Making Marvels. Science and Splendor at the Courts of Europe 1588396770, 9781588396778

Citation preview

MAKING MARVELS SCIENCE AND SPLENDOR AT THE COURTS OF EUROPE

Edited by Wolfram Koeppe

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK DISTRIBUTED BY YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS , NEW HAVEN AND LONDO

6 7 10

DIRECTOR'S FOREWORD

l l

CONTRIBUTORS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

SETTING THE STANDARD: FORGING A CULTURE OF MAGNIFICENCE

LENDERS TO THE EXHIBITION

Marvels, Wonders, and Their Offspring WOLFRAM KOEPPE

27

Entries

THE KUNSTKAMMER: A HAVEN OF SPLENDOR & STUDY 35

Amassing Magnificence: The Role of the Kunstkammer in Princely Self-Representation DIRK SYNDRAM

41

Courtly Marvels and the New Experimental Philosophy PAMELA H. SMITH

51

Chasing Marvels, Revealing Secrets: The K unstkammer in the Age of Discovery PAULUS RAINER

59

A Surviving Curiosity: The Esterhazy Kunstkammer FLORIAN THADDAUS BAYER

66

Entries

PRINCELY EDUCATION & ENTERTAINMENT II3

Scientific Instruments as Courtly Objects PETER PLASSMEYER

121

The Ivory Turn: Of Solids, Curves, and Nests NOAM ANDREWS

129

The Noble Art: Alchemy and Innovation at Court ANA MATISSE DONEFER-HICKIE

138

Entries

TECHNOLOGICAL MARVELS IN MOTION 195 263 269 2 99 307

NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clocks and Automata: The Art of Technological Development WOLFRAM KOEPPE

INDEX PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS

204

Entries

DIRECTOR'S FOREWORD The spell cast by the glamour and luxury of the courts of early modern Europe remains unbroken to this day. The treasures assembled by princely families from Florence to Copenhagen certainly bolstered their reputations- rulers were expected to build spectacular collections befitting their rank-but it was not through opulence alone that they communicated wealth and power. Many of the most exquisite objects of the sixteenth to eighteenth century were as valued in their day for their artistic, scientific, or technological innovation as they were for their beauty. Whether a functioning machine or an exuberant silver mount for a discovery from the New World, these artworks are much more than their glittering surfaces suggest, for they embody the depth and complexity of the knowledge networks and strategies of representation that suffused the courtly hierarchy of early modern Europe. It is this more nuanced understanding of these astonishingly beautiful pieces that this catalogue and its accompanying exhibition bring to life. Making Marvels: Science and Splendor at the Courts of Europe explores the role of technology in courtly life through unique treasury objects, with which princes fashioned their identities as rulers. It is an idea that resonates particularly well with our current historical moment, for the prestige associated with technological achievement, as well as technology's ability to surprise and delight, is as relevant today as it was centuries ago. Conceived and organized by Wolfram Koeppe, Marina Kellen French Curator in the Museum's Department of European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, the exhibition is the first in the United States to highlight the vital intersection between art, science, and entertainment at the courts ofEurope and to extend our thinking on this topic into the modern era. It situates these marvels within the rich symbolism of princely display, which equated knowledge in areas such as natural philosophy and artisanal craftsmanship with the wisdom, self-mastery, and moral virtue integral to successful governance. The high regard in which these fields were held led patrons to demand ever-more sophisticated tools and techniques from the artisans in their employ. Such a dynamic environment fostered major inventions, the ripples of which are still felt today in our tablets, smartphones, and high-end automobiles. To explore these resonances, Making Marvels brings together a range of works from The Met's holdings alongside unique objects from European and American institutions and prestigious private collections. Many of these works are of such importance that they have never before been displayed in the United States; indeed, rarely have they left the palaces or museums in which they are housed. Others come from royal residences that are inaccessible to the public. To assemble objects of this caliber and diversity required a great effort on the part of The Met's staff and those of the lending institutions, for which we are most grateful. The exhibition would not have been possible without multiple generous loans from the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, not least being the "Dresden Green," the largest green diamond in the world; the Kunsthistorisches Museum ienna; the Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel; the Musee National de la Renaissance, Chateau d'Ecouen; and the Esterhazy Schatzkammer, Forchtenstein Castle. We are also indebted to a number of collections that kindly allowed their rarest treasures to travel, including Burg Eltz; the Dubrm·nik Cathedral Treasury; the Kunstsammlungen Graf von Schonborn, Wiesentheid; the Schatzkammer des Deutschen Ordens, Vienna; and the Technisches Museum, Vienna. Many of the above have been connected to The Met through long-standing friendships, and this tradition of cooperation has once again resulted in an extraordinary event. I must also thank the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia for their loan of the Draughtsman-Writer automaton. This marvelous creation not only demonstrates the highest bravura in its mechanics but also made cinematic history, insp · · ~ the 20n film Hugo, which won five Academy Awards. Over the years, the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Foundation has been integral to The Met's endeavor to display and contextualize the decorative arts for a wider public. \: e thank e:5?!cially Marina Kellen French for her singular support and unwavering encouragement, " · t which this catalogue and exhibition would not have been possible. MaxHollein

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS With Making Marvels: Science and Splendor at the Courts of Europe, The Met celebrates the remarkable efflorescence of human creativity and learning that took place in Europe between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, and elucidates the crucial role that princely courts played in this achievement. early all the objects illustrated in the following pages are technically outstanding accomplishments that were extremely difficult and costly to make. Their meticulous detail elevated them in the estimation of their noble patrons, who, with care and erudition, amassed vast, spectacular collections of marvels of all kinds. These pieces are not only beautiful; they were made to advance humankind through novel and invaluable contributions to science, technology, and craft. Several are known to have been enormously influential and to have inspired the thinking of specialists in numerous fields. This catalogue is designed to make these treasures available for further research, as reflected by its unusually wide-ranging bibliography. It is an interdisciplinary overview, and the first comprehensive introduction to these subjects for an English audience. Over the centuries, as they became associated with princely dynasties, many of these marvels achieved heirloom status, and the collections of which they formed part became widely known and admired. However, as fashions changed or as troubled times threatened, many collections slipped out of the limelight and into the realm of the mythical, hidden away in labyrinthine locations-only to be rediscovered decades later and cause a sensation, as was the case with the Schat::kamnur, or treasury, of the noble Esterhazy family in Hungary. The Esterhazy Schat.zkammer is one of several institutions and individuals to whom we are most grateful for opening their doors to us and lending their treasures to one of the most outstanding ensembles of its kind ever presented in the United States, if not worldwide. A truly collaborative venture, the project has benefitted immeasurably from the contributions of preeminent scholars, all at the forefront of their respective fields. Contributing their unique expertise to this catalogue, and thus ensuring that the exhibition is accompanied by the scholarly publication it deserves, are my esteemed colleagues Noam Andrews, Florian Thaddaus Bayer.Jens Ludwig Burk, Wolfram Dolz, Ana Matisse Donefer-Hickie, Karsten Gaulke, Michael Korey, Lothar Lambacher, Peter Plassmeyer, Paulus Rainer, Antje Schemer, Konrad Schlegel, Pamela H. Smith, and Dirk Syndram. To each I extend my gratitude and appreciation. Special thanks are likewise owed to our lenders, without whose generosity this project would not have been possible. They are named on page ro, and acknowledged here together with those who wish to remain anonymous. For their individual roles in facilitating this collaboration, I thank, at Adler Planetarium, Chicago: Michelle B. Larson, Andrew Johnston, and Pedro M. P. Raposo; the Al Thani Collection: H.H. Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah Al Thani and Amin Jaffer; Art Institute of Chicago: James Rondeau, Ellenor M. Alcorn, and Natasha M. Derrickson; Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe: Eckart Kohne, Katharina Horst, and Jadwiga Grafmiiller; Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, ~ 1unich: Frank Matthias Kammel.Jens Ludwig Burk, and Renate Eikelmann; Burg Eltz, Wierschem: Karl Graf von und zu Eltz-Kempenich; Castello del Buonconsiglio, Monumenti e Collezioni Provinciali, Trento: Laura Dal Pra, Emanuela Rollandini, Mariagrazia Ferretti, and Roberta Zuech; Corning Museum of Glass: Karol Wight and Christopher Maxwell; Deutsches Historisches ~1useum, Berlin: Raphael Gross and Sabine Beneke; Dubrovnik Cathedral Treasury: H.E. Bishop ~fate Uzinic, Ivan Viden, and the Reverend Hrvoje Katusic; Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Burg Forchtenstein-Esterhazy Schatzkammer: Stefan Ottrubay and Florian Thaddaus Bayer; Fondation Edouard et Maurice Sandoz (FEMS), Pully: Franc;:ois Landolt and Jacques-Michel Pittier; Franklin Institute, Philadelphia: Larry Dubinski and Susannah Carroll; J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles: Timothy Potts, Jeffrey Weaver, and Jenny Garpner; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna: Sabine Haag, Paulus Rainer, Konrad Schlegel, and Sandra Gerstl; Kunstsammlungen Graf von Schonborn, Wiesentheid: Paul Count von Schonborn, Damiana Countess von Schonborn, and Dorothee Feldmann; Landesmuseum Wiirttemberg, Stuttgart: Cornelia Ewigleben, Katharina Kuster-Heise, and Irmgard Miisch; Loyola University Museum of Art, Chicago: Natasha Ritsma; Mining History Document Center, German Mining Museum Bochum: Stefan Briiggerhoff and Michael Ganzelewski; Musee des Arts et Metiers-CNAM, Paris: Yves Winkin and Melanie Drappier; Musee d'Horlogerie

DIRECTOR THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

6

7

du Lode, Chateau des Monts: Morghan Mootoosamy and Marlene Rufenacht; Musee National de la Renaissance, Chateau d'Ecouen: Thierry Crepin-Leblond, Laure Roset, Chantal Bor, and Guillaume Fonkenell; Museo Galileo-lstituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, Florence: Paolo Galluzzi and Giorgio Strano; Museo de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid: Jose Maria Luzon Nogue; Museum Angewandte Kunst, Frankfurt am Main: Matthias Wagner K, Christian Dressen, and Isabelle Kollig; Museum for Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg: Tulga Beyerle, Sabine Schulze, Christine Kitzlinger, and Annika Pohl-Ozawa; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: Matthew Teitelbaum and Dennis Carr; Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel: Martin Eberle, Karsten Gaulke, and Antje Schemer; National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.: John Gray, Peter Liebhold, Carlene E. Stephens, Laura Duff, and Kristie Dafoe; Residenzmuseum im Celler Schloss/Bomann-Museum, Celle: Jochen Meiners, Juliane SchmieglitzOtten, and Stephanie Tasch; Schatzkammer des Deustchen Ordens, Vienna: S.E. Generalabt P. Frank Bayard and Martina Jurstak; Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden: Marion Ackermann, Dirk Syndram, Peter Plassmeyer, Michael Korey, Clara von Engelhardt, Wolfram Dolz, Katrin Biisig, and Rainer W. Richter; Staatliche Museen zu Berlin: Michael Eissenhauer, Sabine Thiimmler, and Lothar Lambacher; Staatliche Schlosser, Garten und Kunstsammlungen MecklenburgVorpommern, Schwerin: Pirko Zinnow and Karin Annette Moller; Stiftung SchleswigHolsteinische Landesmuseen Schloss Gottorf: Kirsten Baumann and Uta Kuhl; Technisches Museum, Vienna: Gabriele Zuna-Kratky, Ingrid Prucha, Otmar Moritsch, and Ewald Bilonoha; Victoria and Albert Museum, London: Tristram Hunt, Antonia Bostrom, Marjorie Trusted, and Michaela Zoschg; Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford: Thomas J. Loughman, Linda Roth, and Mary Busick; Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven: Stephanie Wiles, Laurence B. Kanter, and L. Lynne Addison. For sharing their zeal and perspicacity, from which I benefited enormously, I thank Barry Ball, Michael Beck, Michele Bimbenet-Privat, Anthony Blumka, Benoit Constensoux, ma McNeely Diefenbach, Bruno Eberli, Marc Fehlmann, Peter Friess, Charles Hack, Bernhard Heitmann, Gerhard Hermann, Martin Hoernes, Jutta Kappel, Elizabeth King, H.S.H. Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Oehringen, Franz Kirchweger, Alexis Kugel, Georg Laue, Joern Lohmann, Michelangelo Lupo, Klaus Maurice, Christopher Maxwell, Mark A. Meadow, Andrew Morrall, Tessa Murdock, Rudolph Netek, Hermann Parzinger, Bernard Pin, Ernst Ludwig Richter, Angelika Riemann, Sir Paul Ruddock, Thomas Rudi, Alessandra Russo, Jeremie Ryder, Stephen Ryder, Adrian Sassoon, Paul Schaffer, Peter Schaffer, the late Baron Bruno Schroder, Lorenz Seelig, Virginie Spenle, Paul Sweet, W. David Todd, Ulrike Weinhold, Liz Weiss, Volker Wurster, and Ghenete Zelleke. It was Virgil who first asserted that tempus fugit, and the two-plus years that went into planning and executing this project have indeed flown by, in large part thanks to the exceedingly capable team at The Met involved in its development. For their steadfast and enthusiastic support, I thank Director Max Hollein and President and CEO Daniel H. Weiss. Sarah E. Lawrence, Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Curator in Charge of the Department ofEuropean Sculpture and Decorative Arts, never ceased in her advice and encouragement, as did her predecessor, Luke Syson, now Director and Maday Curator of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. I thank Deputy Director for Exhibitions Qiincy Houghton; Exhibition Project Manager Christine McDermott; Deputy Director for Collections and Administration Andrea Bayer; Deputy Director for Digital, Education, Publications, Imaging, and Library Inka Drogemiiller; Senior Vice President for Institutional Advancement Clyde B. Jones III; and their capable teams. Senior Vice President, Secretar ', and General Counsel Sharon H. Cott and Associate General Counsel Amy Desmond Lamberti offered indispensable legal advice throughout. I am grateful to Chief Registrar Meryl Cohen and her predecessor, Aileen Chuk, and especially to Associate Registrar Reagan Duplisea. For their help providing information to visitors and media worldwide, I thank Vice President and Chief Communications Officer Kenneth Weine; Frederick P. and Sandra P. Rose Chairman ofEducation Sandra Jackson-Dumont; Associate Educator Emma Wegner; and Senior Publicist Jennifer Isakowitz. Special thanks must go to Exhibition Designer Fabiana Weinberg and Senior Graphic Designer Mortimer Lebigre, together with their colleagues Maanik Singh Chauhan, Richard Lichte, and

8

Amy Nelson in the Design Department, chaired by Head of Design Emile Molin. Buildings Manager for Exhibitions Taylor Miller and his team also played a key role in realizing the exhibition. For the production of this catalogue, I thank my colleagues in the Publications and Editorial Department, led by Publisher and Editor in Chief Mark Polizzotti with Associate Publisher and General Manager Gwen Roginsky, Chief Production Manager Peter Antony, and Senior Managing Editor Michael Sittenfeld. Paul Booth ably oversaw production, color proofing, printing, and design, which was accomplished by Catherine Mills with typesetting by Carol Liebowitz. Josephine Rodriguez-Massop secured permissions for the beautiful illustrations. I am particularly thankful to my ever-encouraging editor, Marcie M. Muscat, for her expertise and patience. Jayne Kuchna assiduously edited the notes and compiled the splendid bibliography. Her efforts were augmented by those of Kenneth Soehner, Arthur K. Watson Chief Librarian, and his associates Robyn Fleming, Fredy Rivera, and Amy Hamilton in the Thomas J. Watson Library. Additional editorial help was provided by Margaret Donovan, and Jennifer Bantz edited the exhibition labels. In the Department of Objects Conservation, I recognize the efforts of Sherman Fairchild Conservator in Charge Lisa Pilosi; Conservators Mechthild Baumeister, Linda Barsch, and Jack Soultanian, Jr.; Associate Conservators Anne Grady, Manu Frederickx, and Janis Mandrus; and Managing Conservation Preparator Frederick J. Sager. Chief Photographer Joseph Coscia, Jr., and his associates in the Imaging Department, chaired by Head oflmaging Barbara J. Bridgers, oversaw the photography of objects. In the Digital Department I thank Managing Producer Kate Farrell, Senior Manager of Media Production and Technology Services Paul Caro, Producer Melissa Bell, and Editor Will Fenstermaker. In the Department of Drawings and Prints, I thank Drue Heinz Curator in Charge Nadine M . Orenstein, Associate Curators Femke Speelberg and Freyda Spira, former Assistant Curator Catherine Jenkins, and Principal Departmental Technician David del Gaizo, who shared their expertise and made available several objects in their care. Elsewhere throughout the Museum I thank, in the American Wing: Lawrence A. Fleischman Curator in Charge Sylvia Yount and Curator of Latin American Art Ronda Kasl; the Department of Asian Art: Douglas Dillon Chairman Maxwell K. Hearn and Diane and Arthur Abbey Associate Curator for Japanese Decorative Arts Monika Bincsik; the Department of European Paintings: John Pope-Hennessy Chairman Keith Christiansen and Assistant Curator Adam Eaker; the Department oflslamic Art: former Patti Cadby Birch Curator in Charge Sheila R. Canby and Nasser Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah Acting Curator in Charge Navina Najat Haidar; and the Department of Musical Instruments: Frederick P. Rose Curator in Charge Jayson Kerr Dabney. To my colleagues in the Department of European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, my foremost thanks go to Research Associate Ana Matisse Donefer-Hickie, who played an active part in my research, checking details and making important discoveries. Ana Matisse contributed an essay and numerous entries to the catalogue, and she was an indispensable source of help and support on all aspects of this project. I am likewise immensely grateful to Senior Administrator Kristen Hudson and Senior Collections Manager Denny Stone, as well as Henry R. Kravis Curator Danielle Kisluk-Grosheide, Curators Denise Allen and Elizabeth Cleland, Associate Curator WolfBurchard, and interns Erika Robbins, Eliza Rubin, and Joyce Yusi Zhou. Thanks also to former Research Associate Tamara Schechter and former Curator Ellenor M. Alcorn. The graciousness with which Curator Emerita Clare Vincent shared her expertise has been of critical importance. Mahng Marvels benefited enormously from the generosity of the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Foundation, which made possible both the exhibition and this splendid publication. The Museum thanks the Foundation for its continued support. Finally, it is with great pleasure and sincere admiration that I dedicate this catalogue to Marina Kellen French, whose enthusiasm for the subject helped ensure crucial loans, and whose support of my scholarly research and curatorial stewardship has been unfailing. Wolfram Koeppe MARINA KELLEN FRENCH CURATOR EU ROPEAN SCULPTURE AND DECORATIVE ARTS

9

IO

LENDERS TO THE EXHIBITION

CONTRIBUTORS

Adler Planetarium, Chicago The Al Thani Collection Art Institute of Chicago Astronomisch-Physikalisches Kabinett, Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich Burg Eltz, Wierschem Castello del Buonconsiglio, Monumenti e Collezioni Provinciali, Trento Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, New York Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin Dubrovnik Cathedral Treasury Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Burg Forchtenstein-Ester hazy Schatzkammer Fondation Edouard et Maurice Sandoz (FEMS), Pully, Switzerland The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia Collection of Mr. John Gaughan The]. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles Griines Gewolbe, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden The Hearn Family Trust Kunstgewerbemuseum, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden Kunstgewerbemuseum, Staaatliche Museen zu Berlin Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Kunstsammlungen Graf von Schonborn, Wiesentheid Landesmuseum Wiirttemberg, Stuttgart Loyola University Museum of Art, Chicago Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden Mining History Document Center, German Mining Museum Bochum Musee d'Horlogerie du Lode, Chateau des Monts Musee des Arts et Metiers- CNAM, Paris Musee National de la Renaissance, Chateau d'Ecouen Museo Galileo-Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, Florence Museo de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid Museum Angewandte Kunst, Frankfurt am Main Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Museum ofFine Arts, Boston National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Private collection, Germany Residenzmuseum im Celler Schloss/Bomann-Museum, Celle Riistkammer, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden Sammlung Angewandte Kunst, Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel Schatzkammer des Deutschen Ordens, Vienna Staatliche Schlosser, Garten und Kunstsammlungen Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Schwerin Stiftung Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesmuseen Schloss Gottorf Technisches Museum, Vienna Victoria and Albert Museum, London Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford, Connecticut Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut

WK

Wolfram Koeppe is Marina Kellen French Curator, European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

NA

Noam Andrews is Research Fellow, Research Foundation Flanders (FWD), Ghent University

FTB

Florian Thaddaus Bayer is Director, Esterhazy Schatzkammer, Forchtenstein Castle

JLB

Jens Ludwig Burk is Deputy Director General and Curator of Sculpture and Painting 1550-1800, Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich

WD

Wolfram Dolz is Chief Curator, Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden

A DH

Ana Matisse Donefer-Hickie is Research Associate, European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

KG

Karsten Gaulke is Chief Curator, Astronomisch-Physikalisches Kabinett, Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel

MK

Michael Korey is Senior Curator, Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden

LL

Lothar Lambacher is Deputy Director, Kunstgewerbemuseum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin

PP

Peter Plassmeyer is Director, Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden

PR

Paulus Rainer is Curator, Kunstkammer and Kaiserliche Schatzkammer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

AS

Antje Schemer is Chief Curator, Sammlung Angewandte Kunst, Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel

KS

Konrad Schlegel is Curator, Kunstkammer and Kaiserliche Schatzkammer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

PHS

Pamela H. Smith is Seth Low Professor of History and Director, Center for Science and Society, Columbia University, New York

DS

Dirk Syndram is Director and Deputy Director General, Historisches Griines Gewolbe, Neues Griines Gewolbe, Riistkammer, and Residenzschloss, Dresden

II

/

SETTING THE

STANDARD FORGING A

CULTURE OF

MAGNIFICENCE

/

MARVELS, WONDERS, AND THEIR OFFSPRING

wonder; any thing astonishing"-thus is the term marvel defined in an English dictionary of 1760. 1 In recent years the word has been applied as an arbitrary adjective to anything from films to video games, but our focus here is not the twenty-first century or even the past 250 years, but rather a period in early modern history when a marvel signified a truly spectacular invention. The Renaissance, Baroque, and early Enlightenment together represent a transformative era in Europe between the outdated medieval order and the tumult wrought by the French Revolution and the end of the ancien regime. Throughout the period, spanning from roughly the mid-sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century, the pursuit of the marvelous was closely associated with the quest for innovation, and objects intended to express the majesty and ability of a prince's rule often signaled significant advances in science, technology, and the arts, as well. The basic framework for understanding the term marvel has not changed much since the Middle Ages, though the concept did expand and contract in meaning as experiences and knowledge networks changed. Accordingly, objects might be added to or removed from the canon of marvels as information shifted; for instance, precious stones, shells, and other

naturalia (cats. 25, 51) remained perennial curiosities, while others, like the basilisk or "unicorn" (cats. 26, 31), were debunked as fictions .2 The definition of what was marvelous depended in part on scholars, clergymen, and, especially, princes, for whom natural wonders such as ostrich eggs, magnets, and carbuncles represented the wealth of their possessors and their power over the natural and the human world. In the hands of philosophers, theologians, and physicians [associated with the court], they were recondite objects of specialized knowledge that transcended prosaic experience. In the hands of sixteenth- and eventeenth-century virtuosi and collectors, they became occasions for elaborate exercises in taste and connoisseurship.3

WOLFRAM KOEPPE

For the early modern ruler it was not merely the possession of wealth and titles that con-

W ith silver in ever-greater demand, Europe soon looked across the Atlantic Ocean

ferred authority but, rather, their expression. By building Kunstkammcni- thoughtfully

to meet its need. The treasures of the so-called New World-primarily artistic and reli-

selected collections of objects and instruments, each more beautiful, ingenious, or wondrous

gious objects- were systematically and with no respect for their cultural importance

than the next-and embracing practices that showcased their skill and erudition, princes

robbed, melted down, and transported to Europe, mainly in the form of bullion, ingots, and

of the era proclaimed their divine right to govern.

coins. Most ships were unloaded in Seville or sent directly to merchants in Genoa. 8 From I6m to I6rn, more than 2,200 tons of silver, as well as I2 tons of gold, were extracted from

Fig. I. Albert d11o Brave, Duke of Saxony, Eating 011

a Silver Block i11 a Mine al Sdrneeberg, 1477,

German, 19th century. Lithograph Fig.

2.

Native Silver will, Aca11thite, from the

1477 fi nd at Saint Geo rg mine, Schneeberg, 3 •/, x 1 '/; x 1 ,;. in. (8 x +5 x +5 cm). Collection ofBaron zu Rackn itz, no. 4317, Museum of Mineralogy and Geology, Senckenberg Naturhistorische Sammlu ngen Dresden (Min 4006 Sa MMG)

r6

SETTING THE STANDARD: AMASSING WEALTH AND MAGNIFICENCE

colonies in the Americas and sent to Spain. One of these settlements, Potosi'., in present-day

Marvels came in myriad forms and were usually ostentatious, standing out among the many

Bolivia, was virtually unknown and sparsely populated until I545, when the conquistadors

objects in a princely collection to captivate visitors with their superior craftsmanship, inge-

discovered silver there. With the help of experts-some from as far away as Germany-

nious functionality, and frequently sparkling materials. Foremost among the latter was

and under pressure from Habsburg Spain, mining boomed, and by about I6rn, the town's

silver, whose fascination for humans may relate to its luster, comparable to the cool shimmer

population had multiplied to I6o,ooo. However, slavelike working and living conditions

of moonlight on a clear night. It also has the highest reflectiveness and electric and thermal

and the extraction of ores using poisonous mercury earned Potosi the name of "a slaughter-

conductivity of any metal. The sheer value of this treasured material, combined with its

house for Indians."9

sheen, resistance to corrosion, and malleability, inspired artisans to fashion for their affluent

Besides mining, there were other opportunities for European rulers to amass enor-

clients silver items for domestic use, as well as ever-grander display pieces and ornamental

mous riches of precious metals. The Protestant Reformation of the early sixteenth century

objects. 4 For as silver was itself a form of currency, there was no more direct expression of

sparked confiscations of goods on an unprecedented scale from both individual collectors

one's wealth than ownership of silver objects.

who refused conversion and Roman Catholic clerics who were keepers of church treasur-

The foremost silver-producing areas in Europe included Hungary, which in addition

ies.10 Metals were melted down and reused, a "recycling" of wealth that continued for as

to silver produced copper and one third of Europe's gold; parts of the Alps Mountains; and

long as silver served as an economic stimulus, into the eighteenth century.n Indeed, thou-

the Saxon Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge), which beginning in the late fifteenth century

sands of artistic goldsmiths' creations of the Gothic period were lost in this way. 12 The metal

yielded large amounts of silver and other precious metals. Saxony, not a single political state

from old saints' relics was frequently repurposed into mounts for freshly discovered natural

but a territory partitioned into independent states, had some of the largest

marvels from distant lands, creating "new relics" or Kunstkammcr items. Artisans competed

silver deposits in Europe, making it one of the richest dukedoms in the

with the extravagant forms of nature- such as the Seychelles nut, the bezoar, and the

Holy Roman Empire and its mines a source of pride for its rulers. On April

nautilus shell (cats. 24, 32, 35)- and applied their creative abilities to enhance these exotic

23, I 477, near the town of Schneeberg, in the western Ore Mountains,

materials (see Paulus Rainer in this volume, pp. 5I- 58). Using artistic ingenuity, they fash-

Duke Albert the Brave, sitting on a saddle, was lowered into Saint Georg

ioned novel creations with complex iconographic programs. The resulting, splendid works

mine. Unearthed on that occasion was the largest block of silver ever

of art were made to be examined close up and to initiate learned conversations. Their value

known. Weighing fourteen tons, it was fashioned into a makeshift dining

and artistic importance as display items or treasured family heirlooms protected them from

table, becoming, in a sense, the first piece of silver furniture ever used by

being sold off, melted down, or disassembled in times of scarcity. For example, both an agate

a ruler for a banquet (fig. I). Fragments of the giant silver matrix survived

lx>wl and a "unicorn" horn in the collection of Emperor Rudolf II were designated as

as curiosities in the Dresden Kunstkammcr and in a few private collections,

"inalienable," ensuring that they remained in the possession of the Habsburg dynasty in perpetuity.13

and are today at the Museum of Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden (fig. 2). 5 The saddle

Above all, dynastic families desired to own silver furniture, through which they

was documented until I7I6 as being on display at the local miners' office. Until I483 the Schneeberg mines yielded about seventy tons of silver. Their discov-

became part of an elite inner circle, as not many aristocrats could commission such an

ery, comparable to the California Gold Rush of I849, initiated settlements throughout the

extravagance. For instance, the stunning suite of silver furniture from the Esterhazy

Ore Mountains. Between I499 and I508, the center of the region, Annaberg, grew from a

Sdiatzkammer (cats. I- 4) was integral to Prince Paul I's self-representation and to the image

small village to a town of eight thousand inhabitants, twice as many as Dresden, the cultural

projected by his family, for it allowed him quite literally to display the vast amount of cur-

capital of Saxony, and the same number as Leipzig, its economic center. 6 Engineers, court

rency it represented (see Florian T. Bayer in this volume, pp. 59-65). However, unlike the

scientists, and the ruler himself continuously strove to improve mining techniques to

inalienable heirlooms noted above, silver furnishings practically had one foot in the melting

enhance the yield, lavishing attention on inventions geared toward that achievement

pot from the moment of their delivery, for in times of warfare and privation, such objects-

(cat. rno). Georgius Agricola's widely disseminated treatise on metals and mining, De re

like the massive cast-silver chandeliers and buffet items that graced King Louis XIV's

mctallica (I556), featured extensive descriptions and illustrations, and became a necessary

Versailles for but a few years-were the first to be handed over to the mint. 14 Sometimes,

guide to mining operations, machinery, and metal extraction throughout the region.7

pieces in wood or base metals were covered with thick, decorated silver sheet (cats. I, 2).

KOEPPE

MARVE LS, WONDERS, AND THE IR O FF SPRI NG

While the look achieved was the same and they remained rela-

who had previously earned 50 thaler working as a clockmaker in Munich, was appointed

tively costly, these substitute objects were overall of much lower

court clockmaker to Elector Maximilian II Emanuel of Bavaria, he received an annual sal-

value than those in pure silver. Silvering or gilding a base metal

ary of 200 thaler for taking care of the clocks in the electoral residences.2 In the eighteenth

was a labor-intensive and dangerous process involving the disso-

century, a weaver or clothmaker earned about 150 thaler per annum; a university professor,

lution of the metals in mercury, which release toxic vapors when

who was also required to dress appropriately for class and purchase his own books, was paid

applied with heat. Consequently, those employed in this histori-

approximately 400 thaler. In 1779, when Franz Peter Bunsen made his spectacular silver

cally widely pursued craft from the sixteenth to eighteenth cen-

kettle drums (cat. 5), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was working in Salzburg as court organist

tury saw their life expectancy reduced to a few decades.1

5

and concertmaster for a salary of 450 florins, or 225 thaler. By contrast, the drums, weighing

Nevertheless, the process occurred, for it lent metal objects a

about 24 kilograms, commanded the fortune of 857,192 thaler, or the equivalent of 3,809

sumptuous shine and evoked luxury and splendor beyond their

years of Mozart's income.

1

cost. Most of the decorated cases of the clocks and scientific ScrnNcE AND SPLENDOR: CuLTIVATING THE PRINCELY

method, indicating the great variety of artisans who reached

Silver showpieces were but one facet of the princely treasury. Nearly every ruling dynasty

beyond the typical range of their craft to gain admittance to

in Europe between 1550 and 1750 amassed vast collections of precious and amusing objects,

the guilds by accomplishing an obligatory masterpiece (see, for

many of which achieved widespread renown for their breadth and quality. The attractive-

example, cat. rn7).

ness and value of these collections, known in the German-speaking provinces as Kunst- und

A look at the comparative value of artistic silver objects at

\ mulerkammern, evinced the might of the rulers who assembled them (see Dirk Syndram in

that time sheds light on attitudes toward various art forms in the

this volume, pp. 35-40). The early modern period was one of magnificence, and the spirited

early modern period. ChristophJamnitzer, the talented grandson

debates surrounding thL Aristotelian virtue influenced the ways in which Renaissance and

of WenzelJamnitzer (cats. 65, 70, 72), fashioned his gilded-silver

Baroque collectors displayed and appreciated their treasures.2 2 For Kunstkam.mern were con-

Trionfi-Lavabo, now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna,

sidered expressions of their owners' morality, status, and erudite interests, and a ruler's pos-

16

3). For his work on this ewer-and-

session of a wide-ranging and all-encompassing collection was symbolic of his mastery over

basin set, richly decorated w ith sculptural details and reliefs, he

the world. Some, such as Emperor Rudolf II, invited visiting dignitaries, scholars, and even

was paid, in April 1603, the sum of 4,024 guilders-a small for-

artisans to admire and examine his collection, the contents and arrangement of which were

tune for the time. As a comparison, consider that he bought a

carefully calculated to help legitimate his divine sovereignty over the Holy Roman Empire.23

house that same year in a good location (the Zisselgasse in

The inclusion in the Kunstkam.mer of objects and instruments that spoke to recent

for Rudolf II before 1602 (fig.

Fig. 3. C hristoph Jarnnitzer (1563- 1618), Ewer, ea. 1601- 2. Gi lded sil ver, enamel, H. 17 '/, in .

(43.5 cm). K unstkammer, Kunsh istorisches Mu seum, Vienna (KK 1128)

Mrnn

instruments illustrated in this volume were gilded using the same

Nuremberg) for 1,750 guilders. The set was a unique parade object, so it was perhaps not

developments in science and technology were key to developing the notion of princely

unusual that it commanded such a high price, but a look at a few prices for other artistic

legitimacy (see Ana Matisse Donefer-Hickie in this volume, pp. 129- 37). The beginnings of

commissions of the period shifts this relation dramatically. In 1590 a canvas by the court

what we today know as "science" were nurtured by rulers across Europe, and early discov-

painter Bartholomeus Spranger was purchased for the electoral Kunstkam.mer in Dresden for

eries were jealously guarded. Even though its modern usage evokes sterile laboratories and

60 thaler (approximately 75 guilders). And after the well-known artist Adam Elsheimer died

objective observers in clean, white lab coats, the term sci.ena in discussions of the early mod-

in 16rn, Peter Paul Rubens, upon learning that Elsheimer's widow was offering a painting

ern period refers to "numerous strands of inquiry: philosophy, medicine, mathematics,

17

18

on copper for 30 thaler (approximately 38 guilders), deemed the fee far too high. Ruben ,

alchemy, grammar, theology, even poetry ... broadly the investigation of nature.'' 24 The

who was then at the zenith of his fame, had been paid 4,000 guilders- nearly the same price

interest in Kunstkam.mer objects often extended to the processes and techniques used to fash-

as the ewer and basin mentioned above- by Sir Dudley Carleton, a British diplomat in The

ion them, which offered material-based insight into natural development. Examining mate-

Hague, for several paintings, among them a Prometheus Bound-itemized at 500 guilders

rials brought back from voyages to lands previously unknown to landlocked Europeans

(today at the Philadelphia Museum of Art). 9 That smaller paintings by Rubens were valued

promised discoveries of new secrets and substances, a potential that inspired the artists

between 500 and 600 guilders, and five triangular nephrite cups mounted in gilded silver

creating appropriate mounts for them (see Pamela H. Smith in this volume, pp. 41- 50).

1

entered the Dresden Kunstkam.mer for 1,650 guilders in December 1605, meant that each

Sometimes Kunstkam.mern were integrated into the operations of the court, and the

20

information they contained applied to the improvement of industry, warfare, agriculture,

cup ''was estimated at 550 Rhenish guilders thus equaling a substantial painting by Rubens.' '

With regard to wages, a court ivory turner received an annual salary of 200 guilders,

and state administration (cats. 83, 99, rn3). The more knowledge that a ruler could collect

and a carpenter had to survive on 12, while the head of the palace guards was paid 30, plus

about the world, the more control he was perceived to have over his realm. This association

an amount of food and wine from the princely household. When Johann Kreittmayr II,

between technical knowledge and power often took visual form, as princely patrons sought

KOEPPE

MARVELS , WONDERS , AND THE IR OFFSPRING

to advertise their advanced learning through their collecting practices. The growing popularity of scientific instruments as symbols of might and status is manifest in their sumptuous decoration, often with detailed, object-specific ornamentation, and the precious metals used in their manufacture (see Peter Plassmeyer in this volume, pp. n3-20). The princely engagement with science was perhaps most evident in the case of astronomy. Most European rulers established at their courts centers of astronomical observation, projects that boosted both their scientific and their political reputations.25 As Johannes Kepler declared in the preface to the Dioptrice: "O telescope, instrument of much knowledge, more precious than any scepter! Is not he who holds thee in his hand made king and lord of the works of God!" 26 William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, was notable for combining politics with astronomical ambition (cat. no). His renown as a skilled astronomer was so widespread that by I582, many princes sought his opinion "concerning the Gregorian calendar." 2 7 An understanding of the movement of the heavens allowed for more accurate timekeeping, measurement, and astrological prediction, and possession of instruments that mapped the stars and planets lent their owners a distinct advantage in predicting the harvest, or even an individual's fate (cat. n6). Even more important to a prince than monitoring the heavens was measuring the extent of his earthly dominion. Surveying the land was crucial for establishing a regulated system of taxation, while exploring beneath its surface uncovered mineral resources and other forms of natural wealth (cats. rno, rn3). These riches found their way to the Kunstkammer in the form of assemblages of raw,

instance, have long been an attribute of the noblest Christian virtue, Temperance, and over

unworked gemstones. If precisely cut into sparkling jewels, they demonstrated "increasing

the course of the sixteenth century, they were joined by "machinery, mechanical power, and

Fig. 4- "Governor Pitt's Brilliant Diamond, &c.," fro m John and Andrew Rymsdyk's

knowledge of proportions, geometry, and refraction" (fig. 4). Long embedded with talis-

[other] salutary devices." 33 A I644 engraving by Joseph Furttenbach the Elder places

Museum Britam1icwn (London, 1791), pl. 28. John Rylands Un iversity Library, University of

manic meanings, astral powers, and medicinal properties, gemstones also became a distinct

mechanics at the apex of all the arts as the one true amalgamation of intellectual and tech-

Manchester (R98838)

field of scientific inquiry, as "new sources were discovered and as experiments took place to

nical work.34 Attaining expertise in a range of disciplines, from music, fencing, and hunting

establish the relative durability of different kinds." 29 In Italy Cosimo III de'

to alchemy, artisanship, and astronomical observation, but particularly in mechanics, was

Medici oversaw experiments by Giuseppe Averani on the combustion tempera-

akin to the self-mastery and practical wisdom deemed an essential aspect of the ruling

ture of gemstones, designed to study the effects of intense heat on diamonds,

class.35 Integral to a potential ruler's instruction in strategic thinking was chess (fig. 5;

rubies, sapphires, emeralds, garnets, and amethysts, with the ultimate goal of

cats. 36-38), while the craft deemed most suitable for princes was ivory turning at the lathe,

determining their constituent elements.3° The exquisite decoration of the

which implied proficiency in mathematical precision and geometry (fig. 6; cats. 52-62).

alchemical furnaces employed in such experiments is a further testament to the

Turning demanded self-control and patience; without these traits, a turner could easily

importance attached to endeavors of this sort (cat. 73). Valuable gemstones were

damage a piece if his concentration wavered. Such forbearance was thus interpreted as a

thus not simply markers of wealth; to the early modern mind they were sites of

metaphor for good governance, as a similar slip in attention while ruling could endanger the

scientific possibility, an understanding that would have been incorporated into

integrity of one's realm and his people. Many rulers began their instruction at the lathe as

their inclusion alongside jewels in the highest emblems of horror, when dis-

young children and continued to practice during their reigns. Indeed, competition was

played in the royal treasury (Schatzkammer), or when adorning the prince's per-

fierce between courts as to which could acquire the most advanced turning equipment and

son during public appearances (cats. 48, 49, 5I)Y Displays of status were not, however, limited to the Kunstkammer, and

engage the most skilled practitioners, and the tactics taken could be compared to industrial

6

@

28

Fig. 5. Jan Cornelisz Vermeyen (ea . 1504-1559), Elector, Jol1m111 Frederick the Mag11a11i111011s Playing C hess, ea . 1548. Oil on panel, 25'/s x 36 '/, in. (65 x 92 cm). Stiftu ng Schloss Friedenstein, Gotha (SG 70) Fig. 6. Johan n Jakob van Sandrart (16551698), Minerva al. the La tlie, last thi rd of the 17 th centur y. Etchin g, 14 •/, x g'/s in. (36 x 24.4 cm). Kupferstich-Kabinett, Staatlicbe Kun stsamrnlu ngen Dresden (A 10078)

espionage (see Noam Andrews in this volume, pp. I2I- 28).36

thus neither were scientific and technological achievements, which played a

'

0 20

understanding followed on a long tradition of associating science with virtue; clocks, for

part in courtly entertainments including banquets, festivals, tournaments,

MECHANICAL MARVELS: DELIGHT AND INNOVATION AT CouRT

weddings, and even leisure activities. In fact, alongside hunting, the highest of

In addition to those that enriched the mind and honed technical skill, early modern princes

all aristocratic pastimes, technical pursuits were themselves a privileged form

sought out marvels whose primary purpose was to entertain and amuse. Despite their seem-

of entertainment-and education-at court.32 For technical knowledge was

ingly frivolous aim, these objects were often quite sophisticated machines, featuring inge-

tied not only to political authority but also to morality and wisdo!11. This

nious mechanic~! works that translated into an impressive functionality. They frequently

KOEPPE

M ARV ELS , WONDERS , AND THEIR OFFSPRING

2I

A few decades earlier an even more sophisticated mechanism had been unveiled during the French king Henry II's ceremonial entree into Lyon in I547, for which an ephemeral "palace" was built on the deck of a ship (fig. rn).42 A meal was served on a table that rose to the palace's upper dining area from below deck. These sorts of "magic" retractable tables, or

Tischleindeckdich, were sought after by several of

Europe's monarchs, for they allowed a certain privacy, which under strict court etiquette was almost impossible to achieve. One such device existed in the retreat pavilion that Peter the Great of Russia commissioned for the gardens of Peterhof Palace, though it was not finished until after the czar's death in I725. Accessible only by a drawexhibited the same sorts of technologies employed in clockmaking,

bridge over the surrounding moat, the so-called Hermitage Pavilion

"and because the complex gear trains that drove clockwork gen-

offered privacy from the court and its stylized protocol. 43An oval table,

erated a mixture of admiration and awe, the new philosophers [of

large enough to accommodate up to fourteen people, could be lowered

the early modern era] embraced clockwork metaphors for the self,

via two winches to the ground floor, where the kitchen and scullery

society, and the universe." 3 Accordingly, mechanical marvels

were located. There, the table was set, dressed, and laid with food

such as clocks and automata contributed to the enrichment of

before being elevated back up to the first floor. In the following cen-

the philosophical and metaphysical milieu in which princes and

tury King Ludwig II of Bavaria ensured that such

their elite associates operated (see Wolfram Koeppe in this volume,

mechanisms, whether driven by human, animal, or hydraulic power,

PP· I95- 203). Mechanical inventions had an especially prominent role in

were installed at Schloss Linderhof and Herrenchiemsee Palace, construction on which began in the I86os and continued until his death;

courtly dining rituals, where they were employed to amuse guests

His Majesty preferred to eat in total privacy. 44

7

and spur conversation (fig. 7). Banquets and feasts were a common

Tables and garden landscapes were likewise brought to life by

occurrence at most courts and provided an opportunity for rulers to

fountains and intricate displays of water, much to the delight, and

impress their guests with lavish table settings, including welcome

ometimes the surprise, of visitors. 45 Referring to one of his complex

cups (cat. I2), display buffets (cat. 23), table fountains (cats. I44- 46),

designs, a self-proclaimed "very beautiful and ingenious fountain," the

centerpieces (cat. I47), and accoutrements for playing drinking

ixteenth-century engineer Agostino Ramelli described it as "portable

games (cats. I3I, I33).3 Archduke Ferdinand II, known for hosting

and ready to serve in various pleasing ways. For instance, when a ban-

lavish parties at Schloss Ambras, near Innsbruck, with his first wife,

quet is held it would be pleasant to take it to the table for the guests to

Philippine Welser, was particularly fond of such games and riddles.

wash their hands, or to fill it with perfumed water for diversion and

The so-called Fangstuhl (fig. 8) provides a rare surviving piece of evi-

enjoyment of the sweet fragrance emanating from it." 46 Another variety of fountain was

dence as to what could transpire during such festivities: when

conceived for serving wine, following the tradition of mixing wine with water in a ceremo-

a guest sat on the chair, a hidden catch mechanism was activated

nial manner (cats. I44-46). The technologies behind these seemingly frivolous objects were

that made escape impossible. The imprisoned guest could gain their freedom only by drink-

central to their perceived value, for their mysterious inner workings (all the pipes were

ing a certain amount. The chair's decorative program includes Sirens as symbols of craving

disguised) evoked wonder in guests and left them to ponder the forces behind their action.

and a mask that has been connected with Bacchus and the theater.39 Documented evidence

It was not only fountains that sparked curiosity in viewers but also mobile automata,

is lacking, but the Fangstuhl was likely brought out during ceremonies involving excessive

hich developed in tandem with and in relation to the increasingly sophisticated clock-

8

Fig. 7. Tlie Ba11q11,t of tli, Order of !lie Golden Fleece (detail), German, 1585. Oil on parchment, overall 12 1/.+ x 23 ia in. (31 x 60 cm).

Kunstkarnmer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (KK 5348) Fig. 8. Fangst11/i!, German, second half of the 16th centur y. Iron, leather, velvet, H. 44 7/s in. (114 cm). Kunstkam mer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (KK 289)

22

Tischleindeckdich

Such boisterous occasions might

works engineered throughout the early modern period (see Wolfram Koeppe in this vol-

involve tricks with glass cups or automated vessels that moved across the banqueting table

ume, pp. I95-203). The most complex and lavish examples could serve as gifts at weddings,

(cats. I36, I37). Or it could be that the table itself moved. A small, round table in the pavilion

coronations, diplomatic meetings, or other auspicious events, their actions communicating

in Ambras gardens could rotate by means of a hidden, water-powered mechanism, much to

social, religious, and political messages to their high-ranking recipients. Hans Schlottheim's

the delight and surprise of the archduke's many guests, already dizzy from consuming so

so-called Charles V Nef of about I580 was one of three related examples possibly commis-

many alcoholic beverages (fig. g)Y

sioned by Rudolf II and later stored in the imperial Kunstkammer (fig. n; see also cat. I47).47

drinking or even the mysterious "rites of Bacchus.''

40

KOEPPE

MARVELS, WONDERS, AND THEIR OFFSPR I NG

Fig. 9. Gabriel Bodenehr the Elder (1673- 1765), "A View of Schloss Ambras,'' detail showing Archduke Ferdinand II's garden pavi lion on the right, from Matthiius Merian's Topogrnpliia provi,icia nmt Auslriacan1m (Frankfurt am Main,

1649). Sam mlungen Schloss Ambras, Innsbruck (PA 1491) Fig. ro. E11try ofH, 11 ry II i11to Lyo11 i11 1548: Th, Floati11g Clia1,a11, French, 1733. Etching, 13 x 7'/, in. (33 x 19 cm). Chiiteau de Versailles et de Trianon (rnv.GRAV 1589)

Fig. II. Hans Schlottheim (1547-1625),

instruments, among them machines to hoist stone columns, cams that generated reciprocal

"Nef" Automaton of Cl,arles V,

ea. 1580. Gi lded brass, H . approx. 41 in. (104 cm). M u see National de

or regular percussive motion, a water-raising system, a spring-driven clock with a twenty-

la Renaissance, Ch ii.teau d 'Ecouen Fig.

12.

four-hour dial, and a steam blower (fig. I3; see also cat. I43). 50

Renato Boaretto (b. 194 2), Reproduction of Leon ardo da

Vinci's Lion automato n, 2009 (original ea. 1515). Woods, various

In addition to physical movements, some of these automata boasted mimicry of more

metals, paint, im itation fur, leather, bone, H. 4 ft. 3 '/, in. (I.35 m).

intangible motive forces, as well. For instance, the automaton known as the Turk, of about

Collection Ch ii.tea u du Clos Luce, Amboise

I 769, could play chess (cat. I53). Stories of such astounding mechanical feats spread far and w ide; one famous automaton thought to imitate life especially closely was Jacques de Vaucanson's "defecating duck," completed in I738 (fig. I4). In addition to waddling, quacking, and ruffling its copper feathers, the bird also swallowed and "digested" food, which then passed through a tiny chemical laboratory inside it in a process that concluded with a seeming excretion. The duck was thought so extraordinary that Goethe even referred to it in part 2 of Faust (I832) in relation to his homunculus and the living metabolism.5' Not only did these extraordinary human and animal figures inspire the invention of poets and playwrights, their mechanisms influenced engineers. The Draughtsman-Writer of about I8oo (cat. I54) composed poems and drawings by storing patterns of movement in several cams edged with hills and valleys that could hold more information than any previous device. Such a mechanism for storing information and translating it into text and image, so similar to software, was the forerunner of the computer, today a ubiquitous aspect of modern life. The legacy of early Renaissance and Baroque inventions thus lives on in our telephones, computers, and cars, and certain of the era's attitudes toward technology persist in the modern consciousness, as well. As historian Lynn White has argued, the positive connotations that came to be associated with technological progress in the sixteenth century have endured as "one of the presuppositions of the present world.... Without widespread

Fi g. 'JZ. - lulCricur du c c:111:ircl digl'>1·311 L, de r auca11~011. A, rnou\e meul tl'horlo;:r>rie. - D. Jlt'llllJl(>, - C, m('u lo pour b ro)C l' le ~rain. - ~·, tubo cle:s inte~tin~. - J, bee. - JI , tl'tc. - )l , l)ll lte5.

Not only could these ships "sail" across a table via mechanical inner workings, but they also

and intense emotional commitment to machines and gadgets, men of talent would not have

re-created the moments after the coronation of Charles Y, with miniature figures of the

put their energies into building the new devices for production, transportation, and com-

emperor enthroned and electors encircling him in celebratory procession. Accordingly, the

munication, which are among the most distinctive features of modern life.'' 52 Across Europe

mfevoked for the sixteenth-century audience the religious stability of Habsburg rulership.

in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries, rulers used their wealth and power to

de Va ucanson's Defccatiug D uck," from Camille

Some of the most complex automata took figural form, and they were devised by their

cultivate an environment where creativity and ingenuity had room to reach their fullest

l'lwrwge rie (Paris, 1888), fig. 92

makers to mimic the actions of the animals or humans on which they were modeled. No

potential. As explored in the following pages, beauty and innovation came together in ever-

discussion of animal automata can neglect to mention the universal genius Leonardo

increasing ways at the courts of early modern Europe, where science and splendor were pur-

da Vinci, whose achievements in this area continue to amaze five hundred years after his

sued with equal vigor and together contributed to the formation of a culture of magnificence.

death. Among his most fabled creations was a mechanical lion that was presented to Louis XII upon the French king's triumphal entree into Milan in I509. A contemporary observer described the occasion as follows: When the King entered Milan, besides the other entertainments, Lionardo da Vinci, the famous painter and our Florentine, devised the following intervention: he represented a lion above the gate, which, lying down, got onto its feet when the King came in, and with its paw opened up his chest and pulled out blue balls full of gold lilies, which he threw and strewed about on the ground. . . . Stopping beside this spectacle, [the King] liked it and took much. pleasure in it.48

The artist created other moving lions, which he would deploy to surprise royal guests at candlelit festivities (fig.

I2). 49 Leonardo

and several of his contemporaries devised numerous

ingenious mechanical inventions, and they also envisaged ways to improve on existing,

KO EPPE

M ARVELS , WO NDER S, A ND THE IR O FF SPRIN G

Fig. 13. G iovanni Branca (1571-1645), "Steam Blower Powering a Double Pestle," from

Le 111achi11e (Rome, 1629). fig.

xxv

Fig. 14. "Imagined Design for Jacques Porta l and Raoul Ma rqui s's

Les 111er11eilks de

r.

Judgment of Paris Table

4 . Two Wall Sconces with Candle Holders

and Portraits in Antique Style David Schwestermiiller I (I594-I678) German, Augsburg, I659 Ebony, silver (embossed, cast, engraved, chased, gilded) H. 30 7/s in. (78.5 cm), W. 4I t/s in. (rn4.5 cm), D. 32 '/s in. (8i.5 cm) Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Burg Forchtenstein- Esterhazy Schatzkammer (K 390) MARKS: Augsburg town mark; maker's mark' REF ERENCES: Gottfried Holzschuh in Fiirstw Esterhazy 1995, pp. 269-70, no. v/18, ill. pp. 130, 131; fohrer d1mh die Esterhazy-Almengalerie 2006, p. 84, no. 108; Stefan Korner in Arminjon 2007, pp. 237- 38, no. 28; Korner 2007, pp. 176-77, 181, 184 , figs. 169, 170, 177, and ill. p. 168; Kopp 2014, pp. 34- 35, figs . 46, 48

2.

German, probably Augsburg, ea. I655 Brass (silvered, embossed, cast, chased, engraved), wood Left: H. 43 34 in. (nI cm), W. 26 in. (66 cm), D. I5 in. (38 cm); right: H. 43 34 in. (nI cm), W. 26 in. (66 cm), D. I6 7/s in. (43 cm) Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Burg Forchtenstein- Esterhazy Schatzkammer (K 2n/1-2) MAR KS: united coats of arms of Paul and Ursula Esterhazy INSCRIPTION: c {ENEROSUs} c{oMES} P{AULUS}E{STERHAZY}D{E}c{ALANTAj P{ERPETUUS} D{E}F{RAKNOj-c{oMJTISSAj u[R SULA}E{S TERHAZY}D{E} G{ALANTAj REFERENCES: Fiifirer durcl, die Esterluizy-Almengalerie 2006, p. 85 , no. III ; Stefan Korner in Arminjon 2007, p. 239. no. 31; Korner 2007, pp. 179- 80, figs. 171, 177; Kopp 201 4 , pp. 34- 35, fig. 4 8

Mirror HOLDING HIGH OFFICES AT THE

imperial court in Vienna,

Johann Betz (I588-I642) German, Augsburg, ea. I665 Oak (stained), silver (embossed, cast, engraved, chased), mirror glass

as well as the rank of vice-regent of Hungary, it was only fitting that Prince Paul I Ester hazy should have surrounded himself with the most luxurious appointments. A remarkable example of the

H. 67 34 in. (I72 cm), W. 48 3/s in. (I23 cm), D. g in. (23 cm)

splendor he was able to display is this surviving ensemble ofBaroque

Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Burg Forchtenstein- Esterhazy

silver furnishings, the most imposing of which is unquestionably

Schatzkammer (K 2rn)

the unique silver table made by David Schwestermiiller I (cat. 1). 3 This brilliantly crafted piece reveals an exacting standard through its ingenious ebony construction alone. The milled sheets of

2

MARKS: Augsburg town mark; maker's mark REFERE NCES : Fiihrer di.rcl, die Esterhazy-Alu,mgalerie 2006, p. 84, no. no; Stefan Korner in Arminjon 2007, p. 238, no. 29; Korner 2007, pp. 181, 184, figs. 177, 179; Kopp 2014, pp. 34- 35, fig. 48

silver applied to it, after being embossed, chased, and gilded, are uncommonly thick. Borders and cast decorative elements were the last pieces to be attached. 4 The edge of the tabletop is decorated with a relief band of Tri tons,

3.

Pair of Gueridons

German, probably Augsburg, I670-80 Copper (silvered, embossed, cast, engraved, chased), iron Each H. 50 in. (I27 cm), Diam. of base I7 34 in. (52 cm) Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Burg Forchtenstein-Esterhazy Schatzkammer (K 204/I-2) REFERENCES: Fiihrer durcl, die Estel'hiizy-Ali11wgalerie 2006, p. 84 , no. 109; Stefan Korner in Arminjon 2007, pp. 238- 39, no. 30; Korner 2007, pp. 181, 18 2, 184, figs. 177, 178; Kopp 2014, pp. 34-35, figs. 47, 48

sea nymphs, and other maritime creatures. The winged putti above the gilded claw feet and in the corners of the top are also especially beautifully executed. Depicted at the table's center is the mythological scene of theJudgment of Paris, in which the young Paris is required to choose between the beauty of Aphrodite, the wisdom of Athena, and the power of Hera. 5 The table is one of Europe's earliest and finest pieces of silver furniture. The silver sheets decorating the large mirror (cat. 2) bear the maker's mark of the master Johann Betz and Augsburg assay marks from about 1665.6 In strict symmetry, blossoms and acanthus foliage thrust upward out of a shell at the bottom edge. Six putti frolic in the sumptuous floral decor. A slender inner molding ornamented with floral motifs frames the mirror itself. The gueridons (cat. 3) conform to a type that was developed in France about 1660 and thereafter widely imitated. A baluster shaft composed of separate elements connects each base, resting on three balls, and the circular tray holding the candle. The baluster's surface is richly decorated with varied floral motifs. Unlike other works from Augsburg, however, the gueridons are rather heavy, even a bit clunky. And if one closely examines the ornamental details, they are seen to be somewhat flat and uninspired.7 This unique Baroque grouping is completed by wall seances (cat. 4). There are six in all, adorned with allegorical portraits of

MAK IN G MA RV ELS

5.

head of royal parades and festivities, and together conveyed an

Kettle Drums and Banners

German, Hanover, 1779 Franz Peter Bunsen (ea. 1725-1795) Silver, iron, calfskin, textiles, metal thread (gilded) Each H. 16 '/s in. (41 cm), Diam. 20 7/s in. (53 cm), Wt. 52 lb. 15 oz. (24 kg) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Purchase, Robert Alonzo Lehman Bequest, Acquisitions Fund, and Frederick M. Lehman Bequest, 2010 (2010.138.1--4) MARKS:

Hanover town rnark; 1 Buiismstampedon each drum and lug; crown and

letter E Sotheby's 2005, no. n7I;Jayson Kerr Dabney in "Recent Acquisitions" 2orn, p. 45;]. K. Moore, Dabney, and Strauchen-Scherer 20I5, pp. I3, IOO-IOI; Dabney 20I6, pp. 20I- 24, figs. 3, 5, 6, and p. I53, figs. I, 8

REFER EN CES:

SILVER KETTLE DRUMS WERE THE

ultimate ceremon ial instru-

ment. In 1779, this pair and its original velvet banners were presented by King George III to his royal guard in Hanover. Their perfectly finished, stylish exteriors reflect the latest advancements in funnel technology hidden within, which allowed a player to vary the intensity of sound. 2 Mounted on either side of a saddle, the drums were accompanied by musicians playing silver trumpets at the

I, tabletop

Prince Paul and his wife, Ursula, three of which bear his profile and

the table, the silvered surface of the gueridons and seances would

three facing them that bear hers, in the style of portraits of Roman emperors and their consorts. Above each of the portraits, which are

have produced a similar opulent effect in the flickering candlelight (see also pp. 16-19 in this volume). FTB

richly framed by flowers and foliage, is a separate section bearing a cartouche with the couple's combined coat of arms beneath the initial sequence "G c PED GP D F c u ED G," which identifies the pair and indicates that Paul married his niece Ursula Ester hazy. The unmarked silvered seances were made oflarge milled sheets of brass, embossed and chased, mounted on wooden bases along with other serially produced elements, including the section holding the candle arm. 8 Though less expensive than the sheets of silver used for

1. Seling 2007, p. 43, no. 0690 (Augsburg town mark), p. 255, no. I442n (maker's mark). 2. Ibid., p. 43, no. 0670 or 0680 (Augsburg town mark), p. 3I"lf, no. Ifa8 (maker's mark). 3. Kopp 20I4, pp. 34- 37. 4. Klaus Maurice, "Tisch mit Ulrteil des Paris," in an unpublished manuscript on select objects in the Esterhazy Schartzkanuner, 2006, Esterhazy Privatstiftung, Eisenstadt. s. Fiihrer durch die Esterhazy-Alma:ngalerie 2006, p. 84, no. rn8. 6. Ibid., no. no. 7. Klaus Maurice, "Zwei Gueridons,:" in an unpublished manuscript on select objects in the Esterhazy Scliatzkamoner, 20Jo6, Esterhazy Privatstiftung. s. Klaus Maurice, "Sechs zweiteilige Blaker rnit Lew:chterarrnen rnit Darstellungen antiker Herrscherportriits," in ibid.

EN T RIE S

MAK IN G MA RV EL S

impression of might, power, and prosperity. 3 Only a handful of such ensembles survive, and some are still in use at the royal courts of Europe.4 Each drum weighs about twelve kilograms-an amount of silver that equaled a small fortune in those days-and this demonstrative display of the richness of the king's dominion would have been further enhanced by the bold color and sparkling decoration of the uniforms worn by the musicians, as well as the crimson banners draped around the drums' lower parts, embroidered with gildedmetal thread displaying the royal arms. Reference to the sovereign is presented on the objects themselves through applied silver reliefs, also of the monarch's arms. From the sixteenth through the nineteenth century this illustrious formation has changed little.5 Silver drums formed part of a significant and extensive array of courtly silver furnishings (see cats. 1-4), 6 table services, and buffet implements, such as wine fountains (see cats. 144-46), which were so en vogue at the time.7 All share the highest standard of craftsmanship and a restrained design following the principles of royal classicism that were popular in goldsmith ornamentation from the Renaissance to the nineteenth century. 8 As court goldsmith, Bunsen could establish a workshop that enabled him to realize such extensive commissions. The master

5, banners

was one of the leading goldsmiths in northern Germany and can likely be credited with introducing the Neoclassical style during the

7. Fountain and

second half of the eighteenth century.9

Probably Johann Wilhelm Voigt I (active 1716-55) German, Osnabriick, ea. 1716-25 Silver

WK

1. Scheffler 1965, vol. 2, p. 71 4. 2. I thank Jayson Kerr Dabney, Frederick P. Rose Curator in Charge, Department of Musical Instruments, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, for sharing insights on these improved techniques (personal communication, August 7, 2018). 3. RudolfHopfner in Seipel 2005b, p. 60, no. 2.10. Two H anover silver trumpets made by Johann Wilhelm H aas during the reign of King George II (r. 1727- 6o) are on loan to t he Museum ofFine Arts, Boston; see Dabney 20I6, p. 201, n. r. 4. Dabney 2016. s. For a late sixteenth-century parade formation, see Veronika Sandbichler in Seipel 2005b, p. n9, no. 4.1.1, ill. pp. n8, 120-21. 6. Catherine Arminjon in Arminjon 2007, p. 246, no. 61, ill. p. 166, fig. 163, p. 167, fig. 164. 7. Koeppe 2010; Seelig 2010b; Dabney 2016. 8. Koeppe 1989; V ignon 20n. 9. Seelig 2010b.

Basin

Fountain: H. 31 '4 in. (79-4 cm), W. 14 in. (35.6 cm), D. 14 in. (35.6 cm), Wt. 31 lb. 15 oz. (14.5 kg); basin: H . I I '4 in. (28.6 cm), W . 22 1/,_ in. (57-2 cm), D. 16 '/, in. (41.9 cm), Wt. 22 lb. 4 oz. (10.1 kg) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Anonymous Loan (L.2016.38.2a, b, L.2016.38-4) MA R K S :

O snabriick town mark (fountain and basin)' V ignon 20n ; Alcorn 2014, pp. 129-30

R EFERENCES:

finials, derive from dynastic coats of arms. One fountain and its

Prussia. The ensemble formed the nucleus of the Berlin silver buffet,

service made between 1705 and 1725 for the royal house of Hanover of Germany. 3 The house belonged to the Guelphs, a dynasty that controlled large parts of the Harz Mountains, from which much sil-

accompanying basin were commissioned by George Louis. PrinceElector of Hanover and future King George I of Great Britain and Ireland, from Lewin Dedecke, a master silversmith in Celle, who had

which as an artistic unit surpasses all preceding arrangements. 8 Especially remarkable is the "monumental . .. and distinctively plain

Lewin Dedecke (1660-1733) German, Hanover, ea. 1710-20 Silver

ver was mined using the latest innovations in mining technology, and thus contributed enormously to the region's wealth.4 The monumental vessels hint at the grandeur and ceremony that characterized

been appointed royal goldsmith at the court of Hanover in 1697. The second set was commissioned a few years later fro m Johann Wilhelm Voigt I by George Louis's younger brother Ernest Augustus,

Fountain: H. 29 34 in. (75.6 cm), W . 13 7/s in. (35 .2 cm), D. 137/s in. (35 .2 cm), Wt. 35 lb. 4 oz. (16 kg); basin: H. I I '4 in. (28.6 cm),

royal feasts in eighteenth-century Europe. Similar fountains formed part of elaborate wall-mounted silver buffets or were placed on side

Prince Bishop of Osnabriick and later Duke of York and Albany. 6 One other widely admired ensemble was a set of two basins (made

W . 22 in. (55.9 cm), D. 17 in. (43.2 cm), Wt. 23 lb. 9 oz. (10.7 kg) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Anonymous Loan

tables during festivities.5 They functioned as both presentation items

in London) and two fountains (likely created in The Hague that

in permanent installations and as practical vessels for use during extravagant celebrations, holding cold water for rinsing glasse or for chilling beverages stored in the basins below. All the decorative elements, such as the lion's-head handles and the lion and unic rn

together weighed over three hundred kilograms; all were highly influenced by the French designs of Jean Berain.7 The pieces reached

TH ESE FOUNTAINS AND BASINS BELONG

6. Fountain and

Basin

(L.2016.38.ra, b, L.2016.38.3) H anover town mark; maker's mark' R E F ERENCES : Vignon 20n; Alcorn 2014 , pp. 129- 30, figs. 5, 6 MA RK S:

to an extensive silver

ENTR I ES

the Berlin court in 1694- They were ordered by King illiam III as a gift for Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg and later King of

MAK I NG MARVE L S

[design], projecting the values of thrift, stability, and seriousness appropriate to a Protestant monarch," and to European court classicism.9In addition, the present sets are not gilded, a stylistic choice that reflects the prevailing English taste. WK Scheffler 1965, vol. 2, p. 714 (H anover town mark), vol. 1, pp. 249-51 (maker's mark). 2. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 993. 3. Albainy 2002, pp. 14- 17 (see ill. no. 2 for a related cistern and fountain made by David Willaume I in London, 1707- 8); Alcorn 2014. 4. Dabney 2m6, p. 20I. s. Keisch 1997; Stahl 2002, pp. fo- 62, figs. 30- 32. 6 . Alcorn 2014, pp. 129- 30. 1. See Hagemann 2m 4, p. 14, fig. 7. 8 . H agemann 2010, pp. 85-86, fig. 68. 9 . Alcorn 2m 4, p. 130. See also Lomax 201 4, pp. 142- 43, fig. 2 (designs by Daniel Marot for fountains and buircs with more sober ornamentation); Doumy 2015, pp. 125- 39, figs. 30, 31. 1.

31

/

THE

KUNSTKAMMER: A

HAVEN OF SPLENDOR AND

STUDY

AMASSING MAGNIFICENCE The Role of the Kunstkammer in Princely Self-Representation

I ')

{ ..J

he princely Kunstkamwr, which had become institutionalized as a collection

DIRK SYNDRAM

type by the middle of the sixteenth century, had its roots in both secular and ecclesiastical treasuries. The treasure illustrated by Albrecht Diirer in the

Triumphal Arch he created for Emperor Maximilian I included the curios and precious objects that would soon find their way into the imperial Kunstkammer (fig. I5). And in the Middle Ages the treasuries of important churches and monasteries had already contained exotic natural wonders, either unworked or mounted in precious metals, that were neither reliquaries nor intended for liturgical use. As Spain and Portugal came to dominate world trade in the late fifteenth century, the supply and availability of such raw materials continually increased. In I488, fifty years after the Portuguese had explored southward along the coast of West Africa and established settlements there, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope; ten years later, Vasco da Gama went on to sail the sea route to India. By I 52I the Portuguese had extended their trading contacts as far as China and taken possession of the Spice Islands of the Moluccas. Now overseas traders brought to European markets not only exotic spices and precious textiles and porcelain from China and Japan but also nautilus and other mollusk shells, pearls, corals, ivory, rhinoceros horn, ostrich eggs, and so-called sea coconuts from the Seychelles. Once Christopher Columbus reached the islands of the Caribbean, in I492, the Spanish crown took possession of what was then known as West India. In I500 explorers reached the Brazilian coast, and in I5I3 the Spaniard Vasco Nunez

de Balboa managed to cross the Isthmus of Panama. Between I 5I9 and I52I, while Ferdinand Magellan made the first circumnavigation of the globe on behalf of Spain, Hernan Cortes destroyed the Aztec Empire in Mexico, and between I53I and I534 the Inca peoples of Peru were conquered as well. On their campaigns through Central and South America, the conquistadors encountered wholly unknown civilizations, strange animals, and unfamiliar plants. Europeans could only find this first globalization unsettling, for it was now apparent that the divine creation was considerably more varied than had been previously assumed.

Fig. 15. Albrec ht Altdorfer (ea. 1480-1538), "Vault with Items from the Treasury of Maximilian I," detail from Albrecht Diirer's The Tri,onplrnl Arch of Maximilian l, ea. 1515- 17. Woodcut, detail 14 x n '/, in. (35-7 x 29.5 cm). T he British Museum , London (E, 5.1)

35

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, these new discoveries together with a

year in which Ferdinand I was officially elected Holy Roman Emperor, a proper "Khunst

flowering of the arts, a radically altered cosmology, and improved technologies sparked

Chamer" was under construction. 4 Sadly, ofEmperor Ferdinand I's collection we know little

wonder and curiosity, for both of which princely culture provided a physical and intellec-

more than that he had one.

tual setting in the Kunstkammer. Along with astonishing examples of virtuosic skill and

The first Kunstkammer with well-documented contents of a universal character was

human creativity (artifuialia), extremely rare, beautiful, or abnormal products of a nature

that of Albert Y, Duke of Bavaria (fig. I8). Its origins assuredly date back to I550, but it is

animated by the will of God (naturalia) were favored collectors' pieces. The Kunstkammer also

first documented between I563 and I567, when the massive building with a stable and

housed artifacts from foreign lands (ethnographica, exotica, and indianica), finds from the remote past, and special tokens and portraits of former or contemporary figures (memorabilia), not to

Kunstkammer was erected in the Munich Residenz between the Altem Hof and the -euveste. The Munich Kunstkammer was already accessible to the public, though to visit

mention innovative and ingenious tools, scientific instruments, automata, and clocks (scien-

it one had to contribute some new marvel to it. When Albert died, in I579, he was praised

tifu.a). All these made the Kunstkammer seem like a mirror image of the divine creation-a

by contemporaries for having amassed rare, beautiful, and wonderful combinations of

microcosm put together by human initiative as a reflection of the macrocosm created by God.

ars and natura.5

One of the first collections similar in nature to the later Kunstkammer was that of

from I522 to I530 as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, as well as guardian and tutor to her nephew Charles, who as Charles I became King of Spain in I5I6 and as Charles Y,

and scholars establish collections, of whatever kind, as a way of furthering

Emperor Maximilian I, at her palace in Mechelen. She resided there from I507 to I5I5 and

Holy Roman Emperor in I5I9. With him she also raised her nieces Eleanor of Austria,

man's knowledge of the world. He defined the "Kunstkamer" as a cabinet

Isabella of Austria, and Mary of Austria. Margaret had the palace in Mechelen built as a

filled w ith artful objects, or res artificiosae, expressly distinguishing it from

manifestation of Habsburg power and a suitably regal residence. Its south wing held an

the "Wunderkamer," or curio cabinet, which he defined as a scientifically

extensive library, which served as both a place of study and a reception room. In addition to

oriented collection of naturalia, an archive of nature's marvels. 6 To him res

its four hundred books, prints, and manuscripts filled with the learning of the time, the

artificiosae were not only products of the fine arts and gold- and silver-

room contained valuable collectors' objects: high-quality indianica from the New World

smithing, but also ingenious and artistic inventions such as beautifully

territories recently conquered by Spain, naturalia, and such exotica as African ivory, vessels

constructed and technically innovative tools. He particularly highlighted

made of rock crystal, and other treasures, as well as painted depictions of battles, festive

the collections of Duke Albert V and of Emperor Maximilian II, but also mentioned those

processions, and portraits, military trophies, and small sculptures.

of the Brandenburg elector in Berlin, the elector palatine in Heidelberg, the duke of

1

Surviving inventories suggest that the library was not the only room in the palace in which Margaret displayed her collection. Portions of it were found in the chapel, the dining hall with its portrait gallery, the small audience room, the ceremonial bedroom with its art

Fig. 16. Conrad Meit (ea . 1480- ea. 1551), Archduchess Margaret of Austria, ea. 1515- 25. Boxwood, H. 10 '/, in. (26.7 cm). The British Museum, London (WB.26r) Fig. 17. Attributed to H ans Bocksberger the Elder (ea. 1510-before 1569), Emp/a in. (86.8 x 67-7 cm). Alte Pinakothek, Bayerische Staatsgemiildesammlungen, Munich (4301) Fig. 19. Unknow n Dresden court pain ter, "Augustus and An na of Saxony," detail from The Saxon Electors with Their Wives, 1692-94. Oil on copper, overall 7 7/a x 46 '/a in . (20 x rr7 cm). Gemiildegalerie Alte Meister, Staatliche Kunstsamm lungen Dresden (Mo 2148)

37

400 scientific instruments and clocks, and nearly 300 technical books.n The Ku»stkammer provided the elector with leisure-time activities: ivory turning, wire drawing, minting medals, printing, locksmithing, and cabinetmaking. But above all, with the help of range finders and other geodetic devices, he assembled information in his study, the Reissgemach, for maps of his dominion and his estates. The Ku»stkammer thus became the spot where the princely administrative reformer took possession of his electorate.12 At first the rooms of the collection held but few paintings, sculptures, or artfully enhanced natural curios. For Augustus, the Kunstkammer was a place in which to pursue the vita activa, a princely workshop hidden from visitors. After Augustus's death, in I586, his son Christian I cautiously changed the character of the Dresden Ku»stkammer. In deference to his father, he preserved its technological orien-

Fig. 20. Lucas van Valckenborch I (1535- I 597). E111peror Rudolf II Walking in tlie W oods 11ea r Scliloss Nwgebiiude, ea. 1593. Oil on copper, 8'/, x 14 •/1 in. (21.5 x 36.2 cm). Gerniildegalerie, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (GG 9863)

tation but simultaneously brought it into line with the collecting canon that had been established by that time in competition with other princely collections, especially the imperial collection in Prague. The Dresden Ku»stkammer became a showplace, one intended to reflect Saxony's political importance and economic strength. Extraordinary numbers of

After Maximilian II's early death, in I576, his collection-as had been customary up

lathe-turned artworks made by Augustus himself or by the two virtuosic turners attached

to that time-was divided among his heirs. However, his son Rudolf II was able to buy for

to the court, Georg Wecker and Egidius Lobenigk contributed to the distinction of the

the imperial house the entire magnificent Ku»stkammer created by his uncle Archduke

Ku»stkammer (cat. 55). But Christian I acquired other impressive treasures for his collection:

Ferdinand II of Tyrol (fig. 2I) for the enormous sum of rno,ooo guilders, and to this day it

carved cherry pits and splendid caskets, ostrich eggs incorporated into figures, rare

survives in V ienna's Kunsthistorisches Museum and at Schloss Ambras, near lnnsbruck. 1 5

Seychelles nuts, ivory spoons from Africa, and wonders of gem- and glass-cutting. In con-

Between I 576 and I 580, Ferdinand had his collection, begun in the I 560s, displayed in a

trast to most such Renaissance and Baroque institutions, the electoral Ku»stkammer became

newly constructed building in lnnsbruck, 16 one that also housed his newly established

a family project; by the beginning of the nineteenth century, no fewer than ten successive

armory and a large library. The Ambras Ku»stkammer-like that of Margaret in Mechelen-

electors had helped to develop it.

reflected the wealth of the Habsburg imperial family, its pride in its standing above all other

In connectjon with the elaborate new arrangement of the Dresden collection in I587,

noble households, and its worldwide connections.

the now largely forgotten artist Gabriel Kaltemarckt compiled his BeJauke», wie eine

In the second half of the sixteenth century, friendships bet, een princes based on

ku»st-cammer aufzu richte» sey» inochte (How a Kunstkammer Should Be Formed). In his text,

mutual interests were important in the founding, growth, and institutionalization of

which drew upon Giorgio Vasari's artistic canon, he described what the ideal princely

Ku»stkammer collections. In a matter of decades, by I6oo, the network of connections

Ku»stkammer ought to look like. But like Qiiccheberg's treatise, Kaltemarckt's text is of

between collectors had led to the canonization of this form of collecting. The extent to

greater influence on present-day scholarship than it was on contemporary rulers and their

which a Kunstkammer might take on an "encyclopedic" quality depended on the ruler's con-

collections.

tacts. O f crucial importance were links to Spain and Portugal, with their access to the

13

In the second half of the sixteenth century, collectors not only were interested in

desired inaia»ica, but ties to Italy and to the courts of Florence, Mantua, and Turin were also

acquiring artificialia, »aturalia, or even artes mecha»icae, but also dabbled in alchemy, took an

useful, in that they could broker further ethnographica. Building on the Italian tradition of the

active part in the creation of improved strains of plants and trees, and collected exotic ani-

stwlio!o, in I560 Vasari had created for Cosimo I de' Medici in Florence's Palazzo Vecchio

mals. This was especially true of Emperor Maximilian II, who added a large animal enclo-

the Scr ittoio di Calliope, in which the grand duke displayed numerous ancient works of art,

20). Through his cousins

cameos, vessels carved from gemstones, natural curios, and other rarities. The aesthetic and

the kings of Spain, he acquired artifacts and exotic animals and plants from the New World.

intellectual ideals of the Kunstkammer were most fully realized in another Palazzo Vecchio

He delighted in paintings by Giuseppe Arcimboldo and in natural curios, for which he

stuaio!o, created for Cosimo's son Francesco I in I573, but that one survived only until I586,

commissioned goldsmiths to create elaborate mountings. When Elector Augustus visited

to be replaced beginning in I584 by the Uffizi Tribuna. The Mantuan Ku»stkammer of the

his boyhood friend in Vienna in I573, the emperor could not resist giving him a tour of the

Gonzaga dukes, also of considerable influence, was dispersed through plundering during

Stallburg himself, showing him his wealth of paintings, clocks, instruments of all kinds, and

the W ar of the Mantuan Succession in I63I.

sure and multiple gardens to Schloss Neugebiiude, near Vienna (fig.

14

other treasures. There was probably no special room in the Hofburg for the display of

The form of the Ku»stkammer collection reached its zenith under Emperor Rudolf II,

Maximilian's collections; it appears that the emperor and empress, like their aunt Margaret,

who assembled the largest and most spectacular princely collection of his time. Rudolf's

incorporated many of their art objects into their private apartments.

elf-image as the preeminent ruler in Europe greatly influenced his behavior as a collector.

SYN D RAM

AMASSING MAG NIFI C ENC E

39

The splendid works of goldsmithing, stonecutting, and clockmaking created for the emperor were the finest then produced in Europe. As a ruler by the grace of God and as God's repre-

COURTLY MARVELS AND THE NEW EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY

sentative on Earth, the emperor felt himself to be exalted above all others. To him, the

Kunstkamrner was an elitist, magical instrument of sovereignty. However, Rudolf's stupendous Kunstkamrner collection was scarcely matched by his actual power; as early as 1606 his relatives had him declared officially insane. The imperial Kumtkamrner on Prague's Hradcany was a fantasy, one that reflected Rudolf's sense of himself and his realm, but hardly reality. Invitations to visit the collections were held to be signs of his considerable favor and were generally reserved for important ambassadors or reigning princes. 17 Rudolf's famous Kunstkamrner continued to grow only as long as he was alive. When he died, in 1612, Matthias, his brother and successor to the imperial throne, had its most priceless pieces transferred to the Schatzkamrner (treasury) in Vienna. The remainder stayed at the castle in Prague, and ultimately fell victim to the ravages of the devastating Thirty Years' War. That war destroyed most princely Renaissance collections. Their plundering Fig.

Francesco Segala (active 1557-97), Arcliduke Ferdi11a11d II of Tyrol, ea. 1580. Wax, 2I.

sapphire, emerald, ruby, garnet, rock crystal, glass stones, pearls, 8 3/, x 7 1/, in. (22.3 x 19.9 cm). Kunstkarnmer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, V ien na (KK 3085)

began in 1622 with the capture of the electoral residence in Heidelberg. Shortly after 1626 the holdings of the Brandenburg Kunstkamrner were also lost. In 1632 the Coburg

Kunstkamrner was plundered by imperial troops, and the Munich collection by Swedish offi-

I

cers. Most of the Stuttgart collection was similarly dispersed in 1635. Finally, in 1648

he collecting practices, modes of sociability, and expression of power in the six-

Swedish troops occupied Prague's Mala Strana, with its Hradcany, and plundered what

teenth and seventeenth centuries that gave rise to the courtly marvels in this

remained of Rudolf's Kunstkamrner. Many of these raids on collections were doubtless delib-

volume were central to the growth of the new science, or the ''new experimen-

erate; warring rulers could boast of having despoiled an enemy's collection.

PAMELA H. SMITH

tal philosophy," as its advocates in the seventeenth century called it. In 1620 Francis Bacon

18

The Dresden Kunstkamrner survived the wars undamaged. To keep up with the con-

famously titled his new philosophy an "active science," by which he meant a system of

tinuing growth of the collection, the original 1587 inventory had to be followed by new

knowledge that was as certain as that of the syllogistic logic of the universities, but that, at

ones, in 1595, 1610, 16r9, and 1640. These reveal that the additions begun under Christian I

the same time, employed sensory, bodily engagement with nature, manipulating and

were vigorously continued by his sons Christian II and Johann Georg I. In competition

observing it in order to draw out the general principles of material transformation. 1 Before

with other major princely collections, the Dresden Kunstkamrner became an effective man-

this time, these two forms of knowledge had been separated by an intellectual and social

ifestation of Saxon wealth and influence. As such, it was continually expanded with spec-

gulf-certain knowledge was the realm of theologians and university-trained practitioners

tacular pieces that might distinguish it from others. By the time of the outbreak of the

of the exact sciences, while sensory engagement with nature was the realm of manual artisans

Thirty Years' War, in 16r8, both its holdings and its architectural setting had been consid-

who mastered the ever-changing phenomena of natural materials with the uncertain (but

erably upgraded, and it had become a major attraction for foreign visitors. Whereas the

Yer productive) mechanical arts. The joining of these two realms of knowledge in the six-

Dresden collection continued to be developed by generations of rulers, others tended to be

teenth and seventeenth centuries was one of the most consequential results of the central-

of only brief duration. Thanks to the Residenz's strong fortifications, the Dresden collection

i::ation of wealth and power that underpinned the growth and flourishing of the noble

survived the wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries without losses.

courts of Europe.

After the middle of the seventeenth century, princely collections once again came to

Many objects in this volume relate to the new science, and some of these to the

be formed throughout the Holy Roman Empire. To the old royal houses that had lost their

Neoplatonic view, expressed, for example, by Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, that the

collections and to noble ones only recently risen to power like the Esterhazy, the creation of

secrets of the universe could be deciphered through mathematics, and particularly geome-

an imposing Kunstkamrner filled with valuables was an expected demonstration of sover-

try. This ancient exact science, increasingly seen as indispensable to daily life, as well, can

eignty. Yet in the first decades of the eighteenth century, other types of collections, such as

be seen in the many tools of mensuration for telling time, weighing coins, and surveying

Dresden's Griines Gewolbe and its galleries of paintings and antiquities, began to answer

lands. Other objects here, such as the telescope and the compass (cats. 88, 100), not only con-

the need for the self-aggrandizement of a new generation of princes, and would eclipse the

tributed to transforming conceptions of the heavens and the earth, but also were associated

former importance of the Kunstkamrner.

with the voyages to new lands that brought riches and rarities to the courts of Europe. Many of the works evince this search for sources of wealth to fill territorial coffers, above all the

SYNDRAM

41

and their precision gearing, gunpowder and nitric acid production, and the telescope-it is in fact some of the "purely decorative" artworks that may well have done more to foster a culture at European noble courts that gave shape to the aims and methods of modern science. Although institutions of learning such as the universities had preserved and developed the exact sciences, the fusion of statecraft and display in the noble courts was the deciding factor responsible for the amalgam of

scientia (certain knowledge) and praxis (practice) that

defines modern science. Many of the objects previously mentioned could be studied for insight into the historical development of this culture, but this process is very well exemplified by a small silver writing box copiously ornamented with the fruits of nature (fig. 2 3 and cat. 70). Part of the Habsburg collections, the box was made by Wenzel Fig.

22.

Att ributed to Kolman Helmschmid

Jamnitzer (fig. 24), an ambitious master goldsmith of Nuremberg, who

(1471-1532) and Daniel Hopfer (1471-1536), Cuimss and Tassels, ea. 1510-20. Steel, leather, H. 41 •/, in. (105-4 cm). The Metropolitan M useum of Art, New York. Gift of Marshall

over his lifetime was commissioned by the Nuremberg city council, numerous princely courts, and four Holy Roman Emperors to create

Field, 1938 (38.143b-d)

such objects, as well as all kinds of measuring instruments.3 The large

Fig. 23. WenzelJamnitzer (1507/8-1585),

variety of plants, animals, and insects on this box testifies to the inter-

Writing Box and I111plen1ents, 1560-70. Silver, H. of box 2 3/, in. (6 cm). Kunstkammer, Kunsthistor isches Museum, Vienna (KK n55). See also cat. 70.

est and delight in natural phenomena that pervaded artworks in princely collections.

Fig. 24- N icolas Neufchatel (active ea. 1539-73), Wenzel Jan111 itzer, ea. 1562-63. Oil on canvas, 36 '/, x 31 •/, in. (92 x 79 cm). Musee d 'Art et d'Histoire, Geneva (182y23) Fig. 25. Christoph Ritter I (d. before 1573),

Co111bination Handstein, Salt Cellar, Inkwell , and Object of Pi1use111eizs de Spa. 2nd edition . Paris, 1763.

Wolfram Dolz. "Kurfiirst Augusts Wegrnesser und Reiseroutenrollen." In Dolz and Fritz 2010,

F. J- COLE I953

F. J. Cole. "The History of Albrecht Diirer's Rhinoceros in Zoological Literature." In Science, Medicineand History: Essays on the Evolutio11 of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice, WritU11 in Honour of C!,arles Si11ger, edited by E. Ashworth Underwood, vol. 1, pp. 337- 56. London: Oxford University Press, 1953.

Warren Alexander Dyrn. "Alchemy and Mining: Metallogenesis and Prospecting in Early Mining Books." Ambix 55 (November 2008), pp. 232- 54. EAMON I 994

William Earnon. Science and tlze Secrets of Nature:

Books of Secnts in Medieval and Early Modern Culture.

EGLER 2006

Robert A. Egler. "Measuring the Heavens: Astronomical Instruments before the Telescope." Journal of tl,e Royal Astrouomica! Societyof Canada 100, no. 1 (February 2006), pp. 37- 40. EICHBERGER 20IO

Dagmar Eichberger. "Margaret of Austria and the Documentation of Her Collection in Mechelen." In Los invmtarios de Carlos V y laJamilia imperial/Tl1e Inventories of Charles V a11d tlze Imperial Family, edited by Fernando Checa Cremades, vol. 3, pp. 2351-63. Madrid: Fernando V illaverde, 2010.

DREXEL I730

Christian Drexel. Kurtzer Unterricht von der Drd,Ku,zst. Regensburg: Seiffart, 1730. DROSTEL 2007

DOHRN-VAN ROSSUM I992

A. H . COLE AND WATTS I952

Arthur H. Cole and George B. Watts. The Haudicrafts of France as Recorded in the "Descriptions des arts et ,netiers," 1761- 1788. Boston: Baker Library, Harvard Graduate School ofBusiness Administration, 1952.

Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994.

Sonja Draxler and Max E. Lippitsch. "Peter Apian and His Astronornicurn Caesareum ." In 2nd EHoP Conference, In11sbruck, A,zstria, Septeinber 3- 4, 2 009: Proceedings of the Second European History of Pl,ysics (EHoP) Conference edited by Peter M. Schuster, pp. 31-46. Pi:illauberg: Living Edition, 2or2.

DAVIS I9I2-I3 CRESPO 20I6

DRACH I888

DRAXLER AND LIPPITSCH 20I2

Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park. Wo11ders a11d tlze O,·derofNat,ire , 1150- 1750. New York: Zone Books, 1998.

DASTON AND PARK I 998

DYM2008

DOBNEY 20I6

Gerhard Dohrn-van Rossum. Die Gescl,ichte der Stunde: Uhm, und 111oderne Zeito1·d111111gw. Munich: Carl Hanser, 1992. [Published in English as History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.]

CREPIN-LEBLOND I997

Thierry Crepin-Leblond, with Jessie McNab et al. Une orfovrerie de tern :Bernard Pali..ssy et la ceramique de Sai11t-Porcl,aire. Exh. cat., Musee National de la Renaissance, Chateau d'Ecouen. Paris: Reunion des Musees ationaux, 1997.

Melodie Dourny. "Silberbuffets des 18.Jahrhunderts'i' "The Eighteenth-Century Buffet of Silver." In Silberhirsch & W1111de1·pn111k: Das Victoria & Albert Museum zu Gast i11 der Kwzstkam111er Wiirtl,/ Miraculous Silver: Tlze Victoria and Albert Mu.sewn at tlze K1nzstkam111er Wiirth, pp. 125- 39. Exh. cat., Schwiibisch Hall, Kunsthalle Wurth. Kiinzelsau: Swiridoff, 2or5.

Jayson Kerr Dobney. "Royal Kettledrums from the House of Hanover." Galpin Society Journal 69 {April 2016), pp. 201- 24, and ill. pp. 153- 54.

Campbell Dodgson. Catalogue of Early Ger111a11 a11d Flemis/1 W oodcuts Preser11ed in the Depart11ze11t of Pri11 ts aud Drawings i11 the British M11sew11. 2 vols. London: Printed by Order of the Trustees, 1903- 11. [Reprint, Vaduz, Liechtenstein: Quarto Press, with British Museum Publications, 1980.]

Xavier Duquenne. Mid1e! Dewez: Orfovree broiizier de la cour (1742- 1804). Brussels: Xavier Duquenne, 2002.

Maurice S. Dirnand." ew Accessions oflslarnic Art." The Metropolitan Mu.sew11 of Art B11lkti11, n.s., 16, no. 8 {April 1958), pp. 227-35.

DODGSON I903-II DASTON I 994

DUQ.UENNE 2002

DOUMY 20I5

Carl Alhard von Drach. Aeltm Silberarbeiu,, ii, den Koniglidzen Sam111lz111gm zu Cassel, mit urkundliclzen Nachrichten mul einem A11l1a11g: Der Hesse11-Casselsclu Si!berschatz zu A11fa11g des siebzdmtm Jal,rluwderts ,md seinespiiUren Scl,icksale. Marburg: N. G. Elwert, 1888.

DIMAND I958 D ALMENY HOUSE I984

DOPPELMAYR I730

Johann Gabriel Doppelrnayr. Histori.sclze Naclwicht vo11 den Niirnbergi.sclzen Mathematicis 1rnd Kii11stlem. Nuremberg: Peter Conrad Monath, 1730.

Janina Droste!. Einlzonz, Drache, Basilisk: Fabelhafte Fabelwesen. Ostfi!dern: Jan Thorbecke, 2007. DUPRE 2009

Sven Dupre. "Printing Practical Mathematics: Oronce Fine's Despernloustoriobetween Paper and Craft." In The W orlds of Oro11ce Fine: Mathe111atics, fostnonwts, a1,d Print i" Rwai..ssa11ce Fra11ce, edited by Alexander Marr, pp. 64- 82. Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2009.

EICHBERGER 20I8

Dagmar Eichberger. "Die kluge Witwe rnit Kunstverstand: Erzherzogin Margarete von Osterreich (1480- 1530)." In Fraum: Kwzst und Macht; Drei Frauw aus dem Hause Habsb11rg, edited by Sabine Haag, Dagmar Eichberger, and Annemarie Jordan Gschwend, pp. 25- 35. Exh. cat., Schloss Arnbras, Innsbruck. Vienna: KHM-Museurnsverband, 2018. [Published in English as "A Widow oflntellect and Artistic Discernment: Archduchess Margaret of Austria {1480-1530)." In Women: Tlu Art of Power; Three Wo,nen from the House of Habsburg, edited by Sabine Haag, Dagmar Eichberger, and Annemarie Jordan Gschwend, pp. 25-35. Vienna: KHMMuseurnsverband, 2018.]

DUPRE 20I4

tion of tl,e Dispe11satory Made by tl,e Colledg of Physitians of London: Aud by Them Imposed i.tpon All tlze Apothecaries of England to Make Up Tl1eir Medici11es by. 3rd edition.

PP· 44- 53. D EAN 20IO

CURRAN 2007

George Dean, with Maxine Brady. Chess Mas terpieces:One Thou.sa11d Years of Extraordi11ary Chess Sets. New York: Abrams Books, 2010.

Brian Curran. Tlze Egyptian Renaissa11ce: T!ze Afterlife of Ancient Egypt i11 Early Modern Italy. Chicago:

D EKKER 2004

London: Printed by Peter Cole, 1651.

University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Elly Dekker. Catalogueof Orbs, Spl1eres and Globes. Cataloghi di raccolte scientifiche 5. Florence: Giunti and Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, 2004.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DOLZ AND FRITZ 2 0IO

Wolfram Dolz and Yvonne Fritz, eds. Grnau 111essen= Herrschaft veror/£11: Das Reissge111ad1 vo11 K11rfiirst August, ei11 Zmtnm1 der Geodii.sie 1111d Kartographie. Exh. cat., Neues Griines Gewi:ilbe, Residenzschloss, Dresden. Dresden: Staatliche Kunstsarnmlungen Dresden; Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2010.

MAKING MARVELS

Sven Dupre. "The Value of Glass and the Translation of Artisanal Knowledge in Early Modern Antwerp." Nederla11ds kunstl,istori.sch jaarboek 64 (2014). pp. 138-61. ~ssue titled Tradi11g Values in Early Modern A11twerp. Edited by Christine Grittier, Bart Rarnakers, and Joanna Woodall.]

EIKELMANN 2009

DUPRE20I7

Renate Eikelrnann, ed. Die Wittelsbaclzer und das Reich der Mitte: 400 Jalire Chi11a 1md Bayern. Exh. cat.,

Sven Dupre. "Doing It Wrong: The Translation of Artisanal Knowledge and the Codification ofError." In The Structures of Practical Knowledge, edited by Matteo Valleriani, pp. 167- 88. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. 2017.

EICHLER AND KRIS I 927

Fritz Eichler and Ernst Kris. Die Kamew im Kunstliistori.sclm, Mu.sewn: Beschnibender Katalog. Vienna: Anton Schroll & Co., 1927,

Bayerisches Nationalrnuseurn, Munich. Munich: Hirrner, 2009. EIKELMANN 20I5

Renate Eikelrnann, ed. Bella Jigura: foropiii.sche

275

Bronzek1mst in Siiddeutschland um 1600. With contributions by Jens Ludwig Burk et al. Exh. cat., Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich. Munich: Hirmer, 2m5. EKHTIAR AND MOORE 20I2

Maryam D. Ekhtiar and Claire Moore, eds. Art of the Islamic World: A Resottrce for Edttcators. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2m2.

mineralischen Ertzt vnnd bergkwmks Arten. Frankfurt am Main, r580.

FEEST 20I5

ERCKER I580/I95I

Lazarus Ercker. Treatise on Ores and Assaying. Translated by Anneliese Griinhaldt Sisco and Cyril Stanley Smith. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, r95r. [Translation of Ercker I 580.] ERICHSEN I995

EKHTIAR ET AL. 20II

Maryam D. Ekhtiar, Priscilla P. Soucek Sheila R. Canby, and Navina Najat Haidar, eds. Masterpieces from tl1e Department of Islamic Art in Tl1e Metropolitan Musewti of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 20II. EMMENDORFFER AND TREPESCH 20I4

Christoph Emmendiirffer and ChristofTrepesch, eds. Wttnder Welt: Der Pommersche K1mstschmnk. Exh. cat. Maximilianmuseum, Augsburg. Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2m4-

Johannes Erichsen, ed. 1000 Jahre Mecklenburg: Gescliichte und Ku,.st einer europiiischen Region. Exh. cat., Schloss Giistrow. Rostock: Hinstorff, r995.

, ERLANDE-BRANDENBURG AND JURKOVIC 2004

Alain Erlande-Brandenburg and Miljenko Jurkovic, eds. La Renaissance en Croatie. Exh. cat., Musee National de la Renaissance, Chateau d 'Ecouen, and Galerie Klovicevi Dvori, Zagreb. Zagreb: [Galerie Klovicevi Dvori], 2004ERNSTING I994

EMMENDORFFER AND TREPESCH 20I8

Christoph Emmendiirffer and Christo£ T repesch, eds. Wasser Kunst Augsburg: Die Reichsstadt in ihmn Element. Exh. cat., Maximilianmuseum, Augsburg. Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 20r8.

Bernd Ernsting, ed. Georgius Agricola: Bergweltw, 1494- 1994. Exh. cat., Stadtische Kunstsammlungen Chemnitz; Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum; and Narodni Technicke Muzeum, Prague. Veriiffentlichungen aus dem Deutschen BergauMuseum Bochum 55. Essen: Gliickauf, r994.

ENGELMANN I9I5

Max Engelmann. "Die Wegmesser des Kurfiirsten August von Sachsen." Mitteil,mgeu aus den si:ichsischen

K1tnstsammlimgen 6 (r9r5), pp. n - 43. ENGELMANN I924

Max Engelmann. Sammhmg Mensing: AltwissenschaftIu:he Instrnmente. 2 vols. Amsterdam: F. Muller & Co., r924. ENSMENGER 20I2

Nathan Ensmenger. "Is Chess the Drosophila of Artificial Intelligence? A Social History of an Algorithm." Social Stitdies of Science 42, no. I (20I2),

ERNSTINGER CA. I579-cA. I6rn/I877

Hans Georg Ernstinger. Hans Georg Ernstingers Raisbuch. [Written ea. r579- ca. 16rn.] Edited by Philipp Alexander Ferdinand Walther. Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vereins in Stuttgart 135. Stuttgart: Litterarischer Verein, 1877. ESER 20I4

Thomas Eser. Dieiilteste Tasclu:nuhr der Welt? Der Henlein-Ulwenstreit. Kulturgeschichtliche Spaziergiinge im Germanischen Nationalmuseum 16. Exh. cat. Nuremberg: Germanisches Nationalmuseum, 2014.

Landeskunde in Baden-Wiirttemberg, ser. B, Forschungen 87. Stuttgart: W. Kohl hammer, 1976.

1250-1800. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern,

GARAI2007

1983.

Luca Garai. Gli automi di Leonardo/Leonardo's Automat.a. Bologna: Bononia University Press, 2007.

2m5, pp. 29r- 97.

FOOTE I954

Y. FRITZ 20IO

FELDHAHN I999

Helen S. Foote. "Goldsmith's Scales in Gilt-Bronze." Bulletin of tlu: Cle11da11d Museum of Art 41, no. 2, pt. l February 1954), pp. 26-28.

Yvonne Fritz. "Vermessen und Kartieren als Mittel der Visualisierung von Herrschaft." In Dolz and Fritz 20m, pp. r2- 13.

C. FOX 2009

FUCfKOVA ET AL . I997

Celina Fox. Tiu: Arts of Industry in the Age of Enligl,tmnient. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in

Eliska Fucikova et al., eds. Rudolf II and Prague: The Court aud the City. Exh. cat., Prague Castle and Wallenstein Palace, Prague. Prague: Prague Castle Administration; London: Thames and Hudson,

Christian Feest. "Mexican Featherwork in Austrian Habsburg Collections." In Russo, Wolf, and Fane

Ulrich Feldhahn. "Wilhelm von Bode und das Haus Furstenberg." Schriften des Vereinsfur Geschichte und Naturgeschichte der Baar in Donaueschingen 42 (1999), PP· 25- 5o. FENAILLE I903

Maurice Fenaille. Etat general des tapisseries de la Mai,ufacture des Gobeli11s depuis son origine jusqu' anos joltl's, 1600-1900. Vol. 2, Periodedelafo11dat.ion de la

Manufacture Royaledes Meubles de la Couronnesous Louis XIV, en 1662, jusqu'en 1699, date de la reouvertme des ateliers. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, Librairie

Epact: Scientifu: Instrnments of Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Catalogue of medieval and Renaissance scientific instruments in the collections of the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford; Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienze, Florence; British Museum, London; and Museum Boerhaave, Leiden. Project directed by Jim Bennett. Last modified February 2006. www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/epact/

SCHULTZE 20I3

Moritz Epple, Tinne HoffKjeldsen, and Reinhard Siegmund-Schultze, eds. "Introduction." In "From 'Mixed ' to 'Applied' Mathematics: Tracing an Important Dimension of Mathematics and Its History."

Oberwolfach Reports IO, no. I (20r3), pp. 657- 60. ERCKER I580

Lazarus Ercker. Beschreibm,g, allerfurnemisten

P. FOX I933

Hachette, r903. FERINO-PAGDEN 2007

FRAIT RE 2009

Sylvia Ferino-Pagden, ed. Arcimboldo, 1526- 1593. Exh. cat., Musee du Luxembourg, Paris, and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Milan: Skira,

Eddy Fraiture. Belgische ,mrwerkw en hm, makers, A-Z/Horloges et lwrlogm belges, A-Z. Louvain: Peeters, 2009.

Dominique Ferriot, Bruno Jacomy, and Louis Andre. Le Museedes Arts et Metiers. Musees et monuments de France. Paris: Fondation Paribas; Musee des Arts et Metiers; and Reunion des Musees Nationaux, r998. FICKLER I598/2004

Johann Baptist Fickler. Da5 Invmlar der Mii11clmer herzogliclien K1mstkammer von 1598. Edited by Peter Diemer, with Elke Bujok and Dorothea Diemer. [Transcription of Ms. Cgm 2133 in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Munich.] Abhandlungen (Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse), n.s., I25. Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, with C. H. Beck Munich, 2004.

FURRING AND BIMBENET-PRIVAT 2002

GAULKE 2007B

Peter Fuhring and Michele Bimbenet-Privat. "Le style 'Cosses de pois': L'orfevrerie et la gravure a Paris sous Louis XIII." Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., r39 (January 2002), pp. 1-224-

Karsten Gaulke, ed. Der Ptolemiius van Kassel: La11dgraf Wilhelm IV van Hessen-Kassel irnd die Astronomic. Kataloge der Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel 38. Kassel: Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel, 2007.

for History of Exact Scirnces 67, no. 3 (May 2or3),

FURSTEN ESTERHAZY I995

GAULKE2009

PP· 3o5- 3o.

Die Fiirsten Esterhiizy: Magnaten, Diplomaten & Miize11e. Exh. cat., Schloss Esterhazy, Eisenstadt. Arnt der Burgenlandischen Landesregierung, sect. XII/2. Burgenlandische Forschungen, sonderband, 16. Eisenstadt: Arnt der Burgenliindischen

Karsten Gaulke. "'The First European Observatory of the Sixteenth Century, as Founded by Landgrave Wilhelm IV of Hesse-Kassel': A Serious Historiographic Category or a Misleading Marketing Device?" In Strano et al. 2009, pp. 87- 99.

Martin Frank. "Mathematics, Technics, and Courtly Life in Late Renaissance Urbino." Archive

FRANKENBURGER I90I

Max Frankenburger, ed. Beitriige zur Geschichte Wmzel Janmitzers u11d sei11er Familie: A1ifGrnnd archivalisclier ~,elleu. Studien zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte 30. Strassburg:]. H. E. Heitz, 19or.

Knopf, 2009.

Theresia Gabriel. Esterhazy Schatzkammer: Uhr-Werke; Kostbare Uhm, des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts aus der Esterhazy-Scliatzkanmier a,if B,,rg ForchteHStein. Eisenstadt: Esterhazy Privatstiftung, 2004-

FRE~iERSDORF I963

GABRIEL 2005

Joseph Fremersdorf. "Zwei erlesene RenaissanceTischuhren (r6. Jahrhundert)." Schriften der "Frew,de

John Freely. Aladdi11's Lamp: How Greek Science Came to furop' tlarough the Isla1t1ic World. New York: Alfred A.

L'etrange et le 11u:rveilleux w tenes d'Islam. Exh. cat., Musee du Louvre, Paris. Paris: Reunion des Musees Nationaux, 200I.

Paula Findlen. "Jokes of Nature and Jokes of Knowledge: The Playfulness of Scientific Discourse in Early Modern Europe." Renaissance Q:tarterly 43,

alter Ul,ren," no. 3 (1963), pp. 17- 22.

Theresia Gabriel. "Die Esterhazy-Schatzkammer aufBurg Forchtenstein." Klassik Ul,ren 4 (JulyAugust 2005), pp. 12-23.

FRIESE 1708

GALAVICS I992

no. 2 (r990), pp. 292- 3r.

Friedrich Friese. Der vonaehmsten Kunstler mid Haud wmker Cere111onial-Politica. Leipzig, r708.

Geza Galavics. "Fiirst Paul Esterhazy (1635-1713) als Miizen: Skizzen zu einer Laufbahn." Wie1u:r

(Autumn r978), pp. 4- 5.

FASTES & GRANDEUR DES COURS EN

Paula Findlen. Possessing Nature: MHseums, Collecti11g, and Scientifu Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley:

GAULKE20I5

Karsten Gaulke. "Perfect in Every Sense: Scientific Iconography on an Equation Clock by Jost Biirgi and the Self-Understanding of the Astronomers at the Kassel Court in the Late 1580s." Nuncius 30 (20r5), PP· 37-74. GEBUHR 20I2

FRIESS I990

Pieter Fischer. Music in Paintings of the Low Co,mf:l'ies in the 16th and 17th Centuries/M11sik ai,f niederliindiscl,en Gemiildw im 16. und 17. Jahrl11mdert. Sonorum speculum 50/5r. Amsterdam: Donemus, r972.

FRITSCH I998

Hans Rudolph, Hamburg, March 29- 30, r95r.

Ralf Gebuhr. "Festungsbau und geometrische Praxis." In Festungsbau: Geometric, Technologie, S11blimierung, edited by Bettina Marten, Ulrich Reinisch, and Michael Korey, pp. 67- 85. Berlin: Lukas Verlag, 2m2.

Emmanuel Fritsch. "The Nature of Color in Diamonds." In The Nature of Diamonds, edited by

GALLUZZI I997

GEBURT DER ZEIT I999

FLEISCHHAUER I976

Museum of Natural History, r998.

Geburt der Zeit: Eine Geschichte der Bilder mid Begriffe. Exh. cat., Museum Fridericianurn, Kassel. Wolfratshausen: Edition Minerva, r999.

Werner Fleischhauer. Die Geschicltte der K1mstka11mu:r der Herzoge van Wiirttemberg in Stuttgart. Veriiffentlichungen der Kommission fiir Geschichtliche

R. FRITZ I983

Paolo Galluzzi. Mechanical Marvels: Invention in the Age of Leonardo. Exh. cat., Liberty Street Gallery, World Financial Center, New York. Organized by the Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienze, Florence, and Finmeccanica. Florence: Giunti, r997.

Peter Friess. "Restaurierung einer Automatenfigur." ::.-itsdarifi fiir Krn,stuclmologie mad Konservierung 4, no.

2

(1990), pp. r93-206.

FISCHER I972

EUROPE 20II

Fastes & grandeur des cours en Europe. Edited by Catherine Arminjon. Exh. cat. Paris: Skira Flammarion; Monaco: Grimaldi Forum Monaco, 201I.

Karsten Gaulke. "Benjamin Bramer's 'InstrumentKastlein': Mathematical Equipment for a Young Prince." In Mapping Spaces: Networks of K11owledge in 17th Century Landscape Painting, edited by Ulrike Gehring and Peter Weibel, pp. 397- 4or. Exh. cat., ZKM- Museum of Contemporary Art, Karlsruhe. Munich: Hirmer, 2m4.

Jahrbuchftir K1mstgescl1id1te 45 (1992), pp. 12r- 4 r.

FINDLEN I994

University of California Press, r994. John David Farmer. Tiu: Virtuoso Craftsman: Nortliern European Design in the Sixteentl, Century. Exh. cat. Worcester, Mass.: Worcester Art Museum, 1969.

PP· r48-55.

GAULKE 20I4 GABRIEL 2004

FREELY 2009

GAULKE 2007A

Landesregierung, 1995.

FINDLEN I990

Richard Ettinghausen. ''Arab Painting." In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, n.s., 36, no. 2

GAUGHAN 20I8

John Gaughan. "The Chess-Playing Turk." Lecture presented at the AutomataCon convention, Morris Museum, Morristown, N.J., May 19, 2or8.

AHNENGALERIE 2006

ETRANGE ET LE MERVEILLEUX 200I

ETTINGHAUSEN I978

pp. r87- 203. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003.

Karsten Gaulke. ''Aquationsuhr: Jost Biirgi, Hans Jacob Emck (Kassel, 159r)." In Gaulke 2007b,

FRA K20I3 FERRIOT, JACOMY, AND ANDRE I998

FUHRER DURCH DIE ESTERHAZY-

Mada Concepcion Garcia Saiz. "Mexican Ceramics in Spain." In Cmhnica y Cultura: The Story of Spanisi, a11d Mexican May6lica, edited by Robin Farwell Gavin, Donna Pierce, and Alfonso Pleguezuelo,

Fuhrer durch die Esterlaazy-Almengalerie. With contributions by Stefan Korner, with Florian Thaddiius Bayer, Philipp Dziersk and Margit Kopp. Eisenstadt: Esterhazy Privatstiftung, 2006.

2007.

FARMER I969 EPPLE, KJELDSEN, AND SIEGMUND-

r997Philip Fox. Adler Planetarium and Astronomical :lo. lu.smm: Au Aeco1mt of the Optical Planetarium and a Bri.f Guide to tlu: Muse111t1. Chicago: Lakeside Press, R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 1933.

PP· 5-3o. EPACT 2006

Bntish Art, 2009.

GARCIA SAIZ 2003

BIBLIOGRAPHY

George E. Harlow, pp. 23- 47. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, with the American

RolfFritz. Die Gefiisse aus Kokosmiss in Mitteleuropa,

MAKING MARVELS

GALERIE DR . PHIL. HANS RUDOLPH I95I

Das grosslu:rzoglich-111ecklrnb1,rgische Silber, Golddosen und Galanterien. II. Teil: Glassammhmg W.-Ber!in, verschiedwer Kunstbesitz. Sale cat., Galerie Dr. Phil.

GEMMA FRISIUS I558

Rainer Gemma Frisius. Deradio astrono,nico &

277

geo111etrico tiber. Lutetiae [Paris]: Gulielmum Cavellat, r558.

Miss. Jackson, Miss.: Mississippi Committee for International Cultural Exchange, 2004.

C. GESSNER I558

GOLDEN AGE OF SPANISH PAINTING I976

Conrad Gessner. Historiae ani111ali11111 liber IIII. qui est de piscium & aquati!iu111a11i11wti11111. natura. Zurich: Christoffel Froschower, 1558.

The Go!dw Age of Spa11ish Painti11g. Catalogue by

GROLLIER DE SERVIERE I7I9

Alfonso E. Perez Sanchez and X. de Salas. Exh. cat. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1976.

C. GESSNER I563

GONZALEZ-PALACIOS I984

Gaspard Grollier de Serviere. Recuei! d'ouvrages mrieux de 111athematiq11e et de 111ecaiiique, 011 Descriptio11 du cabi11et de 111011sieur Grollier deServiere, avec des figures rn taille-donce. Lyon: David Forey, r7r9.

Conrad Gessner. Fischbuch: Das ist ei11 kurtze, doc/, vollkom[m]ne besclmyb1111g aller Fischeu. Translated by Conrad Farer. Zurich: Christoffel Froschower, r563.

Alvar Gonzalez-Palacios. Il tempiodd G11Sto: Romae it Regno delle Due Sicitie; Le arti decorative in Italia fra dassicis111i e barocco. 2 vols. Milan: Longanese & C., 1984.

C. GESSNER I669

Conrad Gessner. Allgemeines Tl,ier-Buch. Translated by Conrad Farer. Frankfurt am Main: Serlin, 1669. S. GESSNER AND KOREY 20I7

Samuel Gessner and Michael Korey. "Equating the Sun: Variant Mathematical Realizations of Solar Theory on Planetary Automata of the Renaissance." [Preliminary report.] In "Mathematical Instruments between Material Artifacts and Ideal Machines: Their Scientific and Social Role before 1950," edited by Samuel Gessner, UlfHashagen,Jeanne Peiffer, and Dominique Tournes. Oberwolfacl, Reports r 4, no. 4 (2017), PP· 3493- 95. [For the full report, see Samuel Gessner, Michael Korey, and Karsten Gaulke, "The Anomalous Sun: Variant Mechanical Realizations of Solar Theory on Planetary Automata of the Renaissance." Nw,cius 2020.]

GONZALEZ-PALACIOS I986

Alvar Gonzalez-Palacios. Il tempw de! Gmto: Il Granducato di Toseana eg!i stati settrntrionali;Le arti decorative in Italia fra classicismi e barocco. 2 vols. Milan: Longanese & C., 1986. GOODMAN 20I5

Simon Goodman. Tl,e Orp11ms Clock: The Seard, for My Family's Art Trea.s11res Stoleu by tl1e Nazis. ew York: Scribner, 2015.

GROISS I980

der Renaissance. Exh. cat., Schloss Am bras, Innsbruck.

HAINHOFER I90I

Eva Groiss. "The Augsburg Clockmakers' Craft." In Maurice and Mayr 1980, pp. 57- 86.

Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum, 2or2.

Philipp Hainhofer. Des Augsburger Patriciers Philipp Hai11l10far Reisen nach Iu11Sbrnck 1111d Dresden. Edited by Oscar Doering. Quellenschriften fiir Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, n.s., rn. Vienna: Verlag van Carl Graeser & Co., 19or.

HAAG 20I3

GRUBER I982

Alain Gruber. Silverware. New York: Rizzoli, r982. [Published in French as L'argenterie de 111aisou du XVI' a1< X IX' siede. Fribourg: Office du Liv re, r982. Published in German as Gebrauchssilber des 16. bis 19. Jahrl11111derts. Fribourg: Office du Liv re, r982.] GRUBER I996

A lain Gruber, ed. The Hi.story ofDecorntive Arts. [Vol. 2], Classicism and the Barogue in Europe. New York: Abbeville Press, r996.

GOTFREDSEN I999

Lise Gotfredsen. The Unicorn. London: Harvill Press, 1999·

GUERRINI 2003

Penelope Gouk. The Iuory Sundials of Nurmtberg, 1500-1700. Cambridge: Whipple Museum of the History of Science, 1988.

Anita Guerrini. Experimenting with Hu.111a11s and A11i111als: From Galen to Animal Rights. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.

HAUSCHKE 2003

Sven Hauschke. "WenzelJamnitzer im Portrat: Der Kiinstler als Wissenschaftler." Anzeiger des Germa11iscl1w Natioua!,nusewns, 2003, pp. r27- 36.

HAAG 20I6

Sahme Haag. ed. Spiel! Kurzweil in Rrnaissa11ce 111,d &n\.-k. Exh. cat., Schloss Ambras, Innsbruck. Vienna: KHM-Museumsverband, 2or6.

HAINO I99I

HAUSCHKE 2007

Haino Akio. "The Momoyama Flowering: Kodai-ji and Namban Lacquer." In Watt and Ford r99r, PP· r63-73-

Sven Hauschke. "Goldschmiede als Hersteller wissenschaftlicher Instrumente und Gerate." In Niirnberger Gola.sclm1iedek1mst 2007, vol. 2, pp. 216-32.

HAAG AND KIRCHWEGER 20I2

Silitne Haag and Franz Kirchweger, eds. D~ nstk.Inuncr. Die Sdiiitze der Habsbi1rger. With contributions by Franz Kirchweger et al. Kunsth1Storisches Museum, Vienna. Vienna: Christian Bra ndstatter Verlag, 2or 2. [Published in English as Habsburg Treasures at the K1111sthistoriscl1es Mu.srnm, irnua. ew York: Vendome Press, 2or3.] HAAG AND SANDBICHLER 20I7

GUERIN 20IO

Sarah M. Guerin. ''Avoriod'ogni ragione: T he Supply of Elephant Ivory to orthern Europe in the Gothic Era." Journal of Medieval History 36 (2orn), pp. r56- 74.

GOUK I988

Salnm: Haag, ed. Be11ve111Copy in tlie Enligl,te1mu:11t. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2009.

"Recent Acquisitions: A Selection, 20I6-20I8." Tlit Mitropolitan M11Se1t111 of Art Bulletin, n.s., 76, no. 2 (Fall 2m ).

\: illis Goth Regier. Book of the Sphi11x. Lincoln: Cniversity of ebraska Press, 2004.

RAINER 20I5

Paulus Rainer. "Wissen. Schafft. Kunst. Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler und das Kunstkammerobjekt als Erkenntnistriiger." In Das Haus Habsburg 1111d die Wdtder fiirstliel,en Kunstkam1tu:m im 16. rn1d 17. Jal,rlmnderl, edited by Sabine Haag, Franz Kirchweger, and Paulus Rainer, pp. 79-105. Schriften des Kunsthistorischen Museums IS, Vienna: Holzhausen, 2m5.

RE::-.'AISSA CE IM DEUTSCHEN SUDWESTEN I9

"RECENT ACQ_UISITIONS" I994

"Recent Acquisitions: A Selection, 1993-I994." Tlie Metropolita11 M11Se11er von 1640. Edited by Barbara Marx and Peter Plassmeyer. Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2014. SEIDENFUSS 2006

Birgit Seidenfuss. "Dass wirdtal.so die Geometri.sche Perspektiv genandt": Deut.sclisprachige Perspektivtrakt.au des 16.Jahrlnmderts. Weimar: VDG, 2006. SEIPEL 1998

Wilfried Seipel, ed. Spielwelu11 der Kunst: K11nstka111111erspiele. Exh. cat. Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum; Milan: Skira, 1998. SEIPEL 2000

Wilfried Seipel, ed. Exotica: Portugals Entdeckw,gm i1>1 Spiegel furst!icher K1111st- 1111d W11nderka1t1111ern der Renaissa,ice. Exh. cat. Vienna: Kunsthistoriscbes Museum; Milan: Skira, 2000. SEIPEL 2005A

Claudia Schnitzer and Petra Holscher, eds. Ei11e gutc f1pir m.ulicn: Kostii111 zmd Fest am Dresdner Hof Exh. cat., Residenzschloss, Dresden. Dresden: \'erlag der Kunst and Kupferstich-Kabinett, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, 2000.

Friedrich Seek. ed. Wilhelm Schickard, 1592-1635' Astrouotn, Geograph, Orienta!i.st, Er.finder der Rechemnaschine. Contubernium 25. Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1978.

Wilfried Seipel, ed. Bernstein fur Thron imd Altar: Das Gold des Meeres i11 Jiirst!ichm Kunst- ,wd Schatzka1111>1ern. Exh. cat., Alte Geistliche Schatzkammer, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum; Milan: Skira, 2005.

SCHOCH, MENDE, AND SCHERBAUM

SEELIG 1990-91

SEIPEL 2005B

2001-4

Lorenz Seelig. "Die Gruppe der Diana auf dem Hirsch in der Walters Art Gallery." Journal of tlic Walters Art Gallery 49- 50 (1990-91), pp. rn7-r8.

Wilfried Seipel, ed. Wir sind Heiden: Habsburgische Feste in der Renai.ssance. With contributions by Alfred Auer et al. Exh. cat., Schloss Ambras, Innsbruck. Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum, 2005.

Ramer Schoch, Matthias Mende, and Anna Scherbaurn. Albrecht Diirer: Das drnckgrapl,ische W erk. 3 ,·ols. Munich: Prestel, 2oor- 4.

SECK 1978

SEELIG 2006

SCHMIDL 2018

Petra G. Schmid!. "Using Astrolabes for Astrological Purposes: The Earliest Evidence Revisited." In Heaven and Earth Uniud: Instmments in Astrological Contexts, edited by Richard Dunn, Silke Ackermann, and Giorgio Strano, pp. 4-23. History of Science and Medicine Library. Scientific Instruments and Collections 6. Leiden: Brill, 2018. E. D. SCHMIDT 1998

SCHILLINGER 2000

£. D. SCHMIDT AND SFRAMELI 2013

Eike D. Schmidt. "Giovanni Bandini tra Marche e Toscana." Nuovistudi, no. 6 (1998), PP· 57-rn3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SCHOENBERGER 1951

Gwdo Schoenberger. "A Goblet of Unicorn Horn." Tu :\forof')litan Museu111 of Art Bulletin, n.s., 9, no. rn June 1951), pp. 284-88. SCHOLTEN 2003

Fnts Scholten. Willem van Tetrode, Sculptor (c. 152515- .:i): Gugliel1110 Fia111111ingo scultore. With contributtons by Emi le van Binnebeke et al. Exh. cat., Rijksrnuseum, Amsterdam, and Frick Collection, i ·ew York. Zwolle: Waanders Publishers, 2003.

MAKING MARVELS

Lorenz Seelig. "Kunstwerke aus den Wittelsbacher Sammlungen im Bayerischen Nationalmuseum." In Das Bayerische Natio11al11111se11111, 1855-2005: 150 Jalire San1111el11, Forsclicn, Ausstellen, edited by Renate Eikelmann and IngolfBauer, with Birgitta Heid and Lorenz Seelig, pp. 31-49. Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich. Munich: Hirmer, 2006. SEELIG 2008

SELIGMAN 19fo

Germain Seligman. Merchattts of Art, 1880-1960: Eighty Years of Professional Collecting. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961. SELING 1980

Helmut Seling. Die Kw1St der Augsburger Goldscl11niedc, 1529- 1868: Meister, Marken, Werke. 3 vols. and suppl. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1980.

Lorenz Seelig. "Die Munchner Kunstkammer." In Die Munch,ier K,mstkammer, vol. 3, pp. 1-n4-

2 93

SELING 2007

Helmut Seling. Die Augsburger Gold- ,md Silberschmiede, 1529-1868: Meister, Marken, W erke. Munich: C. H. Beck, 2007. SEVILLE 20I5

Adrian Seville. "The Royal Game of the Goose: Road to Ruin or Pathway to Paradise?" Ephemera

Journal I7, no. 3 (May 2m5), pp. 5-8. SEVILLE 20I6A

Adrian Seville. "The Medieval Game of the Goose: Philosophy, Numerology and Symbolism." In From Cardboard to Keyboard: Proceedings of Board Games Studies; Colloquium XVII, edited by Eddie Duggan and David W. G. Gill, pp. II5- 35. Lisbon: Associa~iio Ludus, 20I6.

Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 20I7. SIFFORD 20I3

Elena Fitzpatrick Sifford. "Hybridizing Iconography: The Miraculous Mass of St.. Gregory Featherwork from the Colegio de San Jose de los Naturales in Mexico City." In Revisioning: Critical Methods of Seeing Christianity in the History of Art, edited by James Romaine and Linda Stratford, pp. I32-42. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 20I3.

P. H. SMITH 20I7

Pamela H. Smith. "The Codification of Vernacular Theories of Metallic Generation in SixteenthCentury European Mining and Metalworking." In The Strnctures of Practical Knowledge, edited by Matteo Valleriani, pp. 37I-92. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 20I7.

SPEELBERG 20I4

Femke Speelberg. "Extravagant Monstrosities: Gold- and Silversmith Designs in the Auricular Style." In H eilbn11111 Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. http:// www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/extr/hd_extr.htm (May2m4).

P. H. SMITH AND BEENTJES 20IO

Pamela H . Smith and Tonny Beentjes. "Nature and Art, Making and Knowing: Reconstructing Sixteenth-Century Life-Casting Techniques."

SEVILLE 20I6B

SITTE I899

PP· I28-79.

Adrian Seville. The Royal Gameof die Goose: 400 Years of Printed Board Games. Exh. cat. New York: Grolier

Alfred Sitte. "Die Schatzkammer Nadasdy's." Berichteund Mittheil11ngen des Alterthums-Vereines Zll

P. H. SMITH AND FINDLEN 2002

Club, 2m6.

W ien 34 (I899), pp. 87-96.

SHALEM 2004

SLOTTA AND BARTELS Iggo

Avinoam Shalem. The Oliphant: Islainic Objects in Historical Context. Islamic History and Civilization 54- Leiden: Brill, 2004.

Rainer Slotta and Christoph Bartels, with Heinz Pollmann and Martin Lochert. Meisterwerke bergbaulicher Kunst vom 13. bis 19. Jahrh1111dert. Exh. cat., Schloss Cappenberg. Veri:iffentlichungen aus dem Deutschen Bergbau-Museum Bochum 48. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum, I990.

Desmond Shawe-Taylor, ed. The First Gwrgians: Art & Monarchy, 1714-1760. Exh. cat., Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, London. London: Royal Collection Trust, 20I+ SHELL 2004

Hanna Rose Shell. "Casting Life, Recasting Experience: Bernard Palissy's Occupation between Maker and Nature." Configurations I2, no. I (Winter 2004), pp. I-40. SHIH 20I8

Ching-fei Shih. "Unknown Transcultural Objects: Turned Ivory Works by the European Rose Engine Lathe in the Eighteenth-Century Qjng Court." In EurAsian Matters: China, Eitrope, and the Transcultural Object, 1600-1800, edited by Anna Grasskamp and Monica Juneja, pp. 57-76. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 20I8. SHIRLEY I983

Rodney W. Shirley. The Mapping of the World: Early Printed World Maps, 1472-1700. Holland Press Cartographica 9. London: Holland Press, I983. SIEBENMORGEN I996

Harald Siebenmorgen, ed. "Fiir Baden gerettet": Erwerbungen des Badischen Landesmuseums 1995 aus den

Sammlungen der Markgrafen und Grossherzage von Baden. Exh. cat. Karlsruhe: Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe, I996. SIEMON 20I7

Julia Siemon. "Tracing the Origin of the Aldobrandini Tazze." In The Silver Caesars: A Renaissance Mystery, edited by Julia Siemon, pp. 78-rn5, I95-200. The

2 94

SMIRNOVA AND HEITMANN Ig86

E. I. Smirnova and Bernhard Heitmann. Gold und Silber am dem Moskauer Krein!: Meisterwerke Hambisrger Go!dsclm,iedehmst. Exh. cat. Hamburg: Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, I986.

Priscilla P. Soucek. "Building a Collection oflslamic Art at the Metropolitan Museum, I870- 20II." In Ekhtiar et al. 20II, pp. 2-I9.

Pamela H. Smith. From Lived Experience to the Written W ord: Recovering Art and Skill in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Forthcoming.

RenaissanceQ!,arterly 63, no. I (Spring 2orn),

SHAWE-TAYLOR 20I4

SOUCEK 20II

P. H. SMITH FORTHCOMING

SIGLO DE ORO 20I6

El siglo de oro: The Age of Velazquez. Exh. cat., Gemiildegalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, and Kunsthalle der Hypo-Kulturstiftung, Munich. Munich: Hirrner, 20I6.

Castagneto Po, near 'forin and from Otlter French Residences. Sale cat., Sotheby's, London, March 2I, 2007,

Pamela H. Smith and Paula Findlen, eds. Merchmits & Marvels: Co111mcrce, Science, and Art in Early Modern Europe. New York: Routledge, 2002. R. SMITH 20I2

Roberta Smith. "Where Marie Antoinette Went for Furniture." [Review of the exhibition "Extravagant Inventions: The Princely Furniture of the Roentgens," held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 20I2-I3.] New York Times, November 2, 20I 2, pp. CI9, c22.

SPENLE 2m4

Virginie Spenle. "WenzelJamnitzer's Mortar: Life Casting and Court Experimentalism in the I6th Century." In Collecti11g Nature, edited by Andrea Galdy and Sylvia Heudecker, pp. 37-56. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2m4. SPENLE 2m6

Virginie Spenle. "Wenze!Jamnitzer und die Kunst des Naturabgusses: Wenn 'Ars vnd Natura mit ain Ander spilen";,"'Wenze!Jarnnitzer and the Art of Life Casting: When 'Ars and Natura Act Together."' In Laue 20I 6, pp. 8-55. SPE

;-I,E 20I8

Mentmore. 5 vols. Sale cat., Sotheby Parke Bernet, London, May I8-27, I977· Sale held at Mentmore, Buckinghamshire.

Virginie Spenle. "The Court Casket Owned by the Marquesses of Lothian: A Masterpiece of uremberg Perspective Art." In Perspectiva: A ;,,.-11remberg Renaissance Casket for the Marquesses of Lotl,un, eclited by Georg Laue, pp. 6- 69. Munich: Kunstkammer Georg Laue, 2m8.

SOTHEBY's I995

SPI~tLLI 200 3

Die Sammlung der Markgrafen und Grossherzage 11011 Baden. Sale cat., Sotheby's Deutschland, October 5- 2I, I995· Sale held at Neues Schloss, Baden.

Riccardo Spinelli. Giovait Battista Foggini: "Architetto [Tlm.lriodella casa scrwissima" dei Medici (1652-1725). Florence: Edifir, 2003.

SOTHEBY's I977

P. H. SMITH I994

Pamela H . Smith. Tlie Business of Alchemy: Science and Culture in the Holy Roman Empire. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, I99+ P. H. SMITH 200I

Pamela H. Smith. "Giving Voice to the Hands: The Articulation of Material Literacy in the Sixteenth Century." In Popular Literacy: Studies in C11ltural Practices and Poetics, edited by John Trimbur, PP· 74-93. Pittsburgh Series in Composition, Literacy, and Culture. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 200I. P. H. SMITH 2004

Pamela H. Smith. The Body of the Artisan: Art and Experience in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. P. H. SMITH 20I4

Pamela H. Smith. "Between Nature and Art: Casting from Life in Sixteenth-Century Europe." In Making and Growing: Anthropological St11dies of Organisms and Artefacts, edited by Elizabeth Hallam and Tim Ingold, pp. 45-63. Anthropological Studies of Creativity and Perception. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 20I4.

STAHL 2002

STROUSE 2000

Patricia Stahl. "Im grossen Saal des Ri:imers ward gespeiset in hi:ichstem Grade priichtig: Zur Geschichte der kaiserlichen Kri:inungsbankette in Frankfurt am Main." In Ottomeyer and Vi:ilkel

Jean Strouse. "J. Pierpont Morgan: Financier and Collector." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, n.s., 57, no. 3 (Winter 2000).

2002, pp. 58-7I.

SUGLIANO 2006

STANDAGE 2003

C. Sugliano. 'Toro de! Baltico." Antiquariato, no. 3m (March 2006), pp. 86-9I.

Tom Standage. Tlie Mechanical Turk: The True Story of the Chess-Playing Machine That Fooled the World. London: Penguin Books, 2003.

Marnie P. Stark. "Mounted Bezoar Stones, Seychelles Nuts, and Rhinoceros Horns: Decorative Objects as Antidotes in Early Modern Europe." Studies in the Decorative Arts II, no. I (Fall-Winter

SUSSMAN I999

2003- 4), PP· 69-94.

Review 43, no. 3 (Autumn I999), pp. 8I-96. [Issue titled Puppets, Masks, and Performing Objects. Edited by John Bell.]

STEPHENS AND HEFFERNAN 20I6

Elizabeth Stephens and Tara Heffernan. "We Have Always Been Robots: The History of Robots and Art." In Robots and Art: Exploring an Unlikely Symbiosis, edited by Damith Herath, Christian Kroos, and Stelarc, pp. 29-45. Cognitive Science and Technology. Singapore: Springer, 2m6.

European Works of Art fro111 the Private Collcctio11 n11d Gallery of the Blwnka Estate. Sale cat., Sotheby's, New York, January 9-rn, I996.

SPLEi','DEURS DE LA COUR DE SAXE 2006

Sfl-iJmrs de la co11r de Saxe: DresdeaVersailles. Edited by

SOTHEBY's I999

Magnificent Silver-Gilt, Objects of Vertu and Mi11int11res from the Rothschild and Rosebery Collection, Meut111orc. Tlie Property of the Rosebery Fa111ily Trust. Sale cat., Sotheby's, London, February II, I999·

Thomas W. Gaehtgens, Dirk Syndram, and Beatrix Saule. Exh. cat., Musee National des Chateaux de Versailles et de Trianon. Paris: Reunion des Musees _ ·ationaux, 2006.

SOTHEBY's 2005

SPRD;GEIT 2005

Works of Art fro111 the Royal House of Ha11ove1/ Kimstwerke des Koniglichen Hames Ha1111ove1·. Sale cat.,

Da,-id Springett. Woodturning Wizardry. Rev. ed. East Sussex: Guild of Master Craftsmen Publications, 2005.

Sotheby's Deutschland, October 5-I5, 2005. Sale held at Schloss Marienburg, Hanover.

STAATLICHE MUSEEN PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESITZ I973

SOTHEBY's 2007

The Alberto Bruni Tedeschi Collection: To Benefit tlte Virginio Bruni Tedeschi Foundation; Furniture, Old Masters Paintings and Works of Art f ro111 tlie Castle of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Vom spiiten Mittelalter bis zu Jacques Louis David: Neuerworbe11e 1md 11eubesti111mte Z eichmmgen im Berliner Kupferstic!tkabinett. Berlin: Kupferstichkabinett, I973·

MAKING MARVELS

Mark Sussman. "Performing the Intelligent Machine: Deception and Enchantment in the Life of the Automaton Chess Player." TDR: The Drama

SYNDRAM I999

Dirk Syndram. Die Schatzkammer Augusts des Starken:

Von der Pretiosensammlung zum Griinen Gewiilbe. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden. Leipzig: E. A. Seemann, I999·

STEPHENSON, BOLT, AND FRIEDMAN 2000

SYNDRAM 200I

Bruce Stephenson, Marvin Bolt, and Anna Felicity Friedman. The Utiiverse Unveiled: Instruments and Images tlirougl, History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Chicago: Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, 2000.

Dirk Syndram. Das Schloss zu Dresden: Von der Residenz zwn Museum. Munich: Koehler & Amelang, 200I.

STOICHITA I997

Victor I. Stoichita. Tlie Self-Aware Image: An Insight into Early Modem Meta-Painting. Cambridge Studies in New Art History and Criticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I997· STONE I958

SYNDRAM 2004

Dirk Syndram. Renaissanceand Baroque Treasury Art: The Green Vault in Dresden. Dresden: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden; Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2004SYNDRAM 20I2A

Dirk Syndram. "Die Anfiinge der Dresdner Kunstkammer." In Syndram and Minning 2orn-I2, [vol. 5] (20I2), Geschichte einer Sammlung, pp. I5-45.

Peter Stone. "Baroque Pearls." Apollo 68, no. 406 (December I958), pp. I94-99.

Riccardo Spinelli, ed. TI gra11 pri11cipe Ferdinando de' .\Wi.; (1663-1713): Collezio11ista e mecenate. Exh. cat., Gallerie degli Uffizi. Florence: Giunti, 2m3.

Elizabeth Sullivan. "A Brief History of the Collection." In Vincent and Leopold 20I5, PP· 3-7.

STARK 2003-4

SP~LLI 20I3 SOTHEBY's I996

SULLIVAN 20I5

STRANO ET AL. 2009

Giorgio Strano, Stephen Johnston, Mara Miniati, and Alison Morrison-Low, eds. European Collections of Scientif,c Instruments, 1550-1750. History of Science and Medicine Library IO. Scientific Instruments and Collections I. Leiden: Brill, 2009. STROEBLIN I885

Ernest Stroeblin. "Castella." In La grande encyclopedie: foventaire raisonne des sciences, des lettres et des arts, vol. 9, pp. 730- 3I. Paris: H. Lamirault, I885. STROUHAL I996

Ernst Strauhal. "Uhrwerk und Schachspiel: Zur Motivgeschichte des Bildes der intelligenten Maschine." In W,mschmaschine, Welterfindung: Eine Geschichteder Technikvisionen seit de11118. Jalirlmndert, edited by Brigitte Felderer, pp. 444-7I. Exh. cat., Kunsthalle, Vienna. Vienna: Springer, I996.

SYNDRAM 20I2B

Dirk Syndram. "Die Entwicklung der Kunstkammer unter KurfiirstJohann Georg I." In Syndram and Minning 20IO-I 2, [vol. 5] (20I2), Geschichte einer Sammlung, pp. 79-w7. SYNDRAM 20I 5

Dirk Syndram. DieJuwelen der Kiinige: Sc1,inuckensemb1es des 18. Jahrhu11derts aus dem Griinen Gewiilbe. 2nd edition. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 20I5. SYNDRAM 20I7

Dirk Syndram. "August von Sachsen als Sammler: Zwischen persi:inlicher Neigung und fiirstlicher Konvention ." In Kurfurst August von Sachsen: Ein Nachrefonnatorischer "Friedensfiirst" zwisclu:n Territorium und Reich; Beitriige zur wisscnschaftlichen Tagung vom 9. bis 11.Juli in Torgau 11nd Dresden, edited by Winfried Miiller, Martina Schattkowsky, and Dirk Syndram, pp. I92-209. Dresden: Sandstein Verlag, 20I7.

295

SYNDRAM 2018

THALHEIM 2017

TREITZSAURWEIN 1888

UITENBACH 172 8/1928

VOLTELINI 1894

WATTECK 1962

Dirk Syndram. Vom Preis der Ku11st um 1600. Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther Konig, 20I8.

Klaus Thalheim. "Die Erziihlung vom Silberfund von I477 auf der St. Georg Fundgrube in Schneeberg im Erzgebirge unddie Bedeutung der iiberlieferten Erzstu fen am Museum fur Mineralogie und Geologie in Dresden." Geologica saxonica 63 (20I7; pub. 2m8), pp. I-I+

Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. "Der Weisskunig." Compiled by Marx Treitzsaurwein. Edited by Alwin Schultz.Jalirbuchder K1msthistori.scl1en Sa111mlungm des Alle1·hochstet1 Kaiserliauses 6 (I888).

Johann Friedrich Armand von Uffenbach.Joluum Friedri.:h Arma11d l'Ott U./Je11bach's Tagb11chei11er Spa.::icrfortl, durch die Hessisclu: in die Bram1schweigLi.iiid-unriscl1c11 Laude, 1728. Edited by Max Arm in. Gottmgen: Hiintzschel, I928.

Hans von Voltelini. "Urkunden und Regesten aus dem K. u. K. Haus-, Hof-, und Staats-Archiv in Wien." Jahrbucli der K,msthistori.schen Sa1111nlungeu des Allerhochsun Kaiserhauses IS (I894), PP· XLIX-CLXX! X .

Nora Watteck. "Geschnitztes Steinbockhorn: Ein vergessener Zweig des Salzburger Kunsthandwerks." A!te 1md 111odm,e Kmm 7, nos. 58-59 (MayJune I9fo), pp. 27- 3r.

UNTER EI

VOSKUHL 2013

SYNDRAM AND BRINK 2011

Dirk Syndram and Claudia Brink, eds. The Dream ofa King: Dresden's Green Vault. ~n English and Arabic.] Exh. cat., Museum oflslamic Art, Doha, ~tar. Dresden: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden; Munich: Hirmer, 20II. SYNDRAM AND MINNING 2010-12

Dirk Syndram and Martina Minning, eds. Die k11rftirstlid,-siichsisdu: Ku11stkam111er i,, Dresdw. 5 vols. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden. Dresden: Sandstein Verlag, 2orn-I2.

TRIPPS 2005

WATTECK 1975

Johannes Tripps. "Pilgerfahrten als kreative Impulse fiir die Goldschmiedekunst der Spiitgotik: Stiftungen von Pilger- und Reiseandenken durch Adel und Stadtpatriziat in Kirchenschiitze." In Gra11d Tour: Adeliges Reise111111d europiii.sche Kultur vo11114. bis z11111 18. Jahrlumdert; Aktw der i11ternatio11alen Ko!IOIJ11irn i11 der Villa Vigo11i 1999 1md i11, Deutscl,en Histori.scl,eu fostillll, Paris 2000, edited by Rainer Babel and Werner Paravicini, pp. I73- 90. Beihefte der Francia 60. Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke, 2005.

VAND

THOMPSON 20 0 4

T RIUMPH OF HUMANISM 1977

Chet Van Duzer. Sea Mo1isttrs on Medieval and Renaissa11.:t Maps. London: British Library, 20I3.

David Thompson. The B,·itisli Museum Clocks. London: British Museum Press, 2004-

The Triumph ofH11111a11ism: A Visual Survey of tl,e Decorative Arts of tlu: Renaissance. W ith contributions by Charles Avery et al. Exh. cat., California Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco. San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco,

THALY 1883

Kalman T haly. "Gr. Eszterhazy Miklos nador kincstara. I645." Muvelodestiirteneti adatok, Tortenel111i tar, I883, pp. 755-67THEUERKAUFF 1974

Christian Theuerkauff. "Zu Georg Pfriindt." A11zeiger des Germa11i.sc'1en Nationalmuseu111s, I974, PP· 58-rn4.

SYNDRAM AND SCHERNER 2004

Dirk Syndram and Antje Schemer, eds. Pri11cely Sple11dor: The Dresden Cai.rt, 1580-1620. Exh. cat., Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; and Fondazione Memmo, Palazzo Ruspoli, Rome. Milan: Electa; Dresden: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden; ew York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004. [Published in German as fo ftirsdiche111 Gla11z: Der Dresd11er Hof w,i 1600. Milan: Electa; Dresden: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, 2004.J

THOMPSON 2007

David Thompson. Watches i11 the Aslmwlean Museum. Ashmolean Handbooks. Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 2007. THOMPSON 200 8

David Thompson. The History of Watches. New York: Abbeville Press, 2008.

SYNDRAM AND WEINHOLD 2000

Dirk Syndram and Ulrike Weinhold. " 1md ei11 Leib von Perl":Die Sa111111limg der barocken Pe.-1.ftguren im Griinen Gewolbe. Dresden: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden; Wolfratshausen: Edition Minerva, 2000.

THUMMLER AND LAMBACHER 2018

Sabine T hiimmler and Lothar Lambacher, eds. Details! 100 Liebli11gswerke im K1mstgewerbenmseum/100 Favorites from the K1111stgewerbemuseu111. Dresden: Sandstein Verlag, 20I8.

SZILAGYI 1999

THURIGEN 2018

Andras Szilagyi. Die Esterhiizy-Schatzkam111er. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, I999·

Susanne Thiirigen. "' so dreht sich das Rad wie der Himmel': Uhren in Spiegelform als Bilder der Priizision im I6. Jahrhundert." In Bilder der Priizision: Praktike11 der Verfai11erw1g in Teclmik, Kunst und Wis.senschaft, edited by Matthias Bruhn and Sara Hillnhiitter, pp. 153-70. Berlin: De Gruyter, 20I8.

SZILAGYI 2006

Andras Szilagyi, ed. Die Esterhiizy-Scl,atzka11111u:r: Kuiistwerke aii. Exh. cat., Iparmuveszeti Muzeum, Budapest. Budapest: Kunstgewerbemuseum, 2006. TAFEL-REDEN 1673

Des Allerdurchleuchtigsten Romi.schen Keysers Ferdi11and des Erste11 denckwiirdiger Tafel-Reden erster Theil. Dresden, I673.

TILTON 2007

Hereward Tilton. "Of Ether and Colloidal Gold: The Making of a Philosophers' Stone." Esoterica 9 (2007), pp. 49-I28. TREASURES FROM THE AL TRANI COLLECTION 2018

TAIT 199 1

Hugh Tait. Catalogiieof the Waddesdo,, Bequest i11 the British Museum. Vol. 3, Tlu: "C.H"iosities." London: British Museum Press, Iggr.

Treasures from the Al Thani Collection. ~n Chinese and English.] 3 vols. Exh. cat., Palace Museum, Forbidden City, Beijing. Beijing: Gu Gong Chubanshe, 20I8.

I977-

ER KRONE 1997

Unter ciner Krone: Kmm und Kultur der siidisi.schLeip::ig: Edition Leipzig, 1997.

Adelheid Voskuhl. Androids in tlu: Enlightenment: Meclianics, Artisans, and Cultures of tlu: Self Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 20I3.

VALENTIJN 1726

WACKERNAGEL 1966

~

Union. Exh. cat., Residenzschloss, Dresden.

WATZDORF 1 962

Fran~ois Valentijn. Oud en Amsterdam, I726.

ieuw Oost-Indien. Vol. 3.

ER 2013

2 011

Charlotte Vignon. "From the Royal Court of Hanover: Two Silver Fountains and Basins." Frick Collc..1ion Members' Magazi1u: II, no. I (Winter 20n), PP· IO-I4. VI CB T 1972

Helmut Trnek. "'Und ich hab aber all mein lebtag nichts gesehen, das mein hercz also erfreuet hat als diese ding': Exotica in habsburgischen Kunstkammern, deren Inventare und Bestiinde." In Seipel 2000, pp. 23-47.

Clare Vincent. orthern European Clocks in New Yark Collations. Exh. cat. ew York: Department of Public Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, I972.

Helmut Trnek. "Marginalien zur habsburgischen Erwerbungspolitik: Ein achtrag." Jahrb11d1 des Kunstliistorischen Museums Wirn 3 (200I), pp. 305- rn. ~ssue titled Exotica: Portugals Entdecktmgm im Spiegel Jiirstlicher Kim.st- u11d W1mderkam111em der Reuaissa11ce: Die Beitriigedes am 19. imd 20. Mai 2000 vo111 K1uisthistorisd1en Museum Wien veransLaltetw SymJXJsiums. Edited by Helmut TrnekandSabine Haag.]

Jan Walgrave. TheSpleudo11rofDia1110t1d: 400 Years of Dia111011d Jewellery it1 Eiirope. ~n Japanese and English.] Exh. cat., Tokyo National Museum and Osaka Municipal Museum of Art. Tokyo: ATP International, 2003.

WEIHRAUCH -1967

WARDROPPER 2011

WEINHOLD 2000

Ian Wardropper. European Sculpture, 1400-1900, in The Metropolita,, Mu.sewn of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 20II.

Ulrike Weinhold. E111ailmalerei an Augsburger Goldsclimiedearbeiten von 1650 bis 1750. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2000.

WARNCKE1988

WEINHOLD 2006 - 7

Carsten-Peter Warncke. "Johann Melchior Dinglingers 'Hofstaat des Grossmoguls': Form und Bedeutung eines virtuosen Goldschmiedekunstwerkes." A11zeige1· des Gennanisclim Natimial111useums, I988, pp. I59- 88.

Ulrike Weinhold. "Ein Portriit Peters des Grossen im Griinen Gewiilbe: Die Emailkunst Georg Friedrich Dinglingers im Wettstreit mit der Olmalerei und der Einfluss auf das russische Emailbildnis." Jahrbucli der Staatlicl1en Km1stsammlu11gm Dresden 33 (2006-7), PP· 9-I9.

VI TE T 2016

Clare Vincent. "Diana, Goddess of the Showering Arrows: A Seventeenth-Century German Automaton Clock." Yale University Art Gallery Bulktin, 20I6, pp. 75-87. ~ssue titled European Art. Edited by Paola D'Agostino.J \'INCE TA D CHANDLER 2011-12

PP· ro5-I7. TRUSTED 1985 \'"CTENT A

D LEOPOLD 2015

Clare incent and Jan Hendrik Leopold. Ei.ropean Clocks a11d Watclu:s in The Metropolitan Museumof Art. _ ·ew York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 20I5.

WALLENTA 2017

WARREN 2006

Jeremy Warren. "Bronzes." In At Ho11u: in Renaissance Italy, edited by Marta Ajmar-Wollheim and Flora Dennis, pp. 294- 305, 385. Exh. cat., Victoria and Albert Museum, London. London: V&A Publications, 2006.

\'lRASSAMY AIK EN 2015

Ludmila Virassamynaiken, ed. Lym, Reuaissana: Arts

TREASURES OF ASTRONOMY 1983

TWILIGHT OF THE MEDICI 1974

Scluitze der Astronomie: Arabi.sclu: imd deutsche fostnmu:nte aus dem Gmna11i.schen Natio11al111usewn/Treasures of Astronomy: Arabic a,,d German fostm111ents of the German National Musmm. ~n German, English, and Arabic.] Exh. cat. Nuremberg: Germanisches Nationalmuseum, I983.

Tlu: Twilight of the Medici: Late BarlX]ue Art i11 Florwce, 1670-1743. Exh. cat., Detroit Institute of Arts and Palazzo Pitti, Florence. Florence: Centro Di, I974· [Published in Italian as Gli ultimi Medici: II tardo barocco a Firenze, 1670-1743. Florence: Centro Di, I974.J

Helen Watanabe-O'Kelly. Court Culture in Dresden: From Renaissance to BarlX]ue. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002.

Pans: Somogy, 20I5.

A 1998

~Iara Visona. "Un ritratto di Anna Maria Luisa dei ~[edici bambina e i lari de! Poggio Imperiale nflessioni sul Foggini)." Paragone, 3rd ser., 22, no. 5 5 ( ovember I998), pp. I9-30.

Ulrike Weinhold. "Farbe fur das Silber: Emaildekore." In Bachtler, Syndram, and Weinhold 20n, PP· I2I- 27.

Roberto Weiss. The Renaissance Discovery of Classical. Autiquity. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, I969. [Reprint, I973.J WELCH2002

WATT AND FORD 1991 VlSO

WEINHOLD 2011

W EISS 1969 1

WATANABE-0 K ELLY 2002

TRUSTED 2013

TARDY 1971-72

Hans R. Weihrauch. "Italienische Bronzen als Vorbilder der deutscher Goldschmiedekunst." In Studien ziir Geschichteder mropiii.schen Plastik: Festschrift Tiu:odor Miiller Zt1111 19. April 1965, pp. 263- 80. Munich: Hirmer, I965.

Clare Vincent. "Renaissance Timepieces." In Trn1111fl1 of Humanism I977, pp. 52- 58.

Cl.arc Vincent and Bruce Chandler. "Rudolfll's Celestial Globe on the Wings of Pegasus." Jalirbuch .ltS K11nstl1istorisclu:n Musamis Wien I3- I4 (20n-I2),

Tardy. Dictionnaire des lwrlogers fra11fi1is. 2 vols. in I. Paris: Tardy, I97I-72. TEUBER 175 6

WEIHRAUCH 1965 WALGRAVE 2003

Wolfgang Wallenta. Klei11e Geschichteder Goldsclnniedestadt Augsbi.rg. Mering: Holzheu, 20I7-

Elly R. Truitt. "The Garden ofEarthly Delights: Mahaut of Artois and the Automata at Hesdin." Medieval Feminist Fon111146, no. I (20ro), pp. 74-79.

Marjorie Trusted. Baroque & Later foories. London: V&A Publishing, 2m3.

WEBER 1 975

Ingrid Weber. Deutsche, niederliindi.sche u11d fra11zosi.scl1e Renaissa11ceplaketun, 1500-1650: Modelleftir Reliefs an Kult-, Prnnk- und Gebra11chsgegrnstiinde11. 2 vols. Munich: F. Bruckmann, I975·

VL','CE T 1977

et lmm.111isnu:. Exh. cat. Lyon: Musee des Beaux-Arts;

Johann Martin Teuber. Vo!lstiindiger U11terricht von der gemeinm und hohern Dreh-Ku11st. Regensburg: Bader, 1756.

Franz Wagner. "Beschlagene Straussen-Ayer." Ki.nst & Antiquitiiten, I985, no. 2, pp. 32- 42.

Erna von Watzdorf. Joliamt Mekhior Ding!inger: Der Goldscl1111ied des dmtschen Barock. 2 vols. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, Igfo.

Hans R. Weihrauch. Europiii.sclu: Bro,,zestatueLten, 15.-18. Jahrlm11dert. Braunschweig: Klinkhardt & Biermann, I967.

TRUITT 2010

Marjorie Trusted. Catalogueof European Ambers i11 the Victoria and Albert Museimi. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, I985.

Rudolf H. Wackernagel. Der franzosischeKriimmgswagm von 1696-1825: Eit1 Beitragzur Gescliichtedesrepriisentativm Z eremonienwageus. Neue Miinchner Beitriige zur Kunstgeschichte 7. Berlin: De Gruyter, I966. [Reprint, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2015.J WAGNER 1985

VIG ' 0

TRNEK2000

T RNEK200l

Nora Watteck. "Die Wiedergestaltung der Salzburger Kunst- und Wunderkammer." Alte u11d modenu: K111m 20, no. I39 (I975), pp. 9-I3.

James C. Y. Watt and Barbara Brennan Ford. East Asiat1 Lacq,ier: The Florenceand Herbert Irving Collection. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, I99L

Evelyn Welch. "Public Magnificence and Private Display: Giovanni Pontano's De splendore (I498) and the Domestic Arts." Journal of Design History IS, no. 4 (2002), PP· 2II-2I. WELCH 2005

Evelyn Welch. Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MAKING MARVELS

297

Cultures i11 Italy, 1400-1600. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. WELTENGLANZ

2009

Wdtenglanz: Der Matliematiscl1-Physikaliscl1e Salon Dresden ZH Gast im Maximilianmuseut11 Augsburg. Exh. cat., Maximilianmuseum, Augsburg. Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2009. WELTENHARMONIE

WENZEL JAMNITZER

1985

Wenzel ]a»mitzer 1md die Niiruberge,· Goldsd,miedekunst, 1500-1700: Goldsehmiedearbeite11-E11twii,fe, Maddie, Medaillen, Ornammtsticlie, Scl,mu, k, Portriits. Exh. cat., Germanisches Nationalmuseum, N uremberg. Munich: Klinkhardt & Biermann, r985.

1996

Mariet Westermann. Tlte Art of tlie Du tel,. Republic, 1585-1718. Everyman Art Library. London: Weidenfeld and icolson, r996. WHEELER

1997

Mathieu Willemsen. "Shagreen in Western Europe: Its Use and Manufacture in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries." Apollo r45, n.s., no. 4r9 {January r997), pp. 35- 38. WILLIAMSON

1912

George C. Williamson. Catalogue of tlte Collection of W atel,es, the Pmpertyof]. Pierpont Morgan. London: Chiswick Press, r9n. [Reprint, Paris: F. de Nobele, r972.] WILSON AND HESS

WINTERS

1962

Lynn White Jr. Medieval Tecltnology and Social Cltange. London: Oxford University Press, r962.

Lynn White Jr. "The Iconography of Tempera11Lia and the Virtuousness of Technology." In Action a11d Conviction in Early Modern Europe: Essays i,, Ho,10r of E. H. Harbison, edited by Theodore K. Rabb and Jerrold E. Seigel, pp. r97-2r9. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, r969. WIEWELHOVE

2002

Hildegard Wiewelhove. Tischbru1111en: Forsclnmgm zureumpiiisclie11 Tafalkultitr. Berlin : Deutscher Verlag fiir Kunstwissenschaft, 2002. WIEWELHOVE

2015

WITTENBERG

Hildegard Wiewel hove. "Der Tischbrunnen aus

2017

Ernest Wittenberg. The Turk. Rockville, Md.: New Word City, 2or7.

1965

RudolfWittkower. Arta11d Architecture in Italy, 1600 to 1750. 2nd edition. Baltimore: Penguin Books, r965.

1975

William D. Wixom. Renaissa11a Bronzes frot11 01,io Collections. Ex h. cat. Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art, r975. WOLF ET AL.

2003

Peter Wolf, Michael Henker, Evamaria Brockhoff, Barbara Steinherr, and Stephan Lippold, eds. Der Wi11terkonig: Friedrich V, der letzte Kurfii,·staitSdcr oberen Pfalz; Amberg, Heidelberg, Prag, Dc11 Haag. Exh. cat., Stadtmuseum Amberg. Veri:iffentlichungen zur bayerischen Geschichte und Kultur 46/03. Augsburg: Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte, 2003. WORM

W11uder 1wd W is.sensc'1aft:Salomon de CattS 11t1d die Automateu ktmst it1 Giirte1111m 1600. Exh. cat., Museum fiir Europiiische Gartenkunst der Stiftung Schloss und Park Benrath. Diisseldorf: Grupello, 2008. ZANETTI

2016

Cristiano Zanetti. Ja11el lo Torriani: A Reuaissa.11cc Gmius. Exh. cat., Museo de! Violino, Cremona. Cremona: Fantigrafica, 2or6. [Published in Italian as Ja11ello Toniatti: Geniodel Rinascimwto. Cremona: Fantigrafica, 2or6.]

2004

ZAPPER!

Roberto Zapperi. Der wilde Ma,, n vo11 Tweri.fJa: Die wm,d"same Geschichte des Pedro Gonzalez 1111d seiuer Kiuder. Munich: C. H. Beck, 2004.

1999

Laurie Winters, with Joseph R. Bliss. A Renaissance TreasHry: The Flagg Collection of Ei.ropea11 Decorative Arts and Sculpture. With contributions by Charles Avery et al. Ex h. cat., Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts, Montgomery, Ala., and other institutions. New York: Hudson Hills Press, with the Milwaukee Art Museum, r999.

WIXOM

1969

2008

2001

Gillian Wilson and Catherine Hess. Summary Catalogueof European Decorative Arts in tl,e ]. Paul Getty Mu.sewn. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 20or.

WITTKOWER

WHITE

2017

Michal F. Wozniak. DicSilberbibliot'1ckaus Konigsberg (1545-1562): Reformatio1i tmd Ho.f1wlttH'. Exh. cat. Potsdam: Haus der Brandenburgisch-Preussischen Geschichte; Petersberg: Michael Imhof, 2or7. WUNDER UND WISSENSCHAFT

2007

Jo Wheeler. "Stench in Sixteenth-Century Venice." In The City and the Sen.ses: Urban Culturesi11ce 1500, edited by Alexander Cowan and Jill Steward, pp. 25- 38. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007. WHITE

WOZNIAK

INDEX

S1