Lucid Transformations: The Byzantine–Islamic transition as reflected in glass assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs, 450–800 CE 9781407316987, 9781407355450

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BAR S2946 2019

2019

The monograph comprises a newly established, comprehensive, up-to-date typochronology, based on hundreds of glass wares of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods from scores of excavations, in and around Jerusalem and in neighbouring regions. Additionally, a holistic study of lighting devices, glass lamps and windowpanes, includes a novel assessment of Christian, Muslim and Jewish written sources regarding lighting in religious buildings in Jerusalem in the relevant periods. ‘This detailed study of glass assemblages from excavations in Jerusalem and its periphery provides a valuable addition to the study of material culture in Palestine and Jordan during this period and sets a new standard reference to future studies relating to cities in the Near East and beyond.’ Prof. Gideon Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority ‘I learnt something from every part of the book… This is a very significant contribution to the field. It will serve as an important point of reference for the investigation of glass in the region for many years due to the exceptionally large corpus of material that it brings together.’ Prof. Ian Freestone, UCL Institute of Archaeology

Lucid Transformations

The book investigates the contribution of glass finds to understanding the nature of the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule in Syria-Palestine, by analysing numerous glass assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs. This original synthesis explores the nature of numerous types of glass objects, and their distinct distribution in various types of sites. Furthermore, the identification of trends of continuity and change in the fabrics, technologies, typologies and styles of the glass finds throughout this turbulent period, illuminates the nature of the processes undergone by the various communities in the Jerusalem area.

WINTER

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 2 9 4 6

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 2 9 4 6

Lucid Transformations The Byzantine–Islamic transition as reflected in glass assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs, 450–800 CE

Tamar Winter (PhD) is a senior researcher of ancient glass at the Israel Antiquities Authority. She analyses glass corpora of the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods from numerous excavation sites, including Jerusalem, Caesarea Maritima and Bet She’an. Her studies focus on the contribution of glass assemblages to the understanding of cultural and ethno-religious aspects of historical processes.

TA M A R W I N T E R

2019

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 2 9 4 6

Lucid Transformations The Byzantine–Islamic transition as reflected in glass assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs, 450–800 CE

TA M A R W I N T E R

2019

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 2946 Lucid Transformations ISBN 978 1 4073 1698 7 paperback ISBN 978 1 4073 5545 0 e-format doI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407316987 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library © Tamar Winter 2019 Cover Image Glass vessels typical of the Byzantine–Islamic Transition in Syria-Palestine. The Author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in  any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

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In memory of my late father, a scholar, scientist and mentor, and above all a ‘mensch’, who bestowed in me the love of learning, the passion for inquiring, and the merits of hard work.

Acknowledgements This book holds the revised and improved version of my Ph.D. dissertation, submitted in 2015 at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and entitled The Byzantine–Islamic Transition as Reflected in Glass Assemblages from Excavated Sites in Jerusalem and Its Environs. This study evolved from the ongoing scholarship of many glass researchers and archaeologists at the Israel Antiquities Authority (henceforth IAA) and other academic institutions. My deepest appreciation goes to my colleague Yael Gorin-Rosen, head of the IAA glass department, who has over the years shared with me her vast and profound knowledge of the many facets of the wonderful world of glass. I would also like to acknowledge my colleague Natalya Katsnelson, whose fresh approach encouraged me to explore diverse angles of various issues. Thanks are due to the archaeologists who conducted the excavations that yielded the material examined in this book; they are accredited in relevance to the respective findings. I am deeply indebted to my Ph.D. dissertation supervisors, Rina Talgam and Yael Israeli, for their perceptive observations and instrumental advice. I am also grateful to the members of the advisory committee at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Amikam Elad, Gideon Avni and Uzi Leibner, who contributed their comments on the research proposal and on several of the dissertation chapters. Thanks are also due to Marie-Dominique Nenna for reviewing the research proposal and for her advice on glass terminology in French. My sincere appreciation goes to Jennifer Price and Michael Decker for their meticulous reading, as well as their insightful observations and thought-provoking suggestions. I also thank the anonymous reviewers of the manuscript for their perceptive comments, which were helpful in the preparation of this book. I am grateful to the members of the IAA management for their support during my studies and writing process, and with the layout of this volume. The completion of this research was also aided by the financial assistance of a scholarship from the ‘David Gita and Michael Hoffman Memorial Scholarships in Archaeology’. The various glass artifacts from the IAA excavations were restored by Olga Shorr and Adrienne Ganor, and photographed by Clara Amit, Tsila Sagiv and Howard Smithline. The finds were skillfully drawn by Michael Miles, Carmen Hersch, Mannie Kaftal-Goodman and Alina Pikovsky; Carmen Hersch also resourcefully prepared the reconstructions. The drawings, photographs and plans are presented courtesy of the IAA, unless stated otherwise. The location maps were compiled by Michal Birkenfeld. Many thanks also go to Rachel Kudish-Vashdi for her advice on matters of format and transliteration, and to Ann Buchnick-Abuhav for the volume layout. A warm thank you is due to my mother, who took an interest in my work and translated some excerpts from German. Finally, my love and appreciation go to my lifelong spouse and to my children, whose encouragement and understanding made this project possible.

Annotations on Format, Translations and Transliterations Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic texts are cited in this book using their English translations. Mention is given in parenthesis to the book, chapter or section in the relevant ancient primary source, followed by the reference to its translation into English. These translations generally include annotations and commentary, and are therefore included in the references in accordance with the translator’s last name. Terms in languages other than English generally appear in italics, unless they have a familiar standardized equivalent in English. Certain Arabic phrases using the definitive article ‘al’ are preceded, when applicable, by the English definitive article ‘the’. Furthermore, for the convenience of the reader, most diacritic marks have been omitted from Hebrew and Arabic names and terms; diacritics that are part of bibliographical references have obviously been retained. Cities are generally mentioned by their Roman–Byzantine names throughout the book, also when reference is made to the Early Islamic period, when these cities were named differently (here in parentheses); hence, for example, Paneas (Banias), Caesarea Maritima (Qaysariyah), Pella (Fihl), Gerasa (Jerash/Jarash), Bosra (also spelled Bostra) in southern Syria (Busra al-Sham). However, some cities that appear in the text repeatedly and with reference to several historical periods, are noted by their modern-day name, hence, for example, Bet She’an refers to Nysa-Scythopolis, later named Baysan; and Ashqelon to Ascalon, later named Asqalan. Additionally, Ramla refers to al-Ramla, Madina to al-Madina. Notwithstanding, well-known and standardized English equivalents of the names of cities, people and historical texts have been used; hence, for example, Jerusalem, Tiberias, Capernaum, Jaffa, Jericho, Nessana, as well as Paul the Silentiary, Choricius of Gaza. The spelling used in this book is the American one, and format issues generally follow the guidelines of The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition. The abbreviation IAA denotes the Israel Antiquities Authority. The glass finds presented in this book were drawn over the years by several draftspersons; therefore, some variations in technique and style may be apparent.

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Contents List of Figures...................................................................................................................................................................... x List of Tables...................................................................................................................................................................... xii List of Maps...................................................................................................................................................................... xiii List of Plans...................................................................................................................................................................... xiii Abbreviations................................................................................................................................................................... xiv 1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Main Objectives and Scope of the Research...................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 The Geographical and Chronological Scopes of the Research......................................................................... 2 1.1.2 The Structure of the Book and Its Reasoning.................................................................................................... 2 1.2 The State of Research................................................................................................................................................ 3 1.2.1 Research Pertaining to the Transition from Byzantine to Islamic Rule............................................................ 3 1.2.2 Research of Glass Finds from the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods.......................................................... 5 2. The Historical Setting of Jerusalem and Its Environs in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods....................... 9 2.1 Early Developments.................................................................................................................................................. 9 2.1.1 Christianity Gaining Recognition...................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.2 Theological Controversies and Church Politics................................................................................................ 9 2.1.3 The Jews and the Temple Mount....................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Establishing Christian Eminence............................................................................................................................ 10 2.2.1 Sacred Sites and Churches.............................................................................................................................. 10 2.2.2 Early Pilgrimage and Monasticism................................................................................................................. 10 2.2.3 Founding Traditions of Sacredness and Memorial.......................................................................................... 11 2.2.4 A Thriving, Cosmopolitan, Predominately-Christian City.............................................................................. 11 2.2.5 Prosperity and Urban Development................................................................................................................ 11 2.2.6 Extra-Mural Expansion................................................................................................................................... 12 2.2.7 The Agricultural Hinterland............................................................................................................................ 12 2.3 Under Persian Occupation...................................................................................................................................... 12 2.3.1 The Final Years of Byzantine Rule.................................................................................................................. 14 2.4 The Arab Conquest.................................................................................................................................................. 14 2.4.1 The Occupation of Jerusalem.......................................................................................................................... 14 2.5 Under the Umayyad Caliphate................................................................................................................................ 15 2.5.1 A New Islamic Center..................................................................................................................................... 15 2.5.2 Jerusalem’s Urban Zoning............................................................................................................................... 16 2.6 Christians and Jews under Muslim Rule................................................................................................................. 16 2.7 Under the Abbasid Dynasty and Beyond................................................................................................................ 17 2.8 Continuity of Christian Life in Jerusalem during the Early Islamic Period............................................................ 17 2.9 Epilogue.................................................................................................................................................................. 18 3. Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products from the Mid-Fifth to the Eighth Centuries................. 19 3.1 Introduction and Methodology................................................................................................................................ 19 3.1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 19 3.1.2 Methodological Annotations and Considerations........................................................................................... 21 3.2 Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Vessels.......................................................................................... 25 3.2.1 Bowls............................................................................................................................................................... 25 3.2.2 Wineglasses..................................................................................................................................................... 32 3.2.3 Jars................................................................................................................................................................... 38 3.2.4 Bottles.............................................................................................................................................................. 38 3.2.5 Jugs.................................................................................................................................................................. 49 3.2.6 Lamps.............................................................................................................................................................. 50

vii

Lucid Transformations 3.3 Typological-Chronological Study of the Major Decoration Schemes.................................................................... 64 3.3.1 Mold-Blown Decoration................................................................................................................................. 64 3.3.2 Trail Decoration............................................................................................................................................... 66 3.3.3 Pinched Decoration......................................................................................................................................... 68 3.3.4 Tonged Decoration.......................................................................................................................................... 69 3.3.5 Stain-Painted Decoration................................................................................................................................. 71 3.3.6 Mosaic Glass................................................................................................................................................... 72 3.3.7 Marvered Decoration....................................................................................................................................... 72 3.4 Typological-Chronological Study of Exceptional Vessels and Artifacts................................................................ 73 3.4.1 Goblets............................................................................................................................................................ 73 3.4.2 Decorated Vessels............................................................................................................................................ 74 3.4.3 Exceptional Vessels......................................................................................................................................... 81 3.4.4 Artifacts........................................................................................................................................................... 83 3.5 Typological-Chronological Study of Architecture-Associated Glass Products...................................................... 85 3.5.1 Windowpanes.................................................................................................................................................. 85 3.5.2 Tesserae and Tiles............................................................................................................................................ 88 4. Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods......................................................................... 91 4.1 Lighting and Glass Lighting Devices...................................................................................................................... 91 4.1.1 Lighting Devices in the Byzantine Realm....................................................................................................... 92 4.1.2 Lighting Devices in the Islamic Realm........................................................................................................... 98 4.1.3 Lighting in Religious Public Buildings in Jerusalem in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods................ 99 4.2 Windows and Glass Windowpanes....................................................................................................................... 101 4.2.1 Windows and Windowpanes in the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic Realms................................................ 101 4.2.2 Manufacture and Trade of Glass Windowpanes............................................................................................ 102 5. Newly Studied Glass Finds from Archaeological Excavations in Jerusalem and Its Environs........................... 107 5.1 Monastery North of Damascus Gate..................................................................................................................... 109 5.1.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 109 5.1.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 117 5.2 Residential and Commercial Complex in the Mamilla Area................................................................................ 119 5.2.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 119 5.2.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 127 5.3 Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park Compound................................................................................................... 128 5.3.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 128 5.3.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 132 5.4 Residential Quarter on the City of David Spur (Giv‘ati Car Park)....................................................................... 132 5.4.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 132 5.4.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 135 5.5 Monastery on Mount Scopus................................................................................................................................ 136 5.5.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 136 5.5.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 139 5.6 Monastery in the Kidron Valley............................................................................................................................ 150 5.6.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 150 5.6.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 154 5.7 Monastery at Umm Tuba....................................................................................................................................... 154 5.7.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 154 5.7.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 156 5.8 The Kathisma Church Complex............................................................................................................................ 156 5.8.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 156 5.8.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 165 5.9 Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem............................................................................................................................... 166 5.9.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................... 166 5.9.2 Summary and Discussion.............................................................................................................................. 168 5.10 Farmstead at Bet Zayit........................................................................................................................................ 168 5.10.1 The Site and the Finds................................................................................................................................. 168 5.10.2 Summary and Discussion............................................................................................................................ 169

viii

Contents 6. Published Glass Finds from Archaeological Excavations in Jerusalem and Its Environs................................... 173 6.1 Farmstead at Khirbat Adasa.................................................................................................................................. 173 6.2 Farmstead at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf............................................................................................................................. 173 6.3 Farmstead and Monastery at Deir Ghazali............................................................................................................ 173 6.4 Structures North of Damascus Gate...................................................................................................................... 173 6.5 ‘House of the Menorot’ Southwest of the Temple Mount..................................................................................... 174 6.6 City of David Spur: Areas G, H, K....................................................................................................................... 174 6.7 City of David Spur: Area M1................................................................................................................................ 174 6.8 Monastery at Khirbat Tabaliya.............................................................................................................................. 174 6.9 Monastery at Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam................................................................................................................ 175 6.10 Monastic Complex at the Compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center.................................. 175 6.11 Churches at En Kerem......................................................................................................................................... 175 6.12 Tombs and Burial Caves..................................................................................................................................... 175 7. Synthesis...................................................................................................................................................................... 177 7.1 The Nature of the Glass Corpus from the Mid-Fifth to the Eighth Centuries....................................................... 177 7.1.1 Roman Traditions.......................................................................................................................................... 177 7.1.2 Byzantine-Natured Trends: Form and Function............................................................................................ 178 7.1.3 Continuity and Innovation............................................................................................................................. 178 7.1.4 Fabric, Color and Decoration........................................................................................................................ 180 7.1.5 Change and Innovation.................................................................................................................................. 180 7.1.6 Production of Raw Glass and Vessel Glass................................................................................................... 181 7.1.7 Affinities and Diversities............................................................................................................................... 182 7.2 The Jerusalem Glass Corpus: Constructing Typologies, Establishing Chronologies........................................... 183 7.2.1 The Glass Vessels.......................................................................................................................................... 183 7.2.2 Major Decoration Schemes........................................................................................................................... 185 7.2.3 Exceptional Vessels and Artifacts.................................................................................................................. 185 7.2.4 Architecture-Associated Glass Products....................................................................................................... 185 7.2.5 Glass Production in Jerusalem...................................................................................................................... 185 7.3 The Jerusalem Glass Corpus in Consideration of Contemporaneous Glass Assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla................................................................................................................................. 186 7.3.1 Considering Glass Assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla...................................... 186 7.3.2 Evaluating the Glass Assemblages................................................................................................................ 188 7.3.3 Distinguishing Similarities in Diverse Settings............................................................................................ 191 7.4 Settlement and Religious-Ethnic Contexts........................................................................................................... 191 7.4.1 Correlation of Glass Vessel-Types and Settlement Categories..................................................................... 192 7.4.2 Glass Vessels and Artifacts as Markers of Religious-Ethnic Affiliation....................................................... 192 7.5 Trends of Continuity and Their Historical and Cultural Significance................................................................... 194 7.5.1 Continuity in Material Culture through Political Transformations............................................................... 194 7.5.2 Continuity of Christian Life in Jerusalem and Its Environs.......................................................................... 195 8. Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................................. 197 References........................................................................................................................................................................ 199

ix

List of Figures Fig. 3.2.1/1. Bowls.............................................................................................................................................................. 26 Fig. 3.2.1/2. Bowls............................................................................................................................................................. 28 Fig. 3.2.2. Wineglasses....................................................................................................................................................... 33 Fig. 3.2.3. Jars..................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Fig. 3.2.4/1. Bottles............................................................................................................................................................. 40 Fig. 3.2.4/2. Bottles............................................................................................................................................................. 44 Fig. 3.2.5. Jugs.................................................................................................................................................................... 49 Fig. 3.2.6/1. Lamps............................................................................................................................................................. 52 Fig. 3.2.6/2. Lamps............................................................................................................................................................. 59 Fig. 3.2.6/3. Lamps............................................................................................................................................................. 61 Fig. 3.3/1. Major decoration schemes................................................................................................................................. 67 Fig. 3.3/2. Major decoration schemes................................................................................................................................. 70 Fig. 3.4/1. Exceptional vessels and artifacts....................................................................................................................... 75 Fig. 3.4/2. Exceptional vessels and artifacts....................................................................................................................... 79 Fig. 3.4/3. Exceptional vessels and artifacts....................................................................................................................... 84 Fig. 3.5. Architecture-associated glass products................................................................................................................. 87 Fig. 5.1.1. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: wineglasses and various bases.............................................................. 112 Fig. 5.1.2. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: bottles from the Vault Crypt................................................................. 113 Fig. 5.1.3. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: bottles and jugs..................................................................................... 116 Fig. 5.1.4. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: vessels decorated in various techniques, lamps and artifacts.............. 118 Fig. 5.2.1. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: bowls............................................................... 121 Fig. 5.2.2. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: wineglasses and jars....................................... 122 Fig. 5.2.3. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: bottles............................................................. 124 Fig. 5.2.4. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: lamps and artifacts.......................................... 126 Fig. 5.3.1. Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park compound: wineglasses......................................................................... 129 Fig. 5.3.2. Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park compound: bottles................................................................................. 130 Fig. 5.3.3. Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park compound: lamps and artifacts.............................................................. 131 Fig. 5.4.1. Residential quarter on the City of David spur: bowls and bottles................................................................... 133 Fig. 5.4.2. Residential quarter on the City of David spur: lamps..................................................................................... 134 Fig. 5.4.3. Residential quarter on the City of David spur: various artifacts..................................................................... 135 Fig. 5.5.1. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bowls and bowls/beakers................................................................................. 140 Fig. 5.5.2. Monastery on Mount Scopus: wineglasses, a goblet and a jar........................................................................ 141 Fig. 5.5.3. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bottles.............................................................................................................. 142 Fig. 5.5.4. Monastery on Mount Scopus: vessels decorated in various techniques.......................................................... 144

x

List of Figures Fig. 5.5.5. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps........................................................................ 145 Fig. 5.5.6. Monastery on Mount Scopus: stemmed lamps................................................................................................ 148 Fig. 5.5.7. Monastery on Mount Scopus: windowpanes................................................................................................... 149 Fig. 5.6.1. Monastery in the Kidron Valley: various vessels and windowpanes............................................................... 152 Fig. 5.7.1. Monastery at Umm Tuba: various vessels and a gold-glass tile...................................................................... 155 Fig. 5.8.1. Kathisma church complex: bowls and bowls/beakers..................................................................................... 158 Fig. 5.8.2. Kathisma church complex: wineglasses.......................................................................................................... 159 Fig. 5.8.3. Kathisma church complex: bottles and jugs.................................................................................................... 160 Fig. 5.8.4. Kathisma church complex: vessels decorated in various techniques.............................................................. 162 Fig. 5.8.5. Kathisma church complex: lamps.................................................................................................................... 163 Fig. 5.8.6. Kathisma church complex: windowpanes....................................................................................................... 164 Fig. 5.9.1. Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem: various vessels............................................................................................... 166 Fig. 5.10.1. Farmstead at Bet Zayit: various vessels and a windowpane......................................................................... 170

xi

List of Tables Table 3.1. Typology of the Glass Finds with their Type Labels......................................................................................... 22 Table 3.2.2/1. Distribution of Wineglasses with a Rounded Rim and Wineglasses Adorned with Trail Decoration......... 35 Table 3.2.2/2. Distribution of Wineglasses with a Hollow Ring Base and Various Stem Types........................................ 36 Table 3.2.4. Distribution of Bottles with Trail Decoration on the Mouth/Neck................................................................. 43 Table 3.2.6/1. Distribution of Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps......................................................................................... 51 Table 3.2.6/2. Distribution of Stemmed Lamps by Stem Type........................................................................................... 57 Table 3.5. Distribution of Windowpanes............................................................................................................................ 86 Table 6.12. Selected Tombs and Burial Caves in Jerusalem and Its Environs, Containing Glass Finds from the Fifth–Seventh Centuries .................................................................................................................................................. 176 Table 7.1. Concise Chronological Occurrence of the Glass Finds................................................................................... 179 Table 7.4. Jerusalem-Area Sites, Their Nature and Relevant Periods of Settlement, and the Dating of Glass Finds from These Periods............................................................................................................................................................................ 193

xii

List of Maps Map 1.2. Location map of major sites mentioned in the book............................................................................................. 7 Map 2.0. Location map of features and structures in Jerusalem mentioned in Chapter 2.................................................. 13 Map 3.1. Location map of sites in Jerusalem and its environs mentioned in the book...................................................... 20 Map 5.0. Location map of the sites mentioned in Chapters 5 and 6................................................................................. 108

List of Plans Plan 5.1. Monastery north of Damascus Gate................................................................................................................... 110 Plan 5.5. Monastery on Mount Scopus............................................................................................................................. 137 Plan 5.6. Monastery in the Kidron Valley......................................................................................................................... 151

xiii

Abbreviations

ADAJ AIHV ASOR BAR BASOR DOP ESI HA−ESI  IAA IAA Reports  JGS JRA IEJ LA NEAEHL 5 PAM QDAP SBF

Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan Association internationale pour l’histoire du verre The American Schools of Oriental Research British Archaeological Reports Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Dumbarton Oaks Papers Excavations and Surveys in Israel (1982–2000) Hadashot Arkheologiyot–Excavations and Surveys in Israel (Since 1999); online publication (since 2005) Israel Antiquities Authority Israel Antiquities Authority Reports Journal of Glass Studies Journal of Roman Archaeology Israel Exploration Journal Studii Biblici Franciscani Liber Annuus Stern E. ed. 2008. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 5: Supplementary Volume. Jerusalem. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine Studium Biblicum Franciscanum

xiv

1 Introduction While researching ancient glass from diverse archaeological excavations in Israel for the past twenty years, and with the accumulation of finds, publications and knowledge of this intriguing discipline, I have learned to appreciate the array of insights, in which the investigation of glass may shed light on historical and cultural issues.

fifth/sixth through the eighth centuries in Jerusalem and its environs, further illuminates the nature of the Byzantine– Islamic transition in Syria-Palestine, and sketches a historical-chronological picture deriving explicitly from the archaeological data. So far, no synthesis of this kind has been conducted in the field of Byzantine-period and Early Islamic-period glass from Israel.

One such topic is the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule in Syria-Palestine, and while it has been established for some time now that the Arab conquest had not caused widespread devastation, the nature of the Byzantine– Islamic transition and the processes it involved are still widely debated.

In this study I chose to first classify and date the glass finds in a typo-chronology (as presented in Chapter 3), and then weigh these observations in reference to the glass assemblages from the Jerusalem area and to the archaeological contexts in which they were discovered (as presented in Chapters 5 and 6).

This book examines the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule in Jerusalem and its environs, in light of excavated glass assemblages. Besides serving as a bountiful case study, Jerusalem was selected for this research due to its unique status: during the fifth–sixth centuries, as a thriving Christian cosmopolitan metropolis; and in the first centuries following the Arab conquest of the region, as a political and religious center for the emergent Islam, alongside a thriving Christian community. This book, therefore, explores how glass finds illuminate cultural and ethnic aspects of the various populations that had used them.

A comprehensive up-to-date typological and chronological investigation was constructed by me especially for my Ph.D. dissertation, incorporating the glass finds that were prevalent from the mid-fifth through the eighth centuries in Jerusalem and its surroundings in particular, and in SyriaPalestine in general (see Chapter 3). This typo-chronology, based almost exclusively on glassware recorded in regulated well-documented archaeological excavations, provides a much-needed standardized database for discussion of the glass of this period in general. Moreover, this inclusive, meticulous and richly-illustrated typological-chronological study, with its concentration of the various types and their time range, may serve as a valuable tool for glass researchers, as well as for archaeologists and pottery researchers attempting to better characterize and date certain excavated structures, installations, or settlement phases.

1.1 The Main Objectives and Scope of the Research Glass finds are frequently discovered in most postHellenistic sites in Israel, and considerable data have been accumulated from archaeological excavations in the country during the past decades. These data enable glass researchers to construct typologies that contribute significantly to establishing definitive chronologies, which should constitute the basis for any archaeological and/or historical reconstruction. Furthermore, the systematic examination of glass from regulated archaeological excavations may identify typological, stylistic and technological changes, which reflect wider cultural and economic trends within an ancient society. Yet, the archaeological and historical disciplines have generally neglected to appreciate the valuable contribution embodied in the research into ancient glass.

The analysis of the glass assemblages from the sites examined in the book explores the nature of the various types of glass objects, and their distinct distribution in various types of settlements and complexes, establishing some glass vessels and artifacts as possible markers of religious-ethnic affiliation. Furthermore, the identification of trends of continuity and change in the fabrics, technologies, typologies and styles of the glass finds throughout the turbulent period discussed, illuminates the nature of the processes undergone by the various communities in the Jerusalem area.

This research, therefore, establishes the interpretation of glass finds within their contexts, as a valid and reliable manifestation of the processes that the populations in Syria-Palestine experienced during the initial period following the Arab conquest, which had taken place in the fourth decade of the seventh century. Focusing on glass assemblages from sites and complexes occupied from the

This book advocates the investigation of glass finds from archaeological excavations within their contexts as a major and reliable tool for the examination of historical processes. Moreover, this study contributes to the fields of ancient glass and archaeology in general, and emphasizes the contribution of the material culture to the ongoing 1

Lucid Transformations 1.1.2 The Structure of the Book and Its Reasoning

historical research on various demographic, religious and ethnic aspects of the period of transition from Byzantine to Muslim rule in Syria-Palestine.

The chapters in this book are divided into sections, and references to a chapter or a section are made by its number.

1.1.1 The Geographical and Chronological Scopes of the Research

The first section (1.1) in Chapter 1 discusses the objectives and scope of this study, while its second section (1.2) reviews the state of research in two fields: the research pertaining to the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule (Section 1.2.1), and the research of glass finds from the Byzantine–Early Islamic periods (Section 1.2.2).

The glass assemblages from the Jerusalem area examined in this book (Chapters 5 and 6) were recovered in excavated sites and complexes within a geographical range that encompasses the ancient city and the surrounding area within 10 km of the city. This area, as well as the broader region that yielded many of the glass finds discussed in the book, had been included within the territories of the Byzantine provinces of Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda and Palaestina Tertia, and later, following the Arab conquest of the region, within Islamic Bilad al-Sham and particularly the districts of Jund Filastin and Jund alUrdunn.

The historical setting of Jerusalem and its environs during the Byzantine and the Early Islamic periods is provided in Chapter 2, focusing on aspects relevant to this study, such as the various communities, types of settlements, settlement within and around the city, urban zoning, continuity and change. Chapter 3 introduces a comprehensive up-to-date typological-chronological investigation of the body of glass products that was prevalent in Syria-Palestine from the mid-fifth through the eighth centuries. This typologicalchronological study was constructed especially for my Ph.D. dissertation, with the intention of creating a muchneeded, clear and uniform, well-illustrated database for discussion of the glass of this period.

As the entire region discussed in the book underwent varying historical administrative divisions, and in order to avoid citing multiple definitions regarding this region, the term ‘Syria-Palestine’ is used to describe the geographical range covered by the modern-day states of Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan, and by the territories under the Palestinian Authority. The term Palaestina is used only when referring specifically to the Byzantine administrative provinces (e.g., Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda, etc.).

Chapter 3 includes an introduction, and a presentation of the construction methodology of the typologicalchronological study (Section 3.1). The typo-chronology opens with the examination of the glass vessels (Section 3.2), followed by the grouping and classification of the major decoration schemes (Section 3.3) that were employed on these vessels. Another section discusses exceptional glass vessels and artifacts (Section 3.4), and the last one surveys architecture-associated glass products, i.e., windowpanes, tesserae and tiles (Section 3.5).

The beginning of the Byzantine period in the eastern Mediterranean is traditionally set in the year 324, when Constantine the Great becomes sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, the glass products of this period in Syria-Palestine followed a different schedule, and during the fourth–early/mid-fifth centuries they predominately comprised types that reflected and maintained earlier, Roman traditions.

Two of the most common finds in glass assemblages of the period considered in this book are lamps and windowpanes, which facilitated artificial and natural light for the illumination of interiors. Therefore, the discussions in Chapter 4 elaborate on various aspects of these glass-related illumination schemes: lighting and glass lighting devices (Section 4.1); windows and glass windowpanes (Section 4.2). The major novelty of this chapter is the compilation and assessment of Christian, Muslim and Jewish written sources regarding the employment of these lighting devices in religious public buildings in Jerusalem in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (Sections 4.1.3, 4.2.1).

This book, therefore, focuses on the time span from roughly the mid-fifth century, with the emergence of a ‘genuine’ Byzantine-natured glass tradition and its crystallization during the sixth–seventh centuries, and through trends of continuity, enhancement and innovation in glass making in the seventh–eighth centuries (see Section 7.1). Periods preceding this time span are occasionally mentioned when relevant to a certain topic. Furthermore, a concise discussion of the glass technologies and products of the ninth–tenth centuries is included (in Section 7.1), although beyond the scope of this book, to provide the concluding outline for the previous episode of glass manufacture, and to illustrate the significant change in the glass industry at that time.

A large selection of significant glass assemblages from excavated sites in Jerusalem and its environs, which had been occupied during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, is presented in Chapters 5 and 6. Some of the glass assemblages are examined here for the first time, and others have been only preliminarily studied. These glass assemblages are all thoroughly investigated and analyzed in Chapter 5, with reference to their typology as discussed

The dates refer to the Common Era (CE), unless stated otherwise. For the use of various chronological terms such as ‘late Byzantine’, see Dating Terminology in Section 3.1. 2

Introduction in Chapter 3. The glass finds are also considered within their context in the various sites.

Moreover, the early knowledge of ceramics of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods had been, for many years, inadequate, leading to incomplete settlement profiles and precarious site chronologies (e.g., Sauer and Magness 1997:475; Magness 2003:7; Walmsley 2005:106; 2007:48–49, 54–55, 58–59; Bar-Nathan 2011:207–210). Many early studies that adopted the idea of a substantial decline following the Arab conquest, were based on the misdating of local pottery types (e.g., Fine Byzantine Ware, and Cream Ware also known as Mafjar Ware), which had generally been dated too early, as, for example, at Capernaum (Magness 1997; Stacey 2004:16– 20). The typologies and chronologies of other pottery assemblages from the Early Islamic period in the region were also problematic and inconclusive, and have lately been challenged by various researchers, as, for example, the Early Islamic ceramic corpus from Abu Gosh, west of Jerusalem (de Vaux and Stève 1950; Stacey 2004:12– 13; Cytryn-Silverman 2010:142, n. 1). Furthermore, the pottery from Khirbat al-Mafjar, studied by Baramki (1944), was reconsidered by Whitcomb (1988), establishing a new chronological framework and a revision of the site’s history. This reconsideration was later disputed by others (e.g., Stacey 2004:12; Bar-Nathan 2011:208), and lately revised (and ‘shifted’ 50–100 years earlier) by Whitcomb himself, following recent excavations at the site (Whitcomb and Taha 2013:60).

A selection of additional, published glass assemblages from the Jerusalem area is evaluated in Chapter 6. Together, the corpora of material from both chapters (5 and 6) enable the construction of a comprehensive picture of the body of glass from Jerusalem and its vicinity during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, as illustrated in the next chapter. The synthesis in Chapter 7 opens with the characterization and perception of the glass corpus from the mid-fifth to the eighth centuries in Syria-Palestine (Section 7.1). In the following discussions, this corpus, as reflected in Jerusalem and its environs (and established in Chapters 3, 5 and 6), is scrutinized and considered with regard to its typology and chronology, considering aspects of continuity, change and innovation, as well as local trends and production (Section 7.2). Next, the Jerusalem corpus is compared with several well-dated glass assemblages from three major cities in the region, i.e., Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla (Section 7.3). Following are various considerations of settlement issues and cultural-religious-ethnic contexts associated with the glass finds (Section 7.4). The subsequent discussion identifies trends of continuity and change in the glass industry, and weighs their historical significance (Section 7.5). The final chapter (Chapter 8) holds the conclusions and insights of the research presented in the book.

From the mid-twentieth century, and particularly since the 1980s, studies have acknowledged that the impact of the Early Islamic conquests on society was gradual and more complex than previously perceived. These studies addressed various issues, such as the nature of the conquests (e.g., Donner 1981; Kaegi 1992), as well as the scope, rate and effects of the Islamic expansion on the physical landscape of the region, and on economic, demographic and religious aspects of the local societies (e.g., Kennedy 1986; Haldon 1990a; Levy-Rubin 1994; 2000; Saradi 2006; Laiou and Morrisson 2007:23–42; Donner 2008). The archaeological discipline played little or no role in most of these discussions, and has only lately gained appreciation as a significant tool for the examination of such issues (e.g., Whitcomb 1995a; Hodges 2000:7–33; Walmsley 2007:15–30; Avni 2014:19–30).

1.2 The State of Research Following are reviews of the state of research in the two fields relevant to this study: the historical, archaeological and cultural research pertaining to the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule in this region (Section 1.2.1), and the research of glass finds from the Byzantine–Early Islamic periods in Israel and the neighboring countries (Section 1.2.2). 1.2.1 Research Pertaining to the Transition from Byzantine to Islamic Rule The traditional approach among historians regarding the Byzantine–Islamic transition  believed the Arab conquest of Syria-Palestine in the early seventh century to have been swift and aggressive, and directly responsible for the decline of settlements and the transformation of local societies (e.g., Gil 1992:60–61). This approach drove most archaeologists at work during the first half of the twentieth century to diminish, interpret erroneously, or totally ignore archaeological remains of the ‘late periods’, i.e., from the Byzantine period onward, especially  on sites inhabiting earlier, ‘Biblical’ or ‘Classical’  phases  (e.g., Walmsley 2007:19, 26; Simpson 2008:115–117). Additionally, the continuing vitality of Christian life and culture in the world of Islam after the Arab conquest has been until recently overlooked by the academic community (e.g., Griffith 2008:1–2).

Archaeological excavations carried out in the 1970s and 1980s in Jordan and Israel, for example, at Gerasa, Pella and several towns in the Negev, prompted a revised theory of ‘Decline and Fall’ that extended the duration of the devastating effects of the Arab conquest  on the region throughout a full century, culminating in the move of the center of political power from Damascus to Baghdad in 750 (Walmsley 2007:25–27).  A different perspective, founded on archaeological surveys and excavations in Jordan and Syria, alas lacking decisive stratigraphical data, set the date for the beginnings of  urban transformation and changes in the social structures of the Near East as early as the sixth century, irrespective of the Arab conquest of the region 3

Lucid Transformations (Kennedy 1985). This much-quoted model was adopted, for example, by the excavators of Bet She’an (Tsafrir and Foerster 1997). However, Schick’s detailed examination of sites containing Byzantine and Early Islamic remains established a continuity of the Christian communities in Palestine into the Umayyad period (Schick 1995). Also around the turn of the twentieth century, Foss (1997) assessed the archaeological record from the mid-sixth to the mid-eighth centuries in two regions in Syria, and concluded that those areas “prospered in the sixth century, were to some extent disturbed by the Persian occupation, and were transformed in varying degrees under the Umayyads. Their real decline came in the ninth century or later.” (Foss 1997:268).

2007:48–70). Magness examined various sites and pottery assemblages in Israel and Syria, and deduced that they bear no evidence of violent destruction during the first half of the seventh century, but rather demonstrate prosperity and population growth between the mid-sixth and mid-seventh centuries, followed by varied patterns of settlement and abandonment into the tenth century (Magness 2003:1–2, 215–216). Additional archaeological studies of the Byzantine– Islamic transition in various regions of Israel include one on the village at Horbat Zikhrin, which had changed its nature and appearance only in the eighth century (Taxel 2005), and a review of rural settlements in the RamlaYavneh region during 640–800, depicting a highly varied and complex picture of continuation and abandonment (Taxel 2013). An examination of the settlement processes in the Negev displays slow and gradual cultural and religious transformations in the seventh–ninth centuries (Avni 2008), and recent excavations at Shivta demonstrate that its gradual decline began in the mid-sixth century and ended in the total abandonment of the village in the ninth century (Tepper et al. 2018).

The accumulating mass of archaeological evidence seems to support another model termed  “Intensification and Abatement”, involving long durations of settlement growth with intermittent phases of decline, both propelled by internal regional processes rather than external forces (see especially Whittow 2003:414–418). In his essay of 1999, Kennedy explored political, administrative, ethnic, religious, settlement and environmental changes in “Greater Syria”, and suggested a gradual and multifaceted transition into the world of Islam, and a significant break in the mid-eighth century (Kennedy 1999).

Studies of pottery from archaeological excavations in various sites, published in the past twenty years (e.g., Tiberias: Stacey 2004:89–166; Caesarea Maritima: Arnon 2008a; 2008b; 2008c; Ramla: Cytryn-Silverman 2010; sites in Syria and Jordan: e.g., Walmsley 1995; Villeneuve and Watson 2001), have greatly enriched the knowledge of ceramics of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, and entailed a reconsideration of the classification of certain ceramic vessel- and lamp-types, allowing for better dating of archaeological remains.

Pringle, in his examination of pottery from 636 to 1500 in Syria-Palestine, challenged problems of chronology, periodization, and cultural and ethnic distinctions, and suggested the consideration of a wide range of factors, particularly the socio-economic conditions under which pottery was produced, traded and used (Pringle 1981:46– 47). Questions regarding the degree to which Early Islamic pottery may identify populations, as well as issues of local and regional production, and importation and imitation, were also raised by others (e.g., Morony 1995; Whitcomb 1995b; Walmsley 2007:48–59).

A concise review (Cameron 2013), accompanied by a vast categorized bibliography, specifies the various questions and the surging scholarship associated with the transition from ‘Late Antiquity’ to the Islamic world; it also emphasizes the growing attention to the eastern Mediterranean, the Sasanian empire, Ethiopia and the Arabian peninsula. Indeed, one of the latest studies (Bowersock 2017) explores the dynamic environment in Arabia from the mid-sixth to the mid-seventh centuries, in which Islam consolidated, and from which it spread to neighboring lands.

Other fields of the material culture have also been researched, examining issues of chronology, technology, iconography and style, and identifying trends of continuity and innovation (e.g., Grabar 2008). Among these fields are numismatics (e.g., Amitai-Preiss, Berman and Qedar 1994–1999; Foss 1994–1999; 2009; Bijovsky 2002; 2010; 2011; 2012a; 2012b; Saradi 2006:14–18; Walmsley 2007:59–64; Heidemann 2008; 2010), sculpture and architectural decoration (e.g., Talgam 2004), wall paintings (e.g., Rosen-Ayalon 1973; Vibert-Guigue 2006– 2007), wall mosaics (e.g., King 1976; McKenzie 2013) and mosaic floor pavements (e.g., Donceel-Voûte 1999; Piccirillo 1998; 2001; 2005–2006; Talgam 2000; 2014).

An extensive evaluation of the abundant archaeological data available today from hundreds of sites in Israel and Jordan has been recently undertaken, addressing the issues traditionally deliberated by scholars focusing on historical sources (Avni 2014).  The book’s main argument is that the Byzantine–Islamic transition was a slow and gradual process spanning the sixth–eleventh centuries, involving a wide regional variability and diverse settlement patterns, and culminating with the collapse of urban and rural systems. The detailed study of the archaeological record from Jerusalem concludes that the city had evolved into a monolithic Christian entity during the Byzantine period, and transformed in the Early Islamic period into a

A concise review of the state of Early Islamic archaeology challenged many of the historic, economic and cultural questions, based principally on excavations in Pella and Gerasa (Walmsley 2007). It also considered the material culture, particularly the pottery from the region (Walmsley 4

Introduction multicultural city, while maintaining its former Byzantine urban layout (Avni 2014:109–159).

from excavations in Israel and the surrounding region (Barag 1970b). That meticulous work covered much of the material known at the time, and re-evaluated the contexts and chronology of the glass finds, based on a scrutinized examination of the sites’ stratigraphy, pottery and coins. The discovery in the 1960s of a workshop for the production of glass vessels that functioned during the second half of the fourth century at Jalame near Yoqne‘am in the western part of the Jezreel Valley, yielded a landmark research into glass typology and manufacture (Weinberg 1988). Another relevant key publication is the report on the excavation of a church at Shave Ziyyon in the western Galilee, its glass vessels forming a typical Byzantine-period assemblage, which comprises the most recurrent types found in many contemporaneous sites in Israel (Barag 1967a).

The following chapters address these issues regarding the Byzantine–Islamic transition, in light of the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its environs, and explore how glass finds illuminate cultural and religious-ethnic aspects of the various populations that had used them. 1.2.2 Research of Glass Finds from the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods Glass from the Byzantine Period The research of glass from the Near East is a relatively young field, and with its beginnings in the nineteenth century it focused on glass artifacts from museum collections (Israeli 2003:93). The publication of the glass finds from the excavations of the expedition of the University of Michigan at Karanis in Egypt in the 1920s, comprised one of the first scientific reports dedicated exclusively to glass (Harden 19361). The Karanis publication was followed by Harden’s exploration of the development of glass in Syria-Palestine, addressing issues pertaining to the time span under consideration in this book (e.g., Harden 1949; 1962; 1964). However, some of the glass types, now known to date from the Byzantine period, were often assigned a date no later than the fourth century, based on examples from the western part of the Roman Empire (Barag 1970b:2–3). Additionally, many of the glass vessels published by Harden and others (e.g., Illife 1934; Makhouly 1939; Bagatti and Milik 1958) originated from tombs that had been in continuous or intermittent use for a considerable length of time, raising questions of the vessels’ contexts and datings (Harden 1965).

Lately, Keller (2010b) reviewed the history of research into Byzantine glass from the early art-historical approach and the first recognition of decorated vessels in the late nineteenth century, through the archaeological contributions on glass finds since the 1930s to date, including an account of some of the most important publications of glass finds from excavations in Israel since 1950 (Keller 2010b:5–6). Selections of glass assemblages from excavations in Israel and the neighboring countries, and from collections, as well as specialized topics in the study of glass, are presented below. Glass from the Early Islamic Period One of the first publications of a corpus of Islamic glass from an archaeological context presented the glass excavated at Samarra (in modern-day Iraq), which had functioned as the capital of the Abbasid caliphs in the years 836–892 (Lamm 1928). Shortly afterwards, Lamm published his monumental work encompassing all the then-known glass and hard-stone objects from the Near East, dated from the seventh to the fifteenth centuries (Lamm 1929–1930). The study of Early Islamic glass was further enhanced by Lamm’s article on the glass finds discovered in the excavations at Susa in Iran, most of which correspond to the eighth–ninth centuries (Lamm 1931), as well as by his volume on glass from Iran in the National Museum in Stockholm (Lamm 1935).

The first major corpus of glass finds from Gerasa in Jordan was published by Baur in 1938, and most of the glass finds were associated with the fourth or fifth century, based on the quality and forms of the vessels (Baur 1938:518– 519). These dates are for the most part stratigraphically unsubstantiated and are partially based on the erroneous understanding and dating of a site at Jericho.2 The broader issue of glass in the Byzantine world was brought up in Philippe’s book covering the fifth through the sixteenth centuries (Philippe 1970). The book included a discussion on Christian glass from Syria, and a section on glass finds from Palestine in the fifth–seventh centuries, surveying material from several excavations known at the time.

In the following decades some excavation reports of sites containing an Early Islamic phase included a limited account on the period’s glass; among those are reports from sites in Syria (e.g., al-Mina: Lane 1938), Iraq, Iran and Uzbekistan, as well as farther west in Spain and North Africa (see references in Carboni 2001a:16). One of the richest Early Islamic glass corpora was excavated in the 1930s and 1940s at Nishapur in Iran, and published by Kröger in 1995. The glass finds, both imported and locallymade, are mostly associated with the period in which the city thrived as a commercial center in the ninth–eleventh centuries (Kröger 1995).

The Ph.D. dissertation presented by Barag to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1970 was the first comprehensive study of glass from the Roman and Byzantine periods 1 Harden believed the site was abandoned around 460; however, a revision of the excavation report established that the site was still occupied after the fifth century, and that some of the glass finds are typical of the sixth–seventh centuries (Whitehouse 1999). 2 See discussion in Section 3.1.

Two discoveries valuable to the study of Early Islamic glass were published in the past two decades. The treasure sealed 5

Lucid Transformations in 874 in the Famen Temple in northeastern China included 19 intact glass vessels evidently datable to the ninth century (Koch 1996; Li et al. 2016). The other milestone is the discovery of a shipwreck, sunk shortly after 1025 at Serçe Limani, off the southern coast of Asia Minor. Its cargo, which included lumps and fragments of glass for recycling, sheds light on the trade, chronology and typology of glass from the late tenth–early eleventh centuries (Bass et al. 2009).

(e.g., Agady et al. 2002; Hadad 2005; Hadad 2006; Winter 2011; Katsnelson 2014b), Ramla (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2008b; 2009b; 2010; 2016; Gorin-Rosen and Katnelson 2005; Jackson-Tal 2008; Pollak 2005; 2007; Winter 2015b), Tiberias (e.g., Johnson 2000; Amitai-Preiss 2004; Lester 2004a; 2004b; Hadad 2008), and Ashqelon (e.g., Katsnelson 1999; Katsnelson and Jackson-Tal 2004). Glass finds from the Byzantine and/or Early Islamic periods from various types of smaller sites around the country were also documented, for example, Khirbat elBatiya (Gorin-Rosen 2006b), Ahihud (Porat and Getzov 2010), Khirbat esh-Shubeika (Gorin-Rosen 2002b), KursiGergesa (Barag 1983; Katsnelson 2014a), Migdal (GorinRosen 2001b), Khirbat al-Karak (al-Sinnabra) (Delougaz and Haines 1960), Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997; Lester 1997), Yoqne‘am (Lester 1996; Gorin-Rosen 2005b), Horbat Qastra (van den Brink et al. 2013), Horbat Rozez (Winter 2010a), Horbat Nazur (Winter 2010b), Horbat Hermeshit (Winter 1998), Ramat Rahel (Jackson-Tal 2016; Katsnelson 2016), Ashdod (Barag 1967b), Nir Gallim (Gorin-Rosen 2002c), Horbat Karkur Illit (Katsnelson 2004), Rehovot-in-the-Negev (Khirbat Ruheiba) (Patrich 1988), Jericho (Sellin and Watzinger 1913; Baramki 1938; Baramki and Stephan 1935), and many more.

Several general overviews sketchily referred to Early Islamic glass: some addressed problems of chronology and provenance (e.g., von Saldern 1996), and others focused mostly on luxurious specimens (e.g., Carboni 2002; Brosh 2003:319–321). Schick drew attention to several publications on glass of that period, particularly from Pella and Gerasa, in his survey on the archaeology of Palestine in the Early Islamic period (Schick 1998:94–95), and Walmsley briefly mentioned a few studies into glass typology and technology in his book on Early Islamic Syria (Walmsley 2007:65–66). As for Early Islamic glass from Israel, no comprehensive regional study has been compiled so far. Barag in his Ph.D. dissertation on Roman and Byzantine glass (Barag 1970b, and see above) re-examined certain assemblages that had been dated to the Byzantine period, and detected that some glass finds should be attributed to the Early Islamic period (e.g., from Jericho: Barag 1970b:51–52). In the 1980s, Engle explored various aspects of glass, particularly finds from Jerusalem (e.g., Engle 1984; 1987).

Excavation reports containing an account of glass finds from the Byzantine and/or Early Islamic periods have also been published more regularly since the late 1980s from the neighboring countries (see Map 1.2). Studies were conducted on glass from major ancient cities and smaller sites in Jordan, such as Pella (Smith and Day 1989; O’Hea 1992; 1993), Gerasa (Kehrberg 1986; Meyer 1986; 1988; 1989a), Umm al-Rasas (Alliata 1991; Piccirillo 1991), the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo (Saller 1941), Petra and its surroundings (O’Hea 2001; Keller 2006; Keller and Lindblom 2008), Humayma (Jones 2013) and Aila (Aqaba) (Jones 2005), as well as a regional typological review of the glass finds from northern Jordan and southern Syria (Dussart 1998).

The glass finds from the shops on the Umayyad-period street at Bet She’an provided a corpus well-dated between 738, when the shops had been built, and the earthquake in 749,3 when they collapsed (Hadad 2005:21). A short overview on Early Islamic glass in the region was incorporated in the final report of an excavation north of the White Mosque at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010). Additionally, many excavation reports comprising an account of the Early Islamic glass finds have been published, mainly in the past two decades (see below); alas, some of these publications have used general terms such as ‘Early Islamic’ or ‘Early Arab’, while others have assigned a very wide chronological range to many types (and see Dating Terminology in Section 3.1).

Byzantine and/or Early Islamic glass assemblages from Syria were recovered, for example, at Jabal Says (Usais; Bloch 2011), Bosra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984) and Qal’at Sem’an (Dussart 2003). A few final reports on glass from these periods were published from Lebanon (e.g., Beirut: Foy 2000a; Jennings 2006) and Cyprus (e.g., Salamis: Chavane 1975; Kourion: Young 2007). The past few decades also saw the publications of substantial Byzantine and/or Early Islamic glass corpora from Egypt, among them those from Alexandria and its environs (e.g., Rodziewicz 1984; Kucharczyk 2005b; 2007; 2010), from Fustat (ancient Cairo; Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001; Shindo 1992; 2000; Foy 2000b; Foy, Picon and Vichy 2003) and from the Sinai peninsula (Gorin-Rosen 2000b; Shindo 2003; 2005; 2007; Church A-152 at Ostrakine4).

Glass from Excavations in Israel and Neighboring Countries Many assemblages containing glass finds from the Byzantine period and/or the Early Islamic period have been studied since the 1990s from excavations in various types of settlements in Israel (see Map 1.2). Extensive glass corpora from major ancient cities have been published, particularly in the past decade, from Jerusalem (see Chapters 5 and 6), Caesarea Maritima (e.g., Peleg and Reich 1992; Pollak 2000; 2003; Israeli 2008), Bet She’an

The Northern Sinai Project was headed by E. Oren, and the glass finds from Church A-152 at Ostrakine were studied and submitted for publication by Y. Gorin-Rosen and the author. 4

3

See n. 44, in Chapter 2.

6

Introduction

Map 1.2. Location map of major sites mentioned in the book.

7

Lucid Transformations Specialized Topics in the Study of Glass

Glass from Private and Museum Collections

Certain specialized topics pertaining to glass from the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods have also been considered separately through the years, among them the uses of glass in churches (Keller and Lindblom 2008) and as architectural decoration (Carboni 2003), liturgical vessels and wineglasses (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010), glass lamps (e.g., Crowfoot and Harden 1931; Hadad 1998; 2003; Olcay 2001; Keller 2010a; Foy 2011), ‘pilgrim’ vessels (e.g., Barag 1970a; 1971; Newby 2008), kohl bottles (Brosh 1993), stain-painted ware (e.g., Lehrer-Jacobson 1990–1993; Watson 1998; Carboni 2001d), Islamic cameo-cut vessels (e.g., Whitehouse 1993; 2003a), windowpanes (e.g., Meyer 1989b; Brosh 1990; Gorin-Rosen 2000b:238–240; Whitehouse 2001d; Foy 2005e; Foy and Fontaine 2008; Schibille, Marii and Rehren 2008), glass mosaic tesserae (e.g., James 2006; 2010; Entwistle and James 2013), and glass weights and stamps (e.g., Miles 1971; Balog 1976; Morton 1985; Entwistle and Meek 2015; Schibille et al. 2016). A review of Byzantine glass by Keller (2010b) also touches on the state of research of some of these topics (Keller 2010b:5–6).

Many private and museum collections hold glass vessels allegedly retrieved from Israel and neighboring lands. These pieces were mostly acquired in the antiquities market and generally lack a secure provenance; therefore, collection pieces carry much less significance for scholarly, historian-oriented research compared with finds recovered in scientifically conducted archaeological excavations. Nevertheless, collection pieces are helpful in establishing the complete forms of excavated fragmentary finds. Some glass collections and exhibitions have been documented in extensive catalogues. Several of these catalogues include scholarly articles on issues related to glass from the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods in the region; noteworthy among them are the catalogue of ancient glass in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem (Israeli 2003; with a chapter on Islamic glass, Brosh 2003), the review of the Early Islamic glass in the L.A. Mayer Memorial Institute for Islamic Art in Jerusalem (Hasson 1979), the catalogue of the Ernesto Wolf collection (Stern 2001), the catalogue of the Islamic glass exhibition held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York city (Carboni and Whitehouse 2001), the catalogue of the Al-Sabah collection in the Kuwait National Museum in Kuwait City (Carboni 2001b), the volume on glass in the Nasser D. Khalili collection of Islamic art (Goldstein 2005, with a relevant contribution by Kröger), and the first two volumes of the catalogue on Islamic glass in the Corning Museum of Glass in New York state (Whitehouse 2010; 2014).

Recently, research has become increasingly focused on the study of the patterns of glass production and distribution, as well as on the identification and classification of distinctive compositional groups of glass, utilizing chemical and isotope analyses (see Production of Raw Glass and Vessel Glass in Section 7.1).

8

2 The Historical Setting of Jerusalem and Its Environs in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods

The synopsis of the political history of Syria-Palestine,5 and principally of Jerusalem, during the fourth through the eighth centuries, particularly underscores the events and processes by which Jerusalem acquired its prominence and its leading religious status among Christians and Muslims. Moreover, as this outline is intended to provide a background for the study of glass finds, mostly from various sites in Jerusalem and its environs during the transition period between Byzantine and Muslim rule, it focuses on aspects relevant to this research, such as types of settlements (e.g., monasteries, churches, and farmsteads); settlement patterns within and around the city; urban zoning; continuity and change; the various communities of Jerusalem; and more.

religion, and demonstrate and exercise their superiority. This is expressed, inter alia, by Eusebius (c. 260–340), bishop of Caesarea, in his Ecclesiastical History, in which he draws a link from David to Jesus, and continuity from Jesus to the early apostles and bishops (Books 1–3, Book 4: Chapter 5, Book 5: Chapter 12; Lake 1953).8 2.1.2 Theological Controversies and Church Politics As Christianity gradually gained recognition throughout the empire, the eminence of Jerusalem increased. The city’s status was promoted in the Ecumenical Council of Nicaea, gathered in 325, which stated that the bishop of Aelia should be honored, while keeping the standing of the Metropolitan.9 This undefined distinction generated rivalry and tension between the bishops of Jerusalem and Caesarea, which intensified throughout the fourth century, involving issues of power, prestige and theology (Rubin 1982; 1999:203–206; Walker 1990:3–130, 311–401; Ashkenazi 2009:34–45, 53–58).

2.1 Early Developments The reforms and reorganizations initiated by the Roman emperors in the late third and early fourth centuries incorporated the restructuring of the provinces and the shifting of the capital to the newly-named Constantinople. With the death of Theodosius I in 395, and the final split of the Roman Empire, Syria-Palestine was included within its eastern division.6 Unlike the West and the eastern border regions, Syria-Palestine enjoyed relative stability and prosperity during the fourth century and through the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries (Ward-Perkins 2005:126, 142–143; Cameron 2012:1–3, 12–19).

The ecumenical council that convened in 381 in Constantinople, praised Cyril, the current bishop of Jerusalem (in office: 348–386), and declared him bishop of the Church of Jerusalem, ‘Mother of all Churches’, granting the city the same status as that of the other apostolic sees (Rubin 1999:214–217; Ashkenazi 2009:58– 62). The fluctuating status of the bishops of Jerusalem within the church hierarchy, and the official recognition of Jerusalem as an apostolic see, were also affected by major theological controversies that unsettled the Christian world in the fifth–sixth centuries (Rubin 1999:221–225; Ashkenazi 2009:70–90; Cameron 2012:185–187).

2.1.1 Christianity Gaining Recognition Jerusalem had for centuries been deeply associated with the Jews and with the sanctified Temple the object of their yearning, and, as of the second century, with the pagandominated Aelia Capitolina. Therefore, during the early centuries of the first millennium, Christianity envisioned Jerusalem as a heavenly and spiritual entity, as described, for example, in Chapter 21 of John’s Book of Revelation.7

2.1.3 The Jews and the Temple Mount From the days of Emperor Hadrian (117–138) Jews were forbidden to enter Aelia Capitolina;10 nevertheless, there may have been a Jewish community at its outskirts on Mount Zion in the fourth century; the Pilgrim of Bordeaux,

Following the Edict of Milan in 313, and the adoption of Christianity as the official faith of the Empire by Constantine I, the Great, in 324, the church and its followers could strengthen the credibility of their triumphant

For the development of the Church of Jerusalem after Jesus see, e.g., Irshai 1999; Ashkenazi 2009:17–33. For the rise of Christianity in the West see, e.g., Brown 2003, with a chapter (No. 12) on Christianity in Asia and the rise of Islam. 9 The main issue associated with the Council of Nicaea was the Arian Controversy and the ‘Creed’, which defined the true divinity of the Son of God (e.g., Rubin 1999:205–206). 10 For an overview on Jerusalem and the Jews see, e.g., Safrai 1999. For studies concerning Jewish thought and attitudes toward Jerusalem in this period see, e.g., Grossman 1996; Yahalom 1996. 8

See Annotations on Terminology and Chronology. For various concepts of Late Antiquity and its periodization, see a review in Cameron 2012:4–7. 7 For studies concerning Christian thought and attitudes toward Jerusalem in this period see, e.g., Walker 1990; Prawer 1996:311–331; Stroumsa 1999. 5 6

9

Lucid Transformations who visited the city in 333, mentions seven synagogues within the wall on Mount Zion, one of which remained (Wilkinson 1981:157–158). The restriction was probably renewed during Constantine’s reign (306–337), and Jews were then allowed to enter the city only once a year, on Tish‘a Be-Av, to grieve over the destruction of the Temple (e.g., the Pilgrim of Bordeaux; Wilkinson 1981:157).11

a humble building at first and a grander basilica in the late fourth or early fifth century. 2.2.2 Early Pilgrimage and Monasticism With the increasing acceptance of the new faith throughout the empire, the Holy Land, and Jerusalem in particular, attracted a growing stream of Christian pilgrims.14 Some of them settled in and around the city, especially on Mount Zion and on the Mount of Olives. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem as early as the fourth century is attested, among others, by the Pilgrim of Bordeaux, who visited the city in 333 (Limor 1998:21–37; Wilkinson 1981:153–160), and by Egeria’s15 descriptions of the Christian ceremonies held in the city during her visit in 383–384 (e.g., paragraphs 29.5 and 37.4; Wilkinson 1981:131, 137).

The abandoned Temple Mount stood as a testimony to the triumph of Christianity over Judaism.12 Therefore, the eventually-unsuccessful attempt by Emperor Julian (361– 363) to restore paganism and Neo-Platonism and to rebuild the Jewish Temple was perceived by many Christians as intended to undermine their claim to superiority over the Jewish people and faith (Bowersock 1978; Rubin 1999:201, 209–214; Safrai 1999:241–251; Tsafrir 1999:323–328; 2009a:83–87, 94–99; Eliav 2005:46–82, 125–150).

Furthermore, the liturgy practiced in Jerusalem in the fourth century, as described enthusiastically by Egeria, had a ‘historical’ quality and was unique in linking the events of the passion and the resurrection of Jesus to the places mentioned in the scriptures, and in matching the psalms and the lessons with the time and place they were read (e.g., Wilkinson 1981:54, 86–88; Verhelst 2006). This linkage intensified the pilgrims’ exaltation, and probably inspired others to follow.

2.2 Establishing Christian Eminence 2.2.1 Sacred Sites and Churches While gaining recognition during the fourth century, Christianity confronted the material existence of the Holy Land and Jerusalem, and their sacred sites. The precise locations of the crucifixion, burial and resurrection of Jesus had apparently been hitherto obscure, and legends and traditions arose around them, especially regarding the discovery of the Savior’s tomb and the Cross (Rubin 1982; 1999:203–205; Ashkenazi 2009:46–52). Moreover, several of the first churches built on behalf of Emperor Constantine I and his mother Helena, among them the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (see below), were erected over pagan temples, to emphasize the triumph of Christianity over the defeated opponent religion (Tsafrir 1998:200–202; Patrich 1999:361–367).

Some of the pilgrims, seeking to escape the worldliness and vices of the city,16 retired to secluded monasteries,17 built in Jerusalem and its surroundings. Many of these pilgrims/ founders were women18 (Limor 2001; Goldfus 2003:75– 76), as was Melania ‘the elder’, a Roman noblewoman, who erected a monastery on the Mount of Olives, where the church-historian Rufinus lived for many years before returning to his hometown in Italy. Hieronymus, the author of the Vulgata, visited the Holy Land twice during the last quarter of the fourth century, and finally settled in Bethlehem, in an all-male monastery he had founded. Nearby, a nunnery was constructed by Paula, another

By the late fourth century, Jerusalem’s built area had expanded, and its landscape had been strewn with ecclesiastical complexes. The basilica of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, initiated by Constantine I, was inaugurated by Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, in 335, and its elaborate structures were probably completed after the emperor’s death two years later.13 The Eleona Church, located over the cave where Jesus preached to his disciples, was initiated by Constantine’s mother on the Mount of Olives, on top of which another church, the Church of the Ascension, was built by a noblewoman named Poemenia in about 385. A church was also built on Mount Zion:

For extensive discussions on Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, as well as translations of various documented travels, see, e.g., Wilkinson 1981; 2002; Hunt 1982; Limor 1998; 1999; 2001; 2003; Talbot 2001a; Maraval 2003. 15 Egeria was a nun, who traveled to the Holy Land and Jerusalem during 381–384, and related her journey to her fellow nuns back in southern France or Spain (e.g., Wilkinson 1981; Limor 1998:41–114; 2001). 16 Immoral activities were observed, for example, by Bishop Gregory of Nyssa, while touring the region in 379 or 381. In one of his letters he also argues that pilgrimage to Jerusalem is not essential, and that believers will merit the Holy Spirit in proportion of their faith, not their pilgrimage (Rubin 1999:208). For a discussion of the attitudes of Gregory of Nyssa and other Church Fathers towards pilgrimage to Jerusalem, see BittonAshkelony 2005. 17 A comprehensive discussion of the monastic movement throughout Palestine is beyond the scope of this research. For general studies on the subject see, e.g., Chitty 1966; Binns 1994; Perrone 1995; 1998; Patrich 2001; Hirschfeld 2006; Bitton-Ashkelony and Kofsky 2006. On rural monasteries in the Judean Shephelah see, e.g., Taxel 2009, and in the western Galilee, e.g., Ashkenazi and Aviam 2014. Other regional studies include, for example, the monasteries in the Negev, e.g., Figueras 1995, and in Sinai, e.g., Dahari 2000. 18 Women probably refrained from long-distance pilgrimage as of the seventh century (Talbot 2001a:98–100). 14

11 During her visit in 438/9 Empress Eudocia may have expanded the Jews’ permit to include the three pilgrimages to the Temple, i.e., shelosha regalim, as well (see Rubin 1999:226). 12 The desertion of the Temple Mount is emphasized in the depiction of Jerusalem on the Madaba Map, where the large open space is hardly noticeable among the many magnificent churches. Nevertheless, the Temple Mount was a routine stop in the Christian pilgrimage tour, and may have accommodated several buildings, among them possibly a nunnery (Eliav 2005:140–146). 13 On the Church of the Holy Sepulchre see, e.g., Biddle 1999; Patrich 1999; Avni and Seligman 2003.

10

The Historical Setting of Jerusalem and Its Environs Roman noblewoman, and her daughter Eustochium (Limor 1998:133–154). Other pilgrims retreated to the solitude and spiritual intensity of the Judean Desert, where a flourishing and influential movement was to develop.19

surrounding district (Seligman 2011:280).21 The population was now almost entirely Christian (Di Segni and Tsafrir 2012), as also attested by the grave goods unearthed in the city’s Byzantine-period burials (Avni 2014:142–144).22

2.2.3 Founding Traditions of Sacredness and Memorial

Jerusalem attracted and hosted numerous pilgrims, who contributed to the city’s population growth and affluence.23 These pilgrims arrived from various regions, particularly from the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking Asia Minor and Syria, as well as from Georgia, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Arabia. Many stayed on, temporarily or permanently,24 and some founded monasteries in Jerusalem and its surroundings, as well as in the Judean Desert (Seligman 2011:550–556; Di Segni and Tsafrir 2012; and see references in n. 19, above).

During the fifth century Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land and Jerusalem intensified, traditions of sacredness were being established and elaborated, and additional churches, monasteries and hospices were built, for example, on Mount Zion. In some of the holy sites, new relics, meant to attract pilgrims, were being ‘discovered’, such as Jesus’s crown of thorns, exhibited on Mount Zion, or the spear with which the Roman soldier stabbed Jesus, that was on display in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Tsafrir 1999:313–317).

The Christians of Jerusalem were affiliated to numerous ethnic denominations, among them Latins, Armenians and Georgians, Copts and more. This sectarian division, which matured during the Early Islamic period, was also manifested in the physical allocation of these subcommunities around the city (Di Segni and Tsafrir 2012; Avni 2014:125–127); accordingly, the Armenians, for example, concentrated in the area north of Damascus Gate (see Section 5.1).

Moreover, this period saw the promotion of traditions related to Mary the mother of Jesus, such as setting the location of her burial and Assumption at Gethsemane, and her Dormition on Mount Zion, as well as identifying Mary’s birthplace at the Probatica church, which had until then been associated only with Jesus healing the paralyzed man (Rubin 1999:226; Tsafrir 1999:329). The dedication of the Nea church (see below) to Mary Theotokos (i.e., birth-giver to God, as she was identified by the Monophysites and the Chalcedonians), further promoted the liturgy and the Jerusalemite traditions related to Mary (Rubin 1999:231).

The influx of pilgrims to Jerusalem instigated the building of numerous and larger additional ecclesiastical establishments, including churches, monasteries, hostels, infirmaries and burial grounds, in and around the city (Limor 1998:4–8; 1999:395–400; Tsafrir 1999; Ashkenazi 2009:222–224, 324–346; Avni 2005:377–381; 2014:114– 125). Many of these institutions continued to serve the Christian communities under Islamic rule (see below).

The remains of the first martyr, St. Stephen, were ‘discovered’ in 415, transferred to Mount Zion, and later housed in a grand church.20 The remains of martyrs from Persia and Armenia were also buried in Jerusalem at that time (Rubin 1999:225–226).

2.2.5 Prosperity and Urban Development

Empress Eudocia, wife of Emperor Theodosius II, visited Jerusalem in 438/439, and settled there in 444 (until her death in 460). She was responsible for the construction of several churches in the city, including the basilica over the Pool of Siloam, where Jesus was said to have restored sight to a blind man (Tsafrir 1999:320–322).

Jerusalem prospered, particularly during the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527–565). It became one of the largest and wealthiest cities in the Byzantine realm, its urban development stimulated largely by the extensive pilgrimage and its impact (see above). The ecclesiastical edifices built during the fourth and fifth centuries (see above) contributed to the extension of the city limits, and the city wall was expanded under the auspices of Empress Eudocia to encompass the Ophel, the City of David spur and Mount Zion (Tsafrir 1999:285–295)25 (see Map 2.0).

2.2.4 A Thriving, Cosmopolitan, PredominatelyChristian City During the sixth century, the eastern empire and Syria-Palestine experienced considerable stability and prosperity (Morrison and Sodini 2002; Bar 2004; Wickham 2005:442–459, 613–626; Laiou and Morrisson 2007:23–42; Cameron 2012:168–173). Jerusalem thrived, and its population peaked, estimated at 50,000–70,000 (Avni 2014:138), or 150,000–200,000 in the city and its

For a recent review of this issue and its research history, see Seligman 2011:275–281. 22 There may have been a small Samaritan minority in Jerusalem in the sixth century (Di Segni and Tsafrir 2012:410). 23 For a recent overview of the written sources, history of research, and various settlement and economic aspects regarding Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem and its hinterland, see Seligman 2011:537–557. 24 Apparently, the average stay of a pilgrim in Jerusalem lasted several weeks to several months (Avni 2014:145–146). 25 For studies on Jerusalem during the Byzantine period, its layout, walls, streets, churches and necropoleis, as well as the relevant written sources, see, e.g., Tsafrir 1999; Avni 2005; 2014:109–125; Gutfeld 2011; 2012). 21

19 Judean Desert monasteries have been extensively researched, for example, by Y. Hirschfeld (e.g., 1992; 1993a; 1993b) and J. Patrich (e.g., 1995). For a recent overview of the written sources, history of research, and various settlement and economic aspects of the ecclestiastical institutions in the Jerusalem hinterland, see Seligman 2011:478–536. 20 The initial church was inaugurated by Empress Eudocia in 439, and completed in 460.

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Lucid Transformations 2.2.7 The Agricultural Hinterland

The urban development under Justinian I was evident principally in the transformation of the main north–south street, the western cardo, into a wide colonnaded street, and the construction, along its southern section, of the monumental ‘New Church of the Holy Mother of God and Ever-Virgin Mary’, known as the Nea (new) church.26 Many of the city’s landmarks were prominently featured in the Madaba Map, among them the western and eastern colonnaded cardines, the city wall with its towers and gates, the complexes of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Nea church, as well as the Church of Holy Zion, the Probatica Church, and additional churches and buildings (e.g., Tsafrir 1999:342–351; Piccirillo and Alliata 1999).

Numerous churches and monasteries were also erected farther away from Jerusalem, accompanied by farmsteads, and to a lesser extent, villages (see Sections 5.5, 5.7, 5.9, 5.10, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10 and 6.11; Adawi 2010; Seligman 2011:478–536). These complexes and settlements, surrounded by agricultural fields and terraces, comprised the agricultural hinterland of Jerusalem, and provided supplies for the city’s large and mostly non-productive population (Seligman 2011:515–524; Avni 2104:145–146). Many of these complexes and settlements, most of which were affiliated to ecclesiastical institutions, continued to function well into the Early Islamic period (see Sections 7.4 and 7.5).

The city’s landscape and structures are also known from several accounts written by travelers to Jerusalem, as, for example, the Breviarius de Hierosolima from the first quarter of the sixth century, or the Piacenza Pilgrim from the second half of the sixth century (Limor 1998:197–205, 209–236; Wilkinson 2002:117–121, 138–142). These and other chronicles shed light on the church liturgy and on the pilgrims’ itineraries. The main focus of Christian pilgrimage to the city had always been the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the ceremonies held in it. Yet, in the sixth century the Jerusalem tour would have also included, among others, the Nea and Probatica churches, the Church of Holy Zion and other sanctified interests on Mount Zion, various churches and monasteries on the Mount of Olives and at Gethsemane, St. Stephen’s church, the tombs along the Kidron Valley, and the basilica over the Pool of Siloam27 (see Map 2.0). Visitors’ attention was also drawn to the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount, which had been identified as the location of the martyrdom of James the brother of Jesus (Eliav 2005:60–82, 140–146).

2.3 Under Persian Occupation The long rivalry between the eastern Byzantine Empire and the Sassanian Persians reached a pinnacle in the early seventh century, when the latter invaded and occupied large parts of the Byzantine territories, including SyriaPalestine (Cameron 2012:187–195).28 Jerusalem was captured by the Persians after a siege in 614; its churches were set on fire, and the Christian population was massacred. The city’s patriarch Zacharias, other dignitaries and expert craftsmen were apprehended and exiled to Persia, along with the relics of the True Cross and additional treasures (Rubin 1999:233–237; Cameron 2012:195–197). The written sources relating to the sack of Jerusalem and its occupation by the Persians are controversial and most probably biased, and have instigated much scholarly research (e.g., Baras 1982:329–333; Avi-Yonah 1984:257– 265). The most detailed account of the Persian capture of Jerusalem was delivered by Strategos, a monk from the Mar Sabas Monastery, who witnessed the events.29 A section of this account, quoting a certain Thomas, enumerates the dead and lists 35 burial locations, some of which may be identified around the city wall (Conybeare 1910:514–516; Avni 2010:35–40). Strategos also described mass killings of Christians, by Jews who collaborated with the Persians (Conybeare 1910:508–509).30 These reports, which had been fueled by resentment toward the Jews who gloated at the Christians’ misfortune, were probably intentionally distorted, and later served the Church propaganda in blaming the entire massacre of Christians on the Jews alone (Rubin 1999:233–237; Safrai 1999:251–258).

2.2.6 Extra-Mural Expansion Extensive building activities took place outside the city wall, comprising residential neighborhoods, farmsteads, monasteries and churches, many of which continued to serve the Christian communities under Islamic rule up to the ninth and tenth centuries (see Sections 7.4 and 7.5; Schick 1995:340–350; Bahat 1996:87–97; Di Segni 2009b; Avni 2014:138–142). Large monastic complexes were established, for example, along the Kidron Valley and on the Mount of Olives (see Section 5.6; Tsafrir 1999:331–336), north of Damascus Gate (see Sections 5.1 and 6.4; Tsafrir 1999:336–340; Avni 2014:139–141), and west of the city wall (see Sections 5.2 and 5.3; Tsafrir 1999:340–342). The cemeteries of Jerusalem were situated around the city wall, within monastic edifices or bordering residential neighborhoods (Avni 2005; 2014:142–144).

For discussions on the Persian conquest of Syria-Palestine and Jerusalem, and the relevant written sources see, e.g., Baras 1982; Rubin 1999:233–237 and n. 144; Foss 2003; Stoyanov 2011:11–23. On the repercussions of the Persian conquest on Christian political theology and ideology see, e.g., Stoyanov 2011:25–75. 29 Strategos’s account and its various translations into Arabic and ancient Georgian were discussed and evaluated by various scholars, e.g., Conybeare 1910; Baras 1982:302–304; Foss 2003:152, n. 17; Avni 2010:35, n. 1. 30 On the involvement of the Jews of Syria-Palestine in the Persian occupation see, e.g., Baras 1982:323–327; Avi-Yonah 1984:261–265; Wilken 1992:193–215; Schick 1995:26–31; Foss 2003:153. 28

26 The building of the Nea church was documented by Procopius of Caesarea around 552–560, and its inauguration was reported by Cyril of Scythopolis in November 543. For a recent extensive study of the Nea church, see Gutfeld 2012:141–267, 479–500. 27 For a list of churches and monasteries in and around Jerusalem for which there is literary and archaeological evidence, see Schick 1995:325–359.

12

The Historical Setting of Jerusalem and Its Environs

Map 2.0. Location map of features and structures in Jerusalem mentioned in Chapter 2.

whichever the case, it seems evident that no significant areas were abandoned or transformed following the Persian conquest of Jerusalem. Moreover, any damage caused to major buildings had been hastily repaired, and therefore left no mark on the archaeological record (Avni 2010). Furthermore, written sources suggest that during the Persian occupation (614–628) travel, communication and long-distance trade between Syria-Palestine and Byzantium were maintained, and pilgrimage to the Holy Land, especially from Armenia, was resumed (Schick 1995:44–46; Foss 2003:164).

The relevant written sources also recount the massive burning and demolition of churches and monasteries (Conybeare 1910:507; Baras 1982:338; Schick 1995:33– 39; Ashkenazi 2009:154–160). However, a detailed reexamination of the archaeological findings in many of the city’s major churches (e.g., the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Nea church, the churches of Gethsemane and of the Probatica, St. Stephen’s church, and the monastic complexes north of Damascus Gate) failed to provide evidence for destruction or significant damage in the early seventh century, nor for the abandonment of these establishments at the end of the Byzantine period. Furthermore, most of the city’s ecclesiastical complexes continued to function uninterruptedly well into the Early Islamic period, some up to the ninth century (Avni 2010:40–44; Magness 2011).

Nevertheless, the Christian population of Syria-Palestine, and particularly of Jerusalem and of the Judean Desert monasteries,31 had suffered greatly under the Persian occupation (Schick 1995:47–48). Christian sentiment was passionately expressed, for example, in two poems

The Persians probably prevented massive pillage and devastation once they had gained control over the city, and the initiators of historical records may have intentionally amplified the scale and scope of Jerusalem’s physical destruction (Magness 2011:98, quoting Johnston); yet,

Many monks from various Judean Desert monasteries were killed or apprehended. Others hid in caves or fled the area, and many later returned to their monasteries, most of which had probably remained undamaged (Schick 1995:25–26, 31–33; Patrich 2011b:206). 31

13

Lucid Transformations After the Muslim victory at the battle of Ajnadayn in 634, insecurity drove numerous civilians from the countryside to the apparent security of walled towns and cities, and many of them crowded in Jerusalem. Roads were blocked, and passage was unsafe, as was the road between Jerusalem and the bynow-captured Bethlehem. This crisis, as well as the cruelty and audacity of the Saracens, was traumatically expressed by Jerusalem’s bishop Sophronius in his letters and sermons, delivered in 634 and 636/637 (Kaegi 1992:100–101; Hoyland 1997:67–73; Levy-Rubin 2011a:155–156).

(Anacreontica 19 and 20) written by Sophronius, a monk, orator and theologian, and the future patriarch of Jerusalem, lamenting the capture of Jerusalem by the Persians. While these poems do not depict an accurate historic picture, they reflect the crisis experienced by Christian leaders, whose hegemony had collapsed when their holy land had been assaulted by non-Christians (Wilken 1992:226–232; Wilkinson 2002:157–163). Shortly after the take-over, the Persians gradually turned against the Jews, and subjected them to the vengeance of the Christians, who were now permitted to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the city and its churches (Schick 1995:39–48; Safrai 1999:251–256). Among the first to be restored (apparently before the 630-visit of Emperor Heraclius, who admired the work; see below) were the churches of the Holy Sepulcher, Holy Zion and the Ascension. This restoration was organized and funded by Modestus, who had replaced the exiled patriarch of Jerusalem. Additional financing was provided by Johannes ‘the Almsgiver’, who also assisted Christian refugees who had fled from Jerusalem to Egypt (Baras 1982:338– 340; Schick 1995:46–47, 52–54; Rubin 1999:236; Foss 2003:163–164; Ashkenazi 2009:160–162).

In the following years, and with growing intensity after the Arab victory in the battle of Yarmuk in 636, most of the countryside, as well as the cities of Syria-Palestine and the Phoenician coast, surrendered to the Arabs with little or no resistance. Caesarea Maritima fell in late 640 or early 641, and by then Byzantine control in the region came to an end (Hill 1971:59–84; Gil 1992:45–48, 59). Most of the towns and settlements of Syria-Palestine, excluding the coastal cities, succumbed peacefully and reached favorable terms of surrender. Such treaties usually entailed the payment of the poll tax (jizya); assured the inhabitants’ security, possessions and religious freedom, and pledged not to convert them to Islam; and guaranteed to protect ecclesiastical buildings and properties, and to refrain from housing Muslim soldiers in churches (Hill 1971:59–84; Schick 1995:72–74; Levy-Rubin 2011a).

2.3.1 The Final Years of Byzantine Rule Following years of intensive warfare, the Byzantines managed to recapture their lost territories, and Emperor Heraclius (610–641) finally triumphed over the Sassanian Empire in 628. The peace treaty that had been settled with the Persian king entailed the release of all Christian prisoners, and the retrieval of the relics of the True Cross, which Heraclius restored to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on his pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 630.32 The emperor also allotted generous funds for the rebuilding of additional churches and for the restoration of the city, and exempted the local population from all taxes. Upon his visit, Heraclius had guaranteed the safety of the Jews by an oath of protection, yet it was annulled by the vengeful church clergymen of Jerusalem, and the Jews were mercilessly slaughtered and expelled from the city (Kaegi 1992:26–27, 64, 74–78; Schick 1995:49–54; Ashkenazi 2009:160–167; Cameron 2012:197–198).

Evidently, the Arab conquest of Syria-Palestine had probably been violent to some extent, yet it did not entail significant immediate economic or social changes. Furthermore, reassessments of the archaeological findings indicate that the physical destruction of cities and churches had apparently been confined, and that ruins were hastily restored. Moreover, there is evidence for the construction of new churches in the 630s, during and immediately following the conquest, as, for example, the oratory or chapel built on the ruins of the church of St. Stephen in Jerusalem during Sophronius’ tenure as patriarch in 634–638 (Kaegi 1992:270–271; Schick 1995:79; Bahat 1996:90–91; Di Segni 2006–2007). 2.4.1 The Occupation of Jerusalem Jerusalem was sieged and taken by Muslim forces in 63834 (Donner 1981:151–152; Gil 1992:51–56; 1996:6–7); however, the city did not suffer any substantial physical damage (Schick 1995:75–76, and see below).

2.4 The Arab Conquest The ongoing wars between Byzantium and Persia during the sixth and early seventh centuries weakened both powers, and while the Byzantines were attempting to restore their authority along the eastern borders in the early 630s, the Arabs raided Syria-Palestine (Donner 1981:91–155; Kaegi 1992:66–111; Gil 1992:11–74; Cameron 2012:198–200).33

The precise course of events is unclear, and some of the narratives relating the city’s surrender seem legendary and tendentious. These narratives involve Sophronius, Jerusalem’s patriarch, and Caliph Umar I (634–644), who allegedly led the city’s capture; the latter refused Sophronius’s offer to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and instead prayed on its steps. Umar also supposedly initiated the building of a prayer house or a mosque on the Temple Mount (Gibbon 1862:321;

32 Later, the True Cross and other treasures from the city’s churches were apparently transferred to the Byzantine capital Constantinople, on Heraclius’s order, well before the Arab siege of Jerusalem in 638 (Schick 1995:75). 33 For detailed accounts and discussions on the Arab conquests, their consequences and the relevant written sources see, e.g., Donner 1981; Kaegi 1992; Hoyland 1997; 2015; Sharon 2002; Kennedy 2007; HowardJohnston 2010.

On the various dates proposed for the Arab occupation of Jerusalem, see Hoyland 1997:64, n. 31. 34

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The Historical Setting of Jerusalem and Its Environs Busse 1986; Wilken 1992:233–239). These traditions echo the discourse over the sanctity of the Holy City, and the symbolic role later assumed by Jerusalem in the Christian–Muslim religious confrontation (Grabar 1959; 1996:44–49; Busse 1968:441–453; Hill 1971:59–60; Wilken 1992:239–246; Elad 2008:210–211; Griffith 2008:23–27).35

recites Arculf,38 who allegedly visited the city in the late 670s, where he counted 84 towers in the city wall. On the Temple Mount Arculf observed a house of prayer that could hold 3,000 people (Adomnán’s De locis sanctis, Book 1, Ch. 1:1–6, 14; Wilkinson 2002:168–170; Grabar 1996:49– 50; Hoyland 1997:219–223); this structure was probably an early congregational mosque, later replaced by the al-Aqsa mosque (see below).

The surrender treaty for Jerusalem comprised, besides the standard stipulations (see above), additional specific topics that appear in some of the known versions, among them the ban on Jews to live in the city, and the guarantee of the safety of those who wish to leave it (Gil 1996:8–9; Levy-Rubin 2011b:52–53).36

During the late seventh–early eighth centuries the Umayyad caliphs initiated massive construction projects in Jerusalem, especially on and around the Temple Mount, which had probably been largely deserted during the Byzantine period,39 and was now renamed al-Haram al-Sharif. 40 The most magnificent of these buildings were the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa mosque, both constituting a monumental statement of Islam in a non-Muslim setting.41

2.5 Under the Umayyad Caliphate Following a short period of internal Arab conflicts, the Umayyad caliphate, with Damascus as its center, was founded in 661, with the appointment of Mu‘awiya as caliph (661–680) in Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Yazid (680–683), and later by Abd al-Malik (685/6–705) and his son al-Walid (705–715) (Gil 1992:75–78; 1996:10–11; Elad 1999:23–26).

Erected on the location of the Jewish Temple, and facing and challenging the city’s major Christian monuments, i.e., the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Nea Church, the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa mosque highlighted Jerusalem’s importance within the Early Islamic realm, and proclaimed Islam as the successor of the two older monotheistic religions in the region.42 Moreover, the tension generated by these two pairs of outstanding monuments was visually evident on the city’s skyline, and it symbolically defined the new religious equilibrium in Jerusalem (Grabar 1959; 1996:170–173; Goitein 1982:176–177).43

The first Umayyad rulers invested in the promotion of Jerusalem, which for some time served as the political and administrative center of the district of Jund Filastin (Elad 1999:160).37 Jerusalem’s political-religious status was advanced by Abd al-Malik and his successors, and was intended to equal or outshine Mecca, which was at the time governed by a rival caliph (Sharon 1986:99–109; Elad 1999:147–158; 2008:209–211). Besides political-strategic and economic interests, the Muslims had religious associations with Syria-Palestine, the land where Abraham, Jesus and other prophets lived and preached, and especially with Jerusalem, the first qibla, later revered as the site of Muhammad’s ascent to heaven, the miraj (Busse 1968; Donner 1981:96–101; Gil 1992:12–16, 90–104; Livne-Kafri 2000:7–109).

38 As traditionally accepted, Arculf was a bishop from Gaul, who traveled to the Holy Land between the years 676–680, and visited the holy sites of Jerusalem and Syria-Palestine. Adomnán (c. 625–704) was an Irish monk, who in 679 became the Abbot of the Iona Monastery in Scotland, where Arculf found refuge on his return from the East. Adomnán’s De locis sanctis (‘On the Holy Places’) was written between the years 679– 688, and was based on Arculf’s oral testimony (Limor 2003). Among the important elements of this documentation are building plans of several ecclesiastical complexes in Jerusalem, allegedly drawn by Arculf (Wilkinson 2002:167–206, 371–386). In recent years, scholars have been questioning the reliability of Arculf’s personality and biography, and re-assessing the sources and roles of Adomnán’s De locis sanctis (e.g., Woods 2002; O’Loughlin 2007; Aist 2008; Wooding et al. 2010; Hoyland and Waidler 2014; for specific reference to the ground plans see e.g., O’Loughlin 2012). 39 Avni 2014:132, nn. 110 and 111. 40 For a summary of the history of research on the Temple Mount, see Avni and Seligman 2006. For discussions on its conceptions and monuments see, e.g., Raby and Johns 1992; Bahat 1996:70–87; Grabar 1996:47–51; Necipoğlu. 2008; Grabar and Kedar 2009; Kaplony 2009. 41 For studies regarding the location, date, traditions, historical background and religious significance of the Dome of the Rock see, e.g., Richmond 1924; Goitein 1950; Grabar 1959; 1987:46–64; Busse 1968:454–460; Elad 1992; 2008; Necipoğlu 2008; on the inscriptions, see the references in Elad 2008:184–189, and on its architecture and art, see, e.g., Gautier-Van Berchem 1969; Rosen-Ayalon 1989; Grabar 1959; 1996:52–116; McKenzie 2007:356–367; 2013. Regarding the al-Aqsa mosque see, e.g., Hamilton 1949; Elad 1999:35–39. 42 This Umayyad governmental policy of claiming the public domain for Islam was featured, inter alia, by the implementation of the Arabic language in public administration. It was also attested in the manner in which the newly-built mosque in Damascus eclipsed the magnificent Christian church of St. John the Baptist (itself built over a pagan temple), over which it had been constructed (Griffith 1992). 43 The gilded mosaic inscriptions, set on the upper part of the octagonal arcade of the Dome of the Rock, also partook in the polemic debate between Islam and Christianity (see, e.g., Grabar 1996:56–71, 184–186; 1987:58–64; Griffith 1992:123–124; Elad 2008:184–189).

Early traditions from the late seventh to the mid-eighth centuries echo an internal controversy over the status of Jerusalem versus that of Mecca and Madina. These traditions also reflect the reluctance of some Muslim circles to grant full recognition of sanctity to Jerusalem, or to permit pilgrimage to its mosques. This controversy faded away with the general admission of the canonical collections of hadith (Kister 1969; Elad 2008:209). 2.5.1 A New Islamic Center A rare glimpse of Jerusalem’s physical layout, shortly after the Arab conquest of 638, is provided by Adomnán. He

35 For studies concerning Christian and Jewish hopes and aspirations in the early seventh century see, e.g., Prawer 1996:331–338; Stemberger 1999. 36 On the ban on Jews to live in Jerusalem, see Goitein 1980a; LevyRubin 2009. 37 Later, Jerusalem probably became a district capital in Jund Filastin, under the jurisdiction of Ramla, the province capital (Gil 1992:110–114; 1996:9–10).

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Lucid Transformations Muslim pilgrimage to Jerusalem began in the Umayyad period, and it was occasionally associated with the sanctification (ihram) before the hajj. The Jerusalem tour, encouraged by traditions of praise of holy places in the city (Fada’il), concentrated on the ceremonies on the alHaram al-Sharif, as well as on additional holy sites, such as David’s Place of Prayer (Mihrab Dawud), the Silwan Spring, the Church of Mary, and the Mount of Olives (Elad 1995:51–68).

as indicated, for example, by a mosque built adjacent to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, possibly around the year 935 (Avni 2014:113, 125–137, 158; Avni and Seligman 2003). The re-established Jewish community in Jerusalem probably settled in the southern part of the city, particularly south of the al-Haram al-Sharif and in the northern part of the City of David spur (see Sections 5.4, 6.5, 6.6 and 6.7; Bahat 1996:53–56; Avni 2014:137–138, and see references therein).45

In the early eighth century, a governmental center was probably initiated by al-Walid to the south and southwest of the al-Haram al-Sharif. It comprised at least four large, quadrangular buildings, two–three-stories high, each with halls and rooms enveloping an open courtyard. These buildings continued to function until the ninth century, and they were probably transformed into smaller residential units in the tenth or eleventh century (Avni 2014:134–137, and see references therein).

2.6 Christians and Jews under Muslim Rule Following the Muslim occupation of Syria-Palestine (and on several occasions during the seventh–eleventh centuries) many of the wealthy, established and educated Christian elite fled the coastal cities and emigrated to Byzantium, Transjordan or to the country’s interior. The Christian communities in some of the principal cities, such as Caesarea Maritima (Holum 2011; Patrich 2011a), diminished or dissolved (Levy-Rubin 2011a; Cameron 2012:198–206).

The final days of Umayyad rule were marked by a vigorous earthquake that struck the region in 749.44 This quake, previously thought by scholars to have induced a massive decline in settlement and population in SyriaPalestine, had apparently caused substantial destruction in the northern parts of the country, but only minor damage in Jerusalem and its surrounding (Avni 2014:325–326).

Furthermore, as of the early eighth century the ‘People of the Book’, i.e., Christians and Jews living among Muslims, were demanded (according to the Quran, Sura 9, Verse 29) to pay the poll tax (jizya), and were expected to keep a low social profile. The relations between Muslims and non-Muslims were mirrored in ‘The Covenant of Umar’ (Levy-Rubin 2011b), and the dhimmi populations, i.e., those who are under the protection and responsibility of the Islamic government, were, according to some written sources, subject to restrictions, discrimination, and at times persecution (Gil 1992:469–478; Griffith 2008:6– 22; Cameron 2012:203–207). Nevertheless, conversion to Islam was probably marginal in the first centuries of Islamic rule.46

2.5.2 Jerusalem’s Urban Zoning Following the Arab conquest, the urban perimeter of Jerusalem remained unchanged, yet the city’s layout transformed, establishing an exceptional religious-ethnic zoning. The monumental constructions on the al-Haram al-Sharif and flanking its southwestern corner constituted a new Muslim urban focus, a distinct political and spiritual component in the eastern part of the walled city. This entity had been prudently woven into the prevailing texture of the mostly-Christian city.

Religious controversy was additionally fueled by Islam’s objection to the depiction of images of living things, and by its reproach of idolatry, which gave rise to various doctrinal statements on issues contesting Christian theology. Furthermore, measures were occasionally taken by Muslims to remove publicly-displayed Christian icons and crosses, a practice that was to intensify during the reigns of Umar II (717–720) and Yazid II (720–724).47 These circumstances elicited a prolific interreligious Jewish and Christian literature addressing theology, scripture exegesis and apologetics, in part in discourse with Muslim writings (Griffith 2008:14–22).

The Christian communities and their institutions were clustered in the western and northern parts of the city. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre and its surroundings, as well as the northwestern section of the walled city— roughly the area covered by the present-day Christian Quarter, saw extensive development in the early ninth century, and a continuous Christian presence through the eleventh century. These Christian neighborhoods were gradually infiltrated by Muslims as of the tenth century, 44 The exact date of the major earthquake that struck Syria-Palestine and the Near East in the mid-eighth century is controversial, and various dates between the years 746–750 have been proposed (e.g., 746/747 in certain publications regarding Pella, as in McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982:123). Islamic traditions mention an earthquake in Jerusalem in 747/748 (A. Elad, pers, comm.). Some scholars have suggested the occurrences of two or more seismic events (e.g., Karcz and Elad 1992; Karcz 2004:778–787). In this book, the date cited for the said earthquake is the year 749, following Tsafrir and Foerster 1992, Walmsley 2007, and Tsafrir 2014.

The issue regarding the permission granted by the Muslim authorities to seventy Jewish families from Tiberias to settle in Jerusalem has not yet been resolved (e.g., Bahat 1996:53). 46 Views as to the nature and extent of conversion to Islam are varied, and deliberations on these issues are ongoing, e.g., Cameron 2015; Simonsohn 2015. 47 For discussions on the edict of Yazid II and other issues of iconoclasm see, e.g., King 1985, Griffith 1992:122, nn. 4, 5; Bowersock 2006:91– 111; Brubaker and Haldon 2001; 2011; Elsner 2012. 45

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The Historical Setting of Jerusalem and Its Environs Moreover, much of the continuing vitality of Christian life and culture in Syria-Palestine after the Islamic conquest manifested itself, as of the mid-eighth century, in the religious, cultural and intellectual achievements of Christians speaking and writing in Arabic and Syriac (e.g., Griffith 2006; 2008:43–74).

around Jerusalem, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Nevertheless, the archaeological records attest to a less turbulent reality, in which the local Christian community, with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at its focus, maintained its rituals and its leading position in Jerusalem, while drawing a continuous course of pilgrims throughout the Early Islamic period (see below; Avni 2014:128–129). Remarkably, delegations on behalf of Charlemagne, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, visited Jerusalem during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809) in an attempt to improve the status of the Latin clergy in the city. Moreover, various Christian institutions were initiated by the emperor (see below; Gil 1996:13–14; McCormick 2011).

Archaeological findings also advocate the vitality of the Christian communities, and indicate that Christianity predominated in vast areas of Syria-Palestine, up to the eleventh century (Gil 1992:169–172; Avni 2014:332–337, 352). Many of the Judean Desert monasteries, which had flourished from the fourth century onward, were gradually abandoned during the seventh–ninth centuries. Nevertheless, several complexes, some of which are close to Jerusalem, continued to function and to maintain close ties with ecclesiastical institutions in the city (Seligman 2011:495; Patrich 2011b; Avni 2014:151–153).

Anti-Abbasid uprisings took place in Syria-Palestine during most of the second third of the ninth century, and in 878 the area was annexed to Egypt, which was ruled by the Tulunid dynasty. In the following years SyriaPalestine served as a battlefield and buffer zone between these two major powers (Gil 1996:15–18). At the end of the tenth century the region came under Fatimid rule, and by the second half of the eleventh century the country, particularly the rural areas, experienced decline and settlement abandonment. The Crusader conquest in 1099 concluded four centuries of Muslim rule in Syria-Palestine (Gil 1996:17–35).

Furthermore, the Patriarchate of Jerusalem supported and funded the maintenance of the region’s holy places, and its members and affiliates continued to worship, speak, read and write in Greek48 (Levy-Rubin 2003; 2011a:170; Di Segni 2009a). Moreover, the newly-established Jewish community in Jerusalem, as well as the installation of a small mosque functioning concurrently within a Christian institution, as in the Kathisma church complex (see Section 5.8), attest to a measure of Muslim lenience towards other religious communities in the city (Avni 2014:158).49

2.8 Continuity of Christian Life in Jerusalem during the Early Islamic Period

Christian life continued to prosper in Jerusalem and its environs (see below). Christians and Jews were apparently still predominant in Jerusalem’s population during the tenth century, as attested by al-Muqaddasi (AlMuqaddasi, p. 167; Collins 1994:152), and Christian and Jewish pilgrimage to the city’s churches and synagogue/s evidently continued up to the mid-eleventh century, as described by Nasir-i Khusraw (Thackston 2001:27).

Following the Arab conquest, Jerusalem acquired additional sanctity for the emergent Islam, large-scale religious and administrative building feats were undertaken, and Muslim communities were introduced into the city (see above). Nevertheless, according to both written sources and archaeological findings, most of Jerusalem’s Christian ecclesiastical institutions continued to function, pilgrimage persisted, and the Christian communities held a major role in the city. Furthermore, the presence of some Christian congregations, particularly of Copts and Armenians, strengthened throughout the city and its environs (Gil 1992:447–454; Kaegi 1992:186, n. 15; Linder 1996; Griffith 2008:129–140; Avni 2014:113, 125–131).

2.7 Under the Abbasid Dynasty and Beyond Riots and rebellions throughout the region during the 740s were among the causes for the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate and the rise in 750 of the Abbasid dynasty, with its center in Baghdad. Syria-Palestine now received little attention, yet several caliphs visited Jerusalem on their pilgrimage to Mecca, as did Mansur in 758, when he ordered the demolition of crosses set on churches and prohibited nocturnal prayer services (Gil 1996:13–14).

Many Christian institutions in Jerusalem, among them the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Church of Holy Zion, the Church of Mary’s Tomb, and the Church of the Ascension, continued to flourish during the first centuries of Islamic rule, up to the ninth–tenth centuries (see Sections 7.4 and 7.5; Gil 1992:435–442; Schick 1995:327–340; 350–359; Bahat 1996:87–97). Moreover, Christian pilgrimage continued in the seventh–eleventh centuries, although in lesser numbers, and occasionally involving various perils and harassment by Muslims (Gil 1992:482–489; Talbot 2001a; Wilkinson 2002:21–25).

In the following century taxes on Jerusalem’s Christians were increased and were also levied on monks, who had hitherto been exempted (Gil 1996:14). Written sources also allude to raids of churches and monasteries in and 48 For other local languages used by Christians and others at that time see, e.g., Griffith 2008:171–175; Di Segni and Tsafrir 2012:405–406. 49 Regarding the use by Muslims of churches as places of prayer see, e.g., Elad 1995:138–141.

A valuable account of the various functioning churches in Jerusalem in the late 670s, including drawings of some of their floor plans, was allegedly provided by 17

Lucid Transformations Arculf50 (Wilkinson 2002:167–206, 371–386). Among the churches he supposedly visited were the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the ‘Church of St. Mary’ (Mary’s Tomb) in the Valley of Jehoshaphat (at the Gethsemane area), the Church of Holy Zion, and the Church of the (Lord’s) Ascension on the Mount of Olives. Arculf’s description of the brilliant light that poured from the lamps set in the windows of the Church of the (Lord’s) Ascension, and illuminated the entire surroundings area (Adomnán’s De locis sanctis, Book 1, Ch. 23:10–13, 20; Wilkinson 2002:181–182), is another testimony to the firm status of the Christians in Jerusalem in the third quarter of the seventh century.

Avni 2014:127–129). For example, the large monastery on Mount Scopus by the ancient Jericho–Jerusalem road, with its pilgrim hostel, and the bathhouse that was constructed in the late seventh or eighth century, continued to function until the late eighth or early ninth century (see Section 5.5), suggesting that the city and its environs hosted many Christian pilgrims during the first centuries after the Arab conquest.54 Christians were still significant among Jerusalem’s inhabitants during the tenth century, as attested by alMuqaddasi (Al-Muqaddasi, p. 167; Collins 1994:152), and Christian pilgrimage to the city’s churches evidently continued up to the mid-eleventh century, as described by Nasir-i Khusraw (Thackston 2001:27). Nevertheless, as of the mid-tenth century the Christians of Jerusalem suffered persecution, and their churches were looted and damaged. These persecutions reached a peak under the Fatimids, with the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 1008/9 (Gil 1996:19–25).

Among other pilgrims to visit Jerusalem were Willibaldus from Britain in 724–726 (Wilkinson 2002:241–243; Limor 2003; Aist 2009), and the Frankish Bernard the Monk, shortly before 870 (Wilkinson 2002:260–269). The sturdiness of the Christian community in Jerusalem, at least up to the eighth century, is also manifested in a report that had been presented to Emperor Charlemagne in about 808, comprising an inventory of orthodox Christian institutions in Jerusalem and its environs51 (McCormick 2011); this report lists some 30 churches and monasteries, and some 400 priests, monks and nuns who ministered them (McCormick 2011: particularly 23–33, 200–207). Charlemagne also initiated the construction of monasteries, a hostel, a library and a marketplace in the city, and purchased land in the Valley of Jehoshaphat (at the Gethsemane area), the earnings from which were to finance these institutions (Bahat 1966:60–63; Gil 1996:14; McCormick 2011:76–91).

Throughout the eleventh century, particularly in its second half, Jerusalem experienced numerous upheavals, causing extensive damage to the city’s structures and walls,55 as well as economic distress for its inhabitants (Gil 1996:26–35). As Muslims predominated larger areas in Jerusalem and its surroundings during the tenth–eleventh centuries, Christian presence in the city and its environs gradually declined, with the abandonment of churches and monasteries on the city outskirts (Avni 2014:113, 131). Concurrently, Jerusalem served as a center of religious teaching, drawing Muslim scholars from afar, and contributing to the establishment of learning centers in other parts of the Islamic world (Abed Rabo 2012:V–XVII).

The continuity of a significant Christian presence in Jerusalem a century-and-a-half after the Arab conquest, is also reflected in a representation of Jerusalem on a church mosaic floor from the second half of the eighth century at Umm al-Rasas in Jordan,52 which depicts the Rotunda of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and two additional churches, probably the Nea Church and the Church of Holy Zion.53

2.9 Epilogue The historical and archaeological evidence from Jerusalem and its environs in the three centuries following the Arab conquest, indicates that the major political events of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (i.e., the Persian and Arab conquests of Syria-Palestine, the Islamic occupation of the region, and the rise of the Umayyad caliphate) were not manifested in destruction or abandonment of churches and monasteries, but rather in continuity, expansion and vitality of Christian life and pilgrimage, up to the late tenth–eleventh centuries. Concurrently, Jerusalem acquired a new sanctity for the emergent Islam, large-scale building feats were executed on and around the al-Haram al-Sharif, and Muslim and Jewish communities were gradually introduced into the city, all leading to Jerusalem becoming a cosmopolitan multicultural center in the Early Islamic period.

These and other historical documentations of Christian hegemony in Jerusalem and its environs in the Early Islamic period have been overwhelmingly supported by archaeological findings, which also demonstrate continuity and vitality of ecclesiastical life (see Chapters 5, 6 and 7; See n. 38. Additional reports preserved on the Basel roll list the monasteries in the Holy Land outside Jerusalem (Document 2), and details the yearly expenditures of the Jerusalem patriarch (Document 3) (McCormick 2011). 52 The mosaic floor depicting Jerusalem, among 14 other major cities in Palestine and Jordan, was laid in the nave of the Church of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas in Jordan. A dedicatory inscription from the year 785 provides the date of the mosaic, and identifies Umm al-Rasas as the ancient city of Kastron Mefaa (Piccirillo and Alliata 1994:217, Pl. X). 53 Levy-Rubin suggests that the cities depicted in the mosaic floor do not reflect the then-current state of affairs in the region, but rather an effort to preserve the community’s collective memory of these lost cities (Levy-Rubin 2011a:171–172). However, this stand most probably does not apply to Jerusalem. 50 51

Similar circumstances occurred, for example, at the monastery of Martyrius, eight km east of Jerusalem (see Avni 2014:151). 55 For a recent discussion on the city walls in this period, see WekslerBdolah 2011. 54

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3 Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products from the Mid-Fifth to the Eighth Centuries The development of glass blowing on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean in the second half of the first century BCE, introduced an innovative and affordable technique, allowing for serial production of glass vessels and artifacts of varying sizes, forms and functions. The new technique soon reached Italy, and by the first century CE, blown and mold-blown glass vessels spread throughout the Roman Empire. Rapidly, glass vessels gained an increasing prominence in the tableware and storage repertoire, as well as among luxury items. During the Late Roman period glass production was abundant and varied, and local workshops specialized in distinct types, techniques and styles, resulting in a growing regional variability and a concurrent trade throughout the ancient world.56

The typological-chronological study is based nearly exclusively on glassware recorded in regulated, welldocumented archaeological excavations, as opposed to pieces from private and museum collections that generally lack a secure provenance, rendering them much less significant for scholarly, historian-oriented research. Nevertheless, complete glass vessels retrieved from burials in and around Jerusalem and associated with the periods pertinent to this study, are also considered, despite the problematic stratigraphy of funerary contexts in the region (see Section 6.12). The body of glass finds utilized specifically in constructing this typo-chronology amounts to several hundred pieces, which were retrieved from numerous archaeological excavations conducted in Jerusalem and its environs, mostly during the past twenty-five years (see Chapters 5 and 6). Moreover, to obtain a comprehensive picture, glass finds from scores of excavations in other parts of Israel and in neighboring countries are cited and discussed (see Map 1.2 and Map 3.1).

The typological-chronological study in this chapter opens at that juncture, and considers the glass corpus from the mid-fifth to the eighth centuries in Syria-Palestine, emphasizing trends of continuity, change and innovation. 3.1 Introduction and Methodology

Some of the studied sites or settlement phases had been occupied for only a short period, allowing for a relatively narrow dating of the finds. Among the settings that contributed to a firm dating of glass types from the relevant timespan are several contexts at Caesarea Maritima, their chronology defined by its fall in 640/641, at Bet She’an, where the 749 earthquake provides a terminus ante quem for its destruction layers, and at Ramla, its finds postdating the city’s foundation around the year 715 (and see detailed discussions in Section 7.3). Other firmly-dated glass assemblages also contributed to the establishment of a dependable chronology, such as the well-dated Umayyad-period complexes at Bosra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, 146–147) and at Jabal Says (Usais; Bloch 2011), both in Syria.

3.1.1 Introduction The detailed typological-chronological study presented herein was constructed by me especially for this research, with the intention of creating a much-needed, clear and uniform database for discussion. It presents a comprehensive up-to-date investigation of the glass products that were prevalent in the region from the midfifth through the eighth centuries. Consequently, this typology contributes significantly to establishing solid chronologies, which are the basis of all archaeological and historical reconstructions. This typological-chronological study classifies and groups glass vessels, the major decoration schemes that adorned them, exceptional glass vessels and artifacts, and architecture-associated glass products. Each type or subtype is considered in regard to its distinct characteristics, its chronological range, and when applicable, its predecessors and successors.

Many of the glass finds originated from salvage excavations, in which the areas inspected are determined by developmental needs (e.g., the route of a new highway or sewage pipeline), and the remains exposed are often partial. Thus, the glass (and other) finds from some of these excavations do not necessarily reflect a comprehensive understanding of a certain complex. Consequently, these finds are generally not suitable for a systematic quantitative or statistical analysis.

56 This book focuses on the time span from the mid-fifth through the eighth centuries. The history of glass and its production and trade in the eras pre-dating this time span are discussed, e.g., in Isings 1957; Barag 1970b; 2009; Hayes 1975; Grose 1989; Stern 1999; 2001; 2007; Israeli 2003; von Saldern 2004.

Subsequently, the occurrence of a specific type at a certain site is generally noted in the typo-chronology with no 19

Lucid Transformations mention of the number of pieces, as this information is rarely available or significant. Moreover, as nearly all the glass finds discussed in this book are fragmentary, their quantities do not necessarily reflect the quantities of

various vessel types, as several pieces may have belonged to a single vessel. Notwithstanding, the occurrence of a specific type in relatively large numbers in a site or within a certain unit is examined and deliberated.

Map 3.1. Location map of sites in Jerusalem and its environs mentioned in the book.

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Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Assembling this typological-chronological study has been made possible thanks to the significant research undertaken in the past twenty-five years, particularly by the staff of the IAA glass department. The typological and chronological classifications are based partly on my observations and distinctions, and in part on those of other researchers.

3.4). A complete list of types and their labels (Table 3.1) is provided in the following pages. Category Arrangement Each type-category opens with a general description of the type, its distinct characteristics and decorations, its subtypes, and its chronological range. The image for each type or subtype depicts a complete or partial excavated specimen, or a reconstruction. These images are denoted in the various type-figures (Figs. 3.2.1–3.5) by their labels (not by consecutive numbers); each typefigure is accompanied by a table specifying the images’ sources.

3.1.2 Methodological Annotations and Considerations Type Categories The glass vessels are discussed and presented in Section 3.2 by typological categories, starting with open vessels, i.e., bowls, beakers, jars and wineglasses, followed by closed vessels, i.e., bottles and jugs, and finally lamps and their associated contraptions.

Analogous Examples Analogous examples are cited for several objectives, among them to establish the complete shape of a vessel, to support the date of a vessel type, and to present the geographical distribution of a type. As it is impossible to list all the relevant corresponding examples for each type, an attempt has been made in this typological-chronological study to cite as many examples from sites in and around Jerusalem, as well as a selection of the analogous pieces from major sites in Israel and neighboring countries, and from some of the most recent relevant excavation reports, with a preference for examples from well-stratified and securely-dated contexts.

As the finds from the archaeological excavations examined in this book are mostly incomplete, and bottom and body fragments can rarely be securely linked to rim, mouth and neck fragments, many of the vessels, particularly the bowls and bottles, are classified primarily by their rim, and only secondarily by their body. Generally, the undecorated subtypes precede the decorated ones. Section 3.3 groups and classifies the major decoration schemes that were employed on these glass vessels. When the examples from the Jerusalem area are numerous and/or well-preserved, they are discussed by their vessel type in Section 3.2 and are mentioned only briefly in Section 3.3. However, decoration schemes, which appear only scarcely and/or on small fragments that are un-indicative of their vessel shape, are addressed in detail in Section 3.3.

The pieces from complexes in Jerusalem and its environs are cited first, with references to the relevant sites in Chapter 5, and to the relevant publications of other glass corpora, most of which feature in Chapter 6. When the specimens are numerous, these data are arranged in tables (Tables 3.2.2/1, 3.2.2/2, 3.2.4, 3.2.6/1, 3.2.6/2, 3.5).57 Detailed catalogue entries for the examples cited from the newly-studied glass assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs appear in Chapter 5 under the relevant section for each site.

Exceptional glass vessels and artifacts are examined in Section 3.4, and finally, Section 3.5 discusses architecture-associated glass products, i.e., windowpanes, tesserae and tiles. Type Labels

Additional related examples are generally presented in the following order: first, complete excavated pieces, followed by fragmentary specimens from sites in Israel and neighboring countries, and finally pieces from private and museum collections. References are also made to examples examined by the author and other staff members of the IAA Glass Department from yet-unpublished excavations; details of these examples and excavations appear in footnotes.

Glass typologies that were compiled in the past, employed systems of Arabic or Roman numerals, and Greek or Latin letters, or a combination of all of them, to label the types of vessels and artifacts, resulting in a complicated system that was difficult to follow and cite (Barag 1970b:130– 131; Dussart 1998). The method applied in this typological-chronological study attempts to be coherent and intelligible, as it uses the type of the vessel or artifact and its features to construct the type label.

Fabric

The vessel types are generally labeled by a combination of two–three uppercase letters indicating the vessel shape, followed by two–three lowercase letters indicating the shape of the rim or base, or the type of decoration; for example, BLor for ‘bowls with an outfolded rim’, and BTwt for ‘bottles adorned with a thick wavy trail’. The decoration schemes (in Section 3.3) are designated by the uppercase letters DD, the exceptional vessels—by the uppercase letters EX, and the artifacts are denoted by the uppercase letters ART (Section

It should be noted that various date-supporting factors, such as color and quality of workmanship are prone to relativelysubjective observations, and are impossible to compare without physically examining the glass finds. Furthermore, The tables are labeled according to the sections in which the types and subtypes are classified (e.g., Table 3.2.4 for bottles presented in Section 3.2.4). 57

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Lucid Transformations Table 3.1. Typology of the Glass Finds with their Type Labels (1/3) Bowls Shallow bowls with a rounded rim

BLrr

Bowls with an outfolded rim

BLor

Bowls adorned with trail decoration

BLtd

Wide shallow bowls with a double-fold rim

BLdfr

Shallow bowls used as lamps

BLsl

Bowls/Beakers

BB

with a rounded rim

BBrr

with an infolded rim

BBir

with an outfolded rim

BBor

with an interior fold on the wall

BBif

adorned with trail decoration on the rim and/or the wall

BBtd

adorned with vertical wavy trails

BBvt

adorned with rows of pinches

BBrp

adorned with tonged decoration

BBtg

Small globular bowls

BLS

Various bowl bases Hollow ring bases

BShr

Solid bases

BSsd

Bases with a double fold around the perimeter

BSdf

Wineglasses Wineglasses with a rounded rim

WGrr

Wineglasses adorned with trail decoration on the rim and wall

WGtd

Wineglasses adorned with mold-blown decoration

WGmbd

Wineglasses with a hollow base

WGhb

and a single-bead stem

WGhb/sbs

Wineglasses with a solid base

WGsb

Wineglasses with a delicate base

WGdb

Wineglass bases adorned with radial decoration

WGrd

Jars Small globular jars

JRgb

Jars with trail applications

JRta

Bottles Bottles with a rounded rim

BTrr

with no mouth and a long neck

BTrr/ln

and a funnel-shaped mouth

BTrr/fm

and a pear-shaped body

BTpb

Bottles with an infolded rim

BTir

with no mouth and a long neck

BTir/ln

and a funnel-shaped mouth

BTir/fm

Bottles with an exterior hollow fold

BTef

Bottles adorned with mold-blown decoration

BTmbd

Bottles adorned with trail decoration on the mouth/neck

BTtd

Bottles adorned with a single trail

BTst

Bottles adorned with pinched trail decoration

BTpt

Bottles adorned with a thick wavy trail

BTwt

Bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat/globular body

BTTifr

Bottles with a ridged neck

BTTrn

Small bottles with a cylindrical body

BTTcyb

Small bottles with a square-sectioned body

BTTsqb

22

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Table 3.1. Continued (2/3) Jugs Jugs with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth

JGpfm

Jugs adorned with a wavy trail on the neck

JGwt

Lamps Bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with three handles

LBB

with a rounded rim

LBBrr

with an outfolded rim

LBBor

with a wick tube

LBBwkt

adorned with mold-blown decoration

LBBmbd

Stemmed lamps

LST

with a hollow stem

LSThs

with a partly-solid stem

LSTps

with a bead/s at the bottom end

LSTbe

with a solid multi-bead stem

LSTbs

with a smooth solid stem

LSTss

with a globular stem

LSTgs

with a stem adorned with mold-blown decoration

LSTmbd

Beaker-shaped lamps

LBE

with a pushed-in bottom and outsplaying walls

LBEpib

with a tooled fold on the exterior

LBEef

Small beaker with vertical walls

LBEvw

Shallow convex-walled bowl-shaped lamps

LCW

Globular lamps with a cut-off rim and three handles

LGL

with short loop-shaped handles

LGLsh

with loop-shaped handles and a tooled extension

LGLte

with thin delicate handles

LGLdh

adorned with mold-blown decoration

LGLmbd

Major Decoration Schemes Mold-blown decoration

DDmbd

Thin trail decoration

DDtd

Single trail decoration

DDst

Pinched trail decoration

DDpt

Thick wavy trail decoration

DDwt

Vertically applied trails

DDvt

Trail applications

DDta

Rows of pinches

DDrp

Tonged decoration

DDtg

Stain-painted decoration

DDstp

Mosaic glass

DDmos

Marvered decoration

DDmrv

23

Lucid Transformations Table 3.1. Continued (3/3) Exceptional Vessels and Artifacts Large goblets

EXGBlg

Goblets with handles

EXGBhn

Vessels adorned with a mold-blown honeycomb pattern

EXmbd

Vessels adorned with engraved decoration

EXed

Vessels adorned with scratch-engraved decoration and Arabic script

EXas

Multi-side vessels

EXMSV

Bottles with interior threads

EXBTit

Multi-tube bottles

EXBTmt

Zoomorphic vessels

EXZM

Stamped vessels

EXst

Alembics

EXAL

Inkwells

EXIW

Rods

ARTR

Horseshoe-shaped objects

ARTHS

Small discs

ARTSD

Architecture-Associated Glass Products Circular windowpanes

WPcr

Quadrangular windowpanes

WPqd

Glass tesserae

TESgl

Gold-glass tesserae

TESgg

Gold-glass tiles

GGT

The dates assigned in various publications are generally accepted by me, and a note is made, where relevant, when they are challenged or have been revised by others. The glass finds from Gerasa published by Baur in 1938 are extensively referred to in this book. Most of them were associated by Baur with the fourth or fifth century, based on the quality and forms of the vessels (Baur 1938:518–519). However, these dates are, for the most part, stratigraphically unsubstantiated and they were based partially on the erroneous understanding and dating of a site in Jericho. Therefore, Baur’s dates are not cited in this book. Furthermore, most of the Gerasa glass finds published by Baur were discovered adjacent to St. Theodore’s Church (in Room 30 and Room F2), and comprised types characteristic of the late Byzantine period, i.e., the sixth–seventh centuries. Other pieces (e.g., Baur 1938: Figs. 28:87[4]; 29:84[790]; Pl. CXL:86[423]), which were unearthed in other parts of the city, date from the Umayyad period, i.e., the seventh–eighth centuries (Barag 1970b:123–126).58

some publications referred to in this book contain only partial information, omitting details such as bubbles, streaks and impurities in the glass, or the condition and weathering of the finds, and some depict poor illustrations. Therefore, occasionally it is difficult or impossible to precisely ascertain the type or fabric of a specimen. Dating Terminology In an attempt to construct as accurate a chronology as possible, and to narrow down wide-range dating, the dates of the various types are generally outlined in centuries and half centuries, rather than historical periods. Nevertheless, when referring to published analogous examples, the dates are quoted as in their publications; for example, the “Late Byzantine/Early Umayyad” phase in Meyer’s publication on the glass from Gerasa spans the years “c. 630–670” (Meyer 1988), while in Gorin-Rosen’s publications, the terms “late Byzantine period” (e.g., GorinRosen 2005a) and “late Byzantine–Umayyad periods” (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2008a) allude to the late sixth–seventh centuries, and to the late sixth/seventh–eighth centuries, respectively (Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.). Additionally, when Gorin-Rosen denotes types or features as ‘Umayyad’, she refers to their emergence in the first half of the eighth century, and their continued appearance in the second half of that century, which is historically assigned to the Abbasid period (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2010:214–215).

These observations are corroborated by additional extensive archaeological excavations at Gerasa, which indicate that during the sixth–seventh centuries the city and its hinterland functioned and developed, with the continuous activity of its Christian institutions into the eighth century, as well as the construction of new churches and other structures, including a large central mosque, in the seventh–ninth centuries (Avni 2014:93–98). 58

24

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products 3.2 Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Vessels

Pl. 35:493). Somewhat similar bowls, probably from the seventh century, were discovered in the late-Byzantine church at Khirbat al-Karak, (Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 59:16, 20; Barag 1970b:113–115). A similar bowl dated to the Umayyad period was discovered in the excavations north of the White Mosque at Ramla (GorinRosen 2010:220–221, Pl. 10.2:6), and another example from that city may probably be attributed to the Abbasid period (Pollak 2007:104–106, Fig. 3:13).

3.2.1 Bowls Bowls were one of the most common glass vessel-types used during the third–fourth centuries, appearing in great variety and large numbers (e.g., Barag 1978:10–23; Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:39–60). From the fifth century onward, the occurrence of bowls lessened, and their repertoire diminished (Figs. 3.2.1/1, 3.2.1/2). The bowls of the fourth–eighth centuries demonstrate both continuity and change: they generally resemble the forms of the older, fourth-century bowls, yet display careless workmanship and unbalanced proportions.

Exceptional variants of shallow bowls with a rounded rim were set on a short wide stem and a trumpet-shaped foot. Stemmed bowls of this type were discovered, for example, at Ramla, in contexts dated to the eighth century (GorinRosen 2016:42–44, Fig. 1:1, 2; Winter 2015b: Fig. 1:1). Bowls with an Outfolded Rim—Type BLor (Fig. 3.2.1/1)

Among the small number of types represented in the Jerusalem corpus are bowls with a rounded rim (Type BLrr), bowls with a hollow outfolded rim (Type BLor), and bowls adorned with trail decoration (Type BLtd).

Bowls of this type have an outfolded rim forming a hollow fold, and are generally supported by a hollow ring base. They continued Late Roman traditions (e.g., Barag 1978: Figs. 6:3, 5–8; 9:31; 10:32–34) and were widespread in the Byzantine period. These bowls came in a variety of sizes, the smaller ones generally deeper. However, the identification of rim fragments is problematic: extremely shallow bowls, although scarce, may be mistaken for circular windowpanes (Type WPcr, Section 3.5), and deep bowls may be confused with lamps with a similarly outfolded rim (Type LBBor).

Other types characteristic of the period, yet hitherto missing from the Jerusalem area, are wide shallow bowls with a double-fold rim and a hollow ring base (Type BLdfr). Most of these bowls probably served as tableware in everyday domestic use, yet some wide shallow bowls were deliberately perforated, probably to allow their suspension for use as lamps (Type BLsl). Bowls with elaborate incised decoration (Type EXed, Section 3.4), discovered mostly in churches, monasteries and burials, may have had a distinctive use in liturgical services. Some of them may have comprised the glass patens, mentioned in literary sources yet so far considered missing from the archaeological evidence (Keller and Lindblom 2008:334). Others, their designs devised to be seen from below, probably functioned as suspended lighting devices.

Shallow bowls with an outfolded rim were excavated in Jerusalem and its environs, for example, in the monastery in the Kidron Valley (Fig. 5.6.1:1), and at the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (GorinRosen 2005a:201, Fig. 2:16). A large hollow outfolded rim with a nearly horizontal wall from Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:92*, Fig. 3:40) was identified as a windowpane (Type WPcr, Section 3.5).

A new type of deep bowls or beakers (hitherto bowls/ beakers, Type BB) appeared in the seventh century and became widespread during the seventh and eighth centuries, serving primarily as drinking vessels.

Shallow bowls with an outfolded rim from other parts of the country were recovered, for example, in a cistern in the Byzantine-period church compound at Nazareth (Bagatti 1969:313, No. 13, Fig. 237:13), in a late Byzantine context at Bet She‘arim (Vitto 1996:136, Fig. 26:10), within a glass assemblage from the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods at Horbat Hermeshit, east of Ramla (Winter 1998:173, Fig. 2:1, 4), and at Bet She’an, in the Byzantine-period shops on the Street of Monuments (Agady et al. 2002: Figs. 22:8– 11; 23:12), as well as in Umayyad-period contexts (Hadad 2005: Pl. 3:70–71; Winter 2011:346, Fig. 12.1:1).

Shallow Bowls with a Rounded Rim—Type BLrr (Fig. 3.2.1/1) Shallow bowls with a rounded rim appeared only sparsely in the Byzantine period. Examples from the Jerusalem area include specimens with slanting walls from the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.1:6) and from the City of David spur (Area M1; Gutreich 2013: Fig. 12.6:84), both found together with glass vessels characteristic of the fifth–seventh centuries, as well as a bowl with vertical walls, excavated at Khirbat Tabaliya and dated to the late sixth–seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:84*, Fig. 2:8).

Smaller bowls with an outfolded rim were discovered in and around Jerusalem, for example, in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.1:1–4), on the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:1; Area M1: Gutreich 2013:277–278, Fig. 12.4:58), at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.1:1) and at Bet Zayit (Fig. 5.10.1:1). One of two examples from the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center possibly belonged to a lamp (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:201, Fig. 2:17, 18).

Similar, smaller bowls were unearthed in Umayyad-period contexts, for example, at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:21, Pl. 2:30), and at Jabal Says (Usais) in Syria (Bloch 2011:85, 25

Lucid Transformations

BLrr

BLor

BShr

BLtd

BLdfr

BLsl 0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Shallow bowls with a rounded rim

BLrr

Reconstruction

Bowls with an outfolded rim

BLor

Gorin-Rosen 2016: Fig. 1:3

Bowls adorned with trail decoration

BLtd

Nahal Tanninim Dam*

Wide shallow bowls with a double-fold rim

BLdfr

Amitai-Preiss 2004: Fig. 11.1:1

Shallow bowls used as lamps

BLsl

Amitai-Preiss 2004: Fig. 11.1:3

* The bowl was discovered in an excavation at the Nahal Tanninim Dam site (Permit No. A-3356/2000; Locus 2357). Fig. 3.2.1/1. Bowls.

26

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Vessels of the deeper version with an outfolded rim from other parts of the country were excavated, for example, in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 3:63–68), and in eighth-century contexts at Ramla (GorinRosen 2011: Fig. 15:1; 2016:44, Fig. 1:3–5).

Bowls with a double-fold rim are so far missing from the Jerusalem corpus, yet they were recovered in other parts of the country, for example, in the church at Shave Ziyyon, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries (Barag 1967a:67, Fig. 16:13; Barag 1970b:133, Type 3),61 in a cistern in the Byzantine-period church compound at Nazareth (Bagatti 1969:312, No. 12, Fig. 237:12), and in the Byzantine-period monastery and hospice on Mount Berenice, southwest of Tiberias (Amitai-Preiss 2004:177–178, Fig. 11.1:1). Two similar bowls were unearthed in a tomb at Bezzet (ElBassa; Iliffe 1934:88–89, Figs. 19, 20); the finds from this tomb, which functioned from the mid-fourth to the eighth centuries, were re-evaluated, and these two bowls, as well as another glass bowl engraved with a cross (Iliffe 1934: Fig. 17), were dated to the second half of the fourth century or the early fifth century (Barag 1970b:72–73). An extremely large shallow bowl (520 mm in diameter) was unearthed in Catacomb 15 at Bet She‘arim (see Type EXed, Section 3.4; Barag 1976:207, No. 49, Fig. 100, Pl. LXIX), and a shallow bowl with a double-fold rim from the Zeus sanctuary at Gerasa in Jordan, was assigned a date in the sixth–seventh centuries (Dussart 1998:75, Type BII.312, Pl. 11:11).

Bowls Adorned with Trail Decoration—Type BLtd (Fig. 3.2.1/1) Trail decoration was one of the most customary decoration schemes on glass vessels (see Type DDtd, Section 3.3). Bowls of this type, with either a rounded or a hollow outfolded rim, are adorned with dark blue or turquoise-colored trails, wound horizontally, once or several times, on the rim and/or wall. The trails may be thin or thick, or a combination of both; they may be densely or more sparsely spaced, and are occasionally fused-in on the rim, or into the rim fold. Variants of this bowl type were excavated in several locations in and around Jerusalem, as at the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.1:5, 6), at Bet Zayit (Fig. 5.10.1:3–7) and on the City of David spur (Area M1; Gutreich 2013: Fig. 12.6:85–87).

Shallow Bowls Used as Lamps—Type BLsl (Fig. 3.2.1/1)

Bowls decorated with an applied blue trail, densely wound on the rim and below it, were discovered in various contexts, mostly dated to the fourth–sixth centuries, as at Ashqelon (Katsnelson and Jackson-Tal 2004:100–102, Fig. 1:5–7) and at Khirbat Ni‘ana, where at least 16 pieces were recorded and had probably been produced locally during the fourth–early fifth centuries (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:84–85, Fig. 5:1–4, and see therein discussion and numerous examples from Israel and Jordan). Examples employing both thin and thick trails, some ‘trapped’ inside the rim fold, were documented at several sites in the central coastal plain: Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:391, Cat. No. 255), Tel Tanninim (Pollak 2006:163–165, Fig. 131:44–51), and the Nahal Tanninim Dam site.59 Bowls adorned with a blue trail wound below or inside the rim fold were excavated in Beirut, in various contexts dated to the sixth–seventh centuries (Foy 2000a:259, Fig. 16). A less-common variant of the characteristic trail decoration displays thick trails, sparsely and sloppily wound around the rim and wall, as on examples from Bet Zayit (Fig. 5.10.1:5, 6).

Some shallow bowls that served as lamps, resemble the bowls discussed above (Type BLdfr), yet they had been perforated below the upper fold of the rim. The holes, intentionally drilled from the inside, probably served for the suspension of these bowls when used as lamps. Two such bowls were retrieved from the Byzantine monastery and hospice on Mount Berenice, southwest of Tiberias (Amitai-Preiss 2004:177–178, Fig. 11.1:2, 3). The large bowl from Bet She‘arim (Type EXed, Section 3.4) was possibly used as a lamp as well. Bowls of another type, with convex walls, were almost certainly used as suspended lamps (Type LCW, below). Bowls/Beakers—Type BB (Fig. 3.2.1/2) Deep cylindrical bowls or beakers of this type present a new shape. These bowls/beakers served primarily as drinking vessels, and occasionally as lamps. As they are absent from earlier assemblages, bowls/beakers probably appeared in the seventh century, and became widespread during the seventh–eighth centuries, gradually replacing the wineglasses (Type WG, below).

Wide Shallow Bowls with a Double-Fold Rim— Type BLdfr (Fig. 3.2.1/1) These wide and shallow bowls (about 300–450 mm in diameter) have a characteristic double-fold rim and a high hollow ring base (Barag 1970b:133, Types 1:3 and 1:3-1, Pl. 30:3, 4). These bowls, as the bowls with an outfolded rim (Type BLor, above), also preserve Late Roman traditions.60

The bowls/beakers manifest trends of both continuity and change, as they comprise a new shape, into which were incorporated features from preceding vessels, such as a hollow outfolded rim or a wick tube (Gorin-Rosen 2016:44–46, Fig. 2:6, 7). They were replaced in the mid-eighth–tenth centuries

59 The excavation at the Nahal Tanninim Dam site (Permit No. A-3356/2000) was headed on behalf of the IAA by U. Ad, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 60 Smaller, deeper bowls with a double-fold rim were widespread in the region during the fourth century, as attested, for example, by dozens of bowl fragments excavated at Jalame, mostly from the factory dump (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:47–48, Fig. 4-7:72, 73).

Despite his suggestion from 1967 to assign the bowl to the fourth century (Barag 1967a:70), Barag stated in his Ph.D. dissertation, published in 1970, that this bowl may not be dated earlier than the early fifth century (Barag 1970b:133). 61

27

Lucid Transformations

BBrr BBtd

BBir

BBor

BBif

BBvt

BBrp

BBtg

BLS

BSsd

BSdf 0

20 mm

Fig. 3.2.1/2. Bowls.

28

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Fig. 3.2.1/2. Bowls. Type

Type Lable

Reference

Bowls/beakers with a rounded rim

BBrr

Reconstruction

Bowls/beakers with an infolded rim

BBir

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.4.1:3

Bowls/beakers with an outfolded rim

BBor

Reconstruction

Bowls/beakers with an interior fold on the wall

BBif

Barag 1967b: Fig. 16:14

Bowls/beakers adorned with trail decoration on the rim/wall

BBtd

Type BBrr

Bowls/beakers adorned with vertical wavy trails

BBvt

Reconstruction

Bowls/beakers adorned with rows of pinches

BBrp

Hadad 2005: Pl. 4:80*

Bowls/beakers adorned with tonged decoration

BBtg

Reconstruction

Small globular bowls

BLS

Hadad 2005: Pl. 1:1*

Hollow ring bases

BShr

Types BLor, BLtd, Fig. 3.2.1/1

Solid bases

BSsd

Gorin-Rosen 1999b: Fig. 1:13

Bases with a double fold around the perimeter

BSdf

Winter 2015b: Fig. 1:2

* Courtesy of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

by bowls with a lower and wider profile (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2001b: Fig. 1:1; Pollak 2003: Fig. 3:40).

an assemblage dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:4), and at Khirbat Tabaliya, together with other finds dated to the Byzantine and early Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:84*, Fig. 2:9, 10).

Bowls/beakers occurred in many variations (Fig. 3.2.1/2; Type BB). The rim may have been rounded, infolded or outfolded, upright or slightly incurved, and the walls convex, undulating, vertical, or slanting inward at the top. The lower part may have been shaped as a flat or slightly concave base, occasionally bearing a double fold at its perimeter, or, less commonly, a solid base. Some bowls/ beakers had a wick tube installed on their floor, confirming their use as lamps. Bowls/beakers were either plain, or embellished by various decoration techniques.

A bowl/beaker with a rounded rim, concave bottom and an inner hollow fold at mid-height (see Type BBif, below) was recovered in a context dated to the late Byzantine period at Ashdod (Barag 1967b: Fig. 16:14). An example with a thickened rim, resembling the one from the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.1:6), was discovered at Horbat Hermeshit, east of Ramla (Winter 1998:176, Fig. 1:2). A complete specimen bearing an applied stamp, as well as several similar rim and wall fragments, were retrieved from Umayyad-period contexts excavated at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pls. 1:23–26; 5:95), and an upper part of a bowl/beaker with a rounded, slightly incurved rim, unearthed in the church at Khirbat al-Karak, was dated to the seventh century (Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 59:14; Barag 1970b:113–115). Other complete examples from Umayyad-period contexts were documented, for example, north of the White Mosque at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010: 215–218, Pl. 10.1:1, and see therein additional examples from Ramla), and in the area of the northern theater at Gerasa (Meyer 1988:213, Fig. 13:E). Similar specimens were also recovered in Umayyad-period contexts in Syria, for example, in the qasr at Jabal Says (Usais; Bloch 2011:85, Pl. 35:306), and at Bosra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, Figs. 564–565).

Examples from Jerusalem and its environs include possibly-complete bowls/beakers from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.1:2), the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:3) and the Kathisma church complex (5.8.1:8–10), as well as two complete specimens from Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam, dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:3, 4). Complete bowls/beakers from other parts of the country were recorded, for example, at Bet She’an (FitzGerald 1931: Pl. 39:32), Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:215–220, Pl. 10.1:1), and Ashdod (Barag 1967b:37, 72, Fig. 16:14). Bowls/Beakers with a Rounded Rim—Type BBrr (Fig. 3.2.1/2) The rounded, occasionally thickened rim on this bowl/ beaker subtype may have been accompanied by upright, slightly flaring or slightly incurved walls.

Bowls/Beakers with an Infolded Rim—Type BBir (Fig. 3.2.1/2)

Bowls/beakers with a rounded rim, and either upright or slightly incurved walls, were discovered in Jerusalem and its vicinity, for example, in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.1:1), and in the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.1:5, 6, 8). Examples with a rounded, slightly incurved rim were unearthed on the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:3), at the site of Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam, in

Bowls/beakers of this subtype have an infolded rim, either pressed, as on the examples from the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.1:7) and Khirbat Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:124–125, Fig. 2:1), or leaving a hollow fold, as on another example from the latter site (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:124–125, Fig. 2:2). 29

Lucid Transformations A complete example with a rounded incurved rim (or possibly a folded and pressed rim) was discovered at Bet She’an (FitzGerald 1931: Pl. 39:32) and dated to “the Early Islamic period” (Barag 1970b:115–116). Bowls/beakers with a similar rim were excavated in various locations at Ramla (e.g., Jakoel 2011: Fig. 8:1; Katsnelson 2013b: Fig. 12:5).

green, which are characteristic of the Umayyad-natured repertoire. The trail was applied horizontally on the vessel, either fused-in on the rim, or wound below the rim and/or around the wall. The application of trails on bowls/beakers continued earlier local traditions (see Type DDtd, Section 3.3). Bowls/beakers adorned with trail decoration were recovered in the Jerusalem area, for example, at Khirbat Adasa, where they were associated with the Umayyad period. Both pieces are bluish green and adorned with a yellowish brown trail fused-in on the rim; on No. 3 the trail is also wound below the rim (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:124–125, Fig. 2:3, 4).

Bowls/Beakers with an Outfolded Rim—Type BBor (Fig. 3.2.1/2) This subtype has an outfolded rim, either pressed (Fig. 5.5.1:2), or leaving a hollow, as the ones from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.1:3) and from Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:89*–91*, Fig. 3:30).

Several bowls/beakers adorned with a trail fused-in on the rim were excavated in an Umayyad-period context at Ramla; they are greenish blue, and the trails are yellowish brown and light olive green (Gorin-Rosen 2010:215–218, Pl. 10.1:1, 4, and see therein examples from Marcus Street in Ramla). Bowls/beakers adorned with trails applies below the rim were also recovered in Umayyad-period contexts at Ramla; on one of the specimens, the trail is of the same hue as the vessel, and on the other, the greenish blue vessel is adorned with a yellowish trail (Gorin-Rosen 2010:215–218, Pls. 10.1:3; 10.2:1). Occasionally, the trail coils around the lower part of the body, as on a greenish blue vessel from Ramla adorned with a yellowish brown trail (Gorin-Rosen 2010:219–220, Pl. 10.2:4).

Similarly-shaped rims of bowls/beakers were found in Umayyad-period contexts, for example, at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 2:50) and Ramla (Pollak 2007: Fig. 1:3, 4, 7, 8). Two complete, thick-walled bowls/beakers with an outfolded rim and a slightly concave bottom were excavated in the Umayyad-period qasr at Jabal Says (Usais) in Syria; one of those specimens has a thick trailhandle drawn from the bottom of the wall up to the rim (Bloch 2011:85, Pl. 35:154, 155). Certain specimens of bowls/beakers with a hollow outfolded rim may have served as lamps, as indicated by those examples that include a wick tube, such as one from Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2016:44–46, Fig. 2:6, 7). Similar rims, yet of a smaller diameter, may have belonged to alembics (Type EXAL, Section 3.4).

Bowls/Beakers Adorned with Vertical Wavy Trails— Type BBvt (Fig. 3.2.1/2) This subtype of bowls/beakers is adorned with several wavy trails applied vertically along the vessel walls; generally, the trails are of a different color than the vessel.62 The combination of this decoration with the bowl/beaker shape was customary in the seventh–eighth centuries, and continued into the Abbasid period.

Bowls/Beakers with an Interior Fold on the Wall— Type BBif (Fig. 3.2.1/2) Some bowls/beakers have a pressed or hollow tooled-in fold around the mid-height of the vessel interior. One of the specimens from the Kathisma church complex has a hollow interior fold (Fig. 5.8.1:9); the vessel was mended from three separate rim, wall and bottom fragments (Fig. 5.8.1:8–10) that were discovered in the same provenance (Locus 408, Basket 3234). Another piece from the complex comprises a wall fragment with its interior fold pressed to appear as a solid ridge (Fig. 5.8.1:11).

A specimen from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.1:4) is made of light green glass, and the trails, of which the lower part of one has remained near the bottom of the vessel, are yellowish brown. At the Kathisma church complex, a greenish blue vessel has a yellowish brown trail applied vertically from the rim downward (Fig. 5.8.1:12), while the trails of another fragment are of the same, greenish blue hue as the vessel (Fig. 5.8.1:13).

Bowls/beakers with an interior hollow fold from other parts of the country were uncovered, for example, in a context dated to the late Byzantine period at Ashdod (Barag 1967b:37, 72, Fig. 16:14), and in an Umayyadperiod context at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:219–220 , Pl. 10.2:3a); the latter specimen also bore traces of an applied yellowish trail, which had possibly been fashioned either as a vertical wavy trail (Type BBvt) or as a small handle.

A complete green beaker with vertically-applied brownish/ olive-green trails was excavated on Marcus Street in Ramla, together with pottery dated to the eighth–ninth centuries (Pollak 2007:110, 112–113, Fig. 6:32, Pl. 1:9). Other examples from Ramla originated from Umayyadperiod contexts, as, for example, a green body fragment with a yellowish-brown vertical wavy trail (Gorin-Rosen 2010:219, Pl. 10.2:2, and see therein an example with a similar color combination from the Cairo Museum). A nearly complete bowl/beaker with vertical wavy trails and

Bowls/Beakers Adorned with Trail Decoration on the Rim and/or Wall—Type BBtd (Fig. 3.2.1/2) Bowls/beakers of this subtype are adorned with a trail of a different color, usually in shades of brown, yellow or olive

A similar decoration may have adorned bottles as well, see Type DDvt, Section 3.3. 62

30

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products an applied pellet on the wall was unearthed in a salvage excavation at Be’er Sheva, in a context dated from the late sixth to the eighth centuries.63

The few documented examples of tong-decorated vessels from the Jerusalem area include two bowls/beakers excavated on the City of David spur, adorned with early variants of bilateral tonged oval decoration (Fig. 5.4.1:4, 5), and a single specimen decorated with ovals as well, retrieved from an un-stratified fill in the excavations along the Western Wall.67

Similarly-decorated wall fragments were recently excavated in contexts of the seventh–eighth centuries in the northern Negev: at Nahal Anim (Winter 2017c: Fig. 1:2), the Shoval Stream64 and Tel Rosh65; the piece from the latter site probably belonged to a bottle (and see Type DDvt, Section 3.3).

Small Globular Bowls—Type BLS (Fig. 3.2.1/2) The globular shape and small dimensions of a bowl from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.1:6), as well as its brown color, are characteristic of the Umayyad-natured glass repertoire. A similar yellowish-brown bowl was discovered in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 1:1).

Bowls/Beakers Adorned with Rows of Pinches— Type BBrp (Fig. 3.2.1/2) This subtype was adorned with horizontal rows of small horizontal or vertical pinches on the wall (and see Type DDrp in Section 3.3, regarding other vessel-types decorated in a similar fashion).

Various Bowl Bases Hollow Ring Bases—Type BShr (Fig. 3.2.1/1)

Two examples of bowls/beakers adorned with rows of pinches were so far recorded from the Jerusalem area: one at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:86*, Fig. 2:12), and the other at Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:3), both in assemblages dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods.

Hollow ring bases were widespread from the Roman period onward and nearly disappeared during the Umayyad period. They supported bowls, beakers and jugs, and differed in their diameter and height, and in the treatment of the base floor.

Several bowls/beakers with one–two rows of horizontal pinches were recovered in Umayyad-period contexts excavated at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:21, Pl. 4:78, 80, 81), and at Tiberias, in Stratum V dated to 700–750 (Lester 2004a:204–206, Fig. 7.14:171). A bowl/beaker adorned with two rows of vertical pinches was unearthed in Cave 1 at Khirbat esh-Shubeika in the Galilee, with other glass vessels characteristic of the Umayyad period (GorinRosen 2002b:299–300, Fig. 7:53), and a bowl/beaker adorned with a row of vertical pinches was recorded in the church site at Sigilliya in southern Sinai (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:235–237, Fig. 2:1). At Pella, several bowls/beakers adorned with rows of pinches on the lower part of the body were associated with the Abbasid, post-749-earthquake66 settlement north of the tell, and they were assigned a date later than the mid-eighth century (O’Hea 1992:259–260, Figs. 16, 17; 1993:222–224, Fig. 25:2–4).

Several hollow ring bases that probably belonged to bowls were discovered at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.1:2, 3). The quality, hue and preservation of the glass of these bases suggest a date in the late sixth–mid-eighth centuries. A bowl with a similar base was discovered, for example, in an Umayyad-period context at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2016: Fig. 1:3). A bowl with an outfolded rim and a hollow ring base, adorned with a thick wavy trail (Type DDwt) at midheight of the vessel, was unearthed in the Umayyad-period citadel at Amman, Jordan (Harding 1951:11, Pl. II:21). Solid Bases—Type BSsd (Fig. 3.2.1/2) Solid bases were widespread from the Roman period onward, and they are distinguished by their fabric and workmanship. The variants from the seventh–eighth centuries may have supported bowls, bowls/beakers, beakers or bottles.

Bowls/Beakers Adorned with Tonged Decoration— Type BBtg (Fig. 3.2.1/2) Tonged decoration was widespread in the Near East during the Early Islamic period (see Type DDtg, Section 3.3); in Syria-Palestine it appeared mostly on bowls/beakers.

Several types of solid bases were discovered in the monastery north of Damascus Gate, at least one associated with the sixth–seventh centuries (Fig. 5.1.1:6–8). A complete bowl/ beaker with a solid base was unearthed on Marcus Street in Ramla, together with pottery dated to the eighth–ninth centuries (Pollak 2007:110, 112–113, Fig. 6:32, Pl. 1:9), and similar bases were recovered in Umayyad-period contexts

63 The vessel was recovered in Locus 4126. The excavation in the compound of the Israel Electric Corporation at Be’er Sheva (Permit No. A-2225/1995) was headed on behalf of the IAA by F. Sontag and O. Katz, and the glass finds were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen. 64 The fragment was recovered in Locus 508. The excavation at the Shoval Stream (Permit No. A-6362/2012) was headed on behalf of the IAA by N.-S. Paran, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 65 The piece was recovered in Locus 164. The excavation at Tel Rosh (Permit No. A-6055/2010) was headed on behalf of the IAA by V. Nikolsky-Carmel; the glass finds were studied by the author. 66 See n. 44, in Chapter 2.

The piece was recovered in Room 5. The excavations along the Western Wall (Permit No. A-5124/2007) were headed by the IAA staff (Onn, Weksler-Bdolah and Bar-Nathan 2011), and the glass finds were studied by N. Katsnelson. 67

31

Lucid Transformations in other locations in that city (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 1999b, Fig. 1:13–14; 2010:220, Pl. 10.1:7, 8).

with the lines of the glass-cutter on it” is mentioned by the poet Antar, who flourished in Arabia around the year 600 (Decker 2009:250).

Bases with a Double Fold Around the Perimeter— Type BSdf (Fig. 3.2.1/2)

It has also been suggested (Stern 2001:262–263) that wineglasses were used for lighting as well. This use may have occurred in individual cases, yet as wineglasses were nearly always discovered alongside glass lamps, it is reasonable to assume that lighting would not have been a standard use of wineglasses.

Bowls mounted on a base with a hollow double-fold around its perimeter were widespread during the Early Roman period (e.g., at Shu‘afat, north of Jerusalem: Katsnelson 2009:164, Fig. 3:8), and again in the seventh century and in the first half of the eighth century, and perhaps later on, into the second half of the eighth century and possibly the ninth century as well.

Wineglasses were unearthed in various types of sites (Barag 1970b:146–148, Pl. 33: Types 5:2–10), including monasteries and churches (see numerous examples below), synagogues (e.g., at Bet She’an: Zori 1967: Fig. 11:11), farmsteads (e.g., at Horbat Hermeshit: Winter 1998:174– 175, Fig. 2:5, 11), shops (e.g., at Bet She’an: Hadad 2000: Fig. 24:40; at Sardis: von Saldern 1980:53–60, Pls. 12, 24), residential units (e.g., in a terrace house at Ephesos: Czurda–Ruth 2007:151–173, Pls. 18:626–630; 19:631– 723; 20:724–787; more than 700 wineglass fragments in the residential area in Beirut’s Byzantine-period city center: Jennings 2006:123–133), and, to a lesser extent, in burials (e.g., Tomb 4 at Khirbat al-Karak: Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 60:23; a burial cave at Kafr Ara: Sussman 1976:99, Fig. 4:8; Pl. 29:1), as well as in glass workshops where they were manufactured (e.g., at Bet She’an: GorinRosen 2000a:59–60).

Double-fold bases are best identified when found detached from the rest of the vessel, as their interior shape is apparent. Islamic-period bases may have also supported bowls/beakers (Type BB), and vessels adorned with scratched/incised decoration (Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.; see Section 7.1). A double-fold base from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.1:5) was found together with a bowl/beaker rim (Fig. 5.5.1:2); the base’s shape and olive-green color are characteristic of Umayyad-natured vessels. Bases of this type were also discovered in Umayyad-period contexts at Khirbat Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:125, Fig. 2:5, 6), and on the City of David spur, in a pit together with glass vessels dated to the ninth–tenth centuries (not illustrated, Section 5.4).

Wineglass bases are generally sturdy and are therefore more likely to survive the weathering of time. The bases are also easily recognizable and may indicate the quantity of specimens at a site; rim fragments, on the other hand, may resemble those of beakers and bottles, and therefore it is more difficult to securely associate them with wineglasses.

Similar bases were discovered, for example, in various eighth-century contexts at Ramla (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2011: Fig. 15:4; Winter 2015b: Fig. 1:2), in a context dated to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:40, Pl. 38:797–799), and at Yoqne‘am (Lester 1996:205–206, Fig. XVII.5:5).

The typical wineglass had a rounded rim to facilitate drinking (Type WGrr); the rim was either slightly flaring or slightly incurved. The wineglass bowl was generally U-shaped, and the upper part of the walls either outslanting or convex. The stem appeared in several variations: hollow or solid, cylindrical, conical, bi-conical, or globular as a bead (henceforth: single-bead stem; Type WGhb/sbs).

3.2.2 Wineglasses The stem-footed vessels that appeared in the Byzantine period (Fig. 3.2.2) resemble modern-day wineglasses, and they are therefore referred to as such. Wineglasses were probably introduced to Syria-Palestine sometime during the fifth century (Barag 1970b:146; Stern 2001:262). They gradually drove out the Late Romanperiod beakers, which had been customary during the third–fourth centuries and had practically disappeared from the fifth century onward. During the sixth and seventh centuries, wineglasses, together with lamps, became the most characteristic glass vessels of that period.

Wineglasses were supported by either a hollow ring base or a solid base. Many bases bear on their undersides a scar and/or remains of glass from the pontil,68 indicating that the rim was tooled; in some cases, the scar had been intentionally smoothed. Wineglasses with a hollow ring base (Type WGhb) were the most widespread wineglass type in Syria-Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean basin. The hollow ring bases were gradually replaced during the sixth–seventh centuries by solid tooled bases (Type WGsb), which continued to appear up to the eighth century.

Wineglasses probably served as drinking vessels, and they were possibly the main vessel-type used for this purpose. Glass vessels in general were preferred for drinking wine, as its quality could be easily examined through the translucent vessel walls. Greek Byzantine texts refer to glass cups used for wine, to observe its color and clarity (Talbot 2005:143), and drinking wine from a glass, “yellow

A pontil is a solid metal rod that is applied to the base of a vessel to support it during manufacture. When removed, the pontil often leaves a scar or traces of glass on the vessel base. 68

32

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

WGrr

WGtd WGmbd

WGhb

WGsb

WGdb

WGhb/sbs

WGrd

0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Wineglasses with a rounded rim

WGrr

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.1:1

Wineglasses adorned with trail decoration on the rim/wall

WGtd

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.1:3

Wineglasses adorned with mold-blown decoration

WGmbd

Type WGtd, above

Wineglasses with a hollow base

WGhb

Types WGrr, WGtd, above

Wineglasses with a hollow base and a single-bead stem

WGhb/sbs

Type WGtd, above

Wineglasses with a solid base

WGsb

Gorin-Rosen 2002b: Fig. 7:36

Wineglasses with a delicate base

WGdb

Gorin-Rosen 2006b: Fig. 1:6

Wineglass bases adorned with radial decoration

WGrd

Katsnelson 2014b: Fig. 6:5

Fig. 3.2.2. Wineglasses.

33

Lucid Transformations Many of the wineglasses were plain, yet some were decorated in various techniques, the most widespread of which comprised dark trails horizontally-applied on the rim and wall (Type WGtd), and, to a lesser extent, shallow mold-blown geometric patterns (Type WGmbd), as well as a combination of these techniques on a single vessel.

Wineglasses Adorned with Trail Decoration on the Rim and/or Wall—Type WGtd (Fig. 3.2.2)

Diverse wineglass subtypes appear contemporaneously, and therefore may not be classified chronologically amongst themselves. However, the variety of features and minute details displayed on various wineglasses, and their assorted decorations and combinations may assist in distinguishing products of local glass workshops.

A thin trail was applied and horizontally wound on and below the rim. The trail was generally of a darker hue than the vessel, usually of dark blue, cobalt blue or turquoisecolored glass, and rarely of dark green or brown glass. The thickness of the trail, as well as the quantity and density of the trail-windings, varied from one vessel to the next. A favorite design included two thick windings flanking several thinner ones.

Wineglasses adorned with trail decoration generally had a rounded rim, occasionally slightly incurved, a single-bead stem and a hollow ring base.

Other types of larger vessels on a foot include goblets and chalices, discussed in Section 3.4, below (Types EXGBlg and EXGBhn).

The applied trail was generally fused-in by heating and marvering, and the vessel was then usually polished; occasionally the trail was deliberately left to protrude from the surface. Both variations appeared contemporaneously in various sites, such as at the Mamilla area, the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center and Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (see Table 3.2.2/1).

Wineglasses with a Rounded Rim—Type WGrr (Fig. 3.2.2) The wineglasses under this category have a rounded rim, occasionally thickened and/or slightly outflaring or incurved, and the walls are generally slightly outflaring or incurved at their upper end.

In the early 1990s, when wineglasses adorned with wound dark-colored trails were recovered in several excavations in Jerusalem and its vicinity (see below), they were thought to have been the products of a local workshop operating in the city during the sixth–seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:94*, n. 5). However, in time, vessels of this type surfaced in other areas of the country (see below). It now seems that these wineglasses, with their distinct shape, decoration, workmanship and fabric, were manufactured contemporaneously in several local workshops catering to a regional fashion; one such workshop (or more) probably operated in or around Jerusalem (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:167–169).

A complete thin-walled wineglass with a slightly-flaring rounded rim, U-shaped body, short and narrow stem and a hollow ring base was discovered in the monastery north of Jerusalem’s Damascus Gate, and dated to the sixth– seventh centuries (Fig. 5.1.1:1). Similar thin-walled rim and body fragments may have also belonged to bottles, yet they were classified as wineglasses due to their fashioning and delicate walls. They were recorded in several sites dated to the sixth–seventh centuries in Jerusalem and its surroundings (see Table 3.2.2/1). Wineglasses with a rounded incurved rim were probably produced in a workshop excavated at Bet She’an, which operated in the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178).

Wineglasses adorned with horizontal trails applied on and below the rim were recorded in Jerusalem and its vicinity in numerous contexts, both ecclesiastical and secular, dated to the sixth–seventh centuries (see Table 3.2.2/1).

Complete wineglasses with a flaring rounded rim and a solid base were unearthed at Gerasa, in the Church of Bishop Isaiah, which was founded in the mid-sixth century and functioned probably until the eighth century (Meyer 1988:211–212, Fig. 11:X–Z69). Rim fragments of this type were recorded, for example, in a Byzantine-period context on Mount Berenice (Amitai-Preiss 2004:178–179, Fig. 11.1:9), in late Byzantine–Umayyad contexts at Khirbat elBatiya (Gorin-Rosen 2006b:30*, Fig. 1:3–5) and Khirbat esh-Shubeika (Gorin-Rosen 2002b:315–316, Fig. 7:36), as well as in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 21:400) and at Bosra in Syria (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, Figs. 553–555). 69

Several wineglasses from the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center, associated with the late Byzantine period (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:203, Fig. 2:22– 24), were adorned, besides a thin, partly fused-in, dark green trail on and below the rim (Fig. 2:23) and a single dark blue trail fused-in on the rim (Fig. 2:22, 24), with shallow mold-blown ribbing as well (Type WGmbd, below). Wineglasses adorned with blue or turquoise-colored trails horizontally-applied on and below the rim were discovered in contexts dated to the sixth–seventh centuries in other areas of the country as well, for example, at Horbat Rozez on Mount Carmel (Winter 2010a:149,

Fig. 11 in Meyer 1988 is mistakenly labeled as Fig. 10.

34

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Table 3.2.2/1. Distribution of Wineglasses with a Rounded Rim (Type WGrr) and Wineglasses Adorned with Trail Decoration (Type WGtd) Site and Reference

Wineglass with a Rounded Rim

Wineglass Adorned with Trail Decoration

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Fig. 5.1.1:1

Fig. 5.1.1:2–4

Mamilla area

Fig. 5.2.2:7–9

Fig. 5.2.2:10–13

Teddy Kollek Park compound Monastery on Mount Scopus

Fig. 5.3.1:1, 2 Fig. 5.5.2:8, 9

Monastery in the Kidron Valley

Fig. 5.5.2:10 Fig. 5.6.1:2

Monastery at Umm Tuba

Fig. 5.7.1:1, 2

Kathisma church complex

Fig. 5.8.2:14, 15

Fig. 5.8.2:16, 17

Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem

Fig. 5.9.1:1, 2

Fig. 5.9.1:3–5

Farmstead at Bet Zayit Khirbat Adasa; Gorin-Rosen 2008a:125–126

Fig. 5.10.1:8, 9 Fig. 2:7

Ras Abu Ma‘aruf; Gorin-Rosen 1999a:210–212

Fig. 2:23, 24

Deir Ghazali; Gorin-Rosen 2000c:49*

Fig. 26:7 (?)

Structures north of Damascus Gate; Ein Mor 2013

Fig. 21:2 (?)

The Ophel, south of the Temple Mount

Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem, Case W, No. 1751

Compound of the JICC*; Gorin-Rosen 2005a:202–203

Fig. 2:19

Fig. 2:20–24

* JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

Fig. 2:3, 4), at Tel Tanninim on the coastal plain (Pollak 2006:174, Fig. 137:1–3), in Insula W2S3 at Caesarea Maritima,70 at Horbat Hermeshit, east of Ramla (Winter 1998:174–175, Fig. 2:5, 11), in the Byzantine fill of a tomb at Ashqelon (Katsnelson 1999:70*–71*, Fig. 2:9– 11), at Zerahya in the southern Shephelah (Katsnelson 2013a: Fig. 17:1), and in the En Boqeq fortress on the Dead Sea shores (Gichon 1993: Pl. 60:25a, b). Similar wineglasses were also unearthed in Umayyad-period contexts, for example, in the theater pottery workshop at Bet She’an (Winter 2011: Fig. 12.1:3), and in the area of the northern theater at Gerasa (Meyer 1988:213, Fig. 13:L).

The best-preserved examples from the Jerusalem area come from the monastic complex north of Damascus Gate and are assigned to the sixth–seventh centuries (Fig. 5.1.1:2, 3). Three similar specimens were retrieved from the excavations at the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:202–203, Fig. 2:22–24). A wineglass adorned with mold-blown diagonal ribs was recovered at Khirbat al-Karak, in Tomb 3 dated from the sixth to the early seventh centuries (Barag 1970b:54, 148, Pls. 10; 33:9; unpublished by the excavators). An exceptional piece was excavated in the northwestern church at Hippos-Sussita (Burdajewicz 2006:130, Fig. 1:15a, 15b; 2011:38, Fig. 9); this wineglass is adorned with shallow mold-blown rhomboids, a pattern that appeared on other types of vessels, but was rather rare on wineglasses (see Type DDmbd, Section 3.3). The occurrence of a single decorated vessel in the church glass assemblage may suggest it had been used for liturgical purposes (GorinRosen and Winter 2010:177; and see Section 3.4).

Wineglasses Adorned with Mold-Blown Decoration— Type WGmbd (Fig. 3.2.2) Some of the wineglasses adorned with trails wound on and below the rim, also bore mold-blown patterns on the vessel wall. The most conventional patterns comprised vertical or twisted ribs, created by blowing the wineglass into a ribbed mold and then twisting it to obtain the diagonal ribbing.

Double mold-blown designs quite rarely decorated wineglasses; however, one of the wineglasses from the monastery on Mount Scopus is adorned with a shallow double mold-blown pattern of horizontal and diagonal ribs (Fig. 5.5.2:9). A yellow wineglass from Beirut, probably from the mid-sixth century, displays faint double moldblown ribbing on the upper surface of its base (Jennings 2006:124–126, Fig. 6.1:10).

70 Excavations were carried out by the IAA in the years 1992–1998 in Insula W2S3 (Area I) in the southwestern zone at Caesarea Maritima. Their results were investigated by Y. Porath and P. Gendelman, and the glass finds were studied by the author.

35

Lucid Transformations Wineglasses with a Hollow Base—Type WGhb (Fig. 3.2.2)

example, at Shave Ziyyon, Khirbat el-Batiya, the theater pottery workshop at Bet She’an, Gerasa and Bosra (see Type WGsb, below).

Wineglasses were generally supported by either a hollow ring base (Type WGhb) or a solid tooled base (Type WGsb, below). The bases were flat, concave or pushedin. Their stems appeared in several variations: hollow or solid, cylindrical, conical, bi-conical, or globular as a hollow or solid bead (henceforth: single-bead stem); this latter subtype (Type WGhb/sbs) displayed various bead shapes: elongated, globular, squat, or vertically pinched.71

Hollow wineglass bases with a single-bead stem (Type WGhb/sbs) were the most widespread subtype in Jerusalem and its vicinity, and similar bases with a rather long and narrow cylindrical stem or a twisted stem were customary as well (see Table 3.2.2/2). Additional hollow wineglass bases with other types of stems, or with no stem preserved, were also discovered in many sites in Jerusalem and its environs (see Table 3.2.2/2).

Hollow ring bases were the most widespread wineglass bases in Syria-Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean region during the fifth–seventh centuries, gradually accompanied by solid bases, which continued to appear up to the eighth century. Accordingly, wineglasses with a hollow base, and others with a solid base, coexisted in complexes dated to the sixth–eighth centuries, for

Wineglasses with a Solid Base—Type WGsb (Fig. 3.2.2) Wineglasses with a solid base occurred simultaneously with the hollow-base ones (Type WGhb, above) and gradually replaced them, continuing to appear into the eighth century.

Table 3.2.2/2. Distribution of Wineglasses with a Hollow Ring Base (Type WGhb) and Various Stem Types Site and Reference

Single-Bead Stem

Cylindrical Stem

Other Stem Types with No Stem Intact

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Fig. 5.1.1:2, 3

Fig. 5.1.1:1, 5

Mamilla area

Fig. 5.2.2:14–19

Teddy Kollek Park compound

Fig. 5.3.1:3–8

Residential quarter on the City of David spur

Not illustrated

Monastery on Mount Scopus

Fig. 5.5.2:11

Fig. 5.5.2:12–14

Monastery in the Kidron Valley

Fig. 5.6.1:3

Fig. 5.6.1:4

Monastery at Umm Tuba

Fig. 5.7.1:3

Kathisma church complex

Fig. 5.8.2:18–20

Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem

Fig. 5.9.1:6–8

Farmstead at Bet Zayit

Fig. 5.10.1:10

Khirbat Adasa; Gorin-Rosen 2008a:125–126

Fig. 2:8

Ras Abu Ma‘aruf; Gorin-Rosen 1999a:211–212

Fig. 2:26

Deir Ghazali; Gorin-Rosen 2000c:48*–49*

Fig. 26:5, 6

Fig. 5.2.2:20–23 Fig. 5.3.1:9

Fig. 5.3.1:10, 11

Fig. 5.8.2:21

Fig. 2:25

Structures north of Damascus Gate; Ein Mor 2013

Fig. 21:5

NW corner of Old City wall; Gorin-Rosen 2006a:116*

Fig. 14:4

Fig. 14:5

City of David spur, Area G; Ariel 1990:161

Fig. 32: GL71, GL72

Fig. 32: GL73

City of David spur, Area M1; Gutreich 2013:281

Fig. 12.6:96–98

Fig. 12.6:95

Khirbat Tabaliya; Gorin-Rosen 2000e:84*–86*

Fig. 2:15

Fig. 2:14

Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam; Corbo 1955:75–76

Fig. 25:15

Fig. 25:16

Compound of JICC*; Gorin-Rosen 2005a:203–204

Fig. 2:25, 26

Fig. 2:27

Ir Gannim neighborhood; Katsnelson 2009

Fig. 32: GL74

Fig. 11:3

* JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

71 An attempt has been made to classify wineglasses from museum collections and excavations, mostly in Asia Minor, by the shape of their stems and bases (Çakmakçi 2009). However, it has already been established that these vessels were widespread particularly during the fifth–seventh centuries, and no other decisive conclusions may be drawn from Çakmakçi’s typology, which indicates that several types of wineglasses appeared contemporaneously, and that other types spanned a very wide time range.

36

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Wineglasses with a solid base have scarcely been published from Jerusalem. A cylindrical stem, set upon a solid base with tooling marks on its upper surface and a pontil scar on its underside, was excavated at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.2:22). It is one of very few examples documented so far from Jerusalem of a wineglass with a solid base.

Consequently, it now seems that wineglasses with a delicate base were quite widespread, and were most likely produced in the same flourishing local glass workshops as other types of wineglasses (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:169–170). The largest group of the delicate-type wineglass bases hitherto recorded in Israel was unearthed at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:386, Figs. 201–209). One such base was found at Khirbat el-Batiya, together with the more common types of wineglasses (Gorin-Rosen 2006b:29*– 32*, Fig. 1:6).

Many wineglasses with a solid base appeared concurrently with wineglasses with a hollow base, as attested in the church at Shave Ziyyon, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries72 (Barag 1967a:67–68, 70, Fig. 16:15–17), the farmstead/ monastery at Khirbat el-Batiya, where the wineglasses were all made of the same fabric and possibly produced in the same workshop (Gorin-Rosen 2006b:29*–32*, Fig. 1:7–10), in a Byzantine-period context on Mount Berenice (Amitai-Preiss 2004:179, Fig. 11.1:7–10), at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:405–407, Pl. III:1–5), in Cave 1071 at Horbat Qastra, within a glass assemblage dated to the late sixth–seventh centuries (Brink et al. 2013:99– 102, Fig. 24:8–12), and in contexts dated to 630–670 at Gerasa (Meyer 1988:199, Figs. 8:Y–cc, 9:A–D), as well as in Umayyad-period contexts, such as in the theater pottery workshop at Bet She’an (Winter 2011:346–348, Fig. 12.1:4–9), and at Bosra in Syria (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:147, Figs. 556–560).

Wineglasses with a delicate foot were also discovered in the Souks excavations at Beirut, where they were attributed to the sixth–seventh centuries (Jennings 2006:127–129, Fig. 6.3:6–9). Similar delicate wineglasses were unearthed in the debris of an ancient glass workshop uncovered in that city, where they were dated by pottery and coins to the mid-seventh century or its second half; nevertheless, it has been noted that the delicate wineglasses were not produced locally (Foy 2000a:239, 276–277, Fig. 26:3, 6, 7–9). Delicate bases were also found at Sardis (von Saldern 1980:60–61, Pls. 13:382; 24:376, 382): one (No. 376) from the sixth century, and the other (No. 382) assigned an “Early Byzantine date”. Wineglasses with a delicate base were discovered in various other contexts dated to the sixth–seventh centuries, for example, in Egypt (Kucharczyk 2005a:57–58, Fig. 2:1; Keller 2008: Fig. 2:7), and in Tunisia (Foy 2003:73–77, Figs. 44–49, 50–54, 59, 60, 64, 66, 69, 70).

Solid bases also occurred exclusively, as the only type of wineglass base in a single assemblage, for example, in the church at Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 60:16–18), in the northwestern church at HipposSussita (Burdajewicz 2006:129–130, Fig. 1:11, 12), and in various Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 21:401–409) and Gerasa (Meyer 1988:211– 212, Fig. 11:V, X–Z73).

Wineglasses with Various Other Bases Wineglasses generally had a hollow ring base, a solid one, or a delicate base (see above); however, some wineglass bases are different.

Some solid bases from contexts of the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods display spiral tooling marks on their upper surface, as on wineglasses from Cave 2 at Khirbat esh-Shubeika (Gorin-Rosen 2002b:315–316, Fig. 7:36), from the youth hostel compound at Bet She’an (Katsnelson 2014b:33*, Fig. 6:4), and from Cave 1071 at Horbat Qastra (Brink et al. 2013:102, Fig. 24:11).

An example adorned with a radial pattern on the upper surface of the base (Fig. 3.2.2; Type WGrd) was discovered in the youth hostel compound at Bet She’an and attributed to the Umayyad period (Katsnelson 2014b:33*, Fig 6:5). A piece with a similarly-decorated base, as well as ribbing on the wineglass bowl, was unearthed at Beirut, in a context associated with a glass workshop dated to the second half of the seventh century (Foy 2000a:251, 258, Figs. 14:1; 15).

Wineglasses with a Delicate Base—Type WGdb (Fig. 3.2.2) Wineglasses labeled ‘delicate’ are characterized by their round-edged base and thin foot occurring in several variations. They are detected in local glass assemblages less often than other wineglasses, probably because their frailty led to their poor preservation, hence the scant published material. However, wineglasses of this type have recently been better distinguished in Israel, as well as in other regions of the eastern Mediterranean (see below).

A hitherto unique phenomenon has been detected among six hollow ring bases of wineglasses excavated in Thessaloniki in Greece, five of which were discovered in a glass workshop dated from the late fifth to the seventh centuries. A circular, ten-mm-wide stamp had been pressed onto the upper part of each of these bases; each stamp bore a Greek letter or ligature in relief. The significance of these letters is still obscure, as suggestions that they may have represented the volume or content of the vessels, or the identity of the craftsman, have not been corroborated by the finds and the circumstances (Antonaras 2011).

72 In his Ph.D. dissertation, Barag acknowledged that the wineglasses, bottles and lamps may date to the final stages of the church occupation in the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Barag 1970b:119). 73 See n. 69.

37

Lucid Transformations 3.2.3 Jars

Russian Compound,74 as well as along the Western Wall;75 one of these jars is adorned with a row of pinches (for similarly-decorated jars, see Type DDrp, Section 3.3). A complete globular jar was recorded at the Monastery of St. Theodore at Bir el-Qutt, about two km northeast of Bethlehem (Corbo 1955:131–132, Fig. 40:10).

Jars rich in variations of shapes, handles and decorations were widespread in Syria-Palestine in the Late Roman period, particularly in burial complexes of the late third– early fifth centuries (e.g., Barag 1970b:148−155, Type 6, Pls. 33, 34; Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:94–95, Fig. 9). In the following period jars were not customary, yet they occasionally occur in glass assemblages dated from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries in the Jerusalem area. Some jars are adorned with trail applications (Type JRta, below) or rows of pinches (Type DDrp, Section 3.3). The jars characteristic of the subsequent Abbasid period feature different fabrics and profiles.

A complete small jar with a rounded rim and a slightly concave bottom, and a jar fragment with an infolded rim, were recovered at Kursi-Gergesa and dated to the seventh century (Barag 1983:38, Fig. 9:7, 8). Various jars were excavated in Umayyad-period contexts, for example, in the ‘House of the Bronzes’ at Tiberias (Hadad 2008:173, Pl. 5.7:108, 109), and at Bet She’an, where some of the specimens originated from the shops destroyed in the 749 earthquake (Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 20:368–378). A complete example dated to the early seventh century was unearthed in Room 30 in St. Theodore’s church at Gerasa (Baur 1938:536, No. 69, Fig. 29:236), and additional specimens from that ancient city were discovered in contexts whose dates are uncertain (Baur 1938:536–537, Nos. 69, 70, 72, Figs. 25:1068; 29:236, 390; Pl. CXLb:1068).

Small Globular Jars—Type JRgb (Fig. 3.2.3) Small globular jars with a rounded unfolded rim or an infolded rim occur in glass assemblages from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries. Few examples are known from the Jerusalem area. A jar fragment with a rounded rim was unearthed in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.2:16), and a rim with a wide funnel-shaped mouth from the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:25) may have been part of a jar. Several small globular jars with an infolded rim were discovered in Jerusalem during the excavations at the

Jars with Trail Applications—Type JRta (Fig. 3.2.3) Some jars typical of the late seventh–eighth centuries were distinctly decorated with trail applications (see Type DDta, Section 3.3), as are examples from the Ir Gannim neighborhood in Jerusalem (Katsnelson 2009: Fig. 11:5–10). Complete jars adorned with trail applications, dated to the Umayyad period, were discovered in Area XXXII at Pella in Jordan (O’Hea 2002:521–522, Fig. 13: GN14129), and on Jabal ad-Druz in Syria (al-’Ush 1964:58, Fig. 48). 3.2.4 Bottles Bottles appeared with the invention of glass blowing, and were since widespread in a variety of shapes and decorations (Barag 1970b:187–221). The bottles that were customary in Syria-Palestine during the fifth–seventh centuries occurred in many variations (Figs. 3.2.4/1, 3.2.4/2), and generally had a relatively long neck (Types BTrr, BTir). They were either plain, or decorated in various techniques (Types BTmbd, BTtd, BTst, BTpt, BTwt).

JRgb

These long-necked bottles were accompanied in the seventh century by bottles with an infolded rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr), which became the most widespread bottles in the seventh–eighth centuries, with variants continuing into the ninth century. Other bottles that are less common among the finds from Jerusalem and its environs include a type with a ridged neck (Type BTTrn), which appeared in the seventh

JRta 0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Small globular jars

JRgb

Barag 1983: Fig. 9:7

Jars with trail applications

JRta

Reconstruction

The excavations at the Russian Compound in Jerusalem (Permit Nos. A-7550/2015 and A-7610/2016) were headed on behalf of the IAA by Rina Avner, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 75 These jars were found in Building H, Area 18E. See n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 74

Fig. 3.2.3. Jars.

38

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products century and was widespread particularly during the eighth–ninth centuries, as well as small bottles with a cylindrical body (Type BTTcyb) or a square-sectioned body (Type BTTsqb), which appeared in the eighth century and were widespread predominantly in the ninth–tenth centuries.

The bottles retrieved from funerary contexts in the Jerusalem area76 are mostly crude and undecorated. Most of them have a rounded unfolded rim, and many have a wide neck and no mouth (Type BTrr/ln). Complete bottles with a rounded rim, a long neck (Type BTrr/ln) and a barrel-shaped body were unearthed in the Vault Crypt in the monastery north of Damascus Gate (e.g., Fig. 5.1.2:19, 22). They resemble complete bottles from funerary contexts in the city, for example, at the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives, in Tombs 97, 215 and 311, dated to the fifth and sixth centuries (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 34:1–4; Barag 1970b:32), in various locations east of the Old City’s St. Stephen’s (Lions) Gate (Hamilton 1938:155, Pl. XLII: top left; Pancrace 1965: e.g., Figs. 56:4; 58:2, 3; 59: top center, bottom right; 60:5; Zissu and Adawi 2014: Figs. 10:1; 11:3; 12), north of Damascus Gate (Burrows 1932: Fig. 7: left; Re’em 2009: Fig. 9:1–8), in the Nahalat Ahim neighborhood (Kogan-Zehavi 2006: Figs. 3:9; 8:38; 17:93–96; 18:99–102; 19:103), in Horbat Gores at the Gonen neighborhood (Solimany, Winter and de Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:1–3), at Batn el-Hawa on the southern spur of the Mount of Olives (Abel 1923: Fig. 2: right), and at Bethany, in Tomb-Chamber I located beneath the western wing of the monastery (Saller 1957:329, Pl. 57:d, e).

As bottom and body fragments can seldom be securely linked to rim, mouth and neck fragments, the bottles are classified in this section primarily by their rim, mouth and neck, and only secondarily by the shape of the body. The long-necked bottles generally had a rounded rim, or less often an infolded rim, a relatively long neck, a globular, barrel-shaped or pear-shaped body, and a flat or concave bottom. The neck may have been cylindrical or funnel-shaped, with or without a constriction at the lower end (Types BTrr, BTir). These bottles occurred in many variations, and were either undecorated or decorated in several techniques, the most widespread of which comprised applied trails in an assortment of patterns (Types BTtd, BTst, BTpt, BTwt), and moldblown designs on the neck and body (Type BTmbd). Occasionally, two or more decoration schemes adorned a single vessel (see below). These long-necked bottles are associated predominantly with the fifth–seventh centuries. Numerous intact and complete bottles were discovered in contemporaneous funerary contexts in and around Jerusalem. These bottles, together with fragmentary finds from various excavated settlements, display the wide variety of shapes and decorations of the bottle repertoire of the period.

A complete bottle with a funnel-shaped mouth and a cylindrical neck (Type BTrr/fm), displaying a barrel-shaped body, was unearthed in the Vault Crypt of the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.2:9). It resembles complete bottles from funerary contexts in Jerusalem, for example, in the Nahalat Ahim neighborhood (KoganZehavi 2006: Figs. 3:8; 17:97), and in the American Colony compound (Marshall 1995: Fig. 5:6, 7).

Bottles with a Rounded Rim—Type BTrr (Fig. 3.2.4/1) Nearly all the bottles recovered from the Jerusalem area have a rounded unfolded rim, occasionally thickened and/or slightly outflaring. These bottles occur in various dimensions and rim diameters range between 20–90 mm.

A variant of bottles with a rounded unfolded rim has a short wide funnel-shaped mouth. Examples from Jerusalem were excavated at the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives, in Tombs 97, 215 and 311, dated to the fifth and sixth centuries (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 33:16–18; Barag 1970b:32). Rim fragments of such bottles were discovered, for example, in the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:24) and at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:209, Fig. 1:14).

Bottles with a rounded rim may occur with several mouth and neck variations. Some bottles have no mouth and a long, wide or narrow, cylindrical neck, or, less commonly a funnel-shaped neck (Type BTrr/ln; Fig. 3.2.4/1); occasionally, the mouth/neck is constricted at its lower end (e.g., Fig. 5.1.2:10). Other bottles have a wide or narrow funnel-shaped mouth, and a cylindrical neck (Type BTrr/ fm; Fig. 3.2.4/1). Most of these bottles have a globular or barrel-shaped body, and a concave bottom (see below references to complete specimens).

Several bottles with a markedly wide funnel-shaped mouth were unearthed in and around Jerusalem, for example, at Gethsemane (Pancrace 1965: Fig. 59: bottom center), north of Damascus Gate (Burrows 1932: Fig. 7: right and center), and at the YMCA compound west of the Old City (Iliffe 1935:76, Fig. 2b).

Nearly all the sites in Jerusalem and its environs examined in the book yielded numerous rounded unfolded bottle rims, mostly of bottles with a narrow mouth or narrow neck (see Table 3.2.4); complete specimens from these sites are specifically cited below. Concave bottoms and fragments of globular or barrel-shaped bodies that probably belonged to long-necked bottles were also recorded in many of these sites (e.g., Figs. 5.1.2; 5.2.3:35–38; 5.8.3:37–40).

Complete bottles with a rounded rim, a funnel-shaped mouth and a globular or barrel-shaped body were discovered in Tomb I in the northern cemetery at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:412, Fig. 95:4, 9, 10). Various 76

39

See Sections 3.1 and 6.12.

Lucid Transformations

BTrr/fm

BTrr/ln

0

20 mm

BTir/ln

Fig. 3.2.4/1. Bottles.

BTpb

BTef

BTir/fm

40

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Fig. 3.2.4/1. Bottles. Type

Type Lable

Reference

Bottles with a rounded rim, no mouth and a long neck

BTrr/ln

Kogan-Zehavi 2006: Fig. 3:9

Bottles with a rounded rim and a funnel-shaped mouth

BTrr/fm

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.2:9

Bottles with a rounded rim and a pear-shaped body

BTpb

Kogan-Zehavi 2006: Fig. 18:98

Bottles with an infolded rim, no mouth and a long neck

BTir/ln

Gorin-Rosen 2010: Pl. 10.1:15*

Bottles with an infolded rim and a funnel-shaped mouth

BTir/fm

Gorin-Rosen 2001b: Fig. 1:5

Bottles with an exterior hollow fold

BTef

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.5.3:23

* Courtesy of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

subtypes of bottles with a rounded unfolded rim were excavated in other parts of the country, for example, at Caesarea Maritima, in Byzantine-period contexts in Areas CC and KK (Israeli 2008:386–388, 415, Nos. 221–228) and in Stratum VIII dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003: Fig. 1:3), and at Bet She’an, in contexts of both the Byzantine period (e.g., Hadad 2006:626–627, Fig. 19.2:18–28) and the Umayyad period (e.g., Hadad 2005: Pls. 7:131–140; 8:143–145). Bottles with a rounded rim, a short or long funnel-shaped mouth or no mouth at all, and a globular or barrel-shaped body were also produced in a workshop, which functioned at Bet She’an in the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60; GorinRosen and Winter 2010:177–178, Pls. 10:2; 11:1, 2). Other specimens were discovered, for example, at Tel Tanninim (Pollak 2006:175–180, Figs. 139; 140:140–144), and Ashqelon (e.g., Katsnelson 1999:*72–*74, Fig. 3:9–12), both on the coastal plain, and in the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit in the northern Negev (Katsnelson 2004:277–278, Fig. 62:1–6). At Ramla, bottles of this type were associated with Umayyad-period contexts (Pollak 2007:120, Fig. 9:52, 53), and were generally decorated with a thick wavy trail (Type BTwt, below). A bottle with an unfolded rim and a short wide funnel-shaped mouth was unearthed in a secure Umayyad-period context at Bosra in Syria (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, 146–147, Fig. 568).

or barrel-shaped body, and are scarce in non-funerary contexts in Jerusalem and its environs. Bottles with a pear-shaped body were recorded in various burials, for example, at the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives, in Tomb 215, dated to the fifth or sixth century (Bagatti and Milik 1958:143, Fig. 33:10; Barag 1970b:32), at Gethsemane (Pancrace 1965: Fig. 59: top right), in the Nahalat Ahim neighborhood (KoganZehavi 2006: Figs. 18:98) and at Batn el-Hawa (Abel 1923: Fig. 2: left, and third from left). A complete bottle of this type, discovered in Tomb I in the northern cemetery at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:412, Fig. 95:7), is adorned with shallow mold-blown vertical ribbing (Type BTmbd, below). Bottles with an Infolded Rim—Type BTir (Fig. 3.2.4/1) Bottles and jugs with an infolded rim were widespread in the region during the Late Roman period (e.g., GorinRosen and Katsnelson 2007:95–99, Figs. 10:1, 8, 9; 11:1–3). Vessels with an infolded rim and a funnel-shaped mouth (Type BTir/fm) continued to appear in small numbers during the Byzantine period, and were recorded in settlement sites in the Jerusalem area, for example, at the Teddy Kollek Park compound (Fig. 5.3.2:15–17), the installations at Bet Ha-Kerem (Fig. 5.9.1:10, 11), and the farmstead at Bet Zayit (Fig. 5.10.1:13). Some bottles have a narrow cylindrical neck, as those from the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.2:21) and the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:6, 7).

An uncommon subtype of a bottle with a rounded rim, a narrow funnel-shaped mouth and a long narrow cylindrical body was discovered in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.3:21, 26). A similar bottle, adorned with moldblown ovals on its shoulders, was unearthed in the ecclesiastical complex of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas in Jordan, in a tomb possibly pre-dating the sixth-century Edicule Church (Alliata 1991:377, Fig. 7:4; Piccirillo 1991:331–332).

Another variant of bottles with an infolded rim has a wide cylindrical neck (Type BTir/ln), as do specimens from the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:26), Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:208–209, Fig. 1:11), and a dwelling cave at Et-Tur on the Mount of Olives (Winter 2000:133, Fig. 10:7). Bottles of this type were also unearthed in funerary contexts in and around Jerusalem, for example, at the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives, in Tomb 215, dated to the fifth or sixth century (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 34:5; Barag 1970b:32), and outside the Old City’s St. Stephen’s (Lions) Gate (Hamilton 1938:155, Pl. XLII: top row, third from left).

Bottles with a Rounded Rim and a Pear-Shaped Body— Type BTpb (Fig. 3.2.4/1) A variant of the bottle with a funnel-shaped mouth and a cylindrical neck has a narrow pear-shaped body (Fig. 3.2.4/1); in some cases, it is difficult to discern where its mouth ends and the neck begins. Bottles of this type were less widespread than their counterparts with the globular 41

Lucid Transformations A subtype with a conical neck was recovered in a burial cave from the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods at Horbat Gores in Jerusalem’s Gonen neighborhood (Solimany, Winter and de Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:3).

The Vault Crypt in the monastery north of Damascus Gate yielded at least seven bottles adorned with moldblown decoration: a bottle exhibiting a grid pattern (Fig. 5.1.2:15) and six bottles with mold-blown vertical or diagonal ribbing (Fig. 5.1.2:13, 14, 16–19). One of these bottles (Fig. 5.1.2:17) displays shallow, double moldblown ribs. Another of these bottles (Fig. 5.1.2:19) was also adorned with a thin trail wound on the neck (Type BTtd, below); a similar combination of decorations appears on a bottle from Cave 2 at Khirbat esh-Shubeika, unearthed among glass vessels dated to the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2002b:316– 317, Fig. 8:41).

Bottles with an infolded rim were less common than those with an unfolded rim, and were recorded in contexts from both the Byzantine and Umayyad periods at Bet She’an (e.g., Peleg 1994: Fig. 15:6, 7; Hadad 2005: Pls. 8:155– 164; 9:165–175; 2006:626, 629, Fig. 19.3:34; 19.4:72– 74). A few of the bottles manufactured in a workshop that functioned at Bet She’an in the late sixth–early seventh centuries had an infolded rim (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59– 60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178, Pl. 11:2). Additional specimens were discovered, for example, at Tel Tanninim (Pollak 2006:180–182, Fig. 141:149–155) and at Ashqelon (e.g., Katsnelson 1999:*72–*74, Fig. 3:8).

A bottle neck decorated with mold-blown diagonal ribbing was excavated at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:87*, Fig. 2:19). A few small body fragments of a thin-walled vessel, probably a bottle, from the Bet HaKerem neighborhood in Jerusalem, were adorned with mold-blown shallow vertical ribbing (Fig. 5.9.1:15).

Bottles with an Exterior Hollow Fold—Type BTef (Fig. 3.2.4/1) Bottles with a rounded rim and an exterior horizontal hollow fold below the rim occurred in small numbers, particularly in the seventh century.

Bottles (and jugs) adorned with mold-blown shallow ribbing on the neck, body and/or bottom were also excavated in other parts of the country, for example, in Byzantine-period contexts at Caesarea Maritima (e.g., Peleg and Reich 1992:155, Fig. 18:6; Israeli 2008:387, 414, Nos. 217–220) and Ashqelon (e.g., Katsnelson 1999:*74–*78, Fig. 4:7–16; Katsnelson and Jackson-Tal 2004:106, Fig. 2:12–14), as well as in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:27, Pl. 16:317–322). A complete bottle with a pear-shaped body adorned with mold-blown shallow vertical ribbing was discovered in Tomb I in the northern cemetery at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:412, Fig. 95:7).

Bottles with an exterior hollow fold from Jerusalem and its environs include neck/mouth fragments, mostly with a rounded rim, from the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:8), the Old City’s Jewish Quarter,77 the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.3:23) and Khirbat Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:126, Fig. 2:13). The tooled-out fold resembles the one on a beakershaped lamp unearthed at Khirbat Tabaliya and dated to the sixth–eighth centuries (see Type LBEef, below). A specimen with an exterior hollow fold and an infolded rim was discovered in an Umayyad-period context at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:224–225, Pl. 10.1:15).

A bottle adorned with a rather rare, mold-blown shallow geometric pattern on its globular body was unearthed in Cave 1071 at Horbat Qastra, within a glass assemblage dated to the late sixth–seventh centuries (Brink et al. 2013:105–107, Fig. 26:34); it was probably produced in the same workshop as other globular bottles from that cave, adorned with mold-blown shallow vertical ribbing (Brink et al. 2013: Fig. 26:32, 33).

Bottles Adorned with Mold-Blown Decoration— Type BTmbd (Fig. 3.2.4/2) Mold-blown designs decorated various types of vessels during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, and continued to appear later as well (see Type DDmbd, Section 3.3). Bottles were adorned on the neck, body and/or bottom with mold-blown patterns, generally vertical or diagonal ribbing, as well as other geometric designs. These were occasionally combined with a trail wound on the mouth or neck.

Occasionally, the mold-blown decoration on a bottle’s mouth or neck was accompanied by a thin wound trail (Type BTtd, below; e.g., Barag 1967a:66–67, Fig. 16:6; Katsnelson 1999: Fig. 4:9; Gorin-Rosen 2000b: Fig. 2:10; Hadad 2005: Pl. 16:321), or by a thick wavy trail (Type BTwt, below; e.g., Hadad 2005: Pl. 16:322).

Complete bottles adorned with mold-blown vertical ribs on the body were unearthed, for example, in Cave II on the western slope of the Kidron Valley (Zissu and Adawi 2014: Fig. 11:4) Several bottles and a jug adorned with mold-blown vertical ribbing were recovered in a crypt near Highway No. 1 in Jerusalem and dated to the late sixth−early seventh centuries (Re’em 2009: Figs. 9, 10).

A bottle unearthed in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.4:33) was adorned with a rather uncommon mold-blown decoration, depicting festoons on the walls, and petals on the exterior of the bottom. This mold-blown design may be attributed to the Umayyad or Abbasid period. A bottle bottom adorned with a similar mold-blown pattern was discovered in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 16:323).

77 The excavations at Jerusalem’s Jewish Quarter (Permit Nos. A-5741/2009 and A-5836/2010) were headed on behalf of the IAA by E. Kogan-Zehavi, and the glass finds were studied by the author.

42

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Bottles Adorned with Trail Decoration on the Mouth or Neck—Type BTtd (Fig. 3.2.4/2)

Hermeshit, among other glass vessels dated to the sixth– seventh centuries (Winter 1998:176, Fig. 2:7).

Applying trails was the most conventional method of decorating glass vessels, and it was extremely widespread on bottles during the fifth–seventh centuries (see Type DDtd, Section 3.3; Barag 1970b:193–196, Pls. 42:20, 21, 21-1; 43:22, 22-1, 23-1, 23-2, 27-1, 29-1; 44:13-2, 16). The trail was either of the same color as the vessel, or of a darker hue, generally blue, turquoise or green. The trail was wound horizontally around the rim and/or around the mouth or neck, and then fused-in or left protruding. The windings were densely or sparsely spaced, covering all or a part of the mouth or neck.

Complete bottles with a trail wound numerously around a long neck from the Jerusalem area were uncovered in a pit, probably sealed by a Byzantine-period phase, in Area K on the City of David spur (Ariel 1990:160–161, Fig. 32: GL67), in one of the graves outside the Old City’s St. Stephen’s (Lions) Gate (Hamilton 1938:155, Pl. XLII: top row, second from left), in a tomb that was in use during the fifth century and probably in the sixth century as well (Barag 1970b:25), and in the Kidron Valley necropolis opposite the Church of the Agony, in Tomb No. 9 that was dated from the mid-fifth to the sixth centuries (Pancrace 1965:66; Barag 1970b:25–26).

Nearly all the contexts in the Jerusalem area associated mostly with the fifth–seventh centuries yielded bottles adorned with densely-wound trails (see Table 3.2.4). The decoration was applied mostly on a long cylindrical neck, and less commonly on a funnel-shaped mouth (Fig. 3.2.4/2: BTtd).

A complete bottle with a rounded rim and a narrow funnelshaped mouth (Type BTrr/fm), adorned with many trail windings on a cylindrical neck, was excavated on the western slope of the Kidron Valley, in Cave II, its use dated to the fifth–sixth centuries (Zissu and Adawi 2014: Fig. 10:2).

A rather rare variant of these bottles has a convex funnelshaped mouth, decorated with applied trails below the rim. Several such bottles were unearthed in the Jerusalem area: at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:27), at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:87*, Fig. 2:18), and at the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:204, Fig. 2:30). Bottles of this subtype were also discovered in other parts of the country, for example, at Tel Tanninim on the coastal plain (Pollak 2006:184–186, Fig. 143:176, 177), and at Horbat

Many variants of bottles adorned with trails wound on the neck or mouth were excavated in other parts of the country, for example, in Byzantine-period contexts in Areas CC and KK at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:388, 415–416, Nos. 229, 236), at Tel Tanninim (Pollak 2006:184–187, Fig. 143:175–186), and at Ashqelon (e.g., Katsnelson 1999:*74–*78, Fig. 4:1–5, 9; Katsnelson and Jackson-Tal 2004:103–106, Fig. 2:4, 5, 9–11). Other examples were unearthed at Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines

Table 3.2.4. Distribution of Bottles with Trail Decoration on the Mouth/Neck (Type BTtd) Site and Reference

Trail Decoration on a Cylindrical Neck

Trail Decoration on a Funnel-Shaped Mouth

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Fig. 5.1.2:19–22; Fig. 5.1.3:28

Fig. 5.1.3:27

Teddy Kollek Park compound

Fig. 5.3.2:18–21

Residential quarter on the City of David spur

Fig. 5.4.1:7

Monastery on Mount Scopus

Fig. 5.5.3:24

Kathisma church complex

Fig. 5.8.2:27

Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem

Fig. 5.9.1:12–14

Farmstead at Bet Zayit

Fig. 5.10.1:12

Ras Abu Ma‘aruf; Gorin-Rosen 1999a:208–209

Fig. 1:12

Structures north of Damascus Gate; Ein Mor 2013

Fig. 1:15 Fig. 12:4

Burial cave at the ‘Third Wall’ area; Reem 2009

Fig. 9:1, 2, 6, 7

City of David spur, Area K; Ariel 1990:160–161

Fig. 32: GL67

Tombs outside St. Stephen’s Gate; Hamilton 1938:155

Pl. XLII: top row, second left

Tombs at Gethsemane; Pancrace 1965:66

Fig. 59: top left

Khirbat Tabaliya; Gorin-Rosen 2000e:87*

Fig. 2:18

Compound of the JICC*; Gorin-Rosen 2005a:204

Fig. 2:31

Ir Gannim neighborhood; Katsnelson 2009

Fig. 2:29, 30 Fig. 11:1

* JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

43

Lucid Transformations

BTmbd

BTtd

BTst

BTtd

BTpt 0

20 mm

Fig. 3.2.4/2. Bottles.

44

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

BTwt

BTTifr

BTTrn

BTTcyb

BTTsqb 0

20 mm

Fig. 3.2.4/2. Bottles (continued).

Fig. 3.2.4/2. Bottles. Type

Type Lable

Reference

Bottles adorned with mold-blown decoration

BTmbd

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.2:13; Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.2:19

Bottles adorned with trail decoration on the mouth/neck

BTtd

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.2:22; Ariel 1990: Fig. 32: GL67*

Bottles adorned with a single trail

BTst

Katsnelson 2015a: Fig. 5:2

Bottles adorned with pinched trail decoration

BTpt

Reconstruction

Bottles adorned with a thick wavy trail

BTwt

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.6.1:5

Bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body

BTTifr

Gal and Abu-Yunes 1999: Fig. 63**

Bottles with a ridged neck

BTTrn

Reconstruction

Small bottles with a cylindrical body

BTTcyb

Gorin-Rosen 2010: Pl. 10.5:3*

Small bottles with a square-sectioned body

BTTsqb

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.2.3:42

* Courtesy of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ** The bottle was erroneously assigned by the excavators to the medieval period.

45

Lucid Transformations Bottles Adorned with Pinched Trail Decoration— Type BTpt (Fig. 3.2.4/2)

1960:49, Pls. 59:1–6, 21, 30; 60:5, 13), where they were dated to the sixth–seventh centuries (Barag 1970b:113– 115), and at Bet She’an, in both Byzantine-period (Hadad 2006:627, Fig. 19.3:40–48) and Umayyad-period contexts (Hadad 2005:25, Pls. 12:223–234; 13:235–247).

Pinched trail decoration was widespread in Syria-Palestine in the seventh–eighth centuries, particularly on bottles (see Type DDpt, Section 3.3). It comprises thin and thick trails, mostly blue or turquoise-colored, applied horizontally on the body; the thin trails are generally fused-in, and the thick ones are pinched-out to create a ‘bifurcated’ or ‘spectacles’ pattern. This decoration appears in variations, differing in the design, as well as in the thickness of the trails and in their density or spaciousness.

Some twenty bottles adorned with densely-wound trails around the neck or mouth were collected at Gerasa in various edifices, including the Cathedral, and the churches of the Synagogue, St. John the Baptist, St. Theodore, and SS. Peter and Paul (Baur 1938:533–534, Fig. 31:59–62, Pl. CXL:57). Several other such bottles were discovered in contexts dated to 630–670 in the area of Gerasa’s northern theater (Meyer 1988:207, Fig. 11:F–J78). Many bottles decorated with trails in various colors were recorded in the residential area in Beirut’s Byzantine-period city center and assigned to the sixth–seventh centuries (Jennings 2006:155–168), and numerous bottles adorned with thin and thick cobalt-blue trails were excavated in other contexts in Beirut; some are associated with a glass workshop that operated in the city in the second half of the seventh century (Foy 2000a:263–268, Figs. 18, 19).

A complete bottle adorned with pinched-trail decoration on the body, as well as a thin trail wound on its neck, was unearthed in a tomb at Bethany and dated by the excavator to the fifth or sixth century (Harden 1965:52–53, Fig. 11: top left). Small, curved wall-fragments adorned with pinched-trail decoration were discovered in several sites in and around Jerusalem, for example, in the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:35, 36) and in an adjacent complex (Winter 2013a: Fig. 21:6), in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.4:34), in the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.4:45, 46), on the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:9), at Khirbat Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:126– 127, Fig. 2:14), and at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:87*–88*, Fig. 2:22).

Bottles Adorned with a Single Trail—Type BTst (Fig. 3.2.4/2) Some bottles (and jugs), mostly with a funnel-shaped mouth, were adorned with a single trail applied horizontally below the rim; they were widespread during the fourth– fifth centuries, and scarcer in the sixth–seventh centuries (see Type DDst, Section 3.3).

Two complete bottles with a wide neck and a pear-shaped body, adorned with a variation on the pinched-trail decoration, were unearthed at Gush Halav (El Jish) in northern Israel, in Burial Chamber B that was assigned a date in the sixth century (Makhouly 1939:48, Pls. 32:2:f; 33:1:a; Barag 1970b:63–64). A similar decoration adorned a piece from the Byzantine-period fill of a tomb at Ashqelon (Katsnelson 1999:75*–77*, Fig. 4:6), and a bottle with a reddish-brown pinched trail was unearthed at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:428, Pl. 9:11). Small fragments adorned with pinched-trail decoration were collected from Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:25, Pl. 14:284–287), Caesarea Maritima (Stratum VIII, Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:12) and Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:225– 226, Pls. 10.1:18, 10.2:13–14). A complete bottle with a long neck adorned with a trail wound throughout its length, and a globular body adorned with pinched-trail decoration, in the Metropolitan Museum, was attributed to the eighth century, based on examples from Fustat (Jenkins 1986:14, No. 8).

Examples from Jerusalem and its environs include fragments of funnel-shaped mouths excavated in the farmstead at the Bet Ha-Kerem neighborhood (Fig. 5.9.1:9), at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:210, Fig. 1:17), in the Byzantine-period monastery at Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000c:48*, Fig. 26:1), and in a context dated to the late seventh–early eighth centuries at the Ir Gannim neighborhood in the city (Katsnelson 2009: Fig. 11:2). Another variant of bottles is adorned with a very thick trail applied horizontally and protruding below the rim. The trail may be darker, or of the same color as the vessel, as on examples from Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:209–210, Fig. 1:18, 19).

Bottles Adorned with a Thick Wavy Trail— Type BTwt (Fig. 3.2.4/2)

Bottles adorned with a single trail were discovered in contexts dated to the sixth–eighth centuries in other parts of the country as well, for example, in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pls. 13:248–257; 18:352–354; 19:355–357), and in an Abbasid-period context at Pella (O’Hea 1993: Fig. 25:9).

78

The application of a thick wavy trail was one of the most distinctive and widespread decorations employed on glass vessels during the seventh–eighth centuries (Type DDwt, Section 3.3). Bottles, and less-commonly jugs, adorned with an applied thick wavy trail wound on the mouth or neck, generally resemble their plain counterparts (Types BTrr, BTir, above) in shape and variations. The bottles are usually greenish blue or bluish green, and the trail is either

See n. 69.

46

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products of the same color as the bottle, or of a different, generally darker hue, including yellow and brown. Typically, a single thick trail was applied horizontally around a long cylindrical neck, or around the upper part or mid-height of a wide funnel-shaped mouth, and curved to produce a wavy pattern; however, variants on this scheme were also common (see below).

(see Type DDwt, Section 3.3) or with rows of pinches on the body (see Type DDrp, Section 3.3), and less commonly with mold-blown ribbing on the neck (see below). Rim and neck fragments of bottles of this type were discovered in many of the excavations in the Jerusalem area, for example, in the monasteries north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.3:30) and on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.3:27– 29), in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.3:40, 41), at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:30–33), and at Ramat Rahel (Jackson-Tal 2016:582–583, Fig. 37.5:3, 4).

Bottles adorned with a thick wavy trail were quite scarce at the sites from the Jerusalem area examined in this book. A nearly complete bottle with a thick wavy trail around a funnel-shaped neck was recovered in the monastery excavated in the Kidron Valley (Fig. 5.6.1:5), and cylindrical necks and wavy-trail fragments were found in the monasteries north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:37) and on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.4:35), at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:210, Fig. 1:20), in the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:28, 29, 41), at Ramat Rahel (Jackson-Tal 2016:583, Fig. 37.5:6), and in Excavation Area A in the Old City’s Jewish Quarter, together with coins dated to the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (GorinRosen 2003b:384, Pl. 15.9: G93).

Additional specimens were unearthed, for example, in Excavation Area A in the Old City’s Jewish Quarter, together with Byzantine-period and Umayyad-period coins (Gorin-Rosen 2003b:384, Pl. 15.9: G92), at Khirbat Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:126, Fig. 2:10, 11), in the monastery at Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000c:47*–48*, Fig. 26:2), at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:88*, not illustrated), and in a burial cave at Horbat Gores (Solimany, Winter and de Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:5). Several bottles of this type were discovered in the excavations along the Western Wall, in contexts dated to the seventh–eighth centuries.79

Complete globular long-necked bottles with a thick wavy trail decorating the neck at about mid-height were discovered in Jericho: one in the northwestern aisle of the synagogue, which was probably in use during the first half of the eighth century (Baramki 1938:75, Pl. XXI:1; Barag 1970b:70, n. 46), and another dated to the seventh– mid-eighth centuries (Sellin and Watzinger 1913:165, Pl. 45:III,9; Barag 1970b:51–52). Various other excavations in Umayyad-period contexts yielded numerous pieces representing many variants of these bottles, such as in various locations at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:24–25; Pls. 13:261–269; 14:270–277; Winter 2011:348–349, Fig. 12.1:18–20), and at Ramla (Pollak 2007:120, 125, 127–129, Figs. 9:55, 56; 11:72; Gorin-Rosen 2010:224, Pls. 10.1:14; 10.2:8, 12). Bottle and jug fragments of this type were also uncovered, for example, at Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960:49, Pls. 59:27, 29), Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:425–426, Pls. V:1, 2; VI:4, 5; VII:1; VIII:16, 17), in the sealed Umayyad-period complex at Bosra in Syria (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, 146– 147, Fig. 567), and at Pella in Jordan, in a context dated to the second quarter of the eighth century (Smith and Day 1989:117, Pl. 62:5).

Complete bottles with a squat or globular body and an infolded flattened rim were excavated throughout the country, for example, in the northwestern church at Hippos-Sussita, together with a hoard of Umayyadperiod coins (Burdajewicz 2006:128–129, Figs. 1:6, 7; 3:A, B), at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:427–428, Pl. IX:1–4), Capernaum (Bagatti 1964:270–271, Fig. 4:6, Fig. 5: second from left), Dabburiya (Gal and Abu-Yunes 1999: Fig. 6380), Jericho, together with other glass vessels dated from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries (Sellin and Watzinger 1913:165, Pl. 45:III,1; Barag 1970b:51– 52), and at Tel Ira in the eastern Negev, in a structure that functioned in the Byzantine–Early Islamic periods (Lehrer-Jacobson 1999a:443–444, Fig. 13.1:1, 2). Complete bottles of this type, adorned with rows of horizontal pinches (Type DDrp, Section 3.3), were unearthed, for example, in Tomb 4, associated with the church on the northern part of Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 50:9; Barag 1970b:55), and in a pit grave on the southern part of that site (Getzov 2006:157, Fig. 6.1). Another complete bottle of this type, adorned with rows of horizontal pinches, was discovered in Jericho, together with other glass vessels dated from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries (Sellin and Watzinger 1913:165, Pl. 45:III,7; Barag 1970b:51–52).

Bottles with an Infolded Flattened Rim and a Squat or Globular Body—Type BTTifr (Fig. 3.2.4/2) The bottles under this category first appeared in the seventh century. They were among the most widespread glass vessels in the seventh–eighth centuries, and variants of this type continued into the ninth century. The bottles have an infolded, generally flattened rim, a short and wide or longer and narrower cylindrical neck, a thick-walled squat or globular body, and a flat or concave bottom. These bottles display variations in their fabric, workmanship, the shape of the rim, and the size and body proportions. They are occasionally decorated with a wavy trail on the neck

Rim and neck fragments of bottles with an infolded flattened rim were recovered in various Umayyad-period phases, for example, at Caesarea Maritima, in contexts The bottles were unearthed in Building H, Area 18E; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 80 The bottle was erroneously assigned by the excavators to the medieval period. 79

47

Lucid Transformations attributed to Stratum VIII, dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:4–7, 11), one (No. 11) of which is adorned with mold-blown ribbing on the neck. Fragments of this type of bottle were also recorded in various Umayyadperiod contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:23, Pls. 9:182–184; 10:185–190; 11:191–195; Winter 2011:348, Fig. 12.1:10–14), and at Ramla: in contexts dated to the eighth century and to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods north of the White Mosque (Gorin-Rosen 2010:223–224, 235– 236, Pls. 10.1:13; 10.2:8; 10.6:3–6), and in a context dated from the eighth to the mid-ninth centuries on Marcus Street (Pollak 2007:125, Fig. 10:61, 62). Additional rim and neck fragments were unearthed, for example, in seventhcentury complexes at Kursi-Gergesa (Barag 1983:38, Fig. 9:5, 6), at Tiberias (Lester 2004a:182–185, Fig. 7.7), and at Horbat Hermeshit, east of Ramla (Winter 1998:178, Figs. 1:3; 2:14).

neck bottles of assorted body shapes were found in various excavations at Bet She’an, appearing in Umayyad-period contexts, yet abundant in the Abbasid–Fatimid phases (FitzGerald 1931:42–43, Pl. 39:1, 3, 5, 7; attributed to the “Arab period” by Barag [1970b:115–116]; Hadad 2005:24, 40–41; Pls. 11:204, 13:269, 38:762–779; Winter 2011:354–355, Fig. 12.3:7, 8).

Several complete and incomplete bottles of this type, one of which bears a row of pinches (see Type DDrp, Section 3.3), were recovered in the Umayyad-period qasr at Jabal Says (Usais) in Syria (Bloch 2011:82–83, Pl. 33:253, 297a, 298, 324, 325), and in Jordan: in the Umayyad-period citadel at Amman (Harding 1951:10, Pl. II:8), and in a context dated to the second quarter of the eighth century at Pella (Smith and Day 1989:117, Pl. 62:5).

Small Bottles with a Cylindrical Body—Type BTTcyb (Fig. 3.2.4/2)

Ridged neck pieces were also unearthed in contexts of the seventh–ninth centuries, for example, at Tiberias, in Stratum IV dated to 750–880 (Lester 2004a:185, Fig. 7.8:95) and in the ‘House of the Bronzes’ (Hadad 2008:170, Pl. 5.5:77–78), as well as at Hammat Gader (Lester 1997:438, Pl. I:7), and at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:233–235, Pl. 10.6:7–10, and see therein discussion and additional examples from Ramla and from sites in Iran and Egypt).

Small bottles with a cylindrical body are characteristic of the Early Islamic period, and probably appeared in the eighth century. They generally had a rounded rim and a short neck. Small bottles with a cylindrical body are scarce among the glass finds from the Jerusalem area, and a single example has been so far documented. It is a neck and shoulder fragment (Fig. 5.1.3:31), which was recovered in the northern monastery excavated north of Damascus Gate, associated by the excavators with the second half of the seventh century.

Bottles with a Ridged Neck—Type BTTrn (Fig. 3.2.4/2) Bottles with a ridged neck are characteristic of the Early Islamic period; they appeared in the seventh century, and were especially widespread in the eighth–ninth centuries. Bottles with a ridged neck were blown and tooled, and occurred in many shapes. They varied in their fabric and workmanship, the thickness of the neck wall and the width of the bottle opening, as well as in the number, thickness, and density of the ridges on the neck.

A small cylindrical bottle of this type was recorded in a context dated to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:39, Pl. 35:695), and similar bottles were unearthed in various excavations at Ramla (GorinRosen 2010:231, Pl. 10.5:3, and see therein discussion and additional examples from Ramla and from other sites).

Few examples of ridged necks have so far been recorded in Jerusalem and its surroundings, including one from Ramat Rahel (Jackson-Tal 2016:583, Fig. 37.5:5), and another with pronounced ridges from Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:209, Fig. 1:21). The three fragments retrieved from the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:34–36) represent various subtypes of these bottles: two examples with uneven ridges (Fig. 5.8.3:34, 35), and a small one with a single ridge on the neck (Fig. 5.8.3:36). A bottom (Fig. 5.8.3:37) from the same locus, and matching in size and color, may have supported one of these neck fragments (Fig. 5.8.3:34).

Small Bottles with a Square-Sectioned Body— Type BTTsqb (Fig. 3.2.4/2) Small bottles with a square-sectioned body appeared in the eighth century and were widespread particularly in the ninth–tenth centuries. They generally had a rounded rim and a short cylindrical neck. The thick-walled body was shaped by tooling or by blowing into a mold. Some specimens were decorated with mold-blown or cut designs.

Complete bottles with a ridged neck were unearthed, for example, at Capernaum (Bagatti 1964:271, Fig. 4:7, Fig. 5: left) and at Tel Ira in the eastern Negev (LehrerJacobson 1999a:443–444, Fig. 13.1:3). Various types of bottles with a ridged neck were unearthed at Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VIII, dated to 640–750, and in Stratum VII, dated from 750 to the late ninth century (Pollak 2003:165–167, Figs. 1:16, 2:25, 26, 28). Ridged-

Small bottles with a square-sectioned body are scarce among the glass finds from the Jerusalem area. A complete bottle was excavated on the northwestern part of the City of David spur (Crowfoot and FitzGerald 1929: Pl. XXI:2), and a complete, olive green specimen was discovered in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.3:42). Another complete bottle, made of colorless glass with a greenish 48

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products shaped mouth, cylindrical neck, globular body and a concave bottom.

tinge, was unearthed in an unstratified context at Khirbat Adasa and attributed to the Abbasid period (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:128, Fig. 3:1).

Most rim fragments retrieved from excavations are incomplete, and do not preserve their entire perimeter, on which a handle may had been installed. Therefore, some of the rims that are considered as bottles may have belonged to jugs as well. Like contemporaneous bottles (Section 3.2.4), jugs too were either plain, or decorated with moldblown patterns, applied trails on the mouth, and/or a thick horizontal wavy trail wound around the neck.

At Bet She’an, small bottles with a square-sectioned body were unearthed in small numbers in Umayyad-period contexts, and more commonly in the Abbasid–Fatimid phases (Hadad 2005:23, 39; Pls. 5:99–101; 35:696–697; 36:699–704; Winter 2011:355, Fig. 12.3:9). Similar bottles were also recovered from various excavations at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:231–232, Pl. 10.5:4–6, and see therein discussion and additional examples from Ramla and from other sites).

Jugs with a Pinched Funnel-Shaped Mouth— Type JGpfm (Fig. 3.2.5)

3.2.5 Jugs

A complete jug and several complete bottles, all adorned with mold-blown vertical ribbing on the body (see Type DDmbd, Section 3.4), were recovered in a crypt near Highway No. 1 in Jerusalem and dated from the late sixth to the early seventh centuries. The jug has a pinched funnel-shaped mouth, a short cylindrical neck, a globular, slightly squat body adorned with mold-blown vertical ribbing, and a concave bottom. A trail handle is drawn upward from the jug shoulder, folded to form a thumb rest, and attached over the rim (Re’em 2009: Fig. 9:9).

Jugs were widespread in the Late Roman period, and generally had a funnel-shaped mouth, an elongated body, a ring base, and a strap handle, occasionally ribbed; a trail was often wound on the mouth and/or neck (e.g., from Jerusalem: Bagatti and Milik 1958:146, Fig. 34:15–17; Bet She‘arim: Barag 1976:206–207, Fig. 98:10, Pl. LXIII:1; and Helez in the northern Negev: Rahmani 1961: Fig. 3: left; Barag 1970b:16). From the fifth century onward, jugs were quite scarce, and some may have served in Christian liturgy (e.g., Keller and Lindblom 2008:334). The jugs associated with the fifth–seventh centuries generally had a funnel-

JGpfm

Jugs with similar features as those on the jug mentioned above were recorded in other sites: a jug with a funnel-

JGwt 0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Jugs with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth

JGpfm

Re’em 2009: Fig. 9:9

Jugs adorned with a wavy trail on the neck

JGwt

Gorin-Rosen 2016: Fig. 5:34

Fig. 3.2.5. Jugs.

49

Lucid Transformations 3.2.6 Lamps

shaped mouth and a similar handle was recovered in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 20:382), and a jug, adorned with a trail wound on the mouth and mold-blown diagonal ribbing on the shoulder, was unearthed in the Byzantine-period fill of a tomb at Ashqelon (Katsnelson 1999:75*–76*, Fig. 4:11).

Glass vessels, with their unique translucency, were suitable for use as oil lamps. Since the fourth century onward they were fashioned specifically for this function, and they became a customary lighting device in the eastern Mediterranean, alongside clay lamps (Stern 2001:262; Israeli 2003:193). Glass lamps from Syria-Palestine have been examined in a formative article (Crowfoot and Harden 1931), which reviewed much of the data from archaeological excavations known at the time. The subject has since been addressed in various studies (e.g., Barag 1970b:179–186, Type 13, Pl. 40; Hadad 1998; 2003; Jennings 2006:134–154; Keller and Lindblom 2008:336– 358;81 Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:172–175).

Another example from the Jerusalem area, from the monastery north of Damascus Gate, is a small fragment of an infolded rim and a pinched funnel-shaped mouth (Fig. 5.1.4:32), which probably belonged to a jug. A jug discovered at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:41) has an infolded rim (broken where a handle had been attached), a pinched funnel-shaped mouth, and a cylindrical neck adorned with a thick wavy trail wound horizontally at mid-height (see Type JGwt, below); this decoration places the jug in the seventh–eighth centuries (see Type DDwt, Section 3.3). Nevertheless, the jug from the Kathisma church complex may have alternatively belonged to a multi-side jug (Type EXMSV, Section 3.4), resembling another example, also from this complex (Fig. 5.8.3:42). Multi-side jugs occasionally had a pinched funnel-shaped mouth, as attested by a five-side jug with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth and a horizontal wavy trail from the Shlomo Moussaieff collection (Newby 2008:308–309, Cat. No. 104).

In the Late Roman period, particularly during the fourth– mid-fifth centuries, conical beakers were abundant, serving as both drinking vessels and as lamps (Fleming 1997:32– 33; Stern 2001:267–268; Israeli 2003:193–194). They were replaced by glass lamps of various types (see below), which have been uncovered in large quantities in nearly every site occupied during the fifth–eighth centuries and probably much later, in Israel and in neighboring countries. These glass lamps have been documented in various categories of sites and complexes, including religious and secular public buildings, industrial and commercial areas, farmsteads and residential quarters.

Various types of jugs dated to the sixth–seventh centuries were documented in other parts of the country, although in relatively small numbers. A jug fragment with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth was unearthed in the late Byzantineperiod church at Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 60:1), and a jug with a barrel-shaped body was discovered in the ancient synagogue at Kibbutz Ma‘oz Hayyim in the Bet She’an Valley, together with glass vessels dated to the sixth–seventh centuries (Tzaferis 1982:240, Fig. 12:11).

Over the generations, lamps have been bestowed with religious and spiritual properties, and lamps are the most commonly mentioned glass artifacts in medieval texts, especially regarding the lighting of church interiors (Talbot 2005:142). Indeed, one of the major functions performed by glass vessels from the Byzantine period onward was lighting. Therefore, a separate discussion in Section 4.1 is dedicated to lighting and lighting devices, addressing the use of glass lamps, their maintenance, supply and disposal, their mention in written sources, and their variety and arrangement in churches and monasteries. Section 4.1 also examines lighting in religious public buildings in Jerusalem in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, as reflected in contemporaneous written sources.

Jugs Adorned with a Wavy Trail on the Neck— Type JGwt (Fig. 3.2.5) Some jugs clearly resemble bottles of the period with an addition of a trail handle. They have a rounded or an infolded rim, and a long neck, occasionally adorned with a wavy trail, a decoration (Type DDwt, Section 3.3) which sets their date in the seventh–eighth centuries. These jugs, so far absent from the Jerusalem area, were recovered, for example, in Umayyad-period contexts at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:47, Pl. 1:3; 2016:53, Fig. 5:34). Jugs with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth (Type JGpfm, above), adorned with a wavy trail on the neck were excavated at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:415– 416, Pl. V:1, 2); one of those jugs (Pl. V:2) is decorated, as well, with rows of vertical pinches on the body (Type DDrp, Section 3.3).

Glass lamps were generally shaped to accommodate their function, and their forms are therefore limited. They do, however, vary in fabric, workmanship and stylistic details, as attested by various typological studies on glass lamps from the region (e.g., von Saldern 1980:38–53; Uboldi 1995;82 Olcay 2001; Antonaras 2008; and more in Keller 2010b:3).

This typology of glass lamps from the excavations on Jabal Harun established a sequence of the assorted types used in the various phases of the church and the chapel, from the early fifth to the ninth centuries. The lamps were categorized by minute variations, such as the width of the fold of the outfolded rims, as well as by the glass fabrics, determining colors and quality, i.e., bubbles, streaks and impurities. 82 This attempt to construct a typology of glass lamps from Italy, while mapping their distribution, was undermined due to problems in the chronological attribution of the specimens. 81

50

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products well as certain goblets (e.g., Type EXGBhn, Section 3.4), were probably designated for use as lamps.

Several major types of glass lamps were contemporaneously widespread in Syria-Palestine and consequently in Jerusalem and its surroundings during the fifth–eighth centuries, two of which were the most customary. Bowlor beaker-shaped lamps have three handles (Type LBB), generally a pushed-in bottom, and occasionally a wick tube at the center of the floor. They occur in various sizes and bowl shapes, and the rim is either rounded or outfolded. Some specimens are adorned with various decorations. Stemmed bowl-shaped lamps (Type LST) generally have a rounded unfolded rim, and the stem occurs in several variations.

Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps with Three Handles—Type LBB (Fig. 3.2.6/1) Three-handle bowl- or beaker-shaped glass lamps first appeared in Syria-Palestine probably in the second half of the fourth century, and they were widespread from the fifth throughout the eighth centuries, with assorted minor variations (Crowfoot and Harden 1931:205, Pls. XXVIII:7; XXX:40, 41; Barag 1970b:184–185, Pl. 40:12–14). By the thirteenth century, this type of lamp developed into the elaborate gilded and enameled glass mosque lamp.

Other types and subtypes of glass lamps were also in use, yet in smaller numbers. It is unclear whether their scarcity reflects regional traditions and preferences, their low popularity in antiquity, or merely the difficulty to identify them when fragmentary. These types include shallow convex-walled bowl-shaped lamps with perforations below the rim (Type LCW), globular lamps with a cutoff rim and three handles (Type LGL), and a variety of beaker-shaped lamps (Type LBE).

The lighting device in this category (Type LBB) generally consists of a bowl or a beaker with a rounded unfolded rim or a hollow outfolded rim, and a concave or pushed-in bottom, as demonstrated, for example, by specimens from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.5); a hollow ring base, as on an example from Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957: Fig. 99:2), is rare. Various features, such as the size of a lamp, the fold of the rim, the angle of the walls, the shape of the bottom, and the fashioning and location of its handles, may all vary (see below).

Additionally, individual bowls of certain types, for example, shallow bowls (Type BLsl, above) and bowls with engraved decoration (Type EXed, Section 3.4), as

Table 3.2.6/1. Distribution of Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps (Type LBB) Site and Reference

Outfolded Rim Fragments

Lamps with a Wick Tube

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Fig. 5.1.4:42

Fig. 5.1.4:43

Mamilla area

Fig. 5.2.4:43–45

Fig. 5.2.4:46, 47

Teddy Kollek Park compound

Fig. 5.3.3:22, 23

Fig. 5.3.3:24–26

Residential quarter on the City of David spur

Fig. 5.4.2:13–15

Not illustrated

Monastery on Mount Scopus

Fig. 5.5.5:38–45

Fig. 5.5.5:43, 47, 48

Monastery in the Kidron Valley

Fig. 5.6.1:6

Fig. 5.6.1:8

Monastery at Umm Tuba

Fig. 5.7.1:4–6

Fig. 5.7.1:7, 8

Kathisma church complex

Fig. 5.8.5:51, 53

Fig. 5.8.5:57

Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem

Fig. 5.9.1:16, 17

Farmstead at Bet Zayit

Fig. 5.10.1:14

Ras Abu Ma‘aruf; Gorin-Rosen 1999a:212

Fig. 2:27

Deir Ghazali; Gorin-Rosen 2000c:49*

Fig. 26:8

Structures north of Damascus Gate; Ein Mor 2013

Fig. 21:8

NW corner of Old City wall; Gorin-Rosen 2006a:116*

Fig. 14:6, 7

‘House of the Menorot’; Hadad 2003:193–194

Pl. II.5:1–3

Jewish Quarter, Area A; Gorin-Rosen 2003:384

Pl. II.5:4, 5 Fig. 15.9: G95

City of David spur, Area M1; Gutreich 2013:281

Fig. 12.6:90, 92

‘Dominus Flevit’ compound; Bagatti and Milik 1958:148

Fig. 35:17

Church at Bethany; Saller 1957:330

Not illustrated

Khirbat Tabaliya; Gorin-Rosen 2000e:89*–91*

Fig. 2:29–32

Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam; Corbo 1955:75–76

Fig. 3:33 Fig. 25:5

Compound of the JICC*; Gorin-Rosen 2005a:205

Fig. 2:32

En Kerem; Bagatti 1948:77–78

Fig. 34:1

* JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

51

Fig. 2:34, 35

Lucid Transformations

LBBor

LBBmbd

LBBrr LBBwkt

0

LSThs

LSTps

LSTss

LSTgs

Fig. 3.2.6/1. Lamps.

52

20 mm

LSTbe

LSTbs

LSTmbd

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Fig. 3.2.6/1. Lamps. Type

Type Lable

Bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with three handles

Reference

LBB

with a rounded rim

LBBrr

Reconstruction

with an outfolded rim

LBBor

Reconstruction

with a wick tube

LBBwkt

Type LBBrr, above

adorned with mold-blown decoration

LBBmbd

Gorin-Rosen and Jackson-Tal 2008a: Fig. 5.2:6

Stemmed lamps

LST

with a hollow stem

LSThs

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.2.4:48

with a partly-solid stem

LSTps

Reconstruction

with a bead/s at the bottom end

LSTbe

Winter 2011: Fig. 12.2:31

with a solid multi-bead stem

LSTbs

Winter 2015a: Fig. 5.4:51

with a smooth solid stem

LSTss

Winter 2010b: Fig. 4:18

with a globular stem

LSTgs

Gorin-Rosen and Jackson-Tal 2008a: Fig. 5.2:7

with a stem adorned with mold-blown decoration

LSTmbd

Gorin-Rosen 2000b: Fig. 2:8

Each lamp has three handles drawn from the vessel wall up to the rim edge or over it. The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps would have been suspended by their handles, as demonstrated in some reconstructions (e.g., Piccirillo 2000:100; Stern 2001:321). The shapes of the handles are varied: some are thin and delicate, while others are thicker and/or twisted (see examples below).

and handle fragment from a Byzantine-period context in the Tyropoeon Valley (Area M1; Gutreich 2013:278–279, Fig. 12.4:7484), and a beaker-shaped lamp with handles and a wick tube, recovered in a burial cave (F32) at Tel el-Ful, north of Jerusalem.85 Examples from other parts of the country include a beakershaped lamp with an unfolded rim that was excavated in the inner harbor area at Caesarea Maritima, in a context dated from the late fourth to the early fifth centuries (Pollak 1999:329, Fig. 3:29). Lamps of this subtype were also recorded in glass assemblages in Jordan, for example, at Gerasa, in a context dated to 324–491 (Meyer 1988:190–191, Fig. 6:T) and in a context of the fifth– early sixth centuries (Dussart 1998:82, Type BVI.1211, Pl. 14:16). At Ez-Zantur in Petra, three-handle bowlshaped lamps with an unfolded rim are among the earliest examples of this lighting device, as they appeared in a sealed context destroyed by the 363 earthquake (Kolb and Keller 2000:366, Fig. 15:1). Glass lamps of this subtype from the excavations in the church and the chapel on Jabal Harun were classified as Type SL1, and associated with the pre-church Phase 1, dated to the first half of the fifth century (Keller and Lindblom 2008:336–338, Fig. 1:1).

Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps with a Rounded Rim— Type LBBrr (Fig. 3.2.6/1) These lamps are generally beaker shaped, and have a characteristic rounded unfolded rim, usually outflaring, three handles and occasionally a wick tube. This subtype, which was considerably less common, may have appeared as early as the late fourth century or the fifth century, and possibly preceded the more widespread bowl-shaped lamps with an outfolded rim (Type LBBor, below), while continuing to be used concurrently beside them. A complete lamp of this subtype was discovered in the 1950s in Jerusalem, in Tomb 217 at the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives (Bagatti and Milik 1958:147–148, Fig. 35:11, Photograph 125:15); the tomb was dated to the fifth–sixth centuries, yet this lamp may have been in use particularly in the second half of the fifth century (Barag 1970b:185, Type 13:15, Pl. 40:15).

Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps with an Outfolded Rim—Type LBBor (Fig. 3.2.6/1)

Since this discovery, several such lamps have been unearthed in assemblages in Jerusalem and its environs. A beaker-shaped lamp with a rounded flaring rim was recovered in the monastic complex north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:41), and a smaller one was excavated on the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.2:12). Additional examples include a specimen from the excavations along the Western Wall, which is probably associated with Stratum 8, dated to the destruction of the 363 earthquake,83 a rim

These lamps (Type LBBor) were more widespread than those with the unfolded rim (Type LBBrr, above), and they occurred with or without a wick tube (Type LBBwkt, below). Examples from Jerusalem and its environs include rim and handle fragments from most of the sites discussed The drawing seems to have depicted the walls excessively slanted. The excavation in Cave F32 at Tel el-Ful (Permit No. A-2892/1998) was headed on behalf of the IAA by R. Avner, and the glass finds were studied by N. Katsnelson. 84 85

83 The lamp was unearthed in Room 8; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007).

53

Lucid Transformations in this book that were occupied in the relevant period (see Table 3.2.6/1). One of the lamps from the Mamilla area, uncommonly made of blue glass, has inwardslanting walls (Fig. 5.2.4:44), as do lamps from the ‘Late Synagogues’ at Hammat Tiberias (Johnson 2000:84, 86, 120, Fig. 23:23–2886). This feature may be characteristic of the Early Islamic period.

Hebron Hills, where these lamps were associated with Phase III, dated from the mid-eighth to the ninth centuries (Magen, Batz and Sharukh 2012: Pl. 7:7). Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps with a Wick Tube— Type LBBwkt (Fig. 3.2.6/1) Glass lamps installed with a wick tube were widespread in the Byzantine period and continued with minor changes into the Middle Ages. Apparently, the innovative integrated wick tube facilitated the lighting and maintenance of lamps (Crowfoot and Harden 1931:201; Stern 1999:479–480; 2001:262; and see discussion on wick holders, below).

Some corpora of glass lamps display specific features. Several bowl-shaped lamps retrieved from the City of David spur share the same style and proportions: exceptionally large dimensions (180–240 mm in diameter), an outfolded rim with a short (5–10 mm) hollow fold, slanting walls, and nearly identical handles (Fig. 5.4.2: 13–15). Most of the three-handle lamps from the monastery on Mount Scopus are beaker-shaped (90/100–140 mm in diameter), with an outfolded rim with a rather long rimfold (12–22 mm), vertical or slightly slanting walls, and similarly-tooled handles (Fig. 5.5.5:38–45).

Many of the bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with three handles had a fixed wick-holder, consisting of a cylindrical tube, set vertically at the center of the vesselfloor (Type LBBwkt). Unfortunately, most of the finds from archaeological excavations are fragmentary, and wick tubes or bottom parts with an attached wick tube are usually discovered detached from their rim fragments and handles.

Shared traits, as these on the lamps from the City of David spur and from the monastery on Mount Scopus, may indicate that certain lamps at a particular site had been made to order, or acquired in a single batch (and see Section 4.1 regarding the supply of glass lamps to churches and monasteries).

The wick tubes unearthed in Jerusalem and its environs display similar features, which may indicate they were produced in one or more local workshops. They generally have a rounded rim, and less-commonly a cut-off rim, and none have an infolded rim. Additionally, many of these wick tubes were carelessly made, and some of the glass had seeped on to one side of the tube base, where it joins the lamp bowl.

Three-handle beaker-shaped lamps with a hollow outfolded rim were discovered in other parts of the country, for example, in the Church of St. John the Baptist at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:418–419, Fig. 99:2, 3), in the Byzantine-period northern church at Rehovotin-the-Negev (Patrich 1988:134–136, Pl. XII:1–7), in the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit (Katsnelson 2004:268–271, Fig. 59:1–12), at Nessana (Harden 1962:85, Pl. XX:47), in a niche in the western wall of one of the chambers of a Nestorian hermitage east of Jericho, founded in the seventh century87 (Baramki and Stephan 1935: Pl. LIII:2:a), and in the ancient synagogue at Ma‘onNirim, which probably operated from the early sixth through the early seventh centuries (Rahmani 1960:16–18, Fig. 9:1; Magness 1987). At Gerasa, three-handle bowland beaker-shaped lamps with an outfolded rim and a concave bottom appeared in the early seventh century and continued throughout the eighth century (Meyer 1988:205, 212, Figs. 10:O, P; 12:P, R).

Some bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with a wick tube are bichrome, as are two greenish-blue specimens from the Teddy Kollek Park compound, one with a green tube, and the other with a brown one (Fig. 5.3.3:25, 26, respectively). An additional bichrome example was discovered in the Mamilla area, where the lamp is greenish blue and the tube is bluish green (Fig. 5.2.4:46). Similar color combinations are characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries, as, for example, on a footed vessel discovered in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.2:15). Numerous examples of bottom and wick tube fragments of bowl- and beaker-shaped lamps were discovered in the Jerusalem area (see Table 3.2.6/1). Complete specimens installed with a wick tube were recorded in the Church of the Visitation at En Kerem (Bagatti 1948:77–78, Fig. 34:1), and dated “from the late Byzantine or early Arab periods” (Barag 1970b:105), and at the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives, in Tomb 217 dated to the fifth or sixth century (Bagatti and Milik 1958:148, Fig. 35:11; Barag 1970b:32).

Shallow bowl-shaped lamps were discovered, for example, in a Byzantine-period fill within a tomb at Ashqelon (Katsnelson 1999:78*–79*, Fig. 5:1–3), and in the monastery at Khirbat Umm Deimine in the southwestern 86 The chronological sequence of the synagogues at Hammat Tiberias is not entirely resolved (Dothan 2000; Stacey 2002). 87 The monastery had been originally dated to the ninth century (Baramki and Stephan 1935), however, the identification of two of the monks mentioned in the Syriac mosaic inscription, indicates that the hermitage was founded in the seventh century (Fiey 1983; Brock 2001:203). The glazed lidded ceramic bowl, discovered together with other artifacts in the niche, was recently re-examined and dated to the late seventh–eighth centuries (Taxel 2014). These observations suggest a date in the seventh– eighth centuries for the glass lamp as well.

Bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with a wick tube from other parts of the country were recovered mostly in ecclesiastical complexes, for example, in the Church of St. John the Baptist at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:418–419, Fig. 99:2, 3), as well as in several contexts in the Negev: in Church A at Magen (Feig 1985:37–38, Fig. 3:6), in 54

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit (Katsnelson 2004:268–271, Fig. 59:13–15), at Nessana (Harden 1962:85, Pl. XX:47), and in the Byzantine-period northern church at Rehovot-in-the-Negev (Patrich 1988:134–136, Pl. XII:1, 8–13).

Cylindrical or conical hollow stems were the most widespread lamp stems during the sixth–seventh centuries (Type LSThs). They coexisted with the solid stems, which became more customary toward the mid-seventh century (e.g., Foy 2000a:243–250, Figs. 4–8). The solid stems are either entirely solid (Type LSTss), or solid only at their lower end (Type LSTps), and they may have one or two tooled knobs or ‘beads’ at the bottom (Type LSTbe). Another variant of the solid stem has uneven constrictions creating several ‘beads’, for which it is named a ‘beaded’ or ‘multi-bead’ stem (Type LSTbs). These solid subtypes (see below) continued to appear in variations of fabric and style well into the Early Islamic period (Hadad 2003: Type 2).88

Lamps with a wick tube were also used in synagogues, as attested by an example from the ancient synagogue at Ma‘on-Nirim in the northwestern Negev, which probably operated from the early sixth to the early seventh centuries (Rahmani 1960:16–18, Fig. 9:2; Magness 1987). An example from a burial complex was unearthed in Tomb 156 at Gezer, dated by the excavator to the fifth or sixth century, and by Barag to the second half of the seventh century (Macalister 1912:362–363, Fig. 189; Barag 1970b:11–12).

Complete stemmed lamps from Jerusalem and its environs were discovered in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.4:48) and in the Church of the Visitation at En Kerem (Bagatti 1948:77–78, Fig. 34:2–4). Upper parts of lamps of this type were recorded, for example, in the Teddy Kollek Park compound (Fig. 5.3.3:27) and at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:91*–92*, Fig. 3:34). Some sites in the Jerusalem area, such as Khirbat Tabaliya and the Church of the Visitation at En Kerem, yielded stems of several subtypes (see Table 3.2.6/2 for stemmed lamps from various sites in the Jerusalem area).

Bowl- or Beaker-Shaped Lamps Adorned with MoldBlown Decoration—Type LBBmbd (Fig. 3.2.6/1) Glass lamps rarely bear any decoration, yet some bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with an outfolded rim are adorned with mold-blown decoration (see Type DDmbd, Section 3.3). A beaker-shaped lamp from the monastery on Mount Scopus is adorned with a double mold-blown pattern of horizontal ribs (Fig. 5.5.5:38), and another beaker-shaped lamp, from the monastery in the Kidron Valley, bears a mold-blown pattern of shallow diagonal ribs (Fig. 5.6.1:6).

Lamps from various sites around the country also contemporaneously utilized several subtypes of stems, including the smooth solid subtype, as in Areas CC, KK and NN at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:384–385, Cat. Nos. 169–183), and at the Nahal Tanninim Dam site.89 Lamps with various subtypes of stems were also recorded in the synagogue and in the House of Kyrios Leontis at Bet She’an (Zori 1967: Fig. 11:1–3, 5; 1973: Fig. 11:14–19), as well as in various other contexts dated to the Byzantine and Umayyad periods in that ancient city (e.g., Hadad 1998; 2006: Fig 19.4:59–63, 80, 81; Winter 2011: Fig. 12.2:30– 32). Additionally, lamps with several stem-subtypes were produced in a workshop that functioned at Bet She’an in the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59– 60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178).

An example decorated with shallow mold-blown ribs was recovered at Paneas in northern Israel (Gorin-Rosen and Jackson-Tal 2008a:83, Fig. 5.2:6), and a lamp fragment, unearthed in Catacomb 20 at Bet She‘arim, displays a seemingly mold-blown pattern of twisted ribs, which was identified as “shallow diagonal corrugations on the body” (Barag 1976:205, Fig. 98:8). A bowl-shaped lamp, recovered in an Umayyad-period context at Gerasa, was adorned with a mold-blown diamond pattern on the entire body, including a multi-petal rosette on the bottom (Meyer 1988:212, Fig. 12:Q). A beaker-shaped lamp adorned with double mold-blown diagonal ribbing on the body, was discovered in the ecclesiastical complex on Jabal Harun near Petra, and associated with Phase 7, dated to the seventh century (Keller 2010a:188, Pl. 12:2).

Stemmed Lamps with a Hollow Stem—Type LSThs (Fig. 3.2.6/1)

Stemmed Lamps—Type LST (Fig. 3.2.6/1)

The hollow stems from Jerusalem and its environs display similar features, which may indicate they were produced in one or more local workshops. They are generally

Stemmed lamps consist of a small bowl-shaped receptacle with a rounded rim, and a long stem that occurred in several variations (Fig. 3.2.6/1). The lower end of the stems is generally thickened to add stability to the lamps when they are set into perforations in suspended metal polycandela (see Section 4.1). Stemmed lamps were widespread in the eastern Mediterranean during the sixth–seventh centuries, and continued into the eighth century and later (Crowfoot and Harden 1931: Pl. XXIX; Barag 1970b:182–183, Types 13:3–9, Pl. 40:3–9). Their first appearance in the Byzantine period is difficult to determine, yet it may possibly be assigned to the second half of the fifth century (Barag 1970b:182).

Many of the lamp stems have a scar at the bottom, suggesting that the pontil iron was applied directly to the bottom of the stem while working the lamp rim, and that the finished lamp was knocked-off from the pontil. However, several stems from the Jerusalem corpus have a bulge at the lower end. This additional wad of glass may have been attached to prevent the stem from breaking when the pontil iron was removed. This phenomenon is displayed on stems recovered in the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.2:17) and at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e: Fig. 3:36), and possibly on a specimen from the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.6:58). This slight difference in the production method of stemmed lamps may serve as an indicator of specific practices of local glass workshops (J. Price, pers. comm.). 89 See n. 59 (Permit No. A-3356/2000). 88

55

Lucid Transformations cylindrical and less-commonly conical, and display a smooth transition (with no constriction) where they join the lamp bowl. Cylindrical and conical hollow stems were recovered in most of the sites in the Jerusalem area considered in this book (see Table 3.2.6/2).

Lamps with a solid multi-bead stem (Type LSTbs) are particularly characteristic of the Umayyad period, and were unearthed, for example, at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 22:425, 426), and at Ramat Yishay in the Jezreel Valley (Gorin-Rosen 2007a: Fig. 9:8). Solid multi-bead stems were recorded at sites on Mount Carmel and the adjacent coastal plain, for example, at Horbat Sumaq (LehrerJacobson 1999b:335, Fig. 2:16), at Moshav Ha-Bonim (Winter 2017b: Fig. 2:9), and in Cave 1071 at Horbat Qastra (Brink et al. 2013:109, Fig. 27:40). A stemmed lamp with a multi-bead stem from Bet She‘arim (Barag 1976:204–206, Fig. 98:15) has a tooled hollow fold below the rim (for other lamp types comprising such a fold, see Type LBEef, below). A stemmed lamp with a solid multibead stem (Type LSTbs) and another ending in two beads (Type LSTbe) were discovered in an un-documented context at Capernaum (Bagatti 1964:270–271, Figs. 4:10, 11; 5: right). Two solid multi-bead stems, their contexts not recorded, were discovered in the ‘House of the Bronzes’ at Tiberias (Hadad 2008:174, Fig. 5.8:124, 125).

Stems of about 400 glass lamps, all hollow but one, were unearthed at Caesarea Maritima and associated with the Byzantine period (Peleg and Reich 1992:155,158, 159, 165, Figs. 19, 20). A hollow stem, alongside a solid one, was discovered in the church at Shave Ziyyon, dated to the fifth– sixth centuries90 (Barag 1967a:68–69, Fig. 16:24–25). Seven hollow and partly-solid lamp stems, as well as a fragment of a bronze polycandelon, were recovered in the ancient synagogue at Ma‘on-Nirim, which probably operated from the early sixth through the early seventh centuries (Rahmani 1960:16, 18, Fig. 9:3, 4, Pl. II:9; Magness 1987). At Bet She’an, hollow stems were widespread during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (Zori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:5; Hadad 1998:69, 72, Type 4, Fig. 4). Lamps with a hollow stem, as well as some with a stem that is solid at its lower part, were discovered in the Byzantine-period northern church at Rehovot-in-the-Negev (Patrich 1988:136–139, Pl. XIII), and in the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit, dated to the Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Katsnelson 2004:271–274, Fig. 60).

Scores of multi-bead stems associated with the late sixth– seventh centuries were discovered in many of the churches at Gerasa (Baur 1938:515–516, 519–521, Fig. 17:1[368], 3[369], Pl. CXL:a: top row, second from right [682]). At Gerasa’s northern theater area, lamps with a solid multi-bead stem first appeared in 630–670, and occurred in larger numbers in contexts assigned to the Umayyad period (“661–747 or later”: Meyer 1988:205, 212–213, Figs. 10:M; 11:A–C91).

Stemmed Lamps with Various Types of Stems (Fig. 3.2.6/1) Some stems are partly-solid, i.e., hollow at their upper part and solid toward the bottom (Type LSTps), while others were tooled to form a bead or two at their bottom end (Type LSTbe). Stems of both subtypes were recorded at several sites in the Jerusalem area (see Table 3.2.6/2). A single solid multi-bead stem (Type LSTbs) was recovered in the Teddy Kollek Park compound (Fig. 5.3.3:28), and none have so far been noted in other sites in the Jerusalem area.

Several contemporaneous subtypes of stems have not yet been recorded in the assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs examined in this book. Smooth solid stems (Type LSTss) appeared concurrently with other stem subtypes characteristic of the sixth–seventh centuries, as, for example, a smooth solid stem and a hollow stem from the same locus, excavated in the Byzantine-period shops in the Street of Monuments at Bet She’an (Agady et al. 2002: Fig. 24:42, 43).

A lamp with a partly solid stem ending in a bead (Type LSTbe) was unearthed in the Church of St. John the Baptist at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:419, Fig. 99:4), and the stems of the lamps discovered in the late synagogues at Hammat Tiberias are mostly entirely solid or solid at their lower end, with one or two knobs at the bottom (Johnson 2000:84–86, 120, Figs. 22:1–16, 23:17–22). At Bet She’an, smooth solid, beaded and knobbed stems were in use from the Byzantine to the Fatimid periods and possibly later (Zori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:1–3; Hadad 1998:68–69, Types 2, 3, Figs. 2, 3). Lamps with a stem that is solid at its lower part, accompanied by lamps with a hollow stem, were discovered in the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit, dated to the Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Katsnelson 2004:271–274, Fig. 60:9, 10). A variant of the partly-solid stem ending in a bead is typical of the Abbasid–Fatimid periods (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2001a:43, 70, No. 122; Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001:53–54, Fig. 25a, b).

90

The scarcer, hollow globular stem (Type LSTgs), also referred to as ‘bulbous’, had probably been in use as early as the late fourth century and up to the early sixth century, when it was replaced by the longer stems. Short stems of this subtype were discovered, for example, in Area KK at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:385, 411, No. 180), in Area B at Paneas (Gorin-Rosen and Jackson-Tal 2008a:84, Fig. 5.2:7) and at Beirut (Jennings 2006:138–141, Fig. 6.12, especially Nos. 1–3). An exceptional example of a lamp stem adorned with mold-blown shallow diagonal ribs (Type LSTmbd) was recovered in the chapel of the monastic center at En Najila in southern Sinai, which was inhabited in the fifth–early eighth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:238, Fig. 2:8).

See n. 72.

91

56

See n. 69.

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Table 3.2.6/2. Distribution of Stemmed Lamps (Type LST) by Stem Type Site and Reference

Hollow Stem

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Not illustrated

Mamilla area

Fig. 5.2.4:49, 50

Residential quarter on the City of David spur

Fig. 5.4.2:16, 17

Monastery on Mount Scopus

Fig. 5.5.6:53–58

Monastery in the Kidron Valley

Fig. 5.6.1:9

Kathisma church complex

Partially Solid Stem

Stem with Bead/s at the Bottom

Fig. 5.5.6:61

Fig. 5.5.6:59, 60

Fig. 5.8.5:58, 59

Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem

Fig. 5.9.1:18

Khirbat Adasa; Gorin-Rosen 2008a:127

Not illustrated

Ras Abu Ma‘aruf; Gorin-Rosen 1999a:212

Fig. 2:28, 29

Deir Ghazali; Gorin-Rosen 2000c:49*

Fig. 26:9

Structures north of Damascus Gate; Ein Mor 2013

Fig. 12:9

‘House of the Menorot’; Hadad 2003:193–194

Pl. II.5:6–15; Photo II.35

Jewish Quarter, Area A; Gorin-Rosen 2003:384

Pl. 15.9: G94

City of David spur, Areas G, K; Ariel 1990:161

Fig. 32: GL77, GL78

City of David spur, Area M1; Gutreich 2013:281

Fig. 12.6:93, 94

‘Dominus Flevit’ compound; Bagatti and Milik 1958:148

Fig. 35:14

Cave on the Mount of Olives; Winter 2000:132–133

Fig. 10:5

Khirbat Tabaliya; Gorin-Rosen 2000e:91*–92*

Fig. 3:37

Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam; Corbo 1955:75–76

Fig. 3:35

Fig. 3:36

Fig. 25:8

Compound of the JICC*; Gorin-Rosen 2005a:205–206

Fig. 2:36, 37

En Kerem; Bagatti 1948:77–78

Fig. 34:4; Photo 58:1, 3

Fig. 34:3

Fig. 34:2; Photo 58:2, 4, 7, 9

* JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

Beaker-Shaped Lamps—Type LBE (Fig. 3.2.6/2)

Baur as both “tumbler-shaped lamp with wide, flat bottom” and “tumbler-shaped lamp with narrow, flat bottom” (Baur 1938:516, 521–523, Fig. 17:8[95], 9[239]; and Fig. 19:7[371], 10[372]); they were dated by their provenances to the late Byzantine period (Barag 1970b:123–126). Another complete example from Gerasa was discovered in the Zeus sanctuary, together with Byzantine-period pottery (Dussart 1998:82, Type BVI.113, Pl. 14:15).

This classification includes variants of beaker-shaped lamps: a type with a pushed-in bottom and outsplaying walls (Type LBEpib), and a small vessel with vertical walls (Type LBEvw). Beaker-Shaped Lamps with a Pushed-In Bottom and Outsplaying Walls—Type LBEpib (Fig. 3.2.6/2)

In the Jerusalem area, beaker-shaped lamps with a pushedin bottom were recorded in glass assemblages particularly of the sixth–seventh centuries. Bases of such beakers were excavated at the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:206–207, Fig. 2:38, 39), and in the monastery at Khirbat Siyar elGhanam, southeast of Jerusalem (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:14, Table 24: Photograph 70:17–18). Lower parts of beakers of this type were also discovered in a Byzantineperiod glass assemblage at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:86*–87*, Fig. 2:16, 17).

Beakers with a pushed-in bottom were in use in the region during the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods, i.e., in the sixth–eighth centuries. They probably replaced the Late Roman conical beakers that were abundant until the mid-fifth century, and likewise probably served both as drinking vessels and as lamps (see Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:92). This type of vessel has been identified as a “beakershaped lamp with flaring mouth” by Crowfoot and Harden (1931:198, Pl. XXVIII:4, 5). This identification was based on glass finds from Gerasa, where 230 fragments of this type, including two complete vessels, were excavated near the church of St. Theodore. These vessels, with their concave or pushed-in bottoms and outsplaying walls, were classified by

A similar beaker with a tooled hollow fold below the rim was exposed in the tomb and memorial of a chain-wearing anchorite, dated to the sixth–eighth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 1998:148–149, Fig. 12:3; Kogan-Zehavi 1998:145). This 57

Lucid Transformations vessel probably served as a lamp (Type LBEef). Other vessels comprising a tooled hollow fold on the exterior below the rim include a stemmed lamp with a multi-bead stem (Type LSTbs, above) from Bet She‘arim (Barag 1976:204–206, Fig. 98:15), and bottles with an exterior hollow fold on the mouth or neck (Type BTef, above).

incised geometric and vegetal designs, as well as crosses, and Greek or Latin inscriptions (see Type EXed, Section 3.4). These inscriptions were intended to be read from the inside, probably while drinking (Crowfoot 1957:417), yet some of these bowls may have been used as lamps (Crowfoot and Harden 1931:202–203, Pl. XXIX:19; Gorin-Rosen 2000b:235).

Beaker-shaped lamps with a pushed-in bottom were uncovered in other parts of the country as well. A bottom of this type, interpreted by the excavator as a goblet bottom, was uncovered at Bet She’an, in the house of Kyrios Leontis, which had probably been built in the fifth century and abandoned in the early seventh century (Zori 1973:246–247, Fig. 11:5). Additionally, the monastery, which functioned in the late sixth–seventh centuries at the site of Geva‘ot Bar in the northern Negev, yielded eight distinct concave bottoms, some with vertical walls and others with concave walls.92 Several concave bottoms of this type were discovered in a refuse pile near the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit, dated to the Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Katsnelson 2004:278–281, Fig. 62:27, 28).

Wide shallow bowl-shaped lamps of the Byzantine– Umayyad periods from Syria-Palestine have, apparently, been retrieved so far only from sites in and south of Jerusalem (see below), suggesting that this type of lamp was a regional variant, distributed principally in ecclesiastical settings in the Negev and Sinai (GorinRosen and Winter 2010:174–175). Lamps of this type were excavated in the Jerusalem area, for example, in the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:44), at the Russian Compound in the city,94 and at Khirbat Tabaliya, where they were associated with the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:88*–89*, Fig. 3:25). A bowl fragment with a part of one of its suspension perforations intact was recorded at the Bet Ha-Kerem neighborhood in the city (not illustrated; see Section 5.9). One of the first published examples of a shallow bowl-shaped lamp came from Nessana, accompanied by an illustrated reconstruction of the lamp suspended from metal chains. This specimen and numerous other perforated fragments were discovered in the churches at the site, together with other types of glass lamps (Harden 1962:76, 85, Pl. XXVIII:55). The largest group of shallow convex-walled bowl-shaped lamps was retrieved from monasteries and chapels in southern Sinai (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:233–235, Fig. 1:1–8), and several additional examples have been excavated in the Negev.95

Small Beaker with Vertical Walls—Type LBEvw (Fig. 3.2.6/2) A rare vessel was exposed in the ancient installations at the Bet Ha-Kerem neighborhood in Jerusalem (Fig. 5.9.1:19). It is a small cylindrical beaker with a rounded rim and a concave bottom. Its fabric resembles that of the glass vessels found with it, which are typical of the fourth–sixth centuries. The only analogous example so-far detected is a slightly taller vessel, which was discovered in a Byzantine-period context at Es-Sawafir el-Gharbiya, near Kiryat Mal’akhi.93 These two vessels probably served as lamps, as suggested by their rather small opening, suited for a metal wick holder. Furthermore, in their proportions they resemble glass beaker-shaped lamps with a pushed-in bottom (Type LBEpib, above), which were widespread in the region during the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

Globular Lamps with a Cut-Off Rim and Three Handles—Type LGL (Fig. 3.2.6/3) Globular glass lamps probably first appeared in the midfourth century, and were widespread in the fifth–seventh centuries (Barag 1970b:183–184; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:173–174).

Shallow Convex-Walled Bowl-Shaped Lamps— Type LCW (Fig. 3.2.6/2) Several wide and shallow bowls, used as lamps, have a slightly incurved cut-off rim, short convex walls and a flat or concave bottom. They are perforated below the rim by three equidistant identically-sectioned holes, intended for the insertion of metal suspension chains.

These lamps have a cut-off rim, a globular body with a rounded bottom, and three trail handles attached on both their ends to the convex vessel wall (not to the rim, as on lamps of Type LBB). A rope or metal wire was probably strung through the handles to allow the suspension of the lamps.

The shape of these bowls echoes that of colorless bowls of the Late Roman period, occasionally decorated with

Globular lamps varied in their workmanship, size and handle shape (Fig. 3.2.6/3). Several subtypes of globular lamps are

92 The excavations at Geva‘ot Bar (Permit Nos. A-4479/2006 and A-5960/2010) were headed on behalf of the IAA by N.-S. Paran (Paran 2009), and the glass finds were studied by the author. 93 The excavation at Es-Sawafir el-Gharbiya (Permit No. A-7140/2014) was conducted by the IAA staff (Eisenberg-Degen 2016), and the glass finds were studied by the author.

See n. 74 (Permit Nos. A-7550/2015 and A-7610/2016). For example, in a salvage excavation in Be’er Sheva (Permit No. A-2145/1994), headed on behalf of the IAA by P. Fabian; the glass finds were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen. 94 95

58

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Rim and Wall Fragments of Globular Lamps

classified below by their handles: short loop-shaped handles (Type LGLsh), handles with an extended trail attached along the body (Type LGLte), and short delicate handles (Type LGLdh). Globular lamps were occasionally adorned with mold-blown decoration (Type LGLmbd).

Rim and wall fragments with no surviving handles may not be classified into one of these subtypes, and they are presented first.

LBEpib

LBEef

LBEvw

0

20 mm

0

50 mm

LCW

Type

Type Lable

Beaker-shaped lamps

LBE

Reference

with a pushed-in bottom and outsplaying walls

LBEpib

Reconstruction

with a tooled fold on the exterior

LBEef

Gorin-Rosen 1998: Fig. 12:3

Small beaker with vertical walls Shallow convex-walled bowl-shaped lamps Fig. 3.2.6/2. Lamps.

59

LBEvw

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.9.1:19

LCW

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.4:44

Lucid Transformations In the Jerusalem area, a rim and wall fragment of a globular lamp of a somewhat unusual profile, with the upper part of the wall slanting inward, was recorded at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:89*, Fig. 3:26), and another example was unearthed in the excavations along the Western Wall.96

A globular lamp with three short loop-shaped handles was found, along with another glass lamp (of Type LBB), a glazed lidded ceramic bowl and metal artifacts, in a niche in the western wall of one of the chambers of a Nestorian hermitage east of Jericho, founded in the seventh century (Baramki and Stephan 1935: Pl. LIII:2:b). The dates established for the foundation of the monastery and for the glazed bowl100 suggest a date in the seventh–eighth centuries for the glass lamp as well.

Rim and wall fragments of globular lamps were recorded, for example, in Area CC at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:381–382, Cat. No. 136), at Tel Tanninim (Pollak 2006:170, Fig. 133:77– 79), one of which resembles the specimen from Khirbat Tabaliya (above), in the Umayyadperiod theater pottery workshop at Bet She’an (Winter 2011:350, Fig. 12.2:24, 25), and in a monastery that functioned in the late sixth–seventh centuries at the site of Geva‘ot Bar.97

Two identical handles of this type were unearthed in two Byzantine shops in the Street of Monuments at Bet She’an (Agady et al. 2002:490, Fig. 24:38, 39), and similar handles were unearthed in Umayyad-period contexts in the ancient city (e.g., Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 21:387, 388; Winter 2011:350, Fig. 12.2:26–28). Globular Lamps with Loop-Shaped Handles and a Tooled Extension—Type LGLte (Fig. 3.2.6/3)

Interestingly, a turquoise-colored wall fragment of a globular vessel with a drilled hole just below its cut-off rim, was probably adapted in the eighth century to serve as a suspended lamp in the church on Jabal Harun (Keller and Lindblom 2008:337, 342, Fig. 6:2, Type SL9).

These lamps are characterized by thick tooled trails extending below the loop-shaped handles. The treatment of the handles and the trails resembles that on contemporary Byzantine-period goblets (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2002c:121– 122, Fig. 1:2; see Type EXGBhn, Section 3.4).

Globular Lamps with Short Loop-Shaped Handles— Type LGLsh (Fig. 3.2.6/3) Globular lamps generally have short loop-shaped handles, which vary in their workmanship, thickness and tooling.

This subtype of globular lamps is best represented by an ovoid lamp from Nessana, which had been dated by the excavators to the ninth–eleventh centuries “(and later?)”, based on material known at that time from Monfort and Samarra (Harden 1962:76–77, 85–86, Pl. XXVIII:56). However, data accumulated from numerous salvage excavations conducted in Israel during the past twenty years, indicate that this subtype is firmly dated within the Byzantine period; the Byzantine-period specimens may be discerned from the later counterparts by their fabric and workmanship. This globular lamp subtype with its thick tooled trail continued into the Islamic era with minor alterations in the shapes of the handles and their application to the vessel wall, as evident on the handles of the ‘mosque lamp’ type (e.g., Hadad 1998:72–73, Type 6, Fig. 6).

The subtype is best represented by a piece, unearthed in Tomb 231 in the ‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives (Bagatti and Milik 1958:147–148, Fig. 35:12, Photograph 125:14). Barag noted that it is a very early example of this type and dated it no later than the mid-fourth century (Barag 1970b:29–30, 183–184, Type 13:10). Specimens from Jerusalem and its environs, excavated in the past two decades, are mostly associated with contexts dated to the fifth–seventh centuries. An example with its rim and two of its handles preserved was recovered in a burial cave (F32) at Tel el-Ful, north of Jerusalem.98 Several handles of this subtype, bearing a pinch below the handle loop, were recovered in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.4:51), the monastery in the Kidron Valley (Fig. 5.6.1:7), the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:202, 205, Fig. 2:33), and at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:89*, Fig. 3:27, 28). The Kathisma church complex yielded several loopshaped handles that probably belonged to globular lamps, one especially massive (Fig. 5.8.5:54), and two smaller ones (Fig. 5.8.5:55, 56).99

Globular lamps with loop-shaped handles bearing a tooled extension have scarcely been published from the Jerusalem area. A handle with a trail extension was recovered at Umm Tuba (Fig. 5.7.1:9). The excavations at Bet She’an yielded several specimens: two handles, probably from the same vessel, in one of the Byzantine shops in the Street of Monuments (Agady et al. 2002:490, Fig. 24:36, 37), and another, in a Byzantineperiod context on the tell (Hadad 2006:627–628, Fig. 19.3:54). A globular lamp with loop-shaped handles with a tooled extension, one of which is intact, was recovered in a church unearthed at Kiryat Nordau, Netanya,101 and a

96 The lamp was found in a fill of uncertain context in Room 21 and adjoining passageways and vaults; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 97 See n. 92 (Permit Nos. A-4479/2006 and A-5960/2010). 98 See n. 85 (Permit No. A-2892/1998). 99 The latter handle (Fig. 5.8.5:56) is exceptionally small, and could have also belonged to a bowl/beaker from the same provenance (Fig. 5.8.1: 8–10).

See n. 87. The lamp was discovered in Locus 843. The excavation at Kiryat Nordau in Netanya (Permit No. A-4093/2004) was headed on behalf of the IAA by M. Masarwa, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 100 101

60

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

LGLsh

LGLte

LGLdh

0

20 mm

LGLmbd

Type

Type Lable

Globular lamps with a cut-off rim and three handles

LGL

with short loop-shaped handles

LGLsh

Reference

Reconstruction

with loop-shaped handles and a tooled extension

LGLte

Kiryat Nordau, Netanya*

with thin delicate handles

LGLdh

Peleg and Reich 1992: Fig. 18:19

adorned with mold-blown decoration

LGLmbd

Amitai-Preiss 2004: Fig. 11.3:22

* The lamp was discovered in an excavation at Kiryat Nordau, Netanya (Permit No. A-4093/2004; Locus 843). Fig. 3.2.6/3. Lamps.

61

Lucid Transformations Globular Lamps Adorned with Mold-Blown Decoration—Type LGLmbd (Fig. 3.2.6/3)

handle with a broken extension was found at Tel Tanninim, in the same locus with a rim and wall fragment of a globular lamp (Pollak 2006:169–170, Fig. 133:74, 79). A handle with its loop broken was unearthed at Ashqelon (Katsnelson and Jackson-Tal 2004:106–107, Fig. 3:2), and another example of this type, recovered in the northern church at Rehovot-in-the-Negev, was probably part of a large globular lamp (Patrich 1988:140–141, Pl. XIV:38). Four handles bearing an extension, discovered at Jalame and dated to a period later than the glass factory, were erroneously attributed to jars (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:82, 85, Fig. 4-43:374–377).

Some of the globular lamps were adorned with moldblown geometrical patterns. A purple specimen with shallow mold-blown vertical ribbing from the monastery and hospice on Mount Berenice, southwest of Tiberias, was found together with other glass vessels from the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (AmitaiPreiss 2004:181–183, Fig. 11.3:22). Another globular lamp from the site is turquoise-colored and said to have been decorated with a shallow mold-blown honeycomb pattern (indiscernible in the illustration; Amitai-Preiss 2004:181–183, Fig. 11.3:23). A rim and wall fragment with a handle, unearthed at Nessana and attributed to the Early Islamic period, was adorned with mold-blown honeycomb decoration “surmounted by vertical corrugations” (Harden 1962:85–86, Pl. XX:58). A fragment of a globular vessel with mold-blown vertical ribbing below its cut-off rim was discovered in the apse of the chapel on Jabal Harun and associated with the eighth–ninth centuries (Keller and Lindblom 2008:347–348, Fig 12:5).

Globular lamps with loop-shaped handles attached at mid-height and bearing a tooled trail extension were also recorded in contexts of the Byzantine and Umayyad periods in various areas of the eastern Mediterranean basin and the Balkans. Handles with a thick tooled trail were found at Beirut (Jennings 2006:150–152, Fig. 6.24:1–6), and a complete lamp was excavated in the area of Thessaloniki (Antonaras 2008:25, Pl. 3:3:ii). Several handles of this subtype were discovered, for example, in the singlenave church at Gyenos in Abkhazia and attributed to the fifth–sixth centuries (Khroushkova 2006:70–74, Pl. 47:f; Khruškova 2009:343, Fig. 24), and at Butrint in Albania, together with glass vessels dated to the seventh–eighth centuries (Jennings 2010: Fig. 4:13).

These vessels follow Roman traditions and echo beakers adorned with mold-blown honeycomb decoration and vertical ribbing below the rim, such as a beaker from the cemetery at Horbat Rimmon in the Judaean lowlands (Gorin-Rosen 2004b: Fig. 1). A similarly-decorated, elongated, cobalt-blue vessel, acquired in Cairo and dated to the fourth–fifth centuries, had been transformed, probably in ancient times, into a suspended lamp. It has three, secondary but apparently ancient, equidistant oval perforations below the rim; these suspension holes, which modified the beaker for use as a lamp, associate it with suspended lamps (Whitehouse 2001c:111–113, 336, Cat. No. 606). A globular vessel adorned with mold-blown decoration depicting crosses and vertical ribbing below the rim, kept in the Shlomo Moussaieff collection and dated to the fifth–sixth centuries, may have been used as a lamp (Israeli 2000:130, on the left; and see Type EXmbd, Section 3.4).

Globular Lamps with Thin Delicate Handles— Type LGLdh (Fig. 3.2.6/3) Another subtype of the globular lamps has very thin walls and delicate handles, asymmetrically applied onto the wall. These lamps were probably customary during the Byzantine period, yet very few pieces have so far been published, mainly due to the poor preservation of the very thin vesselwalls and handles (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:174). Lamps of this subtype were discovered, for example, in Area CC at Caesarea Maritima, one of them together with coins dated to the fifth and sixth centuries (Israeli 2008:381– 382, 407, Nos. 137–139; Peleg and Reich 1992:155–156, Fig. 18:19). Two handles of this type were discovered in the Byzantine shops on the Street of Monuments at Bet She’an (Agady et al. 2002:490, Fig. 24:35), and a rim fragment with one handle intact was unearthed in a Byzantine-period context at Horbat Biz‘a, on the western Samarian lowlands (Gorin-Rosen 2012c:57*–59*, Fig. 4:4). The excavations at Flavia Neapolis (Shekhem-Nablus) yielded two such handles, one from the theater, and another, from the hippodrome, with a metal wire strung into its handle loop (Magen 2005: Figs. 23:13; 42:6).

Contraptions Associated with Glass Lamps The contraptions reviewed below are not made of glass, yet they comprise essential parts of various lighting devices incorporating glass lamps, and they are therefore discussed briefly in this section. Wick Holders Some of the glass lamps had a built-in wick tube installed at the bottom of the bowl (see Type LBBwkt, above). Yet, in lamps lacking this fixture, the wick may have been held afloat by being wound on a dried nutshell (see e.g., Zevulun and Olenik 1978:80–83; Stern 2001:262, and n. 231), or threaded through a short, perforated clay cone or disc (Foy 2011:212–215, Fig. 1:3). Such clay wick holders were discovered together with numerous glass lamp stems in the

A similar handle was unearthed in the church at Jabal Harun, where it was associated with the pre-church phase dated to the first half of the fifth century (Keller and Lindblom 2008:337–338, Fig. 1:4). Two handles of this type were discovered in Beirut, among glass vessels dated to “the Late Roman and Early Byzantine period” (Jennings 2006:151–152, Fig. 6.24:8, 9). 62

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products synagogues at Hammat Tiberias (Johnson 2000:84–88, Fig. 25:44–50) and at Bet She’an (Zori 1967:161, Pl. 32:6), as well as in various contexts at Caesarea Maritima (Peleg and Reich 1992:158, 160, Fig. 21), Horbat Biz‘a, on the western Samarian lowlands (Gendelman 2012:44*, Fig. 4:20), and Pella (Smith and Day 1989:51, 71, Pl. 43:B).

Fragments of a plain bronze lamp-hanger were discovered in the northwestern aisle of the synagogue at Jericho, which was probably in use during the first half of the eighth century (Baramki 1938:75, Pl. XXII; Barag 1970b:70, n. 46), and bronze and lead hangers were unearthed in the basilica of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo in Jordan (Saller 1941: Pl. 137: Fig. 1).

Equally, the wick may have been supported by a metal lamina, generally made of a copper or bronze strap or wire; its thinner end was hooked to the edge of the lamp bowl, while the end that was folded into a tube supported the wick at the center of the bowl (see Coulston and Gough 1985:69, Fig. 12:10; Foy 2011:215–217, Figs. 3; 4:1).102

Some of the metal hangers had Christian symbols interlocked into their chains, as attested by examples from several western Galilee churches: crosses on chains from the churches at Shave Ziyyon (Prausnitz 1967: Pl. XVIII:b–c) and Evron (Avi-Yonah 1955:21), and Chi-Rho monograms on those from Nahariya (Dauphin and Edelstein 1984:99–104, Figs. 26–27). A bronze chain adorned with a Maltese cross was concealed, together with two glass lamps (of Types LBB, LGLsh) and other artifacts, in a niche in the western wall of one of the chambers in a Nestorian hermitage east of Jericho, which had probably been founded in the seventh century103 (Baramki and Stephan 1935: Pl. LIV:1).

Many such copper straps were discovered during the excavations at the site of the Visitation Church in En Kerem, west of Jerusalem, together with glass lamps dated to the late Byzantine or the early Islamic period (Bagatti 1948:77–78, Pl. 26: Photograph 58:1–5, 7–9). These laminae (c. 8 mm in width; 60–120 mm in length) were tooled on one end to enable their attachment onto the lamp-rim, and on the other end—to support the wick (Bagatti 1948:77, Pl. 26: Photograph 59).

Multi-Light Devices Multi-light devices, i.e., polycandela, were employed principally in religious edifices, i.e., synagogues, churches and mosques, yet also in other public and private buildings (and see Section 4.1 for a discussion on these devices, including their mention in written sources). Multi-light devices were suspended by chains from ceilings and arches, and could accommodate numerous glass lamps, as demonstrated by various reconstructions (e.g., Zevulun and Olenik 1978:81, Cat. Nos. 210; Piccirillo 2000:102– 103; Jennings 2006: Fig. 6.28).

Bronze laminae of this type were unearthed in the Byzantineperiod monastery and hospice on Mount Berenice, southwest of Tiberias (Amitai-Preiss 2004:185, Fig. 11.5:1, 2, and see therein an example from Nessana). Metal laminae were also discovered in various ecclesiastical complexes in Jordan, which probably functioned from the sixth to the seventh/ eighth centuries, for example, at Gerasa (Baur 1938:517), in the ecclesiastical complex of St. Stephen at Umm alRasas (Alliata 1991: Figs. 3:21; 25:7), in the basilica of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo (Saller 1941: Pl. 138: Fig. 2:1–3), and in the church of the Monastery of Deacon Thomas, located in the Uyun Musa Valley north of Mount Nebo (Alliata 1990:258, Fig. 8:109).

A considerable number of polycandela were retrieved from excavations in Israel and Jordan (see below). A circular bronze polycandelon, its center designed as a ‘croix pattée’, was devised for six lamps in its circumference and one at its center. It was discovered, with a piece of the suspension chain intact, in a cistern in the compound of the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion, together with a considerable amount of lamps. The cistern also yielded a clay plate, bearing the name of a monk from the Monastery of Theodosius; the plate may have been suspended below the polycandelon to collect drops of oil from the lamps (Germer-Durand 1909; 1914:229–230, Figs. 7–9).

Metal Hangers Glass lamps equipped with handles (Types LBB, LGL, above) or perforations (Type LCW, above) were generally suspended from a ceiling or an arch by metal contraptions strung through their handles or perforations, as demonstrated in various reconstructions (e.g., Smith and Day 1989: Fig. 32; Piccirillo 2000:100). Some metal hangers have been discovered attached to glass lamps, as was a complete globular lamp with a wick tube and loop handles (Type LGL), dated to the sixth century “or later”, found affixed to its complete metal hanger (Stern 2001:321–322, 273–274, Cat. No. 183), and a handle of a bowl-shaped lamp (Type LBB) from the Petra Church that was discovered with its metal suspension ring and chain clasped in place (O’Hea 2001:372–373, Fig. 4).

Several circular and two quadrangular bronze polycandela, with perforations for four or six lamps, were found, alongside chains adorned with crosses, in Terrace House VI at Bet She’an (FitzGerald 1931:6, 42, Pls. 27:4; 37:1–4, 10), and suspension joints of a bronze polycandelon were unearthed in that city’s ancient synagogue (Zori 1967: Pl. 33:3), together with glass lamps dated to the first third of the seventh century (Barag 1970b:116–117).

102 Other types of wick holders, shaped as three-legged fixtures and centrally-perforated lead straps, were common in the western Mediterranean basin (Foy 2011:217–232, Figs. 4:4–6; 5–10; 12:1, 2).

103

63

See n. 87.

Lucid Transformations The northwestern church at Hippos-Sussita, which was probably in use from the late fifth or early sixth century until the 749 earthquake, yielded two bronze polycandela and fragments of glass lamps (and see Section 4.1, regarding the distribution of glass lamps in that church). The more complete of the two polycandela, discovered with its hook and three suspension chains intact, is circular and has six perforations for lamps, while the other one, discovered against the eastern wall of the church diaconicon, is star-shaped and has nine perforations for lamps and three loops for suspension chains (Burdajewicz 2006:132, Fig. 2; 2011:32, Fig. 8:A, B).

at Chersonesos of Taurica in the Crimea. The lamp is shaped as a large stemmed cup (125 mm in diameter), with its outsplaying corolla (245 mm in diameter) perforated by six large holes (each 25 mm in diameter) to support six smaller glass lamps, and by three smaller oval perforations into which metal suspension chains were attached; the central cup may have been used to hold oil (Golofast 2009:311, Fig. 9:12, Fig. 13; Khruškova 2009:342, Fig. 20). Wall Fasteners Besides being set in a polycandelon accommodating several glass lamps, stemmed lamps (Type LST) were also employed as single lamps. The lamp stem was inserted into the loop of a metal fastener attached to the wall, as attested by a stemmed lamp set into its bronze hanger, found in situ in the ancient synagogue uncovered at Kibbutz Ma‘oz Hayyim in the Bet She’an Valley (Tzaferis 1982:240, Pl. 36B).

An exceptional, circular bronze polycandelon with twelve perforations was discovered at Kafr Makr in the western Galilee. It is adorned with incisions depicting Jewish symbols: menorah, lulav and shofar, and an Aramaic inscription. The inscription identifies the bronze object as a wreath or tiara (‘klila’), and mentions the ‘holy place’, i.e., the synagogue of Kefar Hananya, situated some 30 km away (Naveh 1978:34–36, Item *16; Zevulun and Olenik 1978:81, Cat. No. 211). This is further evidence that metal polycandela were also used in synagogues.

More than 80 copper alloy single-lamp holders of varied sizes were unearthed together with stemmed glass lamps in the ‘House of the Menorot’, located southwest of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem; the building probably functioned from the second quarter of the seventh century to the early eighth century (Hadad 2003:194, Pl. II.5:16, 17; Photographs II.36, II.37). Similar bronze hooks were also found in various sites occupied during the sixth– eighth centuries, as at Caesarea Maritima, together with numerous glass lamp stems (Peleg and Reich 1992:158, Fig. 25), in a rural monastery at Shelomi in the western Galilee (Dauphin 1979: Photograph on p. 28), and in the church of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas in Jordan (Alliata 1991:399–401, Fig. 19:4, Photographs 6, 69).

Fragments of a bronze polycandelon, a chain, and a complete circlet from which a glass lamp had originally been suspended, were recovered in the synagogue that probably operated during the early sixth–early seventh centuries at Ma‘on-Nirim in the northwestern Negev (Rahmani 1960:16, 18, Pl. II:2, 9; Magness 1987). A bronze polycandelon, with four perforations for glass lamps, and four rings on which chains (three of which survived) were attached and joined by a hook, was discovered in the Church of Bishop Marianos at Gerasa; the polycandelon was found together with several broken glass lamps in the chancel, close to the apse, in a context dated to the first half of the eighth century (Gawlikowski and Musa 1986:153, No. 41, Fig. 10, Pls. VI:B, VII:A). At Pella, a bronze polycandelon for six lamps, retrieved from a secular Umayyad-period context, probably hung by a hook that had been inset into the keystone of the arch in Room 10 of the South Building in Area IV, associated with the destruction layer of the 749 earthquake104 (McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982:140, Pl. 150:2).

3.3 Typological-Chronological Study of the Major Decoration Schemes This section groups and classifies the major decoration schemes that adorned glass vessels during the fifth–eighth centuries in Jerusalem and its environs, and in SyriaPalestine in general. When examples from the Jerusalem area are numerous and/or well preserved, they are discussed by their vessel types in Section 3.2, and are mentioned here only briefly. However, decoration schemes, which appear only scarcely in the Jerusalem area and/or on small fragments that are unindicative of their vessel shape, are addressed here in detail.

Generally, polycandela were made of various metals, yet occasionally they were made of other materials. Unusual devices for the suspension of stemmed lamps were discovered in the collapse of the church and chapel on Jabal Harun, near Petra. These are sandstone discs (c. 170 mm in diameter), with three perforations for lamp stems, and three small holes through which wires or cords for suspension may have been strung (Keller and Lindblom 2008:357–358, Figs. 18, 19).

3.3.1 Mold-Blown Decoration Mold-Blown Decoration—Type DDmbd (Fig. 3.3/1) Mold-blowing was one of the oldest and most widespread methods of decorating glass vessels since the Early Roman period onward. During the fifth–eighth centuries it was employed particularly on bottles (Type BTmbd), and less commonly on wineglasses (Type WGmbd) and on lamps (Types LBBmbd, LGLmbd). The preferred mold-blown

A unique lamp made of cobalt-blue glass was discovered in situ, in a layer dated to the third quarter of the fifth century,

104

See n. 44, in Chapter 2.

64

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products patterns comprised vertical, diagonal or twisted ribs, as well as other designs, such as grids, petals and dots. The mold-blown technique was also used on the multi-side vessels (see Type EXMSV, Section 3.4).

southeast of Jerusalem (Katsnelson 2015b:199–201, Fig. 1:1, 2). A bottle adorned with a mold-blown grid pattern on the body and a multi-petal rosette on its underside was discovered in the excavations along the Western Wall; its shiny greenish-blue fabric suggests a date in the Umayyad period.105

These decorations were fashioned by blowing the vessel into a pattern mold, generally made of clay, and less commonly of stone, wood or metal. When multi-piece molds were used, seam lines are discernible where the mold pieces joined (e.g., Israeli 2003:307).

A bottom with a mold-blown pattern comprising concentric bands of petals was documented at Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VIII dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:14). Vessels with a mold-blown grid or honeycomb pattern on the body and a rosette on the underside are characteristic particularly of the Abbasid and Fatimid periods. Examples were unearthed, for example, in Abbasid–Fatimid contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:36– 37, Pl. 30:595, 596), and at Ramla, north of the White Mosque (Gorin-Rosen 2010:246–248, Pl. 10.9:2), and on Marcus Street, in a context (L211) probably from the ninth century (Pollak 2007:126, Fig. 10:69).

Occasionally, the pattern seems protruding when in fact it is not. This phenomenon, sometimes labeled ‘optic/al blown’ for the optic illusion, was probably achieved by double mold-blowing: the vessel was blown into a pattern mold and then into a plain mold that pressed on the protruding pattern, leaving it shallow or concave (e.g., Stern 2001:24, 26, and see Types WGmbd, BTmbd, LBBmbd). Mold-Blown Ribbing

Mold-Blown Dotted Pattern

Vertical, diagonal or twisted mold-blown ribs adorned the mouth, neck and body of bottles (see Type BTmbd), and less commonly, the walls of wineglasses (see Type WGmbd) and lamps (Types LBBmbd and LSTmbd). Occasionally, a mold-blown pattern on a bottle would be accompanied by another type of decoration, such as an applied trail on the mouth or neck (Type BTmbd).

Several wall fragments adorned with a mold-blown dotted pattern were retrieved from the bathhouse in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.4:31, 32). A small fragment, discovered in a collapse in the monastery at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.4:44), was adorned with a double mold-blown pattern of scattered dots, and probably belonged to a closed vessel.

A distinct subtype of protruding vertical ribs or lugs adorning the vessel body was created either by moldblowing or by tooling, and occurred on bowls, beakers and bottles, particularly during the seventh–eighth centuries. A thick bottom and wall fragment decorated with spaced vertical ribs (Fig. 5.5.1:7), unearthed in the monastery on Mount Scopus, probably supported a bowl, but may have also belonged to a large beaker or bottle. Similarlydecorated bowls/beakers and bottles were discovered, for example, in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 4:82), and on Marcus Street in Ramla, together with pottery dated to the eighth–ninth centuries (Pollak 2007:106–108, 123, 126, Figs. 4:18; 10:68); an incomplete example was unearthed at Fustat (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001:66, Fig. 33b).

Complete examples of vessels adorned with a moldblown dotted pattern were discovered in Jordan, for example, a bottle dated to the fifth century from Tomb 92 in Area II at Pella (Wallace 1995:297, No. 27, Pl. 22:1), and a juglet from a tomb possibly pre-dating the Edicule Church, constructed in the sixth century in the ecclesiastical complex of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas (Alliata 1991:377, Fig. 7:3; Piccirillo 1991:331–332). A bottom of a bowl or bottle adorned with a dotted pattern on the walls was excavated in a well, east of the baptistery of St. Theodore’s Church at Gerasa (Baur 1938:531: No. 50, Fig. 22:50[383]). Several vessels with mold-blown dotted decoration from Iran were dated to the sixth–eighth or the seventh–eighth centuries (Lamm 1935: Pl. 21:B, E, G).

Mold-Blown Grid and Petal Patterns

Mold-Blown Festoon Decoration

Grid and petal patterns generally covered the body and bottom of bowls and bottles. A globular bottle adorned with a shallow double mold-blown grid pattern (Type BTmbd) was unearthed in the Vault Crypt in the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.2:15). A protruding moldblown grid on a thick-walled fragment was discovered in the monastery at the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.4:43), its fabric resembling that of other vessels from the site that correspond to Phase IIIc, attributed by the excavator to the Umayyad period. A vessel bearing a similar mold-blown grid pattern was unearthed in a context probably associated with the seventh century, in the small monastery at Khirbat Umm Leisun, some four km

The lower part of a vessel, recovered in the monastery on Mount Scopus, was adorned with a mold-blown design comprising festoons on the wall and petals on the bottom (Fig. 5.5.4:33). This design may be attributed to the seventh–eighth centuries. This date is supported by a vessel bottom adorned with the same pattern on its wall, which was recorded in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 16:323).

The bottle was recovered in Locus 1516 in Building H, Area 18E; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 105

65

Lucid Transformations 3.3.2 Trail Decoration

pattern. This decoration appears in variations, differing in the design, and in the thickness of the trails, and their density or spaciousness. Pinched trail decoration was widespread in Syria-Palestine in the seventh–eighth centuries, particularly on bottles (Type BTpt). An unusual small goblet adorned with pinched trail decoration from Nishapur in Iran was associated with the ninth–tenth centuries (Kröger 1995:106–107, Cat. No. 151).

Applied Trail Decoration (Fig. 3.3/1) Applying trails was the most conventional method of decorating glass vessels in the region, and it was extensively widespread from the fourth century onward (Jennings 2006:155–168, Figs. 7.1–7.15).

Thick Wavy Trail Decoration—Type DDwt (Fig. 3.3/1)

Trails were applied in various manners on a variety of vessels, mostly on the rim and/or walls of bowls, beakers and wineglasses, and on the rim, mouth, neck and/or body of bottles and jugs. The trails were occasionally of the same color as the vessel, but were generally of a darker color, usually of various shades of blue, turquoise and green, and in the seventh–eighth centuries also of olive green, yellow or brown hues.

Another scheme of applying trails was displayed by a thick trail tooled into a wavy pattern. This scheme drew from the Byzantine-period tradition of applying trails, and enhanced it with a new zest. The application of trails was one of the most distinctive and widespread adornments during the seventh–eighth centuries. This decoration was applied particularly on long-necked bottles (Type BTwt), and less commonly on jugs (Types JGpfm, JGwt). Typically, a thick wavy trail was applied horizontally around a long cylindrical neck, or around the upper part or mid-height of a wide funnel-shaped mouth. These bottles are usually greenish blue or bluish green, and the trail is either of the same color as the bottle, or of a different, generally darker, color, including yellow and brown.

Thin Trail Decoration—Type DDtd (Fig. 3.3/1) This decoration comprised a thin trail wound horizontally numerous times around the rim and/or around the wall, mouth or neck, and fused-in or left protruding. The windings were densely or sparsely spaced, covering all or part of the wall, mouth or neck. These schemes were widespread during the fourth–eighth centuries, particularly on bowls (see Type BLtd), bowls/beakers (see Type BBtd), wineglasses (see Type WGtd) and bottles (see Type BTtd).

Seldom, a thick wavy trail was wound on other types of vessels, such as a bowl with an outfolded rim and a hollow ring base from the Umayyad-period citadel at Amman (Harding 1951:11, Pl. II:21), and a vessel, reconstructed as a goblet, that was recovered in the compound of the church of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas, also in Jordan, in Room G, which had probably been constructed in the sixth century (Alliata 1991:399–401, Fig. 19:6).

Thin trail decoration less-commonly adorned jars, as on a fragment from the Teddy Kollek Park compound, which belonged to either a bottle or a jar (Fig. 5.3.2:21), and a handled jar that probably served as a lamp, which was recovered in an Early Islamic context (with pottery dated to the eighth–tenth centuries) at Ramat Rahel (Katsnelson 2016:707–708, Fig. 44.24:2).

Occasionally, a thick wavy trail on the neck was accompanied by a plain thick trail (e.g., Crowfoot 1957: Fig. 99:1; Pollak 2003: Fig. 1:9; Hadad 2005: Pl. 13:261– 265), by a thin trail wound several times (e.g., Smith and Day 1989:114–115, Pl. 56:3; Winter 2011: Fig. 12.1:18), or by an additional thick wavy trail (e.g., Hadad 2005: Pl. 13:266; Gorin-Rosen 2010: Pl. 10.2:12), at times with a handle attached to the upper of the two (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2008b: Pl. 1:3, right). Some bottles and jugs bearing a thick wavy trail on the neck also had the globular body decorated with one or more rows of vertical pinches (Type DDrp, below) (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2016:49, Fig. 3:22; Cohen 1997:425–426, Pl. V:2), or with mold-blown vertical ribs (Types BTmbd, DDmbd) (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2016:49, Fig. 3:23).

Occasionally, a certain type of applied trails design would be accompanied by a different subtype of applied trails, or by another decoration, such as rows of pinches (Type DDrp, below). Single Trail Decoration—Type DDst (Fig. 3.3/1) A single thin trail may have been applied horizontally on the mouth or neck of a bottle or jug, generally in a protruding wind (Type BTst). A single, generally thick trail could be applied below the rim, mostly on a funnel-shaped mouth (Types BTrr/fm, BTir/fm). These schemes were widespread particularly during the fourth–fifth centuries, and to a lesser extent in the following centuries.

A thick wavy trail was also applied to other bottle types, such as bottles with an infolded rim and a squat or globular body, of the variant with a longer neck (Type BTTifr; e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2010: Pl. 10.2:8), bottles with a ridged neck (Type BTTrn; e.g., Hadad 2005: Pl. 13:269), or multi-tube bottles (Type EXBTmt, Section 3.4; e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2008b: Pl. 1:5).

Pinched Trail Decoration—Type DDpt (Fig. 3.3/2) This elaborate scheme comprises horizontally-applied thin and thick trails, mostly blue or turquoise-colored. The thin trails are generally fused-in and the thick ones are pinched-out to create a ‘bifurcated’ or ‘spectacles’

66

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

DDmbd

DDst DDwt

DDtb

0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Mold-blown decoration

DDmbd

Ramla*; Ch. 5, Fig. 5.1.2:15; Types BTmbd, JGpfm, WGmbd, LSTmbd

Thin trail decoration

DDtd

Winter 2010b: Fig. 3:15; Types BLtd, BBtd, WGtd, BTtd

Single trail decoration

DDst DDwt

Gorin-Rosen 1999b: Fig. 1:12; Type BTst

* The bowl was discovered in the excavation at the Azrieli Mall compound in Ramla (Permit No. A-6378/2011; Locus 238). Fig. 3.3/1. Major decoration schemes.

67

Lucid Transformations Vertically Applied Trails—Type DDvt (Fig. 3.3/2)

Two complete globular jars adorned with trail applications, in the Israel Museum collections, are attributed to the eighth century (Brosh 2003:335, Cat. Nos. 434, 435), and a globular bottle of Syrian origin, in the Al-Sabah collection, is dated to the seventh–eighth centuries (Carboni 2001b:42, Cat. No. 1.8a).

Trails, generally of a different color than the vessel, were also applied vertically in a wavy pattern. Bowls/ beakers may have been adorned with several wavy trails applied vertically along the vessel walls (Type BBvt). The combination of this decoration with the shape of the bowl/beaker occurred in the seventh–eighth centuries, and continued into the Abbasid period.

3.3.3 Pinched Decoration Rows of Pinches on the Vessel Wall—Type DDrp (Fig. 3.3/2)

Vertical wavy trails also adorned bottles, such as a lightblue example with a yellowish-green trail (originally one of several), excavated at Tel Rosh in the northern Negev and dated to the seventh–eighth centuries.106 Small body fragments adorned with vertical wavy trails were excavated at Humayma, in southern Jordan (Jones 2013:523, 539, Figs. 14.2:18; 14.8:27). A complete, light green bottle has five brown wavy trails vertically applied along its body; it is said to have originated from northeastern Iran and is dated to the eighth–ninth centuries (Kunz 1981:123, Cat. No. 503).

Various vessels were decorated with one, two or three rows of small horizontal or vertical pinches on the body. This decoration was widespread in Syria-Palestine, particularly in the seventh–eighth centuries, mostly on bowls/beakers (Type BBrp), jars (Type JR), bottles with a globular body (Types BTrr, BTir), bottles with an infolded rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr), and jugs (Type JGpfm).107 These vessels were discovered in numerous sites around the country, many incorporating ecclesiastical edifices and burials, some of which were associated with churches.

Trail Applications—Type DDta (Fig. 3.3/2) Vessels decorated with prominent trail applications appeared in the late seventh–early eighth centuries, and were extensively manufactured in the region during the eighth century (Brosh 2003:333; Gorin-Rosen 2010:226– 227). Among these vessels were small bottles and jars adorned with a zigzag pattern on the shoulder, and alternating upright and upside-down irregular triangular shapes on the body. These vessels, well-known from collections, are scarcely documented from archaeological excavations.

Many bowls/beakers adorned with one–two rows of pinches were discovered in assemblages dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods in the vicinity of Jerusalem and in various sites in Syria-Palestine (Type BBrp, and see therein examples from Khirbat Tabaliya and Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam, as well as from Bet She’an, Tiberias, Khirbat esh-Shubeika, Pella, and Sigilliya in southern Sinai). Jars were also adorned with rows of pinches, as evident from complete specimens unearthed, for example, in the youth hostel compound at Bet She’an (Katsnelson 2104b:36*, Fig. 7:1), at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:413, Pl. IV:5, 6), and in a burial in an Umayyad-period cemetery at Horbat Liqit in the northern Negev (Gorin-Rosen 2002a: Fig. 156:1). Complete jars adorned with rows of pinches were discovered in several locations in Jordan, for example, in a tomb possibly pre-dating the Edicule Church, which was constructed in the sixth century in the ecclesiastical compound of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas (Alliata 1991:377, Fig. 7:9; Piccirillo 1991:331–332), in the Pella odium, dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries (Smith and Day 1989:110, Pl. 51:21), and in various contexts at Gerasa: in Room 30 adjacent to St. Theodore’s Church (Baur 1938:536: No. 67[244], Fig. 18:244), in a context dated to the first half of the eighth century (Dussart 1998:93, Type BVII.251, Pl. 19:9), and in the Amman museum (Dussart 1998:161, Type BXII.1, Pl. 49:1).

Fragments of similarly-decorated jars were uncovered in the Ir Gannim neighborhood in Jerusalem; their applied triangular shapes are made of colorless, yellow and turquoise-colored glass (Katsnelson 2009: Fig. 11:5–10). Three jars adorned with a zigzag pattern and alternating triangular shapes were discovered in Jericho (Sellin and Watzinger 1913:165, Pl. 45:III,3 [all three jars labeled the same]) and dated from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries (Barag 1970b:51–52). A complete globular bottle with decoration of this type was found at Nir David in the Bet She’an Valley (Zori 1962:185, No. 133, Pl. 28:1), and another was associated with a burial in an Umayyadperiod cemetery unearthed at Horbat Liqit in the northern Negev (Gorin-Rosen 2002a: Fig. 156:3). Small fragments of triangular trail-applications were excavated in various Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:25, Pl. 14:283; 2006:629, Fig. 19.4:75), at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:226–227, Pl. 10.2:16, and see therein references to examples from Iran and Egypt, and one reportedly from Syria), and at Humayma, in southern Jordan (Jones 2013:523, 544–545, Figs. 14.2:17; 14.10:43).

Bottles with a globular or pear-shaped body adorned with rows of pinches were excavated, for example, at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:427–428, Pl. IX:12), and in Wineglasses were rarely adorned with rows of pinches, yet an oddlyproportionate example of unknown provenance, kept in the Newark Museum, is adorned with horizontal pinches on the upper part of the wall (Auth 1976:150, Cat. No. 195). 107

The excavation at Tel Rosh (Permit No. A-6055/2010) was headed on behalf of the IAA by V. Nikolsky-Carmel, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 106

68

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products a tomb near the western church at Ma‘in in Jordan (Barag 1985:371–372, No. 9, Fig. 8:IX).

Occasionally, rows of pinches appeared on a single vessel together with another type of decoration characteristic of the period, such as densely-wound thin trails (Type DDtd) or a thick wavy trail wound on the neck (Type DDwt). A burial cave at En Lavan, southwest of Jerusalem, yielded two such vessels adorned with rows of pinches: a jar with additional thin trails densely applied around the mouth, and a bottle with an additional thick wavy trail wound on the neck.109 A jug adorned with vertical pinches on the body and a thick wavy trail wound on the bottom of its neck was discovered at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:415–416, Pl. V:2).

Bottles with an infolded rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr) adorned with a row of horizontal pinches were unearthed, for example, in Tomb 4, associated with the church on the northern part of Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 50:9; Barag 1970b:55) and in a pit grave on the southern part of that site (Getzov 2006:157, Fig. 6.1), as well as in various Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:24, Pl. 12:222), Jericho (Sellin and Watzinger 1913:16, Pl. 45:III,7), and the qasr at Jabal Says (Usais) in Syria (Bloch 2011:82–83, Pl. 33:297a).

A two-handled jug, adorned with two rows of pinches on the lower part of the body and a thick wavy trail around the bottom of the mouth/neck, was associated with the post-749-earthquake110 settlement north of the tell at Pella (O’Hea 1992:260, Fig. 15). Two globular bottles adorned with three rows of horizontal pinches on the body and a densely wound trail on the neck were excavated at Beirut and assigned to the sixth–seventh centuries (Jennings 2006:159–163, Figs. 7.4:4; 7.6; 7.7; 7.8:7). Other similarly-decorated globular bottles, kept in museum collections, are reportedly from the eastern Mediterranean basin (e.g., Matheson 1980:125–126, Fig. 337; Fleming 1999: Figs. E.64:b, E.67).

Many sites yielded small body fragments adorned with rows of pinches, which may not be securely associated with a specific vessel form. Various such body fragments, most of which probably belonged by their profile to bowls/beakers, jars, or bottles, were unearthed in the Jerusalem area, in contexts dated mostly to the sixth– seventh centuries. These include pieces recovered in the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:38) and at a nearby site (Winter 2013a: Fig. 21:7), on the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:10), in the monasteries on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.4:36) and at Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000c:48*, Fig. 26:3), in the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.4:47–49), at Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:86*, Fig. 2:13), and in a burial cave at Horbat Gores in the Gonen neighborhood (Solimany, Winter and de Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:6).

3.3.4 Tonged Decoration Tonged Decoration—Type DDtg (Fig. 3.3/2) Tonged decoration was impressed by metal tongs on the vessel wall while the glass was still hot. The tongs bore various, usually geometric designs, on one or both ends. The most conventional patterns were lozenges, ovals and dotted lines, while more intricate examples included figurative designs, particularly birds or fowls, and Arabic script (Lamm 1929–1930: Pls. 16–19; 1935: Pl. 29).

Body fragments adorned with a row of horizontal pinches were recovered in many sites in the country, such as Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VIII dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003:165–166, Fig. 1:13), Horbat Hermeshit, east of Ramla (Winter 1998:176, Fig. 1:4), Nessana (Harden 1962:88, No. 75, not illustrated), and the late Byzantine– Umayyad phase at Horbat Karkur Illit in the northern Negev (Katsnelson 2004:283–285, Fig. 63:17, 18).

Tonged decoration was probably introduced into the glass repertoire by the newly-settled Muslim population. Tong-decorated vessels were widespread in the Near East, and have been traditionally associated with the Abbasid–Fatimid periods, particularly the ninth–tenth centuries (see Change and Innovation in Section 7.1; Carboni 2001b:261–263, Cat. No. 69a). However, various discoveries from well-dated archaeological excavations suggest that some vessels adorned with tonged decoration appeared as early as the first half of the eighth century (see below).

Similarly-decorated body fragments were also unearthed in neighboring regions, such as those from a context dated to 630–670 in Gerasa’s northern theater area (Meyer 1988:206, Fig. 11:A, B108) and from another context in that ancient city, dated to the first half of the eighth century (Dussart 1998:158, Type BX.83, Pl. 46:21). A body fragment adorned with two rows of horizontal pinches was excavated at Humayma, in southern Jordan (Jones 2013:524, Fig. 14.2:20). A bottom fragment adorned with a row of horizontal pinches was documented at Qal‘at Sem‘an in Syria (Dussart 2003:178, Fig. 6:4), and numerous similarly-adorned body fragments, some probably belonging to globular bottles, were excavated in Beirut, in contexts associated with a glass workshop that functioned in the second half of the seventh century (Foy 2000a:268–270, Fig. 20).

Tong-decorated vessels from the Jerusalem area, as well as from other sites in Syria-Palestine, comprise mostly bowls/beakers (Type BBtg, and see therein examples from excavations on the City of David spur and along the Western Wall). The excavation in the burial cave at En Lavan (Permit No. A-2830/1998) was headed on behalf of the IAA by G. Solimany, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 110 See n. 44, in Chapter 2. 109

108

See n. 69.

69

Lucid Transformations

DDpt

DDvt

DDta

DDtg

DDrp

DDmos DDstp

DDmrv

0

20 mm

Fig. 3.3/2. Major decoration schemes.

70

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Fig. 3.3/2. Major decoration schemes. Type

Type Lable

Reference

Pinched trail decoration

DDpt

Reconstruction; Type BTpt

Thick wavy trail decoration

DDwt

Type DDst, Fig. 3.3/1; Types BTwt, JGwt

Vertically applied trails

DDvt

Gorin-Rosen 1999b: Fig. 1:17

Trail applications

DDta

Gorin-Rosen 2002a: Fig. 156:3; Type JRta

Rows of pinches

DDrp

Gorin-Rosen 2002a: Fig. 156:1; Hadad 2005: Pl. 12:222*; Type BBrp

Tonged decoration

DDtg

Reconstruction; Type BBtg

Stain-painted decoration

DDstp

Gorin-Rosen 2008b: Pl. 1:6**

Mosaic glass

DDmos

Hadad 2005: Pl. 34:683*

Marvered decoration

DDmrv

Hadad 2005: Pl. 41:854*

* Courtesy of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ** Photograph by Clara Amit, courtesy of the IAA.

Early examples include specimens discovered within a glass assemblage from the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods at Horbat Hermeshit, east of Ramla (Winter 1998:174, Fig. 2:10), at Ahihud in the western Galilee, together with glass vessels dated to the seventh–mideighth centuries (Porat and Getzov 2010: Fig. 7:3, 4), and at Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VIII dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:15).

been produced in Syria-Palestine. There is also evidence that this technique was practiced in Egypt in the eighth century (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001:110–111). Evidence from the Jerusalem area is scarce. A small stain-painted body fragment from the courtyard of the monastery on Mount Scopus seems to depict a yellowishbrown vegetal design (Fig. 5.5.4:37). Two small wall fragments, discovered at Ramat Rahel south of Jerusalem, were adorned on the exterior and interior with brown stain-painted geometric and vegetal patterns (Jackson-Tal 2016:581–582, Fig. 37.5:1, 2).

Numerous specimens adorned with tonged decoration were discovered in contexts from the Abbasid–Fatimid periods, for example, at Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VII dated from 750 to the late ninth century (Pollak 2003:167, Fig. 2:31–34), at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:37, Pls. 31–33:608–648), and in various locations at Ramla (e.g., Winter 2015b: Fig. 1:5; Gorin-Rosen 2010:242– 245, Pl. 10.8:1–5, and see therein discussion and additional examples).

A colorless vessel from the ‘Armenian Garden’ on Jerusalem’s Western Hill was stain-painted in brown with registers of fowl figures, vegetal and geometric designs, and an inscription (Tushingham 1985:140, 153, Fig. 77:15, Pl. 144). The vessel was reconstructed as a goblet, although it may have been a typical bowl/beaker (Type BB). Additionally, it was assigned a date in the twelfth century, yet this date is improbable, as it has been established that stain-painted vessels were produced no later than the mideleventh century (Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.).

3.3.5 Stain-Painted Decoration Stain-Painted Decoration—Type DDstp (Fig. 3.3/2) Stain-painted decoration, also known as ‘lustre painting’, was created by painting the vessel’s exterior and/or interior with metallic oxides, mostly of silver and copper, and firing it in conditions that caused the metal to deposit and leave a shiny effect (Whitehouse 2006:53; Watson 1998. For recent discussions on stain painting, see especially Carboni 2001b:51–69; 2001d:199–207; Shindo 2005). Most of the vessels adorned with stain-painted technique are bowls and beakers.

Several pieces were uncovered in other parts of Israel. A bowl/beaker, excavated at Horbat Migdal (near Zur Natan, in the western Samarian lowlands) and kept in the Eretz Israel Museum in Tel Aviv, is stain-painted in two tones, on both sides, with animal figures and vegetal designs; it was dated no later than the eighth century, by the content of the pit in which it was found, and by analogous examples from the region (Lehrer-Jacobson 1990–1993). A vessel bottom adorned with a brown stain-painted asterisk pattern was found at Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VII dated from 750 to the late ninth century (Pollak 2003:167, Fig. 3:37). The ancient city also yielded two fragments of a stain-painted bowl with a brown floral pattern on the interior, which were discovered in a stratified sealed hoard dated from the late tenth to the mid-eleventh centuries; this type of decoration has been assigned by various scholars to Fatimid Egypt, and the pottery and bronze artifacts in the hoard also demonstrate strong ties to Egypt (Pollak 2000:241–242, Fig. 6:12).

Until not long ago, researchers were uncertain as to when this technique emerged (Lamm 1941, Lehrer-Jacobson 1990–1993:88). However, the shapes and provenances of stain-painted vessels excavated in Israel during the past two decades suggest that this technique appeared in the Umayyad period and was widespread in Syria-Palestine (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:49; 2013:72*–73*). Moreover, the numerous pieces that have been emerging from excavations in Israel (see below) may suggest that some of these stainpainted vessels, particularly the bowls/beakers, may have 71

Lucid Transformations Several stain-painted fragments were recovered at Tiberias: one, probably of a bowl, was unearthed in the ‘House of the Bronzes’ and dated to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods (Hadad 2008:169–170, Fig. 5.2, Pl. 5.3:39), and several pieces from other locations in the ancient city (Lester 2004a:207–208, Fig. 7.15), one of which depicts a vegetal or figural scene and an inscription, and is dated from the eighth to the early ninth centuries (Lester 2004a: Fig. 7.15:179). Various excavations at Bet She’an yielded a bowl fragment adorned with a geometrical pattern,111 and a vessel bottom decorated with a stain-painted asterisk shape,112 resembling those on the stain-painted pieces from Horbat Migdal and Caesarea Maritima (see above). A small base fragment with its underside adorned with a brown and yellow stain-painted floral pattern was discovered in a salvage excavation at Be’er Sheva, in a context dated from the late sixth to the eighth centuries.113

beaker in the Corning Museum of Glass dated to the eighth century, with a Kufic inscription mentioning it was made in Damascus (Carboni 2001d:208–209, Cat. No. 102); a polychrome bowl in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which was probably made in Damascus in the eighth century (Jenkins 1986:22–23, Fig. 20); and a beaker from Syria in the Victoria and Albert Museum, which was dated to the eighth century (Liefkes 1997:30, 152, Fig. 30). A dish, kept in the Al-Sabah collection, has an eight-ray pattern stain-painted in brown on its interior floor and a Kufic inscription below the rim; the dish, probably of Egyptian origin, was dated to the eighth–ninth centuries (Carboni 2001b:58–59, Cat. No. 12). A large collection of stain-painted fragments, acquired in Egypt and kept in the Benaki Museum in Athens, was classified into an early group, dated from the late seventh to the early ninth centuries, and a later group, dated to the ninth–twelfth centuries; the motifs of the earlier group were thought to have derived from Coptic art (Clairmont 1977:36–58, Pls. 8–10).

Several stain-painted vessels were recorded at Ramla. Bowls and bowls/beakers depicting vegetal and geometric motifs, animal figures and Arabic inscriptions were discovered in an area excavated south of the White Mosque (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:49, Pl. 1:6; Avni et al. 2008: Fig. 8). A small fragment of a bowl with stain-painted decoration on both sides and a Kufic inscription below the rim was discovered in another part of Ramla, together with an Umayyad-period glass bottle and Abbasid-period pottery (Gorin-Rosen 2013:72*– 73*, Fig. 1:2); it resembles a stain-painted bowl from Fustat dated to 750–800 (see below). A fragment, probably of a bowl/beaker, decorated with a geometric stain-painted design on both sides, was unearthed on Marcus Street in Ramla and dated from the eighth to the mid-ninth centuries (Pollak 2007:111–113, Fig. 6:33, Pl. 1:3).

3.3.6 Mosaic Glass Mosaic Glass—Type DDmos (Fig. 3.3/2) Mosaic glass refers to vessels and artifacts made from preformed elements that are heated until they fuse, creating floral and other intricate patterns. This technique had been skillfully employed intermittently since the second millennium BCE, and then resurfaced and was practiced in the Near East during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods (e.g., Grose 1989; Tatton-Brown and Andrews 1991:23, 47–61; Carboni 2001b:29–30, Cat. Nos. 7:a, b, c; Whitehouse 2001b; Hadad 2005:23, 39).

The stain-painted vessels from Fustat range in date from the mid-eighth century to the eleventh century. Some of the earlier examples are stain-painted on both sides using two tones, and their date in the second half of the eighth century is corroborated by the Arabic texts inscribed below their rims (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001:109–112, Pl. 45a–45d, Colorplate III). Numerous monochrome and polychrome stain-painted vessels were excavated at Raya in Sinai, in contexts dated to the ninth–tenth centuries (Shindo 2005).

A small body fragment of mosaic glass was documented in Jerusalem, in the excavations along the Western Wall, recovered in a context associated with Stratum 5, dated to the ninth–tenth centuries.114 Early Islamic mosaic glass specimens from Israel were unearthed, for example, in an Umayyad-period structure and in contexts of the Abbasid–Fatimid periods at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pls. 5:98; 34:683; 35:684–687; Colorplate on p. IX:98, 683). A mosaic-glass bowl fragment was discovered in Beirut, in a deposit with “Umayyad or possibly early Abbasid pottery” (Jennings 2006:206, Figs. 9.6:1; 9.7), and a small bowl associated with the ninth century was discovered at Fustat (Foy 2000b:164–165, Fig. 17:1).

A stain-painted fragment of uncertain provenance, kept in the Israel Museum, depicts a geometric design and a Kufic inscription; it is dated to the ninth–tenth centuries (Brosh 2001:368, Cat. No. 528). Other stain-painted specimens, possibly from the Near East, are kept in museum collections: two incomplete vessels in the Cairo Museum of Art that date from 773 and 779/780 (Jenkins 1986:23); a bowl/

3.3.7 Marvered Decoration Marvered Decoration—Type DDmrv (Fig. 3.3/2) Marvered decoration involved applying trails of opaque glass of a color different than that of the molten glass body, and rolling them into the vessel, on a flat surface named ‘marver’. The trails were then combed or dragged to achieve a wavy, feathery, festooned, or zigzag pattern.

111 The fragment was recovered in Locus 211. The excavation at Bet She’an (Permit No. A-2368/1995) was headed on behalf of the IAA by D. Avshalom-Gorni (1999), and the glass finds were examined by Y. GorinRosen. 112 The fragment was discovered in Locus 110436. The excavation in the area of the northeastern bridge was directed, as part of the IAA Bet She’an excavation project, by G. Mazor and W. Atrash, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 113 The vessel was recovered in Locus 5090. See n. 63 (Permit No. A-2225/1995).

The fragment was discovered in Building H, Area 18E; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 114

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Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Marvering is an ancient technique known since the Egyptian eighteenth dynasty, and employed in the Roman period. It resurfaced in the Near East in the Umayyad period and continued into the Abbasid–Fatimid periods, during which it was rather uncommon. At their zenith during the Mamluk period, marvered wares of a variety of vessel shapes and decoration patterns were manufactured in various sites in Syria-Palestine, including Jerusalem, as well as in Egypt (e.g., Hasson 1983:111–112; Carboni 2001b:291–293).115

and goblets from archaeological excavations in Israel and Jordan, published in the past two decades (see below). Some of these vessels were discovered in churches and monasteries, and they may therefore be associated with Christian liturgical ceremonies (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:237; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:170–172). Furthermore, this section discusses various artifacts, among them glass rods, which had been widespread in the Roman period and resurfaced in the seventh and eighth centuries. Other innovative glass products initially emerged in the seventh–eighth centuries, as did zoomorphic vessels, stamped vessels, alembics, horseshoe-shaped artifacts (see below) and inscribed weights.116

Early Islamic marvered vessels and artifacts were generally made of translucent blue, brown, purple or green glass, and the trails were mostly opaque white, yet occasionally also red, yellow or blue (e.g., Carboni 2001b:291–301, 314–317, Cat. Nos. 74–78b, 3.58–3.64b).

Specimens of some of these vessel and artifact types have been discovered in Jerusalem and its surroundings, yet others are also incorporated in this section, as they complement the glass repertoire under discussion, and attest to the extent of Christian liturgical activity in the period under consideration.

Early Islamic marvered specimens from Israel were discovered, inter alia, in Stratum VII dated from 750 to the late ninth century at Caesarea Maritima (Pollak 2003:167, Fig. 2:27), in contexts dated to the Umayyad period and the Abbasid–Fatimid periods at Bet She’an (Hadad 2002b; 2005:27, Pls. 17:326–330; 34:681; 41:854; 49:1015; Colorplate on p. IX:326, 327, 330, 854, 1015), in a context assigned to the eighth–ninth centuries at Ramla (Winter 2013b: Fig. 37:6), in the ‘House of the Bronzes’ at Tiberias (Hadad 2008:168–169, No. 38, Fig. 5.1, Pl. 5.3:38), and at Yoqne‘am, where the vessel was associated with the eighth century (Lester 1996:212, No. 64, Fig. XVII.12:1).

The excavated specimens from Jerusalem and its environs, as well as from other excavations in the country, are generally fragmentary; therefore, intact examples are cited mostly from private and museum collections. 3.4.1 Goblets Large Goblets—Type EXGBlg (Fig. 3.4/1)

A complete small bottle with a ridged neck (Type BTTrn) adorned with white-marvered decoration was unearthed in a ninth-century context at Fustat (Scanlon and PinderWilson 2001:106–107, Fig. 44a), and a globular jar adorned with white and red marvered festoons was recovered on the staircase of the Gerasa Cathedral (Baur 1938:537, No. 73[604], Pl. CXLa:73, bottom right). Several vessels in the Israel Museum are decorated with marvered trails of various colors, including white, red and blue, and are assigned to the seventh–eighth centuries (Brosh 2003:381, Cat. Nos. 514–516).

Among the vessels associated with Christian liturgy are bowl- or beaker-shaped vessels on a high foot, which are generally larger than the conventional wineglasses; others are made of deep dark colors, and some are embellished with various decorations and/or handles (and see Type EXGBhn, below). Large goblets appeared, albeit scarcely, in the fifth–sixth centuries. Some large goblets of this type, which have not yet been recorded from Jerusalem and its environs, were discovered in ecclesiastical complexes, suggesting they had been used in Christian liturgical services.

3.4 Typological-Chronological Study of Exceptional Vessels and Artifacts This section brings together exceptional, mostly decorated, glass vessels and artifacts. Some of these specimens, as well as some depictions on certain vessels, relate to the Jewish and Islamic realms. Other vessels and their special features and decorations are associated with the Christian world, whether church liturgy or pilgrimage.

An uncommonly large, greenish goblet (163 mm tall) with a rounded rim (134 mm in diameter), an ovoid body and a trumpet-shaped, hollow ring base, was discovered in a baptismal font at Nir Gallim on the southern coastal plain of Israel, and dated to the fifth–sixth centuries. Its rim and body resemble the typical wineglasses of the period (Type WG), while the base is quite unique, and the fabric, weathering and design imply that the goblet was produced locally. The provenance of the goblet in a baptistery, together with glass lamps and bottles that may have been used in the church, suggests the goblet may have served liturgical purposes (Gorin-Rosen 2002c:119–121, Fig. 1:1, and see therein discussion and examples from the Black Sea region).

Several types of glass vessels, including chalices and patens, are mentioned in literary sources in association with church liturgy (e.g., Whitehouse 1997:107; Keller and Lindblom 2008:333–334). A few complete vessels, kept in various collections, were assigned to this group (see below). This category has been enriched by several bowls 115 A discussion on marvered glass from the Mamluk period is beyond the scope of this book.

Inscribed stamps and weights, and their epigraphic contents are not discussed in this book. 116

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Lucid Transformations Goblets with Handles—Type EXGBhn (Fig. 3.4/1)

Another example from a church setting is a large greenishblue goblet (c. 160 mm tall; rim diameter c. 96 mm) with a multi-bead stem. It was uncovered beneath the floor bed in the trichora sanctuary of the basilica of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo (Corbo 1970:275, Fig. 1; Bagatti 1985: Fig. 22). The goblet may be attributed by its fabric and features to the seventh–eighth centuries.

Goblets with handles are concurrent with the handle-less ones, and they may have been utilized as both drinking vessels and suspended lamps (e.g., Stern 2001:271). Goblets of this type have not yet been recorded at sites in Jerusalem and its environs. The examples cited below were discovered in ecclesiastical complexes, suggesting they too were used in Christian liturgy.

Two additional large goblets were recovered in contexts that have not been identified as ecclesiastical. One is a large, olive green goblet (c. 160 mm tall), with a thickened flaring rim (184 mm in diameter), an irregularly-fashioned stem bearing tooling marks, and a solid base. It was recovered in a salvage excavation at Jatt, in the western Samarian lowlands, together with other glass vessels of the fourth–sixth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2004a: Fig. 47). The other goblet is colorless with a bluish tinge, and has a thickened, slightly incurved, rounded rim (at least 130 mm in diameter), and slightly convex walls. The foot has a short hollow cylindrical stem, ending in a hollow concave ring base. This goblet was discovered at Horbat Rozez together with other glass vessels dating from the midfourth through the late sixth centuries (Winter 2010a:148– 149, Fig. 2:1, 2).

An incomplete, three-handle goblet (c. 125 mm tall) of colorless glass with a greenish tinge, was discovered in the baptismal font at Nir Gallim, dated to the fifth– sixth centuries (together with another large goblet, Type EXGBlg, above). It has a thin, flaring, knocked-off rim (c. 130 mm in diameter), a thin-walled hemispherical body supported by a globular, bead-shaped, hollow stem, and an outsplaying concave base. The two surviving suspension handles were drawn up from the lower end of the wall, folded below the rim, drawn downward and pinched on the lower part of the body (Gorin-Rosen 2002c:121–122, Fig. 1:2, and see discussion therein). The lower part of a colorless goblet with a wide and thickwalled hollow stem and a stepped base was unearthed in the chapel of the monastic center at En Najila in southern Sinai, which was inhabited in the fifth–early eighth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:237, Fig. 2:4, and see therein reconstruction proposal).

A fragment of a large bichrome goblet or footed bowl was recovered in the bathhouse in the monastery on Mount Scopus (Fig. 5.5.2:15). Its greenish-blue bowl is thick and mounted on a stemmed foot, which was made of a separate, olive-green gather, consisting of a single-bead, a spirally twisted stem, and a thick foot adorned with moldblown vertical ribbing. The unusual shape and the color combination of this goblet point to a date in the seventh– eighth centuries; however, no analogous examples from archaeological excavations in Syria-Palestine have yet been published. Two monochrome shallow bowls, supported by a somewhat similar foot as the one from Mount Scopus, were discovered at Ramla, in a context dated to the eighth century (Gorin-Rosen 2016:42–44, Fig. 1:1, 2).

An incomplete, yellowish green, three-handle wineglass (79 mm tall) was recovered in Room 2F in the Fountain Court of St. Theodore’s Church at Gerasa (Baur 1938:517, 524–525, Fig. 20:17[376], Pl. CXLI:c), together with other glass vessels dated to the sixth– seventh centuries (Barag 1970b:124–125). Another example was excavated in the Thessaloniki area (Antonaras 2008:24, Pl. 3:2:ii). 3.4.2 Decorated Vessels

The closest specimen from a regulated archaeological excavation in Israel is a thick piece of colorless glass with a bluish tinge, possibly the lower part of a large goblet, comprising a ribbed bell-shaped base(?), a pinched/ twisted knob (the stem?) and a small piece of the vessel floor(?); it was discovered alongside Umayyad-period vessels at Horbat Nevallat, in the western Samarian lowlands.117 A restored, deep reddish-purple chalice in the Corning Museum of Glass is similarly decorated; it has a deep, nearly hemispherical bowl, a hollow stem, and a bell-shaped foot made of a separate gather and adorned with vertical ribs. Its provenance is unknown, and it was assigned to the sixth–seventh centuries based on its resemblance to contemporaneous silver vessels (Whitehouse 1997:107, 338, Cat. No. 160).

Vessels Adorned with a Mold-Blown Honeycomb Pattern—Type EXmbd (Fig. 3.4/1) The vessels under this classification, of which only a few have been published so far, were discovered mostly in ecclesiastical complexes, suggesting they had been used in Christian liturgical services. A small fragment of a vessel with a cut-off rim, made of colorless glass with a yellowish tinge, and bearing mold-blown ribbing, may have belonged to a goblet with a mold-blown honeycomb pattern. The piece was unearthed in a Byzantine-period context at the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center. This provenance, as well as the fabric and workmanship of the vessel, and the glass lamp (Type LBBwkt) found with it, all support a date in the sixth–seventh centuries (GorinRosen 2005a:207, Fig. 3:41).

117 The vessel was discovered in Locus 262. The excavation at Horbat Nevallat (Permit No. A-2281/1995) was directed on behalf of the IAA by A. Onn, and the glass finds were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen.

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Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

EXGBlg

EXGBhn

EXmbd

EXed 0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Large goblets

EXGBlg

Gorin-Rosen 2002c: Fig. 1:1

Goblets with handles

EXGBhn

Gorin-Rosen 2002c: Fig. 1:2

Vessels adorned with a mold-blown honeycomb pattern

EXmbd

Lester 2004b: Fig. 5.1:6

Vessels adorned with engraved decoration

EXed

Vitto 2008: Fig. 2:4

Fig. 3.4/1. Exceptional vessels and artifacts.

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Lucid Transformations Vessels Adorned with Engraved Decoration— Type EXed (Fig. 3.4/1)

Several cobalt-blue goblets and footed bowls adorned with a mold-blown honeycomb pattern were unearthed in the Near East. Among them is a goblet (as yet unpublished) from a basilical church at Horbat Kenes in Karmi’el in the lower Galilee, which probably functioned during the sixth–seventh centuries (Avshalom-Gorni and Aviam 1996). Other specimens include a two-handled goblet from Raqqa in Syria, dated to the fourth–fifth centuries (Lamm 1929–1930:54, Pl. 12:3), and a footed bowl said to have originated in fourth-century Syria or Egypt (in a private collection; see Newby, Sheppard and Holdsworth 1995:5, 14, No. 4, and see therein additional examples from the West).

Goblets or chalices adorned with intricately engraved crosses and Christian-natured scenes most probably served in ecclesiastical liturgy, as did bowls incised with crosses and additional Christian iconography118 (see below). None have hitherto been discovered in the Jerusalem area. A glass beaker or chalice depicting sheep flanking a cross was recovered north of the propylaea in the Gerasa Cathedral; it had supposedly been made in Antioch around the year 500 (Baur 1938:505–512, Pl. 139). Another engraved chalice (missing its foot and base), from the Dumbarton Oaks collections, displays scenes of ‘The Adoration of the Cross’; it is dated to the late sixth–early seventh centuries, and is said to have been found in Syria (Dumbarton Oaks: The Collections Online. Registration No. BZ.1937.21; Weitzmann 1979:609–610, No. 545). The resemblance in fabric and workmanship between these two vessels prompted the suggestion that they had been made in the same workshop in Syria in the early sixth century (Ross 1962:81–82, Cat. No. 96, Pls. 54, 55).

The combination of a goblet shape and a honeycomb pattern has its roots in the Late Roman repertoire (e.g., Harden 1936: Pl. 17:509, 511; and see discussion in Gorin-Rosen 2000b:237). Therefore, certain fragments with a cut-off rim and part of a mold-blown pattern could be classified as either of the Late Roman type or of the recently identified ‘Byzantine’ type. Unfortunately, besides the archaeological context, the classification as a goblet may be determined only by the existence of a stemmed foot. Accordingly, a cobalt-blue body fragment with mold-blown decoration, possibly a honeycomb pattern, was unearthed in Burial Cave 2 at Khirbat eshShubeika in the western Galilee; the fragment is too small for the reconstruction of the vessel, which may have been a beaker or a goblet (Gorin-Rosen 2002b:314, 316, Fig. 7:35). An additional cobalt-blue honeycomb-patterned vessel had been transformed into a suspended lamp (see Type LGLmbd, above).

This type of engraved chalices has so far been absent from the local repertoire; however, a superficially incised specimen from a burial cave at Shelomi in the western Galilee, may have belonged to a beaker or chalice of that nature. The piece, of which only fragments of its upper part have survived, is decorated with incised geometric and vegetal patterns incorporating a Greek cross. It has been assigned to the second half of the fourth century (Vitto 2008:106–109, Fig. 2:4).

Another type of mold-blown honeycomb-patterned vessels that are associated with Christian liturgy are globular bowls and beakers with a slightly-flaring rim, adorned with a horizontal, schematic, wreath motif, in which a chrismon, i.e., a cross encircled by a medallion, is twice repeated. A yellow bowl of this type was unearthed in a tomb, possibly attributed to the fifth century, in the necropolis of ‘Tsibilium-1’ at Tsebalda/ Cebel’da in the eastern Black Sea region (Tomb 61; Khroushkova 2006:87–88, Pl. 60:l; Khruškova 2009: Fig. 26), and two fragments of such bowls were recovered in Chersonesos in the Crimea, probably from contexts dated to the mid-fifth century and to the second–third quarters of the sixth century (Khruškova 2009:343–345, Fig. 27). A similar bowl, now in the Corning Museum of Glass, its provenance not recorded, is dated to the fourth century “or later” (Whitehouse 2001c:114, 337, Cat. No. 610).

The engraved goblets are closely related to bowls adorned with incised decoration depicting a cross or a chrismon, which were probably associated with the Christian realm. The shape of these bowls echoes that of colorless incised bowls of the Late Roman period.119 A complete bowl from a tomb at Bezzet (El-Bassa) in the western Galilee is incised with a Latin cross enclosed within a stylized multi-point star (Iliffe 1934:88, Fig. 17). Another Christian-related example, discovered in Gerasa’s northern theater area, is a fragment of a shallow colorless bowl, incised on the interior with a large chrismon, and dotted with stylized stars and the Greek letters alpha and omega (Bowsher 1986:258, 263–264, Fig. 24). The iconography and significance of the scenes on the engraved vessels are beyond the scope of this book. 119 Bowls adorned with incised decoration, depicting geometric and vegetal patterns, as well as stylized stars and Greek letters, were customary in the fourth century, as those discovered, for example, at Jalame (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:101–102, Fig. 4-53:517–518b), Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:416–417, Fig. 97:1, 2) and Mezad Tamar (Erdman 1977:110, Pls. 5:436, 8:903–904). A fragment in the Israel Museum, possibly from Alexandria, depicts a menorah (Israeli 2003:297–298, 301, Cat. No. 404), and the exceptional bowl recovered in Catacomb 15 at Bet She‘arim is adorned with an elaborate design incised on the exterior (Barag 1976:207, No. 49, Fig. 100, Pl. LXIX; Avigad 1976). 118

The chrismon was one of the most widespread Christian motifs, and these bowls may have been used in church liturgy, possibly for Communion, as well as interred with the Eucharist in the grave of a Christian deceased. Furthermore, a globular bowl with a mold-blown pattern depicting crosses, kept in the Shlomo Moussaieff collection and dated to the fifth–sixth centuries, may have been used as a lamp (Israeli 2000:130, on the left).

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Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products An incised vessel fragment, recovered on the southern Hebron Hills, depicts a human figure, its head encircled by a halo, associating this bowl with a Christian milieu (Magen and Baruch 2002:96*, Fig. 153). Incised vessels portraying human figures have not to date been published from Israel, yet an externally-incised bowl depicting a tunic-clad male figure was retrieved from the southern atrium of the Petra Church, which had probably been constructed in the late fifth century and functioned up to the late sixth century (O’Hea 2001:370, 373–374, No. 9, Fig. 6:9). A recently-published bowl from Elaiussa Sebaste on the southeastern shore of Turkey, is engraved on its exterior with a figurative composition, possibly depicting ‘The Adoration of the Magi’; it was uncovered in a building identified as the city’s residential palace, which probably functioned from the mid-fifth century to the first half of the sixth century (Gençler-Güray and Peker 2014).

obscure. Apparently, the engraver could read and write Arabic, and understand the meaning of the inscription, yet the final owners of the goblet may have been unaware of its Islamic-natured significance, and may have possibly used it in a Christian ecclesiastical setting.123 The plate and goblet may indicate that elaborately decorated chalices and patens continued to serve in liturgical ceremonies by local Christian communities under Islamic rule throughout the eighth–ninth centuries (and see Sections 7.4 and 7.5). Multi-Side Vessels—Type EXMSV (Fig. 3.4/2) Among the vessels of the period are multi-side vessels (with a polygonal cross-section), bearing various recessed or relief designs on their sides, and occasionally on the bottom as well.124

O’Hea (2001:373–374) distinguished the bowls that are deeply-engraved on the interior, as the one from Gerasa mentioned above, which could have functioned as drinking vessels, from the bowls that were superficially-incised on the exterior, as the one from the Petra Church mentioned above, which were probably meant to be seen from the exterior, i.e., from below, suggesting they were suspended and possibly used as lamps; however, no friction-wear, expected if the bowl had been suspended in a metal ring, is evident below the rim of the Petra bowl.

Seventy-nine multi-side vessels were studied by Barag (1970a; 1971). Nearly all these specimens are brown, and the rest are green, olive-green, blue and purple. The most characteristic vessel-types are squat bottles or small jars with a short neck, amphoriskoi, and jugs with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth and a long cylindrical neck, their handles often pinched once or more. The body of these vessels generally comprises six or eight sides, each depicting a motif framed by a border of sunken dots.

Vessels Adorned with Scratch-Engraved Decoration and Arabic Script—Type EXas

The motifs on the multi-side vessels were classified by Barag (1970a:38) as Christian (Category A) or Jewish (Category B) symbols, or as unassigned designs (Category C) that also appear on the two other categories; Barag argued that most and perhaps all the vessels assigned to Category C may have had a Christian affiliation (Barag 1971:51; 1985:368, n. 7; 374).125

A glass plate with scratched-engraved decoration including geometric patterns and Arabic script (possibly making up an inscription), was excavated in the apse of the chapel at Jabal Harun near Petra. It was associated with Phases 9 and 11, dated to the mid-seventh–eighth centuries, and possibly the ninth century. The plate may have served as a liturgical paten during the chapel’s last phase (Keller and Lindblom 2008:343–347, Fig. 11.1). The Arabic script on the plate,120 together with several Arabic graffiti found around the monastic compound at Jabal Harun,121 may suggest that at least some of the monks in the monastery could read and write Arabic.122

As many of these vessels included representations of the ‘Golgotha Cross’, and based on comparison with the contemporaneous ampullae from Monza and Bobbio (e.g., Grabar 1958), Barag suggested that the multi-side vessels were produced in a workshop in Jerusalem, probably outside its walls (Barag 1970a:46–48). Furthermore, Barag noted a striking resemblance in form, color, technique and style of decoration among all three groups of vessels (Categories A–C), and concluded that they are all contemporaneous, and were probably made in the same workshop (Barag 1970a:54, 62; 1971:51).

A remarkable goblet with a multi-bead stem and an applied base, kept in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is elaborately decorated with scratched-engraved decoration, including geometric patterns and an Arabic inscription in Kufic script, reading: “Blessings from Allah to the owner of the goblet. Drink!”. It is dated to the ninth century, and said to have originated in Western Asia or Egypt (Whitehouse 2001a:164–165, Cat. No. 71). As the provenance of the goblet is unknown, the circumstances of its function are

I thank D. Keller for sharing with me his thoughts on this issue. The technical considerations regarding the production of these vessels are beyond the scope of this book and are therefore addressed here only sketchily. The designs were possibly made by blowing the vessel into an open metal mold, or into a closed mold that incorporated the vessel bottom as well (e.g., the vessel from Kursi-Gergesa, see below); alternately, these vessels may have been made by pressing plaques bearing protruding designs onto the exterior vessel walls (Barag 1970a:37–38; Israeli 2003:270–271; Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.). 125 For an extensive study of these vessels, including discussions on their date, and interpretations of the significance of their shapes and the various symbols, see Barag 1970a; 1971; Raby 1999; Woods 2004; Newby 2008. 123 124

120 Any further interpretation needs to await a proper identification and reading of the script. 121 One of these inscriptions was located inside the chapel and dated to the eighth century, and another was found in the church (Hämeen-Anttila and Öhrnberg 2008). 122 I thank D. Keller for this information.

77

Lucid Transformations As for their dating, Barag inferred that the multi-side vessels bearing Christian and unassigned symbols were manufactured between the year 578 (when the motif of a ‘stepped cross’, which appears on these vessels, first appeared on coins), and the end of Byzantine rule in Palestine in 636. The date of the vessels displaying Jewish symbols was limited by Barag to the year 629, when Emperor Heraclius had apparently banned Jews from Jerusalem (Barag 1970a:45, 54; 1971:51; and see Chapter 2).

Most of the multi-side vessels that have been discovered in regulated archaeological excavations in Israel in the past six decades, are quite different than the vessels discussed by Barag and those in various collections, and only a few may be assigned to Barag’s Categories A and B. The excavated specimens from Israel almost exclusively depict geometric and vegetal motifs, usually three motifs recurring twice in the same order. The motifs generally appear in relief (rather than recessed), and are seldom framed by dots. Some also bear a rosette or another design on the bottom underside. The vessels, mostly jugs, have four, five or six sides, and are generally of varied green and blue hues. They are most likely contemporaneous with or slightly earlier than Barag’s Categories A and B bearing Christian and Jewish symbols (Israeli 2003:277–281; Newby 2008:256–289).

This chronological range may be challenged, as the brown color of many of the vessels, the infolded flattened rims on some of them, and the pinched handles of the jugs are all features characteristics of the Umayyad period (Y. GorinRosen, pers. comm.). Moreover, since Barag’s publications, several of the motifs have been interpreted as Islamic imagery, attributed to Jerusalem in the late seventh or eighth century (Raby 1999). Additional support for extending the date range of the multi-side vessels into the Early Islamic period may be found in specimens excavated in contexts dated to the seventh–eighth centuries (see below).

Only few examples of multi-side vessels have been retrieved from excavations in Jerusalem and its environs, raising questions as to the production locations of vessels of this type, and undermining Barag’s supposition (see above) that they had been manufactured in the city.

Barag identified the multi-side vessels as eulogia receptacles, which served Christian pilgrims as containers of ‘blessings’, earth and water from the Holy Land, as well as oil from the lamps burning at sacred sites (Barag 1970a:48; 1971:51; and see Section 4.1). Furthermore, as many of the specimens are intact, it has been suggested that they had been deposited in tombs (Barag 1970a:36; 1976:207–208), as were four brown hexagonal-sectioned vessels, comprising two juglets and two small jars, which were recovered in a tomb at Ma‘in, southwest of Madaba in Jordan, and dated by a mosaic inscription to 595/604; the two juglets, bearing the same design and thus probably made in the same mold, are each adorned with three variations of the ‘Cross on the Golgotha’, alternating with three lozenge designs, while the two small jars, also made with a single mold, each depict stylized trees, lozenges and a grillwork pattern (Barag 1985:365–369, Nos. 1–4, Figs. 6, 7, Photographs 18–22). Alternatively, it has been suggested that pairs of multi-side vessels may have been used for water and wine in church liturgy (Ross 1962:82– 83, Cat. No. 97).

The lower part of a light greenish-blue, hexagonalsectioned jug was discovered in the Kathisma church complex (Fig. 5.8.3:42), together with glass vessels dated to the sixth–seventh centuries. The bottom underside may have born an unsuccessfully-executed pattern, and the high-quality mold-blown patterns on the six walls of the vessel protrude similarly on the interior and exterior. These patterns are lozenges framing circles, diagonal grillwork, and a stylized palm frond, each pattern recurring twice. A bottle and a jug, both with patterns similar to those from the Kathisma church complex, are kept in the Ernesto Wolf collection; their provenance, which is unknown, is recorded as “probably Syrian” (Stern 2001:274–275, 324– 326, Cat. Nos. 185, 186). Two small, light greenish-blue wall fragments, adorned with a mold-blown, protruding, indistinct, geometric pattern were found in the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:40), together with glass vessels dated to the late sixth–eighth centuries; they may have belonged to a multi-side vessel. A small colorless body fragment depicting a forked cross (croix fourchée) was discovered in Jerusalem’s Old City;126 a similar design may be found on multi-side vessels, for example, in the Shlomo Moussaieff collection (Newby 2008:38–39, 196–197; Cat. Nos. 3, 59). Additional finds from the Jerusalem area include several vessels bearing geometric patterns, which are kept in a private collection and are reportedly from Bethany, east of Jerusalem, and from Bethlehem and Bet Fajjar farther south of the city (Newby 2008:259, 263; nn. 6, 34).

The alleged provenances of some of the vessels studied by Barag, associate them with Syria-Palestine (all but one that possibly originated from Cyprus; Barag 1970a:36–37), implying they had been manufactured in this region. The bronze mold discovered at Samaria Sebaste (see below) corroborates this supposition, and may indicate that the city had accommodated a workshop for the production of multi-side vessels. Furthermore, the considerably wide geographical distribution of these vessels discovered in Israel, from Kursi-Gergesa in the north to the Negev in the south (see below), may imply that multi-side vessels had been manufactured in several workshops in the country. Interestingly, multi-side vessels are scarce among the glass finds from Jerusalem (see below), suggesting that they may have not necessarily been manufactured there at all.

The fragment was discovered in a context of mixed material excavated on Misgav La-Dakh Street. The excavation (Permit No. A-5902/2010) was headed on behalf of the IAA by A. Nagar, and the glass finds were studied by B. Ouahnouna. 126

78

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

EXMSV

EXBTit

EXBTmt

EXZM

EXst 0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Multi-side vessels

EXMSV

Katsnelson 2014a: Fig. 2:3

Bottles with interior threads

EXBTit

Reconstruction

Multi-tube bottles

EXBTmt

Katsnelson 2017: Fig. 1:1

Zoomorphic vessels

EXZM

Reconstruction

Stamped vessels

EXst

Hadad 2005: Pl. 15:304*

* Courtesy of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Fig. 3.4/2. Exceptional vessels and artifacts.

79

Lucid Transformations The find-locations of multi-side vessels excavated in the past several decades in other parts of the country have sketched a wide geographical distribution. These examples are mostly fragmentary; however, a complete hexagonalsectioned juglet, adorned with palm fronds, lozenges and a grillwork pattern, was unearthed at Horbat Qastra at the foot of Mount Carmel, in Tomb 16 together with glass vessels dated to the Late Roman–Byzantine periods.127

first half of the seventh century (Newby 2008:158–159, Cat. No. 47). Three colorless fragments of multi-side vessels, one depicting a lozenge with a depression near its corner, and the other two adorned with a grillwork pattern, were unearthed within a Byzantine-period glass assemblage at Horbat Rozez (Winter 2010a:152–153, Fig. 3:12–14). A small greenish-blue wall fragment adorned with a mold-blown geometric pattern was recovered in the compound of the Megiddo Prison,130 and the lower part of a yellowish hexagonal-sectioned vessel decorated with mold-blown geometric patterns was recovered from the village of En Gedi (Jackson-Tal 2007:490, Pl. 12:1). Small body fragments depicting various geometric and vegetal patterns, probably parts of multi-side vessels, have been recovered, inter alia, at Horbat Hermeshit131 and Ashqelon (Winter 2016: Fig. 1:8), and in several sites in the northern Negev: in a late-Byzantine–Umayyad context in the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit (Katsnelson 2004:282–285, Fig. 63:11–14, Photograph 284), in a late Byzantine-period phase (Stratum IV) of a monastery at Horbat Ma‘on (Nahshoni and Seriy 2014: Fig. 18:4), and in a rural settlement at Hura that was occupied in the seventh–eighth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2012b: Fig. 9:6).

Excavations at Samaria Sebaste yielded a bronze specimen, probably a mold for the production of a six-side vessel, with each of its sides decorated with a different design: palm fronds, discs, lozenges and a grillwork pattern, and a six-petal rosette on the bottom (Kenyon 1957:451, Fig. 109:9). The lower part of a green vessel, which had probably been blown into this mold, was also discovered in this ancient city (Crowfoot 1957:416, Fig. 96:8). Another vessel, which had probably been made in the same mold, was discovered at Khirbat al-Karak, in Tomb 3 dated to the late Byzantine period (IAA Reg. No. 53-195; Israeli 2003:277). Three fragments of a “light turquoise-blue”, hexagonalsectioned jug were unearthed in Catacomb 20 at Bet She‘arim, and were dated to the late Byzantine period. They are decorated with recessed designs framed by dots, of which the base of an amphora is discernible; these designs were classified as Barag’s Class IV of Category C adorned with unassigned symbols. At least five more vessels blown into the same mold are known from collections (Barag 1971:46–50 Fig. 38; 1976:207–208, Cat. No. 50, Fig. 99b).

Examples from Jordan, besides those from Ma‘in discussed above, include a fragment of a purplish-brown, hexagonal-sectioned mold-blown vessel, depicting a palm frond framed by dots, which was discovered in Room 30 near the Church of St. Theodore in Gerasa (Baur 1938:544–545, No. 101[233A], Pl. CXLI:a, left),132 and a small mold-blown wall fragment depicting a cross flanked by columns of dots, which was unearthed in a Romanperiod mausoleum called ‘Kusr es-Sebeh’, 1.5 km south of Amman133 (Khairy 1980: Fig. 7B).

Several fragments of hexagonal-sectioned vessels were discovered in various Byzantine- and Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an: two are brown and two are yellow, and they bear mostly Christian motifs, framed by dots (Hadad 1997). Other examples from Bet She’an include a small, colorless, wall fragment depicting a stylized palm frond, retrieved from the area of the northeastern bridge,128 and a heat-distorted fragment unearthed in the glass workshop that operated in the ancient city in the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.). A specimen, probably of Barag’s ‘Jewish’ Class B, was unearthed in the ‘House of the Bronzes’ at Tiberias, alongside Umayyad-period vessels (Hadad 2008:171–172, Pl. 5.6:93).

Many multi-side jugs, juglets and other types of vessels from Syria-Palestine, depicting recessed geometric and vegetal patterns, are possessed by private and museum collections, including the Israel Museum in Jerusalem (Israeli 2003:277–282, Cat. Nos. 371–381) and the Eretz Israel Museum in Tel Aviv; others are reportedly from Nazareth, Kafr Kama and Mount Carmel (Newby 2008:259–266, nn. 6, 33, 50, 51), as well as from various sites in Lebanon and Jordan (e.g., Newby 2008:259–266, nn. 5, 6, 15, 54). An exceptional hexagonal-sectioned juglet was recovered in a tomb behind the apse wall of the church at Kursi-

A small, brown, body fragment adorned with a geometric pattern, unearthed in Be’er Sheva,129 probably belonged to a hexagonal-sectioned vessel, of the group classified by Newby as the Jerusalem Series, associated with the

The fragment was recovered in Locus 3005. The excavation at the Megiddo Prison compound (Permit No. A-4411/2005) was headed on behalf of the IAA by Y. Tepper, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 131 These fragments, from Loci 412 and 426, were discovered in the 1991–1993 seasons of the Ne’ot Qedumim excavations, headed by M. Yron-Lubin. The glass finds were studied by the author. 132 Baur (1938:545) mentions fragments of at least six additional vessels of this type, excavated in other churches at Gerasa. 133 As the architecture of the tomb and the pottery found in it were dated to the late second–mid-third centuries, it is obvious that this glass fragment and a sarcophagus adorned with a cross should be attributed to a later burial phase. 130

127 The vessel was recorded in Locus 6691. The IAA excavations at Horbat Qastra (Permit No. A-2482/1996) were headed by Z. Yeivin and G. Finkielsztejn. The glass finds have been preliminarily studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen and N. Katsnelson. 128 The fragment was discovered in Area C, Locus 408, and see n. 112. 129 The excavation on Henkin Street in Be’er Sheva (Permit No. A-6350/2011; Talis 2015) was headed on behalf of the IAA by S. Talis, and the glass finds were studied by the author.

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Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Gergesa, together with other grave goods dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries (Katsnelson 2014a:199–202, Fig. 2). It is a rare variant, the likes of which have not yet been discovered in regulated excavations. The juglet walls are adorned with three motifs recurring twice in the same order: cross-hatching, a palm frond, and two conjoined lozenges with central bosses; the upper part of the palm frond features a faint schematic depiction of a human face or a mask. The bottom of the vessel depicts a shallow recessed seven-petal rosette.

Until recently these bottles, except one from Kourion in Cyprus (see below), have been known from collections only. However, during the past two decades several fragments were uncovered in various sites in Israel, spread from the western Galilee to the Negev, as well as in northern Sinai (see below). Two small fragments, each with a single interior thread partly intact, have hitherto been documented from excavations in Jerusalem: one from the northern part of the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.1:11), and the other from the Russian Compound in the city.134

Similar depictions of a human face or mask on a jug, a juglet and a jar in the Shlomo Moussaieff collection (Newby 2008:284–289, Cat. Nos. 94–96, and see therein additional examples), may suggest that specimens of this variant of vessels were made in the same workshop; yet, the varying positions of the face/mask above the palm frond, below it, or at mid-height, indicate there were several molds, or that the face/mask motif was added to a standard palm-frond design by secondary blowing into a mold bearing the face/ mask motif (Katsnelson 2014a:202).

Several fragments of bottles with interior threads were recovered in Burial Cave 1 at Khirbat esh-Shubeika (Gorin-Rosen 2002b:300, 302, Fig. 7:65), and at nearby El-Kabri (Smithline 2004). Both sites yielded remains of glass production from the same period, suggesting these bottles may have been produced locally (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:175–176). A tiny wall fragment of a light-green bottle with interior threads, only one of which partially survived, was unearthed on Gideon Ben-Yo’ash Street in Ashqelon (Winter 2016: Fig. 1:7). A number of pieces were unearthed in several salvage excavations in Be’er Sheva and its vicinity, in contexts dated to the late sixth–eighth centuries.135 Two wall fragments with interior threads were discovered in Church A-152 at Ostrakine in northern Sinai (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010: Fig. 6:3, 4).136 It is noteworthy that no such bottles have so far been published from Egypt, possibly indicating the southern fringe of their geographical distribution.

The significance of the face/mask motif is unclear, and several connotations of a Christian nature have been suggested (Newby 2008:270–271). These are supported by the date and provenance of the Kursi-Gergesa juglet in a church-related burial, together with other artifacts bearing distinct Christian themes (Katsnelson 2014a:199–202). 3.4.3 Exceptional Vessels Bottles with Interior Threads—Type EXBTit (Fig. 3.4/2)

Two bottles with interior threads are known from Cyprus. One was found in the basilica at Kourion, together with a 666–668 coin of Constans II (Young 2007:503, Cat. No. 94, Fig, 16.7:94). The other, a complete green bottle of unknown provenance, is kept in the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia. Its very long neck is adorned with a denselywound trail of the same color as the bottle, the shoulder is decorated with horizontal pinches, and the globular body is pierced with four interior trumpet-shaped tubes drawn from the lower part of the body to the shoulder (Vessberg 1952:134, Pl. VII:21).

Bottles with interior threads had a globular or barrel-shaped body, intentionally poked with a sharp tool during the blowing process, creating six–twelve ‘thorns’ or trumpetshaped tubes, jutting into the vessel interior. Some of these bottles were also adorned with a trail wound on their long cylindrical neck (as Type DDtd), and occasionally with rows of pinches on the body (as Type DDrp). Most of these features, i.e., the globular body and the long cylindrical neck adorned with wound trails, are characteristic particularly of bottles of the sixth–seventh centuries, while the rows of pinches on the body were widespread in the seventh–eighth centuries. Consequently, the occurrence of interior threads may be assigned to this time range. This date is corroborated by a seventh-century example from Cyprus (see below), and a specimen from the Black Sea region, dated to the mid-sixth–early seventh centuries (see below).

A bottle with interior threads has been recovered in a tomb excavated in the southern aisle of the Basilica Lesnoye-1 in the Russian region of Krasnodar, on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. This bottle was dated to the midsixth–early seventh centuries, by analogous examples recovered in the necropolis of Bosporos in the Crimea (Khrushkova and Vasilinenko 2012).

The function of these unique vessels is unclear, yet their distribution and their mostly-ecclesiastical provenances (see below) suggest that they were associated with Christian liturgy, and that they were made locally in one or several workshops in Syria-Palestine (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:175–176, Fig. 6).

See n. 74 (Permit Nos. A-7550/2015 and A-7610/2016). These excavations were headed on behalf of the IAA by F. Sontag and O. Katz (Permit No. A-2225/1995), P. Fabian (Permit No. A-2145/1994) and O. Feder (Permit No. A-2452/1996), and the glass finds were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen. 136 See n. 4, in Chapter 1. 134

135

81

Lucid Transformations Some of the bottles with interior threads in private and museum collections are said to have originated in SyriaPalestine. They were assigned various dates, yet they may now be associated predominately with the second half of the sixth and the seventh centuries. A bottle with a trail-wound neck and four “trapped threads”, kept in the Newark Museum and dated to the fifth–sixth centuries, was allegedly “found near the Lake of Galilee” (Auth 1976:128, Cat. No. 158). Another, in the collections of the Pennsylvania University Museum, is said to have originated at Bet She’an; this bottle, adorned with horizontal pinches on its body, was attributed by analogous examples to the fifth–seventh centuries (Fleming 1999:132, Fig. E.67). A “spherical flask” with four interior threads, yet with a much shorter neck, is kept in the Ernesto Wolf collection; it is reportedly of “Palestinian” origin and is dated from the mid-sixth century to the first half of the seventh century (Stern 2001:270, 302, Cat. No. 165, and see therein additional examples from collections). A bottle with twelve interior threads at various heights, now in the Toledo Museum of Art, was assigned to the SyriaPalestine coast, and dated to the fifth century (Goldstein 2006:47–48, Fig. 17.1). Additional bottles with interior threads, their provenance unknown, are kept in various collections, for example, a bottle with a trail-wound neck and six interior threads in the Bomford collection (Thomas 1976:34, No. 159), and another in the British Museum (Harden et al. 1968:90, No. 125).

(Katsnelson 2017: Fig. 1:1). Some twenty examples were recorded in Umayyad-period contexts at Fustat, Egypt (Foy 2000b:159–161, Fig. 12:3–5, and see therein two examples from museums in Cairo). A specimen resembling the four-tube bottle from Ramla, kept in the Israel Museum, was attributed to the fourth– sixth centuries (Israeli 2003:289, 293, Cat. No. 389); nevertheless, the wavy trail surrounding its neck assigns it to the seventh–eighth centuries (Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.). Multi-tube bottles were previously associated with the Late Roman period, and referred to as guttrolf or kuttrolf. A specimen with two pinched handles, also in the Israel Museum, may be dated to the third/fourth–fifth centuries (Israeli 2003:289, 292, Cat. No. 388; Y. Israeli, pers. comm.), and a similar example, in the Newark Museum, is dated to the fourth century (Auth 1976:122, Cat. No. 151). Other multi-tube bottles, adorned with a mold-blown geometric pattern, are known from private and museum collections (e.g., Whitehouse 2003b:93, Cat. No. 1041; van Rossum 2012). Zoomorphic Vessels—Type EXZM (Fig. 3.4/2)

Multi-tube bottles feature four–five vertical tubes along the neck. Their function is unclear, yet they were probably designed to allow the trickle of liquids, possibly of varied colors, creating a playful effect (Israeli 2003:289).

The Early Islamic zoomorphic vessels, also termed ‘cage flasks’, are characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries. They generally depict a camel, horse or mule hauling a container. The container, mostly shaped as a bottle, was free-blown; trails, occasionally of a different color than the vessel, were then tooled to form the animal’s head and limbs, as well as the basketry ornamentation covering the container. As no two vessels are alike, they were probably made individually (Gorin-Rosen 2007a).

Bottles of this type, mostly with two handles, are generally associated with the Late Roman period (see below). Multitube bottles re-appeared, although scarcely, in contexts dated to the seventh–eighth centuries, and occasionally bore Umayyad-natured elements, such as an applied wavy trail (Type DDwt).

Several specimens have been discovered in regulated archaeological excavations in Israel (see below). These pieces, unearthed in small remote settlements, two of which are in the Negev, suggest that zoomorphic vessels may have been manufactured in local workshops, rather than a central one.

A neck and shoulder fragment of a multi-tube bottle was discovered in Jerusalem during the excavations along the Western Wall, in Stratum 6 dated to the sixth–seventh centuries.137

A fragment of a zoomorphic vessel was unearthed, together with Umayyad-period glass vessels, in a small settlement excavated at Ramat Yishay in the Jezreel Valley (GorinRosen 2007a: Fig. 8). Two fragments of such vessels were unearthed at Horbat Karkur Illit in the northern Negev, in the post-church living quarters, recovered over the cemetery church and dated to the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Katsnelson 2004:286, Fig. 64:1, 2; Photographs 285–287). A small base with four uneven tooled-out ‘legs’, recently excavated in Be’er Sheva, probably supported a zoomorphic vessel.139 Several fragments of zoomorphic vessels were discovered at Fustat and associated with the Abbasid period (Foy 2000b:156–157, Fig. 7:3). Nevertheless, most of the known zoomorphic vessels

Multi-Tube Bottles—Type EXBTmt (Fig. 3.4/2)

A four-tube bottle adorned with a wavy trail wound on the neck was unearthed in an eighth-century context at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:47, Pl. 1:5138), and a bottle with only two tubes was recovered in another excavation in that city 137 The fragment was discovered in Building H, Area 18E; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 138 The vessel was discovered in Area B3, its excavation directed by F. Vitto. This excavation was part of the excavation project south of the White Mosque at Ramla (Permit No. A-3772/2002), which was carried out by IAA archaeologists, and its results have been only preliminarily published (Avni, Avissar, Baruch and Torge 2008). The glass finds were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen.

139

82

See n. 129 (Permit No. A-6350/2011).

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products are kept in private and museum collections (e.g., Brosh 2003:338, Cat. No. 441; Carboni 2001b:16, 24–25, Cat. Nos. 4a, b; Carboni 2001c:104–105, 112–114, Cat. Nos. 29–32).

plastered reservoirs unearthed along the Western Wall.143 These provenances are all adjacent to the al-Haram alSharif, which had been occupied by the Muslims since the early years of their rule in Jerusalem (see Section 7.4).

Stamped Vessels—Type EXst (Fig. 3.4/2)

Alembics were also recovered in other major cities in the country, for example, at Caesarea Maritima, in Stratum VIII dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:17), at Bet She’an, in contexts dated to the Umayyad and Abbasid– Fatimid periods (Hadad 2005:29, 47–48, Pls. 23:453–455; 46:979–981), and at Ramla, in contexts dated to the eighth century (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2010:227, Pl. 10.2:18–21).

Various glass bottles and other types of vessels, generally with an infolded rim, had a stamped disc fused onto the rim. The stamps were generally inscribed with Arabic script, occasionally bearing the name of a caliph or of a financial official. The stamps probably labelled the content and the volume or weight of the substances in the vessels, possibly pharmaceutical liquids, semi-liquids, powders or seeds (e.g., Lester 1997:432–436; Hadad 2002a). These stamped vessels were distinctly associated with the caliphal administrations of the ruling Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties.

Inkwells—Type EXIW (Fig. 3.4/3) Inkwells were a prominent symbol of royal power and ministerial office in the Islamic world, and they were requested whenever major stately decisions had to be taken (e.g., Melikian-Chirvani 1986). Glass inkwells were widespread in Islamic scriptoria and associated with manuscript production and letter-copying centers, and with a high social status; they are generally dated to the ninth–tenth centuries (e.g., Carboni 2001b:139–140; Kröger 1995:176–178, and see therein discussion and additional examples).

Many bottles bearing a stamp were discovered at Bet She’an, where they had probably been manufactured as part of the official commercial activity during the Umayyad period, and perhaps into the early Abbasid period (Hadad 2002a; 2005:25–27, 41, Pls. 15:288–307; 16:308–316; 39:826, 827). Other specimens, dated to the late seventh– eighth centuries, were unearthed, for example, at Ramla (Amitai-Preiss 2007), Tiberias (Lester 2004a:213, Fig. 7.18:10), Hammat Gader (Lester 1997:432–436, Nos. 1–5), Khirbat esh-Shubeika (Gorin-Rosen 2009a: Fig. 4:3), Kibbutz Meggido,140 and Ashqelon.141

Glass inkwells generally consisted of a cylindrical or multi-side container, into which was inserted the ‘well’, i.e., a cylindrical tube closed at the bottom, containing the ink; one–six suspension loops or handles were attached around the shoulder. Another type of inkwell comprised a glass bowl encased within a plaster vessel (Hasson 1979:8–9, 35, Cat. No. 10; Carboni 2001b:141–143, Cat. Nos. 33a, b, c; Brosh 2003:345, Cat. No. 452).

Alembics—Type EXAL (Fig. 3.4/3) Alembics comprised a small U-shaped container with an indicative long spout. They were possibly associated with chemical functions or the domestic production of datewine or rose water. Alembics were probably introduced into the glass repertoire in Syria-Palestine by the newlysettled Muslim population, together with other vessels (such as inkwells, Type EXIW, below), that were utilized for specific practical purposes (Kröger 1995:186; Carboni 2001b:139–140, 144–145; Gorin-Rosen 2010:227).

Two inkwells of various types were recovered at Ramla and attributed to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods (Gorin-Rosen 2010:253–254, Pl. 10.11:6; Winter 2013b: Fig. 37:10), and another specimen was unearthed in the ‘palace’ building at Khirbat al-Mafjar.144 3.4.4 Artifacts

Only a few specimens were documented from Jerusalem. A complete example was discovered on the northwestern part of the City of David spur (Crowfoot and FitzGerald 1929: Pl. XXI:18). Fragments of alembics were found in two glass corpora excavated in contexts dated to the Abbasid and Fatimid periods in the Old City’s Jewish Quarter,142 and in an accumulation over Byzantine-period

Rods—Type ARTR (Fig. 3.4/3) Glass rods, some spirally twisted, were probably used for stirring and possibly for medical functions. They occurred in both the western part of the Roman Empire and the eastern Mediterranean basin, in contexts from the first and second centuries (Isings 1957:94–95, Form 79). Spirally twisted rods, generally with a circular cross-section, became customary again later, during the Umayyad and Abbasid–Fatimid periods.

140 The excavation at Kibbutz Megiddo (Permit No. A-5320/2007) was headed on behalf of the IAA by Y. Tepper, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 141 The excavation at Ashqelon (Permit No. A-5269/2007) was headed on behalf of the IAA by D. Varga, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 142 The excavation on Habbad Street Jerusalem (Permit No. A-7050/2014) was headed on behalf of the IAA by E.D. Kagan. The excavations on Misgav Ladakh Street (Permit Nos. A-5741/2009 and A-5836/2010) were carried out on behalf of the IAA by E. Kogan-Zehavi. The glass finds from both sites were studied by the author.

The fragment originated in Locus 20021 in Room 21 and the adjoining passageways and vaults; see n. 67 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 144 The inkwell fragment was discovered against the southern wall (No. 1947-4117) of the large building identified as a palace. The 1940s excavations at Khirbat al-Mafjar were headed by D.C. Baramki, and the glass vessels from the ‘palace’ building were studied by the author. 143

83

Lucid Transformations

EXIW

EXAL

ARTR

ARTSD

ARTHS 0

20 mm

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Alembics

EXAL

Gorin-Rosen 1999b: Fig. 1:21

Inkwells

EXIW

Reconstruction

Rods

ARTR

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.4.3:18

Horseshoe-shaped objects

ARTHS

Katsnelson 2013b: Fig. 12:3

Small discs

ARTSD

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.3.3:29

Fig. 3.4/3. Exceptional vessels and artifacts.

Many incomplete horseshoe-shaped artifacts were discovered in various excavations at Ramla, where they had probably been produced. These artifacts are attributed by their fabric and provenances to the Umayyad period, particularly to the eighth century (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2010:254, Pl. 10.11:9; 2012a: Fig. 5:1; Katsnelson 2013b: Fig. 12:1–3).

Broken, spirally twisted rods from the Jerusalem area were recorded, for example, in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.4:52) and at the northern part of the City of David spur (Fig. 5.4.3:18), their fabrics and provenances assigning them to the Umayyad period. Spirally twisted rods associated with the Early Islamic period were also unearthed in other parts of the country, for example, at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:30, 48, Pls. 24:465–467; 49:1007–1010; Winter 2015a: Fig. 5.5:54), Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:254, Pl. 10.11:7, 8; 2011: Fig. 14:11; Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2005:104, Fig. 1:11), and Tiberias (Lester 2004a:209–210, Fig. 7.17:194; Hadad 2008:175, Pl. 5.8:129–131).

Small Discs—Type ARTSD (Fig. 3.4/3)

Horseshoe-Shaped Artifacts—Type ARTHS (Fig. 3.4/3)

These thin, flat, circular discs with a corrugated edge, measuring 12–30 mm in diameter, may have been used as inlays, possibly in jewelry, as suggested by a disc (D c. 17 mm) of this type from Samaria Sebaste, which was found set in a metal frame (Beck and Crowfoot 1957:398, Fig. 92:85). These discs have been associated with glass assemblages, mostly dated to the fourth–seventh centuries.

These U-shaped artifacts generally have a circular crosssection, a knob at one end, and a slight thickening at the other end. Their function is unclear; they may have been a final product or part of the glass-production process. A complete specimen in the Israel Museum, its provenance and date unknown, is presumably a good-luck amulet, possibly from Hebron, possibly dated to the Middle Islamic period (Spaer 2001:255, Cat. No. 616, Pl. 47:616).

Several small discs of this type were recovered in various sites in the Jerusalem area: a colorless disc (D c. 30 mm; Th 2–3 mm) at the monastery north of Damascus Gate (Fig. 5.1.4:45), a blue disc (D 17–18 mm; Th 2 mm) in the Mamilla area (Fig. 5.2.4:53), and a light greenish-blue disc (D 15 mm; Th c. 0.7 mm) at the Teddy Kollek Park compound (Fig. 5.3.3:29). A light green disc (D 12.5−13.0 mm; Th c. 0.5 mm) was excavated, together with glass 84

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products vessels from the early Byzantine period, on the western slope of the City of David spur.145 Two colorless convex sheets of glass, probably inlays, were unearthed on Nablus Road in Jerusalem: one is multi-sided (L c. 40 mm) and the other is disc-shaped (D c. 15).146

These naturally-colored windowpanes are of the circular and quadrangular types (and see discussions in Section 4.2).147 The circular glass windowpanes (Type WPcr; Fig. 3.5) are thinner toward the perimeter, and those studied in this work or published so far from Jerusalem and its vicinity generally have a hollow folded rim. The quadrangular glass windowpanes (Type WPqd; Fig. 3.5) are generally flat with varying thickness, and their edges may be fire-rounded, cut or chipped-off.

Four similar greenish-blue discs were excavated at Khirbat esh-Shubeika in the western Galilee, in Burial Cave 2 that had been used from the fourth through the early eighth centuries (Katsnelson 2002:327, 329−330, Table 2: Nos. 31, 32, 34, Fig. 2:24, and see therein reference to additional examples from the western Galilee). Several small, shallow, thin-walled bowls with a painting of a saint on their interior, were recovered in the central apse of the northern church at Rehovot-in-the-Negev; they may have been inlaid in the frame of a wooden icon, a reliquary box, or a wooden or metal votive cross (Tsafrir 1988).

Generally, quadrangular windowpanes were more prevalent in Syria-Palestine than the circular ones. Some of the sites in the Jerusalem environs yielded panes of only one of these types, yet in most of these sites, panes of both the circular and quadrangular types appeared contemporaneously (see Table 3.5). Consequently, the two types of windowpanes may not be classified chronologically (and see discussion in Section 4.2).

3.5 Typological-Chronological Study of Architecture-Associated Glass Products

Glass panes of both types were also installed in the bathhouse that was constructed, probably in the late seventh or eighth century, adjacent to the monastery on Mount Scopus. The bathhouse was illuminated by naturally-colored glass windowpanes of both types, yet mostly of the quadrangular type (see Section 5.5). Public and private bathhouses utilized glass panes since the Early Roman period (see Section 4.2), and the bathhouse on Mount Scopus is one of few examples of the use of glass windowpanes in bathhouses in the seventh–eighth centuries in Syria-Palestine. Naturallycolored glass windowpanes were also recorded in a bathhouse, probably of the Umayyad period, excavated on the western shore of the Dead Sea.148

Since the Roman period, glass was widely used in the architectural plans of various types of public structures, such as bathhouses, palaces, and religious buildings, including central churches, small chapels, monasteries, as well as synagogues and mosques. These architecture-associated uses are attested by numerous glass windowpanes, glass and gold-glass tesserae, and gold-glass tiles, recovered in a variety of sites in Israel and neighboring countries. 3.5.1 Windowpanes Glass Windowpanes—Types WPcr, WPqd (Fig. 3.5)

Windowpanes of both the circular and quadrangular types appeared together in other parts of the country as well, as, for example, in contexts dated to c. 550–700 in Insula W2S3 at Caesarea Maritima,149 and in various Umayyadperiod contexts at Bet She’an, including the shops of the Umayyad street (Hadad 2005:30, Pl. 24:468–478). The excavations at Samaria Sebaste yielded glass windowpanes of both types, yet mostly circular ones, with either a plain or a folded rim; they were excavated in the fourth-century ‘Ganymede House’, and in the ‘glass factory’ area, dated to the fourth–fifth centuries (Crowfoot 1957:420–421). Quadrangular and mostly circular naturally-colored windowpanes, their date uncertain, were recovered close to the nave of the northeastern church at Hippos-Sussita (Chambers 2013), and in a rural complex, possibly a monastery, which functioned during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods at Khirbat el-Thahiriya in the Shephelah150 (Jackson-Tal 2012:69*, Fig. 4:54–61).

Glass windowpanes have been employed in the Mediterranean basin and the Near East since the Roman period. Over the generations, windowpanes had been more widely employed, and their variety and schemes had become more elaborate. Therefore, a separate section is dedicated to the history, use, manufacturing techniques, types and mounting methods of glass windowpanes, as well as to their distribution and mention in written sources (see Section 4.2). By the sixth−seventh centuries glass windowpanes were widely employed in Syria-Palestine, mainly in public structures, both religious (e.g., churches) and secular (e.g., bathhouses), and less commonly in residential complexes (see Section 4.2). The windowpanes from Jerusalem and its vicinity were discovered mostly in sites dated from the sixth century to the seventh or eighth century, including ecclesiastical and residential complexes, as well as a bathhouse (see Table 3.5).

Plain circular and quadrangular glass panes of the types mentioned above are discussed below, whereas intentionally-colored and blackpainted windowpanes, which are hitherto missing from known glass assemblages from the Jerusalem area, are discussed in Section 4.2. 148 The excavation at the Salvadora Reserve, north of En Gedi, was headed by Y. Peleg and E. Aharonovich, and the glass finds were examined by Y. Gorin-Rosen and the author. 149 See n. 70 (Insula W2S3, Area I). 150 Alas, in the publication specific panes were not associated with the various building phases. 147

145 The disc was found in Locus 116B. The excavation on the western slope of the City of David spur (Permit No. A-6693/2013) was headed on behalf of the IAA by N. Szanton, and the glass finds were studied by the author. 146 The excavation on Nablus Road (Permit No. A-7164/2014) was headed on behalf of the IAA by R. Avner, and the glass finds were studied by the author.

85

Lucid Transformations Table 3.5. Distribution of Windowpanes Site and Reference

Circular Windowpanes

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Not illustrated

Mamilla area

Quadrangular Windowpanes

Undefined

Fig. 5.1.4:46

Not illustrated

Not illustrated

Teddy Kollek Park compound

Fig. 5.3.3:30

Not illustrated

Residential quarter on the City of David spur

Fig. 5.4.3:19, 20

Fig. 5.4.3:21, 22

Monastery on Mount Scopus

Fig. 5.5.7:62–66

Monastery in the Kidron Valley

Fig. 5.5.7:67–69 Fig. 5.6.1:10, 11

Monastery at Umm Tuba

Not illustrated

Kathisma church complex

Fig. 5.8.6:60–62

Farmstead at Bet Zayit

Fig. 5.10.1:15

Fig. 5.8.6:63, 64

Khirbat Adasa; Gorin-Rosen 2008a:127

Not illustrated

Structures north of Damascus Gate; Ein Mor 2013

Fig. 21:10

NW corner of Old City wall; Gorin-Rosen 2006a:116*–117*

Fig. 14:8

NW part of City of David spur; Crowfoot and FitzGerald 1929:99

Not illustrated

Churches at Bethany; Saller 1957:326–331

Not illustrated

Khirbat Tabaliya; Gorin-Rosen 2000e:92*–93*

Fig. 3:40

Fig. 3:38, 39

Compound of the JICC*; Gorin-Rosen 2005a:207–208

Fig. 3:43

Fig. 3:44

* JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

The Petra Church was installed with both types of panes, which were associated with the fifth–seventh centuries (O’Hea 2001:371–372, Figs. 1–3),151 as were the churches at Gerasa (Baur 1938:546, and possibly Fig. 23:381A, 381B). In the area of Gerasa’s northern theater, most of the windowpanes associated with an “Early and Late Byzantine” date (i.e., 324–636) are quadrangular, while the ones dated to the early seventh century are of the circular type (Meyer 1988:194–195, 207–211, 218, Figs. 7:bb–ee; 11:N–U152).

A predominance of quadrangular windowpanes was observed, for example, in the church at Shave Ziyyon, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries (Barag 1967a:69–70), at Et-Tuweiri in the western Galilee (Gorin-Rosen 2007b: Fig. 19), and in the northern church at Rehovot-in-the-Negev, dated to the fifth–seventh centuries (Patrich 1988:140, Pl. XIV:45). Fragments of quadrangular windowpanes were also unearthed, for example, in the shops in Area F at Paneas (Gorin-Rosen and Jackson-Tal 2008b:152, Fig. 9.7:34, 35), at Tel Tanninim, some in sealed Byzantineperiod contexts (Pollak 2006:187–188, Fig. 144:191–196), and in a church at Kiryat Nordau, Netanya.154

Circular glass panes only were unearthed at Samaria Sebaste, in both the church of St. John and the monastery in Area Db (Crowfoot 1957:420–421), as well as in churches and chapels in southern Sinai (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:238–242, Figs. 3, 4). Circular glass panes only were also installed in the Umayyad-period ‘palace’ at Khirbat al-Mafjar (Brosh 1990; and see Section 4.2 for additional examples from the Islamic realm).

Quadrangular windowpanes were also attested, for example, in Hermitage No. 44 at Naqlun in the Fayyum, Egypt, where the glass assemblage was dated from the mid-fifth to the early sixth centuries (MossakowskaGaubert 2000:337–338), as well as in various sites in Italy and North Africa (Foy 2005b:112).

Quadrangular windowpanes, discovered in a stack, ready to be sold to customers, were manufactured in a workshop at Bet She’an, which functioned in the late sixth–early seventh centuries, and produced glass vessels as well (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178).153

Preference for circular or quadrangular windowpanes was examined by O’Hea regarding the Petra Church. Apparently, most of the recorded panes from the church were quadrangular, and the circular ones may have been reserved for certain areas of the church, possibly the clerestory windows (O’Hea 2001:371–372, Figs. 1–3). The choice of windowpane types was also addressed by Keller and Lindblom (2008:354). They suggested that smaller structures, such as the church and chapel on Jabal Harun near Petra (Keller and Lindblom 2008:350–354, Fig. 15), and those in the ecclesiastical centers in southern Sinai (see above), were furnished with circular windowpanes

151 Interestingly, both types of panes were probably made from the same raw glass, in a single secondary workshop (Schibille, Marii and Rehren 2008). 152 See n. 69. 153 Some of these windowpanes were restored by O. Negnevitsky to be exhibited at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. After restoration, these quadrangular panes measured 200 × 190 mm, 220 × 200 mm, 220 × 210 mm, 240 × 210 mm, 265 × 170 mm, 305 × 285 mm, 355 × 260 mm; a restored circular windowpane measured 265 mm in diameter. I thank N. Katsnelson for this information.

154

86

See n. 103.

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products

WPcr

WPqd

0

0

50 mm

TESgl

20 mm

TESgg 0

10 mm

0

20 mm

GGT

Type

Type Lable

Reference

Circular windowpanes

WPcr

Gorin-Rosen 2000b: Fig. 3:4 (scale 1:5)

Quadrangular windowpanes

WPqd

Ch. 5, Fig. 5.4.3:21 (scale 1:2)

Glass tesserae

TESgl

Gorin-Rosen 2007b: Fig. 20 (scale 1:1)*

Gold-glass tesserae

TESgg

Gorin-Rosen 2007b: Fig. 22 (scale 1:1)*

Gold-glass tiles

GGT

Reconstruction

* Photographs by Howard Smithline, courtesy of the IAA. Fig. 3.5. Architecture-associated glass products.

87

Lucid Transformations only, while larger structures, such as the Petra Church (see above) and the churches at Gerasa (see above), were installed with quadrangular windowpanes as well.

Glass tesserae were mostly installed in wall mosaics. They were less-commonly used in floor pavements, and occasionally also for floor repairs, as, for example, in the earliest mosaic floor of the church that was unearthed at Kibbutz Evron in the western Galilee and dated to 415 (Avi-Yonah 1955:21–22), and in the floor of the basilica presbytery in the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo in Jordan (Saller 1941:212).

However, this suggestion does not seem to apply to the sites in and around Jerusalem, as most of those that encompassed small churches or chapels, yielded both circular and quadrangular windowpanes (see above; and also Table 3.5 and Chapters 5 and 6). It is therefore more conceivable that each type of pane was intended for a particular window opening, in a certain part of the building.

Rich wall mosaics adorned opulent edifices, and with their abundance of gold-glass tesserae, played a major role in the experience of church and mosque worshippers.157 Carefully-positioned artificial lights, including glass lamps, ensured the sparkling of the gold (and occasionally silver) on these mosaics, as well as on the icons and frescoes in the church (and see Lighting Devices in Ecclesiastical Settings in Section 4.1.1).

3.5.2 Tesserae and Tiles Glass and Gold-Glass Tesserae—Types TESgl, TESgg (Fig. 3.5) Ancient mosaics comprised various stone and glass cubes. The following discussion focuses on glass and gold-glass tesserae installed in mosaics of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods155 (Types TESgl, TESgg, respectively; Fig. 3.5). Although they may not serve as a sound chronological tool, glass and gold-glass tesserae deserve attention, as they are common finds in many sites dated to the period discussed in this book.

As attested by literary sources, wall mosaics adorned primarily large imperial and urban churches, such as the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (Talgam 2014:178– 180). The churches of St. Sergius and St. Stephen, built in the second quarter of the sixth century in Gaza, were decorated, according to Choricius,158 with gold, silver and colorful mosaics on the walls and arcades of the nave, and on the apses (Choricius, Laudatio Marciani I:17–75; II:28–54; Mango 1972:60–72).

Glass tesserae were scored and broken off into cubes from glass ‘cakes’ (e.g., Goldstein 1976:129, Pl. XI:B, bottom row).156 Occasionally, when a tessera was broken asymmetrically, or when a craftsman, in an attempt to maximize the yield from the original tile, exploited its margins, the tessera displayed at least one rounded side (Gorin-Rosen 2007b).

Among the most spectacular examples of wall mosaics that have survived in the region is the Transfiguration scene adorning the apse of the sixth-century church in the Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai. The mosaic utilizes glass cubes in various colors, and gold-glass tesserae for the background. Gold-glass tesserae also make up the haloes of major figures in other parts of the church; they were set on a flat surface and tilted to reflect the light in the church (Forsyth and Weitzmann 1965: Pls. 124, 125, 128).

Most mosaic cubes were made of translucent naturallycolored and intentionally-colored glass, and the rest—of opaque glass. Their colors varied and included various shades of blue and green, including dark blue, cobalt blue, greenish blue, turquoise, bluish green, green, emerald green, yellowish green, as well as various shades of yellow, brown and red. Gold-glass tesserae comprised two layers of light-colored translucent glass, a thick bottom layer and a very thin upper one, and a thin gold foil between them (Gorin-Rosen 2015:99–100).

Glass mosaics decorated both the interior and exterior of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque in Damascus. The wall mosaics of these magnificent structures, built by Umayyad rulers during a short time span in the late seventh–early eighth centuries, shared a golden background and motifs of predominantly green and blue shades, with highlights in red. The mosaics of the Dome of the Rock also incorporated gold-glass inscriptions quoting verses from the Quran, set on a blue background (GautierVan Berchem 1969; King 1976; Rosen-Ayalon 1989:12– 24, 46–69; McKenzie 2007:356–367; 2013). Additionally, wall mosaics, none of which have survived, are known from Arabic texts to have adorned two other Umayyadperiod mosques: the al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem and the mosque of the Prophet in Madina (Creswell 1969:373–380;

155 For a survey of past research on Byzantine glass tesserae, reports on glass cubes from archaeological excavations, and chemical analyses of Byzantine-period glass tesserae, see Keller 2010b. Issues regarding the manufacture, distribution, trade and cost of glass tesserae, as well as the usage of chemical analysis in dating and locating their origins, were discussed in several interdisciplinary studies (James 2006; 2010; Entwistle and James 2013). Additionally, research on Umayyad-period tesserae has been launched recently (e.g., Hamarneh 2015; Fiorentino et al. 2018). A comprehensive study of mosaic pavements in the Holy Land from the second century BCE to the eighth century CE has also been published lately (Talgam 2014). 156 Stern (1999:466) suggested that glass mosaic tesserae (or the ‘cakes’ for making them), missing from the section on glass in Diocletian’s Edict on Prices (see n. 186, in Chapter 4), may have possibly been specified in another section of the Edict, better preserved in the Greek version, where the three maximum prices could refer to three types of tesserae: gold leaf, colored, and natural bluish-green.

In synagogues, mosaics generally occupied the floors, not the walls (Talgam 2014:259–260). 158 Choricius was a prolific rhetor and a member of the ‘School of Gaza’, which flourished in the city in the sixth century. His works are an important source of our knowledge of life in Late Antique Gaza (see, e.g., Penella 2009). 157

88

Typological-Chronological Study of the Glass Products Khamis 2001:171–172; and see Chapter 2 for discussions regarding the al-Aqsa mosque).

associated with a church at Et-Tuweiri in the western Galilee, which probably functioned from the fifth–sixth centuries to the early/mid-seventh century. The tesserae were made of translucent and opaque glass of diverse colors, as well as of colorless glass with a yellowish tinge (Gorin-Rosen 2007b).

Glass and gold-glass mosaics adorned other areas of the al-Haram al-Sharif, as attested by Nasir-i Khusraw, who in the mid-eleventh century described various gateways, pillars and arches decorated with “colored glass cubes set in plaster”, a regal inscription in glass mosaic, and “gold and glass mosaic designs” (Thackston 2001:30, 42).

Remains of wall mosaics have been discovered in several structures in Jordan (Piccirillo 2005–2006:414–415). The wall mosaics from the Petra Church were probably installed in the sixth century (Phase V), and adorned the apse domes, and the arcades above the colonnades in the nave (Waliszewski 2001). The tesserae were set in a layer of lime mortar and their density was much larger, i.e., of a higher quality, than in the floor mosaics. Bands of goldglass cubes were set at an angle, as in the Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai (see above), in order to amplify the effect of light in the church.

Glass mosaics also embellished secular structures, as attested by an Umayyad-period building discovered at Bet She’an, which bore a two-part Arabic dedication inscription, commemorating the builder. The mosaic inscription was installed on both sides of the entrance gate to the Umayyad marketplace, most probably in the year 737/8. The mosaics were composed of glass tesserae, with the letters inscribed in greenish gold-glass cubes, the background in shades of light and dark blue, and the patterned frame in gold, yellow, green, turquoise, light blue and dark blue tesserae (Khamis 2001).

Mosaics comprising glass, gold-glass and stone cubes adorned the Byzantine-period church in Pella’s civic complex (Smith and Day 1989:127–130; Smith, McNicoll and Watson 1992:149), as well as the hemi-domes of Pella’s eastern church, constructed in the last quarter of the fifth century or the first quarter of the sixth century (Smith, McNicoll and Watson 1992:160).

Regrettably, the walls of most ancient buildings have not survived; nevertheless, glass cubes in an assortment of colors, as well as gold-glass tesserae, have been discovered in many sites in the eastern Mediterranean basin, particularly in churches dated to the fifth–seventh centuries.

Wall mosaics incorporating glass and gold-glass tesserae, alongside limestone cubes, adorned the upper part of the apses of the cella trichora in the basilica of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo. The gold-glass tesserae occupying the background were widely spaced, probably to save on the costly gold, and tilted forward, as in the examples mentioned above, to enhance their effect on the spectator (Saller 1941:34–35, Fig. 7).161

Several sites in the Jerusalem area yielded considerable amounts of colorful glass tesserae, among them gold-glass cubes. These sites include, inter alia, the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center, particularly in Areas B1 and B2, where the tesserae probably adorned a chapel or church (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:208; also see Section 6.10), as well as a complex that was excavated north of Damascus Gate and identified as part of a seventhcentury monastery.159 A public Byzantine-period building, excavated northwest of the Old City’s New Gate, yielded many blue, turquoise, green and yellow glass mosaic cubes, as well as gold-glass tesserae.160 Remains of a geometric panel from a wall mosaic, with the colored and gold-glass tesserae still embedded in the plaster layer, were excavated in one of the churches at Bethany; the plaster bed, and the wide spacing and tilted position of the glass tesserae indicate this was a piece of a wall mosaic, rather than a floor pavement (Saller 1957:42–43, 326–327).

A well-preserved, unrestored, Virgin and Child apsemosaic from the sixth or seventh century, which survived in the church of Panagia Angeloktisti at Kiti in Cyprus, comprises both gold-glass and silver-glass tesserae (Zányi et al. 2007). At Sardis, colored glass tesserae were discovered, mostly in contexts from the early fifth–early seventh centuries, some still set in their bedding, combined with stone tesserae to form various patterns and figurative scenes. A few gold-glass tesserae were associated with “Early Byzantine” (i.e., 400–616) contexts; at least one “appears to date before A.D. 400” (von Saldern 1980:92– 94, Nos. 700–710, Pl. 17:700, 707).

Glass and gold-glass tesserae have been recorded in many sites in other parts of the country, for example, in the church at Khirbat al-Karak, dated to the fifth–seventh centuries (Delougaz and Haines 1960:26–27). Some 500 lowquality glass and gold-glass tesserae, alongside Byzantineperiod glass vessels and quadrangular windowpanes, were

Gold-Glass Tiles—Type GGT (Fig. 3.5) Gold-glass tiles are known mostly from private and museum collections; however, archaeological excavations in Israel in the past three decades have yielded several specimens, which enrich our understanding of these tiles.

159 The excavation (License No. G-66/1991) was headed on behalf of the IAA by E. Shukron and A. Sabriago, and the glass finds were examined by Y. Gorin-Rosen and the author. 160 The excavation in the compound known as ‘The Bishop’s House’ (Permit No. A-5249/2007) was headed on behalf of the IAA by G. Solimany; the glass finds were studied by the author.

For additional evidence of wall mosaics from the region, not necessarily comprising glass tesserae, see Talgam 2014:179. 161

89

Lucid Transformations Gold-glass tiles (Type GGT; Fig. 3.5) were made of two layers of light-colored translucent glass, generally colorless (or bearing a green, brown or purple tinge), with a gold leaf between them. The bottom glass layer (5–7 mm thick) was probably cast into a mold, a thin gold leaf was then laid on it, and both were coated by a thin layer (c. 1 mm in thickness) of blown glass. Tooling marks are evident on the corners of some of the pieces, demonstrating how a tool was used to affix the gold foil and the glass layers. The gold leaf was generally cut into triangles, and arranged in various patterns, mostly a lozenge within a cross, or a cross flanked by lozenges (Spaer 2001:252, 255, Cat. No. 615, Fig. 99, Pl. 47:615; Gorin-Rosen 2006b:32*; 2015:101–104).

Gold-glass tiles have also been recovered in sites in the Mediterranean basin. Triangular and curvilinear goldglass tiles, which had possibly been part of a composite design, were probably installed during the seventh-century restoration of the St. Demetrios Basilica in Thessaloniki (Antonaras 2012, and see therein additional examples from Greece, as well as from nearby countries). Gold-glass tiles may have adorned furniture and architectural elements (e.g., altars and tables, see below), as well as niches and walls in ecclesiastical structures. Their small number at each location suggests that goldglass tiles were used as a single piece, or only a few at a time. The ones depicting a cross pattern probably had religious significance, and were associated with ecclesiastical complexes164 (Piccirillo 2000:73–74; GorinRosen 2006b:34*; 2015:104–110). Gold-glass tiles may have also been installed as borders of a framed wall decoration, as suggested by fragments recovered in an ancient mosaic workshop at Rodez in southern France, and probably assigned to the fifth century (Foy 2008:60–63, Figs. 19–23).

Gold-glass tiles were discovered in Israel in cities and in smaller settlements, from Paneas in the north to Be’er Sheva in the Negev, in contexts dated to the late sixth– seventh centuries. The tiles were occasionally associated with public buildings and monastic complexes. The wide and varied distribution of gold-glass tiles attests to their attraction, and suggests that they were manufactured in more than one workshop in the country (Gorin-Rosen 2006b: 32*–34*; 2015:104–110).

Additional Architecture-Associated Glass Products

Very few gold-glass tiles have been discovered in the Jerusalem area to date. A small fragment of the corner and edge of a gold-glass tile was recovered at Umm Tuba, some five km south of the city, among remains associated with a complex, probably a monastery, dated to the sixth– seventh centuries (Fig. 5.7.1:10). The tile has rounded edges, suggesting it was molded individually, and tooling marks are evident in the corner; the gold foil that survived may have been shaped as a triangle (see Section 5.7).

A unique gold-glass panel was discovered in a mansion dated to the late sixth–seventh centuries outside the eastern city-wall of Caesarea Maritima. It may have been installed in the marble sigma-shaped table of similar shape and measurements, which was unearthed nearby. The panel comprised both colorful opaque glass tiles and translucent gold-glass tiles, the latter shaped as triangles, rectangles or squares; the square tiles were decorated in relief, each depicting a cross and an eight-petal rosette. This unique pattern, of which no analogous examples have been located so far, may have carried religious significance, in which case the panel may have adorned a chapel or a church (Porath 2006:125–127; Porath, Gorin-Rosen and Neguer 2008; Gorin-Rosen 2015:110–115).

Several pieces, some possibly fragments of tiles from which gold-glass tesserae were cut, were recovered in a complex that was excavated north of Damascus Gate and identified as part of a seventh-century monastery.162 Another piece, discovered among numerous glass tesserae in the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center, was either a fragment of a gold-glass tile, or a large gold-glass tesserae (Gorin-Rosen 2005a:208163).

Gold-glass vessels, depicting various designs and Arabic inscriptions, and probably made in the same method as these gold-glass tiles, have been attributed to the ninth or tenth century (e.g., Whitehouse 2008), and are beyond the scope of this book. 164

See n. 159 (License No. G-66/1991). 163 This piece was discovered in Area B3, Locus 4005, and is not illustrated; see Section 6.10. 162

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4 Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods

Two of the most common finds in glass assemblages of the period discussed in this work are lamps and windowpanes, which facilitated the illumination of interiors. This chapter discusses various aspects of these two illumination schemes involving glass, which were employed in the Byzantine and the Early Islamic periods: artificial lighting and glass lighting devices (Section 4.1), and windows and glass windowpanes, which enabled natural light to penetrate and brighten building interiors (Section 4.2). The discussions in this chapter are distinguished for their holistic approach, and consideration of written sources, archaeological evidence, and interdisciplinary research on the reflections of light. A major novelty I have contributed in this chapter is the compilation and assessment of Christian, Muslim and Jewish written sources regarding the employment of these lighting devices in religious public buildings in Jerusalem in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (Sections 4.1.3, 4.2.1).

is also depicted in wall paintings and mosaics of these periods (e.g., Baatz 1991). Over time, windowpanes had been more widely utilized, and their variety and schemes had become more elaborate. Consequently, Section 4.2 is devoted to the manufacture, mounting, use, and types of windows and glass windowpanes in the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, and to their mention in written sources. The evidence for glass windowpanes from archaeological excavations in Israel, particularly in Jerusalem and its environs, is considered in Section 3.5. 4.1 Lighting and Glass Lighting Devices Lighting devices in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods included torches, lanterns, candles, and a variety of oil lamps.165 Wax or tallow candles were rarely used in domestic contexts, as they were apparently considerably more expensive than lamps (Mango 1984:256). The lamps were made of clay and glass, as well as various metals, both precious (gold, silver) and less valuable (bronze, brass, copper). Many of the lighting devices in the Byzantine milieu were decorated with Christian religious and apotropaic symbols and inscriptions, bestowing them, beyond their illumination and aesthetic functions, with protective and spiritual properties. Lighting practices in the ecclesiastical scene are discussed in detail in Section 4.1.1, and those in the Islamic world are reviewed in Section 4.1.2.

Glass oil lamps were among the most customary lighting devices in the eastern Mediterranean, and they have been uncovered in large quantities in nearly every site occupied during the fifth–eighth centuries and probably much later, in Israel and in neighboring countries. Glass lamps have been documented in various types of sites and complexes, including religious and secular public buildings, industrial and commercial areas, farmsteads and residential quarters. Furthermore, over the generations, lamps have been bestowed with religious and spiritual properties, and lamps are the most commonly mentioned glass objects in medieval texts, especially regarding the lighting of church interiors (Talbot 2005:142). Indeed, one of the major functions performed by glass vessels from the Byzantine period onward was lighting. Therefore, Section 4.1 is dedicated to lighting and lighting devices, discussing the use of glass lamps, their maintenance, supply and disposal, their mention in written sources, and their variety and arrangement in churches and monasteries. Nevertheless, the evidence for glass lamps from archaeological excavations in the Jerusalem area and other sites in Israel is considered in Section 3.2.6.

Lighting devices were used in many aspects of life. In domestic settings, lamps provided light for reading and writing, for family dining, and in honor and veneration of icons (Rosenqvist 1994:55, and nn. 28 and 29; Bouras and Parani 2008:20). In cities, such as Constantinople, and Edessa and Antioch in Syria, shopkeepers were required to keep lamps lit in their workshops at night, so as to contribute to the illumination of the main city streets for commercial and security purposes (Bouras and Parani 2008:20). Torches, candles, lamps and incense burners were used in the cult of emperors and heroes, and in secular imperial receptions and ecclesiastical adventus ceremonies, as well as in funerary processions, burials and memorial banquets, fulfilling both practical and symbolic religious functions (Galavaris 1978:69; Mango 1984:255–256; Olcay 2001:77, 79–80; Bouras and Parani 2008:21–23).

Glass windowpanes have been employed in the Near East and the Mediterranean basin since the Roman period, and they have been uncovered in many religious and secular public buildings, particularly in sites occupied during the sixth–eighth centuries in Israel and neighboring countries. The use of glass windowpanes in public secular and religious buildings in the Roman and Byzantine periods

For a review of lighting devices from the ninth century onward see, e.g., Bouras 1986:576–579; Sardi 2011. 165

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Lucid Transformations In Constantinople, lamps were gathered from various churches and chapels around the city on special occasions, and hung at specific points along the processional route (Haldon 1990b:275–276:[C]740, 288:[C]833). Interestingly, the panic in Constantinople in the year 560, which had been caused by rumors of Emperor Justinian’s death, was subsided after the city was lit throughout by the senate’s order, to proclaim that the emperor was well (The Chronicle of John Malalas, Book 18, para. 131; Jeffreys, Jeffreys and Scott 1986:298).

lamps and lighting equipment, probably of an ecclesiastical origin. Among the metal lamps, polycandela, suspension chains and other artifacts, is an entry, “λυχνί(αι) ύάλ(αι)”, referring specifically to glass lamps (Line 2; Montserrat 1995:440). Glass lamps in suspended metal emplacements are described by Paul the Silentiary in his 563 Ekphrasis of the newly-restored church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople as “shafts of fire-wrought glass”, and a suspended pierced cross-shaped polycandelon holds “luminous vessels” (Mango 1972:90).

4.1.1 Lighting Devices in the Byzantine Realm Lighting in Christian Worship

Large glass lamps referred to by the Greek word κρατήρ (plural: κρατήρες) appear, for example, in a vision reported to have taken place in the last third of the ninth century, in which these lamps are marked with the sign of the cross and contain spices (Rosenqvist 1994:54 and n. 23), as well as in a miracle concerning a glass lamp that fell to the ground but was not broken, as told in The Posthumous Miracles of St. Photeine from the eleventh or twelfth century (Talbot 2001b:99–100). Glass lamps are also mentioned regarding them being substituted for silver lamps on special occasions held in monasteries (Talbot 2005:142, n. 10).

Churches were illuminated by natural light flowing in through small openings in the upper parts of the walls, and by artificial lighting. Both provided the space with dramatic visual effects of brightness and shadows, symbolizing divine light and profane darkness. Church interiors, particularly in the fifth–sixth centuries, were elaborately decorated with mosaics, paintings, marble and precious metals, all of which benefitted from ample illumination. Glass Lamps in Written Sources

The Symbolism of Light in Christianity

Abundant information on lighting in the Christian world may be obtained from written sources, discussed below. Depictions of lamps of various types and materials, illustrated in assorted media such as catacomb frescoes, church mosaics, stone stelae, illuminated manuscripts, and ivory and metal reliefs, constitute a wide and distinct topic for future research.

Christian churches were extravagantly lit, with the practical necessity for illumination and the traditional significance of light as a symbol of honor, reverence and joy, amplified by associating light with spiritual wisdom, divine illumination and salvation, hope and life (Galavaris 1978:69–73; Podskalsky and Cutler 1991; Bouras and Parani 2008:26–27).

Most of the written sources referring to lighting devices are monastic texts, such as ecclesiastical hagiography, inventories and typika, in which glass lamps are generally mentioned in the context of the lighting of church interiors (Talbot 2005:142). The Greek word ύέλιον/ύάλιον (plural: ύάλια), which focuses on the material rather than the function of the vessel, generally denotes small cheap glass objects that were most probably used as lamps (Rosenqvist 1994:53); ύέλιον also appears in the sense of window-glass, in the ninth-century Diegesis regarding the construction of the church of the Hagia Sophia (Rosenqvist 1994:52 and n. 7). It is noteworthy that in monastic documents the term ύέλιον/ύάλιον appears without any explanation, indicating that it was easily understood by the monastic milieu, whereas other writings, such as the Miracles of St. Eugenios,166 add clarifying synonyms, such as ‘lamps of glass’, in order to prevent confusion by the broad public (Rosenqvist 1994:54–55).

The general concept of Christ as “the light of the world”, granting “the light of life” to his followers, goes back to the Gospels (John 8:12). Later on, Christian commentators attributed heavenly qualities to the interior illumination of churches, and to the objects themselves and their typological symbolism (Galavaris 1978:71–74). Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem in the fourth century, suggested that the “torches of the bridal procession” are a symbol of the marriage of the soul with Christ. Jerome, who resided in Bethlehem in the late fourth century, mentions candles and lamps illuminating the churches of the East, and links them to the Divine light: “Throughout the whole Eastern Church, even when there are no relics of the martyrs, whenever the Gospel is to be read the candles are lighted, although the dawn may be reddening the sky, not of course to scatter the darkness, but by way of evidencing our joy”. Jerome also evokes John the Baptist, of which it is read: “He was the lamp that burneth and shineth”, and Psalms 119:105 regarding light as guidance: “Thy word is a lamp unto my feet, O Lord, and a light unto my path.” (Contra Vigilantium 7; Schaff and Wallace 2007:420).

Glass lamps in use in ecclesiastical settings are explicitly documented in written sources as early as the fifth century. An ostracon in Greek, possibly from Heracleopolis Magna in Egypt and dated to the fifth century, lists an inventory of 166 The Miracles of St. Eugenios, compiled in the 1360s, includes stories that reflect earlier events, probably from the late ninth–early eleventh centuries.

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Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods Among the rules for building a church, The Testament of Our Lord167 instructed: “Let all the places be lighted, both for a type, and also for reading”. The phrase “light for a type” probably referred to the symbolism of Christ as ‘The Light’ (Testamentum, Book I, Ch. 19; Cooper and Maclean 1902:63, 150–151).

Constantinople, for example, lamps were found in the saint’s tomb located in the crypt, and candles lit up the nave (Rosenqvist 1994:55, and nn. 27–29). The lighting scheme was occasionally supplemented on feasts of saints, as attested by the journey to replenish the stock of glass lamps in time for the feast of St. Eugenios, the patron saint of the monastery at Trebizon (see details below).

Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem in the seventh century, proclaimed in a liturgical commentary that “the lamps and the candles are symbols of eternal light; but also they reveal the light which will shine forth from the just [at their resurrection].” (Galavaris 1978:71). Sophronius also attached special symbolism to the suspended lamps, which were believed to imitate the stars, as did Paul the Silentiary in his 563 Ekphrasis of the re-consecrated church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, describing them as “effulgent stars of the heavenly Corona…” (Mango 1972:90; Galavaris 1978:74; Macrides and Magdalino 1988:72–73). The glistening of light on the golden mosaics and on the marble floors and revetment of the church of Hagia Sophia, together with the acoustic reflection of the marble, also contributed to the spiritual, multisensory experience of the worshippers in the church (Pentcheva 2011).

Sanctified Oil Lamps were filled with oil, preferably olive oil168, into which a wick was inserted and lit (Zevulun and Olenik 1978:76–78; Moullou and Topalis 2011). The oil from lamps that were continuously burning at tombs of martyrs and saints, before icons and relics, and in other loca sancta, was believed to hold miraculous powers. The oil kindling those lamps was collected by pilgrims as a blessing, eulogia, in containers, some of which were made of glass, and adorned with Christian scenes and symbols (see Section 3.4, Type EXMSV). The sanctified oil also served for the administration of miracles by drinking it, or by rubbing it on the believer’s skin (Rosenqvist 1994:55; Bouras and Parani 2008:23–24). Oil sanctified by contact with the Holy Cross in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is described by the Piacenza Pilgrim, who visited the city in the second half of the sixth century: “…and they offer oil to be blessed in little flasks. When the mouth of one of the little flasks touches the Wood of the Cross, the oil instantly bubbles over…” (The Piacenza Pilgrim, Ch. 20; Wilkinson 2002:139). Interestingly, a mosaic floor from an Early Christian basilica at Skhira in Tunisia includes several depictions of a Latin crux gemmata (jeweled cross) with burning lamps hanging from its arms (Fradier 1976:182–183).

The spiritual importance of light in church liturgy is further emphasized, for example, by the duties imposed upon children who were ‘donated’ to the church in Coptic Egypt. They were assigned ‘the service of the lamp’, i.e., tending to the numerous church lamps, the blaze of which was perceived as the presence of God’s glory (MacCoull 1979:414). The symbolic use of light in Christian liturgy continued to be addressed in increasing detail from the thirteenth century onward (Galavaris 1978:72–74). Lighting in Christian Liturgy

Glass Lamps, Their Maintenance and Supply

Besides their illuminating function and symbolic significance, lamps and candles were an integral part of the Christian liturgy and services (e.g., Dendy 1959). Lamps and candles were lit at the reading of the Gospel, as attested by a passage in The Testament of Our Lord, which refers to the offering of a lamp by the deacon while psalms are sung in view of its brightness (Testamentum, Book II, Ch. 11; Cooper and Maclean 1902:129, 227). Lighted candles were both a sign of the spiritual illumination received through Baptism, and a token of mourning at funerals (Bouras and Parani 2008:28).

Glass lamps were probably the most customary of the oil lamps used in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods,169 owing to their transparency, reflective nature, and inexpensiveness (Talbot 2005:142). Apparently, the oil floated upon the water that filled the lamp; the water cooled the vessel and intensified the light emission (Zevulun and Olenik 1978:80; Stern 1999:479–480; 2001:262, and nn. 231–233). Glass lamps were also cleaner and more economical, because they did not absorb the oil, as mentioned in a ninth-century social satire by Al-Jahiz (Beg 1997:665).

Lamps and candles were burning continuously at tombs of martyrs and saints, before icons and relics, and in other loca sancta. In the church of St. Anastasia in

Regarding other types of oil used for lighting see, e.g., Kazhdan and Talbot 1991. Additionally, Nasir-i Khusraw, upon visiting the market at Fustat (old Cairo) in the mid-eleventh century, mentions the selling of lamp-oil made from turnip seed and radish seed (zayt harr) (Thackston 2001:70–71). It should be noted that according to Elad (A. Elad, pers. comm.) zayt harr should be translated as linseed (not ‘radish seed’ as in Thackston 2001). 169 For the typology and chronology of glass lamps see Section 3.2.6. 168

167 Testamentum Domini nostri Iesu Christi declares itself as the legacy left by Jesus Christ himself to his apostles before the Ascension, and includes orders as to the government of the Church. The Testamentum is an apocryphal work by an unknown author, probably written in the fourth or fifth century. The Greek original had been mostly lost, and the complete Syriac version was first published in 1899.

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Lucid Transformations The archaeological evidence indicates that glass vessels functioning as oil lamps were used extensively from the mid-fourth century onward. Conical beakers, characteristic of the fourth century, were used both as drinking vessels and as lamps (e.g., Barag 1970b:180–181, Type 13:1, Pl. 40:1; Stern 2001:267, 293–294, Cat. Nos. 157, 158; Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:90–93). As of the fifth century, new types of glass lamps were introduced into the Syria-Palestine corpus (see Section 3.2.6).

been unknown in Britain at this time. These artisans also taught the locals how to make lamps and vessels required for the Wearmouth monastery (Trowbridge 1930:113–114; Cramp 2006:56–57). Chemical analysis of the window glass from Jarrow indicated that the raw glass and vessel cullet, from which they were made, had been originally produced in SyriaPalestine or Egypt, while some of the glass has gone through several cycles of re-melting and reuse before reaching Jarrow. The glass was then melted by the foreign glass artisans at the monastery site, to be made into windowpanes (Freestone and Hughes 2006).

Maintenance and Provision of Glass Lamps Glass lamps were fragile and easily broken, and therefore in constant need of replacements, either by purchasing them or by donations (see below). Large numbers of lamps and candles were necessary to illuminate churches, especially for night services, and on special feast days, when additional lamps would be lit. The cleaning, filling, and lighting up of these lamps, as well as raising and lowering the large suspended chandeliers and polycandela, required personnel (occasionally children, see MacCoull 1979) and funds (Talbot 2005:142; Bouras and Parani 2008:4).

The Gaul glassworkers, who eventually taught their craft to the locals, may have stayed on for a considerable period, as suggested by window glass of similar colors and composition discovered elsewhere in the region. Nevertheless, about a century later, Cuthbert, then abbot of the Wearmouth and Jarrow monasteries, asked the bishop of Mainz to send over a glassworker, as the local monks were “entirely ignorant” of the art of glass making (Trowbridge 1930:113–114; Cramp 2006:57).

Textual evidence for the supply of glass lamps to churches and monasteries, including issues such as the manufacture, purchase, packing, transport, stocking and replenishing of these lamps, relates mostly to the eleventh–twelfth centuries, yet may be inferred to reflect earlier practices as well.

Testimonies regarding the supply of glass lamps to a faraway monastery also appear in a collection compiled in the 1360s and known as Miracles of St. Eugenios,170 which includes stories that reflect earlier times, probably from the late ninth to the early eleventh centuries. These testimonies also shed light on the stocking up on glass lamps in monasteries, especially for special occasions, as well as the purchase and transportation of these glass vessels. Two of these stories describe journeys made by monks from the St. Eugenios Monastery at Trebizond on the southeastern shore of the Black Sea, for the purpose, among other things, of purchasing glass lamps. In one of these journeys (Miracle 5) the glass lamps were bought at Constantinople, packed in baskets, and carried by ship on the Black Sea to Trebizond. In another journey (Miracle 18) the monks set out to Phasiane in Armenia, where glass lamps were being manufactured, to purchase lamps needed for the feast of St. Eugenios. The glass lamps were packed in baskets, which were carried by local helpers to the monastery in Trebizond in time for the saint’s feast (Rosenqvist 1994:53–57; Talbot 2005:142).

Churches and monasteries in central locations may have ordered their supply of glass vessels from local workshops, such as at Constantinople, for which reference to glassmakers at work in the city during the eleventh– twelfth centuries may be found in The Posthumous Miracles of St. Photeine (Talbot 2001b:101). The supply of glass lamps was also replenished through donations made by pilgrims and various donors, as documented in several texts (Talbot 2005:142, n. 13; Bouras and Parani 2008:27–29; Keller 2010a:184). Donations of precious-metal polycandela by the elite and high-ranking clergy (see Lighting Devices in Ecclesiastical Settings, below) often included the glass lamps they supported, as those comprised an integral part of the lighting devices. Supply of Glass Lamps to Distant Monasteries

The supply of glass lamps to remote monasteries has been also addressed by Keller (2010a) regarding the church and the chapel of the Monastery of St. Aaron on Jabal Harun in southern Jordan. Apparently, these structures were furnished in their initial stage (the mid/ late fifth to the mid/late sixth centuries) with a group of glass lamps of high quality and homogenous appearance, possibly a single order. After their destruction, the rebuilt church and chapel (in the late sixth century, and the subsequent seventh-century phase) utilized ordinary

Monasteries in remote areas lacking glass working traditions could either import skilled glassworkers from afar, as did the abbots of the Wearmouth and Jarrow monasteries in Britain, or acquire glass lamps from distant production centers, as did the monks from Trebizon on the southeastern shore of the Black Sea (see below). In 674 Benedict Biscop, the inaugural abbot of the Wearmouth and Jarrow monasteries in Britain (founded in 674 and 681/2, respectively), sent for glassworkers from Gaul (possibly from Normandy in northern France), to glaze the windows of the church, as this art had apparently

170

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See n. 166.

Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods lamps from a local/regional glass workshop. In the last ecclesiastical phase of the chapel (the mid/late eighth century; the church building now served domestic purposes) a heterogeneous assemblage of glass lamps was used, reflecting the end of local/regional glass working, and the varied sources of single lamps from various production centers and/or donations by pilgrims (Keller 2010a).

fixtures of the period had exceptional designs, such as a bronze chandelier, recovered in North Africa and kept in the Hermitage, which is shaped as a basilica, with rings to accommodate lamps on both sides (Khruškova 2009:342, Fig. 19, and see additional designs in Xanthopoulou 2010:46–58, 281–316). Chandeliers and polycandela holding glass lamps were employed principally in churches, synagogues and mosques (see examples from Syria-Palestine in Section 3.2.6.1), but also in other public and private buildings, as attested by a polycandelon, intended to hold six lamps, in the secular Lampsacus treasure from Asia Minor, dated to 577, and by a specimen from a domestic context at Sardis (Waldbaum 1983:101, Cat. No. 589; Mango 2003:68–71; Bouras and Parani 2008:14).

Lighting Devices in Ecclesiastical Settings Various lighting devices, including candles and candlesticks, multi-light appliances and single lamps, were recorded in monastic foundation document (typika), particularly from the ninth century onward. These manuals regulated in detail the positioning of the artificial lights, to ensure that their flickering made the gold and silver of the icons, mosaics and frescoes, sparkle, and engage the viewer (e.g., Olcay 2001:77–79; Zányi et al. 2007). The rich surfaces of mixedmedia relief icons, favored from the tenth century onward, were animated by sun rays or a flickering light stirred by drafts of air and human breath, creating a sensual and spiritual experience (Pentcheva 2010).

Polycandela were generally made of various metals, yet occasionally they were made of other materials, as the suspended sandstone discs from Jabal Harun intended for three lamp stems, or a suspended glass lamp from the Crimea, designed to hold six smaller glass lamps (see details in Section 3.2.6.1).

Multi-Light Devices

Single Lamps

The desire for increased, more luxurious illumination brought about one of the few innovations in lighting devices of the Byzantine period, i.e., the multi-light polycandela. These were strong, yet lightweight, metal devices that were suspended by chains from ceilings and arches, and could accommodate numerous glass lamps. Some polycandela from the sixth–seventh centuries held 12–16 glass lamps, and possibly an additional central, circular or rectangular, glass container for oil. The transparency of the glass lamps aided in evenly distributing the light, which was also refracted and reflected by the metal (Mango 2003:68–70; Bouras and Parani 2008:11–14, 27; Khruškova 2009:342).

Single lamps were either suspended from metal chains or set in metal holders attached to the walls (see Section 3.2.6). In the sixth-century church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople single lamps, some probably of glass, illuminated the aisles; they were placed at intervals, next to the columns on either side, and were suspended at various heights, creating, as described in Paul the Silentiary’s 563 Ekphrasis of the re-consecrated church, “lovely curves of light as they glitter step-wise on their aerial path…” (Mango 1972:90).

The donations made by Emperor Constantine I to the churches of Rome in the fourth century, listed in the Liber Pontificalis (Book of Pontiffs), included scores of ornamented lamps, chandeliers171 and candlesticks made of gold, silver and brass (e.g., Davis 1989:16–17). Among them were gold and silver crowns with dolphins, which may be considered some of the earliest attested metal multi-light devices supporting glass lamps (Bouras and Parani 2008:13, 28–29, Fig. 15). Various metal lighting apparatuses, probably resembling those included among Constantine I’s donations, have been dated to the fifth– seventh centuries (Bouras and Parani 2008:12–14, 86–91, 94–97, Cat. Nos. 25–27, 29–30).

Assorted literary sources mention candles and oil lamps illuminating various areas of churches and chapels, as well as supplementing special liturgical services (Olcay 2001:77–80; Keller and Lindblom 2008:331–333). Lamps were suspended over the altar, while candlesticks were generally placed before or flanking it, but not on the altar (Bouras and Parani 2008:27–28). In the church of St. Anastasia in Constantinople, for example, oil lamps were found in the saint’s tomb located in the crypt, whereas candles lit up the nave (Rosenqvist 1994:55, and n. 27).

The Arrangement of Lighting Devices in Churches

The centralized plan and colossal volume and height of the dome of the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople dictated a sophisticated lighting scheme. The detailed descriptions of various lighting fixtures in the 563 Ekphrasis by Paul the Silentiary (Mango 1972:80–96), as well as modern studies reconstructing the sixthcentury lighting system of the church, have illuminated its complexity and splendor (e.g., Schibille 2005; Bouras and Parani 2008:31–36, and see therein references to the works of Butler and Van Nice).

More than one-hundred elaborate silver lamps, polycandela and candelabra, were provided to the church of Hagia Sophia by Emperor Justinian, some fashioned as crowns, ships or trees (Mango 1972:89–91). Other lighting 171 These ornate suspended lighting fixtures comprised several branches designed to hold many lights (originally, candles).

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Lucid Transformations Archaeological Evidence for the Variety and Arrangement of Glass Lamps in Churches and Monasteries

late sixth and seventh centuries, at least in part, by glass lamps, which were discovered in several of the units in Area A.173 Fragments of three different types of lamps (Types LBB, LSThs and LGL) were unearthed on the white mosaic pavement of the apse in Room R3, which is located east of the chapel (R1) (Paran 2009: Fig. 2). These lamps were found together with a bronze hook that was probably part of a metal device, on which one of the lamps may have been suspended from the apse ceiling. Room R4, which abuts the chapel (R1) to the west, yielded a single bowl-shaped glass lamp with three handles and a wick tube (Type LBBwkt). The material recovered from the monastery at Geva‘ot Bar suggests that Room R4 and Room R3 with its apse were illuminated by three types of lamps (Types LBB, LST and LGL), while other units of the monastery were lit exclusively by beaker-shaped lamps with a concave bottom (Type LBE).

Systematic archaeological excavations have prompted various studies, some of which are presented here, attempting to reconstruct the arrangement and variety of lighting devices within church buildings. Evidently, several types of glass lamps were employed in a single church or chapel, and even in a single room (see below). In churches of the basilica plan (see below), the nave, the apse and the altar area were apparently illuminated more lavishly than the lateral aisles. Moreover, analyses of the distribution of glass lamps in various churches have demonstrated the use of polycandela carrying stemmed glass lamps in the naves and aisles, and a preference for three-handle bowl- and beaker-shaped glass lamps in the apses and at the altar.

The Monastery of Deacon Thomas located in the Uyun Musa Valley north of Mount Nebo, Jordan, was probably built in the first half of the sixth century and abandoned in the Umayyad period (Piccirillo 1990). Its church was illuminated by clay lamps, as well as by two kinds of glass lamps: the three-handle bowl-shaped type (Type LBB) and the hollow-stemmed type (Type LSThs). These lamps, along with a bronze hook which probably served for the suspension of one of these glass lamps, and several bronze straps used to hold the wick at the center of the lamp-bowls, were all discovered in the layer covering the mosaic floor in front of the southern church sacristy (Alliata 1990:250–251, 258–259, Figs. 2:27; 8:108, 109).

The sixth-century church at Nahariya yielded several fragments of glass lamps (Type LST) and many bronze fittings, among them hooks, straps and chains, some shaped as crosses and as the Chi-Rho monogram. These fittings were parts of lighting devices suspended from the ceiling, which collapsed when the church had been destroyed by fire. These finds were discovered during the 1970s excavations, in situ on the floor along the central nave and in the northern aisle, near the colonnade separating the aisle from the nave. The provenances of these lamps denote their suspension layout in the church172 (Dauphin and Edelstein 1984:99–105, Figs. 24–28, Pl. LXIV). The northwestern church at Hippos-Sussita, which was probably in use from the late fifth or early sixth century until the 749 earthquake, yielded fragments of glass lamps and bronze polycandela (and see Section 3.2.6). The morecomplete of the two polycandela was discovered with two stems of glass lamps under the blocks of the fallen arch of the martyrion chapel (located south of the apse), while the other polycandelon was unearthed against the eastern wall of the church diaconicon (Burdajewicz 2011: Fig. 6). The typology and distribution of the glass lamps and metal polycandela in the northwestern church at Hippos-Sussita indicate that the mortuary chapel (in the southwestern corner of the church) had been lit up by bowl-shaped lamps (Type LBB) suspended from the ceiling, while the church aisles utilized stemmed lamps (Type LST) that were possibly set in single metal wall fasteners attached to the walls. The rooms surrounding the apse in the eastern part of the church were illuminated by both bowl-shaped lamps (Type LBB) hung above the reliquary in the eastern end of the diaconicon, and stemmed lamps (Type LST) set in polycandela at its western end (Burdajewicz 2006:132, Fig. 2; 2011:29–35, Fig. 6).

The Petra church, which had probably been constructed in the late fifth century and functioned up to the late sixth century, was illuminated by three-handle bowl-shaped lamps with a wick tube (Type LBBwkt), concentrated toward the altar, across the eastern nave, and mostly in the northern apse, as well as hollow-stemmed lamps (Type LSThs), scattered predominantly in the narthex, the western nave and the southern aisle (O’Hea 2001:372– 373, Fig. 6:3–8). Clear evidence, of the location of lighting devices in the nave and the apse, derived from one of the churches at Daǧ Pazarī, in Isauria, Asia Minor, dated to the late fifth century (Gough 1975). A complete bronze lampsuspension attachment was found in situ on the floor, in the central chancel-screen door between the nave and the bema, its iron ring still embedded in the keystone of the arch spanning the door. Fragmentary remains of the glass lamp that had been fastened to the bronze device were found at the same spot (items IIa and IVa: Gough 1975:161–162, Figs. 5 and 8, and see a reconstruction of the chancel screen in Pl. 75a). Additionally, two lamp chains were discovered in the nave, and an ornamented bronze strap was unearthed in the apse.

The Byzantine-period monastery at the site of Geva‘ot Bar in the northern Negev, had been illuminated in the 172 There is no information regarding lighting devices in the central apse, as it had been almost-completely destroyed.

173

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See n. 92, in Chapter 3 (Permit Nos. A-4479/2006 and A-5960/2010).

Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods Deposition, Disposal and Re-Use of Broken Glass Vessels in Churches

century. Many of the glass fragments belonged to lamps and windowpanes, which, together with several pieces of metal polycandela found in that room, may have fallen from the upper floor. Fragments of glass bowls and bottles discovered in the room may have been stored on shelves situated on the ground floor (Fiema 2007).

Many churches of the period in Syria-Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean basin yielded concentrations of broken glass vessels. As glass lamps were almost always present and often comprised a large part of these concentrations, they are examined here. These glass concentrations may have been buried in the ground as vasa sacra, collected for recycling, or discarded for various reasons.

A hoard of broken glass vessels, comprising some 40 lamp stems, mostly of the hollow type, as well as five wineglass bases and several other vessels, had been stored in a clay jar in the ecclesiastical compound at Ayios Philon, ancient Carpasia in Cyprus. The jar was discovered in the courtyard (H9) of the eastern complex, which probably functioned until 666 (the date of the latest coin in a hoard concealed in one of its walls), and the glass fragments had probably been discarded from the nearby basilica, which served at least up to 620 (Du Plat Taylor and Megaw 1981).

Patens, chalices and other vasa sacra, i.e., vessels used as containers for wine, water and oil in the church liturgy, had to be buried in the ground once they had been broken. This practice was documented in various texts, such as the Canons of Jacob of Edessa, written in the late seventh or the early eighth century (Keller 2009:283–285; 2010a:192, and see therein references to the relevant texts).

Broken glass vessels within a church complex may have also been stockpiled for re-melting during the building’s last phase, or after the destruction or abandonment of the church. This phenomenon may have been promoted by the diminishing supply of raw glass to a certain region, as suggested by Keller to have occurred in southern Jordan from the mid-sixth to the mid-seventh centuries (Keller 2009:286–287).

Intentional deposition of glass vessels in an abandoned part of an ecclesiastical complex is known to have taken place during the sixth–eighth centuries, in various sites in the region. For example, two large glass goblets and fragmentary glass lamps and bottles dated to the fifth– sixth centuries, all probably used in the church liturgy and lighting, were deposited, possibly in the late sixth century, in a fill within a cruciform baptismal font unearthed at Nir Gallim, in Israel’s southern coastal plain (Gorin-Rosen 2002c). Fragments of glass lamps, wineglasses and bottles, typical of the sixth–seventh centuries, were discovered in Cistern 546 in the atrium of the northwestern church at Hippos-Sussita, and may have been deliberately deposited there as vasa sacra (Burdajewicz 2011:39).

Concentrations of broken glass have been recorded in various churches in the region which functioned during the fifth–seventh centuries. However, collection of broken glass for recycling should generally be regarded as nonecclesiastical, as these heaps had been piled up when the relevant church no longer functioned as such. Large heaps of broken glass were recorded, for example, in two of the rooms in the church at Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960:49; Barag 1970b:114), and scores of broken glass lamps and deformed metal objects, probably wick holders and polycandela, were unearthed in three of the rooms in the cemetery church at Horbat Karkur Illit (Katsnelson 2004:268, 271).

Several artifacts, among them two glass lamps, a bronze chain adorned with a Maltese cross, a bronze censer, and a glazed lidded ceramic bowl, were stored or concealed behind a stone in a niche in the western wall of one of the chambers of a Nestorian hermitage east of Jericho. The monastery was originally dated to the ninth century (Baramki and Stephan 1935); however, the identification of two of the monks mentioned in the Syriac inscription discovered in the complex, indicates that the hermitage was founded in the seventh century.174 Furthermore, fragments of glass vessels, including a lamp, a goblet and some beakers, were intentionally deposited and covered with sandy soil in the lower compartment of the northern cupboard near the apse of the monastic chapel on Jabal Harun; the use and deposition of these vessels may be dated to the eighth century (Keller 2009:283, Fig. 4, and see therein additional examples from Jordan and Egypt).

Other collections of broken glass from church complexes may not necessarily be regarded as post-ecclesiastical, as the available information is insufficient. Such are two piles of broken glass windowpanes and vessels typical of the sixth–seventh centuries, many of them lamps, discovered in Rooms 2F and 30 by the Church of St. Theodore at Gerasa (Baur 1938:514–515; Barag 1970b:123–126). A heap of glass cullet and imperfect vessels discovered in the basilical church at Dor, on Israel’s coastal plain, was probably dumped there during the repeated dismantling and rebuilding of the glass kiln that operated in the church after it had been abandoned in the Early Islamic period (Dauphin 1997:126).

Numerous glass fragments were discovered in Room I that functioned as storage for papyrus documents in the Petra Church, which had probably been constructed in the late fifth century and functioned until the late sixth

174

See n. 87, in Chapter 3.

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Lucid Transformations Lighting Devices in Synagogues

4.1.2 Lighting Devices in the Islamic Realm

Archaeological findings indicate that synagogues in Byzantine-period Syria-Palestine were illuminated by glass lamps. Lamps burning on seven-branch candelabra (menorot) are depicted on many mosaic floors of synagogues, for example, at Hammat Tiberias, Bet Alpha, Susiya, Ma‘on-Nirim and Bet She’an (Talgam 2014: Figs. 339, 369, 383, 406, 420, respectively). Lamps were also depicted hanging from the menorot, as, for example, on the mosaic floor in the ancient synagogue at Na‘aran (Talgam 2014: Figs. 373, 374).

Lighting in Early Islamic Worship The term ‘lamp’ appears in Arabic as siraj, misbah, qindil and more. In the Quran, the sun is characterized as a lamp (Sura 71, Verses 15–16), and the Prophet is titled a ‘shining lamp’ (Sura 33, Verses 45–46). Later on, knowledge was described as light (al-nur) and the scholars, studying at night, as lamps (Beg 1997:666). The ‘Verse of Light’ is the most renowned reference; it may be translated: “Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The similitude of His light is as a niche wherein is a lamp. The lamp is in a glass. The glass is as it were a shining star…” (Sura 24, Verse 35; after Pickthall 1953:256). The ‘Verse of Light’ was the most widespread inscription on mosque lamps, and it appeared on glass lamps, particularly in the late thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries (Tait 1991:132–136, Figs. 167, 169 and 171).

Interestingly, the lamps set on the candelabra branches, depicted on these mosaics, seem to be of a type referred to as ‘conical beaker’, which was used for both drinking and lighting, and was customary particularly in the fourth century (e.g., Stern 2001:267, 293–294; Israeli 2003:193–194). However, the glass lamps that were discovered in some of these synagogues are of types that were widespread from the mid-fifth century onward (e.g., Hammat Tiberias: Johnson 2000:84–86, 120, Figs. 22:1– 16, 23:17–29; Ma‘on-Nirim: Rahmani 1960:16–18, Fig. 9; Bet She’an: Zori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:1–3, 5, 9, 10; and see Section 3.2.6). Moreover, as most of the mosaic pavements mentioned above date to the fifth century or later, the depiction of fourth-century lamps may support Talgam’s assertion that these mosaic floors do not depict objects, among them menorot, that had been standing in the synagogues themselves, but rather their symbolic expressions (Talgam 2014:266–267).

According to tradition, Abu Ruqiyya Tamim al-Dari, an intellectual from Syria, introduced the innovation of lighting with oil (instead of palm fronds) in the mosque adjacent to Muhammad’s house in Madina (Gil 1992:129– 130). This event was commended by the Prophet, and it was believed to have paved the way for the lighting of mosques by lamps, as in the mosque built in Damascus in the early eighth century, and in the enlarged Prophet’s mosque in Madina, which were illuminated by suspended candeliers (Beg 1997:665; and see Section 4.1.3).175 Lighting Devices in Early Islamic Settings

Glass lamps of various types, as well as associated metal contraptions, were discovered in several synagogues, including those at Hammat Tiberias, Bet She’an, Kibbutz Ma‘oz Hayyim, Ma‘on-Nirim, and Jericho (see details in Sections 3.2.6 and 3.2.6.1). Perforations, probably intended for the suspension of lamps, were found, for example, in the architraves over the columns separating the nave and aisles of the synagogue at Umm el-Qanatir in the Golan Heights (R. Talgam, pers. comm.).

Most of the lighting devices utilized in the Islamic realm in the seventh–eighth centuries resembled their Byzantineperiod predecessors, while clay lamps developed distinct Islamic forms (Bouras 1986:576–577; Bouras and Parani 2008:1–14). Clay, stone and glass lamps (qindil al-zujaj) are mentioned, for example, by Al-Jahiz in the ninth century, with preference to glass lamps, which were apparently cleaner and more economical (Beg 1997:665).

Moreover, a lamp or candle kindled continuously (Hebrew: ner ha-tamid) is said to have hung in synagogues, in front or over the Ark (Levine 1991:76); it is depicted, suspended from the pediment of the sacred architectural façade, on several mosaic floors of synagogues, for example, at Bet Alpha and Bet She’an (Talgam 2014: Figs. 369, 420). Additional archaeological evidence may be found in the ancient synagogue at Nabratein in the upper Galilee, where a perforation at the top of the Ark block pediment (that was destroyed in an earthquake in 306) was presumably intended for suspending an oil lamp (Meyers and Meyers 2009:84–86, Figs. 18, 25, 27; Photograph 26).

Lamps and polycandela illuminated, inter alia, streets, mosques and sacred tombs. Nasir-i Khusraw, who visited the region in the mid-eleventh century, noted lamps maintained and cleaned in the tombs of Yitro and his daughter near Acre (Akko), as well as lamps and silver lamp-holders suspended in the tombs of Abraham and Sarah in Hebron (Thackston 2001:22, 45). In his description of Fustat (ancient Cairo), Nasir-I Khusraw mentions that the city’s markets and lanes were so dark, that lamps were kept lit day and night. The city’s Bab alJawami Mosque was illuminated every night by more than a hundred lamps, and a huge silver chandelier, with sixteen branches holding as many as 700 lamps, was kindled on holiday evenings. On the north side of this mosque was the lamp market (suk al-qanadil) (Thackston 2001:67–69). 175

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Regarding later periods see, e.g., Sardi 2011.

Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods 4.1.3 Lighting in Religious Public Buildings in Jerusalem in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods

Suspended lamps and candles were depicted in many pictorial representations of the shrine of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, as on a sixth-century ivory pyxis (Weitzmann 1979:581–582, Cat. No. 520), and on metal ampullae dated from the mid-sixth to the early seventh centuries, that were found in the Monza Cathedral and Bobbio Abbey in northern Italy (Grabar 1958: e.g., Pls. IX, XXXVII, XXXVIII).

Several Christian and Muslim pilgrims and travelers visiting Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the fourth through the eleventh centuries have taken notice of the splendid lighting of churches, mosques and synagogues, as well as various open spaces in the city. Some also remarked on the supplementary lighting during special events and feasts.

Lighting in the Church of the Ascension

Lighting in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Among the holy sites, mentioned in Adomnán’s De locis sanctis as allegedly visited by Arculf178 in the 670s, was the round Church of the Lord’s Ascension, built on the Mount of Olives, where “a great lamp hangs above the circular railing from a pulley, and lights the footprints of the Lord, burning day and night”. Adomnán also noted “eight upper windows paned with glass. Inside the windows, and in corresponding positions, are eight lamps, positioned so that each one of them seems to hang neither above nor below its window, but just inside it. These lamps shine out from their windows on the summit of the Mount of Olives with such brilliance, that they light up not only the part of the Mount to the west, near this round stone church, but also the steps leading all the way up from the Valley of Jehoshaphat (at the Gethsemane area) to the city of Jerusalem, which are lighted, however dark the night. Most of the nearer part of the city is lighted as well. The remarkable brilliance of these eight lamps shining out by night from the holy Mount and the place of the Lord’s Ascension brings to believing hearts a readiness for the love of God, and brings awe to their mind and deep reverence to their souls.” (Adomnán’s De locis sanctis, Book 1, Ch. 23:10–13; Wilkinson 2002:181).

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the most sacred Christian institutions, was extensively illuminated with candles and lamps. Egeria,176 who traveled to the Holy Land and Jerusalem in the early 380s, relates to her fellow nuns back in western Europe about the journey, and refers to the important symbolic and practical roles played by lamps and light in the Jerusalem liturgy. In her description of the daily fouro’clock service of the lighting of the lamps (Λυχνικόν) at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, she mentions that in the Anastasis “the lamps and candles are all lit, which makes it very bright. The fire is brought not from outside, but from the cave—inside the screen—where a lamp is always burning night and day.” (Section 24.4; Wilkinson 1981:123). Illuminating the entire church with light from the Tomb was intended to symbolize the risen Christ spreading the light of salvation to the world (Bouras and Parani 2008:28). Egeria also remarks on the lighting of other parts of the church: “Great glass lanterns are burning everywhere, and there are many candles in front of the Anastasis, and also Before and Behind the Cross”. Lamps were also hung in the courtyard, or ‘basilica’, beside the Anastasis (Section 24.7–8; Wilkinson 1981:124).

Additionally, on the night of the feast of the Lord’s Ascension, “they add innumerable other lamps there, besides the eight which burn in this round church every night. Their solemn and marvelous brilliance pours out through the window panes not only to illuminate the Mount of Olives, but also, as it seems, to set it on fire and to light up the whole area of the city below and its surroundings.” (Adomnán’s De locis sanctis, Book 1, Ch. 23:20; Wilkinson 2002:182).

In reference to the Epiphany celebrations in “the Great Church on Golgotha”, Egeria mentions that “extra lamps have been lighted” in the Anastasis, and she marvels at the richness of the furnishings, remarking: “You simply cannot imagine the number, and the sheer weight of the candles and the tapers and lamps and everything else they use for the services.” (Section 25.8; Wilkinson 1981:127).

Lighting and Maintenance of Lighting Devices on the al-Haram al-Sharif

Twelve oil lamps, shining brightly, four of which were located at the foot of the tomb-shelf and the remaining eight higher up (possibly suspended), were mentioned in Adomnán’s De locis sanctis177 (Book 1, Ch. 2:12; Wilkinson 2002:172). Lamps are also noted, burning continuously day and night in the courtyard in front of the Anastasis (Adomnán’s De locis sanctis, Book 1, Ch. 6:3; Wilkinson 2002:174).

176 177

The lighting devices in use on the al-Haram al-Sharif, in the Dome of the Rock and in the al-Aqsa Mosque included candles and lamps, of which at least some were made of glass. Various Muslim texts, echoing the eighth and ninth centuries, refer to services performed by Jewish and Christian servants on the al-Haram al-Sharif. Al-Wasiti and Ibn al-Murajja, for example, cite a tradition regarding

See n. 15, in Chapter 2. See n. 38, in Chapter 2.

178

99

See n. 38, in Chapter 2.

Lucid Transformations Jews who used to illuminate Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis) until the days of Caliph Umar II (717–720). This tradition probably refers to the al-Haram al-Sharif, and may be associated with the early eighth century (Elad 1999:51, and n. 2; A. Elad, pers. comm.).

1982:177–178; Elad 1999:64, and n. 62; Livne-Kafri 2000:48, and n. 20). Some of the oil supply was satisfied by local production, as in the large mosque at Acre (Akko), which had “a grove of olive trees in its court, providing sufficient oil for the lamps, with some to spare.” (Al-Muqaddasi p. 162; Collins 1994:149), and some was obtained by pilgrims’ donations. The amounts and types of oils supplied each month for the lighting of the al-Aqsa mosque, as well as the budget for the glass and the workers who maintained the roofs of the mosque structures, were detailed by Ibn Abd Rabbihi (860–940) (Elad 2008:188).

Another tradition cited by Ibn al-Murajja (Fada’il, No. 47), on the building of Dome of the Rock and the ceremonies performed there during Abd al-Malik’s reign (685/6–705), tells of “a group of Jewish attendants, who used to make the glass for the lamps, the (big) bowls and the glass vessels (al-bazzaqat), and other things besides this. The poll tax was not taken from them, neither from those who were in charge of the preparation of the wicks (al-suraqa) of the lamps” (Elad 2008:181, and see nn. 75 and 76).179

A tradition, quoted by al-Wasiti (Fada’il, No. 32) and attributed to Muhammad, states that any Muslim who could not go to Jerusalem and pray there, could instead send olive oil. Another tradition (al-Maqdisi, Muthir alGharam) specifies that the olive oil shall illuminate the city’s lamps (Elad 1999:64, and n. 62). Ibn al-Murajja (Fada’il, No. 79) cites a tradition by which he, who cannot visit the Rock of Jerusalem (sakhrat Bayt al-Maqdis) and pray there, should dedicate olive oil which will light it; unfortunately, the text is unclear whether the grammatical object it refers to the Dome of the Rock or to the city of Jerusalem, yet the latter option is more reasonable (A. Elad, pers. comm.).

Various written sources from the ninth and tenth centuries, some probably exaggerated,180 describe the illumination of the al-Haram al-Sharif, the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa Mosque. These texts, varying in the quantities they record, report that there were 385/400/500 copper chains on the al-Haram al-Sharif (of which 105 were in the Dome of the Rock), and that every night the al-Haram was illuminated by 1500/1600/5000 lamps; the Dome of the Rock was lit up by 300/460 lamps and/or 100/1000 candles, and the al-Aqsa Mosque—by 100 candles. On special occasions, additional 1000/2000 candles were lit on the al-Haram al-Sharif (Elad 2008:187).

It has been proposed by Goitein (1980b:13; 1982:177– 178) that Jews and Christians also donated oil for the illumination of the Mosque, as may be suggested in The Chronicle of Ahima‘az (Hebrew: Megilat Ahima‘az), which depicts Jewish life in southern Italy in the mideleventh century. The Chronicle of Ahima‘az mentions Rabbi Samuel, son of Rabbi Palti’el, who brought the caskets of his parents to be buried in Jerusalem, and while in the city donated money “for the poor and afflicted, for the sages and teachers giving instruction in the law, for the instructors of the children and the readers [of prayer]; and for the oil of the sanctuary, at the western wall of the inner altar, and for the synagogs [sic] and communities, far and near…” (Paragraph 20c; Salzman 1924:97). The “sanctuary, at the western wall of the inner altar” may refer to the mosque on the Temple Mount,181 and the donation of oil may be explicated by the approval given to nonMuslims to donate towards the renovation of Jerusalem’s walls or the buying of oil for the city’s lamps, as these deeds would bring them closer to God (Goitein 1980b:13; 1982:177–178).

Nasir-i Khusraw, who visited Jerusalem in the mideleventh century, mentioned the illumination of various structures on the al-Haram al-Sharif. The Dome of the Rock had a silver lamp suspended by a silver chain over the Rock, and the building was illuminated by many silver lamps inscribed with their weight, as well as enormous candles donated by the ruler of Egypt and bearing his name in gold letters; candles were also kept burning in the cave beneath the Rock. The al-Aqsa Mosque had lamps and lanterns, each hung from a separate chain. Jacob’s Dome was decorated with lamps, and in the mosque known as Jesus’s Cradle many suspended brass and silver lamps were kept burning throughout the night (Thackston 2001:32–34, 40, 42). Supply and Donation of Oil for the Lighting of Prayer Houses in Jerusalem The lighting of the lamps necessitated a continuous supply of oil, some of it donated by devout believers, as attested by various written sources (see Goitein 1980b:13;

Another relevant commentary, referring to the donation of oil for the lighting of prayer houses in Jerusalem, appears in Sefer  Ha-Qabbalah, which was written in 1160/1 by Ibn Daud, Abraham Ben David Halevi, a Jewish scholar residing in Spain. The book tells of R. Samuel Ha-Nagid who provided “annual contributions of olive oil for the synagogues (Hebrew: batei knesiyot) of Jerusalem…” (Sefer Ha-Qabbalah, Ch. 7; Cohen 1967:74–75).

179 Ibn al-Murajja compiled his work in the early eleventh century, yet the chain of transmitters he cites goes back to the middle/late seventh or the mid-eighth centuries. The tradition about the lighting devices may be associated with the late seventh–early eighth centuries. The comment, about the exemption from the poll tax applied to the Jewish attendants and to their children “forever, as long as they live”, may be associated with a transmitter from the early ninth century, yet it may also reflect an authentic situation from the seventh–eighth centuries (Elad 2008:181; A. Elad, pers. comm.). 180 On the ‘antiquity’ of these traditions and the authenticity and reliability of the various written sources, see Elad 2008:187–189.

Dinur’s suggestion that the sanctuary in question is a Jewish synagogue on the Temple Mount is highly improbable (see Elad 1999:64, n. 63; A. Elad, pers. comm.). 181

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Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods 4.2 Windows and Glass Windowpanes

Monastery in Middle Egypt that functioned from the late seventh to the tenth centuries (Bénazeth 2005), the palace complex built at Samarra in the mid-ninth century (Lamm 1928:124–128), secular buildings in Nishapur (Kröger 1995:184), as well as many buildings dated to the tenth–eleventh centuries in Fustat (ancient Cairo), and in other sites in northern Africa and in Sicily (Foy 2005b:116).

4.2.1 Windows and Windowpanes in the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic Realms Windowpanes were employed in the Roman world since the first century CE, as attested by various written sources mentioning specularia (Whitehouse 2001d:35; Foy and Fontaine 2008:444–449). A similar word was probably used in the Hebrew Mishna (Tractate Kelim 30:2; Danby 1933:649) to describe glass windowpanes, regarding their susceptibility to ritual uncleanness (tum’a) as practiced in the second century (Safrai 1967).

Glass Windowpanes in Bathhouses Public and private bathhouses, among the central establishments in the Roman period and in Late Antiquity (e.g., Yegül 1992), generally utilized glass windowpanes for both illumination and thermal insulation, especially in the caldaria, as mentioned by several first-century writers (see Broise 1991:61; Whitehouse 2001d:35–36). Domed glass windowpanes, probably designed to admit light in domed ceilings, were uncovered in various structures in the western Roman provinces, many of them bathhouses from the first–third centuries (van den Dries 2006).

Specularis may have indicated selenite or a variant of gypsum, which was mined in the Early Roman period mainly in Spain, and cut into fine translucent sheets used as windowpanes (Pliny, Natural History, Book XXXVI, Ch. 45; Eichholz 1962:126–129). Recently, selenite fragments from northern Sinai were identified as waste from the production of windowpanes, probably dated to the second half of the first century (Schneider et al. 2018). Interestingly, alabaster windowpanes were probably installed in a large private house of the first century, excavated at ed-Dur in the United Arab Emirates (Potts 1995).

In the eastern Mediterranean basin, window glass was installed in bathhouses from the Early Roman period, as attested, for example, in the southern bathhouse complex at Bosra in Syria, where glass panes were installed in the original structure built in the second century, and discs of glass, with folded edges, were applied on both sides of a screen wall to form double glazing (Broise 1991:69–75). The Roman baths at Hammat Gader, southeast of the Sea of Galilee, which were probably founded in the second century and functioned till the seventh century, utilized glass panes installed in delicate stucco frames, as well as set in grooves in stone windows and affixed with lime mortar (Solar 1997:24–26).

In the Roman period, windowpanes made of glass were installed in domestic settings, as well as in public buildings such as bathhouses, basilicas and forts. Archaeological evidence of the use of glass windowpanes goes back to the first century, as glass panes were discovered in numerous sites, for example, in Pompeii and Herculaneum which were destroyed in the year 79 (Whitehouse 2001d:32; Fontaine and Foy 2005b). In the Byzantine realm windows were generally small, and glass panes were fitted into frames and screens made of wood, stone, metal, clay or stucco. These were generally elaborate, displaying various geometric shapes (e.g., discs, lozenges and triangles), which were covered by mostly naturally-tinted glass panes (Ousterhout 1999:151–156). By the sixth and seventh centuries glass windowpanes were widely employed in public structures, both religious (e.g., churches) and secular (e.g., bathhouses), and less commonly in residential complexes.

Glass windowpanes have been used continuously from the Roman period onward. For example, numerous quality cylinder-blown glass windowpanes were associated with the bathhouse from the fourth–fifth centuries excavated at Kom al-Dikka in Alexandria (Kucharczyk 2010:66). Some 45 km to the west, at Marea, where a large pilgrim station functioned from the late fifth to the seventh centuries, glass windowpanes were installed in the exterior walls of the bathhouse, as well as in its interior partitions. Both circular and quadrangular windowpanes of various sizes were assembled in that bathhouse; occasionally both types were employed in a single window, composing geometric patterns in plaster frames, some of which were heart-shaped. These vitreous openings also functioned as thermal insulation, ensured by the double glazing (Kucharczyk 2002; 2005c).

A transition to larger windows, glazed with colored and painted glass held together by lead cames, apparently took place in the late eighth and ninth centuries, and reached its peak in the eleventh–thirteenth centuries, with the large and sophisticated pictorial schemes of the vitrail technique (e.g., Whitehouse 2001d:38–40; Dell’Acqua 2005; Foy and Fontaine 2008:442–444).

Naturally-colored glass windowpanes illuminated bathhouses in Syria-Palestine, such as those excavated in a monastery complex on Mount Scopus (see Section 5.5), and on the western shore of the Dead Sea (see Section 3.5). Pane fragments were also discovered, for example, in an eighth-century bathhouse at Qasr el-Hayr East in Syria (Salam-Liebich 1978:144–145).

The windows of building complexes in the Early Islamic realm were generally installed with stucco screens that were mounted with small glass panes, such as those at Khirbat al-Mafjar, probably dated to the eighth–ninth centuries (Brosh 1990), the Umayyad Qasr al-Hallabat in Jordan (Arce 2012), the northern church of the Bawit 101

Lucid Transformations Written Sources on Glass Windowpanes in Religious Public Buildings in Jerusalem

In the bathhouses (hammams) of the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods and possibly earlier, apertures in ceilings and vaults were covered with circular and curved glass panes of various naturally-colored shades, as attested in Damascus, Baalbek and Sinai. In the Ottoman period, the panes of the windowed bathhouse ceilings and vaults became more curved and resembled deep bowls (Foy 2005b:116).

Written evidence on glass windowpanes is scarce, yet De locis sanctis184 holds a description of the round Church of the (Lord’s) Ascension built on the Mount of Olives, with “eight upper windows paned with glass”. Inside these windows hung eight lamps, their light shining brightly through the windows and lighting up the area (Adomnán’s De locis sanctis, Book 1, Ch. 23:10–13; Wilkinson 2002:181). Additionally, an account from the early tenth century by Ibn al-Faqih, probably authentic yet exaggerated, records 56 very large glass panes of various colors located in marble screens in the copula drum of the Dome of the Rock (Creswell 1969:79; Elad 2008:187 and n. 107).

Glass Windowpanes in Churches and Monasteries Window screens and their glass panes were part of the architectural scheme of many churches, and they played both a practical function and an aesthetic role, affecting the appearance of the exterior and, together with artificial lighting, enhancing the ecclesiastical decoration of the interior (Dell’Acqua 2005:194–196; Schibille 2005). The church of St. Stephen, built in the second quarter of the sixth century in Gaza, was illuminated, according to Choricius,182 by the light from many large windows, including a wide and tall window in the apse (Choricius, Laudatio Marciani II:39–51; Mango 1972:68–72).

Interestingly, glass sheets were used in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as protection of the icons hanging in the church, as attested by Nasir-i Khusraw in the mid-eleventh century. Apparently, some pictures, varnished in oil and depicting Jesus and other Biblical figures, were shielded from dust and dirt by “fine, transparent glass”, which was cleaned daily (Thackston 2001:48).

Archaeological excavations have corroborated the use of circular and quadrangular glass windowpanes in ecclesiastical structures, and evidence from SyriaPalestine is detailed in Section 3.5.

4.2.2 Manufacture and Trade of Glass Windowpanes Manufacturing Techniques

A rather elaborate example was discovered in the large two-story Museum Basilica in Philippi in eastern Greek Macedonia, where the glass panes were associated with the repair of the building in the second half of the sixth century. The panes, which occupied the tri-lobed apse window, were precisely cut from large rectangular cylinder-blown sheets to fit a predetermined design, and were then assembled with lead strips. The design probably comprised geometric panels, mostly of light green, blue and yellow glass, framed by a multicolored decorative frame made-up of small cut glass pieces (Antonaras 2007:49–51, Figs. 2, 3).

Three methods of manufacturing ancient glass windowpanes have been established: cast, cylinder-blown and crown, the first two fashioning quadrangular panes, and the latter circular ones. These methods have been studied and discussed over the years by various researchers (e.g., Harden 1939; Meyer 1988:194–195, 207–211; 1989b; Broise 1991:75; Gorin-Rosen 2000b:238–242; 2000e:92*–93*; 2005a:207–208; Whitehouse 2001d:32– 34; Foy 2005e: various studies; Fontaine and Foy 2005; 2008; Wolf et al. 2005; Kanyak 2009). Information about the production techniques of glass windowpanes may also be retrieved from De Diversis Artibus. This work, by Theophilus, a German monk and practicing craftsman, was compiled in the first half of the twelfth century, yet it may have reflected older traditions (Dodwell 1961). The treatise comprised an exhaustive account on the techniques of most of the known crafts of that era, including the manufacture of cast and cylinderblown glass panes, as well as the making and assembling of their frames (De Diversis Artibus, Book II, Chapters VI–IX, XVII–XXIX; Dodwell 1961:40–43, 47–58).

Glass Windowpanes in Other Public Buildings Windowpanes were also mounted in additional types of public buildings, as in Sardis, where quadrangular glass panes dated from the early fifth to the early seventh centuries were discovered in areas adjacent to the synagogue and the gymnasium (von Saldern 1980:91–92, Pl. 16:680–699).183 Quadrangular and circular glass windowpanes were utilized in the auditoria (lecture halls) of the fifth–seventh centuries excavated at Kom al-Dikka in Alexandria, Egypt (Kucharczyk 2007:53). Glass panes were also installed in windows of castle-forts such as those at Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qasr al-Hallabat (see Section 4.2.2).

Cast Panes Cast flat panes were formed by pouring molten glass into a shallow mold and tooling it; as a result, the pane has a smooth upper surface with occasional tool marks in the corners, and a rough bottom substrate (see a reconstruction

See n. 158, in Chapter 3. Other, crown glass panes from the site were associated with Church E, dated to the thirteenth century (von Saldern 1980:98, 101). 182 183

184

102

See n. 38, in Chapter 2.

Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods made by contemporary artisans; Taylor 2000). This technique, also known as ‘roller-molded’, was widespread as early as the first century, especially in Italy and in the western Roman provinces.

Similarly, the numerous deformed fragments found in the excavations at Beirut’s city-center indicate that the glass workshop, which operated there in the middle or the second half of the seventh century, manufactured both tableware and cylinder-blown windowpanes (Foy 2000a).

Cylinder-Blown Panes

Windowpanes were probably sold by weight, as inferred from The Edict on Prices.186 One of the categories of glass goods mentioned in the Edict is spec[u]laris of both the best quality and a secondary quality, priced much cheaper than the glass vessels, perhaps indicating their low quality (Erim and Reynolds 1973:108–109; Stern 1999:460–466). Specularis probably designated glass windowpanes, yet may have also referred to panes of a different material.187 The two kinds of window glass (of the best quality and of secondary quality) may have referred to mold-cast quadrangular panes and blown circular panes, one (yet it is unclear which) regarded as being of superior quality (Broise 1991:75).

Another type of flat glass was made by blowing a cylinder, cutting it lengthwise, and flattening it out, resulting in a large quadrangular pane, smooth on both sides, occasionally bearing elongated bubbles. These quadrangular windowpanes were generally made of bluish or greenish glass, and their thickness varied. This technique, also known as ‘muff’, was probably introduced in the late second century, became widespread from the third century, and was predominant in the western Roman provinces from the mid-fifth century and throughout the rest of the first millennium (Foy 2005d). Crown Glass

Two declarations, recorded on papyri, by the same glassworkers’ guild at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt suggest the use of window glass. The one dated to 317 states the price of glass, and the other, dated to 326, specifies the use of 6000 pounds of glass in the construction of a public bathhouse. Various considerations imply that both declarations refer to window glass (Stern 1999:464–466).

Circular ‘crown glass’ windowpanes are also known as ‘bull’s eye’ for their thick protruding center, which is occasionally curved and sometimes biconvex. They were produced by blowing a spherical bubble and spinning it on a pontil to form a large disc. These panes generally had a rounded unfolded edge or a hollow-folded one. Their thickness measured several mm, and their diameters varied considerably, with the smaller ones placed as a whole inside a frame, and the large panes (300–360 mm in diameter) usually cut into smaller pieces. The blown circular panes were widespread in the eastern Roman provinces from the fourth century onward, while in the West they were rare and had possibly been imported from the East (e.g., Foy and Fontaine 2008:440–442).

Windowpanes, alongside various other glass products, were sold in shops, such as the one adjacent to the glass workshop discovered east of the Bet She’an bazzar (see above), and those unearthed in various Umayyad-period contexts in that ancient city, including the shops on the Umayyad-period street (Hadad 2005:30, Pl. 24:468–478). Numerous aquamarine-colored, cylinder-blown, flat, quadrangular glass panes were discovered at Sardis, mostly in the Byzantine-period shops, dated from the early fifth to the early seventh centuries. The large number of panes from the shops suggests that those that had not been set into windows had been stocked there for sale (von Saldern 1980:91–92, Pl. 16:680–699).

Workshops and Trade Windowpanes that were made in more than one technique, yet of the same raw glass, may have been manufactured in the same secondary workshop, as suggested by the morphological and chemical analyses of quadrangular and circular glass panes, discovered in the Petra Church in Jordan and dated to the fifth–seventh centuries (Schibille, Marii and Rehren 2008).

Types of Glass Windowpanes Ancient glass windowpanes were circular or quadrangular in shape, naturally- or intentionally colored; occasionally they bore painted decoration. The glass panes were used

The examination of findings from archaeological excavations has also established that glass windowpanes were made in the same workshops as glass vessels. A stack of quadrangular windowpanes, ready to be sold to customers, was located in the corner of the glass workshop excavated east of the bazzar, by the northeastern gate of Bet She’an. This workshop operated in the late sixth–early seventh centuries, and produced windowpanes, bottles, wineglasses and lamps, which were probably sold in the adjacent shop (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178; Khamis 2007:453–454).185

185

Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium was issued by the Roman emperor Diocletian in 301, probably at Alexandria, setting maximum prices for the sale of various goods. Among the items specified were raw glass, windowpanes, and glass vessels made in Egypt and Judaea. The vessels mentioned are cups and ‘smooth’, probably meaning undecorated, vessels. All three glass categories were sold by weight: libra referring to raw glass and windowpanes, and pondo to glass vessels. It is unclear how commonly glass vessels were sold by weight in antiquity or when this practice began, yet luxury glass and decorated vessels were sold per piece (Erim and Reynolds 1973:108–109; Barag 1987; 2005; Stern 1999:460–466; 2007:374–388; Whitehouse 2004). 187 Specularis, as in specularis vero, may have also indicated selenite or a variant of gypsum; see Section 4.2.1. 186

The glass workshop and its products were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen.

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Lucid Transformations as original-size panels and discs of various dimensions, or cut into smaller fragments. Examples of naturallycolored circular and quadrangular windowpanes from Jerusalem and their distribution in Syria-Palestine are discussed in Section 3.5. Intentionally-colored and painted windowpanes are so far missing from the Jerusalem glass corpus, and are therefore discussed in detail below.

Several small glass “panes or slabs” in various colors (“deep and pale blue, lavender, blue-green, olive-green and brown”) were discovered in the sixth-century monastery at Bet She’an (FitzGerald 1939:10). Bright-colored circular glass windowpanes and pieces cut from such panes were unearthed in the basilica of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo, where the colors included light blue, green, yellow, brown and red (Saller 1941:64–66, Figs. 12, 13; Pl. 139: Figs. 1, 2), and in the seventh-century basilica at Amathonte (Amathus) in Cyprus (Nenna 2005).

Circular Windowpanes Circular glass panes (Type WPcr, Section 3.5) are also known as ‘crown glass’, or ‘bull’s eye’ for their thick protruding center (see above). They generally had a hollow-folded rim/edge, and less commonly, an unfolded, flat, bent or curved edge, as some of the panes from the church and chapel on Jabal Harun near Petra (Keller and Lindblom 2008:350–354, Fig. 15). Circular windowpanes were blown and worked on a pontil in the same basic manner as bowls, and their fragments are therefore occasionally indiscernible from shallow glass dishes. These panes may bear blowing spirals, and bubbles curving parallel with the pane edge.

Some of the earliest known intentionally-colored window glass in the West adorned the cemetery church in Sion, Sous-le-Scex in the Rhône Valley in modern-day Switzerland, dated to the fifth or sixth century (Wolf et al. 2005). Another intentionally-colored piece (also painted; see below) was discovered in the San Vitale basilica at Ravenna, and if it had belonged to the original church, it may be dated to the 540s. The intentionally-colored panes of many hues in the Wearmouth and Jarrow monasteries in Britain were installed in the late seventh century by glassworkers from Gaul (Cramp 2006; and see Section 4.1.1). Interestingly, the raw glass and vessel cullet, from which the windowpanes were made, had been originally produced in Syria-Palestine or Egypt, while some of the glass has gone through several cycles of re-melting and reuse before reaching Britain (Freestone and Hughes 2006).188

Quadrangular Windowpanes Quadrangular glass panes (Type WPqd, Section 3.5) were made by the cast or the cylinder-blowing techniques (see above). These panes were generally made of bluish or greenish glass, and their thickness varied. They generally had two cut edges, one edge rounded by fire, occasionally appearing wavy, and a fourth edge chipped-off; excavated panes rarely preserve all their edges. The dimensions of quadrangular glass panes vary, and a side-length generally measures 100–400 mm.

Intentionally-colored windowpanes were widespread in public buildings in the Islamic realm, as attested by an earlytenth-century written source regarding the Dome of the Rock (see Section 4.2.1). In several parts (reception rooms?) of the ‘palace’ at Khirbat al-Mafjar the window stucco grilles were glazed with small pieces cut from crown-glass discs into various shapes and sizes; these pieces were intentionallycolored in purple, turquoise, dark green (or ‘bottle green’) and yellowish-brown hues (Baramki 1940–1942:158, Pl. 34:5; Brosh 1990). Similarly, circular intentionally-colored glass panes of deep emerald-green, cobalt and dark blues, yellow ochre, reds and purples were part of the illumination scheme of the Umayyad-period phase at Qasr al-Hallabat in Jordan (Arce 2012:40–42).

Colored Glass Windowpanes Naturally-tinted glass windowpanes were generally of light shades of green and blue, caused by iron oxide from impurities in the raw materials, and they seem to have provided an almost colorless illumination (e.g., Antonaras 2007:50–51; Schibille, Marii and Rehren 2008:633–635). Intentionally-colored glass panes, on the other hand, would have admitted deep colored light, enriching the decorative schemes of the venues where they were set, as, for example, in Umayyad-period Qasr al-Hallabat in Jordan (Arce 2012).

Most of the fragments of intentionally-colored panes, whose original shape could be recognized, belonged to circular crown-glass panes. Crown glass fragments of light blue, green, yellowish green and purple hues, some of which bore remains of their plaster frames, were discovered in a bathhouse and a dump dated to the eighth century at Qasr el-Hayr East in Syria (Salam-Liebich 1978:144–145). Numerous glass panes were recovered in the northern church of the Bawit monastery in Middle Egypt, which had functioned in the late seventh–tenth centuries. These panes attest to the rich repertoire of colors, including several shades of blue, green and

Intentionally-colored glass panes came in a variety of colors, among them purple, red, brown, amber, yellow, turquoise, and various shades of blue and green. These different hues were achieved by adding colorants to the raw glass, for example, manganese to produce purple, and copper oxide to achieve turquoise-colored glass (Paynter and Dungworth 2011:6). Some such pieces recovered in excavations were found detached of architectural elements, and they may have been employed as furniture inlays (Foy 2005b:113–114). Colored panes were probably first mentioned in written sources of the ninth century (Whitehouse 2001d:36).

188

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Recycling glass was a common practice, see, e.g., Freestone 2015.

Illumination Schemes in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods turquoise, purple and yellow. The panes were originally circular and varied in size (60–290 mm in diameter), yet most of them were found broken and roughly adjusted into plaster window openings (50–100 mm in diameter) (Bénazeth 2005). At Fustat, colored glass panes from the seventh century were made of ultramarine blue, amber and purple glass, while panes found in contexts dated to the tenth–eleventh centuries displayed a larger variety of colors, mostly violet, pink, green, emerald and various shades of blue (Foy 2005a:131–132); pieces made of naturally-tinted light bluish and greenish glass, and of copper-enriched turquoise color were those that had been black-painted (see below). Crown glass windowpanes of dark red, violet, dark blue, dark and light green, dark yellowish green (‘Russian green’), dark and light ocher, and yellowish brown colors (as well as colorless panes) were recorded in the Abbasid city of Samarra in Iraq, which flourished in the ninth and early tenth centuries (Lamm 1928:127–128, Figs. 72–76, Nos. 367–377).

cold glass, yet it is unclear whether the painting was followed by firing. The silvery hue of the pattern suggests that the paint contained silver. Black-painted glass windowpanes of various colors were part of the ‘stucco vitrage’ discovered in the ‘palace’ built in the Early Islamic period at Khirbat al-Mafjar. These panes were probably cut-out from ‘crown glass’, and decorated by ‘cold painting’, creating geometric and vegetal patterns (Brosh 1990). At Qasr al-Hallabat both naturally-colored and intentionally-colored glass pane fragments bore painted motifs, including concentric circles, herringbone patterns and various vegetal designs (Arce 2012:42). Black-painted windowpanes, some of them purple, were discovered in the Coptic monastic compound at Bawit in Middle Egypt, in the northern church, which had functioned from the late seventh to the tenth centuries (Bénazeth 2005:129–130, Fig. 144). Yellowish brown, green and colorless windowpanes with black-painted geometric and vegetal designs were installed in the palace complex built in the mid-ninth century at Samarra (Lamm 1928:101–102, Figs. 57–60, Nos. 283–288), and light blue, light green and turquoise-colored pieces, black-painted with geometric patterns, were found in contexts dated to the tenth–eleventh centuries at Fustat (Foy 2005a:132).

Painted Glass Windowpanes Some glass panes were adorned with geometric and vegetal designs, painted on the cold glass with a black pigment, probably carbon-based. The examination of panes, recovered at Fustat and dated to the tenth–eleventh centuries, indicates that they were not re-heated after the paint was applied, and that the painting preceded the mounting of the glass in the frames (Foy 2005a:132).

Mounting Glass Windowpanes

The earliest known painted window glass in the West depicts Christ on a throne; it was discovered in San Vitale at Ravenna, and if it had belonged to the original church, it may be dated to the 540s (Whitehouse 2001d:36–37). Painted windowpanes, whose date in the late eighth–ninth centuries is undisputable, were documented in France and Italy, and the earliest known written evidence dates to the ninth century (Whitehouse 2001d:37). The introduction of painted decoration and especially figurative painting on much smaller panes marked another phase in the development of the vitrail technique in Europe (Foy 2005b).

Glass windowpanes were fitted into plaster, stucco, stone, clay, brick or wooden frames and grilles, which were set into openings in exterior walls and inner partitions. The panes located on the exterior walls were generally placed close to the interior surface of the wall, while those covering ceilings or vaults were located on the exterior surface of the wall. The forms of the openings in a windowed partition did not necessarily replicate those of the glass pieces that covered them, hence complete and broken panes of various sizes and shapes may have been combined in a single window frame. Oculi, i.e., circular openings at the apex of a dome, generally held complete circular glass panes (Foy 2005b:113–114; Bénazeth 2005:127–128, Figs. 140, 141). Domed glass windowpanes, probably designed to admit light in domed ceilings, were uncovered in the western Roman provinces, in various complexes dated to the first– third centuries, many of which functioned as bathhouses (van den Dries 2006).

In Syria-Palestine, painted glass windowpanes were discovered in public structures, both religious and secular, associated with the late Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. Fragments of colorless glass windowpanes, preserving shallow incised geometric and vegetal patterns, were unearthed in monasteries in southern Sinai and dated to the late sixth–seventh centuries. The small size and poor preservation of these panes prevents the identification of the decoration technique, yet it is clear that the patterns were not ‘cold painted’, but either scratched on the surface or painted prior to firing (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:240–242, Fig. 4:2–8). A bluish-green pane depicting a painted vegetal design on one of its sides was discovered in a seventh-century context in Insula W2S3 at Caesarea Maritima.189 The pattern was created by painting on the 189

In the eastern Mediterranean basin, many of the screens were made of stucco, and their openings were generally small and cut in various geometric forms, as well as almond, clover and heart shapes. Each aperture was covered by a piece of glass, slightly larger than the opening, thus forgoing a precise fit. The glass was set in place by stucco straps applied on the margins of the glass excess, or by covering the entire surface with a layer of plaster, which would later be hollowed out with a knife, leaving only the design of the plaster encasing the glass (Foy 2005b:115).

See n. 70, in Chapter 3 (Insula W2S3, Area I).

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Lucid Transformations W2S3 at Caesarea Maritima,190 and in a church excavated at Kiryat Nordau in Netanya.191 Some of the glass panes from a church at Et-Tuweiri in the western Galilee, which probably functioned from the fifth–sixth centuries to the early/mid-seventh century, bear traces of the original window frames (Gorin-Rosen 2007b: Fig. 19). Stucco frames, probably for quadrangular panes, were unearthed in an Early Islamic industrial site south of Ramla (JacksonTal 2008:181, Fig. 6.121).

In other cases, the glass fragments were embedded deep into the thick stucco tracery, which had its two faces cut in elaborate high relief, as at Sabra al-Mansûriyya (near Kairouan) in Tunisia, founded in the mid-tenth century and probably abandoned a century later (Foy 2005c). Moreover, the Umayyad-period illumination scheme of Qasr al-Hallabat in Jordan included double-screen windows comprising two stucco panels: an exterior one, set with naturally-colored circular glass panes, and an interior geometrically-carved panel, embedded with small fitted intentionally-colored glass pieces (Arce 2012:41, Figs. 6, 11).

A circular greenish windowpane with an unfolded rim was found set in its plaster frame at Samaria Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:421). A plaster screen with glass discs, its date disputed, was associated with the mid-sixth-century Church of St. Catherine in Sinai (Meyer 1989b:215–216; Dell’Acqua 2005:196–198). Several plaster window frames were excavated in a chapel in southern Sinai, dated to the Byzantine and possibly the Early Islamic periods (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:242, Fig. 4:9, 10), and quadrangular concrete window-frames for circular panes, their date unclear, were recorded in the upper chapel of Hermitage 28 at the Monastery of St. Sabas (Mar Saba) in the Judean Desert (Patrich 1993:237–238).

These stucco screens, comprising small fragments of colored and occasionally painted glass, seemingly meet the definition of the Western lead-came vitrail; however, they are smaller, the glass cutting and fitting are less accurate, and the layout and composition are less sophisticated and lack didactic narratives and figurative scenes. Furthermore, as the glass panes are deeply embedded in the stucco trellis and are often set at a distance from one another, the effects of the penetrating colored light are different than those in Western vitrail (Foy 2005b:114–115).

A plaster window frame with two rims of circular glass panes adhering was discovered in the Fountain Court at Gerasa, and dated to the sixth or seventh century (Baur 1938:546, Pl. XXXV:b; Harden 1972:83, 113, Pl. VI:A:2), and round plaster screens encasing circular glass panes were recorded in the basilica of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo (Saller 1941:64–66, Figs. 12, 13; Pl. 139: Figs. 1, 2). Glass windowpanes set in plaster frames were also documented in the Early Islamic ‘palace’ at Khirbat al-Mafjar (Brosh 1990).

Window Frames and Traces of Frames on Glass Panes from Syria-Palestine Various screens, as well as glass windowpanes bearing traces of their frames, were discovered in various sites in Syria-Palestine. Quadrangular windowpanes bearing fragments of their plaster frames were discovered, for example, in Insula

190 191

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See n. 70, in Chapter 3 (Insula W2S3, Area I). See n. 101, in Chapter 3 (Permit No. A-4093/2004).

5 Newly Studied Glass Finds from Archaeological Excavations in Jerusalem and Its Environs

Many sites and complexes occupied from the fifth/sixth through the eighth centuries in Jerusalem and its environs yielded substantial glass assemblages. These are analyzed in this chapter in an attempt to further illuminate the nature of the Byzantine–Islamic transition in Syria-Palestine, and to sketch a historical-chronological picture deriving explicitly from the archaeological data.

and consideration despite those deficiencies. The final reports of most other excavations presented in this chapter are in various stages of preparation, yet the publications of most are not expected soon.192 Notwithstanding these circumstances, which may obviously hinder a methodological archaeological investigation, I managed to obtain most of the records of the stratigraphy and of various finds from these excavations. Nevertheless, in my research I chose to first examine the glass finds from these excavations by their established typo-chronology (as presented in Chapter 3), and only then weigh these observations in reference to other data. Consequently, the glass finds are examined independently, as well as in relation to the archaeological contexts in which they were discovered, considering, when available, the stratigraphy, architectural elements, numismatic data and pottery.193 These data are evaluated in the discussion of each site, and cited whenever they are relevant to the glass finds.

The finds from these assemblages enhance the Jerusalem glass corpus, and enrich the repertoire with vessels and artifacts that have not yet been encountered in the vicinity of Jerusalem, or in Syria-Palestine in general. Additionally, one of the assemblages (see Section 5.5) includes glass windowpanes that had been installed in a bathhouse, shedding light on a scarcely-documented phenomenon. Moreover, the examination of the glass finds discussed in this chapter, those from the sites presented in Chapter 6, and others from additional sites in the Jerusalem area, enables the construction of a comprehensive picture of the body of glass from Jerusalem and its vicinity in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, as elaborated in Section 7.2.

As they are fragile and easily breakable, glass finds, particularly tableware and everyday vessels, have a limited life span; therefore, they may generally be assigned to the latest date of the occupation stratum in which they had been discovered (Barag 1970b:99). It is, however, noteworthy that, in many cases, the excavated contexts were not sealed or ‘clean’, but rather mixed or ‘disturbed’, and in others, the pottery dating for a single locus may range over several centuries. Additionally, dating by coins may be problematic with regard to the early part of the timespan discussed in this book, as it has been established that fourth-century coins continued to be used in large numbers during the fifth and sixth centuries (Bijovsky 2011:60, 84–112). These observations reinforce the significance of the glass finds in establishing a reliable well-defined chronology.

The analyses in this chapter also contribute to a better understanding of the history of the sites examined, corroborating or challenging assertions made by the excavators, thus manifesting the potential of the field of glass research. Furthermore, the following investigation of the glass assemblages within their contexts, together with those presented in Chapter 6, establishes the foundation for the synthesis presented in Chapter 7, considering issues of settlement and religious-ethnic contexts (Section 7.4), as well as trends of continuity and their historical and cultural significance (Section 7.5). A summation of the data relating to the nature of each site, alongside the relevant periods of settlement, and the dating of glass finds from these periods in each assemblage, is presented in Table 7.4 (in Section 7.4).

It should also be noted that, as many of the excavations studied in this research were salvage excavations, the architectural remains, as well as the glass (and other) finds, may not necessarily reflect a comprehensive understanding of the sites. Consequently, the glass finds examined here are not suitable for a systematic

In this chapter I have investigated and analyzed a selection of significant glass assemblages from excavations in sites and complexes in the Jerusalem area, which had been occupied in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. Ten glass assemblages are presented herein, originating from excavations carried out in the past two and a half decades. The results of two of these excavations, which were conducted in 1989 and 1991 (see Sections 5.1, 5.2), have been only preliminarily studied in the early 1990s, and their final reports may never be completed. However, the glass finds from these significant complexes comprise large and diverse assemblages, which justify their research

Detailed reports of these excavations are intended for publication in the Atiqot and IAA Reports series. The reports on the excavations in the Kidron Valley (Section 5.6) and Umm Tuba (Section 5.7) were released when work on my Ph.D. dissertation was at its final stages and shortly afterward. 193 More often than not, no coins were recorded in the loci that contained glass. 192

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Lucid Transformations

Map 5.0. Location map of the sites mentioned in Chapters 5 and 6. * JICC – the Jerusalem International Convention Center

108

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs quantitative or statistical analysis, and the occurrence of a specific type in a certain site is generally recorded with no mention of the number of pieces, as that information is rarely available or significant. Moreover, as nearly all the glass finds discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 were discovered as fragments, the quantities of these fragments do not necessarily reflect the number of various vessel types, as several pieces may have belonged to a single vessel. Notwithstanding, the occurrence of a specific type in relatively large numbers in a site or within a certain unit is examined and deliberated.

crypts, and yielding two tombstones inscribed in Armenian. These burials were dated by the excavators from the fifth– sixth centuries. The monastic complex encompassed a church, residences, a bathhouse, a paved courtyard, and a large reservoir and water-collecting system. Two phases were discerned by the excavators, and dated by inscriptions and coins: the construction phase of the monastery, which included the church (Plan 5.1:1), was assigned to the sixth century; the later phase, dated to the second half of the seventh century, included additions to the church, and the expansion of the complex to include a reception hall (Plan 5.1:8) and a southern residential unit (Plan 5.1:13). The complex ceased to function sometime in the eighth or ninth century.

Ten sites are presented in Chapter 5 and eleven in Chapter 6. These sites are arranged in each chapter in geographical order, and their locations are marked on Map 5.0. Each site is concisely described, focusing on its chronology, the major elements, and significant finds from the periods relevant to this research. Individual plans (numbered according to the site section) accompany some of the sites in Chapter 5, when available and/or significant.

The church (Plan 5.1:1) and narthex (Plan 5.1:2) were paved with a mosaic floor, incorporating, in front of the bema, a three-line Greek dedicatory inscription, dated by paleographic considerations to the sixth–seventh centuries. The mosaic floor in the reception hall (Plan 5.1:8) of the main residential unit was laid soon after the Arab conquest of Jerusalem in 638, as attested by a coin discovered in its foundation. The mosaic floor featured a seven-line inscription in Armenian script, assigning the monastery to the Armenian community (Stone and Amit 1997:37–41). A clay bowl inscribed with an Armenian abecedary, found nearby (on the floor of the bathhouse apodyterium), further supports this identification (Stone and Amit 1997:43–44). The reception hall was surrounded by rooms (Plan 5.1:9–11) used for storage, cooking, bathing and other household functions, as attested by a rich assemblage of glass vessels and cooking pots.

The glass finds reviewed are those relevant to the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods; earlier glass finds, i.e., from the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and glass from later periods, i.e., from the Abbasid period onward, are mentioned briefly. The various vessels and artifacts are discussed with reference to their typo-chronology as established in Chapter 3. A detailed catalogue is provided for each illustrated piece, comprising the following data and observations: catalogue number, provenance (including area, unit, locus and basket numbers), description of the fragment with its dimensions (D–diameter; L–length; W– width; Th–thickness), color of the vessel and decorations, streaks and bubbles, blowing spirals, polishing and tool marks, scars and glass traces from the pontil, and weathering and preservation condition.

Several crypts (Plan 5.1:3–7) were hewn under the church and its narthex, of which two (Plan 5.1:4, 7) yielded fragments of tombstones inscribed with Armenian script (Stone and Amit 1997:41–43). Another crypt, the Vault Crypt (Locus 88; Plan 5.1:3), contained skeletal remains of several individuals, two clay bowls, a fragment of a wooden coffin, and numerous glass vessels (see below).

5.1 Monastery North of Damascus Gate 5.1.1 The Site and the Finds A large-scale archaeological salvage project was carried out on behalf of the IAA in 1990–1992 along the route of Highway No. 1 in Jerusalem, north of Damascus Gate. The area exposed at least four monastic complexes with adjoining pilgrim hospices and burial grounds, which functioned north of the Byzantine-period city walls during the fifth–ninth centuries (Amit and Wolff 1994; Tzaferis et al. 1994; Tzaferis, Amit and Sarig 1996; Tsafrir 1999:336– 340; Avni 2014:139–141).

The northern excavation area uncovered a structure, probably another monastic complex, comprising a long corridor (Plan 5.1:16), a row of rooms (Plan 5.1:19–21), two large cisterns (Plan 5.1:17, 18) and a two-vault burial chamber (Plan 5.1:22). This northern monastery was, according to the excavators, contemporaneous with the later construction phase, in the second half of the seventh century, of the complex in the southern area, yet there are no finds to support the affiliation of the northern structures to the Armenian community.

The excavation in Area D was conducted in 1991–1992, and its results have been only preliminarily published (IAA License No. G-113/1991; Amit and Wolff 1994; Amit, Wolff and Gorzalczany 1995). The most significant remains were those of a monastery dated to the sixth– eighth/ninth centuries, exposed in the southern excavation area (Plan 5.1). The monastery was built over and beside a burial ground comprising various tombs and subterranean

The Glass Finds Most of the glass finds from the monastic complex north of Damascus Gate are characteristic of the late Byzantine and early Umayyad periods, and are discussed below. They included bowls, wineglasses, bottles, jugs, lamps, a small disc and windowpanes (Figs. 5.1.1–5.1.4), as well

109

Lucid Transformations

Plan 5.1. Monastery north of Damascus Gate – Southern Excavation Area, right; Northern Excavation Area, top left; site location map, bottom left (after Amit, Wolf and Gorzalczany 1995: Figs. 81, 85; courtesy of the IAA).

110

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs as several bracelets (not illustrated). Some specimens are associated with the Abbasid and Late Islamic periods.194

(e.g., Fig. 5.1.2:9–14; Type BTrr/fm), and many have a long cylindrical or funnel-shaped neck (Fig. 5.1.2:17, 19–22; Type BTrr/ln). The lower part of these bottles is generally globular or barrel-shaped (Fig. 5.1.2), while a few are pear-shaped (e.g., Fig. 5.1.2:13). Nearly all the bottles from the site have a concave bottom with no pontil scar on its underside (Fig. 5.1.2), suggesting they were possibly made in the same workshop.

The glass finds are presented here, as in all other sections of this chapter, by their typology. In the final report, when one is required, the glass finds may possibly be discussed according to the excavation areas, the southern and the northern (see above). However, in the discussion below, reference is made to these two areas and to the monastic complexes exposed in them. Therefore, it should be noted that the glass finds from the southern excavation area originated in Loci 10–201, and those from the northern area were recovered in Loci 300–430.

An exceptional piece (Fig. 5.1.3:28) has an exterior horizontal hollow fold on its shoulder. Bottles with an exterior fold below the rim occurrred particularly in the seventh century (see Type BTef).

Wineglasses

Other types of bottles include one with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body (Fig. 5.1.3:30), characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries (Type BTTifr), and a small, thick-walled, cylindrical bottle (Fig. 5.1.3:31) of a type that was widespread particularly in the Abbasid period (Type BTTcyb).

The glass corpus includes several complete specimens and numerous fragments of wineglasses, of types that were widespread in the Jerusalem area during the sixth– seventh centuries. They have a rounded rim and thin walls (Fig. 5.1.1:1–4; Type WGrr). These wineglasses are either undecorated (Fig. 5.1.1:1), or adorned with blue trails applied horizontally and fused-in on and below the rim (Fig. 5.1.1:2–4; Type WGtd).

Jugs Only a few jugs were identified at the site. A pinched funnelshaped mouth (Fig. 5.1.3:32; Type JGpfm) discovered in the southern excavation area probably belonged to a jug, as did a ribbed strap handle from the northern area (Fig. 5.1.3:33).

More than 40 wineglass bases were collected at the site, all of the hollow ring base type (Fig. 5.1.1:1–3; 5; Type WGhb). These bases generally have a hollow stem and display several contemporaneous subtypes: most of the bases support a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.1.1:2, 3; Type WGhb/sbs), while others have a cylindrical stem (Fig. 5.1.1:1, 5). One of these bases (Fig. 5.1.1:5) may be assigned a date in the sixth century, as it was recovered together (in Locus 401) with two coins dating from 498– 518 and 527–538.

Vessels Decorated in Various Techniques Many of the vessels from the site are adorned with moldblown patterns, and/or trails wound around the mouth or neck (see Bottles, above). A body fragment adorned with moldblown vertical ribbing (Fig. 5.1.4:34) was retrieved together (in Locus 73) with a coin dating from 533–537, possibly alluding to the glass vessel’s date in the sixth century.

Various Bases Several solid bases, discovered in the northern excavation area (Fig. 5.1.1:6–8; Type BSsd), probably supported bowls, bowls/beakers, or beakers. Two of these bases (Fig. 5.1.1:7, 8) were discovered in separate locations, together with other glass vessels dated to the sixth–seventh centuries (not illustrated). One of these bases (Fig. 5.1.1:7) may be assigned a date in the sixth century, as it was found together (in Locus 420) with three coins dating from 395– 408, 450–549 and 498–518.

Other ornamentation methods include pinched trail decoration (Fig. 5.1.4:35, 36; Type DDpt), an applied thick wavy trail (Fig. 5.1.4:37; Type DDwt), and rows of pinches on the vessel wall (Fig. 5.1.4:38; Type DDrp), all characteristic particularly of the seventh–eighth centuries. The latter piece (Fig. 5.1.4:38) was retrieved in the same provenance (Locus 351) as fifteen coins: one dating from 498–518, one from 498–641, two from 645–670, eight from 697–750, and three coins dating from 750–1218. These numismatic data accord with the date of the glass finds.

Bottles

The cylindrical vessel adorned with prominent oval trail applications (Fig. 5.1.4:39) was discovered together with a shallow-bowl lamp (Fig. 5.1.4:44; Type LCW), suggesting a date in the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods, i.e., the seventh–mid-eighth centuries. Vessels decorated with prominent trail applications appeared in the late seventh– early eighth centuries, and were extensively manufactured in Syria-Palestine during the eighth century (see Type DDta). However, vessels adorned with a pattern of ovals are not widespread; a cylindrical vessel with a similar application was discovered at Susa in Iran, and assigned to around the year 500 (Lamm 1931:361, Pl. LXXVI:6).

Most of the bottles from the site are thin-walled, longnecked bottles with a globular or barrel-shaped body, characteristic of the sixth–seventh centuries. Nearly all are of light greenish-blue glass, while a few are green or olive green. Most of the bottles have a rounded rim (Figs. 5.1.2; 5.1.3:23–27; Type BTrr), while very few have an infolded or partly infolded rim (e.g., Fig. 5.1.2:21; Type BTir). Many of the bottles have a funnel-shaped mouth 194 The glass finds from this excavation were preliminarily studied in the 1990s by Y. Gorin-Rosen.

111

Lucid Transformations

1

4

2

3

5

7

6

0

20 mm

8

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1*

-

-

Complete wineglass (H 125 mm). Slightly flaring, rounded rim (D 72 mm), U-sectioned body, short cylindrical stem, hollow ring base (D 47 mm).

2*

-

-

Complete wineglass (H 94–96 mm). Irregular rounded rim (D 65–85 mm) with an oval opening, U-sectioned body, twisted single-bead stem, hollow ring base (D 50 mm) with traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. A dark blue trail is wound horizontally 7 times and fused-in on and below the rim, and the body is adorned with mold-blown shallow diagonal ribbing. Vessel: colorless with bluish green tinge; base: greenish blue; trail: dark blue with black impurities. Limy deposit. Mended.

3

88

1028

Complete wineglass (H 98–99 mm). Irregular rounded rim (D 72 mm), U-sectioned body, single-bead stem, and hollow ring base with a scar from the pontil on its underside. A dark blue trail is wound horizontally 8 times and fused-in on and below the rim, and a mold-blown pattern of shallow vertical ribs adorns the lower part of the body. Vessel: bluish green; trail: blue with black impurities. Iridescence. Mended. (IAA No. 1994-2163).

4

424

699

Wineglass with a rounded incurved rim (D 60 mm) and a dark blue trail wound horizontally and fusedin on and below the rim. Colorless with greenish tinge; red streaks in the trail. Iridescence.

5

401

647

Wineglass with a cylindrical stem and an irregular hollow ring base (D 48 mm) with traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. Greenish blue. Iridescence; limy deposit.

6

(17/1)

755

Bowl or bowl/beaker with curved walls and a flat solid disc base (D 30 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Bluish green. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit.

7

420

682

Bowl or beaker with a flat solid disc base (D 35 mm) with an interior convex bulge, and a large pontil scar and a curved groove on its underside. Green and olive green. Weathering; iridescence.

8

424

701

Bowl or beaker with a flat solid disc base (D 45 mm) with a large scar and traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

* The provenances of these vessels are unclear. Fig. 5.1.1. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: wineglasses and various bases.

112

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

11

9

10

12

14 15

13

16

17

18 0

20 mm

Fig. 5.1.2. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: bottles from the Vault Crypt (Locus 88).

113

Lucid Transformations Fig. 5.1.2. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: bottles from the Vault Crypt (Locus 88). No.

Basket

Description

9

1028/1(5)

Complete bottle (H 190 mm). Irregular, slightly flaring, rounded rim (D 55 mm), narrow funnel-shaped mouth, short cylindrical neck, barrel-shaped body, and concave bottom (D c. 65 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Light greenish blue. Iridescence; limy deposit on most of the vessel. Mended.

10

1028/3(1)

Complete bottle (H 125 mm). Irregular rounded rim (D 55–60 mm), wide funnel-shaped mouth constricted at its base, no neck, barrel-shaped body (bottom missing). Light greenish blue. Iridescence; limy deposit. Mended.

11

1028/3(2)

Funnel-shaped mouth (rim missing), short cylindrical neck, part of shoulders (body and bottom missing). Light greenish blue. Iridescence; limy deposit.

12

1028/3(3)

Wide funnel-shaped mouth (rim missing), no neck, barrel-shaped body, and concave bottom (D 40 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Light greenish blue. Iridescence; limy deposit. Mended.

13

1028/3

Intact bottle (H 142–143 mm). Irregular rounded rim (D 50 mm), cylindrical neck flaring at its upper end, pear-shaped body adorned with shallow mold-blown vertical ribs, and concave bottom (D 55 mm). Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit. (IAA No. 1998-685).

14

1028/3(4)

Bottle. Rounded rim (D 46 mm), funnel-shaped mouth, short cylindrical neck, thin-walled globular body with mold-blown vertical ribbing (bottom missing). Colorless with greenish tinge. Iridescence; limy deposit.

15

1028/2

Bottle. Part of a funnel-shaped mouth, short cylindrical neck, thin-walled globular body with a shallow mold-blown grid pattern, and concave bottom (D 75 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Light greenish blue. Iridescence; limy deposit. Mended.

16

1139/1141

Bottle. Part of a neck (rim missing), a barrel-shaped body adorned with shallow, mold-blown diagonal ribs, and concave bottom (D 45 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit.

17

1140

Bottle. Tall, thin-walled cylindrical neck (broken; rim missing), globular body adorned with shallow, double-mold-blown vertical ribs, no neck, barrel-shaped body and concave bottom (D 50 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit.

18

1139/1141

Bottle. Wide funnel-shaped mouth (rim missing), adorned with shallow mold-blown vertical ribs, no neck, barrel-shaped body and concave bottom (D 50 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Light green. Weathering; iridescence. Mended.

19

1138

Intact bottle (H 164–166 mm). Rounded rim (D 29–32 mm), tall narrow neck adorned from the rim along most of its length with an irregularly-wound light-olive-green trail, irregular barrel-shaped body adorned on its upper part with short and shallow mold-blown vertical ribs, and concave bottom (D 53 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: light olive green. Weathering; iridescence. (IAA No. 1998-684).

20

1139/1141

Bottle. Part of a tall narrow neck (rim missing) adorned with numerous windings of a thin trail. Vessel: olive green; trail color: undiscernible. Weathering; iridescence.

21

1137

Intact bottle (H 165–166 mm). Irregular, partly infolded rim (D 37–39 mm), tall narrow neck adorned at about mid-height with a wound trail of the same the color as the bottle (some of the windings leaving imprints only), irregular barrel-shaped body, concave bottom (D 60 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Green; blowing spirals. Weathering; iridescence. (IAA No. 1998-683).

22

1028/1

Intact bottle (H 225 mm). Rounded rim (D 60 mm), tall narrow neck adorned with a wound unevenlythick blue trail, globular body, and concave bottom (D 80 mm). Light bluish green. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit. (IAA No. 1998-682).

114

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

20

19

21

22

0

20 mm

Fig. 5.1.2. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: bottles from the Vault Crypt (Locus 88) (continued).

115

Lucid Transformations

23

24 25

27

28

26

29

30

31

32

33 0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

23

65

267 281 327

Rounded rim (D 90 mm), slanting walls. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit. Mended.

24

(19/1)

757

Rounded rim (D 60 mm), nearly cylindrical mouth/neck. Light greenish blue; small bubbles. Iridescence.

25

65

267 281 327

Irregular rounded rim (D 85 mm), slightly conical mouth/neck adorned with thick and thin windings of a turquoise-colored trail. Vessel: Light greenish blue; trail: turquoise-colored. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit. Mended.

26

12

841

Rounded rim (D 80 mm), conical mouth/neck adorned with thin and thick windings of a trail of the same color as the vessel, partly fused-in. Deep greenish blue. Limy deposit.

27

65

267 281 327

Irregular rounded rim (D 48 mm), and wide funnel-shaped mouth adorned with thick and thin windings of a turquoise-colored trail. Vessel: Light greenish blue; trail: turquoise-colored. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit. Mended.

28

65

267 281 327

Cylindrical neck (D c. 20 mm; rim missing), constricted at its base, and adorned with thick and thin windings of a turquoise-colored trail. On the slanting shoulders is an exterior hollow fold (D 68 mm). Vessel: Light greenish blue; trail: turquoise-colored. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit.

29

409

561/13

Thick flat bottom (D 20 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Green. Iridescence.

30

111

124

Infolded flattened rim (D 25 mm) with a small opening (D 5.5 mm), cylindrical neck. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit.

31

314

641

Small, thick-walled, cylindrical bottle (D 23–24 mm; rim missing). Colorless with a greenish tinge. Weathering; iridescence; slight pitting.

32

12

841

Jug with an infolded hollow rim, and a pinched funnel-shaped mouth. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

33

419

644

Jug with a ribbed strap handle (W 13–24 mm; Th 2–3 mm). Light green. Weathering; iridescence.

Fig. 5.1.3. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: bottles and jugs.

116

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Two small wall fragments adorned with a mold-blown, indistinct, geometric pattern (Fig. 5.1.4:40) may have been parts of a quadrangular-sectioned jug associated with the group of multi-side vessels, assigned to the seventh–eighth centuries (Type EXMSV).

therefore, addressed separately. The glass finds from this crypt are characteristic of the sixth–seventh centuries, and may assist in dating the church compound and the southern monastic complex. The precise provenances in the crypt of some of the glass vessels were documented by the excavators, and shed light on the placing of grave goods and the burial customs practiced at the site. An intact bottle (Fig. 5.1.2:19) and additional bottle fragments (in Basket 1136, not illustrated) were discovered in the northeastern corner of the crypt (C3 and C1, respectively); a bottle adorned with double moldblown vertical ribbing (Fig. 5.1.2:17)—in the central part of the crypt (B1); an intact bottle (Fig. 5.1.2:21)—in the western end of the crypt (A4); and several bottle fragments (Fig. 5.1.2:16, 18, 20) were found south of the skeleton skull, in the western part of the crypt (A1) and in the northwestern corner of the crypt (A2).

Lamps The lamps recovered at the site represent most of the major types of glass lamps that were widespread during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods. One of the bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with three handles (Type LBB) had a rounded flaring rim (Fig. 5.1.4:41; Type LBBrr), while most had an outfolded rim (Fig. 5.1.4:42; Type LBBor), and some had a wick tube installed at the floor center (Fig. 5.1.4:43; Type LBBwkt). The stemmed bowl-shaped lamp type (Type LST) was less widespread at the site, and is represented by hollow cylindrical stems (not illustrated; Type LSThs). Additionally, the site yielded a fragment of a scarcer type of lamp, comprising a wide shallow bowl with short convex walls and perforations below the rim to allow its suspension (Fig. 5.1.4:44; Type LCW).

One of the glass vessels from the Vault Crypt is a wineglass (Fig. 5.1.1:3; see Wineglasses, above), while the rest are bottles. These bottles are all thin-walled, and have a globular, barrel-shaped, or pear-shaped body (Fig. 5.1.2; see Bottles, above). All the bottles from the crypt, which preserved their lower part and which could be examined,195 have a concave bottom with no pontil scar on its underside, indicating either that the rim was not tooled, or that the scar had been intentionally smoothed. This observation suggests that these bottles may have been made to order in the same nearby workshop, possibly by the same artisan or group of artisans.

Small Disc A thin disc with an unevenly broken edge (Fig. 5.1.4:45), uncovered in the northern excavation area, may have been used as an inlay (see Type ARTSD). The disc was recovered (in Locus 311) alongside a coin dating from 700–725, which may allude to its date.

In their preliminary publications of the excavation north of Damascus Gate, the excavators reason that the southern of the two monastic complexes was constructed in the sixth century, expanded in the second half of the seventh century, and fell out of use sometime during the eighth–ninth centuries; the northern complex functioned, according to the excavators, in the second half of the seventh century, contemporaneously with the later construction phase of the southern complex (Amit and Wolff 1994; Amit, Wolff and Gorzalczany 1995).

Windowpanes Glass windowpane fragments were unearthed in both the northern and southern excavation areas, most of them of the quadrangular type (Fig. 5.1.4:46; Type WPqd). 5.1.2 Summary and Discussion The excavation in Area D, north of Damascus Gate, exposed two monastic complexes. The glass finds documented in both the southern and the northern complexes included bowls, wineglasses, plain and decorated bottles, jugs, lamps and windowpanes (Figs. 5.1.1–5.1.4, and additional pieces, not illustrated), as well as several bracelets (not illustrated). Most of these finds date from the late Byzantine and early Umayyad periods, i.e., the sixth–seventh centuries. Moreover, some vessels characteristic particularly of the seventh–eighth centuries (Figs. 5.1.3:30; 5.1.4:35–38) were found in both excavation areas. Additionally, several specimens (e.g., Fig. 5.1.3:31), attributed predominantly to the ninth–tenth centuries, may suggest a continuous occupation.

Regrettably, the results of the excavation have not yet been thoroughly analyzed and published; it is, therefore, impossible to refer to specific loci and specific finds to corroborate this assumption. However, taking into account the available data, it seems that the excavators’ chronological distinction between the two monastic complexes is not explicitly manifested in the glass finds, which display similar fabrics and typologies in both the southern and the northern monastic complexes (see above). Further study of the glass finds, accompanied by a much-anticipated future analysis of the documentation and material from the excavation, may yield refined results.

One of the crypts, the Vault Crypt (Locus 88; Plan 5.1:3) hewn under the church narthex in the southern excavation area, yielded, among other finds, numerous intact, complete and fragmentary glass vessels, which are,

The bottles illustrated in Figs. 5.1.2:13 and 5.1.2:22 could be examined only from drawings and photographs, as they are on a long-term loan in Germany. 195

117

Lucid Transformations

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

42 41

43

44

45 46 0

20 mm

Fig. 5.1.4. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: vessels decorated in various techniques, lamps and artifacts.

118

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.1.4. Monastery north of Damascus Gate: vessels decorated in various techniques, lamps and artifacts. No.

Locus

Basket Description

34

73

491

Thick-walled body fragment adorned with mold-blown vertical ribbing. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; slight pitting.

35

65

267 281 327

Bottle with a funnel-shaped mouth/neck, and a globular body adorned with pinched turquoise-colored trails, creating a protruding bifurcated pattern. Vessel: light greenish blue; trails: turquoise-colored with opaque red streaks. Weathering; iridescence.

36

310

604

Body fragment with four horizontal turquoise-colored trails, pinched to create a bifurcated pattern. Vessel: colorless; trails: turquoise-colored. Iridescence.

37

50

112

Body fragment adorned with a thick, wavy horizontally-wound trail of the same color as the vessel. Light green; black impurities in the trail. Weathering; iridescence.

38

351

80 516/17

Body fragments with two horizontal pinches. Deep bluish green; small bubbles. Iridescence.

39

119

167

Cylindrical body adorned with prominent oval trail applications, irregular solid disc base (D 30 mm) with a large pontil scar on its underside. Light olive green. Weathering; iridescence.

40

65

327

Two wall fragments of a four-side vessel, adorned with a pattern of protruding rounded bulges. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; limy deposit.

41

406

520/3

Lamp with a rounded flaring rim (D 90 mm), thin walls, and a thin handle drawn from the wall up to the rim. Light bluish green. Weathering; iridescence; slight pitting.

42

400

69

Lamp with a hollow outfolded rim (D 110 mm). Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

43

419

668

Lamp with a cylindrical wick tube (D 11 mm), and part of the lamp bowl with a pontil scar on its underside. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

44

119

167

Lamp with a shallow bowl with a cut rim (D 220 mm) and thick convex walls, with a diagonally-slanting perforation intact below the rim. Light olive green. Weathering; iridescence; severe pitting. Mended.

45

311

570

Piece of glass, cut as a disc (D c. 30 mm; Th 2–3 mm) with an unevenly broken edge. Colorless. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

46

316

747

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 2–4 mm) with a rounded, uneven edge. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; slight pitting.

5.2 Residential and Commercial Complex in the Mamilla Area

One of the shops in Area A2 (Loci 153 and 164) contained several installations that were sealed under Early Islamic layers, This shop yielded numerous diverse finds, including local and imported pottery, coins dating mostly from the second half of the fifth century and from the sixth century, a clay ampulla from Asia Minor bearing Christian figurative scenes (Maeir and Strauss 1995), a small red limestone cross, and numerous glass finds (see below). Additional artifacts bearing Christian significance were unearthed in adjoining shops, for example, a small crossshaped bronze pendant and a marble plaque engraved with Armenian script (Stone 2006).

5.2.1 The Site and the Finds A large-scale rescue excavation in the Mamilla neighborhood, northwest of Jaffa Gate, on the northeastern slope of the Valley of Hinnom, was conducted on behalf of the IAA in 1989, and its results have been only preliminarily published (Permit No. A-1671/1989; Maeir 1993; 1994). This and other excavations carried nearby in the 1990s, exposed remains from as early as the Iron Age, through the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, the Middle Ages and up to modern times (Maeir 1994; Reich and Shukrun 1994; 2001).

Along the Old City wall, northwest of Jaffa Gate, additional remains from the late Byzantine and Early Islamic periods were uncovered (Areas B1, B2 and B3). Among them were a stretch of an aqueduct that was apparently constructed in the fourth–fifth centuries and continued to function through the Middle Ages, a contemporaneous dirt road running parallel to it, and possibly an industrial area with shops opening onto that road, which were built toward the end of the Byzantine period, and continued to be used in the beginning of the Early Islamic period. A public bathhouse was constructed in the Byzantine period near the probable location of the contemporaneous city gate, and at a slightly lower level than the aqueduct in order to utilize its water.

The most significant remains from Maeir’s 1989 excavation were those related to the extensive extramural activity in the area during the late Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. These remains included shops opening onto a street leading southwest from the Jaffa Gate area (Area A2); another lane farther north, possibly lined with shops; and a residential building, possibly an inn for pilgrims, with one of its rooms paved with Greek inscriptions. This complex probably functioned for a limited time, and underwent structural changes and extensions to the south and west.

119

Lucid Transformations The Glass Finds

support a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.2.2:14–19; Type WGhb/ sbs), while others have a bulging stem (Fig. 5.2.2:20) or a cylindrical twisted stem (Fig. 5.2.2:21). Other bases are smaller and delicate (Fig. 5.2.2:22, 23).

The glass finds from the 1989 excavation in the Mamilla area comprise small and poorly preserved fragments, generally of mediocre quality, some pieces containing black impurities and bubbles of various sizes. Most of the glass displays weathering and iridescence.196

Jars The jars from the site have a wide and short funnel-shaped mouth (Type JRgb), and either a plain rounded rim (Fig. 5.2.2:24) or a rounded infolded rim (Fig. 5.2.2:25).

The glass finds span about a millennium. The earliest glass vessels, unearthed in Areas A2 and B2, are cast bowls typical of the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, and the latest date from the Late Islamic period.

Bottles

The majority of glass finds and those relevant to the research in this book include bowls, wineglasses, jars, bottles, lamps, a rod, a small disc, windowpanes and tesserae, all characteristic of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, particularly the sixth–seventh centuries. Most of these vessels were made of greenish blue and bluish green glass, while some specimens are blue, green, olive green and yellowish brown. Several vessels were decorated with mold-blown patterns, and others with applied trails of a color darker than that of the vessel.

The numerous bottle fragments recovered at the site belong to several major types. Most of them belong to the long-necked bottles, characteristic of the fifth–seventh centuries. They are mostly greenish blue or bluish green, yet one of the bottles was made of deep blue glass (Fig. 5.2.3:30). Some of the bottles from the site have a rounded rim and a cylindrical or funnel-shaped mouth or neck (Fig. 5.2.3:26–30; Types BTrr/ln, BTrr/fm), and others have an incurved rim (Fig. 5.2.3:31) or an infolded rim (Fig. 5.2.3:32; Type BTir).

Bowls

The lower part of the bottles of these subtypes comprises a globular or pear-shaped body, and a flat or slightly concave bottom (Fig. 5.2.3:35–38). Some of the bottles were decorated with mold-blown ribbing (Fig. 5.2.3:33, 39; Type BTmbd), or with pinched-trail decoration (Fig. 5.2.3:34; Type BTpt); the latter was widespread during the late sixth–eighth centuries. It is noteworthy that no bottles adorned with thin blue trails wound around the rim, mouth or neck (Type BTtd) were recorded at the site.

The bowls from the site included several variants with a hollow outfolded rim197 (Fig. 5.2.1:1–5; Type BLor), and a shallow bowl with a rounded rim (Fig. 5.2.1:6; Type BLrr), all generally characteristic of the fourth–seventh centuries. Two of the bowls (Fig. 5.2.1:3, 4) were recovered in one of the shops in Area A2 (see above), and may be dated to the sixth–seventh centuries, as are the other glass vessels from this provenance. Several bowls were adorned with dark blue trails (Type BLtd), which were trapped inside the hollow of the outfolded rim (Fig. 5.2.1:5), or fused-in on and below the rim (Fig. 5.2.1:6).

Several rim and neck fragments belong to bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body, typical of the seventh–eighth centuries (Fig. 5.2.3:40, 41; Type BTTifr), and one is a small square-sectioned bottle, characteristic particularly of the ninth–tenth centuries (Fig. 5.2.3:42; Type BTTsqb).

Wineglasses The corpus from the Mamilla area includes numerous fragments of wineglasses of types that were widespread in the Jerusalem area during the sixth and seventh centuries. They have a rounded rim and thin walls (Fig. 5.2.2:7–13; Type WGrr). These wineglasses are either undecorated (Fig. 5.2.2:7–9), or adorned with blue trails applied horizontally and fused-in on and below the rim (Type WGtd), generally two thick windings flanking several thinner ones (Fig. 5.2.2:10–13).

Lamps The lamps recovered at the site represent the major types of glass lamps that were widespread during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods. Most of the fragments belong to threehandle bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps, with an outfolded rim (Fig. 5.2.4:43–45; Type LBBor), and outflaring walls (Fig. 5.2.4:43, 45). One example, uncommonly made of blue glass, has inward slanting walls and its surviving handle is twisted (Fig. 5.2.4:44). These features are characteristic of the Early Islamic period, particularly the seventh–eighth centuries (see Section 3.2.6). This date is corroborated by the numismatic evidence from the provenance (Locus 171) of this lamp, which yielded five coins: two dating from 498–538, one from 498–641, one from 600–641, and another dating from 629/630.

All the wineglass bases collected at the site are of the hollow ring base type, and bear an evident pontil scar on the underside (Fig. 5.2.2:14–23; Type WGhb). These bases generally have a hollow stem and display several contemporaneous subtypes. Most of the bases from the site 196 The glass assemblage from this excavation was preliminarily studied in the 1990s by Y. Gorin-Rosen. 197 One of the bowl fragments (Fig. 5.2.1:3), now broken, may have had an additional lower fold.

Some of the lamps had a wick tube installed at the floor center (Fig. 5.2.4:46, 47; Type LBBwkt); one of the 120

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs greenish-blue rim fragments (Fig. 5.2.4:45) and a bluishgreen wick tube (Fig. 5.2.4:46) from the same provenance (Locus 540), may have belonged to the same bichrome lamp. Lamps with a wick tube of a different color than the lamp bowl, displaying similar color combinations, are characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries (see Section 3.2.6).

An unusually large and coarse, olive green, loop handle with two tooled pinches (Fig. 5.2.4:51) probably belonged to a globular lamp with short loop-shaped handles (Type LGLsh), generally dated to the fifth–seventh centuries. This handle may be associated with the sixth century, as is the only coin that was retrieved from the same provenance (Locus 152), which dates from 548–565.

The stemmed bowl-shaped lamp type (Type LST) is represented by a specimen with a rounded unfolded rim (Fig. 5.2.4:48), and by two hollow cylindrical stems (Fig. 5.2.4:49, 50; Type LSThs).

Rod A broken rod (Fig. 5.2.4:52), characteristic of the Umayyad period, was recovered together with a wineglass base and

1

2

3

4

5

6 0

20 mm

No.

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

1

B1

557

3509/3

Hollow outfolded rim (D c. 160 mm), thin walls. Light greenish blue. Iridescence.

2

B1

557

3509/2

Hollow outfolded rim (D c. 150 mm), thin walls. Light greenish blue; small bubbles. Iridescence; slight pitting.

3

A2

153

3133/3

Hollow outfolded rim (D c. 145 mm), broken at its lower end. Yellowish brown; small bubbles. Iridescence.

4

A2

153

3031

5

A2

141

407

6

B1

557

3509/5

Hollow outfolded rim (D c. 115 mm), thin walls. Light greenish blue. Iridescence. Slightly incurved, outfolded rim (D c. 270 mm), with two hollows; a horizontallywound dark trail is ‘trapped’ inside the lower hollow. Vessel: greenish blue; trail: dark blue; horizontal bubbles below the rim. Iridescence. Rounded rim (D 170–190 mm), thin slanting walls with polishing marks on the exterior, and a dark blue trail wound horizontally and fused-in below the rim. Vessel: light blue; trail: dark blue with black impurities. Iridescence.

Fig. 5.2.1. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: bowls.

121

Lucid Transformations

8

9

7

11

10

12

13

14

15

17

16

18

19

22

20

21

23

25

24

0

20 mm

Fig. 5.2.2. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: wineglasses and jars.

122

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.2.2. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: wineglasses and jars. No.

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

7

A2

153

3118/6

Rounded thickened rim (D c. 90 mm), thin vertical walls with slight polishing marks. Light greenish blue; horizontal polishing marks. Iridescence.

8

A2

153

3118/12

Rounded rim (D 95–97 mm), thin walls with horizontal polishing marks. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

9

A2

153

3031/13

Rounded rim (D 57–58 mm), very thin walls with their upper part slightly flaring. Light greenish blue. Iridescence.

10

A2

153

3133/5

Rounded, thickened, slightly incurved rim (D 70–80 mm) and thin slanting walls. A horizontally-wound trail is fused-in on the rim and protruding from the wall below the rim; the two outermost windings are thicker. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: dark blue. Weathering; iridescence.

11

A2

153

3031/8

Rounded thickened rim (D c. 80 mm) and slanting walls. A trail is wound horizontally on and below the rim; the two outermost windings are thicker. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: dark blue with red streaks. Iridescence.

12

A2

153

3118/8

Rounded thickened rim (D c. 65 mm), thin, slightly slanting walls. Thick and thin horizontally-wound trails are fused-in on and below the rim; the lowest one protrudes from the wall. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: dark blue. Weathering; iridescence.

13

B1

510

1451

Rounded, thickened, slightly incurved rim (D 80–90 mm) and slightly slanting walls. A thin trail is wound horizontally and fused-in on and below the rim; the two outermost windings are thicker. Vessel: light bluish green; trail: dark blue. Weathering; iridescence.

14

A2

164

3104/2

Thin walls, single-bead stem (probably hollow) with a globular bead, hollow ring base (D 55 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

15

A2

164

3104/4

Single-bead stem with an elongated bead, hollow ring base (D 56–58 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

16

A2

164

3104/1

Hollow single-bead stem with a globular bead, hollow ring base (D 53 mm) with traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. Olive green. Weathering; iridescence.

17

A2

164

3104/6

Hollow single-bead stem with a globular bead in which a bubble is trapped, hollow ring base (D 55 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

18

A2

164

3104/5

Single-bead stem (probably hollow) with a globular bead, complete hollow ring base (D 45 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

19

A2

164

3104/3

Thin walls, single-bead stem (probably hollow) with a globular bead, complete hollow ring base (D 38–40 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

20

A2

153

3031/1

Bulging hollow stem, hollow ring base (D c. 50 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

21

B2

215

657

Thin walls, twisted stem, irregular hollow ring base (D 40 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

22

A2

153

3133/4

Complete irregular hollow ring base (D 31–33 mm), hollow cylindrical stem. Greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

23

A2

153

3133/2

Hollow ring base (D 43 mm) with a small pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

24

A2

153

3031/19

Jar with a rounded rim (D c. 58 mm), funnel-shaped mouth, and convex walls. Light greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence. Mended

25

A2

153

3133/7

Jar with a rounded incurved rim (D c. 58 mm), funnel-shaped mouth, and convex walls. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

123

Lucid Transformations

28

26

27

29

30

32

31

33

35

34

36

37

38

39

41

40

42 0

20 mm

Fig. 5.2.3. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: bottles.

124

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.2.3. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: bottles. No.

Area Locus

Basket

Description

26

A2

153

3031/14

Rounded rim (D 58 mm), funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light greenish blue; small bubbles; blowing spirals. Iridescence.

27

A2

153

3031/5

Rounded rim (D c. 50 mm), funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light bluish green; small bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

28

A2

153

3031/18

Rounded rim (D 40 mm), funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence. Mended.

29

A2

153

3118/7

Rounded rim (D 30 mm), vertical walls. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

30

A2

153

3031/17

Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D c. 30 mm), funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Deep blue. Weathering; iridescence.

31

A2

153

3031/9

Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D 50 mm), funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

32

A2

153

3031/15

Infolded rim (D 58 mm) and concave funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light greenish blue with black impurities within the fold. Weathering; iridescence.

33

B1

540

1395/2

Rounded rim (D 62 mm), convex funnel-shaped mouth adorned with mold-blown dense diagonal ribbing. Light bluish green. Iridescence.

34

B2

228

676

35

A2

153

3118/1

Thin walls, concave bottom (D c. 40 mm). Bluish green; small bubbles. Iridescence.

36

A2

153

3118/2

Thin walls, concave bottom (D c. 35 mm). Greenish blue; small bubbles. Iridescence.

37

A2

153

3031/4

Thin walls, flat bottom (D c. 27 mm), slightly concave at its center. Bluish green. Weathering; iridescence.

38

B1

557

3509/6

Thin-walled concave bottom (D at least 65 mm). Light greenish blue; small bubbles. Iridescence.

39

A2

164

3102

Bottom (D at least 50 mm) adorned with mold-blown vertical ribbing. Bluish green; bubbles. Iridescence.

40

B1

516

1247

Irregularly infolded rim (D c. 20 mm), cylindrical neck, slanting shoulders. Green. Weathering; iridescence.

41

B3

351

1551

Irregular oval opening, unevenly infolded and flattened rim (D 20–22 mm), nearly cylindrical neck. Green. Weathering.

42

A1

16

62

Intact, small, thick-walled bottle (H 55 mm) with a flat rim (D 12–15 mm), a cylindrical neck, a square-sectioned body, and a flat bottom with a pontil scar on its underside. Olive green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

Small body fragment adorned with pinched trails creating a protruding bifurcated pattern. Vessel: light blue; trails: greenish blue. Iridescence.

125

Lucid Transformations

44 43

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53 0

54 20 mm

Fig. 5.2.4. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: lamps and artifacts.

126

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.2.4. Residential and commercial complexes in the Mamilla area: lamps and artifacts. No.

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

43

B1

557

3509/4

Hollow outfolded rim (D 130 mm), irregular trail handle drawn from the wall upward over the rim. Green; bubbles. Iridescence; pitting. No joint between the rim fragment and the rim and handle fragment.

44

A2

171

3163

Hollow outfolded rim (D c. 80 mm), inward slanting walls, irregular trail handle drawn from the wall upward over the rim. Blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

45

B1

540

1395/3

Hollow outfolded rim (D 115 mm), thin slanting walls. Greenish blue; small bubbles. Weathering; iridescence. The wick tube in Fig. 5.2.4:46 possibly belonged to this lamp.

46

B1

540

1395/1

Concave lamp bottom with traces of glass and metal from the pontil on its underside. Cylindrical wick tube (D 15–16 mm) of a different color than the lamp bowl, with glass seeping at the base of the tube. Vessel: greenish blue; wick tube: bluish green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; pitting. Possibly part of the lamp in Fig. 5.2.4:45.

47

A2

153

3031/2

Concave lamp bottom (D c. 80 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Lower part of a wick tube and part of the lamp bowl. Greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

48

B1

557

3509

Rounded thickened rim (D 90 mm), and a nearly cylindrical body with a hollow conical stem cut-off at the bottom. Olive green; bubbles. Iridescence. No joint between the rim fragment and lower part of the lamp.

49

A2

164

3104

Thin-walled lamp body, and a hollow, nearly cylindrical stem, cut-off at the bottom. Greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

50

A2

153

3133/1

Thick-walled, hollow cylindrical stem, cut-off at the bottom. Olive green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

51

A2

152

3145

Large loop handle with two pinches attached to a thin wall fragment. Olive green; bubbles. Thick weathering; iridescence.

52

B2

226

652

53

B1

549

1429

Piece of glass, cut as a disc (D 17–18 mm; Th 2 mm) with an unevenly broken edge, and one surface smoother than the other. Blue. Iridescence.

54

A2

153

3118/5

Thick glass sheet (Th 3–4 mm), fashioned, cut and polished on all but one side, possibly to fit a window frame or as an inlay. Greenish blue. Iridescence.

Spirally-twisted rod (D 6 mm), broken at both ends. Green. Iridescence.

associated particularly with the sixth–seventh centuries, consistent with other finds recovered at the site.

a windowpane fragment (not illustrated), both typical of the sixth–seventh centuries. The rod may therefore be dated to the seventh century (see Type ARTR), despite the early date (103–76 BCE) of the only coin from the same provenance (Locus 226).

Many of the glass vessels from the excavation were collected in one of the shops in Area A2 (Loci 153 and 164), along with pottery and other finds (see above). These glass vessels included bowls, wineglasses, jars, bottles and windowpanes, characteristic of the sixth–seventh centuries. The numismatic finds from this shop included four coins in Locus 153, dating from 351–361, 428–565, 575/576 and 587/588; and two coins in Locus 164, dating from 395– 455 and 498–599. They corroborate the date of the glass vessels, as the latest coins date from the late sixth century.

Small Disc The thin disc with its corrugated edge (Fig. 5.2.4:53) may have been used as an inlay (see Type ARTSD). Windowpanes The windowpanes from the site are of the quadrangular type (Type WPqd; not illustrated). A single piece of a glass sheet was cut and polished in an exceptional contour, possibly to fit a screen window (Fig. 5.2.4:54, and see Section 4.2).

Several vessels from other contexts at the site, including bottles (Fig. 5.2.3:34, 40, 41) and lamps (Fig. 5.2.4:44, 45, 46), may be assigned a slightly later date, encompassing the seventh–eighth centuries; they reflect a continuity of occupation, at least in some of the excavation areas.

5.2.2 Summary and Discussion

Area A2 also yielded glass vessels distorted by heat (e.g., in Loci 150 and 171). Additionally, raw glass and remains of glass production were discovered in Area B2 (e.g., in Loci 212 and 226), where a glass workshop may have operated.

The 1989 excavation in the Mamilla area yielded glass finds spanning from the Late Hellenistic to the Late Islamic periods. The finds relevant to this research included glass vessels, artifacts and windowpanes, most of which are 127

Lucid Transformations 5.3 Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park Compound

a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.3.1:3–8, and four additional bases from Loci 106, 107 and 113, not illustrated; Type WGhb/sbs). The single-bead occurs in various shapes: globular (Fig. 5.3.1:3, 4, 6), elongated (Fig. 5.3.1:5), squat (Fig. 5.3.1:7), or vertically pinched (Fig. 5.3.1:8). Some wineglass bases have a thin cylindrical stem (Fig. 5.3.1:9) or a twisted stem (Fig. 5.3.1:10), and others are quite delicate (Fig. 5.3.1:11).

5.3.1 The Site and the Finds Excavations north of the compound designated as a park in memory of former mayor of Jerusalem Teddy Kollek, were carried out on behalf of the IAA in 2010 and their results have not yet been published (Permit No. A-5845/2010; headed by I. Zilberbod). The compound lies in the Valley of Hinnom, west of Jaffa Gate, and the excavations exposed remains dating from the Late Iron Age II, the Roman and Byzantine periods, as well as structures from the twentieth century.

Bottles The variety of bottles represents types that were widespread in Jerusalem and the region particularly in the late Byzantine and early Umayyad periods. Some of the pieces are decorated with applied trails, generally of a darker color than the vessel (Fig. 5.3.2:13, 18–21).

The remains from the Byzantine period comprise several rooms, possibly storerooms, around an open courtyard (Locus 188). A large hewn Roman-period cistern and adjoining water channels were in use as well. Two phases were discerned in the complex, the earlier of which was dated by the excavator from the late fourth−fifth centuries, and a later phase, assigned to the late fifth−sixth centuries, in which various additions and modifications were made to the original plan. The pottery finds from the site set the destruction of the complex in the second half of the sixth century or at its end (D. Sandhaus, pers. comm.). Broken ashlars, spolia and numerous roof tiles found at the site may have originated from a well-built building, possibly a church/chapel or pilgrim inn, which may have stood west of the excavated area, in which case the rooms in the excavated area may have been part of a monastic complex (I. Zilberbod, pers. comm.).198

The bottles with a rounded rim (Type BTrr) include large specimens (Fig. 5.3.2:12), some adorned with a thin turquoise-colored trail fused-in below the rim (Fig. 5.3.2:13), and one with a narrow funnel-shaped mouth (Fig. 5.3.2:14; Type BTrr/fm) and possibly a pear-shaped body (Type BTpb) with a bottom slightly concave at its center. Some of the bottles have an infolded rim and a funnelshaped mouth (Fig. 5.3.2:15–17; Type BTir/fm), while others have a rounded rim and a wide funnel-shaped mouth adorned with applied trails, darker or of the same color as the vessel, wound horizontally on it (Fig. 5.3.2:18–20; Type BTtd). The fragment illustrated in Fig. 5.3.2:21 is similarly decorated as the bottles, yet may have also belonged to a jar (see Type DDtd).

The finds associated with the Byzantine period include fragments of alabaster bowls, clay vessels and lamps, and glass finds (see below). Crosses on some of the clay lamps may support the suggestion regarding the Christian nature of the complex.

Lamps The lamps from the site represent the types most widespread during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods. The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with three handles have a hollow outfolded rim (Fig. 5.3.3:22, 23; Type LBBor). Some of these lamps had a wick tube vertically installed at the center of their floor (Fig. 5.3.3:24–26; Type LBBwkt). Two of these pieces are bichrome: one has a light greenishblue body and a green wick tube (Fig. 5.3.3:25), and the other a light greenish-blue body and a brown wick tube (Fig. 5.3.3:26). These bichrome specimens are noteworthy, as similar color combinations are characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries (see Type LBBwkt).

The Glass Finds The glass finds recovered in the Teddy Kollek Park compound include vessels dating from the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, and others from the Late Roman and early Byzantine period. A few glass finds are attributed to the modern era, and minor remains of glass production were also recorded. However, most of the glass finds date from the fifth/sixth–seventh centuries, and include mostly wineglasses, bottles, lamps, as well as a small disc and windowpanes. Wineglasses

The other lamps are of the stemmed type, with a thinwalled, bowl- or beaker-shaped receptacle with a plain rounded rim (Fig. 5.3.3:27; Type LST), and a solid and beaded stem, with four distinct ‘beads’ discerned (Fig. 5.3.3:28; Type LSTbs).

Many of the wineglasses are of the subtype most characteristic of Jerusalem and its vicinity, bearing a darkcolored trail fused-in on and below a rounded rim (Fig. 5.3.1:1, 2, and an additional fragment from Locus 107, not illustrated; Type WGtd), and a hollow ring base with

Small Disc The thin disc with its corrugated edge (Fig. 5.3.3:29) may have been used as an inlay (see Type ARTSD).

198 The study of this excavation has not yet been completed; therefore, these stratigraphic observations are not decisive or final.

128

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

8

10

11 0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

156

15624

Rounded rim (D c. 70 mm) and convex walls. A thin dark-blue trail is wound and fused-in on and below the rim; five windings are intact. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: dark blue with black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

2

134

13402

Rounded rim (D c. 90 mm) and thin walls. A thick dark-blue trail is wound and fused-in one mm below the rim and a very thin dark-blue trail is wound twice, 8–10 mm below it. Vessel: light greenish blue, horizontal bubbles; trail: dark blue with black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

3

119

11926

Complete hollow ring base (D 56–58 mm) with a hollow single-bead stem with a globular bead, and a part of the body wall. Green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence. Mended.

4

132

13205

Complete, distorted, hollow ring base (D 47–49 mm) with a scar and traces of glass from the pontil on its underside, and a hollow single-bead stem with a globular bead. The distortion created large bubbles in the side of the base. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

5

116

11602

Carelessly made, hollow ring base (D c. 40 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside, and a single-bead stem with an elongated, twisted bead. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

6

118

11814

Globular bead from a broken single-bead stem (max. D 17 mm). Greenish blue. Iridescence.

7

119

11925

Squat bead from a broken single-bead stem (D 17–19 mm). Greenish blue. Iridescence.

8

114

11405

Vertically pinched bead (max. D 15 mm) from a broken single-bead stem. Green. Iridescence.

9

146

14605

Complete, irregular, hollow ring base (D 39–40 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside, and a thin cylindrical twisted stem (D 6 mm) set off center. Greenish blue; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

10

119

11926

Complete, irregular, hollow ring base (D 35–36 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside, off center, and a small part of a hollow twisted stem, set off center. Olive green. Weathering; iridescence.

11

118

11806

Irregular, hollow ring base (D 50 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside, and a short cylindrical stem, set slightly off center. Green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

Fig. 5.3.1. Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park compound: wineglasses.

129

Lucid Transformations

13 12

15

17

16

14

20 18

19

21 0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

12

156

15624

Rounded rim (D 80 mm) and thin-walled, funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light greenish blue. Iridescence; pitting.

13

156

15634

Rounded rim (D c. 60 mm) with a thin fused-in turquoise-colored trail below the rim. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: turquoise-colored. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

14

156

15624

Irregular rounded rim (D 32–33 mm), thin-walled funnel-shaped mouth, and thin-walled, slightly concave bottom (D 50 mm). Light greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence; pitting.

15

107

10705

Unevenly-infolded rim (D c. 45 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth/neck. Light greenish blue; blowing spirals. Iridescence.

16

119

11925

Hollow, infolded rim (D c. 45 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. Yellowish brown. Iridescence.

17

156

15624

Irregular, partially-infolded rim (D 40 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. Green. Weathering; iridescence.

18

152

15202

Rounded rim (D c. 90 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. A trail, of the same color as the vessel, is applied and wound around the mouth; four windings are intact. Light green. Weathering; iridescence.

19

107

10705

Rounded uneven rim (D 70 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth/neck. A trail, of the same color as the vessel, is applied and wound around the mouth; two windings are intact. Light green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

20

180

18004

Rounded, uneven rim (D c. 65 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. A greenish-blue trail is applied and wound around the mouth, thicker at the top, with two windings and the start/end blob intact. Vessel: colorless with a greenish tinge; trail: greenish blue with black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

21

107

10705

Rounded uneven rim (D c. 80 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. A thin dark-blue trail is applied and wound around the mouth, thicker at the bottom. Vessel: light blue; trail: dark blue with black impurities. Iridescence.

Fig. 5.3.2. Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park compound: bottles.

130

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

22

23

25 24

26

27

29 28

30

0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

22

118

11818

Thin-walled lamp bowl with a slightly incurved, hollow outfolded rim (D c. 120 mm), and a trail handle drawn from the wall on and over the rim edge. Green with olive-green streaks and black impurities; elongated bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

23

119

11925

Thin-walled lamp bowl with a hollow outfolded rim (D 75–80 mm), and a trail handle drawn from the wall onto the rim edge. Green; black impurities; elongated and round bubbles. Iridescence.

24

114

11405

Complete slightly-conical wick tube (H max. 35 mm) with a thick, rounded and tooled rim (D 17–18 mm), and a small part of the vessel body. Light greenish blue; elongated bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

25

116

11602

Bichrome cylindrical wick tube (D c. 10 mm) set off-center. Vessel: light greenish blue; wick tube: green. Weathering; iridescence.

26

105

10511

Bichrome bottom of a lamp with a brown wick tube (D c. 20 mm) attached to it. Vessel: light greenish blue; wick tube: brown. Weathering; iridescence.

27

108

10814

Rounded rim (D 90 mm) and thin vertical walls of a stemmed lamp. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

28

107

10705

Solid beaded stem with four distinct ‘beads’. The stem is cut-off at the bottom (D c. 10 mm) and broken at the top. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

29

132

13234

Thin piece of glass, cut as a disc (D 15 mm; Th c. 0.7 mm), with its edge corrugated. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

30

113

11306

Circular windowpane with a rounded, hollow outfolded rim (D at least 280 mm). Colorless with a greenish tinge. Weathering; iridescence.

Fig. 5.3.3. Structures at the Teddy Kollek Park compound: lamps and artifacts.

131

Lucid Transformations Windowpanes

a dozen centuries, from the Late Hellenistic period until the Middle Ages. Most of the glass was poorly preserved, and some glass vessels and windowpanes were deformed by heat.

Some 40 fragments of windowpanes, circular (Fig. 5.3.3:30; Type WPcr) and mostly quadrangular (not illustrated; Type WPqd), were collected at the site, mostly in contexts dated by pottery to the fifth–sixth and sixth– seventh centuries (Loci 103, 105, 113, 118, 119, 120, 132, 134, 156, 163 and 164).

The relevant finds included glass vessels and artifacts characteristic particularly of the late sixth–seventh centuries. These include bowls and bowls/beakers, wineglasses (mostly with a beaded stem, not illustrated), bottles, lamps, a rod and windowpanes. The excavation also yielded assorted pieces associated with glass production, unearthed in various contexts, most of them from the Byzantine period and the rest from the Early Islamic period, yet they cannot be associated with a specific complex.

5.3.2 Summary and Discussion The glass finds recovered in the excavation at the Teddy Kollek Park compound span in time from the Late Hellenistic through the early Umayyad periods. However, most of the finds date from the fifth/sixth–seventh centuries, and include mostly wineglasses, bottles, lamps and windowpanes, comprising an assemblage characteristic of Jerusalem in this period. Among these finds are bichrome lamps (Fig. 5.3.3:25, 26) that are typical of the eighth century as well.

Bowls and Bowls/Beakers The bowls from the site include a hollow outfolded rim (Fig. 5.4.1:1; Type BLor) and a rounded rim adorned with blue trails fused into the rim and wall (Fig. 5.4.1:2; Type BLtd), the former may have also belonged to a lamp. Additionally, the site yielded bowls/beakers associated with the seventh–eighth centuries: one with a rounded incurved rim (Fig. 5.4.1:3; Type BBrr) and two adorned with bilateral tonged decoration (Fig. 5.4.1:4, 5; Type BBtg).

The glass finds from the Teddy Kollek Park compound were recovered in various stratigraphic contexts, such as occupation levels and floors. Most of these contexts yielded pottery from the sixth–seventh centuries, and some are associated with Stratum 3B; however, certain contexts were disturbed, and display materials of assorted periods. 5.4 Residential Quarter on the City of David Spur (Giv‘ati Car Park)

Bottles

5.4.1 The Site and the Finds

The bottles included some with an infolded rim (Fig. 5.4.1:6, 7; Type BTir), and one with a rounded rim and a hollow tooled-out fold (Fig. 5.4.1:8; Type BTef). Many bottles were adorned with decorations typical of the period, i.e., trails wound on the mouth/neck (Fig. 5.4.1:7; Type BTtd) and pinched trails (Fig. 5.4.1:9; Type BTpt). A fragment adorned with rows of pinches may have belonged to a bottle or to another type of vessel (Fig. 5.4.1:10; Type DDrp). A wall fragment of a bottle with interior threads has one broken internal thread intact (Fig. 5.4.1:11; Type EXBTit).

Excavations performed on behalf of the IAA on the northwestern part of the City of David spur, at the site of the ‘Giv‘ati Car Park’, exposed remains of buildings and installations dated to the Early Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (Permit No. A-3835/2003; headed by E. Shukron). The Byzantine period manifested itself in a planned and well-built residential quarter, including drainage channels leading to a plastered cistern (Phase 1); the buildings underwent modifications to incorporate a stone-paved alley and were later abandoned (Phase 2). The remains from the Early Islamic period included a residential building, and a marble slab inscribed in Hebrew letters, which may indicates that this was the location of the Jewish neighborhood, which, according to historical texts, had been situated in the southern part of Jerusalem from the Early Islamic period almost until the Crusader conquest (Shukron and Reich 2005; Reich 2008). The remains of the ‘House of the Menorot’, excavated near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount, are probably part of the same neighborhood (see Section 6.5, below; Avni 2014:137–138).

Lamps The small three-handle beaker-shaped lamp with a rounded rim (Fig. 5.4.2:12; Type LBBrr) is probably an earlier version of the three-handle bowl-shaped lamps with an outfolded rim (Fig. 5.4.2:13–15; Type LBBor); these lamps occasionally had a wick tube installed at the center (several wick tubes, not illustrated, have been recovered; Type LBBwkt). The stemmed bowl-shaped lamps from the site had a hollow cylindrical or conical stem (Fig. 5.4.2:16, 17; Type LSThs). Rod

The Glass Finds

A spirally twisted rod, broken at both ends (Fig. 5.4.3:18) may probably be dated to the seventh century (see Type ARTR).

The glass finds recovered from the excavation on the northwestern part of the City of David spur span more than

132

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

2

1

4

5

3

6

8 7

10

11

9 0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

575

4331 (4096)

Bowl with a hollow outfolded rim (D c. 90 mm) and slanting walls. Colorless with greenish tinge. Iridescence.

2

365

2539 (2059)

Bowl with a thickened rounded rim (D c. 110 mm) and blue trails fused-in on the rim and walls. Vessel: colorless with greenish tinge; trail: blue. Weathering; iridescence.

3

386

1747 (1181)

Thick-walled bowl/beaker (H 80 mm) with a thick rounded rim (D 75–80 mm), a nearly vertical body and a flat bottom. Light blue; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

4

37

1671 (188)

Bowl with a rounded rim (D c. 105 mm) and curved walls adorned with a bilateral tonged pattern of concentric ovals, c. 12 mm below the rim. Colorless. Iridescence; pitting.

5

44

1246 (201)

Bowl with a rounded, slightly flaring rim (D c. 90 mm) and thin walls adorned with a bilateral tonged geometric pattern, c. 15 mm below the rim. Colorless. Iridescence; pitting.

6

468

2796

Bottle with an infolded rim (D 30 mm) and a cylindrical neck. Colorless with light blue tinge; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. Two fragments.

7

126

1538 (378)

Bottle with an unevenly infolded rim (D 30 mm), and a thin-walled cylindrical neck adorned with a thin trail, densely wound around its upper part. Colorless with blue tinge. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

8

468

2796

Bottle with a rounded, slightly flaring rim (D c. 65 mm), and a horizontal tooled-out hollow fold, c. 15 mm below the rim. Colorless with a bluish tinge. Weathering; iridescence; severe pitting causing a decrease in wall thickness; sand deposit. Two fragments.

9

133

1656 (387)

Wall fragment adorned with trails: a thin turquoise-colored trail wound roughly horizontally, and a thick blue trail pinched-out to create a pinched-trail pattern. Colorless with bluish tinge. Weathering; iridescence. Mended.

10

468

2796

Thin wall fragment with two uneven pinches. Light green, bubbles. Iridescence; pitting. Two fragments, one of which is illustrated.

11

465

2941 (2783)

Wall fragment with a broken internal thread. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

Fig. 5.4.1. Residential quarter on the City of David spur: bowls and bottles.

133

Lucid Transformations

12

13

14

15

16

17 0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

12

255

1332 (672)

Thin wall with a flaring rounded rim (D c. 45 mm) and a small trail handle drawn from the wall up to the rim. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

13

140

1451 (395)

Rounded hollow outfolded rim (D c. 240 mm), and a complete, long, trail handle drawn from the wall up to the rim. Light blue; bubbles in the handle. Weathering; iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. Several fragments.

14

285

1442 (748)

Rounded hollow outfolded rim (D c. 200 mm), and a complete trail handle drawn from the wall up and onto the rim. Light blue; bubbles in the handle. Weathering; iridescence.

15

468

2796

Rounded hollow outfolded rim (D c. 180 mm), and a complete, small, trail handle drawn from the wall up to the rim. Light olive green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

16

468

2796

Hollow stem with a pontil scar on its underside, and a small part of the lamp bowl. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

17

255

1332 (672)

Thick-walled hollow stem with a knob (D c. 15 mm) at its end. Greenish-blue. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

Fig. 5.4.2. Residential quarter on the City of David spur: lamps.

134

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

18

19

20

21

22 0

20 mm

No.

Locus

Basket

Description

18

593

4434 (4252)

Spirally twisted rod (D 6–7 mm), broken at both ends. Light blue. Iridescence; pitting.

19

578

4341 (4198)

Circular windowpane with a rounded hollow outfolded rim (D c. 250 mm). Light green. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

20

13

1286 (54)

Circular windowpane with a rounded hollow folded rim (D c. 220 mm). Light green. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

21

451

2993 (2672)

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 2–4 mm), chipped-off on one edge and cut on another. Light greenishblue. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

22

13

1286 (54)

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 2–4 mm), chipped-off on two sides and cut on the other two. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

Fig. 5.4.3. Residential quarter on the City of David spur: various artifacts.

Windowpanes

5.4.2 Summary and Discussion

However, the bottle with interior threads (Fig. 5.4.1:11; Type EXBTit) appears in this assemblage for the first time in a regulated archaeological excavation in Jerusalem, adding to the geographical distribution of this type. Additionally, the small beaker-shaped lamp with a rounded rim (Fig. 5.4.2:12; Type LBBrr) is one of only a handful of specimens of this type from Israel, most of them from the Jerusalem area.

The excavations on the northwestern part of the City of David spur yielded glass finds spanning from the Late Hellenistic period until the Middle Ages. The finds relevant to this research included glass vessels and windowpanes characteristic particularly of the late sixth– seventh centuries.

The glass assemblage from the late sixth–seventh centuries includes types that may have also appeared in the eighth century. It is followed by glass vessels dated from the ninth through the eleventh centuries, some of which are typical particularly of the ninth–tenth centuries (see Section 7.1), suggesting a continuous occupation in the area.

The windowpanes from the site are both of the circular type (Fig. 5.4.3:19, 20; Type WPcr) and the quadrangular type (Fig. 5.4.3:21, 22; Type WPqd).

135

Lucid Transformations 5.5 Monastery on Mount Scopus

the first phase, dated from the fifth/sixth to the seventh centuries, while the western extension (Unit G) and the bathhouse in the southern wing (Unit F) were added later, probably in the late seventh or eighth century. The complex was destroyed and abandoned in the late eighth or early ninth century, and resettled during the Mamluk period (Amit, Seligman and Zilberbod 2003:146–148; Di Segni 2003b).

5.5.1 The Site and the Finds A large complex, comprising a large coenobium-type monastery and a pilgrim hostel, was discovered on the eastern slope of Mount Scopus, by the ancient Jericho– Jerusalem road. It was named the ‘Monastery of Theodorus and Cyriacus’ following the discovery of an inscription mentioning those names (see below). The site was excavated on behalf of the IAA in 1999–2000, and the results have been only preliminarily published (Permit No. A-3114/1999; Amit, Seligman and Zilberbod 2000; 2003).199

These observations indicate that the monastery and hostel continued to serve and accommodate large numbers of Christian pilgrims and travelers on their way to Jerusalem well into the Early Islamic period, at least up to the ninth century (and see Chapter 2 and Section 7.5).

The complex (Plan 5.5), covering an area of 4.5 dunams (1.125 acres) and delimited by a peripheral wall, included a central courtyard (Unit C) surrounded by various units. To the north lay a mosaic-paved single-aisle chapel or church (Room 3; its eastern end and apse missing), an atrium (Room 1), a burial crypt and other associated structures (Unit B). In the east and south were stables, storerooms and agricultural installations (Units D and E, including an oil press or a donkey mill in Room 10). Additional units comprised various rooms and an assembly hall (Unit G) to the west, and a bathhouse (Unit F) to the south. A sophisticated water-supply system of open pools, underground cisterns, channels, ceramic pipes and gutters served for the collection of water for use in the monastery, and probably also for its distribution to adjacent agricultural plots.

The Glass Finds The monastery complex on Mount Scopus yielded some 1500 glass fragments, about a third of which are diagnostic pieces. Several glass fragments of vessel types characteristic of the fourth–fifth centuries (from Loci 2404 and 2416) may represent early stages of occupation at the site. Two colorless fragments, one of a bottle with an undulating neck and a bulge (from Locus 2206) and the other of a thick bottle bottom (from Locus 2274), date to the Late Islamic period; they may be associated with the resettling of the site during the Mamluk period. The majority of glass finds and those relevant to this book correspond to the operation of the monastery complex. The vessels include bowls, bowls/beakers, wineglasses, jars, bottles and lamps, all characteristic of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, particularly the sixth–eighth centuries. The site also yielded many fragments of glass windowpanes, and a glass chunk was recovered in a mixed fill (Locus 2526) over a floor (Locus 2534) in Unit F.

The assembly or reception hall (Unit G, Room 27) was paved with a colorful mosaic floor, under which Umayyadperiod coins were found. The mosaic included a floral medallion comprising an eight-line Greek dedicatory inscription, which reads: “Under Theodorus the priest and hegumen [abbot], and Cyriacus the monk, all this work was done”. The ornate letters of the inscription bear characteristics of the late seventh century at the earliest, and more probably of the eighth century (Di Segni 2003b).

Most of the vessels were free-blown; very few were moldblown. Many pieces were decorated in various techniques, including mold-blowing, applying trails, pinching, and stain-painting. The vessels were made of translucent glass, mostly blue and green of various shades; several pieces are colorless, olive-green and brown. Most of the glass contains bubbles of various sizes and bears a silvery weathering.

A fragmentary mosaic inscription in black and red Armenian script was discovered in the floor pavement of the atrium hall (Room 1 in Unit B) west of the chapel/ church (Room 3), near the capstone of Cistern II. The inscription mentions ‘Grigor’ (Gregory) and possibly the name of Christ, and depicts a cross; it probably dates from the sixth century, by its paleography and by the coins embedded in the foundation of the mosaic floor (Stone et al. 2011).

The glass finds were recovered mostly from significant loci, such as floors, fills above floors and between walls, channels, etc. Vessels from other loci on the site are discussed as they represent the best-preserved examples or variations of certain types, and display types absent from significant loci. The glass finds are presented typologically (Figs. 5.5.1–5.5.7).

Analysis of the architectural remains, the inscriptions, the coins, the pottery and other artifacts led the excavators to reconstruct two phases of development of the monastic complex: the central courtyard and the surrounding structures were built and functioned in

Only four of the provenances from which glass finds were recorded, yielded coins as well, and they are mentioned where relevant.

The units are referred to here as they are labeled in these preliminary publications. 199

136

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

Plan 5.5. Monastery on Mount Scopus (after Amit, Seligman and Zilberbod 2000: Fig. 137; courtesy of the IAA).

137

Lucid Transformations Bowls, Bowls/Beakers and Beakers

characteristic of the seventh–mid-eighth centuries. This date is corroborated by a coin from the same provenance (Locus 2512), dated to 697–750.

The glass assemblage at the site included several subtypes of bowls/beakers (Type BB) characteristic of the seventh– eighth centuries (Fig. 5.5.1:1–5). Most of them were unearthed in the bathhouse (Unit F). One of the rims is rounded (Fig. 5.5.1:1; Type BBrr) and may have also belonged to a wineglass, while other rims are outfolded (Fig. 5.5.1:2, 3; Type BBor). Two of the bowls (Fig. 5.5.1:2, 5) were discovered in the same provenance (Locus 2528) as a coin dated to 638–750, corroborating their date.

Bottles Most of the bottles collected at the site have a rounded rim (Fig. 5.5.3:17–24; Type BTrr), and represent types that were widespread in Jerusalem and the region in the sixth– eighth centuries. Two pieces from the same basket (Fig. 5.5.3:5, 10) probably belonged to a single elongated bottle with a cylindrical body. One of the bottles has an exterior hollow fold (Fig. 5.5.3:23; Type BTef), while others are adorned with trail decoration on the mouth/neck (Fig. 5.5.3:24; Type BTtd). One of these bottles (Fig. 5.5.3:24) was discovered in the same provenance (Locus 2512) as a coin dated to 697–750, corroborating its date. The bottle bottoms were either concave (Fig. 5.5.3:25) or flat (Fig. 5.5.3:26); they may have supported the bottle fragments illustrated in Figs. 5.5.3:22 and 5.5.3:21, respectively.

Among the decorations on these bowls/beakers is a yellowish-brown wavy trail, applied vertically along both sides of the body (Fig. 5.5.1:4; Type BBvt). A bottom with a hollow double-fold around its perimeter probably supported a bowl/beaker (Fig. 5.5.1:5; Type BSdf); it is made of a fabric typical of the seventh–eighth centuries, and it was discovered in the same basket with another bowl/beaker (Fig. 5.5.1:2). The shape and brown color of a small bowl assign it to the seventh–eighth centuries (Fig. 5.5.1:6; Type BLS). A bottom adorned with vertical ribbing (Fig. 5.5.1:7) probably supported a bowl, but may have also belonged to a large beaker or a bottle. The ribbing was created by tooling or by mold-blowing (Type DDmbd); similar vertical ribs adorn another vessel in this assemblage (see Fig. 5.5.2:15).

Three rim and neck fragments, and a bottom (Fig. 5.5.3:27–30) belong to bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body, typical of the seventh– eighth centuries (Type BTTifr). Vessels Decorated in Various Techniques Several pieces were adorned with mold-blown decoration (Type DDmbd), depicting a dotted pattern (Fig. 5.5.4:31, 32), or festoons and petals, a design attributed to the Umayyad or Abbasid period (Fig. 5.5.4:33). Fragments adorned with applied trails include one with turquoisecolored pinched trail decoration (Fig. 5.5.4:34; Type DDpt), and another adorned with a thick wavy trail (Fig. 5.5.4:35; Type DDwt). A small wall fragment belonged to a vessel decorated with rows of pinches (Fig. 5.5.4:36; Type DDrp), and a tiny fragment is adorned with stainpainted decoration (Fig. 5.5.4:37; Type DDstp).

Wineglasses, a Goblet and a Jar The corpus from the monastery on Mount Scopus yielded some 20 fragments of wineglasses, and four additional plain rounded rims that may have also belonged to such vessels. Among the wineglasses were undecorated examples (Fig. 5.5.2:8; Type WGrr), one with a slightly incurved rim and double mold-blown decoration (Fig. 5.5.2:9; Type WGmbd), and some with fused-in trails on and below the rim (Fig. 5.5.2:10; Type WGtd). All of the dozen wineglass bases collected at the site are of the hollow ring base type (Fig. 5.5.2:11–14; Type WGhb), which was widespread in the Jerusalem area during the sixth and seventh centuries; some have a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.5.2:11; Type WGhb/sbs).

Lamps The lamps recovered at the site on Mount Scopus represent the two major types of glass lamps that were widespread during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods. They were discovered predominantly in the bathhouse (Unit F)—at least 70 lamp fragments, accounting for at least 10 lamps. The rest of the lamps were collected in various rooms and courtyards (Rooms 10, 11, 15, 16, 25, 30, 34 and 36).

An exceptional bichrome footed vessel (Fig. 5.5.2:15; Type EXGBlg) with vertical ribbing on the base, resembling that on another vessel from the site (see Fig. 5.5.1:7, above), may be associated by its unusual shape and the combination of colors to the seventh–eighth centuries. This vessel may be assigned to a group of large, mostly decorated, bowl- or beaker-shaped vessels on a high foot, which probably served in Christian liturgical ceremonies (see Section 3.4).

Most of the lamp fragments belong to bowl- or beakershaped lamps with three handles (Type LBB), including some 70 rim-pieces with or without attached handles, 15 unattached handles, and 10 wick tube fragments. All the identifiable lamp rims are outfolded (Fig. 5.5.5:38–45; Type LBBor), displaying a rather wide (14–22 mm) rim fold, and some preserved their handles (Fig. 5.5.5:38, 39, 41–44, 46). Some lamps had a wick tube installed on the

At least one of the pieces from the site (Fig. 5.5.2:16) may be classified as a small globular jar (Type JRgb), of a type

138

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs floor center (Fig. 5.5.5:47, 48; Type LBBwkt), and their bottoms are concave or pushed-in (Fig. 5.5.5:49–52). The fabric and proportions of these bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps associate them with the seventh–eighth centuries.

coin dating from 638–750, and the latter in Locus 2682, with a coin dating from 697–750; both coins suggest the association of the windowpanes with the seventh–mideighth centuries.

Stemmed bowl-shaped lamps (Type LST) are represented by various types of stems. Six stems were recovered in the bathhouse (Unit F, Rooms 19 and 21), four in Room 11, and the rest in Rooms 25, 30 and 34, one in each room. Most of the stems are of the plain hollow type (Fig. 5.5.6:53–58, and four additional stems, not illustrated; Type LSThs).

5.5.2 Summary and Discussion Most of the glass vessel-types and decorative techniques discovered in the monastery complex on Mount Scopus are characteristic of the sixth–eighth centuries, and were widespread in the Jerusalem area and the SyriaPalestine region. However, two of the decorated vessels (Fig. 5.5.2:15 and Fig. 5.5.4:33) have not yet been encountered in the vicinity of Jerusalem. The appearance of these vessels together with types well known in Jerusalem and its environs may indicate that they were made in a local workshop, which operated in or around the city in the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods (and see Section 7.2).

Other types include two stems with a bead or two at the bottom end (Fig. 5.5.6:59, 60; Type LSTbe), and a partlysolid stem (Fig. 5.5.6:61; Type LSTps) of a type of stems that appeared occasionally in the Byzantine and Umayyad periods and onwards, their fabric varying through time. Windowpanes

Also noteworthy are the large quantities of glass lamps and windowpanes, most of which were found in the bathhouse (Unit F). The lamps, of both the bowl- or beaker-shaped type and of the stemmed type, were almost all uncovered in Room 19, which probably functioned as a caldarium. The windowpanes were located in the caldarium (Room 19), in a small mosaic-paved room (Room 18) and in a wide corridor at the south end of the bathhouse (Unit 21). The panes were of both the circular and the quadrangular types, yet only five of the 120 windowpanes recorded could be identified as of the circular type. The bathhouse on Mount Scopus is one of the few discovered in Israel where the use of glass windowpanes was recorded, and it followed a long tradition of installing glass windowpanes in bathhouses since the Early Roman period (see discussion in Section 4.2).

The glass corpus from Mount Scopus yielded some 170 fragments of windowpanes,200 about 120 originating in the bathhouse (Unit F, Rooms 18, 19 and 21). The rest of the panes were found, several in each room, in Rooms 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 25, 30, 34 and 36. The window glass displays two types of panes: circular and quadrangular (see below). Both types of windowpanes were fitted into wooden or plaster frames that were set into windows, as attested by traces of plaster which were found on some of the windowpanes in Rooms 9 and 16 (Locus 2382, Basket 23502; Locus 2448, Basket 23247; not illustrated). Eight rims of circular windowpane were recorded, five of them from the bathhouse. They have a hollow folded rim, and are thin at the edge and thicker toward the center (Fig. 5.5.7:62–66; Type WPcr).201

Nearly all the glass finds from the monastery complex on Mount Scopus correspond to the two occupation and development phases of the complex, as determined by the excavators in their preliminary publications: the first phase dated to the fifth/sixth–seventh centuries, and the second phase—to the late seventh or eighth century. However, the glass finds in all units of the monastery complex are generally homogenous, dating from the sixth– eighth centuries, supporting the assertion of this research regarding the continuity of the glass repertoire during this period (see Section 7.5). It should also be noted that some glass vessels (e.g., Fig. 5.5.2:8–10) that were recovered from the bathhouse (Unit F) in the southern wing, which has been attributed to the later phase of the monastery, are characteristic of the sixth–seventh centuries and do not appear in glass assemblages of the eighth century in the region. These issues may perhaps be resolved in the future following a comprehensive detailed analysis of the excavation findings and results correspondingly with further study of the glass finds from the monastery complex.

However, most of the identified windowpane fragments from the complex were of the quadrangular type (Fig. 5.5.7:67–69; Type WPqd). They are thick (up to 6 mm in thickness) and one of their edges is generally fire-rounded. Some of the fragments were preserved in a triangular shape; their longest edge may have been accidentally broken, or deliberately cut to fit a corner. Two of the windowpanes (Fig. 5.5.7:68, 69) were discovered in provenances that yielded coins as well: the former in Locus 2396, with a 200 Groups of these fragments probably belonged to the same windowpanes, and as no reconstruction has been attempted, the number of full-size windowpanes is undetermined. Additionally, small rimless pieces are difficult to identify as windowpane glass, because they resemble vessels’ body fragments in fabric, thickness and color; therefore, no count of rim-less windowpane fragments has been conducted. 201 The fragment illustrated in Fig. 5.5.7:66 may also have belonged to a large bottle of the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods, resembling a specimen from Khirbat Tabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:88*, Fig. 2:23, and see therein an Umayyad-period example from Bosra).

139

Lucid Transformations

1 3 2

4

5

6

7 0

20 mm

No.

Unit

Locus

Basket

Description

1

F

2546

23810

Rounded rim (D 80 mm), thin walls with horizontal wheel-polishing marks. Light blue; small oval bubbles. Iridescence.

2

F

2528

23558

Outfolded rim (D 55–57 mm), thin vertical walls, and a thick bottom with traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. Light blue. Iridescence.

3

-

2440

22427

Outfolded rim (D 80 mm) and thin undulating walls with polishing marks on the exterior. Light blue; black impurities; small oval bubbles. Iridescence.

4

D

2415

22319

Thick concave bottom (D c. 30 mm) and a yellowish brown, wavy trail vertically-applied on the body wall. Light green; tiny and small round bubbles.

5

F

2528

23558

Thick concave bottom (D 55 mm), with a double hollow fold on its perimeter, and traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. Olive green; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

6

F

2546

23710

Thickened rounded incurved rim (D 45 mm), convex walls and a thick bottom. Brown. Iridescence.

7

-

2294

26388

Thick bottom (D 65 mm) adorned with vertical ribs, two partially intact, on the vessel wall. Light blue; medium-size round bubbles. Iridescence.

Fig. 5.5.1. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bowls and bowls/beakers.

140

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

10

9

0

20 mm

8

11

12

13

14

15

16 No.

Unit

Locus

Basket

Description

8

F

2546

23781

Rounded rim (D c. 70 mm), thin walls tapering downward. Light blue; tiny and small round bubbles; diagonal wheel-polishing marks. Iridescence.

9

F

2546

23810

Rounded incurved rim (D c. 110 mm), thin walls with a shallow, double-mold-blown horizontal and diagonal linear pattern. Light greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

10

F

2552

23715

Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D at least 60 mm). A yellowish brown trail is horizontally fused-in on and below the rim; the two outermost windings are thicker than the three inner windings. Colorless with bluish tinge; tiny round bubbles. Iridescence.

11

-

2293

22182

Thick hollow single-bead stem, hollow ring base (D 45–47 mm). Light green; small round bubbles. Iridescence; limy deposit.

12

F

2536

23578

Short, twisted, slightly tilting stem, and uneven, flat, hollow, ring base (D 58–60 mm) with glass traces from the pontil on its underside. Light olive green; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

13

B

2220

23306

Broken cylindrical stem and distorted uneven hollow ring base (D 42–46 mm). Light green; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

14

D

2521

23514

Broken stem and hollow ring base (D 45 mm). Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

15

F

2509

22920

Thick wall fragment of a goblet, mounted on a large single-bead, spirally twisted stem and a thick base. The base is adorned with mold-blown vertical ribs, c. 10 mm apart, and has a pontil scar on its underside. Vessel: light greenish blue; stem and base: olive green; round bubbles. Iridescence.

16

F

2512

22981

Flattened rim (D 55 mm), short concave neck, slanting convex shoulders. Light blue; small and medium-size oval bubbles. Iridescence.

Fig. 5.5.2. Monastery on Mount Scopus: wineglasses, a goblet and a jar.

141

Lucid Transformations

19

18 17

21 20

24

23

22

0

25

27

20 mm

26

29

28

30 Fig. 5.5.3. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bottles.

142

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.5.3. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bottles. No.

Unit

Locus

Basket

Description

17

D

2324

22578 22618

Thickened rounded rim (D 90 mm), thin tapering walls. Light blue. Iridescence.

18

F

2546

23753

Rounded (D 90 mm), thin walls. Light greenish blue; small and medium-size oval bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

19

F

2546

23810

Rounded rim (D c. 70 mm), long cylindrical neck. Light blue; tiny and small round and oval bubbles. Iridescence.

20

B

2439

22400

Thickened rounded rim (D 23–24 mm), long narrow neck, tapering downward. Light blue. Iridescence.

21

F

2546

23860

Thick, rounded rim (D 24 mm), cylindrical neck, constricted at its base. Light blue; small round and oval bubbles. Iridescence.

22

F

2553

23695

Rounded rim (D 50 mm), convex mouth/neck. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

23

C

2387

22784

Rounded rim (D 50–55 mm) and an exterior hollow fold 25 mm below the rim. Light blue. Iridescence.

24

F

2512

22981

Rounded rim (D 40 mm) and conical mouth/neck. A light blue trail is wound on and below the rim; the winding on the rim is thicker than the others. Vessel: colorless with bluish tinge; trail: light blue. Iridescence.

25

F

2553

23695

Thick, concave, pushed-in bottom (D 40 mm). Light blue. Thick weathering; iridescence.

26

F

2546

23860

Cylindrical body with vertical walls thinning upward, and a thick flat bottom (D 35 mm) slightly concave at the center. Light blue. Iridescence.

27

E

2391

22821

Unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 17–18 mm), cylindrical neck, convex shoulders. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

28

F

2545

23705

Thick, unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 30 mm), thick cylindrical neck, convex shoulders. Light blue; small round and oval bubbles. Iridescence.

29

F

2527

23549

Infolded, flattened rim (D 28 mm), cylindrical neck, horizontal shoulders. Light green. Iridescence; limy deposit.

30

F

2561

23842

Flat bottom (D 60–65 mm) with a large pontil scar on its underside. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; severe pitting.

143

Lucid Transformations

31

32

33

34

35

36

37 0

20 mm

No.

Unit

Locus

Basket

Description

31

F

2546

23810

Wall fragment adorned with a mold-blown dotted pattern, of which six dots are intact. Colorless; small bubbles. Iridescence.

32

F

2546

23710

Two thin wall fragments adorned with a mold-blown dotted pattern, of which three dots are intact on each piece. Colorless. Iridescence.

33

F

2517

23511

Thick bottom and wall fragment adorned with mold-blown decoration: a festoon pattern on the wall, and petals on the bottom underside. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

34

F

2546

23838

Small body fragment adorned with turquoise-colored pinched trail decoration: two thin horizontally fused-in trails flanked by two thicker, pinched trails. Colorless; small bubbles. Iridescence.

35

D

2379

22859

Wall fragment adorned with a horizontally applied, thick wavy trail of the same color as the vessel. Greenish blue; elongated bubbles in the trail.

36

F

2546

23860

Wall fragment adorned with a single (horizontal or vertical) pinch intact, probably part of a row of pinches. Colorless with bluish tinge; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

37

C

2346

22869

Body fragment adorned with yellowish brown stain-painting. (The piece is too small to reconstruct the design.) Colorless. Iridescence.

Fig. 5.5.4. Monastery on Mount Scopus: vessels decorated in various techniques.

144

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

38

39 0

20 mm

No.

Unit

Locus

Basket

Description

38

F

2546

23781

Rounded outfolded rim (D c. 100 mm), thin vertical walls with a shallow horizontal doublemold-blown ribbing, and two loop handles intact. Light blue. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. Mended.

39

F

2546 2550

23860 23786

Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D 140 mm), thin walls with a trail handle drawn from the wall up and over the rim. Light blue; olive green streaks in the handle. Iridescence.

Fig. 5.5.5. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps.

145

Lucid Transformations

41

40

42

44

45

43

46

47

48

49

50

51

52 0

20 mm

Fig. 5.5.5. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps (continued).

146

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.5.5. Monastery on Mount Scopus: bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps (continued). No.

Unit

Locus Basket

Description

40

D

2448

23243

Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D 130 mm), vertical walls, thick pushed-in bottom (D 80 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Light blue; small and medium-size round and oval bubbles. Iridescence.

41

F

2545

23774

Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D 105 mm), thin walls, a trail handle drawn from the wall below the rim-fold up over the rim. The top end of another handle also survived. Light blue; mediumsize oval bubbles. Iridescence.

42

F

2546

23710

Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D 90–100 mm), thin vertical walls with wheel-polishing marks on the exterior, a trail handle drawn from the bottom edge of the rim-fold up over the rim. The top end of another handle also survived. Light blue; medium-size oval bubbles. Iridescence.

43

F

2545

23687

Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D 100 mm), a trail handle drawn from the bottom edge of the rim fold up over the rim, thin vertical walls, concave bottom with traces of a wick tube on its floor. Light blue; small round and oval bubbles; horizontal wheel-polishing marks. Iridescence.

44

F

2519

22983

Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D c. 100 mm), thin walls, a trail handle drawn from the wall up over the rim. Light blue.

45

F

2546

23860

Rounded rim (D c. 105 mm), folded twice forming two hollows. Thin walls. Light blue; small and medium-size oval bubbles. Iridescence.

46

D

2429

22314

Loop handle, partially twisted, with a large blob at the joint on the wall. Light blue with a green streak; small oval bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

47

D

2379

22756

Cylindrical wick tube (D c. 18 mm), vertically set at the center of the thick, concave lamp-floor. Light blue. Small and medium-size oval bubbles. Iridescence.

48

F

2546

23810

Concave bottom (D 54 mm) with a cylindrical wick tube (D c. 19 mm), vertically set at the center of the lamp-floor. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

49

F

2546

23860

Thick concave bottom (D 55 mm) with a pontil scar (D 10 mm) on its underside, part of the slanting walls, possibly bearing a shallow, unclear mold-blown pattern. Light blue. Weathering; iridescence.

50

F

2546

23838

Concave bottom (D 50 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Light blue. Weathering; iridescence.

51

F

2546

23860

Pushed-in bottom (D 65 mm), very thick at the center, with traces of glass from the pontil on its underside. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

52

F

2546

23860

Pushed-in bottom (D 95 mm) with a pontil scar on its underside. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

147

Lucid Transformations

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61 0

20 mm

No.

Unit

Locus Basket

Description

53

F

2545

23774

Hollow cylindrical stem (D c. 18 mm), cut-off at the bottom. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

54

D

2324

22578

Hollow cylindrical stem (D c. 17 mm), diagonally cut-off at the bottom, and thin walls of the lamp bowl. Light blue; large elongated bubble. Iridescence.

55

F

2546

23860

Hollow cylindrical stem (D c. 17 mm), cut-off at the bottom, , and walls of the lamp bowl. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

56

F

2546

23838

Hollow cylindrical stem (D 15–18 mm), thick cut-off bottom, and a small part of the lamp bowl. Greenish blue. Weathering. Mended.

57

-

2443

22405

Hollow cylindrical stem (D c. 15 mm), thick cut-off bottom. Light blue. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

58

-

Beneath cover of water channel, south of W309

Hollow cylindrical stem (D 20–22 mm), thick at the bottom, with a bulge (possibly an additional wad of glass that was attached to the pontil to facilitate work on the rim). Olive green; small oval bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

59

D

2379

22881

Hollow conical stem, with a globular knob at the end, cut-off at the bottom. Light blue. Iridescence.

60

D

2324

22578

Hollow conical stem, twisted at the end, broken at the bottom, and thin walls of the lamp bowl. Light blue. Iridescence.

61

C

2387

22768

Hollow, conical stem tapering downward, its lower part narrow and solid, and carelessly tooled to form a rhomboid cross-sectioned end. Broken at the bottom. Light blue. Iridescence; pitting.

Fig. 5.5.6. Monastery on Mount Scopus: stemmed lamps.

148

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

62

63

64

65

66

0

67

20 mm

68

69

No.

Unit

Locus

Basket

Description

62

F

2662

23280

Circular windowpane (D 260 mm; Th 1.5–2.0 mm) with a rounded infolded rim. Light blue; small oval bubbles. Iridescence.

63

D

2448

23447

Circular windowpane (D 250–255 mm; Th 1 mm) with a rounded hollow infolded rim. Light blue. Iridescence.

64

F

2550

23786

Circular windowpane (D 250 mm; Th 1 mm) with a rounded hollow infolded rim. Light blue. Iridescence; pitting.

65

F

2546

23781

Circular windowpane (D 250 mm; Th 1.5–2.0 mm) with a rounded hollow infolded rim. Light blue. Iridescence.

66

D

2448

23447

Concave circular windowpane. Light green; small round bubbles. Iridescence.

67

E

2430

22416

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 4.0–4.5 mm) with one edge chipped-off, one cut and one broken. Greenish blue; medium-size oval bubbles. Iridescence.

68

E

2396

22857

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 4–6 mm) with a rounded, uneven edge. Light blue. Iridescence.

69

-

2682

26351

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 1.5–3.0 mm) a rounded edge. Light blue. Iridescence; slight pitting.

Fig. 5.5.7. Monastery on Mount Scopus: windowpanes.

149

Lucid Transformations 5.6 Monastery in the Kidron Valley

press or bakery (Loci 1043 and 1074), a flour-mill (Loci 2053 and 2060), water installations and possibly a stable. The foundation trench (Locus 1085) of one of the walls (Wall 106) contained two pottery bowls, one dated earlier than the mid-sixth century and the other from the midsixth to the late seventh centuries.

5.6.1 The Site and the Finds The salvage excavation on the lower eastern slope of a hill east of the Kidron Valley, near the Arab es-Sawaḥire neighborhood, was carried out on behalf of the IAA in 2003 (Permit No. A-3994/2003; Zelinger and Barbé 2017202). The remains exposed were identified by the excavators as a monastery, which functioned, according to most of the pottery, during the sixth and seventh centuries and up to the eighth century, undergoing several architectural modifications and additions.

A basalt hand mill dated to the sixth century found in a fill (Locus 1046) over the southern courtyard also supports the date of the occupational phase of the monastery. A stone collapse and a post-destruction phase, dated by pottery to as late as the eighth century, were detected in the southern wing.

The complex belonged to a coenobium-type monastery. The excavators proposed to identify the monastery as that of Saint Eustathius, mentioned by Paul of Elusa (died 522) writing in the first half of the sixth century, regarding a monk named Theognius who had traveled from Jerusalem and had fallen off his donkey opposite that monastery (Zelinger and Barbé 2017:80).

The numismatic evidence from the site amounts to four coins; the two identifiable coins date from the Mamluk period and from the late Mamluk–early Ottoman periods. The Glass Finds The glass finds from the monastery were collected from all excavation areas, including accumulations above the northern courtyard (Locus 1094), on the ‘bakery’ floor (Locus 1043), and above (Locus 2053) and under the flour-mill floor (Locus 2060).

The monastic complex occupied a rectangular area (25 × 36 m), enclosed within a massive wall, and comprised two distinct zones: a church and a burial complex in the northern wing, and industrial and residential quarters in the southern wing (Plan 5.6).

The glass assemblage comprises some 170 small glass fragments, of which about two-thirds are of windowpanes. Most of the vessels were free-blown of translucent glass, generally colorless, blue, greenish-blue and green. The glass finds date from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods, particularly the sixth–seventh centuries (see final report in Winter 2017a).

A chapel (9 × 32 m) with an apse in the east, and a hall and atrium in the west (Loci 1069, 1093, 1100 and 1109), was located in the northern part of the monastery. The chapel was probably roofed by clay tiles, such as those unearthed at the site, and paved with a mosaic floor depicting animals, among them a deer and an octopus; this floor was damaged probably in the thirteenth century. The atrium was paved with a geometric mosaic.

Bowls The glass finds from the site included a few bowls, including a large, probably shallow bowl with an outfolded hollow rim (Fig. 5.6.1:1), which may be dated to the Byzantine period by its shape and fabric (Type BLor); a clay bowl from the same provenance (Locus 1037), dated from the mid-sixth to the late seventh centuries, supports this date. A bowl fragment with a rounded rim (Type BLrr) was also collected at the site (in Locus 2046, not illustrated).

The courtyard (Loci 1056, 1079, 1073 and 1094) south of the chapel covered a cistern, and was probably surrounded by a cloister. Several burial crypts were discovered below the northern courtyard, comprising of vaulted and plastered quadrangular rooms, each containing multiple graves, and hewn and built sarcophagi. Christian symbols were detected in some of the burials: a sunken circle on the door lintel of the southern chamber in Tomb 3000, which apparently contained a cross and was later chiseled off; an encircled croix pattée (‘footed cross’) chiseled above a sarcophagus in Tomb 3001 (Locus 3015); and an ‘anchor cross’, painted in red inside another sarcophagus in that tomb (Locus 3016), which was later probably scratched off, presumably by iconoclasts.

Wineglasses The wineglass fragments discovered at the site include a rim and wall fragment adorned with applied trails (Fig. 5.6.1:2; Type WGtd), and hollow ring bases with a singlebead stem (Fig. 5.6.1:3, 4, and one from Locus 3002, not illustrated; Type WGhb/sbs). These wineglasses are characteristic of the sixth–seventh centuries. One of the bases (Fig. 5.6.1:3) was discovered in the same provenance (Locus 1094) as a clay jar dated to the sixth–seventh centuries, supporting the wineglass date.

The southern wing comprised a courtyard surrounded by rooms, which occupied an installation, possibly an oil

202

See n. 192.

150

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

Plan 5.6. Monastery in the Kidron Valley (after Zelinger and Barbé 2017: Plan 1; courtesy of the IAA).

151

Lucid Transformations

1

2

3

4

5

7

6

8

9

11

10 0

20 mm

Fig. 5.6.1. Monastery in the Kidron Valley: various vessels and windowpanes.

152

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.6.1. Monastery in the Kidron Valley: various vessels and windowpanes. No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

1037

10097

Bowl with a hollow outfolded rim (D 240 mm) and thin walls. Light green. Iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

2

1066

10234

Wineglass with an upright rounded rim (D 80 mm), and a blue trail horizontally applied and fused-in on and below the rim. Vessel: colorless; trail: dark blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

3

1094

10238

Wineglass with an irregular single-bead stem on a hollow concave ring base (D 48–49 mm). Light blue; bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

4

1022

10109

Wineglass with a deformed hollow concave ring base (D 40 mm). Light blue; large bubbles in base perimeter. Iridescence; sand deposit.

5

3013 3014

30020 30021

Bottle with a rounded rim (D 35–40 mm), funnel-shaped neck adorned with a thick wavy trail of the same color wound at about mid-height, convex walls of a probably globular body; the bottom is missing. Light blue; elongated bubbles in the neck, round bubbles in the body. Iridescence; sand deposit.

6

2056

20115

Cylindrical thin-walled beaker (estimated H 100 mm) with a hollow outfolded rim (D 90 mm). The body is decorated with shallow mold-blown diagonal ribs. Colorless with olive-green tinge; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

7

1057

10156

Lamp. Thick loop handle attached to a small part of a wall. Green. White weathering; pitting.

8

1047

10125

Lamp with a cylindrical wick tube (H 30 mm). Light green(?). Thick weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

9

1084

10199

Lamp with a hollow cylindrical stem, thick at the bottom (D 10 mm), with a pontil scar covering most of its underside. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

10

1022

10109

Quadrangular windowpane (surviving L c 100 mm; Th c. 3 mm) with a rounded edge. Greenish-blue with olive-green streaks; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

11

1022

10109

Quadrangular windowpane (surviving L c. 80 mm; Th max. 4 mm) with a rounded wavy edge. Greenish-blue; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

153

Lucid Transformations Bottles

5.7 Monastery at Umm Tuba

The bottles (Type BT) included a dozen small rim, neck and bottom fragments (not illustrated), and a globular bottle with a thick wavy trail wound around its neck at mid-height (Fig. 5.6.1:5; Type BTwt), of a type widespread from the early seventh through the eighth centuries.

5.7.1 The Site and the Finds The ruins of Khirbat Umm Tuba lie in the village center, some five km south of Jerusalem and four km northeast of Bethlehem. The site was identified with Metopa, mentioned in written sources (and see discussion in Seligman 2011:446–448). Various surveys and excavations carried out at the site on behalf of the IAA in the past decade have exposed a farmhouse, a ritual bath (miqve), various caves adapted for use as columbaria, and other architectural remains dated from the Iron Age to the Late Roman period. An arcosolium tomb was hewn in the Byzantine period in one of the caves after it had ceased to serve as a columbarium (Kagan and Eirikh-Rose 2012; Adawi 2010:114–139; Permit Nos. A-5529/2008, A-5868/2010, A-6035/2011, A-6276/2011). 

Lamps Three types of glass lamps that were widespread during the sixth and seventh centuries are displayed in this corpus. The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamp type with three handles (Type LBB) is represented by a beakershaped receptacle, adorned with mold-blown ribbing (Fig. 5.6.1:6; Type LBBmbd), as well as by three handles (from Loci 1011, 1022 and 2046; not illustrated) and wick tubes (Fig. 5.6.1:8, and three others from Loci 2012 and 2046; not illustrated). The stemmed lamp type (Type LST) is represented by a cylindrical hollow stem (Fig. 5.6.1:9; Type LSThs). Globular lamps (Type LGL) are represented by a small loop handle (Fig. 5.6.1:7; Type LGLsh).

The excavation, carried out in 2013 (Permit No. A-6741/2013; Adawi 2014203), exposed remains of several rooms, in which two settlement strata were detected. The pottery dates both strata to the sixth–seventh centuries. One relevant coin dates to the fourth century, and two others date to 574/5 and 641/2–642/3. Additionally, this excavation yielded numerous stone tesserae, roof tiles, and glass finds (see below).

Windowpanes Some 100 fragments of greenish blue windowpanes were collected in various locations at the monastery site. The ones that could be classified and those illustrated (Fig. 5.6.1:10, 11) are of the quadrangular type (Type WPqd), which was widespread mostly in the sixth–seventh centuries.

These remains may have been associated with the complex excavated in 2005 (Permit No. A-4397/2005), some 100 m northeastward. This complex, with rooms surrounding a courtyard, contained stone and marble columns, chancel screen fragments and a capital depicting a cross, attesting to the Christian nature of the complex, possibly a church or monastery from the Byzantine period. The complex underwent structural alterations and continued to function into the Early Islamic period, as attested by two Umayyadperiod coin hoards discovered under the floor of Phase 1a, and pottery attributed to the Abbasid period (EirikhRose 2007; Adawi 2010:114–139). Additionally, the glass finds from the 2005 excavation date mostly from the seventh–eighth centuries, and included a quadrangular windowpane, as well as numerous bottles, a few of which may have also appeared in a later period, i.e., the ninth– tenth centuries.204

5.6.2 Summary and Discussion The assortment of glass finds from the monastery complex east of the Kidron Valley resembles other glass assemblages of the period from the Jerusalem area, many originating in Christian ecclesiastical complexes. The glass vessels from the Kidron Valley are mostly plain; yet, the beaker-shaped lamp (Fig. 5.6.1:6) is adorned with a mold-blown pattern, a phenomenon quite rare on lamps. The pottery collected from many of the contexts that yielded glass finds (see above) covers a rather wide timespan, ranging, for example, from the late third/early fourth to the seventh and possibly the eighth centuries in Loci 1043 and 1094, and mostly from the mid-sixth to the ninth/tenth centuries in Loci 2053 and 2060. This wide range hinders the use of the pottery finds as a beneficial dating tool, and, together with meager numismatic evidence, reinforces the significance of glass finds for a well-defined reliable chronology.

The Glass Finds The glass finds from the recent excavation at Umm Tuba (Permit No. A-6741/2013) recovered some 60 small fragments, of which 23 are diagnostic pieces. The finds included bowls, wineglasses, bottles, lamps, windowpanes and a gold-glass tile, all characteristic of the late Byzantine and early Umayyad periods (Winter 2014).

Nearly all the glass finds recovered at the site date from the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods, particularly the sixth–seventh centuries. A bottle (Fig. 5.6.1:5), unearthed in one of the burial complexes (Locus 3013) that had been disturbed by later activities, is adorned with a wavy trail, a decoration (Type DDwt) that was widespread from the early seventh through the eighth centuries, and may, therefore, be associated with the monastery’s latest phase of occupation.

See n. 192. The glass finds from that excavation (Permit No. A-4397/2005) were studied by N. Katsnelson.

203

204

154

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

1

2

3

6

5

4

7

8

9

10 0

No.

20 mm

Locus

Basket

Description

1

409

4017

Wineglass with a rounded rim (D 80 mm) and outsplaying walls. Colorless with bluish tinge. Weathering; iridescence.

2

405

4008

Wineglass with an incurved rim (D 80 mm) and slanting walls. Light bluish green; bubbles. Iridescence.

3

302

3004

Wineglass with a single-bead stem (D 12 mm), hollow on top. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

4

405

4028

Lamp with a hollow outfolded rim (D 80 mm). Light greenish blue. Iridescence.

5

405

4008

Lamp with a hollow outfolded rim and a small part of the thin walls. A trail handle is drawn from the wall up and over the rim. Greenish blue with green streaks; black impurities; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

6

406

4021

Lamp with a hollow outfolded rim and a small part of the thin walls. A trail handle is drawn from the wall up and over the rim. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

7

411

4026

Lamp with a large cylindrical wick tube (D at its base c. 20 mm). Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence.

8

406

4021

Lamp with a large cylindrical wick tube (D at its base c. 25 mm). Greenish blue; black impurities; large elongated bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

9

210

2023

Lamp with thin walls and a loop handle bearing a tooled trail extension. Light olive green. Severe weathering; iridescence; pitting.

10

302

3004

Corner fragment of a gold-glass tile made of two glass layers (the bottom layer: Th 5 mm; the top one: Th less than 1 mm) with a gold leaf between them. Two small indents, probably tool marks on the edge. Green. Iridescence; thick limy crust.

Fig. 5.7.1. Monastery at Umm Tuba: various vessels and a gold-glass tile.

155

Lucid Transformations 5.8 The Kathisma Church Complex

Wineglasses are represented by several rounded and incurved rims (Fig. 5.7.1:1, 2; Type WGrr), and a base with a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.7.1:3; Type WGhb/sbs). Several other rounded rims and body fragments (from Loci 201, 403, 406 and 409, not illustrated) probably belonged to bottles.

5.8.1 The Site and the Finds The ecclesiastical complex, comprising a monumental octagonal church and a monastery, was excavated on behalf of the IAA in 1993–1997, and in collaboration with the University of Athens and the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1999–2000 (Avner 2003; 2005; 2006–2007; various permit numbers). The complex was erected, according to literary sources, in the first half or the mid-fifth century along the ancient Jerusalem– Bethlehem road, to commemorate the resting place of pregnant Mary on her journey to Bethlehem. The rock on which she had allegedly sat occupied the center of the Kathisma church, and the monastery included mosaicpaved rooms and reservoirs.

Fragments of at least seven bowl-shaped lamps (Type LBB) were recorded, some with an outfolded rim (Fig. 5.7.1:4–6, and another from Locus 104, not illustrated; Type LBBor), and others with a large wick tube (Fig. 5.7.1:7, 8, and another from L301, not illustrated; Type LBBwkt). These lamps had simple trail handles (Fig. 5.7.1:5, 6, and nine additional handles from Loci 103, 210, 301, 304, 404, 405 and 406, not illustrated), four of which probably belonged to two different lamps, two each (of three) to a lamp (from Loci 405 and 406). Another handle, with a tooled trail extending below it (Fig. 5.7.1:9), probably belonged to a globular lamp (Type LGLte).

The plan of the church consisted of several concentric octagons and a protruding large apse in the east (Avner 2006–2007:554). The outer octagon incorporated interconnected rooms and apsidal chapels, and three entrances were located at all but the eastern side. The holy rock, which was the focus of the pilgrimage attraction, was situated in full view at the center of the innermost octagon. As the church was intended for extensive pilgrimage, this elaborate plan enabled freedom of movement in all parts of the interior and offered access from all sides to the focus of worship at the geometrical center of the building (Avner 2006–2007:545).

Two tiny windowpane fragments (not illustrated) were recovered, one on the surface (Locus 201) and the other from an accumulation east of W10 (Locus 403). The goldglass tile, of which only a small part of a corner and an edge has been preserved (Fig. 5.7.1:10), is an exceptional find, which constitutes a significant addition to the very scarce evidence of such tiles from Jerusalem and its environs (see Type GGT). 5.7.2 Summary and Discussion

Analysis of the historical sources, the architectural remains, the coins, the pottery and the glass finds (see below), led the excavator to reconstruct three phases in the construction of the church. The original plan comprising of concentric octagons belonged to the founding of the church in the first half or mid-fifth century (Phase I). Major modifications were carried out in the mid-sixth century or in its second half (Phase II), including the annulment of some of the piers, the enlargement of the bema, and the laying of new mosaic floors over the original church floors.

The glass vessels and glass artifacts from Umm Tuba are typical of assemblages from complexes in the Jerusalem area dated to the sixth–seventh centuries. Furthermore, the choice of glass vessel types, the relatively large number of lamps, the occurrence of windowpanes, and the gold-glass tile, generally adorning church interiors, may all suggest that the complex excavated at Umm Tuba was of an ecclesiastical nature. This coincides with other evidence from the excavation, such as fragments of roof tiles.

Significant changes were made during the first half of the eighth century (Phase III), dated by Umayyad-period coins discovered in the plaster of relevant walls and floors. A structure was built on top of the southeastern part of the main apse, and new mosaic floors partly covered the previous ones. An incomplete Greek inscription, set in the mosaic pavement of one of the southern outer rooms of the church, bears palaeographic features possibly from the eighth century (Di Segni 2003a205). Additionally, the southern passage between the outer octagon and the ambulatory was blocked, and a niche,

Di Segni also proposed to identify Basilius, whose monogram appears at the top of the inscription, as the patriarch of Jerusalem in the years 821–839; this would date the pavement of this room, and perhaps the entire renovation of the church (Phase III), to the second quarter of the ninth century. 205

156

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Wineglasses

probably of a Mecca-facing mihrab of a small indoor mosque, was built over the older threshold. This is one of the earliest examples of a Muslim prayer hall incorporated within an existing Christian church, possibly indicating the occurrence of shared Christian and Islamic worship in churches in the Early Islamic period.

The wineglasses from the site included some delicate, thinwalled specimens with a rounded rim (Type WGrr), either slightly outsplaying (Fig. 5.8.2:14) or slightly incurved (Fig. 5.8.2:15), and others with a rounded rim and applied blue trails fused-in on and below the rim (Fig. 5.8.2:16, 17; Type WGtd).

The Glass Finds

Most of the wineglasses from the site are of the hollow ring base type (Fig. 5.8.2:18, 19, 21; Type WGhb) with a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.8.2:18–20; Type WGhb/ sbs), while only several wineglasses have a solid base (Fig. 5.8.2:22; Type WGsb). The hollow wineglass base was the most widespread in Palestine and the Eastern Mediterranean in the sixth–seventh centuries, while the solid base was more widespread in the seventh–eighth centuries; however, at the Kathisma church complex, as in other assemblages, specimens of both types were discovered together in the same locus, indicating they appeared contemporaneously as well. Two of the wineglass fragments (Fig. 5.1.2:17, 18) were recovered in the same provenance (Locus 296) as a coin dating from 527–565, corroborating a date in the sixth century. Interestingly, a wineglass base of the solid type (Fig. 5.1.2:22) was found together (in Locus 809) with a coin dating from 708–717.

The glass finds from the ecclesiastical complex of the Kathisma were recovered from Areas A, B, C and E.206 Very few glass vessels are attributed to the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. The largest group dates from the sixth to the eighth centuries, and only one vessel dates from the ninth–tenth centuries. The latest glass find from the site is a fragment of a bracelet from the Mamluk or Ottoman period. The relevant glass vessels include mostly bowls, wineglasses, bottles and lamps, many of which were decorated in various methods. The vessels were free-blown of translucent glass, mostly light blue and light green; a few pieces are olive-green, yellow-green, dark blue and colorless. The glass is generally of mediocre quality, some pieces containing black impurities and bubbles of various sizes. Most of the glass bore iridescence and sand deposits. Only a few of the provenances that yielded glass finds contained identified coins, and those are mentioned where relevant.

Bottles and Jugs

Bowls and Bowls/Beakers

The fragments from the site represent types of bottles and jugs that were widespread in Jerusalem and its surroundings in the sixth–eighth centuries. Undecorated bottles include a small bottle with an upright rounded rim (Fig. 5.8.3:23; Type BTrr), discovered in the small octagon of the church; bottles or jars with a funnel-shaped mouth (Fig. 5.8.3:24, 25; Type BTrr/fm), unearthed in the monastery and in the church ambulatory; and a medium-size bottle with an upright infolded rim (Fig. 5.8.3:26; Type BTir), recovered from the church’s large octagon.

The bowls from the site included a fragment of a hollow outfolded rim (Fig. 5.8.1:1; Type BLor), and several hollow ring bases (Fig. 5.8.1:2–4; Type BShr). The quality, fabric, hue, fashioning and preservation of the glass suggest a date in the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods, i.e., the sixth–eighth centuries. Many variants of bowls/beakers (see Type BB), characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries, are represented at the site (Fig. 5.8.1:5–12). Some bowls/ beakers have a rounded, occasionally thickened, upright or incurved rim (Fig. 5.8.1:5, 6, 8; Type BBrr), while others have an infolded rim (Fig. 5.8.1:7; Type BBir). The rim, wall and bottom fragments illustrated in Fig. 5.8.1:8–10 were discovered in the same location (Locus 408, Basket 3234), and are probably parts of a single vessel, a bowl/ beaker, which had possibly been used as a lamp.

A bottle with a funnel-shaped mouth is adorned with a wound turquoise-colored trail (Fig. 5.8.3:27; Type BTtd), and a bottle neck, body fragment and a jug neck are adorned with a horizontally-wound thick wavy trail (Fig. 5.8.3:28, 29, 41; Type DDwt). Several pieces, discovered in the church and in the monastery, belong to bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body, typical of the seventh– eighth centuries (Fig. 5.8.3:30–33; Type BTTifr). Bottles Nos. 30–32 are green and thick-walled, and the rim is infolded and flattened, diminishing the inner diameter; their fabric is severely weathered, creating a thick enamel-like crust that is characteristic of globular bottles and jars associated with the Umayyad period. Bottle No. 33 differs from these bottles in the hollow within its rim fold, and in its fabric and light bluish-green color, typical of most of the glass vessels recovered at the site.

Bowls/beakers may have had a hollow or pressed tooled-in interior fold around the vessel mid-height (Fig. 5.8.1:9, 11; Type BBif). Additionally, they were occasionally adorned with several wavy trails, generally of a different color than the vessel, applied vertically from the rim along the walls (Fig. 5.8.1:12, 13; Type BBvt).

206 The glass finds from the Kathisma church complex were studied in collaboration with Y. Gorin-Rosen.

157

Lucid Transformations

1

2

3

4

5 8

6 9

7

10

11

12

13 0

No.

Area Locus

Basket

20 mm

Description

1

A

55

259

Hollow outfolded rim (D c. 120 mm) and small part of walls. Bluish green; black impurities; small bubbles. Limy crust.

2

C

420

3265

Pushed-in, off-centered, hollow ring base (D 75 mm) with a thick floor and a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Small and medium-size round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

3

B

213

1127

Low pushed-in hollow ring base (D 70 mm) with a thick floor and olive-green glass traces from the pontil on the underside. Greenish blue. Sand deposit.

4

A

44

198

5

C

404

3087

Incurved rounded rim (D 90 mm). Greenish blue. Iridescence.

6

C

420

3283

Thickened, incurved, rounded rim (D 90 mm). Bluish green with yellowish green streaks. Small and medium-size and small bubbles. Iridescence.

7

A

58

378

Thickened, rounded, infolded rim (D 100 mm) with thin inward-slanting walls. Greenish blue. Sand deposit.

8

C

408

3234

Slightly slanting, thickened, rounded rim (D 100 mm). Greenish blue; small and medium-size, round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

9

C

408

3234

Thin wall fragment with an irregular internal hollow fold (D 100 mm). Greenish blue; small and medium-size, round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit. Mended.

10

C

408

3234

Flat bottom, slightly concave at the center, with a coarse pontil scar (D 9–12 mm) on its underside. Greenish blue; small and medium-size, round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit. Mended.

11

A

59

293

12

C

404

3117

Slightly incurved, thickened, rounded rim (D 70 mm) with traces of a yellowish brown trail attached to it. Greenish blue; black impurities; small bubbles. Iridescence.

13

C

404

3067

Small thin-walled body fragment with a thin, vertically applied, wavy trail, of which two folds survived. Light greenish blue. Sand deposit.

Low pushed-in hollow ring base (D 50 mm) with a thick floor. Bluish green. Sand deposit.

Small wall fragment (D 100 mm) with an interior horizontal ridge. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

Fig. 5.8.1. Kathisma church complex: bowls and bowls/beakers.

158

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

15

14

17

16

18

19

20

21

22 0

20 mm

No.

Area Locus

Basket

Description

14

C

406

3107

Rounded rim (D 80 mm), and slanting walls with their upper part slightly outsplaying. Greenish blue; black impurities; small bubbles; blowing spirals. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit.

15

A

53

257

Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D 80 mm), and very thin walls displaying polishing marks. Light green; black impurities; small bubbles. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit.

16

A

143

4122

Rounded rim (D 70 mm) and thin walls. A blue trail is horizontally wound and fused-in ten times on and below the rim; the two outermost windings are thicker than the others. Light green; trail: blue with black impurities. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. Mended.

17

B

296

7196 7210

Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D c. 60 mm) and thin walls. A blue trail is horizontally wound and fused-in seven times on and below the rim; the two outermost windings are thicker than the others. Colorless; trail: blue with black impurities. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. Mended.

18

B

296

7196

Complete, irregular, off-centered hollow ring base (D 45 mm) with a pontil scar (D 7 mm) on its underside, and a hollow single-bead stem. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

19

A

145

4124

Complete hollow ring base (D 50–60 mm) with a pontil scar (D 7 mm) on its underside, and a hollow single-bead stem. Bluish green; black impurities; small round bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

20

E

822

6123

Broken hollow single-bead stem with a pontil scar (D 7 mm) on its underside. Green. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

21

A

145

4124

Broken, irregular, hollow ring base (D 48 mm) with a pontil scar (D 5 mm) on its underside. Bluish green; small round bubbles. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

22

E

809

6039

Lower part of an irregular wineglass with a thick convex floor, a short cylindrical stem and a solid base (c. 50 mm) with a pontil scar (D 10 mm) on the underside; tooling marks are evident on the stem and base. Greenish blue; black impurities. Iridescence; sand deposit.

Fig. 5.8.2. Kathisma church complex: wineglasses.

159

Lucid Transformations

23

24

25 26

29

27

28

31 32

30

33

34

36

35

37

39

38

40

41

42

0

20 mm

Fig. 5.8.3. Kathisma church complex: bottles and jugs.

160

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.8.3. Kathisma church complex: bottles and jugs. No.

Area

Locus

Basket Description

23

A

78

392

24

C

408

3234

Funnel mouth with a rounded rim (D 40 mm). Greenish blue; medium-size oval bubbles. Iridescence; slight pitting.

25

B

213

1127

Flaring rounded rim (D 60 mm), wide mouth and wide neck. Light greenish blue; blowing spirals. Iridescence.

26

A

75

370

27

C

413

3185

Rounded rim (D 60 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth adorned with a turquoise-colored wound trail: the two thick outermost windings flank two very thin windings. Vessel: light greenish blue with oval bubbles; trail: turquoise-colored. Iridescence; sand deposit. Four fragments.

28

C

411

3359

Short, cylindrical neck adorned with a thick wavy trail, unevenly wound at about mid-height. Light green with yellowish green streaks; large and medium-size vertical oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

29

C

404

3117

Thin wall fragment adorned with a thick wavy trail. Greenish-blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

30

A

59

293

31

C

422

3387

Thick, infolded, flattened rim (D 28 mm) and cylindrical neck. Green. Severe weathering; thick golden enamel-like crust; iridescence.

32

B

220

1186

Thick, unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 30 mm) and thick cylindrical neck. Green. Severe weathering; thick golden enamel-like crust; iridescence; sand deposit.

33

C

408

3228

Unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 25 mm) and cylindrical neck. Light bluish green. Black impurities; small and medium-size round and vertical oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

34

B

276

7150

Infolded, thickened rim (D 20 mm), thick-walled neck with uneven horizontal ridges, and small part of the shoulders. Greenish blue; black impurities; round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

35

C

403

3065

Infolded flattened rim (D 17 mm) and thick-walled, funnel-shaped neck with three indistinct horizontal ridges. Olive green; black impurities; large bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

36

B

216

1111

Infolded, rounded rim (D 10 mm) and cylindrical neck with a single horizontal ridge. Light greenish blue; black impurities; oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

37

B

276

7150

Flat bottom with a crude pontil scar (D 9 mm) on its underside, and thin vessel walls. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

38

A

59

293

39

C

403

3083

Complete, thick, disc-like bottom (D 45 mm) with an uneven pontil scar (D 13–17 mm) on its underside, and a small part of the thick walls. Green with an olive-green tinge. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit.

40

C

406

3107

Concave bottom (D 65–70 mm), flat at the center, with no pontil scar on its underside. Light green. Iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

41

C

455

7599

Jug with an infolded rim with traces of a handle, a pinched funnel-shaped mouth (L 60 mm; W 50 mm), and a cylindrical neck adorned with a thick wavy trail wound twice at around mid-height. Greenish blue; black impurities; round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

42

C

408

3234

Hexagonal-sectioned jug, its upper part missing. The irregular concave bottom (L max. 50 mm) has a pontil scar (D 10 mm) on its underside, and possibly an unsuccessfully-executed moldblown pattern. The high-quality mold-blown patterns on the six sides of the vessel protrude similarly on the interior and exterior. These patterns comprise lozenges framing circles, diagonal grillwork, and a stylized palm frond, each pattern recurring twice. Light greenish blue; black impurities on bottom; small round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit. Mended.

Upright rounded rim (D 25 mm) and conical neck. Light bluish green. Iridescence; pitting; sand deposit.

Unevenly infolded rim (D 50 mm) and cylindrical neck. Light green. Iridescence; sand deposit.

Unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 20–22 mm) and short cylindrical neck. Probably green. Severely corroded; golden crust with enamel-like film.

Thin-walled concave bottom (D 40 mm) with no pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

161

Lucid Transformations

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50 0

20 mm

No.

Area Locus

Basket

Description

43

C

402

3057

Wall fragment with a mold-blown pattern, comprising a protruding ridge and thin perpendicular lines. Light bluish green; small round bubbles.

44

C

407

3202

Wall fragment with a mold-blown dotted pattern, of which seven dots survived. Colorless with bluish green tinge. Small round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

45

C

426

3364

Body fragment with two thin horizontal turquoise-colored trails, between two thick turquoisecolored trails (the top one thicker than the bottom one) deeply pinched creating a bifurcated pattern. Vessel: very light greenish blue; trails: turquoise-colored. Iridescence; sand deposit.

46

C

407

3156

Thin-walled body fragment with nine very thin horizontal turquoise-colored trails deeply pinched, creating a bifurcated pattern. Vessel: colorless; trails: turquoise-colored. Small oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

47

A

16

126

Body fragment (either the shoulder or the lowest part of the wall) with horizontal pinches: one complete and one partially intact. Light bluish green; black impurities; small and medium-size round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

48

C

420

3283

Wall fragment with one complete pinch and one partly intact pinch. Greenish blue. Iridescence; slight pitting.

49

B

216

1111

Thin-walled fragment with a small, delicate (horizontal or vertical) pinch intact. Light bluish green. Sand deposit.

50

B

272

7172

Body fragment of a bichrome vessel made of two separate glass blobs: one thin and light blue, the other thick and colorless. A horizontal bulge on the interior marks where the two parts join. Weathering; iridescence; pitting.

Fig. 5.8.4. Kathisma church complex: vessels decorated in various techniques.

162

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

51 52

55 53

54

57

56

58

59 0

20 mm

No.

Area

Locus

Basket

51

A

96

465

Description Bowl-shaped lamp with a wide, unevenly hollow outfolded rim (D 130 mm) and very thin slanting walls. Light yellowish green; oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

52

A

60

296

Beaker-shaped lamp with a hollow infolded rim (D c. 80 mm) and vertical walls. Light green. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

53

A

96

465

Bowl-shaped lamp with a hollow outfolded rim and a trail handle drawn from the wall up to the rim. Yellowish green; black impurities; small bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

54

E

817

6088

55

A

98

469

56

C

408

3234

Small loop handle attached to a thin wall. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

57

E

809

6039

Tall and narrow, cylindrical wick tube (D 13 mm), vertically set at the center of a pushed-in bottom with a pontil scar (D 12 mm) on its underside. Lamp bowl: light green; small round bubbles; wick tube: greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit.

58

A

136

4093

Irregular, hollow, conical stem with a thick cut-off bottom (D 8 mm). Greenish blue; small round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit.

59

B

218

1178

Hollow, cylindrical stem (D c. 13 mm), thick and diagonally cut-off at the bottom, with a tiny trace of glass from the pontil on the underside. Light green; small round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

Complete, massive, thick loop handle of a thin-walled globular lamp. The handle was drawn downward and its edge was then folded upward. Deep green. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. Small loop handle attached to a thin wall. The handle was drawn downward and its edge was then folded upward. Greenish blue. Weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

Fig. 5.8.5. Kathisma church complex: lamps.

163

Lucid Transformations

60

61

62

63

64 0

20 mm

No.

Area

Locus Basket

Description

60

A

57

292

Circular windowpane with a rounded, hollow outfolded rim (D c. 200 mm). Light bluish green. Iridescence; sand deposit.

61

A

48

235

Circular windowpane with a rounded, hollow outfolded rim (D c. 180 mm). Bluish green. Iridescence; sand deposit.

62

A

45

215

Circular windowpane with a rounded, hollow outfolded rim (D c. 180 mm). Light bluish green. Iridescence; sand deposit.

63

A

53

257

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 1 mm) with a rounded edge. Light bluish green; black impurities; small bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

64

B

Top soil

1157

Quadrangular windowpane (Th 2.5–3.0 mm) with an uneven rounded edge. Light blue; small bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

Fig. 5.8.6. Kathisma church complex: windowpanes.

The bottles dated the latest, unearthed in the church ambulatory and in the monastery, have a ridged neck, characteristic particularly of the eighth and ninth centuries (Fig. 5.8.3:34–36; Type BTTrn). Necks Nos. 34 and 35 have uneven horizontal ridges, while Neck No. 36 is very small and bears a single ridge; Neck No. 34 may have belonged to the same vessel as the bottom illustrated in Fig. 5.8.3:37 from the same provenance; Neck No. 35

may have been supported by the bottom illustrated in Fig. 5.8.3:39, which was discovered in the same locus, and matches in size and color. Several flat and concave bottoms (Fig. 5.8.3:37–40) probably belonged to bottles of types dated to the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (and see above). Bottom No. 38 may have also belonged to a jar. 164

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs The jugs from the site are characteristic of the sixth–eighth centuries. The upper part of a jug with a pinched funnelshaped mouth (Fig. 5.8.3:41; Type JGpfm) is adorned with a thick wavy trail around its neck (Type JGwt); it may have belonged to a multi-side vessel (Type EXMSV). A hexagonal-sectioned jug (Fig. 5.8.3:42; Type EXMSV) is adorned on its sides with various patterns, including lozenges framing circles, diagonal grillwork, and a stylized palm frond, each pattern recurring twice.

the pieces (Fig. 5.8.5:51, 53) were recovered in the floor foundations of the central bema in the eastern part of the church, together with seventh-century pottery. Stemmed lamps are represented by partially solid, conical and cylindrical stems (Fig. 5.8.5:58, 59; Type LSTps). Several handles probably served to suspend globular lamps (see Type LGLsh), of which no other fragments have been identified at the site. A massive loop handle (Fig. 5.8.5:54), discovered in top soil in the monastery, is distinguished by the small size of the loop hole in comparison with the large dimensions of the handle. Two small loop handles (Fig. 5.8.5:55, 56), discovered in the church and in the monastery, probably belonged to such globular lamps as well.

Vessels Decorated in Various Techniques A small thick-walled fragment, discovered in the monastery, was decorated with a protruding mold-blown grid (Fig. 5.8.4:43; Type DDmbd). This pattern is rare; however, the fabric of this piece resembles that of vessels from the site that correspond with Phase IIIc, dated by the excavator to the Umayyad period. Another small fragment, discovered in a collapse in the monastery, probably belonged to a closed vessel (Fig. 5.8.4:44). It bears a double mold-blown pattern of scattered dots (Type DDmbd).

Windowpanes Numerous windowpane fragments were discovered mostly in topsoil and accumulations in the northern part of the church (Area A). The circular panes from the site (Fig. 5.8.6:60–62; Type WPcr) are thin-walled and have a rounded, hollow, folded rim. The cylinder-blown quadrangular windowpanes (Fig. 5.8.6:63, 64; Type WPqd) are rather thin, and their edge was rounded by fire.

Some of the pieces from the site are adorned with thin trails (Type DDtd), as is a bottle with a turquoise-colored trail wound several times around its funnel-shaped mouth (see Fig. 5.8.3:27), while others are adorned with pinched trail decoration (Fig. 5.8.4:45, 46; Type DDpt). Some bottle fragments (see Fig. 5.8.3:28, 29) and a jug with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth (see Fig. 5.8.3:41) are adorned with a thick wavy trail wound horizontally around the neck (Type DDwt). Several small wall fragments belonged to vessels decorated with rows of horizontal or vertical pinches (Fig. 5.8.4:47–49; Type DDrp).

5.8.2 Summary and Discussion The glass finds from the Kathisma church complex were recovered in Areas A, B, C and E, mostly in well-dated contexts and in significant units of the complex, particularly in the church, its apse, central bema and chapels. Nearly all the glass finds from the site date within a rather short time frame, from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries, corresponding to the excavator’s Phase IIIc. Among them are bowls/beakers, wineglasses, bottles with an infolded flattened rim, bowl-shaped lamps and globular lamps. This glass corpus represents a typical local assemblage of this period, displaying continuity during and after the Arab conquest of the region.

A tiny body fragment (Fig. 5.8.4:50), discovered in an unsealed context in the small church octagon, was part of a bichrome vessel. The vessel was made of two separate glass blobs: one thin and light blue, and the other thick and colorless; their joint is evident in a horizontal bulge on the interior. Bichrome vessels of this type were usually decorated, on one or both parts, with impressed geometric patterns; however, the fragment from the Kathisma church complex is tiny, and a pattern is, therefore, impossible to discern. Bichrome vessels of this type occurred in the Abbasid–Fatimid periods, and this is the only glass find from these periods recorded in the Kathisma church complex.

The only glass find dated later than the eighth century was discovered in an un-sealed locus. It is a small part of a bichrome luxury vessel (Fig. 5.8.4:50), characteristic of the ninth–tenth centuries. It is reasonable to assume that if the vessel had originated in a settlement of that period, the site would have yielded more glass vessels, including plain wares. Being the only piece, this vessel may have been brought to the site by a merchant or a visiting pilgrim.

Lamps Most of the glass lamps excavated in the Kathisma church complex represent the lamp types most widespread during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods.

Modern cultivation of the area may have severely damaged the last occupation phase of the church complex, yet the near-absence of significant glass finds that post-date the eighth century, may indicate that the structure was not used after this time, as also suggested by the coins, of which only one dates to the eighth–ninth centuries, and another relates to the ninth century. If so, the mosaic inscription from the church should be assigned to the eighth century rather than the ninth century (Di Segni 2003a).

The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with three handles generally have an outfolded rim (5.8.5:51; Type LBBor). The infolded hollow rim of a beaker-shaped lamp (Fig. 5.8.5:52) is unusual. The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps are also represented at the site by a typical handle (Fig. 5.8.5:53), and other, less conventional handles (Fig. 5.8.5:54–56), as well as by a wick tube (Fig. 5.8.5:57; LBBwkt). Two of 165

Lucid Transformations 5.9 Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem

The Glass Finds

5.9.1 The Site and the Finds

About half of the poorly-preserved glass finds from the site on Ha-Bannay Street were recovered in a stone fill in the subterranean space (Locus 11), along with coins dating from the fifth and the early sixth centuries, and pottery attributed to the Byzantine period. Some of these glass vessels are typical mostly of the fourth–early fifth centuries (e.g., Fig. 5.9.1:9; and additional vessels, not illustrated), while most of them are characteristic of the mid-fifth–sixth centuries (e.g., Fig. 5.9.1:1–8, 10, 19).

The excavation on Ha-Bannay Street in the Bet Ha-Kerem neighborhood in western Jerusalem was carried out in 2006, and its results have been only preliminarily published (IAA Permit No. A-4941/2006; Billig 2007). The excavation exposed several settlement strata, spanning from the late First Temple period to the Mamluk period. The remains from the Byzantine period included a subterranean oil press, a refuse pit, and a large subterranean space (Locus 11), possibly an industrial installation, into which large blocks of a roof-tiled mosaic-paved structure, along with numerous artifacts, had been discarded, possibly in an attempt to level the ground. No significant coins were recorded.

The glass finds from other contexts at the site are nearly all typical of the mid-fifth–sixth centuries as well (e.g., Fig. 5.9.1:11–15), except for the earliest fragment in the corpus, which is typical of the second–third centuries (not illustrated).

Fig. 5.9.1. Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem: various vessels. No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

11

197

Wineglass or bottle with a rounded, slightly flaring rim (D 60 mm) and a nearly cylindrical body/ mouth/neck. Light greenish blue; small bubbles; blowing spirals. Iridescence. Mended.

2

11

197

Wineglass or bottle with a rounded rim (D 53 mm) and a cylindrical, slightly concave mouth/neck. Light greenish blue; oval bubbles; blowing spirals. Iridescence. Mended.

3

11

186

Wineglass with a rounded rim (D 75 mm), and a blue trail wound horizontally and fused-in below the rim. Vessel: light blue; trail: blue. Iridescence.

4

11

119

Wineglass or bowl with a rounded rim (D 70 mm), and a blue trail wound horizontally and fused-in on the rim and walls. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: blue. Iridescence.

5

11

133

Wineglass with a rounded rim (D 50–60 mm), and a blue trail wound horizontally and fusedin on the rim and walls. Vessel: colorless with a bluish tinge; trail: blue with black impurities. Iridescence.

6

11

34

Wineglass with a hollow ring base (D 43 mm) with traces of glass from the pontil on its underside, a single-bead stem, and a small part of the vessel walls. Greenish blue.

7

11

197

Wineglass with a hollow ring base (D 45 mm) and a single-bead stem, set off center. Olive green. Iridescence.

8

11

133

Wineglass with a hollow ring base (D 48–49 mm) with traces from glass from the pontil on its underside, and a single-bead stem. Green. Iridescence. Mended.

9

11

186

Bottle with a rounded rim (D 40 mm), and a funnel-shaped mouth adorned with an unevenly-thick, horizontally-wound trail of the same color as the vessel. Green. Iridescence.

10

11

34

Bottle with an infolded rim (D 65 mm) and a funnel-shaped mouth. Light greenish blue. Severe weathering; iridescence.

11

22

95

Bottle with an unevenly infolded rim (D 37 mm), a funnel-shaped mouth and a cylindrical neck. Green. Iridescence.

12

22

95

Bottle with a rounded rim (D 40 mm), and a cylindrical neck adorned with a horizontally-wound trail of the same color as the vessel. Light greenish blue. Iridescence. Mended.

13

36

251

Bottle with a rounded rim (D 60 mm) and a nearly cylindrical mouth/neck adorned with a horizontally-wound trail of the same color as the vessel; the top winding is thicker than the seven below it. Greenish blue.

14

36

251

Bottle with a rounded rim (D c. 70 mm) and a nearly cylindrical mouth/neck adorned with a blue horizontally-wound trail. Vessel: colorless; trail: blue. Weathering; iridescence.

15

11

186 197

Bottle with a thin-walled globular body adorned with mold-blown shallow vertical ribs. Colorless.

16

11

133

Lamp with a hollow unevenly outfolded rim (D 90 mm) and remains of a handle attached to it. Light greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

17

11

186

Lamp with a handle (L 45 mm) attached to a thin wall fragment. Light greenish blue; black impurities. Iridescence.

18

11

186

Lamp with a hollow conical stem, horizontally cut-off at the bottom (D 10 mm). Light greenish blue; bubbles. Iridescence.

19

11

186

Complete beaker (H 77–78 mm) with a rounded rim (D 34–35 mm), a cylindrical body and a concave bottom. Light greenish blue; blowing spirals. Iridescence. Mended.

166

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs

2

1

5

4

3

6

7

8

9 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19 0

20 mm

Fig. 5.9.1. Installations at Bet Ha-Kerem: various vessels.

167

Lucid Transformations The glass vessels dated to the fifth–sixth centuries are mostly plain, yet some are decorated with applied horizontally-wound trails and mold-blown ribbing. The vessels were free-blown, and were made of translucent glass, mostly greenish blue, light blue, green, olive-green and colorless. The glass is generally of mediocre quality, with some pieces containing black impurities and bubbles of various sizes. Most of the glass is heavily weathered and bears iridescence.

11, and may well be contemporaneous. This exceptional vessel possibly served as a lamp (Fig. 5.9.1:19; Type LBEvw). 5.9.2 Summary and Discussion Among the glass vessels from the excavation in the Bet Ha-Kerem neighborhood are two that are especially noteworthy. One is a fragment of a shallow bowl-shaped lamp with suspension perforations, of which only two other examples have hitherto been documented in Jerusalem and its environs (see discussion on Type LCW). The other is a narrow cylindrical beaker (Fig. 5.9.1:19) that possibly served as a lamp; it is so far the only specimen of this type (Type LBEvw) known from Jerusalem.

Wineglasses Several thin-walled fragments with a rounded and slightly-flaring rim were classified as wineglasses due to their fashioning and delicate walls (Fig. 5.9.1:1, 2; Type WGrr), and others were adorned with a blue trail fused-in on and below the rim (Fig. 5.9.1:3–5; Type WGtd). All the wineglass bases recovered at the site were of the hollow ring base type (Type WGhb) and had a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.9.1:6–8; Type WGhb/sbs).

The glass assemblage gathered from the stone fill in the subterranean space (Locus 11), as well as other glass vessels from the site, represents the continuity and change in glass typology during the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. The earlier vessels, typical mostly of the fourth and early fifth centuries, reflect Roman traditions, while the others comprise the types most widespread during the Byzantine period, appearing in various corpora from the mid-fifth through the seventh centuries. Nevertheless, as certain types that are specifically characteristic of the seventh century are missing from this assemblage, the ‘later’ vessels from Bet Ha-Kerem should be assigned a date no later than the sixth century.

Bottles One of the pieces, with a rounded rim and a wide funnel-shaped mouth adorned with a thick trail wound horizontally around it, may have belonged to a bottle or jug, characteristic of the third and fourth centuries (Fig. 5.9.1:9). Other bottles/jugs with an infolded rim include one with a wide funnel-shaped mouth (Fig. 5.9.1:10), and another with a curved funnel-shaped mouth and a short cylindrical neck (Fig. 5.9.1:11), both typical of the Byzantine period (Type BTir/fm).

5.10 Farmstead at Bet Zayit 5.10.1 The Site and the Finds

Several bottles were adorned with a thin trail wound horizontally around the neck (Fig. 5.9.1:12–14; Type BTtd), with the trails either of the same color as the vessel (Fig. 5.9.1:12, 13), or blue on a colorless vessel (Fig. 5.9.1:14). A few small fragments of a thin-walled vessel, probably a bottle, were adorned with mold-blown shallow vertical ribbing (Fig. 5.9.1:15, and another fragment from Locus 39, Basket 226, not illustrated; Type DDmbd).

The excavation in Plot 40 at Moshav Bet Zayit, 2.5 km west of Jerusalem, was conducted on behalf of the IAA in 2008, and its results have not yet been published (Permit No. A-5462/2008; headed by A. Nagorsky). The site exposed a pottery kiln, a pool (possibly a miqve; Locus 95) and other industrial installations dated to the Second Temple period (Stratum I), as well as architectural remains dated to the Byzantine period (Stratum II).

Lamps

The remains from the Byzantine period included two separate buildings or wings of an estate, comprising a courtyard surrounded by rooms, and utilizing the rectangular pool (Locus 95) from the Second Temple period. The three rooms, partially excavated in the eastern wing, were paved with stones, and yielded coins dating from the fifth–early sixth centuries. Four additional rooms were partially excavated in the western wing.

The specimens excavated at Bet Ha-Kerem included fragments of three-handle bowl-shaped lamps with an outfolded rim (Fig. 5.9.1:16, 17; Type LBBor), and one with a wick tube installed at the floor center (from Locus 11, Basket 157, not illustrated; Type LBBwkt). Stemmed lamps are represented by two hollow stems (Fig. 5.9.1:18 and another from Locus 11, Basket 202, not illustrated; Type LSThs). Additionally, a fragment of a shallow bowl-shaped lamp, with a part of one of its suspension perforations intact, was unearthed at the site (Locus 17, Basket 98, not illustrated; Type LCW).

The Glass Finds The glass finds recovered in Plot 40 at Bet Zayit are very fragmentary and poorly preserved. Much of the material was collected in fills and some originated from occupation levels, removal of collapses and dismantling of floors.

A narrow cylindrical beaker with a rounded rim and a concave bottom, was made of a fabric resembling that of the Byzantine-period vessels found with it in Locus 168

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs About a third of the glass pieces collected are diagnostic fragments, dated mostly from the fifth–seventh centuries. A cast bowl and a small bottle (not illustrated) dated to the Early Roman period, were discovered in a fill (Locus 24) together with Byzantine-period glass fragments. Additionally, a fragment of a glass bracelet from the Islamic period and several modern-day glass pieces were found in surface fills.

blue trail, wound horizontally and fused-in on and below the rim (Fig. 5.10.1:8, 9; Types WGrr, WGtd). They are surmounted on a hollow ring base with a single-bead stem (Fig. 5.10.1:10; Type WGhb/sbs). Bottles Some 30 bottle fragments were recovered at the site. The bottles are of types that appeared in the fourth century and continued throughout the Byzantine period. The rim is either rounded (Fig. 5.10.1:11, 12; Type BTrr) or infolded (Fig. 5.10.1:13; Type BTir), and at least seven pieces were adorned with thin blue trails wound around the rim, mouth or neck (e.g., Fig. 5.10.1:12; Type BTtd).

The pool at the center of the excavated area, which may had originally served as a miqve, was filled with debris in or after the fifth century. The material closest to the pool floor (Locus 95) dates from the fourth century, and the fills farther up (Loci 72, 76, 83, 92 and 101) contained glass from the Byzantine period. Some contexts (e.g., Loci 83, 87 and 92) yielded, besides Byzantine-dated glass vessels, fragments of ‘beakers with a solid base’ (not illustrated), characteristic particularly of the fourth century.

Lamps Only few fragments of lamps were discovered at the site, all of the bowl-shaped type with three handles (two handles from Loci 19 and 36; not illustrated; Type LBB). One of the lamps had a wick tube (Fig. 5.10.1:14; Type LBBwkt).

The Byzantine-period repertoire included a variety of vessels, mostly bowls, beakers, wineglasses and bottles, many of them adorned with applied blue trails wound horizontally around the rim and wall. Most of the fragments are rims of bowls, beakers, wineglasses and bottles: some 35 outfolded rims and some 80 rounded rims.207 Seventy additional rims and wall fragments bear applied trail decoration. Wineglasses are also represented (besides their rims, see below) by 26 hollow ring bases, ten single-bead stems and two cylindrical stems. Some 70 rims and bottoms belong to bottles, seven of which are adorned with trails wound around the rim, mouth or neck. Only few fragments of glass lamps and windowpanes were retrieved.

Windowpanes The windowpanes from the site are all of the circular type (Fig. 5.10.1:15; Type WPcr). 5.10.2 Summary and Discussion Many of the vessels in the Bet Zayit assemblage, about a fifth of the diagnostic fragments, are adorned with blue or turquoise-colored, horizontally wound trails. The variants include trails fused into the rim (e.g., Fig. 5.10.1:3, 7), thin densely-wound trails (e.g., Fig. 5.10.1:4, 12), and a combination of both (e.g., Fig. 5.10.1:8, 9), as well as thicker protruding trails (e.g., Fig. 5.10.1:5, 6). The fascination with applying trail decoration on bowls and beakers is evident in other regions of the country as well (and see discussion on Type BLtd).

Bowls and Beakers The bowls from the site included a deep bowl with a hollow outfolded rim (Fig. 5.10.1:1; Type BLor), and a bowl with shallow horizontal ridges on the pressed rimfold and on the wall (Fig. 5.10.1:2). Many of the bowl or beakers were adorned with applied, thin and thick trails of a darker color than the vessel, wound on and below the rim, either fused-in or protruding from the vessel wall (Type BLtd). These include a bowl with a hollow outfolded rim with a trail fused into the rim fold (Fig. 5.10.1:3), a bowl with a rounded flaring rim and a trail densely wound on and below the rim (Fig. 5.10.1:4), and larger vessels, bowls or beakers, adorned with thick and thin, blue or turquoise-colored trails (Fig. 5.10.1:5–7).

The glass assemblage from Bet Zayit reflects the vessel types manufactured and used in the Jerusalem area in the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, particularly in the fifth–sixth centuries. It represents a phase, which is slightly earlier than that represented by most of the other glass assemblages examined in Chapters 5 and 6, which encompassed the sixth–seventh/eighth centuries. The numismatic evidence from Bet Zayit corroborate this distinction, as one of the coins dates from the fifth century, and the latest coins date from the mid-fifth–early sixth centuries. The relevant pottery from the site is generally dated to the fifth–eighth centuries; however, this may probably be revised when considering the coins and glass finds. The occurrence of some pottery types (e.g., certain jugs, juglets and Gaza storage jars), which are ordinarily considered to have emerged in the mid- and late sixth century, may here be preceded to the first half of the sixth century or earlier (A. Nagorsky, pers. comm.).

Wineglasses The wineglass fragments from the site have a rounded and slightly incurved rim, and are adorned with an applied 207 These quantities of fragments do not necessarily reflect the quantities of the various vessels, as several pieces may have belonged to a single vessel.

169

Lucid Transformations

1

2

3 4

5

6

7

8 9

10

13 12 11

14

15

0

20 mm

Fig. 5.10.1. Farmstead at Bet Zayit: various vessels and a windowpane.

170

Newly Studied Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs Fig. 5.10.1. Farmstead at Bet Zayit: various vessels and a windowpane. No.

Locus Basket

Description

1

76

280

Bowl with a hollow outfolded rim (D 110 mm) and thin walls. Light blue. Weathering; iridescence.

2

76

299

Bowl with a thick rim (D 110 mm), possibly outfolded and pressed, and shallow horizontal ridges on the fold and on the walls. Light blue; bubbles.

3

30

131

Bowl with a hollow outfolded rim (D 115–120 mm) adorned with a blue trail wound horizontally and fused-in on the exterior part of the rim fold. Vessel: colorless; trail: blue. Weathering.

4

76

299

Bowl with a thick outsplaying rounded rim (D 100 mm) adorned with a thin, dark blue trail, wound horizontally 13 times on the rim and walls. Vessel: light blue; trail: dark blue. Weathering; iridescence.

5

76

280

Bowl or beaker with a rounded rim (D c. 90 mm). A thick blue trail is horizontally applied and fused-in on the rim, and alternating thick and thin blue trails are horizontally wound on the walls. Vessel: light blue; trail: dark blue with black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

6

83

315

Bowl or beaker with a rounded rim (D 100 mm) and deformed convex walls. A thick turquoise-colored trail is irregularly and horizontally applied and sparsely-spaced on the rim and walls. Vessel: light greenish blue; trail: light turquoise-colored with darker streaks and black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

7

52

209

Bowl or beaker with an upright rounded rim (D 100 mm), adorned with a blue trail horizontally applied and fused-in on the rim. Vessel: light blue; trail: blue with black impurities. Iridescence; slight pitting.

8

25

123

Wineglass with a rounded rim (D 70 mm) and thin slanting walls. A thick blue trail is horizontally applied and fused-in on the rim, and a thin blue trail is wound six times below the rim. Vessel: light blue; trail: blue trail with black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

9

56

257

Wineglass with an incurved rounded rim (D 80 mm) and slightly convex walls. A thick dark blue trail is horizontally applied and fused-in on the rim, and a thinner one is wound five times below the rim. Vessel: light blue; trail: dark blue. Weathering; iridescence; slight pitting.

10

83

315

Wineglass with a hollow ring base (D c. 45 mm), a single-bead stem and a small part of the vessel walls. Light green; bubbles. Iridescence.

11

76

280

Bottle with an upright rounded rim (D 60 mm) and a thin-walled cylindrical neck. Light blue; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

12

83

307

Bottle with a rounded rim (D 45 mm) and a thin-walled funnel-shaped mouth/neck, with a blue trail horizontally applied on the rim and densely wound on the walls; the outermost windings are thicker than the others. Vessel: light blue; trail: blue with black impurities. Weathering; iridescence.

13

71

266

Bottle with an infolded rim (D 38–40 mm) and a funnel-shaped mouth. Light bluish green; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

14

83

307

Lamp with a small part of the floor, installed with a thick-walled wick tube (H c. 38 mm) with its cut-off rim (D 15 mm). Light blue; bubbles. Weathering; iridescence.

15

83

315

Circular windowpane with a rounded hollow outfolded rim (D 250 mm). Light blue. Iridescence; slight pitting.

171

6 Published Glass Finds from Archaeological Excavations in Jerusalem and Its Environs

A selection of eleven relevant and significant glass corpora from Jerusalem and its environs, studied and published by others,208 is presented herein. These assemblages supplement those studied in Chapter 5 in establishing a comprehensive picture of the glass corpus from the Jerusalem area in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods.

An excavation performed on behalf of the IAA at the site, exposed remains from three phases: the Early Roman period (I), the Byzantine period (II), and the Umayyad period (III) (Permit No. A-85/1990). During the Byzantine period the site accommodated an estate farm, comprising dwellings, storerooms, and large agricultural/industrial installations, such as oil and wine presses. This phase was followed by a diminished occupation (only in Area 13) in the Umayyad period, up to the mid-eighth or early ninth century (Seligman 1999; 2009).

The sites and glass assemblages in this chapter are described here only briefly, as most have been published with detailed accounts and illustrations. The classifications and datings of the glass finds from these assemblages have been determined by the various researchers. Generally, I accept their classifications and datings, yet, occasionally, those have been reviewed here according to considerations by D. Barag (1970b), and to observations made in the typo-chronology I established (Chapter 3).

The glass finds from the Byzantine and Umayyad periods at the site date mostly from the second half of the fourth century, and from the sixth–seventh centuries, with two vessels (RAM20, RAM21) of types that continued into the eighth century (Gorin-Rosen 1999a). 6.3 Farmstead and Monastery at Deir Ghazali

The sites are presented in geographical order; their locations are marked on Map 5.0 by their name and/or section number.

Deir Ghazali is located about four km northeast of Jerusalem, in the Pisgat Ze’ev neighborhood. An excavation conducted on behalf of the IAA at the site uncovered a large monastic complex (c. 35 x 25 m), incorporating residential units, oil and wine presses, and possibly a chapel on the second floor (Permit No. A-99/1990).

This chapter concludes with a reference to selected funerary contexts containing glass finds from the period relevant to this research (Section 6.12). 6.1 Farmstead at Khirbat Adasa

The compound was probably built in the second half of the fifth century or the first half of the sixth century, and a pavement was laid in Hall 15 toward the end of the Byzantine period or later. Several architectural modifications, including the annulment of the agricultural/ industrial installations, could not be dated. The site continued to be inhabited up to the ninth or tenth century (Avner 2000).

Khirbat Adasa is located five km north of Jerusalem, in the Pisgat Ze’ev neighborhood. An excavation carried out on behalf of the IAA on the eastern fringes of the site, exposed three settlement strata, dated to the Hellenistic– Roman periods (III), the Early Islamic period (II), and the Mamluk period (I) (Permit No. A-2117/1994). A farmstead or small village was constructed at the site probably in the early seventh century, flourished uninterruptedly from the mid-seventh or early eighth century, until at least the early or mid-tenth century (Khalaily and Avissar 2008).

The glass finds, of which only one was discovered in a sealed context, are characteristic of the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, particularly the late sixth–seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000c).

The glass finds associated with the Early Islamic settlement (Stratum II) comprised types characteristic of the seventh– eighth centuries, and of the mid-eighth–tenth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2008a).

6.4 Structures North of Damascus Gate A salvage excavation at the intersection of Ha-Nevi’im (the Prophets) Street and Hel Ha-Handasa (the Engineering Corps) Street, north of Damascus Gate, was conducted in 2010 on behalf of the IAA (Permit No. A-5882/2010; Ein Mor 2013).

6.2 Farmstead at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf The hill of Ras Abu Ma‘aruf is located about four km northeast of Jerusalem, in the Pisgat Ze’ev neighborhood.

208

The relevant architectural remains comprise several rooms, built around an open courtyard. The rooms, one of which

Except the one in Section 6.4, studied by the author.

173

Lucid Transformations was paved with mosaics, were dated by various finds to the sixth–seventh centuries. These structures were possibly service rooms or living quarters, associated with a nearby monastic complex, located several meters to the west (see Section 5.1). Several fragments of marble chancel screens may also attest to the ecclesiastical nature of the complex.

of David spur yielded remains dated to the Hellenistic, Early Roman and Byzantine periods (De Groot and Ariel 1992). All the glass finds from Byzantine-period contexts were recovered in fills and dumps (Ariel 1990:152, 159–161, Fig. 32), except for a piece (Ariel 1990: Fig. 31: GL40), found on a floor in Area K (Stratum 3, dated to the midfifth–seventh centuries), and a bottle (Ariel 1990: Fig. 32: GL67) that was recovered in a pit sealed by that floor (Ariel 1990:152). Several of the glass finds (Ariel 1990: Fig. 32) may be dated to the fourth–fifth centuries, while most are assigned to the sixth–seventh centuries.

Most of the glass vessels and windowpanes from the site (Winter 2013a: Fig. 21) are characteristic of the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods, i.e., the late sixth–seventh centuries. The dating of the glass finds corresponds with the numismatic evidence and with the excavator’s dating of the complex. The resemblance of the glass assemblage to other contemporaneous glass assemblages from Christian ecclesiastical complexes in Jerusalem and its vicinity (see Chapters 5 and 6) reinforces the excavator’s suggestion that the structures exposed were part of the nearby monastic complex.

6.7 City of David Spur: Area M1 An extensive excavation project has been ongoing, on behalf of the IAA, in the ‘Giv‘ati Car Park’ site, located in the northwestern part of the City of David spur. Excavations conducted in 2007 in the southwestern corner (Area M1) of that compound, exposed remains spanning nearly 3000 years, from the Iron Age IIA to the present era. The remains from the Byzantine period comprised large structures and a drainage channel (Stratum V), and those from the Early Islamic period (ninth–tenth centuries; Strata IV–I) displayed a planned settlement (Ben-Ami 2013).

6.5 ‘House of the Menorot’ Southwest of the Temple Mount The remains of the ‘House of the Menorot’ were excavated on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount (Area VI). Several painted depictions of a seven-branch menorah discovered in Room 6028, on three plastered stones and on a stone lintel adorned with a cross, may allude to the history of the building. The ‘House of the Menorot’ was probably owned by Christians during the Byzantine period, and possibly inhabited by Jews when they were permitted to return to Jerusalem, possibly in the second quarter of the seventh century. Shortly afterward, the building was abandoned to allow the large-scale Umayyad construction in the area in the early eighth century (Mazar 2003:163–186; and see Chapter 2). The building may have been a part of the residential quarter that was recovered in the excavations on the northwestern part of the City of David spur (see Section 5.4; Avni 2014:137–138).

A small number of glass finds from Area M1, recovered in various contexts, were assigned to the Byzantine– Umayyad periods, and are typical of these periods (Gutreich 2013:281–284, Fig. 12.6). A similar quantity of vessels, unearthed in contexts assigned to Strata III– II, were associated with the Abbasid period, i.e., the mideighth–tenth centuries (Gutreich 2013:284–287, Figs. 12.7, 12.8). 6.8 Monastery at Khirbat Tabaliya Khirbat Tabaliya is located on Giv‘at Ha-Matos, about five km southwest of Jerusalem, on the ancient Jerusalem– Bethlehem road. An excavation performed at the site on behalf of the IAA yielded various remains dated to the Early Roman, Byzantine and Mamluk periods (Permit No. A-112/1991).

The glass finds from the ‘House of the Menorot’ comprised lamps of two major types (Types LBBor and LBBwkt; Type LSThs), associated with the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, which were recovered in the central courtyard and in Rooms 6028 and 6054. Copper alloy single-lamp holders, intended to hold glass lamps of the latter type, were also discovered in these contexts (Mazar 2003:169– 170, 178, 180; Hadad 2003).

The Byzantine period manifested itself in a large building, drainage channels and several installations; the building, which may be identified as a monastery, had been standing by the mid-fifth century and continued to function throughout the sixth century and possibly later (Area G; Kogan-Zehavi 2000). Most of the glass finds from this complex date from the late sixth and seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000e).

The large number of glass lamps found in the ‘House of the Menorot’, together with the painted depictions of a seven-branch menorah, may suggest, according to Mazar, that the building served as a synagogue (Mazar 2003:184).

A subterranean cell, discovered under a round tower to the southeast of the building complex, contained a skeleton wound in iron chains, and accompanied by marble objects, clay vessels, an iron knife, a belt buckle, and a broken glass lamp found in situ under its metal holder. The cell was

6.6 City of David Spur: Areas G, H, K Excavations conducted on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1978–1985 in Areas G, H and K on the City 174

Published Glass Finds from Jerusalem and Its Environs in Areas B1 and B2, where they probably illuminated and adorned a chapel or church (Gorin-Rosen 2005a).

identified as the tomb and memorial of a chain-wearing anchorite (Area E; Kogan-Zehavi 1998). The glass beakershaped lamp from the monk’s cell is characteristic of the late sixth–seventh centuries; the exterior fold probably facilitated its suspension in the iron hanger (Gorin-Rosen 1998).

6.11 Churches at En Kerem The site of En Kerem was identified by Christian tradition as the place where Mary mother of Jesus visited Elizabeth mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1:39). The church of the Visitation and the church of St. John were built at the site to commemorate this event. Excavations carried out since the late nineteenth century on behalf of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum have exposed a prosperous community throughout the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (Saller 1946). Excavations on the ground of the Visitation Church revealed remains of the structures from the Byzantine and Crusader periods (Bagatti 1948).

6.9 Monastery at Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam The site of Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam, eight km southeast of Jerusalem, east of Bethlehem, was identified by Christian tradition as the place where angels announced the birth of Jesus to the shepherds (Luke 2:8–20). Excavations carried out on behalf of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in the monastery that had been built at the site, revealed scant remains from the Second Temple period and from the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (Corbo 1955).

The glass finds published from the site were discovered in Cistern M and Reservoir N, and comprised lamps of two types, and copper wick holders that may have served the stemmed lamps (Bagatti 1948:77–78, Fig. 34:1–4, Pl. 26: Photograph 58:1–10). Bagatti presumed that the stemmed lamps from Cistern M, which display good workmanship, relate to the Byzantine period, while those from Reservoir N, which are coarse and poorly executed, are associated with the medieval period (Bagatti 1948:78). However, Barag (1970b:105), based on typological arguments, assigned all the glass lamps from both locations to the late Byzantine or Early Islamic period.

Most of the glass finds published from the site were discovered in various locations in the monastery, with no clear context (Corbo 1955:75–76). Based on Barag’s examination (Barag 1970b:106), and on my observations, supported by the typo-chronology in Chapter 3, the glass vessels from Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam include: bottles, a juglet and a lentoid vessel characteristic of the fourth–sixth centuries (Corbo 1955: Fig. 25:2, 7, 11, 12); wineglasses and lamps typical particularly of the sixth– seventh centuries (Corbo 1955: Fig. 25:5, 8, 14–16); and bowls/beakers (Type BB) and a small thick-walled bowl from the seventh–eighth centuries (Corbo 1955: Fig. 25:3, 4, 13). One of the bottles (Corbo 1955: Fig. 25:6) may be associated with the type with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr), dated to the seventh–eighth centuries. Additionally, small fragments of glass windowpanes were discovered in various locations around the site (Corbo 1955:75).

6.12 Tombs and Burial Caves Funerary contexts have been largely excluded from this book, as it has been established that many burial caves in the Jerusalem area and in other parts of the country had been used repeatedly throughout a lengthy period of time. Manifestations of this phenomenon are attested, for example, in the Akeldama burial caves in the Kidron Valley, in which deceased were interred in the Early Roman, Late Roman and Byzantine periods (Avni and Greenhut 1996; Winter1996), and in Cave 1 at Khirbat esh-Shubeika in the western Galilee, where the clay vessels and lamps included Hellenistic, Byzantine and Early Islamic types, and the glass vessels were dated to the Late Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad periods (Tacher, Nagar and Avshalom-Gorni 2002; Gorin-Rosen 2002b).

6.10 Monastic Complex at the Compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center The excavations carried out on behalf of the IAA at the compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Binyanei Ha’uma) at the western end of modern Jerusalem, uncovered remains from the Roman and Byzantine periods (Permit Nos. A-1866/1992, A-2020/1993). A monastic complex, incorporating a basilica and a chapel with a dedicatory inscription, possibly served as a pilgrim hostel during the fifth–mid-seventh centuries. No significant remains of the Early Islamic period were unearthed at the site (Avi-Yonah 1949; 1968; Arubas and Goldfus 2005).

Nevertheless, numerous burials in and around Jerusalem yielded many intact and complete glass vessels, particularly bottles and jugs, associated with the periods pertinent to this book. These vessels are therefore considered in the typo-chronology (Chapter 3) in regard to their typology.

The glass finds from the site (Areas B1–B4 and D) included numerous vessels and windowpanes from the late Byzantine period, particularly from the late sixth–seventh centuries. Fragments of circular and quadrangular glass windowpanes, as well as numerous glass tesserae, among them some gold-glass cubes, were recovered particularly

Selected relevant tombs and burial caves in the Jerusalem area containing glass finds from the fifth–seventh centuries are recorded in Table 6.12, below.

175

Lucid Transformations Table 6.12. Selected Tombs and Burial Caves in Jerusalem and Its Environs, Containing Glass Finds from the Fifth–Seventh Centuries Site

Reference and Date in Publication

Tomb at the ‘American Colony’

Marshall 1995; mid-6th–7th centuries

Tombs at the Jerusalem School (Albright Institute compound)

Burrows 1932; Byzantine period, 6th–7th centuries

Burial cave at the ‘Third Wall’ area

Re’em 2009; late 6th–early 7th centuries

Tombs outside St. Stephen’s Gate

Hamilton 1938; 5th and probably also 6th centuries (Barag 1970b:25)

Burial Cave II on the western slope of the Kidron Valley

Zissu and Adawi 2014; Byzantine period, 5th–6th centuries

Tombs at Gethsemane

Pancrace 1965; Byzantine period; mid-5th/6th–mid-7th centuries (Barag 1970b:25–26)

‘Dominus Flevit’ compound on the Mount of Olives; various burial caves

Bagatti and Milik 1958; mid 5th–6th centuries (Barag 1970b:32)

Tomb at Batn el-Hawa, south of the Mount of Olives

Abel 1923; 2nd–3rd centuries

Tomb at Bethany

Harden 1965:52–53, Fig. 11: top left, fourth from left; 5th/6th century

Arcosolia Tomb-Chamber II, beneath the western wing of the monastery at Bethany

Saller 1957:329, Fig. 57:d, e; 4th/5th century to the late 6th/7th century (Magness 1993:45)

Burial cave at the Nahalat Ahim neighborhood

Kogan-Zehavi 2006; Byzantine period

Tombs at the Y.M.C.A. compound

Iliffe 1935:75–76; 5th–7th centuries; 6th century (Barag 1970b:21)

Burial cave at the Giv‘at Gonen neighborhood

Solimany, Winter and de Vincenz 2006; 5th–7th centuries

176

7 Synthesis This chapter opens with the characterization and perception of the glass corpus from the mid-fifth to the eighth centuries in Syria-Palestine, addressing its features and production, its predecessors and innovations, and its general uniformity alongside a diversity of styles and variants (Section 7.1). In the following discussions, this glass corpus, as reflected in excavated sites and contexts in Jerusalem and its environs (and established in Chapters 3, 5 and 6), is scrutinized with regard to its typology and chronology, considering aspects of continuity, change and innovation, as well as local trends and production (Section 7.2).

to have served as the principal drinking vessels during the sixth–mid-seventh centuries, as other contemporaneous vessels seem unsuitable (Stern 2001:271). Stemmed lamps (Type LST) were provided with an elongated stem so they could be steadily installed in the polycandela perforations (see Section 3.2.6.1); when a lamp broke, it would have been replaced with a similar specimen to fit the lighting device (and see Section 4.1.1). These observations may explain the durability of some of the glass vessel-types along a substantial period of time. Moreover, some types of vessels were used for more than one purpose (Stern 2001:271), and individual bowls, wineglasses and goblets of certain types (e.g., Types BLsl, WG; Types EXed, EXGBhn, Section 3.4), were probably designated for use as lamps.

The Jerusalem corpus is then compared with several well-dated glass assemblages from three major cities in the region, i.e., Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla (Section 7.3). Subsequently, various considerations regarding settlement issues and cultural-religious-ethnic contexts associated with the glass finds are examined (Section 7.4). The final discussion identifies trends of continuity and change in the glass industry, and weighs their historical significance (Section 7.5).

Regrettably, there rarely is any archaeological evidence regarding the liquid or other substance contained in the various vessels. This information may occasionally be inferred from written sources, such as the mention of drinking wine from glass vessels (see Section 3.2.2), and may, in some cases, be deduced from the use of similar vessels in later periods.

7.1 The Nature of the Glass Corpus from the MidFifth to the Eighth Centuries

7.1.1 Roman Traditions

The analyses in this section characterize and consider the glass corpus from the mid-fifth to the eighth centuries in Syria-Palestine. Based on the typo-chronology established in Chapter 3, these analyses emphasize trends of continuity of Late Roman traditions into the fifth–sixth centuries, and the continuity of Byzantine-natured trends all along the seventh century and into the eighth century, while recognizing new emerging types and distinctive phenomena.

The beginning of the Byzantine period in Syria-Palestine is traditionally set in the year 324, when Constantine the Great became sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, the glass products of this period in SyriaPalestine followed a different schedule, and during the fourth–early/mid-fifth centuries they predominately comprised types that reflected and maintained earlier, Roman traditions (Stern 2001:260). The glass vessels manufactured during the Late Roman period were abundant, and varied in shapes and decorations. Local workshops specialized in distinct types, techniques and styles, resulting in a growing regional variability and a concurrent trade throughout the ancient world (e.g., Barag 1970b:226–227). This glass repertoire, well-recognized from numerous excavations in Israel, includes various bowls, beakers, jars, bottles, jugs and juglets, as well as cosmetic containers of various shapes (e.g., Barag 1970b; Weinberg and Goldstein 1988; Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007). These vessels bear typical ‘Roman’ features, and should therefore be regarded as ‘Late Roman’, despite their dating from the fourth century to the early/mid-fifth century, under Byzantine rule in the region. Few of these vessel types, cosmetic containers

As is often the case in the history of material culture, the circumstances and causes of various developments and changes in glass making are seldom evident to researchers. Rarely, it is a major technological breakthrough, as was the discovery of glass blowing, yet often, a shift in taste or fashion would account for those occurrences. Various decorations may have evolved through trial and error, and by experimenting with the unique qualities of glass. Consequently, similar features may appear in several geographical settings and in various periods. Shapes of vessels and artifacts were generally determined by their desired function, as, for example, handled jugs with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth (Type JGpfm) to facilitate the pouring of liquids. Wineglasses (Type WG) are thought 177

Lucid Transformations for example, continued to appear in variations well into the fifth century, and possibly in the sixth century as well.209

have now matured (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:165). Among these were bowls engraved with Christian motifs, large goblets or chalices that served in church liturgy, and multi-side vessels that possibly served as eulogia containers, some bearing Christian iconography (see Section 3.4). Additional glass products, associated with the numerous ecclesiastical structures erected during this period, included windowpanes, glass mosaic tesserae and inlays, and gold glass tiles (see Section 3.5).

7.1.2 Byzantine-Natured Trends: Form and Function The ‘genuine’ Byzantine-natured glass corpus developed around the mid-fifth century, and crystallized during the sixth and seventh centuries. It comprised new vessel types that were distinguished from their predecessors, and generally displayed a decline in the quality of the glass fabric, a carelessness of execution, and a lower regard for details (Barag 1970b:223; Israeli 2003:100).

7.1.3 Continuity and Innovation The end of the Byzantine period in Syria-Palestine is traditionally set in the years 630–640 with the Arab conquest. However, the glass assemblages from sites that continued to be inhabited by local communities during and after this transition of power, display continuity of fabrics and colors, and an ongoing occurrence of many of the types throughout the seventh century, and occasionally into the eighth century (see Table 7.1).

While the full flourish of certain vessel types in the sixth and seventh centuries is clearly identified, their budding process in the fifth century, probably in its second half, is difficult to determine. The course of development of the glass corpus throughout the fifth century deserves a future in-depth study; it is, however, beyond the scope of this research, which focuses on the Byzantine–Islamic transition during the seventh–eighth centuries.

Concurrently, certain forms and decoration schemes gradually dwindled, and some vessels continued to appear, yet were now adorned with inventive decorations, such as a thick wavy trail wound on the mouth or neck of bottles and jugs (Types BTwt and JGwt); the wavy trail drew from the previous tradition of applying trails, yet enhanced it with a new zest.

The glass repertoire prevalent from the mid-fifth to the seventh centuries was, in comparison with the preceding Roman-period corpus, more uniform, and the variety of types was more limited (Barag 1970b:281). The occurrence of dishes, bowls and beakers dwindled, the diversity of bottles decreased, and jugs became scarce and probably served predominately in liturgical ceremonies.

Furthermore, new vessel forms were pioneered in the seventh century, and continued in the eighth century, with variants lingering into the ninth century. The most prominent of these new vessels were bowls/beakers (Type BB) and bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr). Additionally, certain features replaced others. For example, the hollow ring bases that supported many of the vessels during the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, increasingly gave way in the Early Islamic period to flat or concave bottoms.

Wineglasses (Type WG) were particularly prominent among the new forms, and they probably served as the main drinking vessel of the period, driving out the former beakers. The wineglass eventually became one of the most characteristic glass vessels of the sixth–seventh centuries, and disappeared during the eighth century. Furthermore, the many churches and chapels built during this period in Syria-Palestine, particularly in Jerusalem, necessitated numerous lighting devices, many of which were made of glass (see Section 4.1). Several types of lamps were particularly prominent among the repertoire’s new forms, and they became distinctive of the sixth and seventh centuries (see Section 3.2.6). Interestingly, individual bowls of certain types, as, for example, shallow bowls (Type BLsl), and bowls/beakers (Type BB) installed with a wick tube, were altered to serve as lamps. Additionally, some types of wineglasses, primarily intended for drinking, were probably used for lighting as well, each individual vessel designated for a single purpose (Stern 2001:271).

Moreover, novel decoration techniques, such as the adornment of vessel walls with rows of pinches (Type DDrp), were introduced in the seventh century and became widespread in the seventh and eighth centuries. Some glass products, such as rods, as well as various decoration techniques, such as mosaic glass (Type DDmos) and trail marvering (Type DDmrv), had been employed in the Roman period, resurfaced in the Umayyad period, i.e., in the seventh–eighth centuries, and continued into the Abbasid period.210 Other innovative glass products initially emerged in the seventh–eighth centuries, as did zoomorphic vessels, stamped vessels, alembics, horseshoe-shaped artifacts and inscribed weights.

Some of the new categories and shapes of glass vessels that emerged sometime during the fifth century, manifested ideas that had been planted several decades earlier, with the consolidation of Christianity in the Holy Land, and

Both these techniques echo the appearance of marble and precious stones. It is noteworthy that an attraction of imitating other materials (various stones, metals, clay, etc.) is shared by glass vessels in both the Early Roman and Islamic periods (following Y. Israeli, pers. comm.). 210

209 These types are not discussed, as they are characteristic predominately of the fourth–fifth centuries.

178

Synthesis Table 7.1. Concise Chronological Occurrence of the Glass Finds The table schematically presents the period of the most-widespread prevalence of the major types of glass vessels and decorations discussed in this book. The table does not replace the nuanced discussions in Chapter 3, as each type displayed gradual emergence and dwindling phases. Type

Lable

Widespread Occurrence Period

Bottles adorned with a single trail

BTst

fourth–seventh centuries

Bowls adorned with trail decoration

BLtd

fourth–seventh centuries

Bowls with an outfolded rim

BLor

fourth–seventh centuries

Globular lamps with a cut-off rim

LGL

mid-fourth/fifth–seventh centuries

Bowl/beaker-shaped lamps with a rounded rim

LBBrr

late fourth/fifth–seventh centuries

Bowl/beaker-shaped lamps with an outfolded rim

LBBor

fifth–eighth centuries

Wide bowls with a double-fold rim

BLdfr

fifth–seventh centuries

Wineglasses with a rounded rim

WGrr

fifth–seventh centuries

Wineglasses with a hollow base

WGhb

fifth–seventh/eighth

Bottles with a rounded/infolded rim and a long neck

BTrr/BTir

fifth–seventh centuries

Bottles adorned with trail decoration

BTtd

fifth–seventh/eighth centuries

Bottles adorned with mold-blown ribbing

BTmbd

fifth–seventh/eighth centuries

Jugs with a pinched funnel-shaped mouth

JGpfm

sixth–seventh centuries

Wineglasses adorned with trail decoration

WGtd

sixth–seventh centuries

Wineglasses with a solid base

WGsb

sixth–eighth centuries

Stemmed lamps with a hollow stem

LSThs

sixth–seventh centuries

Beaker-shaped lamps

LBEpib

sixth–eighth centuries

Mold-blown ribbing

DDmbd

sixth/seventh–eighth centuries

Mold-blown dotted pattern

DDmbd

sixth–eighth centuries

Bottles with an exterior hollow fold

BTef

particularly seventh century

Shallow convex-walled bowl-shaped lamps

LCW

fifth–seventh/eighth centuries

Bowls/beakers (BBrr/BBir/BBor/BBif/BBtd)

BB

seventh–eighth centuries

Small globular jars

JRgb

seventh–mid-eighth centuries

Bottles adorned with a thick wavy trail

BTwt

seventh–eighth centuries

Jugs adorned with a wavy trail on the neck

JGwt

seventh–eighth centuries

Bottles adorned with pinched trail decoration

BTpt

seventh–eighth centuries

Rows of pinches

DDrp

seventh–eighth centuries

Vertically applied trails

DDvt

seventh–eighth/ninth centuries

Bottles with an infolded flattened rim

BTTifr

seventh/eighth–ninth centuries

Stemmed lamps with a smooth solid

LSTss

mid-seventh/eighth centuries

Stemmed lamps with a partly-solid stem

LSTps

mid-seventh/eighth centuries

Stemmed lamps with a solid multi-bead stem

LSTbs

seventh–eighth centuries

Trail applications

DDta

late seventh–eighth centuries

Small globular bowls

BLS

seventh–eighth centuries

Mosaic glass

DDmos

seventh–ninth/tenth centuries

Bottles with a ridged neck

BTTrn

seventh/eighth–ninth centuries

Mold-blown grid and petal patterns

DDmbd

seventh–eighth/ninth centuries

Marvered decoration

DDmrv

seventh/eighth–tenth centuries

Stain-painted decoration

DDstp

eighth–mid-eleventh centuries

Small bottles with a cylindrical body

BTTcyb

eighth/ninth–tenth centuries

Small bottles with a square-sectioned body

BTTsqb

eighth/ninth–tenth centuries

Tonged decoration

DDtg

eighth/ninth–tenth centuries

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Lucid Transformations 7.1.4 Fabric, Color and Decoration

Trails were applied in various manners. The most typical of these comprised numerous windings of a thin trail (Type DDtd); this design was widespread from the fourth to the eighth centuries. Other schemes employing applied trails (Types DDpt, DDwt, DDvt, DDta) were widespread particularly during the seventh–eighth centuries. It seems that the trail decorations and trail colors of the seventh– eighth centuries were more varied and complex, relying on previous traditions of applying trails, yet enhancing the products with new designs, combinations and colors.

Most of the glass vessels from Syria-Palestine associated with the mid-fifth–eighth centuries display similar physical features. They were free-blown of translucent, naturally-colored glass, generally in shades of light blue, light green, greenish blue and bluish green, as were their Late Roman predecessors (e.g., Winter 2011:360). This phenomenon was clearly detected, for example, at Gerasa, where the various glass assemblages classified by Meyer as Early Byzantine (324–491), Late Byzantine (491–636), Late Byzantine/Early Umayyad (c. 630– 670) and Umayyad (661–747 or later), all display similar fabrics and colors (Meyer 1988:188–189, 195– 199, 211). This phase of “unnoticeable changes in glass production between the fifth and eighth centuries” was termed by Carboni a “transitional period” (Carboni 2001b:15–17).

Other decorating techniques included pinching, employed particularly on closed vessels and comprising of rows of horizontal or vertical pinches (Type DDrp), and impressing geometric, faunal and other designs by metal tongs (Type DDtg). Cold techniques such as cutting, engraving and incising, which had been widespread during the Roman period, were also employed in the following eras, yet not as extensively as the techniques mentioned above. Engraving was utilized in the Byzantine period primarily on bowls bearing Christian motifs (Type EXed). Various schemes of cut, engraved and incised (or scratched-engraved) decorations abounded during the Abbasid–Fatimid rule (and see Change and Innovation, below).

As established above, most of the glass vessels produced in Syria-Palestine during the mid-fifth–eighth centuries were made of naturally-colored glass of bluish and greenish shades. Only a small portion of the glass was intentionally colored, mostly in yellow, brown, dark blue, green, turquoise and purple hues. Dark colors were scarce, and generally appeared on rare types, such as dark blue liturgical vessels (see Section 3.4). Brown shades were employed, for example, to small bowls (Type BLS) and to multi-side vessels (Type EXMSV). Windowpanes of this period were generally made of naturally-colored glass of light bluish and greenish shades, yet some were intentionally colored. Glass tesserae displayed a large variety of colors (see Section 3.5).

7.1.5 Change and Innovation New techniques, fabrics, colors and types of glass vessels and artifacts were introduced into Syria-Palestine and the surrounding region in the late eighth century or the early ninth century, predominating during the ninth and tenth centuries (Shindo 2000:236; Gorin-Rosen 2010:228). The glass corpus from the ninth–tenth centuries is beyond the scope of the book; however, this brief review is intended to provide the concluding outline for the previous episode of glass manufacture, and to illustrate the significant change in the glass industry at that time.

Occasionally, vessels were bichrome, their color combinations characteristic of the seventh–eighth centuries, as a footed vessel (Type EXGBlg) with its stemmed foot of a different color than the vessel bowl, and bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps with a wick tube of a different color than the body (Type LBBwkt).

The glass vessels and artifacts attributed to the ninth– tenth centuries were manufactured using one of two basic compositions (see Production of Raw Glass and Vessel Glass, below). Some were made with natron, their fabrics resembling those of their Roman–Byzantine–Umayyad predecessors.211 Nevertheless, the majority of glass vessels and artifacts of the ninth–tenth centuries were produced employing a plant-ash component. Their hues generally appear colorless with tinges in various shades, and their fabrics are commonly severely weathered (Brill 2001; Gorin-Rosen 2010:213–214).

Vessels were adorned with various decoration schemes (Section 3.3). Mold-blown decoration was employed on tableware, particularly bottles, on which the preferred patterns comprised vertical, diagonal or twisted ribs (Type DDmbd). Mold-blown designs also adorned intricate vessels, such as the multi-side vessels (Type EXMSV). Applying trails was the most widespread technique for embellishing bowls, beakers, wineglasses, bottles and jugs (see Applied Trail Decoration in Section 3.3). Naturallyand intentionally-colored trails were wound on vessels; occasionally the trails were of a different color than the vessel: intentionally-colored dark-blue and turquoisecolored trails occurred on vessels from the fifth–seventh centuries, while brown, olive green and yellow trails were mostly characteristic of specimens from the seventh– eighth centuries.

The vessel types of the ninth–tenth centuries included bowls, beakers, jars and bottles, as well as vessels for specific non-dining purposes, such as lamps and inkwells, and various artifacts, such as animal figures (e.g., Carboni Some of the natron-based glass of the ninth–tenth centuries had probably been recycled, as attested, for example, by the glass from a ninth-century monastery in Italy, dependent almost totally on recycled material from a nearby Roman site (Schibille and Freestone 2013). 211

180

Synthesis 2001b:302–303, 317, Cat. Nos. 79; 3.64:a, b) and game pieces (e.g., Carboni 2001b:45, Cat. Nos. 1.13:a, b). Some of the decoration techniques employed and refined during the ninth–tenth centuries reinstated Roman-period practices, such as cutting and engraving. Other techniques, such as mold-blowing and applying trails, continued from the sixth–eighth centuries. Moreover, new techniques, involving tonged and incised (or scratched-engraved) decorations,212 contributed to the creation of an innovative style (e.g., Carboni 2001b:71–137; Gudenrath 2001; Gorin-Rosen 2010:228–256).

1995; 2000a:52–54). Chemical analyses established that raw glass, resembling in its composition (Levantine 2) that produced at Bet Eli‘ezer, was used to make some of the eighth-century glass vessels recovered at Ramla (Freestone, Gorin-Rosen and Hughes 2000; Freestone, Greenwood and Gorin-Rosen 2002). Additional evidence for extensive production of raw glass in Syria-Palestine in the first centuries of Islamic rule is provided by a nine-ton slab of glass discovered at Bet She‘arim; the slab had been abandoned after an unsuccessful process, probably in the early ninth century (Freestone and Gorin-Rosen 1999).

Several glass assemblages from sites in Jerusalem and its environs examined in this book included small quantities of Early Islamic finds dated later than the eighth century, possibly attributed to the Abbasid period, particularly to the ninth–tenth centuries. These sites include the monastery north of Damascus Gate, the Mamilla area, the northwestern part of the City of David spur, the monastery on Mount Scopus, and the Kathisma church complex (see Sections 5.1, 5.2, 5.4, 5.5 and 5.8, respectively). Additional glass finds associated with the Abbasid period were recovered at Khirbat Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:128–131, Fig. 3), on the northern part of the City of David spur (Area M1, Strata III–II; Gutreich 2013:284–287, Fig. 12.7, 12.8), and on Habbad Street in Jerusalem’s Old City.213

Indeed, raw glass had been produced in the region continuously during the first centuries of Islamic rule, yet its composition underwent changes along the way.215 Glass from the Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad periods in SyriaPalestine was prepared using natron as its flux. However, by the ninth century (and by the mid-tenth century in Egypt) natron-based glass was partially replaced by glass based on plant ash, made by burning plants from salt-rich environments216 (e.g., Freestone, Gorin-Rosen and Hughes 2000; Freestone 2006; Phelps et al. 2016). The secondary stage involving the making of vessels and artifacts took place in installations of a different type. These installations included the workshop excavated near the northeastern city gate at Bet She’an and dated to the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59– 60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178217), the one in Beirut, dated to the middle or the second half of the seventh century (Foy 2000a), and the glass workshop located south of Ramla and dated to the sixth–seventh centuries (Tal, Jackson-Tal and Freestone 2008). The glass-making furnaces that most probably operated at the city of Ramla itself have yet to be discovered (Gorin-Rosen 2010:260). The site at Apollonia-Arsuf probably hosted both primary and secondary glass production installations during the sixth–seventh centuries (Tal, Jackson-Tal and Freestone 2004; Freestone, Jackson-Tal and Tal 2008).218

7.1.6 Production of Raw Glass and Vessel Glass The ancient glass industry comprised two stages that were carried out separately. In the primary stage, sizeable furnaces produced raw glass, which was distributed as chunks. These chunks were then fashioned into vessels, windowpanes and various artifacts in the secondary stage, which took place in workshops located in every major city of the time.214 Large amounts of raw glass were manufactured in SyriaPalestine uninterruptedly, from the sixth century to at least the ninth century. Production occurred in a number of locations, including Apollonia-Arsuf, where the furnaces probably operated in the second half of the sixth century and possibly in the seventh century as well (Tal, Jackson-Tal and Freestone 2004; Freestone, JacksonTal and Tal 2008:67), and Bet Eli‘ezer, where raw glass was produced during the seventh century (Gorin-Rosen

The wide distribution of glass production installations throughout the country is also demonstrated in numerous sites that yielded various types of remains, such as raw glass chunks, debris from glass furnaces, drops, moils, and deformed vessels. These finds are significant for the study and identification of primary and secondary glass production processes. Additionally, these remains may indicate the existence of glass production installations even where no furnaces have been recovered (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:73–74, 124–129, 145–147, Figs. 25, 39). Furthermore, an abundance of vessels of similar fabrics,

212 Tonged (see Type DDtg) and incised decorations are generally associated with the mid-eighth–tenth centuries, yet few examples were also excavated in Umayyad-period contexts, for example, at Caesarea Maritima and Bet She’an, and should probably be assigned to the first half of the eighth century (tonged: Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:15; incised: Hadad 2005:22–23, Pl. 5:96, 97). 213 The finds were unearthed in Locus 103. See n. 142, in Chapter 3 (Permit No. A-7050/2014). 214 Extensive discussions on glass production in Syria-Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, including settlements in which glass workshops were found and their locations within these settlements, as well as on technologies and trade, may be found in Gorin-Rosen 2000a; Freestone, Gorin-Rosen and Hughes 2000; Degryse 2014; and in Y. Gorin-Rosen’s unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. For research on raw glass from Egypt, see e.g., Nenna 2014; 2015. Glass technology, materials and chemical compositions are also thoroughly discussed in Henderson 2013. References to glassmaking and glassworkers in Jewish texts were studied by T. Grossmark (1989).

Tracing the compositions of glass vessels and artifacts is ever complicated, as a significant proportion of a batch may have been recycled, occasionally more than once (e.g., Freestone 2015). 216 Glass based on plant ash was manufactured in Mesopotamia from the Bronze Age onward (e.g., Brill 1970; Freestone and Gorin-Rosen 1999:109). 217 The workshop and its glass products were studied by Y. Gorin-Rosen. 218 The occurrence of installations of both stages of glass production in a single site was also detected at Jalame, where the installations were dated to the Late Roman period (Y. Gorin-Rosen, pers. comm.). 215

181

Lucid Transformations shapes, decorations and workmanship, may indicate the presence of a glass production center and occasionally attest to the fingerprints of a craftsman, despite the lack of distinct production remains (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:74–76; Gorin-Rosen 2012c:59*–61*).

vessels had been made to order, or acquired in a single batch from a local glass workshop. Furthermore, the glass corpus also featured a small selection of distinctive vessels. Their limited distribution need not necessarily be attributed to ‘traditional’ regionalism, but rather to the exceptional style of individual artisans or local workshops around the country. Some of these distinctive vessels are known from specific contexts only, as, for example, small carelessly-made bowls/lamps from Caesarea Maritima (see Section 7.3). Others may be assigned to a certain region, such as the shallow perforated bowls/lamps, which have so far been retrieved principally from ecclesiastical settings, and only from sites in and south of Jerusalem, suggesting this was a regional variant, distributed between Jerusalem and southern Sinai (see Type LCW, Section 3.2.6). Specimens of another distinctive vessel-type, bottles with interior threads, have hitherto been recorded in the Jerusalem area, in the western Galilee, in the Negev and in northern Sinai, suggesting they were probably made locally in several workshops in distant regions of the country (see Type EXBTit, Section 3.4).

7.1.7 Affinities and Diversities The main focus of this book is the glass corpus from the Jerusalem area, and its contribution to the understanding of various historical and cultural processes during the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule. Nevertheless, the analysis of the typological-chronological study that encompasses Syria-Palestine (Chapter 3), the assessment of the various glass finds from a variety of sites in Jerusalem and its environs (Chapters 5 and 6), and the evaluation of those against assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla (Section 7.3), all elucidate the overall picture. The Mid-Fifth–Seventh Centuries Glass assemblages throughout the country display a general uniformity, and a limited variety of vessel types that appear in a diversity of styles and traits. The glass products were probably made in local workshops, rather than in a central one. Furthermore, these products were accompanied by a selection of specific unique artifacts, manufactured only in certain local workshops.

These observations on the general uniformity of the shapes of the glass repertoire, alongside the diversity of styles and variants, correspond to Barag’s ambivalent assertions, in his Ph.D. dissertation of 1970, regarding regionalism in the Byzantine period (Barag 1970b:227–229). Following the examination of glass assemblages from churches, synagogues and tombs, mostly from Jerusalem and its surroundings, as well as finds from a few settlement contexts in other regions of the country, Barag noted a resemblance between the groups from the Jerusalem area, and a scanty connection between these Jerusalem groups and the glass assemblages from tombs in Gush Halav (Makhouly 1939) and Khirbat al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960). However, in the same sentence he observed that when similar vessel-types did occur, they differed in their ‘manner of execution’ (Barag 1970b:227). Barag then asserted that there were regional differences between the northern parts of the country and the regions of Jerusalem, Judea and Samaria. Yet, again, in the same sentence, he stated, as supported by my research, that the total variety of shapes was small and that various types were widespread throughout Syria-Palestine (Barag 1970b:228).

It seems that the uniformity of everyday glass products in Syria-Palestine during the Byzantine period may be associated with the Christian hegemony and stability of the population, whereas the diversity of styles and variants of these glass vessels, as well as the small selection of specific unique products, may be attributed to the tastes and whims of individual itinerant artisans or particular local workshops. The most common vessels in the ‘genuine’ Byzantinenatured corpus of the mid-fifth–seventh centuries were bottles, wineglasses and lamps. They appeared in a variety of contexts: the same types of bottles occurred in settlements and burials, while wineglasses and glass lamps of certain types were discovered in churches, chapels and synagogues, as well as in secular public buildings, industrial and commercial areas, shops, farmsteads and urban residential quarters.

The Seventh–Eighth Centuries

Nevertheless, the bottles and wineglasses displayed an assortment of decoration schemes, variations on these schemes, and combinations of two or more decoration schemes on a single vessel (see Sections 3.2.2, 3.2.4). The lamps demonstrated a variety of stylistic variations in their proportions, the treatment of the rim, the fashioning of the handles, and more (see Section 3.2.6). This diversity in stylistic details may be associated with itinerant artisans or local workshops. Moreover, shared traits on several vessels from a certain context (see, e.g., the discussion of Type LBBor, Section 3.2.6), may indicate that these

The most customary vessels during the seventh–mideighth centuries were deep cylindrical bowls/beakers (Type BB, Section 3.2.1), bottles adorned with pinched trail decoration or a thick wavy trail (Types BTpt, BTwt, Section 3.2.4), bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat/globular body (Type BTTifr, Section 3.2.4), and vessels adorned with rows of pinches (Type DDrp, Section 3.3). They were used in various types of settlements and burials throughout the country, and in both Christian and Muslim contexts.

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Synthesis 7.2.1 The Glass Vessels

A selection of distinctive vessels and artifacts, typical of the seventh–eighth centuries, are associated with the Muslim population (and see Section 7.4). Zoomorphic vessels, for example, have so far been discovered in only few regulated excavations of small rural settlements in the Jezreel Valley and in the Negev, and were probably manufactured in local workshops (Type EXZM, Section 3.4). Alternatively, horseshoe-shaped artifacts, attributed to the eighth century, have so far been identified only in Ramla, where they were probably produced (Type ARTHS, Section 3.4).

Bowls and Bowls/Beakers The bowls in the glass corpus from the Jerusalem area include various types with a rounded unfolded rim or an outfolded rim, and they are generally supported by a hollow ring base (Types BLrr, BLor). Some are decorated with a trail, usually of a darker color than the vessel, wound once or several times around and below the rim (Type BLtd). Most of these bowl types, which continued Late Roman traditions and resembled bowls characteristic of the third– fourth centuries, occurred all along the Byzantine period, into the seventh century.

It seems that the most customary everyday glass products of the seventh–mid-eighth centuries in Syria-Palestine were widespread in various types of contexts throughout the country, as occurred during the preceding two centuries (see above). Later on, probably in the second half of the seventh century and in the eighth century, distinctive vessels and artifacts associated with the Muslim population began to appear. Vessels associated with the caliphal administrations of the ruling Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, such as stamped vessels (Type EXst; Section 3.4), also emerged at this time (see Section 7.4).

Bowls/beakers, with their distinctive proportions (Type BB), presented a new shape and were widespread during the seventh–eighth centuries. The bowls/beakers from the Jerusalem area have either a rounded or a folded rim. They are adorned with decorations typical of the type, such as rows of pinches (Type BBrp), and trails of a different color than the vessel, applied either horizontally onto the rim and/or the wall (Type BBtd), or vertically in a wavy pattern onto the wall (Type BBvt).

7.2 The Jerusalem Glass Corpus: Constructing Typologies, Establishing Chronologies

Wineglasses Wineglasses were widespread particularly during the sixth– seventh centuries. The wineglasses in the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its environs generally have a rounded rim, either slightly flaring or slightly-incurved, and the upper part of the walls are either slanted or convex (Type WGrr). Many wineglasses are adorned with trails darker than the vessel, applied horizontally on the rim and wall (Type WGtd); some bear shallow mold-blown geometric patterns (Type WGmbd), as well as a combination of both these decorations.

The glass corpus from Jerusalem and its environs is herein examined, emphasizing specific trends of continuity, change and innovation, as established from the analysis of the general typo-chronology (Chapter 3), and from the investigation of various glass assemblages recovered in a variety of sites in the Jerusalem area (Chapters 5 and 6). The typology of glass vessels and architecture-related glass artifacts of the mid-fifth–eighth centuries from the Jerusalem area largely corresponds to the typology of glass products of the period from other sites in the SyriaPalestine. Nevertheless, a close examination of specific types from Jerusalem and its environs reveals local trends. Many of the vessels display similar features, suggesting these corpora may have originated in the same school of workshops, perhaps in one (or more) local atelier in or around the city.

The wineglasses are supported mostly by a cylindrical or single-bead stem (Type WGhb/sbs) on a hollow ring base (Type WGhb). This was the most widespread wineglass-base type during the sixth–seventh centuries. The hollow ring base was gradually joined by the solid tooled base (Type WGsb), of which only few examples have been recorded in the material from Jerusalem studied in this book. This nearly-exclusive use of hollow ring bases to support wineglasses may be interpreted as a preference of the local glass workshop/s, yet it may also be attributed to the randomness of discoveries in salvage excavations.

Moreover, some of the glass corpora include an exceptional vessel or two, appearing together with the well-known types. These exceptional pieces display infrequent combinations of recurrent motifs, possibly indicating that they were made in the same local workshop/s, by an artisan who was familiar with the trends of his period and chose to apply them in fresh, unfamiliar combinations. Such circumstances are evident, for example, in the contemporaneous glass corpora from the monastery on Mount Scopus (see Section 5.5), Khirbat Tabaliya (GorinRosen 2000e:93*) and En Lavan.219

219

The Jerusalem-corpus wineglasses may also demonstrate an aspect of the interpretation of absence in archaeological material (see Section 7.4). Several excavations in Jerusalem and its vicinity in the early 1990s yielded wineglasses displaying a distinct shape, workmanship and fabric, generally supported by a single-bead stem and a hollow ring base, and adorned with dark-colored wound trails. They were considered at the time to have been unique to

See n. 109, in Chapter 3 (Permit No. A-2830/1998).

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Lucid Transformations the Jerusalem area, and the products of a local workshop operating in or around the city during the sixth–seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000e:94*, n. 5). However, with the increased volume of archaeological excavations since the early 1990s, vessels of this type have surfaced in other regions of the country. It now seems that wineglasses of this type were manufactured contemporaneously in several local workshops catering to a regional fashion; one or more of those workshops probably operated in or around Jerusalem (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:167–169).

period belongs to the category of multi-side vessels (Type EXMSV), and only few examples have been retrieved from excavations in Jerusalem and its environs. Lamps Most of the major types of glass lamps that were prevalent in Syria-Palestine during the mid-fifth through the eighth centuries occur in the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its surroundings. The two most customary types were the three-handle bowl- or beaker-shaped lamp (Type LBB) and the stemmed bowl-shaped lamp (Type LST), yet several other types were also widespread.

Jars Jars were not customary in the glass corpus of the period. Nevertheless, small globular jars with a rounded rim or an infolded rim (Type JRgb), and jars decorated with trail applications (Type JRta), occasionally occur in glass assemblages dated to the seventh–mid-eighth centuries from the Jerusalem area.

The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps (Type LBB) from the Jerusalem area are either deep with vertical or slightly slanting walls, or shallow with extremely slanting walls. These lamps generally have an outfolded rim (Type LBBor), and only a few examples, of a slightly earlier subtype, have a rounded unfolded rim (Type LBBrr). Bowl- or beakershaped lamps are rarely decorated, yet several examples are adorned with mold-blown ribbing (Type LBBmbd).

Bottles The most prevalent bottles in the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its environs have a relatively long neck, and a globular, barrel-shaped or pear-shaped body (Type BT). They were the standard during the mid-fifth–sixth centuries, and continued to appear in the seventh century. These bottles occur in many variations, and are either undecorated or decorated in various techniques. The most widespread of these are mold-blown designs on the neck and body (Type BTmbd), and applied trails in a variety of patterns (Types BTtd, BTst, BTwt), the latter of which (Type BTwt) is characteristic particularly of the seventh–eighth centuries. Occasionally, two or more decoration schemes adorned a single vessel.

The bottom of bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps is generally pushed-in, and occasionally installed with a wick tube (Type LBBwkt). The wick tubes unearthed in Jerusalem and its environs display similar features, which may indicate they were produced in one or more local workshops. The tubes generally have a rounded rim, and less-commonly a cut-off rim; none have an infolded rim. Additionally, many of them were carelessly made, and some of the glass had seeped out on one side of the tube base, where it joins the lamp bowl. Several of the specimens from the Jerusalem area are bichrome, with the lamp bowl greenish-blue, and the wick tubes bluish green, green or brown.

These bottles were accompanied in the seventh century by bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr); the latter became the most widespread type of bottles in the seventh–eighth centuries, with variants continuing into the ninth century. These bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body were either undecorated, or decorated, mostly with rows of pinches on the body (Type DDrp). Bottles with a ridged neck (Type BTTrn) also appeared in the seventh century, yet they were abundant during the eighth–ninth centuries. Small bottles with a cylindrical body (Type BTTcyb) or a square-sectioned body (Type BTTsqb) appeared in the eighth century, and were widespread particularly in the ninth–tenth centuries.

Most of the stemmed bowl-shaped lamps (Type LST) in the Jerusalem corpus have a hollow cylindrical stem, and less-commonly a conical one (Type LSThs). These stems display a smooth transition (with no constriction) where they join the lamp bowl. Other stems are solid at their lower part, and fewer display a bead or two at the bottom end (Types LSThs, LSTbe). A single, solid beaded stem was noted (Type LSTbs), yet no smooth solid stems (Type LSTss) have been recorded in the assemblages from Jerusalem and its environs examined in this book. The beaker-shaped lamps have outsplaying walls and a relatively small pushed-in bottom (Type LBEpib), and they have been documented mostly in and south of Jerusalem. A subtype of these lamps has a tooled hollow fold on the exterior below the rim (Type LBEef). A rare, small beaker with vertical walls (Type LBEvw) probably served as a lamp.

Jugs Jugs were quite scarce from the fifth century onward, and as contemporaneous bottles, they were either plain, or decorated with a mold-blown pattern or with applied trails on the mouth (Type JG). The few examples from Jerusalem have a pinched funnel-shaped mouth (Type JGpfm) and they appear in assemblages dated to the sixth– seventh centuries. Another type of jug characteristic of the

An uncommon type of lamp, so far represented in the Jerusalem corpus by only two examples, comprises a wide shallow bowl with short convex walls and 184

Synthesis perforations below the rim to allow its suspension (Type LCW). This type has so far been recorded almost exclusively in ecclesiastical settings in and south of Jerusalem, suggesting it was a regional, church-related variant.

Some of the sites in Jerusalem and its environs also yielded spirally-twisted rods (Type ARTR), assigned to the Umayyad period, and small discs (Type ARTSD), possibly used as inlays during the Byzantine period. 7.2.4 Architecture-Associated Glass Products

An example of a variant of the globular lamp was recorded in the Jerusalem area. However, the standard three-handle globular lamp with a cut-off rim (Type LGL) is largely missing from the Jerusalem corpora examined in this book, although some handle fragments may have belonged to this type of lamp.

The most prevalent architecture-associated products recovered from sites in Jerusalem and its surroundings are windowpanes, discovered mostly in contexts dated to the sixth–seventh/eighth centuries, including ecclesiastical compounds, residential quarters, and bathhouses. These naturally-colored windowpanes are of both the circular (Type WPcr) and the quadrangular (Type WPqd) types, the latter more widespread. Some of the sites in the Jerusalem environs yielded panes of only one of these types, yet at other complexes panes of both the quadrangular and circular types appeared contemporaneously, indicating that these two types of windowpanes may not serve as chronological markers.

7.2.2 Major Decoration Schemes Most of the major types of decoration that were prevalent in Syria-Palestine during the mid-fifth–eighth centuries occur in the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its surroundings. The most extensively-employed decoration technique comprised applying trails in various schemes, and all its variations (Types DDtd, DDst, DDpt, DDwt, DDvt, DDta) are evident in the Jerusalem-area corpus. Another widespread technique was the mold-blown decoration (Type DDmbd), displaying ribbed, grid, petal and dotted patterns. Rows of pinches (Type DDrp) appeared in Jerusalem and its environs mostly on bowls/beakers. Only a few examples of stain-painted decoration (Type DDstp) and mosaic glass (Type DDmos) were recorded in the Jerusalem corpus.

Colorful glass tesserae (Type TESgl), as well as gold-glass cubes (Type TESgg), were recovered in various, mostly ecclesiastical settings in the Jerusalem area, dated to the sixth–seventh centuries. Very few gold-glass tiles (Type GGT) were also discovered in Jerusalem, in complexes dated to the sixth–seventh centuries; some of these finds are possibly fragments of tiles from which gold-glass tesserae had been cut. 7.2.5 Glass Production in Jerusalem

7.2.3 Exceptional Vessels and Artifacts

The glass vessels and artifacts from Jerusalem and its surroundings were probably manufactured in one or more workshops in and/or around the city, yet no remains of such a facility or furnace have been documented to date.220 Our knowledge, therefore, is based on occasional excavated remains of glass production and on inadvertent references in written sources.

The exceptional glass vessels from Jerusalem and its environs include a large bichrome goblet associated with the seventh–eighth centuries (Type EXGBlg), for which no analogous examples from archaeological excavations in the Syria-Palestine region have yet been published. The multi-side vessels (Type EXMSV) discovered in regulated archaeological excavations in Israel and Jordan are widely distributed, yet they are scarce among the glass finds from Jerusalem, suggesting that, contrary to the accepted assumption (Barag 1970a; 1971), these vessels may not have been manufactured in the city at all, but rather in several workshops in the country. Additionally, their dating may be broader than previously suggested, and may range from the sixth to the eighth centuries.

Remains of glass production from the relevant periods, including chunks of raw glass and furnace debris, were recovered, for example, in the Mamilla area (see Section 5.2), in the Teddy Kollek Park compound (see Section 5.3), on the City of David spur (see Section 5.4), and at Bet Safafa (Gorin-Rosen 2003a:228). Distorted vessels and glass-working debris were unearthed at Khirbat Adasa, together with glass vessels dated to the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:127–128). A large quantity of glass-working debris, probably from the Umayyad period, was discovered in the excavations along the Western Wall.221 These accumulating finds reinforce the supposition that glass

Only a single fragment of each of two types of bottles have hitherto been documented from Jerusalem: bottles with interior threads (Type EXBTit), dated to the late sixth– seventh centuries and possibly related to Christian liturgy, and multi-tube bottles (Type EXBTmt), assigned to the Umayyad period. A few specimens of alembics (Type EXAL), associated with the Umayyad and Abbasid– Fatimid periods, were also documented from the city (and see Section 7.4).

The remains from the working process in a glass workshop were discovered in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem’s Old City. The workshop functioned in the mid-first century BCE, and bears the earliest evidence for glass blowing worldwide (Israeli and Katsnelson 2006). 221 See n. 67, in Chapter 3 (Permit No. A-5124/2007). 220

185

Lucid Transformations vessels and artifacts were made in Jerusalem and its surroundings during the Umayyad period, yet these finds are so far insufficient for tracing the locations of the glass workshops that may have been operating at these sites.

The exceptional status of Jerusalem as a thriving sacred Christian metropolis and a prime pilgrimage destination in the fifth–seventh centuries, as well as a political and religious center for the emergent Islam in the seventh– eighth centuries, prompts a consideration of its glass corpus in relation to glass corpora in other cities and settlements in the region.

Another aspect of glass making may be deduced from the workmanship of certain glass vessels. The bottles from the Vault Crypt in the monastery north of Damascus Gate, for example, shared similar forms and technical traits, suggesting that these bottles may have been made in a single nearby workshop, possibly by the same artisan or group of artisans (see Section 5.1).

The following review addresses this matter in a methodical manner, focusing on three major cities as case studies. Well-dated glass assemblages from the key cities of Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla are scrutinized to assess the nature and dating of the contexts in which they were found, and to establish their degree of affinity with the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its environs.

An additional clue to glass working in or around the city may lie in the selection of vessels. At the monastery on Mount Scopus, for example, two of the decorated vessels are so far unique in the Jerusalem area; their appearance, together with numerous well-known types, may indicate that they too were made in a local workshop (see Section 5.5).

7.3.1 Considering Glass Assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla

Evidence of glassworking in Jerusalem in the Umayyad period may also be deduced from historical texts. Ibn al-Murajja delivers a tradition, probably reflecting the late seventh–early eighth centuries, which mentions Jewish attendants, who made the glass for lamps, bowls and vessels, from the time of Abd al-Malik until the transmitter’s days (see Section 4.1; Elad 2008:181, and nn. 75, 76; Brosh 2005b:62).

These three cities, all province capitals, were selected for their well-documented archaeological records, and their flourishing and diverse histories during the period in question: Caesarea Maritima was a commercial metropolis, and after the Arabs had taken it by force, the city underwent various processes of continuity and abandonment; Bet She’an thrived during and following the Arab conquest, and experienced changes in its urban concepts; and Ramla, founded on virgin soil, represents the new Muslim power in the region.

Later, al-Muqaddasi, writing in the last two decades of the tenth century, mentions that Jerusalem exported, among other commodities, mirrors and lamp-jars, while Tyre manufactured “glass beads, and glass vessels both cut and elegantly formed” (al-Muqaddasi, pp. 180–181; Collins 1994:163–164). These mentioned lamp-jars were most probably made of clay (N. Amitai-Preiss, pers. comm.), yet they were interpreted by some researchers (e.g., Brosh 2005b:62–63) as made of glass, and then cited as evidence of glass production in Jerusalem in that period. Nevertheless, ordinary glass vessels and artifacts were presumably produced in or around the city during the tenth–eleventh centuries, as in other cities of Syria-Palestine, as attested by growing evidence from archaeology, chemical analyses and written sources (e.g., Whitehouse 2009). Additionally, there is growing evidence of glass production in Jerusalem during the Mamluk period, particularly in the area of the Old City’s Jewish Quarter (e.g., Hasson 1983; Brosh 2005a; 2005b; 2012:404–406).

Caesarea Maritima Caesarea Maritima developed during the Roman and Byzantine periods into a commercial metropolis and a major port, trading with centers in the Mediterranean basin. The city became the capital of the province of Palaestina Prima, and was further promoted to preside over the three Palaestina provinces. During the Arab conquest, Caesarea Maritima was under siege for a period of seven years, until its fall in late 640 or early 641. Subsequently, the city’s southern part was abandoned during the seventh century, while the areas of the temple platform and the inner harbor continued to be inhabited up to the eleventh century (e.g., Levine 1975; Porath 2008; Holum, Raban and Patrich 2008; Patrich 2011a). Large areas of Caesarea Maritima have been excavated over the past fifty years by several expeditions, yet only a few glass assemblages have been published to date. The results of a small excavation carried out in 1985– 1986 in the southern part of the ancient city, linked the unearthed remains with the construction of a gate and the Byzantine city wall (Peleg and Reich 1992), while a later reconsideration of these remains associated them with a Roman-period theater or odeum (Porath 2008:1660). The glass vessels recovered from the site were associated by the excavators with Phase 4 of Stratum II, which was dated as “not later than the early seventh century CE” (Peleg and Reich 1992:165).

7.3 The Jerusalem Glass Corpus in Consideration of Contemporaneous Glass Assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla Many references are made in the typo-chronology (Chapter 3) to specific glass finds in assemblages dated from the mid-fifth to the eighth centuries, from various sites in Israel and neighboring countries, providing an overall picture of the glass repertoire in Syria-Palestine (Section 7.1) and specifically in Jerusalem and its surroundings (Section 7.2). 186

Synthesis The excavations carried out during 1993–2001 in the southwestern zone of Caesarea Maritima were only partially published (Patrich 2008). In the fifth–sixth centuries (Stratum IVB) this zone accommodated the Byzantine governor’s palace (Areas CC and NN) and a warehouse complex (Area KK). These buildings suffered neglect and abandonment probably during the first half of the seventh century, and irrigated gardens (Stratum IIIA, 634–650) were installed over their rubble. These gardens are thought to have been constructed by Christian inhabitants during the years of the siege (634–640/641), and cultivated no later than c. 700 (Holum, Raban and Patrich 2008:1673–1680; Patrich 2008:1–12; 2011a). The glass corpus from the southwestern zone spans the Late Hellenistic through the Byzantine periods (Israeli 2008). The latest glass finds from that corpus, which are those quoted in this book, are typical predominantly of the fifth–sixth centuries.

As Bet She’an was a multicultural city, some of the glass finds cited in this book were recovered in varied religious buildings, such as the round church, probably built in the second half of the fifth century on the tell (FitzGerald 1931:42, Pl. XXXIX:12, 25); the monastery built in the mid-sixth century on Tel Iztaba (FitzGerald 1939); as well as the Jewish-owned house of Kyrios Leontis in the western part of the city (Zori 1973), with an adjacent synagogue (Bahat 1981); and another synagogue, possibly Samaritan, to the north of the city wall (Zori 1967223). Bet She’an apparently continued to flourish uninterruptedly in the course of the Persian invasion in 614, as well as during the Arab conquest in 635/636, when the city probably surrendered under a peace agreement. Nevertheless, an earthquake in 659/660 seems to have seriously damaged the civic center, which was subsequently occupied by various commercial and industrial facilities (Bar-Nathan and Atrash 2011:1–15).

Other glass vessels from Caesarea Maritima referred to in this book were recovered during the excavations carried out in 1992–1997 near the elevated temple platform (Holum, Raban and Patrich 2008:1668–1672). In the period roughly between the sixth and the ninth centuries, the area at the southeastern corner of the temple platform hosted a bathhouse turned into a fish-processing factory (Area TPS), the area to the south exposed workshops, storage chambers, and later—shops (Area Z), and the area to the west of the temple platform incorporated domestic structures, as well as industrial installations, shops and a marketplace (Area I). The glass finds from these various units were attributed to three stratigraphic layers: Stratum VIII dated between 640–750, Stratum VII dated from 750 to the late ninth century, and Stratum VI dated from the late ninth to the mid-tenth centuries (Pollak 2003).

Baysan, as it was renamed, was shattered in 749 by an additional, devastating earthquake,224 which left most of its center in ruins. However, the area was not deserted, but rather inhabited on the southern plateau, as well as on and around the tell, and the recovering town continued to flourish probably up until the tenth or eleventh century (Arubas 2005; Avni 2014:65–68, 71). The 749 earthquake provides a terminus ante quem for finds discovered in the destruction layer at Bet She’an, and consequently in other areas of the country. The marketplace established by Caliph Hisham was inaugurated in 738, destroyed by the 749 quake, and never rebuilt (Tsafrir 2009b:79–82; Khamis 2001). Consequently, the dating of the numerous glass vessels from the marketplace is particularly well-defined. Therefore, the large body of glass finds from the Hisham marketplace and from shops in other areas of the city, as well as from the 749-earthquake destruction layer, constitutes one of the most comprehensive glass corpora from the Umayyad period (Hadad 2005, also encompassing glass finds from later periods).

Bet She’an Nysa-Scythopolis, located in the modern-day town of Bet She’an, had developed during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. It became a major city and the capital of the province of Palaestina Secunda, trading within the province and reaching its urban pinnacle in the sixth century. Various expeditions conducted extensive archaeological excavations in the years 1921–1933 and 1986–2000, exposing the magnificent civic center of the Roman–Byzantine periods, the amphitheater to its south, a temple and a church on the ancient mound (i.e., the tell), the city gates, and more (e.g., Tsafrir and Foerster 1997; Tsafrir 2009b; Mazor and Najjar 2007; Mazor 2008).

Another significant Umayyad-period glass assemblage is associated with the theater pottery workshop, which was installed in the ruined civic center around 700, and demolished by the 749 earthquake (Bar-Nathan and Atrash 2011:19–85; Winter 2011:345–352, Figs. 12.1, 12.2). Ramla According to various historical texts, Ramla was founded on sand dunes by the Umayyad caliph Sulaiman b. Abd al-Malik around 715, to serve as the administrative capital of the province of Jund Filastin. The city developed and expanded from the late eighth century onward, and was

Several glass assemblages from the city’s heyday, quoted in this book, originated from Byzantine-period shops on the Street of Monuments (Agady et al. 2002:483–492), from Byzantine-period contexts on the tell (Hadad 2006), and from the area of the northeastern bridge.222

Zori (1967) claimed that the synagogue bears no Samaritan features, and that the only Samaritan inscription found at the site alludes to a courthouse for agrarian matters. 224 See n. 44, in Chapter 2. 223

222

See n. 112, in Chapter 3.

187

Lucid Transformations embellished with fine public buildings, of which only the ‘White Mosque’ and the ‘Pool of the Arches’ survived. The city flourished in the ninth and tenth centuries, and declined during the second half of the eleventh century. Ramla was inhabited predominantly by Muslims, although the city also hosted Christians from nearby Diospolis-Ludd (modern-day Lod), and, according to later testimonies, Jewish, Karaite and Samaritan communities as well (Gil 1992:173–174, 302–303).

among the architectural remains uncovered in these two excavations and in others in the city, it is impossible to determine the ethnic affiliation of specific structures and compounds (Avni 2014:178–180). Nevertheless, it is highly probable that the above-mentioned glass assemblages were associated with the predominatelyMuslim population of the city, as they were dated to the earliest phases of occupation in Ramla, and originated in complexes in the vicinity of the White Mosque (whose original phase dates to the first half of the eighth century).

Several large-scale excavations and scores of salvage excavations have been carried out in Ramla in the past two decades, exposing poorly-preserved architectural remains, mostly of residential quarters incorporating industrial installations (e.g., Avni and Gutfeld 2008; Shmueli 2009; Shmueli and Goldfus 2015). The results of many of the small salvage excavations were published in a concise format (Excavations and Surveys in Israel [HA−ESI]), and the glass finds uncovered in these excavations are occasionally referred to in this book.

7.3.2 Evaluating the Glass Assemblages The various types identified in the glass corpus from the fifth–eighth centuries as reflected in sites in Jerusalem and its environs (see Section 7.2) are herein presented typologically beside the contemporaneous glass assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla, discussed above. Bowls and Bowls/Beakers

Extensive glass corpora from Ramla were unearthed in settings corresponding to the initial, post-715 phases of the city’s occupation. A rich and diverse assemblage was recovered in contexts associated with the earliest stages unearthed in an excavation north of the White Mosque (Gutfeld 2010). Nearly all the glass finds from one of these contexts, a sealed fill (L62.1039; Gutfeld 2010:27), are typical of the first half of the eighth century; some of the vessels may have continued into the second half of that century, yet they are ‘Umayyad’ in their fabrics and features (Gorin-Rosen 2010:258–259, Pl. 10.1).225 This excavation north of the White Mosque yielded additional glass finds from other contemporaneous contexts (Gorin-Rosen 2010: Pls. 10.2, 10.3), as well as glass vessels and artifacts of a different fabric, dated mostly to the ninth–tenth centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2010:228–256, and see Section 7.1).

Variants of the types of bowls that make up the Jerusalem corpus, including bowls with a rounded rim (Type BLrr) or an outfolded rim (Type BLor), as well as bowls adorned with trail decoration (Type BLtd), have also been recorded in various assemblages at Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla. However, several types that appear in some of these assemblages are so far missing from the Jerusalem area, as, for example, thick-walled bowls with an infolded rim and slanted walls (e.g., Caesarea Maritima: Pollak 2003: Fig. 1:1, 2; Ramla: Gorin-Rosen 2011: Fig. 14:1). Furthermore, as expected, the body of glass from Ramla includes mostly bowls/beakers (Type BB) that appeared in the seventh century, and fewer of the bowl types that had been widespread in earlier years. Wineglasses

Another substantial glass assemblage was excavated on Marcus Street at Ramla, in a building that was probably used for both domestic and commercial functions (Building I, Stratum II; Toueg 2007:21–23, 36). A cistern was constructed in the building’s inner courtyard, and its floor infrastructure yielded various finds, including pottery dated to the ninth–tenth centuries. The glass vessels collected from this infrastructure (Locus 213) share a homogenous fabric, and were dated to the eighth through the mid-ninth centuries (Pollak 2007:101). Although drawing to a later date, most of these vessels display features typical of the seventh–eighth centuries.

Numerous plain and decorated wineglasses (Types WGtd, WGmbd) have been discovered in the Jerusalem corpus. Most specimens have a hollow ring base (Type WGhb), whereas only a few examples with a solid base (WGsb) have been recorded so far. Wineglasses have been recorded at Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla, yet in relatively small numbers (e.g., Israeli 2008:391, Nos. 257, 258; Gorin-Rosen 2010:218, 221, Pl. 10.1:4, 10). This may be partly explained by the difficulty to securely identify rim fragments and stems as belonging to wineglasses. Wineglass bases are more easily recognizable, and many wineglasses, with either a hollow ring base (Type WGhb) or a solid base (Type WGsb), have been recorded in the assemblages in question. In some Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an both types of bases appeared concurrently (e.g., Winter 2011:346–348, Fig. 12.1:4–9), while in other contemporaneous contexts in that city only solid bases were recovered (e.g., Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 21:401–409). Generally, wineglasses are scarce in Umayyad-period assemblages, and are altogether absent from Abbasid-period contexts.

With the lack of evidence for religious/ethnic segregation in Ramla, and with the absence of religious-ethnic indicators

225 It is noteworthy that most of the specimens from the large pottery corpus in this fill (L62.1039) were assigned a date in the ninth century, some possibly starting in the eighth century (Cytryn-Silverman 2010: Pls. 9.2–9.7; K. Cytryn-Silverman, pers. comm.); this inconsistency with the dating of the glass finds has not been fully resolved in the publication (Gutfeld 2010).

188

Synthesis Jars

Several types of bottles occurred only sporadically in the Umayyad-period assemblages examined in Jerusalem, as well as at Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla, while abounding in Abbasid-period contexts. These types include bottles with a ridged neck (Type BTTrn), which appeared in the seventh century and became widespread during the eighth–ninth centuries, and small bottles with a cylindrical body (Type BTTcyb) or a square-sectioned body (Type BTTsqb), which appeared in the eighth century and were characteristic particularly of the ninth– tenth centuries.

Jars were not widespread, and only several specimens (Types JRgb, JRta) from assemblages dated from the seventh to the mid-eighth centuries have been so far documented from Jerusalem. Various specimens of small globular jars (Type JRgb), with either a rounded or an infolded rim, were recovered at Caesarea Maritima, in undated contexts in Areas CC and KK (Israeli 2008:380, Nos. 120, 121), and in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an, some from the shops destroyed in the 749 earthquake (Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 20:368–378). The jars published from Ramla feature different fabrics and profiles that are characteristic of the Abbasid period.

Jugs As in the Jerusalem area, jugs were also scarce among the finds from the mid-fifth–eighth centuries from the three discussed cities. A jug with a pinched handle was documented in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005: Pl. 20:382), and jugs with a long neck, occasionally adorned with wavy trails (Type JGwt), were recovered in Umayyad-period contexts at Ramla (GorinRosen 2008b:47, Pl. 1:3; 2016:53, Fig. 5:34).

Fragments of jars (or bottles) decorated with trail applications (Types JRta, DDta), a decoration characteristic of the late seventh–eighth centuries, were documented in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:25, Pl. 14:283; 2006:629, Fig. 19.4:75) and Ramla (GorinRosen 2010:226–227, Pl. 10.2:16). Bottles

Lamps

The various types of bottles that comprise the Jerusalem corpus have also been recorded among the glass finds from the three major cities discussed in this section. The Byzantine-period assemblages at Caesarea Maritima and Bet She’an yielded the standard bottles, either undecorated or adorned with the most customary decoration schemes, i.e., a thin trail wound around the mouth or neck (Type BTtd), and mold-blown designs, mostly ribbing (Type BTmbd). The Umayyad-period contexts in these two cities also included the above-mentioned types, as well as bottles adorned with a single trail (Type BTst), with a thick wavy trail (Type BTwt), or with rows of pinches (Type DDrp). Additionally, these Umayyad-period corpora introduced the bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr), which became the most widespread bottles in the seventh–eighth centuries.

The variety of glass lamps from Jerusalem and its surroundings included numerous three-handle bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps (Type LBB), stemmed bowl-shaped lamps (Type LST) and beaker-shaped lamps (Type LBEpib). Additionally, the Jerusalem corpus included two examples of suspended shallow bowls (Type LCW), and a single variant of the globular lamp (Type LGL), as well as several related handles. Diverse variants of three-handle bowl- or beaker-shaped lamps (Type LBB) and of stemmed bowl-shaped lamps (Type LST) have been recorded in the assemblages from the three major cities discussed here, yet they are scarcer at Ramla. The variant of the stemmed lamp with a solid beaded stem (Type LSTbs) seems to be missing from published material from Caesarea Maritima, and only a single example has so far been documented from Jerusalem.

At Ramla, where the earliest occupation layers date from the early eighth century, only very few bottles are decorated with numerous windings of a thin trail around the mouth or neck (Type BTtd), a decoration scheme characteristic particularly of the sixth–seventh centuries. Most of the bottles from the city are decorated with a thick wavy trail (Type BTwt), occasionally combined with another decoration scheme. These bottles are accompanied by bottles with an infolded flattened rim and a squat or globular body (Type BTTifr).

Globular lamps with a cut-off rim (Type LGL) appear at Bet She’an (e.g., Winter 2011:350, Fig. 12.2:24–25), yet they are missing from published material from Ramla. The variant with delicate handles (Type LGLdh) is recorded at Caesarea Maritima, and was possibly a local product (Peleg and Reich 1992:155, Fig. 18:19; Israeli 2008:383– 384, 407, Cat. Nos. 137–139). The beaker-shaped lamp with an exterior fold below the rim (Type LBEef), and the subtype with a pushed-in bottom and outsplaying walls (Type LBEpib), as well as the wide shallow bowl with convex walls and perforations below the rim (Type LCW), are all absent from the discussed glass assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla. This observation coincides with the two latter subtypes having been documented mostly in and south of Jerusalem.

Large bottles with a cut-off rim, possibly for commercial use, appear in Umayyad-period contexts at Bet She’an and Ramla (e.g., Hadad 2005:27–28, Pl. 19:365; Pl. 20:367; Gorin-Rosen 2008b:47, Pl. 1:2226), yet they are so far missing from Jerusalem and its environs. 226 These vessels were discovered in Area B3, where the excavation was directed by F. Vitto. See n. 138, in Chapter 3 (Permit No. A-3772/2002).

189

Lucid Transformations On the other hand, the glass finds from Caesarea Maritima include lamps of a type that is absent from the Jerusalem corpus, as well as from other contemporaneous glass assemblages. These small carelessly-made bowls, some of which were recovered together with coins dating mostly from the sixth century, had been probably produced in a local workshop at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:383– 384, 410, Cat. Nos. 155–167). Furthermore, a rather unique vessel from Ramla—a cylindrical bowl with a single handle, its walls adorned with vertical trails—may have served as a lamp; it displays typical Umayyadnatured features, yet may have appeared as late as the end of the eighth century (Gorin-Rosen 2010:222–223, Pl. 10.3).

Stamped vessels (Type EXst), which have not hitherto been unearthed in the Jerusalem area, were discovered at Bet She’an, where they had probably been manufactured (Hadad 2002a; 2005:25–27, 41, Pls. 15:288–307, 16:308– 316, 39:826, 827), and at Ramla (Amitai-Preiss 2007). Inkwells (Type EXIW), also so far missing from the Jerusalem corpus, were unearthed at Ramla and attributed to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods (Gorin-Rosen 2010:253– 254, Pl. 10.11:6; Winter 2013b: Fig. 37:10). Horseshoe-shaped artifacts (Type ARTHS), so-far missing from the Jerusalem glass corpus and from documented assemblages from Caesarea Maritima and Bet She’an, were discovered in rather large numbers in various excavations at Ramla, where they had probably been produced. These horseshoe-shaped artifacts are attributed by their fabrics and provenances to the Umayyad period, particularly the eighth century (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2010:254, Pl. 10.11:9; 2012a: Fig. 5:1; Katsnelson 2013b: Fig. 12:1–3). Zoomorphic vessels (Type EXZM) have not hitherto been recorded in either the Jerusalem area or the examined assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla.

Exceptional Vessels and Artifacts Exceptional glass vessels and artifacts (as those discussed in Section 3.4) were evidently produced in small numbers, and are therefore expected to be scarce finds among the excavated material. Meager evidence of large goblets (Types EXGBlg, EXmbd) was recorded in the Jerusalem area, and footed bowls occur in an eighth-century context at Ramla (GorinRosen 2008b:45–46). Multi-side vessels (Type EXMSV), fragments of which were discovered in Jerusalem and its environs, have so far been recorded only at Bet She’an (of the three cities), in various Byzantine- and Umayyadperiod contexts (Hadad 1997; as well as in the area of the northeastern bridge and in the adjacent glass workshop, not yet published).

Windowpanes The windowpanes from the Jerusalem area were of both the circular (Type WPcr) and the quadrangular (Type WPqd) types, the latter more widespread. Some of the sites yielded panes of only one type, yet at other complexes panes of both the quadrangular and the circular types appeared contemporaneously.

A single fragment of a bottle with interior threads (Type EXBTit) has hitherto been documented from Jerusalem, and none were recorded in the examined assemblages from the three major cities. A single fragment of a multitube bottle (Type EXBTmt) has so far been documented from Jerusalem, and a bottle of this type, adorned with a wavy trail wound on the neck, was unearthed at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:47, Pl. 1:5).

Glass windowpanes were recorded in the three major cities, yet they are scarcer at Ramla. Both types of panes, the circular (Type WPcr) and the quadrangular (Type WPqd), were unearthed in contexts dated to c. 550–700 (Strata 5a and 4) in Insula W2S3 at Caesarea Maritima;227 some of the latter panes were still attached to fragments of their plaster frames, and a painted windowpane was discovered in a seventh-century context in that insula (see Section 4.2.2).

Several alembics (Type EXAL) were documented from Jerusalem, as well as from the three major cities. The alembics from Caesarea Maritima were recovered in Stratum VIII, dated to 640–750 (Pollak 2003:165, Fig. 1:17), the ones from Bet She’an—in contexts dated to the Umayyad and Abbasid–Fatimid periods (Hadad 2005:29, 47–48, Pls. 23:453–455; 46:979–981), and those from Ramla were unearthed in eighth-century contexts (e.g., Gorin-Rosen 2010:227, Pl. 10.2:18–21).

At Bet She’an, both circular and quadrangular windowpanes were unearthed in various Umayyad-period contexts, including the Umayyad-street shops (Hadad 2005:30, Pl. 24:468–478). Quadrangular windowpanes were discovered in various locations in the ancient city: in the sixth-century monastery on Tel Iztaba (FitzGerald 1939:10, not illustrated); in the corner of a glass workshop that operated in the late sixth–early seventh centuries (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178); and in various contexts in the area of the theater pottery workshop (Winter 2011:357–358, Fig. 12.5:1–3).

Spirally twisted rods (Type ARTR) from the Jerusalem area were assigned to the Umayyad period. Similar rods, associated with the Early Islamic period, were unearthed at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:30, 48, Pls. 24:465–467; 49:1007–1010; Winter 2015a: Fig. 5.5:54) and Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2011: Fig. 14:11; 2010:254, Pl. 10.11:7, 8; Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2005:104, Fig. 1:11).

227

190

See n. 70, in Chapter 3.

Synthesis 7.3.3 Distinguishing Similarities in Diverse Settings

The analysis of the glass corpora from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla associated with the mid-fifth– eighth centuries and their developments as demonstrated above, has established that these corpora essentially resemble the contemporaneous body of glass from Jerusalem and its environs. This observation indicates that despite their disparate histories and circumstances during the period in question, the occupants of these four cities employed a largely-similar repertoire of glass vessels and artifacts, with a small variety of specific unique products manufactured only in local workshops (see above).

The investigation in this section indicates that most of the trends, vessel types and decoration schemes identified in the glass corpus of Jerusalem and its environs associated with the mid-fifth–eighth centuries bear a general similarity with contemporaneous glass assemblages from Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla. More specifically, as detailed above, many of the types that are characteristic particularly of the mid-fifth–seventh centuries continued to appear in these four cities in assemblages dated to the seventh–eighth centuries, alongside new types that were introduced into the glass repertoire in the seventh or eighth century.

While all four were major cities and capitals of a province or a district, each city experienced different processes during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods: Caesarea Maritima was a major commercial center, and following its forceful conquest by the Arabs, underwent substantial urban modifications; Bet She’an was a multicultural city, which prospered all along this period, as well as during and following the Arab conquest; Ramla was founded in the early eighth century and flourished as an administrative center in the following centuries, inhabited predominately by Muslims; Jerusalem was a thriving Christian cosmopolitan metropolis and a prime pilgrimage destination during the fifth–seventh centuries, and in the first centuries following the Arab conquest it became a political and religious center for the emergent Islam, alongside its prosperous Christian community.

The major types and subtypes of bowls, wineglasses, jars, bottles and lamps associated with the mid-fifth– seventh centuries were recorded in Jerusalem, Caesarea Maritima and Bet She’an, and small quantities of some of these types were also discovered at Ramla (see below). Wineglasses were scarce in Umayyad-period assemblages in the cities other than Jerusalem. Umayyad-period contexts at Caesarea Maritima and Bet She’an yielded plain and decorated bottles characteristic of the sixth– seventh centuries (Types BT, BTtd, BTmbd), alongside bottles typical particularly of the seventh–eighth centuries (Types BTst, BTwt, DDrp). At Ramla, where the earliest occupation layers date from the early eighth century, the predominant types and decoration schemes were, as expected, those introduced in the seventh century (Types BB, BTwt, JGwt, BTTifr, BTTrn), as well as vessels that appeared in the eighth century and were abundant in the Abbasid period (e.g., Type BTTcyb, BTTsqb). However, a small number of vessels of types characteristic particularly of the sixth– seventh centuries were also discovered in the city (e.g., Types BLrr, BLor, BLtd, BTtd).

It is therefore significant that despite these variances in the characteristics and historical-cultural-religious settings of the four cities during the mid-fifth–eighth centuries, the assemblages of everyday glass vessels and artifacts utilized by their inhabitants are essentially analogous. These circumstances may also be generally inferred from the examination of glass products from other cities and settlements throughout the country, and are discussed above (see Affinities and Diversities in Section 7.1).

It is also noteworthy that the assemblages of the seventh– eighth centuries from Ramla, which was founded in the early eighth century, and those from the other three cities, which have a long history continuing into this period, are generally similar.

7.4 Settlement and Religious-Ethnic Contexts The deliberations presented herein are founded on the glass assemblages investigated in Chapter 5, as well as on those reviewed in Chapter 6, and on other corpora considered in the typo-chronology in Chapter 3. The following examination of glass assemblages from a variety of contemporaneous structures, complexes and settlements in Jerusalem and its environs considers the similarities and diversities between these corpora. It also explores possible correlations between the features of the glass vessels and artifacts, and the cultural-religious-ethnic identities of the people who had used them.228

Several types of plain bowls and bottles (see above) that appear in various contexts in Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla, are so far missing from the Jerusalem area. These ‘absences’ are not necessarily meaningful, as they may be attributed to the coincidental nature of find-exposure in archaeological excavations, and/or to misinterpretations of glass fragments as belonging to specific types. Additionally, these ‘absences’ may be attributed to the production of certain types of glass vessels in local workshops (e.g., small bowls/lamps from Caesarea Maritima, see Lamps, above). Nevertheless, the absence of stamped vessels (Type EXst), which are associated with the Muslim realm, may reflect a wider cultural phenomenon deliberated in the following discussion (Section 7.4).

The topic of culture, identity and ethnicity in the archaeological discipline is beyond the scope of this book. It is thoroughly discussed, e.g., in Jones 1997, and briefly reviewed in Faust 2006:11–19. 228

191

Lucid Transformations 7.4.1 Correlation of Glass Vessel-Types and Settlement Categories

Section 5.8).229 Additionally, gold-glass tiles, such as the one discovered at Umm Tuba (Fig. 5.7.1:10), are generally associated with churches and chapels from the late sixth– seventh centuries, supporting the identification of a monastery complex at Umm Tuba (see Section 5.7).

Glass finds have been discovered in various categories of settlements and complexes, including public, secular and religious structures, farmsteads, residential quarters and bathhouses, commercial and industrial zones, as well as tombs and burial caves.

Many of the founders of the monasteries established in Jerusalem and its environs were foreigners, as were many of the pilgrims who visited the city (see Chapter 2, and Di Segni and Tsafrir 2012). Nevertheless, the glass corpora from the ecclesiastical complexes examined in this book do not include pieces that may distinctly be identified as made overseas.230 This is not surprising, as the monks in and around Jerusalem were involved in local everyday life, and they engaged in agricultural endeavors with the local farmsteads and villagers (e.g., Seligman 2011:515– 524). Furthermore, expensive regal donations to churches and monasteries generally comprised gold and silver artifacts (see Section 4.1), while glass lamps, for example, would not be hauled from abroad, but purchased locally in Jerusalem.

Extensive research of glass finds from the mid-fifth– seventh centuries, unearthed in various settlements and contexts throughout Syria-Palestine, has established that, in most cases, the same types of glass vessels, windowpanes and other artifacts were used in both secular and religious buildings, whether Jewish or Christian, as well as in everyday life and as grave goods (e.g., Barag 1970b:128). This observation is well-demonstrated, for example, at Bet She’an, where the same vessel-types were recovered in churches, shops and burials (GorinRosen 2000d:66*; Agady et al. 2002:483–492; Hadad 2006), as well as in the glass workshop, unearthed near the city’s northeastern gate, in which such vessels had been manufactured (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60; Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178). The following discussion establishes a similar picture regarding the glass corpus from the Jerusalem area.

Numerous burials in and around Jerusalem have yielded intact and complete glass vessels associated with the fifth–seventh centuries (see Section 6.12). These vessels comprise mostly long-necked bottles (Types BTrr, BTir), the same types of which were also unearthed in other, non-funerary contexts. Furthermore, as observed by Barag (1970b:128), burials of this period contained mostly bottles, while wineglasses and lamps were scarce, and indeed, only very few of these two latter vessel-types have been hitherto published from funerary contexts in the Jerusalem area.

The sites from Jerusalem and its environs examined in this book include churches, monastic complexes, farmsteads and urban residential quarters, most of which incorporated an occupational phase dated to the sixth–seventh/eighth centuries. The data relating to the nature of each site, the relevant periods of settlement, and the dating of contemporaneous glass finds in each assemblage, are summarized in Table 7.4 (and see Chapters 5 and 6).

7.4.2 Glass Vessels and Artifacts as Markers of Religious-Ethnic Affiliation

Most of these corpora display a similar repertoire of standard local glass vessels, and the same types of bowls, bowls/beakers, wineglasses, bottles, jugs and lamps appear in both ecclesiastical and rural/agricultural settings.

Some vessel types that appear in glass assemblages at various sites in Syria-Palestine, including Caesarea Maritima, Bet She’an and Ramla (see Section 7.3), are so-far missing from the contemporaneous material from the Jerusalem area examined in this book. Vessels with an inscribed stamped disc fused onto the rim (Type EXst; Fig. 3.4), for example, were distinctly associated with the caliphal administrations of the ruling Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. Their absence from the Jerusalem glass corpus may owe to the randomness

Nevertheless, churches and chapels often yielded a single or several exquisite vessels, which probably served in liturgical services. Indeed, the most elaborate vessels and artifacts in the Jerusalem corpus were recovered in three ecclesiastical complexes. The monastery on Mount Scopus yielded a large bichrome goblet (Fig. 5.5.2:15), a vessel adorned with mold-blown festoons (Fig. 5.5.4:33), and a fragment of a stain-painted vessel (Fig. 5.5.4:37), all attributed to the seventh–eighth centuries. A hexagonalsectioned jug with recessed decoration (Fig. 5.8.3:42), probably used as a eulogia container, was unearthed at the Kathisma church complex, and its discovery supports the notion of the site’s function as a pilgrimage site (see

A fragment from Umm Tuba possibly belonged to another multi-side vessel with recessed decoration, yet its small dimensions do not allow a definite reconstruction of the vessel. The excavation (Permit No. A-4397/2005) was headed on behalf of the IAA by A. Eirikh-Rose, and the glass finds were studied by N. Katsnelson. 230 A similar observation has been made regarding the Armenian, Georgian and Albanian communities in the Holy Land (Tchekhanovets 2018:233–234). 229

192

Synthesis Table 7.4. Jerusalem-Area Sites, Their Nature and Relevant Periods of Settlement, and the Dating of Glass Finds from These Periods The sites are presented in the order they appear in Chapters 5 and 6. The ‘Relevant Periods of Settlement’, and the ‘Dating of Glass’ for the sites in Chapter 6, refer to the distinctions made by the excavators in their respective reports. Period abbreviations: Byz. – Byzantine; Umy. – Umayyad; EI – Early Islamic. Sites – Chapter 5

Nature of Site

Relevant Periods of Settlement

Dating of Glass from the Relevant Periods

Monastery north of Damascus Gate

Monastic complex

6th–8th cent.

6th–8th cent. Some 9th–10th cent.

Mamilla area

Street, shops, installations, pilgrim inn(?)

6th–8th cent.

5th/6th–8th cent. Some 9th–10th cent.

Teddy Kollek Park compound

Storerooms(?) and courtyard

Late 4th–late 6th cent.

4th–early 5th cent.; 5th/6th–7th cent.

City of David spur (Giv‘ati car park)

Residential quarter

Byz., EI

Late 6th–8th cent.; 9th–11th cent.

Monastery on Mount Scopus

Monastic complex

Byz., EI 5th–late 8th/early 9th cent.

4th–early 5th cent.; 6th–8th cent.

Eastern slope of the Kidron Valley

Monastery

Byz., EI 6th–8th cent.

6th–7th cent.; one 7th–8th cent.

Umm Tuba

Monastery

Byz., EI

6th–7th cent.; 7th–8th in other areas

Kathisma Church Complex

Octagonal church, mosque

Byz., EI 5th–8th cent; possibly scant presence in 9th cent.

6th–8th cent.; some 9th–10th cent.

Bet Ha-Kerem

Structure, installations

Byz.

4th–early 5th cent.; mid-5th–7th cent.

Bet Zayit

Farmstead or villa

Byz. 5th–6th cent.

4th/5th –6th cent.

Sites – Chapter 6

Nature of site

Relevant Periods of Settlement

Dating of Glass from the Relevant Periods

Khirbat Adasa

Farmstead

EI, up to the early/ mid-10th cent.

7th–8th cent.; mid-8th–10th cent.

Ras Abu Ma‘aruf

Agricultural and industrial installations

Byz., Umy.

Second half of 4th cent.; some 6th–7th cent.; possibly 7th–8th cent.

Deir Ghazali

Farmstead and Monastery

Byz., EI Second half of 5th cent./ first half of 6th cent. up to 9th/10th cent.

Byz., Umy. mostly late 6th–7th cent.

Structures north of Damascus Gate

Monastic complex (?)

4th–5th cent. (Phase B?); 6th–7th cent. (Phase C)

6th–7th cent.

‘House of the Menorot’

Residence (?)

Byz., 7th–early 8th cent.

Byz., Umy.

City of David spur: Areas G, H, K

Mostly dumps and fills

Byz.; Stratum 3 in Area K: mid-5th–7th cent.

Mostly 5th–7th cent.

City of David spur: Area M1

Buildings and drainage channels

Byz.: Stratum V EI: Strata IV–I

Byz., Umy. Abbasid

Khirbat Tabaliya

Monastery and monk cell

Byz.; mid-5th–6th cent. or later

Late 6th–7th cent.

Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam

Monastery

Byz., EI

4th–8th cent.

Compound of the Jerusalem International Convention Center

Monastic complex

Byz.

Late 6th–7th cent.

En Kerem

Churches

Byz., EI

Late 6th–7th cent.

193

Lucid Transformations 7.5 Trends of Continuity and Their Historical and Cultural Significance

of the finds uncovered in archaeological excavations, and may be considered insignificant. Nevertheless, it may be explained by the nature of the sites examined in this book, most of them Christian monasteries, as well as farmsteads that had close contacts with the ecclesiastical institutions, providing them with goods and workforce. Many additional rural monasteries, farmsteads and villages in the Jerusalem area continued to function well into the Early Islamic period (see Chapter 2, and Adawi 2010; Seligman 2011; Taxel 2013; Avni 2014:145–157).

7.5.1 Continuity in Material Culture through Political Transformations The corpus of glass from Syria-Palestine associated with the fifth–eighth centuries exhibits a general continuity, as established in the discussions above (Sections 7.1, 7.2, 7.3). Evidently, most of the glass vessel-types that were in use during the seventh century and the bulk of the eighth century, displayed a general continuity in fabric, color and form, throughout the Persian invasion in 614, amid the collapse of Byzantine dominance in the region in the 630s, prior and during the Arab penetration and the fall of Jerusalem in 638, during the rise and establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (661–750), and during its fall and replacement by the Abbasid caliphate.

The absence of artifacts that were explicitly related to the Muslim administration may therefore imply that these monasteries and farmsteads continued to be run and inhabited by Christians long after the Arab conquest and while the land was governed by Umayyad caliphs, and possibly later, under Abbasid rule. This observation relating to the glass corpus reinforces those of other researchers who have concluded that some of the monastic complexes in the vicinity of Jerusalem continued to function during the seventh–ninth centuries (Seligman 2011:495; Patrich 2011b; Avni 2014:151–153), acknowledging an uninterrupted Christian hegemony in and around Jerusalem under the Muslim government of the region.

The study of glass assemblages from contexts welldated to the Umayyad period also indicates that certain facets of material culture may continue regardless of historical factors. The glass corpus unearthed in the destruction layer of the 749 earthquake at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:21–33, Pls. 1–24; Arubas 2005; Tsafrir 2009b:79–82; Khamis 2001) comprised various types, occasionally in the same provenance, some of which were prevalent in the sixth century, and others which appeared in the seventh and eighth centuries (e.g. Locus 746, Hadad 2005: Pls. 4:78; 12:233; 13: 259; 14:279, 285; 19:355). Furthermore, a sealed Umayyadperiod collapse at Bosra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984), and the occupation phases of the qasr at Jabal Seis (Usais) (Schmidt 2012), both in Syria, also correspond to the Umayyad period and not later. The glass assemblages retrieved from these contexts (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, Figs. 553–574; Bloch 2011:77–91, Pls. 32–39, respectively) can, therefore, be securely dated from the mid-seventh to the mid-eighth centuries.

Furthermore, the substantial consumption of glass vessels and artifacts in the churches and monasteries may allude to the role of the ecclesiastical institutions in the production and supply of glass. Also worth considering is the status of glass and glassworkers in Syria-Palestine during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. Some vessels of non-dining purposes were probably introduced into the glass repertoire by the newlysettled Muslim population (Kröger 1995:186; Carboni 2001b:139–140, 144–145; Gorin-Rosen 2010:227). Among these vessels were alembics, of which several fragments have so far been documented in Jerusalem: at the foot of the southern segment of the western wall of the Temple Mount, in the southern part of the Old City, and on the northwestern part of the City of David spur (see Type EXAL; Section 3.4). Interestingly, these provenances coincide with the approximate section of the city that had been occupied by the Muslims in the early years of their rule, and that had accommodated their administrative center adjacent to the religious structures built on the alHaram al-Sharif (see Jerusalem’s Urban Zoning in Chapter 2). The hitherto small amount of these alembics currently provides insufficient evidence; nevertheless, this notion of religious-ethnic zoning in the city as early as the eighth century could be examined further regarding additional and future glass assemblages from Jerusalem.

Similar glass vessel-types were discovered in most of the sites from the Jerusalem area examined in this book (Chapters 5 and 6), indicating that these sites had continued to function during and following the Arab occupation, and throughout all or part of the duration of the Umayyad rule. Similar observations have been made regarding neighboring countries. In Egypt, the glass finds that were manufactured in Fustat (ancient Cairo) during the seventh– eighth centuries demonstrate in their fabrics, techniques and shapes a continuity of the Roman–Byzantine glassmaking tradition (Shindo 2000:236). At Pella in Jordan, an “unbroken continuity from the Byzantine period” was detected while reviewing various aspects of the material culture (i.e., pottery, coinage, glass, metalwork and stone) from the sixth to the early/mid-eighth centuries. The evidence also indicated an “early eighth-century rejuvenation, and a late eighth- to early ninth-century innovation” (Walmsley 2007:55–59, 69–70).

This aspect of the material culture concerns the possible correlations between the features of vessels and artifacts, and the cultural-religious-ethnic identities of the people who had used them. Subsequently, observations established from such correlations regarding glass finds, as well as other artifacts, may assist in determining which communities occupied certain settlements or quarters in a city. 194

Synthesis Furthermore, a similar development was observed regarding the clay vessels from the theater pottery workshop at Bet She’an and other contemporaneous ceramic assemblages that had occurred in the province of Jund al-Urdunn. In her study of these corpora, Bar-Nathan concluded that a ‘genuine’ Umayyad pottery repertoire could not be defined before the end of the seventh century, and that this repertoire, which had developed in the eighth century, included “both a continuation of certain traditional late-Byzantine-period types, as well as newly-introduced Umayyad types.” (Bar-Nathan 2011:213–214).

shifts effect various aspects of the material culture. Coin minting, for example, is of an official nature, and the execution of grand building feats requires the patronage of the ruling authorities. Such degrees of governmental intervention and sponsorship were probably less relevant to the making of most household goods, such as everyday glass and pottery wares. 7.5.2 Continuity of Christian Life in Jerusalem and Its Environs Jerusalem and its environs also demonstrated a continuity of Christian life. Many of the sites examined in this book have been identified as churches, monasteries and accompanying structures, and those were obviously associated with the ecclesiastical establishment. Other sites comprised residential quarters and farmsteads, apparently inhabited by a Christian population that was closely connected to the monasteries (see Section 7.4). Most of the glass corpora from these sites cover the sixth– seventh centuries, and include specimens that appeared in the seventh century, and some that continued into the eighth century (see Table 7.4).

On a wider outlook, there seems to be no evidence of pre-Islamic pottery types from Arabia in the Near East, and no evidence of the Arab conquest in the pottery of the region (Morony 1995:26–27; Whitcomb 1995b:56– 57). Generally, no break was detected in the ceramic corpora of many Near Eastern cities during the seventh century, and pre-Islamic forms continued alongside the gradual introduction of new forms and the application of new techniques to existing forms. These suggest stability in the material culture in spite of possible changes in the population or its religious identity (Morony 1995). Analyses of pottery assemblages from the Near East have also identified a significant transformation in ceramic tastes toward the late eighth century or the early ninth century, and the adoption of new pottery types, inspired by external developments, as well as a transition from a local or regional urban identity to a more cosmopolitan identity, resulting in a shared material culture among the eastern Islamic cities in the ninth–tenth centuries (Morony 1995; Whitcomb 1995b:55; Walmsley 2007:53–54).

The continuity displayed by the glass assemblages from these sites, is particularly significant regarding the large monastic compounds north of Damascus Gate and on Mount Scopus, as well as the Kathisma church complex. This continuity attests to the exceptional circumstances of greater Jerusalem under the newly established Islamic rule, whereby most of the city’s ecclesiastical institutions continued to function, pilgrimage persisted, and the Christian communities held a major role in the city. This conclusion coincides with the views of various historians and archaeologists, whose investigations also demonstrate the continuity and vitality of Christian life in Jerusalem during the Early Islamic period (see Section 7.4 and Chapter 2; Gil 1992:447–454; Kaegi 1992:186, n. 15; Linder 1996; Griffith 2008:129–140; Avni 2014:113, 125–131; Tchekhanovets 2018:265– 267).

It is therefore noteworthy that the continuity throughout historical-political events, as observed regarding the glass corpus from Jerusalem and its environs, may also be detected in other regions and in other facets of the material culture. In this respect, one should also consider the pace and intensity in which historical events and political power-

195

8 Conclusions The debate over the continuity and decline of settlements during the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule in Syria-Palestine has been addressed by scholars of various disciplines. Yet, no comprehensive research on this topic has so far been conducted in the field of glass from Israel. This book, therefore, focuses on the glass corpus of the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods from Jerusalem and its vicinity, illuminating the nature of the Byzantine– Islamic transition in the region, and contributing to the understanding of some of its historical and cultural processes.

The analysis of glass finds from well-documented excavated sites in Jerusalem and its vicinity carried out in this book, lead to the identification of trends of continuity and change in the glass fabrics, technologies, typologies and styles throughout the period discussed. New techniques, fabrics, colors and types of glass vessels and artifacts were apparently introduced into Syria-Palestine and the surrounding region only in the late eighth century or the early ninth century. Evidently, most of the glass vessel-types that were in use during the seventh century had already been widespread in the sixth century. They display continuity in fabric, form and style, and no break is evident throughout the major events of the period: the Persian invasion in 614, the collapse of Byzantine dominance in the region in the 630s, the Arab penetration and the fall of Jerusalem in 638, and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty in 661. Furthermore, although new forms and decoration techniques were gradually introduced in the seventh century, it seems that they too were not directly associated with the historical events and dynastic divisions of the period.

The glass vessels and artifacts used in the Jerusalem area from the mid-fifth through the eighth centuries were easily obtainable, and they comprised a substantial component of everyday life, as well as of Christian church liturgy. Most of these glass wares were probably made locally, and workshops in the city and its surroundings supplied nearly all the needs of the inhabitants. The sites from Jerusalem and its environs examined in this book include churches, monastic complexes, farmsteads and urban residential quarters, most of which incorporated an occupational phase dated from the sixth to the seventh/eighth centuries. The analysis of the glass corpora from these sites establishes the use of the same types of glass vessels, windowpanes and other artifacts in most of these sites, in both ecclesiastical and rural/ agricultural settings. Most of the glass vessels were used as tableware, and some, mostly bottles and jugs, were also abundant as grave goods. Moreover, several ecclesiastical complexes yielded a single or several vessels of an exquisite nature, which probably served in Christian liturgical rituals.

These continuities in the glass industry throughout various episodes of upheaval, imply that the historical-political events, which had been used by scholars to delimit the various periods (e.g., Byzantine, Umayyad), apparently had no immediate or direct effect on glass-making trends. Interestingly, similar circumstances are evident regarding glass products from the fourth–early fifth centuries, under Byzantine rule, which predominately comprised types that maintained and reflected earlier, Roman-period traditions. Consequently, this book advocates the use of dates expressed in centuries (and their fractions), and asserts that historical-political terms and periodization prove inadequate and insignificant for the establishment of a typo-chronology of glass products, as this medium occasionally followed a separate development.

The glass products from the Jerusalem area are essentially analogous to those from other parts of the country. They display a general uniformity within a limited variety of vessel types that appear in a diversity of styles and traits. The uniformity of everyday glass products from Syria-Palestine during the mid-fifth–seventh centuries, and in Jerusalem as late as the eighth century, may be associated with the stability and hegemony of the Christian population, whereas the diversity of styles and variants of these glass vessels, and the small selection of specific unique products, may be attributed to the tastes and whims of individual itinerant artisans or particular local workshops.

The analysis of glass finds from Jerusalem and its environs also demonstrates the continuity and vitality of Christian life in and around the city. The glass corpora evidently indicate that most of the churches and monasteries that had been founded in the Byzantine period, and most of the farmsteads that had close contacts with these ecclesiastical institutions, continued to function during the seventh and eighth centuries as well, some even later. Moreover, some of the monastic complexes that incorporated inns and other facilities for pilgrims on their

197

Lucid Transformations way to the holy city (e.g., the monastic complexes north of Damascus Gate and the one on Mount Scopus) were expanded in the seventh and eighth centuries, indicating that Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem continued well into the Early Islamic period.

during and following the Arab conquest, as well as under the reign of the Umayyad dynasty, when the city’s significance and sacredness to Muslims intensified, and large-scale building feats were constructed on the alHaram al-Sharif.

Furthermore, the absence from the Jerusalem-area glass corpus of certain innovative types, which were distinctly associated with the Muslim administrations of the ruling Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, may probably be owed to the nature of the sites examined in this book, most of them Christian monasteries and their affiliates. This absence may indicate that these monasteries and farmsteads continued to be run and inhabited by Christians long after the Arab conquest of the area, and during the government of the Umayyad caliphs.

The study of glass finds from well-documented contexts in Jerusalem and its surroundings, therefore, sheds light on the history of the communities that had inhabited the city and its hinterland during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, in one of the most turbulent times in the chronicles of the Middle East. On a broader outlook, this research pertaining to glass assemblages from the Jerusalem area demonstrates the potential of excavation findings to serve as significant factors in the inquiry into the major themes of settlement processes, change and continuity, regional diversity, and social and religious-ethnic identities.

These observations attest to the competence of the Christian community in and around Jerusalem before,

198

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