133 28
English Pages 318 [306] Year 2022
Subhash Verma · Hansen Thambi Prem Editors
Management of Animals in Disasters
Management of Animals in Disasters
Subhash Verma • Hansen Thambi Prem Editors
Management of Animals in Disasters
Editors Subhash Verma Department of Veterinary Microbiology Dr. G. C. Negi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Hansen Thambi Prem Emergency Management Centre for Animal Health (EMC-AH) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations New Delhi, Delhi, India
ISBN 978-981-16-9391-5 ISBN 978-981-16-9392-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2
(eBook)
# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
Foreword
India is primarily an agrarian society where nearly two thirds of its population live in rural areas. India’s large-scale livestock population is central to agriculture and its rural economy. In fact, in terms of sustainable development goals and livelihood of rural population, livestock play a key role. Significantly, disasters do not discriminate between people and animals. The impact of disasters can be local, affecting the socio-economic status of the community, or multiregional, affecting the development of the country including the region as a whole. Increasing frequency and intensity of disasters every year takes a heavy toll on the lives of both people and animals. In this context, the most vulnerable section are the people who rely on their livestock for their survival in rural and remote areas. In March 2016, the Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries (DAHD), Government of India, released the first ever National Disaster Management Plan specifically to address the needs of animals in all phases of disasters. This was a pioneering initiative by the Government of India to reduce livestock losses and minimize disaster risks on the livelihood of vulnerable communities. Similar disaster management plans and strategies to protect animals need to be developed and promoted globally as well. As a way forward, based on the experiences and lessons learnt it is important to bring in standardized practices for designing, planning, and implementing animalfocused disaster interventions. This would help countries to have well-trained and equipped veterinary teams to prepare and respond to any emergency as part of veterinary emergency operations. v
vi
Foreword
In this backdrop, I would like to compliment the editors for coming out with a comprehensive book on Management of Animals in Disasters, which would be an ideal guide for veterinarians and humanitarian professionals to make use of the specialized technical and participatory tools for effectively managing animal welfare needs and livelihood of the vulnerable communities before, during, and after disasters. Policy Perspective Foundation (PPF) New Delhi, India National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) New Delhi, India
K. M. Singh
Preface
Our planet and its ecosystem, more often than before, is being struck by different types of disasters. Many of these events are consequential to unsustainable humanrelated activities, over exploitation of earth’s natural resources, and disturbance in the fine balance among various constituents of the biosphere. These disasters that may include floods, droughts, landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, fires, chemical leaks, and infectious disease pandemics result in emergencies which in turn culminate into loss of human and animal lives. Most countries have their National Disaster Management Act and respective Authority to implement the measures enshrined in these acts. Majority of these national disaster management plans include steps and guidelines focused primarily on safeguarding human lives. Livestock and pets remain neglected during such rescue operations which have far reaching consequences particularly on the livelihood of the poor and vulnerable and also jeopardize the whole purpose of the mission. This in turn results in suffering, spread of diseases, and deaths of animals including the persons who refuse to leave their livestock and pets in such emergencies. The lack of guidelines, standard operating procedures, and actionable steps prevent the rescue teams to coordinate professionally when it comes to rescue and rehabilitation of animals. The need was felt to develop standard guidelines so the animals particularly the livestock be made a part of all such rescue missions. In spite of this intrinsic human-animal relationship and livelihood support, most countries still do not have appropriate disaster risk reduction plans and strategies to protect animals from disasters. The national level dedicated disaster plans for animals should be encouraged in all countries and focus on protecting animals in all the disaster phases, i.e., prevention, preparedness, relief, response, and rehabilitation with the aim to save animals lives and build communities resilience. There are several agencies, both governmental and nongovernmental, which carry out the rescue, relief, and rehabilitation work. Many are involved in preparedness and prevention interventions, and some are involved in planning, assessments, and data acquisition. There are key stakeholders, farmers, livestock owners, veterinarians, para-veterinarians, animal welfare teams, disaster response forces, other professionals, administrators, policy makers, etc. who are involved at one or the other stage of such a plan either in formulating a policy and enacting a law or their implementation. Such organizations, agencies, and individuals need easy access to detailed information in compiled form on various vii
viii
Preface
aspects of management of livestock and birds from the perspective of emergencies and disasters. This book contains topics that not only cater to the requirement of the professionals and relief workers associated with livestock, birds, and wild animals but will also assist the policy makers and administrators to understand the challenges associated with such operations and the logistics, budgetary, and training needs for effective and holistic implementation of plan in the event of emergencies. The book has two parts: The first part (Disaster Risk Management) sets the context for the reader on the overview of disaster, classification and type of disasters, principles, protocols, concepts, and the overall understating of Disaster Risk Reduction in the humanitarian context. The second part (Animal Welfare in Disasters) explains in greater detail the issues, strategies, handling, and appropriate implementation of the technical interventions to ensure the welfare of animals during all the emergency phases. The technical chapters under this part enable the reader to practically adopt the recommendations and best practices. Finally, this book encourages practitioners to ensure the five freedoms (Freedom from hunger and thirst; Freedom from discomfort; Freedom from pain, injury, or disease; Freedom to express normal behavior; and Freedom from fear and distress) for all animals while designing, planning, and implementing the six technical interventions (Destocking, Veterinary support, Feed supply, Provision of water, Shelter and settlements, and Provision of animals) in emergencies. Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India New Delhi, Delhi, India
Subhash Verma Hansen Thambi Prem
Acknowledgments
We thank different persons and organizations since much of the information, concepts, and facts that have gone into the preparation of this book have originated from various sources and persons associated with Veterinary Emergency Response Units (VERU), Livestock Emergency Guidelines & Standards (LEGS), and authors of domain-specific scientific publications particularly those from veterinary/animal husbandry and disaster management field. Thanks to all the experts from the Veterinary Emergency Response Units of North Zone (COVAS, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh), VERU South Zone (MVC, TANUVAS, Chennai, Tamil Nadu), East Zone (CVSc, Guwahati, Assam), West Zone (CVSAH, Anand, Gujarat), Bihar VERU (BVC, Patna, Bihar), and Central Zone (CVSAH, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh) for providing their expertise and inputs from time to time. We also thank different stakeholders such as World Animal Protection (WAP), Policy Perspective Foundation (PPF), National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), and other disaster management and veterinary stakeholders for their cooperation and support in animal disaster management-related engagements. Thanks are due to all the authors for their efforts and contributions towards various chapters. We also acknowledge the first Coordinator of VERU (NZ) Prof. Ravindra Kumar for his encouragement during the earlier years of VERU and to the Dean, Dr. Mandeep Sharma, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, CSK-Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, for his support and to the Head and members of publication screening committee of the Department of Veterinary Microbiology for according permission for this publication.
ix
Contents
Part I
Disaster Risk Management
1
Types of Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rishika Vij
3
2
Principles of Disaster Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rajesh Rajput
15
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sidharath Dev Thakur
25
4
Disaster Risk Assessment and Operations Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . Ajay Katoch
39
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management . . . . . . . Varun Sankhyan
47
6
Data Collection and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Devesh Thakur
61
7
Deployment and Post-intervention Responsibilities of Veterinary Response Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geetanjali Singh and Pravesh Kumar
71
8
Disaster Risk Reduction and Preparedness Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . Amit Sharma
79
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood . . . Madhu Suman
87
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anjali Somal
99
xi
xii
Contents
Part II
Animal Welfare in Disasters
11
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Rakesh Thakur and P. K. Dogra
12
Feeding Strategies of Livestock During Natural Disasters . . . . . . . . 129 Daisy Wadhwa, S. Upadhyay, Arun Sharma, and Shivani Katoch
13
Animal Handling and Evacuation in Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Nishant Verma
14
Handling of Pet Animals During Natural Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Surender Kumar
15
Welfare and Management of Birds During Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Krishanender Dinesh and Devesh Thakur
16
The Role of Dogs in Search and Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Amit Kumar
17
First Aid in Animals During Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Pardeep Sharma
18
Essential Medicines, Feed and Other Supplies During Disaster . . . . 205 Akshay Sharma
19
Emergency Animal Shelters During Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Ankaj Thakur and Brij Vanita
20
Infectious Diseases and Their Management During Disasters . . . . . 229 Prasenjit Dhar
21
Disaster Response Under “One Health” Approach: Contribution of Veterinary Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Atul Kumar
22
Wildlife Rescue During Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Ankur Sharma
23
Animal Carcass Management and Disposal During Disasters . . . . . 283 Rajendra Damu Patil, Rinku Sharma, and Vipan Kumar Gupta
About the Editors
Subhash Verma is currently a Professor of Veterinary Microbiology and Coordinator of Veterinary Emergency Response Unit (VERU-North Zone) in the Veterinary College at Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India. He has more than 25 years of professional experience working in various positions. He is also an Associate Editor for two important international research journals. He has earlier served as Head of the Department of Fisheries for more than 5 years. As Coordinator of the VERU, his team is responsible for imparting trainings on management and welfare of animals during emergencies to veterinarians, paravets, and other stakeholders. Dr. Verma had earned his Master in Immunopharmacology with distinction from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, under British Chevening Scholarship in the year 2003. He got an Overseas Research Scholarship for Ph.D. in Immunogenetics from the University of Glasgow and later pursued his Postdoctoral research in Wellcome Centre of Molecular Parasitology until 2008. He is an Associate Fellow of National Academy of Veterinary Sciences, India. His scientific contributions include underpinning the mechanism of antibody diversity in cattle, pioneer work on functional assessment and mapping of cattle activation induced cytidine deaminase, characterization of virulence determinants and development of i-ELISA for P. multocida, and development and characterization of AprV2 nanovaccine against Footrot. He had published more than 80 highquality research papers and written a book, four chapters and three manuals, deposited more than 40 sequences to GenBank, contributed towards sequencing of two viral genomes, and submitted about 35 unique microbes to National Centre for Veterinary Type Culture Collection. xiii
xiv
About the Editors
Hansen Thambi Prem works with the FAO Emergency Management Centre for Animal Health (EMC-AH) as the Sub-Regional Assessment Lead (Consultant) for South Asia. He has been working in the humanitarian sector since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. He is specialized in community development, participatory approaches and international humanitarian standards, such as Sphere Minimum Standards, and Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS). Before joining FAO, Hansen worked as a Project Manager for World Animal Protection (2011–2020) where he was instrumental in engaging with veterinary universities and disaster management authorities to establish and strengthen the Veterinary Emergency Response Units (VERUs) in India (North Himachal Pradesh, South Tamil Nadu, East Assam, West Gujarat, and Central Madhya Pradesh and Bihar). He also regularly trains humanitarian professionals and government officials, including paramilitary forces such as National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) battalions on the management of animals in emergencies through simulation exercises and capacity building initiatives.
Abbreviations
% < > AI AMR ATP Bpm BSF C CDC CF CIDR CL cm COVID 19 CP CRPF CSF DANA DART DCP DEFRA DM Act DM e.g. ECSSC EDRM EE etc. F FAO FBILHS FEMA
Percent Less than More than Artificial insemination Antimicrobial resistance Adenosine triphosphate Beats per minute Border Security Force Degree Celsius Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta Crude fiber Controlled internal drug release Corpus luteum Centimeter(s) Coronavirus disease 2019 Crude protein Central Reserve Police Force Classical swine fever Disaster assessment and needs analysis Disaster Assessment & Response Team Digestible crude protein Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Disaster management Act Dry matter For example European Commission Scientific Steering Committee Emergency and disaster risk management Ether extract Et cetera (and other similar things) Degree Fahrenheit Food and Agriculture Organization Focused bark indicating live human scent Federal Emergency Management Agency xv
xvi
FGD Fig. FMD ft g g/dL GnRH GPS HACCP hCG HCN HRD HSB HSF HSP i.e. IBRT IM IMI Inj. IPPC IRP ITBP IU IV K+ kg KOH L LCT LEGS LTR m M&E MANAGE Mcg mL mm MOU Na+ NADH NaOH NCD NDMA
Abbreviations
Focus group discussions Figure Foot and mouth disease Feet Gram Gram per deciliter Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Global positioning system Hazard analysis and critical control point Human chorionic gonadotropin Hydrocyanic acid Cadaver/human remains detection Heat shock factor binding Heat shock factor Heat shock protein Id est (that is) Infections bovine rhinotracheitis Intramuscular Intramammary infection Injection Integrated pollution prevention and control International Rescue Dog Organization Indo-Tibetan Border Police International unit Intravenous Potassium Kilogram(s) Potassium hydroxide Liter Lower critical temperature Livestock emergency guidelines and standard Long-term response Meter(s) Monitoring and evaluation National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management Microgram Milliliter Millimeter Memorandum of understanding Sodium Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen Sodium hydroxide Newcastle disease National Disaster Management Authority
Abbreviations
NDRF NEFA NGOs NH3N No. OIE pH PIR PPE PPR PRA psgi RH RNA ROS RRA S.I.D. SAR SDRF SITREPs SSB T.I.D. TDN TFA THI TSE UCT UMB UN UNISDR USAR USDA VERU VPH WCI WHMIS WHO WS
xvii
National Disaster Response Force Non-esterified fatty acid Nongovernment organizations Ammonia nitrogen Number World Organization for Animal Health Potential (power) of hydrogen Post-intervention report Personal protective equipment Peste des petits ruminants Participatory rural appraisal Pounds per square inch gauge Relative humidity Ribonucleic acid Reactive oxygen species Rapid rural appraisal Semel in die (once in a day) Search and rescue State Disaster Response Force Situation reports Sashastra Seema Bal Ter in die (thrice daily) Total digestible nutrients Travel, food and accommodation Thermal humidity index Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy Upper critical temperature Urea molasses block United Nations United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction Urban search and rescue United States Department of Agriculture Veterinary Emergency Response Unit Veterinary Public Health Wind chill index Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System World Health Organization Wind speed
Part I Disaster Risk Management
1
Types of Disasters Rishika Vij
Abstract
Disasters have been studied and analyzed for a long time in the past as a research subject and topic of concern for worldwide governments and agencies. Disaster management involves the identification of the type of disaster and mitigation and prevention strategies. This chapter is dedicated to classifying disaster into several categories based on the speed of onset, area influenced, nature, and source of origin of the disaster. Most commonly, the disasters are classified as natural, man-made, and hybrid. Natural disasters are those which occur solely due to natural processes, while man-made disasters have intentional or unintentional human intent which results in loss of life and property. Hybrid disaster refers to an event occurring due to unleashing of natural forces, but some human intervention is present which had environmental implications. Studies from various reviews, articles, and government agencies’ data have been analyzed to create the content of this chapter. Based on these studies, each major category of disaster is further subclassified and discussed in detail, along with their consequences, major events, and agencies responsible for their management. Keywords
Types of disaster · Man-made · Natural · Hybrid
R. Vij (*) Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Dr GC Negi (DGCN) COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, HP, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_1
3
4
1.1
R. Vij
Introduction
The United Nations defined disaster as “a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society, which involve widespread human, material, economic or environmental impacts that exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources” [1]. There is no country or society which has immunity against disaster although their capability to counteract disaster may vary and so does their ability to rebound after the hazardous event. No matter how much advancement has been achieved in all the areas of science and technology, the future still stands unpredictable. Thus, at the end of the day, it all comes down to the way a disaster is managed which ensures the survival of a community. Generally, a disaster can be classified as natural (e.g., earthquakes), man-made/technological (e.g., pollution), and complex/hybrid disaster (e.g., armed conflicts). The Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS) classified disaster on the basis of the onset of events, i.e., rapid onset, slow onset, and complex emergencies, whereas EM-DAT CRED classified it as biological (e.g., epidemics), geophysical (e.g., tsunamis), hydrological (e.g., floods), meteorological (e.g., typhoons), and climatological (e.g., drought) based on the nature and source of disaster. Further, these disasters can be global (pandemic) or regional (epidemic/endemic). Management of disaster includes dealing with the impacts of the said disaster on human, material, and economic or environmental status of the present world. It is related to resilience of our present life system. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies states that when a group of vulnerable people are affected by hazard, they are incapable of reducing the potential negative influence of these events, and thus disaster happens [2]. The biggest hindrance in combating such disaster is the element of surprise, and it can only be controlled by virtue of preparedness. Therefore, proper distribution of responsibilities w.r.t. relief and rescue operations should be arranged beforehand. Furthermore, quick response toward humanitarian emergencies of these prepared organizations is the second step toward disaster management and eventually leads to the final phase of the same which is complete recovery to the best possible capabilities of the then present socioeconomic system. A holistic approach to handle disaster is to study each kind separately and ensure a strategic approach for dealing them individually beforehand. This chapter deals with the types of disaster in each category and an overview related to their occurrence and management. For the sake of simplicity, general classification is taken up for this chapter which involves division of disaster into natural, man-made, and complex/hybrid disaster.
1.2
Classification of Disasters
As mentioned above, disasters can be of many types; hence, different agencies have classified disasters differently:
1
Types of Disasters
5
1. Based on the onset of events, disaster can be rapid onset or slow onset or complex emergencies as is used in classification given by the Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS). For example, earthquake, cloudburst, etc. can happen in very short duration, whereas some like drought can last for a considerable period. 2. Similarly, the area affected can vary significantly and can be very vast or local depending upon the type of disaster. Therefore, another classification describes the disaster as global (pandemic) or regional (epidemic/endemic). 3. Based on nature and source of disaster, EM-DAT CRED classified it as biological (e.g., epidemics), geophysical (e.g., tsunamis), hydrological (e.g., floods), meteorological (e.g., typhoons), and climatological (e.g., drought). 4. But the most common and widely used classification is where disaster is categorized broadly into three categories, i.e., natural, man-made, and hybrid disasters. Natural disasters are those which occur due to natural processes, and man is not responsible for them directly. These cause major loss of life and property. These include meteorite fall; volcanic eruption; heat waves; earthquakes; tsunamis; tornadoes; thunderstorms and lightning; blizzards; flash floods; hail; avalanches; pandemics like Black Death of 1918, Covid-19 in 2019, etc. in human; sudden disease outbreaks in plants or animals; landslides; pest like locust swarms; etc. According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, natural disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow onset events that have immediate impacts on human health and secondary impacts causing further death and suffering. These disasters can be [2, 3]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Geophysical (e.g., earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, and volcanic activity) Hydrological (e.g., avalanches and floods) Climatological (e.g., extreme temperatures, drought, and wildfires) Meteorological (e.g., cyclones and storms/wave surges) Biological (e.g., disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues)
Man-made disasters have intentional or unintentional human intent which results in loss of life and property. These can occur due to faulty technique, wrong construction/site, act of terrorism, and warfare of human beings. These include collapse of building, bridge, or dam due to faulty construction or act of terrorism. Transport or aviation accidents like Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 in 2014 due to failure in technology or sabotage and biological/chemical disaster like 2010 gulf oil spill, nuclear spills like Chernobyl disaster in 1986, and industrial accidents like Bhopal gas tragedy in 1984 were all man-made disasters. Cyberattacks on computers of power grids, nuclear installations, space stations, and vaccine institutes are the latest type of disasters in the list. A term hybrid disaster is also used sometimes for an event occurring due to unleashing of natural forces, but some human intervention is present which had environmental implications. Climate change has resulted in increased occurrences of
6
R. Vij
hurricanes, heat waves, wildfires, and bushfires. Excessive clearing of forest by cutting trees leads to soil erosion and subsequently landslides.
1.3
Natural Disaster
Catastrophic events occurring due to natural causes result in natural disasters. These include earthquakes, volcanoes, tornadoes, cyclones, etc., and they are considered to be “Act of God.” Each one of these disasters requires specific skill set in terms of preparedness, response, and recovery.
1.3.1
Earthquake
Sudden release of energy beneath the upper layer of earth, i.e., inside the earth’s crust, resulting in enormous vibrations (seismic waves) is called as earthquake. It is one of the most frequently occurring natural disasters globally with the Pacific Ring of Fire being the most geologically active region of the world as about 80% of all earthquakes strike this area [3]. The sudden violent shaking results in great damage leading to collapse of huge architecture and building, life losses, etc. and might further advance to triggered volcanoes, floods, avalanches, tsunamis, fires, etc. resulting in multifold damage [3, 4]. It is categorized based on the direction of the movement of earth’s crust and Richter scale. Based on the crust movement, it can be normal fault, reverse fault, or strike-slip fault (Fig. 1.1), while based on the Richter scale, it is classified as numbers from one to eight with one to three being minor, four to five being moderate, six to seven being strong, seven to eight being major, and beyond eight being great. The Richter scale measures the magnitude of the earthquake as base-10 logarithmic value by comparing the ratio of the amplitude of seismic waves (measured on seismograph) to an arbitrary, minor amplitude [5], and it is the most common way of describing the magnitude of the earthquake. Earthquake with the Richter scale of level six or above proves to be the most devastating especially if their epicenter lies in densely populated region. The most damaging aspect of earthquake is its unpredictability which strikes hard due to lack of preparedness for the same. High mortality rates are observed due to secondary complications such as asphyxia, trauma, or exposure to extreme environmental condition. The biggest incidents of earthquake that were observed in India include 2001 Gujarat, Bhuj, 26 January 2001, 7.7 Richter scale, 20,000 life loss; 1993 Maharashtra, Osmanabad, 30 September 1993, 6.4 Richter scale, 20,000 life loss; and 1934 Bihar, Purnia, 15 January 1934, 8.1 Richter scale, 30,000 life loss. Prevention strategies include formation of buildings that will not collapse which is achieved by strict construction codes followed in prone areas. Further, emergency teams to combat the same need to be trained, and emergency funds and first aid at community level must be maintained at all times [4].
1
Types of Disasters
7
Up Down hanging wall
Normal Fault
footwall
Up Down
hanging wall
footwall
Reverse Fault
Strike Split Fault Fig. 1.1 Types of earthquakes based on the kind of faults
1.3.2
Floods
It is defined as any rise in nearby water bodies that submerge the land which is usually dry because of huge amount of water overflowing from these natural resources [4]. Floods have huge negative impact on environment, people, animals, and overall economy of the region affected. Floods can be classified based on intensity, location, and other miscellaneous factors. Based on intensity, it can be slow onset, rapid onset, and flash floods with flash floods being the most hazardous among all, while based on location, it can be classified as urban floods, coastal, estuarine, river and arroyos, etc. The other miscellaneous factors include cloud outbursts, muddy floods, etc. Due to sudden nature, flash flood proves to be most hazardous as it does not give time for preparation and rescue operations neither it allows task teams or communities to evacuate the place with their valuable belongings or domesticated livestock on time to prevent damage [2]. The principal threat from flooding includes death by drowning particularly in case of flash floods, while long-term distress involves development of disease due to
8
R. Vij
deranged sanitation and drinking water systems [6]. The severity of damage depends on water depth, velocity and duration of the incident, and season in which the flood happens. Some of the major flood occurrences include flooding in North and South Carolina in 2019, while in India, the biggest flood event was observed in 2007 in Bihar with damage costing up to 13,393 Cr (Central Water Commission). Both preparedness and recovery are key factors in mitigating the damage. Pre-event management involves timely intimation of likely chances of occurrence of flood, while post-event management involves rescue operations, sanitation management, and prevention of disease outbursts.
1.3.3
Tsunamis
A series of huge waves generated due to sudden displacement of seawater in consequence to underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions and propagated over enormous areas causing destruction on reaching land is called as tsunamis [7]. The other name of tsunamis includes harbor waves, seismic waves, or tidal waves. The origin site of tsunamis may lie thousand or hundreds of miles away from the main landside, and the geography of the affected area may intensify its hazard. They can be classified as local (100 km), regional (100–1000 km), and distant (>1000 km) tsunami based on the area affected by them as measured from the source of their origin. The most severely impacted areas lie usually 50 ft above sea level, and they are found within 1 mile of the coastal region. The waves generated are very high and may rise up to or more than 100 ft above surface level. Initially, the waves appear to be shallow, but as they reach shoreline, they gain momentum and height, and once they smash into coastline, they create havoc. Vigilance on part of the coastline habituated people is one of the main strategies where people in coastal areas stay updated about the upcoming disturbances in weather and likely chances of flood through social media such as news, radio shows, etc. There is a series of “crest” and “troughs” during tsunamis which can occur anywhere from 5 to 90 min apart [8]. The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake triggered tsunami which killed at least 174,500; in India, 10,700 people were killed and hundreds of thousands were homeless.
1.3.4
Cyclones
In closed circulation of atmospheric air pressure wherever there is natural depression in pressure over a large scale, then there is formation of cyclones and tornadoes. Cyclones originate whenever there is circular movement of air in the same direction as that of earth movement. The main source of origin of cyclones are warm oceans as the temperature at the sea surface is above 26.5 C. A typical cyclone can stay up to several days based on the favorable regimes of wind. As they lose their energy and cannot recover it from ocean surfaces, they start to dissipate while moving toward colder oceans. Further, if the wind becomes unfavorable, it loses its structure.
1
Types of Disasters
9
Fig. 1.2 Structure of a cyclone
Every cyclone consists of regions named as eye, eye wall, and rainbands. Eye consists of 30–60 km of diameter and is at the center of the circular area. It is relatively calmer as compared to other two regions. Eye wall is the region with the most severe weather with thunderstorms arranged in rings around the eye region. Rainbands include precipitation and clouds resulting in rainfall over a significantly elongated region (Fig. 1.2: The concept of the figure has been derived in context to the description and representation given by https://www.internetgeography.net/ topics/how-do-tropical-storms-form/). Cyclones are categorized as tropical cyclones, polar cyclones, and meso-cyclones based on the region of occurrence. Their damaging impact is due to high-flying heavy debris that can land all over the place and power of cyclone to take up things with it. These are more damaging than floods. All the windstorms including cyclones, tornadoes, etc. can be foreseen and predicted many days prior to their occurrence; still the most precise location can be predicted only few hours prior to the main event; thus, people usually abandon their location only after the precise prediction which increases the damage due to negligence. In Indian coasts, the 1999 Orissa super-cyclone is considered to be one of the biggest disasters to happen till date affecting approximately 63 lakh livestock and animals.
10
1.3.5
R. Vij
Landslides
It is the geological phenomenon where there is a downward movement of soil and rocks from their natural positions which may be triggered due to natural hazard or man-made situation. There is flow of debris and slopes lose their shapes [9]. They may occur over small or large areas depending on the impact that triggered the landslide. Landslide movements can be topples, slides, falls, spreads, and flows. Factors that affect landslides include climate, water content, overloading, and vegetation. Natural causes triggering landslide include earthquakes, volcanoes, prolonged rainfall, and erosion, while man-made causes include deforestation, constructions, mining, etc. Landslide can cause severe damage in terms of loss of property and life, trauma, and mental ill effects. Avalanches are type of landslide where huge snow bodies are involved, and they move in layer-after-layer pattern immersing all life forms that come in the way. The best mitigation technique to landslide is awareness among the masses about areas prone to the same. Early indicators of landslide include changes in patterns of landscape, jam of windows and doors, cracks appearing in building, rumbling sound, etc.
1.3.6
Droughts
Deficiency in water content for prolonged period of time, including lack of groundwater, surface water, and even atmospheric water, is called as drought [10]. A drought can last up to decades or may end as early as few days. Usually a region undergoes drought if it persistently receives below average rainfall for longer duration of times. It has huge impact on agriculture and ecosystem and impairs economy of the region while making it tough to earn livelihood. It has also led to migration of the masses and many other humanitarian crisis. Food insecurities, epidemic, malnutrition, famine, crop failure, and livestock loss all are the consequence of prolonged drought. Drought can be categorized as meteorological, hydrological, agricultural, and socioeconomic. Meteorological drought is based on seasonal rainfall received (50% than normal as severe drought). Subsurface and surface water deficiencies are categorized as hydrological drought. Agricultural drought is when growing crops come under stress because of the above two droughts, while socioeconomic drought stands for phase where demand-supply cycle of water gets tipped in a community including water required for irrigation and hydroelectric plants. It is estimated that a total of 14 states, 139 districts, and 120 million hectares of land are susceptible to drought in India [10]. Drought can be managed by actively planning storage and usage of available water. Improved water channels, dam construction, surface drilling for underground water, and rainwater collection all can be strategically planned over a period of time. Long-term solutions involve maintenance of sustained environment such as
1
Types of Disasters
11
prevention of deforestation, balancing demand-supply cycle, planting droughttolerant crop, etc.
1.3.7
Volcanoes
When molten lava and magma from earth’s crust (below the surface) erupts out from the opening at the top of mountains as lava and ashes that accumulates on its own within its depths, then that mountain is called as volcanoes, and the rupture is called as volcanic eruption [11]. The underlying principle is that there are 17 major layers in earth’s crust with soft, hot mantle at the depth and tectonic plates floating above it, and whenever there is movement in tectonic plates or pressure of gases and ashes in the mantle, there is rupture of magma at earth’s surface through the volcanoes. Types of volcanoes include fissure volcano, shield volcano, dome volcano, ash cinder volcano, composite volcano, and caldera volcano based on the structure of mountain and shape of vent, while eruptions can be classified as Plinian, Vulcanian, Icelandic, Hawaiian, Pelean, and Strombolian. “Glowing avalanche” is the most hazardous volcanic eruption where there is pyroclastic flow of fresh magma with its core temperature of approximately 1200 C and speed of several hundred kilometers per hour. The most recent and active volcano in Asia lies in a barren island in Andaman Sea with its most recent eruption dated back in January 2011. Gases and muddy eruptions may cause respiratory distress and food shortages for temporary time period. The most common outcome is large movement of population during evacuation. As it can be predicted, thus damages in terms of mortality are negligible. The lava dust even makes the land more fertile for consequent crops [11]. For mitigation purposes, land planning must be done based on areas in hazardprone region, and any property investment must be discouraged in the vicinity of active volcano. Evacuation programs in nearby areas must be preplanned.
1.3.8
Other Natural Disasters
Besides the above main natural disasters, there are many other natural hazards such as infestations, locust swarms, heat waves, wildfires, heavy snowfall, etc.
1.4
Man-Made Disasters
Mainly warfare and sociotechnical hazard comes in this category, where the disaster is due to human decisions taken up at whole global-level community [12]. The main sociotechnical disaster includes technological disaster such as factory failures, transportation failure, and “public place” ill management and production failure. In technological disaster, there is occurrence of fire, emissions, and leakage of harmful contents from the plants. It imposes serious hazard to the nearby environment, mankind, and livestock, and at its minimum hazardous level, it will hinder the
12
R. Vij
development of the techniques or plants. This kind of disaster can be mitigated by decreasing installation mistakes and by following protocols and definite procedures given in International Labor Organization’s manual. Transportation hazard includes accidents such as major rail incidents or highway causalities. All these transportation failures result in emergency situation encompassing exhaustion of medical resources and loss of valuable life, while computer system breakdowns and defective products come under production failure. Still the biggest man-made disaster involves warfare where armed forces of different countries or government clash together to bring about death in war. Warfare can be interstate or intercountry [12]. Biological or microbial agents form the non-conventional warfare, and in recent years, toxins and chemicals have played crucial role in battles among superpowers. All these disasters can only be managed by awareness and communities adhering to peace protection policies. Consistent improvement at community level with inculcation of ethical values among masses is one of the basic steps.
1.5
Miscellaneous or Hybrid Disasters
Disasters in which both human and natural hazards play equal part in creating the damage are called hybrid or miscellaneous disaster [1, 13]. Examples of such disaster include habitation at the foot of active volcano or within avalanche area, soil erosion due to clearing of forest areas, and subsequent occurrence of landslides on heavy rainfall. Furthermore, dam collapses lead to flash floods during excessive rainfalls. Wildfire or forest fire can be due to both natural and man-made sources. Armed conflicts forcing people to migrate to new location both causing crisis at previous location and reducing natural resources at the new habitat resulting in damages at physical and mental level of large masses native to that place also come under miscellaneous disasters.
1.6
Disaster Managing Agencies
For each type of disaster, there is a specific agency designated to handle the crisis during emergencies. In general, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the Nodal Ministry for all disasters, while there are certain agencies responsible for recognizing early signs of a disaster onset such as the Central Water Commission (CWC) and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) for floods; Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) for cyclone, avalanche, and earthquake; Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) for tsunami; Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) for storm surge; and Geological Survey of India (GSI) for landslides. The following is the list of other government agencies besides the Ministry of Home Affairs (National Disaster Management Authority) which are designated for handling the specific type of disaster (Table 1.1):
1
Types of Disasters
13
Table 1.1 List of government ministries with their designated area of working during specific disasters Government ministry Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation Ministry of Home Affairs Ministry of Home Affairs/Department of Atomic Energy Ministry of Environment and Forests Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Ministry of Coal/Ministry of Mines/ Concerned Ministries Ministry of Urban Development Ministry of Railways Ministry of Civil Aviation Coast Guard in coordination with Ministries National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
1.7
Disasters Drought, hailstorm, cold wave and frost, pest attack Floods, earthquakes, landslide, avalanche, cyclone/tornado, tsunami Nuclear accidents Forest fire, chemical disasters, industrial accidents Biological disasters Disasters in mines Urban floods Rail accidents Civil aviation accidents Oil spill Search and rescue in all disasters Capacity building in all disasters
Discussion and Conclusion
This chapter gives a brief summary of types of disaster that are encountered by humans and other life forms throughout the globe. Several agencies and ministries are assigned task to manage and recover from specific kind of disaster such as the Ministry of Environment and Forests that looks after forest fires, industrial accidents, and chemical damage; Ministry of Health and Family Welfare that takes care of biological disasters; Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation that manages pest attack, drought, hailstorm, etc.; Ministry of Railways for rail accidents; and so on. Generally, the Ministry of Home Affairs acts as nodal organization for handling all types of disaster. Furthermore, there are agencies working in coordination with government such as the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for search and rescue, the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) for capacity building, etc. making it easier for communities to face the inevitable hazards. Preparedness, rescue, and recovery act as the pillar principal in disaster management with mitigation of hazard playing a crucial role in overcoming the damage and preventing future incidents.
14
R. Vij
References 1. Yorose WA, Tenkorang EY, Mariwah S (2020) Disaster construct as a nexus between social and natural phenomena: a systematic review of literature. UDS Int J Dev 7(2):414–423 2. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (n.d.) Types of disasters. http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/about-disasters/definition-of-hazard/. Accessed: 24 Feb 2021 3. Hinga BDR (2015) Ring of fire: an encyclopedia of the Pacific Rim’s Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanoes. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA 4. Mukherjee S, Kar S, Pal S (2021) Environmental disaster management and risk reduction. In: Environmental management: issues and concerns in developing countries. Springer, New York, NY, p 221 5. Pechmann JC, Nava SJ, Terra FM, Bernier JC (2007) Local magnitude determinations for Intermountain Seismic Belt earthquakes from broadband digital data. Bull Seismol Soc Am 97(2):557–574 6. Portier CJ, Tart KT, Carter SR, Dilworth CH, Grambsch AE, Gohlke J et al (2013) A human health perspective on climate change: a report outlining the research needs on the human health effects of climate change. J Curr Iss Globaliz 6(4):621 7. Mai PM (2019) Supershear tsunami disaster. Nat Geosci 12(3):150–151 8. Federal Emergency Management Agency (2003) Hazards. www.fema.gov/hazards/ earthquakes/. Accessed Mar 2021 9. Zaruba Q, Mencl V (2014) Landslides and their control. Elsevier, Amsterdam 10. Mishra AK, Singh VP (2010) A review of drought concepts. J Hydrol 391(1–2):202–216 11. Ross PS, Núñez GC, Hayman P (2017) Felsic maar-diatreme volcanoes: a review. Bull Volcanol 79(2):20 12. Marshall J, Wiltshire J, Delva J, Bello T, Masys AJ (2020) Natural and manmade disasters: vulnerable populations. In: Global health security. Springer, Cham, pp 143–161 13. Christodoulou G (2016) Disasters: mental health context and responses. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne
2
Principles of Disaster Management Rajesh Rajput
Abstract
Disasters can be categorized into natural, man-made, or hybrid disasters, which can cause major loss of life and property. Natural disasters can be geophysical, hydrological, climatological, meteorological, and biological. Man-made disasters can occur due to faulty technique, wrong construction/site, act of terrorism, and warfare of human beings. Hybrid disasters are the events occurring due to unleashing of natural forces, but some human intervention is present. Disaster management has an important role to check or reduce losses due to these disasters. It includes planning for preventing/reducing the effects of disaster, having preparedness and steps for prevention for specific disaster, planning of relief and response during the disaster, and assessment of the strategy adopted after disaster to modify and improve response in case of recurrence. The establishment of Incident Command System is a standardized approach for the command, control, and coordination of effective emergency response involving multiple agencies. Command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4I) has evolved now in digitalized world. There are globally accepted Sphere minimum standards focused on water supply, sanitation, hygiene promotion, food security, nutrition, shelter, settlement, non-food items, and health. These also make humanitarian agencies accountable. The Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS) has been given official companion status to the Sphere Handbook to promote right to food and right to a standard of living for livestock for animal welfare. Veterinarians have to play an important role to protect and rebuild livestock assets in disasters by providing clinical veterinary services at the time of disaster and working in areas of veterinary public health and livestock disease surveillance afterward.
R. Rajput (*) Department of Veterinary Anatomy, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, HP, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_2
15
16
R. Rajput
Keywords
Disaster management · Natural disaster · Man-made disaster · Hybrid disaster · Incident command system · Sphere · LEGS
2.1
Disaster
Disaster is an event occurring unexpectedly in a short or longer period of time, which adversely affects the life, property, livelihood, and environment of the community to such an extent that the affected community needs external help to manage that disaster and to restore normalcy. The resources available locally are not adequate due to scale of devastation and damage of infrastructure/capability present there. Disasters can be of many types. Some like earthquake, cloudburst, etc. can happen in very short duration, whereas some like drought can last for a considerable period. Similarly, the area affected can vary significantly and can be very vast or local depending upon the type of disaster. Disasters can be categorized broadly into three categories, i.e., natural, man-made, and hybrid disasters [1]. Natural disasters are those which occur due to natural processes, and man is not responsible for them directly. These cause major loss of life and property. These include meteorite fall; volcanic eruption; heat waves; earthquakes; tsunamis; tornadoes; thunderstorms and lightning; blizzards; flash floods; hail; avalanches; pandemics like Black Death of 1918, Covid-19 in 2019, etc. in human; sudden disease outbreaks in plants or animals; landslides; pest like locust swarms; etc. According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, natural disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow onset events that have immediate impacts on human health and secondary impacts causing further death and suffering. These disasters can be [2, 3]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Geophysical (e.g., earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, and volcanic activity) Hydrological (e.g., avalanches and floods) Climatological (e.g., extreme temperatures, drought, and wildfires) Meteorological (e.g., cyclones and storms/wave surges) Biological (e.g., disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues)
Man-made disasters have intentional or unintentional human intent which results in loss of life and property. These can occur due to faulty technique, wrong construction/site, act of terrorism, and warfare of human beings. These include collapse of building, bridge, or dam due to faulty construction or act of terrorism. Transport or aviation accidents like Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 in 2014 due to failure in technology or sabotage and biological/chemical disaster like 2010 gulf oil spill, nuclear spills like Chernobyl disaster in 1986 [4], and industrial accidents like Bhopal gas tragedy in 1984 were all man-made disasters. Cyberattacks on computers of power grids, nuclear installations, space stations, and vaccine institutes are the latest type of disasters in the list.
2
Principles of Disaster Management
17
A term hybrid disaster is also used sometimes for an event occurring due to unleashing of natural forces, but some human intervention is present which had environmental implications. Increased occurrences of hurricanes, heat waves, wildfires, and bushfires has been linked to climate change. Excessive clearing of forest by cutting trees leads to soil erosion and subsequently landslides.
2.2
Disaster Management
In all types of disasters, the livestock is affected and to some extent remains neglected. Livestock consists of domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, horses, poultry, etc., which are raised on farms for milk, meat, fur, wool, eggs, leather, etc. There are pet animals also like dog, cat, etc. which provide social support and benefits to their owners. Whenever there is occurrence of any disaster, the normalcy of livestock is disrupted, which leads to social and economic losses and loss of livelihood. Therefore, to check or reduce losses, there has to be a system and procedure to be followed at the time of any disaster to avoid any confusion at that time. These responses to any type of disaster have to be short term as well as long term. There are different phases or approaches (Fig. 2.1) which together constitute principles of disaster management. These are discussed briefly in the following section.
2.3
Planning for Preventing/Reducing the Effects of Disaster
As mentioned earlier, there are three types of disasters. Man-made and to some extent hybrid disaster can be prevented from happening by taking precautions and use of accurate techniques, material, and latest technology. The disasters caused by unleashing of natural forces such as lightning, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc. cannot be prevented. In those circumstances, the set procedure of actions is needed to be taken to minimize the effect of that disaster on life and property which has to be planned and prepared in advance. Fig. 2.1 Comprehensive approach to disaster management
18
R. Rajput
First of all, it needs to be identified that whether a particular area is more prone to certain types of disasters or not. If any hilly area is under highly seismic zone, then it will be more susceptible to earthquakes. If an earthquake of moderate intensity comes, then landslides, collapse of dams, and destruction of buildings/shelters can lead to huge loss of life and property. Coastal areas need to plan keeping in mind that they have to face cyclones and tsunamis. Rivers may cause flooding and landslides in heavy rains. Some forest areas are more prone to fire incidents in heat waves. Industrial areas, chemical factories, and mines can have increased level of certain toxic gases and leakages. So every region has its susceptibility to some specific types of disasters in addition to other disasters which can occur anywhere. The population and livestock census of the area for which planning is to be done gives the idea about people and livestock who will be affected and have to be taken care of. Livestock have specific requirements of food and shelter for different species. Bovines can be kept together in groups but canines require cages. Whenever any disaster strikes, all the operations will require funds. Funds are also a must for preparation of capabilities, assets, infrastructure, supplies, etc., and this all expenditure will not be borne by the sufferers of disaster but has to be borne by the government and society as a whole. So creation of national- and state-level care funds has to be done for collecting donations. To promote these, compulsory donations for companies and corporate sectors and incentives to personal tax payers on donations can be added in law. New legislatures can be introduced to prevent or reduce incidences of disasters. The Indian Parliament enacted the Disaster Management Act in 2005 that presently constitutes the core of legal framework of disaster management in the country [5].
2.4
Preparedness and Prevention for Disaster Management
Development of organizational structure, capabilities, and resources are required for preparation of management of any disaster. There are different types of disasters. Some are specific to some geographical locations, while others may not be specific to any particular area. To identify these and plan a strategy to stop them or to minimize their effect, an organizational structure needs to be in place. It will be responsible for identification of problems, evolving of short-term and long-term strategies, development of capabilities to handle them, management and distribution of resources generated at the time of disaster, and assessment after the disaster has passed. Various nongovernmental organizations provide relief work in different ways. Those needed due to their capacity, area of operation, and specialization so that they can be involved in a coordinated response at the time of disaster has to be enlisted. Disaster management is a complex work with lots of expenditure involved. It cannot be considered as duty of center only or that of states or of only governmental agencies or nongovernmental agencies alone. The National or Central Disaster Management Authority created at the top of the organizational structure has the most important role to play as it itself is least affected from any disaster. It is in
2
Principles of Disaster Management
19
position to coordinate response of state-level or local-level teams. State and District Disaster Management Authorities shall work under the guidance of the National Disaster Management Authority to prepare, plan, and provide relief. Regional Disaster Management Authorities can also be formed on the basis of a region involving many states or districts which can be susceptible to a common disaster. For example, hilly northern states can formulate collective imitative for earthquakes, landslides, flash floods, etc. Coastal states need to work together against tsunamis, cyclones, etc. Early warning systems for detection of increased level of toxic gases and chemicals in environment can be installed in industrial areas and chemical factories. Specific medical facilities required for treatment of affected ones should be available nearby. In case of any earthquake in a region, surrounding areas can be warned by putting in place an early warning system consisting of accelerometers, seismometers, and alarms that is devised for notifying adjoining regions of a substantial earthquake while it is in progress [6]. Google has created a worldwide, Android phone-powered earthquake alert system. If you opt in, the accelerometer in your Android phone becomes one data point for an algorithm designed to detect earthquakes. Eventually, that system will automatically send warnings to people who could be impacted [7]. Provision of temporary shelters, food, water, sanitation facilities, and emergency medical facilities has to be kept in mind. Weather satellites, sensors, and use of technology can provide early detection and warning for cyclones, etc. These measures can predict the area which will get affected. This will help in evacuation plans. The constructions in the areas which are prone to cyclones should be such that they can withstand the heavy rainfall and strong winds. The drainage system of these areas should be extensive and efficient to prevent water logging. Several states in India witness massive flooding every year in monsoon. Embankments and plantations along the river banks, small check dams along its path, controlling habitation in riverside areas, and provision of country boat for use at the time of flood can help to prevent or minimize the losses. Destocking of the livestock can be done if it becomes definite that disaster like flooding, famine, etc. is bound to happen. This will minimize the loss, and stock can be purchased again when the disaster has passed. Launching of insurance schemes for livestock, animal shelters, and crops in disease outbreaks, famine, flood, and fire are the steps to get prepared to minimize the economic impact of the disasters. Organizing disaster drills from time to time to sensitize people also improves their response at the time of actual disasters. Fire and earthquake drills for students should be regularly organized to prepare them.
2.5
Relief and Response
Disasters are bound to happen, and whenever they occur, we have to respond. The purpose to provide relief is to prevent or minimize the loss of life and property and make their life as normal as possible at that moment. Depending upon the type of disaster, search and rescue may be required, or there may be a need to provide immediate relief in the form of temporary shelters of tarpaulin, clothes, cages for
20
R. Rajput
pets, food for people and pets, fodder for livestock, kits for water purification or clean drinking water, small boats, satellite phones for communication, etc. The immediate relief work is initiated by international and national organizations who have people trained and equipped to handle such conditions. They have ample supplies and previous experience of such disasters. The involvement of smaller local organizations is very important to have more impact with available resources as these organizations have knowledge of the local language, community, area, and network. The people have more trust in them as compared to unknown outsiders. There may be a need of establishing temporary medical facilities at certain locations with mobile teams for people and animals depending upon the circumstances. Pets and livestock have to be relocated with their owners later on. Pets suffer from emotional stress if they remain separated from their owners for longer durations. With the help of identification tags if present, it becomes easier to find their true owner quickly. Communities which suffer from any disaster remain vulnerable even after the initial crisis is over. Once the short-term relief has been provided and situation is stabilized, long-term steps are taken to restore the normal life and livelihood of the people. In case of loss of livestock, long-term help can be done by providing few cattle, sheep, and goats or poultry birds to restore the livelihood. Small loans can be provided with subsidies to restore homes and animal shelters. In flood-prone areas, relocation of population to higher grounds, erection of small multiple check dams along the path of river to reduce velocity of water and soil erosion should be done. In famine-prone area, canals and dams can be made. Small check dams along drainage channels will help to store water in rainy season, and it will reduce the impact of dry season. If a disease outbreak is occurring in an area regularly, then steps can be taken to improve hygiene and sanitation of the area. Waterborne diseases can be checked by providing clean water supply. Vaccination drives can be launched for certain diseases of human and animals to prevent epidemics and pandemics. Armed conflicts often lead to large-scale displacement of population. This leads to loss of home and livelihood. Even on returning to their native places, their life is not normal due to loss of life or damage of houses and animal shelters [8]. Livestock and crops are also lost. International pressure is required to avoid/stop such conflicts and restore normalcy in the life of local residents.
2.6
Assessment
For preparing a community before any disaster, expenditure was incurred to develop infrastructure and supplies, which were put into use at the time of disaster. Once that disaster has passed, then assessment needs to be done to evaluate how much extent the strategy adopted was successful to avoid or minimize the effect of disaster. It is a general belief that for every rupee invested in pre-disaster preparation, there is a `4 savings to society. Some new studies in the United States suggest society now saves $6 for every $1 spent preparing for natural disasters. The benefit-cost ratio for federal
2
Principles of Disaster Management
21
grants has increased from 4:1 to 6:1 over the last 13 years and is only expected to grow as the extreme weather events fueled by climate change increase in frequency and strength [9]. Baseline data has to be collected for assessment. To conduct the agricultural sector assessment, a team is to be formed having the following experts or a combination thereof [10]: • • • • • • • • • •
Agricultural economist Civil and agricultural engineer Agricultural extension specialist Agronomist Livelihood specialist Livestock specialist Fisheries and aquaculture specialist Food technologist and/or food and nutrition specialist Forestry specialist Watershed management specialist, depending on the kind of disaster and area affected • Social scientist—sociologist, social planner, gender expert These are few questions which are needed to be answered for assessment work [11]: • • • • • • •
What happened? What is happening? What might happen? How did it affect people? How might it affect people? How are people/communities coping? What are the most urgent gaps or needs? Who is doing what already? What else should be done? Who should do it?
The assessment is a very important and extensive work. It is needed to find out the economic value due to impact of disaster, what are the pre-existing preparedness plans, what is their performance at the time of disaster, and if needed what modifications are required for future disasters.
2.6.1
Incident Command System (ICS)
The Incident Command System (ICS) is a standardized approach to the command, control, and coordination of emergency response providing a common hierarchy within which responders from multiple agencies can be effective. ICS was initially developed to address problems of interagency responses to wildfires in California and Arizona but is now a component of the National Incident Management
22
R. Rajput
System (NIMS) in the United States. In addition, ICS has acted as a pattern for similar approaches internationally. ICS consists of a standard management hierarchy and procedures for managing temporary incident(s) of any size. ICS procedures should be pre-established and sanctioned by participating authorities, and personnel should be well-trained prior to an incident. ICS is interdisciplinary and organizationally flexible to meet the management challenges of any type and complexity. It provides unified, centrally organized, costeffective logistical and administrative support to the operational staff by avoiding duplication of efforts [12].
2.6.2
Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (C4I)
Command, control, and communications (C3) strengthens the capability to acquire, process, and disseminate information across force elements (including international coalition forces). This system is very true in any disaster situation to provide secure multilevel access and reliable response. Command and control means there is vertical hierarchy in this system where a group takes order from one leader and follows them to provide quick and effective rescue. In this, the leader has clear and full control over the series of events. With the digitization, this C3 system has now evolved into command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4I). Widespread mass-market availability of low-cost computers of unprecedented power and global connectivity over the Internet has led to rapid expansion and proliferation of information system technologies. The aim and challenge is to manage local area networks and ground mobile radio networks that will survive the hostile and demanding environment at the time of disaster [13].
2.6.3
Sphere Standards in National Humanitarian Response
Sphere outlines minimum standards to be followed in humanitarian response globally. Sphere standards aim to improve the quality of assistance to people affected by a disaster or conflict, following a rights-based approach and highlighting affected people’s right to live with dignity. Sphere promotes the active participation of affected communities as well as of local and national authorities, at all stages of a response along with international. It also draws the accountability of humanitarian agencies and governments toward those affected populations and donors from the private sector who might support a particular humanitarian response [14]. The Sphere minimum standards have from the outset focused on key life-saving areas of humanitarian response, that is, water supply; sanitation and hygiene promotion; food security and nutrition; shelter, settlement, and non-food items; and health action.
2
Principles of Disaster Management
2.6.4
23
Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS)
LEGS is a set of international standards for improving quality of livestock programs in humanitarian disasters, which promotes right to food and right to a standard of living. LEGS has official companion status to the Sphere Handbook. The aim of LEGS is to support the saving of lives and livelihoods by establishing minimum standards to be followed in providing most suitable livestock-related intervention in disasters/emergencies based on rapid assessments. LEGS focuses on providing five freedoms for animal welfare: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Freedom from hunger and thirst Freedom from discomfort Freedom from pain, injury, or disease Freedom to express normal behavior Freedom from fear and distress
Specific LEGS interventions are destocking; veterinary support; ensuring feed supplies; provision of water, livestock shelter, and settlements; and provision of livestock [15].
2.6.5
Role of Veterinarian in Disaster Management
Veterinarians provide support to protect and rebuild livestock assets in disasters like droughts, flooding, earthquake, disease outbreak, and zoonosis. In the event of disaster, the Veterinary support provides freedom from pain, injury, or disease by preventing disease by vaccinations, deworming, etc., enabling rapid diagnosis and treatment, providing balanced diet, and enhancing disease surveillance and reporting [15]. Veterinary support can be provided in two areas: 1. Clinical veterinary service provides examination and treatment of individual animals or herds. Mass vaccination or medication programs are also carried out to prevent infectious and parasitic diseases. Proper animal handling is ensured during the evacuation and transportation of animals. Key elements in disaster situations like drought, fire, flooding, earthquake, etc. are: (a) Search and rescue of animals (b) First aid at the site (c) Providing clean water and feed (d) Providing shelter and settlements Veterinary services have to be economically viable and affordable. Initially, at the time of actual disaster, the services are to be provided free of cost by aiding agencies, or cash transfers can be done for paid services. Gradually payment for services can be introduced when livestock markets start functioning again.
24
R. Rajput
2. Public sector veterinary functions are carried out in recovery period. It includes two key areas: (a) Veterinary public health helps in prevention and control of zoonotic diseases which spread mostly through animal-derived food like meat or milk or by contact. Veterinary public health also deals with food safety of animal-derived foods as certain veterinary medicines leave residues in food, which can be consumed by people. (b) Livestock disease surveillance systems are concerned with searching, reporting, and mapping diseases by: • Increasing public awareness to report diseases • Training veterinarians to report disease outbreaks • Ensuring timely disease outbreak investigation and response • Providing regular feedback to the workers reporting
References 1. Mohamed SI (2007) Disaster types. Disaster Prev Manag 16(5):704–717. https://doi.org/10. 1108/09653560710837019 2. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (n.d.) Types of disasters. http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/about-disasters/definition-of-hazard/ 3. The Physiopedia (n.d.) Disaster management. https://www.physio-pedia.com/Disaster_ Management 4. NRC (n.d.) Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. NRC, Washington, DC. https://www.nrc. gov/docs/ML0511/ML051160016.pdf 5. Pandey RK (2016) Legal framework of disaster management in India. ILI Law Rev (Winter):172. http://ili.ac.in/pdf/p13_rajendra.pdf 6. Venticinque S, Amato A (2018) Smart sensor and big data security and resilience. In: Security and resilience in intelligent data-centric systems and communication networks. Academic Press, London. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/disaster-management 7. Dieter B (2020) Android is becoming a worldwide earthquake detection network. The first step is ShakeAlert integration in California. By Dieter Bohn @backlon. https://www.theverge. com/2020/8/11/21362370/android-earthquake-detection-seismometer-epicenter-shakealertgoogle 8. Refworld (n.d.) Displacement in times of armed conflict: how international humanitarian law protects in war, and why it matters. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5d14746e4.pdf 9. UCSUSA (n.d.). https://www.ucsusa.org/about/news/new-study-finds-society-now-saves-6every-1-spent-preparing-natural-disasters 10. UNDP (n.d.) PDNA Volume B: guidelines. Agriculture, livestock, fisheries & forestry. https:// www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/crisis-prevention-and-recovery/pdna.html 11. Skavdal T (2003) Introduction to disaster assessment and assessment methodologies. International Training Program on disaster risk management. https://www.adrc.asia/publications/ TDRM2003June/16.pdf 12. Wikipedia (n.d.). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_Command_System 13. GlobalSecurity (n.d.). https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/c3.htm 14. Sphere Standards (n.d.). https://spherestandards.org/handbook-2018/ 15. LEGS (n.d.). https://www.livestock-emergency.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/LEGS-Hand book-2nd-edition-web-version-1.pdf
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters Sidharath Dev Thakur
Abstract
Occurrence of a disaster, natural or man-made, in an area affects plants, human beings, and animals. During or after the occurrence of a disaster, animals become more susceptible to infectious diseases. This not only compromises the livestock as an important source of nutrition and income but also creates the public health threats such as transmission and spread of diseases affecting both animals and human beings. Early prediction of the occurrence of disease events related to a disaster can result in the effective containment and control of animal disease epidemics. Animal disease forecasting is part of early warning systems (EWS). Disease surveillance and reliable data generation, development of a model, and disease forecasting and prediction are the important components of EWS. Early warning and response is aimed to manage disaster-related disease epidemic or emergency in early stages. During disaster, a sound biosecurity plan reduces the risk of disease exposure and subsequent transmission of infection. A biosecurity plan is devised depending upon the type of disaster, geo-climatic conditions of the affected area, facilities available, animal species affected, and diseases expected to occur or known to be prevalent in the area. Biosecurity is the most important measure that needs to be implemented during a disaster. Keywords
Surveillance · Disease forecasting · Disease modeling · Disease management · Early warning systems · Biosecurity · Disaster
S. D. Thakur (*) Department of Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, HP, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_3
25
26
3.1
S. D. Thakur
Introduction
The World Health Organization defines disaster as “any occurrence that causes damage, economic destruction, loss of human life and deterioration in health and health services on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area [1].” Disasters can be natural disasters (due to natural phenomena, e.g., floods, tornadoes, hurricanes, volcanoes, earthquakes, and forest fires) or man-made disasters (result of human activities/ interventions, e.g., war, pollution, nuclear explosions, fires, exposures to hazardous materials, explosions, and transportation accidents). Disasters can be localized, widespread, predictable or unpredictable, and major or minor [2].
3.2
Disaster and Animals
Occurrence of disaster in an area affects plants, human beings, and animals. Disasters affecting animals can have both public health and economic consequences. Livestock sector is an important source to livelihood and contributes 40% of the total agricultural production. It contributes to 15% of total food energy and 25% of dietary protein. Livestock provide a livelihood for a large percent of population living in poverty [3]. In resource-limited settings, livestock not only provide milk, meat, hides, wool, fiber, and draft power for farming and transport but are also considered a safe investment option. Occurrence of disaster in such setting not only threatens the food supply but can also create the public health threats such as transmission and spread of zoonotic diseases [1]. Disasters affecting livestock have a negative impact on the infrastructure of a country, threatening an important source of nutrition and income in rural areas and hindering the distribution of food and goods. Disasters in animals can vary from barn fires to widespread natural or man-made calamities [3].
3.3
Disasters and Animal Diseases
Occurrence of natural disasters is an interplay of different factors, e.g., floods in region are generally attributed to heavy rainfall along with uncontrolled urbanization, deforestation, and complex climatic phenomenon such as El Niño. Tsunamis occur due to seismic sea waves created by an underwater disturbance such as an earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption. Wild or forest fires are triggered by lightning, high winds, volcanic eruptions, or deliberate setting of fires by human beings during dry and hot periods. Cyclones are caused primarily due to warm temperatures above sea surfaces. During or after the occurrence of a disaster, animals become more susceptible to diseases for which they have little or no immunity due to stress, undernourishment, displacement, and overcrowding. Extremes of weather and short-term or sudden environmental changes occurring during disasters affect incidence of infectious diseases in a region by changing the susceptibility of the host, vector population,
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters
27
and virulence and pathogenicity of the pathogens. Geophysical and environmental changes occurring after a disaster can increase the incidence of both transboundary and zoonotic diseases. For example, warmer temperatures after floods increase insect population and subsequently increase incidence of vector-borne diseases and zoonoses. Similarly, after earthquakes, rodent populations show a sudden increase, threatening the widespread occurrence of rodent-involved infections [4]. Therefore, predicting the occurrence of such diseases and planning effective disease management strategies in advance can minimize the losses due to disasters. Occurrence of the disease is dependent on interaction of agent, host, and environment, the epidemiological triad. Macro (rainfall, temperature, sunlight, humidity, and wind velocity) and microclimate (air quality, ventilation, humidity, hosing, and diet) factors influence the susceptibility of the hosts to the pathogens and affect occurrence of diseases. These parameters in conjunction with geological formations, vegetation, environmental changes (deforestation, soil erosion, etc.), urbanization, industrialization, and improper waste disposal affect the resultant survival of the pathogens and distribution of their hosts and vectors. These changes influence the spatial distribution of the disease [5]. Occurrence of certain diseases is restricted to certain geographical regions with specific climatic conditions supporting the growth and multiplication of suitable vector and host species. For example, Kyasanur forest disease (KFD), a tick-borne viral zoonosis, was first identified in 1957 in Kyasanur forest area of Sorab Taluka in Shimoga district of then Mysore (now Karnataka state). In 1957, KFD infection was active in an area of about 800 sq. km. Due to large-scale deforestation for cashew nut plantations, grazing of cattle, and climate changes supporting the transmission and survival of pathogen and tick vector in new territories, the disease has spread to more than 4000 sq. km of area in Karnataka [6]. Similarly, occurrence of Japanese encephalitis is closely associated with pig husbandry and rice field irrigation. Pigs act as sentinel and amplifier host for Japanese encephalitis, and irrigated rice fields support multiplication of Culex spp., mosquito vectors for the virus. Incidence of leptospirosis is also more in waterlogged areas (irrigated or not) with poor drainage and alkaline soils [6, 7]. The temporal distribution of disease is also influenced by the seasonal effects of climate. Incidence of black quarter and hemorrhagic septicemia is more in rainy season, whereas occurrence of FMD is associated with dry windy climatic conditions [5].
3.3.1
Early Warning and Response System
Epidemiologists are adopting new techniques by the use of geographic information system (GIS) to study animal and zoonotic diseases. Associations between satellitederived environmental variables such as temperature, humidity, land cover type, and vector density are used for prediction of disease(s) [5]. Animal disease forecasting is part of early warning systems (EWS), which are very effective in predicting the occurrence of disasters or hazards. An EWS is an integrated system of hazard monitoring, forecasting and prediction, disaster risk assessment, communication,
28
S. D. Thakur
and preparedness activities systems and processes that enables individuals, communities, governments, businesses, and others to take timely action to reduce disaster risks in advance of hazardous events (https://un-spider.org/risks-anddisasters/early-warning-systems). EWS can rapidly detect the introduction or sudden increase in incidence of any livestock disease in an area [8]. Early warning and response is aimed to manage the disease epidemic or emergency in its early stages. Early warning of the outbreaks and the capacity for prediction of spread to new areas are essential prerequisites for the effective containment and control of animal disease epidemics. A disease epidemic is easier and more economical to control in the start than having to deal with it once it is widespread. Early warning of outbreaks with a known zoonotic potential will enable control measures that can prevent human morbidity and mortality. Defective disease surveillance systems and the inability to control major diseases at their source contribute to the spread of both livestock diseases (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease) and zoonotic diseases (bovine spongiform encephalopathy and avian influenza) across geographical borders. Early response is based on good diagnostics, effective contingency plans, suitable infrastructure, trained manpower, and timely assistance by national or international agencies [8, 9]. The Global Early Warning and Response System for major animal diseases including zoonoses (GLEWS), is a joint system based on combining and coordinating the alert and response mechanisms developed by OIE, FAO, and WHO. GLEWS assists in prediction, prevention, and control of animal disease threats, including zoonoses, through sharing of information, epidemiological analysis, and joint field efforts to assess and control the outbreak. GLEWS is based on the fact that infection does not recognize geographical or species borders and their control requires collaboration between different agencies. Such collaborations and sharing of information between different agencies improve international preparedness for epidemics and provide rapid, efficient, and coordinated assistance across the different affected countries. For zoonotic events, alerts of animal outbreaks can provide direct early warning for preventive actions to be taken to check their spread in human beings. Similarly, alerts of human cases can be early warnings for the occurrence of disease in the animals [9].
3.4
Animal Disease Forecasting
Early warning systems for animal disease forecasting involve surveillance of animal diseases, monitoring of specific risk factors related to climatic parameters and flora and fauna of an area, and epidemiological analysis to predict the occurrence of a disease and its subsequent spread. These data are supported by information systems that enable integration, analysis, and sharing of animal health data combined with relevant layers of information such as socioeconomic, production, and climatic data. Remote sensing and satellite data allows for real-time monitoring of environmental drivers of epidemics such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, flooding, and other characteristics that influence the spread of pathogens [5]. GIS is an automated
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters
29
system for the input, storage, analysis, and output of spatial information. The use of GIS can be done to map the type and density of vectors in an area through knowing the climate and flora and fauna of that area. These data combined with population and environmental data and previous occurrences of the disease can be used for prediction of future occurrence of diseases. It is possible to derive risk maps of transmission for diseases that have a strong environmental component such as vector-borne diseases like Zika, chikungunya, yellow fever, and dengue [10]. Advances in disease surveillance systems and epidemiological modeling combined with information technology have made early warning systems very useful tools to combat the re-emergence and spread of infectious diseases during or after disasters. Disease forecasting and prediction is an important component of disease EWS, which has three important constituents [5, 10–12]: 1. Surveillance and reliable data generation: Surveillance is an ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of outcome-specific data essential for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of public health practice, closely integrated with the timely dissemination of these data to those who need to know. Disease surveillance is focused on intensive data recording on the occurrence and spread of disease(s). It may include data generation on distribution of the agent(s), vectors, and susceptible hosts and serological evidences of past infections. Disease surveillance can be active or passive process. Passive surveillance involves the examination of only clinically affected cases of specified diseases. Active surveillance involves even clinically normal animals in the population. Active surveillance is necessary to determine the exact burden of diseases with subclinical cases and carriers. In veterinary medicine, passive surveillance means continuous monitoring of the existing disease status of the populations that are surveyed, using routinely collected data to produce outputs that can be used for policy decisions, e.g., reports of laboratory diagnoses, routine meat inspection findings, and statutory notifications of the diseases. Active surveillance is a committed effort of veterinary authorities to collect information on specific diseases. Rapid collection of data and assessment of regional and national statistics lead to early detection of changes in the incidence of diseases. An accurate and reliable database is prerequisite for the designing and implementation of disease intervention strategies. 2. Developing a model: Modeling is the representation of real-life events in quantitative mathematical terms, which may allow predictions to be made about the disease. It may be either based on statistical approach on relationships between past case numbers and environmental predictors or an attempt to capture the biology of the transmission processes “biological approach.” Modeling provides a useful means of investigating diseases where experiments and field observations are not possible. Models are constructed to explain and predict patterns of disease occurrence. This allows estimation of relative effectiveness of various alternative strategies adopted to control a particular disease. Accurate models help to device the most efficient disease control strategy by
30
S. D. Thakur
understanding the transmission and life cycles of infectious agents. Modeling requires data collection on environmental conditions as wide as possible. It is important to note that statistical models are extremely powerful but are temporary substitute for the biological process models. Models have limitations in terms of the accuracy of outputs/results, and such shortcomings need to be communicated to the users and other stakeholders. 3. Disease forecasting and prediction: It uses contemporary environmental data to predict future risk (disease) through the use of predictive models. In general, long-range continued epidemiological and environmental forecasts give the warnings of variable specificities. This gives planners enough time for the planning and implementation of preventive measures. The short-range forecasts provide highly specific location and time-based information but provide little time for the preventive measures.
3.5
Sources of Animal Disease and Meteorological Data
3.5.1
Sources of Animal Disease Data
3.5.1.1 Global Sources of Animal Disease Data World Organization for Animal Health (OIE): OIE maintains the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS). OIE-WAHIS is an Internet-based real-time system that processes data on animal diseases. This database has information on OIE-listed diseases from 2005 in domestic animals and wildlife, as well as on emerging diseases and zoonoses from OIE member and non-member countries and territories [13]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): It established the Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases (EMPRES) in 1994. This program was developed with the objectives to develop an early warning and response system to progressively control and eliminate transboundary animal diseases, including emergent zoonoses. It has a module for animal husbandry with a name EMPRES-AH. EMPRES Global Animal Disease Information System (EMPRES-i) is a web-based application that has been designed to support veterinary services by providing regional and global disease information [13]. World Health Organization (WHO): It has established the Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN), a multidisciplinary network of regional, national, and international institutions and networks [14]. GOARN responds to the global threats of disease epidemics and emerging diseases such as Ebola virus outbreak. This program coordinates the rapid deployment and mobilization of international resources in response to outbreak of international importance. 3.5.1.2 Sources of Animal Disease Data in India 1. Animal disease surveillance network: This includes data collection from diseased livestock by the veterinarians posted at government hospital/dispensary which is passed to the taluka/block level, to the district level, and then to the state
3
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters
31
veterinary and animal husbandry authorities. The disease information is also shared from diagnostic laboratories at district, state, and regional level. The concerned department, i.e., Animal Husbandry Department, of state government shares this information with the Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis (CADRAD): It was established in 1986 and was recognized as Central Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (CDDL), Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, by the Govt. of India since 2001–2002. Besides this, there are five Regional Disease Diagnosis Laboratories (RDDL) located at Kolkata (eastern), Pune (western), Jalandhar (northern), Bangalore (southern), and Guwahati (northeastern). There are six quarantine stations, viz., Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Bangalore, and Hyderabad. ICAR Animal Disease Surveillance (a) Project Directorate on Foot and Mouth Disease (PDFMD) (b) National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (NIVEDI): This agency is working on surveillance of major economically important animal diseases including zoonoses. Advances in information technology provide adequate computing techniques to develop a national livestock disease information system which is the prime need of today. (a) National Animal Disease Referral Expert System (NADRES): This is a component of the National Agricultural Technology Program funded project on weather-based animal disease forecasting and animal health information system through disease monitoring and surveillance. Veterinary colleges: Clinics and disease diagnosis laboratories in veterinary colleges record data on both clinical diseases and infectious disease outbreaks. Many have established databases, often using computerized techniques that allow rapid access to records. Commercial livestock enterprises: Commercial poultry and dairy farms can be important sources of disease data and can be utilized for developing early warning systems. Private veterinary practitioners: Private veterinary practitioners have contacts with animal farms and owners of companion animals. Farm animal veterinarians can provide disease information for cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, whereas companion animal practitioners more or less deal with small animals particularly pets (dogs, cats, birds, reptiles, fish, etc.) and equines. Abattoirs/slaughterhouses: The objective of meat inspection is to safeguard the health of the human population. Majority of diseases diagnosed at meat inspection are subclinical, and diagnosis is done by macroscopic postmortem examination. Abattoirs can be primary sources of disease data for conditions not having suitable and convenient methods of diagnosis. An increase in the prevalence of any animal or zoonotic disease in slaughtered animals can be associated with increased occurrence of such infection in animals and/or man. Generally, animals slaughtered for meat do not originate from abattoirs or areas around such
32
S. D. Thakur
facilities. These animals are generally made to travel or are transported from distant places. Therefore, an efficient trace-back system is a must to identify diseases associated with their farm or area of origin.
3.5.1.3 Sources of Meteorological Data 1. Global level: World Weather Information Service (https://worldweather.wmo.int/ en/home.html) of World Meteorological Organization and World Weather Records (WWR, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/wdcmet/data-access-searchviewer-tools/world-weather-records-wwr-clearinghouse) maintained by the National Centers for Environmental Information provide meteorological data at global level. 2. National level: Meteorological information can also be obtained from data repositories maintained at national level. In India, national meteorological data is maintained by the India Meteorological Department (https://mausam.imd.gov. in/). 3. State/province level: Meteorological centers or departments maintain meteorological information at state or provincial level. 4. Other sources: Meteorological information can be obtained from observatories, universities, research centers, and regional agricultural organizations such as Krishi Vigyan Kendra. However, quality of the data or meteorological parameters recorded at these centers can vary and may lack uniformity.
3.6
Management of Transmissible Disease
Management of disease refers to the course of action pursued toward its containment and the protection of the population from its ill-effects. Disease management becomes very important during disaster as risk of transmission of disease between animals and from animals to human beings increases many fold. It may be attributed to contaminated drinking water, destruction of infrastructure, stressed animal and human population, and reduced resistance/increased susceptibility to the diseases. Displaced people and animals need to share the shelter with other groups of people or animals, resulting in overcrowding and easy spread of infectious diseases. Disease management strategies are either directed toward total (eradication) or partial exclusion (prevention or elimination) of the pathogens or improvement in the host resistance by means such as vaccination. Management strategies are classified into four major groups [7]: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Prevention Control Elimination Eradication
Prevention: A preventive activity relates to the steps adopted for checking the spread of disease in an otherwise healthy population. Common preventive measures
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters
33
against transmissible disease include immunization and quarantine. Prevention of disease is achieved mainly through the use of vaccines. Vaccination of healthy and non-infected animals is an important disease-preventing strategy during disaster. Vaccination boosts the immunity of the affected animal population against disease such as foot and mouth disease, hemorrhagic septicemia, and black quarter. Quarantine relates to the separation of disease population from the apparently healthy individual(s). Quarantine is highly relevant during disaster as people and animal get displaced and move from one territory to the other. A period of 14 days (in certain cases, up to 90 days) is considered adequate for quarantine. Quarantine measures can be applied at local, national, or international levels. Control: The term refers to the action initiated toward limiting the damage (morbidity or mortality/incidence or prevalence) inflicted by the disease in a population which is already exposed to or affected by the disease. Control as a disease management strategy involves isolation/segregation of sick animals from the apparently healthy ones in the group and administration of specific therapy/treatment to them that help in minimizing the losses due to the disease. In disaster, control measures generally include chemoprophylaxis, arthropod control, hygiene, clean water, safe food, disinfection of fomites, avoidance of close contact, isolation of sick animals, identification of sick and healthy animals, restriction of animal movement, etc. Elimination: The strategies aim at removing the risk factors of the disease (from the population) with a view to reduce the prevalence of the disease to a reasonably low level. It can be referred to as partial eradication. Eradication: Eradication means a total elimination or complete removal of the disease from an area or country. It envisages to stamp out the causal agent and risk factors of the disease from the territory. Eradication is an ideal goal of all disease management programs. Diseases with multiple hosts and complex host-agent environment interactions are difficult to eradicate. In developed countries, many of the major zoonoses (tuberculosis and brucellosis) have been successfully eradicated by adopting a “test and slaughter” policy. The policy is not considered appropriate in the developing countries because of economic reasons. As such, a “test and segregation” policy has been advocated for the elimination of the disease in selected areas.
3.7
Biosecurity
Biosecurity measures are aimed at mitigating, preventing, preparing for, responding to, or recovering from natural or man-made biological events that could harm humans, animals, or the environment. Biosecurity is the most important measure that needs to be implemented during a disaster. It prevents the introduction of disease into a healthy population of animals or limits the spread of disease once introduced. It is critical during a disaster as it reduces the risk of introduction of infectious agents [15, 16]. Biosecurity measures include both structural (footbaths, protective clothing, road barriers, etc.) and functional (screening of the animals, quarantine, cleaning and disinfection of used equipment) provisions. Biosecurity relies upon controlled
34
S. D. Thakur
access to disaster site, adequate arrangement of protective equipment, disinfection of the infected or suspected to be infected premises, controlled or no access to the infected herds, and isolation of the infected animals from healthy animals. During disaster, a sound biosecurity plan reduces the risk of disease exposure and transmission of infectious diseases. A biosecurity plan is devised depending upon the type of disaster, geo-climate conditions of the affected area, facilities available, animal species affected, and diseases expected to occur or known to be prevalent in the area. In the start, a basic biosecurity plan is developed and is reviewed and can be modified during the operation as per the requirements. A biosecurity plan should be based upon disease risks occurring in an area (risk analysis) and should identify important interventions (critical control points) to reduce the spread of the risk. A biosecurity plan includes the type of the equipment to be used and biosecurity practices of rescue personnel, e.g., use of PPE and disinfection procedure. Biosecurity practices should be adopted for the equipments used in a disaster, i.e., cleaning/disinfection of vehicles after transport. There should be provisions of temporary shelters, bedding, feed, and fodder and availability of potable drinking water for animals. During disaster, people should be made aware of physical, chemical, and biological hazards to which they themselves and their animals may be exposed. A well-designed plan includes disease-preventing measure, hygienic practices, and provision of veterinary care. Hygienic disposal of dead or fallen animals after disaster is an important component of biosecurity plan as carcasses pose serious threat to animal and human communities. Carcasses should be disposed of as per recommended procedures. In developing countries, specialized equipments (e.g., incinerator, renderizer, etc.) are not available, and burial remains the method of choice for carcass disposal. The carcass is lowered on to a thick layer of quicklime (5 cm) in a pit of suitable dimension and is covered with sufficient amount of earth and quicklime. The soil cover over the carcass should be 1.2–2.0 m. The major components of a sound biosecurity plan include [16]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Resistance Isolation Traffic control Sanitation and disinfection Public awareness
Resistance: Certain animal species are naturally resistant (equids to FMD and cattle to glanders) or are less susceptible (pigs, carnivores, and birds of prey to anthrax) to specific pathogens. Some diseased animals may be subclinically infected and can spread the diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis. Vaccination programs supplement the disease control procedures, and vaccines are used to increase an animal’s resistance to specific disease. It is important to do standard health check of the animals before vaccination which includes recording of temperature and pulse rate and checking of visible mucous membranes. It is always useful to have previous vaccination history of animals from disaster-hit area. For effective vaccination campaign, maintenance of cold chain, checking of expiry dates of the
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters
35
vaccines, and maintenance of vaccination record of each and every animal are very important. Isolation: Movement of the animals during a disaster is an important biosecurity risk. Animals suffering from the disease and those exposed (but still healthy) should be quarantined to prevent the spread of disease(s) to apparently healthy but susceptible animals. During the isolation, separated animals should be closely observed for clinical signs of disease, and diagnostic tests/procedures can be performed for confirmation. Healthy animals under isolation can be given preventive treatments, such as vaccinations, deworming, etc. Pregnant females and young animals that are more susceptible to diseases and should be housed separately. Traffic control: It is important to control the traffic of animals (sick, exposed, and unexposed), people, and vehicles in disaster-hit area. Traffic control involves limiting and regulating the access to disaster site/area under epidemic. Visitors (people and animals) and rescue workers should be subjected to routine biosecurity practices (washing of hands and wearing protective boots). It prevents spilling over of the infectious agents from disaster site to newer areas or introduction of new pathogens to affected areas from outside. Vehicles should remain in marked parking areas, and only designated vehicles should be allowed in outbreak area to prevent the spread of infectious agents. Traffic control measures should be applied to all the vehicles such as trucks, rescue vehicles, and veterinary vehicles. The foot and mouth virus has been shown to spread by vehicles, tires, and equipment. All vehicles should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected to limit the spread of disease. Sanitation: The term refers to the management of physical and biological aspects of the environment. Sanitation is often the key factor in minimizing the spread and limiting the course of infectious diseases. It includes the action and practices against domestic, animal, and industrial wastes, sewage, vectors, and toxic pollutants. Sanitation reduces animal exposure to pathogens through general cleanliness and protects the health and well-being. Sanitation is an important component of biosecurity plan and involves proper disposal of human and animal wastes, removal or eradication of infected or carrier animals, disposal of dead animals, and cleaning and disinfection of any potentially contaminated equipment or facilities. Poor disposal of waste results in unpleasant environment, contamination of drinking water sources and rivers, and creation of breeding sites for flies and insects. Public awareness: The success of the biosecurity plan depends upon the involvement of the general public. Therefore, importance of biosecurity measures and reasons for them should be communicated to general public.
3.7.1
Disaster Management/Coordination
In India, the National Disaster Management Authority was set up on 23 December 2005. This agency is headed by the Prime Minister. State Disaster Management Authorities are headed by the Chief Ministers, and District Disaster Management Authorities are headed by the District Magistrates or Deputy Commissioners. The
36
S. D. Thakur
main objective of these agencies is to spearhead and adopt a holistic and integrated approach to disaster management at national, state, or district level. For holistic and integrated approach, secretaries and officers various departments; home, public works department, health, police, revenue are also members of disaster management (DM) agencies working at different levels. The focus of DM agencies is to adopt a proactive prevention, mitigation, and preparedness-driven approach instead of erstwhile relief-centric response. Keeping in the view importance of livestock and public health threats associated with during the disasters, department of animal husbandry should part of DM agency. Moreover, veterinarians and veterinary institutions can provide a variety of services to human beings such as emergency medical and surgical services such as treatment of injuries/wounds and can assist physicians. Public health veterinarians can play a key role in ensuring supply of safe and wholesome food and potable water to the affected community.
References 1. Sen A, Chander M (2003) Disaster management in India: the case of livestock and poultry. Rev Sci Tech 22:915–930 2. Zibulewsky J (2001) Defining disaster: the emergency department perspective. Proc (Baylor Univ Med Cent) 14:144–149 3. Díaz A, Trelles S, Murillo JC (2016) Risk management and animal care in disasters: increasing the resilience of the livestock sector: the Costa Rican experience. Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), San José 4. Kumaravel P (2020) A handbook on management of animals in disaster. Department of Veterinary and AH Extension Education Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Madras Veterinary College, Chennai 5. Thrusfield M (2005) Veterinary epidemiology, 3rd edn. Blackwell Publishing Company, Oxford 6. Anon (2016) Zoonotic diseases of public health importance, 3rd edn. Zoonoses Division. National Centre for Disease Control, Minister of Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi 7. Thapliyal DC (1999) Diseases of animals transmissible to man. International Book Distributing Company, Lucknow 8. UNDRR (2021) Early warning system. https://www.undrr.org/terminology/early-warningsystem 9. FAO-OIE-WHO (2006) Global early warning and response system for major animal diseases, including zoonoses (GLEWS). https://www.oie.int/doc/ged/D11304.PDF 10. Desai AN, Kraemer MUG, Bhatia S, Cori A, Nouvellet P, Herringer M, Cohn EL, Carrion M, Brownstein JS, Madoff LC, Lassmann B (2019) Real time epidemic forecasting: challenges and opportunities. Health Secur 17:268–275 11. Kshirsagar DP, Savalia CV, Kalyani IH, Kumar R, Nayak DN (2013) Disease alerts and forecasting of zoonotic diseases: an overview. Vet World 6:889–896 12. Thompson RN, Brooks-Pollock E (2019) Detection, forecasting and control of infectious disease epidemics: modeling outbreaks in humans, animals and plants. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 374:20190038
3
Early Warning Systems, Disease Management, and Biosecurity in Disasters
37
13. Perez A, Alkhamis M, Carlsson U, Brito B, Carrasco-Medanic R, Whedbee Z, Willeberg P (2011) Global animal disease surveillance. Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol 2:135–145 14. Mackenzie JS, Drury P, Arthur RR, Ryan MJ, Grein T, Slattery R, Suri S, Domingo CT, Bejtullahu A (2014) The global outbreak alert and response network. Glob Public Health 9: 1023–1039 15. Van der Merwe P (2020) Prevention and preparedness: biosecurity, early warning and contingency planning. Rev Sci Tech 39:551–559 16. Stoltenow C (2008) Animal biosecurity and protection. https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/ livestockextension/animal-biosecurity-and-protection/files/ansc488agrosecurityhandout.pdf
4
Disaster Risk Assessment and Operations Planning Ajay Katoch
Abstract
Disaster risk assessment is the process that helps the veterinarian analyse and determine the disaster’s impact with an aim to identify and reduce the risks of disaster. The first priority after any disaster is rapid response focused on primarily saving lives, which also includes measures to address the welfare needs of both people and animals, followed by measures to enable a speedy recovery process. In order to effectively manage animals during different disaster management stages, the veterinarians have a pivotal role. The essentials of any assessment include preparedness planning, survey and data collection, interpretation of information, forecasting, reporting and monitoring. Several actors actively intervene following any disaster in conducting rapid assessments either individually or jointly. Immediately after any disaster event, the humanitarian agencies usually conduct sector-wise joint rapid assessments. Thereafter, in-depth assessment is usually carried out within the first month as the conditions normalize. The continual assessment and impact assessment are carried out at the end of operation to assess the impact the team has made at the site of disaster and to plug the loopholes if any. Finally, there is a need to focus on the existing gaps and challenges such as provision of adequate resources, trained staff and inclusion of animal welfare in government policy. Keywords
Disaster assessment · Planning · Mitigation · Management
A. Katoch (*) Department of Veterinary Medicine, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, HP, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_4
39
40
A. Katoch
4.1
Introduction
The world population especially those dependent on agriculture are increasingly exposed to adverse natural phenomenon like drought, floods, landslides, hurricanes, earthquakes and epidemics of geological, hydrological, biological or man-made origin that can turn into disasters. Millions of people who are dependent on livestock production, especially in rural areas, encounter these emergencies. This not only endangers food production at local or national scale but the problem can reach global proportion. Different preparedness plans are already there in place to cope up with any disaster, but these may not be enough due to underplanning, lack of resources or vast magnitude of the disaster. So whenever there is any disaster, its assessment becomes imperative so as to minimize the losses of human beings as well as livestock.
4.2
Definition
Disaster risk assessment and operations planning is a process of analysing the impact of a disaster, the animal welfare needs, prioritization of response operations and responsible decision-making. Saving precious lives of both people and animals is always the first priority as part of the immediate emergency process followed by a series of initiatives to ensure a speedy recovery. The recovery of the disaster-affected area involves different disciplines and steps implemented in a phased manner depending on the disaster’s intensity and the existing local coping mechanisms. These could be both short term and long term as per the needs and findings of the assessment. During disasters, as the veterinarians need to deal with diverse species of animals and range of issues, it is highly pertinent to maintain the highest professional standards for ensuring animal health and reducing mortalities. This can be ensured only if they are actively engaged in all the disaster management phases from the assessment stage till recovery. The veterinarians also need to take responsibility in mainstreaming animals in the humanitarian sector through coordinating and integrating their expertise with other local, state or national agencies involved in disaster management. Disaster assessments should address the following points: • • • •
Disaster’s impact, the local context and ongoing risks Local populations’ vulnerability and coping capacity Prioritized needs Strategies for recovery
4
Disaster Risk Assessment and Operations Planning
41
Fig. 4.1 Steps in disaster assessment. (Adapted from UNDMTP Disaster Assessment [1])
4.3
Disaster Assessment Process
Planning helps efficiently coordinate with stakeholders and obtain the required information through disaster assessments. As per UNDMTP ([1], Fig. 4.1), the steps in disaster assessments constitute the following process: • • • • •
Identification of information needs/gaps and sources Data collection Data analysis and interpretation Reporting and information sharing Re-designing or modifying based on local need
4.4 • • • • • •
Essentials of Any Assessment
Preparedness planning Survey and data collection Interpretation of information Forecasting Reporting Monitoring
As the response actions to the disaster begin to influence various events, disaster assessments provide facts that are integral to plan and monitor progress along with all stakeholders involved in the process. Assessments can be helpful only if there is a systematic process in place to collect, record, analyse and interpret the information to address the identified gaps/needs. Therefore, a well-trained team with clearly defined tasks would help organize the assessment process to obtain quality information. The role of team leader and
42
A. Katoch
respective teams need to have a coordination mechanism to also work alongside other government and humanitarian stakeholders at different administrative levels. The chosen teams should have the technical skill and knowledge on conducting assessments, as well as using different data collection tools and techniques. Specificity in collection of data is an important objective. Disaster assessments should be aimed to help match the available resources with the projected emergent needs. One of the important elements of emergency assessment is the presence of quality control checks on plans and procedures. Timely, reliable and coordinated assessment is important in targeting the needs and avoiding gaps in relief measures and duplication in response to the disaster. Forecasting is an important element of stage of decision-making. It predicts the relationship between needs of affected population and resources over time. It also attempts to judge whether the resources can actually be made available on time to deal with a particular disaster. Forecasting is particularly critical in early stages. For example, decisions on providing emergency veterinary or medical care and carrying out search and rescue during earthquakes or other similar disasters are so timesensitive that even a few hours’ delay in arranging support at the site can defeat the desired purpose.
4.5
Important Points to Consider During Assessment
1. Assessments are tools to ascertain whether a disaster response is required, not possible or not required. 2. Every disaster is unique, and assessments should focus on what information is required based on the local context. 3. Most importantly, it is important to decide if a disaster assessment is needed or not as: (a) Disaster assessments will need time, money, staff and other resources. (b) Are there other ways of obtaining the required information? (c) Ensure that this is not a duplication of work already being done by others. (d) For every question, ask how will this information be useful. Before any assessments, as a good practice, keep the following points in mind: • Field Test: Test the questions to ensure they are locally relevant. • KISS: It means “Keep It Short and Simple”. The questions asked have to be short, simple and understandable. Use easy and simple language that can be easily understandable. • Data Entry and Analysis: The proper planning of time, budget and resources required to collect, transport, enter, analyse and report the information after each survey has to be quick and meaningful.
4
Disaster Risk Assessment and Operations Planning
4.6
43
Types of Disaster Assessments
1. Rapid Assessments: The initial rapid assessments are conducted by organizations either within few hours, 4–5 days or within a week’s time following a disaster. This could be ideal for any organization who wants to assess the overall situation post disaster for immediate decision-making. (a) Purpose: To have a broad overview of the situation post disaster. (b) Period: Within hours, 4–5 days or 1 week following a disaster. (c) Advantages: Early reporting of the situation for quick decisions. (d) Disadvantages: Accuracy of information could get biased or compromised which can lead to significant gaps in disaster operations [2]. 2. Joint Rapid Assessments: The initial joint rapid assessments are conducted by two or more organizations either within few hours, 4–5 days or within a week’s time following a disaster. There are several actors with different mandates operating in the humanitarian sector. Therefore, this could be ideal for jointly assessing and planning joint resource mobilization and interventions in the disaster-affected areas in fulfilment of their respective organization’s requirements. (a) Purpose: To plan joint interventions post disaster. (b) Period: Within hours, 4–5 days or 1 week following a disaster. (c) Advantages: Early reporting of the situation for quick decisions and joint resource mobilization. (d) Disadvantages: Accuracy of information could get biased or compromised. 3. In-Depth Assessments: These in-depth assessments are conducted ideally within the first month following a disaster. These assessments are ideal for the thematic sectors that would require technical expertise and time for planning recovery measures, including slow-onset emergencies such as droughts and epidemic outbreaks. The in-depth assessments could also be carried out for assessing specific areas within sectors such as destocking, feed provision, water supply, veterinary care, shelter and settlements, restocking, etc. (a) Purpose: To comprehensively assess the situation post disaster (b) Period: Within 1 month following a disaster (c) Advantages: Detailed findings for planning long-term recovery (d) Disadvantages: Assessment fatigue of teams and local population 4. Continual Assessments: These assessments are used to continuously monitor the progress of interventions and take timely actions to meet the planned deadlines. This enables effective coordination between teams. However, these would require dedicated assessment teams to regularly carry out assessment studies in parallel to the teams working on organization’s technical areas. (a) Purpose: To effectively coordinate and regularly monitor the progress (b) Period: Ongoing regularly throughout the intervention period (c) Advantages: Helps to timely assess delays and suggest corrective measures (d) Disadvantages: Possibilities of overshadowing the actual intervention to protect disaster-affected communities
44
A. Katoch
5. Impact Assessments: These assessments are usually conducted at the end of any intervention to assess and measure the impact created to bring about a positive change in the disaster-affected areas. These assessments have a set of baseline indicators identified to be measured or would require standalone baseline assessments to have the required information to measure at the end of the intervention. (a) Purpose: To measure impact of the interventions in the affected areas. (b) Period: End of the disaster interventions. (c) Advantages: Provides information to highlight the impactful change. (d) Disadvantages: Lack of baseline information or good indicators affects the accuracy.
4.7
Eight Steps for VERUs to Implement Veterinary Emergency Response Operations
The recommended eight steps for Veterinary Emergency Response Units (VERUs) for effective Disaster Response Operations during deployment to disaster affected areas are as follows: • Step 1: Ongoing Disaster Monitoring—As part of the monitoring process, VERU teams should regularly follow government, UN or sources that provide disaster alerts, e.g. IMD (https://mausam.imd.gov.in/), INCOIS (https://incois. gov.in/), GLIDEnumber (https://glidenumber.net/glide/public/search/search.jsp), GDACS (https://www.gdacs.org/), PDC (https://www.pdc.org/), ReliefWeb (https://reliefweb.int/disasters), etc. This is an ongoing process to prepare the VERU teams for emergency deployments for undertaking assessments or disaster interventions. – Purpose—To observe if there are any possible disaster events, alerts, appeals, etc. and prepare VERU teams for deployments • Step 2: Conducting Remote Assessment—This is a desktop activity by the VERU to determine if there is any further need for conducting detailed assessments in obtaining the missing information. This should ideally be completed within 1 day. The secondary sources could be government documents, UN and humanitarian agencies, media reports, etc. It also determines whether there is sufficient threat to a vulnerable population to warrant an intervention, including logistic considerations for deploying teams [3]. – Purpose—To obtain information from secondary information sources and take decisions if an onsite assessment is required or not • Step 3: Initiating Disaster Assessment and Needs Analysis (DANA)—Based on the remote assessment, the VERU teams are deployed to conduct onsite assessments for conducting DANA. The initial DANA (with budget and resources) should be completed within 5–7 days or within 72 h after the teams have reached the disaster-affected sites. Following this, the DANA can be
4
•
•
•
•
Disaster Risk Assessment and Operations Planning
45
updated regularly using SITREPs (Situation Reports) and considering the local developments. The assessment tools and checklists (LEGS, etc.) can be used to interact with diverse stakeholder for obtaining the required information. The assessments should have enough information to address the following three questions: Role of livestock in livelihood? Nature and impact of the emergency? Situational analysis to plan intervention? – Purpose—To conduct field assessments and obtain information for developing the veterinary emergency operations plan Step 4: Activating Disaster Assessment and Response Team (DART)—After the DANA is finalized, the VERU activates a multidisciplinary team called “DART”. This multidisciplinary team should consist of members from VERU, government, NGOs, local community and other local actors to avoid any bias. This would enable active engagement of different stakeholders in the process and ensure transparency in procurement and disaster relief operations. This also would help in effectively handing over or transitioning the responsibilities to local stakeholder after the intervention as an exit strategy. – Purpose—To form a multidisciplinary team for avoiding bias and strengthening stakeholder coordination for procuring and implementing disaster interventions Step 5: Implementing Disaster Short-Term Response (STR)—After the procurement process, the VERU through the DART will implement the disaster STR in the identified intervention areas. Depending on the local need, the focus of the STR could be rescue of animals, feed provisions, veterinary treatment, carcass disposal, etc. [4]. The period for implementing STR is 1–6 months. – Purpose—To provide rapid assistance and protect the animals and livelihood of vulnerable communities Step 6: Implementing Disaster Long-Term Recovery (LTR)—The LTR is mainly focused on rehabilitation, recovery and resilience building of the vulnerable communities with the motto “Build Back Better”. Depending on the local need, the focus of the LTR could be construction of structures for animals, restocking, trainings, awareness, simulation exercises/mock drills, etc. The period for implementing LTR is 6 months to 2 years. During this period, the exit strategy should be activated to enable a smooth transition in handing over responsibilities to local stakeholders. – Purpose—To protect and rebuild the livestock assets and the livelihood of vulnerable communities as part of strengthening local coping capacities Step 7: Undertaking Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E) Mission—The M & E process should be undertaken by engaging external agencies to assess the VERU’s interventions through DART. This process helps measure the interventions’ impact based on the findings of DANA and other baseline indicators [5]. – Purpose—To measure the interventions’ impact based on the DANA and other baseline indicators
46
A. Katoch
• Step 8: Post-intervention Reporting (PIR)—This is the final step of the veterinary emergency response operation the VERUs should follow. The experiences of VERU and DART are documented as final post-intervention report (PIR). This process helps document stakeholder’s feedback, best practices and lessons learnt for understanding the interventions’ impact to help future interventions of VERU. – Purpose—To document experiences, best practices and lessons learnt for improving future VERU interventions
References 1. Stephenson RS (1994) Disaster assessment. UNDP Disaster Management Training Programme, 2nd edn. UNDP, New York, NY 2. Arii M (2013) Rapid assessment in disasters. JMAJ 56(1):19–24 3. Bihar State Management Authority (2018) Management of animals in emergencies - a veterinarians handbook for disaster management 4. Baird ME (2010) The recovery phase of emergency management - background paper prepared for the Intermodal Freight Transportation Institute (IFTI). University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 5. OIE World Organisation for Animal Health (2016) OIE Guidelines on Disaster Management and Risk Reduction in relation to animal health and welfare and veterinary public health
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management Varun Sankhyan
Abstract
This chapter outlines the aspects of the hazards during disaster and describes safety and security strategies. The major risk factor in any disaster settings is health risk notably cumulative stress; food-, water- and insect-borne disease; accidents; and injuries. Apart from this, collapsed structure and water environment may prove detrimental. Further animal handling during disaster is a potential risk for rescue personnel and is a challenging affair. In any rescue operation, the teams and individual are exposed to cumulative stress; thus, managing the stress is the core activity of handling the rescue operation. Security framework is woven around individual, strategic and operational aptness. Understanding different security framework and security phase are pertinent at each hierarchical level. Acceptance, protection and deterrence are three approaches to keep security framework intact during rescue operations. The chapter also gives basic information about the security phases (yellow to red) and basic earthquake and fire safety protocols. The last section focuses on safety consideration of rescue teams/ livestock and pet owners during the animal handling during disaster. Keywords
Security framework · Safety measures · Disaster operation · Security phases
This chapter basically focuses on broader aspects of the hazards that can occur during disaster environment and the guidelines to ensure safety and security of the individual and response teams. The chapter deals with the basic safety and security V. Sankhyan (*) Department of Animal Genetics & Breeding, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, HP, India e-mail: [email protected] # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_5
47
48
V. Sankhyan
strategies to be adopted in disaster scenario, and they are equally applicable for disaster management of animals. Management of animals during disaster is a risky affair for rescue personnel because most of them are not trained for this and also the bulkiness of large animals poses great challenge. The focus of animal rescue not only involves transporting animals to shelter or secure place but also includes arrays of activities like emergency treatment, proper care and nutrition. To neutralize the disasters and its aftermaths, preparedness is the key. It is instrumental in mitigating the impact of potential events. Setting up plans and legislations is therefore necessary at community level to prepare for facing disasters. In reality, and with very few exceptions, animals are barely never parts of disaster preparedness plans or relating legislations. Safety of human lives is the topmost priority in disaster and relief mission, and protection of property including animal comes thereafter. Because of this, emergency management officials in India are not trained to deal with animals or to restore animal-related business [1]. However, the concerns of humanitarian organization are now increasing and focusing on rescue of animals. Recently, there is thrust on planning of recuse missions for companion animals during disasters, and it is becoming a global need in communities where pet rearing is common [2]. To know the safety and security protocols, it is very essential to first understand the hazards in the disaster environment.
5.1
Hazards in Disaster Environment
5.1.1
Health Risk
This is the most important risk that can occur during disaster environment. Staff risky behaviour during disaster is a double-edged sword, which could not only be detrimental to his health but to the other team members and sometime even the whole operation. Some of the health risks while on mission are outlined as: 1. Cumulative stress: Cumulative stress is very typical during disaster management particularly those with administrative/political/social pressure and prolonged ones. Different stress factors such as increased work pressure, poor communication skill, desperation arising from not meeting the deadline/timely execution of task, feeling of powerlessness and useless person and lack of basic comfort and ambience are among the major reasons for cumulating stress. In normal lifestyle, the cumulative stress could be monitored and managed well by counselling or therapies, but in stressful situations like disasters, cumulative stress can escalate quickly and develop into professional exhaustion known as “burnout”, since the medical or social help is not available at ease. Many systematic studies have established clearly that exposure to natural and human-made disasters results in a wide variety of adverse mental health outcomes, notably posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depression (MD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptoms [3, 4].
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management
49
Key to identify cumulative stress in persons/team involved in disaster management:
2. Food- and waterborne disease: The disaster environment is stressful, and the lack of basic amenities could easily result in food- and waterborne disease among the rescue person particularly in case of prolonged operation resulting in delay/ disruption of supply chain. Food and water can be severely compromised in affected areas. Thus, the control unit should ensure enough supply of food and water to rescue person as well as to the animal/human in affected areas. One of the classical examples is malaria epidemics, which could easily be triggered in floodlike situation in malaria-endemic regions. To cite an example, an earthquake followed by flooding in Costa Rica’s Atlantic region in 1991 and flooding on the Dominican Republic in 2004 led to malaria outbreaks (Web reference, [5]). Both the human/animals and rescue persons are at greater risk to food- and waterborne disease. Waterborne diseases and mental health problems are among the major post-flood and drought health issues ([6]). 3. Insect- and vector-borne disease: If the causative agents of insect and waterborne disease are present in environment or if the disease is endemic in a region, the natural disasters (hurricanes, floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions) can contribute to the transmission of the disease on larger scale within shorter timeframe. Epidemics occurring after cyclical disasters such as hurricanes could very well be predicted with reasonable precision and should be preventable if the institutional support like health facility and public health activities are well prepared with sufficient allocation of resources. The rescue person as well as animal stranded in affected areas becomes an easy prey to vector-borne disease.
50
V. Sankhyan
The flood that hit Kerala in 2018 typical shows the example of prolonged flood which resulted in water- and vector-borne disease which took mammoth efforts to control after the disaster. Lalthazuali et al. (2020) conducted an extensive entomological survey for 2-week period following the post flood (2018) in Malappuram district of Kerala to assess the post-disaster and epidemic risk factors and exposure to floodwater and disease vector. Their major finding of survey was endemicity of dengue, and they concluded that an outbreak could be imminent if necessary steps were not taken. This highlights the importance of timely management of disaster situation. It is a better strategy always to plan counter strategies to avoid the epidemics during disaster operation, and they preferably should be synchronized with safety and security mission or should at least begin after situation is controlled to the extent that allows sparing of resources/health teams to the affected area. 4. Accidents and injuries: Injuries to the rescue person as well as the animal/person stranded in disaster environment are very common. In respect of animal disaster management, it becomes more critical as animals in danger are not aware that the rescue team is approaching for their help. The animal or group of animals during such situation may become hostile and very difficult to control. Rescue team handling the animals must ensure their safety first, and then they should think of taking the animal safely out with proper planning and not in haste.
5.2
Brief Outline of Potential Hazards in Disaster Environment
5.2.1
Collapsed Structures
Collapsed structures may look less risky, but in fact, they are highly dangerous. As a rescue member of team rescuing humans/animals, the collapsed structure must not be approached until it is classified as safe by specialists and they call the team to start their rescue operation. Proper time must be taken to wear personal protective equipment (PPE), the kits may vary according to the disaster environment, and however, the basic indicative item list includes steel cap, boots, whistle, communicating device, torch, steel water bottle, face shield, fluorescent jacket/clothing and sturdy gloves. The aim of PPE is to protect the individual from injuries; thus, an individual involved in rescue mission should wear basic kit, even if no potential harm is there. Command must take strong control of the incident to prevent the situation from quickly deteriorating into a chaotic event. While rescuing animal in collapsed structures, it must be very clear in mind that large animal has very less chance of survival from these structures, so the team must be pragmatic to approach for rescue of those animals only which have chance of survival and should not waste their resources on animals which might not survive or cannot be taken back to command area. However, for small ruminants, the critically injured animals may be provided the first aid and handed over to the backup team for sending at command. Although it seems to be apathetic to leave animals particularly large animals which
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management
51
are alive from safety and security point of view, the decision must be based on the chance of survival and the relative efforts required.
5.2.2
Water Environment
This is very important as the chance of accident or fatal injury/drowning is very high during emergent disaster situation. Rescue team members should be aware of the fact that although water sometime looks serene, underneath there may be grave danger. Alertness must be kept high in water environment during disaster situation with critical attention on any eventuality arising out of depth and flow of water including underwater hazards. Snakes and crocodile also impose grave threats. Even if there seems to be no danger, the rescue teams should always wear protective equipment and use waterproof communication equipment. While using the boats in rescue operation, you should be very careful of normal involuntary human recreational nature like trailing hands in water. All the members must be attentive to carefully spot debris, sandbars and reefs. The person should not get off the boat while the engine is running, and floatation jackets should always be used. Another important thing is secure load in boat keeping in view the potential space possibility for accommodation of recued animal/humans.
5.2.3
Signs of Stress in Hazard Environment
The first symptom which is usually encountered is the gastrointestinal disturbances and other GIT signs. If stress keeps on increasing, then anger, sleep issues and concentration changes become evident. At this point of time, individual or other team members should take care and must mitigate the stress; otherwise, the affected person may progress to detachment, withdrawal and frustration which may put the whole operation in danger.
5.2.4
Stress Management
It is important to counter stress during disaster management both at individual and team levels. The rescue member must be prepared for the situation he was going in to. As a rescue worker with animal, you must not commit yourself voluntarily unless you are sure to handle the physical and mental stress which you might get into. When somebody is a member of rescue team, he must be prepared enough and must talk about the situation with himself to get boost. You should keep a diary to properly record the instruction given to you and the events planned by the team including safe rescue coordinates in case of emergency. You should eat and drink enough and take regular break or time off. As an aid, the strategy like meditation could be of potential use to relieve the stress.
52
5.3
V. Sankhyan
Safety and Security
Safety and security in terms of disaster management appear to be very similar; however, there exist very deep differentiations which most of us ignore or are not able to comprehend. In broader sense, safety implies to perception or an instance or prevalence of a reasonable apprehension that could also imply danger. Say, for example, if cattle in distress are heading towards you, then how you will speculate about things, places and stuff around and the probable ways by overall assessment of awareness about well-being of yourself including others is the “safety”. Consequently, our reaction will be reflected in terms of counteracting or neutralizing measures we adopt to nullify the danger and make something safe or safer. Mitigation strategies are the possible interventions which form a kind of process framework that safeguards us from the probable consequences of failures, damage, accident, untoward outcome or any circumstance or event that qualifies as non-desirable. Safe is how we perceive our situation, until we realize the possible danger, either real or perceived, and then react or not. Any kind of protection of variable degree which may be tangible or intangible, physical, social, legislative, institutional, belief and processes are basic indication of security. Anything which in a situation could infuse a feeling of trust, relief, protection, alleviation of fear and perception of safer outcome will make us feel secure even in presence of dangerous situation. We find security in the above example in the fact that we have taken shelter in nearby home or picked up some stick or any other things which we may think are able to neutralize the threat or we may ask other people for help to divulge the attention of cattle. These very same principles or fundamentals of safety and security apply in management of situation perceived as threats. That’s why these two words are mostly used together: Safety and Security—the safety implies to any measure or interventions we decide on, and the security is how they manifest themselves.
5.4
Guidelines of Safety and Security
Security framework during rescue operation in disaster could be visualized at three different levels, namely, individual, strategic and operational. As an individual, you must focus on aspect of personal conduct, competence, basic security awareness and compliance with security regulations. You must get trained for these at different levels to get the precisions about regulation. Sensitization workshops are organized for individual person regularly to update them with the security regulations. Strategic security means organizational code of conduct, since many organizations like military, paramilitary and administrative along with technical handlers are dealing with the disaster fundamental principle, and interagency cooperation is of prime importance. The core organization should always provide active field support to the teams operational in disaster area, and the person/team should not be strangled of logistics. The recruitment and training process must continue as a preparedness
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management
53
measure. The operational-level security means sound security plan, adequate security management and institutional conduct/interagency cooperation. To cite an example to understand this in organizational approach in Indian context, we may think of landslide and flash floods in the Pathankot-Leh National Highway near Manali (Himachal Pradesh); suppose as an undergraduate student and volunteer of Veterinary Emergency Response Unit (VERU) you were called upon by NDRF team commanded at Manali. The command/core organization will probably be under the control of deputy commissioner/divisional commissioner, administrative head of the district/region. The ground-level administration will be routinely looked by administrative officer deputed by the head office. The operational control will be in the hand of NDRF, and they will deploy the team to the area once they arrive/will be called upon by the district/state administration depending on the severity of disaster. Now suppose there are certain animals that are grazing in nearby foot hills at the time of flash flood or the animals reared by the villagers were missing amid the situation. NDRF while managing the rescue operation in the areas believe that if some animals are seriously injured or stranded, then they are planning to rescue them, and you may be included as volunteer in the rescue team or as member of VERU. The individual-level security in this case will be that you will follow the command of rescue team leader while deciding the course of action for rescuing animals. Your role as individual is only as technical expert to the leader or coordinator of the team, and you can put your opinion on rescue/treatment issue of animal as technical person, but the decision to proceed for the rescue or not will lie with the coordinator. Strategic example in this case will be the regular training/sensitization of VERU members and provision of staff and material by district disaster management agency or other notified one. At operational level for this example of rescue is the interagency cooperation between probable agency like district administration and the Department of Animal Husbandry, security forces, institute related to veterinary sciences and military or paramilitary establishment. Also the proper lining of local bodies and NGOs to take care of rescued animal is another aspect. Thus, guidelines for safety and security must be understood clearly and modified as per the needs keeping in mind that the ultimate aim of these guidelines is to keep different personnel employed safe.
5.4.1
Security Strategies
In disaster management, the overall approach to security is one of prevention, relying on proactive rather than reactive measures. It is very essential that rescue team sent for rescue of animal should not itself become potential rescue target for the command operation. Suppose the Veterinary Emergency Response Unit (VERU) personnel try to rescue a cattle stranded in a stream having large volume of water due to flash flood or cloudburst; they should be proactive in approach to returning to safe house within short span of time if they sense danger. If they find themselves stranded in the middle of flowing stream, then they need rescue which further burdens the logistic support system of command.
54
V. Sankhyan
General guidelines are framed keeping the following points in mind: • A sound security framework outlined in accordance with the prevailing security situation • Better institutional and personal security awareness and active execution of security plan • Good inter-institutional relations, proper networking and information gathering/ sharing • Dissemination of fundamental principles, the emblem and humanitarian mandate • Good moral and impartial conduct of at personal/institutional level without an • Sound operational planning and execution along with constant monitoring of the situation The following illustration represents the basic security framework:
To keep the above illustrated framework intact, the following are the three approaches to reduce the risk of destabilization of disaster management operations:
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management
55
Acceptance: This approach reduces or removes the threat by acquiring acceptance for presence and operation of rescue team. • The command/disaster management cell must employ active dissemination strategy like explaining who you are and what you will do to mitigate the situation and future course of action. • Official in command of situation or other competent authorities should involve themselves in active consultation with the local community and reorient programmes as needed to ensure acceptance within the community. • Command leader who is executing the plan in the area of operation must continually monitor the local situation and comprehend the issues/threat having potential to cause problems with the acceptance of rescue operations. Protection: This aspect minimizes the risk by reducing vulnerability, not the threat, by employing protective procedures and equipments. • The command centre should delineate physical threats to the institutions and organization involved in rescue mission and demarcate the existence of vulnerable areas. • Employing strategies to introduce measures that have the potentials to reduce the identified vulnerability, for example, employing security guards; constructing perimeter walls and fences; installing bars on windows, better locks and alarms; etc. • Proper planning and execution of protection measures is a must since if the action taken is disproportionate to the threat, it may have the reverse effect, and any eventuality arising may affect your image and existence in the area. Deterrence: Means employing the counterthreats with legal, political or economic sanctions and/or armed actions that may have severe implications and impact on those presenting the threat: • This is the last resort; however, employing this is an uphill task for any humanitarian organization as it may remove the empathy and potentially reduce acceptance; the use of military escorts is one deterrent strategy. However, there is very little a humanitarian organization can do in terms of deterrence except threaten to withdraw. • In case the need arises to adopt this, an active dissemination policy is required for explaining who you are, what you are doing and planning to do in the future and what you need from the community to support you in this.
56
5.5
V. Sankhyan
Security Phases
One of the most important things to be understood from top to bottom of disaster management operation right from volunteer rescue worker to officer in command to understand the basic security framework and different phases. This may be briefed time and again to the different teams during their sensitization training as well as during the pre-planning, planning and execution stages. Every individual/group/ rescue teams/frontline workers formation belonging to the operational framework should categorically apprehend the security situation around them and as a rule of thumb can assign the present situation accordingly to the four phases and then act further. The four phases the security situation in each phase is depicted figuratively as following, however it must be kept in mind that overemphasis and under emphasis should be avoided at all cost and situational wisdom must be applied to tackle the problem.
As an active volunteer for VERU or any other organization, you must have good knowledge of basic security protocol during major hazards. The standard guidelines are outlined below.
5.6
Earthquake Safety
Drop down onto your hands and knees. This position protects you from falling but allows you to still move if necessary. Cover your head and neck under a sturdy table or desk. If there is no shelter nearby, only then should you get down near an interior wall, and cover your head and neck with your arms and hands. Hold On to your shelter until the shaking stops. Be prepared to move with your shelter if the shaking shifts it around (Figs. 5.1 and 5.2).
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management
57
Fig. 5.1 Earthquake safety
Fig. 5.2 Pictorial representation of fire safety protocol
5.7
Safety Reminders for Rescue Team Handling the Animals During Disaster
Under disaster condition, don’t assume that the animal under emergent situation will behave like humans on seeing the rescue team approaching them. The animal in disaster will be under extreme stress and unlike human beings will most probably not recognize that rescue person/team is trying to help. The following points must clearly be understood and discussed among the rescue team members: • In almost every species, the male animals are dangerous and pose greater threat. You must employ special handling/controlling implements for these animals and practise extreme caution when handling them. • The most important rule is to stay calm when working with animals. You must realize the importance of having safe passage to leave yourself when working in close quarters. There must be scope of returning back as and when required. • Don’t unnecessarily get feared from animals. The animals purposely don’t hurt, but their bulkiness may make them to appear dangerous. • It’s the nature of every species to protect their young ones, so be extra careful while handling around the newborn animals.
58
V. Sankhyan
• Stay clear of animals that may appear frightened or “spooked”. Be extra careful around strange animals and critically analyse the situation, and proceed only when you think it is safer. In a landmark achievement under Indian scenario regarding animal welfare during disaster by understanding the importance of animal rescue, the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), World Animal Protection and Policy Perspectives Foundation (PPF) included animal rescue with policy framework and the release of Disaster Management Plan for the Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries, Government of India. This is a kind of first-time efforts at institutional level for ensuring that animals will be included in disaster preparations, potentially saving millions of animals’ lives and building the resilience of the communities that depend on them ([7], https://www.worldanimalprotection.org).
5.8
Advice for Livestock Owner
• It’s better to prepare emergency kit available with your animals having information about the animals, related documents, contact number and first aid supplies. • If situation arises that you are left with no choice but to leave your livestock behind, you must follow the basic safety rules as described below: – Livestock can be moved to higher ground before you evacuate; however, ascertain the situation that you may have sufficient time to do it safely. Try to leave them feed and water sufficient enough for 2–3 days. – You should untie animals to enable them to cope with any situation like floods. Animals which are tethered or are penned have very less chance of survival. Animals do possess strong surviving instincts and are strong swimmers; thus, untying them may increase their survival probability. – After receding of flood, provide plenty of freshwater available to the livestock. Check and secure fencing as these may have shifted in the floods.
5.9
Advice for Pet Owners
• Food: storage of pet food is a must during emergent situation. Ideally non-perishable packaged pet food for 3 days must be stored in different portions in airtight, waterproof container. It is advisable to store the same food as used for feeding regularly to avoid stomach upsets. • Water: store enough to ensure usage for 3 days apart from your home consumption. It should be kept in mind that under stressful condition, water use increases. Additional supply for cleaning pets should also be ensured. • Medicines: routine medicine should be stored in emergency kit in waterproof container along with special dietary supplement for exigency.
5
Safety and Security Aspects During Disaster Management
59
• Veterinary/medical records: it is also advisable to keep copies of any medical and vaccination records in a watertight container or ziplock bag including your vet’s name and telephone number (in case you have to shelter your pet or place them in foster care). • First aid kit: a proper first aid kit must be prepared as it will be required in case of emergency. Try to keep important medicine as per your veterinarian advice especially for tick/flea prevention, ointments for wound care, antibiotics, and over-the-counter drugs. Safety and security of rescue team is more important than the potential rescue target. It’s better to leave a stranded animal during disaster than to put your team in danger by planning a heroic operation.
References 1. Sen A, Chander M (2003) Disaster management in India: the case of livestock and poultry. Rev Sci Tech 22(3):915–930 2. Chadwin R (2017) Evacuation of pets during disasters: a public health intervention to increase resilience. Am J Public Health 107(9):1413–1417 3. Norris FH, Friedman MJ, Watson PJ (2002) 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part II. Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry 65:240–260. https://doi.org/10. 1521/psyc.65.3.240.20169 4. North CS, Pfefferbaum B (2013) Mental health response to community disasters: a systematic review. JAMA 310:507–518. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.107799 5. World Health Organization (n.d.). https://www.who.int/hac 6. Lee J, Perara D, Glickman T, Tiang L (2020) Water-related disasters and their health impacts: a global review. Prog Disast Sci 8:1 7. World Animal Protection (n.d.). https://www.worldanimalprotection.org 8. Lalthazuali SB, Thomas TG, Singh R (2020) Post flood vector borne disease surveillance: an experience from Malappuram district of Kerala, India in 2018. Int J Mosq Res 7(5):01–06
6
Data Collection and Management Devesh Thakur
Abstract
Data collection and management helps to plan, monitor, report, evaluate and assess the impact of disasters on the community. Sound data collection procedures help in proper disaster preparedness and mitigating the impact of disasters on community’s well-being. Interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires, observations, case studies and participatory rural appraisal are some of the widely popular tools of data collection on disasters. The design of such tools in the context of livestock rearing communities has been minimally documented. The present chapter discusses data collection procedures and tools before, during and after disasters through suitable tabular information. It mentions a specific set of questions to be kept in mind while undertaking data collection exercises with livestock rearing communities. Finally, it elaborates on the participatory mode of data collection on livestock management. Keywords
Data collection procedures · Disaster · Livestock · Participatory approach
Data collection involves systematically gathering and measuring information on certain variables of interest. This is done to seek answers to proposed research questions, test hypotheses and evaluate outcomes [1]. The methods of data collection may vary, but ensuring accurate and honest collection remains a key concern in every discipline. According to Cambridge International [2], data is a collection of text, numbers or symbols in raw or unorganized form. This data when processed, D. Thakur (*) Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, HP, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_6
61
62
D. Thakur
e.g. grouped, normally by a computer, gives meaning and makes it interpretable which is known as information.
6.1
Types of Data
Kothari [1] has explained that data can be of two types: 1. Primary Data: This data is collected afresh and for the first time, and this happens to be original. The data collected through surveys, interviews and direct observations will be called primary data. 2. Secondary Data: This type of data has been collected before, by someone else, and undergone statistical analysis. The data collected through government reports, books, magazines, research reports and articles form secondary data.
6.2
Planning Data Collection
Data collection involves answering questions of why, who, what, when, where and how. Let us understand these questions in little detail: 1. Why data collection? The purpose of data collection should be clear from the beginning. Data collection may be done to assess the current situation, e.g. studying disaster preparedness in a region. It can also be used to gain useful insights, e.g. by discussing the topic with the target population. Data collection can also provide a benchmark or even prioritize actions based on the objective assessment of the situation. 2. Who will use the information? This involves taking into account the key persons and stakeholders in the survey process so that the survey exercise becomes more relevant and survey findings are properly used. Likewise, the cases or individuals from whom the data will be collected are also important. 3. What data is already available, and can it be used to supply the required information? This involves the collection of secondary data before seeking primary data as the latter can be more costly in terms of time, money and manpower. The local census record, livestock population record, official reports, demographic data, maps, etc. should be referred to before the primary data is collected. 4. When and where should data be collected? When and where gives the context of the data. Data may be collected at various times, depending on the type of data and the purpose for which it is required. Conyers [3] suggested that there are three main possibilities: a ‘one-off’ approach, a ‘time series’ approach, and a ‘before and after’ approach.
6
Data Collection and Management
63
In one-off approach, data is collected and presented for one particular point in time only, e.g. this may be done to know the present situation in terms of disaster preparedness or after the disaster to know the impact of the disaster. Time series approach involves collecting data at regular intervals over a predetermined period. It is necessary if one needs to know about historical trends or if there is likely to be considerable variation over time. ‘Before and after’ approach involves two major data collection exercises: one before an anticipated change or event and one afterward. This approach is usually used to evaluate the impact of a particular policy, programme or project. 5. How can the data be obtained within the present budget? This involves exploring various tools of data collection such as interview schedules, questionnaires, focused group discussions and participatory research tools. Each of these methods has its own set of advantages and limitations. Types of Data Collection: Intrac [4] and Kothari [1] have explained the following types of data collection tools: 1. Interviews Interviews are probably the most common tools of data collection. They can be carried out with one person at a time (individual interviews) or groups of people. They can be conducted in face-to-face mode or through telephone and Skype as well. Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or open-ended. In structured interviews, a predetermined ordered set of questions are asked to collect information. Semi-structured interviews also have a set of questions, but the interviewer has the flexibility to change the order in which questions are asked, and he can also ask supplementary questions [4]. The enumerators collecting data through interviews must be properly trained, must explain the scope of the investigation, should understand the implications of a particular question and must be honest, sincere, hardworking and patient. 2. Focus group discussions Focus group discussions (FGDs) are facilitated discussions, held with a small gathering of people who have expert knowledge or interest in a particular topic. It is a qualitative method for collecting data in extension. The emphasis is on the interaction between the participants in the group and creates a synergistic effect as it allows the participants to respond and build on the reactions of other members in the group [5] FGDs are typically carried out with around 6–12 people and are based around a shortlist of guiding questions, designed to probe for in-depth information. These are useful for shy people such as women who may not be able to speak at larger group meetings. They also are used to access the views of minority or disadvantaged groups, such as women, children or people with disabilities. 3. Questionnaires Questionnaires are designed to collect and record information from many people, groups or organizations in a consistent way. A questionnaire is a form containing questions. It may be a printed form or one designed to be filled out online.
64
D. Thakur
4. Observation Data obtained through observation are more real and true than the data collected by any other method [6]. There are different types of observation. In structured or direct observation, observations are recorded against an agreed checklist and are useful in descriptive studies. Unstructured observation happens when no standardized conditions of observation are used. Observation may also be carried out as a participatory exercise in which the intended beneficiaries of a project or programme are involved in planning an observation, exercise, observing and discussing findings. The data collected is on the current situation rather than ex post facto. It is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond. One can eliminate subjectivity from data by accurately recording the behaviour. However, observation is time-consuming and expensive and does not allow controlling the effect of extraneous factors [7] 5. Case studies and stories of change Case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analysing information and reporting the results. As a result, the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses [7]. They are usually written but can also be presented as photographs, films or videos. Further these methods often focus on people (individuals, households, communities), though they can also focus on any other unit of analysis such as locations, organizations, policies or the environment. Stories of change are similar to case studies. However, they have a specific focus on change and are only usually developed after a project or programme has started. 6. Participatory methods of data collection Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) is a research approach that involves multiple data collection techniques that are quick, flexible and adaptive yet relevant. RRA helps us learn about local people’s situations, experiences and problems from a local perspective [8]. The following method toolbox can be used to collect data through this method. RRA Method Toolbox [8, 9] (A) Individual interviews 1. Focus group discussions 2. Key informants 3. Oral histories (B) Mapping 1. Social mapping 2. Resource map 3. Mobility map 4. Basic information map 5. Transect walks 6. Venn diagrams
(C) Trend analysis 1. Timeline 2. Time trend 3. Seasonality analysis 4. Daily activity charts (D) Ranking exercises 1. Preference ranking 2. Problem tree 3. Impact diagram 4. Bio-resource flow diagram
6
Data Collection and Management
6.3
65
Uses of Data in Disaster Management
1. Data when properly collected and managed plays a huge role in disaster monitoring, e.g. data from debriefs such as the delivery of feed and fodder to animals and treatment, vaccination and rescue of animals. 2. Assessment and planning: Data collection through remote sensing or otherwise would help us to know the extent of damage, e.g. fodder crops, livestock shelters, water resources or livestock damaged. 3. Reporting: Data collection is important for reporting to funding agencies and for information dissemination through mass media channels. 4. Evaluation and impact assessment: Data collection and management is important to evaluate and study the impact of disasters and relief operations on livestock farmers. Village Data Collection for Disaster Preparedness: An Insight Name of Village: Panther, Bhawarna, Palampur and Himachal Pradesh, India Method of Data Collection: Focus group discussion Participants: Livestock owners and field staff from the State Animal Husbandry Department Date of Data Collection: November 26, 2019 1. What is the role of livestock in the livelihoods of the affected community? Answer: Livestock rearing is common with more than 90% of households having at least one farm animal species. Dairy animals are most common. The average herd size is one to two animals. 2. What are various types of disasters likely to occur in the region? Answer: The area is prone to earthquakes as it has a history of earthquakes and also comes under a high seismological zone (secondary data sources). The region is hilly and experiences heavy rainfall. So the possibility of cloudbursts, torrential rainfalls and landslides is there given the changing weather scenario due to climatic changes. 3. What is the condition of livestock sheds in the region? Answer: Most of the animal sheds (up to 80%) in the region cannot sustain natural calamities. Thus, improvement in animal housing in the region is of paramount importance to reduce livestock causalities in the wake of disasters. 4. What types of cattle diseases are prevalent in the region? Answer: Few cases of FMD were found (farmers) before 3 years. No other major diseases are present. Cattle ailments happen mostly in summers. Thus, in the event of natural disasters, FMD can be the most common infectious disease likely to appear in the area due to stress and reduced immunity to animals. (continued)
66
D. Thakur
5. What type of local feed and fodder can be fed to animals if disaster happens here? Answer: Local fodder trees such as bamboos, kachnar (Bauhinia variegata), drek, bhimal (Grewia optiva) and shehtoot (mulberry) can be fed. However, feed and fodder shortage is common in winters. 6. What types of water resources are available to the farm animals? Answer: Natural water sources in the form of local streams are present, but their number has decreased over the years. Also, veterinary institutions have tap waters as drinking facilities for visiting animals. Lack of sufficient water reservoir can be a constraint at the time of natural disaster when there is a sudden influx of animals in the region. 7. What types of preventive measures are required to minimize such impact of disasters on livestock rearing? Answer: Animal housing in the region should be improved to reduce livestock causalities in the wake of disasters.
6.4
Sample Data Collection Tool for Livestock Management During Disasters: Disaster Preparedness (Before Disaster)
1. What is the role of livestock during normal times in affected area? Animal species 1. Cow 2. Buffalo 3. Sheep and goat 4. Pig 5. Poultry 6. Any other species
Food
Income
Transport
Draught
Social value
2. Role of livestock in livelihood activities in the region 1. Percentage of food from livestock 2. Percentage of income from livestock
Up to 10%/10–30%/30–50%/more than 50% Up to 10%/10–30%/30–50%/more than 50%
3. Household labour in livestock management Men Women Dairy animals
Men Women Sheep and goat
Men Women Poultry
1. Feeding of animals 2. Collection of fodder 3. Cleaning of animals 4. Day-to-day care (continued)
6
Data Collection and Management Men Women Dairy animals
67 Men Women Sheep and goat
Men Women Poultry
5. Selling of livestock products 6. Income utilization
4. What is the level of awareness of disaster risk factors at the community level (open-ended question)? 5. How ready are communities and livestock development agencies to withstand disasters and respond? Particulars 1. Have done nothing 2. Discuss with all stakeholders/volunteers who are willing to cooperate with the department personnel in the eventuality of any disaster. Recorded their name and contact numbers 3. Created emergency veterinary medicine kits 4. Created a plan for fodder availability during disasters 5. Established a plan for water supply to cattle during disasters 6. Earmarked spaces for evacuation and shelter of animals 7. Conducted awareness trainings 8. Established any communication system for planning and preparedness of animals for disasters 9. Have knowledge of disaster responses in affected area Any positive and negative experiences and lessons learnt 10. Have they popularized indigenous knowledge systems in livestock feeding? 11. Is the annual enumeration of livestock and poultry for each village updated? 12. Assessed the type of threat of outbreak of zoonotic diseases?
6.5
Responses
Disaster Relief (During and After Disasters)
1. Impact of disaster on livestock management practices 1. Access to grazing 2. Access to water resources 3. Livestock shelters 4. Mortality rate of animals 5. Morbidity of livestock 6. Effect on productivity of livestock 7. Impact on daily and seasonal movements of livestock 8. Veterinary services offered (vaccination and treatment) 9. Impact on sales of livestock and livestock products 10. Impact on input supplies (continued)
68
D. Thakur
11. Disposal methods of animal carcasses 12. Destocking measures applied 13. Restocking measures
2. Estimation of animals affected 1. Total area affected 2. Total number of animals in that area 3. Estimation of animals affected
3. Data on disaster relief operations and logistic constraints 1. Various institutional actors involved in disaster relief operations: Animal Husbandry Department/NGO/farmer groups/district administration/research institutes 2. Communication and transport facilities working in the area 3. The state of current infrastructure (roads and transport) 4. Security situation in the area 5. Major protection issues faced by livestock owners
6.6
Part B: Participatory Methods for Data Collection
1. Participatory resource mapping for disaster preparedness and mitigation
Resources outside the Village Medicines
Feed for Animals
Resources available within the Village Cow Milk
Water
Green Grass
Grazing Lands
6
Data Collection and Management
69
2. Seasonal disease pattern in the region for disaster planning Name of diseases/ ailment
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
3. Assessment of animal health conditions (Source: [10]) Purpose: To assess animal health condition using health indicators Data collection from ten participants Name of key informant: Cattle (random sampling) Body parts Health indicators 01 02 03 04 05 Legs Twisted legs Swelling hind a Injury/wound Lameness Stiff legs Eyes One eyed Whiteness of eye Tears a Wound Ears Cut/broken Droppings from ears Fever Mouth Flat tongue Snake-like tongue Cut Suffocation b a Back Wound Equal back Broken bone ‘u’-shaped back a Tail Wound Fatty a Maggots Fallen hairs Stomach Ribs Wounds Big belly b Low fat Source: [10] Blank: Healthy legend a Major health issues b Minor health issues
06
07
08
09
10
a
a
a
70
D. Thakur
References 1. Kothari CR (2004) Research methodology: methods and techniques. New Age International, New Delhi 2. Cambridge International (2017) Topic support guide: Topic 1.1 data, information and knowledge 3. Conyers D (1993) Guidelines on social analysis for rural area development planning, vol 34. Food & Agriculture Organization, Rome 4. Intrac (2017) Basic tools for data collection 5. Sivakumar PS, Sontakki BS, Rasheed S, Saravanan R, Nimisha M (2017) Manual on good practices in extension research & evaluation. Agricultural Extension in South Asia (AESA), Centre for Research on Innovation and Science Policy (CRISP), Hyderabad 6. Pandey P, Pandey MM (2015) Research methodology: tools and techniques. Buzau, Bridge Center, pp 7–9 7. MANAGE (2007) Research methods in agricultural extension lecture notes. Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM). National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar 8. Suvedi M, Heinze K, Ruonavaara D (1999) How to conduct evaluation of extension programs. ANRECS Center for Evaluative Studies, Michigan State University Extension, East Lansing, MI 9. Townsley P (1996) Rapid rural appraisal, participatory rural appraisal and aquaculture, vol 358. Food & Agriculture Organization, Rome 10. LEGS (2014) Livestock emergency guidelines and standards, 2nd edn. Practical Action Publishing, Rugby. https://doi.org/10.3362/9781780448602
7
Deployment and Post-intervention Responsibilities of Veterinary Response Teams Geetanjali Singh and Pravesh Kumar
Abstract
This chapter describes about who, what, and how of the deployment of the veterinary emergency response team in any real disastrous event. It elaborates about the physical resources required along with the human resource management necessary for carrying out the rescue operations. The chapter thus emphasizes on the prior preparation of things, strategies, and personnel. The important aspects of teamwork and the roles of team leader underpinning the success of operation are also covered. In the end, the roles and responsibilities of the various response unit members after the deployment are explained under the section of postintervention responsibilities. This knowledge will add insights to the various logistics of the veterinary emergency response operations. Keywords
Deployment · Team management · Post-intervention · Mission creep
7.1
Background
The Veterinary Emergency Response Units (VERU) or teams may be very crucial in providing relief to the affected livestock and their owners during the time of a disaster. The emergency response unit should usually comprise of professionals G. Singh (*) Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India P. Kumar Department of Veterinary Gynecology and Obstetrics, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_7
71
72
G. Singh and P. Kumar
such as veterinarians and para-veterinarians who need to be adequately informed, prepared, and equipped with the necessary material and information. The work of a veterinarian is quite challenging under the normal circumstances because of involvement of unpredictable animal species, and it becomes even more difficult, tedious, and risky under various disastrous events. To provide relief under such circumstances, it requires special training, preparation, and mental aptitude besides the relevant professional knowledge. This preparedness underpins all the individual technical interventions and their outcome as emergency responses are based on the principles of disaster risk reduction (DRR), including preparedness, contingency planning, and early response [1]. Thus, this chapter provides guidance about things to do before, during, and after disaster deployment along with intervention responsibilities of the veterinary emergency response team members. It will also explain the post-intervention responsibilities of the emergency response unit members.
7.2
Introduction
According to Cambridge English Dictionary, deployment means the movement of soldiers or equipment to a place where they can be used when they are needed. Disaster deployment includes all the activities that make resources available for conducting assessments and for implementing response operations in the disasteraffected areas. It is the movement of disaster operations team along with all their emergency supplies and required logistical support to the disaster-affected areas. A prior preparedness is very important for any emergency service provider, as it saves time which is crucial for rescuing lives and avoiding further damage to life and property. For this purpose, pre-planned and pre-packed essentials are required. This package of pre-planned and procured essentials is called a “go-bag” (refer to Fig. 3, Chap. 18) which an individual is able to carry himself to the site of emergency. Before the deployment, it is important and wise to have a ready emergency “go-bag” so that one does not have to put much effort for procuring these essentials upon an emergency deployment. The basic concept is that there should be a pre-packed bag which includes essentials one would need for a disaster response. To give a general idea, this bag usually contains items such as personal protective equipment (PPE), personal medical equipment, emergency veterinary first aid kit, headlamp, extra batteries, toiletries, etc. for personal use. However, the items to be taken along may vary based on the place of deployment, climate in the area, and degree of independence or segregation from the others. The general PPE kit usually includes helmet, goggle, masks, boots, gloves, apron, etc. The emergency PPE kit usually includes sleeping bag, multipurpose knife, static rope, life jacket, solar lantern, GPS, waterproof tent, and foldable mat. All things need to be of lightweight, good quality, and durable.
7
Deployment and Post-intervention Responsibilities of Veterinary Response Teams
7.3
73
Before Deployment Planning
Before deployment, it is important to prepare a checklist of the essentials that would be required for personal care, for team management, and for carrying out the rescue operations.
7.3.1
Personal Care
The persons involved in the rescue work need to be fit and mentally prepared [2]. They need to first ensure their own well-being, fitness, and safety before going to the disaster site. They need to check with their medical practitioner if there is any need to take a preventive vaccination for a particular area. They should also ensure to take along all their medicines that have been prescribed to them. They should possess all the necessary documents that may be required such as travelling documents, identity cards, permits, etc. to reach the site. They need to be in touch with their near and dear ones and keep informing them about their safety through mobile or other forms of messages. A prior pre-trauma exposure strategies and stress reduction training modules will help in prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [3].
7.3.2
Team Management
In the veterinary emergency response unit, one may be in a leading position or as a performing member of the team. It is the duty of the team leader to manage the team and of the members to abide by the direction provided by the team leader for safe and effective rescue operations. Team management is important for many reasons while providing an emergency service in a rescue mission. It encourages a unified approach to tackle a problem which is more effective rather than an individual action. A good team leader will create a positive environment and instill confidence and mental strength in the members, besides giving necessary technical directions. For team management, effective communication is paramount. This will require communication equipment such as mobiles or walkie-talkie along with the details of the team members. Further for better team management, a prior planning in terms of risk assessment and security provisions will be necessary. Every participating member has to be apprised beforehand about the risks likely to be faced in the field condition, for example, risk of falling debris in case of landslides, typhoons, or earthquakes, predatory animals in remote areas, choking hazards in fires, turbulences in floods, etc. Similarly, the team members will be apprised about how they will help each other or receive help and support from the other agencies. There will be proper plans and information about the medical help that will be there for the team members. The emergency evacuation options and strategy to be implemented under the dire conditions need to be apprised to every team member along with their own role as well as supporting role for the others.
74
7.3.3
G. Singh and P. Kumar
Operation Management
The actual technical operations by the veterinary response unit will vary with each different disaster event. They are described erstwhile in the other chapters of this book. However, the operation management strategy will remain more or less the same. In the operation management, the team leader needs to set goals for the team. This will be done by briefing about the deployment plan and exit strategy. The deployment plan besides the technical plan will include the basic details such as introduction of team members, contact sharing, travel plans, schedules of the various operations, and knowledge about the available budget. The plan will also include details about food and accommodation, so that the members are fully supported for their day-to-day operations. The deployment plan will also brief about communication and coordination strategy with the local stakeholders, so that there is a confidence building among the operation team and the stakeholders for the better delivery of the emergency response. The team leader will continue to monitor team members for any support needed and assess their performance to ensure objectives are met. The physical safety of unit members and their ability to reach and operate in the difficult areas is the responsibility of the team leader. A sense of insecurity in the team members may have poor implementation of the strategy, quality, and impact. For good communication systems, extra vehicles, armed escorts, and good communication equipment are required. More information and support on security for operating teams can be found in the People in Aid Code of Good Practice [4].
7.4
After Deployment
The team management does not cease to perform after the deployment. In fact, there are certain roles and responsibilities of the team members after attending their emergency duties which are described here.
7.4.1
Personal Care After Deployment
Most people who go through traumatic events may have temporary difficulty adjusting and coping in daily normal life. Even the emotionally strong professionals suffer from PSTD. There may be flashbacks of bad experience, nightmares, anxiety, as well as uncontrollable thoughts about the event [5]. At a personal level, therefore, it is important to detach from the memory of the event where one might have witnessed misery and loss of life. It is important to take some days off from work and have sufficient rest to recover from the stressful event along with availing a sufficient transitioning period before going back to regular day-to-day routines.
7
Deployment and Post-intervention Responsibilities of Veterinary Response Teams
7.4.2
75
Team Management After Deployment
At the team level, it is mutually beneficial to share experiences and incorporate the lessons learnt for the next deployment. For gaining support and cooperation of team members in the future also, it is necessary to acknowledge the support of teammates and identify gaps for improvement. Doing a SWOT analysis will further enhance the capabilities of the team as well as rapport building within the team members.
7.4.3
Operation Management After Deployment
After the deployment, certain tasks still remain which need to be done in order to fulfill the goals of rescue operation effectively. Some of these tasks are implementation of an exit strategy; preparation of DANA, PIR, M&E, and the other relevant reports; and sharing these with the stakeholders. The technical support provided by the rescue team may be needed for an extended period of time, even after the withdrawal of the rescue team. Therefore, to minimize the losses and to sustain the livelihoods, the team also needs to provide information about the possible sources of technical support and referral services to the stakeholders.
7.5
Post-intervention Responsibilities
7.5.1
On-Site Management
There may be various interventions by the veterinary response unit at the site of disaster or at the safer peripheral zone. This may have included erecting temporary structures, stalls, housings, pathways, and direction boards. This may also include unloaded material such as plastic sheets, ropes, medicines, paper waste, unutilized food, and other recyclable and non-recyclable wastes. It is also the responsibility of the team that the site is always left undamaged and all the waste is disposed of appropriately. Operational signage should be removed and replaced with information notices so that there is no misleading information. Loaned items such as utensils, implements, equipment, and structural material should be cleaned, prepared, and packed for the return to the relevant agencies from where they were procured. Updates in the owned asset register as well as of the other agencies as required should be completed.
7.5.2
Exit Strategy
Exiting of a rescue team without informing and building a support system may create panic and lack of confidence in the affected people. Therefore, as a technical service provider, it is important to build some capacity of the stakeholders to manage the prevailing conditions. To do this, involve stakeholders who are ultimately
76
G. Singh and P. Kumar
responsible for the particular task. Involve them right from the planning stage till implementation and after the intervention is completed. Hand over the baton to them as a part of the exit strategy. Special efforts should be done to strengthen the working relationships between affected communities and the local government. For effective recovery, a technical support to partner organizations/NGOs for effective coordination and communication should also be provided rather than working in isolation. Once intervention objectives have been met, the response operation should begin to shut down in order to prevent “mission creep” and encourage the development of recovery activities. Mission creep is the expansion of a project/mission beyond its original goals, often after an initial success. External agencies should assist this preparedness through capacity building of local institutions, facilitation of social learning for improved adaptation, and, where appropriate, advocacy for policies that work over the long term to reduce vulnerability.
7.5.3
Post-intervention Report (PIR)
Post-intervention report, a document which presents a detailed overview of the entire response intervention, is necessary for the follow-up, monitoring, remaining organized, learning lessons, and future recommendations. The following information is documented in the PIR: 1. Author(s), intervention period, and GLIDE number: This initial part of the report has the name of all the authors who have prepared the report and documents of the particular disaster event along with the period of intervention. This should also mention the GLIDE number of the disaster event. GLIDE number consists of two letters to identify the disaster type (e.g., EQ, earthquake); the year of the disaster; a six-digit, sequential disaster number; and the three-letter ISO code for country of occurrence. 2. Executive summary: This part of the document contains the summary of the disaster event in a brief manner so as to apprise the reader about the disaster, its impact, interventions, and their consequences. 3. Achievements: Achievements in terms of impact on animals and community are described in this section. This document describes the effect of the intervention in terms of number of animals saved, livelihoods sustained, and the outreach effect on the community. 4. Disaster response activities: Enlists the various disaster relief activities carried out. 5. Disaster assistance response team (DART) members: This part enlists the members who were involved in providing relief or response during the disaster. 6. Timeline (planned and implemented): This describes the planned and actual intervention period by the response team. 7. Budget (planned and implemented): This outlines the entire budget, planned, spent, unspent, or over-spent, for the implementation of the relief project. 8. Emergency responses: This describes any emergency responses provided.
7
Deployment and Post-intervention Responsibilities of Veterinary Response Teams
77
9. Exit strategy: This describes the time period of exit which may be in phases along with the linkages with the other agencies which take over the activities provided by the response team. 10. Quotes: This describes a relevant phrase which may be the motto of the response unit. 11. Lessons learnt: This may describe type, frequency, severity, and lessons learned from emergency response. 12. Future recommendations: Monitoring is an important management tool during veterinary emergency interventions. It enables to track implementation and expenditure against objectives. Based on this, future recommendations are given. 13. Annexes: Any supplementary data may be given in annexes.
References 1. LEGS (2014) Livestock emergency guidelines and standards, 2nd edn. Practical Action Publishing, Rugby. https://doi.org/10.3362/9781780448602 2. World Health Organization (2006) Stress management in emergency deployment. www.who.int/ hac/techguidance/training/predeployment/Stress%20management%20in%20emergency%20 development.pdf 3. Hourani LL, Council CL, Hubal RC, Strange LB (2011) Approaches to the primary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder in the military: a review of the stress control literature. Mil Med 176(7):721–730 4. People in Aid (2003) Code of good practice in the management and support of aid personnel, people in aid, London. http://www.peopleinaid.org/code/ 5. Bisson JI (2007) Post-traumatic stress disorder. BMJ 334:789
8
Disaster Risk Reduction and Preparedness Planning Amit Sharma
Abstract
Disaster risk reduction (DRR) involves various steps taken to minimize the human and economic losses, through reducing incidence of hazard and minimizing exposure and vulnerability by enhancing coping and adaptive capacity. It is the approach of preparing the society against the sudden disaster by following certain common steps videlicet mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery and building disaster-resilient society by increasing the mass awareness about the importance of disaster reduction as an integral component of sustainable development. Keywords
Disaster · Risk reduction · Preparedness planning
The word disaster originates from the French word desastre, which is composed of two words “des” meaning bad and “astre” meaning star. In brief, the word “disaster” refers to “Bad or Evil Star.” People during the earlier time thought god’s curse as a reason for disaster. In brief, disaster is an abrupt, catastrophic incident which leads to unbearable losses to the community. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined disaster as “Any occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to warrant an unusual response from outside the affected community.”
A. Sharma (*) Department of Veterinary Gynecology and Obstetrics, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_8
79
80
A. Sharma
8.1
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Disaster risk reduction is a methodical procedure adopted for identification and assessment of impact of disaster and various mitigation strategies adopted to minimize the risks of disaster. In brief, the DRR includes various strategies adopted to minimize the impact of disaster by improving the awareness among the masses [1]. The most widely used definition of DRR given by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) states disaster as “The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development” [1].
8.2
Importance of Disaster Risk Reduction
Disaster leads to irrecoverable economic and human losses which can’t be prevented, but their impact can be reduced by adopting different mitigation strategies. Hence, DRR helps in early identification of susceptible population and thereby reducing the impact of disaster.
8.3
Components of DRR
The major components of DRR include: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Mitigation/prevention. Preparedness. Response. Recovery.
1. Mitigation/Prevention It includes all the steps taken prior to actual disaster, thereby reducing the impact of disaster. Strategies differ depending on the type of disaster, all of which works to reduce the effect of disaster [2]. It includes assessment of various components, viz., susceptible population, risk factors, and hazard analysis. 2. Preparedness It involves all the policy decisions which are planned to overcome the disaster videlicet management plans, emergency preparedness plans, and evacuation plans which need to be in place beforehand. It also includes important steps, viz., disaster relief plans, mass awareness campaigns, and forewarning systems. 3. Response It refers to the actions taken after the occurrence of actual disaster to minimize the loss of human and animal lives. Various measures which are adopted under
8
Disaster Risk Reduction and Preparedness Planning
81
response include evacuation of humans and animals from the site of disaster, normalization of basic food and medical supplies, synchronized efforts of different organizations, and coordination between different agencies for reducing the impact of disaster at the earliest with proper mobilization of resources. 4. Recovery It includes various actions which are undertaken after the disaster videlicet creations of emergency relief funds and immediate rehabilitation plans with short- and long-term goals. Important actions taken while implementing a DRR project • Selection of the society/community. Building rapport among the community and disaster risk assessment and its planning by adopting participatory approach. • Formations of disaster risk management organization and implementation agency at the community level. • Constant monitoring and evaluation of the DRR project by adopting participatory approach.
8.4
ISDR: International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Mission
The major aim of ISDR is to build disaster-resilient society by increasing awareness among masses with the ultimate aim of minimizing the disaster losses.
8.5
Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015): Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (HFA)
The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015, HFA) was the first internationally accepted outline in terms of DRR for building the resilience of nations and communities to cope with disasters [3]. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) follows the HFA (2005–2015) and is a widely accepted international agreement to date on disaster risk reduction which was signed by the United Nations member countries at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan, and is also endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015 [4–6]. The Sendai Framework fixed four specific priorities for action: 1. Understanding the risk of disaster. 2. Intensification of procedures/protocol to manage disaster risk. 3. Investment on building disaster-resilient societies. 4. Improving disaster preparedness plans for better recovery and response.
82
A. Sharma
To achieve the aims and objectives of the Sendai Framework, seven different global targets were set which need to be accomplished between 2020 and 2030, which include [6]: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Reduction in average global mortality. Reduction in average global number of people affected by disaster. Overall reduction in economic losses due to disaster. Overall reduction in critical damage to the basic amenities and infrastructure of the society by building their resilience. 5. Formation of disaster risk reduction plans at local and national level. 6. Enhancing international cooperation to fight against the disaster in any part of the world through adequate and sustainable support. 7. Sharing of the information about the warning systems among the countries to minimize the impact of disaster. The Sendai framework also recognizes that for an effective disaster risk reduction (DRR), it is important to expand our focus on protecting livelihoods and productive assets, which include livestock, working animals, tools, and seeds. It also emphasizes on the need to strengthen and promote collaboration and capacity building for the protection of the productive assets, including livestock, working animals, tools, and seeds.
8.6
Strategies to Strengthen Disaster Risk Reduction
Each and every country is developing policies for DRR through financial and technical support at national and international level. They are also improving the capacity building of their people by providing education and trainings and creating volunteer force to deal with different kinds of disasters in their respective nations. Challenges faced during DRR execution • Establishment of effective and uniform disaster information system at local and national level. • Lower political will to execute DRR plans in underdeveloped or developing countries as the major impetus is always focused on strengthening the basic infrastructure. • Hasty unplanned urbanization in underdeveloped or developing countries making them more susceptible to effects of climate change and related disasters. • Financial and technical implications for execution of DRR plans in developing and underdeveloped countries.
8
Disaster Risk Reduction and Preparedness Planning
8.7
83
Disaster Preparedness Planning
As we know disasters are unpredictable, important steps can be undertaken before occurrence of disaster to reduce the extent of damage. Disaster preparedness is everyone’s responsibility. Although it is the duty of local administration to execute planning and mitigation actions a disaster or emergency occurs, many of these steps should also be implemented proactively by local societies. Disaster preparedness planning includes identifying agencies and establishing their roles and responsibilities, formulating policies, and planning procedures for effective and timely response to manage animal welfare needs from disaster [7]. The planning process is prelude in nature and is carried out in ambiguity until a real emergency arises and our plans must acclimatize to the actual ground situation at the earliest. It is always best to adopt participatory approach while formulating preparedness plans for minimizing the losses.
8.7.1
Importance of Preparedness Planning
Preparedness planning is an integral component of disaster management for ensuring the safety and welfare of both people and animals. Good planning always avoids replication of resources and response. It also allows you to effectively integrate with the concern authorities and like-minded stakeholders. During emergency, rapid and effective response is prerequisite which depends on efficient planning before occurrence of actual disaster. If appropriate steps are not taken at proper time, it may aggravate losses. Different steps which can be undertaken during planning process include identification of emergency safe refuges, storage of basic need items, emergent evacuation plans, establishing communication within different line departments and fixing their roles and responsibilities, training of volunteers, and creating awareness among masses through different mass media to improve the quality, aptness, and efficiency of the response to disaster. However, preparedness planning is done prior to occurrence of an actual disaster. Recurrent hurdles may be encountered while formulating such plans which include: • Confrontation between different agencies and their officials regarding their roles and responsibilities while planning because it diverts attention and scarce resources away from ongoing work to plan for an event that may/may not occur. • Lack of political and administrative will to concede possible disaster scenario. • Threat not felt as imminent and people live with all kinds of hazards anyway. • Lack of knowledge of threats. • People not aware of the threat. • Everyday problems more important. All these hurdles can be overcome by creating awareness campaigns and promoting its importance and making preparedness planning an unending process. All
84
A. Sharma
preparedness plans need to be regularly refreshed after occurrence of actual disaster either within the country or outside to find out the best possible ways to minimize the mortality rate and economic losses in the future. “The Preparedness Cycle” is an important managerial arrangement composed of five different steps, viz., preparedness, prevention, response, recovery, and mitigation. All these steps work in harmony to increase the overall competence and resilience of an organization or nation as a whole to fight against any kind of disaster. Disasters can’t be prevented, but positive planning efforts in different components of the Preparedness Cycle can be an effective mechanism to plan and prevent the actual human, animal, and economic losses occurring during a disaster.
Preparedness
Response
Prevention Preparedness Cycle
Recovery
Mitigation
8.7.1.1 The Planning Process Planning for managing emergencies is a combination of sequence of events which needs to be planned by adopting the participatory approach of all the sectors/ departments for sharing their perspectives and responsibilities which needs proper upgradation from time to time for efficient working. 8.7.1.2 Communication and Coordination of Plans During the planning process, executives of different government and non-governmental associations should sit together to achieve the specific aims and objectives of the disaster management. The above process will help in reducing duplication of manpower and resources, make plans more practical, and increase the overall effectiveness of disaster response. Multi-institutional groups with representatives from different agencies may form subgroups and fix accountability for different operations and plan their actions accordingly.
8
Disaster Risk Reduction and Preparedness Planning
85
A plan must become a “live” document, and planners should encourage viewing, critique, and discussion from those who must approve it and/or implement its components. The plan must be widely disseminated and communicated to members and departments, branches, volunteers, and relevant external agencies or organizations to encourage viewing and discussion. Steps to develop community Emergency Operative Procedures (EOP) • Check if there is an EOP in place and if it includes animals. • Determine who has the authority to plan. • Define hazards, communication channels, and SOPs for response. • Review animal-related laws. • Form a committee. • Establish effective communication. • Assess the risk. • Lay down planning objectives. • Apply management structure. • Fix responsibilities. • Analyze resources. • Develop emergency protocols. • Document plan. • Communicate the EOP to government, organizations, and public.
References 1. UNISDR (2004) Living with risk: a global review of disaster reduction initiatives. UNISDR, Geneva, p 17 2. Bullock JA, Haddow GD, Coppola DP (2013) Mitigation, prevention and preparedness. In: Introduction to homeland security: principles of all-hazard risk management, 5th edn. Elsevier, pp 435–494 3. UNISDR (2012) Towards a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction. UNISDR, Geneva 4. Rowling M (2015) New global disaster plan sets targets to curb risk, losses. Reuters, London 5. Sendai 2015: a new global agreement on disaster risk reduction. Overseas Development Institute (ODI) 6. UNISDR (2015) Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015–2030. UNISDR, Geneva 7. Randolph K (1994) Disaster preparedness, 2nd edn. DHA/UNDRO - DMTP –UNDP, Geneva, p 66
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood Madhu Suman
Abstract
Disasters may affect community’s livelihood through loss of assets including livestock. Post-disaster, livestock owners are faced with various problems of sheltering, feeding, treatment of animals, marketing of animal products, disposal of carcasses, restocking of animals, etc. Disaster affects animals similar to the way it affects human beings; hence, animal welfare should always be considered while planning for any post-disaster interventions. Post-disaster interventions related to livestock generally comprise of veterinary care; arrangement of shelter, feed, and water; and restoration of the livestock. However, the type of interventions will vary according to the type of disaster and the condition of livestock. Keywords
Disaster · Animal welfare · Destocking · Restocking
Disasters whether as a consequence of human activities or natural can cause loss in animal’s life and destroy animal’s shelter, agriculture field, equipments, and store houses. The livelihood of livestock owner is affected through loss of assets including livestock, so they are unable to meet their basic needs. Disasters can be categorized as an acute (earthquake, avalanche, floods, typhoon, etc.) or slow onset (extreme weather condition, drought, etc.), and they exert different effects on livestock in terms of health, production, and survivability. Around 59% area of India is prone to earthquake of different intensities and 68% to drought, and 12% is affected by M. Suman (*) Department of Livestock Farm Complex, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_9
87
88
M. Suman
Table 9.1 Damage in India due to cyclonic storms/heavy rains/floods/landslides/earthquake, etc. during the years 2015–2016 to 2018–2019
S. no. 1.
2015–2016 Crop area Cattle (lakh lost Ha) 64,230 33.57
2016–2017 Crop area Cattle (lakh lost Ha) 23,544 28.27
2017–2018 Crop area Cattle (lakh lost Ha) 49,168 38.52
2018–2019
Cattle lost 12,2967
Crop area (lakh Ha) 17.09
Source: GOI, Ministry of Home Affairs [3]
floods, and close to 8% area is under the threat of tsunamis [1]. Livestock plays an important role in the livelihood, and livestock keepers vary from pastoralists whose livelihood depends completely on livestock to agro-pastoralists who are dependent on both agriculture and animals for their livelihood. In addition, there are smallholder farmers who rear animals as supplementary source of income. Livestock supports people in different ways by providing nutritious food (milk, meat, and eggs), manure for agriculture, draft power, and monetary security. Disaster affects animals similar to the way it affects human beings. Post-disaster interventions related to livestock involve support to the existing stock by providing them with nutrition, shelter, and health services and also addition of new stock to make up for animal losses and thus support people livelihoods [2]. Generally, reducing the herd size; availability of veterinary services; arrangement of feed, water, and shelter; and availability of new healthy livestock for replacement are important interventions in post-emergency periods, and the type of interventions varies according to the type of disaster and condition of livestock(Table 9.1) [2].
9.1
Important Points to Be Considered While Planning for Post-disaster Interventions
Livestock-related interventions are required to support people’s livelihood. While planning for any interventions, important issues like vulnerable groups (women, young, and old people), socioeconomic status, and impacts of each intervention on the environment need to be considered. Before designing any interventions, the following are important points that must be considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
The geographical conditions of the area affected. Size and socioeconomic status of people. Livestock production system followed by people of affected area. Animal species and number affected. Availability of natural resources (grazing, water, and arable land). Infrastructure available (roads, slaughterhouses, cold storage for vaccines, store houses for feed and fodder, veterinary hospitals, etc.) 7. Prevention and control of zoonotic important disease.
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood
9.2
89
Collaboration Between Different Agencies
In any interventions, collaboration between different agencies should be established resulting in wider response and smooth rehabilitation process. It requires various stakeholders, the Department of Public Administration, the Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, and representative of affected communities for assessment and planning. Collaboration becomes realistic if different agencies share facilities such as transport or cold-chain facilities for storing veterinary vaccines and other services are optimally utilized. Any implementation of such programs needs effective coordination between committee members.
9.3
Animal Welfare
Animal welfare has always been taken into consideration while planning for any interventions. Animal welfare must be utmost important while selecting beneficiaries and while planning any interventions (restocking, destocking, feeding, watering, providing veterinary services, etc.). Animal welfare comprised of “five freedoms,” namely [4]: • • • • •
Freedom from hunger or thirst and malnutrition. Freedom from physical and thermal discomfort. Freedom from pain, injury, or disease. Freedom to express normal behavior. Freedom from fear and distress.
Livestock-related interventions generally need to be “pro-animal welfare” centered.
9.4
Livestock-Related Interventions
Livestock-related interventions generally fall into four basic categories [5]: • • • •
Reduction of number of animals/destocking. Availability of veterinary services. Arrangements for optimum feed, water, and shelter. Restoration of livestock.
9.5
Destocking
Livestock conditions affected severely, in different type of disasters such as drought which is slow in onset, characterized by periods of water shortage due to low rainfall resultant reduction in green fodder area in quantity and quality wise. There is a
90
M. Suman
scarcity of feed and fodder available to the animals which are going to affect the growth and productive and reproductive performance of animals and ultimately their value in the market. Rapid-onset emergencies (flood, earthquake, tsunami, etc.) cause excessive and rapid mortality of livestock, and infrastructure and services needed to support livestock are partially or completely lost. Intervention like destocking, livestock are removed before they become so emaciated or starve to death; by doing this, cash could be generated to sustain livelihood, and food can be provided to the starving population.
In destocking, points need to be considered
Any slaughter facilities? Local religious and cultural requirements with regard to slaughter. Most vulnerable communities, households, and individuals. Mode of payments (cash, or vouchers). Disposal of hides and skins. Disposal of carcasses (not fit for human consumption).
Destocking can be: • Destocking by selling livestock. • Slaughter destocking.
9.5.1
Destocking by Selling Livestock
Destocking by selling livestock involves the selling of animals from the disasteraffected area to area which is not affected, where animals can be reared or slaughtered according to the need and condition of animals. This type of commercial destocking can be done by involving different agencies such as local administration, representative of affected community, sellers of livestock, or government or aid agencies that can directly purchase the animal and can sale to different traders. Assistance can be provided to the buyer and seller by facilitating short-term credits, tax exemption, building temporary handling facilities and loading ramps, etc. This type of destocking interventions is effective in early stages of slow-onset emergencies.
9.5.2
Slaughter Destocking
Slaughter destocking can be done in the early emergency period, when the body condition of animals is still good, which means meat obtained from them has nutritional value. There is no need to transport animals, but they are slaughtered
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood
91
locally. By slaughter destocking, animal sellers obtain food and money to fulfill their requirement, and buyers get meat, hides, and skin. Inspection before and after slaughtering of animal is important to know that animal is healthy and meat is good for human consumption; after approval for human consumption, the fresh meat can be distributed to vulnerable households, health clinics, and targeted food aid programs. This type of intervention is effective when emergency is too advanced for commercial destocking.
9.5.3
Slaughter for Disposal
Post-disaster situation, when animals are weak, dying, diseased and rearing of them neither economic nor they are containing nutritional value for consumption that time slaughtering of animals for disposal is required. Humanely disposing of distressed animals is important for animal welfare point of view, and also the safe disposals of carcasses need to be ensured. A standard process of slaughtering • Ante-mortem inspection. • Humane slaughter/ritual slaughter. • Postmortem examination. • Distribution of meat. • Disposal of waste.
9.5.4
Timing of Destocking
The stage of disaster determines the type of destocking that needs to be undertaken. Commercial destocking is most effective in the alert and alarm phase of slow-onset emergencies and slaughter destocking in the late alarm or early recovery phases when livestock are in such poor condition that they are not marketable. Advantages of destocking 1. Livestock owners get cash by selling or slaughtering of animals, and that money can be used to meet the household requirements. 2. Slaughtering of animals also provides food in the form of fresh meat which is a good source of protein. 3. It also reduces the burden of livestock owner in terms of arrangement of fodder and grazing of the animals. Disadvantages 1. There can be problems in price fixation, sometimes sellers are not getting optimum price, and production of stock is also minimized until replacement is made by new livestock.
92
9.5.5
M. Suman
Planning and Preparation of Destocking
Destocking interventions require prior assessment about size and socioeconomic status of people and livestock production system and availability of feed and fodder, traders, and infrastructure for slaughtering of animals. The kind of destocking is dependent on the type and stage of the disaster. For implementation of interventions, multidisciplinary/multi-agency destocking committee can be formed, and the committee members should meet regularly, or as per the time period decided by the committee, in meeting various issues regarding interventions, and aftereffect can be discussed, and record can be maintained for further evaluation.
9.6
Provision of Veterinary Services
Disaster affects the livestock health and production. Veterinary services are helpful in improving animal health and reducing morbidity and mortality. Livestock is affected by the disasters in various ways such as: • Animals are affected by the different types of disaster in different ways such as in earthquake where there are an increased number of injured animals which require immediate preventive and curative treatments. • Flooding increases the vector-borne diseases and also increases the incidence of endoparasitic infestation. • Animals are more susceptible to disease during and after disaster due to an increase in environmental, nutritional, and managemental stress. • The risk of zoonotic diseases increases.
9.6.1
Options for Veterinary Support
Veterinary interventions require prior assessment and due consideration on costbenefit ratio. Prior work is important to decide types of medicines, treatment, and prophylactic measures needed. Veterinary support in affected area comprises of veterinary clinical services and veterinary public health services (LEGS) [6]. Veterinary clinical services • Examination and treatment of affected animals. • Disease control and preventative measures. Veterinary public health services • Control and prevention of zoonotic disease. • Diagnosis, surveillance, and eradication of animal disease.
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood
9.6.2
93
Veterinary Clinical Services
Veterinary clinical services comprise of diagnosis and treatment of disease affecting the health and productivity of animals and first aid to injured animals; such services are provided by veterinarians and para-veterinarian.
9.6.2.1 Examination and Treatments of Affected Animals Animals are thoroughly examined; after diagnosis, suitable treatment has to be given to the diseased or injured animals. Cash can be given directly and indirectly to household to pay for veterinary service, or in some regions, veterinary voucher system has been developed. 9.6.2.2 Disease Control and Preventative Measures Mass medication and vaccination of animals has been done to control and prevent incidences of diseases and to enhance the livestock survival and production. Endoand ectoparasite medications can be done after prior assessment and cost-benefit ratio consideration; similarly vaccination can be planned after impact analysis. Large-scale vaccination programs require basic epidemiological information about that particular area.
9.6.3
Veterinary Public Health Services
Public sector veterinary functions are most applicable in recovery phase of emergencies. Veterinary public health: Veterinary public health involves not only veterinarians but health and agriculture professionals, extension specialists, and paraprofessionals. It comprises of investigation, diagnosis, and control of zoonotic disease to improve and protect human health, and this involves: • Making people aware of zoonotic important diseases which have been transmitted to human through animal-derived food such as meat and milk or contact with animals (bird flu, tuberculosis, brucellosis, Rift Valley fever, and anthrax). • Proper disposal of dead animals to prevent spread of any infection to human and animals. • Food hygiene such as meat hygiene through proper ante-mortem and postmortem examination and boiling of milk to prevent transmission of brucellosis and tuberculosis and cooking of meat.
9.6.3.1 Livestock Disease Surveillance Livestock disease surveillance is possible after increasing awareness among public and training veterinary paraprofessionals for disease reporting [7]. After reporting of any disease, timely investigation and response are very important.
94
9.7
M. Suman
Provision of Feed
Ensuring adequate feed to animals in emergency situation is necessary for survival and welfare and to maintain the productivity of animals. Emergency feeding program may target all the livestock in the community. The main objective of this feeding program is to prevent further deterioration of health and productivity of affected animals and maintenance of breeding stock for propagation, re-establishing of drought animals for work, restoration of productivity of animals, and a support for uninterrupted destocking program.
9.7.1
Feeding During Emergencies
9.7.1.1 Emergency Feeding In Situ In this, feed or cash grants and voucher support is provided to the individuals, so the beneficiaries are able to maintain their animals. 9.7.1.2 Emergency Feeding in Feed Camps In this system, emergency feeding is done in feeding camps. Feeding camp requires more management, but it is better for security and monitoring of the intervention. Generally, there are two types of system for feeding in feed camps: The in-out feed camp system: In this, a desired number of livestock are brought on a daily basis to feed camps, and feeds were given there. The residential feed camp system: In this, a defined number of animals are brought to the feed camp, and they are kept there until the emergency is over.
9.7.2
Feeding of Ruminants During Emergencies
Ruminants can be fed roughages like hay, crop residues, green fodder, and concentrate feed. Densified feed block containing many ingredients is also easy for transportation and supplies multiple nutrients to the livestock in emergency situation. Emergency supplementary feeding should be done to prevent further weight loss and to maintain productivity; for that, feeds need to be balanced and contain adequate quantity of minerals and vitamins.
9.7.3
Feeding of Equines in Emergency Situations
High-quality fodder can be fed to the equines, at least 1% of their body weight per day, and concentrate feed can be given twice or three times a day.
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood
9.8
95
Provision of Water
Provision of water in emergency situation is the most immediate and indispensable impact on livestock. Water is necessary for various physiological functions in the body, and loss of water for a few days results in death. Water arrangement during emergencies: 1. Moving animals to the source. 2. Rehabilitation of existing or establishing new water points. 3. Transportation of water.
9.9
Arrangement of Shelter for Animals
Disasters causing damage to the animals’ shelter, feed and fodder store houses, or other infrastructure related to livestock. Shelter is necessary for survival and protection (weather, predation, theft, etc.) of livestock. Older and younger livestock are sensitive to thermal stress. Proper housing is important for proper feeding, watering, comfort of animals, and restoration of productivity, segregation of animals, and preventive measures.
9.9.1
Livestock Shelter and Settlement Intervention
Temporary livestock shelters: In emergency situation in extreme weather, there is a need for shelter. Permanent livestock shelters: The permanent structure is constructed to provide protection of animals and constructed by using durable materials.
9.10
Provision of Livestock/Restocking
The provision of livestock can be a valuable approach to rebuild their assets as a means to secure their household livelihood. This intervention is going to be helpful to the beneficiaries in terms of food, income, and transport. Restocking is going to add positively in the livelihood of the beneficiaries. Provision of livestock only to those beneficiaries having all the arrangements like shelter, feed, and water to the livestock, or they may be assisted with cash or voucher to create all of these. Replacement of livestock either partially or fully is going to be very effective in supporting ailing population.
96
M. Suman
9.10.1 Replacement of Livestock Asset Pastoralists/agro-pastoralists communities: Disaster causes loss of most of the livestock of these communities, and interventions for them involve the rebuilding of their livelihood through provision of livestock of sufficient numbers to attain minimum herd size, so they can start their pastoral activities.
9.10.2 Replacing Livestock Assets for Smallholder Farmers Smallholder farmers keep few animals that are well integrated into their farming practice, besides meeting their demands of milk, meat, egg, draft, etc. Replacing the livestock to these contributes to the livelihood in emergencies.
9.10.3 Building Livestock Assets Livestock can contribute to the livelihood of those households who have restricted access to land or when livelihood opportunity is less but natural resources are abundant. Livestock can also facilitate daily activities like transport and support in agricultural activities (manure, plowing, threshing, etc.) along with nutritional support to the ailing population. Livestock provision to the household who have not any kind of experience may need training in livestock management and marketing etc.
9.10.4 Selection of Committee Restocking committee may include animal husbandry officials, representative of affected community, and traders. Well-organized and motivated members in a committee are very beneficial for organized purchasing of animals and distribution among beneficiaries.
9.10.5 Beneficiary Selection Criteria Beneficiary selection requires participation of all the stakeholders and representatives of affected population. Before planning for restocking, all the issues regarding requirement of affected communities and animal welfare (availability of feed, water, and shelter) require prior assessment. The following points may be considered while restocking: • Household size and income. • Previously owned animals (no. and species) and experience and skills in rearing livestock.
9
Post-disaster Interventions Related to Livestock and Livelihood
97
• Availability of feed, water, and shelter to the animals and veterinary health services. • Willingness to participate in the program.
9.10.6 Selection of the Animals Animals selected for distribution need to be adapted to local conditions and able to assist the household in terms of food, agricultural activities, cash, or transport. It is good to purchase animals locally, which makes it easy to assess the quality of stock, and also there is no need to quarantine the animals. Veterinarian should ensure that the animals are healthy and fit for distribution. Animals that have been purchased from the outside area or the area that has incidences of some disease need to be quarantined; during the quarantine period, vaccination and ecto- and endoparasite control measure should be taken. For large ruminant, female aged 2–4 years old which is yet to have calves or already had one calf is good for distribution. Chickens are often distributed when they are about to start laying eggs. Sheep and goats at 12 and 24 months of age and donkeys or mules around 3 years old are good for distribution.
9.10.7 Timing for Restocking The provision of animals is generally in the recovery phase of emergency, when people are not too traumatized by the disaster and able to take care of animals. Before planning of restocking, availability of feed, water, and shelter needs to be ensured. In rapid-onset emergencies when natural resources are still available and the number of animals required is less, in these conditions, restocking can be planned in early recovery phase.
References 1. Sunita Bara SP and Ganguli D (2016) Effect of natural disaster on livestock farmers: the case of cyclone ‘Phailin’ in Odisha. In: International conference on agriculture, food science, natural resource management and environmental dynamics: the technology, people and sustainable development. ISBN-978-93-85822-28-5 2. National Disaster Management Plan (2016) A publication of the National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India, New Delhi 3. Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs the February 6th 2019/MEGHA 17, 1940 (SAKA)
98
M. Suman
4. Farm Animal Welfare Council (1993) Second report on priorities for research and development in farm animal welfare. DEFRA, Londres 5. FAO (2016) Livestock-related interventions during emergencies – The how-to-do-it, manual. In: Ankers P, Bishop S, Mack S, Dietze K (eds) Animal production and health manual, vol 18. Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-109325-2 6. LEGS (2014) Livestock emergency guidelines and standard (LEGS), 2nd edn. Practical Action Publishing, Rugby, UK. https://doi.org/10.3362/9781780448602 7. TANUVAS (2019) Tamilnadu state animal disaster management standard operating procedures. Prepared by Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education Madras Veterinary College, Chennai – 600 007
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
10
Anjali Somal
Abstract
The animal husbandry sector plays a vital role in subsistence food security in India. The intensive selection of livestock species for higher production makes them more vulnerable to heat stress. These animals further experience climatic stress in the present times of climate change when extreme climatic events are becoming common. The climatic stress leads to production and reproduction losses in high-producing animals leading to economic losses. The present chapter discusses in detail various strategies to mitigate hot as well as cold stress. The mitigation strategies like the modification of the microenvironment, selection of thermotolerant breeds, and nutritional modification will help to sustain the animals in adverse climatic conditions along with optimal production and reproduction. Keywords
Climatic disasters · Heat stress · Cold stress · Mitigation strategies
10.1
Introduction
The mammals are capable of maintaining their body temperature within a closedefined thermoregulatory limit called the thermoneutral zone regardless of the external environmental conditions. Under the ambient environmental conditions, the core body temperature of all the livestock species is maintained via thermoregulatory mechanisms within 1 C of its normal body temperature without imposing A. Somal (*) Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_10
99
100
A. Somal
Fig. 10.1 A modified diagram depicting critical environmental temperatures and zones [10, 11]
climatic stress [1]. The temperature range between 5 and 25 C is the most congenial environmental temperature range for dairy cattle and is referred to as the thermal comfort zone [2] with maximum productivity and minimal physiological cost [3]. The upper critical temperature (UCT) for dairy cattle is around 25–28 C [4]; however, solar radiation, higher humidity, and wind are also important contributors to thermal stress [5, 6]. Hence, lower temperatures induce heat stress too during periods of intense solar radiation and greater humidity. Above UCT, the dairy animals increase the respiratory frequency and rectal temperature [7]. There is also an increase in panting and sweating in the animals to lower the core body temperature [8]. These responses are the usual physiological thermoregulatory responses that help to transmit the heat from the body to the surrounding environment. However, even a simple increase in respiratory frequency leads to a higher daily maintenance requirement of an animal by 7–25% [9]. The ambient temperatures lower to the thermoneutral zone (TNZ), i.e., the lower critical temperature (LCT), cause cold stress in the animal (Fig. 10.1). To eliminate cold stress, the animal needs to increase its metabolic rate and produce more body heat. This physiological process also leads to higher dietary requirements in terms of energy [12]. Hence, the conditions outside TNZ lead to heat or cold stress leading to the deterioration of production, as the animal is required to invest metabolic energy in either heat dissipation or heat production [13]. The LCT and UCT of different livestock species have been provided in Fig. 10.2. Generally, the range of TNZ in an animal (from LCT to UCT) is determined by its species, breed, age, sex, feed intake, diet composition, production, previous state of temperature, acclimation or acclimatization, specific housing conditions, tissue insulation or external insulation, and animal behavior [12]. It has been observed
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
101
Fig. 10.2 A modified figure depicting upper and lower critical temperatures of different animals [12, 14]
that the UCT is lower in high-producing animals [12] due to higher metabolic heat production [15]. Hence, the dairy animals need an effective thermoregulatory phenomenon for maintaining their core body temperature. Climatic stress is likely to be encountered more often in the future due to climate change including extreme climatic events [13]. The important environmental factors affecting livestock farms include ambient temperature, relative humidity (RH), solar radiation, wind velocity, and rainfall. The expected rise in the earth temperature by 0.2 C per decade would lead to a higher global average surface temperature of 1.4–5.8 C by 2100 [5]. The temperature and precipitation changes would result in drought. In the mountains, higher temperatures would result in earlier snowmelt along with higher rain events and lower snow events. Reduction in snowfall will also cause reductions in snow water storage. This, in turn, would result in lower availability of surface water during the growing season and flooding at other times [16]. The weather and climatic disasters in India in the last 10 years (https://www. atlas-mag.net/en/article/natural-disasters-risk-in-india) and worldwide since 2015 (https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/) have been mentioned in Tables 10.1 and 10.2.
102
A. Somal
Table 10.1 Indian climatic disasters in the last 10 years S. no. 1
2
Event Hurricane Amphan in West Bengal Kerala floods
3
Chennai floods
4
Himalayan storm
5
Andhra Pradesh storm Jammu and Kashmir floods Uttaranchal floods
6 7
Date May 2020
Summary Number of people affected, 5,00,000; number of fatalities, 103; economic losses, 13.5 billion
August 2018 November 2015 April 2015
Number of people affected, 2,23,139; number of fatalities, 504; economic losses, 3.52 billion Number of fatalities, 289; economic losses, 2.37 billion Number of people affected, 20,000; number of fatalities, 78 Number of people injured, 43; number of fatalities, 68 Number of fatalities, 665; economic losses, 6.65 billion People homeless, 2,71,931; number of people injured, 4473; number of fatalities, 5748; economic losses, 1.21 billion
October 2014 September 2014 June 2013
The information in Table 10.1 has been taken from the site https://www.atlas-mag.net/en/article/ natural-disasters-risk-in-india
10.2
Indexes for the Assessment of Climatic Stress
The temperature-humidity index (THI) is an index for the assessment of heat stressinduced in humans and farm animals. The THI may be calculated by several equations; however, the most widely used method is by calculating the dry and wet bulb temperatures using the following equation, THI ¼ 0.72 (W + D) + 40.6 [17], where W is wet bulb and D is dry bulb temperature in C. During the environmental conditions when the value of THI exceeds 72, there is a decline in milk production of cattle as it suffers from thermal stress [18]. When the THI value is between 78 and 82, cooling by artificial means is required to sustain productivity as the cattle are severely affected. If the value of THI is above 82, the heat stress vulnerable cattle may decline productivity, cease to produce, or even succumb to death [19]. At an average daily THI of more than 75, a significant depression in reproduction and milk production is observed. However, in some cases, depressions may also be observed above 70 [12]. Cold stress in cattle is calculated using the wind chill index (WCI), WCI = 13.12 + 0.62 3 T-13.17 3 [W.S.]0.16 + 0.40 3 T 3 [W.S.]0.16, which is an adapted formula used in cold stress research [20], where T is the air temperature and WS is the wind speed in km/h. To the best of our knowledge, no scientifically validated cold stress risk classes have been developed for dairy animals in terms of WCI.
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
103
Table 10.2 Worldwide climatic disasters S. no. 1.
2 3.
4
Event North American winter storm (February 2021) Western US wildfires Drought and heat wave (western/ central) Australian wildfires (worst bushfire season)
Date 13/2/2021 till 17/2/2021 24/7/2020 till 31/12/2020 24/7/2020 till 31/12/2020 Start of 2020 (hottest year on record)
5
Cyclones Idai and Kenneth
March 2019
6
Midwestern US floods, 2019 South African drought
14/3/2019 till 31/3/2019 Years 2019, 2017, 2011
California wildfires, 2017 Hurricane Maria, 2017 Hurricane Harvey (2017) Dry corridor in Central America
1/6/2017 till 31/12/2017 19/9/2017 till 21/9/2017 25/8/2017 till 31/8/2017 Continuous sixth year of drought
7
8 9 10 11
Summary Number of fatalities, 138; economic losses, $195 billion (2021 USD) Costliest winter storm on record Number of fatalities, 46; economic losses, 16.6 billion Number of fatalities, 46; economic losses, 16.6 billion Number of fatalities, 28; animals killed, a billion More than ten million hectares burned by fire, ground, and hazardous smoke haze that affected millions of people. Some of the species and ecosystems may not be able to recover Number of fatalities, 1000 Occurred in countries like Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique in southern Africa and northern Mozambique Number of fatalities, 3; economic losses, 11 billion Crops and livestock wiped out. Droughts affected 15 million people in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia. Millions of people faced acute food and water shortages Number of fatalities, 54; economic losses, 19.3 billion Number of fatalities, 2981; economic losses, 96.3 billion Number of fatalities, 89; economic losses, 133.8 billion Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua experienced typical 3–6 months of dry season. Most crops failed leaving 2.5 million people food insecure
The information in Table 10.2 has been taken from the site https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/
10.3
Impacts of Climate Change on Production and Reproduction in Animals
The impacts of climate change are direct and indirect on production and reproduction in animals. The direct impacts of climate change (i.e., high temperature and change in rainfall/snow pattern) not only lead to a higher incidence of the existing and new vector-borne diseases and macro-parasites but also affect growth, production, and reproduction in animals [21]. The indirect effects of climate change are due
104
A. Somal
to the feed shortage arising from the increasing demands, changes in feed resources, and use of land fluctuations in herbage quantity and quality [21]. The methodical selection of livestock for higher productivity leads to a higher genetic potential for milk production; however, declines in productivity during summers are due to substandard feed and fodder and high susceptibility to diseases [22]. Hence, climate change has become one of the threats to the viability and sustainability of livestock production in tropical areas, where the environmental temperatures are high the entire year [23]. Ruminants, pigs, and poultry are more susceptible to thermal stress due to their species-specific characteristics, i.e., rumen fermentation, sweating impairment, and skin insulation, respectively, along with their rapid metabolic rate, growth, and higher production [24]. Thermal stress affects the reproductive performance and fertility of farm animals by compromising the reproductive tract physiology. Heat stress leads to hormonal imbalance, depression of conception rate, and decreased embryo development due to decreased oocyte quality and poor semen quality and attenuated embryonic growth and early embryonic death [25, 26]. Conception rates of the milch animals drop up to 20–27% during summer. As the core body temperature of animals exceeds 40 C, the developing follicles suffer damage and become nonviable [21]. The male animals reared during summers in tropical and subtropical areas have increased testicular temperature which may impair the spermatogenesis and hence the semen quality, leading to decreased fertility [25]. Seasonal variations also affect hormonal profiles, sexual behavior, testicular volume, and semen quality parameters affecting the reproduction and fertility of male animals [21]. Climatic stress also leads to lower milk production leading to economic losses in the dairy industry. A hot and humid climate with higher THI not only affects quantity but the quality of milk as well [21]. The reduction in milk production due to the direct effect of thermal stress is approximately 65%, and the remaining 35% is due to decrease in feed consumption by animals during high environment temperature. The other factors resulting in lower milk production are hormonal status, alterations in rumen function, decreased nutrient absorption, and increased maintenance requirement leading to reduced supply of net energy for production [22].
10.4
Mitigation Strategies to Alleviate Stress Levels in Different Seasons
The livestock adaptation to climate change is possible through the following different strategies. Many animal characteristics and metrological variables need to be taken into consideration while assessing the need for mitigation strategies against cold and heat stress [13]. Some of the approaches may be used without much investments; however, the others require economic and policy support. The three major components to sustain the productivity of animals are through microenvironment modification, nutritional management, and selection of thermotolerant breeds; these approaches may be used in combination or individually
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
105
to obtain better results. Along with the above components, advanced reproductive technologies may be used [25]. The below-mentioned strategies may be used to provide an optimum environment to maintain productivity of farm animals.
10.4.1 Microenvironment Modification Thermal stress can be mitigated by providing shade or by active cooling of the microenvironment. The microenvironment modifications can be used in tropical areas to reduce the incoming solar radiation by almost 30% and hence reduce the thermal loads in livestock [27]. • Providing shade to animals while grazing: Protection from direct solar radiation can be achieved by availability of adequate shade near animal sheds. Adapting to climate change may also require adjusting grazing management schedules and locations [28]. The easiest and more cost-efficient protection against heat stress can be achieved by providing shade on pasture [13]. Tree shade like banyan, neem, and peepal trees and shelters made of straw or other locally available materials like bamboo are ideal choices of shade under tropical and subtropical areas. Plantation of the trees may be done at three main locations, i.e., (a) holding pens, (b) confined feeding areas, and (c) resting areas [22]. While planting new trees, the poisonous plants and plants producing photosensitization should be avoided [13]. Normally, the cattle prefer natural shade from trees rather than man-made shelters [29]. The livestock with a provision of shade tend to rest and eat more during the hot climate. They are also seen less to linger around the water trough [30]. These animals hence have lower reduced core body temperature, respiration rate, and panting along with lower blood plasma corticosteroid concentrations than the animals without access indicating lower stress levels [31–35]. Provision of shade during hot climates leads to more grazing and dry matter intake causing more weight gain [36]. The animals with provision of shade have higher conception rate, calf birth weight, milk yield, and milk fat and lactose yield but a lower somatic cell counts in milk [4, 37, 38]. • Animal shelters: Artificial shelters are subjected to several critical factors. The artificial shelters should have enough space for the size of the herd. Inappropriate shelter design and overcrowding lead to accumulation of heat and inadequate convective cooling due to hindrance in the air movement [39]. For example, the recommended lying space per Holstein-Friesian cows and beef cows of 700 kg is 5.7 and 3.28 m2, respectively [40, 41]. It is also important to select the appropriate shelter material for the effective artificial shade constructions. The roofs must be high enough with a reflective coating applied to its upper surface to reduce solar radiation emission. Hay and straw may also be used for insulation. However, these materials have less durability, and they also attract and harbor pests. Metal roofs are mostly preferred due to their low cost, more durability, and little maintenance requirements [42, 43]. Shelters’ cloth or gunny bags’ shades tied to hooks using ropes can be used against solar radiation. These shades can be
106
•
•
• •
A. Somal
removed during comfortable ambient environment and reinstalled during summer and extreme winter conditions [22]. Ventilation in shelters: During summers as the ambient temperature rises, hot air gets trapped inside the animal shed; hence, the airflow inside the shed must be increased. Two approaches may be used to increase airflow in a shed, i.e., firstly to incorporate structural modification in the animals’ shed to allow the use of natural air direction and speed and secondly to install the fan. Proper orientation of the shed should be made to use natural ventilation. Another latest design is the tunnel ventilation system used in large poultry farms where a large volume of air moves through the shed in a linear or “tunnel” fashion [22]. Heat alleviation using sprinkle system or water cooling: Water is one of the excellent media to decrease the heat stress in animals. Water sprinklers can be used with fans for increasing evaporative cooling and hence decreasing the heat load on animals. Also, it lowers the air temperature of the areas immediately surrounding the animal. Different types of sprinkle systems like sprinklers, drippers, misters, and foggers are commonly used nowadays [12]. Sprinklers are the most recommended type of emitter, spraying water as large droplets into a set pattern. The drippers drip the water droplets at a slower rate and do not create a wetted pattern; hence, they are not recommended for dairy animals. Misters spray water into circular or rectangular pattern as small droplets which tend to collect on the hair coat; hence, they are also not recommended. The foggers spray water into an aerosol or a very fine mist. This mist or aerosol evaporates into the air and reduces air temperature [22]. Wetting animals with different sprinkler systems is mostly effective in hot and dry climates and has limited use in more humid temperate areas. However, its effectiveness in humid areas can be improved by combining it with convective cooling like fans, etc. [42]. Ceiling fans: Fans should be installed longitudinally in animal holding areas and free shelters spaced not more than ten times their blade diameter. They should be located high enough to keep them out of reach of the cattle [22]. Cooling ponds: Wallows and ponds have been used for swine to provide relief from thermal stress. The cattle are also drawn to pond water or streams if available. The animals wet their skin to accelerate the heat loss, especially through increased blood flow to the legs [44]. Animals primarily lose heat by conduction as the animal surface is in contact with water, but immediately after leaving the pond, a small amount of heat is also lost through evaporative cooling [22].
10.4.2 Animal Feeding and Nutritional Modification • Feeding during summer: Providing a balanced nutrition to the livestock is crucial to optimize livestock production and reproduction in the present times of climatic change [45]. To meet the extra maintenance requirements and optimal production (7–25%) during heat stress, it is important to increase the nutrient density by supplying high-quality forage, concentrates, and fats. The high-protein diet helps
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
107
to reduce the water requirement for metabolism, and fat content in the diet is beneficial for better reproduction [46]. • Feeding time: Heat production peaks from 4 to 6 h, post-feeding in animals. Therefore, the animals fed in the morning hours have peak metabolic heat production during the noontime when the ambient environmental temperatures are also high. Hence, feeding and grazing of animals should be done in the later part of the day to prevent the coincidence of peak metabolic and surrounding heat load [12, 47, 48]. • Water: Ample provision of clean and freshwater is important to reduce the effects of thermal stress in lactating dairy animals. During thermal stress, the water requirements increase by 1.2–2 times as panting and sweating is higher to reduce core body temperature. During the scarcity of water, production is severely hampered as feed intake and milk yield are related to water turnover [22]. • Animal feed additives: Feeding of feed additives stabilizes the rumen environment and also improves energy utilization [49].
10.4.3 Minerals and Other Supplementation Supplements of vitamins, minerals, and trace elements are able to mitigate the detrimental effects of heat stress. Injectable selenium and tocopherol reduce the rectal temperature and body weight loss during the summer season in animals [50]. Vitamin C and tocopherol have antioxidant properties; hence, they protect the cell membranes against the damage of ROS [51]. The dietary supplementation of inorganic chromium during high environment temperature ameliorates the animal immune status as well as heat tolerance without affecting nutrient intake and growth performance of buffalo calves. The adverse effect of thermal stress on the productivity and reproductive efficiency of ewes was able to revoke through the mineral mixture and antioxidant supplementation [50]. Supplementation of niacin is found to reduce heat stress, and further supplementation of antioxidants improves fertility in animals [52]. The addition of common macrominerals Na+ and K+ in feed has also been reported to improve the feed intake and productivity [53]. The inclusion of vitamin C in the feed ameliorates heat stress-induced problems like lower immunity, oxidative stress, fertility and semen quality, body temperature, feed intake, and weight gain [54].
10.4.4 Genetic Selection of Heat-Tolerant Breeds The selection of thermotolerant animals is foreseen as a long-term approach for adaptation to climate change. The selective breeding of dairy animals for higher milk production has made these animals more susceptible to thermal stress by reducing the thermoregulatory range resulting in a compromised summer production and reproduction along with magnification of seasonal fertility [55]. Hence, it is important to select the animals that survive heat stress conditions and maintain high
108
A. Somal
productivity. The cattle with lighter coat color and short and greater diameter hair are more adapted to tropical climate conditions than those with darker colors and longer hair coats [56]. The thermotolerance-related heat shock protein genes have been used as markers in the marker-assisted selection breeding program. The heat-tolerant genes are reported in various breeds such as HSP90AB1 in Thai native cattle [57] or the HSF1 gene, HSP70 A1 gene, and HSBP1 gene in Chinese Holstein cattle [58, 59]. The other genes of economic importance include ATP1B2, thyroid hormone receptor, fibroblast growth factor, interleukins, protein kinase C, phosphofructokinase, NADH dehydrogenase, and glycosyltransferase [59, 60].
10.4.5 Hormonal Treatment and Assisted Reproductive Technologies Summer infertility in dairy animals is combated through advanced reproductive technologies like hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination, and embryo transfer. These strategies enhance the chances of conceiving in farm dairy animals [25]. Hormones like hCG or GnRH agonist injected on the fifth day of the estrous cycle result in ovulation and luteinization of the first wave dominant follicle and formation of an accessory corpus luteum (CL) which enhance the plasma progesterone levels to compensate for its decrease in chronic heat stress [61, 62]. The injection of GnRH to induce programmed recruitment of the ovulatory follicle in cattle followed by timed artificial insemination also improves summer fertility [63]. The Ovsynch protocol is used to synchronize the ovulation and, when combined with timed AI, enhances the conception rate in buffaloes [64]. The CIDR-synch and Presynch protocols improved the conception and pregnancy rate of Holstein cows as well under subtropical environmental conditions [65].
10.5
Management of Effects of Cold Stress
10.5.1 Mitigation by the Man-Made Shelter The cattle can be housed outside round the year in the areas having low wind speed and fewer rains, in forest paddocks, as vegetation served as a windbreak. Windbreaks, rain shelters, and lying places if provided may improve the productivity, health, or welfare of the animals [13]. During moderate winter conditions where the maximum and min minimum and maximum wind chill are 3.9 and 9.9¯C respectively shelter significantly improves animal welfare. The wind decreases the effective temperature and enhances the cold stress on animals; hence, providing shelter in the paddocks under moderate winter conditions improves growth and productivity in animals [66]. The roof of an artificial shelter protects against rainfall. The walls can be added and placed perpendicular to the direction of prevailing winds. The animal sheds should be built higher than the surrounding terrain to prevent water from accumulating inside. Sufficient ventilation and individual
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
109
space are important to keep the floor surface dry [67]. The animals are sensitive to rapid movements; hence, constructions with cloths or plastic waving in the wind must be avoided [68].
10.5.2 Animal Feeding and Water Supply The environmental temperature should be monitored, and additional feed should be offered to the animal in cold weather to meet the increased metabolic demands of the animal [22]. The combination of fat and salt can be added to the diet as this has been reported to elevate body temperature and may benefit animals in winters [69]. Cows must have ample supply of preferably warm water at all times as frozen troughs and very cold water limit intake of water in animals. Limited water intake also limits the feed intake, making it difficult for dairy cattle to meet their energy requirements [22].
10.5.3 Animal Rearing Drying the teats after milking in the dairy animal is important. After using teat dips, blot drying with paper towel must be done. The cattle must be kept clean and dry especially in winters. However, the wet coats have little insulating properties; hence, cows become more susceptible to cold stress [22].
References 1. Bligh J, Harthoorn AM (1965) Continuous radiotelemetric records of the deep body temperature of some unrestrained African mammals under near-natural conditions. J Physiol 176(1):145 2. McDowell RE (1972) Improvement of livestock production in warm climates 3. Folk GE (1974) Textbook of environmental physiology. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, pp 97–118 4. Collier RJ, Doelger SG, Head HH, Thatcher WW, Wilcox CJ (1982) Effects of heat stress during pregnancy on maternal hormone concentrations, calf birth weight and postpartum milk yield of Holstein cows. J Anim Sci 54(2):309–319 5. Hahn GL, Mader TL, Eigenberg RA (2003) Perspective on development of thermal indices for animal studies and management. EAAP Tech Ser 7:31–44 6. Rosselle L, Permentier L, Verbeke G, Driessen B, Geers R (2013) Interactions between climatological variables and sheltering behavior of pastoral beef cattle during sunny weather in a temperate climate. J Anim Sci 91(2):943–949 7. Bitman J, Lefcourt A, Wood DL, Stroud B (1984) Circadian and ultradian temperature rhythms of lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 67(5):1014–1023 8. Spain JN, Spiers D, Chastain JP (1998) Effect of fan cooling on thermoregulatory responses of lactating dairy cattle to moderate heat stress. In: Fourth international dairy housing conference, St. Louis, MO, pp 232–238 9. National Research Council (1981) Effect of environment on nutrient requirements of domestic animals 10. Hafez ESE (1968) Adaptation of domestic animals
110
A. Somal
11. Lallo CH, Smalling S, Facey A, Hughes M (2017) The impact of climate change on small ruminant performance in Caribbean communities. In: Environmental sustainability and climate change adaptation strategies. IGI Global, Philadelphia, pp 296–321 12. Aggarwal A, Upadhyay R (2013) Heat stress and reproduction. In: Heat stress and animal productivity. Springer, New Delhi, pp 79–111 13. Laer EV, Moons CPH, Sonck B, Tuyttens FAM (2014) Importance of outdoor shelter for cattle in temperate climates. Livest Sci 159:87–101 14. Ljuša M, Sitaula BK (2016) Adaptation to climate change in agriculture 15. Kadzere CT, Murphy MR, Silanikove N, Maltz E (2002) Heat stress in lactating dairy cows: a review. Livest Prod Sci 77(1):59–91 16. Creighton J, Strobel M, Hardegree S, Steele R, Van Horne B, Gravenmier B, Owen W, Peterson D, Hoang L, Little N, Bochicchio J (2015) Northwest regional climate hub assessment of climate change vulnerability and adaptation and mitigation strategies. Perry A (ed) p 52 17. McDowell RE, Hooven NW, Camoens JK (1976) Effect of climate on performance of Holsteins in first lactation. J Dairy Sci 59(5):965–971 18. West JW, Mullinix BG, Bernard JK (2003) Effects of hot, humid weather on milk temperature, dry matter intake, and milk yield of lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Science 86(1):232–242 19. Du Preez JH, Giesecke WH, Hattingh PJ, Eisenberg BE (1990) Heat stress in dairy cattle under southern African conditions. II. Identification of areas of potential heat stress during summer by means of observed true and predicted temperature-humidity index values 20. Tucker CB, Rogers AR, Verkerk GA, Kendall PE, Webster JR, Matthews LR (2007) Effects of shelter and body condition on the behaviour and physiology of dairy cattle in winter. Appl Anim Behav Sci 105(1–3):1–13 21. Sheikh AA, Bhagat R, Islam ST, Dar RR, Sheikh SA, Wani JM, Dogra P (2017) Effect of climate change on reproduction and milk production performance of livestock: a review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 6(6):2062–2064 22. Rai CK, Gopal Sankhala A, Kumar S (2018) Climate change: impact on dairy animals vis-à-vis adaptation strategies followed by dairy farmers. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 7(2):2842–2846 23. Gaughan J, Lacetera N, Valtorta SE, Khalifa HH, Hahn L, Mader T (2009) Response of domestic animals to climate challenges. In: Biometeorology for adaptation to climate variability and change. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 131–170 24. Gonzalez-Rivas PA, Chauhan SS, Ha M, Fegan N, Dunshea FR, Warner RD (2020) Effects of heat stress on animal physiology, metabolism, and meat quality: a review. Meat Sci 162:108025 25. Krishnan G, Bagath M, Pragna P, Vidya MK, Aleena J, Archana PR, Sejian V, Bhatta R (2017) Mitigation of the heat stress impact in livestock reproduction. Theriogenology 8:8–9 26. Wolfenson D, Roth Z (2019) Impact of heat stress on cow reproduction and fertility. Anim Front 9(1):32–38 27. Wiersma F, Armstrong DV, Welchert WT, Lough OG (1984) Housing systems for dairy production under warm weather conditions. World Animal Review (FAO) 28. Joyce LA, Briske DD, Brown JR, Polley HW, McCarl BA, Bailey DW (2013) Climate change and North American rangelands: assessment of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Rangel Ecol Manag 66(5):512–528 29. Shearer JK, Beede DK, Bucklin RA, Bray DR (1991) Environmental modifications to reduce heat stress in dairy cattle. III. Agri-Practice (USA) 30. Shultz TA (1984) Weather and shade effects on cow corral activities. J Dairy Sci 67(4):868–873 31. Brown-Brandl TM, Eigenberg RA, Nienaber JA, Hahn GL (2005) Dynamic response indicators of heat stress in shaded and non-shaded feedlot cattle, part 1: analyses of indicators. Biosyst Eng 90(4):451–462 32. Hansen PJ (1990) Effects of coat colour on physiological responses to solar radiation in Holsteins. Vet Rec 127(13):333–334 33. Ingraham RH, Stanley RW, Wagner WC (1979) Seasonal effects of tropical climate on shaded and nonshaded cows as measured by rectal temperature, adrenal cortex hormones, thyroid hormone, and milk production. Am J Vet Res 40(12):1792–1797
10
Climate Change, Its Effects, and Mitigation Strategies in Animals
111
34. Muller CEA, Botha JA, Smith WA (1994) Effect of shade on various parameters of Friesian cows in a Mediterranean climate in South Africa. Behav South Afr J Anim Sci 24(2):61–66 35. Valtorta SE, Leva PE, Gallardo MR (1997) Evaluation of different shades to improve dairy cattle well-being in Argentina. Int J Biometeorol 41(2):65–67 36. Gaughan JB, Bonner S, Loxton I, Mader TL, Lisle A, Lawrence R (2010) Effect of shade on body temperature and performance of feedlot steers. J Anim Sci 88(12):4056–4067 37. Davison TM, Silver BA, Lisle AT, Orr WN (1988) The influence of shade on milk production of Holstein-Friesian cows in a tropical upland environment. Aust J Exp Agric 28(2):149–154 38. Roman-Ponce H, Thatcher WW, Buffington DE, Wilcox CJ, Van Horn HH (1977) Physiological and production responses of dairy cattle to a shade structure in a subtropical environment. J Dairy Sci 60(3):424–430 39. Mader TL, Dahlquist JM, Hahn GL, Gaughan JB (1999) Shade and wind barrier effects on summertime feedlot cattle performance. J Anim Sci 77(8):2065–2072 40. CIGR (1994a) Design recommendations of beef cattle housing report of the CIGR Section II, Working Group no 14. Cattle Housing. ADAS Bridgets Dairy Research Centre, Farm Buildings Research Team 41. CIGR (1994b) The design of dairy cow housing report of the CIGR Section II, Working Group no 14. Cattle Housing. ADAS Bridgets Dairy Research Centre, Farm Buildings Research Team 42. Armstrong D (1994) Heat stress interaction with shade and cooling. J Dairy Sci 77(7): 2044–2050 43. Blackshaw JK, Blackshaw AW (1994) Heat stress in cattle and the effect of shade on production and behaviour: a review. Aust J Exp Agric 34(2):285–295 44. Nienaber JA, Hahn GL (2007) Livestock production system management responses to thermal challenges. Int J Biometeorol 52(2):149–157 45. Sejian V, Samal L, Haque N, Bagath M, Hyder I, Maurya VP, Bhatta R, Ravindra JP, Prasad CS, Lal R (2015) Overview on adaptation, mitigation and amelioration strategies to improve livestock production under the changing climatic scenario. In: Climate change impact on livestock: adaptation and mitigation. Springer, New Delhi, pp 359–397 46. Staples CR, Burke JM, Thatcher WW (1998) Influence of supplemental fats on reproductive tissues and performance of lactating cows. J Dairy Sci 81(3):856–871 47. Brosh A, Aharoni Y, Degen AA, Wright D, Young BA (1998) Effects of solar radiation, dietary energy, and time of feeding on thermoregulatory responses and energy balance in cattle in a hot environment. J Anim Sci 76(10):2671–2677 48. Reinhardt CD, Brandt RT Jr (1994) Effect of morning vs. evening feeding of limit-fed Holsteins during summer months. In: Cattlemen’s Day Report 704. Kansas State Agricultural Experimental Station, Manhattan, pp 38–39 49. Zimbelman RB, Baumgard LH, Collier RJ (2010) Effects of encapsulated niacin on evaporative heat loss and body temperature in moderately heat-stressed lactating Holstein cows. J Dairy Sci 93(6):2387–2394 50. Alamer M (2011) The role of prolactin in thermoregulation and water balance during heat stress in domestic ruminants. Asian J Anim Vet Adv 6(12):1153–1169 51. Sinha R, Ranjan A, Lone S, Rahim A, Devi I, Tiwari S (2017) The impact of climate change on livestock production and reproduction: ameliorative management. Int J Livestock Res 7(6):1–8. https://doi.org/10.5455/ijlr.20170417042102 52. El-Tarabany MS, Nasr MA (2015) Reproductive performance of Brown Swiss, Holstein and their crosses under subtropical environmental conditions. Theriogenology 84(4):559–565 53. Chauhan SS, Celi P, Leury B, Liu F, Dunshea FR (2016) Exhaled breath condensate hydrogen peroxide concentration, a novel biomarker for assessment of oxidative stress in sheep during heat stress. Anim Prod Sci 56(7):1105–1112 54. Abidin Z, Khatoon A (2013) Heat stress in poultry and the beneficial effects of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) supplementation during periods of heat stress. Worlds Poult Sci J 69(1):135–152
112
A. Somal
55. Sejian V, Gaughan JB, Bhatta R, Naqvi SMK (2016) Impact of climate change on livestock productivity. Feedipedia. http://www.feedipedia.org/sites/default/files/public/BH_026climate_ change_livestock.pdf 56. Bernabucci U, Lacetera N, Baumgard LH, Rhoads RP, Ronchi B, Nardone A (2010) Metabolic and hormonal acclimation to heat stress in domesticated ruminants. Animal 4(7):1167–1183 57. Deb R, Sajjanar B, Singh U, Kumar S, Singh R, Sengar G, Sharma A (2014) Effect of heat stress on the expression profile of Hsp90 among Sahiwal (Bos indicus) and Frieswal (Bos indicus Bos taurus) breed of cattle: a comparative study. Gene 536(2):435–440 58. Li QL, Ju ZH, Huang JM, Li JB, Li RL, Hou MH, Wang CF, Zhong JF (2011) Two novel SNPs in HSF1 gene are associated with thermal tolerance traits in Chinese Holstein cattle. DNA Cell Biol 30(4):247–254 59. Wang Y, Huang J, Xia P, He J, Wang C, Ju Z, Li J, Li R, Zhong J, Li Q (2013) Genetic variations of HSBP1 gene and its effect on thermal performance traits in Chinese Holstein cattle. Mol Biol Rep 40(6):3877–3882 60. Dash S, Chakravarty AK, Singh A, Upadhyay A, Singh M, Yousuf S (2016) Effect of heat stress on reproductive performances of dairy cattle and buffaloes: a review. Vet World 9(3):235 61. Samal L (2013) Heat stress in dairy cows-reproductive problems and control measures. Int J Livestock Res 3(3):14–23 62. Wolfenson D, Roth Z, Meidan R (2000) Impaired reproduction in heat-stressed cattle: basic and applied aspects. Anim Reprod Sci 60:535–547 63. Pursley JR, Silcox RW, Wiltbank MC (1998) Effect of time of artificial insemination on pregnancy rates, calving rates, pregnancy loss, and gender ratio after synchronization of ovulation in lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 81(8):2139–2144 64. Hoque MN, Talukder AK, Akter M, Shamsuddin M (2014) Evaluation of ovsynch protocols for timed artificial insemination in water buffaloes in Bangladesh. Turk J Vet Anim Sci 38(4): 418–424 65. El-Tarabany MS, El-Tarabany AA (2015) Impact of thermal stress on the efficiency of ovulation synchronization protocols in Holstein cows. Anim Reprod Sci 160:138–145 66. Holmes CW, Christensen R, McLean NA, Lockyer J (1978) Effects of winter weather on the growth rate and heat production of dairy cattle. N Z J Agric Res 21(4):549–556 67. Salomon, E., Kumm, K.I., Lidfors, L., Lindgren, K., Torstensson, G., 2012. A rotational winter grazing system for beef cattle—production costs in relation to animal welfare, working environment and environmental impact. In: Rahmann, G., Godinho, D. (Eds.), Tackling the future challenges of organic animal husbandry. Proceedings of the 2nd OAHC, Hamburg/Trenthorst, pp. 93–96 68. Grandin T (1999) Principles for low stress cattle handling. In: Digital commons. University of Nebraska–Lincoln 69. Gaughan JB, Mader TL (2009) Effects of sodium chloride and fat supplementation on finishing steers exposed to hot and cold conditions. J Anim Sci 87(2):612–621
Part II Animal Welfare in Disasters
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
11
Rakesh Thakur and P. K. Dogra
Abstract
Every place and living being on this earth is vulnerable to one or the other disaster. These disasters affect humans and animals alike, but the central focus of most disaster management programs is protection of human life followed by property which also includes animals. Disasters may result in morbidity and mortality of animals and affect their welfare in a variety of ways like drought may compromise animal’s freedom from hunger and thirst, while fire may affect the freedom from pain, injury, fear, and stress. Animals besides being a source of livelihood and companionship are also important for their emotional attachment with the owners. Therefore, the disaster management programs should include animal disaster management component, and personnel engaged in their implementation should include animal health professionals or be given a basic orientation about animal’s behavior and welfare. Further, the livestock and pet owners should keep themselves abreast about imminent disasters in their area and their possible impact on animals and how to cope with such disasters in collaboration with disaster management authority and animal production cum health professionals. Keywords
Animal · Disaster · Management · Welfare
Animal welfare has been traditionally focused on principles of freedom from harassment, unnecessary discomfort, and pain; adoption of suitable standards for R. Thakur (*) · P. K. Dogra Department of Livestock Production Management, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_11
115
116
R. Thakur and P. K. Dogra
accommodation, feeding, and care; prevention and treatment of diseases; and therefore intentionally avoiding abuse and exploitation of the animals. This implied merely satisfying essential physical needs of animal, or in other words, the psychological and emotional needs of animal were not paid sufficient attention. Animals have been recognized as sentient beings which means they have the capability to experience feelings and have some level of awareness. The World Organization for Animal Health describes animal welfare as “the physical and mental state of animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies” [1]. An animal is considered to be in good state of welfare if it is healthy, well nourished, comfortable, able to express innate behavior, safe, and not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress. Animal welfare is not limited to just the absence of cruelty or unnecessary sufferings but refers to a healthy/good physical cum mental state and naturalness. The United Kingdom’s Animal Welfare Council has developed an internationally recognized and adopted framework of animal welfare comprising of five freedoms which are as follows: 1. Freedom from hunger, thirst, and malnutrition—by ensuring provision to feed/ fodder and water. 2. Freedom from discomfort—by ensuring provision for comfortable shelter including ambient environment. 3. Freedom from pain, injury, and disease—by undertaking accurate preventive and therapeutic interventions. 4. Freedom to express natural behavior—by providing sufficient space, facilities, and company of animals of own kind. 5. Freedom from fear and distress—by ensuring management practices which avoid mental suffering [2]. However, a number of studies have quantified the economic impact of implementation of animal welfare measures and revealed that the application of animal welfare protocols and practices can indeed strengthen food security and rural income. But these freedoms represent an ideal in animal welfare and are considered very unrealistic in the livestock farms. Further, in disaster where survival of animals is a challenge, meeting the welfare requirement is a further Herculean task. Animal welfare, over the past few decades, has grown into an issue of rising concern across the globe. In many countries, consumers, retailers, and the food industry are demanding higher animal welfare standards from producers of animal origin foodstuffs. Further, compliance with animal welfare standards and equivalence is getting more and more emphasis in intercountry/global trade agreements. Disaster means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property or damage to, or degradation of, environment and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area [3]. Almost all places on earth are vulnerable to natural disasters of varying intensity,
11
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
117
but frequencies of some of these disasters are more in certain areas/countries. Disasters besides directly affecting the human and animal life also affect their livelihood and overall development and growth of the region. There are different ways to classify various disasters, some of which are mentioned below: General classifications include natural, man-made/technological, and complex disasters. The Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards classifies disasters into rapid onset, slow onset, and complex emergencies. The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) classifies emergency events as biological, geophysical, hydrological, meteorological, and climatological [4]. Most of the disaster management activities are focused toward protecting human life followed by property which includes animals and then livelihood. Disasters have varying effect on animals, and the following table depicts different types of disasters and their impact on animals. Sometime there are disasters that can greatly affect the animal population with little or no direct impact on human population. Sr. no. 1
2
Disaster Drought: A drought occurs when there is no substantial rainfall for a long period of time. Drought conditions often develop slowly but if accompanied by extreme heat may aggravate the condition
Floods: They are two types, viz., slow and flashfloods. Slow-rising floods arise as floodwaters move down a river/stream and water level can often be predicted to reach a certain height. Flashfloods are usually the result of extremely heavy
Impact on animals and their welfare Droughts are considered as the leading cause of death in livestock throughout the world as availability of feed/fodder and drinking water is severely curtailed. Initially animals become malnourished and dehydrated. Gradually owing to starvation, the weak animals start dying, and if conditions do not improve, even healthy animals get debilitated. From an animal welfare perspective, it primarily affects the freedom from hunger and thirst Animals are natural swimmers, but they can also get drown, be washed away, or be stranded without shelter, feed/ fodder, and suitable drinking water during floods/tsunami. Flood forces the animals to stand
Management suggestions In drought-prone areas, livestock farmers should practice conservation of feed, fodder, and water resources when available in surplus. In prolonged drought if animals are to be shifted, efforts should be made to make most of the journey during cool parts of the day. Owners should understand the symptom of malnutrition/heat stress/ prostration, dehydration, etc. and should try to take corrective action
In flood-prone areas, animal houses should be constructed at higher levels such that floodwater does not enter animal sheds. If there is forewarning of very heavy rains or flood, animals should be shifted to higher/safe areas. From (continued)
118 Sr. no.
R. Thakur and P. K. Dogra
Disaster rain like cloud burst or melting snow and occur suddenly. They can also result from a dam breakage or discharge of huge amount of water from dams following heavy rains in the catchment areas
3
Fires: Incidence of uncontrolled burning sometime occurs in grasslands, in forests, and even in animal houses. In temperate areas where animal houses are largely made of wood, the effect of fire may be more devastating. Fire hazards are more common in dry weather but may occur anytime of the year
Impact on animals and their welfare in contaminated floodwater for long period which increased risk of infectious diseases like foot rot and dermatitis. Dung may get washed away from manure heaps/pits, and high concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and lead can leach into the environment and contaminate water bodies/supplies. If this occurs, it may lead to eutrophication killing fish and other aquatic animals in water bodies. From an animal welfare perspective, initially it causes discomfort as animal cannot lie and rest on floor flooded with water. But in prolonged cases, the quality of feed and water gets deteriorated, and animal’s susceptibility to various diseases increases Extensive burn injury may lead to death. Nylon ropes used as halter/snare/ tethering being highly inflammable catch fire easily and may aggravate the burn injury. Exposure to fires is accompanied by smoke inhalation; therefore, all animals exposed to fire should be monitored for smoke inhalation pneumonia. Besides, smoke inhalation and burn wounds in animals also demand veterinary attention. Blast injuries and explosions accompanied with fire may result in injuries such as ruptured eardrums and penetrating wounds [5]. From a welfare perspective, fire may
Management suggestions flooded areas, efforts should be made to drain the water from animal shed and affected animal be examined and treated at the earliest
Affected animals should be examined and treated by veterinary professionals. Installation of fire extinguishers in large animal houses will be of immense help. Incidence of fire hazards in animal sheds is observed more when doors and windows are closed and the demand for heating, cooling, and lighting is at its peak; therefore, farm manager should remain more vigilant during these times. Further dry grasses and wood should not be stored in proximity to animal houses
(continued)
11 Sr. no.
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
Disaster
4
Earthquakes refer to sudden wave-like movement/shaking of the earth’s surface
5
Landslides refer to downslope movement of rock, soil, or other debris often triggered by some earthquake, mining, excavation, and deforestation
6
Heavy snowfall and snowstorms can trap people and animals inside buildings or in pastures
Impact on animals and their welfare compromise the freedom from pain, injury, fear, and stress in affected animals Sudden shaking of earth surface may sometime ground the animal shed causing injury, or animals get crushed. Sometime the fences used to confine animals get damaged and animals run away. Animals’ behavior can change, or they may become disoriented if there is seismic activity for extended periods of time. Animals may become very nervous and apprehensive—They can bite, kick, or scratch in anxiety. Blockage/ disturbance in transportation may create food and other resource shortages for large commercial animal-based enterprises. It primarily compromise freedom to express natural behavior Landslides are more common in hilly areas. It often results in crushing, cutting injuries, fractures, and loss of life. It may also damage sheds that house equipment and animals. It primarily causes discomfort that also compromises the freedom from pain, injury, fear, and stress Extreme low temperatures may cause hypothermia. If power supply is disrupted by heavy snow, it poses serious problem for commercial dairy farmers, as without electricity supply, machine milking may not be possible. Similarly, in large swine
119
Management suggestions
Damage to animal house will compromise animal shelter, but prolonged seismic activity also curtails expression of natural behavior. Animals may show anxiety, biting, pulling hairs, and running aimlessly. In such scenario, an experienced handler should attend the animal and try to calm them. Reuniting familiar animals together also helps the affected animal in returning to normal behavior
The affected animals should be shifted to a safe and secure shelter at the earliest. The injured animals should be examined and attended by veterinary professionals. In the long run, animal owners should be discouraged from constructing animal shelter in landslide-prone areas If stranded in open pastures, efforts should be made to keep the animals in close contact with each other as it will keep them warm. The door and windows of animal houses should be kept shut to protect the animals from severe cold conditions. (continued)
120 Sr. no.
R. Thakur and P. K. Dogra
Disaster
7
Cyclones more commonly affect coastal areas but may also involve inland regions
8
Volcanic eruption occurs from weak spots or breaks in the earth’s crust which allows the magma to push toward the surface
Impact on animals and their welfare and poultry farms, automatic feeding, watering, egg collection, etc. may not be possible. Animals trapped in pasture may not get anything to eat and may die of hypothermia and hunger. From a welfare perspective, the freedom from discomfort is compromised most owing to very low temperature. Further, due to nonavailability of feed and fodder, the freedom from hunger and thirst is also affected In strong winds and cyclones, traumatic injuries will predominate. Animal shelters’ roof may get blown away; feed/fodder stock may also get destroyed. Cyclones are also accompanied by heavy rainfall and flooding, so animals may also get drowned. From a welfare perspective, freedom from discomfort is primarily affected as, under these circumstances, animals are shifted to makeshift shelters and housed with unfamiliar animals. The availability of feed and fodder is also limited A volcanic eruption could damage animal sheds, ash contaminating feed and water sources and even damaging the eyes, skin, and lungs of affected animals. More severe effects of lava and emanating gases lead to burns and toxicities, respectively. Further, due to unfamiliar sounds, smells, and sights
Management suggestions Further, in case of forewarning, livestock farmers especially with migratory flocks should try to reach some safe place before the expected snowfall/snowstorm
As soon as forewarning of cyclone is announced/ broadcast, the animals should be relocated to a safer shelter with adequate space and feed and fodder resources. If animals cannot be relocated, leave them untethered. Further stray animals on street may also be provided shelter and attended with compassion
The affected animals if suffering from any kind of burn or irritation should be attended and treated at the earliest. Animals should not be grazed or housed very close to volcanoes
(continued)
11
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
Sr. no.
Disaster
9
Lightning: It involves a giant spark of electricity produced by thunderstorms owing to difference in electrostatic charge
10
Hazardous materials: It includes direct or indirect contact to chemicals and nuclear and other harmful agents
11.1
Impact on animals and their welfare following volcanic eruption, producing and pet animals can easily become confused and get lost. From a welfare perspective, animal’s freedom from discomfort is compromised When it directly strikes the animals, it leads to sudden death. Besides, it may also injure or kill animals by side flash, touch potential, and step potential. The affected animals have burnt ears, charred bodies, and burn marks on body parts. In the survivor, it may compromise the freedom from fear and stress Animals are susceptible to irritations and burns by direct contact with chemicals and nuclear and other harmful agents. In smallholder dairy, sheep, and goat farming, animal sheds are often shared as store for agricultural chemicals/fertilizers. Such chemicals consumed may cause toxicity and sometime death. It primarily compromises the freedom from pain, injury, and diseases
121
Management suggestions
Animal should not be allowed to graze in open during lightning. Animal houses should be protected from such hazards by appropriate means
The affected animals ought to be examined and treated at the earliest. Further animal owners should be advised not to store hazardous chemicals in animal sheds
Impact of Disaster on Animals
Disasters affect the animals in a variety of ways, and their impact on producing as well as pet animals is not efficiently assessed owing to limited resources and lack of dedicated system. However, as per the India’s Central Water Commission data, on an average, 97,000 cattle are lost due to floods and heavy rains alone every year in the country based on the statistics from 1953 to 2011. In the United States, according to the American Veterinary Medical Association, 58.9% of all households own animals. In India, as per the livestock census of 2012, out of a total of more than 260 million households, 24.8% households are rearing
122
R. Thakur and P. K. Dogra
cattle, 14.9% buffalo, 12.6% goat, 1.7% sheep, 0.9% pig, 11.5% backyard poultry, and 7.6% birds in farms/hatchery. This percentage is more in rural areas compared to urban areas which is in close agreement with the estimates that around 70% of rural households in India depend on livestock for additional income. On the other hand, in urban areas, population of pets is believed to be more. In India, 38% cattle, 55% buffaloes, 25% sheep, 41% goats, 47% pigs, and 8% camels are prone to floods. Similarly, 30% cattle, 30% buffaloes, 61% sheep, 35% goats, 17% pigs, and 65% camels are estimated to be prone to drought. The livestock density per 1000 human in drought-prone areas and flood-prone areas is 579 and 388, respectively [6]. Livestock plays an important role in economy and socioeconomic development across the globe more so in developing countries. In India, livestock contributes toward livelihood of nearly 67% of population. Every place on earth is vulnerable to a variety of natural disasters though the frequency and intensity of these disasters may vary widely. In the context of vulnerability to disasters, small, marginal farmers and economically weaker sections are affected more intensely. In developing countries where mixed/integrated farming is practiced, livestock serves as insurance against disasters like drought, flood, etc. when agriculture crop failure occurs. When disasters strike, both people and animals suffer, and the spectrum of suffering is by and large the same, i.e., anxiety, stress, fear, hunger, thirst, illness, injury, and death. In disaster, the livestock is more often seen as a victim, but for farming community for whom livestock is linked to livelihood and animals, they serve a great hope. Therefore, management of livestock during disaster is very important to protect owners especially small and marginal farmers from economic losses and spread of diseases. The health and well-being of humans and animals are intertwined. People need their animals to be safe and healthy, so that they can survive, move on, and rebuild their lives/livelihood. The pets as well as other livestock need care and protection from suffering and injuries. Mahatma Gandhi’s famous quote “the greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated” is a constant reminder to policy makers of our responsibilities toward these creatures. It is important for disaster management agencies to include all local, state, and national disaster management plans and programs. Although livestock and pet owners have responsibility of managing their animals, during disasters, state/national disaster management plans besides focusing on human welfare should also include an animal emergency management plan, which fulfills the basic cum welfare needs of farm and pet animals. During disasters, survival and welfare of animals are not just an animal issue—society also needs animals to reestablish socially, financially, as well as emotionally. In disasters, the risk for some of the stock to escape is also high which can separate the domestic as well as pet animals from their owners. These separated animals may get disorientated leading to increased aggression and threaten the public. They may wander onto roads and railway tracks leading to an increased risk to motorists, traffic, and general public.
11
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
11.2
123
Animal Welfare Management During Disasters/Emergency
During disasters, very little attention is paid toward protecting and saving animals and their welfare, but keeping in view their importance in livelihood of majority of farmers in developing countries and emotional attachment of pets to their owners, we need to reorient our focus and resources and should pay attention toward animals as well. Herein, we need to meticulously plan across all four stages of disaster management, viz., prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery [7]. Prevention: It includes different activities which must be undertaken in disasterprone zone to prevent an emergency. Through concerted planning and efforts, the incidence/intensity of disasters and their consequent impact on animals can be reduced, or in other words, animal sufferings can be minimized. For example, in earthquake-prone zone, use of heavy and sharp-edged material in roof may be avoided so that even if the structure collapses, it may not cause much harm to animals. Similarly, in hilly areas, farmers should be advised to avoid constructing animal houses very close to water streams or base of steep slopes to reduce the animal mortality during flashfloods and landslides. Restricting loafing cum grazing of livestock in disaster-prone areas especially during seasonal weather changes would also reduce risk. Further, such farmers may be advised to remain updated about weather forecasts before moving to such areas. In areas where farmers traditionally migrate with their animals in search of better pastures, they should keep updated about forecast of bad weather or warning related to sudden change in weather broadcast by concerned agency and should take preventive measures like temporary change of migration route or plan a halt/slow down/accelerate the movement to avoid such weather conditions. In drought-prone zones, more emphasis should be given on conservation of water and strengthening the green cover. Farmers should be motivated to grow droughtresistant varieties of fodder crops/trees. In fire-prone zones, combustible materials used in animal farms like dry fodder like wheat straw, hay, etc. should be kept in separate store, far from animal house. Preparedness: It refers to the arrangements which ensure that if a disaster strikes, the resources and services which are urgently required can be mobilized and deployed effectively without any obstruction. Issuing an early alert or warning should serve as a starting point for such preparedness. For example, migratory farmers should keep themselves updated about such alert/warnings and accordingly either temporarily halt their migration or accelerate/slow down their movement so that they have adequate feed and fodder and water resource and also shelter at least for neonate in event of emergency. Disasters owing to accompanied stress often compromise the immune status of animals rendering them more vulnerable to endemic pathogen and parasites. So, steps like prophylactic vaccination and deworming may help keep the animals healthy even in event of disaster. The evacuation of vulnerable human and animals is also an important part of
124
R. Thakur and P. K. Dogra
preparedness. An evacuation is an important component when disasters have been predicted. Appropriate planning in coordination with fellow livestock or pet owners and local disaster management authority before evacuation is essential. Care is needed while transporting animals as long journey by foot and loading and unloading of animals are stressful and compromise animal welfare. Awareness of behavioral knowledge of different livestock species like level of nervousness and aggressiveness, leader-follower relationship in herd/group, and its effective implementation during handling can contribute greatly in minimizing stress and optimize the welfare of producing as well as pet animals [6]. Response: It comprises of all the steps which are taken to contain the harmful impact of disaster on human, animal, and property. These activities intend to reduce the suffering of injured, locate the missing, and rescue/evacuate the trapped individuals and animals. Further, it includes assessing the immediate need of affected community. State and national disaster management authorities play the lead role in planning and executing these activities with the help of concerned government departments as well as non-government organizations. In the case of animals for effective response, personnel from state and national disaster relief force, professionals from the Department of Animal Husbandry, and veterinarians and livestock/pet owners should work synergistically and complement each other. In this phase, the individuals should try to stay calm and assess the situation. The owners should restrain their animals at the earliest and try to get them evacuated to safer place. If delayed, animals may sense danger and get disoriented, making it more tedious to catch and control. Nobody should put him-/herself or others at risk. An attempt to rescue the animal should be made only after ensuring that it does not endangers individual’s own life or health or that of others. Animal owners should pay heed to emergency alerts conveyed through print and electronic media including radio and television or through cellphone and the Internet. They should take note of instructions and guidelines on what they ought to do and whether/where special arrangements have been made for people with animals and abide by the instructions in coordination with neighboring livestock owners. If the animal is injured and bleeding, apply a direct pressure bandage with a clean cotton cloth to stop bleeding. In the event of exposure of animals to hazardous chemicals, professionals’ or experienced elders’ help should be sought to provide first aid. In some disasters, situation may force the livestock cum pet owners to leave their animals behind; in such circumstance, owners must have proper identification of each animal and keep a record of such identification with oneself, as later it may help to identify and reunite the separated stock or stake claim from insurance agencies. Leaving animals behind should be the last resort. While leaving animals, the owner must ensure they are not tethered because loose animals are believed to have a better chance of survival. During disasters, the collars and tags used for pet or producing animals may sometimes get dislodged and lost. In such circumstances, any permanent tattoo, a
11
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
125
radiofrequency identification chip, or similar tag will enhance the chances of recovery of animal. During large-scale disasters when hundreds of animals are evacuated and shifted to safer places, identification of the relocated animals and their owners is difficult. Ideally, all livestock as well as pet animals should be permanently identified as upon separation it helps the owners to effectively identify their animals and sometimes even others can trace the owner of a separated animal. For permanent identification microchips, branding or tattoo may be used. Additionally, owners may have photographs of their animals in different angles for easy identification at a later stage. However, when this is not feasible, the following emergency identification methods can be used: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Applying paint on the horns/hooves. Applying crayon or hair dye on body parts, e.g., wither. Clipping hair to mark/etch phone numbers or farm initials. Putting neck band of uniform color/identification. Writing name/number with paint or permanent markers on halters/neck bands.
Shelter: Emergency animal shelter should be located close to human habitation, so that animal owners can effectively manage their animals. In the shelter, animals may be housed according to species, age groups, production, and pregnancy status. It will also help in arranging feed/fodder resources and other management as per the need of different animal groups and will contribute toward better animal welfare. At emergency animal shelter, animals from different sources may get aggregated. It often leads to infighting among unknown animals in an attempt to establish social order. Such fighting may be avoided by identifying the aggressive animals and placing them in separate shelter or tethering those at the corner of designated place. Arranging many small animal shelters in place of one large shelter may be more effective. Nutrition: During short-term disasters like flashflood, the feed/fodder availability may be curtailed for a brief period, but in long-term disasters like drought, feeding/ watering feed/fodder and even water availability become a challenge for a considerable period. In such instances, every effort should be made to arrange feed/fodder to at least meet the minimum requirement of animals to save their life and sustain production if possible. Feed/fodder resources and water should be provided on priority to pregnant and lactating animals. The feed/fodder and water offered to animal may smell and taste different, and initially, it may not consume, but with passage of time, animal starts consuming. If problem persists, try to mask the smell of feed/fodder by adding some flavoring agent like molasses. When large animals like cattle, buffalo, and horses are evacuated and housed in large numbers, it becomes difficult to arrange sufficient quantity and quality of feed/ fodder. Further, animals especially horses are also highly susceptible to health disorders like colic, laminitis, etc. upon sudden change in feeding routine making their feeding
126
R. Thakur and P. K. Dogra
more challenging. In such scenarios, providing diets that meet the minimum nutritional requirements and energy levels reduces the likelihood of illness. After a disaster, postmortem examination of dead animals should also be performed so that insurance claims can be settled. The disposal of carcass should be done at the earliest and as per standard recommendations so that it does not become a source of infection for other animals and also not pollute the environment. Recovery: It refers to all the efforts directed toward helping disaster-affected people in reestablishing their infrastructure and restoring their emotional and social well-being. It is considered the most vital phase in disaster management and starts after the disaster has taken place and no immediate danger is evident. It includes efforts made to return the situation back to normal or, sometimes, safer than before. When the disaster has passed, the surroundings get rearranged and often become unfamiliar. Animals especially pets which rely on smell and visual cues may become disoriented and show altered behavior. In such cases, try to communicate with the animal calmly and in a manner they are familiar with. Placing such animal in a familiar setting, insulated from external stimuli, may also help [8]. Once the animal has relaxed, check it for any injury or exposure to hazardous chemicals. If the animal exhibits lethargy, inappetence, irritation, depression, or injury, get it examined by an animal health specialist. During recovery phase, initially offer food and water several times to animal in small quantity, and gradually increase to normal level over 3–4 days. Allow the pet to have plenty of uninterrupted sleep which will help it to recover from the stress and trauma. During this phase, bathing, excessive exercise, or diet change should be avoided. If owners and animals are separated, the owner should pay frequent visits to emergency animal shelters, kennels, and veterinary offices and talk to fellow animal owners until the animals are found/declared dead or their carcass is retrieved. After disasters, livestock from several different households or farms may be forced to congregate at one place. It changes the herd hierarchy which may result in fighting or aggressive behavior sometimes leading to injury. Congregation of animals from different herds also increases the possibilities of spread of contagious diseases, but by judicious use of vaccinations, deworming, sanitation, and hygiene, such risks can be effectively averted. Installing fire extinguishers in livestock farms and training personnel working in these farms about effectively using them to control fires can help to reduce animal suffering following fire hazards. Following flood, animal feed and fodder may get moldy leading to a higher level of mycotoxins in animal/poultry feed which compromise animal production and welfare. Such feed ingredients should be thoroughly dried, mixed/diluted with goodquality feed ingredients from other sources, and used with enhanced level of toxin binders. Restoring and strengthening animal healthcare facility in the locality after disaster is also important to safeguard animal health and welfare.
11
Animal Welfare and Livestock-Related Responses During Disasters
127
Saving life and reducing human suffering is the first priority in any disaster relief operation. It is followed by protecting property which includes animals. Because of this, disaster management officials are most of the time ill-equipped to deal with animals as property or the restoration of animal-related enterprises. Some of these officials may even shy away from attending animal-related activities. Therefore, personnel engaged in disaster relief should also be imparted basic animal health cum management-related awareness. Further, livestock as well as pet owners should work in cohesion with the disaster management agency and related groups in preparedness planning for a disaster for which warning/alert has been issued as, after disaster has struck, very little time is left for preparation.
References 1. https://www.oie.int/en/what-we-do/animal-health-and-welfare/animal-welfare/ 2. LEGS (2014) Livestock emergency guidelines and standards, 2nd edn. Practical Action Publishing, Rugby 3. The Disaster Management Act (2005) Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India 4. Kumaravel P, Rajkumar NV, Yasotha A, Balagangatharathilagar M, Saraswathi S, Athilakshmy P (2020) A handbook on management of animals in disaster. Department of Veterinary and AH Extension Education, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai 5. Wingfield WE, Palmer SB (2009) Veterinary disaster response. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, 584p. ISBN: 978-0-813-81014-0 6. (2016) Disaster management plan. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare, Government of India, pp 1–24 7. Das N (2011) Nutrition and care of livestock during natural disaster. Stadium Press. ISBN 10: 938001225X/ISBN 13: 9789380012254 8. Patel BHM, Prasanna SB, Gouri MD (2015) Animal welfare and management. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, p 551. ISBN-13: 9788193014462
Feeding Strategies of Livestock During Natural Disasters
12
Daisy Wadhwa, S. Upadhyay, Arun Sharma, and Shivani Katoch
Abstract
Livestock rearing plays a vital role in rural peoples’ economy as one fourth of global poor keep livestock. It serves as a poor man’s ATM. During disasters, the livestock suffers the most as there is a conflict between man and livestock for the resources. The livestock suffer from injuries, disease, and hunger. Shelterless, starved, and dehydrated animals become much prone to many types of diseases. So, livestock management with respect to their welfare, especially with regard to feeding and watering of the survivors, has been a major challenge to the veterinarians. This chapter describes the strategies which can be used to save the livestock from starvation. The role of various nutrients in saving them from health hazards, minimum requirements of feed and water of various livestock for their survival, alternate feed materials which can be used during such period of time, and pre- and post-disaster feed management including mitigation and preparedness have been discussed in details. Keywords
Feeds · Tree leaves · Fodder bank · Multi-nutrient lick · Ensiling · Crop residues · Mitigation
D. Wadhwa (*) · S. Upadhyay · A. Sharma · S. Katoch Department of Animal Nutrition, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] # The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Verma, H. T. Prem (eds.), Management of Animals in Disasters, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9392-2_12
129
130
12.1
D. Wadhwa et al.
Introduction
In natural resource-based livelihood, the role of livestock is extremely important especially for rural people since a quarter of global poor keeps livestock. It globally accounts for 40% of gross value of agricultural production [1] and contributes 24% in the agriculture and allied fields of India. Livestock provides stability to family income in rural areas. Livestock can be called as the poor people’s ATM. They build their herds in favorable period and sell them to meet their emergency requirements. During disasters, there is a conflict between animals and humans for the resources. Animals are displaced and abandoned in disaster zones. They suffer from injuries, diseases, hunger, and dehydration. Consequently, humans may be left with no income, and they have no way to rebuild their lives, if their working animals are killed, injured, or lost. Therefore, livestock management with reference to their overall welfare and feeding, during such disastrous situations, is a major challenge to the veterinarians. Disaster is a serious disruption of functioning of society causing widespread human, animal, material, or environmental losses, which exceeds the ability of society to cope using its own resources. Disasters occur even in the most developed countries, and they are common every year in India. During and after disasters, saving of human lives is the top priority. Rescue, relief, and rehabilitation efforts are more directed toward people of that area, and least attention is paid to the livestock. The shelterless, feed-deprived, and overcrowded animals become more prone to infectious and contagious diseases. So, there is occurrence of epidemic especially in post-disaster period, and as a result, a huge death toll of livestock occurs even in a small area. For example, in Andhra Pradesh in 1996, due to flood in Krishna River, total cattle mortality was 6295, and out of it, 6189 cattle died only in one district (Kurnool). In the same year, cyclonic storms struck Andhra Pradesh causing 20,000 cattle deaths and 20,00,000 poultry deaths worth Rs. 45 crores, whereas 3,00,000 cattle and buffaloes died in West Bengal in 1996 due to floods.
12.2
Types of Disasters
Natural disasters can be categorized into three categories: (a) hydrometeorological disasters, (b) geophysical disasters, and (c) geomorphological disasters (Fig. 12.1). (a) Hydrometeorological disasters: floods are the most widely documented disasters. About 50–60% of cropped area in flood-affected area remains usually submerged, and it takes almost 30 days for the field to use for cultivation purpose. The other most widespread hydrometeorological disaster is the drought; it can be called as “a silent killer.” It is characterized by prolonged period of water scarcity affecting natural resources, environment, and thereby people. About 16% of the total area of India is drought prone, and approximately 50 million people are annually affected by droughts. (b) Geophysical disasters: they are the second most reported type of natural disaster, and earthquakes are the most common disasters in this category. Tsunamis are
12
Feeding Strategies of Livestock During Natural Disasters
131
Fig. 12.1 Types of natural disasters
commonly associated with earthquakes. They have similar threat profile to that of the tropical cyclones. (c) Geomorphological disasters: these include landslides and avalanches that are also associated with animal sufferings, but documentation is lacking.
12.3
Effects of Floods on Livestock
These are the most common (40%) natural disasters worldwide. They result in loss of standing crops because the crops get submerged in water. Stored dry roughages are damaged, resulting in spoilage and loss of digestible nutrients. Washing away of stored dry roughages also occurs by currents of floodwater. Stored food grains also get damaged due to high moisture and may have fungal growth on them, and so the grains become toxic due to presence of mycotoxins. Flood also causes pollution of water with dung, urine, debris, and other wastes. All this leads to acute shortage of feeds and fodders and reduces nutritive value of pastures, and as a result, the animals suffer from starvation for prolonged periods. Nutrient-deficit and homeless animals are under great stress, and their immune system becomes very poor making them prone to various types of contagious diseases. Infectious diseases become the major cause of decreased productive and reproductive efficiency of livestock. As a consequence, the viability of the calf crop in post-flood period becomes very poor. So the occurrence of floods affects the economy of the people who are dependent on livestock for their livelihood.
132
12.4
D. Wadhwa et al.
Effect of Drought on Livestock
In India, the probability of occurrence of drought varies from one every 2 years to once every 15 years, being the highest in Rajasthan and the lowest in Assam. Out of the total 44 years (from 1965 to 2009) in Orissa, droughts occurred 19 times, floods 17 times, and cyclones 7 times. So in total 44 years, natural calamities, in one form or the other, occurred 43 times in Orissa. The main effects of drought include compromised water quality and quantity, decreased crop yield and forage yield, altered plant population, development of toxic metabolites in plants, and increase in parasitic load as the eggs of parasites get concentrated in the base of the pastures. So due to decreased supply of energy and micronutrients and increased parasitic load in water bodies and grazing lands, the animals lose their body condition, and the milk production decreases in moderate degree of drought. High environmental temperatures reduce the intensity of estrus activity, and it also affects semen quality of bulls, thereby affecting fertility of livestock. In severe degree of drought, reproductive activity may even cease. The animals develop craving for inedible things which further complicates the situation. The livestock suffers from a number of health, reproductive, and production problems due to the deficiency of nutrients (Table 12.1). The other types of natural disasters occur suddenly. During such disasters, a sudden shortage of feed and water occurs. The precision of prediction of droughts, floods, tsunami, and cyclones has improved a lot these days. So preparedness for these types of disasters is more important to save the livestock from starvation. The following strategies can be adopted for feeding livestock during natural disasters: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Reallocation of a given amount of feed in the herd. Purchase of feed from surplus locations. Use of crop residues. Use of soaked straws and stovers.
Table 12.1 Effect of nutrient deficiency/deprivation on livestock [2] S. no. 1.
Nutrient Energy
2.
Protein
3.
Vitamin A
4. 5. 6.
Phosphorus Selenium/ vit. E Copper/Na
7.
Zinc
Consequence Delayed puberty, suppressed estrus and ovulation, suppressed libido, and spermatozoa production Suppressed estrus, low conception, fetal resorption, premature parturition, weak offspring Impaired spermatogenesis, anestrus, low conception rate, abortion, weak offspring, retained placenta Anestrus, irregular estrus Retained placenta Depressed reproduction, impaired immune system, impaired ovarian function Reduced spermatogenesis
12
Feeding Strategies of Livestock During Natural Disasters
133
5. Use of aquatic plants. 6. Use of liquid feeds.
12.5
Reallocation of a Given Amount of Feed in the Herd
As there is a shortage of feeds during natural calamity, priority should be given to save the animals from dying. For this, we can divert nutrients from lactating animals to all other animals or divert nutrients from both growing animals and lactating animals to all other animals in the herd. All the animals should be fed for maintenance to ensure their survival. The guidelines provided in Table 12.2 can be followed to feed and water various types of livestock for saving the animals due to starving.
12.6
Purchase of Feed from Surplus Locations
During floods, the crops originally intended for human consumption get damaged and are rendered unfit for human consumption. Such crops can be used for animal feeding. But this requires funding for transportation and processing of the damaged crops, but damage to roads and rail tracks may limit this option. However, if the funds are arranged, and the areas where the rail track and roads are intact, this is a cost-effective response activity, and it should be included as part of disaster relief efforts. Table 12.2 Minimum requirements of water and feed of different animals during disaster S. no. 1.
Species Dairy cow
2.
Sheep/goat
3.
Poultry
4.
Swine
5. 6.
Horses Cats and dogs
Physiological stage In production Dry Heifer Cow with calf Calf Ewe/doe with lamb/kid Ewe/doe Weanling lamb/kid Layers (per 100 birds) Broilers (per 100 birds) Turkeys (per 100 birds) Sow with litter Pregnant sow Boar All breeds All breeds
Water l/day 30–32 25–30 10–15 15–20 8–10 4.5 3.5 2 15 10 35 15 10 3.0 20–40 0.750
Feed (kg)/day 8–10 8–10 3–5 5–7 2–3 2.5 1.25 1.25 7.5 4.5 20 3.2 0.700 1.5 10 Ad lib
134
12.7
D. Wadhwa et al.
Use of Crop Residues
Crop residues are contributing 44% to the overall feed resources of India. It has been estimated that by 2020, crop residues would reach 70% of Indian feed budget [3]. A number of crop residues are available such as straws, stovers, sugarcane bagasse, etc. They supply little protein but have fair amount of energy and satisfy the appetite of animals. Transport of bulky materials is a major constraint in using them as it is very expensive besides causing a traffic hazard. So the feeding materials can be mixed in proper ratio and be compressed to prepare compressed complete feed blocks (CCFBs, Fig. 12.2). Roughages/tree leaves/vegetable and fruit wastes such as cotton stalks, maize cobs, sunflower heads, sunflower straw, bajra straw, sorghum stover, maize stover, sugarcane bagasse, cottonseed hulls, etc. can be used up to 70% level in complete feed blocks [4]. Storage and transportation space required is reduced to 1/6 to 1/7 by making CCFBs. These can also be made as a part of feed bank [5]. Special CCFBs can also be made as concentrated source of protein (13–18% DCP) and energy (50–60% TDN) by using different formulations. Some tree leaves such as Ber, Celtis, Grewia, Robinia, and Mulberry can serve as production type of roughages, whereas Oak, Peepal, Bamboo, Su-babool, etc. can serve as maintenance rations. The availability and nutrient contents of some commonly used tree leaves have been given in the following Table 12.3. Vegetable and fruit wastes are good sources of protein (10–26%), Ca (0.5–2.5%), and vitamin A (Table 12.4) [6]. Most of them can be used up to 50% in total mixed rations. Vegetable leaves, such as cabbage, cauliflower, potato, pea plants, etc., are good sources of protein and fair sources of soluble sugars [7]. Pasture and native range may become dormant due to drought, and these pastures and forages are low in energy, vitamin A, phosphorus, and protein. Supplemental feeding of these nutrients should be done when using pastures or the previously mentioned unconventional feed stuffs. Feeding of mineral mixture and common salt should always be done under such situations. Use of multi-nutrient licks (Fig. 12.3) can help up to a great extent in making up the nutrient deficiencies. They can be
Fig. 12.2 Compressed complete feed blocks and block making machine (left) and feeding of compressed complete feed (right)
12
Feeding Strategies of Livestock During Natural Disasters
135
Table 12.3 Potential nutritive value of commonly used tree leaves S. no. 1.
Common name Bamboo
Local name Banjh
2.
Ber
Ber
3.
Khair
4.
Black cutch Celtis
Khirk
5.
Grewia
Biul
6.
Kachnar
Karaley
7. 8.
Mulberry Oak
Toot Ban
9.
Peepal
Peepal
10.
Robinia
Robinia
11.
Siris
Ohe
12.
Subabul
Lucenia
Scientific name Bambusa arundinacea Ziziphus nummularia Acacia catechu Celtis australis Grewia optiva Bauhinia variegata Morus alba Quercus spp. Ficus religiosa Robinia pseudoacacia Albizia lebbeck Leucaena leucocephala
Available during Around the year
CP, CF, EE (%) 14.09, 58,
Summer
18.6, 14–16, 2.7
Summer
13–15, 22, 4.6–8.9
Summer
15.33, 18–22, 2.2–6.33
Winter
20–23, 18–21, 3.4
Winter
7 (DCP, with 1.5% tannins), 24–26, 2–3.5 11.4, 3.4, 2.7 11.42, 29, 4.5
Rainy Annual (avoid spring leaves) Around the year Winter
5.47 (DCP), 27, 2.7
Winter
10.0 (DCP, with 1.9% tannins), 18.2, 4.3 18.9, 32–34, 3.8
Around the year
15.22, 32–34, 3.8
Other locally available fodder tree leaves can also be used. However, the presence of anti-nutritional factors should be taken into consideration before their use
easily stored and transported. These multi-nutrient licks increase intake of poorquality roughages and their digestibility. Care must be taken to use only enough quantity of urea to avoid toxicity, but ensure NH3N level > 200 mg/l for efficient microbial protein synthesis. Brans present in multi-nutrient licks provide P besides protein and fat. Ca and iron are provided by molasses. The nutritive value of these poor-quality roughages can be improved by using some processing techniques. A number of processing methods which can be adopted are as follows: 1. Instant treatment of roughages Materials required: Roughages: 100 kg. Molasses: 10 kg. Urea: 1 kg. Mineral mixture: 2 kg. Salt: 1 kg. Water: 5 l.
136
D. Wadhwa et al.
Table 12.4 Protein content and the recommended level of feeding of fruit and vegetable wastes [6] S. no. 1 2 3 4
Item Cauliflower leaves/radish leaves Black chickpea plant Cabbage leaves Pea vines
5 Radish leaves 6 Summer squash vines 7 Baby corn husk 8 Carrot 9 Snow peas Cannery waste 10 Pea pods 11 Carrot pulp 12 Citrus pulp 13 Rejected mustard leaves and stems/ Sarson saag waste Miscellaneous wastes 14 Apple pomace 15 Bottle gourd pulp 16 Grape pomace 17 Pineapple bran 18 Sugar beet pulp 19 Tomato pomace Fruit waste 20 Banana peels 21 Muskmelon peels 22 Watermelon peels
CP % 21.9 17.0 13.6 19.9 11.8 19.4 13.9 11.6 23.2
Level tested/recommended 25% 40% 20% Ruminants relish them; pea straw is better than wheat straw 40–50 kg fresh – Any level 15–20 kg, staple diet of horses 50–55 kg
19.8 7.2 10.5 15.0
– 15–20 kg 50–55 kg fresh 40–50 kg
7.7 24.3 13.1 4.6 10.0 22.1
30% in conc. 50% in conc. – Silage up to 25% 30% 32%, 15% in broiler ration
8.1 9.5 7.9
12–20 kg fresh, 20% in growing pigs 25% 30%
Fig. 12.3 Multi-nutrient licks: small sized (left) and large sized (right)
12
Feeding Strategies of Livestock During Natural Disasters
137
Fig. 12.4 Silage making in plastic drums having airtight lid with clamps
Method: 1 kg urea, 10 kg molasses, 2 kg mineral mixture, and 1 kg salt are mixed in a 5-l water, and this mixture is thoroughly mixed in 100 kg roughage. The treated roughage can be fed to livestock just after mixing. This is the best method to meet the nutrient requirements of livestock under emergency situations. By treating the roughage with urea, just before feeding, digestibility increases by 5 units. This is the most viable and easiest chemical treatment with practical potential under field conditions. It saves on concentrate feeding and increases milk yield. 2. Ensiling (a) By using urea. Materials required: Poor-quality roughage/sugarcane bagasse: 100 kg. Urea: 3 kg. Water: 35–40 l. Method: Mix urea in a 1-l water very thoroughly, and then mix this solution with 100 kg roughage. This mixture is ensiled for 15 days. Digestibility of this material increases by 10 units and saves on concentrate feeding and increases milk yield. (b) Ensiling of apple pomace and wheat straw Apple pomace (AP) can be ensiled by mixing it with wheat straw (WS) in the ratio of 85:15. These mixtures can easily be ensiled in used plastic drums, which are normally used in synthetic resin industry for storing and transporting resins. These drums have airtight lid with a clamp (Fig. 12.4).
138
D. Wadhwa et al.
It has been reported that it is the best method to preserve and feed AP to cattle. Feeding this mixture reduced the expenditure incurred on feeding to gain 1 kg body weight by 25.22% than feeding ensiled AP mixed with fresh WS, whereas feeding ensiled AP + fresh WS in the ratio of 85:15 resulted in moderate growth in calves [8]. It has also been reported that the use of complete feed based on ensiled mixture of AP and WS could support the growth rate of 497 g/day in crossbred calves with a feed efficiency ratio of 0.1475. However, under highly controlled conditions, it may support growth rate of up to 762 g/day [9]. (c) Ensiling by using poultry droppings Ensiling of straws along with some amount of locally available grasses or fruit wastes from fruit processing industry can be done with poultry droppings. The latter serves as a source of nitrogen (as it contains uric acid) along with certain minerals. Besides adding these nutrients to the material, it also helps in preservation of the ensiled materials. The following two methods can be adopted for use in exigencies: • Using straw and grass with poultry droppings [10] Materials required: – Straw: 40 parts. – Poultry droppings: 40 parts. – Green grass: 10 parts. – Molasses: 10 parts. Maize flour can replace molasses for ensiling wheat straw, without affecting nutrient utilization in cow calves [11]. • Using straw and fruit waste with poultry droppings. Materials required: – Straw: 50 parts. – Fruit waste: 25 parts. – Poultry droppings: 25 parts. All these materials are mixed thoroughly and ensiled under airtight conditions for 3 weeks and can be fed to ruminants after giving adaptation of 3–4 days.
12.8
Use of Soaked Straws and Stovers
The straws and stovers which have been soaked in flood can be fed to livestock after receding floodwater, but they must be processed before feeding. Soaked roughages can be mixed with salt at 0.5–1% after squeezing water. This material can be fed as such, and salt preserves this for 5–7 days. Or, if possible, the soaked materials may be dried in the sun to moisture