Wildgoose  73 Wiliam, Dylan  188 Willy, Tessa  21 woodland  55 Woodland Trust  99, 127, 219 workload  199 world is geography’s logo  33 understanding  161 world knowledge  27 Young, Michael  203 Younge, Gary  57, 177



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