Making Men Moral: Social Engineering During the Great War 9780814725009

Citation preview

Making Men Moral

The American Social Experience S E R I E S James Kirby Martin G E N E R A L E D I T O

R

Paula S. Fass, Steven H. Mintz, Carl Prince, James W. Reed & Peter N. Steams E D I T O R S

i. The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns J O S E P HT

. G L A T T H A A

R

2. Childbearing in American Society: 1650-1850 C A T H E R I N EM

. S C H O L T E

N

3. The Origins of Behaviorism: American Psychology, 18/0-1920 J O H NM

. O ' D O N N E L

L

^. New York City Cartmen, 1667-1850 G R A H A M R U S S E L

L H O D G E

S

5. From Equal Suffrage to Equal Rights: Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party, 1910-1928

C H R I S T I N EA

. L U N A R D I N

I

6. Mr. Jefferson's Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801-1809 T H E O D O R EJ

. C R A C K E

L

7. "A Peculiar People": Slave Religion and Community-Culture among the Gullahs M A R G A R E T W A S H I N G T O

N C R E E

L

8. "A Mixed Multitude": The Struggle for Toleration in Colonial Pennsylvania SALLY S C H W A R T

Z

9. Women, Work, and Fertility, 1900-1986 S U S A N H O U S E H O L D E

R VA

N H O R

N

10. Liberty, Virtue, and Progress: Northerners and Their War for the Union EARLJ

. H E S

S

zz. Lewis M. Terman: Pioneer in Psychological Testing H E N R YL

. M I N T O

N

u. Schools as Sorters: Lewis M. Terman, Applied Psychology, and the Intelligence Testing Movement, 1890-1930 PAUL D A V I

S C H A P M A

N

13. Free Love: Marriage and Middle-Class Radicalism in America, 1825-1860 J O H NC

. S P U R L O C

K

14. Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion in American History P E T E RN

. S T E A R N

S

15. The Nurturing Neighborhood: The Brownsville Boys Club and Jewish Community in Urban America, 1940-1990 G E R A L D S O R I

N

16. War in America to 1775: Before Yankee Doodle J O H N M O R G A

N D E D E R E

R

ij. An American Vision: Far Western Landscape and National Culture, 1820-1920 A N N E F A R R A

R HYD

E

18. Frederick Law Olmsted: The Passion of a Public Artist M E L V I N K A L F U

S

19. Medical Malpractice in Nineteenth-Century America: Origins and Legacy K E N N E T H A L L E

N D E V I L L

E

20. Dancing in Chains: The Youth of William Dean Howells R O D N E YD

. O L S E

N

21. Breaking the Bonds: Marital Discord in Pennsylvania, 1730-1830 M E R R I LD

. S M I T

H

22. In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s-1930s E R I CC

. S C H N E I D E

R

23. Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846-1848 J A M E SM

. M C C A F F R E

Y

24. The Dutch-American Farm D A V I D S T E V E

N C O H E

N

25. Independent Intellectuals in the United States, 1910-1945 S T E V E N BIE

L

26. The Modern Christmas in America: A Cultural History of Gift Giving W I L L I A MB

. W A I T

S

2y. The First Sexual Revolution: The Emergence of Male Heterosexuality in Modern America K E V I N W H I T

E

28. Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior, and Swearing in American History J O H NC

. B U R N H A

M

29. General Richard Montgomery and the American Revolution: From Redcoat to Rebel HALT

. S H E L T O

N

jo. From Congregation Town to Industrial City: Culture and Social Change in a Southern Community M I C H A E L S H I R L E

Y

31. The Social Dynamics of Progressive Reform: Atlantic City, 1854.-1920 M A R T I N P A U L S S O

N

32. America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army C H A R L E S P A T R I C

K N E I M E Y E

R

33. American Women and the Repeal of Prohibition K E N N E T HD

. ROS

E

34. Making Men Moral: Social Engineering during the Great War N A N C YK

. B R I S T O

W

3J. Tituba, Reluctant Witch of Salem: Devilish Indians and Puritan Fantasies E L A I N EG

. B R E S L A

W

Making Men Moral Social Engineerin g durin g the Grea t Wa r Nancy K. Bristow

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S New York and London

S

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S

S

New Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 6 by Ne w Yor k Universit y All right s reserve d Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Bristow, Nanc y K . Making me n mora l : social engineering durin g th e great wa r / Nanc y K. Bristow . p. cm.—(Th e America n socia l experience serie s ; 34) Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . Contents: "A n invisibl e armor " : the progressive socia l vision an d World Wa r One—"Full-orbe d mora l manhood " : cultural nationalis m and th e creation o f new me n an d women—Reformer s betwee n tw o worlds : the battl e agains t traditio n an d working-clas s modernism — Building a national communit y : the complexities o f gender — Repression an d resistanc e : African American s an d th e progressives ' national community—Th e en d o f the crusade : demobilization an d the legac y of the CTCA . ISBN 0-8147-1220- 7 (acid-fre e paper ) 1. Soldiers—Unite d States—Conduc t o f life. 2 . Unite d States . Commission o n Training Cam p Activities . 3 . Socia l reformers—Unite d States—History—20th century . 4 . Militar y bases—Socia l aspects -United States . 5 . Worl d War , 1914-1918—Socia l aspects—Unite d States. I . Title . II . Series . UH630.B75 199 6 2 3 5 5 1 ' 3 3 — 376 Anniston, Alabam a located 6 miles sout h o f cam p population i n 1920 : 17,73 4 Jacksonville, Alabam a located 6 miles north o f cam p population i n 1920 : 2,39 5

p Sevier , Sout h Carolin a

Camp size: Troop origins :

Civilian community :

13. Cam

Arkansas, 500 ; Missouri, 5,600 ; New Mexico , 400; Texas, 2,006 ; Wisconsin, 6,000 ; othe r camps, 51,46 2 Waco, Texa s located 1/ 2 mil e southeast o f cam p population i n 1920 : 38,50 0

Low: 7,389 (July 1918 ) High: 28,80 6 (February 1918 ) Alabama, 6,800 ; Kentucky, 7,483 ; Maryland , 1,000; North Carolina , 1,374 ; South Carolina , 2,943; Washington, D.C. , 1,000 ; other camps , 39,293 Greenville, Sout h Carolin a located 4 1/ 2 mile s from cam p population i n 1920 : 23,127

p Shelby , Mississipp i

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

Low: 7,86 1 (Octobe r 1918 ) High: 36,28 4 (August 1918 ) Alabama, 2,364 ; Arkansas, 1,745 ; Illinois, 4,35 1 Mississippi, 10,399 ; Tennessee, 1,100 ; Wisconsin, 3,543 ; other states , 650; other camps , 15.182 Hattiesburg, Mississipp i located 1 o miles from cam p population i n 1920 : 13,27 0

234 • Appendix D 14. Cam

p Sheridan , Alabam a

Camp size : Low Troop origins :

Civilian community :

15. Cam

p Wadsworth, Sout h Carolin a

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

16.

: 10,57 8 (June 1918 ) High: 24,56 8 (December 1917 ) University o f Arizona, 137 ; Indiana, 263 ; New Mexico Agricultural an d Mechanica l College , 168; University o f Texas, 379 ; other camps , 29.792 Montgomery, Alabam a located 4 miles sout h of cam p population i n 1920 : 43,464

Low: 10,96 6 (December 1918 ) High: 34,16 9 (April 1918 ) Delaware, 100 ; Illinois, 4,000; Maryland, 700 ; Michigan, 500 ; Minnesota, 10,000 ; New Jer sey, 800 ; New York , 25,700 ; North Carolina , 2,600; Pennsylvania, 9,459 ; Sout h Carolina , 8,465; Tennessee, 5,500 ; Virginia , 1,000 ; other camps , 37,32 5 Spartanburg, Sout h Carolin a located 3 miles east of cam p population i n 1920 : 22,638

Camp Wheeler , Georgi a Camp size : Low Troop origins :

Civilian community :

: 4,539 (September 1917 ) High: 28,96 0 (July 1918 ) Alabama, 1,500 ; Georgia, 9,700 ; Illinois, 12,000 ; Kentucky, 600 ; Michigan, 5,000 ; Mississippi , 400; New York , 3,500 ; Tennessee, 900 ; Washington, D.C. , 100 ; other states , 220 ; other camps, 19,97 6 Macon, Georgi a located abou t 6 miles northwest o f cam p population i n 1920 : 52,995

Part 2: The Sixteen New National Army Cantonments 1. Cam

p Custer, Michiga n

Camp size :

Low: 8,305 (September 1917 ) High: 39,41 2 (Octobe r 1918 )

Appendix D • 23 5 Troop origins :

Civilian community :

2. Cam

p Devens , Massachusett s

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

3. Cam

Low: 21,32 4 (September 1917 ) High: 48,049 (June 1918 ) Connecticut, 14,470 ; Florida, 7,570 ; Maine, 12,599; Massachusetts, 38,184 ; New Hamp shire, 4,191 ; New York , 8,667 ; Rhod e Island , 2,635; Vermont 3,740 ; other states , 38 ; other camps, 16,59 6 Ayer, Massachusett s located 1 mile north o f cam p population i n 1920 : no listin g

p Dix , Ne w Jerse y

Camp size: Troop origins :

Civilian community :

4. Cam

Alabama, 2,023 ; Illinois, 2,522 ; Indiana, 3,309 ; Michigan, 65,976 ; North Dakota , 3,100 ; Ohio , 604; Pennsylvania, 5,336 ; West Virginia , 4,186; Wisconsin, 5,956 ; other camps , 6,887 Battle Creek, Michiga n located 5 miles north o f cam p population i n 1920 : 36,16 4

Low: 9,013 (Septembe r 1917 ) High: 54,47 5 (Augus t 1918 ) Delaware, 1,949 ; Florida, 2,500 ; Illinois, 2,371 ; Massachusetts, 4,636 ; Maryland, 1,768 ; Ne w Hampshire, 584 ; New Jersey, 47,642 ; Ne w York, 31,000 ; North Carolina , 1,300 ; Pennsylvania, 3,220 ; Rhode Island , 849 ; West Vir ginia, 200 ; other states , 1,855 ; other camps , 48,447 Wrightstown, Ne w Jersey located 1/ 2 mil e north o f cam p population i n 1920 : 270

p Dodge , Iow a

Camp size : Troop origins :

Low: 15,79 4 (September 1917 ) High: 46,491 (Jul y 1918 ) Alabama, 3,403 ; Illinois, 10,855 ; Indiana, 3,436 ; Iowa, 37,111 ; Minnesota, 21,622 ; Missouri, 9,246; Montana, 4,000 ; Nebraska, 7,568 ; North Dakota , 5,823 ; Oklahoma, 4,286 ; Sout h Dakota, 4,000 ; Tennessee, 2,000 ; other states , 5,279; other camps , 8,31 9

236 • Appendix D Civilian community :

5. Cam

Des Moines, Iow a located 1 2 miles sout h o f cam p population i n 1920 : 126,46 8

p Funston , Kansa s

Camp size : Low

: 10,60 6 (September 1917 ) High: 50,55 0 (October 1918 ) Troop origins : Alabama , 1,350 ; Arizona, 3,452 ; Colorado, 5,626 ; Florida, 2,236 ; Kansas, 29,918 ; Louisiana, 5,000; Mississippi, 6,043 ; Missouri, 39,886 ; Nebraska, 15,554 ; New Mexico , 2,425 ; Oklahoma, 500 ; South Dakota , 10,110 ; other states, 5,447 ; other camps , 12,49 2 Junction City , Kansa s Civilian community : located 4 miles southwest o f cam p population i n 1920 : 7,533 6. Cam

p Gordon , Georgi a

Camp size :

Troop origins :

Civilian community : 7. Cam

p Grant, Illinoi s

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

8. Cam

Low: 15,06 3 (December 1918 ) High: 47,489 (August 1918 ) Alabama, 5,097 ; Florida, 202 ; Georgia, 45,401 ; Illinois, 5,168 ; Iowa, 6,480 ; New York , 18,700 ; Ohio, 9,800 ; Tennessee, 18,649 ; other camps , 49,687 Atlanta, Georgi a located abou t 1 4 miles from cam p population i n 1920 : 200,616

Low: 13,42 6 (September 1917 ) High: 56,23 8 (October 1918 ) Idaho, 1,010 ; Illinois, 56,115 ; Indiana, 1,000 ; Louisiana, 4,318 ; Mississippi, 3,650 ; Nebraska, 1,000 ; North Carolina , 2,000 ; Nort h Dakota, 2,010 ; South Dakota , 500 ; Wisconsin, 27,184; other states , 981 ; other camps , 26,54 8 Rockford, Illinoi s located abou t 4 miles north of cam p population i n 1920 : 65,651

p Jackson, Sout h Carolin a

Camp size : Low

: 12,81 0 (September 1917 ) High: 44,242 (Jul y 1918 )

Appendix D • 23 7 Troop origins :

Civilian community :

9. Cam

p Lee , Virgini a

Camp size: Troop origins :

Civilian community :

10. Cam

Low: 13,15 5 (September 1917 ) High: 57,34 2 (Jul y 1918 ) Pennsylvania, 74,805 ; Tennessee, 821 ; Texas, 320; Virginia, 30,339 ; Washington, D.C. , 959 ; West Virginia , 20,081 ; other states , 2,070 ; other camps , 53,67 0 Petersburg, Virgini a located 3 miles west of cam p population i n 1920 : 31,01 2

p Lewis , Washingto n

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

11. Cam

Alabama, 1,278 ; Florida, 6,020 ; Georgia, 1,152 ; Illinois, 8,500 ; Maryland , 16,000 ; New York , 5,900; North Carolina , 20,528 ; Ohio, 7,200 ; South Carolina, 26,598 ; Tennessee, 2,539 ; Virginia, 79 ; other states , 1,154 ; other camps , 32,7 21 Columbia, Sout h Carolin a located 7 miles west of cam p population i n 1920 : 37,52 4

Low: 18,78 4 (September 1917 ) High: 44,015 (Jun e 1918 ) California, 35,295 ; Colorado, 1,070 ; Georgia, 1,000; Idaho, 7,499 ; Minnesota, 4,714 ; Montana, 19,668 ; Nevada, 479 ; New York , 1,283 ; North Dakota , 2,230 ; Oregon, 7,373 ; Sout h Dakota, 1,848 ; Utah, 5,621 ; Washington , 21,054; Wyoming, 3,291 ; other states , 3,318 ; other camps, 2,41 9 Tacoma, Washingto n located 1 7 miles north o f cam p population i n 1920 : 96,965

p Meade, Marylan d

Camp size : Troop origins :

Low: 5,708 (September 1917 ) High: 47,908 (October 1918 ) Connecticut, 1,200 ; Delaware, 917 ; Georgia, 500 ; Maryland, 24,604 ; Massachusetts, 5,267 ; Ne w Jersey, 2,006 ; New York , 4,788 ; North Caro lina, 1,720 ; Ohio, 1,329 ; Pennsylvania, 44,153; Rhode Island , 1,593 ; Tennessee ,

238 • Appendix D

Civilian community :

12. Cam

p Pike, Arkansa s

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

13. Cam

Low: 23,04 9 (September 1917 ) High: 54,46 3 (September 1918 ) Alabama, 10,109 ; Arkansas, 38,734 ; Iowa , 12,537; Louisiana, 15,733 ; Mississippi, 13,094 ; Missouri, 13,035 ; New Mexico , 1,000 ; Oklahoma, 7,000 ; Tennessee, 4,130; other states , 765; other camps , 14,99 8 Little Rock, Arkansa s located 8 miles southeas t o f cam p population i n 1920 : 65,142

p Sherman , Ohi o

Camp size: Troop origins :

Civilian community :

14. Cam

2,632; Virginia, 4,000 ; Washington, D.C. , 3,308; West Virginia , 5,945 ; other states , 320 ; other camps , 18,15 7 Baltimore, Marylan d located 1 8 miles northeast o f cam p population i n 1920 : 733,826

Low: 12,94 9 (September 1917 ) High: 35,97 9 (July 1918 ) Alabama, 1,000 ; Indiana, 5,500 ; Ohio, 83,302 ; Oklahoma, 1,105 ; Pennsylvania, l2 il73; Ten nessee, 5,305 ; West Virginia , 1,000 ; other states, 1,140 ; other camps , 14,05 7 Chillicothe, Ohi o located 3 miles southeas t o f cam p population i n 1920 : 15,83 1

p Taylor , Kentuck y

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

Low: 14,40 6 (September 1917 ) High: 57,29 8 (September 1918 ) Alabama, 1,994 ; Illinois, 16,225 ; Indiana, 36,127 ; Kentucky, 33,490 ; Louisiana, 2,879 ; Nort h Carolina, 1,000 ; Ohio, 14,210 ; Tennessee, 1,000; Wisconsin, 5,200 ; other states , 600; other camps , 11,06 1 Louisville, Kentuck y located 5 miles northwest o f cam p population i n 1920 : 234,891

Appendix D • 23 9 15. Cam

p Travis, Texa s

Camp size : Troop origins :

Civilian community :

16. Cam

Low: 13,40 8 (September 1917 ) High: 37,68 1 (Octobe r 1918 ) Arkansas, 1,500 ; Colorado, 1,100 ; Louisiana, 1,975; New Mexico , 748 ; Oklahoma, 19,816 ; Texas, 93,792; other states , 593 ; other camps , 4,827 San Antonio, Texa s adjoined t o cam p population i n 1920 : 161,37 9

p Upton , Ne w Yor k

Camp size : Low Troop origins :

Civilian community :

: 9,834 (September 1917 ) High: 42,771 (Apri l 1918 ) Connecticut, 6,965 ; Delaware, 698 ; Massachusetts, 4,093 ; New Jersey, 819 ; New York , 73,604; other states , 2,411 ; other camps , 32>393 Yaphank, Ne w Yor k located 5 miles southwest o f cam p population i n 1920 : no listing

Appendix E

Commission on Training Camp Activities after i April 1918 Chairman: Raymon d B . Fosdic k 1st Asst. Chairman: Malco m L . McBrid e 2nd Asst. Chairman: Le e F. Hanme r Executive Secretary: W . Prentic e Sange r Publicity: John Colte r Executive Committee Commissioners Raymond B . Fosdick Raymon Malcom L . McBrid e Malco Lee F. Hanme r Le Joseph E . Raycrof t Josep E. H . Malin g Thoma W. Prentic e Sange r Josep District Directors Brig 1. WardW . Pickar d 2. Joh n P . Myer s 3. Henr y Hopkins , Jr . 4. Ro y Smit h Wallac e 5. O . B . Town e 6. J . S . Eell s 240

d B . Fosdic k m L . McBrid e e F. Hanme r h E . Raycrof t s J. Howell s h Le e John R . Mot t Charles P . Neil l . Gen . P . E . Pierc e W. Prentic e Sange r

=

1

I

,

K.ofC . | H

I

I Venerea

I Reformatorie s and I I I Detentio n Houses I I I Marth a P. Falconer I I

1 n

. S. Braucher E . D. Caulkins I Ne w York Wash.

Presiden tI Josep h Lee I

rI Wa r Camp M . L. McBride I Community Service I

I Preventio l Disease I

Wor k for Women I Extracantonmen tI Katherin e B. Davis I

Wor k for Men I t Extracantonmen . W Clarke I I Willia

II

t

, D. C

t m H. Zinsser I

l Hygiene I Maj . William F. Snow J I

n of I

B J America nj Re d Cross | Amer . Soc. I Librar y Assoc. I I I Hygien e Assoc. I

AI |

Law Enforcement I Socia I I Maj . Basco m Johnson J |

I JW

A | 1 YWC

I

=

Cooperatin g I 1 Agencie s I

. =

I Sectio n on Vice and I I I Sectio n on Women I Arm y Work I Liquor Control an d Girls Intracantonmen I Lieut . G. J. Anderson I I Jan e Deeter Rippen I Lieut

I YMC

I.

I

Singin g Theate I Le e F. Hanmer I I

,

| Affiliate dI M Organization s H 1

Athletics I I J . E. Raycroft I

= .•

;

Intracantonment Extracantonmen Recreation Recreatio

iI

War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities

Notes

PREFACE

i. Th e CTC A wor k als o included th e navy, an d militar y personne l overseas . Thi s boo k will explor e th e CTC A insid e th e Unite d State s an d wil l emphasiz e th e commission's wor k with th e army . NOTES T O CHAPTE R ON

E

i. Gale n W . Morton , o f Beardstown , Illinois , t o Presiden t Wilson , 2 9 Augus t 1917 , doc. 4198 , file M , bo x 5 , entry 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 2. Marci a Loui s Bradle y t o Secretar y Baker , 1 0 May 1917 , doc . 275 , file Oregon, bo x 10, entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 3. Petitio n fro m th e Ministerial Associatio n an d Christia n Endeavo r Conventio n i n join t session i n Fowler , Illinois , sen t b y th e Presidin g Elde r o f Roc k Rive r Conference , U.B . Church, t o Presiden t Wilson , 2 9 June 1917 , doc . 2937 , file A, bo x 1 , entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 4. Mrs . E . M . Craise , Superintenden t o f Franci s Willar d Settlement , Denver , Colo rado, t o Woodro w Wilson , receive d b y th e Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activitie s 2 9 May 1917 , doc. 633 , file C, bo x 1 , entry 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 5. Ros a Patrick, o f Parsons , Kansas , t o Secretar y Baker , 1 7 July 1917 , doc. 3071 , file P, box 6, entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 6. Charle s Royster , A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775-1783 (Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1979) , 70 . 7. Royster , A Revolutionary People at War, 69-77 . 8. Bel l Irvi n Wiley , The Life of JohnnyReb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (Bato n Rouge: Louisiana Stat e Universit y Press , 1978) , 36 . 9. Fo r details on the prevalence of vice, drinking, theft , an d gamblin g amon g Confeder ate troops, se e Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb, 36-58 . Fo r informatio n o n simila r behavio r i n the Unio n Army , se e Bell Irvin Wiley , The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union 243

244 • Notes to Chapter i (Baton Rouge : Louisian a Stat e Universit y Press , 1978) , 247-274 . O n vic e durin g th e war , see Thoma s P . Lowry , The Story the Soldiers Wouldn't Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechan icsburg, Pa. : Stackpol e Books , 1994) . 10. Undate d lette r o f J. M . Guess , quote d i n The Life of Johnny Reb, by Wiley , 58 . n . Ann e M . Butler , Daughters of Joy,Sisters of Misery—Prostitutes in the American West, 1865-1890 (Chicago : Universit y o f Illinoi s Press , 1985) , 145 , 146 . 12. Butler• , Daughters of Joy,Sisters of Misery, 146 . 13. Mrs . Sar a D . Hyd e t o Woodro w Wilso n o n 8 June 1917 , doc . 1298 , file A , bo x 1 , entry 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 14. Mrs . Elizabet h Heim , o f Ros s county , Ohio , t o Hon . Harr y [sic] Baker , 2 8 Jun e 1917, lette r file A, bo x 1 , entry 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 15. Th e historia n Thoma s C . Leonar d offer s anothe r explanatio n fo r th e popula r con demnation o f th e trainin g camps , suggestin g tha t th e critic s o f wa r i n th e er a precedin g World Wa r On e worke d t o connec t immoralit y wit h militar y servic e i n th e publi c mind . Thomas C . Leonard , Above the Battle—War-Making in America from Appomattox to Versailles (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1978) , 35. 16. Danie l R . Beaver , Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919 (Lincoln : University o f Nebraska Press , 1966) , 4 - 5. 17. Pau l S . Boyer , Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard Universit y Press , 1978) , 220-221 , 224 ; Edward M . Coffman , The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (Ne w York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1968), 21 ; Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 5 . 18. Beaver , Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1 . 19. Alla n M . Brandt , No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1985) , 53. 20. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 53 . 21. Raymon d B . Fosdick , Chronicle of a Generation: An Autobiography (New York : Harper, 1958) , 122-136 . 22. Raymon d Fosdic k t o Honorabl e Newto n D . Baker , Secretar y o f War , Repor t o n Conditions o n th e Mexica n Border , 1 0 Augus t 1916 , folde r 1 , bo x 23 , Raymon d Blain e Fosdick Papers , Seele y G . Mud d Manuscrip t Library , Princeto n University . Publishe d with permissio n o f Princeton Universit y Libraries . 23. Ibid. ; Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 53-54 . Fosdick' s findings wer e confirme d b y a second investigator , Dr . M . J. Exner , employe d b y th e Young Men' s Christia n Associatio n to carry ou t a similar project . 24. Fosdic k t o Baker , Repor t o n Condition s o n Mexica n Border , 1 0 Augus t 1916 , Fosdick Papers ; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 55-56 . 25. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 56 . 26. Fo r a n excellent discussio n o f the conflicts withi n progressivis m an d withi n individ ual progressive s ove r th e issu e o f America n entr y int o th e war , se e Davi d M . Kennedy , Over Here: The First World War and American Society (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1980X49-53. 27. Oti s Graham , The Great Campaigns: Reform and War in America, 1900-1928 (Huntington, N.Y. : R . E . Krieger , 1980) , 92. 28. Woodro w Wilson , "Speec h fo r Declaratio n o f Wa r agains t Germany, " delivere d a t joint sessio n of the two houses of Congress, 2 April 1917 , reprinted i n Documents of American History, Henr y Steel e Commager, ed . (Ne w York : Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963) , 131. 29. Kennedy , Over Here, 50-51 . 30. Joh n Dewey , "Th e Socia l Possibilitie s o f War, " i n Characters and Events: Popular

Notes to Chapter i • 24 5 Essays in Social and Political Philosophy, Josep h Ratner , ed. , vol . 2 (New York : H . H . Holt , 1929), 551-560 . 31. Kennedy , Over Here, 39. 32. Alle n F . Davis , "Th e Flowerin g o f Progressivism, " i n The Impact of World War I, Arthur S . Link , ed . (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1969) , 55. 33. Charle s Hirschfeld , "Nationalis t Progressivis m an d Worl d Wa r I, " Mid-America 45 (July 1963) : 141 , 145-146 . 34. Beaver , Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 220 . 35. Woodro w Wilson , "Specia l Statement, " i n Keeping Our Fighters Fit for War and After, by Edwar d Fran k Alle n wit h th e cooperation o f Raymond B . Fosdick (New York : Century , 1918), opening page, n o page number . 36. Bake r t o Fosdick, 1 8 April 1917 , folder 6 , bo x 21 , Fosdick Papers . 37. Raymon d Fosdick , quote d i n The New Spirit of the New Army: A Message to "Service Flag Homes," by Joseph H . Odel l (Ne w York : Flemin g H . Revell , 1918) , 53-56 . 38. Fo r decade s progressivis m confounde d historian s wit h it s complexity an d provoke d contentious debate s ove r th e natur e o f progressivis m an d th e existenc e o f a progressiv e movement. Importan t landmar k work s i n the historiography o f progressivism includ e Rich ard Hofstadter , The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R (Ne w York : Vintag e Books , 1955) ; Robert H . Wiebe , The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York : Hil l an d Wang , 1967) ; Samuel P . Hays , Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1959) ; James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State (Boston : Beaco n Press , 1968) ; Gabrie l Kolko , The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916 (New York : Fre e Press , 1963); Arthu r S . Link , "Wha t Happene d t o th e Progressiv e Movemen t i n th e i92o's? " American Historical Review 6 4 (1959) : 833-851 ; Pete r G . Filene , "A n Obituar y fo r 'Th e Progressive Movement, ' " American Quarterly 2 2 (1970) : 20-34 ; John D . Buenker , Joh n C . Burnham, an d Rober t Crunden , Progressivism (Cambridge , Mass. : Schenkman , 1977) . Fo r excellent discussion s o f trend s i n th e historiograph y o f progressivism , se e Davi d M . Ken nedy, "Overview : Th e Progressiv e Era, " The Historian 3 7 (1975) : 453-458 ; Danie l T . Rodgers, "I n Searc h o f Progressivism, " Reviews in American History 1 0 (Decembe r 1982) : 113-132; Ala n Brinkley , "Richar d Hofstadter' s Age of Reform: A Reconsideration, " Reviews in American History 1 3 (September 1985) : 462-480. 39. Credi t fo r th e ter m "shiftin g coalitions " goe s t o John D . Buenker . I n a persuasiv e interpretation o f progressivism , Buenke r wrot e i n 1977 , "Viewin g th e [progressive ] er a a s the wor k o f shiftin g coalition s rathe r tha n o f a singl e movemen t ha s th e potentia l fo r reconciling mos t o f th e currentl y conflictin g interpretation s an d o f encompassin g nearl y al l of th e groups , value s an d program s tha t wer e clearl y a t work. " Buenker , "Essay, " i n Progressivism, b y Buenker , Burnham , an d Crunden , 31 . For somewha t overlappin g defini tions se e als o Graham , The Great Campaigns; Richar d Abrams , "Th e Failur e o f Progressiv ism," i n The Shaping of Twentieth Century America, 2n d ed. , Richar d Abram s an d Lawrenc e Levine, eds . (Boston : Little , Brown , 1971) ; Arthu r S . Link , "Wha t Happene d t o th e Progressive Movement i n the 1920s? " 40. Joh n C . Burnham , "Essay, " i n Progressivism, b y Buenker , Burnham , an d Crunden , 16. 41. Fo r excellen t overview s o f this kin d o f progressive, se e especially Wiebe , The Search for Order; Hays , Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency. 42. Joh n Dickinson , The Building of an Army—A Detailed Account of Legislation, Administration, and Opinion in the United States, 1915-1920 (Ne w York : Century , 1922) , 204-206 . 43. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 16-17 .

246 • Notes to Chapter 2 44. Raymon d Fosdick , "Th e Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Trainin g Camp Activities, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (Septembe r 1918): 142 .

45. Accordin g t o Fosdick, "Ou r argumen t ha d bee n no t primaril y on e of morals, bu t of military necessity , fo r i n thos e pre-penicilli n day s venerea l diseas e was a far mor e cripplin g disability tha n i t is now." Fosdick , Chronicle of a Generation, 147 . 46. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 7 . 47. Newto n D . Baker , "Th e Cal l t o Fre e Men, " speec h give n a t a ten t meeting , Cleveland, Ohio , 1 7 Octobe r 1917 , reprinte d i n Frontiers of Freedom, b y Newto n D . Bake r (New York : George H . Doran , 1918) , 126 . 48. N . D . Baker , "Th e Cal l to Free Men," 127 . 49. Fosdick , "Th e Wa r and Navy Department s Commission s on Training Camp Activi ties," 131. 50. Newto n D . Baker , "Problem s of the Melting Pot," speech to the Annual Conventio n of Police Chiefs, 4 Decembe r 1917 , in Frontiers of Freedom, b y N . D . Baker , 170-171 . 51. Burnham , "Essay, " in Progressivism, b y Buenker , Burnham , an d Crunden , 10 . 52. Fosdick , "Th e War and Nav y Department s Commission s on Training Camp Activi ties," 130 . 53. N . D . Baker , "Th e Cal l to Free Men," 126 . 54. N . D . Baker , "Invisibl e Armor, " speec h t o the Nationa l Conferenc e o n Wa r Cam p Recreation Service , 2 3 October 1917 , reprinted i n Frontiers of Freedom, b y N . D . Baker , 94 . 55. Ibid. , 94-95 . 56. Weldo n B . Durham , " 'Bi g Brother' an d th e 'Seve n Sisters' : Camp Lif e Reform s i n World Wa r I, " Military Affairs 42 (1978): 60. 57. N . D . Baker , "Invisibl e Armor," 95. 58. Ibid. , 96 . 59. Ibid. , 95 . 60. Ibid. , 96 . 61. Burnham , "Essay, " i n Progressivism, b y Buenker , Burnham , an d Crunden , 10 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R TW

O

1. Messag e fro m Woodro w Wilson , i n The New Spirit of the New Army—A Message to the "Service Flag Homes," by Joseph H . Odel l (Ne w York : Fleming H . Revell , 1918) , 5. 2. Messag e fro m Woodro w Wilso n i n The New Spirit of the New Army, b y Odell , 5 . 3. Woodro w Wilson , "Specia l Statement, " i n Keeping Our Fighters Fit for War and After, by Edwar d F . Alle n (Ne w York : Century, 1918) , opening page, n o page number . 4. Woodro w Wilson , "Specia l Statement, " i n Keeping Our Fighters Fit, b y Allen . 5. Draf t o f pamphlet, The Girl You Leave Behind You, doc. 34991 , bo x 85 , entry 393 , R G 165, National Archives . 6. Alla n Brandt , No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1985) , 69. 7. "Kee p Ou t o f th e Mire, " editoria l fro m Trench and Camp, reprinted i n Marching into the Dawn. Editorials from Trench and Camp, The Soldiers' Own Newspaper (n.p., n.d.) , 131-132 . In fact , Trench and Camp was no t exactl y th e soldiers ' own . Publishe d b y th e YMCA , a n organization affiliate d wit h th e CTCA , i t serve d t o communicat e th e commission' s view point o n training camp issues . 8. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Keeping Fit to Fight, a

Notes to Chapter 2 • 24 7 pamphlet produce d b y th e America n Socia l Hygien e Associatio n a t th e reques t o f an d approved b y th e Surgeo n Genera l o f th e Army , doc . 28201 , bo x 60 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . 9. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 42 . 10. Fosdick , "Th e War and Nav y Department s Commission s o n Training Camp Activi ties," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (September 1918) , 138 . 11. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Keeping Fit to Fight, National Archives . 12. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 129 . 13. Ibid. , 128 . 14. A s Margare t Mars h suggests , "Th e concept s o f masculin e domesticit y an d 'manli ness' wer e i n man y way s mor e complementar y tha n antithetical. " Th e ris e o f athletics , fo r instance, ma y hav e occurre d i n conjunctio n wit h change s i n men' s familia l relation s an d role. I n thi s contex t th e competitiv e athletic s woul d hav e functione d a s "saf e outlets " fo r men's aggressiv e energies , a s part o f a fantasy lif e i n which me n coul d continu e t o act in th e traditional masculin e roles . Margare t Marsh , "Suburba n Me n an d Masculin e Domesticity, " in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, Mar k C. Carne s and Clyde Griffen, eds . (Chicago : University o f Illinois Press , 1990) , 122-123 . 15. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Keeping Fit to Fight, National Archives . 16. Draf t o f poster, doc . 33308 , box 78 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 17. Draf t o f another poster , doc . 33308 , box 78 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 18. I t i s importan t t o not e tha t th e term s masculinity and manhood, whic h wil l b e use d interchangeably i n thi s book , ar e used t o describ e th e socia l an d cultura l construction s tha t Americans hav e historically applie d t o maleness. 19. Thoug h me n wer e lon g th e nearl y exclusiv e subjec t o f historica l inquiry , i t i s onl y recently tha t historian s hav e begu n t o investigat e th e histor y o f manhood . Interestingly , i t was th e expansio n o f th e discipline' s focu s t o includ e wome n tha t ultimatel y le d t o histori ans' interes t i n th e stud y o f me n a s men . Historian s o f wome n illustrate d th e dange r o f generalizing th e America n stor y fro m th e experience s o f well-know n me n b y documentin g the distinctnes s o f women's lives . Thei r discover y o f th e vas t diversit y o f American experi ences an d thei r developmen t o f ne w methodologie s fo r explorin g tha t diversit y encourage d a growing awarenes s tha t men , lik e women, constitute d a vast groupin g whos e experience s could no t b e understoo d throug h a simplisti c extrapolatio n fro m th e live s o f well-know n men, bu t whic h require d instea d thoughtfu l an d detaile d exploration . Fo r a discussio n o f the evolution o f gender studie s to include the study o f men, se e the introduction t o Meanings for Manhood, Carne s an d Griffen , eds. , 1-5 . Se e als o Jo e L . Dubbert , A Man's Place: Masculinity in Transition (Englewood Cliffs , N.J. : Prentice-Hall , 1979) , 1-12 . 20. Fo r example s o f th e "crisis " approach, se e Joe L . Dubbert , "Progressivis m an d th e Masculinity Crisis, " i n The American Man, Elizabet h H . Plec k an d Jospe h H . Pleck , eds . (Englewood Cliffs , N.J. : Prentice-Hall , 1980) , 303-320^0 6 Dubbert , A Man's Place; Pete r G. Filene , HimlHerlSelf: Sex Roles in Modern America, 2n d ed . (Baltimore : John s Hopkin s University Press , 1986) ; E. Anthon y Rotundo , "Bod y an d Soul : Changing Ideal s of Ameri can Middle-Clas s Manhood , 1770-1920, " Journal of Social History 1 6 (1983) : 23-38 . Fo r a brief critiqu e of this historiographical school , se e Clyde Griffen, "Reconstructin g Masculin ity fro m th e Evangelica l Reviva l t o the Waning of Progressivism: A Speculativ e Synthesis, " in Meanings for Manhood, Carne s an d Griffen , eds. , 183-185 . 21. Th e literatur e o n th e developmen t o f th e middle-clas s ideolog y o f separat e sphere s and th e cul t o f domesticit y i s immense. Som e o f th e classi c work s i n thi s literatur e includ e

248 • Notes to Chapter 2 Kathryn Kis h Sklar , Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (New Haven , Conn. : Yale Universit y Press , 1973) ; Nancy F . Cott , Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven , Conn. : Yal e Universit y Press , 1977) ; Mar y P . Ryan , Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida Country, New York, 1790-1865 (New York : Cambridge Universit y Press , 1981) . 22. E . Anthon y Rotundo , American Manhood: Transformation in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York : Basic Books, 1993) , 2-5 . 23. Griffen , "Reconstructin g Masculinity, " 185-187 ; Donal d Yacovone , "Abolitionist s and th e 'Languag e o f Fraterna l Love, ' " in Meanings for Manhood, Carne s an d Griffen , eds. , 85-95. 24. Te d Ownby , Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1990) . 25. Pete r N . Stearns , Be A Man! Males in Modern Society (New York : Holmes an d Meier , I979X 59-78 . 26. Rotundo , American Manhood, 120 . Se e als o Kevin White , The First Sexual Revolution: The Emergence of Male Heterosexuality in Modern America (New York : Ne w Yor k Universit y Press, 1993) , 2-4 . 27. Rotundo , American Manhood, 121-122 ; K. White , The First Sexual Revolution, 7. 28. Josep h F . Kett , Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America 1790 to the Present (Ne w York : Basic Books, 1977) , 27 ; Charles E . Rosenberg , "Sexuality , Class , an d Rol e in 19th-centur y America," i n The American Man, Elizabet h H . Plec k an d Joseph H . Pleck , eds . (Englewoo d Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall , 1980) , 233-235 ; Davi d I . Macleod , Building Character in the American Boy: The Boy Scouts, YMCA, and Their Forerunners, 1870-1920 (Madison: Universit y of Wisconsin Press , 1983) , 33-36 . 29. Stearns , Be A Man! 59-78 . 30. Kath y Peiss , Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-ofthe-Century New York (Philadelphia: Templ e Universit y Press , 1986) , 4 ; Ro y Rosenzweig , Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (New York : Cambridg e University Press , 1983) , 38-40 . 31. Fo r th e developmen t o f distinc t leisur e pattern s amon g th e workin g class , se e Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will; Franci s G . Couvares , The Remaking of Pittsburgh—Class and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877-1919 (Ne w York : Stat e Universit y of New Yor k Press , 1984) , chapters 3 and 7 ; Daniel T . Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Chicago: Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1974) , chapte r 4 ; Lewi s A . Erenberg, Steppin" Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 18901930 (Greenwood, Conn. : Greenwoo d Press , 1981) , part s 2 an d 3 ; Joh n T . Cumbler , Working-Class Community in Industrial America: Work, Leisure, and Struggle in Two Industrial Cities, 1880-1930 (Greenwood, Conn. : Greenwoo d Press , 1979) . Fo r th e developmen t o f leisure among working-class wome n an d girls , se e Peiss, Cheap Amusements. 32. Ro y Rosenzweig , Eight Hours for What We Will, chapte r 2 ; Jon M . Kingsdale , "Th e 'Poor Man' s Club' : Socia l Function s o f th e Urba n Working-Clu b Saloon, " American Quarterly 2 5 (Octobe r 1973) : 472-489 ; Peiss , Cheap Amusements, 4, 5 , 6 , 53-55 , 108-109 ; K . White, The First Sexual Revolution, chapter 5 . 3 3. M y understandin g o f the meaning o f changes i n the economy i n the lives of middle class me n ha s bee n shape d especiall y b y th e followin g discussion s o f thi s issue : Jeffrey P . Hantover, "Th e Bo y Scout s an d th e Validatio n o f Manhood, " i n The American Man, Plec k and Pleck , eds. , 288-293 ; Filene , HimlHerlSelf 72-75 ; Rotundo , American Manhood, 248 251; Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy, 44-50. 34. Samue l P . Hays , a s cite d i n Hantover , "Th e Bo y Scout s an d th e Validatio n o f Masculinity," i n The American Man, Plec k and Pleck , eds. , 290 .

Notes to Chapter 2 • 24 9 35. Filene , HimlHer/Self, 73 . 36. Rotundo , American Manhood, 248-249 . 37. Hantover , "Th e Bo y Scout s an d th e Validatio n o f Masculinity, " i n The American Man, Plec k an d Pleck , eds. , 291. 3 8. Rotundo , A merican Manhood, 222-227 . 39. Sar a Evans , Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America (New York : Fre e Press , 1989)1 156 .

40. Hantover , "Th e Bo y Scout s an d th e Validatio n o f Masculinity, " i n The American Man, Plec k an d Pleck , eds. , 292 . 41. Macleod , Building Character in the American Boy, 46. 42. Rotundo , American Manhood, 250 . 43. Hantover , "Th e Bo y Scout s an d th e Validatio n o f Masculinity, " i n The American Man, Plec k an d Pleck , eds. , 292 . Hantove r suggest s tha t onl y on e i n thre e me n worke d i n jobs where wome n constitute d mor e tha n 5 percent o f workers. 44. Evans , Born for Liberty, 147 . 45. Fo r a thoughtfu l synthesi s o f recen t wor k o n women' s movemen t int o th e publi c sphere betwee n 186 5 and 1920 , se e Evans, Born for Liberty , chapters 6 and 7 . Se e also Paul a Baker, "Th e Domesticatio n o f Politics : Wome n an d America n Politica l Society , 1780 1920," American Quarterly 89 (June 1984) : 620-647. 46. Margare t Marsh , "Suburba n Me n an d Masculin e Domesticity , 1870-1915, " i n Meanings for Manhood, Carne s an d Griffen , eds. , 111-127 . 47. Evans , Born for Liberty ,178. 48. Marsh , "Suburba n Me n an d Masculin e Domesticity, " i n Meanings for Manhood, Carnes an d Griffen , eds. , 112 . 49. Rotundo , American Manhood, 263 . 50. Recal l Edwar d F . Allen' s determinatio n tha t th e Hostes s Hous e promot e a n "atmo sphere of chivalry." Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 129 . 51. Othe r historian s hav e note d tha t th e change s i n male/femal e relations , ofte n de scribed a s th e ris e o f companionat e relationships , di d no t necessaril y alte r existin g powe r hierarchies betwee n me n an d women . Se e fo r instanc e Rober t L . Griswold , "Divorc e an d the Legal Redefinition o f Victorian Manhood, " i n Meanings for Manhood, Carnes and Griffen , eds., 97 , 104 ; Marsh , "Suburba n Me n an d Masculin e Domesticity, " i n Meanings for Manhood, Carne s an d Griffen , eds. , 126-127 ; Griffen , "Reconstructin g Masculinity, " i n Meanings for Manhood, Carne s an d Griffen , eds. , 201 ; Evans, Born for Liberty, 177-178 . 52. Jame s R . McGover n suggest s thi s tendenc y i n th e lif e o f Davi d Graha m Phillips . James R . McGovern , "Davi d Graha m Phillip s and th e Virilit y Impuls e of the Progressives, " New England Quarterly 3 9 (1966) : 351 . Jo e L . Dubber t make s a comparabl e argumen t regarding th e lif e o f Willia m Alle n Whit e i n Dubbert , "Progressivis m an d th e Masculinit y Crisis," 313-314 . Fo r a broade r discussio n o f thi s sam e tendency , se e Rotundo , American Manhood, 271-274 . The progressives ' predecessors , member s o f th e Socia l Gospe l movement , ha d con fronted thi s exac t problem . Identifie d wit h a feminized protestantis m an d devote d t o socia l reforms i n a competitiv e societ y emphasizin g individualism , thes e reformer s sough t t o define thei r wor k i n term s tha t emphasize d thei r masculinity , despit e an y appearance s t o the contrary . Susa n Curtis , "Th e So n o f Ma n an d Go d th e Father : Th e Socia l Gospe l an d Victorian Masculinity, " i n Meanings for Manhood, Carnes an d Griffen , eds. , 68 , 72 , 73 , 74, 78 . 53. Rotundo , A merican Manhood, 274 . 54. Dubbert , "Progressivis m an d th e Masculinity Crisis, " 313-314 . 55. Odell , The New Spirit of the New Army, 94 .

250 • Notes to Chapter 2 56. Newto n D . Baker , "Expressio n versu s Suppression, " a speech to the National Socia l Hygiene Associatio n i n Washingto n D.C. , 3 1 January 1918 , reprinte d i n Frontiers of Freedom, by Newto n D . Bake r (New York : George H . Doran , 1918) , 236. 57. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Keeping Fit to Fight, National Archives . 58. "SYLLABU S O F A N ADDRES S T O ASSIS T COMPAN Y COMMANDER S IN T H E INSTRUCTIO N O F THEI R ME N I N T H E KNOWLEDG E O F VENE REAL DISEASES, " pp . 4 , 6 , 7 , issue d b y th e Surgeo n General , doc . 38401 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 59. Walte r C . Clarke , "Promotio n o f Socia l Hygien e i n Wa r Time, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 7'9 (September 1918) : 185 , 188. 60. Howar d Webste r Munde r t o his father , 1 2 February 1918 , in "Letter s an d Diar y o f Bugler Howar d Webste r Munder, " U.S . Arm y Militar y Histor y Institute , Carlisl e Bar racks, Pennsylvania , Worl d Wa r On e Researc h Project , Arm y Experience s Questionnair e Collection, 28t h Division , 55t h Infantr y Battalion , 109t h Infantr y Regiment , Compan y G . 61. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 68-69 . 62. Ibid. , 7-25 . Thi s wor k i s a wonderful exploratio n no t onl y o f venerea l disease , bu t also of the socia l construction s tha t surrounde d thos e diseases i n American society . 63. Ibid. , 31 . 64. "Descriptio n o f Facilitie s Offere d b y th e Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activi ties— Social Hygien e Division, " doc . 25932 , bo x 53 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Ar chives. Othe r informatio n o n th e element s o f th e educatio n progra m come s fro m Clarke , "Promotion o f Socia l Hygien e i n War Time, " 181. 65. Annua l Report , Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activitie s t o the Secretar y o f War , 1918, p . 10 , box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives. ; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 68. 66. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 110-111 . Brand t explain s th e procedur e o f medica l o r chemical prophylaxis . Attendants, appointe d t o eac h station , administere d th e treatments . A soldie r re porting fo r th e treatment woul d firs t urinate . Then , o n a specially constructe d stool , he woul d was h hi s genitals wit h soa p an d wate r followe d b y bichlorid e o f mercury , while th e attendan t inspected . Th e attendan t woul d the n injec t a solution o f protar gol int o the penis , whic h th e soldie r woul d hol d i n the urethra fo r five minutes, the n expel. Afte r th e injection , calome l ointmen t woul d b e rubbe d o n th e penis , whic h would the n b e wrappe d i n waxe d paper . Fo r th e preventio n t o b e effectiv e th e soldier coul d no t urinat e fo r fou r o r five hour s followin g th e treatment . Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 111 . 67. On e migh t not e that thi s apparen t dilemm a persist s i n arguments agains t se x educa tion fo r America n youth . 68. Method of Attack on Venereal Disease, pamphle t produce d b y th e Surgeo n Genera l an d the American Socia l Hygien e Association , August , 1917 , letter file S, bo x 7, entry 394 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 69. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Minute s o f Meeting , 26 April 1917 , box 57 , entry 403 , RG 165 , National Archives . 70. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, $-6. 71. Raymon d B . Fosdic k t o Sa m L . Olive , President , Georgi a Stat e Senate , 2 8 Augus t 1917, i n repl y t o telegra m o f Oliv e t o Secretar y o f Wa r Baker , 2 2 August 1917 , doc. 3798 , letter file O, bo x 6, entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives .

Notes to Chapter 2 * 2 51 72. Raymon d B . Fosdick , Chronicle of a Generation —An Autobiography (New York : Harper, 1958) , 148-149 ; War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities, a pamphle t produced b y th e Wa r Departmen t (Washington , D.C. , 1917) , pp. 9-10 , bo x 163 5 RG 287 , National Archives ; Jewis h Welfar e Board , Final Report of War Emergency Activities (Ne w York, 1920) , 13. 73. Fosdic k t o Dr . Georg e A . Coe , 2 4 Ma y 1917 , file F , bo x 2 , entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 74. Peiss , Cheap Amusements, 178-179; Allen F . Davis , Spearheads for Reform (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1967) , 65. 75. Pau l Boyer , Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge : Har vard Universit y Press , 1978) , 222-224 , 2 4 2 _ 2 5 I 76. Peiss , Cheap Amusements, 179 . O r a s Joh n F . Kasso n describe d th e difference s between thes e tw o style s o f recreation , "Th e contrastin g kind s o f play , t o th e mind s o f a number o f reformers , mean t th e differenc e betwee n a communit y an d a crowd , perhap s even th e differenc e betwee n civilizatio n an d barbarism. " Joh n F . Kasson , Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (New York : Hil l an d Wang , 1978) , 104 . Se e also Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 124 ; Stephe n Hard y an d Ala n G . Ingham, "Games , Structures , an d Agency : Historian s o n th e America n Pla y Movement, " Journal of Social History 1 7 (Winter 1983) : 286. Given man y whit e progressives ' assumption s o f a natura l promiscuit y amon g Africa n Americans, i t i s perhap s no t surprisin g tha t i n th e eye s o f thos e reformer s Africa n Ameri cans appeare d a particularl y troublesom e population . Ala n Dawley , Struggles for Justice: Social Responsibility and the Liberal State (Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1991) , 4 3 44, 117-118 . 77. Boyer , Urban Masses and Moral Order, 242 . 78. Ibid. , 241 . See also Erenberg, Steppm' Out, 65; Kasson, Amusing the Million, 104 . 79. Kasson , Amusing the Million, 101 . 80. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 41 . 81. Ibid. , 53 , 55. 82. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Rules for Boxing (pamphlet) (Washington, D.C. : Governmen t Printin g Office , 1918) , 2. 83. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 62 , 63. 84. Ibid. , 5-6 . 85. Ibid. , 42 . 86. Se e for instanc e Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 51 , 54, 63. 87. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 156-157 ; War and Navy Departments Commission on Training Camp Activities (pamphlet ) (Washington , D.C. , 1918) , p . 17 , bo x 1635 , R G 287 , National Archives . 88. Fre d D . Baldwin , "Th e America n Enliste d Ma n i n Worl d Wa r One, " Ph.D . diss. , Princeton University , 1964 , 117 ; Davi d M . Kennedy , Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1980) , 189 . 89. Baldwin , "Th e Enliste d Ma n i n World Wa r One, " 117-118 . 90. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 162-163 . 91. Ibid. , 31 ; Fosdick, "Th e Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Trainin g Camp Activities, " 132 ; "No Smal l Job Amusin g Me n o f Cantonment—Y.M.C.A . Repor t Shows Tremendou s Effor t Mad e t o Entertai n Soldiers, " Camp Dodger, 14 June 1918 , 13 ; "Many Soldier s G o t o the 'Y's," Camp Dodger, 3 1 May 1918 . 92. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 20 . 93. Ibid. , 21-22 .

252 • Notes to Chapter 2 94. Fosdick , "Th e War an d Navy Department s Commission s on Training Camp Activi ties," 132 , 133. 95. Marshal l Bartholomew , secretary , Nationa l Wa r Wor k Counci l o f th e YMCA , t o other secretaries , 6 Ma y 1918 , file Birchard , C.C.B. , bo x 3 , entr y 399 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives. 96. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 79 . 97. Ibid. , 67 , 69 , 70 , 75 ; Fosdick , "Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Training Cam p Activities, " 138 . 98. Th e commissio n suggeste d "th e eight song s required i n the soldiers' repertoire: fou r for patriotism—America , Star-Spangle d Banner , Battl e Hym n o f th e Republic , an d L a Marseillaise; fou r fo r America n tradition—Ol d Blac k Joe, Suwane e River , Ol d Kentuck y Home, an d Roll , Jordan , Roll. " France s F . Brundage , Camp Music Division of the War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities, Wa r Departmen t Pamphlet , p . 13 , bo x 1635, R G 287 , Nationa l Archives . I t i s interestin g t o not e tha t th e commissio n clearl y intended t o include the Sout h as an important contributo r t o American tradition, a tendency common durin g World Wa r One . 99. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 82 , 83 . Se e als o Le e F . Hanme r t o Commandin g Officer, Cam p Beauregard , 1 7 April 1918 , file Camp Beauregard , Louisiana , bo x 8 , entr y 399, R G 165 , National Archives . 100. France s F . Brundage , Camp Music Division of the War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities, Wa r Departmen t Pamphlet , p . 7 , National Archives . 101. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 26 . 102. Ibid. , 106 ; Lee F. Hanmer , membe r o f CTCA i n charge of amusements, t o Baker , 24 August 1917 , in "Camps " file, box 9, entr y 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . 103. War and Navy Departments Commission on Training Camp Activities (pamphlet) (Washington, D.C. , 1918) , box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 104. Orri n Cocks , motio n pictur e inspector , t o Malcol m L . McBride , 2 0 March 1918 , in first Camp Lewis , Washington , file, bo x 7 , entry 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . 105. Malcol m McBrid e t o E . Dan a Caulkins , 2 8 Octobe r 1918 , doc . 41223 , bo x i n , entry 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; "Minute s o f Meetin g o f th e Wa r Departmen t Commission o n Trainin g Cam p Activities, " 2 1 February 1918 , box 57 , entry 403 , RG 165 , National Archives . 106. Arthu r P. Young , Books for Sammies: The American Library Association and World War /(Pittsburgh: Ph i Bet a Mu, 1981) , 13. 107. I n Jul y 191 8 th e Wa r Departmen t bega n prohibitin g certai n book s i n th e cam p libraries. I n July th e ALA issue d a list of fourteen banne d books , recommended b y th e Wa r Department. I n Augus t five mor e list s woul d follow . I n Septembe r th e Wa r Department' s list o f eight y banne d book s an d pamphlet s wa s release d an d accepte d b y th e ALA . Evi dently, towar d th e en d o f th e wa r variou s member s o f th e Wa r Departmen t bega n t o find the bannin g o f book s unnecessary , eve n "absurd. " On e wee k afte r th e armistic e Bake r withdrew th e banning recommendations. Young , Books for Sammies, 47-55 . 108. Young , Books for Sammies, 33, 53. 109. Ibid. , 52 . 110. Alla n Brand t make s a similar argumen t i n No Magic Bullet, 92 . i n . Th e classi c introduction t o the "cul t of true womanhood" remain s Barbar a Welter , "The Cul t o f Tru e Womanhood, " American Quarterly 1 8 (1966) : 151-174 . I n thi s articl e Welter introduce s th e fou r standard s o f womanhood—piety , purity , domesticity , an d sub mission. 112. Welter , "Th e Cul t o f True Womanhood, " 152 , 154 , 157 , 158-159 , 162-163 .

Notes to Chapter 3 25

3

113. O n working-clas s wome n se e Evans, Born for Liberty, 99. Fo r a fuller discussio n o f this topic , se e Alic e Kessler-Harris , Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1982) , chapter 3 ; Christine Stansell , City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (Chicago: Universit y o f Illinoi s Press , 1987) . On slav e wome n se e Debora h Gra y White , Ar'n't I a Woman (New York : W . W . Norton , 1985), especially chapte r 1 . 114. Ann e Firo r Scott , Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago: University o f Illinois Press , 1993) , 81-82. 115. Catharin e Beeche r i s a classi c exampl e o f a woman' s abilit y t o defin e domesticit y in ways that permitte d he r a public role. Se e Sklar , Catharine Beecher, especiall y chapte r 11 . 116. P . Baker , "Th e Domesticatio n o f Politics," 632-638. 117. To Girls in Wartime —A Message from the American Government, leafle t fro m th e Section o n Women' s Work , Socia l Hygien e Division , CTCA , doc . 40286 , bo x 108 , entr y 393, R G 165 , National Archives . 118. Ibid .

119. Josep h Lee , "Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (September 1918) , 193 . 120. Ibid. , 190 .

121. "Committe e o n Protectiv e Wor k fo r Girls, " doc . 6211 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Na tional Archives . 122. Joh n Dickinson , The Building of an Army: A Detailed Account of Legislation, Administration, and Opinion in the United States, 1915-1920 (Ne w York : Century, 1922) , 216 . 123. Doroth y Ashby , "Buildin g fo r Lad y Visitor s a t Cam p Dodge, " Camp Dodger, 26 October 1917 , 2 ; Fosdick , "Th e Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Trainin g Camp Activities, " 135 ; "Hostess Hous e i s Vita l Facto r i n Cam p Life—Utilize d Fo r Ever y Purpose . . ." , Camp Dodger, 19 July 1918 , 5. 124. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 128 . 125. Mar y Alde n Hopkins , "Wh y I s A Hostes s House? " World Outlook 4 (Apri l 1918) ,

13

126. Odell , The New Spirit of the New A rmy, 33-34 . 127. "Loca l Federatio n o n Trainin g Cam p Meet s Wednesday, " Arkansas Democrat, 16 June 1917 , 12 . 128. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 207 . 129. Odell , The New Spirit of the New Army, 33 . 130. Newto n D . Baker , "Invisibl e Armor, " speec h t o the Nationa l Conferenc e o n Wa r Camp Recreatio n Service , 2 3 Octobe r 1917 , reprinte d i n Frontiers of Freedom, by N . D . Baker, 97 . 131. "Si x Month s o f th e Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " Playground 11 (March 1918) : 614. 132. Maj . Granvill e Fortescue , "Trainin g th e Ne w Armie s o f Liberty—Cam p Lee , Virginia's Hom e fo r th e Nationa l Army, " National Geographic Magazine 3 2 (November December 1977) : 421. NOTES T O CHAPTE R THRE E 1. Newto n D . Baker , "Invisibl e Armor, " speec h t o th e Nationa l Conferenc e o n Wa r Camp Recreatio n Service , 2 3 Octobe r 1917 , reprinte d i n Frontiers of Freedom, b y Newto n D. Bake r (New York : George H . Doran , 1918) , 86-87 .

254 • Notes to Chapter 3 2. Ra y F . Carter , executiv e secretary , Tacom a Committe e fo r Recreatio n o f Soldiers , Representative o f the CTCA, t o E. S . Calkin s [sic], 19 September 1917 , doc. 5766 , file "F," box 2 , entry 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 3. Repor t fo r week s endin g 2 2 Ma y 191 8 an d 1 6 Ma y 1918 , fro m Walte r Clarke , Sanitary Corps , t o Surgeo n General , doc . 32013 , box 73 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Ar chives. 4. A typica l day' s headline s i n th e Cam p Lewi s paper , Over-tbe-Top, fo r instance , cite d several event s fo r 1 2 Januar y 1918 , includin g "Socce r Tea m o n Edg e fo r Tomorrow' s Game," "Left y Mail s No w i n Camp " [Lefty wa s a pitcher], "Ritchie Fight-Picture s Wil l B e Shown Here, " "Coughli n t o b e Ritchie' s Opponen t a t Bi g Smoker " [Ritchi e wa s a boxer], and "Gen . Folt z O.K' s Basebal l Plans." Over-the-Top, 12 January 1918 . 5. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities to the Secretary of War, 1918, bo x 1635 , R G 287 , Nationa l Archives . 6. Arthu r P . Young , Books for Sammies: The American Library Association and World War One (Pittsburgh: Ph i Bet a Mu, 1981) , 44. 7. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities to the Secretary of War, 1918, 20 , National Archives . 8. Edwar d F . Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit for War and After (Ne w York : Century , 1918), 26 .

9. "India n Dance s an d Song s Ar e Give n a t 'Y's—Full-bloo d Siou x India n Sing s an d Dances fo r Me n a t Cam p Dodge, " Camp Dodger, 15 March 1918 , 3 ; "Y.M.C.A. Ha s Wee k of Revival, " Camp Bowie Reconnaissance, 9 Februar y 1918 , 7 ; "K.C . t o Giv e 363r d Dance, " Over the Top (Camp Lewis) , 1 3 April 1918 , 1 ; "50 De s Moine s Girl s Entertaine d a t Hops, " Camp Dodger, 13 June 1918 , 3 ; "Halloween Part y a t Hu t No . 1, " Trench and Camp (Camp Beauregard), 1 5 October 1917 , 3. 10. Minute s of Meeting of the War Departmen t Commissio n o n Training Cam p Activi ties, 2 4 October 1917 , box 57 , entry 403 , RG 165 , National Archives . 11. "Interestin g Repor t o f Y.M.C.A . Work, " 83rd Division News (Camp Sherman) , 2 7 March 1918 , 9 ; " 'Y ' Recor d a t Cam p fo r August, " Trench and Camp (Cam p Pike) , 1 0 September 1918 , 8 . A t time s th e shee r quantit y o f production s a t th e organizatio n hut s verged o n th e incredible. Fo r instance , i n March 191 8 the YMCA building s at Camp Dodg e in Iow a offere d 16 4 entertainment s an d 10 8 movies . I n Ma y 8 9 movie s wer e show n t o 31,130 men a t Camp Dodge , a s well a s 294 music and dramati c programs , whic h wer e see n by 38,67 1 soldiers . I n on e wee k a t Cam p Dodg e 80,00 0 fee t o f film wer e shown . Th e YMCA cam p secretar y figured thi s woul d equa l 80 0 miles of movies in one year. "YMCA' s Are Ver y Popula r wit h Soldiers, " Camp Dodger, 19 April 1918 , 1 ; "No Smal l Job Amusin g Men o f Cantonment—Y.M.C.A . Repor t Show s Tremendou s Effor t Mad e t o Entertai n Soldiers," Camp Dodger, 14 June 1918 , 13. 12. A . Estell e Paddock , "Wa r Wor k o f Youn g Women' s Christia n Association, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (September 1918) : 212. 13. Willia m H . Zinsse r t o Mr. Sanger , 2 3 August 1918 , doc. 37578 , box 95, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 14. Fo r informatio n o n th e arm y progra m o f socia l hygien e education , se e for instanc e Walter C . Clarke , "Th e Promotio n o f Socia l Hygien e i n War Time, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (September 1918) : 180-183 , 185 . 15. Pickard , Distric t Director , S.E . District , t o Fosdick , 9 Marc h 1918 , doc . 31202 , box 71 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 16. E . F . Glen n t o James Edwar d Rogers , 3 0 July 1917 , doc. 2989 , file Arizona 18 , box

Notes to Chapter3 • 25 5 3, entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives . Late r Glen n woul d writ e again , makin g clear hi s continued appreciatio n fo r th e wor k o f th e CTCA . Se e E . F . Glen n t o Secretar y o f War , 24 February 1919 , doc. 46428, box 132 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 17. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 124-125 . Se e als o Majo r Genera l H . A . Greene , Commanding Officer , Cam p Lewis , t o Mis s Constanc e Clark , Superintendent , YWC A Hostess House , Cam p Lewis , Juen [sic] 10, 1918 , doc. 33876 , bo x 80 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . 18. "Congratulation s an d Obligations, " Tacoma Daily Ledger, 1 5 June 1917 , 4. 19. "Comprehensiv e Patriotism, " editorial , Fort Worth Star-Telegram, 4 August 1917,4 . 20. "Argent a News—Mayo r Discusse s Captur e o f Camp, " Arkansas Democrat, 11 June 1917, 4; "Little Roc k an d th e Cantonment," Arkansas Democrat, 11 Jun e 1917 , 6; "What Ar e You Goin g t o Do? " Arkansas Democrat, 13 June 1917 , 6. 21. Josep h H . Odell , The New Spirit of the New Army: A Message to "Service Flag" Homes (New York : Fleming H . Revell , 1918) , 99-100. 22. "Bi g Soldiers ' Camp," Stanford Palo Alto News, 2 9 June 1917 , 2. 23. "Realt y Condition s Affecte d b y Camp, " address of George Firmin, genera l manage r of th e Littl e Roc k Boar d o f Commerce , t o a meetin g o f th e rea l estat e me n o f th e city , reprinted i n Arkansas Democrat, 11 Jul y 1917 , 5. 24. "Expec t Busines s Her e t o Doubl e withi n Tw o Months ; Ta x Resources, " San Diego Sun, 2 5 May 1917 , 1 . 25. "Trustee s Appoin t Committe e o n Cam p Matter, " Stanford Palo Alto News, 2 7 July 1917, 1.

6.

26. "Ou r Girl s an d th e Soldiers, " editorial , Fort Worth Star-Telegram, 1 7 August 1917 ,

27. "Imperativ e Tha t Cit y Rais e Wa r Cam p Fund, " Arkansas Democrat, 27 Februar y

1918.

28. Ro y L . Thompson , chairma n o f Littl e Roc k WCCS , t o Joseph Lee , 1 3 June 1918 , doc. 33102, bo x 77 , entry 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . Fo r othe r example s o f th e lin k between loca l busines s leader s an d th e CTCA , se e als o "Wa r Cam p Communit y Servic e Has Bi g Plans for Aidin g Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 6 February 1918 , 4; "War Recreatio n Board I s Doin g Much fo r Men, " Camp Dodger, 2 8 December 1917 . 29. "Th e Ne w For t Worth, " editorial , Fort Worth Star-Telegram, 20 September 1917 , 6. 30. Fo r list s of th e achievement s i n variou s wa r cam p communities , se e "Six Month s o f War Cam p Communit y Service, " Playground 11 (March 1918) , 563-614 ; War Camp Community Service—The Second Six Months, November ipiy—May 1918 (New York , 1918) ; "Commu nity Wa r Recreatio n Service—It s Meaning—Pla n o f Work—Accomplishments, " Playground 1 1 (Octobe r 1917) , 349-354 ; "Accomplishment s i n Variou s Cities, " Playground 11 (October 1917) , 363-382 ; What New York Did for Fighting Men through New York War Camp Community Service in the World-War of ipiy-ipiS (Ne w York , 1919) . 31. "Si x Month s o f Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " 607 . I n Littl e Rock , Arkansas , the communit y adopte d th e WCC S positio n rapidl y an d b y mid-Jun e coul d advertis e extensive recreationa l opportunitie s fo r visitin g troops . Thoug h th e ne w Nationa l Guar d encampment a t Cam p Pik e woul d no t ope n unti l lat e summer , Littl e Roc k entertaine d soldiers fro m For t Loga n H . Root s al l throug h th e summe r o f 1917 . A sampl e weeken d schedule fro m June include d th e following entertainmen t possibilities : Friday Night : Arkansa

w Traveler s dres s parad e Military Dansante—stree t danc e

256 • Notes to Chapter 3 Saturday afternoon : Amateu

Saturday evening : Danc

Sunday afternoon : Churche

Sunday evening : Ban

r Basebal l Commercial Leagu e Gam e Benefit Te a Danc e Free Motion Picture s YMCA ope n t o soldier s e for Officer s an d Student s Trainin g Cam p "Country Fair " performanc e Musical progra m an d socia l b y Cit y Unio n o f Christia n Endeavor Smoker—Knights o f Columbus clu b Social—Methodist churc h s ope n "Take a soldier hom e to dinner" progra m Public Librar y ope n Musical b y Studi o Clu b Navy motio n pictur e an d concer t Band Concer t a t city par k Open House—YWC A Amateur basebal l Free movie s d Concer t

For thi s schedul e se e "Announc e Progra m fo r th e Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 15 Jun e 1917, 1 . Thi s pape r printe d a schedul e eac h wee k o f th e weeken d activitie s planne d fo r the troops . 32. I n Norfolk , Virginia , th e pla n o f organizatio n fo r th e loca l WCC S include d thirty four committees , rangin g fro m th e Book s an d Magazine s Committe e t o th e Lega l Ai d Committee, fro m th e Distinguishe d Visitor s Committe e t o th e Fil m Servic e Committee . Montague Gammon, "Pla n of Organization o f the War Camp Community Service , Norfolk , Virginia," doc . 38326 , box 98 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . Th e complet e lis t of committees include d Executive , Hom e Hospitality , Servic e Club, Libert y Theatre , Libert y Sings, Visitin g Entertainment , Book s an d Magazines , Schoo l Entertainment , Churc h En tertainment, Men' s Socia l Clu b Entertainment , Women' s Socia l Clu b Entertainment , Newspapers fo r Sailors , Roomin g Bureau , Lega l Aid , Athletics , Commercia l Relations , Fraternal Entertainment , Entertainmen t o f Ou r Allies , Girls ' Employment , Girls ' Activi ties, Moto r Service , Publi c Comfor t Stations , Financ e an d Budget , Socia l Entertainmen t i n Armory, Distinguishe d Visitors , Pre p School , Bathin g Facilities, Officers' Clu b and Famil y Hotel, Fil m Service , Entertainmen t fo r Negroes , Office , Recreatio n fo r Industria l Workers , Information, an d Unio n Services . 3 3. "Genera l War-tim e Commission o f the Churches Surve y o f National Arm y Canton ments an d Nationa l Guar d Camps , Nov . 20 , 1917, " doc . 14594 , bo x 25 , entr y 393 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 34. "Repor t o n Communit y Secretaries, " excerp t o n Cam p Shelby , Hattiesburg , Mis sissippi, doc . 11520 , bo x 16 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 35. Repor t o n Hattiesbur g an d Cam p Shelby , "Genera l War-tim e Commissio n o f th e Churches Surve y o f Nationa l Arm y Cantonment s an d Nationa l Guar d Camps , Nov . 20 , 1917," doc. 14594 , bo x 25 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 36. Memorandu m fo r Mr . Brauche r fro m Distric t Director s Mr . Wallac e an d Mr . Prickard an d on e other, 1 1 January 1918 , doc. 31789 , box 73 , entry 393 , RG 165 , Nationa l Archives.

Notes to Chapter3 • 25 7 37. War Camp Community Service—The Second Six Months, 43. 38. "Si x Month s o f War Cam p Community Service, " 587-588. 39. Ibid. , 587 ; War Camp Community Service—The Second Six Months, 42. 40. "Statemen t o f the Council o f National Defens e Relativ e to RESPONSIBILITY O F CIVIL COMMUNITIE S fo r VENEREA L DISEAS E I N T H E ARMY, " doc. 32726 , box 75, entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 41. "Unite d State s Publi c Healt h Service—Publi c Healt h Protection, " edited b y Dr . J . G. Townsend , captain , Pass-In-Review (Camp Bowie) , 9 November 1918 , 4. 42. Katherin e Bemen t Davis , "Women' s Educatio n i n Socia l Hygiene, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 7 9 (Septembe r 1918) : 169 ; Your Side of the Fight—"Keeping Them Fit to Work" a pamphlet produce d b y the War Departmen t Commis sion o n Trainin g Cam p Activitie s an d th e Unite d State s Publi c Healt h Servic e (Washing ton, D.C. : Governmen t Printin g Office , n o date) , a t th e Hoove r Institut e o n Wa r an d Revolution, 12 . Fo r additiona l informatio n o n th e civilia n sid e o f th e venerea l fight, se e Allan Brandt , No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1985) , 78-80 . Brand t detail s th e creatio n o f th e Civilian Committe e t o Comba t Venerea l Disease , establishe d b y th e Counci l o f Nationa l Defense. Th e CCCV D worke d alongsid e th e CTCA , dealin g wit h thos e citie s an d town s beyond th e reach of the CTCA . 43. K . B . Davis , "Women' s Educatio n i n Socia l Hygiene," 171. 44. "Activitie s o f th e Wa r Cam p Communit y Service—Dancing, " Pass-in-Review, 31 July 1918 , 8. 45. Samue l B . Murra y t o Fosdick , 1 9 February 1918 , doc . 26834 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . 46. Fosdic k t o Samue l B . Murra y o f For t Worth , 2 3 February 1918 , doc. 26834 , entr y 393, R G 165 , National Archives . 47. Ra y F . Carte r t o E. S . [sic] Calkins, 1 9 September 1917 , doc. 5766 , letter fil e F, bo x 2, entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 48. "Communit y Wa r Recreatio n Service—It s Meaning—Pla n o f Work—Accomplish ments," 352. 49. Josep h Le e to J. Dougla s Swagerty , Firs t Methodis t Church , Dallas , 1 5 May 1918 , doc. 28563 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 50. Se e Fosdic k t o Mr . Jas . A . Armstrong , 2 9 Apri l 1918 , doc . 25767 , bo x 52 , entr y 393, R G 165 , National Archives . 51. Danie l T . Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicago Press , 1978) , 106 , 107 . 52. Fo r a n insightfu l accoun t o f th e tension s betwee n th e traditiona l Sunda y an d th e rise o f ne w amusements , se e Marti n Paulsson , The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform: Atlantic City, 1854-1920 (Ne w York : Ne w Yor k Universit y Press , 1994) . Se e als o Rodgers , The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 107 ; Francis G . Couvares , The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877-1919 (Albany: Stat e Universit y o f Ne w York Press , 1984) , 75-79 ; Ro y Rosenzweig , Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (New York : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1983) , 208.

53. "Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " Playground 11 (January 1918) , 508. 54. Fosdic k t o Mr . J . R . Kneebone , Cit y Manager , Beaufort , Sout h Carolina , 2 4 Apri l 1918, doc. 25843 , box 53 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 55. Fosdic k t o th e Hon . Rober t R . Lawson , 1 2 Septembe r 1918 , doc . 38507 , bo x 99 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives .

258 • Notes to Chapter3 56. Wa r Camp Community Service , Keep 'Em Smiling: Handbook of War Camp Community Service (New York : War Cam p Community Service , 1918) , 93. 57. Fosdic k t o Rev . A . R . Holdenby , Eas t Point , Georgia , 4 March 1918 , doc. 27495 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 58. Fosdic k t o th e Hon . Rober t R . Lawson , 1 2 Septembe r 1918 , doc . 38507 , bo x 99 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 59. Fosdic k t o Mr . J. R . Kneebone , Cit y Manager , Beaufort , Sout h Carolina , 2 4 Apri l 1918, doc. 25843 , box 53 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 60. "Go d I s Not Mocked, " editorial i n the Arkansas Methodist, quote d i n "Entertainmen t for th e Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 1 July 1917 , 4. 61. Communicatio n signe d b y member s o f congregatio n an d sen t b y Rev . W . M . Rader, Beeville , Texas , t o Baker , 7 Apri l 1918 , doc . 23844 , bo x 48 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . 62. Ibid . 63. Quote s fro m "Go d I s No t Mocked, " editoria l i n th e Arkansas Methodist, quoted i n "Entertainment fo r th e Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 1 July 1917 , 4. 64. C . E . Wilbur , President , Methodis t Protestan t Minister s Meeting , an d E . J. Head ley, Secretary , t o Baker, 8 May 1918 , doc. 28148 , box 60, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Ar chives. 65. "Relatio n o f th e Churche s t o th e Sunda y Problem, " a confidentia l report , doc . 41969, bo x 114 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 66. C . W . Pfeiffer , CTC A representativ e an d Executiv e Secretar y o f the WCCS Board , Hattiesburg, Mississippi , t o E . Dan a Calkins , CTCA , 7 March 1918 , doc. 21213 , bo x 41, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 67. R . Osca r Beckman , Beaufort , Sout h Carolina , t o WCCS, Ne w Yor k City, 1 0 April 1918, doc. 25843 , box 53 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 68. "Relatio n o f th e Churche s t o th e Sunda y Problem, " confidentia l report , Nationa l Archives. 69. "Movie s o n Sunda y Uphel d b y Judge," Arkansas Democrat, 3 July 1917 , 1 . 70. Ibid . 71. "Urg e Movie s fo r Soldier s Sunda y P.M., " editoria l quotin g statemen t b y member s of the CTC A executiv e committe e fo r For t Logan , Arkansas Democrat, 1 6 July 1917 , 1 . 72. "Th e Sunda y Movi e Decision, " editorial, Arkansas Democrat, 3 July 1917 , 4. 73. "Sunda y Amusements, " Arkansas Democrat, 1 8 June 1917 , 6. 74. "Sunda y Recreatio n i s Champione d b y Mayo r o f Argenta, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 5 June 1917 , 1 . 75. "Prominen t Leader s o f Churc h Endors e Movie s o n Sunday, " Arkansas Democrat, 1 7 July 1917 , 1 . 76. "Sunda y Amusements, " Arkansas Democrat, 1 8 June 1917 , 6. 77. "Th e Sunda y Movi e Decision, " Arkansas Democrat, 3 July 1917 , 4; "Sunday Amuse ments," Arkansas Democrat, 18 June 1917 , 6. 78. "Anti-Movi e Logic, " Arkansas Democrat, 1 0 July 1917,6 . 79. "Confusin g th e Issue, " Arkansas Democrat, 9 Jul y 1917 , 4 ; "Anti-Movi e Logic, " Arkansas Democrat (1 o July 1917) , 6. 80. "Go d I s Not Mocked, " editoria l fro m Arkansas Methodist, broadl y quote d i n "Enter tainment fo r th e Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 1 July 1917 , 4. 81. Editorial s fro m Arkansas Methodist, quote d i n "Entertainmen t fo r th e Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 1 July 1917 , 4.

Notes to Chapter 3 • 25 9 82. Sa m H . Campbell , president , Ministeria l Alliance , Littl e Rock , t o Baker , 1 August 1017, doc. 4720, file Arkansas—Little Rock , bo x 4, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 83. Ibid . 84. Ibid . 85. S . E . Ryan , o f th e Scot t St . Methodis t Episcopa l Church , Littl e Rock , t o Fosdick , 1 September 1917 , doc. 5682 , letter file R, bo x 7 , entry 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 86. Ibid . 87. Quotatio n fro m th e Arkansas Methodist, quote d i n "Entertainmen t fo r th e Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 21 July 1917 , 4 ; "Thank s fo r th e Advertising, " Arkansas Democrat, 28 July 1917 , 6. 88. "Thank s fo r th e Advertising, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 8 July 1917 , 6; "Sunday Amuse ments," Arkansas Democrat, 17 June 1917,6 ; "Myron A . Kessne r Going to Atlanta," Arkansas Democrat, 18 August 1917 , 1 . 89. Editorial , Baptist Advance, 1 9 Jul y 1917 , quote d i n "Anti-Movi e Personalities, " Arkansas Democrat, 2 4 July 1917 , 4. 90. Fosdic k t o H . S . Braucher , 2 0 July 191 7 and 2 7 July 1917 , doc. 2494 , file Alabama 26 (2 of 3) , box 2 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 91. "Relatio n o f th e Churche s t o th e Sunda y Problem, " Confidentia l Report , doc . 41969, bo x 114 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 92. Ibid . 93. Fosdic k t o Joseph H . Odell , 3 0 March 1918 , doc . 43398 , bo x 120 , entr y 393 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 94. A simila r patter n involvin g apparen t victorie s b y Sabbatarian s followe d b y thei r cooperation i n a Sunda y recreatio n progra m occurre d i n othe r trainin g cam p communities . For the example in Hattiesburg, Mississippi , se e C. W . Pfeiffer , Genera l Secretary , Hatties burg WCCS , t o E . Dan a Caulkins , 2 5 April 1918 , doc. 26020 , bo x 53 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . O n Macon , Georgia , se e Repor t o n th e Sunda y Proble m i n Macon , Georgia, doc . 41969 , bo x 114 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 95. France s Fishe r Byers , "Cam p Upton—Th e Meltin g Pot, " World Outlook 4 (Apri l 1918), 15 . Se e also David M . Kennedy , Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1980) , 17-18 . 96. Charle s F . Welder , "Suggestion s fo r Summer-Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " 27 April 1918 , reprinted a s War Recreatio n Bulleti n #221 , doc. 34813 , box 84 , entry 393 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 97. Wa r Cam p Communit y Service , Keep 'Em Smiling, 96-97 . 98. Bosto n WCCS , Dances —How to Conduct Them, bo x 131 , entry 393 , R G 165 , Na tional Archives . 99. "Repor t o n condition s o f prevalenc e an d sprea d o f venerea l disease, " fro m Elmor e McNeill Mcke e of the Sanitar y Corps , Nationa l Army , t o the Surgeo n General, 1 9 October 1917, doc. 10088 , file Massachusetts, bo x 9, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 100. Bosto n WCCS , Dances—How to Conduct Them, National Archives . 101. H . S . Braucher , "Policie s wit h Referenc e t o Danc e Halls, " 2 7 June 1918 , issue d as Wa r Recreatio n Bulleti n 441 , doc . 37811 , bo x 96 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Ar chives. 102. "Woul d Hav e to Get Permi t Ever y Day, " Daily Palo Alto Times, 14 July 1917 , 1 . 103. "Si x Months o f War Cam p Communit y Service, " 608. 104. War Camp Community Service— The Second Six Months, 2 2. 105. "Dancin g Delight s Mus t B e Curtailed," Camp Dodger, 2 0 June 1918 , 7.

i6o • Notes to Chapter 3 106. Ra y S . Hubbard , "Recreatio n Plan s fo r Soldier s o f Camp—Activitie s o f Wa r Camp Communit y Service, " Trench and Camp (Camp Devens) , 2 January 1918 , 7. 107. "Wa r Cam p Community Servic e Jottings," Trench and Camp (Camp Devens) , January 30 , 1918 , 2. 108. Josep h Le e to J. Dougla s Swagerty , Firs t Methodist Church , Dallas , 1 5 May 1918 , doc. 28563 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 109. Wa r Cam p Community Service , Keep 'Em Smiling, 62. 110. "Girl s Teac h Soldier s Her e Ho w t o Dance," Camp Dodger, 1 2 April 1918 . i n . Bosto n WCCS , Dances—How to Conduct Them, National Archives . 112. H . S . Braucher , "Policie s wit h Referenc e t o Dance Halls, " 27 June 1918 , issued a s War Recreatio n Bulleti n 441 , doc. 37811 , bo x 96 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archive s (emphasis mine) . 113. Charle s F . Welder , "Suggestion s fo r Summer-WCCS, " 2 7 Apri l 1918 , reprinte d as War Recreatio n Bulleti n 221 , doc. 34813 , box 84, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 114. "Loca l Communit y Dance s Approve d b y Commission, " Arkansas Gazette, 1 0 Au gust 1917,4 115. "Wa r Recreatio n Boar d I s Doin g Muc h fo r Men, " Camp Dodger, 28 Decembe r 1917; Extract fro m repor t o f R . S . Hubbard , 2 6 January 1918 , reprinted a s War Recreatio n Bulletin 206 , 2 2 Ma y 1918 , doc . 32411 , bo x 75 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; "War Cam p Communit y Servic e Jottings, " Trench and Camp (Camp Devens) , 9 Januar y 1918, 2 .

116. Wa r Cam p Communit y Service , Keep 'Em Smiling, 63 . Th e WCC S sometime s limited th e attendanc e o f th e me n i n uniform a s well. Se e "War Cam p Communit y Servic e Jottings," Trench and Camp (Camp Devens) , 3 0 January 1918 , 2; "In Divisio n Society—Th e Rock Cliff Club, " Spartanburg Gas Attack (Cam p Wadsworth), 2 2 December 1917 , 16 . 117. Rober t Bertran d Brown , War Camp Community Service Calls (New York , 1919) , 33. 118. Ibid. , 34 . 119. "Dixi e Danc e Prove s t o B e Bi g Success, " Reveille (Camp Logan) , 2 7 Novembe r 1917, 1.

120. A . A . Fisk , "Repor t fro m Nogales , Arizona , o f th e Wa r Commissio n o n Trainin g Camp Activities, " reprinte d a s Wa r Recreatio n Bulleti n #38 , doc . 3483 , file Arizon a 18. 1 (2 of 4), bo x 3 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 121. Fosdic k t o Baker , 1 7 April 1919 , collected i n Letters From the First World War, bo x 26, Raymon d Blain e Fosdic k Papers , Seele y G . Mud d Manuscrip t Library , Princeto n University. Publishe d wit h permissio n o f Princeton Universit y Libraries . 122. "WCC S Ha s Bi g Plans fo r Aidin g Soldiers , " Arkansas Democrat, 6 February 1918 , 4; War Camp Community Service —The Second Six Months, 75; "Th e Loya l Orde r o f Moos e Will Give an Entertainment a t Their Hall, " Camp Dodger, 2 5 November 1918 , 4; "Fraternity Men A t Cam p Ar e Registered—Colleg e Me n Fro m Man y State s Giv e Their Affiliation s a t Hostess House, " Trench and Camp (Camp Pike) , Septembe r 1918 ; "Princeton Me n i n Cam p Logan," Camp Logan Reveille, 23 Novembe r 1917 , 8 ; "T o Cornel l Men! " Gas Attack (Cam p Wadsworth), 2 6 Januar y 1918 , 10 ; "S.A.E . Fraternit y t o Entertai n Soldiers, " Arkansas Democrat, 22 June 1917 , 12 ; War Recreatio n Bulleti n #25 , doc . 3425 , file Arizona 18. 1 (2 of 4), bo x 3 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; "Bi g Sho w Fo r Soldie r Elks, " Camp Dodger, 12 July 1918 , 6. 123. "Wa r Cam p Community Service, " 493. 124. I n a similar manne r immigran t group s ofte n reache d ou t t o member s o f thei r ow n ethnic group. Fo r instance , i n Louisville, "Th e Italia n Club i s also entertaining an d invitin g all th e Italia n soldier s wh o hav e difficult y i n speakin g Englis h t o com e t o thei r clu b room s

Notes to Chapter 3 • 26 1 on afternoon s whe n the y hav e leave , t o mee t an d cha t wit h peopl e speakin g thei r ow n tongue." Th e cit y als o hel d specia l partie s fo r Italia n soldier s an d fo r Polis h soldiers . War Camp Community Service— The Second Six Months, 2 3. 125. Weldo n B . Durham , " 'Bi g Brother ' an d th e 'Seve n Sisters' : Cam p Lif e Reform s in World Wa r I, " Military Affairs 42 (1978): 60. Mark C . Carne s explores the meaning of th e fraternal organization s an d thei r ritual s fo r middle-clas s me n i n "Middle-Clas s Me n an d th e Solace o f Fraterna l Ritual, " i n Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, Mar k C . Carne s an d Clyd e Griffen , eds . (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1990), 37-52 , an d i n Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (Ne w Haven : Yal e University Press , 1989) . 126; "Wa r Cam p Community Service, " 493. 127. I t i s mor e difficul t t o sugges t ho w ofte n th e fraterna l organization s catere d exclu sively t o thei r ow n member s an d ho w ofte n the y worke d fo r th e recreatio n o f th e soldier s more broadly . Certainl y the y sometime s provide d entertainmen t exclusivel y fo r thei r ow n members. A s one calendar fo r th e local Masons of Fort Wort h i n the Camp Bowi e Reconnaissance suggested , "Al l soldier s wh o ar e Mason s ar e cordiall y invite d t o atten d th e followin g meetings an d entertainments. " "Masoni c Calendar, " Reconnaissance (Camp Bowie) , 1 5 January 1918 , 4. 128. War Camp Community Service— The Second Six Months, 75. 129. "Ma y Us e Golf Links, " Trench and Camp (Camp Beauregard) , 1 5 October 1917 , 2. 130. Athleti c Divisio n Bulleti n (weekly) , 3 Septembe r 1918 , 8 , bo x 1 , entr y 399 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 131. E . M . Vail , CTC A representativ e i n Sa n Antonio , " A Community' s Opportu nity—How On e o f th e Larges t Militar y Center s i s Dealin g wit h th e Proble m o f carin g fo r their Soldie r Guests, " doc. 22112 , box 44, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 132. Repor t of Allen Cox, 2 February 1918 , on the Sunday proble m i n Macon, Georgia , with excerpts fro m report s of representatives, doc . 41969, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Ar chives. 133. Wa r Cam p Communit y Service , Keep 'Em Smiling, 23-37 . 134. Ibid. , 16-17 , 27-29 ; War Camp Community Service —The Second Six Months, 20 ; "War Cam p Communit y Service, " Camp Bowie Reconnaissance, 2 March 1918 , 7 ; Spencer R . Gordon, Syracus e CTCA , t o Josep h Lee , 2 3 Jul y 1917 , reprinte d a s Wa r Recreatio n Bulletin #30 , doc . 3425 , file Arizon a 18. 1 ( 2 o f 4) , bo x 3 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives; Repor t o n Chicago , Littl e Rock , WCC S i n "Extract s fro m Report—Wa r Recre ation Servic e i n Communities Nea r Trainin g Camps , June, 1917, " reprinted a s War Recre ation Bulleti n #14 , doc . 2649 , lette r file P , bo x 6 , entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Archives ; "War Cam p Communit y Service, " 512 ; "Si x Month s o f Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " 569; "Wome n t o Se w Button s an d Men d Socks, " Camp Dodger, 28 Septembe r 1917 , 4 ; "Every Soldie r t o Have a Mother," Camp Dodger, 2 3 November 1917 , 9; "W.C.T.U. o f De s Moines Ac t A s Hostesses," Camp Dodger, 1 February 1918 , 2; "Extracts fro m Report—Wa r Recreation Servic e i n Communitie s Nea r Trainin g Camps , June, 1917, " reprinted a s Wa r Recreation Bulleti n #14 , Nationa l Archives ; "Accomplishments i n Variou s Cities, " 367. 135. "Monthl y Repor t o f Ir a W . Jayne , June , 1917, " reprinte d a s Wa r Recreatio n Bulletin # 6 , doc . 764 , file Arizon a 18. 1 ( 2 o f 4) , bo x 3 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Ar chives. 136. Thi s wa s precisel y th e fat e me t b y F . Scot t Fitzgerald' s Ja y Gatsby , wh o me t Daisy whil e trainin g a t Cam p Taylor , outsid e o f Louisville . F . Scot t Fitzgerald , The Great Gatsby (New York : Charles Scribner's , 1953) , 75-79, m - 1 1 2 , 148-152 .

262 • Notes to Chapter 4

N O T E S T O CHAPTE R FOU

R

i. Al l informatio n o n End of the Road is take n fro m th e film itself . I t i s availabl e fo r viewing a t the Motion Picture , Sound , an d Vide o Branch , Nationa l Archives . 2. Th e choic e of the name Mary i s probably no t coincidental . 3. Doc . 33308 , box 78 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 4. "Wor k fo r Girl s i n Cam p Communities, " doc . 20329 , bo x 39 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Josep h Lee , H . S . Braucher , "Recreatio n i n th e Neighborhoo d o f Military Trainin g Camps, " confidential , no t fo r publication , doc . 7797 , file Alabam a 1.3 , box 1 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 5. Fosdic k to Esther B . Means, Executiv e Secretary , Churc h Missio n o f Help, Philadel phia, Pennsylvania , als o secretar y o f Girl s Conference , 1 9 May 1917 , doc . 379 , lette r file M, bo x 5 , entry 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 6. "Communit y Wa r Recreatio n Service—It s Meaning—Pla n o f Work—Accomplish ments," Playground 1 1 (October 1917) : 352. 7. Josep h Lee , "Wa r Cam p Communit y Service, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (September 1918) , 193 . 8. "New s fro m Divisio n Units—Compan y L , 105t h Give s Dance, " Gas Attack (Cam p Wadsworth), 1 3 April 1918 , 14 . 9. "Doughbo y Love d Ladie s o f Al l Ages , Bu t A t Differen t Times, " Literary Digest 64 (28 February 1920) : 62. 10. "Thousand s o f Girl s Ar e Awaitin g t o Adop t Soldier s o f Cam p Dodge, " Camp Dodger, 2 6 October 1917 , 1 . 11. "Cam p Dodg e Soldier s Take Advantage of Journal Fighter' s Servic e Bureau, " Camp Dodger, 9 November 1917 , 1 . 12. Milto n E . Bernet , "Th e World A s I Saw It," U.S. Army Militar y Histor y Institute , Carlisle Barracks , Pennsylvania , Worl d Wa r On e Researc h Project , Arm y Experience s Questionnaire Collection , 89t h Division , bo x 3 , 314t h Suppl y Train . 13. "Da n Cupi d Lead s Arm y o f Soldier s t o Altar, " Over-the-Top (Camp Lewis) , 5 January 1918 , 1 . Th e soldie r pres s wa s ful l o f storie s regardin g th e marriage s o f me n t o women bot h fro m thei r hom e town s and , frequently , t o girl s fro m th e trainin g cam p communities. Fo r a fe w example s se e "Rut h L . Nulle r Wed s Orego n Sergeant—Popula r Palo Alt o Gir l Brid e o f W . R . Bagnall , afte r Shor t Romance, " an d "Mis s Smit h Wil l Wed Soldie r Engineer—Engagemen t o f Popula r Pal o Alt o Gir l t o Forme r Fremon t Ma n Announced," Stanford Palo Alto News, 1 4 September 1917,1 ; "A Wedding Epidemic, " Camp Dodger, 26 July 1918 , 4 ; "Wedding s Cu t Majorit y o f Singl e Me n a t Shelby, " Trench and Camp (Camp Shelby) , 4 December 1917 , 6. 14. "St . Valentin e Complains, " Reveille (Camp Logan) , 2 2 February 1918 , 6. 15. Howar d L . Walke r t o hi s brothe r Lyn n Walker , Februar y 14 , 1918 , i n th e Arm y Experiences Questionnair e Collection , 83r d Division , 165t h Infantry , 323r d Machin e Gun ners, Compan y C . 16. Raymon d Fosdick , "Th e Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Trainin g Camp Activities," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 79 (September 1918), 131. 17. Similarly , sectio n 1 2 granted th e presiden t th e powe r t o prohibi t liquo r i n o r nea r training camp s an d establishe d bone-dr y prohibitio n fo r al l member s o f th e America n military. Th e prohibitio n progra m wil l b e discusse d below . Wa r Departmen t Commissio n on Trainin g Cam p Activities , Documents Regarding the Question of Alcohol and Prostitution in the Neighborhood of Military Camps (1917), 5-6 , bo x 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives .

Notes to Chapter 4 • 26 3 18. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman of the Commission on Training Camp Activities to the Secretary of War, 1918, 11, box 1635 , R G 287 , Nationa l Ar chives. 19. Rut h Rosen , The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Universit y Press , 1982) , 5, 9. Fo r a useful discussio n o f the pro- and antiregulatio n arguments, se e Leslie Fishbein, "Harlo t or Heroine? Changin g View s of Prostitution, 1870 1920," Historian 43 (1980) : 23-35 . Fo r a discussion o f th e clas s elemen t i n th e promotio n o f segregation, se e Nei l Larr y Shumsky , "Taci t Acceptance : Respectabl e American s an d Segregated Prostitution , 1870-1910, " journal of Social History 19 (Summer 1986) : 665-679. 20. Joh n Caruther s t o Baker, receive d i n the Wa r Departmen t 2 6 June 1917 , doc. 1176 , letter fil e F , bo x 2 , entry 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . Unfortunately , n o home addres s was included i n the letter . This vie w woul d persis t i n places , becomin g a n issu e agai n durin g Worl d Wa r Two . For a n excellen t stud y o f th e Honolul u red-ligh t district , whic h operate d a s a n unofficia l segregated distric t durin g muc h o f Worl d Wa r Two , se e Bet h Baile y an d Davi d Farber , "Hotel Street : Prostitutio n an d th e Politics of War," Radical History Review (1992): 54-77. 21. Mar k T . Connelly , The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chape l Hill : University o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1980) , 8-9 ; Davi d J . Pivar , Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868-1900 (Westport , Conn. : Greenwoo d Press , 1973) , 7 ; Pete r G. Filene , Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press, 1986) , 80-81 . 22. Pivar , Purity Crusade, 7 . 23. Fo r a n excellen t accoun t o f whit e slav e narratives , a s wel l a s a broade r stud y o f debates ove r issue s surroundin g youn g women' s sexuality , se e Mar y Odem , Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1880-1920 (Chapel Hill : Universit y o f North Carolin a Press , 1995) , especially chapter s 4-6 . 24. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 115-116 , 134 . 25. Ibid. , 83 , 95, 96, 99-101, 103 , 113. 26. Ibid. , 82 ; Barbar a Mei l Hobson , Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York : Basi c Books, 1987) , 150 . 27. Fosdic k t o H . S . Brauche r o n wh y polic y o f segregatio n wil l no t work , doc . 940 , file Alabama 2 6 (2 of 2) , box 2 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 28. Joh n Dickinson , The Building of an Army: A Detailed Account of Legislation, Administration, and Opinion in the United States, 1915-1920 (Ne w York : Century , 1922) , 205-206 . 29. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities (pamphlet) , 5 , bo x 1635 , R G 287 , Nationa l Archives ; Alla n M . Brandt , No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (Ne w York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1985) , 25 , 74 ; Circula r lette r o f Willia m H . Zinsse r t o Snow , Sanger, Hopkins , an d McBride , "RE : COMMUNIT Y CLEAN-U P B Y MAIL, " 1 2 July 1918, doc. 34816 , bo x 84 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 30. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities, pamphle t (1917) , 27 , Nationa l Archives ; Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commissions o n Training Cam p Activities , Standard Forms of Laws (1919), 5 , box 1635 , R G 287, Nationa l Archives . 31. Raymon d Fosdick , Prefac e i n Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Train ing Camp Activities , Standard Forms of Laws, National Archives . 32. Se e Charles F . McDermott , Chie f o f Police , Woburn , Massachusetts , t o Fosdick , 9 June 1917 , lette r file Mc, bo x 5 , entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Archives ; J. Elmor e Martin , Sheriff o f Charleston , Sout h Carolina , t o Baker , 2 2 Augus t 1917 , doc . 3571 , letter file M , box 5 , entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Archives ; J. F . Griffen , Sherif f o f Polk County , Iowa ,

264 • Notes to Chapter 4 to Baker , 3 0 August 1917 , doc . 4610 , fil e Iowa—De s Moines , bo x 7 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Willia m L . Martin , Attorne y Genera l o f Alabama , t o Baker , 2 Jul y 1917, fil e Alabam a 1.3 , bo x 1 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Governo r o f Ne w Jersey t o Baker , 2 9 Ma y 1917 , doc . 594 , fil e Ne w Jersey , bo x 10 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; E . L . Phillip , Governo r o f Wisconsin , t o Baker , 3 1 Ma y 1917 , doc . 3145, fil e Wisconsin , bo x 10 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Governo r o f Massa chusetts t o Baker , 1 8 May 1917 , doc . 497 , fil e Massachusetts , bo x 9 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Governo r Hardin g o f Iow a t o Baker , 4 June 1917 , doc . 887 , fil e Iowa , box 7 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 33. H . P . Demand , Hea d o f Boy' s Work , Interstat e YMC A fo r Arizona , Ne w Mexico , West Texas , t o Fosdick , 6 July 1917 , doc. 2758 , file Ne w Mexico—Deming , bo x 10 , entr y 395, R G 165 , National Archives . 34. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , War Department Commission on Training Camp Activities, 26 , Nationa l Archives . Th e citie s include d Deming , Ne w Mexico ; E l Paso, Waco , Sa n Antonio , For t Worth , an d Houston , Texas ; Hattiesburg , Mississippi ; Spartanburg, Sout h Carolina ; Norfol k an d Petersburg , Virginia ; Jacksonville, Florida ; Al exandria, Louisiana ; Savannah , Georgia ; Charleston , Columbia , an d Greenville , Sout h Carolina; Douglas , Arizona ; Louisville, Kentucky ; and Montgomery , Alabama . 35. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 3. 36. Joh n H . Buschemeyer , Mayo r o f Louisville , t o Baker , 2 July 1917 , doc . 2770 , fil e Kentucky—Louisville ( 3 of 4), bo x 8 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 37. Ibid . 38. "Impractica l Reform, " Louisville Courier-Journal, 2 7 Jun e 1917 , 4 ; "Educatio n vs . Prohibition," Louisville Courier-Journal, 1 7 July 1917 , 4. 39. "Educatio n vs . Prohibition, " Louisville Courier-Journal, 1 7 July 1917,4 . 40. "Cur b o n Vic e I s Approved—Cit y Official' s Effort s Ar e Indorse d A t Meeting, " Louisville Courier-Journal, 2 5 Augus t 1917 , 2 ; Henry M . Johnson, President , Men' s Federa tion o f Louisville , t o Baker , 2 5 August 1917 , doc. 4705, file Kentucky—Louisvill e ( 4 of 4), box 8 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 41. See , fo r instance , Alex . T . Wilso n t o Baker , 2 3 August 1917 , doc. 4115 , lette r fil e W, bo x 9, entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 42. " 'Redlight ' I s Thin g o f Past—Sorro w an d Patho s Predominat e O n Las t Night, " Louisville Courier-Journal, 1 September 1917 , 1 . 43. Ibid . 44. Bake r t o th e Governor s o f al l th e State s an d t o the Chairme n o f th e Stat e Council s of Defense , Ma y 26 , 1917 , reprinte d i n Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities, Documents Regarding the Question of Alcohol and Prostitution in the Neighborhood of Military Camps (1917), 4, bo x 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 45. Th e CTC A wa s als o willin g t o quarantin e communitie s mor e distantl y remove d from th e camps, i f evidence suggested tha t the y wer e failing t o take actions to ensure a clean environment fo r soldiers . I n lat e 191 7 th e cit y o f Seattl e wa s pu t off-limit s fo r th e soldier s of Cam p Lewi s b y th e commandin g office r o f th e camp , unti l Seattl e conforme d t o th e CTCA's demands . "Hint s Bigge r Sensatio n i n Seattl e Vice, " Tacoma Daily Ledger, 2 3 November 1917 , 1 ; John R . Colte r t o Loui s Ludlow , 8 March 1918 , doc . 28686 , bo x 62 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 46. Clarenc e A. Perr y t o Fosdick, 2 1 May 1917 ; Clarence A. Perr y t o William F. Snow , 14 May 1917 ; Fosdick t o Charle s A . Perry , 2 2 May 1917 ; all i n doc . 78 , file Ne w Orleans , Louisiana ( 1 o f 4) , bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; A l Rose , Storyville, New Orleans (Tuscaloosa: Universit y o f Alabam a Press , 1974) , 167 ; Bascom Johnson t o Fosdick , 27 August 1917 , doc. 8508 , box 6, entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives .

Notes to Chapter 4 • 26 5 47. Repor t o n Ne w Orleans , Louisiana , Supplementar y Repor t No . 1 , 2 5 Septembe r 1917, fil e Ne w Orleans , Louisian a ( 1 of 4) , bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Josephus Daniels , Secretar y o f the Navy, t o Governor Pleasan t of Louisiana, 2 4 Septembe r 1917, doc . 6041 , file Ne w Orleans , Louisian a ( 2 of 4), bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 75 . 48. Wm . M . Railey , Presiden t o f th e Citizen s Leagu e o f Louisiana , t o Fosdick , 6 October 1917 , doc . 7634 , fil e Ne w Orleans , Louisian a ( 2 of 4), bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Rose , Storyville, 167-168 . Fo r a brie f bu t usefu l accoun t o f th e closur e of Storyvill e se e also Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 74-75 . 49. Edwar d F . Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit for War and After (Ne w York : Century , 1918), 202-203 ; Commission o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 11 , box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 50. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 92 ; Connelly, The Response to Prostitution, 149 . 51. Georg e J. Anderson , "Makin g the Camps Saf e fo r th e Army," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 79 (September 1918) , 149 . 52. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), National Archives . 53. Hilto n Howel l Railey , " A SURVE Y O F MORA L C O N D I T I O N S NEA R FOR T LOGAN H . ROOTS , PULASK I COUNTY , ARKANSAS, " 2 0 August 1917 , doc. 4816, file Arkansas—Littl e Rock , bo x 4, entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 54. Repor t o n condition s i n Atlanta , Georgia , 3 July 1917 , 7 to 1 2 p.m., "Reporte d b y P.K.," doc . 2684 , fil e Atlanta , Georgi a ( 2 o f 3) , bo x 6 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Ar chives. 55. H . F . Lyma n o f Cleveland , Ohio , t o Baker , 9 June 1917 , doc . 1830 , lette r fil e L , box 4 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives . Fo r condition s i n Chillicoth e se e "Genera l War-Time Commissio n o f th e Churches—Surve y o f Nationa l Arm y Cantonment s an d National Guar d Camps—Novembe r 20 , 1917, " doc . 14594 , D 0 X 2 5> entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Malcol m McBrid e t o Fosdick , 2 7 Novembe r 1917 , doc . 12096 , bo x 17 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . §6. Th e repor t o f a visitor to Hattiesburg noted : I fin d her e a mora l community . . . . To-da y I witnesse d a n unusua l scene . I sa w more tha n a dozen "moder n Magdalenes " leav e town. Thi s cam e abou t a s a result o f the determination o f the citizens and cit y officials no t to tolerate any immora l resorts . There wil l b e n o "tenderloin " distric t her e whe n th e boy s fro m "u p North " arrive . The door s an d window s o f th e house s ar e closed , an d "fo r keeps, " too , th e officer s tell me . Th e wome n wer e tol d i f they returne d the y woul d b e "shadowed " b y secre t service men . Howard S . Williams , "Hattiesbur g Plan s Bi g Welcome fo r Kentuck y an d Indian a Boys ; I s Healthy, Moral , Prett y City, " Louisville Courier-Journal, 1 3 August 1917 , 2. 57. Basco m Johnson t o Fosdick , 1 4 June 1917 , doc . 1059 , fil e Alabam a 16 , entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 58. McHenr y Seal , Pastor , Sprin g Stree t Baptis t Church , Eas t Waco , Texas , t o Baker , 26 August 1917 , doc. 4141 , letter fil e S , bo x 7 , entry 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 59. "Th e Closin g o f th e Re d Ligh t District—Th e Statu s o f Commericalize d [sic] Vic e in th e Cit y o f Louisville , Ky. , betwee n Jul y 14t h an d Augus t 27th , 1917, " doc . 12249 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 60. "Redligh t I s Thing o f Past," Louisville Courier-Journal, 1 September 1917 , 2.

266 • Notes to Chapter 4 61. W . G . Hutton , Sherif f o f Pulaski County, Arkansa s to Baker, 2 4 August 1917 , doc. 3534, file Arkansas—Miscellaneous , bo x 4, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives ; Basco m Johnson t o Loui s J. Wilde , Mayo r o f Sa n Diego , 2 0 July 1917 , doc. 6160 , file California — San Dieg o (1 of 2) , box 5 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 62. "P.K., " repor t on Hattiesburg , Mississippi , 2 7 December 1917 , file Mississippi, bo x 9, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 63. Repor t o f 1s t Lieut. Edwi n K . Piper , Sanitar y Corps , USNA , t o Basco m Johnson, 18 November 1917 , doc . 12540 , fil e Michigan—Battl e Creek , bo x 9 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives . 64. Imoge n B . Oakley , correspondin g secretary , Civi c Clu b o f Philadelphia , t o Baker , 6 March 1918 , doc. 29319 , box 65, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 65. "J.S., " Repor t o n Bridgeport , Connecticut , 1 4 February 1918 , file Connecticut, bo x 5, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 66. "Genera l War-Tim e Commissio n o f the Churches—Survey o f National Arm y Can tonments an d Nationa l Guar d Camps—Nov . 20 , 1917, " doc. 14594 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . 67. Lette r o f Mr. Jacobsen, representativ e i n Alexandria, quote d i n George A . Nesbitt , "Assistant," Playgroun d an d Recreatio n Associatio n o f America , t o Fosdick , 2 4 Augus t 1917, doc. 3765 , letter file P, bo x 6, entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 68. Basco m Johnson, "Preliminer y [sic] Repor t o n Alexandria , Septembe r 2-4 , 1917, " doc. 5911 , file Alexandria, Louisian a ( 4 of 5) , box 8, entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . Another visito r t o Alexandri a i n Augus t provide d additiona l informatio n fo r th e CTCA , confirming it s concern s regardin g condition s there . Suggestin g tha t th e red-ligh t distric t was "te n time s wors e i n bestiality " tha n th e distric t i n Tokyo , th e visito r continued , "Fo r bald abando n an d braze n shamelessnes s Alexandri a beat s Shanghai , an d w e who have bee n living i n th e Orien t hav e repeatedl y hear d tha t 'Shangha i i s th e mos t immora l cit y i n th e world.' " P . L . Gillet t t o Mr . W . E . Adams , 1 2 Augus t 1917 , doc . 3604 , file Alexandria , Louisiana ( 4 of 5) , box 8 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 69. G . J . Anderson , "Supplementar y Repor t No . I on Alexandria , La., " doc. 5912 , file Alexandria, Louisian a ( 3 o f 5) , bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives. ; W . W . Whittington, Jr., t o Bascom Johnson, 5 September 1917 , doc. 5911 , file Alexandria, Louisi ana ( 4 of 5) , box 8 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . Th e la w wa s "Pena l Ordinanc e No. 204, " and i t was passed o n 4 September 1917 . 70. G . J . Anderson , "Supplementar y Repor t N o 1 on Alexandria , Louisiana , Septem ber 22 , 1917, " doc . 5912 , file Alexandria , Louisian a ( 3 o f 5) , bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives . 71. Repor t o f Lieutenan t Thos . A . Larremore , Sanitar y Corps , U.S.A. , fo r wee k ending 2 4 November 1917 , o n Cam p Beauregard , Louisiana , file Alexandria , Louisian a ( 2 of 5) , bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Report s o f Thos . A . Larremore , Sanitary Corps , Unite d State s Army , fo r th e week s endin g 1 December 1917 , 8 Decembe r 1917, 1 5 December 1917 , fo r eigh t day s endin g 2 3 Decembe r 1917 , on Cam p Beauregard , file Alexandria, Louisian a ( 1 of 5) , box 8 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 72. Repor t o f Thos . A . Larremore , Sanitar y Corps , Nationa l Army , fo r eigh t day s ending 2 3 December 1917 , Camp Beauregard , Nationa l Archives . 73. Ibid . 74. Repor t o f Thos . A . Larremore , Sanitar y Corps , USNA , fo r wee k endin g 1 4 April 1918, o n Cam p Beauregar d an d vicinity , doc . 24961 , bo x 51 , entry 393 , RG 165 , Nationa l Archives. 75. Specia l Repor t o f Lt . Thos . A . Larremor e o n intervie w wit h Dr . Osca r Dowling ,

Notes to Chapter 4 • 26 7 President, Stat e Boar d o f Health , fo r Majo r Sno w an d Mr . Johnson , 2 0 Decembe r 1917 , file Alexandria , Louisian a ( 1 of 5) , box 8 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 76. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 11 , box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 77. Chairman , Committe e o n Protectiv e Wor k fo r Girls , t o Baker , 2 9 January 1918 , doc. 18654 , bo x 36 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Malcol m L . McBrid e t o Fosdick, 5 Februar y 1918 , doc . 20544 , bo x 40 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Memorandum o f Basco m Johnso n t o Mis s Miner , 4 Marc h 1918 , quotin g fro m repor t o f Lieut. C . D . Benson , Sanitar y Corps , o n Cam p Sherman , doc . 20414 , bo x 40 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 78. Repor t o f Thos . A . Larremore , Sanitar y Corps , Nationa l Army , fo r th e wee k ending 1 December 1917 , Cam p Beauregard , fil e Alexandria , Louisian a ( 1 o f 5) , bo x 8 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 79. Fosdic k t o Alfre d R . Page , Augus t 1917 , doc . 4241 , letter fil e P , bo x 6 , entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 80. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Committee on Protective Work for Girls (pamphlet), 3 , box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 81. "Th e Gir l Proble m i n th e Communitie s Adjacen t t o Militar y Trainin g Camps, " Playground 11 (October 1917) : 382. 82. " A Surve y o f the Girl Proble m a t Camp Devens, " Weekly Bulletin, Wa r Departmen t Commission o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Socia l Hygien e Division , Sectio n o n Women' s Work, Bulleti n #16 , 2 7 August 1918 , doc. 48286A , bo x 108 , entry 393 , RG 165 , Nationa l Archives. 83. Maud e E . Miner , Secretar y o f the Ne w Yor k Probatio n an d Protectiv e Association , New Yor k City , t o Fosdick , 3 0 July 1917 , doc . 2979 , lette r fil e M , bo x 5 , entr y 394 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives ; Fosdic k t o Alfre d R . Page , Ne w Yor k City , August , 1917 , doc . 4241, lette r fil e P , bo x 6, entr y 394 , RG 165 , National Archives . 84. Hobson , Uneasy Virtue, 171 ; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 87 ; Estell e Freedman , Their Sisters' Keepers: Women's Prison Reform in America, 1830-ipjo (An n Arbor : Universit y o f Michigan Press , 1981) , 116-117 . Maud e E . Miner , hea d o f th e Committe e o n Protectiv e Work fo r Girls , heade d th e Ne w Yor k Juvenil e Probatio n Departmen t prio r t o he r wor k with th e CTCA . Jan e Deete r Rippin , wh o replace d Mine r a s th e hea d o f th e Sectio n o n Women an d Girls , wa s a forme r settlemen t hous e worker . Marth a P . Falconer , wh o headed th e Sectio n o n Reformatorie s an d Detentio n Houses , wa s the superintenden t o f th e Pennsylvania Stat e Industria l Schoo l fo r Girls . Katharin e Bemen t Davis , wh o heade d th e Social Hygien e wor k fo r Wome n an d Girls , wa s th e forme r superintenden t o f th e Ne w York Stat e Reformatory , a s wel l a s th e forme r commissione r o f correction s fo r th e cit y o f New York . He r studie s i n penology wer e well known . 85. Committee on Protective Work for Girls, doc. 6211 , entry 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Ar chives. 86. Dickinson , The Building of an Army, 216 . 87. Ibid . 88. "Th e Gir l Proble m i n Communitie s Adjacen t t o Military Camps, " 388; Dickinson , The Building of an Army, 216 . 89. "Repor t o f the Committee on Protectiv e Work fo r Girls, " doc. 25812 , box 53 , entry 393, R G 165 , National Archives . 90. "Th e Gir l Proble m i n Communities Adjacen t t o Military Camps, " 388. 91. Ro y Smit h Wallac e t o Fosdick , 1 8 April 1918 , doc. 24782 , bo x 50 , entr y 393 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives .

268 • Notes to Chapter 4 92. Fo r a n excellen t discussio n o f th e socia l an d cultura l origin s an d action s o f charit y girls, se e Kath y Peiss , " 'Charit y Girls ' an d Cit y Pleasures : Historica l Note s o n Working Class Sexuality , 1880-1920, " i n Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, b y Ann e Snitow , Christine Stansell , an d Sharo n Thompson , eds . (New York : Monthly Revie w Press , 1983) . 93. Report s fro m al l acros s th e natio n complaine d o f th e proble m o f charit y girls . Se e letter o f Frederic k H . Whitin , Genera l Secretary , Committe e o f Fourteen , t o Fosdick , 8 September 1917 , doc. 5964 , file New Jersey, bo x 10 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives ; Report o f "J.S., " 2 October 1917 , o n Battl e Creek , Michigan , doc . 9268 , file Michigan — Battle Creek, bo x 9, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 94. Henriett a S . Additon , "Wor k amon g Delinquen t Wome n an d Girls, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 79 (September 1918) : 153. 95. C . D . Benso n t o Fosdick, 1 December 1917 , "preliminary surve y on vice and liquo r traffic condition s i n th e vicinit y of , an d affecting , th e mobilizatio n cam p a t Wrightstown , N.J., know n a s Cam p Dix, " doc . 13085 , file Ne w Jersey , bo x 10 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives . 96. "Committe e o n Protectiv e Wor k fo r Girls, " 2 0 February 1918 , doc. 26908 , bo x 56 , entry 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives . Thi s documen t ha d a not e attache d t o it , whic h read, " A brie f repor t fo r Mr . Fosdick' s information . M.E.M . 2/21/18, " suggestin g tha t i t was written b y Maud e E . Mine r i n February 1918 . 97. Ibid . 98. Ibid . 99. Ibid . 100. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 15 , box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 101. Ibid . 102. Ibid. , 1 1 - 1 2 .

103. Fo r example, se e Bascom Johnson t o James Rolph , 1 3 July 1917 , doc. 8454 , box 6 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 104. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 15-16 , Nationa l Archives . 105. Additon , "Wor k amon g Delinquen t Wome n an d Girls, " 154-155 . 106. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 16 , National Archives . 107. Mar y Mace y Dietzler , Detention Houses and Reformatories as Protective Social Agencies in the Campaign of the United States Government Against Venereal Diseases (Washington , D.C. : Government Printin g Office , 1922) , 36 ; Marth a P . Falconer , "Th e Segregatio n o f Delin quent Wome n an d Girl s a s a War Problem," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 7 9 (September 1918) , 165 ; Copy o f lette r o f Mr . Wallace , sen t b y Fosdic k t o Maude E . Miner , 1 4 Februar y 1918 , doc . 20355 , DO X 39 * entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives; Commission o n Training Camp Activities, Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918) , 16 , National Archives . Fo r discussion s o f reformers ' belief s i n th e efficac y of th e indeterminat e sentence , se e also Anthony M . Piatt , The Child-Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1969) , 54 , 65-67 ; Davi d J . Rothman , Conscience and Convenience (Boston: Little , Brown , 1980) . 108. Dietzler , Detention Houses and Reformatories, 2 5. 109. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 16 , National Archives . 110. Dietzler , Detention Houses and Reformatories, 58 . i n . Freedman , Their Sisters' Keepers, 95 ; Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood, 21 .

Notes to Chapter 4 • 26 9 112. Dietzler , Detention Houses and Reformatories, 56-57 ; Commission o n Trainin g Cam p Activities, Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), 16 , National Archives . 113. Piatt , The Child-Savers, 69 . 114. Fo r a very usefu l discussio n o f the evolution of progressive thought o n the relation ship betwee n menta l capabilitie s an d crime , se e Freedman, Their Sisters' Keepers, 16 . 115. Ibid. , 109-112 . 116. Ibid. , 111-116 .

117. Ibid. , 117 ; Connelly, The Response to Prostitution, 41; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 190 191.

118. Memorandu m o f Jan e D . Rippi n t o Mr . Sanger , 2 4 July 1918 , doc . 38855 , bo x 101, entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Annual Report of the Commission on Training Camp Activities (1918), 13-14 , bo x 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives ; Additon, "Wor k amon g Delinquen t Wome n an d Girls, " 156 , 157 . 119. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 91. 120. Rosen , The Lost Sisterhood, 23 . 121. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 43, 152 . 122. Falconer , "Th e Segregatio n o f Delinquen t Wome n an d Girl s a s a War Problem, " 161.

123. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 85 .

124. Ibid .

125. Wa r an d Nav y Department s Commission s o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Standard Forms of Laws for the Repression of Prostitution, the Control of Venereal Diseases, the Establishment and Management of Reformatories for Women and Girls, and Suggestions for a Law Relating to Feeble-Minded Persons, bo x 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 126. T . W . Gregory , "MEMORANDU M O N T H E LEGA L ASPECT S O F T H E PROPOSED SYSTE M O F MEDICA L EXAMINATIO N O F WOME N CONVICTE D UNDER SECTIO N 13 , SELECTIV E SERVIC E ACT, " 3 April 1918 , doc . 27381 , bo x 57, entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 127. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 145. 128. T . W . Gregory , Attorne y General , Circula r No . 812 , t o al l Unite d State s Attor neys, 3 April 1918 , doc. 27381 , bo x 57 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 129. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Weekl y Bulletin , Section o n Women' s Work , Bulleti n #17 , 3 Septembe r 1918 , bo x 5 , entr y 399 , R G 165 , National Archives . 130. Thoma s A . Storey , "Evaluatio n o f Governmenta l Ai d t o Detentio n House s an d Reformatories," i n Detention Houses and Reformatories, b y Dietzler , 8 ; Maud e E . Miner , "Expenditure o f Federa l Appropriation, " 1 3 Marc h 1918 , doc . 26839 , bo x 55 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 131. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Report of the Chairman on Training Camp Activities (1918), National Archives ; "Bulletin No . 20, " from Director , Sectio n on Protectiv e Work fo r Girls , t o Fiel d Representatives , o n th e Reorganizatio n o f Girl s Protectiv e Work , 29 April 1918 , doc. 34831 , bo x 84 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 132. "Bulleti n No . 20, " from Director , Sectio n o n Protectiv e Wor k fo r Girls , t o Fiel d Representatives, o n th e Reorganizatio n o f Girl s Protectiv e Work , 2 9 April 1918 , Nationa l Archives. 133. Lette r o f resignation o f Maude E . Mine r t o Fosdick, 3 April 1918 , doc. 26829 , bo x 55, entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives . I t i s importan t t o not e tha t thi s wa s a secon d letter, whic h include d som e change s mad e o n th e firs t lette r i n it s presentatio n t o th e committee. Th e first lette r ca n b e locate d i n doc . 26056 , bo x 53 , entr y 393 , R G 165 ,

270 • Notes to Chapter 4 National Archives . Th e orde r o f th e tw o letter s i s a littl e confusing , a s th e first lette r ha s the date 9 April, an d th e secon d lette r th e dat e 3 April. I am fairl y certain , however , o f th e order o f th e letters , becaus e th e on e I presum e t o b e secon d wa s attache d t o a n additiona l letter t o Fosdic k tellin g hi m o f change s i n th e lette r an d askin g hi m t o replac e th e origina l with thi s revise d version . 134. Maud e E . Mine r t o Mrs . Willia m F . Dummer , Apri l 17 , 1918 , Schlesinge r Li brary, Radcliff e College , Ethe l Sturge s Dumme r Papers , bo x 24 , folder 378 . 135. Davi d J . Pivar , "Cleansin g th e Nation : Th e Wa r o n Prostitution , 1917-1921, " Prologue 12 (Sprin g 1980) , 33-40 ; Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 86 ; Hobson , Uneasy Virtue, 178-179. 136. Hobson , Uneasy Virtue, 179 ; Pivar, "Cleansin g the Nation," 33-40 . 137. Jan e Deete r Rippin , "Sectio n o n Wome n an d Girls : Repor t an d Personne l Sheet , Based o n th e report s coverin g th e perio d fro m Jun e 1 6 t o June 30 , bot h inclusive, " doc . 33441, bo x 78 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 138. Ibid . 139. Ibid . 140. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 144. 141. Thes e fund s wer e t o b e use d i n th e sam e wa y a s thos e grante d earlie r b y th e president, "t o ai d th e state s i n th e establishmen t an d constructio n o f reformatorie s t o car e 'for civilia n person s whos e detention , isolation , quarantine , o r commitmen t t o institution s may b e foun d necessar y fo r th e protectio n o f militar y an d nava l force s o f th e Unite d States agains t venerea l diseases.' " Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 88 ; "Curren t Literature—Th e Chamberlain-Kahn Bill, " in the War Departmen t Commissio n o n Training Cam p Activitie s Weekly Bulletin , Sectio n o n Women' s Work , Socia l Hygien e Division , Bulleti n No . 1 7 (September 3 , 1918) , 3 , box 5 , entry 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . This ac t als o grante d th e Unite d State s Publi c Healt h Servic e a larg e rol e i n th e battl e against venerea l disease , grantin g $200,00 0 fo r th e establishmen t o f a divisio n o f venerea l diseases i n the USPHS . Althoug h th e USPH S wa s fro m thi s poin t o n a n importan t par t of the battl e agains t civilia n venerea l diseas e outsid e th e trainin g cam p communities , it s rol e will no t b e considered here . Afte r th e division wa s established, th e CTCA an d th e USPH S cooperated an d compete d i n th e anti-venerea l diseas e campaig n i n th e trainin g cam p communities, wit h th e CTC A retainin g th e initiativ e i n thos e locales . Afte r th e war' s en d the USPH S woul d remai n a fundamenta l par t o f th e campaig n agains t venerea l disease . Chapter 6 will discus s th e demobilization o f the CTCA's forces . Fo r additiona l informatio n on th e directio n th e venerea l diseas e campaig n take s i n th e postwa r era , se e Brandt , No Magic Bullet, chapte r 4 . 142. Dietzler , Detention Houses and Reformatories, 25-26 . 143. Brandt , No Magic Bullet, 88-89 . 144. Ibid. , chapte r 2 , n. 118 , 89. 145. Storey , "Evaluatio n o f Governmenta l Aid, " i n Detention Houses and Reformatories, by Dietzler , 3 . The Wa r Departmen t claime d t o hav e detaine d 18,00 0 wome n i n federall y aided institution s durin g th e war , o f whic h Storey' s 15,52 0 were diseased . Hobson , Uneasy Virtue, 176 ; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 89 . 146. Hobson , Uneasy Virtue, 176 . 147. C . D . Benso n t o Fosdick , 1 Decembe r 1917 , " . . . preliminar y surve y o n vic e traffic condition s i n th e vicinit y of , an d affecting , th e mobilizatio n cam p a t Wrightstown , N.J., know n a s Camp Dix, " 1 December 1917 , report o n Moun t Holly , N.J. , doc . 13085 , file New Jersey, bo x 10 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 148. Basco m Johnson, "Preliminar y Repor t o n Moral Condition s Surroundin g th e Military Cam p a t Lind a Vist a an d th e Nava l Trainin g Statio n a t Sa n Diego , California , Jul y

Notes to Chapter 4 • 27 1 17-19, 1917, " doc . 6160 , file California—Sa n Dieg o ( 1 o f 2) , bo x 5 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , National Archives . 149. Memorandu m fro m Pau l Popenoe , Captain , Sanitar y Corps , U S Army , t o Majo r Joy, 2 0 Februar y 1919 , quote s repor t o n Cam p Sherman , date d 1 6 January 1919 , doc . 46247, bo x 132 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 150. Fosdic k t o Caroline Heywood , 2 6 November 1917 , doc. 12050 , box 17 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . A s lat e a s February 191 9 the CTC A stil l maintaine d a spoke n policy o f desirin g equa l treatment . Memorandu m fro m Director , Sectio n o n Vic e an d Liquor Control , t o Henr y I . Fox , Louisville , Kentucky , "Subject : Quarantin e o f venerea l disease cases, " 1 4 February 1919 , file Civilians , bo x 15 , entry 399 , R G 165 , Nationa l Ar chives. 151. Lette r t o th e edito r o f th e San Diego Sun fro m "K.E.E., " 1 3 August 1917 , 4. Thi s letter ma y hav e bee n prompte d b y report s tha t th e cit y attorne y o f Sa n Dieg o refuse d t o release list s o f thos e take n i n a rai d o n th e Muskoge e Club , becaus e "man y daughter s o f respectable familie s wer e gathere d i n th e polic e dragnet, " thoug h th e cit y attorne y als o contended tha t thos e taken migh t als o be used a s witnesses i n court later . Th e pape r i n thi s instance contended , "Name s o f witnesse s ar e alway s mad e publi c i n 'lo w brow ' raids. " "Girls Wer e Foun d Ami d Ga y Scenes, " San Diego Sun, 1 1 July 1917 . 152. Ala n Johnstone , Jr. , "Repor t o n Augusta , Georgia, " 1 7 Novembe r 1917 , file Atlanta, Georgi a ( 1 of 3) , box 6, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 153. Oswal d Garriso n Villar d t o Fosdick , 1 9 March 1918 , doc . 22156 , bo x 44 , entr y 393, R G 165 , National Archives . 154. Alliso n T . French , Executiv e Secretary , Californi a Militar y Welfar e Commission , affiliated wit h th e CTCA , t o Basco m Johnson , 1 0 Novembe r 1917 , doc . n372 , bo x 15 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 155. Carolin e Heywoo d t o "Dea r Sir, " Wa r Department , 6 Septembe r 1917 , doc . 12050, box 17 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 156. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Weekl y Bulletin , Section on Women' s Wor k Socia l Hygiene Division , Bulleti n #20 , 2 4 September 1918 , box 5, entr y 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . 157. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Weekl y Bulletin , Section o n Women' s Work , Socia l Hygien e Division , Bulleti n #19 , 1 7 Septembe r 1918 , box 5 , entry 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . 158. Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Smash the Line! a pamphlet produce d b y th e America n Socia l Hygien e Associatio n an d distribute d fo r th e War Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , doc . 6157 , lette r file S, bo x 7 , entry 394 , R G 165 , National Archives . 159. Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , War and Navy Departments Committee on Training Camp Activities (pamphlet sen t to press 1 July 1918) , 5, box 1635 , RG 287 , Nationa l Archives; Baker to the Mayors of Cities an d Sheriff s o f Counties i n the Neighborhood o f all Military Trainin g Camps , i n Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Cam p Activities , Documents Regarding the Question of Alcohol and Prostitution in the Neighborhood of Military Camps, box 1635 , RG 287 , National Archives . 160. Allen , Keeping Our Fighters Fit, 203 . 161. "Wet-Dr y Figh t I s Intense, " San Diego Sun, 2 3 November 1917 , 1 ; "To Drin k O r Not T o Drink—That' s Burnin g Question i n Sa n Diego, " San Diego Sun, 7 September 1917 , 1; "Kee p Liquo r fro m Me n i n Khaki—Baker, " San Diego Sun, 2 0 Novembe r 1917 , 1 ; Fosdick t o Dr . Fre d Baker , Sa n Dieg o 3 1 Octobe r 1917 , doc . 8798 , bo x 7 , entr y 393 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 162. Example s o f th e continue d proble m o f bootleggin g throughou t th e natio n ar e

272 • Notes to Chapter 5 many. See , fo r instance , report s fo r Seattl e an d Tacom a i n Septembe r 1918 . In Seattle , fo r the wee k endin g 1 4 Septembe r 1918 , th e repor t note d 6 4 arrest s an d 4 2 conviction s fo r liquor crimes , wit h 29 0 gallons o f liquo r bein g seized . Th e sentenc e i n jai l fo r conviction s was 60 days. I n Tacoma 8 4 arrests were made for drunkenness , 1 0 for drun k an d disorderl y conduct, an d 1 5 fo r th e possessio n o f liquor . Again , thes e report s ar e mad e wit h n o comment o n th e nee d t o chang e tactics . Also , not e th e shor t sentenc e fo r convictio n o f a liquor infraction . Repor t o f Lieutenan t Rober t Newbegin , Sanitar y Corps , U.S.A. , fo r th e week endin g 1 4 September 1918 , on Seattl e an d Tacoma , file Circular , bo x 14 , entry 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . 163. Hobson , Uneasy Virtue', 161. For a fascinating discussio n o f one exampl e o f prosti tutes overcomin g thi s vulnerabilit y an d exertin g limite d contro l ove r thei r circumstances , i f only temporarily , se e Bailey an d Farber , "Hote l Street. " 164. Thi s argumen t regardin g th e lin k i n th e America n min d betwee n femal e behavio r and th e disorderin g o f societ y ha s bee n mad e convincingl y b y a number o f historians . Se e Carroll Smith-Rosenberg , Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1985) ; Freedman, Their Sisters' Keepers, 19-20 . 165. Mar k T . Connell y make s a similar argumen t i n The Response to Prostitution, 6-7 . 166. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 146; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 165. 167. Marci a Louis e Bradley, o f Portland, Oregon , t o Baker, 1 0 May 1917 , doc. 275 , file Oregon, bo x 10 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives ; D . J. Poynter , Albion , Nebraska , to Baker , 6 August 1917 , doc . 4082 , lette r file P, bo x 6 , entr y 394 , R G 165 , National Ar chives. 168. Connelly , The Response to Prostitution, 143, 149 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R FIV

E

1. Juliu s Rosenwal d t o Fosdick , 1 Jul y 1918 , doc . 34897 , bo x 84 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives . 2. Ibid . 3. Henr y J. Dannenbau m t o Julius Rosenwald , Counci l o f National Defense , Houston , Texas, 2 4 June 1918 , doc. 34897 , box 84 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 4. Ibid . 5. Juliu s Rosenwald , Counci l o f National Defense , t o Fosdick, 1 July 1918 , doc. 34897 , box 84 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 6. Arthu r E . Barbea u an d Florett e Henri , The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia: Templ e Universit y Press , 1974) , 23; David M . Kennedy , Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1980) , 281-282. Fo r mor e detailed informatio n o n tw o of the race riots of the summe r o f 1917 , see Elliot M . Rudwick , Race Riot at East St. Louis July 2, ipiy, (Carbondale : Souther n Illinoi s University Press , 1964) , and Rober t V . Haynes , A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of1917 (Baton Rouge : Louisiana Statf e University Press , 1976) . 7. I t i s importan t t o not e tha t lynching s gre w durin g thi s perio d a s well. Figure s vary , but al l demonstrat e a growin g environmen t o f incredibl e violenc e an d hostilit y targetin g African Americans . Barbea u an d Henri , The Unknown Soldiers, 21 ; Kennedy, Over Here, 283. 8. Alfred a M . Duster , ed. , Crusade for justice:The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press , 1970) ; on W . E . B . D u Boi s see David Leverin g Lewis , W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race (New York : Henry Holt , 1993) .

Notes to Chapter $ • 27 3 9. Gilber t Osofsky , "Progressivis m an d th e Negro , Ne w York , 1900-1915, " American Quarterly 16 (Summer 1964) : 153-168 ; Jack Temple Kirby , Darkness at the Dawning: Race and Reform in the Progressive South (Philadelphia: Lippincott , 1972) , chapter 8 . 10. Kirby , Darkness at the Dawning, 4 . Se e als o Joh n Dittmer , Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Chicago : Universit y o f Illinoi s Press , 1977) , n o . 11. Jan e L . Scheibe r an d Harr y N . Scheiber , "Th e Wilso n Administratio n an d th e Wartime Mobilizatio n o f Black Americans , 1917-1918, " Labor History 10 (1969): 434. 12. Kennedy , Over Here, 29-30, 279-280 . Fo r tw o excellent treatment s o f the evolutio n of D u Bois' s response t o the war, se e Mark Ellis , " 'Closin g Ranks' and 'Seekin g Honors / " Journal of American History 79 (June 1992) : 96-99; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 530-580. 13. Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 19 ; Scheibe r an d Scheiber , "Th e Wilso n Administration an d th e Wartime Mobilizatio n o f Black Americans, " 436, 440-441 . This i s not t o suggest , however , tha t th e draft wa s applied evenly . Accordin g t o Arthu r Barbeau an d Florett e Henri , a total of 2,290,52 7 blac k me n registere d fo r th e draft i n 1917 , making u p 9.6 3 percen t o f th e tota l numbe r o f registere d males . O f th e Africa n American s examined unde r th e first draf t cal l o f 5 June 1917 , 5 1 -65 percent wer e classifie d a s Class 1 . Only 32.5 3 percen t o f al l Whites examine d unde r th e first cal l were classified a s Class 1 . Of the Africa n American s classifie d a s clas s 1 in th e first draf t call , 3 6 percent wer e inducte d into th e army , compare d wit h onl y 2 4 percen t o f th e White s s o classified . Barbea u an d Henri, Unknown Soldiers, 36 . 14. Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 38-39 ; Kennedy, Over Here, 159. 15. Haynes , A Night of Violence, 167-168 . Th e figure o f seventee n dea d wa s use d b y Kennedy i n Over Here, 160. 16. Colone l Rober t C . Humber , "Note s o n th e Employmen t o f Colore d Troops, " i n United State s Arm y Wa r College , Historica l Section , Colored Soldiers in the United States Army, prepare d Ma y 1942 , U.S . Arm y Militar y Histor y Institute , Carlisl e Barracks, Penn sylvania; Barbeau an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 28 . 17. "Withdra w Al l Negro Troops," Fort Worth Star Telegram, 25 August 1917 , 4. 18. "No w It' s Houston, " Washington Bee, 1 September 1917 , 1 . 19. "Th e Housto n Riot, " Washington Bee, 1 Septembe r 1917 , 4. Se e also "In the Enemy' s Camp," Chicago Defender, 1 September 1917 , 12 ; "The Housto n Affair, " Atlanta Independent, 1 September 1917 , 4; "The Housto n Uprising, " Baltimore Afro-American, 1 September 1918 , 4; "Houston Inciden t Closed—No t Forgotten, " Afro-American, 1 5 December 1917 , 4. 20. Haynes , A Night of Violence, chapte r 1 ; Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, chapter 2 . 21. Kennedy , Over Here, 160 ; Emmet t J . Scott , Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War (Chicago: Homewood Press , 1919) , 40. 22. E . J. Scott , Scott's Official History, 103 ; Copy o f th e memorandu m sen t fro m Bake r to Emmett J. Scott , specia l assistan t t o the secretar y o f state , 3 0 November 1917 , reprinte d in Atlanta Independent, 2 9 December 1917 , 5. 23. Actin g Chairma n t o Leste r A . Walton , 1 2 Septembe r 1918 , doc . 38771 , bo x 100 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 24. Raymon d Fosdick , "Teachin g Samm y th e America n fo r 'Morale, ' " World Outlook 4 (April 1918) , 7. 25. Fosdic k t o Baker , 1 0 October 1917 , doc . 6589 , file Alabam a 3 , bo x 1 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 26. Ibid . 27. Memorandu m o f Bake r t o Specia l Assistan t Emmet t J . Scott , 3 0 November 1917 , reprinted i n the Atlanta Independent, 2 9 December 1917,5 .

274 • Notes to Chapter $ 28. Abbi e Condit , "Wa r Cam p Communit y Servic e fo r Colore d Troops, " 2 4 January 1918, doc. 27333 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 29. "Si x Months o f War Cam p Community Service, " Playground 1 1 (March 1918) , 592. 30. J . S . Ticheno r t o Jasper J. Maye r of the CTCA, 1 1 September 1917 , doc. 4862, fil e Alabama 36 , box 3 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 31. Mrs . E . M . Townsend , Chairman , Nationa l Hostes s Hous e Committee, t o Fosdick, 21 August 1918 , doc. 40062 , bo x 107 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives ; J. S . Moore , Louisville, Kentucky , t o Georg e Blandis , Associatio n Executiv e Secretary , Chicago , 2 6 November 1918 , doc. 44385, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 32. J . S . Ticheno r t o Jasper J. Mayer , o f th e CTCA , Septembe r 11 , 1917 , doc . 4862 , file Alabam a 36 , bo x 3 , entry 395 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Memorandu m fro m Cam p Intelligence Officer , Cam p Jackson, t o Acting Director , Militar y Intelligence , Washington , D.C., Subject : QUESTIONNAIR E COVERIN G C O N D I T I O N COLORE D TROOP S T H I S CAMP , 2 Decembe r 1918 , doc . 80 , subfil e 10218-244 , Microfil m Publication s Mi440: Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subver sion" 1917-1941 , National Archives . 33. MEMORANDU M FO R T H E DIRECTOR , MILITAR Y INTELLIGENC E DI VISION, A N D T H E CHIEF , MORAL E BRANCH , EXECUTIV E DIVISION , GEN ERAL STAFF , fro m J. E . Cutler , Subject : T H E NEGR O I N T H E ARMY , 2 3 Decembe r 1918, doc . 10 , subfil e 10218-279 , Microfil m Publication s M1440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Military Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subversion " 1917-1941 , Nationa l Ar chives. 34. Georg e A. Singleton , Chaplain , 317t h Engineers, to Emmett J. Scott , 1 5 May 1918 , doc. 34681 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 35. Fo r anothe r exampl e se e "Camp Gordo n News, " Atlanta Independent, 1 7 Novembe r I9i7>736. Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 41 . 37. Memorandu m fro m Majo r W . H . Loving , P.C. , t o Chief, Militar y Moral e Section , M.I.D., Subject : Recapitulatio n o f investigatio n o f militar y camps , 2 4 Novembe r 1918 , subfile 10218-280 , Microfil m Publicatio n M1440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelli gence Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 38. Executiv e Secretar y ("P.S." ) t o YMCA , 1 4 June 1918 , doc. 32732 , entr y 393 , R G 165, Nationa l Archives . 39. MEMORANDU M FO R T H E DIRECTOR , MILITAR Y INTELLIGENC E DI VISION, A N D T H E CHIEF , MORAL E BRANCH , EXECUTIV E DIVISION , GEN ERAL STAFF , fro m J. E . Cutler , Subject : T H E NEGR O I N T H E ARMY , 2 3 December 1918, doc . 10 , Nationa l Archives . Se e als o SECRE T M.I. 3 Bulleti n fo r Intelligenc e Offi cers, No . 31 , 2 1 Octobe r 1918 , "Specia l Bulletin—Th e Negr o Proble m i n th e Army, " subfile 10218-244 , Microfil m Publicatio n Mi440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelli gence Divisio n Relatin g to "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 40. Memorandu m fro m Majo r W . H . Lovin g t o Chief , Militar y Moral e Section , M.I.D., Subject : Recapitulatio n o f investigatio n o f militar y camps , 2 4 Novembe r 1918 , National Archives . Loving' s investigatio n include d eleve n camps, te n of them i n the South . In th e report s fro m specifi c camps , Lovin g call s specia l attentio n t o problem s i n Cam p Wheeler, Cam p Jackson, Cam p Sevier , an d Cam p Greene . Se e report s fro m eac h o f thes e camps, whic h ar e attachments t o the memorandum liste d above . Charles H . William s noted , "I n connectio n wit h th e Y.M.C.A . wor k severa l instance s were foun d wher e discriminatio n wa s encourage d an d eve n promote d i n conjunctio n wit h the militar y authorities . I t i s stated , however , tha t th e Wa r Departmen t i s workin g t o

Notes to Chapter $ • 27 5 eliminate tha t practice. " Charle s H . Williams , RESUM E O F C O N D I T I O N S SUR R O U N D I N G NEGR O TROOPS , 5 August 1918 , subfile 10218-279 , Microfil m Publica tion Mi440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subversion" 1917-1941 , National Archives . 41. S . W . White , Hattiesburg , Mississippi , 1 8 April 1918 , to Emmet t J . Scott , Assis tant Secretary , Wa r Department , doc . 34031 , bo x 81 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Ar chives. 42. "Som e Observation s o n Trainin g o f Negr o Soldiers, " Afro-American, 8 Marc h 1918, 1 .

43. Memorandu m fro m Majo r W . H . Lovin g t o Chief, Militar y Moral e Section , Sub ject: Conditio n Amon g Negr o Troop s a t Cam p Mills , 8 Novembe r 1918 , subfile 10218 280, Microfil m Publicatio n M1440 , Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relating to "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 44. Ibid . I n a summary repor t o f his visits to eleven camps , includin g te n in the South , Loving reported , "I n al l camp s th e K . o f C . displaye d th e wor d 'WELCOME' , whic h meant al l that th e word implied . Ther e wa s absolutely n o discrimination practice d b y thi s organization. Th e same i s true of the Y.M.H.A." Memorandu m o f Major W . H . Lovin g to Chief, Militar y Moral e Section , M.I.D. , Subject : Recapitulatio n o f investigation o f military camps, 2 4 November 1918 , National Archives . 45. Apparentl y th e shortage o f adequate YMC A facilitie s fo r Africa n America n troop s translated int o a shortag e o f educationa l wor k wit h the m a s well . Becaus e th e YM C A oversaw muc h o f th e educationa l wor k fo r soldier s unabl e t o rea d an d write , thei r inade quate provisio n o f recreatio n include d inadequat e educationa l efforts . MEMORANDU M FOR T H E DIRECTOR , MILITAR Y INTELLIGENC E DIVISION , A N D T H E CHIEF, MORAL E BRANCH , EXECUTIV E DIVISION , GENERA L STAFF , Sub ject: T HE NEGR O I N T H E ARMY, 2 3 December 1918 , National Archives . African America n soldier s also complained tha t th e camp libraries included n o works by African America n author s and no journals, newspapers, or periodicals publishe d fo r Africa n Americans. I n Decembe r 191 8 the Moral e Branc h initiate d actio n t o repai r thi s problem . Letter o f E . L . Munson , Chief , Moral e Branch , t o Liaiso n Officer , CTCA , 5 Decembe r 1918, doc. 43728, box 122 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 46. Confidentia l memorandu m fro m Cam p Intelligenc e Officer , Cam p Grant , t o Director o f Military Intelligence , Subject : Questionnair e Concernin g Colore d Troops , 2 8 October 1918 , doc. 19 , subfile 10218-244 , Microfil m Publicatio n M1440 : Correspondence o f the Military Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subversion " 1917-1941 , Nationa l Ar chives. A s par t o f a n exploratio n o f subversio n amon g Africa n America n troops , th e Military Intelligenc e Divisio n conducte d a surve y o f intelligenc e officer s i n training camp s across th e country , whic h investigate d everythin g fro m th e stat e o f relation s betwee n African America n soldier s an d white civilians to the state of recreational facilitie s fo r troop s inside an d outsid e th e camps . Response s t o thes e questions , thoug h doubtles s affecte d b y the prevalen t racis m eviden t i n th e military , nevertheles s provide d invaluabl e informatio n on the state of recreation fo r African America n troop s i n late 1918. 47. "Cam p Gordo n News, " Atlanta Independent, 1 7 November 1917 , 7. 48. Mem o of Malcolm McBride , Actin g Chairman, t o Mr. Sange r (Executive Secretary , CTCA), 2 July 1918 , doc. 34220, box 82, entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 49. "Trainin g Negroe s fo r Officers," Literary Digest 55 (21 July 1917) , 50. 50. Se e the problems o f Battle Creek , Michigan , describe d i n "WCCS Progra m Sheets , February, 1919, " repor t o n Battl e Creek , doc . 46494 , bo x 133 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives .

276 • Notes to Chapter $ 51. "Democrac y an d th e Colore d Soldier, " Playground 13 (September 1918) , 260-261 . The historia n Josep h F . Ket t ha s indirectl y suggeste d anothe r proble m involve d i n th e WCCS's provisio n o f recreatio n fo r blac k soldiers . Accordin g t o Kett, Joseph Lee , the hea d of th e America n Playgroun d an d Recreatio n Association , th e paren t organizatio n o f th e WCCS, wa s a racist. Joseph F. Kett , Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America lypo to the Present (New York : Basi c Books, 1977) , 226. 52. ED C (probabl y E . Dan a Caulkins ) t o H . S . Braucher , 2 March 1918 , doc . 21306 , box 42 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives ; memorandu m o f "A.M.W. " t o Braucher , Malcolm McBride , Dr . Raycroft , an d others , 4 March 1918 , doc. 31316 , box 71 , entry 393 , RG 165 , Nationa l Archives ; Executiv e Secretar y t o Braucher , 1 7 April 1918 , doc . 31718 , box 72 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives ; memorandum fro m Majo r W . H . Lovin g t o Chief, Militar y Moral e Section , 2 4 November 1918 , subfile 10218-279 , Microfil m Publica tion Mi440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subversion" 1917-1941 , National Archives . 53. A surve y o f condition s fo r Africa n America n soldier s i n th e trainin g camp s re ported, "O n th e whol e th e Norther n state s hav e mad e muc h bette r provisio n fo r th e negr o than th e southern." The repor t note d further , "Charlotte , N.C. , Rockford , 111. , Chillicothe, Ohio, De s Moines , Iowa , an d Battl e Creek , Mich. , see m t o hav e mad e th e bes t provisio n for th e care of colored soldiers. " Of thes e five cities, four wer e northern. Charlotte , th e only southern cit y t o mak e th e list , ha d bee n completel y withou t recreatio n i n Apri l 191 8 bu t had lease d a club for Africa n America n soldier s b y July. This survey , whic h compile d statistic s regardin g WCC S wor k i n variou s section s of th e country, allow s som e insigh t int o th e weaknes s o f th e WCC S i n th e South . I n th e easter n section five communitie s ha d mad e provisions , an d thre e ha d not . I n th e centra l section , five communities ha d mad e provision , an d onl y on e ha d not . I n th e southeaster n section , six ha d mad e provisions , an d tw o ha d not . I n th e souther n sectio n n o communitie s ha d made provisions , fou r ha d not . SUMMAR Y O F REPLIE S T O QUESTIONNAIR E FROM INTELLIGENC E OFFICER S A T T H E LARG E TRAININ G CAMPS , pre pared b y Captai n L . C . West , subfil e 10218-279 , Microfilm Publicatio n M1440 : Correspondence o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 54. H . S . Brauche r t o Prentic e Sanger , 2 2 Apri l 1918 , doc. 31718 , bo x 72 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 55. I n th e summar y o f th e questionnair e filled ou t b y intelligenc e officer s a t th e larg e training camps , fou r communitie s wer e liste d a s drawin g n o colo r lin e i n place s o f recre ation. O f thos e four , tw o wer e i n th e centra l section , on e i n th e easter n section , an d on e i n the southern . SUMMAR Y O F REPLIE S T O QUESTIONNAIR E FRO M INTELLI GENCE OFFICER S A T T H E LARG E TRAININ G CAMPS , prepare d b y Captai n L. C . West , Nationa l Archives . 9 Another investigatio n o f th e recreationa l facilitie s note d tha t movin g pictur e theater s i n the Sout h wer e divide d int o thos e fo r White s an d thos e fo r Blacks . Theater s i n th e South west an d th e Wes t wer e segregated . I n th e centra l an d norther n region s theater s wer e ope n to all . Charle s H . Williams , RESUM E O F CONDITION S SURROUNDIN G NEGR O TROOPS, 5 August 1918 , National Archives . 56. MEMORANDU M FO R T H E DIRECTOR , MILITAR Y INTELLIGENC E DI VISION, A N D T H E CHIEF , MORAL E BRANCH , EXECUTIV E DIVISION , GEN ERAL STAFF , fro m J. E . Cutler , Subject : T H E NEGR O I N T H E ARMY , 2 3 December 1918, Nationa l Archives . 57. "Th e Independen t fo r th e Colore d Soldiers, " Atlanta Independent, 6 Octobe r 1917 ,

Notes to Chapter § • 27 7 5; "Cam p Gordo n News, " Atlanta Independent, 17 Novembe r 1917 , 7 ; Georg e E . Cohron , "Camp Gordo n News, " Atlanta Independent, 22 Decembe r 1917 , 8 ; "Th e Socia l Charit y Club Entertain s Som e o f th e Colore d Soldiers, " Atlanta Independent, 2 9 Decembe r 1917 , 1 ; "Baseball—Atlanta Cub s vs . Cam p Gordon, " Atlanta Independent, 2 7 April 1918 , 8; "Cam p Gordon Athleti c Activities, " Atlanta Independent, 4 May 1918 , 8; E. M . Phillips , "Leagu e of Bethel A.M.E . Churc h Visit s Cam p Gordon, " Atlanta Independent, 3 August 1918 , 5; E. M . Phillips, "Th e Concer t Give n a t Camp Gordo n b y th e Patrioti c Leagu e a Success," Atlanta Independent, 24 Augus t 1918 , 6 ; "Convalescen t Soldier s Enjo y Sunda y Outing, " Atlanta Independent, 12 October 1918 , 5. 58. "Wha t Montgomer y I s Doing, " Montgomery Emancipator, 6 October 1917 , 2 ; "New s from Cam p Sheridan, " Montgomery Emancipator, 13 October 1917 , 3 ; "First Baptis t Churc h Entertains Soldiers, " Montgomery Emancipator, 20 Octobe r 1917 , 3 ; "Mammoth Choru s o f Colored Soldier s an d Citizen s Organized, " Montgomery Emancipator, 20 Octobe r 1917 , 3 ; "Montgomery Colore d Citizen s Mak e Fin e Repor t t o War Secretar y fo r Cam p Sherida n o n Activities i n Interest o f Race Soldiers," Montgomery Emancipator, 1 3 October 1917 , 1 ; "News of Cam p Sheridan , Cam p Doing s o f Compan y B , Nint h Ohi o Battalion, " Montgomery Emancipator, 2 0 October 1917 , 3 ; "News fro m Cam p Sheridan, " Montgomery Emancipator, 2 7 October 1917 , 3. 59. E . M . Phillips , "Th e Patrioti c Leagu e o f Bethe l A.M.E . Churc h Visit s Cam p Gordon," Atlanta Independent, 3 August 1918 , 5; "The Socia l Charity Clu b Entertain s Som e of th e Colore d Soldiers, " Atlanta Independent, 2 9 December 1917 , 1 ; "The Independen t fo r the Colore d Soldiers, " Atlanta Independent, 6 October 1917 , 5 ; "Baseball—Atlanta Cub s vs . Camp Gordon, " Atlanta Independent, 2 7 Apri l 1918 , 8 ; B . J. Davis , " A Grea t Patrioti c an d Enthusiastic Parade, " Atlanta Independent, 2 0 April 1918 , 1 . 60. Harr y H . Pace , secretar y o f Colore d Committee , Atlanta , t o Fosdick , Jul y 20 , 1918, doc. 35374 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 61. Memorandu m o f Majo r W . H . Lovin g t o Chief, Militar y Moral e Section , Subject : Conditions Amon g Negr o Troop s a t Cam p Gordon , 4 Octobe r 1918 , subfil e 10218-280 , Microfilm Publication s Mi440 : Correspondenc e o f the Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relat ing to "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 62. " A Parad e o f Onl y On e Clas s o f America n Citizens, " Atlanta Independent, 2 7 Octo ber 1917 , 4. 63. Whit e citizen s woul d sometime s rall y t o th e caus e o f th e blac k troops . Fo r on e example se e "Millionaire Open s Hom e t o Soldiers, " Chicago Defender, 8 December 1917 , 1 . 64. "Democrac y an d th e Colored Soldier, " 261. 65. Abbi e Condit , "Wa r Cam p Communit y Servic e fo r Colore d Troops, " 2 4 January 1918, doc. 27333 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 66. "Negr o Soldier s Ar e Makin g A n Enviabl e Record—Hav e Mastere d th e Scientifi c Art o f Handlin g a Bayonet i n a Few Months, " Camp Dodger, 2 2 February 1918 , 5. 67. " Y Ha s Goo d Progra m Planne d fo r th e Week, " Camp Logan Reveille, 1 Novembe r 1918,3. 68. "Negr o Entertainers, " Trench and Camp (Camp Devens) , 1 4 Augus t 1918 , 3 . Th e ability o f thes e me n t o perfor m wa s ofte n assume d b y whit e soldie r an d civilia n alike . A s the YMCA' s publication , Trench and Camp, explained , "Th e me n are , lik e al l plantatio n negroes especially , exceedingl y musical . The y hav e a wonderfu l sens e o f harmony. " "Happy Negroe s Sin g a t Thei r Wor k an d Play, " Trench and Camp (Camp Beauregard) , 1 4 September 1918 , 3. 69. "Negr o Son g an d Humo r i n Militar y Cam p Life, " Montgomery Emancipator, 4 Ma y 1918, 2 .

278 • Notes to Chapter 5 70. "Colore d Peopl e Barre d Fro m Patrioti c Rally, " Afro-American, 1 9 April 1918 , 1 . 71. Executiv e Secretar y (W.P.S. , mos t likel y W . P . Sanger) , to Mrs. E . M . Townsend , New Yor k City, 1 7 April 1918 , doc. 27305 , box 57 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 72. H . S . Brauche r t o E . Dan a Caulkins , 1 0 June 1918 , doc. 32279 , bo x 74 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 73. H . S . Brauche r t o Workers, 2 3 August 1917 , reprinted a s W.R.B. #48 , (doc. 3453) , file Arizona 18. 1 (2 of 4), bo x 3 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 74. Joh n F . Piper , Jr., The American Churches in World War One (Athens: Ohio Universit y Press, 1985) , 169 . 75. "Suggestion s fo r Specia l Activitie s fo r th e Reductio n o f Venerea l Disease s Amon g Colored Soldier s i n Cantonments, " stampe d a t to p "Approve d B.J., " probabl y referrin g t o Bascom Johnson, doc . 17463 , box 33 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 76. Charle s E . Miner , 1s t Lieutenant , Sanitar y Corps , Unite d State s Nationa l Army , to Walter Clarke, Educatio n Secretary , America n Socia l Hygiene Association, 2 0 December 1917, doc. 15999 , box 29 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 77. Mem o fro m Socia l Hygien e Instructio n Divisio n t o Dr . Joh n Geraghty , John s Hopkins Hospital , "Subject : Picture s an d Statistic s o f Venerea l Diseas e Amon g Negroes, " 20 February 1918 , doc. 19979 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 78. Director , Arm y Section , Socia l Hygien e Division , CTCA , t o Captai n Arthu r B . Spingarn, Apri l 17 , 1918 ; Arthur B . Spingar n t o Director , Arm y Section , Socia l Hygien e Division, 2 4 Apri l 1918 , doc . 25976 , bo x 53 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives . Spingarn wa s detailed b y th e surgeo n genera l a s special officer i n charge of work wit h blac k troops an d serve d i n tha t connectio n a s assistant directo r o f th e Arm y Sectio n o f the Socia l Hygiene Divisio n o f th e CTCA . "Weekl y Bulletin, " Wa r Departmen t CTCA , Socia l Hygiene Division , Sectio n o n Women' s Work , Bulleti n #15 , 2 0 August 1918 , file "Bulle tins— Hygiene Division, " box 5 , entry 399 , RG 165 , National Archives . 79. Arthu r B . Spingarn , Sanitar y Corps , t o Socia l Hygien e Instructio n Division , CTCA, "Subject : Lecture s t o Negr o Troops, " Apri l 1918 , doc. 34352 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 80. Communicatio n fro m Arm y Section , Socia l Hygien e Division , t o M . J . Exner , "Subject—Lectures o n Se x Educatio n an d Lecture s t o Negr o Troops, " 8 June 1918 , doc . 36329, bo x 89 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives ; Major W . A . Sawye r t o Lieutenan t Royce R . Long , Sanitar y Corps , 2 0 July 1918 , doc . 35622 , bo x 87 , entr y 393 , R G 165 , National Archives ; "La w Enforcemen t an d Publi c Healt h Notes, " i n "Weekl y Bulletin, " War Departmen t CTCA , Socia l Hygien e Division , Sectio n o n Women' s Work , Bulleti n #15, 2 0 Augus t 1918 , file Bulletins—Hygien e Division , bo x 5 , entr y 399 , R G 165 , Na tional Archives . 81. Walte r Clark e t o Charle s E . Miner , Decembe r 27 , 1917 , doc. 15999 , bo x 29 , entr y 393, R G 165 , National Archives . 82. Fo r a n excellen t discussio n o f th e us e o f sexua l stereotype s t o justif y racia l violenc e see Jacquelyn Dow d Hall , "Th e Min d Tha t Burn s in Each Body : Women, Rape , and Racia l Violence," i n Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, b y An n Snitow , Christin e Stansell , and Sharo n Thompson , eds . (Ne w York : Monthly Revie w Press , 1983) , 328-349 . 83. V . H . Kriegshabe r t o Fosdick , 2 0 July 1917 , doc. 2853 , file Atlanta, Georgi a ( 3 of 3), bo x 6 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 84. "Executiv e Secretary, " possibl y Harol d Keats , Distric t Wa r Servic e Commission , to Reveren d Chs . Wood , Rev . Pierce , an d Rev . Wilfley , 2 7 Augus t 1917 , doc . 4686 , file District o f Columbia, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 85. Fosdic k t o Mr . Georg e A . Nesbitt , 1 4 September 1917 , doc . 6092 , file Distric t o f Columbia, bo x 5 , entry 395 , RG 165 , National Archives .

Notes to Chapter § • 27 9 86. Wm . B . Kelsey , Executiv e Secretary , Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Trainin g Camp Activities , Waco , Texas , o n "Activitie s i n Communit y Organization, " t o H . S . Braucher o f th e WCCS , 1 1 August 1917 , doc. 4159 , file Alabama 2 6 (1 of 2) , bo x 2 , entr y 395, R G 165 , National Archive . 87. Ala n Johnstone , Jr. , "Repor t o n Augusta , Georgia, " 1 7 Novembe r 1917 , file At lanta, Georgi a ( 2 of 3) , box 6, entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 88. Th e blac k community wa s well awar e of the existence of stereotype s an d ha d urge d their abandonmen t b y th e government an d th e press . Se e for instance , J. A . Jackson, "Th e Truth, th e Whol e Truth , an d Nothin g bu t th e Truth, " Atlanta Independent, 1 Decembe r 1917, 7 ; "Th e Pres s an d th e Impression, " Atlanta Independent, 2 2 Septembe r 1917 , 1 ; "Taking Sna p Judgemen t agains t th e Negr o Woman, " Montgomery Emancipator, 1 0 Ma y 1919,4. 89. Rut h Rosen , The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Universit y Press , 1982) , 80, 147-152 . 90. Rober t C . Newman , repor t o n Macon , Georgia , an d Cam p Wheeler , 1 3 Novembe r 1917, doc . 14999 , file Macon , Georgi a ( 1 o f 3) , bo x 6 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives. Quotation s i n tex t com e fro m Newman' s repor t o f a conversatio n wit h th e managing editor o f the Macon Telegraph. 91. Mayo r o f Alexandria , W . W . Whittingto n Jr. , t o Senato r Broussard , 3 Septembe r 1917, doc . 6014 , file Alexandria—Louisian a ( 5 of 5) , bo x 8 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives. 92. Repor t regarding Prostitution an d Liquo r Traffi c i n Pensacola, Florida , 8 , 9, 1 0 July 1917, doc . 2719 , file Florida—Pensacola , bo x 6 , entr y 395 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives . 93. A Johns Hopkin s Universit y stud y suggeste d a rate of syphili s amon g Black s abou t one-half time s tha t fo r Whites . Ther e i s absolutel y n o evidenc e t o sugges t th e rate s o f 6 0 percent an d 7 0 percent ofte n attribute d t o Africa n America n women . Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 52-53 . 94. Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 79-80 . 95. "Suggestion s fo r Specia l Activitie s fo r th e Reductio n o f Venerea l Disease s Amon g Colored Soldier s i n Cantonments, " stampe d a t to p "Approve d B.J., " mos t likel y Basco m Johnson, doc . 17463, box 33 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 96. Charle s William s o f th e Hampto n Institute , hire d b y th e committe e a s it s field secretary, quote d i n The American Churches in World War One, b y Piper , 169 . Se e als o memorandum fro m Majo r W . H . Loving , P.C. , t o Chief , Militar y Moral e Section , Wash ington, D.C. , Subject : Condition s Amon g Negr o Troop s I n Cam p Gordon , 4 Octobe r 1918, subfil e 10218-280 , Microfil m Publication s M1440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligence Divisio n Relatin g to "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 97. Edwar d H . Griffith , representativ e o f th e Wa r Departmen t Commissio n o n Train ing Camp Activities, t o Major Genera l Harr y C . Hale , Commandin g officer , Cam p Taylor , October 30 , 1917 , subject : "Propose d exclusio n o f whit e soldier s fro m negr o sections, " an d Griffith t o Colone l Lindsey , Chie f o f Polic e o f Louisville , Kentucky , 4 Novembe r 1917 , doc. 13649 , box 22 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 98. William s note d tha t treatmen t o f blac k an d whit e girl s wa s mor e simila r i n th e West. Charle s H . Williams , RESUM E O F C O N D I T I O N S SURROUNDIN G NEGR O TROOPS, 5 August 1918 , National Archives . 99. Williams , quote d i n The American Churches in World War One, b y Piper , 169 . 100. Henr y I . Fo x t o Dr . T . A . Storey , Executiv e Secretary , Interdepartmenta l Socia l Hygiene Board , Repor t o n th e Cit y o f Louisville , Kentucky , an d Cam p Zachar y Taylor , for th e mont h endin g 3 1 July 1919 , file Civilians, bo x 15 , entry 399 , R G 165 , National Ar chives.

280 • Notes to Chapter 5 101. Repor t o n Samarcand , Nort h Carolina , i n Marth a P . Falconer , "Repor t o f th e Section o n Reformatorie s an d House s o f Detention, " 1 October 1918— 1 Februar y 1919 , doc. 46405 , box 132 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 102. Suggestin g th e popula r whit e stereotyp e o f blac k mal e sexuality , on e telegra m t o the CTC A suggested , "FIN D SOM E OFFICER S STRONGL Y OBJEC T T O ABOL ISHING NEGR O SEGREGATE D DISTRICT S ALLEGIN G DANGE R O F RAPE " Telegram, Popeno e (Deming , Ne w Mexico) , t o CTCA , 1 5 Novembe r 1917 , doc . 10780 , box 14 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 103. Alla n Brandt , No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1985) , 116 ; Barbeau an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 54-55. I t i s tru e tha t blac k soldier s registere d a highe r incidenc e o f th e venerea l diseases tha n whit e soldiers . Ye t th e reason s fo r thi s wer e directly relate d t o discriminator y treatment b y loca l draf t boards , whic h enliste d Africa n America n me n despit e venerea l diseases. Barbea u an d Henri , Unknown Soldiers, 52-53 . 104. Memorandu m t o th e Por t Inspector , 1 6 May 1919 , Inspection : Prophylacti c Sta tion, Cam p Hill , b y J . Rya n Devereux , fil e 322.15—Prophylacti c Stations , bo x 2 , entr y 34A, R G 159 , National Archive s Branc h Depository , Suitland , Md . 105. Memorandu m t o the Port Inspector , Inspection : Prophylacti c Station , Cam p Alex ander, b y J . Rya n Devereux , 1 6 Ma y 1919 , file 322.15—Prophylacti c Stations , bo x 2 , entry 34A , R G 159 , National Archive s Branc h Depository , Suitland , Md . 106. Memorandu m o f Majo r W . H . Lovin g t o Chief , Militar y Moral e Section , 1 3 October 1918 , Subject : Condition s Amon g Negr o Troop s i n Cam p Sevier , doc . 5 , subfil e 10218-280, Microfil m Publicatio n M1440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Division Relatin g to "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . There wer e als o problem s a t Cam p MacArthur , bu t th e militar y intelligenc e office r believed thes e problems wer e i n the proces s o f bein g eliminated. Memorandu m fro m Cam p Intelligence Officer , Cam p MacArthur , Texas , t o Director , Militar y Intelligenc e Division , 22 November 1918 , Subject: Entitle d "Questionnair e concernin g Colored Troops, " doc. 76, subfile 10218-244 , Microfil m Publicatio n Mi440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelli gence Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 107. Georg e J. Owen , Executiv e Secretary , Wa r Servic e Board, Littl e Rock, t o Fosdick, 10 October 1917 , doc. 6532 , bo x 2 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 108. Telegra m fro m J . P . Robertso n an d F . B . Barnes , representativ e o f the CTCA , t o Fosdick, 1 0 October 1917 , docs . 757 1 an d 6726 , file Kansas—Ft . Riley , bo x 7 , entr y 395 , RG 165 , National Archives . 109. Abbi e Condit , "Wa r Cam p Communit y Servic e fo r Colore d Troops, " 2 4 January 1918, doc . 27333 , e n t r y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . n o . Telegra m t o Fosdic k fro m th e Manhatta n Commercia l Club , doc . 6540 , bo x 2 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives , i n . Ibid . 112. Telegra m o f Jasper J. Maye r t o Willa Jean Mayer , 8 December 1917 , doc. 13969 , box 23 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 113. A Lt . H . H . Attle s quote d i n memorandu m fo r Mr . Caulkin s fro m T . H. , 2 May 1918, doc . 27178 , box 56 , entry 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 114. Ibid . A report a s late as November 191 8 continued t o note the failure o f the WCC S in th e communitie s nea r Cam p Funston . Memorandu m fro m Cam p Intelligenc e Officer , Camp Funston , t o Director , Militar y Intelligenc e Division , Washington , D.C. , Novembe r 5, 1918 , subfil e 10218-244 , Microfil m Publicatio n M1440 : Correspondence o f th e Militar y Intelligence Divisio n Relatin g to "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives .

Notes to Chapter § • 28 1 115. Genera l Ballou , Bulleti n No. 35 , 28 March 1918 , reprinted i n Scott's Official History, by E . J. Scott , 97-98 . 116. Ibid . Genera l Ballo u ha d use d a similar tacti c i n De s Moines wit h th e blac k office r candidates, followin g a n inciden t a t th e Empres s Theater , i n whic h tw o Africa n America n soldiers refuse d t o si t i n th e Ji m Cro w sectio n o f th e theater . Genera l Ballo u quote d i n "Rookies Bal k at Jim-Crow," Afro-American, 1 4 July 1917 , 1 . 117. "Thi s i s No Soldier ! Ballo u Migh t Hav e Don e a Worse Thing ; That' s Doubtful, " Chicago Defender, 4 May 1918 , 16 . 118. "Ballou' s Drasti c Orde r Cause s Advers e Comment, " Afro-American, 1 9 Apri l 1918, 1 .

119. E . J. Scott , Scott's Official History, 97. 120. "Colore d Me n i n Uniform , No t U.S . Soldiers, " Afro-American, 4 August 1917 , 4. 121. "Activitie s fo r Negr o Troops, " WR B #60 , fil e Arizon a 18. 1 (3 of 4), bo x 3 , entr y 395, R G 165 , National Archives . 122. Descriptio n o f secon d cas e i n "Note s o n th e Employmen t o f Colore d Troops, " b y Colonel Rober t C . Humber , U.S . Arm y Wa r College , Historica l Section , Colored Soldiers in the U.S. Army, prepare d Septembe r 1942 , U.S . Arm y Militar y Histor y Institute , Carlisl e Barracks, Pennsylvania . 123. Descriptio n o f fina l case , 2 9 July 1917 , i n "Note s o n th e Employmen t o f Colore d Troops," by Colone l Rober t C . Humber . 124. E . J. Scott , Scott's Official History, 94-95. 125. Thi s discussio n i s not mean t t o sugges t tha t Africa n America n troop s wer e alway s the initiator s o f violenc e i n conflict s betwee n White s an d Black s i n th e camp s an d thei r neighboring communities . I n som e cases, fo r instance , whit e soldier s engage d i n violence i n response t o thei r discover y o f desegregate d recreationa l facilities . Se e lette r o f Emmet t J . Scott fro m Cam p Merritt , 1 8 Augus t 1918 , subfil e 10218-209 , Microfil m Publicatio n Mi440: Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negr o Subver sion" 1917-1941 , Nationa l Archives ; Memorandu m fro m Harol d F . Butler , Intelligenc e Officer, Cam p Meade , t o Chief , Militar y Moral e Section , Washington , D.C. , 1 3 Augus t 1918, subfil e 10218-199 , Microfil m Publicatio n Mi440 : Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligence Divisio n Relatin g t o "Negro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives . 126. "Activitie s fo r Negr o Troops, " WR B #60 , fil e Arizon a 18. 1 ( 3 of 4), bo x 3 , entr y 395, R G 165 , National Archives . Fo r another cas e see Dennis M. Moore , Memorandu m fo r Major Jaso n S . Joy , 1 5 March 1919 , an d Jame s H . Buell , Memorandu m t o Mr . Caulkins , 22 March 1919 , doc. 47321 , entr y 393 , RG 165 , National Archives . 127. Nei l A . Wyn n make s a simila r poin t abou t th e government' s broade r effor t t o "improve the black mood." See Neil A . Wynn , From Progressivism to Prosperity: World War I and American Society (New York : Holme s an d Meier , 1986) , 187 . 128. "Democrac y an d th e Colore d Soldier, " 260 . A s anothe r wa y o f dismissin g th e reality an d legitimac y o f blac k complaints, th e Wa r Departmen t ofte n suggeste d tha t i t wa s German propagandists , no t loyal blac k Americans , wh o were raising the complaints regard ing segregatio n an d discrimination . Fo r example s o f thi s tendency , se e "Warnin g Sounde d against Racia l Troubl e i n Camps, " Trench and Camp (Camp Shelby) , 2 4 November 1917 , 4; E. J . Scott , Scott's Official History, 9 . Evidenc e o f th e Wa r Department' s sincer e belie f i n a German plo t t o us e th e Africa n America n troop s i s abundant, mos t obviousl y i n th e broa d effort mad e b y th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n t o investigat e "negr o subversion " durin g the war . Thes e material s hav e bee n collecte d i n a five-rol l microfil m collection , Microfil m Publication Mi440 , Correspondenc e o f th e Militar y Intelligenc e Divisio n Relatin g t o "Ne gro Subversion " 1917-1941 , National Archives .

282 • Notes to Chapter