Love and Dread in Cambodia: Weddings, Births and Ritual Harm under the Khmer Rouge 9789971694722, 9789971695781

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Love and Dread in Cambodia

Love and Dread in Cambodia Weddings, Births, and Ritual Harm under the Khmer Rouge

Peg LeVine

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Ú  .53 0RESS .ATIONAL 5NIVERSITY OF 3INGAPORE !3    !RTS ,INK 3INGAPORE  &AX    % MAIL NUSBOOKS NUSEDUSG 7EBSITE HTTPWWWNUSEDUSGNUSPRESS )3".      0APER !LL RIGHTS RESERVED4HIS BOOK OR PARTS THEREOF MAY NOT BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL INCLUDING PHOTOCOPYING RECORDING OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM NOW KNOWN OR TO BE INVENTED WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION FROM THE 0UBLISHER .ATIONAL ,IBRARY "OARD 3INGAPORE #ATALOGUING IN 0UBLICATION $ATA ,E6INE 0EG  ,OVE AND DREAD IN #AMBODIA WEDDINGS BIRTHS AND RITUAL HARM UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE  0EG ,E6INE n 3INGAPORE .53 0RESS C P CM )NCLUDES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES AND INDEX )3".        PBK  #AMBODIA n (ISTORY n    6ICTIMS OF STATE SPONSORED TERRORISM n -ENTAL HEALTH n #AMBODIA  0OSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER n #AMBODIA  -ARRIAGE CUSTOMS AND RITES n #AMBODIA n 0SYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS  "IRTH CUSTOMS n #AMBODIA n 0SYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS  2ITES AND CEREMONIES n #AMBODIA n 0SYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS )4ITLE '.  n DC

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&RONT COVER !N UMBILICAL CORD SPIRIT ALTAR FROM A SPIRIT MEDIUMS HOUSE IN 0URSAT 0HOTO BY 0EG ,E6INE *ANUARY   "ACK COVER 0ORTRAIT OF AUTHOR BY4HOMAS ,E6INE 4YPESET BY )NTERNATIONAL4YPESETTERS 0TE ,TD 0RINTED BY 6ETAK 3ERVICES

&OR #HRISTINE 3ARAH7ALTER ,EVINE

Contents

,IST OF )LLUSTRATIONS 4ERMS OF 2EFERENCES !CKNOWLEDGEMENTS 0REFACE

X XI XIII XVI

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES (OW4HIS 3TUDY "EGAN 4HE )NITIAL )NQUIRY "EYOND4ESTIMONY 2E PLACING (ISTORY &ILM4RACKING $ESPAIR !LONGSIDE $ESIRE 4RUTH 3ITS 5NDER THE ,IE

     

#HAPTER  4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT 0LACE -EMORY AND 2ECORDED (ISTORY !DVANCEMENT OF THE +HMER 2OUGE -ARRIAGES #ULTURAL ,EANINGS ON 0ASSION ,OVE AND 5NION 3ENSUAL $ECAY AND ,OSS OF #OURTSHIP !NGKARS ,OOMING 0RESENCE IN THE 3PIRIT 7ORLD

     

#HAPTER  6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE 4HE 5NPROTECTED .ATION ,AND 7ATER (UMAN AND 3PIRIT 2HYTHMS 2ICE

   

VII

VIII







#ONTENTS

#LOTHING AND THE +RAMA #OSMOS "UDDHISM AND THE h,ORD OF THE &IELDSv -ONKS AND 0AGODAS +HMER4RADITIONS THAT 7ENT 5NDERGROUND $URING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA #OMPLEX 3ENSATION IN #AMBODIA 4HE "ITTER SOUR (ISTORY 2ITUAL 'AMBLING 3PIRITS AND THE "UDDHA

      

#HAPTER  #ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA 4RADITION AS &OREGROUND 0RIMARY 2ITUAL /BJECTS AND #ODIlCATION $OCUMENTATION OF -ARRIAGE 2ITUALS 0RIOR TO  -USIC -ONKS AND THE 2OLE OF 3PIRITS 4RADITIONAL 0REGNANCY $ELIVERY AND "IRTH 2ITES !CCESS TO 2ITUAL AND 3AFE4OUCH



#HAPTER  "EYOND4ESTIMONY7EDDINGS AND "IRTHS 5NRAVELED 4HE 0OLITICS OF 2ESEARCH &INDINGS 3TATUSES "EFORE $URING AND !FTER THE +HMER 2OUGE 3EPARATION "ETWEEN 0ARTNERS 3EXUALITY IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA -ARRIAGE 0ATTERNS AND 3EXUAL 2ELATIONS 0RESCRIPTIVE OR .OT #OMMUNAL (ONEYMOON (UTS 'ROUP 7EDDING 0RACTICES !FTER THE  3UPPOSED #OLLAPSE OF THE +HMER 2OUGE 2EASONS #OUPLES 3TAY4OGETHER 4OGETHERNESS4HEMES 0RESENTED IN 2ANK /RDER OF &REQUENCY $ECEPTION AND $IS PLACEMENT 4HE %VOLUTION OF h.EO #OLLECTIVESv 7EDDINGS AND "IRTHS 2ELIEF AND $ASHED $REAMS 0OLITICS OF !NALYSIS

             

#HAPTER  $ISPLACED WITHOUT )MAGINATION 4URNING 0OINTS 6ITAL4OUCH ˆ $READFUL4OUCH UNDER $+ 3PIRIT (UMILIATION

   

     

#ONTENTS

IX

4HE -ANIFESTATION OF #HAOS $ISPLACEMENT AND 2EFERENTIAL 0OWER

 

#HAPTER  &IELD $IARIES %XPOS£ ON #RUELTY !TROCITY 3ATURATION +EEPING (ISTORIES 3EPARATE 2AW4EXT

   

#HAPTER  !NGKARS 0OTENCY &ORCES THAT 0ROTECT 4RANSFORM AND (ARM 4RANSFORMING 3PIRIT 0HENOMENA IN #AMBODIA 0OLITICS OF -YTH AND !NGKAR /BLIGATION EXCHANGE IN THE 3PIRIT 7ORLD !NGKARS 0OTENCY $+S #ULT URE OF 3ACRIlCE $+ &ALLOUT 6ULNERABLE -INDS AND "ODIES

       

#HAPTER  !GENTLESS6ICTIMISER ) $ID .OT )NTERVIEW THE $EAD "ODER $IS PLACED $IS SPIRITED AND $OUBLE $ISTRESS !GENTLESS 6ICTIMISER

   

#HAPTER  .OT 3O 3IMPLE .EITHER "ENIGN NOR (IDEOUS 4ABOO AND #ULTURAL %LASTICITY 4HE 'ENERATIONS THAT "RACKET THE +HMER 2OUGE &AST4RACKED AND 3TUNTED IN THE !NGKARIAN 3TATE 2ESPONSIVE 2ECONCILIATION IN THE !FTERMATH OF 2ITUALCIDE

    

!PPENDICES



"IBLIOGRAPHY



)NDEX



List of Illustrations

-AP OF GROUP WEDDING REGIONS IN #AMBODIA ! FAIRY HOUSE WITH A LEAF ROOFTOP IN A MOUNTAINOUS REGION IN .ORTHWESTERN ,AOS 5NDERBELLY 2AKU CLAY SCULPTURE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS "RONZE POPIL 7EDDING AT "ACHAN  #UTTING OF HAIR CEREMONY AT WEDDING "ACHAN 4YING OF THE STRINGS CEREMONY AT WEDDING "ACHAN -USICIANS AT WEDDING IN "ACHAN  0HOTO OF A POST BIRTH h2OASTINGv AREA /MS WEDDING SITE -RS /MS BIRTH SITE 2EPLICA OF THE HUT WHERE COUPLES STAYED ON THEIR WEDDING NIGHT 4ABOO  "RONZE 5NDERCUT ) 5NlRED CLAY 5NDERCUT )) "RONZE 4ABOO  7AX 0ROTECTIVE SYMBOL 0ROTECTION SYMBOL h3PIRIT 'UARDv 3PIRIT MEDIUM IN4RANCE #OMPOSITE SKETCH OF !NGKAR X

                    

Terms of References

4HESETERMSEMERGEDFROMCONVERSATIONSDURINGTHECOURSEOFTHISSTUDY AND ARE REFERENCED IN THE CHAPTERS #0+ $# #AM $+ .5&+ 02+ !CHARR !CHAA !NGKAR

!NGKAR ,OEU !NSOM "AUK SBAT #HALAT #HAS4UM #HHAB +RAM $ON #HI 'ATILOK +HLACH +HMER

#OMMUNIST 0ARTY OF +AMPUCHEA $OCUMENTATION #ENTER OF #AMBODIA $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA .ATIONAL5NITED&RONTOF+AMPUCHEAORGANISEDBY #0+ n 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF +AMPUCHEA n ,EADER OF RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES WHO CAN ACT AS SPIRIT FACILITATOR &ORMALLYCONSTRUCTEDAS#0+/RGANISATIONIDIOSYN CRATIC MEANINGS ARE PREVALENT ACROSS RESPONDENTS IN THIS STUDY #0+ (IGH !DMINISTRATIVE 0OWERS 7EDDING CAKES $ECEPTION WHICH GENERATES FEAR AND SUSPICION $+ MOBILE WORK FORCE YOUTH MOBILE WORKERS %LDERS #AMBODIAN CODE OF ETIQUETTE %LDER WOMEN WHO RETREAT INTO THE MONASTERY "UDDHIST STORIES THAT HOLD MORAL TEACHINGS &RIGHTENED OR SCARED TREMBLING FEAR ,ANGUAGE IN #AMBODIA )NDIGENOUS #AMBODIAN XI

XII

+HMER )NSTRUMENTS

+HMER +ROM +HMER ,OEU +HUM +RAMA OR KRAMAR

+ROM +RUU +MAE +RUU -UN !KUM ,ON .OL .EAK MOULTANH .EAK PENH SITH .EAK PHNOE .EAK THMEI .EAKTA 0CHUM "EN 0HUM 0OPIL 0ROLUNG

3ROK 4RáNAN 4ROKUON 7AT

4ERMS OF 2EFERENCES

#HEUNG CYMBAL  #HAPEI VENG STRING  +SAE DEAV STRING  4RO +HMER STRING  0EI mUTE  3ROK AREAK DRUM %THNIC #AMBODIANS FROM 3OUTHERN 6IETNAM OR ,OWER +HMERS %THNIC HILLS PEOPLE OF #AMBODIA OR 5PPER +HMER 3UBDISTRICT ! MULTIPURPOSE TRADITIONAL SCARF USED TO SCREEN THE SUNANDDUST ORTOFOLDINTOBOWLSHAPEFORCARRYING GOODS ON THE HEAD MEANING CHANGED IN THIS STUDY 7ORK UNIT 4RADITIONAL HEALER 3PIRIT MEDIUM ,EADER OF REGIME FROM n "ASE PEOPLE THOSE IN VILLAGES 0EOPLE WITH FULL RIGHTS $EPORTEES OR DEPOSITEES .EWPEOPLETHOSEDRIVENOUTOFTHECITIESBY+HMER 2OUGE $ECEASED ANCESTOR SPIRIT THAT OVERSEES LAND AND PROTECTS BALANCE 3EASONOFTHEDEADUSUALLYLATE3EPTEMBERn/CTOBER 6ILLAGE OR SMALL SETTLEMENT -ETAL OBJECT SHAPED INTO LEAF OR "UDDHA IMAGE TO HOLD CANDLE FOR CEREMONIES +HMEREQUIVALENTTOSOUL%ACHPERSONHASPROLUNG SOULRELATESTOTHESTATEOFHEALTH)FATRAUMATICEVENT OCCURS PROLUNGCANGETLOSTORJUMPOUTOFONESBODY !CEREMONYTHATCALLSBACKONESSOULS(AU0ROLUNG USESVARIOUSRITUALOBJECTSANDFAMILIARNATURALOBJECTS SUCH AS LEAVES FRUIT RICE AND STONE ˆ OFTEN WITH MEDIUM ASSISTANCE $ISTRICT &AIRY -ORNINGGLORYmOWEREATENIN#AMBODIA IMPORTANT FOR SURVIVAL DURING $+ "UDDHIST TEMPLE AREA OR MONASTERY

Acknowledgements

#AMBODIAN WOMEN AND MEN TOLD ME ABOUT THEIR LIVES NOT AS TESTIMONY BUT AS DIMENSIONAL HISTORY -ANY INVITED ME INTO THEIR HOMES FAMILIES AND VILLAGES WHILE SPEAKING OF THEIR WEDDINGS PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS UNDER $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA4HIS BOOK IS OFFERED TO THEM AND THEIR ANCESTORS )N PARTICULAR $R ,INA (UOT A #AMBODIAN PSYCHIATRIST HAS BEEN AN INVALUABLE COLLEAGUE AND FRIEND TRANSLATOR CULTURAL INTERPRETER AND CLINICIAN (IS FAMILY AND ELDEST SON 6UTH WELCOMED ME INTO THEIR HOME WHILE -R +EO ,EAN -RS -ENG +IM ,UN AND THEIR DEPARTED MOTHER MET WITH ME SEVERAL TIMES AND SPOKE OF THE UNSPEAKABLE WITH POWERFUL METAPHORS 0ROFESSOR /M AND HIS WIFE 4EAL WERE CENTRAL TO THE UNFOLDING BIOGRAPHIES IN THIS BOOK -RS (EMA .HONG AND HER FAMILY GAVE ME REFUGE AND SUPPORT IN THE MID S -S ,ANY 4RINH PROVIDED TRANSLATION OUR OVERLAND TRAVEL FROM 0HNOM 0ENH INTO ,AO 0$2 WITH HER HUSBAND AND SINCE DECEASED FATHER WAS A JOURNEY THAT EMBOSSED THE WATER AND SPIRITSCAPE OF #AMBODIA INTO THIS WORK $R "HOOMI +UMAR HAS BEEN AN ON GOING SOURCE OF WISDOM AND LEVITY ˆWITHHOMECOOKED)NDIANMEALSASBACKDROPTOMANYOFOURCLINICALAND PHILOSOPHICAL DISCUSSIONS #HRISTIANE,ALONDEAND9EM+HEMCHETHNA#HETNA GAVEMEALOFTROOM IN 0HNOM 0ENH AND A HOME BASE 4HE SHARED MORNING COFFEE OVER &RENCH BROADCASTED NEWS WAS A SOOTHING RITUAL #HETNA BROUGHT ME TO HER FAMILY VILLAGEIN!NG3NOUL $ISTRICT IN THE #OMMUNE "ACHAN WHERE ) PARTICIPATED IN A LOCAL TRADITIONAL WEDDING XIII

XIV

!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

-ICHELLE6ACHON JOURNALISTWITHTHE#AMBODIA$AILY ISAVITALCOLLEAGUE AND WOMAN FRIEND WHO CUSHIONS THE ISOLATION OF SEEING TOO MUCH 4HE#ENTERFOR+HMER3TUDIES#+3 PROVIDEDAROOMATTHE#+3HOUSE IN 3IEM 2EAP AND 0HNOM 0ENH OVER THE YEARS $R 0HILIPPE 0EYCAM WAS FORTHCOMINGINRESOURCES REFERRALS ANDLIVELYCONVERSATIONSˆNOTTOMENTION HIS REVIEWS OF AUTHORS AND COMPOSERS ALONG THE WAY ) AM APPRECIATIVE OF &ABIENNE ,UCOS ASTUTE CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE $R "ERTRAND 0ORTE $IRECTOR OF #ONSERVATION AT THE .ATIONAL -USEUM ARRANGED FOR ME TO PHOTOGRAPH ARCHIVAL RITUAL OBJECTS IN THE MUSEUM AND VIEWARCHAEOLOGICALRESTORATIONSINTHECHAMBERS"ERTRANDGAVEMEAROOFTOP APARTMENTWHENMYFUNDSRANSHORTˆSTAGEDWITHTHERESIDENThPALACEvBATS 3UCHKINDNESSESALONGTHEWAYHAVEBEENVITALTOTHECOMPLETIONOFTHISWORK !ND THEN THERE WAS 'ARRIE (UTCHINSON AND THE !PSARAS /THERS WITH WHOM THIS WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE -RS +IM +RUY (OURNESPOKECANDIDLYABOUTTRADITIONALHEALERSANDBIRTHATTENDANTSINREMOTE #AMBODIA .AVUTH A NURSE FROM #HUM .EAS HOSPITAL WAS GENEROUS IN HER INTERPRETATIONS $R 3OTHEARA #HHIM $IRECTOR OF 4RANSCULTURAL 0SYCHOSOCIAL /RGANISATION 40/ DISCUSSED +HMER TRAUMA RELATED TERMS THE STUDENTS IN THE $EPARTMENT OF 0SYCHOLOGY AT THE 2OYAL 5NIVERSITY OF 0HNOM 0ENH WERE RESPONSIVE AND PROFESSIONAL IN ASSISTING INTERVIEWS 3OT 4OS #HEA 2AKSMEY ,Y "OUNTHEA 2EAM 3AROUTH -ORN 3OPHY 4HUON .AVY 0AK 3OKROM 3AN 3UN(ENG 3OM3OKSETHA 0EOU#HAMNAN!LSO THE$OCUMENTATION#ENTER IN #AMBODIA $# #AM GAVE INVALUABLE DATA ALONG THE WAY WITH GENEROUS TIME FROM THE $IRECTOR 9OUK #HHANG AND HIS COLLEAGUE 3IM 3ORYA !DVOCATES ALONG THE WAY INCLUDED %LLEN -INOTTI AND HER COMMITMENT AS DIRECTOR OF 33# 3OCIAL 3ERVICES #AMBODIA $R 3OIZICK #ROCHET AND $R 3YLVAIN6OGELAVALUABLEANDUNIQUEENCOUNTER -YTHANKSTO.EW:EALAND CONSULTANTS$R*AMES5RRYATTHE5NIVERSITYOF6ICTORIA .EW:EALAND WHO DIRECTED ME TO $AVID "ODERS GROUNDBREAKING WORK $R +EVIN $EW AND .IBOROM 9OUNG WHO IS A VITAL #AMBODIAN SOCIALWORKER IN 7ELLINGTON )N THE lNAL STAGES .ANCY 3LATER 0ROFESSOR OF !RT4HERAPY AT THE !DLER )NSTITUTE IN #HICAGO AND A 6ASHON )SLANDER WAS A RESPONSIVE READER AND REFRESHING PRESENCE !DRIAN 3TABB BRONZE CASTER AND SCULPTOR FROM4ASMANIA TAUGHTMEHOWTOTAKECERAMICANDWAXSCULPTURESTOBRONZE WHILEBRILLIANTLY CASTING SOME OF MY PIECES *OEL ,E6INE % -ARKETING GENEROUSLY ASSISTED IMAGE PRODUCTION WHILE PHOTOGRAPHER AND BROTHER 4HOMAS 4OM ,E6INE REINVENTED LIGHT !T-ONASH5NIVERSITY 0ROFESSOR-ARIKA6ICZIANY$IRECTOROFTHE-ONASH !SIA )NSTITUTE GENERATED PATHWAYS TO SUPPORT MY WORK WHILE 0ROFESSOR

!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

XV

'RAEME 3MITH 0SYCHOLOGICAL -EDICINE INSISTED JUSTLY THAT hSCHOLARSHIP REQUIRES REmECTIONv !ND $R $I #LIFTON WAS MY TOUCHSTONE AND TRAUMA CONSULTANT ALONG THE WAY ) AM GRATEFUL TO !LAIN 'UILLEMOT AND HIS UNDERSTATED PRESENCE BEHIND THE CAMERA AND FOR OUR CAF£ MEETINGS AT4HE 3HOP IN 0HNOM 0ENH 7HILE IN *APAN ,LOYD 7ALKERS WORLD OF *AZZ WAS A VITAL FUGUE )N $AYLESFORD 6ICTORIA MY BASECAMP THROUGHOUT MUCH OF THIS STUDY 0ETER/-ARALINGEREDOVERTHEPOWEREMBEDDEDINONEWORD!NDREW(ARRIS GAVE POWER TO SPIRIT PHENOMENA THROUGH HIS RESEARCH WITH !FRICAN REFUGEE MEN IN 4ASMANIA !USTRALIA -UCH TO HEART 0ROFESSOR $AVID 3TOCKLEY HAS SEEN HEARD AND RESPONDED ˆ OFTEN $R$IDIER"ERTRANDSPUREKINDNESSIN,AOS #AMBODIA AND&RANCEGAVE RICH SALON LIKE DISCUSSIONS OVER THE YEARS $IDIERS COMPREHENSION OF hOTHERv IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA SERVES TO DE MYSTIFY SPIRIT RELATIONSHIPS WHILE CONlRMING THE MATTER OF FACTNESS OF THE SPIRIT lNDINGS IN MY STUDY 7E ARE PASSIONATE CONlDANTES AND DEBRIEFERS FOR EACH OTHER PARTICULARLY WHEN SEEING NEGLECT AND VIOLATION ˆ IN THE NAME OF MENTAL HEALTH DEVELOPMENT 4HE BIGHEARTED PLAYFUL NATURE OF -AKI (EATHER AND ,OU HAVE BEEN HOME REGARDLESS OF PLACE ˆ WHILE -IZU MY GRUFFY )RISH WATER SPANIEL SAT UNDERFOOT AT DAWN 4HEN THERE IS 0ROFESSOR $AVID #HANDLER ˆ COMMITTED TO DOCUMENTING HISTORY WITHOUT SENSATIONALISING OR lTTING REALITY INTO PRE EXISTING IDEAS .OT ONLY HAS $AVID PUSHED ME TO THINK OUTSIDE ACADEMIC ASSUMPTIONS BUT HIS STYLE OF ENGAGEMENT SUPPORT AND HUMOUR HAS EMPOWERED MY OBSERVATIONS AND PROFESSIONAL AND CREATIVE VOICE )NDEBTED AND HONOURED ARE THE WORDS THAT COME TO MIND 4HE LATE !KIHISA +ONDO -$ MY SENSEI -ORITA THERAPIST :EN PRACTITIONER AND (ORNIAN ANALYST ˆ SITS JUST UNDER THE SURFACE !ND MY GRANDMAS CAPACITY TO hTELL THINGS AS THEY AREv WAS FORMATIVE TO MY OWN CAPACITY TO ATTEMPT TO DO JUST THAT ˆ HERE

Preface

4HEREISNOTHINGCERTAINABOUTSOURCESOFHARMANDPROTECTIONIN#AMBODIA ˆ A LANDSCAPE WITH &LYING !PSARAS THE 'ARUDA THE .AGA THE "UDDHA MAGIC SPELLS AND SPIRITS OF THE RICElELDS !LTHOUGH #AMBODIANS TODAY HAVE OPEN ACCESS TO FORTUNE TELLERS SPIRIT MEDIUMS MONKS AMULETS AND SPIRIT PLACES THIS WAS NOT SO FOR THOSE LIVING UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE ˆ NOR FOR REFUGEES GAINING PASSAGE TO THE 53! !USTRALIA &RANCE AND ELSEWHERE 4HIS BOOK IS ABOUT THOSE RELATIONSHIPS AND HOW TOO LITTLE OR TOO MUCH CONTACT WITH CERTAIN SPIRIT SOURCES CAN IMPACT PEOPLES WELLBEING 5NDOUBTEDLY FOUNDATIONAL RITUALS WERE DELETED ADDED MAINTAINED AND TRANSFORMED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE BUT DISREGARD FOR RITUALS DID NOT END IN  AS ) WILL SHOW IN THIS BOOK -Y OBSERVATIONS OF THE hETHNOLOGY OF TRAUMAv MOVED ME TOWARD THIS STUDY!CROSSNEARLYTHREEDECADES )VENOTEDTHAT%URO !MERICANPERSPECTIVES ON TRAUMA HAVE YET TO ACCOUNT FORMALLY FOR DISTRESS ASSOCIATED WITH SPIRIT 

!TTHELIBRARYINTHE&RENCH#ULTURAL#ENTREIN0HNOM0ENH )FOUNDTHATALMOSTALLREFERENCES ANDETHNOGRAPHICSTUDIESONTHE+HMERSPIRITWORLDWEREWRITTENIN&RENCHSEE!NG#HOULEAN     &OREST  ,ECLÞRE  AND 0OR£E -ASPERO  IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY )NITIALLY ITWASREASONABLETOASSUMETHATABODYOFhFOREIGNvLITERATUREWOULDGO UNSEENBYMENTALHEALTHRESEARCHERSANDPRACTITIONERSIN%NGLISH SPEAKINGCOUNTRIESˆAMISSING DIMENSION IN TRAUMA RESEARCH (OWEVER MY INVESTIGATION SHOWS THAT INSTEAD OF ACCESSING THIS &RENCHLITERATURE MENTALHEALTHCLINICIANSIN&RANCEUSETRANSLATEDh)NDOCHINESEvVERSIONSOFTHE (OPKINS SYMPTOM CHECKLISTS -OLLICA 7YSHAK DE -ARNETTE +HUON AND ,AVELLE  WITH REFUGEESIN&RANCE3PIRITPHENOMENAHAVEYETTOBEINCLUDEDINVALIDATIONSTUDIES-OSTRECENTLY THIS SPIRIT OMISSION IS FOUND IN  IN 0ROBABLE 0OSTTRAUMATIC 3TRESS $ISORDER AND $ISABILITY IN #AMBODIA 3ONIS 'IBSON DE *ONG &IELD (EAN AND +OMPROE *!-! 6OL  .O  

XVI

0REFACE

XVII

PHENOMENON AS A NORMATIVE FEATURE &OR EXAMPLE WHILE PSYCHIATRIC CRITERIA WERE BEING ESTABLISHED FOR 0OSTTRAUMATIC 3TRESS $ISORDER 043$ IN THE LATE S ) WAS PROVIDING hCLAY THERAPYv SERVICES TO #AMBODIAN ,AO AND 6IETNAMESE REFUGEES IN THE 53! AT A MENTAL HEALTH FACILITY IN !RLINGTON 6IRGINIA'IVENTHATTHEREWERENOAVAILABLE+HMERINTERPRETERSOR PHYSICIANS #AMBODIANSWEREREFERREDTOA6IETNAMESEPSYCHIATRIST.OTONLY DID CLINICIANS ASSUME THAT REFUGEES FROM THE 3OUTHEAST !SIAN REGION WERE ALL THE SAME BUT IN A PARALLEL DEMONSTRATION OF CULTURAL MYOPIA RESEARCHERS CLUMPED hPOST TRAUMAv FACTORS TOGETHER TO FORM h)NDOCHINESEv ANXIETY CHECKLISTS -EANWHILE IN THE CLAY STUDIO REFUGEES CREATED SIMPLE BOWLS BIRDS AND HUMAN lGURES ) RECALL VIVIDLY THE MORNING THAT TWO #AMBODIAN WOMEN MADEASHRINEFORTHESTUDIOFRUITOFFERINGSTOANCESTORSSOONBECAMEADAILY OCCURRENCEATTHEENTRANCEOFTHATSITE REGARDLESSOFNATIONALITY#LEARLYTHERE WERELIMITEDWAYSFORREFUGEESTOASSUMEFAMILIARRITUALSINhPUBLICPLACESvIN THEIR HOST COUNTRY THOUGH SOME SOUGHT SPIRIT MEDIUMS OR A SHAMAN WITHIN THEPRIVACYOFTHEIROWNCOMMUNITIES!NDSTILL ITWASONLYAFTER)CONSULTED ON MEDICAL TEAMS IN #AMBODIA IN THE S THAT ) GRASPED THE COSMOLOGICAL ANGST IN THOSE WHO LOST ACCESS TO SPIRIT PLACES AND RITUALS ˆ THEIR PATHWAYS TO FORCES THAT OFFER ORDER FOR THE COSMOS 5LTIMATELY ) FELT COMPELLED BY PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL ETHICS TO DESIGN A VALID AND RELIABLE STUDY ON #AMBODIANS EXPERIENCES OF RITUAL MEANING AND ACCESS BEFORE DURING AND AFTER 0OL 0OT ) CHOSE A NON REFUGEE SAMPLE FOR THIS PURPOSE ) EXPLORED THE SCALE OF RITUALS IN SOCIAL LIFE RELATED TO COURTSHIP MARRIAGE PREGNANCY AND BIRTH WHILE NOTING REFERENCES TO ILLNESS AND DEATH ) FOUND IT CURIOUS THAT NO FORMAL RESEARCH HAD BEEN DESIGNED TO TEASE OUT THE ETHNO GEOGRAPHIC VARIANCE IN THE SO CALLED hFORCED WEDDINGSv AND BIRTHS UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE ) FOUND NO STUDIES ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRIT RITUAL LOSS AND HUMAN ABASEMENT UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE 3PIRIT BASEDRITUALSARETIEDTOTHEMUNDANE THESACREDANDMYSTERIOUS !ND REGARDLESS OF WHETHER ONE IS RAISED ON hONE GOD AS THE 'OD v OR hMANY SPIRITSANDTHE"UDDHA vRITUALSPLAYAKEYROLEINGIVINGMOSTPEOPLEASENSE

 )N THIS VIEW HUMAN BODIES CAN BE INHABITED BY OTHERS SOULS MATERIAL AND IMMATERIAL AND SOULS CAN EXIST IN DISEMBODIED STATES IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA SPIRITS TEND THE RICE lELDS !NG #HOULEAN    #REDENCE IS GIVEN STRONGLY TO THE ACTIVITY OF SOULS OF THE RECENTLY DECEASED!SONECANIMAGINE THESEPERCEPTIONSIMPACTPEOPLESEXPERIENCESOFBIRTHANDDEATH DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD RELATED IMPACT IS DISCUSSED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK

XVIII

0REFACE

OF PROTECTION AND SECURITY )N MY STUDY RESPONDENT AFTER RESPONDENT TOLD ME THAT IN THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA THEY ENACTED FAMILIAR PRE REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT RITUALS 4HEY SAID THAT THESE ACTS ENABLED THEM TO FEEL A BIT hNORMALv UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE /FTEN THEY DID THIS AT THE RISK OF THEIR OWN LIVES 3OMETIMES HOWEVER THEYWEREUNABLETODOTHERIGHTTHING/NEMANSAID h7HEN MY MOTHER DIED IN  AT LEAST ) KNEW WHAT TO DO BECAUSE ) COULD FOLLOW OUR TRADITION BUT WHEN MY FATHER DIED IN THE +HMER 2OUGE TIME THERE WAS NOTHING TO FOLLOW (E IS STILL NOT RESTEDv )N THIS CASE NOT ONLY WAS A SON BETRAYED BY +HMER 2OUGE ACTS THAT LED TO THE DEATH OF HIS FATHER BUT HIS FATHERS SPIRIT WAS BETRAYED BY NOT BEING PROPERLY ATTENDED AFTER DEATH 4HROUGHOUT THIS BOOK BETRAYAL IS THE SUBTEXT AND IT IS A SUBTEXT WITH MANY DIMENSIONS &OR INSTANCE THAT WHICH ) CALL SPIRIT BETRAYAL CAN RUN BOTH WAYS PEOPLE CAN BETRAY SPIRITS WITH DIRE CONSEQUENCES AND SPIRITS CAN BETRAY PEOPLE AND PLACES %XPLORING THESE SPIRIT DYNAMICS REQUIRED SOPHISTICATED ANALYSIS ON MY PART PARTICULARLY SINCE IT IS UNEXAMINED IN THE CURRENT PUBLIC DISCOURSE ON THE #AMBODIAN 'ENOCIDE AND IN MENTAL HEALTH DEVELOPMENT)EXAMINEBETRAYALACROSSMANYDOMAINSINTHISTEXT INCLUDING BETRAYAL BY SERVICE PROVIDERS TO #AMBODIAN SURVIVORS WHEN THEY USE TRAUMA ASSESSMENTS THAT EXCLUDE SPIRIT BASED CRITERION )N THE FOLLOWING CHAPTER ) TEASE OUT 7ESTERN $EMOCRATIC VIEWS ON FREEDOM LOVE AND BETRAYAL AS A WAY OF EXPLORING hFORCEDv MARRIAGES /THER FORMATIVE EXPERIENCES IN MY OWN LIFE INFORMED THIS STUDY -Y PERIODS OF RESIDENCE IN *APAN HAD BEEN MORE FOUNDATIONAL THAN ) HAD ANTICIPATED DURING THE COURSE OF MY RESEARCH IN #AMBODIA ) WAS LIVING ON +YUSHUANDCOMMUTINGTO#AMBODIAFORTHElRSTHALFOFMYlELDWORKPERIOD n 0RIORTOTHATPERIOD )HADAPPRENTICEDIN4OKYOIN-ORITATHERAPY AND (ORNIAN ANALYSIS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF !KIHISA +ONDO -$ ACROSS  YEARS n  3HOMA -ORITA -$ n WAS A CONTEMPORARY OF&REUDANDDEVELOPEDAPSYCHIATRICTREATMENTTHATIS:EN BASED ARELIGIOUS ANDWORKSTOINCREASETHEPATIENTSENGAGEMENTWITHTHEECOLOGICALENVIRONMENT

 3EE$"ERTRANDAND0,E6INE h#RIMECONTRELESESPRITS,ESM£PRISDESESPRITSLOCAUXCOMME D£STABILIZATION MENTALE #RIMES AGAINST SPIRITS AND GENERATION OF MENTAL HEALTH DISORDER v IN #RIMES!GAINST#ULTURES5NIVERSITYOF'RENOBLE INPRESS !RELATEDPAPERWASPRESENTEDATTHE #ENTREFOR+HMER3TUDIESINONh3PIRIT*USTICE vWITHACALLFOR2 .'/S2ELIGIOUS BASED .'/S TOPRIORITISETHEFOUNDATIONALROLESTHATSPIRITPHENOMENONHOLDIN3OUTHEAST!SIAAND TO OPERATIONALISE THIS IN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

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XIX

THROUGHPARADOXICALMETHODS-ORITA ,E6INE INPRESS -ORITASTHEORY EXPLICITLYALLOWSFOR3HINTOPRACTICESIN*APAN ANDFORANIMISM MANY GODS AND ONE 'OD )N MUCH OF !SIA SPIRITS LOOK AFTER THE RICE lELDS AS PART OF MANIFESTNATURE ANDSEASONALRITUALSAREVITALTOTHEWELLBEINGOFTHELAND WATER ANCESTORS BIRDS lSH ANDSOON9ET EVENTHOUGH)LIVEDCLOSETO3HINTOCAVES IN*APAN ANDWORKEDWITHREFUGEESINTHE53! !USTRALIAAND.EW:EALAND ) HAD NOT IMAGINED THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE SPIRIT DOMAIN WAS TRANSITIONAL IN PEOPLES AWARENESS UNTIL ) TRAVELLED WITH #AMBODIANS INTO REMOTE PLACES 5NDAUNTED AND FOLLOWING A PATTERN )D BECOME FAMILIAR WITH IN #AMBODIA WOMEN AND MEN ASKED ME SPECIlC QUESTIONS ABOUT MY PERSONAL LIFE 4HE DISCLOSURE OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF MY PRIVATE HISTORY SOMETIMES PROMPTED RESPONDENTS TO SHOW ME SPIRIT OBJECTS AND PLACES SUCH AS A TREE NEAR A WAT TEMPLE  !FTER HEARING THAT ) BIRTHED A CHILD IN  AS MANY OF THEM HAD DONE AND THAT ) BECAME A WIDOW IN MY EARLY S MANY OF THE WOMEN SPOKE MORE OPENLY ABOUT THEIR BIRTHS ABORTIONS WEDDINGS AND SEXUALITY 3OME SPOKE IN DETAIL OF HORRORS THAT WERE QUALITATIVELY DIFFERENT FROM THAT WRITTEN ABOUT IN THE 'ENOCIDE LITERATURE ONE WOMAN SAID THAT SHE CARRIED THE STARVED BODY OF HER YOUNGER SISTER FROM PLACE TO PLACE NOT WANTING TO KNOW IF HER LITTLE SISTER HAD STOPPED BREATHING )N EASY GOING DAY TO DAY CONVERSATIONS OFTEN WHEN WALKING BESIDE ME PEOPLETOLDMEHOWBODIESCOULDBESNATCHEDANDINVADEDBYANYONE ANDANY THING AT ANY TIME /NCE ) UNDERSTOOD THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS VULNERABILITY )FOUNDSOMEOFTHEACCOUNTSSTAGGERINGTODIGEST!SREFERENCESTOGROTESQUE QUASI HUMAN BODIES ACCUMULATED DURING THE COURSE OF THIS STUDY ) TOOK TO MY ART STUDIO AS A WAY OF DISLODGING IMAGES THAT BEGAN TO AMASS IN ME /NE EVENING OUT OF SHEER OVERLOAD ) OPENED A BAG OF CLAY AND SCULPTED REPRESENTATIONAL BODIES -Y HANDS FORMED SHAPES THAT BEWILDERED MY OWN

 3HINTOISLITERALLYhTHEWAYOFTHEGODSv)TISCONCEIVEDASTHEORIGINALRELIGIONOF*APAN AND ITSANIMISMLIESINTHEKNOWLEDGETHATALLMOUNTAINSANDRIVERS ANDALLOFNATUREAREASSOCIATED WITH KAMI SPIRIT FORCES  3HINTO STORIES OF CREATION CENTRE UPON !MATERASU /MIKAMI THE HEAVENS GREAT DIVINITY WITH ASTRAL IMAGES SIMILAR TO THOSE IN #AMBODIAN LORE 7ITH ROOTS IN #ONFUCIANISMAND"UDDHISM 3HINTOISMGAINEDSTATUSASTHENATIONALRELIGIONIN BUTLOST THATRANKIN9ET DESPITETHATNATIONALDEMOTION 3HINTORITUALSENDURED*APANSECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND REMAIN FOUNDATIONAL TO SOCIETY TODAY "Y CONTRAST ANIMISTIC PRACTICES IN #AMBODIAMAYBEATRISKGIVENTHERAPIDPACEOFECONOMICDEVELOPMENTANDRELATEDDEPENDENCE ONFOREIGNASSISTANCEBY.'/STHATOVERLOOKINDIGENOUSRITESORIMPOSETHEIROWNWORLDVIEWS SUCHASUSINGTHE"IBLEASTHEINFORMINGTEXTFORSEXTRAFlCKEDCHILDREN ORFUNDINGRESEARCHON hFORGIVENESSv AND TRAUMA RECOVERY IN WAYS THAT IGNORE "UDDHIST !NIMIST WORLDVIEWS  -ODELS FOR ETHNO PRESERVATION IN #AMBODIA CAN BE FOUND IN *APAN

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IMAGINATION ) GENERATED SCULPTURES IN PART TO SHOW RESPONDENTS VISUAL AFTERMATH FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE 3OME OF THESE SCULPTURES ARE PRESENTED HERE FROM MY SERIES ENTITLED 5NDER 4HIS BOOK IS MY ATTEMPT TO RENDER MY ACADEMIC CLINICAL AND PERSONAL EXPOSURE TO A RANGE OF BAFmING SOMEWHAT DISTURBING IDEAS AND PRACTICES CONNECTED GENERALLY WITH THE WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS OF THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA IN #AMBODIA ) OFFER A COUNTERPOINT TO THE PERPETUATION BY A NEW WAVE OF MENTALHEALTHPROFESSIONALSWHOREINFORCEPRACTICES AKINTOTHEh)NDOCHINESEv AMALGAM OF THE S WHICH NEGLECT THE ETHNO GEOGRAPHIC AND DYNAMIC UNIQUENESS OF SPIRIT INHABITANTS AND RELATED RITUALS IN COMMUNITIES THEY SEEK TO ASSIST )N THE CLOSING CHAPTER ) RETURN TO THE PARTICULAR SIGNIlCANCE SPIRITRITUALSPLAYDURINGTHISTIMEWHENTHEWORLDSEYESAREONAhTRUTHAND RECONCILIATIONv PERIOD IN #AMBODIA

Introduction: “Under the Lie” in Incomparable Times

#AMBODIAN WOMEN AND MEN SPOKE TO ME OF THEIR GROUP WEDDINGS PREGNANCIES BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS FROM THE $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA $+ ERA AS IF THEY HAD BEEN IN A FUGUE )N VILLAGES WHERE CHILDREN AND ADULTS CLUSTERED STORIES WERE TOLD OFTEN IN RICH METAPHOR /NE MAN SAID LIVING THROUGH THE REGIME WAS LIKE BEING IN hA GENERATION WITHOUT ANY ANCESTORS TO HELP USv 7EDDING EXPERIENCES PROVIDED A SENSE OF PLACE KINSHIP AND CONTINUITY TO MANY WHILE RESTORING THEIR CONSTRUCTIVE IMAGINATIONS ABOUT THE FUTURE /NE MAN SAID h"EFORE ) WAS MARRIED IN  ALL ) SAW WAS SADNESS SO SO SAD ALL AROUND ME EVEN THE GROUND WAS SAD 4HEN AFTER MY WEDDING ) BEGAN TO PLAN HOW ) COULD MAKE A HOUSE BECAUSE MY WIFE WAS SO KINDv !NOTHER MAN WHO WAS MARRIED IN A GROUP OF  NEAR A DIKE BUILDING PROJECT SAID hx IT WAS LIKE HAVING MY FOOT CAUGHT IN A BRANCHUNDERCOLDWATER WATCHINGMYSELFTRYTOGETTOTHESURFACE"UTAFTER ) WAS MARRIED ) DID NOT HAVE TO GO UNDER WATER ANYMOREv .OT ALL ACCOUNTSWERETHISTRANSITIONAL BUTMOSTSPOKEOFTHEIRMARRIAGEASATURNING POINT 3O OFTEN IN LITERATURE ABOUT THE +HMER 2OUGE CULTURAL TRADITIONS ARE PRESENTED AS FOOTNOTES OR BACKDROPS (OWEVER SIX DOMAINS LIE AT THE CENTRE OF CULTURAL INTIMACY AND WELLBEING FOR MOST #AMBODIAN PEOPLE #OURTSHIP MARRIAGE PREGNANCY BIRTH ILLNESS AND DEATH -Y STUDY FOCUSES ON FOUR OF THESE4HOUGH ) HAVE DATA ON ILLNESS AND DEATH RITUALS A PURPOSIVE STUDY IS NEEDED BEFORE ONE CAN MAKE RELIABLE CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THESE RITES





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%ARLYON)DOCUMENTEDWAYSTHATRITUALSPROVIDEDPROTECTIVEROLESWITHIN VILLAGESBEFORETHE+HMER2OUGETOOKHOLD ANDSAWHOWWEDDINGANDBIRTH ACCOUNTS PROVIDED A KEY TO IDENTIFYING OBSCURE VIOLATIONS THAT HAD BEEN UNRECORDED)BEGANMAPPINGTHE+HMER2OUGEBREAKDOWNOFRITUALPATTERNS RELATED TO COURTSHIP MARRIAGES PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS 7ITHOUT THESE RITUAL PATTERNS )FOUNDTHATPEOPLEFELTEXPOSEDANDSCARED ANDOPENTOPERSECUTION BY VARIOUS FORCES 3IMILAR PHENOMENA ARE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL IN #HAPTER 

How This Study Began 7HILE LOOKING FOR EVIDENCE OF THE hFORCEDNESSv OF WEDDINGS UNDER $+ AND WHETHER THIS ASSUMPTION IS LEGITIMATE AND RELIABLE ) ENCOUNTERED SOMETHING VERY UNEXPECTED AND FAR MORE CHALLENGING TO DOCUMENT )NITIALLY THIS STUDY ON COURTSHIP WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE BEGAN AS AN ENTRY IN MY DIARY ˆ PENNED IN THE DRY SEASON OF  AFTER ) HAD LUNCH WITH SOME #AMBODIAN COLLEAGUES IN 0HNOM 0ENH INCLUDING A COUPLE THAT ) CALL THE /MS4HE /MS GAVE ME AN INITIAL ACCOUNT OF THEIR GROUP MARRIAGE THAT WAS RATHER ROMANTIC AND RELATED CASUALLY AS PART OF A FRIENDLY 3UNDAY AFTERNOON THE ATMOSPHERE WAS RELAXED AND lLLED WITH AFFECTION ) REACTED lERCELY TO THIS COUPLES ENTIRE STORY LATER THAT EVENING HAVING FOUND IT QUITE EXTRAORDINARY WHEN ) WROTE IN MY DIARY 5NTIL TODAY ) HAD NO REASON TO DOUBT THE CONSTRUAL OF THE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS AS hFORCEDv -RS /M WAS RUBBING HER HUSBANDS SHOULDERS FOLLOWING OUR MEAL WHEN ) ASKED THEM HOW THEY MET /UR CONVERSATION CENTRED ON THE NIGHT BEFORE AND DAY OF THEIR +HMER 2OUGE GROUP WEDDING ˆ WITH THEIR PAIRING DECIDED BY WORK CAMP LEADERS AND BASED ON THE PROXIMITY OF THEIR HOME VILLAGES 4HEY DID NOT DESCRIBE THEIR MARRIAGE AS FORCED ) AM STRUCK BY THE FACT THAT THERE HAS NEVER BEEN A SYSTEMATIC RELIABLE STUDY ON THIS TOPIC &IELDNOTE 

) PUT MY NOTES ASIDE UNTIL ) BEGAN MY FORMAL STUDY THREE YEARS LATER WHEN AMONGOTHERTHINGS )HEARD-R/MSSECONDVERSIONOFHISWEDDING (ISSHIFTINMANNERANDDETAILFROMTHElRSTACCOUNTWASSOREMARKABLETHAT ) RETURNED TO MY ORIGINAL DIARY ENTRY ) WONDERED IF ) HAD MISCONSTRUED HIS lRSTSTORY)NTRIGUEDBYTHECONTRADICTION -R/MSSHIFTINSTORYPROVOKEDME TO BEGIN A FORMAL INQUIRY THAT FORMED THE BASIS OF MY SECOND DOCTORATE -RAND-RS/MLIVEWITHTHEIRSIXSONS4HEYKNOWOFSEVERALFROMTHEIR GROUP WEDDING OF  COUPLES WHO HAVE SEPARATED AS WELL AS SEVEN WHO ARE

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



DEAD ˆ INCLUDING TWO WOMEN WHO DIED GIVING BIRTH ) MET WITH THE /MS OVER A SIX YEAR PERIOD AND lLMED THEM AND OTHERS WHO AGREED TO RETURN TO THEIR WEDDING AND BIRTH SITES 3OME TRAVELLED TO PLACES THEY HAD NOT VISITED IN OVER  YEARS "ECAUSETHESURVIVINGPARENTSOFMYRESPONDENTSHADBEENMARRIEDBEFORE THE S ) SPOKE INFORMALLY WITH THEM ABOUT THEIR WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS FROMTIMESWHENVILLAGESTRUCTURESWEREMOREORLESSINTACT$URINGEXTENDED FAMILY INTERVIEWS OLDER RELATIVES AND NEIGHBOURS SPOKE OF THEIR ARRANGED MARRIAGES AND BIRTHS h4HIS IS HOW IT WAS BEFORE THE WARv 2ECONSTRUCTING THE PRE REGIME RITUALS WAS ESSENTIAL TO ANALYSING THE RANGE OF $+ ACTIVITIES FROM MAINTENANCE TO DESTRUCTION OF CULTURAL TRADITION )N THIS REGARD MY CHOICEOFRESEARCHMETHODOLOGYHADTOACCOUNTFORSHIFTINGSTORIESINAPLACE THAT HAS HAD A RANGE OF ABRUPT AND VIOLENT CHANGES (OW DO ) COMPREHEND A PERSONS ACCOUNT WHEN DETAILS CHANGE OVER TIME AND PLACE 4HISBECAMEONEOFTHETOUGHESTQUESTIONSTHROUGHOUTMYSTUDY ANDONETHAT REQUIRED METHODS THAT COULD TRACK CONTENT WHAT IS SAID CONTEXT WHEN AND WHERE SOMETHING IS EXPERIENCED AND RECOUNTED AND PROCESS HOW SOMETHING IS TOLD  ) REALISED THAT ANY INVESTIGATION INTO THIS TOPIC WOULD NEED TIGHT METHODS AND ANALYSES GIVEN THE PRE EXISTING INTERPRETATIONS IN THE LITERATURE ABOUT THE FORCED NATURE OF THE WEDDINGS ,IKE ALL RESEARCHERS ) CAME INTO THIS STUDY WITH MY OWN HISTORY 0ROFESSIONALLY AS A TRAUMA PSYCHOLOGIST THE NOTION OF hSHIFTING STORIESv IS FAMILIAR TO ME PARTICULARLY WHEN PIECING TOGETHER CLIENTS HISTORIES OF DAMAGEDCHILDHOODS)VESEENHOWTHEAGEWHENTRAUMAOCCURSCANARRESTOR SUSPENDONESNATURALCOURSEOFDEVELOPMENT ANDONESCAPACITYTOCOMPLETE DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES THAT ARE CULTURALLY DElNED 4HEREFORE ) RECORDED THE AGES AT WHICH KEY EVENTS HAPPENED IN #AMBODIANS LIVES AS WELL AS THE PLACES IN WHICH THEY OCCURRED -ANY WHO MARRIED UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE HADBEENDISPLACEDFROMVILLAGEHOMESDURINGTHE,ON.OLREGIMEn IN THEIR EARLY ADOLESCENCE 3UCH DEVELOPMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS WERE ESSENTIAL TO CHART ALONG THE WAY SO THAT A CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF HISTORY COULD BE BETTER ANALYSED



4HIS lLM BECAME INVALUABLE DURING THE THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THIS STUDY AND FOOTAGE IS BEING SHAPED INTO A DOCUMENTARY lLM



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The Initial Inquiry ) STRUCTURED MY INITIAL INTERVIEWS AROUND THE FOLLOWING TOPICS  4ELL ME WHEN YOU lRST MET YOUR SPOUSE  4ELL ME WHAT WAS HAPPENING IN YOUR LIFE BEFORE YOU MET  $ESCRIBETHEWEDDINGDAYINASMUCHDETAILASPOSSIBLE4HISQUESTION ASSISTED THE RECORDING OF RITUAL OBJECTS AND ACTIONS  7AS IT A REAL MARRIAGE  7HAT HAPPENED AFTER YOU MARRIED  7ERE YOU TOLD TO HAVE SEXUAL RELATIONS BY ANYONE BEFORE OR AFTER YOUR WEDDING  7HAT KEEPS YOU TOGETHER  7HAT AND WHO PROTECTED YOU THEN  7HAT PROTECTS YOU NOW  +INDLY DESCRIBE YOUR OWN OR A FAMILY MEMBERS PREGNANCY DURING THAT TIME  #AN YOU TELL ME ABOUT THE DELIVERY OF YOUR CHILD  0LEASE TELL ME ABOUT THE lRST FEW DAYS FOLLOWING THE DELIVERY  +INDLY DESCRIBE THE CARE FOR YOUR CHILD AND OTHERS CHILDREN IN THE COMMUNE

Beyond Testimony: Re-placing History 'IVEN #AMBODIAS COLONIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY AND THE PAUCITY OF METHODS THAT COULD ACCOUNT FOR CUMULATIVE NATIONAL UNREST ) INVENTED A WAY TO DELIBERATELYUNPACKPEOPLESSTORIESSOTHAT)COULDRECORDTHEIRDEVELOPMENTAL AGE STATUS AND GENDER ALONGSIDE THE PLACES IN WHICH EVENTS OCCURRED )N THIS WAY ) FOUND SIGNIlCANT OUTCOMES SUCH AS MEN WHO WERE YOUNGER THAN EIGHTEEN WHEN TRAINED AS SOLDIERS FOR THE +HMER 2OUGE DISMISSED RITUAL PRACTICES MORE READILY THAN MEN WHO TRAINED AS OLDER ADULTS ) SET OUT TO ACCOUNT FOR THE SIGNIlCANCE OF WEDDING AND BIRTH RITUALS KINSHIP TIES AND

 )N THE S TEXTS SUCH AS %THNOGRAPHY IN 5NSTABLE 0LACES 'REENHOUSE -ERTZ AND 7ARREN  AND4HE6IOLENCE7ITHIN #ULTURAL AND 0OLITICAL /PPOSITION IN $IVIDED .ATIONS 7ARREN  GENERATED DISCUSSIONS ON REmEXIVE ETHNOGRAPHY AND HOW DATA COLLECTED AND ANALYSED IS INmUENCED BY THE LARGER POLITICAL MILIEU

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



RELATED AGRICULTURAL CYCLES IN RELATIONSHIP TO PEOPLES WELLBEING WHEN LIVING WITH VIOLENCE AND NEGLECT %THNOGRAPHIC STUDIES ON PRE REVOLUTIONARY #AMBODIAN VILLAGE LIFE BEGAN OVER A CENTURY AGO $ELAPORTE  ,ECLÞRE  %BIHARA  -ARTEL  0OR£E -ASP£RO  AND HAVE FORMED FOUNDATIONAL CULTURAL KNOW LEDGE FOR OUTSIDERS "Y REVIEWING THESE DOCUMENTS ) WAS ABLE TO RECORD +HMER2OUGECHANGESTOSPIRITRITUALPRACTICES ASWELLASCHANGESINKINSHIP TIES THAT MOVED OUTSIDE GENEALOGY LINES 4HE REGIME DISLODGED PEOPLE FROM THEIRBROTHERS SISTERS MOTHERS FATHERS GRANDPARENTS FRIENDS NEIGHBOURS AND THEIR OWN CHILDREN THEY WERE SEPARATED FROM FAMILIAR SENSATIONS SUCH AS SMELLING HEATED SPICES HEARING ROOSTERS IN THE MORNING WASHING COLOURFUL CLOTHES OR BRUSHING LONG CLEAN HAIR /NE MAN SAID h!FTER ) LEFT MY VILLAGE IN +AMPONG 3PEU ) WALKED FOR WEEKS TO THE .ORTH ) BECAME STUPID ) DID NOT KNOW ANYTHING ANYMOREv 4RUST OF FAMILY FRIENDS AND NEIGHBOURS BECAME CONDITIONAL RATHER THAN UNCONDITIONAL AND MANY BECAME CONFUSED ABOUT LOYALTY AND BETRAYAL WHEN SEPARATED FROM THE FAMILIAR )N THIS REGARD hSEPARATION ANXIETYv TOOK ON NEW MEANING IN THIS CONTEXT #AMBODIAN RESPONDENTS INTERACTED WITH INANIMATE OBJECTS AND THE ANIMATE WORLD &OR INSTANCE -R ! SHOWED ME A PHOTO THAT HE HAD HIDDEN DURING THE 0OL 0OT YEARS !LSO THOUGH HIS FATHER DIED IN THAT ERA HE SAID THATHISFATHERSTILLLOOKEDAFTERHIM!NALTARINTHEMAINROOMOFHISHOUSE OFFEREDINCENSEANDBANANAS)N0HNOM0ENH BYCONTRASTTOTHEVILLAGES MORE MOTORBIKESWEREPARKEDINSIDETHEHOUSESTOPROTECTTHEMFROMBEINGSTOLEN -ANY PEOPLE SPOKE TO ME OF ITEMS CONlSCATED BY +HMER 2OUGE %VEN THE ANIMATE REALM BECAME LESS ACCESSIBLE UNDER THE REGIME AND INCLUDED SUCH THINGS AS A SNAKE lSH CHICKEN WATER BUFFALO TREE DECEASED ANCESTOR OR A "UDDHAIMAGE)NTHISSTARKNESS THEACTOFMAKINGANOFFERINGTO"UDDHAOR ANANCESTOR FORINSTANCE SERVED TO PROTECT OR SOOTHE SOMEONE ! NUMBER OF PEOPLE SAID THEY BECAME CALM WHEN CALLING IN THEIR MINDS TO THEIR MOTHER ORTHE"UDDHA GIVINGANOFFERINGFORANCESTORSATASHRINE ORVISITINGAPLACE WHERE THEIR PLACENTA WAS BURIED

 4HEMORE)COMPAREDTHEVISUALWITHWRITTENDESCRIPTIONS THEMORELAYERSOFMEANINGEMERGED ) CONSULTED 6ISUAL !NTHROPOLOGY #OLLIER AND #OLLIER  FOR ASSISTANCE IN HOW TO ORGANIZE A CULTURAL INVENTORY ON VISUAL DATA4HE #OLLIERS GIVE WAYS TO STUDY A STILL PHOTOGRAPH OR lLM EXCERPT FOR INSIGHT INTO MATERIAL CULTURE AND ARRANGEMENT OF SPACE AND SUGGEST THAT RESEARCH REQUIRES A TRANSFER BETWEEN THE VISUAL AND THE VERBAL hx !S WE DEEPEN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THEPHOTOGRAPHICEVIDENCETHROUGHANALYSIS ITSCHARACTERASPRIMARYEVIDENCEGIVESTHEIMAGINARY AN INDEPENDENT LIFEv



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4HISSTUDYSHOWEDHOWMEMORYISPLACESENSITIVE0LACESHAVEPARTICULAR SMELLS SOUNDS OBJECTS ARCHITECTURE mORA FAUNAANDSOON4HEEXPERIENCEOF hPLACEv CAN LEAVE A PERSON FEELING BOTH SAFE UNSAFE -OREOVER IN #AMBODIA WHERECERTAINREGIONSAREKNOWNTOCONTAINSPIRITSTHATHAVETHEPOTENTIALTO PROTECTORDESTROY ONECANFEELSETTLEDANDUNSETTLEDATTHESAMETIME7OMEN AND MEN WHO RETURNED TO THEIR +HMER 2OUGE WEDDING OR BIRTH PLACES HAD MANY CONTRADICTORY FEELINGS AS THEY WALKED ON CERTAIN SITES RECALLING WHAT WAS DIFFERENT AND WHAT WAS THE SAME 4HIS STUDY OF LIFE STORIES FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD IS MORE THAN A COLLECTIONANDANALYSISOFPEOPLESSAGAS-OSTBIOGRAPHIESGIVELIFESKETCHESIN WHICHCHAINEDEVENTSARECONNECTEDINMEANINGFULWAYS"UT#AMBODIANSIN MYSTUDYBROKEAPARTTHEIROWNHISTORY ANDSPOKEABOUTTHEPLACEOFANEVENT WITHOUT TIME -ANY OF THESE SEGMENTS ) SOON FOUND WERE OFTEN PRESENTED OUT OF SEQUENCE BUT WITH REFERENCE TO WET AND DRY SEASONS AND LOCATIONS )N THE lRST INTERVIEW ) WOULD OFTEN SIT WITH RESPONDENTS IN THEIR HOME AND SPREAD OUT A LARGE MAP OF #AMBODIA WRITTEN IN +HMER4HE INTERPRETER WOULD ASSIST PEOPLE TO lND PLACES IF THEY COULD NOT READ THE TEXT THOUGH MOST SEEMED TO MOVE THEIR lNGERS EASILY ALONG THE TOPOGRAPHICAL PATHWAYS ) NOTICED EARLY ON HOW MAPS AIDED RE COLLECTION AND SHOWED THE COMPLEX TRAVEL THAT PEOPLE TOOK UNDER $+ WHETHER ON FOOT BY TRAIN BIKE CAR OR BOAT 4RAVEL BROUGHT NEW WORRIES ABOUT UNKNOWN ANIMALS VEGETATION SOIL INSECTS VILLAGE COMPLEXITIES AND SEASONAL DEMANDS ) PURPOSEFULLY RECORDED DISCREPANCIES IN PEOPLES ACCOUNTS RATHER THAN PUSHING FOR CONSENSUS THIS ALLOWEDMETOTRIANGULATETHECONTENT CONTEXTANDPROCESSOFACCOUNTS WITH ATTENTIONTOWHAT HOW WHEREANDWHENDETAILSWEREGIVEN0ATTERNSEMERGED OVER TIME &OR INSTANCE ) FOUND THAT MEN CHANGED THE DETAILS OF HOW THEY METTHEIRWIVES WHEREASWOMENGAVEMORECONSISTENTACCOUNTSOVERTIME"UT SURPRISINGLY NO ONE CHANGED THE DETAILS OF THE WEDDING CEREMONY REGARDLESS OF HOW OFTEN OR WHERE THEY REPEATED THE STORY ) SOMETIMES ASKED FOR FOLLOW UP MEETINGS JUST TO CLARIFY +HMER TERMS OR THE MEANING OF RITUALS &OR INSTANCE ) MET -R /M AT A CAF£ IN 0HNOM 0ENHTOSPEAKPURPOSEFULLYABOUTTHENATUREOFTHETRáNAN ATINYhFAIRY LIKEv SPIRIT THAT WAS MENTIONED BY SEVERAL PEOPLE ! FRIEND OF -R /M SAID THAT HE ARRANGED A SHELTER WITH LEAVES FOR THE TRáNAN BEFORE HE MARRIED IN THE  )N 7ESTERN LITERATURE hTRAUMATIC MEMORIESv ARE SOMETIMES DESCRIBED AS INTRUSIVE ) lND IT INTERESTINGTHAThDESIREDvMEMORIESAREOFTENDESCRIBEDAShmEETINGv!CCORDINGTO-ORITA PPn ANDINKEEPINGWITHTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENhEMOTIONALLOGICvANDhEMOTIONALFACTS v ONCE WE NAME A MEMORY AS INTRUSIVE WE REDUCE OUR CAPACITY TO EXPERIENCE A CONTRADICTORY SENSATION  4HE -ETHOD !NALYSIS DIAGRAM ON THE /MS CONTEXT CONTENT PROCESS IS IN THE !PPENDIX

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



-AP OF GROUP WEDDING REGIONS IN #AMBODIA -AP BY 5RI 'ILAD .OTE  SHOWS THE PROVINCES THAT RESPONDENTS REFERENCED AS WEDDING AND BIRTH SITES .INETEEN PROVINCES WERE IN PLACE BEFORE  AND MY STUDY HAD SAMPLES FROM  OF THESE AND -ALAI MOUNTAIN 

 0LACESOFWEDDINGSRECORDEDACROSSREGIONSAND-ALAIMOUNTAIN.  &ORMALINTERVIEWS SPANNED *ANUARY  TO -AY 

        

0HNOM 0ENH  RESPONDENTS 3IEM 2EAP  RESPONDENTS +ANDAL  RESPONDENTS 0REY 6ENG  RESPONDENTS 3VAY 2IENG  RESPONDENTS +AMPONG #HAM  RESPONDENTS +OH +ONG  RESPONDENT 4AKEO  RESPONDENTS "ATTAMBANG  RESPONDENTS

        

0URSAT  RESPONDENTS +AMPOT  RESPONDENTS +AMPONG 3PEU  RESPONDENTS +AMPONG4HOM  RESPONDENTS +AMPONG #HHNANG  RESPONDENTS 2ANTANAKIRI  RESPONDENT 0REAH 6IHEAR  RESPONDENTS /DDAR -EAN #HEY  RESPONDENT -ALAI MOUNTAIN  RESPONDENT



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+HMER 2OUGE YEARS SO THEY COULD VISIT AND HELP HIM AND HIS ANCESTORS ) FOUND THAT PEOPLES RELATIONSHIPS TO "UDDHA AND THE SPIRIT WORLD WERE MORE PRACTICAL THAN RELIGIOUS

Film: Tracking Despair Alongside Desire &ILM ALLOWED ME TO DOCUMENT MEN AND WOMENS FRESH REACTIONS WHEN RETURNINGTOPLACESTHATTHEYHADNOTSEENINNEARLYYEARS%ARLYON )HIRED A CAMERAMAN WHO ACCOMPANIED US TO FORMER +HMER 2OUGE SITES ) ASKED HIM TO RECORD BROADLY THE DISHEARTENING ACCOUNTS ALONGSIDE THE ENCHANTING MOMENTS AS IN THE RARE EXCERPT FROM MY lELD DIARY !VILLAGEIN4AKHMAU)SITNEXTTOA YEAR OLDWOMANWHOPREPARES BETELNUTAFTEROURMID DAYLUNCHSHEBEGINSTOCHEWASHERSONSPEAKS OF HARSH PAST TIMES ) ASK HER TO DESCRIBE ANY SENSATIONS SHE HAS WHILE CHEWING BETEL (ER RESPONSE h!H ) THINK ) AM YOUNGER AND ) MIGHT FALL IN LOVE AGAINv ) AM STRUCK BY THIS REFERENCE TO hEUPHORIC LOVE v AND BECOME MORE AWARE OF THE ABSENCE OF INITIAL PASSION FOR THOSE PARTNERED IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA &IELDNOTES 

4HIS FAIRY HOUSE IS NINE INCHES  MM TALL WITH A LEAF ROOFTOP )T WAS MADE BY ADULTS AND SAT IN A MOUNTAINOUS REGION IN .ORTHWESTERN ,AOS TO SHELTER THE SMALL PROTECTORS OF THE NEARBY WATER PLACE ITS CONSTRUCTION IS SIMILAR TO SOME THAT ) HAVE SEEN IN REMOTE #AMBODIA ,E6INE 

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



&ILM CAPTURES SMALL STARTLED BEHAVIOURS THAT ACCOMPANY THE RUSH OF A MEMORY4IMEANDAGAIN )NOTICEDHOWhPLACEvROUSEDMEMORY&ILMCAPTURED PROXEMICS OR THE POSITIONING OF PEOPLE WITHIN THEIR GEOGRAPHIC SPACE !LSO DIGITAL FOOTAGE GAVE OPPORTUNITIES FOR REVIEWING MY ROLE IN THE RE ENACTED STORIES 2ESEARCHERS RARELY TAKE THE TIME TO PRIORITISE THE IMPACT OF INTRINSIC CULTURAL PHENOMENA ON WELLBEING ) FOUND THAT CERTAIN SYMBOLIC STORIES THAT PEOPLETOLDABOUTTHE+HMER2OUGEHELDPROFOUNDMEANING&OREXAMPLE ONE PROPHECYTHOUGHTTODERIVEFROMACOLLECTIONOF"UDDHISTTEXTS0UTTH4UMNEAY POINTS TO A TIME WHEN VIOLENCE WOULD BE SO RAMPANT THAT BLOOD WOULD RISE TOTOUCHTHEBELLYOFANELEPHANT WHILEHOUSESWOULDBEEMPTIEDANDPEOPLE WOULD STRUGGLE OVER A GRAIN OF RICE 4WO MEN IN MY STUDY POINTED TO THIS STORYONEBELIEVEDITREFERREDTOTHE,ON.OLREGIMEANDTHEOTHERTO0OL0OT ) NOTED WHEN AND WHERE RESPONDENTS REARRANGED THEIR ACCOUNTS AND THOUGHT INITIALLY THAT THIS ASSISTED THEM IN REARRANGING PHYSICAL AND METAPHYSICAL CHAOS PARTICULARLY WHEN RECALLING INCOMPARABLE HISTORY !ND YET)WANTEDTOACCOUNTFORRADICALEXPLANATIONSASWELL&ORINSTANCE INTHE #AMBODIAN REALM OF SPIRIT EXPERIENCE IT BECOMES POSSIBLE THAT SPIRITS HAVE AN INmUENCE ON WHAT STORY IS TOLD 2EGARDLESS OF THE RANGE OF POSSIBILITIES FOR STORY DISCREPANCY IT DID NOT APPEARRELATEDTODISTORTIONOFMEMORY TRAUMATICAFTERMATH ORMANIPULATION )F PEOPLE DID NOT WANT TO SPEAK OF SOMETHING THEY MOSTLY KEPT QUIET UNTIL THE TOPIC WAS CHANGED OR ASKED TO STOP SPEAKING FOR A WHILE /NE MAN BEGAN CRYING WHEN HE TOLD ME OF BEING UNABLE TO BURY HIS FATHER PROPERLY AND THEN SAID h,ETS EAT LUNCH AND AFTERWARDS ) CAN TELL YOU WHAT ) DID NEXT v WHICH HE DID

 !SIMILARPROPHECYISQUOTEDINACHAPTERBY+UOCH 4 -ILLER!2 AND3CULLY&- h(EALING THEWOUNDSOFTHE-AHANTDORI vIN2EFUGEE7OMENANDTHEIR-ENTAL(EALTH3HATTERED3OCIETIES 3HATTERED,IVES ED%#OLE /-%SPIN AND%$2OTHBLUM.EW9ORK(AWORTH0RESS   !NOTHER MENTION OF THIS IS IN * ,EDGERWOOD h2ITUAL IN  #AMBODIAN 0OLITICAL 4HEATRE .EW3ONGSATTHE%DGEOFTHE&OREST vIN!TTHE%DGEOFTHE&OREST%SSAYSON#AMBODIA (ISTORY AND.ARRATIVEIN(ONOROF$AVID#HANDLER ED!NNE2(ANSENAND*UDY,EDGERWOOD)THACA .9 #ORNELL 5NIVERSITY 0RESS  P   /THER UNEXPECTED ENCOUNTERS WITH RESPONDENTS REQUIRED mEXIBLE RESEARCH METHODS &OR INSTANCE ONE MORNING ) HAD EATEN BREAKFAST WITH A COUPLE AT A ROADSIDE STAND ) BECAME DREADFULLY ILL TWO HOURS LATER DURING AN INTERVIEW WHILE SITTING WITH SIX PEOPLE ON A WOODEN PLATFORMOUTDOORS)EXCUSEDMYSELFANDWALKEDTOTHEEDGEOFTHEBUSHES4HREEWOMENCAME TO MY SIDE AND BEGAN RUBBING MY SHOULDERS RATHER STRONGLY WHILE ) SQUATTED TO VOMIT 4HEY MASSAGEDAROMATICOILINTOMYSHOULDERSANDGAVEMEAVIALTOKEEP-YEXPERIENCEOFWOMENS BUSINESSANDWOMEN ATTENDING WOMENLEDMETOINQUIREFORMALLYABOUTWOMENSPREGNANCYAND BIRTHEXPERIENCESUNDERTHE+HMER2OUGE)FELT lRSTHAND THEMEANINGOFSPONTANEOUSTOUCH BETWEENWOMEN WHICHDRAMATISEDTHEBREAKDOWNOFSAFE SUPPORTIVETOUCHDURING$EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA



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"Y MEETING THE SAME PEOPLE OVER TIME AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS SPONTANEITY INCREASEDANDCONSISTENTTHEMESEMERGED&ORINSTANCE THETHEMEh$ECEPTION BY THE +HMER 2OUGEv WAS LINKED TO h-EMORY FOR $ETAILv )N COMBINING THESECATEGORIES )FOUNDTHATTHEAMBIGUOUSNATUREOFCERTAIN$+OPERATIONS PROMPTEDPEOPLETOSTUDYDETAILSASCLUESFORMAKINGPREDICTIONSABOUTTHEIR RISKS FOR HARM !TTENTION TO DETAIL GAVE SPLIT SECOND PREDICTABILITY WHICH WAS MUCH BETTER THAN NONE 0EOPLE BECAME ADEPT AT STUDYING THE NUANCE OF ANOTHER PERSONS VOICE TONE OR GESTURES AND WERE ALERT TO SLIGHT CHANGES IN ANOTHERS BEHAVIOUR IN WAYS DIFFERENT FROM HYPERVIGILANCE ASSOCIATED WITH POST TRAUMA -R /MS NEIGHBOUR SAID ) STUDIED THE SOUND OF THE SOLDIERS FOOTSTEPS AND WAS ABLE TO HEAR THE STEP THAT CAME TO KILL THEY NEVER REALLY TOLD US CLEARLY THEIR PLANS /NEOFMYFRIENDSWASCALLEDOUTINTHENIGHTANDTHENEXTDAY)SAW HIS SEVERED FOOT ON THE GROUND THE NEXT NIGHT ANOTHER FRIEND WAS CALLED OUT AND HE WENT TO HIS WEDDING ) LOOKED FOR SMALL SIGNS SO ) COULD GUESS BETTER WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF ) GOT CALLED OUT 7HEN WE WERE LEAVING THE CITY AFTER !PRIL TH EVERYTHING WAS CONFUSED BUT THEN OVER TIME WE KNEW THAT IF WE SAW OR HEARD THIS AND THAT THEN THAT WOULD HAPPEN

-Y METHODS NEEDED TO BE SENSITIVE TO THE EBB AND mOW OF DESPAIR AND NOSTALGIA &OR INSTANCE DESPAIR WAS MOST HEIGHTENED WHEN PEOPLE SPOKE OF SEEING SOMEONE DIE BY STARVATION AND ESPECIALLY WHEN THEY RECOUNTED THIS AT NIGHT ) NOTICED THAT WHEN MEN RELATED IMAGES OF DECAYING OR STARVING BODIES THEY BECAME CONFUSED ABOUT PRESENT TIME IN A KIND OF TWILIGHT DELUSIONAL WAY 7HEN MEN AND WOMEN DESCRIBED HAVING NO HOPE IT WAS NOT IN THE hTHEOLOGALv SENSE AND NOT IN THE SENSE OF HAVING NO FUTURE 2ATHER AKIN TO (ENRI $ESROCHES ANALYSIS GIVEN IN 3OCIOLOGIE DE ,ESP£RANCE 4HE3OCIOLOGYOF (OPE  A PERSON IN DESPAIR FEELS AN ODD hSTRANGENESSv AS IF BECOMING A STRANGER INSIDE ONES SELF WHEREIN THIS STRANGENESS IS DElNEDASALTERITY/NEHAShTHEEXPERIENCEOFADMITTINGTHEINADMISSIBLEx



$ESROCHEDISCUSSESALTERITYINRELATIONTOIMAGINATION ANDASKShxHOWDOESIMAGINATIONEXERT A FORCE OF ATTRACTION MOBILIZATION x A FORCE SUCH THAT POPULATIONS HANG ON TO IT THEMSELVES ANDWHICHHOLDSTHEM MAINTAINSTHEMANDSUPPORTSTHEM"RIEmY HOWDOESIMAGINATIONTAKE POWERv P   &OLLOWING MY STUDY ) TOO ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT IMAGINATION FROM A SOCIO COSMIC PERSPECTIVE WHILE TRYING TO ACCOUNT FOR PEOPLES NEGOTIATIONS WITH SPIRIT PHENOMENA AND EXAMINING WHAT CONTEXTS LEAD TO LOSS OF IMAGINATION COLLECTIVELY ) WRITE ABOUT h$ISPLACED WITHOUT )MAGINATIONv IN #HAPTER 

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



A WAKING DREAM WITH NO OTHER FUNCTION BUT TO BE DYSFUNCTIONALvxP   ) FOUND DESCRIPTIONS AKIN TO ALTERITY BEING DESCRIBED WHEN #AMBODIANS HAD LIMITED ACCESS TO PROTECTIVE RITUALS AND SPIRIT PLACES -ANY SAID THAT THEY HAD NO ENERGY FOR CONJURING UP AN IMAGE NOT EVEN AN IMAGE OF ONES OWN MOTHER OR THE "UDDHA ˆ WHICH LEFT THEM FEELING EVEN MORE STRANGE AND ABANDONED4HIS IS DISCUSSED AT LENGTH IN #HAPTER  $ISPLACED WITHOUT )MAGINATION  7HILElLMINGFOURCOUPLESATAVILLAGEIN+AMPONG3PEU ONEMANSPOKE OFHISSADNESSWHENHISWIFEDELIVEREDTHEIRlRSTBABYhONTHEROADvAWAY FROMHERMOTHERANDANYFAMILY'ROUPDISCUSSIONSPARKEDWOMENTOSPEAK ABOUTTHEIRAGONISINGHUNGERINTHE$+ERADURINGPREGNANCYANDLACTATION &ILM ALSO CAPTURED PEOPLES SUBTLE REFERENCES ABOUT THE METAPHYSICAL REALM &OR INSTANCE -R /M CHANGED HIS PACE AS WE GOT NEARER TO THE STUPA (E WALKED SLOWLY HELD OUT HIS ARMS WITH STRETCHED PALMS AND WHISPERED hSOK SBAI vREPEATEDLYATRADITIONAL+HMERGREETING CLOSESTTOh!REYOUWELLv (E SAID h4HIS IS THE PLACE OF THE BONES AND ) CALL OUT FOR MYSELF MY ANCESTORS AND MY FAMILY SO WE CAN BE SAFEv &ILMING PEOPLES STORIES AT WEDDING AND BIRTH SITES WAS MOST REVEALING PARTICULARLY WHEN SOMEONE PAUSED AND COMMENTED ON A SPIRIT PLACE 4HIS STUDY CLARIlED THE NEED FOR RESEARCH METHODS TO ACCOUNT BETTER FOR PSYCHO CULTURAL PROPERTIES THAT PROGRESS AND DISTURB HUMAN EXPERIENCE /NE MANSAID h/HYES ANDNOW)REMEMBERTHATSOLDIERSGUARDEDTHATDOORAND THOSESTEPSDURINGTHEWEDDING)TFEELSSOLONGAGO BUT)CANSEETHISINMY MINDNOWAGAINBECAUSE)AMHEREv3OMEMENANDWOMENCOMMENTEDON THEIRWEDDINGSITESBYSAYING h4HISPLACEISVERYQUIETv$IRECTREFERENCESTO hQUIETv INDICATED OFTEN THAT ONE COULD DISTINGUISH THE PRESENCE OF HARMING SPIRITS BASED ON A hSHIFT IN COMFORT LEVELv IN VARIOUS PLACES /NE MAN SAID THAT hMEETING A SPIRIT IS A BIT LIKE WADING IN WATER AND SENSING THE POCKETS OF COLD AND WARMv ) FOUND THAT MY RESPONDENTS DESCRIPTIONS WERE DIFFERENT FROM THOSE IN AUTOBIOGRAPHIES WRITTEN BY #AMBODIAN REFUGEES WHO USUALLY PRESENT THEIR ACCOUNTS IN SEQUENTIAL FORM WITH LITTLE SPIRIT REFERENCING 4O DATE OUTSIDE A HANDFUL OF ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES FEW STUDIES EXIST ON THE $+ PERIOD WITH

 )RENDERhMETAPHYSICALvASTHATWHICHTRANSCENDSPHYSICALMATTERACCORDINGTOTHELAWSOFNATURE AND THIS INCLUDES THE PHENOMENON OF SPIRIT TRANSFORMATION ) NOTE THAT -ETEMPSYCHOSIS HAS BEENRECOGNISEDINPSYCHOLOGICALTERMSASTHETRANSMIGRATIONATDEATHOFASOULINTOANEWBODY 4HIS WAS RECOGNISED FORMALLY IN ANCIENT %GYPTIAN AND )NDIAN CULTURE AS hTHE ANIMATING SOUL v BUT HAS YET TO BE FORMALLY VALIDATED AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENON IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA



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AN EXCLUSIVE COHORT OF PEOPLE WHO NEVER LEFT #AMBODIA %BIHARA  #ROCHET   0ERHAPS SUCH VERSIONS ARE EDITED FOR A LINEAR THINKING AUDIENCE OR PERHAPS MIGRANTS HAVE LOST ACCESS TO PLACE MEMORY )T IS ALSO POSSIBLE THAT MIGRANTS FOSSILISED THE TIME BETWEEN  AND  AFTER THEY ENTERED THE hOTHERv PLACE THAT DID NOT COINCIDE WITH THEIR PREVIOUS HISTORY SEE %NG (OA  (AING .GOR  3ISAVANG  $ITH 0RAN   3OME WOVE OTHER PEOPLES STORIES INTO THEIR OWN 4HIS BORROWING A STORY STRATEGY PROVIDED A REPRIEVE FROM AS WELL AS VALIDATION FOR THEIR OWN HISTORY ) WAS NOT TRYING TO VERIFY HISTORY AS MUCH AS COMPREHEND THE WAYS IN WHICH PEOPLE MADE SENSE OF THE SEGMENTS IN THEIR LIVED HISTORY THAT WERE INCOMPARABLE )N MY STUDY WHEN SOMEONE SPOKE ABOUT A FRIEND SHE OR HE WAS CONTEMPLATING OTHERS COMPARABLE HISTORIES MORE CAREFULLY

Truth Sits Under the Lie &ROM EARLY ON MY INTERVIEWS WERE FRAUGHT WITH PARADOX AND CONTRADICTION 4HERE IS A :EN SAYING 4RUTH 3ITS 5NDER THE ,IE $ESCRIPTIVELY BY COM PREHENDING THE CONTEXT ASSOCIATED WITH DECEPTION WE UNRAVEL DYNAMICS AT PLAY $URING THE +HMER 2OUGE DECEPTION WAS RAMPANT AND COMPLICATED BY THEEVOLVINGINTRUSIONOFREVOLUTIONARYTHOUGHTSANDACTS ANDBYTHEVARIOUS CHARACTERS SO ALIGNED $ECEPTION CAN BE A NATURAL IF NOT PRACTICAL RESPONSE TO THE ANTICIPATION OF HURTFUL MOTIVES AND ACTS AND UNSURPRISINGLY WHEN FEAR OF HARM IS HEIGHTENED WE TELL STORIES THAT CONTAIN AMBIGUITY AS A SAFETY NET ) RECALL THE LONG DAY ) HAD WITH -R , AND HOW HE CRIED REGRETFULLY

 4ENDINGTOTHEWELLBEINGOFMYPARTICIPANTSDURINGTHECOURSEOFTHISRESEARCHWASCOMPLICATED BY LOYALTY BETRAYAL DYNAMICS !S PEOPLE STOPPED GIVING TESTIMONY THEY VOICED THEIR WORRIES ABOUTSPIRITSAFETY&ORINSTANCE ONEMANSAIDTHATHISWIFEHADADREAMOFABLACKBIRDCOMING INTOTHEWINDOWOFTHEIRHOUSE ANDTHATHEWASALITTLEAFRAIDTOO7HEN)ASKEDWHATPROTECTED THEM HE SAID THAT HE CUT SOME BANANAS FROM HIS OWN TREE AND PUT THEM ON THEIR ALTAR AS AN OFFERING TO ANCESTORS FOR PROTECTION LUCK AND KARMA   !SIMPLECONCRETEEXAMPLEOFTHISWOULDBEACHILDWHOLIESINORDERTOAVOIDBEINGPUNISHED 3YSTEMS OF PUNISHMENT GENERATE DIFFERENT RESPONSES IN CHILDREN WHEN COMPARED TO SYSTEMS OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT  4HERE IS A +HMER PHRASE h0LANT A TREE NAMED KOHv +OH IS INDEED A TYPE OF TREE BUT IT ALSO MEANSMUTE-ANYSAIDTHEYSURVIVEDTHEREGIMEBYAPPEARINGMUTEANDSTUPID ANDBYKEEPING THEIR STORIES SIMPLE

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



ABOUT BURYING HIS FATHER WHEN HE WAS NINE YEARS OLD IN  (E IS UNSURE IF AS A YOUNG BOY HE HAD PLACED HIS FATHERS HEAD TO THE 7EST 7HEN ) ASKED IF ANYONE IN HIS FAMILY KNEW ABOUT HIS WORRY HE SAID hSILENCE IS BETTER THAN SPEAKING JUST AS EATING A GREEN BANANA IS BETTER THAN LEAVING THE STOMACH EMPTY ) TELL MY SISTER THAT OUR FATHER IS RESTING BUT ) CANNOT TELL HER ) AM UNCERTAIN ABOUT HOW ) BURIED HIM BECAUSE SHE WILL WORRY MORE THAN MEv -R , SPOKE OF HIS  !PRIL EVACUATION FROM 0HNOM 0ENH AND THE SUBSEQUENT REALISATION OF BAUK SBAT INTREPIDATION ABOUT DECEPTION AS WELL AS HIS LOOMING STARVATION 4HE +HMER 2OUGE TOLD EVERYONE A LIE 4HEY SAID WE WOULD GO TO A PLACEWHERETHEREWASALOTOFFOOD!NDSOPEOPLEWEREHAPPYBECAUSE THEYEXPECTEDTOHAVESOMETHINGTOEATANDWHENTHEYGOTTOTHISPLACE PEOPLE DID NOT HAVE ANYTHING TO EAT (E CUPS HIS HANDS TO INDICATE SIZE OF PORTION 7E HAD JUST THREE OR FOUR TINS OF RICE FOR  OR  PEOPLE 9OU KNOW THE TINS OF EVAPORATED MILK )T DID NOT TAKE LONG BEFORE WE KNEW THE TRICKERY BAUK SBAT 

4HE IMPETUS TO STAY SILENT OR TO MINIMISE DETAILS STILL LINGERS )N THE PAST COMMUNITY SAFETY OCCURRED WHEN ONE COULD TRUST THAT ANOTHER WOULD KEEP SILENT AT ALL COST "UT DREAD REINFORCES SILENCE OFTEN PARTICULARLY WHEN SPIRITS OR !NGKAR ARE PERCEIVED AS FORCES THAT CAN INVADE THE MIND AND BODY AT ANY TIME ) HAVE OBSERVED AN UNUSUAL FORM OF COMPLIANCE BY #AMBODIANS WHEN THEY PERCEIVE VIOLENCE TO BE SOURCED BY TRANSFORMING DESTROYING SPIRITS !T SUCH TIMES THEIR ANXIETY IS PALPABLE AND THEY ARE POWERLESS TO ACT IF THEY CANNOT PROTECT THEMSELVES 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE THE RULERS REFERRED TO THEMSELVESAS!NGKAR ORTHEh/RGANISATIONvˆAhFACELESSNAMEvTHATEVOKED COMPLEXMEANINGSTHAT)EXAMINEIN#HAPTERSAND-OSTLY )FOUNDTHAT MISTRUST FEAR AND HYPERVIGILANCE WERE RELATED TO RESPONDENTS EXPERIENCES OF !NGKAR AS A DAMAGING AND POTENTIALLY POSSESSING FORCE !NGKAR WAS A POWER SOLARGETHATPEOPLEWEREAFRAIDTOTHINKFORFEARTHAT!NGKARCOULDREADTHEIR MINDS )T IS ONE THING TO KEEP SECRETS FROM ONESELF BUT QUITE ANOTHER TO BE

 !NGKARISA+HMERTERMMEANINGh/RGANISATIONv4HISTERMTOOKONAMEANINGSYNONYMOUS WITH THE hORDERING FORCESv OF THE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY OF +AMPUCHEA #0+ DURING THE 0OL 0OT YEARS 4HERE ARE VARIOUS MEANINGS ATTRIBUTED TO !NGKAR BY RESPONDENTS IN MY STUDY ˆ WITH MOST REFERENCING !NGKAR AS AN OMNIPRESENT MYTHICAL TRANSFORMING ANDOR POSSESSING ENTITY



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BLOCKED FROM PROTECTIVE PREDICTABLE RITUAL WHEN DISTRESSED 4HE GRAVITY OF THIS DREAD MAKING CONTEXT IS STAGGERING TO CONTEMPLATE 1UITE PROFOUNDLY THE MORE PEOPLE WERE REMOVED FROM ACCESS TO TRADITIONALRITUALSFORPROTECTION THEMORETHEIRSPIRIT BASEDANXIETYINCREASED &RIGHT WAS THE CONSEQUENCE OF NOT BEING ABLE TO APPEASE SPIRITS MAINTAIN OBLIGATIONSTOANCESTRALSPIRITS ORPROTECTONESELFANDOTHERSFROMPOSSESSING WANDERING OR VENGEFUL SPIRITS 3PIRITS OFFER RESPITE TO THE LIVING AND THE DEAD AND COMMUNITY MEMBERS PLAY VARIOUS ROLES SUCH AS THE MEDIUM WHO SPECIALISES IN CALLING SOULS OF THE DEAD 4HIS ALLOWS RELATIVES TO HAVE CONTACT WITH THE DEPARTED OR WITH THOSE WHO WENT MISSING UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE 7ITHOUT RITUAL AND ACCESS TO SAFE SPIRIT PLACES THERE IS NO PROTECTION 7ITHOUTPROTECTION PEOPLEFEARUNPREDICTABLE VICIOUSFORCES)REMINDMYSELF AGAIN THAT MANY COULD NOT EVEN WANDER IN THEIR OWN MINDS FOR FEAR THEIR MINDS COULD BE READ OR WORSE YET POSSESSED AND MANIPULATED TO DO GRAVE HARM 4HUS SOME WERE SCARED THAT THEY TOO COULD BECOME PERPETRATORS BYSOMELURKINGFORCE(EREINTHE+HMER2OUGERUPTUREDPEOPLESPARTICIPA TIONINCOSMICORDERING WHICHDEPENDEDONTHEIRRITUALENGAGEMENTINTURN THIS GENERATED A COSMIC BETRAYAL THAT ) UNDERSCORE AS 2ITUALCIDE /NE MAN THOUGHT THAT HIS OWN STARVATION WAS DUE TO THE IMPOSED NEGLECT OF CERTAIN SPIRITS)WASMOVEDTOGENERATESCULPTURESABOUTTHEPHENOMENONOFBETRAYAL WHICH LED TO A SERIES THAT ) CALL 5NDER

5NDERBELLY 2AKU CLAY SCULPTURE ,E6INE 

)NTRODUCTION h5NDER THE ,IEv IN )NCOMPARABLE4IMES



) MADE THIS SCULPTURE AFTER -R , SPOKE TO ME ABOUT HIS EXPERIENCE OF TOUCHING AND SMELLING HIS OWN BODY UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE -Y BIG BONES DRAGGED LITTLE BONES ALONG THE GROUND UNTIL MY SKIN RUBBED AWAY7HAT DID THIS $ID ) DO SOMETHING OR NOT DO SOMETHING THAT MADE THIS HAPPEN

)N NARROWING MY STUDY TO THE INTIMATE DETAILS OF WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS DURING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA ) TAPPED INTO A NEW AREA OF STUDY ON THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD -ANY STORIES THAT ) HAD HEARD ABOUT WEDDINGS AND BIRTHSUNDER$+DElEDTHESTANDARDVERSIONSTHATHAVEBEENPUBLISHEDABOUT THAT TIME /NE MAN SAID h) WATCHED A SOLDIER CUT SOMEONE HE HAD BEEN A PRIMARY SCHOOL MATE OF MINE AND ) DID NOT DARE MOVE UNTIL THE DANGEROUS SPIRITLEFTHISBODYANDHEBECAMETHEPERSON)KNEWBEFOREv/FCOURSESUCH PASSAGES PORTRAY THE HORROR UNDER WHICH PEOPLE LIVED DURING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA 7ITHIN THIS CONTEXT AND BIZARRE AS IT MAY SOUND FOR MOST IN MY STUDY THEIR WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS BROUGHT A RENEWED SENSE OF PURPOSE PREDICTION AND COSMIC ORDER AND MORE FOOD AND REST $ISCOVERIES LIKE THIS FALL OUTSIDE THE STANDARD PRESS ON MARRIAGES AS hFORCED v OR +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY AS BREAKING DOWN hALLv SOCIAL ORDER

Chapter

1 The Khmer Rouge Weddings: Forced or Not?

+HMER 2OUGE LEADERS ASSIGNED SOME TO MARRIAGE WHILE OTHERS ASKED PERMIS SION TO MARRY SOMEONE OF THEIR OWN OR A RELATIVES CHOOSING )N A NUMBER OF CASES RESPECTIVE HEADS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE WORK CAMPS ACTED AS MATCHMAKERS AND PAIRED COUPLES FROM SIMILAR REGIONS -ARRIAGE ACCOUNTS DEMONSTRATE HOW DECISIONS ABOUT CUSTOMS WERE ALWAYS AT THE WHIM OF THE PRESIDING LEADERS IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE STATUS OF FAMILY MEMBERS ACROSS PLACEANDTIME/NTHEDAYOFTHEWEDDING SOMEWEREINLOVEWITHANOTHER SOME WERE IN LOVE WITH A PERSON FOR WHOM PERMISSION WAS GRANTED ONE MAN WAS INSTANTLY ATTRACTED TO THE SELECTED PARTNER BUT TWO WOMEN SAID THEIR ASSIGNED SPOUSES SEEMED REPULSIVE 3OME THOUGHT THE ASSIGNED SPOUSE BROUGHT THEM LUCK SINCE THEY WERE NOT CALLED FOR KILLING 7HILE KEEPING IN MIND THE LARGER CONTEXT OF DEVASTATION MANY SPOKE OF THEIR RELIEF BECAUSE A MARRIED PERSON WAS CONSIDERED OLDER AND THEREFORE LESS LIKELY TO BE SENT TO THE HARSHER WORK SITES #AMBODIA HAS MAINTAINED A LONG HISTORY OF ARRANGED MARRIAGES EVEN WHILECOURTSHIPCUSTOMSHAVESHIFTEDINRESPONSETOSOCIO POLITICALCONDITIONS OVERTIME!SWESHALLSEETHROUGHMYSTUDY INMANYCASES THE+HMER2OUGE ARRANGED MARRIAGES AND IN SOME CASES PEOPLE FEARED ANNIHILATION IF THEY DID NOT COMPLY "UT CAN WE CALL THE WEDDINGS FORCED

Place, Memory, and Recorded History 4HE PLACES TIMES AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF hTELLINGv HISTORY WERE REVEALING -R /M GAVE HIS lRST ACCOUNT JUST BEFORE THE  UPRISING WHILE SITTING 

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



WITH FRIENDS DURING LUNCH (IS SECOND DESCRIPTION WAS GIVEN IN &EBRUARY  DURING A CALMER POLITICAL TIME IN #AMBODIA WHEN HE WAS WALKING ON AFORMER+HMER2OUGESITE/NTHATOCCASION -R/MSMALEFRIENDPOINTED TO A GRAVE SITE AND SPOKE SPONTANEOUSLY ABOUT HIS PAST +HMER 2OUGE ERA EXPERIENCES hx WALKING BY NIGHT BODIES IN HEAPS NEAR WATER SOME STILL MOANING ) KNEW THEY WOULD BE DEAD SOON ˆ NOT STOPPING JUST WALKINGv 4HEMOREWEWALKEDTHEMORETHEFRIENDSPOKEABOUTOTHERSITESHEHADSEEN )TWASATTHATMOMENTTHAT-R/MWHILESTANDINGNEXTTOHISWIFE TURNED TO TELL ME AGAIN ABOUT THEIR MARRIAGE BY !NGKAR AND ABOUT THEIR lRST SONS BIRTH IN  THE lRST OF SIX SONS  (IS VOICE WAS CHEERFUL AND HE PAINTED A RATHER ROMANTIC STORY AT THAT MOMENT IN THAT PLACE (E NEVER TOLD THIS VERSION OF THE STORY AGAIN 0LACE LOCATION COLLIDED WITH EACH PERSONS ACCESS TOVISUALANDVISCERALMEMORIESITISASIFONESBODY IN PLACEEDITSTHEMINDS ACCOUNT #OUPLES WOVE MANY OTHER STORIES INTO THEIR ACCOUNTS AS THEY RECALLED PEOPLE THEY HAD KNOWN AT CERTAIN TIMES AND PLACES &OR INSTANCE DURING A THIRD MEETING WITH -R /M HE SPOKE OF HIS FRIEND 6AN AND HOW 6ANS LIFE COURSE CHANGED AS A RESULT OF BEING PAIRED WITH A WOMAN UNKNOWN TO HIM /N  !PRIL  ˆ THE DAY THE +HMER 2OUGE DROVE PEOPLE OUT OF 0HNOM 0ENH ˆ 6AN AND 3OPHI WERE IN LOVE AND ENGAGED TO BE MARRIED "UT THEY WERE SENT TO DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE COUNTRY 3OPHI WALKED OUT OF THE CITY PREGNANT WITH THEIR CHILD 4HEY DID NOT SEE EACH OTHER AGAIN DURING THE REGIME 3OMETIME IN  6AN WAS CALLED OUT FROM HIS WORK CAMP TO MARRY A WOMAN SELECTED BY !NGKAR (E STAYED WITH HIS ARRANGED WIFE AFTER THE COLLAPSE OF THE REGIME "UT IN THE LATE S 6AN WAS WORKING FOR AN ORGANISATION THAT SENT HIM TO VILLAGES IN THE .ORTH TO OVERSEE VOTING REGISTRATION 4O HIS SURPRISE HE SAW 3OPHI IN THE DISTANCE APPROACHED HER AND LEARNED THAT SHE TOO HAD BEEN MARRIED IN THE REGIME AND NOW HAD THREECHILDREN4HEOLDESTCHILDWASHISDAUGHTER6ANMETHISDAUGHTER AND GAVE 3OPHI HIS INCOME FROM THE VILLAGE WORK BEFORE HE DEPARTED 7HEN HE RETURNED HOME HE WAS WITHOUT MONEY AND TOLD HIS WIFE ABOUT HIS FORMER lANC£E AND THEIR DAUGHTER (IS WIFE BECAME ANGRY AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WAS NEVER THE SAME 6AN DIED FROM MALARIA IN 

-R /M TOLD ME 6ANS STORY AS PROOF OF THE MANY DIFFERENT WAYS THE REGIME PERMANENTLY DISRUPTED A PERSONS ENTIRE LIFE COURSE AND SHOWED HOW PEOPLE WERE CONTINUALLY AMBUSHED BY TRAGEDY AND DETACHED FROM



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TIME AND PLACE !ND YET -R /M STILL DID NOT INTERPRET HIS OWN MARRIAGE AS FORCED )N WHILEWORKINGONAHEALTHPROJECTOUTSIDE0HNOM0ENH )MET SOMEONE)LLCALL-ONI3HEWASAVISITINGNURSEONOURTEAMFROM.ORTHERN #AMBODIA AND APPROACHED ME BECAUSE SHE HAD HEARD OF MY INTEREST IN MARRIAGES UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE 7E MET FOR THREE SUCCESSIVE DAYS AND SHE SPOKE FERVENTLY ABOUT HER PAST 3HE TOLD ME THAT IN  SHE WAS  YEARS OLD mUENT IN &RENCH WITH A HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION -ONI HAD BEEN THE YOUNGEST MEMBER OF THE UNIT SHE TERMED THE INTELLIGENTSIA 3HE SAID THE hINTELLIGENTSIAv WAS THE SQUAD THAT DID THE RESEARCH TO COMPILE THE DEATH LISTS FOR THE +HMER 2OUGE -ONI BECAME AWARE OF A PLOT BY +HMER 2OUGE LEADERS TO KILL HER TEAM AND CLEVERLY SOUGHT A PASS FROM A REGIONAL ADMINISTRATOR TO RETURN TO HER HOME VILLAGE 3HE APPEALED UNDER HER hDUTIFUL ROLEv AS THE OLDEST DAUGHTERWHOHADTOASSISTHERAILINGPARENTS ANDTHEREBYESCAPEDTHE FATE OF HER COMRADES WHO WERE ALL KILLED 3OON AFTER -ONI RETURNED TOHERPARENTSIN A+HMER2OUGELEADERINSISTEDTHATSHEMARRY AN UNEDUCATED BASE PERSON 3HE DID NOT WANT TO MARRY THAT MAN OR ANY MAN FOR THAT MATTER (OWEVER HER FATHER SAID THAT HE COULD BE KILLED IF SHE DID NOT COMPLY 4HEY MARRIED IN A GROUP COMPRISED OF  COUPLES &OLLOWING THE WEDDING HER HUSBAND HEARD SOLDIERS ON HORSEBACK COMING TO THEIR HUT AND mED TO ANOTHER AREA FOR A FEW MONTHS -ONI STAYED BEHIND BECAUSE SHE WAS ILL 3OON AFTER HER HUSBANDS DEPARTURE A +HMER 2OUGE SOLDIER BEFRIENDED -ONI BY BRINGING FOOD TO HER WHEN SHE WAS SICK4HEY FORMED AN ATTACHMENT AND SHE REMAINS UNCLEAR ABOUT WHETHER HER lRST CHILD WAS CONCEIVED WITH HIM OR HER HUSBAND (ER ASSIGNED HUSBAND RETURNED TO THEIR VILLAGE SOON AFTER AND HAS STAYED WITH HER TO THIS DAY !ND THOUGH SHE IS NOT SURE IF HE KNOWS THE INTIMATE DETAILS ABOUT THE SOLDIER AND



)HAVEDESIGNEDAh$ETACHMENT'RIDvTHATSHOWSTHEINTERACTIONBETWEENMENTALANDEMOTIONAL DISORDER IN A PERSON AND DISRUPTION TO INTEGRAL STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DISORDER IN THE SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS7HEN LIVING IN CHAOTIC AND VIOLENT CONTEXTS HUMANS TEND TO DETACH FROM SELF OTHER PLACE AND TIME ˆ WHEREIN hOTHERv INCLUDES RELATIONS TO THE ANIMISTIC REALM ,E6INE     .EW PEOPLE NEAK THMEI WAS A TERM USED TO IDENTIFY THOSE WHO WERE hLIBERATEDv DRIVEN OUT FROM URBAN LIFE BY THE +HMER 2OUGE THEY WERE MOST TARGETED FOR SUSPICION AS EDUCATED IMPERIALISTS4HOSE IDENTIlED AS "ASE OR /LD PEOPLE NEAK MOULTANH WERE BASE TO THE LAND OR FARMERSASSUMEDTOBEUNEDUCATEDORUNCONTAMINATEDBYCAPITALISMANDRELIGION)NMYSTUDY THOSE WHO HAD MIGRATED TO THE CITY DURING THE ,ON .OL YEARS AND WERE EVACUATED TO THE RURAL AREAS DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE IDENTIlED THEMSELVES AS NEW BASE )N THE CASE OF -ONI SHE REFERRED TO HER SELF AS BASE EDUCATED ) RECORDED RESPONDENTS REFERENCES TO SELF IN MY STUDY

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



IN ANY CASE THE EPISODE IS NEVER DISCUSSED 3HE IS WITH HER HUSBAND BECAUSE h) HAVE A DUTY TO MY FATHER WHO ASKED ME TO MARRY THIS MAN FOR HIS SAKE AND MY FATHER DIED BEFORE ) COULD ASK HIS ADVICE ABOUT LEAVING MY HUSBANDv 3HE ALSO REMAINS BECAUSE SHE FEELS hPITYv FOR HER HUSBAND BECAUSE HE LACKS FORMAL EDUCATION AND BECAUSE THEY HAVE CHILDREN /VER THE LAST  YEARS -ONI HAS MAINTAINED LETTER CONTACT WITH THE FORMER SOLDIER WHO MIGRATED TO .ORTH !MERICA IN THE EARLY S

-ONIS DISTRESS IS UNENDING ! VISITOR FROM A &RENCH .'/ ORGANISATION CONVINCED HER THAT IT WOULD BE IMPORTANT FOR HER TO TOUR THE 4UOL 3LENG 0RISON -USEUM UNDER $+ KNOWN AS 3  WHICH SHE HAD DONE A FEW DAYS BEFORE ) MET HER 4HE FACES OF -ONIS INTELLIGENTSIA CO WORKERS STARED AT HER FROM THE BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOS ON THE PRISON WALLS SHE DID NOT DISCLOSE THESE IDENTITIES TO HER &RENCH CHAPERONE 3HE KEPT THIS TO HERSELF UNTIL OUR SECOND MEETINGˆQUITE SHAKEN AS SHE SPOKE ALOUD h) TRIED NOT TO BELIEVE WHAT ) WAS SEEING ALL THOSE FACES BUT ) BELIEVE WHAT ELSE CAN ) DOv )N 6OICES FROM 3  4ERROR AND (ISTORY OF 0OL 0OTS 3ECRET 0RISON #HANDLER  P  WRITES h)N THE MUSEUM THE EYES OF THE MOUNTED MUG SHOTS ANDESPECIALLYTHOSEOFWOMENANDCHILDREN SEEMTOFOLLOWME+NOWINGAS WE DO AND AS THEY DID NOT THAT EVERY ONE OF THEM WAS FACING DEATH WHEN THE PHOTOGRAPHS WERE TAKENxv ,IFE STORIES SUCH AS THIS DEMONSTRATE CULTURAL COMPLEXITY OF LOYALTY SUCH AS-ONISDECISIONTOSTAYWITHHERHUSBANDOUTOFDEVOTIONTOHERDECEASED FATHER-ONISTATEDTHAT h)NEVERWANTEDTOMARRYANYMAN ANDMYPARENTS WOULD HAVE PAIRED ME WITH SOMEONE EVENTUALLY !T LEAST ) AM FREE IN MY HEART TO LOVE ANOTHER WHILE STAYING WITH MY HUSBANDv -ONIS INNOCENCE WAS DASHED BY HER MARRIAGE AND THE FACT THAT SHE WAS USED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE AS AN INFORMER OF hDISLOYALSv WHO WERE ASSIGNED TO A DEATH LIST ˆ ADOLESCENCE LOST (ER ACCOUNT REVEALS THE CULTURAL INTRICACIES EMBEDDED IN LOVE ATTACHMENT LOYALTY AND ENDURANCE



)T IS ESTIMATED THAT SOME   MEN WOMEN AND CHILDREN WERE INTERROGATED TORTURED INCARCERATED AND KILLED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE AT THAT FORMER HIGH SCHOOL SITE 4UOL 3LENG IN 3OUTH0HNOM0ENH )TWASCONVERTEDTOAHEADQUARTERSOFTHEREGIMESSECURITYPOLICESANTEBAL AND SERVED AS A SECRET INTERROGATION CENTRE /NLY SEVEN PRISONERS ARE KNOWN TO HAVE SURVIVED 4WOOFMYRESPONDENTSHADGONETOHIGHSCHOOLTHEREBEFORETHE+HMER2OUGETAKEOVERAND DONOTWANTTORETURNFORATOUR #HANDLER STUDIEDSOME ARCHIVALDOCUMENTSAS AWAYOFCOMPREHENDINGTHE$+ DESIGNEDAGENDATHATDROVETHEOPERATIONSOF3  INCLUDING CONFESSIONALANDNONCONFESSIONALMATERIAL EXECUTIONRECORDS SPEECHES INTERROGATORSNOTES AND STUDY NOTES ON VARIOUS TOPICS SUCH AS MEDICINE AIRCRAFTS AND SO ON



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4HE MORE WOMEN AND MEN SPOKE OF THEIR MARRIAGES AND BIRTHS THE MORE THEY TRIGGERED HORROR LADEN IMAGES -OST NOTABLY THESE TABOO THREADS CONTAINED COUNTERPOISED EXPERIENCES ˆ BETRAYAL ALONGSIDE LOYALTY REJECTION NEXTTOLONGING WITHPOVERTYOFTHOUGHTGIVINGWAYTOBOUTSOFIMAGINATION !LL IN ALL WOMEN AND MENS EXPERIENCES OF ANGST AND REPRIEVE WERE NOT EASY TO COMPARE AND THE +HMER 2OUGE EROSION OF RITUAL ACROSS PLACE AND TIME BROUGHTFURTHERCOMPLEXITIES7HILELISTENINGTOGRIPPINGACCOUNTSBYWOMEN ABOUT THEIR STILLBIRTHS IN ISOLATION ) ACCOUNTED EQUALLY FOR MENS ISOLATION IN THEIRSHIFTINGROLES-R/M WHOMARRIEDIN+AMPONG3PEUINSAID h) CREPTOUTINTHENIGHTTOlNDFOODFORMYWIFESHEWASSOHUNGRYWHENOUR BABYWASGROWINGWEWEREBOTHTIRED SOSOTIREDxBUTWHENOURSONWAS BORN ) WAS LUCKY BECAUSE AN OLDER MAN TOLD ME HOW TO BURY THE PLACENTA ) DID SOMETHING TO HELPv  4HOUGHACCOUNTSVARYINTHEWAYS+HMER2OUGELEADERSASSIGNEDPEOPLE TO MARRIAGE THE LARGER GROUP WEDDINGS WITH OVER  COUPLES SEEM TO HAVE BEEN CONCENTRATED ALONG THE DAM PROJECTS IN THE #ENTRAL .ORTHERN AND .ORTHWESTERN:ONES3OMEASKEDPERMISSIONTOMARRYSOMEONEOFTHEIROWN ORARELATIVESCHOOSING ANDINANUMBEROFCASES THECHIEFSOFTHEMALEAND FEMALE WORK CAMPS ACTED AS MATCHMAKERS AND PAIRED COUPLES FROM SIMILAR VILLAGES OR REGIONS -OST COUPLES WERE BETWEEN n YEARS OF AGE WHEN THEY WERE MARRIED 3IGNIlCANTLY IN  AND  OF THE REGIME MORE FAMILY REQUESTS WERE GRANTED THAN IN THE MID YEARS BETWEEN  AND  OF $+

 -YSTUDYINCLUDEDMENANDWOMENWHOWEREMARRIEDINGROUPSBYTHE+HMER2OUGE )F)WERETOACCOUNTFORCONVERSATIONSWITHEXTENDEDFAMILYANDVILLAGEMEMBERS )INTERVIEWED OVER PEOPLE$ATAANALYSISISBASEDONFORMALPARTICIPANTS WHILERECOGNISINGTHATRESEARCH CONDUCTED IN VILLAGE BASED CULTURES IS NOT SO STRAIGHTFORWARD  )PURPOSELYCOLOURCODEDCOUPLESTHATARESTILLTOGETHER-OSTCOUPLESWERElLMEDATFORMER WEDDING SITES 7EDDING AND BIRTH DETAILS OF THESE COUPLES ARE IN THE !PPENDICES

#OLOUR #ODE /RANGE "LUE ,IME 9ELLOW 'REEN 2OSE 0URPLE 4URQUOISE 3ILVER !PRICOT -USTARD

#OUPLE -R AND -RS /M -R AND -RS " -R AND -RS , -R AND -RS 9 -R AND -RS ' -R AND -RS 2 -R AND -RS 0 -R AND -RS4 -R AND -RS 3 -R AND -RS ! -R AND -RS -

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



4HEEARLIESTRECORD)HAVEOFAGROUPMARRIAGEISFROMTHREECOUPLESWHO ASKEDPERMISSIONTOMARRYIN$ECEMBERIN4AKEOAND+AMPONG#HAM SEVEN MONTHS AFTER THE +HMER 2OUGE TAKEOVER /NE MAN FROM +AMPONG #HAM SAID PEOPLE WERE NOT ALLOWED TO ENTER A WAT UNLESS PRESCRIBED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE HIS FATHER SUGGESTED THAT HE MARRY JUST OUTSIDE THE WAT GATES BECAUSE THIS PLACE WAS CLOSEST TO SPIRITS -OST PRE REVOLUTIONARY WEDDINGS TRADITIONALLYOCCURREDNEARTHEHOMESOFTHEPROSPECTIVEWIFE ORATACENTRAL VILLAGE LOCATION THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE NEAR A WAT 4HE FOLLOWING PHOTOS WERE DONATED BY THE $OCUMENTATION #ENTRE #AMBODIA$# #AM ASEXAMPLESOF+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGS4ODATE ONLY TWO PHOTOS HAVE BEEN ARCHIVED FROM THIS PERIOD AND NO WRITTEN WEDDING POLICY BY THE +HMER 2OUGE HAS YET BEEN FOUND PERSONAL CONVERSATION WITH 9OUK #HHANG $# #AM  AND   4HE$# #AMPHOTOSDEPICTAWEDDINGIN$+ASASOMBREAFFAIR(OW EVER THOSE IN THE PHOTOS LOOK RELATIVELY WELL FED AND REGIMENTED IN APPEAR ANCE4HEMENANDWOMENCOVEREDINMYSTUDYRARELYSATNEXTTOEACHOTHER DURING THE CEREMONY AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EVENTS WERE STARKER -Y RESPONDENTSSPOKEOFTHEIRBLACKGARBANDFOLDEDSCARVESOFRED GREEN VIOLET ORBLUE-R,DESCRIBEDhROWSOFSWOLLENEYESINDARKHOLESORSOCKETSv4HREE PEOPLEWHOWEDIN4AKEOSAIDTHATTHEREWASAmOWERPLACEDONATABLE AND VARIOUS PEOPLE MENTIONED BLACK TYRE SANDALS THAT THEY SAW ON OTHERS /NLY ONE WOMAN RECALLED SEEING A mAG DURING HER CEREMONY WITH  COUPLES SHE WAS A  YEAR OLD BASE PERSON WHO WAS PAIRED WITH A  YEAR OLD hNEW SOLDIERv THEY WERE WED IN A WAT AFTER THE RICE HARVEST OF  IN +AMPONG #HAM3HESAID h!NGKARGAVEUSBLACKCLOTHESFOROURWEDDINGDAY KINDOF LIKE AN INITIATION x BUT WE ASKED !NGKAR TO ALLOW US TO SEPARATE LATER THAT YEAR BECAUSE ) HAD TO CARE FOR MY PARENTS IN OUR VILLAGEv /NLY ONE OTHER MANDESCRIBEDASCENESIMILARTOTHE$# #AMPHOTO INCLUDINGAFORMALTABLE SETTINGANDFOURSEATED+HMER2OUGEOFlCIALSITWASINAWATIN0EARANG 0REY 6ENG IN THE DRY SEASON OF  WITH  COUPLES (IS WIFE WAS  YEARS OLD WHEN THEY MARRIED AND SHE DIED GIVING BIRTH IN  )HAVECONCLUDEDTHATTHEWEDDINGPHOTOSTHATSURVIVEDSERVEDEITHERAS PROPAGANDA OR AS AN EARLY PROTOTYPE FOR WHAT WEDDINGS WERE SUPPOSED TO BECOME 'IVEN THAT THE HALL IS MOST FORMAL THE PICTURES COULD HAVE BEEN TAKEN DURING A WEDDING FOR +HMER 2OUGE CADRES (OWEVER THE SOLDIERS

 )N SUPPORT OF THIS VIEW 'ROSLIER  P  NOTES hx THE NEAK TA PLACE OR LAND SPIRIT IS OFTEN FOUND CLOSE TO THE PAGODAv

+HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS FROM ARCHIVES OF $# #AM DONATED IN 

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



)INTERVIEWEDHADEITHEREXCLUSIVESMALLWEDDINGSOFUPTOTHREECOUPLESWITH AMPLE FOOD AND ACCOMMODATION OR GRIM AFFAIRS WITH ONE OR TWO SOLDIERS INCORPORATED INTO A LARGE GROUP OF NON +HMER 2OUGE !S BIOGRAPHIES ACCUMULATED THE ACCURACY OF MANY PUBLISHED ACCOUNTS ABOUT+HMER2OUGEFORCEDMARRIAGES PREGNANCIESANDBIRTHSBECAMESERIOUSLY SUSPECT .O ONE HAD EVER STUDIED THEM SYSTEMATICALLY !S ) PROCEEDED WITH MY PROJECT MANY QUESTIONS STIRRED IN ME &OR INSTANCE HOW DO MOST OF MY RESPONDENTS DESCRIBE THEIR MARRIAGES UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE $O THEY USE SUCH TERMS AS GENUINE FORCED ARRANGED ORDAINED OR ASSIGNED (OW DO ACCOUNTS DIFFER BETWEEN THOSE WHO ARE STILL TOGETHER THOSESEPARATED ANDTHOSEWIDOWED(OWAREACCOUNTSDIFFERENTFOR THOSE WHOSE FAMILY ARRANGED THE MARRIAGE AND GAINED PERMISSION FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE ˆ AND THOSE WHOSE SPOUSE WAS CHOSEN BY A MEMBER OF THE REGIME (OW DID RITUALS TRANSFORM ACROSS TIME AND PLACE IN $+ (OW DO PEOPLEMAKESENSEOFROMANTICENCOUNTERSFROMTHOSETIMES7HATHAPPENED WHEN WOMEN WERE PREGNANT DURING THE REGIME (OW DID BIRTHS HAPPEN 7HAT DO MEN AND WOMEN DESCRIBE AS DREADFUL !ND WHAT HAUNTS THEM TODAY )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WILL TRY TO ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS TO THE BEST OF MY ABILITY 4O DATE THERE HAVE BEEN PERHAPS lVE BASIC WAYS OF WRITING ABOUT THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD HISTORICAL DOCUMENTARY SOCIO POLITICAL COMMENTARY BIOGRAPHY AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND SENSATIONALIST JOURNALISM (OW WHEN AND WHERE ACCOUNTS ARE TAKEN TEND TO PARTICIPATE WITH THE CONTENT THAT IS HIGHLIGHTED &RAN½OIS 0ONCHAUD  PRESENTS SOME INFORMATION ABOUT MARRIAGES FROM REFUGEES HE RECORDED IN n !CCOUNTSMOREOFTENREFERTOINDIVIDUALSOLDIERSWHOEXERTPRESSUREON THEPARENTSOFTHEGIRLTHEYWANTTOMARRYBYOFFERINGSMALLGIFTS AND IT IS HARD TO REFUSE ANYTHING TO A MAN HOLDING A GUN 3OMETIMES GIRLS MOVE IN WITH A MAN AND CLAIM TO BE MARRIED IN ORDER TO AVOID BEING PAIRED WITH A SOLDIER THEY DONT LIKE 3OME HAVE COMMITTED SUICIDE !MONG THE PEOPLE ON THE OTHER HAND YOUNG MEN AND WOMEN ARE EQUAL AND FREE TO CHOOSE THEIR MATESx7HEN AT LEAST  COUPLES HAVE GONETHROUGHTHESEFORMALITIES THECANTONCHIEFSETSTHEDATEANDPLACE FORTHECOMMUNALWEDDINGx4HENTHECOUPLESEATRICESOUPTOGETHER AND EVERYBODY GOES BACK TO WORK PP n 

"ECKER  WROTE INSIDE AN HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK SHE HAD THIS TO SAY ABOUT THE SO CALLED h&ORCED -ARRIAGESv



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA -ARRIAGE WAS MORE OR LESS OUTLAWED SO THE PARTY COULD INDUCT YOUNG MEN AND WOMEN INTO THE ARMY MORE EASILY P   !DOLESCENTS FARED BETTER THEY AT LEAST HAD BEEN RAISED BY THEIR FAMILIES BEFORE THE REVOLUTIONANDHADTHEWHEREWITHALTOSURVIVESOMEOFTHEREVOLUTIONS PRACTICES 4HEY ESCAPED THE FORCED MARRIAGES IMPOSED ON THE ADULTS P  

!SPARTOFSOCIO POLITICALCOMMENTARYFROMTHE5NITED.ATIONS2ESEARCH )NSTITUTE FOR 3OCIAL $EVELOPMENT "OYDEN AND 'IBBS  STATE THAT ! LARGE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WERE KILLED OR FORCIBLY SEPARATED DURING THE +HMER2OUGEERA!RRANGEDOR RATHERFORCED MARRIAGESWERECOMMON ANDMANYOFTHOSESOUNITEDWERESUBSEQUENTLYSEPARATEDANDDIVORCED P  

)TISNOTHELPFULWHENTHEPHRASEhFORCEDMARRIAGESvISATHROWAWAYLINE ININTERNATIONALDISCOURSE4HOUGHNOTARELIABLERESEARCHSTUDY -AM PPn WRITES h4HOUSANDSOFMARRIAGESWEREARRANGEDDURINGTHE0OL0OT PERIOD BUTITISNOTCLEARWHYPEOPLEWEREFORCEDTOMARRYSINCECOUPLESWERE DENIEDTHERIGHTTOLIVETOGETHERANDWERESOMETIMESSEPARATEDFOREVERv-ANY AUTOBIOGRAPHIES DESCRIBING +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS HAVE COME FROM THOSE WHOLEFT#AMBODIA2ANY#HANRETURNEDTO#AMBODIAFROM&RANCEWITHHER FAMILY PRIOR TO THE +HMER 2OUGE TAKE OVER WHEN SHE WAS IN LATE CHILDHOOD 3HE WROTE HER AUTOBIOGRAPHY  LONG AFTER HER RETURN TO &RANCE 2ANY DESCRIBES THREE MARRIAGE PROPOSALS DURING THE REGIME AND HER DISAGREEMENTS IN THE lRST TWO INSTANCES )N THE lRST CASE SHE REJECTED THE +HMER 2OUGE LEADERS CHOSEN PARTNER !ND THE CHIEF SAID hTHIS WOMAN DOES NOT LOVE THIS MAN SO WE SHOULD NOTFORCEHERTOMARRY BUTSHEWILLSTAYHEREINTHEVILLAGE ANDWORK ANDNEVERMARRYvx"UTLATER)DIDNOTHAVETOSTAYTHEREPPn 

4HISINCIDENTOCCURREDIN)NTHESECONDMARRIAGEPROPOSEDINTHE SAMEVILLAGE SHEREFUSEDTOOBLIGEANDTHECHIEFSAIDTHATPEOPLECOULDCHOOSE AND HAD THE RIGHT TO DECLINE )T IS NOTED THAT SHE MADE SUICIDE ATTEMPTS AT THAT TIME )N THE THIRD OFFER FOR A HUSBAND SHE ACCEPTED 4HE WEDDING CONSISTED OF  COUPLES4HE LEADER OF THE COMMUNE SAID HER MOTHER COULD NOTGO WHILEHERFATHERANDGRANDMOTHERATTENDEDTHEWEDDINGSHEDESCRIBES SEEING HER MOTHER CRY AT THAT TIME 4HE WEDDING MEAL CONSISTED OF SOME MEAT AND RICE x NO FRUIT NO APPLE JUST WATER x AND FOR ONE MONTH WE DID NOT CONSUMMATE OUR

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



MARRIAGE BUT AFTER  WEEKS WE HAD SEXUAL RELATIONS AND ) BECAME PREGNANT SOON AFTER P  

"Y RECORDING DESCRIPTIONS OF THE WEDDING CONTEXTS WITHOUT MAKING INTERPRETATIONS MARRIAGE ACCOUNTS SHOW HOW THE +HMER 2OUGE TAMPERED WITH PRE REVOLUTIONARY +HMER TRADITIONS &OR EXAMPLE TRADITIONALLY MOTHERS ANDOR ELDER WOMEN IN THE VILLAGE PLAYED KEY ROLES IN ARRANGING MARRIAGES THEY CONSULTED WITH FORTUNE TELLERS AND PRESIDED DURING THE CUTTING OF THE HAIR OR TYING OF THE STRING4HE ABSENCE OR DEATH OF PARENTS SHIFTED PRIMARY ROLESINCEREMONIES!LSO GIVENTHATFRUITWASPLACEDTRADITIONALLYINFRONTOF ALTARSASOFFERINGSTOANCESTORS THISCULTURALOBLIGATIONWASOMITTEDUNDERTHE REGIME AND THUS WAS A VIOLATION TO THE COLLECTIVE ANCESTRAL REALM #HAN GAVE HER RATIONALE FOR THE +HMER 2OUGE BREAKDOWN OF FAMILY VIA BREAKDOWN OF MARRIAGE h&OR THE SECURITY OF !NGKAR INTELLECTUALS HAD TO BE ELIMINATED AS WELL AS &AMILY AND 2ELIGION SINCE ALL ARE ENEMIESv P   4HIS COMMENT SUGGESTS THAT THERE WAS A SECURITY REASON FOR THE EROSION OF FAMILYANDRELIGION!SIMILARINTERPRETATIONHASBEENGIVENBY(ENG3AMRIN AS CITED IN +IERNAN  P  hx ) HEARD 0OL 0OT SAY THIS MYSELFx (E SAID NO MONKS WERE TO BE ALLOWED NO FESTIVALS WERE TO BE ALLOWED ANY MORE MEANING WIPE OUT RELIGIONv (ENG AND $EMEURE  P  SAID THAT MARRIAGES WERE COMPULSORY (ENGSWEDDINGCONSISTEDOFCOUPLESWHOWERESEPARATEDANDSENTTOTHEIR RESPECTIVE WORK CAMPS AFTER ONE DAY AND ONE NIGHT ! BUFFALO WAS KILLED FOR THISCEREMONY3IMON "AROUHAND0HO RECOUNTEDHOWHISVILLAGECHIEF ASKED HIM TO MARRY BECAUSE IT WOULD BE hGOOD FOR MEv h-Y TWO SISTERS PRETENDEDTOHAVEHUSBANDSELSEWHEREBUTTHEYWERESOTIREDTHEYSUBMITTED THEMSELVESTOMARRYMENMUCHOLDERTHANTHEMvP 4HEYWEREGIVENA RESTDAYANDTHEGROOMSFAMILYSENTFOODTOTHEBRIDE ANDBRIDEANDGROOM WERE GIVEN CLEAN CLOTHES %NG(OA P TELLSOFAFATHERWHOREFUSEDTOALLOWHISDAUGHTER TOMARRYANDBOTHFATHERANDDAUGHTERWEREKILLED)NSOMECASES THEREGIME ALLOWED FAMILY ARRANGED MARRIAGES IF CERTAIN CONDITIONS WERE MET SUCH AS A SHAREDPOLITICALALLIANCE&ORINSTANCE 0HANDARA P SKETCHESHOW hSOMETIMES!NGKARREFUSEDTHEWEDDINGSIFAPPROACHEDBYFAMILIES IFTHETWO DIDNOTHAVETHESAMEREVOLUTIONARYSPIRITv-YSTUDYREVEALEDACOMPLEXSET OFDYNAMICS PARTICULARLYWHEN)TOOKACCOUNTOFTHEFUNCTIONSANDSTRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH WEDDING AND BIRTH RITUALS /VER TIME MY OBSERVATIONS IN #AMBODIA POINTED TO A DYNAMIC EXCHANGE BETWEEN RITUALS PEOPLE AND SPIRIT PHENOMENA AND ) HAVE CLUSTERED RITUALS ACCORDINGLY ) NOTICED HOW RITUALS



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WEREBOTHhCONCRETEvANDhDYNAMICv#ONCRETERITUALSINCLUDEDTHECEREMONIAL USEOFRITUALOBJECTS$YNAMICRITUALSINVOLVEDHUMAN TO HUMANANDHUMAN TO SPIRIT EXCHANGE PATTERNS WHICH APPEAR TO BE MORE POTENT THAN DIRECTLY OBSERVABLEPHENOMENA%VENWHENRITUALOBJECTSSUCHASAMULETS CANDLESAND POPILS WERE UNAVAILABLE FOR PROTECTION THE MAJORITY OF WOMEN DESCRIBED THE ABSENCEOFSOOTHINGTOUCHORTHEIRISOLATIONTOBEMOSTHARROWINGFORTHEM

Advancement of the Khmer Rouge Marriages ) FOCUSED ON HOW THE REGIME CONSTRUCTED OR REVAMPED RITES OF PASSAGE FOR COURTSHIP MARRIAGE PREGNANCY AND BIRTHS -Y CAPACITY TO CREATE SCULPTURES ASSISTED MY REPRESENTATION OF THEMES THAT EMERGED FROM MEN AND WOMENS STORIES ANDHELPEDMETOSUSPENDJUDGEMENT4OMYSURPRISE NEWPERSPECTIVES ON THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD OPENED UP BECAUSE OF MY FOCUS ON PEOPLES MARRIAGE RELATEDEXPERIENCES&ORINSTANCE )DISCOVEREDAPROGRESSIVEBUILDING OF COMMUNES BY THE +HMER 2OUGE TO ACCOMMODATE REGIONS WITH HIGHER LIVE BIRTH AREAS !LSO ) FOUND THAT OVER  PER CENT  OUT OF  OF RESPONDENTS CONSIDERED THEIR MARRIAGES BY THE +HMER 2OUGE TO HAVE BEEN LEGITIMATE ARRANGEMENTS REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY REMAINED TOGETHER 4HE REST WERE UNSURE 3OME COMMON RESPONSES WERE4HE "UDDHA ARRANGED OUR MARRIAGEBEFOREWEWEREBORN9ES MYMARRIAGEWASREALBECAUSEWEWORKED HARD TOGETHER LIKE MY PARENTS 7E SHOOK HANDS AND MADE A PROMISE -Y FATHER TOLD ME TO AGREE WITH THE LEADERS CHOICE AND ) DID NOT PROTEST SO ) COULD RESPECT MY FATHER -Y HUSBAND GOT ALONG WITH MY FAMILY 7E HAD CHILDRENANDSOWEWEREMARRIED7EARETOGETHERBECAUSEWEUNDERSTANDTHE MINDOFTHEOTHER3OMETIMESVIOLENCEWASAREASONFORSEPARATING/NEMAN SAID h!NGKAR TOLD US TO LOVE EACH OTHER AND SO ) STAYED WITH MY WIFE FOR  YEARS  BUT NOW ) HAVE LEFT HER IN  BECAUSE SHE COULD NOT CARE FOR OUR CHILDREN SINCE SHE DRINKS AND GAMBLES TOO MUCH AND THEN GETS NASTYv 0UBLICASSUMPTIONSABOUTTHE+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGSASUNIFORMLYFORCED HAVE BEEN UNYIELDING -ORE RECENTLY THIS HAS BECOME A LEGAL ISSUE WITH A RECENT PRESS RELEASE /CTOBER   CITING FOUR CASES OF hFORCED MARRIAGESv THAT HAVE BEEN RECORDED AS #RIMES !GAINST (UMANITY



0RESS2ELEASESTATES h&OURVICTIMSOFFORCEDMARRIAGEUNDERTHE+HMER2OUGEREGIMElLETHEIR COMPLAINT TO THE %###v h/N  /CTOBER  FOUR VICTIMS FROM ONE VILLAGE IN +AMPOT PROVINCEHADTHECOURAGETOlLECOMPLAINTSARISINGFROMFORCEDMARRIAGEWITHTHE6ICTIMS5NIT IN ORDER TO BECOME #IVIL 0ARTIES !MONG THEM ARE ONE COUPLE AND TWO WOMENv #O ,AWYER FOR #IVIL 0ARTIES AND THESE FOUR COMPLAINANTS .Y #HANDY AND 3ILKE 3TUDZINSKY  0ERSONAL CORRESPONDENCE WITH 3 3TUDZINSKY  /CTOBER 

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



4HE FOLLOWING ARE SOME ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE STRENGTH OF hFORCEDv INTERPRETATIONS &OR INSTANCE CONSIDER AN ELECTRONIC MAIL ) RECEIVED FROM A &RENCH JOURNALIST WHO WAS IN 0HNOM 0ENH ) AM REALISING AN ARTICLE ABOUT FORCED MARRIAGES DURING THE 0OL 0OT REGIME AND THE POSSIBILITY OR NOT TO TRIAL THIS IN FRONT OF THE +HMER 2OUGEJUSTICECOURT!CTUALLYBASEDIN0HNOM0ENHFORABOUTWEEKS AND ) AM LOOKING FOR WOMEN WHO WERE FORCED TO MARRY WITH MEN THEY DID NOT KNOW OR LOVE OR WITH DISABLED SOLDIERS IN ORDER TO HAVE THEIRTESTIMONYTHISWASONEINASERIESOFREQUESTSABOUTTHEhFORCEDv WEDDINGS!SYOUAREASPECIALISTONTHESUBJECT )WOULDLIKETOKNOW IFYOUCOULDPROVIDEMESOMECONTACTSOFWOMENAROUNDORIN0HNOM 0ENH !UGUST  

)N MY REPLY ) SUGGESTED THAT CLASSIFYING +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS AS hFORCEDv IN A COUNTRY WHERE ARRANGED MARRIAGES ARE COMMON IS PERHAPS MISLEADING ) ADDED THAT ) WAS STILL ACCOUNTING FOR CULTURAL FACTS SUCH AS HOW SPOUSES UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE WERE SEPARATED FOR PERIODS OF TIME AND COULD EASILY NOT HAVE RETURNED TO EACH OTHER )N MY STUDY ONLY TWO PEOPLESAIDTHATTHEYDID NOTRETURN TOTHEIRPARTNERS FROMTHE $+WEDDING FOLLOWING AS MUCH AS A YEAR OF SEPARATION 9ET AFTER RECEIVING MY LETTER THE JOURNALISTCONTINUEDTOCALLTHEMARRIAGEShFORCEDvINHISCORRESPONDENCEWITH ME 9EARS EARLIER ) WAS INTERVIEWED FOR AN ARTICLE FOR THE #AMBODIA $AILY -6ACHON n.OVEMBER WHERE)WASQUOTEDASSAYINGh%VIDENCE SHOWS THAT SOME +HMER 2OUGE CHIEFS OF WOMEN AND MENS CAMPS DISCUSSED ATLENGTHHOWPEOPLEWOULDBEPAIRED4HEYWOULDPUTTOGETHERPEOPLEFROM THESAMEVILLAGESORAREAS)NTHISREGARD THESEMARRIAGESCOULDBECONSIDERED ARRANGEDv$ESPITETHISPERSPECTIVE THEARTICLEWASTITLED h&ORCEDTO7EDUNDER THE+HMER2OUGE #OUPLES3TICK4OGETHERvMYITALICS /NANOTHEROCCASION ) WAS CONTACTED BY (ENRI ,OCARD  AUTHOR OF 0OL 0OTS ,ITTLE 2ED "OOK 4HE 3AYINGS OF !NGKAR TO DISCUSS THE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS (IS BOOK GIVES THE FOLLOWING ACCOUNT h&ORCED MARRIAGES FELL WELL WITHIN THE 0ARTYS POLICY OF SEXUAL REPRESSION THAT AFFECTED ALL STRATA OF REVOLUTIONARY SOCIETY ˆ WITH THE EXCEPTION PERHAPS OF COURSE OF THE !NGKAR ,OEU WHO RETAINED ALL THE FEUDAL PRIVILEGES OF DEmOWERING VIRGINS4HIS OFlCIAL 0URITANISM WENT COMPLETELY AGAINST THE COUNTRYS TRADITION ˆ AT LEAST AS FAR AS THE STRONGER SEX WAS CONCERNEDv P   )PRESENTTHESEILLUSTRATIONSBECAUSE)HAVEALWAYSBEENFASCINATEDBYTHE CULTURAL STRENGTH OF THE %URO !MERICAN INTERPRETATION OF LOVE AS THE BASIS FOR PARTNERING "Y HOLDING TO THE TERM FORCED MARRIAGES JOURNALISTS MAY



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BE COMPROMISING AN INSIDERS PERCEPTION ON THE MATTER ) THINK THAT THIS PHENOMENON IS NOT AS SIMPLE AS A JOURNALISTS PROPENSITY FOR SENSATIONALISM SINCEHISTORICALWRITERSMAINTAINASTANDARDFORCEDPLATFORMON+HMER2OUGE MARRIAGES AS WELL WHICH DOES NOT ALLOW FOR THE FULLER RANGE OF MARRIAGES THAT ) FOUND IN MY STUDY FROM IMPOSED TO ELECTIVE WITH DISTINCT REGIONAL VARIATIONS DURING $+ 4HERE ARE MANY INSTANCES WHERE ONE OR TWO MARRIAGE CASES ARE CITED AS EVIDENCEOFANHISTORICALTREND%LIZABETH"ECKER FORINSTANCE PRESENTS A CASE EXAMPLE OF $ETH AND "OPHANA DESCRIBING AN EARLY PERIOD IN THE REGIME AND INFERS AS FOLLOWS )NFACT THE+HMER2OUGEDIDBECOMESOSEXUALLYREPRESSIVETHATSADISM AFFECTEDMUCHOFCOOPERATIVELIFE4HEDATEFORMARRIAGEWASMOVEDUPTO TWENTY TWOYEARSOFAGEFORMEN TWENTYYEARSFORWOMENˆARULEORIGI NALLYADOPTEDFORTHEARMYALONEx0REDICTABLYTHEBIRTHRATEDROPPED DRAMATICALLY-ANYWOMENSTOPPEDMENSTRUATINGENTIRELY PARTLYBECAUSE OFMALNUTRITION PARTLYBECAUSEOFTRAUMA)NTHELARGERSENSE THE+HMER 2OUGEWASTHREATENEDBYALLEXPRESSIONSOFLOVEˆBETWEENHUSBANDAND WIFE PARENTSANDCHILDREN FRIENDSANDCOLLEAGUESP 

"ECKER GOES ON TO SAY h4HE PURITANISM OF THE REGIME RESTRICTED MANY NEWLYWEDS FROM LIVING TOGETHER AND PROVIDED CONJUGAL VISITS A FEW TIMES A MONTHWHENTHEWIFEBELIEVEDHERSELFFERTILEvP (ERINFERENTIALSUMMARY BECOMES THE FOUNDATION FOR OTHERS ASSUMPTIONS ˆ INCLUDING ,OCARDS "Y SELECTIVELY DESCRIBING +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY AS hPURITAN v INTERPRETATIONS OF +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY CARRY AN ETIC UNDERTONE BASED ON DUALISTIC THINKING ˆWHICHTENDSTODICHOTOMISETHEWORLDMORALISTICALLYINTOGOODOREVIL"Y HIGHLIGHTINGEXTREMEVIEWS ABROADERSPECTRUMOFMULTIPLEMEANINGSBEHIND THE MADNESS OF +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY IS LOST AND THERE IS LITTLE REGARD FOR ANIMISTIC AND "UDDHIST WORLDVIEWS 5NFORTUNATELY SUCH BROAD STATEMENTS FORECLOSE A NUANCE UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPLEX PROCESSES BY WHICH THE REGIME OPERATED AND FAIL TO ASSIST AN UNDERSTANDING OF CONTRADICTIONS BETWEEN PEOPLES EXPERIENCES OF +HMER 2OUGEWEDDINGSACROSSPLACEANDTIME4HEWEDDINGSEVOLVEDOVERTIMEAND



&OREXAMPLE THEREISA*APANESECONCEPTIN"UDDHISMCALLED (ENKEN WHICHMEANShEXTREME VIEWv)TISTHEPROCESSOFALIGNINGWITHEXTREMEVIEWSTHATISDESTRUCTIVERATHERTHANTHECONTENT EMBEDDED IN THE EXTREME VIEW &OR INSTANCE hTHE VIEW THAT @SELF  WILL CONTINUE TO EXIST AFTER DEATH OR THAT IT WILL CEASE TO EXISTv CARRIES THE SAME EXTREME WORLDVIEW ;(ISAO )NAGAKI ! $ICTIONARY OF *APANESE "UDDHIST4ERMS +YOTO .AGATA "UNSHODO  P =

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



IT WAS NOT UNTIL  THAT PATTERNS FORMED MORE CONSISTENTLY ACROSS PLACE WITH REGARD TO NEW +HMER 2OUGE PRE POST WEDDING PROTOCOL

Cultural Leanings on Passion, Love, and Union 4HROUGHOUT MY WORK ) CONTINUED TO PONDER THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORCED AND ARRANGED MARRIAGES AND lNALLY ADDED ANOTHER CATEGORY MILITARY DRAFT OR CONSCRIPTION ) HAVE COME TO THE CONCLUSION THAT THE +HMER 2OUGE CONSCRIPTED DRAFTED YOUNG PEOPLE INTO MATRIMONY WHILE CONSTRUCTING GROUP WEDDING RITES THAT BECAME PART OF ONES NATIONAL SERVICE #ONSCRIPTED WEDDINGS BECAME PART OF ONES DUTY TO COUNTRY TO PROPAGATE LITERALLY THE #OMMUNIST STATE /NE MAY ARGUE THAT CONSCRIPTION AND FORCED ARE THE SAME BUT ) RECORDED MANY CASES OF hCONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORSv WHO FOUND THE PHILOSOPHICAL LOOPHOLES FOR AVOIDING THE +HMER 2OUGE PRESCRIBED DUTY THUS MAKING hCONSCRIPTIONv OR hDRAFTv A REASONABLE TERM &OR INSTANCE SOME WERERELEASEDFROMMARITALDUTYAFTERAPPEALINGTOALEADERASTHESOLESONOR DAUGHTER WHO NEEDED TO AID AN OLDER PARENT 7HILE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE TENACITY THAT DRIVES FOREIGNERS TO HOLD TIGHT TO THE LABEL h+HMER 2OUGE FORCED WEDDINGS v ) COMTEMPLATED MY OWN SOCIALISATION ,IKE OTHERS IN %URO !MERICAN CULTURE )D BEEN RAISED ON IDEALS OF FREEDOM FEMINIST DEBATES ALONGSIDE LOVE STORIES EMBEDDED IN FAIRY TALES NOVELS POP LYRICS OPERA PROSE AND ROMANTIC POETRY %VEN MY OWN GENERATIONAL NARRATIVE INmUENCED MY WAYS OF THINKING &OR INSTANCE MY 'ERMAN !MERICAN GRANDMOTHER WHO WAS BORN IN  INTO A #ATHOLIC FAMILY AND CONVERTED TO *UDAISM BEFORE HER WEDDING SPOKE OFTEN TO ME OF HER ARRANGED MARRIAGE TO MY *EWISH 'ERMAN GRANDFATHER WHEN SHE WAS STILL IN HER TEENS HE WAS  YEARS OLDER ) RECALL HER TELLING ME THAT SHE WAS NOT hINLOVEvWITHHIM BUTRATHERGREWTOLOVEHIMANDTHATSHEWAShLUCKYvTO BEWITHSUCHAHANDSOME KINDMANWHOHADAPROFESSIONALCAREERASADENTAL SURGEON )N FACT THE 9IDDISH WORDS SHADCHEN MATCHMAKER AND SHIDDACH ARRANGEDMARRIAGE VERIFYSUCHCULTURALPROCLIVITY3IMILARLY THE+HMERPHRASE FORMATCHMAKER #HE#HAU ISKNOWNASTHEGO BETWEEN%ARLYONINMYOWN LIFE ) CONTEMPLATED MY GRANDMOTHERS LIFE AS A WOMAN AND RECALL ASKING HER ABOUT THE lNER DETAILS WHEN ) WAS A TEENAGER 3HE TOLD ME SHE WAS SCARED 

) NOTE THAT THE S WAS AN INTERNATIONAL PERIOD OF CONSCRIPTION WHEN !USTRALIA AND THE 5NITED 3TATES WERE DRAFTINGCONSCRIPTING YOUNG PEOPLE INTO MILITARY DUTY DURING THE 6IETNAM WAR3OMEAVOIDEDSERVINGTHEMILITARYBYBEINGACONSCIENTIOUSOBJECTORORmEEINGTOANOTHER COUNTRY -ANY YOUNG  YEAR OLDS WHO DID NOT HAVE THE RIGHT TO VOTE WERE SEPARATED FROM THEIR FAMILIES AND RISKED IMPRISONMENT IF THEY DEFECTED



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ONHERWEDDINGNIGHTBECAUSEITWASEXPECTEDTHATSHEHAVESEX ANDFORTHE lRST FEW MONTHS SHE SLEPT SEPARATE FROM HER HUSBAND )NTERESTINGLY IN THIS STUDY SEVERAL WOMEN AND MEN TOLD ME ABOUT THEIR POST WEDDING EXPERIENCE !ND THOUGH THE +HMER 2OUGE INSTRUCTED SOME TO HAVE SEXUAL INTERCOURSE MOST SAID THEY ONLY PRETENDED TO DO SO !LSO MANY OF MY #AMBODIAN RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF THEIR PARTNERS KIND AND GENEROUS NATURE -R - IN +AMPONG 3PEU SAID h) DID NOT KNOW HER BEFORE OUR WEDDING DAY AND SHE IS NOT SO BEAUTIFUL BUT SHE IS SO KIND AND SO ) STAY WITH HERv !NOTHER MAN SAID h)N THOSE TIMES +HMER 2OUGE MY WIFE COUNTED THE RICE GRAINS AT THE END OF THE DAY AND GAVE ME MORE IF ) WORKED HARDER THAN SHE DID ) AM LUCKY TO BE MARRIED TO SUCH A KIND PERSONv )THOUGHTALSOABOUTTHECULTURALPORTRAYALOFLOVEFURTHERWHILELIVINGIN RURAL +YUSHU *APAN FOR NEARLY TWO YEARS AND COMMUTING FROM THERE TO DO lELDWORK IN #AMBODIA4HOSE WHO ARRANGE FOR A MAN AND WOMAN TO MEET FORMALLY AN OMIE ARE SEEN AS HARMONY MAKERS FOR THEIR EXTENDED FAMILIES WHOSE ROLES ENSURE A CULTURALLY SANCTIONED COURTSHIP PERIOD -OREOVER THERE ARE TRANSFORMATIONAL SPIRIT UNION STORIES AS WELL AS VIEWS ON LOVE CONTAINED IN *APANESE FOLK TALES THAT COME CLOSE TO THOSE IN #AMBODIA WITH BOTH PLACES SATURATED MORE IN SPIRIT PERCEPTION THAN "UDDHIST LORE AND IN CYCLIC VIEWS OF LIFE /NE LEGEND IN #AMBODIA INVOLVES THE NIGHTLY COUPLING OF A PRINCE TO A NINE HEADED SERPENT WATER SPIRIT NAGA THAT RESIDES IN A PALACE TOWER AND APPEARS EACH NIGHT AS A WOMAN 'AUDES   $ESPITE CHANGES TOFOLKTALESOVERTHECENTURIESASINTHEMYTHOF+AMBUJAORSONSOF+OMBU FROM WHICH #AMBODIAS NAME EMERGED THE MYTHICAL ASPECTS CONTINUE TO INVOLVE SUPERNATURAL ENTITIES THAT DIRECT THE COURSE OF RELATIONSHIPS THERE ARE EVEN VERSIONS OF FORCES COMING TOGETHER TO CREATE LUNAR AND SOLAR RACES ON #AMBODIAN LAND 3IMILARLY *APANESE FOLK TALES ON LOVE AND COMMITMENT SUCHAS(INUKI GUNOR4HE(ANDLESS-AIDEN RARELYCONCLUDEWITHRESOLUTION IN lNDING ONES TRUE LOVE AND INVOLVE SUN GODDESSES AND OTHER SUPERNATURAL GODS )N ADDITION LOVE RELATIONSHIPS TEND TO END BEFORE THEY ACTUALISE #HARACTERS OFTEN SET OUT ON A LONG JOURNEY WITH THE NOTION THAT SUFFERING IS TO BE ENDURED RATHER THAN RESOLVED SO THAT NEW POSSIBILITIES CAN EMERGE +AWAI  PPn ,OVEISNOTACOMMODITYTOlNDORPOSSESS,OVE 

0OSITIONED IN *APANESE CULTURE ARE hSEX RELATED SPIRITSv THAT BECOME NUMINOUS VISITORS TO HUMAN HOSTS BONTAI  )N SUCH CASES A SPIRIT VISITS OR POSSESSES THE HOST EITHER INDUCED BY RITUALORBYSPONTANEOUSMANIFESTATION THESPIRITISOFTENAFORMERlANC£E ADIVORCEDSPOUSE OR RAPED ANCESTOR 4HE BONTAI HOST IS EXPECTED TO RELIEVE THE SUFFERING OF THE SPIRIT ,EBRA  P  

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



ARRIVES OFTEN WHEN ONE IS UTTERLY ALONE )N THESE STORIES MARRIAGE DOES NOT RESCUE ONE FROM LONELINESS RATHER LONELINESS RESURFACES WITHIN MARRIAGE AS A SUPREMEIRONY/NECANTESCAPEORBERESCUEDFROMTHEDESOLATECYCLESINLIFE ANDTHISKNOWLEDGEISNEITHERFATALISTICNOROPTIMISTIC"YCONTRAST LOVETALES ORIGINATING IN %UROPE ARE MUCH MORE EARTH BOUND SUCH AS 'RIMMS TALES OF 4HE 3IX 3WANS OR #INDERELLA AND END OFTEN IN HAPPY LOVE BASED MARRIAGES )N %URO !MERICAN CULTURES ROMANTIC LOVE MANIFESTS ITSELF AS LOVE WITH PASSION0ERHAPSTHISCOMBINATIONHOLDSMOREMARRIAGE UNIONVALUETHANLOVE WITHOUT PASSION OR PASSION WITHOUT LOVE 0ASSION MAY BE A DETERMINING MORAL VALUEINTHIS7ESTERNDISCOURSEONLOVE9ES INTHE+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGS WOMENANDMENWEREPAIREDSOMETIMESBYREQUEST SOMETIMESARBITRARILY AND SOMETIMESBASEDONCHILDHOODVILLAGEPROXIMITY THEYWERETOLDTOLOVEEACH OTHER TOHAVESEXINSOMECASES ANDTOLIVETOGETHERINTHESAMECOMMUNE OR TO SEPARATE "UT HOW MUCH OF OUR 7ESTERN EMPHASIS ON A CULTURAL TABOO AGAINST LOVELESS AND PASSIONLESS PAIRINGS GETS IN THE WAY OF SANCTIONING THE MAJORVIOLATION-YlNDINGSPOINTTOTHEOMISSIONOFTRADITIONALRITUALASTHE GRAVE VIOLATION AND ) CLAIM THAT SUCH OMISSION IS A #RIME !GAINST #ULTURE )N THE 3OUTHEAST !SIAN CONTEXT ANXIETY IS REDUCED WHEN PRESCRIPTIVE RITUALS ARE USED TO CALL ON SPIRIT FORCES THAT ASSIST HARMONY HEALTH AND LUCK PROMOTION IN THE COUPLE AND THEIR PLACE OF RESIDENCE $URING THE +HMER 2OUGE KEEPING IN MIND THE CONTEXT ONCE WED PEOPLE GAINED ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL WAYS OF PROTECTING THEMSELVES AND OTHERS AND HAD ACCESS MORE OFTEN TO TOUCHING AND BEING TOUCHED IN CARING WAYS &OR MANY INDIGENOUS  )NOTETHATACYCLICPERSPECTIVEONEXISTENCEISLACKINGINFOREIGNERSOPINIONSABOUTTHE+HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS AND THE CYCLIC PRESENCE OF TIME VIA AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AS WELL AS THEIR INTERPRETATIONSONTHETRAUMATICAFTERMATHOFTHE+HMER2OUGEPERIODINGENERAL;3EE*ACQUES .£POTE  REGARDING THIS CYCLIC PERSPECTIVE OF TIME=  !S SEEN IN CLASSIC LITERATURE FOR INSTANCE AN UNUSUAL INTRIGUE IS EMBEDDED IN THE -YTH OF $RACULAASTHETABOOREGARDINGPASSIONWITHOUTLOVE WHICHDEMOTESONESRATIONALITYANDLOCUS OF CONTROL WHICH ARE STATES THAT ARE VALUED CULTURALLY  $RACULA LURES AND POSSESSES BY UTTER PASSION%XCLUSIONOFLOVEGENERATESAKINDOFPASSIONINCARNATE WHICHGENERATESAFORBIDDENNESS h$RACULAxWORKSONUSFROMTHEINSIDE TAKINGOVEROURBODIES @INFECTINGOURDEEPESTDESIRESv "RAM 3TOKER  P XVIII NOTES BY &RAYLING  !ND YET EVEN THIS %UROPEAN TALE HAS A STAKE DRIVING RITUAL THAT WARDS OFF THE POSSESSING $RACULA  )NTHISSTUDYON+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGS LOVEWASRARELYDISCUSSEDASTHEREASONFORPARTNERING THOUGHSOMEPEOPLEASKED!NGKARSPERMISSIONTOMARRYTHEIRlANC£'ENERALLY GROUPWEDDINGS WERE FUNCTIONAL 3POUSES WERE MEANT TO ALIGN WITH THE WORK FORCE AGENDA OF THE REGIME AND SACRIlCE WAS DIRECTED TO OBLIGING !NGKAR  )N MANY PARTS OF !SIA PROTECTION AGAINST HARMFUL AGENTS IS FREQUENTLY TIED TO RITUALS THAT SHIELD THE LIVING AND THE DEAD AND PARTICULAR SPIRIT PLACES VIA OBLIGATORY EXCHANGES4HOUGH A +HMERWORDDOESNOTSOLELYDESCRIBETHISINTERACTION IN*APANTHECONCEPTAMAECOMESCLOSEST TO DESCRIBING SUCH DUTIFUL EXCHANGES $OI  



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+HMER OBLIGATIONEXTENDSTODECEASEDANCESTORSANDINVOLVESRITUALSTHATHAVE A UTILITARIAN GOAL OF INCREASING HARMONY IN THE SPIRIT WORLD !NG #HOULEAN 4HOMPSON   -OST IMPORTANTLY IN #AMBODIA THE PERCEPTION OF SELF INCLUDES ANCESTRAL TIME IN WAYS THAT MOST TRANSCULTURAL DISCOURSE ON THE COLLECTIVE SELFNEGLECTS4HEhLIVINGCOLLECTIVEvENCOMPASSESTHEANCESTRALREALM METAPHYSICAL AS MUCH AS THE PHYSICAL REALM ,E6INE   &OR MANY IN MY STUDY SPIRIT POSSESSION HAPPENS THIS ACCEPTED FACT PROVIDES ANOTHER REASON FOR STAYING CONTINUALLY ENGAGED IN PROTECTIVE ACTS 3PIRITS ROAM AND TRANSFORM IN UNPREDICTABLE WAYS )N THIS CONTEXT OF ON GOING SPIRIT TRANSFORMATION THE QUEST FOR A NON TRANSITORY LOVE RELATIONSHIP IS NOT SO CENTRAL A GOAL 2ATHER BY MAXIMISING LUCK THROUGH SUCH RITUALS AS FORTUNE TELLING AND MONK CEREMONIES ONE INVESTS IN HARMONY FOR HER AND HIS FUTURE -EN AND WOMEN IN MY STUDY PLACED LOYALTY KINDNESS FORTUNE POTENTIAL AND FAMILY HARMONY OVER LOVE ,OVE TRIANGLES ARE A POPULAR THEME IN #AMBODIA AS THERE ARE MANY NOVELS lLMS AND TABLOID STORIES DEPICTING SUCH DILEMMAS ,OVE WITHIN MARRIAGE IS OFTEN SEEN AS A BONUS WHILE FAMILY HARMONY IS THE CAKE OF TRADITION 5NDERSTANDABLY COUPLES SAID THAT HAVING GOOD FORTUNE KINDNESS AND HARMONY ALONGSIDE LOVE WAS PREFERRED 7HILE IN THE PRESENT DAY CONTEXT MOST RESPONDENTS PRIORITISED SUCH ACCORD WHEN THINKING ABOUT ARRANGING THEIR OWN CHILDRENS MARRIAGES

Sensual Decay and Loss of Courtship $URINGMYCONVERSATIONSWITHMENANDWOMENWHOSPOKEOFTHEIRWEDDING ANDPREGNANCYEXPERIENCES )NOTEDDISRUPTIONSINSOME#AMBODIANSCULTURAL FOUNDATION THAT OCCURRED BETWEEN THEIR ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD ) lRST GLIMPSEDTHISINTWOMENWHOARESTILLPARTNEREDTOWOMENFROMTHEIR+HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS 4HE +HMER 2OUGE TOOK -R " FROM HIS VILLAGE IN 3AANG +ANDAL IN  TO TRAIN AS A SOLDIER (E WAS  YEARS OLD AT THAT TIME 4HEOTHERMANFROM+ANDALWASTAKENINTOTRAININGATTHEAGEOF4ODAY THE ADULT ORIENTED SOLDIER CONTINUES TO ACKNOWLEDGE THAT HIS ANCESTORS AND "UDDHAPROTECTEDHIMDURINGTHEREGIME4HEYOUNGERSOLDIERSAIDTHATOTHER PEOPLE WHO SERVED SOCIETY PROTECTED HIM ) CONTEND THAT THIS YOUNGER MAN LOST ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL AVENUES FOR PROTECTION BECAUSE HE WAS RE CULTURED AT A CRITICAL DEVELOPMENTAL AGE -Y SEVEN YEAR QUALITATIVE STUDY OFFERED PLENTY OF TIME TO ESTABLISH PATTERNSOFCULTURALDISRUPTION ANDTODECIPHERTHEVIOLATIONTOHUMANSTAGES OFDEVELOPMENT4HE#AMBODIANSTHAT)INTERVIEWEDHAVESURVIVEDPHYSICALLY

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



BUTMANYSHOWSIGNSOFDEVELOPMENTALSETBACKSORSTUCKNESSˆQUITEDIFFERENT FROM CLINICAL PORTRAITS OF POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER 043$  &OR INSTANCE THEWAYSINWHICHWOMENANDMENSPOKEOFTHEIRFEARS ANDHOWTHEYRELATED TO ROAMING SPIRITS OFTEN CARRIED A QUALITY OF ANXIETY FOUND IN SOMEONE WHO IS BEING STALKED -OREPROFOUNDLY )FOUNDTHATTHEPOSSIBILITYTOEXPERIENCEPASSIONANDOR LOVEANDTHEREALMOFSENSUALITYWITHAPARTNERWASVIRTUALLYABSENTFORYOUNG ADULTS MARRIED IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA -ORE TO THE POINT OPTIONS FOR LIBIDINOUS OR AFFECTIONATE LOVE WERE STRIPPED FROM MANY AS THE BY PRODUCT OF STARVATION EXHAUSTION AND ON GOING APPREHENSION 4HUS THE CHANCES TO EXPERIENCE THE SENSUAL PLEASURES OF TOUCH TASTE SOUND AND SMELL REGARDLESS OF LOVE AND SEXUALITY WERE GROUND DOWN DURING REGIME LIFE THE COLLECTIVE JOLIE DE VIVRE ˆ THWARTED -ORETHANHALFTHERESPONDENTSSAIDTHATTHEYHADNOENERGYFORSEXIN THE $+ ERA h) WAS TIRED ALL THE TIME AND DIDNT HAVE ANYTHING IN MY HEART AND ) WORRIED ALL THE TIME MY MIND DID NOT STOPv OR h4HE LEADER OF OUR COMMUNE TOLD US TO HAVE SEX BUT HOW COULD WE WHEN THERE WAS SO MUCH TOWORRYABOUTv0RESCRIPTIONSFORSEXGENERATEDANOTHERDISTINGUISHINGFACTOR BETWEEN THE STARVING AND NON STARVING CLASSES ˆ THOSE DEPRIVED OF FOOD BY THE+HMER2OUGEWEREDENIEDTHEEXPERIENCEOFLIBIDINOUSDESIRE)NESSENCE PEOPLE BECAME SEXUALLY AND SENSUALLY DISABLED ANY PRESCRIPTIONS GIVEN TO COUPLES AFTER MARRIAGE TO HAVE SEX WERE GIVEN AT A TIME WHEN MOST WERE DISGUSTED BY THEIR OWN BODIES ˆ MAKING THE CRUELTY UNDERLYING THIS hNEWv ORDER ALL THE MORE PALPABLE 4RADITIONALLY THOUGHSEXISNOTENDORSEDFORADOLESCENTSOUTSIDEMARRIAGE IN#AMBODIA DESIREANDATTRACTIONAREINTEGRALTOAYOUTHSPSYCHO EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENTUNDERHEALTHYCONDITIONS$URING$+ THESUPPRESSIONOFLIBIDI NOUS THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS MEANT THAT YOUNG PEOPLE LOST ACCESS TO NORMED ADOLESCENTEXPERIENCES SUCHASCONSTRUCTIVEIMPULSIVITYANDYEARNING)THINK THAT DEVELOPMENTAL DISTURBANCE DISRUPTION TO CULTURALLY NORMED STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT WAS A PRIMARY hFORCEDv FACTOR h&ORCED RELATIONSv CAN BE MEASURED BY THE EXTENT TO WHICH ONES SPONTANEOUS INTERNAL EXPERIENCES AND EXTERNAL DISPLAYS OF AFFECTION WERE WORN DOWN DURING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA 4HROUGHOUT THIS BOOK ) TRACK HOW THE +HMER 2OUGE FORCED THEPACEOFHUMANDEVELOPMENTTHAT INTURN PUSHEDHUMANSINTORELATIONS BEYOND THE SCOPE OF THEIR CULTURAL NORMS $+S DESTRUCTIVE PROCESSES WERE COMPLEXANDOVERLAPPING ANDHAVERUPTUREDCULTURALANDINDIVIDUALDEVELOP MENT IN WAYS THAT HAVE YET TO BE DOCUMENTED IN ACCOUNTS ON #AMBODIAS GENOCIDE



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Angkar’s Looming Presence in the Spirit World 0EOPLE SPOKE TO ME ABOUT SPIRIT PLACES ANCESTOR SPIRITS AMULETS FORTUNES AND MERITS FROM PAST LIFE DEEDS )N FACT BY lLMING A NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHILE TRAVELLING TO THEIR +HMER 2OUGE WEDDING AND BIRTH SITES ) CAPTURED MOMENTS WHEN THEY SENSED A SPIRIT -ANY RELATED TO THE METAPHYSICAL REALM BYSEEKINGSAFETYANDPROTECTIONFORSELF FAMILY ANDDECEASEDRELATIVES-ORE SIGNIlCANTLY WORRYWASCOMPLICATEDBYTHEWAYSINWHICHTHE+HMER2OUGE ALTEREDPEOPLESCONTACTWITHTHISSPIRITWORLD4OOLITTLEORTOOMUCHCONTACT WITH SPIRITS TENDED TO INCREASE PEOPLES ANXIETY WITH NORMAL SPIRIT CONTACT RELATIVE TO PRE REGIME DAILY CONTACT  -ORE SPIRIT REFERENCES WERE CONTAINED IN WOMENS DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS THAN GIVEN BY MEN AND WOMEN ABOUT THEIR WEDDINGS )NTHECOHORTOFWOMENINMYSTUDY PREGNANCYWASNOTTAMPEREDWITH BYTHEREGIMEASACOMMONPRACTICE THOUGHLIVINGATSUBSISTENCELEVELSPUTTHE LIVES OF WOMEN AND THEIR INFANTS AT RISK -ANY BELIEVED THEIR LIVES AND THEIR INFANTSFATEWEREATTHEWHIMOFFOURFORCESTHE+HMER2OUGETHEMATERIAL WORLDMANIFESTNATURE THEIMMATERIALORSPIRITWORLDSPECTRALNATURE AND LUCK AND KARMA -OST WERE UNSURE IF OR HOW THE SPIRIT REALM DIRECTED SOME OF THE HARSH +HMER 2OUGE ACTS &OR INSTANCE IF A SPIRIT SITE IS VIOLATED IT ISCONSIDEREDTOBEASPIRITVIOLATIONˆWITHNEGATIVERAMIlCATIONSFORTHOSE INmICTINGHARM4HOMPSON !NG#HOULEAN  .EPOT£   !SSTATEDEARLIER INTHE+HMER2OUGEPERIOD !NGKARWASTHE/RGANISATION -Y RESPONDENTS ALSO GAVE ALTERNATIVE MEANINGS TO !NGKARS IDENTITY AND PRESENCE-R2WHOMARRIEDIN+ANDALSAID h!NGKARIS-AGIC-OUTHv-R, SAID h7E LEARNED VERY QUICKLY A LESSON ABOUT !NGKAR ˆ JUST EAT AND SHUT YOUR MOUTH ˆ THIS WAS THE STRATEGY FOR US TO SURVIVEv -R , !NYTIME OUR COUNTRY HAS POLITICAL UNREST OR PROBLEMS ON THE BORDER WETHINKSOMETHINGVERYBADISGOINGTOHAPPEN7EWORRYTHAT !NGKARWILLCOMEAGAINANDHURTOURCHILDRENWESOMETIMESTHINKTHAT WEMADEAMISTAKEBYNOTGOINGTOTHECAMPSANDANOTHERCOUNTRYTO

 2ESPECT FOR SPIRIT AND RITUAL INFORMED THE RELIGIOUS WHEREAS IN THE SO CALLED 7EST THIS RELATIONSHIP IS OFTEN REVERSED  4HESPIRITREALMFALLSUNDERALARGERPANTHEISTICVIEWOFTHECOSMOS CREATIONISNOTATTACHEDTO ANYPARTICULARGOD ANDVARIOUSFORCESMANIFESTINTHEUNIVERSEANDREVEALhDIVINENATUREv-OST SIGNIlCANTLY THEMIGHTOFNATURECANDESTROYORSUSTAINLIFE)NTHISREALM OBJECTSPOSSESSVITALITY FROM THE hCOSMIC SOURCEv AND CAN BE ENDOWED WITH SOULS !NIMISTIC SYSTEMS ARE VERY COMPLEX BECAUSE PEOPLE ASCRIBE CONSCIOUS LIFE TO NATURAL OBJECTS AND THEY DO NOT MAKE ASSUMPTIONS THAT SOULS EXIST SEPARATELY

4HE +HMER 2OUGE7EDDINGS &ORCED OR .OT



BE SAFE FROM !NGKAR &OR US WE ARE OLD AND ARE NOT SO AFRAID OF HARD WORK BUT WHEN 0OL 0OT COMES AGAIN WE FEEL PITY FOR OUR CHILDREN BECAUSE THEY WOULD NOT BE ABLE TO ENDURE THE HARDSHIP

4HIS STATEMENT IS A POWERFUL INDICATOR OF PEOPLES SUSPICION RECOGNITION ANDCONCERNSTHATEVENTODAY!NGKARHASTHEPOWERTORETURNATANYMOMENT !ND SUCH ANTICIPATORY FEARS OPEN A DISCUSSION ON THE TRAGIC AFTERMATH OF $EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEA'IVENTHERIGHTSETOFCONDITIONS DISTRESSISPREDICT ABLE IN A CONTEXT WHERE SPIRITS TRANSFORM 2ESPONDENTS OFTEN SPOKE ABOUT REMAININGQUIETASASTRATEGYTOSURVIVE&ORTHOSEWHOCONTENDEDTHAT!NGKAR COULD READ THEIR MINDS THERE WAS ANOTHER MEANING BEHIND THE NOTION OF STAYING SILENT ˆ TO STAY SILENT WITHIN ONES OWN MIND OR TO STOP THINKING !NGKAR DISRUPTED PEOPLES CAPACITY TO KEEP SECRETS WITHIN THEMSELVES AS WELL AS TO HOLD SECRETS WITH THEIR PARTNERS )F PEOPLE PERCEIVED !NGKAR TO BE AN ALL HEARING ALL SEEING AND A POSSESSING AGENT EVEN THEIR OWN MINDS COULD BETRAYTHEM(OWDIDFOURYEARSOFTHISKINDOFSILENCEIMPACTPEOPLESSENSE OF SELF TIME AND PLACE

 #ONSIDER THE VIEW ABOUT SECRETS HIMITSU BY THE LATE $R !KIHISA +ONDO A *APANESE PSYCHIATRISTAND:ENPRACTITIONER PERSONALCONVERSATION 4OKYO WHEREINAHEALTHYMIND IS ENHANCED WHEN ONE EXPERIENCES THE CAPACITY OF KEEPING A SECRET ˆ OR EXPERIENCING THE MIND AS A SAFE PLACE (OWEVER MY RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF WORRIES RELATED TO !NGKARS INTRUSIVE NATUREWHEREIN!NGKARHADTHECAPACITYTOINVADEORSTALKTHEIRMINDS!NYDEBRIElNGPROJECT THAT ACCOMPANIES AN )NTERNATIONAL4RIBUNAL IN #AMBODIA COULD BENElT BY ACCOUNTING FOR THIS FEAR FACTOR

Chapter

2 Vulnerability Under the Khmer Rouge

The Unprotected Nation -RS/MWAS YEARS OLDONTHEDAYOFHERWEDDINGIN!TTHEAGEOF  DURING THE ,ON .OL REGIME IN  SHE LEFT HER VILLAGE AND HER PARENTS BECAUSE HER SCHOOL WAS BOMBED 3HE WENT TO 0HNOM 0ENH TO LIVE WITH HER OLDER SISTER AND TO CONTINUE HER STUDIES UNTIL  !PRIL  ˆ WHEN THE +HMER 2OUGE TOOK OVER THE CITY 0RIOR TO THE S ADOLESCENCE IN #AMBODIA INCLUDED THE FAMILY PRACTICE OF ARRANGING A MARRIAGE FOR A SON OR DAUGHTER ˆ WITH OR WITHOUT THE YOUTHS CONSENT 4HE MOTHER OF THE GIRL WAS OFTEN THE lRST PORT OF CALL ! FORTUNE TELLER WOULD BE CONSULTED TO ENSURE THE RIGHT SELECTION OF A PARTNER AND WEDDING DATES 4HIS WAS ALSO THE STAGE WHEN EDUCATION MONK HOOD AND OTHER LIFE PURSUITS WERE CONTEMPLATED &OR -RS /M HER CHANCES OF A MARRIAGE ARRANGED BY FAMILY TRADITION WAS COMPROMISED INITIALLY BY HER MOVE TO THE CITY AND SQUASHED FURTHER BY THE +HMER 2OUGE REVOLUTION ! HAIRLINE CULTURAL FRACTURE EXISTED BEFORE THE +HMER 2OUGE TAKEOVER IN  AN INJURY THAT COULD HAVE HEALED ˆ HAD NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL FORCES MOVED IN A DIFFERENT DIRECTION $URING INTERVIEWS #AMBODIANS RAN THEIR INDEX lNGERS ACROSS A LARGE MAP OF THEIR COUNTRY THAT WE SPREAD OUT ON THE mOOR IN THEIR HOMES4HEY TRACED THE PATHWAYS THEY TOOK BETWEEN  AND  &OR MOST THEIR +HMER 2OUGE EXPERIENCES WERE NOT ENCAPSULATED BY CALENDAR TIME AND THE WAYGROUPWEDDINGSCONTINUEDAFTERTHEREGIMESCOLLAPSEINISEVIDENCE OF THAT LINEAR TIME WAS MISSHAPEN



6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



4HOSE WHO WERE DRIVEN OUT OF 0HNOM 0ENH ON  !PRIL  SPOKE IN DETAIL ABOUT THEIR CONFUSION DURING THE WEEK THAT FOLLOWED 3OME FELT COMPROMISED IN THEIR IDENTITY AND SAFETY WHEN TRYING TO RETURN TO VILLAGES WHERE SIBLINGS AND PARENTS WERE CLASSIlED AS BASE OR OLD PEOPLE -RS /M TELLS OF BEING FORCED OUT OF 0HNOM 0ENH AND MAKING HER WAY TO A VILLAGE WHEREHEROTHERSISTERLIVEDNEARWHERETHEYGREWUP 4HOUGHHERSISTERWAS CLASSIlEDASABASEPERSON VILLAGERSIDENTIlEDHERASANEWPERSON3HEREFERRED TO HERSELF AS A NEW BASE PERSON BECAUSE SHE HAD RETURNED TO HER HOME BASE REGION FROM THE CITY $ESPITE FAMILIAL TIES -RS /M LEFT HER RELATIVES VILLAGE BECAUSESHEFEAREDTHATBEINGCLASSEDAhNEWPERSONvJEOPARDISEDTHESAFETYOF HER SISTER /THERS TOLD ME OF THIS DECISION AND OFTEN MOVED BETWEEN BELIEF AND DISBELIEF WHEN RECOUNTING THAT DILEMMA -R ! SAID h) CANNOT BELIEVE THAT ALL OF A SUDDEN ) BECAME DIFFERENT FROM PEOPLE IN MY VILLAGE ) COULD NOT RETURN AND STAY LONG IN MY FAMILY PLACE BECAUSE WE WOULD GET CAUGHT LYING IF WE PRETENDED ) HAD NOT STUDIED IN THE CITYv 7HEN ) ASKED COUPLES HOW THEY MET MANY SPOKE FERVENTLY ABOUT THE TIME THE +HMER 2OUGE ORDERED THE EVACUATION OF 0HNOM 0ENH ˆ AS IF THIS WAS PART OF THEIR MEETING STORY -ANY WERE TOLD BY THE +HMER 2OUGE THAT THE 5NITED 3TATES HAD PLANS TO BOMB THE CITIES AND THEY BELIEVED THE STORY IN THAT lRST INSTANCE "UT SOON AFTER EVACUATING THEY REALISED THAT THE CLAIM WASFALSE&ORSOME ITWASTHEIRlRSTEXPERIENCEOFBETRAYAL-R,SAID h*UST WHEN)THOUGHT)BELIEVEDSOMETHING )LEARNEDNOTTOBELIEVEANYTHING)TWAS LIKETHISOVERANDOVERAGAINv-R3SAID h)RODEMYBICYCLEAROUND0HNOM 0ENH WATCHING THE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE BEING LED IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS ) KNEW SOMETHING WAS WRONG ) WENT SOUTH TOWARDS 4AKEO BECAUSE FEWER PEOPLE WERE GOING THERE THINKING MAYBE ) WOULD HAVE A CHANCE THAT WAYv -ANY SPOKE OF THEIR  !PRIL EVACUATION FROM 0HNOM 0ENH AND THE SUBSEQUENT REALISATION OF BAUK SBAT DECEPTION OR TRICKERY AS WELL AS THEIR PENDING STARVATION 4HOSEWHOHADMIGRATEDTOTHECITYASADOLESCENTSOFTENSPOKEINDETAILOF THEIRYEARSOFDISPLACEMENTBEFORETHE+HMER2OUGEARRIVED4HEEVACUATION WAS NOT THEIR lRST EXIT FROM MEANINGFUL PLACES NOT THEIR ONLY PERIOD OF INDUCED FEAR 4HERE WAS CONFUSION ABOUT THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN REGIME AGENDAS AND THE POTENTIAL COMMUNICATION AND INmUENCE BETWEEN LEADERS OF THE FORMER ,ON .OL AND +HMER 2OUGE REGIMES )N OUR SECOND INTERVIEW -R 3 SAID 3OMETIMES ) WORRY ABOUT SOMETHING ELSE EVEN TODAY ) WAS AFRAID THAT THE FORMER CAPTAIN IN THE ,ON .OL REGIME WOULD TALK ABOUT ME TO !NGKAR x SO WHEN THE +HMER 2OUGE ASKED ME WHAT ) DID IN THE



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA ,ON.OLTIMESˆITALLISPUSHEDTOGETHERˆTHEYTRIEDTOACCUSEME OF BEING SOMEONE ELSE 4HOUGH IT WAS REAL AT THAT TIME ) ALSO NOW HAVEDREAMSOFBEINGBROUGHTBACKTOBEKILLED)GETUPATNIGHTAND SHAKE HE CLENCHES HIS lSTS AND SHAKES THEM IN FRONT OF HIS BODY AS HE DESCRIBES HIS EXPERIENCE 

4HE MID !PRIL EVACUATIONS OR  !PRIL  COINCIDED WITH THE "UDDHIST.EW9EAR ASAPOSSIBLESYMBOLOFTHEhNEWBEGINNINGv!BEGINNING CAN ALSO BE AN ENDING OR A REVAMPING OF A PAST )N THIS CASE #AMBODIAN PEOPLE WERE DISPLACED FROM THEIR RITUALS ˆ A SHARP POINT FROM WHICH RITUAL ACCESSDETERIORATEDSEVERELYANDINTOWHICHTHE+HMER2OUGEGENERATEDNEW COUNTER RITUALS)NFRASTRUCTURESWERECLEARLYERODEDAGRICULTURAL ECONOMICAND POLITICAL STRUCTURES LAND AND WATER USAGE mORA AND FAUNA ACCESS LANGUAGE EDUCATION MEDICAL AND INDIGENOUS TREATMENTS ARCHITECTURE PERFORMING AND VISUALARTSRELIGIOUSPLACESANDPEOPLEFORMALANDINFORMALRITUALSANDSOON !LLTHOSEINTHISSTUDYMADEANDCONTINUETOMAKE CUMULATIVEADJUSTMENTS TO THEIR SENSE OF PURPOSE POWER AND CHANGES TO THEIR PERSONAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITIES4O MAKE IDENTITY ALL THE MORE COMPLICATED THE COUNTRY HAS HAD SIX NAMES SINCE  4HE+HMER2OUGEINSISTEDTHATTHECOUNTRYBEKNOWNIN7ESTERNLANGUAGES AS +AMPUCHEA 4HIS NAME WAS MAINTAINED AFTER THE 6IETNAM INVASION IN  ANDITWASNOTUNTILTHATh#AMBODIAvWASREINSTATED!NGKARWAS h4HE/RGANISATIONvWHEREAS!NGKAR,OEUSIGNIlEDTHE(IGH/RGANISATIONAND CONCEALEDTHEIDENTITYOFTHE#OMMUNIST0ARTYOF+AMPUCHEA#0+ "ECAUSE !NGKAR WAS A MYSTERIOUS MASTERFUL ENTITY WHOSE LOCATION WAS UNKNOWN ITS



)NTHISSTUDY REGARDLESSOFPEOPLESPRESENTSTATUSOFTENINDICATEDBYHOUSESTRUCTURE FORMAL EDUCATION ACCESSTOLAND TELEVISIONANDMOBILEPHONE NOPATTERNSEMERGEDTHATLINKEDSTATUS TO BELIEFS AND PERCEPTIONS INCLUDING PERCEPTIONS OF MYSTERIOUS ANIMATED POWERS AND ANCESTOR INmUENCES(OWEVER WHILECONSULTINGINVILLAGESIN#AMBODIAWITHHEALTHTEAMS )NOTICEDHOW STATUSCANBERELATEDTOINCLUSIONANDEXCLUSIONOFCOMMUNITYRITUALS&ORINSTANCE ONEWITHA MENTAL DISABILITY OR ONE WHO HAS BEEN DEMOBILISED AS A +HMER 2OUGE SOLDIER MAY SOMETIMES BE EXCLUDED FROM COMMUNITY WEDDINGS    .OVEMBER /FlCIAL )NDEPENDENCE $AY FROM &RENCH RULE n +INGDOM OF #AMBODIA n4HE +HMER 2EPUBLIC n $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA $+ n4HE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF +AMPUCHEA n4HE 3TATE OF #AMBODIA nPRESENT4HE +INGDOM OF #AMBODIA  4HEPRONUNCIATIONOFTHE%NGLISHWORDIS+AMPUCHEAWHICHMEANShBORNFROM+AMBUvAND IS A LEGENDARY lGURE IN )NDIAN MYTHOLOGY 4HE NAME IS CONNECTED TO PAST MYTHOLOGY WRITTEN IN 3ANSKRIT FROM A STORY LINKED TO MARRIAGE

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



AMBIGUOUS STATUS ALLOWED FOR VARIOUS CULTURAL PROJECTIONS OR INTERPRETATIONS ABOUT ITS POWER BASE )N HIS AUTOBIOGRAPHY &RAN½OIS "IZOT  ATTRIBUTES A PERSONAL MEANING TO !NGKAR ,OEU ,EU  5NWITTINGLY THEBOYREVEALED INSPITEOFALLINSTRUCTIONSTOKEEPSILENT NOTJUSTTHENAMEOFTHEPRINCIPALTOWNOFTHEREGIONWHEREWEFOUND OURSELVES BUT HAD ALSO EXPLAINED THE GRIM MEANING OF THE EXPRESSION h!NGKAR ,EU v THE TOP ORGANISATION WHICH ) HAD NOT REALISED SIGNIlED DEATH P  4HE 'ATE

4HE AMBIGUITY IN HOW !NGKAR ,OEU WAS REPRESENTED INCREASED BECAUSE THERE WAS NO CONCRETE HEADQUARTER NO PALACE OR PARLIAMENT HOUSE "ECAUSE !NGKAR WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO LOCATE PEOPLES SUSPICIONS AND WORRIES OF THE ORGANISATION INCREASED OVER TIME /NE MAN MARRIED IN "ATTAMBANG SAID h!NGKARISTHEANGRYFORCETHATTAKESADVANTAGEOFFARMERS)PRAYEDTO"UDDHA TOBESAFEv4HREEPEOPLEWHOMARRIEDIN0REY6ENGSAIDTHATh!NGKARISTHE hHEARINGFORCE vWITHONEMANSAYING h)DIDEVERYTHING !NGKARASKEDOFME BECAUSE IT COULD HEAR EVERYTHINGv ) mESH OUT THESE PERCEPTIONS OF !NGKAR IN #HAPTER  ON h!NGKARS 0OTENCYv

Land, Water, Human, and Spirit Rhythms 'EOGRAPHYPLAYEDAPIVOTALROLEINPEOPLESLIVESBEFORE DURINGANDFOLLOWING THE TIME OF $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA $+  ! 3OUTHEAST !SIAN MAP WAS USED AS A CENTRAL PROP IN MY MEETINGS $EPENDING ON THE CONTENT OF THEIR DISCLOSURE PEOPLE SHIFTED GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCES THEY SPOKE OF +HMER 2OUGE :ONES SOMETIMES AND OF PROVINCES DISTRICTS OR VILLAGES OTHER TIMES "EFORE THE +HMER 2OUGE #AMBODIA CONSISTED OF  PROVINCES )N MY STUDY ) REFERRED TO WEDDING SITES ACROSS  REGIONS #HANDLER  HAS DIAGRAMMED THE WAVES OF FORCED MIGRATION WITHIN THE COUNTRY 4HElRSTWAVEOCCURREDIN THESECONDIN ANDTHETHIRDIN #OUPLES GAVE FULL REPORT OF THEIR MIGRATION PATTERNS AND PLOTTED THEIR TRAVEL

 4HE FORMER  PROVINCES WERE 3TUNG 4RENG 2ATANAK +IRI -ONDUL +IRI +RATIE +AMPONG #HAM 3VAY2IENG 0REY6ENG +ANDAL 4AKEO +AMPOT +OH+ONG +AMPONG3PEU +AMPONG #HHNANG +AMPONG4HOM 0REAH6IHEAR /DDAR-EANCHEY 3IEM2EAP 0URSAT AND"ATTAMBANG !FTER!PRIL $EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEAWASDIVIDEDINTOSIXZONES.ORTHEAST:ONE .ORTH :ONE INCORPORATING 3IEM 2EAP #ENTRAL :ONE %AST :ONE 3OUTHWEST 7EST AND .ORTHWEST :ONE INCORPORATING 0URSAT  3OME REGIONS DESIGNED WITH THEIR OWN ADMINISTRATIONS WERE NOT UNDER ANY ZONE &OR THE PURPOSE OF MY STUDY ) USED THE PLACES GIVEN BY RESPONDENTS WHICH COINCIDED WITH THESE PROVINCES



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ON MAPS SHOWING WHERE THEY MOVED ACROSS LAND AND IN WATER BY FOOT CAR TRAIN RAFT BOAT BICYCLE AND CART MOST BIKES AND MOTORBIKES WERE CON lSCATED  -OST IN MY STUDY FOLLOWED THE PATTERNS AS DELINEATED BY #HANDLER AND OTHER AUTHORS ˆ WITH MOST EXCEPTIONS BEING BY THOSE WHO SECRETLY mED TO THE 3OUTH !LL RESPONDENTS MENTIONED THE WAYS GEOGRAPHY AND THE DRY WET SEASONS AFFECTED THEIR INTERNAL MIGRATIONS IMPOSED BY $+ !QUA AGRICULTURAL FACTORS WERE PRESENTED IN EPIC DESCRIPTIONS BY COUPLES -R , WHO WORKED IN THE 3IEM 2EAP REGION DESCRIBED HIS LIFE AS hLIVING ON ANYTHING THAT MOVED INTHEWATERORCRAWLEDINTHEDIRTv#AMBODIAISBORDEREDBY4HAILAND AND THE 'ULF OF 4HAILAND ON THE .ORTH AND 7EST ,AOS SITS TO THE .ORTH AND 6IETNAM TO THE %AST 7ITHIN #AMBODIA THE -EKONG 2IVER AND THE 4ONLE 3AP,AKEOR'REAT,AKE AND4ONLE3AP2IVERAREESSENTIALTOTHEAGRICULTURE WATER TRANSPORT ECOLOGY GEOGRAPHY AND SEASONAL MOVEMENTS AND RITUALS OF THE PEOPLE 4HE lSHING SEASON IS FROM /CTOBER TO &EBRUARY AND HALF OF THE COUNTRYS ANNUAL CATCH IS FROM THE 4ONLE 3AP ,AKE !NNUAL mOODING OF THE -EKONG ASSISTS THE DEPOSIT OF ALLUVIAL SOIL FOR FERTILISING THE LAND WHILE lSH mOURISH IN SHALLOW WATERS -RS , SAID THAT h-Y HUSBAND WOULD SNEAK OUT TO GET lSH WITH HIS HANDS AND THEN WE WOULD QUIETLY PREPARE THE CATCHv 2AIN CLIMATE LUNAR AND SEASON CHANGES ARE EMBEDDED IN THE RHYTHM OF #AMBODIAN RURAL LIFE 4HESE SEASONS WERE USED AS TIME REFERENCES FOR RESPONDENTS IN MY STUDY -ANY COUPLES DID NOT KNOW THE DATE OF THEIR MARRIAGE BUT WERE ABLE TO REFERENCE THE SEASON WITHIN A TWO MONTH PERIOD ˆ USUALLY TRACKING WET AND DRY OR HARVEST SEASONS -R ! SAID h7E WERE MARRIED IT WAS &EBRUARY OR -ARCH OF  WHICH WAS THE YEAR OF THE BIG mOODv 4WO MONSOON SEASONS INmUENCE THE PATTERNS OF THE PEOPLE .OVEMBER TO -ARCH IS DRY SEASON 2ICE IS HARVESTED IN $ECEMBER AND *ANUARY4HE +HMER 2OUGE PUSHED AGAINST NATURE AND FORCED PEOPLE TO DIG WATER SYSTEMS AND BUILD DIKES FOR RICE GROWING DURING THE DRY SEASON ! MAN FROM +AMPOT TOLD ME h7E WERE SUPPOSED TO GROW RICE WHEN RICE COULD NOT GROWv &ROM -AY TO /CTOBER THE 3OUTHWEST MONSOON BRINGS FORCEFULWINDANDRAIN WITHmASHSTORMSOCCURRINGONMOSTAFTERNOONSTHESE 3OUTHWEST MONSOONS PRODUCE THREE QUARTERS OF THE COUNTRYS ANNUAL RAINFALL 4RADITIONALLY WEDDINGS ARE NOT CELEBRATED IN RAINY SEASON BUT THE +HMER 2OUGE ALTERED THIS PATTERN $ESPITE THE RAIN IT WAS THE UNRELENTING HEAT OF THE SUN THAT WAS REFERENCEDASAHARDSHIPBYMOSTINTHISSTUDY4HOSEWHOWORKEDMENTIONED FULL BODY SUBMERSION IN WATER FOR WHOLE DAYS WHILE DIGGING DIKES ON THE

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



CANALS-R, h4HEREWASNOSHADE NOTANYSHADE ALLDAYLONGWORKINGWITH NO SHADE NO HAT NO TREES MY SKIN SO SOREv  )N !PRIL AND -AY TEMPERA TURES RANGE FROM  TO  DEGREES #ENTIGRADE OR n &AHRENHEIT WITH n PER CENT HUMIDITY )N NORMAL LIFE CONDITIONS PEOPLE GENERALLY BATHE EVERY DAY FROM LARGE CERAMIC URNS lLLED WITH RAINWATER THEY REST UNDER COVER4HE WAY WATER IS POURED OVER THE BODY VIA A BOWL IS A KIND OF RITUAL "UT UNDER $+ BATHING WAS RARE AND WORKING IN WATER WAS OFTEN PAINFUL 3EVERAL MEN WHO WORKED IN THE .ORTHWEST REGION DESCRIBED SYMPTOMS OF HYPOTHERMIADURINGFORCEDLABORTHUSONESRELATIONSHIPTOWATERMOVEDFROM JOY TO PAIN -R4 SAID )N ONEDAYDURINGHEAVYRAINONTHEBORDEROF4AKEOAND+ANDAL WHERE IT WAS A BIT QUIET ) SWAM ACROSS THE RIVER WITH MY PARENTS AND TWOOTHERFAMILIES%VENNOWWHEN)SEEARIVER)THINKOFTHISESCAPING OR THE HUNDREDS OF PEOPLE KILLED NEAR WATER

3IMILARLY HEAT AND HUMIDITY INTERACTED WITH HIGH RATES OF INFECTION AND DECAY IN THE HUMAN BODY RESPONDENTS SPOKE ABOUT ENDURING THE SMELL OF ROTTING BODIES FROM THE LIVING AND THE DEAD FOR YEARS

Rice 2ICE HOLDS CONCRETE AND METAPHORICAL MEANINGS FOR #AMBODIAN PEOPLE )N ADDITION RICE AVAILABILITY DURING WEDDING CEREMONIES UNDER $+ mUC TUATED ACROSS TIME AND PLACE 4RADITIONALLY RICE PLANTING BEGINS MID TO LATE -AY FOLLOWED BY THE &URROW &ESTIVAL IN WHICH THE +ING MAKES THE lRST DIG  !FTER SOWING SEEDS GERMINATION TAKES PLACE BEFORE SEEDLINGS ARE TRANS PLANTED $EPENDING ON RAIN TRANSPLANTS COULD CONTINUE UNTIL 0CHUM "EN &ESTIVALOFTHE$EADINLATE3EPTEMBERn/CTOBER 0URSATANDTHE.ORTHWEST HAVE TRADITIONALLY BEEN THE MAJOR RICE GROWING REGIONS THOUGH RICE VARIES IN PROPAGATION REQUIREMENTS 0EOPLE SPOKE OF RICE OFTEN )T WASNT UNTIL  THAT DRY SEASON RICE PRODUCTION INCREASED DUE TO DIKE SYSTEMS BEING BUILT IN THE .ORTHWEST ˆ WHEREIN DRY RICE CROP WAS GATHERED BETWEEN !PRIL TO *UNE (ILDEBRAND AND0ORTER  )NMYSTUDY PEOPLEREFERENCEDTIMEBYDRYORWETSEASONS ANDBYTHEHARVESTOFRICE4HOSEWHOWERETOLDTOMIGRATEFROMONEREGION

 )FOUNDTHATRESPONDENTSREPEATEDAPHRASEWHENITWASMOSTSTRIKINGORSIGNIlCANTTOTHEM SUCH AS REPEATING hNO SHADEv THREE TIMES



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TOANOTHERHADTHEADDEDADJUSTMENTOFTENDINGTODIFFERENTMETHODSOFRICE CULTIVATION &ISHER .GUYEN  HAS COLLECTED +HMER PROVERBS MANY OF THESE REFERENCE RICE IN AN ADAGE &OR EXAMPLE h4HE TIMID PERSON CAN PIERCE THE RICE POT $ONT TRUST AN ANGRY MAN TO WASH DISHES $ONT TRUST RICE TO A HUNGRY MAN 'ROW RICE WHEN THE GROUND IS WARM 0URSUE A WOMAN WHEN YOUFEELPASSION4HERICESEEDLINGDRAWSTHEDIRTTOITINCLUMPS4HEWOMAN SUPPORTS THE MANv 2ICE WAS MENTIONED FREQUENTLY AND DESCRIPTIVELY BY NEARLY EVERYONE IN MY STUDY -R ! SAID h!T THAT TIME THE ONLY MONEY WAS RICEv #OLLECTIVE WORK CENTRED ON RICE PRODUCTION -R , WHO WAS IN A LABOR CAMP NEAR +AMPONG4HOM SAID *UST ONE TIN OF RICE FOR TWO PEOPLE JUST FOR THE MOBILE WORKER BUT IF PEOPLE STAYED IN THE VILLAGE THEY GOT LESS THAN THAT )T WAS HARD WORK AND WE HAD TO CARRY AND DIG THE SOIL  SQUARE METRES A DAY AND THE +HMER 2OUGE MEASURED THE HOLE TO TELL IF IT WAS ENOUGH OR NOTx ) WASTOLDTHATEVERYONEHASTOCOMPLETETHESQUAREMETRESADAYAND IF ANYONE DOES NOT lNISH THEY DO NOT GET ANY FOOD FOR DINNER !ND THE PURPOSE OF THE WORK IS TO DIG A BIG POND TO KEEP THE WATER FOR THE DRY SEASON TO PRODUCE MORE RICE DURING DRY SEASON

4HE MEANING ASSOCIATED WITH RICE CHANGED DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE 2ICE COCONUTBASEDWEDDINGCAKESWERESCARCEFORSECRETCELEBRATION)NPLACES NEAR THE ,AOS BORDER AND IN MORE REMOTE AREAS RICE IS THROWN ON PEOPLE AS A SOUL CALLING PRACTICE ONLY ONE #HINESE +HMER VILLAGER MENTIONED THIS IN MY STUDY 2ICE SPIRITS IN !SIA CAN BE MALE OR FEMALE BUT IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA THEY ARE USUALLY FEMALE /BAYASHI   +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS

 2ICE lELDS ARE PREVALENT EXCEPT IN MOUNTAIN AREAS PADDIES IN THE CENTRAL LOWLANDS OFTEN SIT ALONGSIDESUCHCROPSASCORNANDTOBACCO /NESTRAINOFhmOATINGRICEvSRAUVVEA ISINDIGENOUS TO #AMBODIA4HIS RICE IS CONSIDERED AS A HEAVY VARIETY AND CHANGES ITS GROWTH RATE ACCORDING TO WATER LEVELS THE GRAIN HEADS REMAIN ON TOP OF THE WATERS SURFACE 4HIS STRAIN COULD BE FOUND IN +AMPONG4HOM AND 3IEM 2EAP !LSO SRAUV CHAMCAR IS GROWN WITH SLASH AND BURN METHODS NEAR 3IEM 2EAP WHEREAS SRAUV SRAL IS A QUICK GROWING VARIETY FOUND IN +AMPONG #HAM 0ROVINCE  &ORINSTANCEIN*APAN )NARI THEGODOFRICE ISAMAJOR3HINTODEITYANDISREGARDEDASEITHER MALE OR FEMALE IN FORM )NARI NOT ONLY PROTECTS THE RICE HARVEST BUT IS THE BEARER OF PROSPERITY FOR FARMERS AND MERCHANTS THE THROWING OF RICE AT WEDDINGS IS LINKED OFTEN TO FORTUNE AND FERTILITY 3OME MOUNTAIN PEOPLE IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA SACRIlCE DOMESTIC ANIMALS AS AN AGRICULTURAL RITUAL SO THE mESH CAN BE EXCHANGED FOR THE SPIRITS GIFT OF AN ABUNDANT RICE HARVEST )N MY REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND INTERVIEWS THERE WAS LACK OF CONSISTENT INCLUSION OF RICE THROWING IN WEDDING CEREMONIES THOUGH RICE CAKES WERE MOST COMMONLY SERVED

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



INVOLVED RICE RELATED PROMISES THAT SPOUSES HAD TO RECITE TO !NGKAR -R , COMMENTS h7E WERE ASKED TO SWEAR TO !NGKAR TO DIG  METRES OF THE DAM EACH DAY ,ATER MY WIFE AND ) USED THE 3OLZSAR TREE TO MAKE THE BAGS TO PUT THE RICE IN 7E BAGGED A LOT OF RICE BUT ATE LITTLE OF ITv 0EOPLE FREQUENTLY MENTIONED THE DIVERSITY OF THE LANDSCAPE 4HEY WERE FORCED TO MOVE TO UNFAMILIAR PLACES WHERE THEY DIDNT KNOW THE PLANTS AND FAUNA -ANY LACKED NAVIGATION SKILLS IN NEW TERRAIN MANY RECALLED NORTHERN MOUNTAINS lLLED WITH EVERGREENS OR RAINFORESTS IN THE 7EST AND .ORTHEAST 7ITHIN REMOTE AREAS THERE WERE ELEPHANTS LEOPARDS TIGERS WILD OXEN COBRAANDKINGCOBRA ANDBIRDLIFETHEYDIDNOTRECOGNISE4HEBROTHER OF -RS , SAID h) SAW A BIRD THAT WAS BLACK BUT DID NOT KNOW IT ) COULD NOT TELL IF IT WAS A BAD OMENv -ANY COUPLES DESCRIBED THEIR SURVIVAL AND DEPENDENCE ON THE ENVIRONMENT 4HOUGH IF CAUGHT CAPTURING INSECTS OR REPTILES FOR FOOD THEY COULD BE KILLED -R , TALKED ABOUT HIS EXPERIENCE IN 3IEM 2EAP ) COULD ONLY SURVIVE BECAUSE ) WOULD CATCH THE SNAKE IN THE WATER AND SECRETLY COOK AND EAT IT JUST NOT POISON ONES THE POISON SNAKES USUALLYSTAYINTHETREENOTTHEWATERANDTHEN)DEATMORNINGGLORIES TROKUON IN THE lELD AND ANY VEGETATION IN THE lELD AND FROG SNAKE RATANDCOOKITHECLASPSHISHANDSANDHOLDSHISCHESTWHENSPEAKING  -OSTLY ) DEPENDED ON RICE

Clothing and the Krama #LOTHING IN RURAL AREAS CHANGED RADICALLY IN THE +HMER 2OUGE YEARS 4RADITIONALLY THE SARONG AND SAMPOT DISTINGUISH +HMER FEMALE AND MALE CLOTHINGBOTHARELOOSElTTINGGARMENTSMADEOFCOTTONORSILKANDPRACTICAL FOR THE SEASONS RURAL WOMEN WORE SARONGS FOR MOST OCCASIONS !LSO CLOTH CANBECOLOURFULANDISOFTENWOVENININTRICATEPATTERNS$URINGTHE+HMER 2OUGE THE MANDATED COLOUR WAS BLACK 4HREE WOMEN IN A VILLAGE WHERE ) MET WITH -RS / SAID THAT THEY WOVE THREADS OF GRASS INSIDE THEIR BLACK GARMENTS TO GIVE A HINT OF GREEN OR BAMBOO FOR A TOUCH OF YELLOW h) JUST PUSHED A THREAD OF THIN GRASS UNDER MY COLLAR THE DAY ) WAS TO MARRY JUST



,OGGING WAS AND IS A CONTROVERSIAL PROBLEM PARTICULARLY WHERE TEAK TREES CLUSTER IN THE 3OUTHWEST 4EAK WAS INTRODUCED IN THE LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AND IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE OF ITS WATER RESISTANT NATURE "UT IN THE MID S RAINFOREST COVERAGE WAS ESTIMATED AT  PER CENT AND FELL TO  PER CENT BY THE MID S THE POLITICS OF DEFORESTATION IS DISCUSSED BY !LLEY  



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FOR THE GREENv SHE WOVE COLOURS INTO THE INNER SEAMS SO AS NOT TO BE SEEN FOR FEAR OF REPRISAL $ISTINCTIVE TO #AMBODIA IS THE KRAMA 4HIS MULTIPURPOSE SCARF IS USED TO COVER THE NECK FROM THE SUN TO PROTECT THE MOUTH AND NOSE FROM DIRT AND DUST IN DRY SEASON OR IS TWISTED TO FORM A BASKET FOR CARRYING GOODS ON A PERSONS HEAD )T WAS ALSO USED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE TO BLINDFOLD PEOPLE 4HE KRAMA WAS AN IMPORTANT WEDDING RITUAL GARMENT FOR RESPONDENTS AND WAS MENTIONED BY ALL IN THIS STUDY 4EN MEN IN MY STUDY MARRIED AFTER  SAID THAT THE +HMER 2OUGE INSTRUCTED THE FOLDING OF THE SCARF AROUND THEIR NECKS ON THE WEDDING DAY 4HREE RESPONDENTS FROM +AMPONG 3PEU DEMONSTRATED HOW THE KRAMA WAS TIED DIFFERENTLY FOR MEN AND WOMEN ON THE DAY OF THEIR WEDDINGS h4HE MAN FOLDED THE KRAMA IN HALF AND LOOPED IT INTO ITSELF ONE TIME ACROSS HIS CHESTv ) FOUND NO CLEAR PATTERN IN KRAMA COLOUR ACROSS REGIONS ˆ RED AND BLUE SCARVES WERE SPRINKLED THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRYDESPITESOMECLAIMSTHATTHE%ASTERN:ONEWASABLUEZONE+IERNAN   (OWEVER ) DID lND A PATTERN DEVELOPING BY MID  WHEREIN THE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS WERE REPRESENTED BY BLACK AND WHITE KRAMAS FOR THE WEDDING CEREMONY IN4AKEO AND +ANDAL FROM LATE n AND IN /DDAR -EANCHEY IN EARLY  4HREE WEDDING SITES WERE WITHOUT KRAMAS IN 0REY 6ENG IN  AND EARLY 

Cosmos, Buddhism, and the “Lord of the Fields” 4HE"UDDHAANDSPIRITPHENOMENAWEREREFERENCEDOFTENWHENPEOPLESPOKE ABOUT MARRIAGE BIRTH DEATH AND PROPHESY AND FEAR -ANY COUPLES TOLD ME ABOUTTHE"UDDHASROLEINTHEIRMEETINGANDPARTNERINGˆPARTICULARLYWHEN DESCRIBING THE REASONS THEY REMAIN TOGETHER 4HOUGH MANY DID NOT HAVE FORMAL HISTORICAL OR TEXTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF "UDDHISM THEY HELD STRONG BELIEFS ABOUT "UDDHAS ORDERING ROLE AND PRESENCE /NE FOURTH OF ALL RESPONDENTS  BELIEVEDTHAT"UDDHAARRANGEDTHEIRMARRIAGEBEFORETHEYWEREBORN REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY STAYED TOGETHER "UDDHISM IN #AMBODIA IS A BLEND OF SYSTEMS THAT INCLUDE 4HERAVADA VIEWS ON THE #OSMOS (INDU ICONS AND MYTHOLOGY AND TRANSIENT AND NON TRANSIENT VIEWS OF RELIGION !DDITIONALLY LINGUISTIC HISTORIC GEOGRAPHIC AND VARYING STATES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT SUCH AS FORMAL EDUCATION ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ANDURBANISATION IMPACTWAYSINWHICH"UDDHISMCARRIESON AND IS INTERPRETED AND PRACTISED )TISSOMEWHATMISLEADINGTODIVIDE!SIAINTOA4HERAVADAOR-AHAYANA REGION AS SUCH DISTINCTIONS DO NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE INmUENCES BY VARIOUS

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



MONARCHIES LOCAL INDIGENOUS PRACTICES AND BELIEFS AND COLONIAL INmUENCES 4REVOR,ING P IN"UDDHIST4RENDSIN3OUTHEAST!SIAMAKESTHEPOINT THAT THE VARIETY OF h"UDDHISMSv mOURISHING ACROSS 3OUTHEAST !SIA IS TIED TO THE VARIED POLITICS HISTORY AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS THUS THE SOCIO ECONOMIC POLITICAL CONTEXT CANNOT BE SEPARATED FROM THE "UDDHIST CURRENTS OR TRENDS .ODOUBTTHE"UDDHISTPHILOSOPHERWILLCLAIMTHAT"UDDHISTPHILOSOPHY REMAINS THE SAME IN WHATEVER COUNTRY IT MAY BE AND THAT "UDDHIST TEACHINGS ARE UNIVERSAL IN NATURE .EVERTHELESS "UDDHIST TEACHINGS AS ANY OTHER PHILOSOPHICAL OR RELIGIOUS IDEAS AND TEACHINGS HAVE TO BE APPLIEDINREALSITUATIONS ANDTHENITISATTHELEVELOFAPPLICATIONTHAT LOCAL OR NATIONAL CONDITIONS HAVE THEIR EFFECT

4HROUGHOUTTHISSTUDY )WASINTERESTEDINTHESUSTAINABILITYANDEROSION OF +HMER PERCEPTIONS ON THE UNIVERSE 4HE 3OUTHEAST !SIAN MAINLAND FACED COLONIAL EXPANSION FROM THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY ONWARDS DURING WHICH CLASSICAL RELIGIOUS INFRASTRUCTURE WAS FORCED TO ACCOMMODATE OTHER WORLDVIEWS #AMBODIA ADOPTED THE $HAMMAYUTTIKA SECT FROM 4HAILAND IN THES AMONGONEELITE ANDALSOORGANISEDTHESANGHAACCORDINGTO4HAI CUSTOM3WEARER  -YTHANDMAGICASEXPLANATORYSYSTEMSWEREATRISK IN THE LATE S ˆ WHEN4HAILANDS POLITICAL LEADERS INmUENCED THE REGION AND DEMOTED THE ANIMATING DEITIES THAT PEOPLE WORSHIPPED 3IMILARLY SOME &RENCH TERMS INlLTRATED INTO VIEWS ON THE COSMOS &OR EXAMPLE COLONIAL EXPANSION CHALLENGED ASTROLOGICAL PERCEPTIONS WITH THE INTRODUCTION OF THE h-ILKY7AYvVOIELACT£E THATREPLACEDTHESTARFORMATION#AMBODIANPEOPLE SEE THIS AS hTRACKS OF THE WHITE ELEPHANTv OR hRIVER OF STARSv 3OME %NGLISH INTERPRETATIONS OF #AMBODIAN CONCEPTS HAVE SIMPLIlED INDIGENOUSMEANINGS&ORINSTANCE THE3ANSKRITCONCEPTOFKARMAEQUIVALENT TO THE 0ALI KAMMA IS REGARDED AS A CAUSE EFFECT PRINCIPLE OF ACTION BUT IT COULDBETIEDTOANCESTRALINmUENCESASWELL&ORINSTANCE RESPONDENTSINMY STUDYSPOKEOFKARMAASBEINGPROTECTIVEHOWEVER THEYALWAYSMENTIONEDTHE ASSISTANCEBYANCESTORSASWELL4HOUGHEXAMINATIONINTOKARMICPHENOMENA

 !DULTS IN MY STUDY WHO WERE EDUCATED BY THE &RENCH CONTINUED TO DESCRIBE THE hWHITE ELEPHANT TRACKS v WHILE BEING AWARE OF THE MILKY WAY IMAGE  -ICHEL !NTELME  ETHNO LINGUIST REVIEWS SHIFTS IN THE EVOLUTION OF +HMER LANGUAGE ACCORDING TO OUTSIDE INmUENCES (E CITES THREE CENTRAL CHANGES SPONTANEOUS BORROWING OR CREATIONOFNEWTERMSSUCHASHELICOPTERVERSUSTHE+HMERCOMPOUNDWHICHMEANTDRAGONmY PLANE  INSERTION BY SCHOLARS OF THEIR DISCIPLINARY TERMS SUCH WORDS AS THE MEDICAL TERM hSKELETONv REPLACING THE +HMER COMPOUND THAT MEANS BONE CHAIN  AND INFUSION OF &RENCH WORDS INTO +HMER SENTENCES SUCH AS INSERTING MARRON FOR BROWN OR BANQUE FOR BANK 



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ISBEYONDTHESCOPEOFMYSTUDY )FOUNDTHATDECEASEDANCESTORSWEREOFTEN REGARDEDASTHEDIRECTORSOFKARMICFORCESˆPERHAPSRELATEDTOTHEREASONTHAT GIVING OFFERINGS WAS SO WIDELY MENTIONED BY MY RESPONDENTS !DDITIONALLY MANYFOREIGNERSDEPICTTHEREALMOFTHEAFTER LIFEASHAVINGACONCRETEhPLACEv AKIN TO HEAVEN AND HELL "Y CONTRAST THOSE IN MY STUDY SPOKE OF "UDDHIST INmUENCESANDGAVESYMBOLICMANIFESTATIONSOFTHEhOTHERLIFEvASTHEBRIDGEFOR KEEPINGHUMANE SPIRITRELATIONS/NEELDERLYWOMANMOTHEROFARESPONDENT IN +AMPONG 3PEU SAID h-Y SISTERS SPIRIT COULD NOT REST BECAUSE HER DEATH WAS VIOLENT SO WE HAD TO DO SOMETHING KIND FOR HERv $ESPITE THE LAYERS OF INmUENCES "UDDHISM HAS PLAYED A ROLE IN POLITICS OVERTIMETHEMONARCHYASSUMESAPIVOTALIFNOTGUIDING ROLEINSOCIETYWHILE THEKINGSPRESENCETENDSTOCONJUREASYNERGISTICRELATIONSHIPBETWEENRELIGION AND POLITICS 3WEARER  P  DISCUSSES THE 4HERAVADA VIEW OF THE COSMOSANDHOWTHEKINGISSUPPOSEDTORULEBYTHEDHAMMA ORDOCTRINEFOR RIGHTTHOUGHTANDCONDUCT4HEKINGISTHEKEEPEROFPOLITICALANDECONOMIC ORDERANDWELLBEINGOFTHEPEOPLE3WEARERREFERENCESTHEKINGASTHEKHATTIYA ORh,ORDOFTHE&IELDSv(ISAUTHORITYISMEANTTOCOMEFROMHISEMBODIMENT OF THE DHAMMA WHERE DESPITE STRENGTH OF ARMS WEALTH INTELLECT OR PRESTIGE HISRULEDEPENDSONHISROLEAShMORALEXEMPLARv)NREALITY OPERATIONOFTHESE ROLES MAY BE DEPENDENT ON THE STATE OF THE MONARCHYS POWER DESPITE THE SYMBOLIC SIGNIlCANCE OF THE KINGS CLOSENESS OF THE $HAMMAYUTTIKA 4HERE IS INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN THE KING THE LAITY AND THE MONASTIC COMMUNITY SANGHA 4HE LAY COMMUNITY IS SUPPOSED TO SUPPORT THE MONKS BY OFFERING FOOD MONEY AND MATERIAL SUPPLIES THEY ALSO MAKE OFFERINGS TO THEDECEASEDASPRESCRIBEDBYTHEMONKSANDTHUSTOGETHERAPPEASETHEDEAD 4HE DHAMMA FUNCTIONS AS THE hNATURALv LAW CONSECRATED BY THE "UDDHA WHEREAS THE VINAYA IS THE HUMAN MADE LAW ˆ WHICH TOGETHER ACT AS A KIND OF PRESCRIPTION FOR SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ACTIVISM )T IS DIFlCULT TO INTERPRET

 7ITHIN"UDDHISTETHICS THERESITSTHEDHAMMAANDVINAYAWHICHCOMPRISETHEMAINTEACHINGS OF THE "UDDHA FOCUS IS PLACED ON THE SPIRITUAL AND MATERIAL WELLBEING OF THE COMMUNITY4HE DHAMMA INVOLVES PRINCIPLES AND IDEAS THAT APPLY TO MONKS AND THE LAITY WHEREAS THE VINAYA SPEAKSTOMONKSANDSERVESASTHEIRGUIDINGPRINCIPLESFORLIFE7ORLDLYANDSPIRITUALLIFEISGIVEN EQUAL IMPORTANCE WITH STRONG EMPHASIS ON COMMUNITY CONDUCT AND SOCIO ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR  )N THIS STUDY REGARDLESS OF HOUSE STRUCTURE FORMAL EDUCATION ACCESS TO LAND TELEVISION AND MOBILE PHONE NO PATTERNS EMERGED THAT LINKED STATUS TO BELIEFS AND PERCEPTIONS INCLUDING PERCEPTIONS OF MYSTERIOUS ANIMATED POWERS AND ANCESTOR INmUENCES (OWEVER WHILE WORKING AT HEALTH CENTRES THAT REQUIRED VILLAGE VISITS ) NOTICED HOW STATUS CAN BE RELATED TO INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION OF COMMUNITY RITUALS &OR INSTANCE ONE WITH A MENTAL DISABILITY OR ONE WHO HASBEENDEMOBILISEDASA+HMER2OUGESOLDIERMAYSOMETIMESBEEXCLUDEDFROMCOMMUNITY WEDDINGS

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



HOW THE LAY POPULATION EXPERIENCED THE LOSS OF THE KINGS ROLES DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE BUT IT IS A POSSIBILITY THAT !NGKARS PRESENCE BECAME MORE PROMINENT AS hTHE NEW AUTHORITYv IN THE PRESENCE OF THIS SHORTFALL 0OLITICAL POWER AND PERSUASION CAN BE HEIGHTENED ALSO BY THE WAY A MORTALS PLACE IS DEPICTED IN THE COSMOS "UDDHISM MAINTAINS A RATHER EVOLUTIONARY THEORY OF CREATION WHEREIN HUMANS EVOLVED OUT OF lRE GASES LIQUIDS THAT MADE THE EARTH FROM WHICH THE MOON SUN AND CONSTELLATIONS FORMED PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE SEPARATED FROM HUMAN FORM $URING THIS EVOLUTION RICE BECAME A STRONG LIFE SOURCE AS WELL AS A STRONG SYMBOL IN "UDDHIST CREATION IN THE 3OUTHEAST !SIAN REGION 4HE FOLLOWING LONG PROSE IS lLLED WITH DYNAMICS FROM "UDDHIST LORE AND SUPPORTS THE MONARCHYS AGENDA WHILE POTENTIALLY INmUENCING THE +HMER 2OUGES POLICIES 4HE FOLLOWINGPASSAGEEERILYECHOESELEMENTSOFTHE+HMER2OUGEAGENDAASTOLD BY COUPLES IN MY STUDY xFRAGRANTANDCLEAR GRAINEDRICEINUNLIMITEDSUPPLYWASAVAILABLEIN OPEN SPACES AND BECAME COMMUNAL PROPERTY %VERY HUMAN BEING ENJOYED AS MUCH OF IT AS HIS BODY REQUIRED 3OME MALES AND FEMALES BECAMEINTERESTEDINSEXUALINTERCOURSEBEYONDTHENATURALREQUIREDFOR REPRODUCTIONTHEYDEVELOPEDINTHEMSELVESPASSIONANDLUST WHICHWERE CONSIDERED UNNATURAL AND IMMORAL 4HESE IMMORAL PERSONS WERE EXPELLED FROM THE EXISTING SETTLEMENTS THEY LIVED IN SEPARATE HUTS TO CONCEAL THEIR IMMORALITY BUT WERE ALLOWED TO SHARE IN COMMUNAL PROPERTYx !S PASSION LUST IMMORALITY AND GREED INCREASED RICE CEASED TO GROW SPONTANEOUSLYx 4HIS LED MEN TO GATHER TO DISCUSS HOW THEIR LIVES SHOULD BE REGULATED IN ORDER TO ENSURE SURVIVAL 4HEY THEN AGREED THAT THEY NEEDED A hCERTAIN BEINGv THAT WOULD GIVE ORDER TO SOCIETY WHO WOULD CENSURE THAT WHICH SHOULD BE CENSORED AND WHO WOULD BANISH THOSE WHO DESERVED TO BE BANISHEDx )N RETURN THE RULER WAS GIVEN A SHARE OF THE RICE PRODUCED BY THE PEOPLE ,ING  P 

4HE IMPLICATION IS THAT HUMANS REQUIRE SOCIAL ORDER AND REGULATION BY A hCERTAIN BEINGv AND THAT PRIVATE POSSESSIONS NEED TO GIVE WAY TO COLLECTIVE PROPERTY RICE BECOMES THE SYMBOL FOR THE RULERS RAISON DãTRE A KIND OF KARMIC MESSENGER ,ING  AND 3WEARER  BOTH MAKE REFERENCE TO THE h,ORD OF THE &IELDSv 2AJA WHEN REFERRING TO THE KING 4HERE IS STRONG EVIDENCETHAT!NGKARALSOACTEDASSUCHA,ORDANDWASPERCEIVEDTOBEONE )NTHISREGARD COUPLESMADEPROMISESTO!NGKARFORCOLLECTIVERICEPRODUCTION !LSO ONE MAN WHO WAS A +HMER 2OUGE SOLDIER SPOKE OF HIS hTRAININGv INTO THE +HMER 2OUGE HE WAS INSTRUCTED TO ASSIST THE ORDER OF THE NEW SOCIETY



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AND CENSURE BANISH AND ERASE THOSE WHO WERE NOT COLLECTIVE WORKERS THERE WAS A STRONG TONE OF MORAL DUTY TO A 2AJA LIKE lGUREHEAD !ND JUST AS "UDDHIST KINGSHIP DEMANDS DEVOTION FROM THE MASSES SO TOODID!NGKAR PARTICULARLYBYSPEECHESMADEATPEOPLESWEDDINGS4HEWELL BEING OF A "UDDHIST COMMUNITY DEPENDS ON THE MERIT SYSTEM OF LOSS AND GAIN AND THE RIGHTEOUSNESS OF THE LEADER4HOSE IN POWER SAW THEMSELVES AS PROTECTORSANDARBITRATORSFORTHECOSMICANDKARMICINmUENCESONTHEPEOPLE "YELEVATINGTHEPOWEROFTHEDHAMMA THERULERCANFUNCTIONWITHOUTANDIN SPITEOF THENEEDFORSUPERNATURALFORCES0ARADOXICALLY ATSOMEFOUNDATIONAL LEVEL "UDDHISTCOSMOLOGYCOULDHAVEGIVENLEGITIMACYTOTHE+HMER2OUGES !NGKAR ˆ WITHOUT LEADERS ACTIVELY OR CONSCIOUSLY SEEKING SUCH DEVOTION "OTH ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND CHRONICLE EVIDENCE SUGGEST THAT THE RELIGIOUS SITUATIONINTHEAREAWASmUIDANDINFORMALWITH"UDDHISMCHARACTERIZED MORE BY MIRACULOUS RELICS AND CHARISMATIC MAGICAL MONKS THAN BY ORGANIZED SECTARIAN TRADITIONS )N SHORT THE EARLY PERIOD OF "UDDHISM IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA WAS DIVERSE AND ECLECTIC INFUSED WITH THE ELEMENTS OF(INDU$HARMSASTRAAND"RAHMANICDEITIES -AHAYANA"UDDHASSUCH AS ,OKESVARA 4ANTRIC PRACTICES 3ANSKRIT 3ARVASTIVADIN TEXTS AS WELL AS 0ALI4HERAVADA TRADITIONS 3WEARER  P  

4RADITIONALLY THE PRESENCE OF THE MONARCHY MAY HAVE ASSISTED THE MANIFESTATION OF REGIONAL AND INDIGENOUS FORMS OF MAGIC ANIMISM AND "RAHMANISM !LSO STRONG MONK ROLES HELPED TO QUIET THE TERRITORIAL SPIRITS AND ASSISTED PROTECTION VIA RITUAL OFFERINGS 0RINCE .ORODOM 3IHANOUK CALLED ON"UDDHISMINHISREFORMINTHES)NPART THISWASACOUNTERRESPONSE TO COMMUNISM AND -ARXISM ˆ WITH A CALL TO USE "UDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF CHARITY AS PERSUASION TO EQUALISE THE CLASSES (IS SUCCESSOR ,ON .OL GAVE PEOPLE THE IMPRESSION THAT HE SUPPORTED h-IDDLE 0ATHv "UDDHISM THE ROLE OF THE SANGHA THE LAWS OF KARMA AND TRADITIONAL +HMER CULTURE 4HE ,ON .OL GOVERNMENT INSCRIBED THE &RENCH PASSAGE ON A 2EPUBLIC -ONUMENT IN THE FRONT OF THE 2OYAL 0ALACE SINCE DESTROYED  h"UDDHISM TEACHES US TO BE HONEST TO REJECT SELlSHNESS AND TO PROMOTE MUTUAL ASSISTANCEv ;3AM 9ANG  P  IN4REVOR ,INGS EDITED COLLECTION ON "UDDHIST4RENDS IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA = ) CONTEND THAT THE POLITICS OF "UDDHISM COULD HAVE SET THE STAGE FOR SOME OF $+S POLITICAL LEVERAGE

 .OTWITHSTANDINGMANYSIMILARLINKSSUCHASTHEBOBBEDHAIRCUTSANDBLACKCLOTHESANDPANTS FORWOMEN THISPARTICULARCULTURALSTRUCTURESEPARATEDTHE+HMER2OUGEFROM#HINAS#ULTURAL 2EVOLUTION ˆ AS THERE APPEARS TO BE NO EQUIVALENT TO !NGKAR IN #HINAS REVOLUTION

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



Monks and Pagodas &ESTIVALS AND .EW 9EAR CELEBRATIONS NORMALLY MARK CHANGE IN SEASONS &OR INSTANCE THE "UDDHIST .EW 9EAR SEASON IS IN !PRIL AND SPANS THREE DAYS 0EOPLE CLEAN THEIR HOUSES DECORATE "UDDHIST ALTARS VISIT TEMPLES AND GIVE OFFERINGS 5NDER $+ THERE WAS VIRTUALLY NO ACCESS TO A WAT OR STUPA IN THE TRADITIONAL SENSE A WAT WAS NO LONGER A PLACE FOR SUPPORT OR WORSHIP -RS /M SAID THAT SHE AND THREE OTHER WOMEN CARED FOR CHICKENS AND CROPS INTENDED TO FEED SOLDIERS IN A WAT IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN  3OME MONKS mED WERE WED OR DIED !LL MONKS RELINQUISHED THEIR ROBES )N MY STUDY lVE MONKS WERE WED 0AGODASARENOTATRADITIONALPLACEFORWEDDINGS BUTPAGODAUSECHANGED DURING $+ )N MY STUDY REFERENCES TO WEDDINGS IN PAGODAS WERE FROM THE 3OUTH %ASTERN REGIONS -Y lRST REFERENCE WAS TO +AMPONG #HAM IN THE WINTER OF  AT A CEREMONY 4WENTY lVE COUPLES WORE BLACK AND WHITE KRAMAS OVER THEIR BLACK GARB ˆ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h!NGKARS SONGSv &OR THE MOST PART "UDDHIST TRADITIONS IN PAGODAS WERE NON EXISTENT IN THE+HMER2OUGE PERIOD &OR INSTANCE A  YEAR OLD MONK WAS PAIRED WITH A NEW PERSON A WOMAN WHO WAS  THEY MARRIED WITH  COUPLES IN A



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WATIN+ANDALINRAINYSEASONOF4HISINDEEDWASANACTOFBLASPHEMY FOR HIM NOT JUST BEING MARRIED BUT BEING WED INSIDE A WAT -RS /M WAS LOCKED INSIDE A STUPA EVERY NIGHT FOR FOUR MONTHS IN +AMPONG 3PEU WITH THREE OTHER GIRLS IN  AND SHE SAID SHE WAS MORE FRIGHTENED BY THE BONES AND SPIRITS THAN BY SOLDIERS 3OME PEOPLE SPOKE OF THEIR+HMER2OUGEGROUPWEDDINGDURING0CHUM"ENTHESEASONTOHONOUR THE DEAD ONE WOMAN MARRIED IN A GROUP OF  IN THE CANTEEN IN4AKEO IN  AND ONE WOMAN WED IN A GROUP OF  COUPLES IN +ANDAL AT NIGHT IN THE CANTEEN AND ONE COUPLE MARRIED IN  0CHUM "EN IS A SACRED TIME WHEN MARRIAGES ARE NOT CUSTOMARY ,UCK SEEKING IS ALSO A CENTRAL FEATURE IN PEOPLES DAILY LIVES %VEN WHEN SEEING A PHYSICIAN FAMILIES BRING THEIR SICK RELATIVES TO PAGODAS TO SEE A MONK IN ORDER TO ENHANCE THEIR GOOD LUCK AND GET RID OF BAD LUCK !LSO THEY SEEK HELP FROM TRADITIONAL HEALERS +RUU $OH !MPEU +RUU #HON !REAK  AND FORTUNE TELLERS &OLLOWING CONSULTATION WITH MONKS AND TRADI TIONAL HEALERS THOSE WHO ARE ILL PARTICIPATE IN TRADITIONAL AND RELIGIOUS CEREMONIESINORDERTOFACILITATEBALANCEINHEALTHANDRESTAMONGTHESPIRITS 3YMBOLIC GESTURES ALSO ASSIST LUCK SUCH AS RELEASING A TURTLE AS A WAY OF HONOURING THE INESCAPABLE CYCLE OF SUFFERING ˆ TO BE RELEASED INTO NATURAL SUFFERING IS FAR BETTER THAN SUFFERING LONGER IN CAPTIVITY

Khmer Traditions that Went Underground During Democratic Kampuchea &ESTIVALS ARE REPRESENTED BY THE +HMER CONCEPT OF BON WHICH INVOLVES hPLACING AN OFFERINGv 4HERE ARE MANY FESTIVALS IN THE CYCLE OF A YEAR THAT ARE CELEBRATED IN URBAN RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS BUT THE FOLLOWING WERE MOST SPOKEN ABOUT BY THOSE IN MY STUDY "ON #HOL #HNAM .EW 9EAR "ON 0CHOM "EN &ESTIVAL FOR THE $EAD "ON /M 4OUK 7ATER &ESTIVAL  4HE +HMER 2OUGE PLACED WORK AND DEVOTION TO !NGKAR OVER ANY RITUALISED CELEBRATION OR EXPRESSION 3OMETIMES A LEADER WOULD TURN A BLIND EYE



+RUU $OH !MPEU DOH RELATES TO TAKING OUT A SPELL  THIS IS A HEALER WHO CAN TREAT THE SPELL INVOKED BY "LACK -AGIC +RUU #HON !REAK IS A HEALER WHO CAN COMMUNICATE WITH SPIRIT ANCESTORS IN ORDER TO ASCERTAIN THE SPIRIT THAT PROMPTED THE ILLNESS  )NOTE ALSO THATLUCK SEEKINGBEHAVIOURSCANLEADTOCULTURAL BASEDIFNOTTWISTEDOUTCOMES SUCH AS THE #HINESE BASED BELIEF THAT BAD LUCK CAN BE BROKEN BY HAVING SEX WITH A VIRGIN -OSTRECENTLY THISPLEAWASUSEDTOESTABLISHGROUNDSFORACQUITTAL IN A #AMBODIANCOURT CASE #AMBODIA $AILY -AY  FOR A MAN WHO HAD SEX WITH A TEN YEAR OLD GIRL ˆ DESPITE THE FACT THAT THE FAMILY HAD EVIDENCE OF THE RAPE

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



TO SOMEONES SECRET PLACEMENT OF AN OFFERING 4HERE IS NO EVIDENCE FROM THE PERIOD THAT DOCUMENTS EXECUTIONS DUE TO RITUAL ENACTMENT (OWEVER THE hSECRETv NATURE AND SNEAKING OF SUCH ACTIVITY REPRESENTS ITS TABOO BY THE REGIME "ON 0CHUM "EN MAY BE THE MOST REVERED AS MOST +HMER BELIEVE IN ROAMING SPIRITS ! SPIRIT CAN BE SHOCKED OR FORCED OUT OF SOMEONES BODY ˆ WHICH CAN CAUSE SICKNESS ANDOR DEATH 0EOPLE FEAR THAT ODIOUS SPIRITS WILL INHABIT A HOST BODY THE DANGER OF THIS PHENOMENON IS INCREASED IF ONE DIES VIOLENTLY 3UCH SPIRITS CAN DETACH AT THE TIME OF DEATH AND DENY THE BODY ITS REBIRTH WHILE THE MALEVOLENT SPIRIT TORMENTS THE LIVING !S ONE CAN IMAGINE BY LOSING ACCESS TO TRADITIONS THAT SERVED TO PACIFY AND HONOUR SPIRITS DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD ˆ ALONGSIDE THE DISRESPECTFUL PILING OF DEAD BODIES ˆ COLLECTIVE ANXIETY COULD ONLY HAVE GROWN !S WE SHALL SEE THE LOSS OF "ON 0CHUM "EN IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE +HMER 2OUGES ACT OF CONDUCTING WEDDINGS DURING THIS TIME WAS BLASPHEMOUS 0EOPLE CELEBRATE "ON 0CHUM "EN IN LATE 3EPTEMBER OR EARLY /CTOBER WITH COLLECTIVE ACTIVITY 4HIS IS A PARTICULAR TIME WHEN PEOPLE ARE EXPECTED TO GO TO SEVEN 0AGODAS TO GIVE OFFERINGS TO THE DECEASED ) HAVE NOTED A PARTICULAR KIND OF WORRY IN ADULTS WHO CANNOT MAKE THIS PILGRIMAGE DUE TO TIME AND lNANCES WHILE WORKING IN MENTAL HEALTH CENTRES IN #AMBODIA 4HE REMEMBERING OF THE DECEASED CREATES A PARTICULAR UNITY FOR THE NATION )N ADDITION #AMBODIAN PEOPLE CELEBRATE MANY KINDS OF TRADITIONAL CEREMONIES TO IMPROVE THEIR LUCK AND WELLBEING SUCH AS "ON 2OMDOH +ROUS AND ,EUK 2EASEY TAKING DIRECTION FROM MONKS TO DECREASE BAD LUCK AND ENHANCEGOODLUCK "ON0A#HAY"OURNOFFERINGTHINGSTOPARENTS AND"ON "ANH#HON!REAKEXPOSINGTHESUSPICIOUSSPIRITUALBEINGSTHATARERESPONSIBLE FOR SOMEONES ILLNESS  "ON#HOL#HNAM.EW9EAR ISCELEBRATEDINMID !PRILWHENFARMERSARE FREE FROM THEIR AGRICULTURAL WORK4HE .EW 9EAR MEANS A LOT TO #AMBODIAN PEOPLE)TISATIMEWHENPEOPLEGATHERFORFUN GIVEOFFERINGSMONEY FOOD CLOTHING AND SO ON TO THEIR PARENTS IN ORDER TO SHOW THEIR GRATEFULNESS TO THEM ANDOFFERFOODTOMONKSINTHEPAGODASOTHATDECEASEDRELATIVESSPIRITS CAN HAVE SUSTENANCE 7HEN PEOPLE ARE SICK OR WORRIED THEY SEEK MULTIPLE SOURCES SUCH AS A TRADITIONAL HEALER MONK PHYSICIAN OR MEDIUM (EALERS HOWEVER ARE CONSIDERED TO HAVE POWERS FOR COMMUNICATING WITH SPIRITUAL BEINGS IN ORDER  !S A CULTURAL NOTE WEDDINGS ARE NOT CUSTOMARY DURING "ON 0CHUM "EN IN MY STUDY SIX PEOPLE SPOKE OF +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS PERFORMED DURING THIS SACRED TIME



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TO DETERMINE THE SOURCES OF AN ILLNESS 3OME PERCEIVE THAT SPIRITUAL BEINGS AREANGRYANDTHATTHEIRILLNESSISARESULTOFNEGLECTINGORDISRESPECTINGASPIRIT THAT ROAMS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE HOUSE -ONKS PRESCRIBE OFFERINGS THAT WILL REST THE SPIRITS SUCH AS BANANAS WHITE WINE BURNING OF INCENSE PLAYING OF TRADITIONAL MUSIC AND SO ON 0EOPLE SEEK MEDIUMS BECAUSE THEY TAKE STRENGTH FROM GUARDIAN SPIRITS AND PROTECTORS CALLED BRALIN "RALIN ARE CALLED DURING TRADITIONAL +HMER MARRIAGES FUNERARY RITUALS ADOPTION CEREMONIES AND CONSECRATION OF NEW HOMES 4HOMPSON  "ERTRAND   !N ACHAA A MAN WHO MEDIATES BETWEEN MONKS AND PEOPLE SOMETIMES AS TELLER OF FORTUNES IS CUSTOMARILY CONSULTEDFORLOCATINGTHELUCKYDAYFORTHEWEDDINGBASEDONAWOMANSBIRTH DATE OR SOMETIMES A WOMAN AND MANS COMBINED DATES4WO COUPLES IN THIS STUDYSAIDTHEYSECRETLYVISITEDANACHAATHENIGHTTHEYRETURNEDTOTHEWIFES VILLAGE !PPEALING TO AND INTERACTING WITH SPIRITS WERE EMBEDDED IN RITUALS BEFORE THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA AND HAVE CONTINUED TO REMAIN ACTIVE

Complex Sensation in Cambodia ) RETURN TO THE CASE OF -ONI WHO WAS MARRIED IN  NEAR "ATTAMBANG 3HE DESCRIBED HOW SHE RAN AWAY INTO THE RICE lELDS ON THE NIGHT SHE WAS MARRIED TO HER HUSBAND THEY WERE EXPECTED TO HAVE SEX TOGETHER h) WAS SCARED  PHAY KHLACH  DREAD FROM MY PAST WAS IN THE FUTURE BECAUSE ) NEVER IMAGINEDMYSELFASAMARRIEDGIRL)COULDNOTSTOPSHAKING-YPARENTSWERE NOT ALLOWED AT MY WEDDING AND ) HAD NO HOME TO GO TO ANYMORE ) DID NOT WANT TO BE ALONE WITH HIM SO ) HID ALL NIGHT IN THE RICE lELDS UNTIL THE SOLDIERS FOUND ME AND TOOK ME BACK TO HIMv ! #AMBODIAN PSYCHIATRIST $R ,INA (UOT ASSISTED MY UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPLEX OF SENSATION THAT IS EMBEDDED IN A TERM IN +HMER LANGUAGE SUCHASFEAR FEARFUL PHAY KHLACH 4HEREISATENDENCYIN%URO !MERICANVIEWS ON EMOTIONS TO DISTIL THEM INTO SEPARATE UNITS SUCH AS GRIEF STRICKEN OR CONSUMEDWITHRAGE"YSENSATIONCOMPLEX )MEANTHATEMOTIONSANDSENSE EXPERIENCEEXISTSIMULTANEOUSLYINCONTRADICTORYSTATES AKINTOTHATRECOGNISED IN *APANESE PSYCHIATRY -ORITA  ,E6INE IN PRESS  !NOTHEREXAMPLETHATSHOWSTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENRITUALANDWELLBEING COMES FROM MY CLINICAL lELDWORK OUTSIDE 0HNOM 0ENH IN  ! WOMAN CAME TO A MENTAL HEALTH CENTRE DURING 0CHUM "EN BECAUSE SHE WAS FEELING PHAY KHLACH AND NOT SLEEPING )N RESPONSE A PHYSICIAN SAID HE COULD GIVE HER SOME MEDICINE FOR HER SYMPTOMS 3HE RESPONDED h) DO NOT WANT YOU TO TAKE MY FEAR AWAY BECAUSE IT REMINDS ME OF MY PAST ˆ MY REAL PASTv

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h"UT YOU SAID YOU ARE NOT SLEEPINGv h9ES BECAUSE ) WORRY THAT MY MOTHER DECEASED CANNOT CROSS TO THE OTHER SIDE IF ) DO NOT VISIT PAGODAS BUT ) DONT HAVE MONEY FOR VISITS ) HAVE MY MOTHERS FEAR SHE IS RESTLESS AND ) AMAFRAIDTHATIF)DONTHELPHER)WILLGETSICKv4HUS THEMANIFESTATIONOF PHAY KHLACH WAS A SIGNAL THAT SHE NEEDED TO DO SOMETHING ALSO SHE CARRIED HER DECEASED MOTHERS FEELINGS ALONGSIDE HER OWN IF NOT AS HER OWN  )T WAS A COMPLEX VISCERAL EMOTIONAL CONNECTION 3HE WAS RELIEVED AND ABLE TO SLEEP AGAIN AFTER SHE TOOK THE SUGGESTION OF THE STAFF AND HAD A MONK PERFORM A CEREMONY FOR HER MOTHERS SPIRIT

The Bitter-sour History 4HE +HMER CONCEPT CHU EM ILLUSTRATES THE COMPLEX SENSATION THAT DESCRIBES A TASTE AKIN TO hSWEETSOUR v AS EXPERIENCED IN THE EATING OF A GREEN MANGO (UOT  %NGLISHLANGUAGEHASSEPARATECONCEPTSFORhSWEETvANDhSOURv )N THE +HMER LANGUAGE DESCRIPTIONS OF TASTE OFTEN EXPRESS EMOTIONS )N A STUDY CONDUCTED IN 3PRINGVALE 6ICTORIA WITH FORMER #AMBODIAN REFUGEES MANY REFERENCED THEIR EXPERIENCES OF THE 0OL 0OT REGIME YEARS IN COLLECTIVE TERMS OF SENSATION (UOT   ! MOST FREQUENT MENTIONED TERM WAS LVINH CHU CHOT OR BITTER SOUR BITTER 4HERE ARE VARIOUS KINDS OF BITTER TASTES REPRESENTED IN +HMER LANGUAGE LVINH LIKE THE BITTER TASTE OF THE SDAO LEAF OR PERSIMMON AND CHOT LIKE THE BITTER SENSATION ONE HAS ON THE TIP OF THE TONGUE FROM A GREEN BANANA AND CHU WHICH IS MORE AKIN TO THE SOURISH TASTE OF VINEGAR 4O ASSIST ME IN GRASPING THE EMOTIONAL VISCERAL POWER WITHIN THIS DESCRIPTOR USED BY #AMBODIANS WHO SPOKE OF THEIR PAST AS LVINH CHU CHOT OR BITTER SOUR BITTER $R ,INA TOLD ME TO IMAGINE HAVING A FOUR YEAR DIET WITH ONLY THESE BITING TASTES &ROM THIS SENSATION COMES A COMPLEX EXPERIENCE THAT IS SIMULTANEOUSLY REACTIVE EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL -ETAPHORICALLY ONE PERSON SAID THAT LVINH #HU CHOT MEANS hSOMETHING SO OVERWHELMING THAT ONE CANNOT DIGEST ITv 3OME PEOPLE IN THE -ELBOURNE STUDY SAID THEY hLONGED NOT TO THINK TOO MUCHv 4HEY FOCUSED ON THEIR LONGING AS A HOPEFUL ANTICIPATION WHILE SIMULTANEOUSLY WORRYING ABOUT THEIR OVER THINKING ) NOTICED THIS PATTERN AS WELL IN RESPONDENTS IN MY STUDY -R , SAID h) LONG NOT TO WORRY AND THIS DESIRE STRETCHES OUT MY WORRY ALL THE MOREv -OSTTENDEDTOSEETHEIRFUTUREASDEPENDENTONTHEIRDEEDSINTHEPRESENT LIFE&IFTEENMENSAIDUNSOLICITED THATTHEYWANTEDTOKILLTHEMSELVESDURING THEREGIME BUTDIDNOTHAVETHESETHOUGHTSAFTERTHEIRMARRIAGES3UICIDEFOR THEM HOWEVER WOULD BE A hBAD STAINv FOR THEIR ENTIRE FAMILY AS THEIR SOUL



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WOULDNEVERSETTLE-ENWEREMOREFORTHCOMINGTHANWOMENINDESCRIBING HOW THEY WALKED NEAR DEAD OR DYING BODIES THAT WERE CLUMPED TOGETHER IN DIRTORWATER3OMERESPONDENTSSAIDTHATUNDER$+ BURNINGOFCORPSESWAS NOTALLOWED"URNINGISPERCEIVEDTOBEIMPORTANTFORRELEASEOFTHERELATIVES SPIRIT 7HEN POSSIBLE THEY WOULD TRY TO BURY A RELATIVE UNDER A CERTAIN TREE AND FACE THE HEAD TO THE 7EST !S A CULTURAL NOTE IF SOMEONE DIES WHILE A PARENT OR SPOUSE IS AWAY IN SOME REGIONS THE EYES OF THE DECEASED ARE LEFT OPEN AT TIME OF BURIAL4WO RESPONDENTS BURIED A PARENT IN THIS WAY -R4 SAIDHEHASNOTBEENBACKTOTHESITEOFHISFATHERShDEATHPLACE vANDBEGAN TO CRY AS HE SPOKE 7OMEN AS MUCH AS MEN SAID THEY FELT SAD DURING THEIR +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS BECAUSE THEIR MOTHERS OR FATHERS WERE NOT AT THE CEREMONY THEY WORRIEDWHENTHEYCOULDNOTHONOURANCESTORSORSEEKAFORTUNEABOUTLUCKY ORFOREBODINGDAYS7HATMATTEREDMOSTWASBEINGABLETORETURNTEMPORARILY TOTHEIRVILLAGESTOSEEFAMILYAFTERTHECEREMONY OFWHICHNEARLYONE THIRDOF MYRESPONDENTSDID!FAMILYMIGHTCONDENSEATHREE DAYTRADITIONALWEDDING TO A ONE DAY VILLAGE CELEBRATION TO ACCOMMODATE NEEDS OF A COMMUNITY ˆ WHILEUSINGTRADITIONALPROPSANDSYMBOLSFORALONGANDPROSPEROUSMARRIAGE "UT ADAPTATION ONLY STRETCHES SO FAR )T IS ONE THING TO SHORTEN A CEREMONY WHILE INCLUDING THE SEQUENCE OF TRADITIONAL ACTIVITY #LEARLY PATTERNS OF RITUAL EXCHANGE WERE DISRUPTED BY THE REGIME AND OVER TIME THE PREDICTIVE POWER OF TRADITION BECAME HAPHAZARD 2ITUALS AND THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THEY ARE USED REPRESENT THE CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF A PEOPLE INCLUDING THEIR MAGICO RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL RELATIONS -OSTGRAVELY THE+HMER2OUGERUPTUREDTHESEQUENCEOFRITUALACTIONS SUCH AS IN THE #AMBODIAN PRACTICES OF CONTACTING A FORTUNE TELLER BEFORE DECIDING ON THE WEDDING DATE OR GIVING OFFERINGS TO DECEASED ANCESTORS AND INGESTING BETEL NUT AFTER THE COUPLE IS UNITED -EN AND WOMEN HAVE AN OBLIGATION TO HONOURTHEIRANCESTORSASAMATTEROFCULTURALRIGHTS ASINMAKINGAPILGRIMAGE TOPAGODASDURING0CHUM"EN4HE+HMER2OUGEFORBADEALLCELEBRATIONSAND SACREDSEASONS ANDATTACKEDTRADITIONSINVOLVINGLUCK MERIT ANDPROTECTION WHILE NEGLECTING ANCESTORS



4RADITIONALBURIALANDRELATEDSEQUENCEOFCEREMONIESWERESPARSE ATBEST ANDMOSTLYADHOC DURING$+&AMILYMEMBERSANDRELATIVESHONOURTHEDEADWITHABURIAL#HINESE #AMBODIANgS PREFERENCE OR CREMATION +HMER #AMBODIANgS PREFERENCE  5SUALLY SEVEN DAYS AFTER DEATH THE FAMILYHASANOTHERCEREMONYANDAFTERWARDSTHEYPAYHOMAGEEVERYDAYSANDMAKEOFFERINGS ATASHRINE$URINGTHEFUNERALCEREMONY THEOLDESTSONSHAVESHISHEADANDWALKSINFRONTOF THE FUNERAL CARCART IN WHICH THE BODY IS PLACED

6ULNERABILITY 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE



Ritual Gambling, Spirits, and the Buddha )N#AMBODIA SPIRITSCONTRIBUTETOORDERANDDISORDERINPEOPLESLIVES ANDTHIS ISNOTJUSTAFEATUREFORTHOSEWHOLIVEINRURALORREMOTEREGIONS2EGARDLESSOF CITY OR COUNTRYSIDE A SENSE OF PERSONAL AND COLLECTIVE PREDICTABILITY INCREASES AS PEOPLE HONOUR THEIR ANCESTORS $IFFERENCES VARY GEOGRAPHICALLY BECAUSE THE RHYTHMS OF AGRARIAN LIFE REQUIRE CUSTOMS THAT ARE mUID ENOUGH TO lT CHANGING CIRCUMSTANCES 4HE MORE THE +HMER 2OUGE IMPOSED NEW RITUAL THE MORE THE mUIDITY OF RITUAL EXCHANGE WAS ERODED "Y THIS ) MEAN THAT ONE HAD TO CALCULATE WHERE HOW AND WHEN THEY COULD lND PROTECTION AND THEN TO SNEAK TO lND SUCH SOURCES AND THIS WAS A SOLO ACT !ND WITH REGARD TO BUILDING MERIT THROUGH OFFERINGS TO THE "UDDHA OR A DECEASED ANCESTOR THE EXCHANGERATEBETWEENSPIRITSANDHUMANSWASLOWTONON EXISTENTBYNORMAL STANDARDS ! FAMILY COULD NOT COME TOGETHER PUBLICLY TO GIVE USUAL OFFERINGS ORSEEKAFORTUNE TELLERORMONK%ITHERWAY FEARWASDOUBLEDINTHEGAMBLE FEAR ABOUT BEING CAUGHT BY THE +HMER 2OUGE AND FEAR ABOUT THEIR OWN AND THEIR ANCESTORS DESTINIES WHEN NEGLECTING RITUALISTIC CARE !GRICULTURAL REALITIES ALLOW PEOPLE TO DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN RITUALS THAT ARE MOST PROlTABLE PHYSICALLY)NMYSTUDY PROTECTIVERELATIONSSEEMEDTORUNBOTHWAYSˆTHE LIVING PROTECTED THE DEAD AND THE DEAD PROTECTED THE LIVING AS A KIND OF METAPHYSICALECOLOGICALEXCHANGE0EOPLEWEREMOSTWORRIEDWHENTHEYCOULD NOT TAP INTO THIS EXCHANGE ˆ WORRIED ABOUT SELF AND WORRIED ABOUT OTHER 'IVEN THIS EXCHANGE IT IS VIABLE THAT A SPIRIT CAN CONTINUE TO COLLECT KARMA BYTHEWAYITRELATESTOTHELIVING)FRELATIONSARECUTOFFASHAPPENEDDURING THE +HMER 2OUGE THEN KARMIC COLLECTION AND EXCHANGE COULD BE DAMAGED 4HUS THEBREAKDOWNOFRITUALECLIPSESTHESPIRITECOLOGY)NASYSTEMOFhRITUAL GAMBLINGv DURING $+ PEOPLE HAD TO DETERMINE WHICH RITUALS WERE MOST NEEDEDINORDERTOSURVIVETHERECONSTITUTEDCULTURALORDERUNDER$EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA0EOPLEBARTEREDOBJECTSANDGAMBLEDWITHTHEIRLIVESFORRITUALSAS IFCONTINUALLYASKING)STHISRITUALESSENTIALENOUGHTODIEFOR/NEMANSAID HE CLIMBED PALM TREES AND GAVE SOLDIERS SUGAR CANE IN EXCHANGE FOR TIME OR VISITSTOOTHERS-ANYSEEMEDWILLINGTORISKDEATHFORTHEIROBLIGATIONTOGIVE OFFERINGS TO ANCESTORS OR TO BURY A PARENT CHILD OR PLACENTA WHEN POSSIBLE -ORE PROFOUNDLY ) FOUND THAT THE "UDDHA WAS CALLED ON AS A WAY OF INCREASING THE ODDS FOR PROTECTION -ANY SCHOLARS DISTINGUISH BETWEEN 4HERAVADA "UDDHISM OF #AMBODIA AND -AHAYANA "UDDHISM IN *APAN IN WAYS THAT LEAVE IT STANDING AS ITS OWN SYSTEM AS IF IT IS A FORMAL RELIGION UNIVERSALLY "UT ) FOUND THAT IN THE DAY TO DAY LIVES OF #AMBODIAN PEOPLE THE PRACTICES OF "UDDHISM GET MIXED UP WITH ASTROLOGY ANCESTRAL WORSHIP AND VARIOUS RITUALS USED FOR PROTECTION THAT VARY FROM PLACE TO PLACE 4HIS



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WASVERYCLEARWHENTRAVELLINGWITHRESPONDENTSBACKTOWEDDINGSITES3OME TOLD ME THEY WERE AFRAID DURING $+ BECAUSE THEY DID NOT KNOW PLACES THAT WERESAFEˆMEANINGCOULDTHEYORCOULDTHEYNOTREADTHESPIRITLANDSCAPE %VEN IF THEY COULD CALL ON AN IMAGE OF THE "UDDHA IT WAS NOT ENOUGH AND THEY NEEDED MORE SYSTEMS OF PROTECTION 3OME SCHOLARS MAKE DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN "UDDHISM AND ANIMISM BASED ON THE VARIANCE IN FUNCTION AND ROLE /BEYESEKERE  !MES   HOWEVER SOME PLACE THESE MEANING MAKING SYSTEMS ON A CONTINUUM -EDELSON  WHILESOMEPOINTTOTHESHARINGOFINTRINSICPOWERSOURCES 4ANNENBAUM (LA0E  4HOSEINMYSTUDYTENDEDTOSHOWLITTLE DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE FUNCTION OF THE "UDDHA ANCESTORS SPIRITS OF VARIOUS DIMENSION AND PLACE FORTUNES AND OBJECTS OF PROTECTION !ND IT WAS CLEAR THATMOSTMADENODISTINCTIONBETWEENTYPESOF"UDDHISM)TWASTHEIMAGE OF"UDDHATHATPEOPLECONJUREDMOST ANDTHEIRWELLNESSODDSWEREINCREASED BY ACCESSING MULTIPLE PRACTICES AND HEALERS &OLLOWING lELDWORK IN "URMA #£LINE #ODEREY WROTE AN ESSAY ON THE CONCEPTS OF SICKNESS AND PROTECTIVE AND HEALING PRACTICES IN !RAKAN 3HE WRITESOFTWOKINDSOFPOWERS INTERNALANDEXTERNALTHATEMERGEFROMOBJECTS SUCH AS THE WEARING OF AMULETS OR SYMBOLS BY TATTOOS AND SUPERNATURAL ENTITIES #ODEREYS lNDINGS SHOW THAT WHEN ILL PEOPLE WOULD ACCESS THE "UDDHA ALONGSIDE OTHER SUPERNATURAL BEINGS IN WAYS SIMILAR TO WHAT ) FOUND IN MY STUDY xBY INVOKING HELP FROM POWERFUL SUPERNATURAL BEINGS NAT DEVA WEIKZA YAHANDA THE "UDDHA WHOSE NATURE IS ALWAYS IN RELATION WITH THEDElNITIONANDFORMATIONTHATTHEHEALERHASFOLLOWED3OTHE-ASTER OF NAT HAS RECOURSE TO THE HELP AND POWER OF NAT THE -ASTER OF THE 5PPER7AYTO(INDU "UDDHISTDEITIESANDSAINTS WEIKZA THE-ASTEROF THE ,OWER7AY TO THAT OF BAD SPIRITS ESPECIALLY TESE AND TEIE "UT HERE AGAIN WE ARE FAR FROM A CLEAR PICTURE BECAUSE MANY COMBINATIONS ARE POSSIBLE4OSUMUP WEAREFARFROMAHOMOGENOUSSITUATIONWHEREALL HEALERSSHARETHESAMESAVOIRSANDSAVOIRS FAIRE BUTALSOFROMASITUATION OF SOLELY INDIVIDUAL AND UNIQUE CASES WHERE EVERYONE DIFFERS FROM OTHERS NO COMMON ASPECT CAN BE FOUND BETWEEN THEM 3OME SHARED ASPECTS ARE DETECTIBLE AMONG THOSE WHO HOLD THE SAME DElNITIONS AS WELLASAMONGTHOSEWHOMAINTAINDIFFERENTONES BUTAPARTFROMTHESE 

#£LINE #ODEREY  AS PART OF HER RD YEAR 0H$ IN #ULTURAL AND 3OCIAL !NTHROPOLOGY 5NIVERSITY !IX -ARSEILLE  ND YEAR DIPLOMA IN "URMESE LANGUAGE ).!,#/ 0ARIS 0ROTECTING AND 2ESTORING THE #OSMIC /RDER %SSAY ON THE #ONCEPTS OF 3ICKNESS AND 0ROTECTIVE AND (EALING 0RACTICES IN !RAKAN "URMA 

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SHARED ASPECTS EVERYBODY HAS A SPACE OF FREEDOM WHICH GIVES HIM HIS PERSONAL COLORATION .OTHING IS lXED EVERYTHING IS MOVING AND CHANGING PANTA RHEI (ERACLITUS x WITH THE AIM OF PREVENTING OR RESTORING THE ORDER OF THE COSMOS

&ROM HER STUDY )VE CONCLUDED THAT THOSE LIVING WERE RESTRAINED FROM INTERACTING WITH SPIRITS ALONGSIDE THE "UDDHA )MPOSED NEGLECT MEANT THAT NOT ONLY WAS THEIR OWN KARMA CAPACITY THWARTED BUT THE KARMA CAPACITY OF FRIENDLY SPIRITS WAS DISRUPTED TOO 4HIS DISCUSSION IS NOT MEANT AS SOME .EW !GE HUMBLE JUMBLE BUT RATHER IT OFFERS A PERSPECTIVE FROM WHICH TO UNDERSTAND THE COMPLEX NATURE OF ANXIETY THAT STIRS IN SURVIVORS 4HIS DISCUSSION PAVES THE WAY FOR THE NEXT CHAPTER WHICH DESCRIBES THE RITUALS THAT HOLD SIGNIlCANCE FOR PEOPLES WELLBEING AND RISK TO SUCH BEFORE DURING AND AFTER THE REGIME

Chapter

3 Core Rituals for Marriage, Pregnancy, and Birth in Cambodia

Tradition as Foreground #LASSICALLY RITUAL REFERS TO AN EXPLICIT CULTURAL ACTIVITY THAT IS TRANSMITTED OVER TIME AND ENTAILS DAILY ANDOR SEASONAL ACTIVITIES WITH MODES OF EXPRESSION CONNECTED TO ESTABLISHED CULTURAL PRACTICES )N ALMOST ALL CULTURES MARRIAGE IS MEANT TO BE A LIFELONG COMMITMENT WHILE RITUAL IS ALSO hMEANINGFUL RATHER THAN UTILITARIAN IN EXPRESSING A SENTIMENT OR IDEA RATHER THAN PERFORMING A TECHNICAL OPERATIONv 7INTHROP  P   3UCH DESCRIPTION HAS IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETING +HMER 2OUGE WEDDING ACTIVITY &OR EXAMPLE COUPLES WERE ASKED TO SHAKE HANDS AFTER THE +HMER 2OUGE CEREMONY AN IMPOSED 7ESTERN PRACTICE WHICH DISPLACED THE TRADITIONAL GREETING OF PRESSING THEIR HANDS TOGETHER SOMPIAH  )N MY STUDY THE NOTION OF hTRADITIONAL PRACTICESv TENDED TO REFER TO THE PRE ,ON .OL PERIOD BEFORE   !FTER  MANY WHO COULD HAVE TRANSMITTED RITUALS TO THE YOUNG WERE DEAD AND MANY YOUTH WITNESSED HAPHAZARD TRADITIONAL PRACTICES !S A BARE MINIMUM FOR AT LEAST THREE TO FOUR YEARS DURING $+ MOST TRADITIONS WERE FORMALLY BANNED !LSO YOUTH INCULCATED INTO THE +HMER 2OUGE SYSTEMS IN FORMATIVE YEARS WERE NOT SOCIALISED INTO THE SEQUENCE AND DETAILS OF CLASSICAL TRADITION 3EVERAL RESPONDENTS TOLD ME h4HIS IS HOW THINGS WERE BEFORE THE WARS OR MY GRANDPARENTS DID THINGS THAT WAYv )KEPTCOMPARINGTHEMESBETWEENPRE WEDDINGTRADITIONSANDTHOSE IMPLEMENTED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE 4YPICAL WEDDING DESCRIPTIONS FROM MY



#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



RESEARCH ARE GIVEN BELOW AND ILLUSTRATE THE LAYERS OF CULTURAL BREAK DOWN OF TRADITION IN THE $+ PERIOD -R4WEDIN+AMPONG#HAMIN)KNEWSHEHADNOPARENTS SO )COULDNOTASKTHEMABOUTHER)FELLINLOVEWITHHERJUSTBYWATCHING HER!ND)KNEWWHATITWASLIKETOBEWITHOUTAFATHER3O)TOLDMY MOTHER ) WANTED TO MARRY HER AND SHE WENT TO SPEAK WITH MY WIFES BROTHER (E ACCEPTED ME FOR HIS SISTER AND SO ) HAD TO ASK !NGKARS PERMISSION TO MARRY HER7E WERE MARRIED WITH  OTHER COUPLES AND STOOD IN THE RICE lELD DURING THE HARVEST IN  7E STAYED IN THE VILLAGE LIKE OLD PEOPLE EVEN THOUGH WE WERE NEW PEOPLE -Y MOTHER MADE A SPECIAL MEAL FOR US ON THE NIGHT OF OUR WEDDING AND WE GAVE OFFERINGSTOANCESTORS7ELIVEDWITHMYMOTHERFROMTHENONBUTHAD TO EAT IN THE COMMON KITCHEN !WOMANWEDIN4AKEO7EWEREBOTHBASEPEOPLEAND)WAS YEARS OLD ANDMYWIFEWAS7EMARRIEDWITHFOURCOUPLESTHELEADEROF OUR VILLAGE ARRANGED THIS FOR US 7E SAT AT A LONG TABLE IN THE KITCHEN OF THE +HMER 2OUGE HOUSE )T WAS AT NIGHT4HERE WAS ONE mOWER IN THEMIDDLEOFTHETABLE7EWOREBLACKANDWHITECHECKERED KRAMAS 7E HAD NO FOOD NOT EVEN A DRINK7E HAD A VERY SECRET CEREMONY AT MY MOTHERS HOUSE AFTER WITH SOME RICE -R /M MARRIED IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN  7E KNEW EACH OTHER WHEN WE WERE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL BUT DID NOT THINK TO GET MARRIED 4HETWOHEADSOFTHECAMPSFORBOYSANDGIRLSARRANGEDOURWEDDING THEYKNEWWECAMEFROMTHESAMEPLACE7EMARRIEDWITHCOUPLES IN AN EMPTY ROOM IN THE HEADQUARTERS OF THE DISTRICT CHIEF 7E SAT ON THE mOOR WITH BOYS ON ONE SIDE AND GIRLS ON THE OTHER UNTIL OUR NAMEWASCALLEDTOSTANDANDBECOUPLED7EALLSHAREDAPIGANDRICE AFTER THE WEDDING "ECAUSE WE MARRIED NOT FAR FROM MY WIFES VILLAGE WE WALKED THERE THAT NIGHT AND STAYED FOR THREE DAYS (ER MOTHER SECRETLY FOUND A FORTUNE TELLER FOR US TO MAKE SURE OUR WEDDING DAY WAS LUCKY 4HEN WE RETURNED TO LIVE IN THIS VILLAGE NEAR OUR PLACE OF MARRIAGE

Primary Ritual Objects and CodiÄcation 4HEPRIMARYRITUALOBJECTSOFTHEWEDDINGCEREMONYARETHEPOPILILLUSTRATION ON P  CANDLES THE STRING FOR TYING ON THE WRISTS OF THE SPOUSES THE PARAPHERNALIA ASSOCIATED WITH BETEL NUT THE USE OF THE NUMBER  AS IN CIRCLING THE POPIL  TIMES AROUND THE COUPLE THE SCISSORS FOR SYMBOLIC



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CUTTING OF THE HAIR AND CHARCOAL AND lRE4HE POPIL IS USUALLY CAST IN METAL IN THE SHAPE OF A LEAF A CANDLE IS SECURED TO THE POPIL SOMETIMES WITH A BANANA LEAF TIED IN THE BACK #ANDLES AND POPILS ARE PRESENT THROUGHOUT THE HAIRCUTTINGANDTYINGOFTHESTRINGRITUAL ANDCASTASOFTLIGHTONTOTHECOUPLE DURING THIS WEDDING PHASE 4HIERRY  HAS DESCRIBED THE SEQUENCE OF RITUAL OBJECT USE IN RELATION TO TIME OF DAY AND ROLES PLAYED BY SIGNIlCANT PEOPLEINTHEVILLAGE INCLUDINGTHEPARENTS FORTUNE TELLERS MONKS MUSICIANS ELDERS AND CHILDREN

"RONZEPOPILFROMTHE.ATIONAL-USEUM 0HNOM0ENH 

Documentation of Marriage Rituals Prior to 1970 ) COMPARED REFERENCES ACROSS ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES FOLK STORIES AND ACCOUNTS OFCOURTINGANDMARRYINGBEHAVIOURSPRIORTOTHE,ON.OLREGIME BEFORETHE TIME THAT SO MANY PEOPLE LEFT THEIR VILLAGES ) ALSO ATTENDED VILLAGE WEDDINGS THATWERECONSIDEREDTOBETRADITIONAL7HENEVERPOSSIBLE )INTERVIEWEDFAMILY ELDERS AND ASKED THEM TO DESCRIBE THEIR PRE  WEDDINGS FOR ME 4HUS 

3IMILARLY IN A TEXT FROM n BY &RAN½OIS -ARTINI -£THODE DE LECTURE #AMBODGIENNE  THERELIGIOUSANDSYMBOLICSIGNIlCANCEOFTHEPOPILISHIGHLIGHTED-ARTINI NOTES THAT THE POPIL AND mAME OF THE CANDLE ARE CONSIDERED TO BE VERY PRECIOUS AND ESSENTIAL TO THE SEQUENCEOFRITUALTHATENCOMPASSESMARRIAGE;h!PRÞSDIX NEUFTOURSLESmAMMESSONT£TEINTESx LACHAR DESSINE LE SOURCILSv= OR AFTER THE mAME AND POPIL ARE PASSED  TIMES AROUND THE BRIDE ANDGROOMxLATERxTHEACHAADRAWSEYEBROWSASASYMBOLOFMARRIAGE-ARTINI  P 

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



) GATHERED ACCOUNTS OF COURTSHIP AND WEDDINGS BEFORE  AND BETWEEN n ALONGSIDE MY OWN OBSERVATIONS BETWEEN  AND  4HE EARLIEST REFERENCE ) FOUND THAT CITED WEDDING RITES IN #AMBODIA WAS IN "ULLETIN D%COLE &RAN½AISE D%XTREME /RIENT IN  WITH REFERENCE TO 0ELLIOTSACCOUNTOFCUSTOMSINTHETHIRTEENTHCENTURY$ELAPORTEDOCUMENTED #AMBODIAN WEDDING RITES IN  IN THE !TLAS DU 6OYAGE $EXPLORATION EN )NDOCHINE /THER OBSERVATIONS ARE GIVEN BY !YMONIER n ,ECLÞRE  -ASP£RO  AND 0OR£E -ASP£RO IN  !N OFTEN CITED STUDY OF A +HMER VILLAGE PRIOR TO THE +HMER 2OUGE %RA IS -AY %BIHARAS 3VAY ! +HMER6ILLAGE IN #AMBODIA  IN WHICH SHE WROTE ABOUT A VILLAGE OF  PEOPLE WHO LIVED 3OUTH OF 0HNOM 0ENH IN +ANDAL PROVINCE IN n  3HE DOCUMENTED THE MARRIAGE PROTOCOL AND A WEDDING CEREMONY SHE WITNESSED 3OME ETHNOGRAPHERS HAVE COMPARTMENTALISED THE WEDDING EVENTS INTO STAGES %BIHARA  CITES STAGE ONE AS THE MORNING OF THE WEDDING WHERE SUCH GIFTS AS BETEL NUT ANSOM CAKES AND FRUITS ARE TAKEN FROM THE GROOMS TO THE BRIDES SHELTER 3IMILARLY -ADAME 0ICH 3AL  IN ,E -ARIAGE #AMBODGIEN DIVIDES THE MARRIAGE EVENT INTO THREE PHASES THE PREPARATORY STAGE THE PRONOUNCEMENT OF THE MARRIAGE AND THE POST WEDDING STAGE !CROSSDOCUMENTEDMATERIAL WEDDINGRITESHAVEINVOLVEDPREPARATIONSFOR ACEREMONYTHATOCCURWITHINONETOTHREEDAYS%BIHARASTATESTHATCEREMONIES INTHEVILLAGESHEOBSERVEDWERESHORTENEDINTHESFROMTHREEDAYSTOONE AND A HALF DAYS /THER DOCUMENTS INDICATE THAT THE LENGTH OF THE CEREMONY VARIED ACCORDING TO PLACE AND THE STATUS OF FAMILY ,Y 3UVY  REFERS TO THE CEREMONY AS A THREE DAY EVENT IN THE S INTO THE EARLY S AND FORMALLY INDICATES THE TYPES OF CEREMONIES ON DIFFERENT DAYS AS THNGAI CHOUL RONGCEREMONIALPROCEDURESIN$AY/NE THNGAIKAMNORTCEREMONYIN$AY 4WO AND SAMPEAH PHTOEUM THE MARRIED COUPLES GREETINGS IN $AY4HREE  !CCORDING TO TRADITION AN ACHAA SETS THE DATE OF THE MARRIAGE )N THE VILLAGE SHE STUDIED %BIHARA  P  FOUND THAT WEDDINGS TOOK PLACE IN *ANUARY -ARCH -AY EARLY *ULY AND .OVEMBER 4HE WEDDING DAY IS DETERMINED BY THE HOROSCOPES OF THE BRIDAL COUPLE WITH PREFERENCE FOR THE FEMALES READING AS A WAY OF INDICATING GOOD FORTUNE DAYS AND AVOIDING DANGEROUSDATES4HE+HMER2OUGE ONTHEOTHERHAND IGNOREDTHESECALENDAR MARKERS AND TENDED TO HAVE WEDDINGS AT THE END OF THE PLANTING OR HARVEST WORK PERIODS -ORE RECENTLY 9IHEANG  HAS FOUND THAT TRADITIONAL 

)N 5NDER -AIDENHOOD #HOU 4A +UAN P STATES THAT h7HEN A DAUGHTER IS BORN TO A #AMBODIANFAMILY ITISCUSTOMARYFORTHEPARENTSTOEXPRESSFORHERTHEWISH @-AYTHEFUTURE BRING THEE A HUNDRED A THOUSAND HUSBANDS
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WEDDING CEREMONIES HAVE MOVED FROM SEVEN DAYS AND SEVEN NIGHTS BEFORE &RENCH COLONISATION  TO THREE DAYS AND THREE NIGHTS TO ONE DAY ONE NIGHT ANDONEMORNINGTOONEDAYONLY)NMYSTUDY THE+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGS VACILLATED BETWEEN SANCTIONING THREE DAYS AND THREE NIGHTS TO ONE DAY AND NIGHT FOR THE COUPLE TO BE RELIEVED FROM WORK -ORE SPECIlCALLY ,Y 3UVY  REFERENCES THIS TIME AS THE h&IRST 2ITUALv OR 0ITHY CHECHOUV WHEREIN A RESPECTED WOMAN IN THE COMMUNITY SEEKS INFORMATION FROM THE MOTHER OF THE BRIDE TO BE )F THE MOTHER AGREES TOTHEMARRIAGE THEYOUNGWOMANSBIRTHDATEISREQUESTED4HESAMEWOMAN GIVES THE DAY MONTH AND YEAR TO THE ACHAA SO THAT A LUCKY WEDDING DATE CAN BE PRESCRIBED &ROM  TO  'ABRIELLE -ARTEL  STUDIED A VILLAGE  KILO METRES 7EST OF 3IEM 2EAP (ER WORK INCLUDES PHOTOS OF VILLAGE MARRIAGE CEREMONIES INCLUDING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS HAIRCUTTING RITUALS AND THE SACRIlCE OF CHICKENS )N THE VILLAGE STUDIED BY -ARTEL THE AGES OF MARRIAGE RANGEDFROMTO)NHISSTUDYONKINSHIPANDSOCIALORGANISATION *ACQUES .£POTE  PLOTTED THE PREDOMINANCE OF MATRILINEAL TIES IN #AMBODIA 7ITH REGARD TO COURTSHIP AND WEDDINGS THE FAMILY AND RESIDENTIAL UNIT ARE MOST INCLUDED AND INITIAL DECISIONS ARE MADE ACCORDING TO MATRILINEAL LINES 7ITH REGARD TO KINSHIP STRUCTURES .AKANE  COMPARED VILLAGE STRUCTURESIN(INDUREGIONSIN)NDIAWITHTHOSEOF"UDDHISTREGIONSIN*APAN HEFOUNDTHATKINSHIPRELATIONSWERETIEDTOPEOPLESRELATIONALROLESMORETHAN MATRILINEAL SYSTEMS .AKANES OBSERVATIONS OF (INDU COMMUNITY STRUCTURES MAYHOLDRELEVANCEFOR#AMBODIA ANDCOINCIDEWITH(INDURELATIONALMYTHS THATDEPICTGODSPLAYINGMULTIPLEANDmUIDROLES&ORINSTANCE )FOUNDTHATAS FAMILY UNITS BROKE DOWN DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE THE SURVIVING GENERATION TENDED TO ARRANGE THEIR OWN CHILDRENS MARRIAGES WITH OFFSPRING OF FRIENDS THEY TRUSTED DURING THE REGIME WITH MORE mUIDITY WHEREIN THE VALANCE OF RELATIONAL REGIME HISTORY MAY HAVE BECOME AS IMPORTANT AS KIN AND PLACE RELATIONS )FOLLOWEDTHELIVESOFSOMEOFTHEADULTCHILDRENOFCOUPLESUNDER STUDY GIVENTHAT)INTERVIEWEDSOMECOUPLESACROSSAlVE YEARPERIOD)COULD FOLLOWTHEFAMILIESMARRIAGE RELATEDRITUALS)USEDTHESEACCOUNTSTOCOMPARE RITUALS ACROSS TIME AND PLACE AND DOCUMENT PATTERNS AND SHIFTS IN RITUALS  ) SEARCHED FOR RELATED CITATIONS IN *APANESE ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES THAT COMMENTED ON KINSHIP RELATIONS FROM ANOTHER WORLD VIEW ) FOUND ONE REFERENCE THAT DISCUSSED THE SIGNIlCANCE OF PLACE SPIRITSIN3OUTHEAST!SIAAKINTO*APANESEKAMISPIRITS OFTHERICEPADDIES)WATA   4HE UTILITY OF THE METAPHYSICAL WORLD IS PRESENTED WITH LITTLE EXOTIC TONE IN *APANESE WHEN COMPAREDTO&RENCHLITERATURE ANDISPERHAPSAREASONFORFEWER*APANESEETHNOGRAPHICSTUDIES ON THIS TOPIC

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



OVER TIME ) NOTICED THE STRONG POSITIONING OF ARRANGED MARRIAGES TODAY "UT ) ALSO FOUND AN INTERESTING FEATURE IN SOME CURRENT MARRIAGES THAT HAVE BEEN ARRANGED BETWEEN PARENTS WHO KNEW EACH OTHER DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE REGIME )N ONE CASE )VE SURMISED THAT THE FATHER OF THE GROOM HAD BEEN A +HMER 2OUGE LEADER WHO BEFRIENDED A PARENT OF THE BRIDE IN THE S "ETWEENAND )ATTENDEDSEVERALTRADITIONALWEDDINGS)N IN !NG 3NOUL $ISTRICT IN "ACHAN #OMMUNE ) TOOK STILL PHOTOS OF RITUAL OBJECTS AND NOTED THEIR SEQUENCE OF USE DURING CEREMONIES 4HE WEDDING HAD BEEN ARRANGED BY THE RELATIVES OF THE COUPLE AND WENT ALL DAY ON A 3UNDAYIN-ARCHTHEACHAAHADCHOSENTHATDAYFORITSGOODFORTUNE3OME MOTHERS AND AUNTS TOLD ME THAT THEY CONSULTED VARIOUS FORTUNE TELLERS UNTIL THEY FOUND ONE WHO ENDORSED THEIR CHOSEN WEDDING DATE !T THE ONSET OF THE CEREMONY THE COUPLE PLACED A LEAF WITH A BITTER TASTE INTO THEIR MOUTHS TO SYMBOLISE THE NEED TO MUTUALLY ENDURE THE BITTER TIMES IN YEARS TO COME 4HEACHAAPLAYEDAMAJORROLEINTHEDAYANDMUSICIANSPLAYEDATTRANSITIONAL MOMENTS ! SHORT HUMOROUS PLAY WAS ENACTED BY LOCAL VILLAGERS WHO MADE FUN OF THE IMPENDING SEXUAL RELATIONS OF THE COUPLE 4HE WIFES MOTHER PRETENDED TO CUT THE COUPLES HAIR AND THE POPIL WITH CANDLE WAS TAKEN THREE TIMES IN A CIRCLE AROUND THE BRIDE AND GROOM 4HE MAIN CEREMONY WITH THE HUMOROUS PLAY BETEL NUT RITUAL AND HAIRCUTTING OCCURRED OUTSIDE THE WOMANS HOME THOUGH THE TYING OF COTTON STRINGS ON THE BRIDE AND GROOMS WRISTS OCCURRED INDOORS 4HOMPSON  REFERENCES THE NUMBER  AS SIGNIlCANT BECAUSE IT REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF BRALIN THAT ACT AS PROTECTOR SPIRITS THUS THE POPIL IS TURNED  TIMES AROUND THE COUPLE TO INSURE THE WELLBEING MANGAL OF COUPLES IN THEIR COMMUNITY 6ILLAGERS WILL CALL THE BRALIN TO THEIR RICE lELDS AND SUMMON THE  SOULS THAT RESIDE WITHIN THE BODY OF THE RICE PADDY TO ASSURE A GOOD HARVEST )N THREE WEDDINGS THAT ) ATTENDED THE POPIL RITUAL OCCURRED INSIDE THE WOMANS HOME WITH CLASSICAL MUSICIANS PLAYING OUTSIDE THEHOUSE4HEBRIDEANDGROOMWORECOLOURFULCLOTHESEMBELLISHEDINGOLD (OWEVER THE RITUALS WERE CONDENSED INTO ONE FULL DAY DUE TO THE REALITY OF VILLAGERSWORKSCHEDULES ANDTHECOSTSOFTHECEREMONY4HEPOPILWASTURNED THREE TIMES AROUND THE COUPLE ON THAT DAY 4HE 'ATILOKE "UDDHIST MORAL STORIES SUGGESTS THAT THE COUPLES PLACE THEIR HAIR CUTTINGS INTO A BOWL OF BANANA LEAVES IN ORDER TO DISPEL BAD LUCK #ARRISON AND #HHEAN   /VERALL &RENCH ETHNOGRAPHERS SHOW VARIATIONS ACROSS REGIONS OF THE COUNTRY WITH REGARD TO VILLAGE RITUALS AND RELATED OBJECTS 4HE FOLLOWING

7EDDING AT "ACHAN  0HOTO BY ,E6INE

#UTTINGOFHAIRCEREMONYATWEDDING "ACHAN  0HOTO BY ,E6INE

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4YING OF THE STRINGS CEREMONY AT WEDDING "ACHAN  0HOTO BY 9EM @#HETNA

PASSAGE IS AN EXPLANATION OF HOW RITUAL OBJECTS ARE USED TO SECURE UNIONS BETWEEN THE BRIDE GROOM AND THEIR FAMILIES )N THE PRESENTATION OF THE AREC NUT AND BETEL LEAF THE TWO FAMILIES ARE ENGAGING 4HE FOURTH GIFT OF THE CHEWING TOBACCO OCCURS DURING THE lXING OF THE DATE AND IT MARKS THE PRE UNION OR HALF MARRIAGE 3OMETIMES A SIMPLE CEREMONY OCCURS ON THE lRST DAY OF THE WEDDING NOCE $URINGTHEMARRIAGE THEROTATIONOFTHEPOPILTAKESPLACEDURING THREETRADITIONALDAYSTHElRSTISWHENTHEBRIDEBOWSALONE THEHANDS JOIN ON THE PILLOW 4HE SECOND TIME AROUND THE COUPLE IS IN EARLY MORNINGAFTERTHEPHDIM THISISTHESYMBOLICMOMENTWHENTWOYOUNG PEOPLE ARE REUNITED &LOWERS OF THE AREQUIER TREE ARE PLACED IN FRONT OF THE HOUSE ON THE SMALL STAND  4RANSLATION FROM &RENCH &ROM A COLLECTION OF #£R£MONIES 0RIV£E DES #AMBODGIENS 0RIVATE #EREMONIES OF THE #AMBODIANS  -ME 0OR£E -ASP£RO - #HAP PIN -ME 0ICH 3AL -- #HEK 0RAK ,UY 3EAN .HEM +HEM #EDORECK  0ARIS;!LSODISCUSSEDBY3OLANGE4HIERRY IN ,E 0OPIL /BJECT 2ITUEL #AMBODGIEN 5NE #OLLECTION DU -US£E DE L(OMME AND #ENTRE $E $OCUMENTATION ET DE 2ECHERCHE SUR LA #IVILISATION +HMÞRE #EDORECK =



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4HERE IS SOME mEXIBILITY IN WEDDING RITUALS ACROSS REGIONS %XISTING ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES ON TRADITIONAL #AMBODIAN WEDDINGS HAVE INVOLVED RURAL REGIONS AND OFFER A COLOURFUL BASELINE FOR RITUAL COMPARISON ) OBTAINED ANECDOTAL INFORMATION BY PARTICIPANTS IN MY STUDY FOR EXAMPLE ONE WOMAN TOLD OF A NEIGHBOUR WHO MARRIED A &RENCH WOMAN AND OF DRESS BEING MORE AKIN TO %UROPEAN WEAR FOR THE WEDDING THAT WAS HELD IN 0HNOM 0ENH "UT DESPITEREGIONALVARIATIONINDRESS COLOURWASANDISEXPECTED0OR£E -ASP£RO ET AL  

Music, Monks, and the Role of Spirits 4HEMONKISCENTRALTOFAMILYANDCOMMUNITYWELLBEINGFROMTHEBEGINNING TO END OF THE WEDDING RITES OF PASSAGE -ONKS PROVIDE COUNSELLING FOR THE COUPLES AND MAKE LINKS TO DECEASED ANCESTORS AS A WAY OF HONOURING THEIR PRESENCEDURINGTHECELEBRATION4HEMONKSRECITETHESACREDTEXTSANDTHROW WATER ON THE COUPLE TO ASSIST IN EXORCISING HARMFUL SPIRITS AND SICKNESS AND TO MAKE SURE WISHES COME TRUE !T THE TIME OF THE BANQUET THE OFFERING IS MADETOANCESTORS ANDFORLONGLIFEANDGOODFORTUNETOTHEMARRIEDCOUPLE COUPLES ARE LINKED TO ANCESTOR SPIRITS BY THE SYMBOL OF TYING COTTON CIRCULAR TIES OR BRACELETS 0OR£E -ASP£RO ET AL  !NG #HOULEAN   -UCH HAS BEEN WRITTEN ABOUT #AMBODIAN hBELIEFS IN SUPERSTITIONv AND THE WAYS PEOPLE PERCEIVE SPIRITS TO LINGER "ASICALLY THE ROLE OF THE SPIRITS ARAKS ARE A PIVOTAL SOURCE OF GOOD TIDINGS FOR THOSE RESIDING INSIDE AND OUTSIDEHOUSESˆFORMEN WOMEN ANDANCESTRALSPIRITS7OMENSACCESSTO CERTAINSPIRITSCANBEDIFFERENTFROMMENSACCESSTHISISPARTICULARLYSODURING PREGNANCY AND DELIVERY WHEN WOMEN ARE CONSIDERED TO BE IN A VULNERABLE STATE !YMONIER  



)NOTETHATINTHECONTEXTOF#AMBODIA THECONSTRUCThSUPERSTITIONvDOESNOTREPRESENTPEOPLES EXPERIENCESASEMICVIEW BECAUSETHEMYSTERIOUSISCONSIDEREDMATTER OF FACT)N.OTESSURLES COUTUMES ET CROYANCES SUPERSTITIEUSES DES #AMBODGIENS !YMONIER n #EDORECK P  IT IS WRITTEN THAT h,ES ARAKS SONT DES G£NIES G£N£RALEMENT BIENFAISANTS QUI ONT POUR R£SIDENCE LES ARBRES OU MãME LES MAISONS x AUSSI APPEL£S ARAKS PENDANT LE TEMPS DE LA POSSESSION LINCARNATIONDESG£NIESDANSLEURPERSONNEv"ASICALLY THEARAKSPIRITSAREFORGENERALBENElTTO PEOPLES WELLBEING AND RESIDE WITHIN TREES OR HOMES WHILE ALSO SPEAKING FOR OR CONTAINING THE REINCARNATED PERSON 3UPERSTITION IS A TERM USED BY THOSE SOCIALISED IN CERTAIN REGIONS SUCH AS URBAN REGIONS WHEN SPEAKING OF OTHERS BELIEFS AS COMPRISING A FALSE RELIGION AS IF THERE WERE ONE TRUE RELIGION  %XCESSIVE REVERENCE OR FEAR FOR THE UNKNOWN OR THE MYSTERIOUS IS RELATED TO THE SUPERNATURAL OR FORCES BEYOND NATURE  7ITHIN 3OUTHEAST !SIA THE SPIRITS CAN TRANSFORM INTO SPIRIT PROTECTORS HARMERS ROBBERS OR INVADERS 4HUS SPIRIT TRANSFORMATION REPRESENTS A REAL MANIFESTATION OF INVISIBLE MATTER ,E6INE  

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



!DDITIONALLY HUMAN HAIR PLAYS A ROLE IN SPIRIT LIFE h(AIR IS THE FAVORITE PLACEFOREVILSPIRITSvIN#AMBODIA!BERCROMBIE .ATIONAL'EOGRAPHIC  P   &OR EXAMPLE PARENTS OFTEN SHAVE A YOUTHS HEAD AND LEAVE A CENTRE LOCK OF HAIR AS PROTECTION AGAINST SPIRITS THAT MIGHT HIDE IN THE MASS )N WEDDINGCEREMONIES THEACHAACUTSASYMBOLICLOCKOFHAIRFROMEACHSPOUSE SIGNIFYING A RITE FROM THE PAST WHEN HEADS WERE SHAVED 4HIS CEREMONIAL PHASE OCCURS AS A SKIT WHEREIN GOLDEN SCISSORS AND SILVER COMBS ARE SOLD TO THE BRIDES GUARDIANS 0ROCESSIONAL MUSIC IS PLAYED AS THE COUPLE IS USHERED TO VARIOUS PLACES FOR INSTANCE WHEN THE GROOM IS TAKEN TO THE BRIDES HOME OR WHILE COTTON THREADS ARE TIED TO THE CENTRAL PILLAR OF THE WEDDING PLACE OFTEN A TENT CONNECTED TO THE BRIDES HOME WHERE mOWERS AND GIFTS ARE PRESENTED -USIC IS PLAYED WHILE PAYING HOMAGE TO ANCESTORS TUTORS AND GUARDIAN SPIRITS OF THE HOUSE AND VILLAGE IN REQUEST FOR SAFE KEEPING OF THE COUPLE OR WHEN THE MASTER OF CEREMONY mOATS TINY BOATS WITH BANANA LEAVES +ANTOENG IN A SILVER BOWL JUST BEFORE THE SYMBOLIC HAIRCUT 3UCH PROCESSIONAL RITUAL HAS BEEN LIKENED TO (INDU MYTHOLOGY WHERE A GOLDEN DEITY TRANSFORMS INTO A SENSUOUS DEITY IN A PARADISE SURROUNDED BY !PSARAS AND 'ANDHARVAS ˆ THE DEITY RIDES AN ELEPHANT HOLDING A THUNDERBOLT WHILE BRINGING DOWN RAINS AND OVERCOMING ENEMIES 7ANGU   4HE DAY IS FULL OF PLAY ALONGSIDE SERIOUSNESS )N THIS REGARD !NGKARS WEDDINGS DElED THE GODS BY LEAVING OUT LIGHT HEARTED PLAY 4HROUGHOUT MY STUDY PEOPLE SPOKE ABOUT THE ABSENCE OF MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AS A GRAVE LOSS FOR THEM DURING THEIR $+ WEDDINGS )N TRADITIONAL WEDDINGS INSTRUMENTS PITCH AND VIBRATION AND ACCOMPANYING SONG BRING RICHNESS TO THE COMMUNITY 4HE CLASSICAL INSTRUMENTS INCLUDE THE #HEUNG CYMBALS  #HAPEI VENG AND 4RO +HMER VIOLIN LIKE INSTRUMENTS  3KOR AREAK DRUM  0EI mUTE  AND THE +SAE DEAV LUTE  )N CONTEMPORARY WEDDINGS CONDUCTED IN WEDDING HALLS IN 0HNOM 0ENH MUSIC IS OFTEN TAPED ANDPLAYEDCONTINUOUSLYATTHEWEDDINGPARTY )NSTRUMENTSAREPLAYEDINTHE COMMUNITY AS THERE ARE SOMETIMES TWO WEDDINGS FOR THE SAME COUPLE ONE

 )T IS POSSIBLE THAT IMAGES IN THE #AMBODIAN LANDSCAPE HAVE GENERATED SUBLIMINAL MEANINGS FOR PEOPLE WITH REGARD TO THEIR UNIONS AND REUNIONS 7ITHIN #AMBODIA CARVINGS OF !PSARAS PREVAILINSTONEANDDERIVEFROMTHE6EDASORTHEANCIENTSACREDLITERATUREOFTHE(INDUSFROM THE 6EDIC PERIOD n "# !PSARAS ARE NYMPHS FROM )NDRAS HEAVEN AND MATE WITH 'ANDHARVAS AND SERVE AS REWARD FOR THE HEROES WHO FALL IN BATTLE4HE SIGNIlCANCE OF !PSARAS AND'ANDHARVASINRELATIONTOMYSTUDYISTHATTHEGODSAREDEEMEDTOGENERATETHEIRUNION)N MYSTUDY ASIGNIlCANTNUMBEROFRESPONDENTSTOLDMETHAT"UDDHAPREORDAINEDTHEIRMARRIAGES BEFORE THEY WERE BORN THIS SOURCE OF UNION RESONATES WITH THOSE REPRESENTED IN THE 6EDAS



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-USICIANS AT WEDDING IN "ACHAN  /UTSIDE THE VERANDA OF BRIDES HOUSE WHILE THE STRINGS ARE BEING TIED ON THE COUPLES WRISTS INSIDE THE HOUSE .OTE THE BRIGHT COLOURS ALL OF WHICH WERE ABSENT DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE 0HOTO BY ,E6INE

ISFORGUESTSANDFOREIGNERS ANDTHEOTHERFORFAMILYANDLOCALS!PROCESSION OFGONGSANDSTRINGEDINSTRUMENTSOFTENACCOMPANYTHEARRIVALOFTHEGROOM ˆ REGARDLESS OF PLACE $URING MY PARTICIPATION IN VILLAGE WEDDINGS ) NOTED HOW LOCALS USED MUSIC AS A SIGNAL OF THE WEDDING PHASE 6ILLAGERS WOULD MOVE STRATEGICALLY IN AND OUT OF THE CEREMONY DURING THE DAY ˆ OFTEN HEARING MUSIC AS A CUE FROM DISTANT lELDS OR HOMES IN WHICH THEY WORKED #HILDREN WOULD WATCH PLAYORROAMONBIKESNEARBYTHECEREMONYSITES-ANYADULTSWOULDATTEND ARITECALLED+ONG0ILEWHEREANCESTRALANDGUARDIANSPIRITSAREINVITEDTODRINK AND EAT OFFERINGS PREPARED FOR THEM OFTEN BEFORE THE GROOMS FAMILY GIVES THE DOWRY !LSO LOCALS WERE SIMPLY CURIOUS ABOUT WHAT WAS BEING OFFERED -OSTCONGREGATEDATTHECUTTING OF THE HAIRPHASEASITPROVIDEDLIGHT HEARTED INTIMATE HUMOUR FOR ALL AGES IN VILLAGE 4HUS MUSIC AND THEATRICAL ENACTMENTS SUGGEST THE STAGES OF MARRIAGE AS WELL AS THE FEELINGS OF CELEBRATION FOR THE WHOLE COMMUNITY !N ACHAA TOLD

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



ME THAT MUSIC IS ALSO A CALLING TO THE GODS FOR FORTUNE AND PROTECTION .EAR THE END OF THE CEREMONY ANOTHER TUNE ENTERTAINS ELDERS WHILE THEY PREPARE ANDEATBETELLEAVES&OLLOWINGTHIS THEDOWRYISREMOVEDANDFOODANDCAKES ANSOMS ARE SERVED TO GUESTS !SIN#HINA THECOLOURREDPLAYSAROLEINWEDDINGSANDITISPREVALENT INTHEWEDDINGPHOTOSPRESENTEDHERE 4HEGROOMARRIVESTRADITIONALLYUNDER AREDUMBRELLAANDAPPEARSBEFOREANALTARDRAPEDINREDCLOTH!REDPARASOL PROVIDES SHADE AS WELL AS PROTECTION FROM EVIL SPIRITS !BERCROMBIE  P   )N FUNERAL SERVICES RED UMBRELLAS OFTEN SHADE THE WOODEN ALTARS THAT HOLD THE OFFERINGS OF INCENSE CANDLES RICE MONEY BETEL LEAVES OR CIGARETTES ˆ AGAIN WITH PROTECTIVE PROPERTIES )N #HINESE +HMER WEDDINGS REDMAYHOLDOTHERMEANINGSRELATEDTOPROSPERITYANDCELEBRATIONINTERVIEW WITH #HINESE +HMER FAMILY IN 0HNOM 0ENH  

Traditional Pregnancy, Delivery, and Birth Rites 4HE BIRTH EXPERIENCE IS KNOWN AS CLONG TONLE OR CROSSING THE RIVER 4HE JOURNEY OF BIRTHING IS LONG AND ARDUOUS AND PHYSICAL AND SPIRIT SAFETY MAY BE COMPROMISED ALONG THE WAY .O ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY BEFORE THE +HMER 2OUGE LOOKED AT THIS JOURNEY IN #AMBODIA %BIHARA  COMMENTS ON THE BIRTH PROCESS BUT SHE WAS NOT ALLOWED TO WITNESS A BIRTH BECAUSE SHE WASUNMARRIEDANDCHILDLESSATTHETIMEOFHERSTUDYP 7OMENWERE ASSISTEDDURINGBIRTHBYRELATIVES MARRIEDWOMENFRIENDS AMIDWIFECMOOP ANDAWOMANELDERWHOHASDELIVERYEXPERIENCE)FTHEREWERECOMPLICATIONS A KRUU KMAE TRADITIONAL HEALER WOULD BE ASKED TO ASSIST 4HEPHOTOGRAPHONTHECOVEROFTHISBOOKISANIMAGEOFANALTARWITHAN UMBILICALCORDSPIRITPROTECTOR!SPIRITMEDIUMMAKESOFFERINGSFORAWOMAN WHOISSOONTOBIRTHINHISVILLAGE)FACHILDSURVIVESABIRTHWHENACORDIS WOUND AROUND HER OR HIS NECK SPECIAL POWERS ARE ENDOWED TO THAT PERSON 2OASTING ANG PLOENG OCCURS SOON AFTER THE WOMAN DELIVERS )N THIS PROCEDURE COMMON TO MUCH OF 3OUTHEAST !SIA THE MOTHER USUALLY LIES ON A RAISED BAMBOO SLATTED PLATFORM FOR  DAYS UNDER WHICH A SMALL lRE BURNS CONTINUOUSLY 3UCH A PROCEDURE IS MEANT TO ASSIST HER ENERGY AS SHE IS IN AN hALTERED STATEv FOLLOWING DELIVERY OR SAWSAYE KJEY WHICH LITERALLY MEANS NEW STRINGS  THE TERM SAWSAYE OR STRING IS REPRESENTED BY VEINS ARTERIES NERVES AND LIGAMENTS SINCE WOMEN USE THEIR SAWSAYE DURING DELIVERY TO PUSH AND  h,A MUSIQUE EST UN DES £L£MENTS ESSENTIELS DU MARIAGE COMME DE TOUTES LES FãTES #AMBODGIENNESv -USIC IS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT TO MARRIAGES AND INVOLVES ALL THE #AMBODIANS 0OR£E -ASP£RO ET AL  P  



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THUSSTRESSTHESEREGIONSTHISSTATECANPERSISTUPTOAYEARAFTERDELIVERY BUT OFTEN JUST A FEW MONTHS 7HITE *   /NE WOMAN WHO GAVE BIRTH IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN  SAID THE UMBILICAL CORD IS PART OF THIS STRING BASED SYSTEM h) WAS LOW IN ENERGY AND THE lRE AND EXTRA CLOTHES KEPT ME WARM AND THE HEAT HELPED ME TO DO WORK AFTER MY BABY WAS BORN AND ) DID NOT HAVE PAIN IN MY KNEES AND ARMS BECAUSE HEAT GAVE ME ENERGYv )N #AMBODIA THE POSTPARTUM STATE IS CONSIDERED COLD WHILE PREGNANCY GENERATES A HOT STATE 0RESENTLY IF A WOMAN GIVES BIRTH IN A HOSPITAL IN 0HNOM0ENH hHOTINJECTIONSORAKINDOFMENTHOLATEDCOMPOUNDvAREUSED INPLACEOFTHEROASTINGPROCEDUREPERSONALCONVERSATIONWITH$R,INA(UOT #AMBODIANPSYCHIATRIST )N7HITESCONTEMPORARYSTUDY WOMENSAID THAT ROASTING WAS MORE IMPORTANT FOR WOMEN WHO LIVED IN THE COUNTRYSIDE BECAUSETHEYHADTORESUMEHARDPHYSICALLABORAFTERDELIVERYWHENCOMPARED TO URBAN BASED WOMEN )N ADDITION TO ITS USE FOR ASSISTING PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIUM (INTON  P  OFFERS SYMBOLIC MEANING FOR ROASTING SUCH AS THE hCHOKING HEATv OF ANGERANDANEEDTODISSIPATESUCHPRESSUREVIAAPPLIEDHEAT 7OMENINMY STUDY AND RELATIVES IN THEIR VILLAGES WHO HAVE BEEN ROASTED BEFORE DURING OR AFTER THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA SAID THAT THE PROCEDURE ASSISTED THEIR PHYSICAL REST WITH NO MENTION OF EMOTIONAL BENElT -OST SAID THEY ROASTED hBECAUSE MY MOTHER AND GRANDMOTHER DID THISv 4HEGEOGRAPHICSPACEOFTHEBIRTHISPURPOSIVELYSELECTEDANDISESPECIALLY IMPORTANT WHEN ROASTING OCCURS "IRTH USUALLY OCCURS IN AN AREA THAT IS SEPARATEDFROMTHEMAINLIVINGSPACEINTHECOUNTRYSIDE ASHEDISSOMETIMES CONSTRUCTED JUST FOR THE BIRTH #ROCHET  &ABIENNE ,UCO PERSONAL CONVERSATION 3IEM 2EAP   $EPENDING ON THE SOURCE OF HEAT WOOD OR CHARCOAL SMOKEINHALATIONCANBEAHAZARDFORTHEWOMANANDTHOSERESIDING NEARBYDURINGTHETIMEAWOMANISROASTING HERINFANTISCAREDFORBYOTHER WOMENSOMEREPORTEDBREASTFEEDINGTHEIRINFANTSDURINGTHISTIME ANDOTHERS REPORTED NO ACCESS TO THEIR BABIES UNTIL THE ROASTING ENDED )N PARTICULAR WOMEN IN MY STUDY REPORTED BEING ROASTED AFTER  PRIMARILY IN THE EAST IN 0REY 6ENG AND 3VAY 2IENG ) INTERVIEWED TWO ATTENDANTS FROM +AMPONG 3PEU WHO VOLUNTARILY GAVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RANCID SMELLS IN THE ENCLOSURE DURING lRING 4HEY SAID THAT WOMEN WERE PLACED IN A SEPARATE HUT BECAUSE



#ONSISTENTDESCRIPTIONSOFROASTINGGRILLAGE AREGIVENACROSSSTUDIES0OR£E -ASP£RO n PP n %BIHARA  P  7HITE *  

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



0HOTOOFAPOST BIRTHh2OASTINGvAREADONATEDBY-S+IM (ORNE 

BLOOD IS CONSIDERED UNCLEAN )T IS CUSTOMARY TO PAY THE WOMAN ATTENDANT AFTER THE ROASTING AS RECOGNITION OF HER ENDURANCE WHILE ALSO ACKNOWLEDGING THE SACRIlCE SINCE EXPOSURE TO BLOOD CAN LEAD TO MISFORTUNE )N HER STUDY %BIHARA  FOUND THAT THE MIDWIFE IS COMPENSATED FOR HER TROUBLES BY OFFERINGSOFBETEL CANDLE INCENSE RICE FRUITANDORMONEY#ROCHETSAIDTHAT THIS STILL HAPPENS TODAY PERSONAL CONVERSATION 0HNOM 0ENH   )N MY STUDY WOMEN WHO GAVE BIRTH DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA TRIED TO RESPECT THE MIDWIFE PARTICULARLY WHEN SHE ASSISTED BIRTHS AND ROASTINGS RATHER THAN JUSTTHEBIRTH BECAUSEITREQUIREDMOREENDURANCE)NTHE+HMER2OUGETIME HOWEVER THEREWASNOCASH CANDLE ORINCENSEOFFERMENTIONEDFORMIDWIVES MOSTLY BETEL OR RICE ˆ WHICH WAS A SACRIlCE 4HOUGH THE WEDDING AND BIRTH RITUALS OPERATE TO ASSIST WELLBEING WED DING RITUALS HIGHLIGHT LUCK FORTUNE AND GOOD KARMA 7HEREAS BIRTH RITUALS UNDERSCORE SAFETY AND BALANCE OF FORCES FOR THE WOMAN AND HER BABY WHILE ACCOUNTINGFORSTAGESOFVULNERABILITYWHEREPOSSESSIONBYHARMFULORVENGEFUL SPIRITSMAYOCCUR)N#AMBODIA PROTECTIONDURINGANDSHORTLYAFTERBIRTHIS

 %LDERS SOMETIMES ADVISE WOMEN ABOUT CERTAIN ACTIONS THAT CAN CAUSE BAD LUCK A DIFlCULT DELIVERY OR A SICK BABY SUCH AS SITTING OR EATING IN DOORWAYS WRAPPING A KRAMA AROUND THEIR NECKS JUMPING ACROSS DIKES IN PADDY lELDS OR CARRYING THINGS ON ONES HIPS -UCH ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO PROTECT THE BABYS UMBILICAL CORD AS IT IS CONSIDERED A SOURCE OF NOURISHMENT UPON WHICH THE FOETUS IS THOUGHT TO SUCK 7HITE  



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ASTRONGCULTURALPATTERNBECAUSEWOMENARECONSIDEREDTOBEMOSTVULNERABLE TO SPIRIT ENTRY OR POSSESSION DURING THIS PERIOD 'ENERAL POSTNATAL CARE AS PRACTISED IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES IS UNFAMILIAR AS WOMEN SIMPLY GET ON WITH ROUTINES AFTER THE ROASTING PERIOD ˆ BECAUSE EMPHASIS IS ON SPIRIT HEALTH MORE THAN PHYSICAL HEALTH &OR INSTANCE THERE IS A CONDITION CALLED 0RIEY KRAWLAH PLEUNG THAT OCCURS WHEN A SPIRIT ARRIVES TO BOTHER A WOMAN DURING ROASTING AND IS INDICATED WHEN A WOMAN HAS A SEIZURE FAINTS OR ACTS CRAZY !S PROTECTION SOME WOMEN PUT THORNS UNDER THEIR BED TO WARD OFF SPIRITS OR WITCHES 7HITE   4WO WOMEN IN 0HNOM 0ENH AGREED THAT hA BAD SPIRIT COMES OUT OF THE NECK TO EAT THE PLACENTA AT NIGHT IF PRECAUTIONS ARE NOT TAKENv $IRECTIONS FOR SAFETY ARE GIVEN BY MIDWIVES OLDER RELATIVES OR TRADITIONAL HEALERS -OST WOMEN IN MY STUDY SAID THAT RETURNING TO WORK AFTER DELIVERY DURINGTHE+HMER2OUGEWASUSUALIFNOTEXPECTED(OWEVER THELACKOFFOOD ALONGSIDE THE ARDUOUS NATURE OF THE WORK WAS DIFlCULT TO ACCEPT GENERALLY MUCH LESS DURING PREGNANCY h) COULD RETURN TO BE WITH MY BABY AT NIGHT ANDTHISWASTHEHAPPYTIMEBUT)WASSOHUNGRYANDWORRIEDTHEREWASNOT ENOUGH MILK TO PROTECT HIM (OW COULD WE WORK SO HARD WITH SUCH LITTLE FOOD SOME DAYS WE LIVED ON COCONUT AND WATERY RICEv4HIS WAS RECOUNTED BY A WOMAN WHO GAVE BIRTH IN +AMPONG 3PEU 5NDERLYINGTHEROASTINGPROCEDUREANDEXPERIENCEISTHEPOTENTIALFORSPIRIT TAMPERING4HIRTY TWOWOMENINMYSAMPLERANDOMLYDISTRIBUTED WHOGAVE BIRTH STATED THAT VISITS BY SPIRITS WERE POSSIBLE AFTER DELIVERY ˆ PARTICULARLY WHEN ROASTING )N FACT 7HITE  DISCUSSES PRIEY KRAWLAH PLEUNG AS A DIAGNOSABLECONDITIONWHEREINSPIRITSBOTHERWOMENWHOROAST3YMPTOMSOF THIS DISTURBANCE APPEAR AS HYPERTENSION POSTPARTUM HAEMORRHAGE AND HIGH FEVER SEIZURES FAINTING ACTING CRAZY SUCH AS WALKING IN THE VILLAGE NUDE AND EATING STRANGE THINGS 4REATMENT OF THE PLACENTA IS OFTEN DONE SOON AFTER BIRTH WHERE EITHER THE HUSBAND OR MIDWIFE BURIES IT NEAR THE PLACE OF BIRTH ) WAS TOLD BY A MIDWIFE THAT SHE INSPECTS THE PLACENTAS TEXTURE TO MAKE SURE IT IS lRM AND

 4HERE IS COLLECTIVE FEAR BY MEN AND WOMEN IN VILLAGES IF A WOMAN AND BABY DIE DURING OR SHORTLY AFTER DELIVERY 'RIEF STRICKEN SPIRITS CAN ROAM AND MAKE TROUBLE 6ILLAGERS ARE MOST AFRAID OF !RPH !P OR A WOMAN WHOSE TRAGIC DEATH UNLEASHED HER SOUL TO DO IMPURE THINGS SUCH AS SEEKING EXCREMENT DIRT ANIMALS OR TARGETING OTHER PREGNANT AND VULNERABLE WOMEN CONVERSATIONS WITH RESPONDENTS   #AMBODIANS EASILY INTERPRET SEIZURES AS EVIDENCE THAT A SPIRIT MAY HAVE ENTERED SOMEONES BODY ) HEAR THIS EXPLANATION OFTEN AT A HEALTH CLINIC NEAR 0HNOM 0ENH WHEN PARENTS BRING CHILDREN WITH SEIZURE ACTIVITY FOR CONSULTATION

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



SOLID WHICHISEVIDENCEOFTHEINFANTSHEALTH&OLLOWING ITISWASHEDINSALT ANDWRAPPEDINCLOTHORLEAVESASPREPARATIONFORBURIALSUCHPROCEDURESARE BELIEVED TO ASSIST THE INFANTS WELLBEING -ANY TOLD ME THAT SALT WAS SCARCE DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA WHICH MEANT THEY LOST ACCESS TO PART OF THIS RITUAL AND ALSO MISSED PREPARING THE WATERY SALTY RICE GRUEL BOR BOR THAT #AMBODIANS TRADITIONALLY INGEST WHEN THEY ARE ILL 2EGARDLESSOFREGION WOMENANDMENINMYSTUDYSAIDTHATTHEPLACENTA IS TO BE BURIED IN SOIL THAT IS MOIST AND COLD WITH COOL TEMPERATURES BEING EMPHASISED SOME MEN TOLD ME THE HOLE NEEDED TO BE DEEP ENOUGH SO THAT ANIMALS COULD NOT DISTURB IT4HIS IS IN CONTRAST TO lNDINGS IN7HITES STUDY  WHEREADRYPLACEWASNOTEDFORBURIAL THOUGHSOMEPUTTHEPLACENTA INAMUDDYPLACE4HETHIRDDAYAFTERBIRTHISOFTENFOLLOWEDBYACEREMONY BON PROIKAK CMOOP IN WHICH THE MIDWIFE AND CHILD ARE HONOURED 4HIS OCCURSATTHEENDOFTHEROASTINGPERIOD2ITUALPATTERNSINCREASEDINFREQUENCY AS COMMUNAL STRUCTURES INCREASED )NTERESTINGLY THREE WOMEN IN A VILLAGE IN +AMPOT WHO WERE RELATIVES OF ONE OF MY INTERPRETERS REPORTED USING A REMEDYFORPOSTPARTUMILLNESSCALLED4OAS4HEPLACENTAISDRIEDANDGROUND INTO A POWDER THE POWDER IS PUT INTO AN HERBAL AND WHITE WINE LIQUID AND INGESTED AFTER BIRTH FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES !LSOONTHETHIRDDAY THECHILDISUSUALLYNAMEDASTRINGISTIEDAROUND THEINFANTSWRISTANDAGIRLMAYHAVEHEREARSPIECED/FFERINGSAREMADETO ANCESTRAL SPIRITS AND A MEAL IS PREPARED 4HE FONTANEL OF THE INFANT IS OFTEN MARKED WITH A WHITE PASTE MADE BY GRINDING THE PLANT BONG HAOY INTO A PASTE ONE WOMAN GAVE ME A SAMPLE OF THE PLANT IN +AMPONG 3PEU 4HE NEWBORN REQUIRES PROTECTION FROM SPIRITS ENTERING THIS VULNERABLE REGION 3EVERAL WOMEN TOLD ME THAT THEY PUT THE PASTE ON A BABYS SOFT PLACE FONTANEL TO SEAL IT IN CASE SPIRITS CAME NEAR /NES LEVEL OF VULNERABILITY IS CENTRAL TO SPIRIT INVASION OR DEmECTION &OR EXAMPLE THE WHITE SALVE LET OTHERVILLAGERSINCLUDINGCHILDRENWHOOFTENCARRYTHEYOUNGANDMIGHTNOT BE SO CAREFUL SEE THAT THIS AREA WAS VULNERABLE TO PHYSICAL HARM AS WELL AS SPIRIT COMPROMISE 3EVEN WOMEN WHO BIRTHED IN  IN THREE VILLAGES IN

 6ARIATIONSMAYHAVEOCCURREDDUETOSAMPLING BUTMENANDWOMENUSUALLYAGREEDONDETAILS ABOUTMALEANDFEMALEROLES(USBANDSSPOKEMOSTOFTHEIRROLEINBURYINGTHEPLACENTADURING ANDAFTERTHE+HMER2OUGE7HITE SOUGHTCONSENSUSBETWEENWOMENWHOHADDELIVERED A BABY WITHIN THREE YEARS FROM TIME OF STUDY  4WO WOMEN IN !NG 3NOUL DISTRICT PLACE WHERE ) ATTENDED A WEDDING SPOKE OF MAKING A SALVE FOR THE FONTANEL FROM GROUND BASIL ROOT PONLEAY AND TALC POWDER BECAUSE IT HAD GOOD SEALING PROPERTIES 4WO ELDER WOMEN IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN 0REAH .IPIAN COMMUNE SPOKE OF USING THE SAME CONCOCTION BUT SAID THAT THE BASIL ROOT MAY BE SUBSTITUTED IN OTHER REGIONS



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+AMPONG 3PEU KEPT THIS PROCEDURE DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE THEY DAUBED THEIR BABIES WITH A THICK SALVE MADE FROM GROUNDED ROOTS OF THE BASIL ˆ THOUGH THE ELDERS STATED THIS RECIPE VARIED ACCORDING TO SEASON AND REGION THEY KEPT THE SALVE ON THE FONTANEL FOR SIX MONTHS TO A YEAR AFTER THEIR CHILDRENS BIRTH 3OME ABORTION METHODS ARE USED TRADITIONALLY IN #AMBODIA 7HITE  HASCATEGORISEDTHEMTOINCLUDETHEFOLLOWINGPHYSICALACTIVITIESTYING A KRAMA TIGHTLY AROUND ONES WAIST INGESTIONS INGESTING GUNPOWDER WITH WINE INJECTIONS INJECTING HERBS OR CHEMICALS INSERTIONS INSERTING +HMER TRADITIONALMEDICINEINTOTHECERVIX ANDSTRONGMASSAGETECHNIQUES7OMEN IN 7HITES STUDY REPORTED USING ABORTIONS AFTER $+ TO LIMIT FAMILY SIZE TO SPACEPREGNANCIES TOAVOIDECONOMICHARDSHIP ANDTOCOPEWITHRELATIONSHIP PROBLEMS)NMYSTUDY TWOWOMENSPOKEOFSEEKINGHARDMASSAGETOINDUCE ABORTION DURING $+ /NE WOMAN SPOKE CONlDENTIALLY TO ME ABOUT SEEING A PREGNANT FRIEND BEING GIVEN SOMETHING TO DRINK BY A +HMER 2OUGE NURSE HER FRIEND ABORTED THE NEXT DAY

Access to Ritual and Safe Touch 4HOSE WHO HAD ACCESS TO OR SECRETLY SOUGHT CERTAIN TRADITIONAL PRACTICES DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA TENDED TO EXPERIENCE LESS DISPLACEMENT OF ROLES THANTHOSEWHODIDNOTHAVESUCHENTR£E&ORINSTANCE MENWHOBURIEDTHE PLACENTA AFTER THEIR CHILDS BIRTH TENDED TO MAKE A COMMITMENT TO THEIR ROLE ASPARENTANDHUSBAND-R/MSAID h4HEDAY)FOUNDTHEPLACETOPUTTHE PLACENTAINTHEGROUNDNEAROURHOUSEIN )THINK)BECAMEMOREOFA FATHERANDHUSBAND)WASNTSOSADANYMOREv"UTACCOUNTSSUCHASTHISWERE  )NMYSTUDY WOMENTALKEDABOUTOTHERSABORTIONSANDHOWTHEYASSISTEDOTHERWOMENAFTER THE ABORTION OCCURRED WHILE NOT ASSISTING THE PROCEDURE  ONLY ONE WOMAN SPOKE OF HER OWN SPONTANEOUS ABORTION 4HERE IS A BELIEF THAT ONE MAY INCUR BAAP A BAD STAIN OR SIN IF ONE ASSISTSTHISPROCESS4HUS LINGERINGANXIETYCOULDPERSISTINTHOSEWHOPARTICIPATEDINABORTIONS DURING $+ 4EN WOMEN SAID THAT MOST WOMEN KNEW WHICH LOCALS PERFORMED ABORTIONS BY TRADITIONAL METHODS DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE THUS ABORTIONS WERE NOT SIMPLY AN ACT IMPOSED BY $+  $URING MY WORK IN VILLAGE HEALTH EDUCATION IN #AMBODIA ) FOUND A CULTURAL TABOO SURROUNDING PUBLIC DISCLOSURE OF ABORTION )N SOME WAYS LOCAL ABORTION INFORMATION REMAINS PART OF A WOMANS CODE )N PARTICULAR WHEN SPEAKING COLLECTIVELY WITH WOMEN IN VILLAGES THEY ARE OFTEN UNCLEAR ABOUT THE ROLE OF THEIR MENSTRUAL CYCLE AND CONCEPTION4HEIR DISTANCE FROM CITY RESOURCES LIMITS THEIR CHOICES OF BIRTH CONTROL METHODS !LSO THEY BELIEVE MORE OFTEN THAT MENARERESPONSIBLEFORITSINCLUSIONINSEXUALACTIVITY#ONDOMSAREUSEDFORPROTECTIONAGAINST VENEREAL DISEASE MORE THAN PREGNANCY 4HE MEANING OF A hCONDOMv HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH ILLICIT SEX AND MENS VISITS TO BROTHELS

#ORE 2ITUALS FOR -ARRIAGE 0REGNANCY AND "IRTH IN #AMBODIA



FEW AND FAR BETWEEN IN MY INTERVIEWS ACCESS TO PROTECTIVE AND MEANINGFUL ACTIVITY WAS GRAVELY MISSING IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA )N PARTICULAR ) FOUNDTHATSAFETOUCHALONGSIDETRADITIONALACTIVITYOCCURREDMOREOFTENAFTER WEDDINGS AND HAD A SOOTHING EFFECT ON PEOPLE 'ENERALLY PARTICIPATION IN RITUAL LED TO A SENSE OF PREDICTABILITY WHEN LIFE WAS PRECARIOUS %XAMPLES OF BREAK DOWN IN TRADITION AND SAFE TOUCH ARE NUMEROUS DURING $+ !S PREVIOUSLY NOTED A TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT IN #AMBODIA CUSTOMARILYCUTSTHEUMBILICALCORD WHILEMASSAGEBYAFEMALEFAMILYMEMBER DURING LABOR PROVIDES CONTACT COMFORT 4WO THIRDS OF THE WOMEN WHO GAVE BIRTH TO EITHER A LIVE OR DEAD CHILD SPOKE OF THE ABSENCE OF A hKINDv BIRTH ATTENDANTIN$+ 3IMILARLY DURING THE STATE OF PREGNANCY A WOMAN CAN FEEL VULNERABLETOSPIRITINVASIONANDHARM4RADITIONALLY WOMENSEEKAKRUUKMAE TRADITIONAL HEALER FOR A STRING WITH CHARMS OR AMULETS TO WEAR AROUND THEIR WAISTS FOR PROTECTION OFTEN WITHIN lVE MONTHS OF TERM 7HITE 0  PERSONALCONVERSATIONSWITHINTERVIEWEES 4HOUGHTHESTRINGANDAMULETHOLD PARTICULAR MEANING AS RITUAL OBJECTS WHEN THE STRING IS BEING TIED HUMAN HANDS TOUCH THE WOMAN 3IMILARLY IN TRADITIONAL WEDDINGS WHEN MEN AND WOMEN ARE ASSISTED IN DRESSING OR WHEN HAIR IS CUT CEREMONIALLY OR WHEN STRINGSARETIEDONTHEWRISTS TOUCHISINVOLVEDINTHESEACTIVITIES4OUCHISA VITAL PART OF THE RITUAL SEQUENCE THAT IS OFTEN OVERLOOKED BY SOCIAL SCIENTISTS )N MY STUDY WOMEN SPOKE OF THEIR FEARS RELATED TO ISOLATION PARTICULARLY WHEN SAFE AND FAMILIAR TOUCH WAS NOT AVAILABLE TO THEM WHILE ABORTING OR BIRTHING 4HEFOLLOWINGEXCERPTCOMESFROMANEXCHANGEBETWEENAFORMER+HMER 2OUGESOLDIERANDHISWIFEBOTHIDENTIlEDASBASEPEOPLE 4HOUGHASOLDIERS STATUS BROUGHT CERTAIN EXTERNAL PRIVILEGES TO A COUPLE THEIR INTERNAL DISTRESS WAS EVIDENT IN THEIR ACCOUNT -R"MARRIEDIN0HNOM0ENHINLATE )WASASOLDIERBYTHEN )N  THEY +HMER 2OUGE HAD A BIG MEETING FOR SEVEN DAYS AND THEY COLLECTED ALL THE PEOPLE AND THEN THEY ASKED h$ONT YOU WANT TO FORM A FAMILYv ) SAID IT WAS DIFlCULT AND ) REFUSED 4HEY SAID h9OU ARE YEARS OLDANDNEEDTOMARRY$OYOUHAVESOMEONEELSEINYOUR MINDv !ND ) SAID THAT ) LOVED A WOMAN WHO LIVED NEAR MY PARENTS WHO ) WANTED TO MARRY AND THAT SHE WANTED TO MARRY ME )T WAS SO DIFlCULT TO CONVINCE THEM ) WAS SO WORRIED THAT THEY MAY HARM HER FAMILY OR MINE !T THAT TIME !NGKAR USUALLY FOUND WIVES FOR THE SOLDIERS AND ASKED h$O YOU AGREE WITH OUR CHOICEv !ND IF THERE WAS AN AGREEMENT THEY WERE MARRIED !NGKAR ARRANGED SOLDIERS MARRIAGES USUALLY BUT SOMETIMES LET US CHOOSE 7E JUST DID NOT KNOW



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA -RS " TELLS HER SIDE OF THE STORY ) WAS SENT A LETTER BY THE LEADER OF THESOLDIERS4HELETTERSAIDTHAT)WASTOMARRYMYlANC£ANDTOTRAVEL TO THE WEDDING IN 0HNOM 0ENH -Y PARENTS KNEW OF THESE PLANS BUT ) HAD TO GO ALONE FROM 3AANG ) CRIED A LOT 3O ) WALKED AND STAYED IN4AKHMAU ONE NIGHT WITHOUT MY MOTHER )N THE MORNING ) WALKED TO 0HNOM 0ENH ) WAS SO CONFUSED BECAUSE ) WAS HAPPY TO MARRY MY HUSBAND BUT ) WAS THE OLDEST IN MY FAMILY AND DID NOT WANT TO LEAVE MY PARENTS SO ) WAS SAD TOO ) WAS SICK ) WAS SO THIN 7HEN ) CAME TO 0HNOM 0ENH THEY KEPT ME IN A PLACE NORTH OF THE PALACE /NE NIGHT MY HUSBANDS FRIEND SECRETLY LET ME STAY CLOSE TO THE SOLDIERS AREA WHICH WAS NEAR THE MOVIE HOUSE WHERE WE MARRIED 7E HAD NO MUSIC OR FAMILY THERE BUT WE SHARED A WHOLE CHICKEN ) WAS THE ONLY ONE WHO WAS NOT A SOLDIER IN OUR GROUP WEDDING 7E MARRIED JUST BEFORE THE 6IETNAMESE CAME TO 0HNOM 0ENH IN DRY SEASON OF  BUTWEDONOTKNOWTHEEXACTDATE-RS"BECOMESTEARFULANDWIPES HER EYES -R " ADDS TO HIS WIFES ACCOUNT 7E WERE MARRIED NEAR THE SOLDIERS STATION WITH TWO OTHER COUPLES 7E WERE ALLOWED  DAYS TO STAYATAPRIVATEPLACEIN0HNOM0ENHATNIGHTBECAUSE)WENTTOWORK IN THE DAY ) WORRIED ABOUT MY WIFE THEN4HEN AFTER  DAYS MY WIFE WAS SENT TO DO AGRICULTURE SHE WENT TO "ATTAMBANG BY CAR ) WENT TO +AMPONG 3PEU ) WORRIED ABOUT HER ALL THE TIME

3OLDIERS IN MY STUDY RETURNED TO VILLAGES LESS OFTEN THAN NON SOLDIERS FOLLOWINGTHEIRWEDDINGS"ECAUSETHISCOUPLEDIDNOTRETURNTOTHEIRPARENTS THEYHADLIMITEDACCESSTOSAFETOUCHANDSEQUENCEOFTRADITIONSTHATMIGHTPUT THEMATEASE.EARLYPERCENTOFTHOSEINMYSTUDYSECRETLYSOUGHTCUSTOMS OFTEN FOLLOWING THE REGIMES WEDDING CEREMONY AND DURING PREGNANCY SUCH AS SEEKING A FORTUNE TELLER GIVING OFFERINGS TO ANCESTORS OR TYING STRINGS AROUND THE WAIST OF A PREGNANT WOMAN  %VEN IF PEOPLE RETURNED TO VILLAGES ANDSECRETLYSOUGHTCERTAINRITUALS THESEQUENCEOFTRADITIONALENACTMENTWAS BROKEN THOUGHCOVERTSEEKINGOFCUSTOMSMAYHAVEHELDSIGNIlCANTMEANING FOR COUPLES WHO REMAIN TOGETHER &OR INSTANCE RITUALS THAT WERE PROPHETIC FORETELLING A LUCKY FUTURE AND THOSE THAT OFFERED PROTECTION FROM HARMFUL SPIRITSWEREMOSTWANTEDANDSOUGHTAFTERBYMYRESPONDENTS-OSTLY)FOUND THAT MANY LINKS IN THE RITUAL CHAIN WERE MISPLACED REPLACED OR DROPPED OUT COMPLETELY DURING $+ ˆ WHICH COULD HAVE PUT PEOPLES LIVES ON EDGE ALL THE MORE

Chapter

4 Beyond Testimony: Weddings and Births Unraveled

$URINGMYTHIRDINTERVIEWWITHTHE/MS -R/MASKEDIF)MIGHTWANTTOGO TOTHEPLACEWHEREHEANDHISWIFEMARRIEDIN+AMPONG3PEUDURING$+4HE EVENINGBEFOREOURDEPARTURE HERANGMETOSAYTHATHISWIFEHADANOBLIGATION WITHANEIGHBOURANDCOULDNOTGOWITHUS4HENEXTMORNINGWHEN)WENT TO THE COUPLES HOME TO MEET -R /M HIS WIFE SAID HER SON WOULD VISIT HER NEIGHBOURONHERBEHALFANDTHATSHECOULDTRAVELWITHUS"YTHEENDOFTHE DAY SHETOLDMETHATSHEHADTROUBLESLEEPINGAFEWNIGHTSBEFOREOURJOURNEY ANDWAShWORRIEDSOMETHINGBADMIGHTHAPPENIFSHERETURNEDTOTHEPAST vBUT THATSHEFELTBETTERHAVINGMADETHETRIP)NOTICEDATURNINGPOINTINHERDAY WHENSHEMETOTHERWOMENATTHEWEDDINGSITEWHOHADBEENMARRIEDATTHE SAMEPLACETHOUGHATDIFFERENTYEARSINTHE$+PERIOD 3HEHELDHANDSWITH MANYOFTHEWOMENANDTHEYSPOKEOFTHEIRADULTCHILDREN !FTER THE WEDDING -RS /M WAS PREGNANT WITHIN A YEAR THOUGH HER PREGNANCY WAS AT A TIME WHEN SHE HAD SKETCHY ACCESS TO FOOD 3HE DELIVERED HER SON IN A TRENCH THAT WAS DUG ALONGSIDE THIS BUILDING ILLUSTRATION ON P  AS PROTECTION FROM BOMBS HER MOTHER AND HUSBAND WERE NEARBY 4HECOUPLEINFORMEDMETHATTHREEWOMENFROMTHEIRWEDDINGGROUPOF COUPLES DIED WHILE GIVING BIRTH 

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!LLTHEMULTIFACETEDSTORIES)HEARDCHANGEDACCORDINGTOTHETIME PLACE AND PEOPLE PRESENT WHEN ) RECORDED THEM 4HOUGH INQUIRY WAS CHALLENGED BY lRST PERSON EDITS ACCOUNTS GIVEN ON SITE WERE MOST RELIABLE

The Politics of Research Findings 4HEMORE)TRAVELLEDWITHWOMENANDMEN THEMORE)NEEDEDTOACCOUNTFOR THE DEVELOPMENTAL CULTURAL GEOGRAPHIC AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT IN WHICH THEY HAVE LIVED &OR INSTANCE ON THE AVERAGE MOST WERE WED IN THEIR LATE TEENS AND EARLY TWENTIES DURING $+ 3TUNNINGLY AT SUCH A YOUNG AGE ALL ACCRUED INTENSETRAGICHISTORYOVERASHORTRANGEOFTHEIRDEVELOPMENTALLIVES SUCHAS MULTIPLEFORCEDMIGRATIONS DEATHSOFFAMILYMEMBERS STARVATION ANDDEATHS DURING CHILD DELIVERY %VERY ONE OF THOSE WHO SPOKE TO ME HAD EXPERIENCES THATFELLOUTSIDETHERANGEOFTHEIRPARENTSGENERATION&ORINSTANCE -RSAND -R /MS REPORT IS FAIRLY CHARACTERISTIC OF OTHERS EXPERIENCES hx THE +HMER 2OUGE DECEIVED ME THE NIGHT BEFORE MY WEDDING BY TELLING ME TO GO TO A MEETING AND TO WALK ALL NIGHT TO THE +HMER 2OUGE HEADQUARTERS ) DID NOT KNOWWHETHER)WASBEINGSENTTODEATHORMARRIAGE"Y MOSTOFUSKNEW THATTHESEWERETWOPOSSIBILITIESIFWEWERECALLEDOUT"UTFORME MYCHOSEN WIFE WAS GOOD FORTUNE ˆ EVEN THOUGH THE MARRIAGE BUILDING HAD A PRISON UNDERNEATH AND A SMALL KILLING lELD NEARBY )T WAS A VERY SAD TIME BECAUSE OF THE PRISONERS FATE BUT ALSO A VERY HOPEFUL TIME FOR MEv &IELDWORK BY THOSE WHO ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT THE AFTERMATH OF MASS DISPLACEMENT IS SCANT AND EVEN MORE RARE IS RESEARCH THAT ASSESSES DEVELOP MENTALHISTORYALONGSIDEPOLITICALHISTORY/NERESEARCHER *UNE.ASH ACCOUNTED FOR THE POLITICAL TENSION AND TOOK THIS THEME INTO HER lELDWORK WITH "OLIVIAN TIN MINES IN THE S (ER RESEARCH CONTRIBUTED TO ANALYSES ON POWER ECONOMIC GLOBALISATION POST COLONIAL RECONSTRUCTION AND THE INSTITUTIONALISATION OF VIOLENCE -ORE SIGNIlCANTLY THE OBSERVATIONS OF DISPLACEDPEOPLEWEREEMBEDDEDINTHEWORKOF2OSILIE7AX WHOWENT INTO THE .ORTHERN #ALIFORNIA4ULE ,AKE INTERNMENT CENTRE IN THE S ˆ A PLACE WHERE *APANESE !MERICANS WERE ACCUSED OF BEING INFORMERSTRAITORS 4HIS SITE CONTAINED CLOSE TO   PEOPLE DURING PEAK TIMES  &OLLOWING THE *APANESE ATTACK ON 0EARL (ARBOR IN $ECEMBER  AND ALONG THE 0ACIlC COAST OF THE 53! RESIDENTS FEARED MORE *APANESE ATTACKS 0RESIDENT 2OOSEVELT SIGNED %XECUTIVE /RDER  ON &EBRUARY  WHICH RESULTED IN THE FORCIBLE INTERNMENT OF   PEOPLE OF *APANESE ANCESTRY -ORE THAN TWO THIRDS OF THOSE INTERNED UNDER THE %XECUTIVE /RDER WERE CITIZENS OF THE 5NITED 3TATES AND NONE HAD SHOWN POLITICAL DISSENT 2ELOCATION OF *APANESE !MERICANS BEGAN IN !PRIL  WITH CAMPS SCATTERED ACROSS THE INTERIOR 7EST AND IN ISOLATED



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7HILE ATTEMPTING TO UNDERSTAND THE *APANESE EXPERIENCES AT THAT TIME 7AX DISCOVERED CHALLENGES TO HER OWN RESILIENCE AND NEED FOR RECOVERY AFTER LIVING WITH *APANESE WHO ENDURED VIOLENCE AND RACISM -ORE PROFOUND ARE 7AXS STORIES OF HOW SHE REALISES THAT hIMMERSIONv DOES NOT MEAN hGOING NATIVEv 3HE INCLUDES A SECTION CALLED h) "ECOME A &ANATICv WHICH DESCRIBES THE RISK TO HER WELLBEING AS SHE DWELLED ON THE INJUSTICES ,ATER IN THE TEXT SHE TRACES HOW SHE RE INTEGRATES AND lNDS A WAY TO IMMERSE HERSELF WITHOUT LOSING HER BOUNDARIES BETWEEN SELF AND OTHER "UT)KNEW)MIGHTBEKILLED ANDTHISKNOWLEDGEMADEMEFEELHAPPY AND WELL !T THE SAME TIME ) WAS OFTEN VERY MUCH AFRAID HOWEVER THE THING ) FEARED WAS THAT THE ADMINISTRATION MIGHT lND OUT HOW MUCH ) LEARNED AND ORDER ME OFF THE PROJECT ) DO NOT THINK THAT THIS MANIC OR hBATTLE MADv STATE HAMPERED MY lELDWORK OR DISTORTED MY OBSERVATIONS )NDEED ) PROBABLY WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN ABLE TO LIVE AND WORK AT 4ULE ,AKE HAD ) BEEN ENTIRELY IN MY RIGHT MIND !LONG WITHTHISBRAVADO )DEVELOPEDANUNPLEASANTSENSEOFSELF RIGHTEOUSNESS 7AX P 

7AXSACCOUNTSAREWRITTENLIKEGOODIMPROVISATIONALTHEATRETHEACTORHAS THERESPONSIBILITYTOPROVIDEAFOUNDATIONFROMWHICHTOGROUNDTHEAUDIENCE WITHINTHESTORYBEINGTOLD&OLLOWING THEACTORTAKESTHEVIEWERTOTHEOUTER LIMITSOFTHESTORYBUTRETURNSTOTHEFOUNDATIONALTEXTFROMTIMETOTIMEIN ORDER TO KEEP THE hROLLING STORYv INTACT -IDWAY INTO MY WRITING ) REALISED THAT #AMBODIA IS LIKE AN IMPROVISATIONAL STAGE ˆ DIS ORDER CAN HAPPEN AT ANYMOMENT BUTCHANGEISCONNECTEDTOSOMEORDERINGPROPERTY/VERTIME )OBSERVEDHOWCERTAINCULTURALRITUALSBECAMETHESENSE MAKINGMATERIALFOR RESPONDENTS THE CORE MATERIAL TO WHICH THEY RETURNED WHEN THEY SENSED THE EDGE OF INSANITY WHEN RECALLING THEIR OWN HISTORIES "UT AGAIN THIS WAS UP TO A POINT BECAUSE SOME BECAME SO SATURATED IN DISTRESSING EXPERIENCES THAT THEY NO LONGER RELATED TO THE ANIMATE WORLD %VEN THE ACT OF LOOKING FOR A RITUAL MODERATOR OR RITUAL OBJECT SUGGESTED A LONGING FOR PROTECTION

DESERTS %XECUTIVE /RDER  WAS OVERTURNED BY 0RESIDENT 2OOSEVELT IN  4OULES ,AKE IN .ORTHERN #ALIFORNIA WAS ONE OF THE LAST TO CLOSE ON  -ARCH  3EE $OROTHY 3WAINE 4HOMAS 4HE3ALVAGE"ERKELEY#ALIFORNIA5NIVERSITY0RESS  AND9OSHIKO5CHJIDA $ESERT %XILE 3EATTLE 5NIVERSITY OF 7ASHINGTON 0RESS    )NOTETHAT7AXSUBMITTEDHERlELDWORKFORPUBLICATIONINˆWHENINTERNMENTCAMPS STILL EXISTED HER WORK WAS REJECTED INITIALLY FOR BEING hFASCINATING BUT UNPUBLISHABLEv PIX  3HE LATER PUBLISHED HER WORK AS CASEWORK FOR PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES AS A WAY TO SOFTEN POLITICAL CRITICISM

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3IMILARLY FOLLOWING HIS lELDWORK IN4AHITI ,EVY  INTRODUCED THE NOTIONOFhUNBOUNDANXIETYvTHATCANOCCURWHENONESSOCIOCULTURALCONTEXT IS OUT OF ORDER (E SUGGESTS THAT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN STATES OFPSYCHOLOGICALBREAKDOWN ANDBETWEENDIRECTEXPRESSIONANDCONTAINMENT OF BREAKDOWN $URING MY RESEARCH ) NOTICED THAT THOSE WHO RETURNED TO +HMER 2OUGE SITES WERE UNDER EXPRESSIVE WHEN DESCRIBING OVERWHELMING SITUATIONS MOSTLYWHENCOMPAREDTOTHEIREXPRESSIVENESSOFF SITE,EVYSIDEAS LED ME TO CONTEMPLATE HOW A PERSONS UNDER EXPRESSION CAN BE RELATED TO ONE CONTAINING HERHIS OWN DIS ORDER AS WELL AS RESPONDING TO METAPHYSICAL DISORDER !LLINALL )ALIGNEDWITH'OODSREQUEST FORARETURNBYRESEARCHERS TO PURER DESCRIPTIVE WORK 2ICHPHENOMENOLOGICALACCOUNTSBASEDONCROSS CULTURALRESEARCH WORK WHICH FOCUSES ON LIVED EXPERIENCE ON THE DISTURBANCES OF EXPERIENCE OF TIME SPACE PERSON AFFECT THOUGHT AND EMBODIMENT ASSOCIATED WITHPSYCHOPATHOLOGYINVARIOUSSOCIETIES WOULDSERVEASDATABASEFOR RENEWED DISCUSSION OF THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN SHAPING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY P 

)NEXAMININGMARRIAGESANDBIRTHSDURINGTHE+HMER2OUGE )EXTENDED 'OODSAPPEALFORRESEARCHTHATCANACCOUNTFORINSTABILITYANDSTABILITY SEEKING BYENLISTINGMETHODSTHATTRACKPROCESSESTHATARERE ORDERINGASMUCHASDIS ORDERING AMONG A PERSON COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENT AND SPIRIT PHENOMENA

Statuses Before, During, and After the Khmer Rouge )WANTEDTOACCOUNTFORSOMEONESCURRENTSTATUS ASWELLASSTATUSESASSIGNEDTO APERSONDURING$EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEA)COLLECTEDTHEAGESOFRESPONDENTS ATTHETIMEOFMARRIAGE ANDTHEDATESANDPLACESOFMARRIAGE PREGNANCYAND BIRTHS&ROMTHIS ) COULD REmECT ON DISRUPTIONS OR ENHANCEMENTS TO LIFESPAN

 )NASIMILARTHREAD +RACKE WORKINGIN"RAZIL SHOWSHOWANALYSISISMORETHANMAKING THE UNCONSCIOUS CONSCIOUS 7HILE DOING lELDWORK HE EXTRACTED THEMES FROM PARTICIPANTS DREAMS AND CONTEMPLATED PARALLEL FEELINGS BETWEEN HIS PARTICIPANTS AND HIMSELF PP n  +RACKES WORK IS USEFUL BECAUSE HIS EMPHASIS WAS ON EMERGENT FEELINGS AND THOUGHTS THAT WERE INmUENCED BY THE RESEARCH CONTEXT )N ADDITION %WING  DESCRIBES THE ETHICAL DEMANDS ON THE RESEARCHER TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE ROLE OF POWER RELATIONS PARTICULARLY WHEN THE STATUS OF RESEARCHER INCLUDES DOMINANT CULTURE MEMBERSHIP -OST SIGNIlCANTLY %WING CLAIMS THAT h!NTHROPOLOGISTSSTILLHAVEALOTTOLEARNABOUTHOWTOUSETHEIROWNREACTIONSASANOBSERVATIONAL TOOLv P   3HE DEMONSTRATES WAYS A PSYCHOANALYST USES THE PARADOXICAL TENSION BETWEEN PARTICIPANT AND OBSERVER TO ACHIEVE A THERAPEUTIC GOAL



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STAGESOFDEVELOPMENTFORMENANDWOMEN)ORGANISEDMYDATAACCORDINGTO THEPLACESWHEREWEDDINGSOCCURRED/FTEN ABIRTHOCCURREDWITHINTHEZONE INWHICHTHEWOMENMARRIED BUTNOTNECESSARILYTHEVILLAGEWHERETHEYWED !FTERTHEWEDDINGS INTERNALMIGRATIONDECREASEDFORMOSTRESPONDENTS EXCEPT SOLDIERS WHO WERE USUALLY SENT AWAY FROM THEIR WIVES AFTER THE WEDDING )T WAS LESS COMMON THAT SOMEONE WOULD BE SEPARATED FOR MORE THAN THREE MONTHS FOLLOWING THE WEDDING )T WAS MORE TYPICAL THAT MEN AND WOMEN WOULD GO OFF TO THEIR RESPECTIVE WORK SITES IN THE DAY AND RETURN TOGETHER INTHEEVENING4HISPATTERNINCREASEDINMOSTOF#AMBODIAAFTER AND AFTER THE BIRTH OF A CHILD 7HEN SETTING INTERVIEWS IN #AMBODIA RESPONDENTS CHOSE THE CONTEXT IN WHICH CONVERSATIONS TOOK PLACE 'ENERALLY ) WAS ASKED TO MEET A COUPLE AT THEIR HOME ON A 3UNDAY OR ON A WEEKNIGHT 7HEN ) SHOWED UP THERE WOULD BE SIBLINGS PARENTS CHILDREN NEIGHBOURS AND LOCAL VILLAGERS PERCHED NEARBY ˆ OFTEN mOATING IN AND OUT OF VIEW DURING OUR MEETING 3OMETIMES )TOOKAWALKTOSEEGARDENSWITHACOUPLEORFAMILY ANDPRIVATECONVERSATION WOULD EMERGE /F THE  MEN AND  WOMEN AFTER ACCOUNTING FOR THE LARGEST VARIANCES IN AGE AND STATUS THE AVERAGE AGE SPREAD BETWEEN PARTNERS WAS TWO TO FOUR YEARS 7OMEN WERE GENERALLY YOUNGER THAN MEN THERE WAS A TREND TOWARDS hBASE WOMENv BEING YOUNGER WHEN THEY WERE PARTNERED TO hNEWv MEN BUT IT WAS NOT SIGNIlCANT !ND THOUGH SOME MENTIONED THEIR #HINESE HERITAGE THEY IDENTIlED MOST AS +HMER PERHAPS DUE TO FAMILY INTEGRATION &ORMOSA   /N THE WHOLE THE PROlLES OF RESPONDENTS IN MY STUDY DID NOT SUPPORT PRE EXISTING LITERATURE ON THE WEDDINGS WITH REGARD TO SAME IDENTITY PAIRING &ROM  ON MARRIAGES WERE CARRIED OUT ACCORDING TO STRICT GUIDELINESx-ARRIAGESWEREALLOWEDONLYWITHINSETCATEGORIESYOUNG SOLDIERSYOTHEAS MALEORFEMALE CHOSETHEIRSPOUSEONLYFROMhWITHIN THE RANKSv +HNONG CHUOR ˆ EITHER OTHER SOLDIERS LIKE THEMSELVES OR FEMALE GUARDS SENACHON OR MEMBERS OF DISTRICT MOBILE TROOPS DAMBAN OR EVEN STAFF PERSONNEL BELONGING TO VARIOUS ORGANISATIONS 4HEYWERENOTALLOWEDTOWEDANYONEFROMTHEhNEWPEOPLEv-EMBERS  /NEWOMANWHOWASWEDININ+AMPONG#HAMSAIDTHATSHEANDHERSOLDIER HUSBAND ASKED!NGKARPERMISSIONTOSEPARATEAFTERTHEWEDDINGSOTHATSHECOULDLOOKAFTERHERPARENTS 4HEIR REQUEST WAS APPROVED 4HE SEVEN SOLDIERS IN MY STUDY HAVE REMAINED WITH THE WOMEN THEYMARRIEDDURINGTHE+HMER2OUGE)TISNOTEDIN#AMBODIATHATLEGALSEPARATIONORDIVORCE ISNOTESTABLISHEDRATHER ITISCUSTOMARYFORCOUPLESTOASKAPARENTORVILLAGEELDERPERMISSION TO SEPARATE

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OF THE hOLD PEOPLEv USUALLY MARRIED THE SAME THOUGH SOMETIMES THEY COULD WED INDIVIDUALS DESIGNATED AS BEING FROM THE hNEW PEOPLEv 0ONCHAUD  P 

) PLOTTED PEOPLES STATUS AT THE TIME OF THE WEDDING AND THE ONLY TREND ) FOUND WAS THAT NEW PEOPLE TENDED TO BE PAIRED WITH NEW PEOPLE OR NEW BASE PEOPLE REGARDLESS OF EDUCATION LEVEL 3OLDIERS  OUT OF  MEN INTERVIEWED CLASSIlEDTHEMSELVESASEITHERBASE SOLDIERS ORNEW BASESOLDIERS 4HE EARLIEST WEDDING OF A SOLDIER THAT ) RECORDED WAS IN +AMPONG #HAM IN THECOLDSEASONOF(EWAS YEARS OLD ANDHISWIFECALLEDHIMAhNEW SOLDIERv BECAUSE HE HAD MOVED FROM 0HNOM 0ENH TO HER REGION 3HE WAS A BASE PERSON AND  YEARS OLD WHEN THEY WED 3HE SAID h(E SAW ME IN THE DISTANCE AND;HE=ASKED!NGKARIFHECOULDMARRYMEv4HEYMARRIEDINSIDE A PAGODA IN A GROUP OF  COUPLES NON SOLDIERS  %ACH COUPLE WAS GIVEN NEW BLACK CLOTHES AND BLACK WHITE KRAMAS AND +HMER MUSIC WAS PLAYED 4HEY WENT TO HER PARENTS AND HAD A SECRET CEREMONY 4HEY WERE TOGETHER FOR ONE MONTH 4HOUGH THEY HAD SEXUAL RELATIONS IN THAT MONTH SHE DID NOT BECOME PREGNANT !T THIS EARLY TIME IN THE REGIME  SHE SAID THAT THEY BOTH ASKED !NGKARS PERMISSION TO SEPARATE SO THAT SHE COULD STAY TO LOOK AFTER HER SICK PARENTS PERMISSION WAS GRANTED AND HER HUSBAND WAS SENT TO ANOTHER REGION 2ELATIONSHIPSOFMIXEDSTATUSOCCURREDACROSSREGIONSFOREXAMPLE INTHE +ANDAL SAMPLE TWO SOLDIERS WERE PAIRED WITH NON SOLDIERS /NE SOLDIER WAS PAIRED WITH A BASE WOMAN WHOM HE REQUESTED FOR MARRIAGE HE APPROACHED THE COMMUNE CHIEF FOR PERMISSION TO MARRY 4HEY MARRIED WITH  OTHER COUPLES OF VARIED STATUSES IN  IN THE CANTEEN COMMUNAL KITCHEN AND EATING PLACE NEAR THE WOMANS WORK SITE4HEY WERE BOTH  YEARS OLD AND HISWIFEHADNOPREGNANCIESBEFORE4HEYSTAYEDTOGETHERUNTILHISWIFE DIED IN  4HEOTHER+ANDALSOLDIERMARRIEDANEWPERSONININTHECANTEEN HE WAS  AND SHE WAS  YEARS OLD4HEY WED WITH  OTHER COUPLES AND LIVED TOGETHER NEAR THE WEDDING SITE FOLLOWING THEIR WEDDING AND HAD ONE PREGNANCYANDBIRTHIN4HEYARESTILLTOGETHER!CCORDINGTOTHESOLDIER RESPONDENTS IF A SOLDIER HAD A PRE EXISTING RELATIONSHIP OR WAS ATTRACTED TO SOMEONEELSE HECOULDMAKEAREQUESTTOALEADER WHICHWASOFTENGRANTED OTHERWISE A SOLDIER WAS LIKELY TO BE PARTNERED WITH A FEMALE SOLDIER OR +HMER 2OUGE NURSE IN HIS DIVISION 3OME WOMEN ASKED TO BE PARTNERED TO SOMEONE THEY KNEW BUT THEIR REQUEST WAS DELIVERED TO A LEADER VIA A FAMILYREPRESENTATIVEBROTHERORPARENT 4HISPATTERNOFHAVINGAGO BETWEEN IS A NORMAL ONE THOUGH IT IS OFTEN THE MANS MOTHER WHO APPROACHES THE



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WOMANSFAMILY#USTOMARILY THEBRIDEANDGROOMSFAMILIESSHARESOCIALAND EDUCATIONAL STATUSES ˆ AND THIS IS WHAT WAS DIFFERENT IN COUPLING PRACTICES BYTHE+HMER2OUGE)NGENERAL DURING$+ THEREWASNOCONSISTENTPATTERN OF SAME STATUS PAIRING ACROSS SOLDIERS MONKS NEW OR BASE PEOPLE THE MOST FREQUENT COUPLING PRACTICE SANCTIONED BY LEADERS WAS TO PARTNER PEOPLE WHO HAD RELATIVES THAT LIVED IN SIMILAR DISTRICTS OR ZONES ˆ AND THIS GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCING SEEMED TO GIVE COUPLES A HANDHOLD TO A FAMILIAR PAST )T WAS COMMON FOR SOMEONE TO SAY hSHE IS LESS EDUCATED AND ) WAS A NEW PERSON AND SHE WAS A BASE PERSON BUT OUR ANCESTORS CAME FROM THE SAME PLACEv 0LACE IDENTIlCATION TOOK PRECEDENCE OVER OTHER CLASS IDENTITY

Separation Between Partners #OUPLES IN THIS STUDY DID NOT SEEK LEGAL ADVICE OR SIGN ANY PAPERS WHEN THEYLEFTTHEIRMARRIAGESTHESTATUSOFhDIVORCEDvWASNOTUSEDINTHISSTUDY 4HE NOTION OF hLEAVING SOMEONE PERMANENTLY OR TEMPORARILYv IS MORE THE NORM IN #AMBODIA AND NOT SPECIlC TO MARRIAGES IN THE $+ PERIOD /NE MAN WHO WAS MARRIED IN  IN +AMPONG 4HOM SAID h7HEN MY WIFE AND ) SEPARATED FOREVER IN  WE WROTE IT DOWN ON A PIECE OF PAPER AND HAD IT SIGNED BY AN OLDER PERSON IN OUR VILLAGE 3HE AND ) CAN NOW BE WITH SOMEONE ELSE AND HAVE MORE CHILDRENv -ONI WHO WAS MARRIED IN  SAID h) WANTED TO LEAVE HIM BUT ) COULD NOT ASK MY FATHER OR MOTHER PERMISSION BECAUSE THEY HAD DIED SO ) STAY WITH HIM ) GUESS ) COULD ASK AN ELDER BUT IT IS NOT THE SAMEv !NOTHER MAN MARRIED IN  IN +ANDAL SAID h) LEFT HER IN  WITH OUR lVE CHILDREN BECAUSE SHE WAS CRUEL AND DRANK A LOT OF THE TIME ) DO NOT WANT TO LEAVE HER FOREVER ONLY WHILE SHE IS DRINKING TOO MUCHv )N MY STUDY  PEOPLE SEPARATED PERMANENTLY WITH SOMEPROCLAMATIONMADETOAWITNESS TWOOFTHOSESEPARATEDSAIDTHATITWAS DUETOAPARTICULARCONTEXTTHATTHEYHOPEDWOULDCHANGE/NEMANANDONE WOMANLEFTTHEIRRESPECTIVESPOUSESDUETOHERALCOHOLMISUSEANDGAMBLING !NOTHERWOMANISSEPARATEDFROMHERHUSBANDINTERMITTENTLYBECAUSEHEHAS TAKEN ANOTHER WIFE /NE WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN  IN +AMPONG #HAM SAID THAT SHE ASKED !NGKARS PERMISSION TO LEAVE HER HUSBAND PERMANENTLY SIX MONTHS AFTER MARRYING IN  BECAUSE SHE WAS THE OLDEST DAUGHTER AND WANTED TO LOOK AFTER HER PARENTS PERMISSION WAS GRANTED

 )NASTUDYBY(EUVELINEAND0OCH THEYFOUNDTHATCOUPLESMARRIEDBETWEENn HADLESSSEPARATIONTEMPORARYORPERMANENT WHENCOMPAREDWITHMARRIAGESOUTSIDETHE+HMER 2OUGE PERIOD

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3POUSES WERE SEPARATED FOR PERIODS OF TIME AND COULD EASILY NOT HAVE RETURNED HOWEVER IN ONLY TWO CASES IN MY SAMPLE DID SOMEONE NOT RETURN TO THEIR PARTNER FROM THE $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA WEDDING AND IT WAS AFTER MORE THAN A YEAR OF SEPARATION  )NTERESTINGLY THEY HEARD OF OTHER COUPLESLIVESAFTERWARDS/NEMANWHOWASNOTINMYSAMPLE BUTSOMEONE ) WORKED WITH AT A HEALTH CENTRE TOLD ME THAT HE PURPOSIVELY RETURNED  YEARS AFTER HIS $+ WEDDING IN "ATTAMBANG TO lND THE WOMAN HE HAD MARRIED THERE 4HEY HAD BOTH SEPARATED THEN REMARRIED ANOTHER NOT LONG AFTER THE REGIME (E HAD HEARD FROM A FRIEND THAT HE HAD A DAUGHTER FROM THAT +HMER 2OUGE RELATIONSHIP AND WAS CURIOUS ABOUT THIS CLAIM (E SAID h) WENT TO SEE HER AND FOUND OUT THIS WAS SO ) SENT MY lRST WIFE MONEY FOR OUR DAUGHTER ) TOLD MY SECOND WIFE THAT ) HAD DONE THIS AND SHE WAS VERYUPSET7EHAVEMUCHTENSIONOVERTHISNOWv4HISCASEISANEXAMPLEOF THECHALLENGESTHATHAVELINGEREDFROMTHE+HMER2OUGEPERIOD PARTICULARLY BECAUSETHOSEMARRIAGESHAVEBEENCONSIDEREDAUTHENTIC)NORDERTOREPRESENT DATA ON MARITAL STATUS ) DEVELOPED TWO CATEGORIES OF SEPARATION SEPARATED PERMANENTLY AND SEPARATED BY CONTEXT SEE4ABLE )))  4HE MOST REPRESENTED REGIONS WERE +ANDAL . 4AKEO  0REY 6ENG  +AMPONG 3PEU  AND "ATTAMBANG   4AKEO AND 0REY 6ENG HAD THE HIGHEST PERCENTAGES OF PREGNANCIES PER WOMAN (OWEVER IN 4AKEO THREE OF THE TWELVE PREGNANCIES ENDED IN DEAD BIRTHS THOSE IN4AKEO REPORTEDANABSENCEOFFOODANDDRINKATCEREMONIESMORETHANOTHERREGIONS ;.O PATTERN OF DIFFERENCE WAS CONNECTED TO STATUS NEW BASE OR OTHER = -ALNUTRITION AND EXHAUSTION AND STRESS BY ISOLATION PERHAPS COULD EASILY HAVE INCREASED THE RISK FOR INFANT MORTALITY "IRTH RATES MIGHT BE CORRELATED WITH AMOUNT OF FOOD AVAILABLE AT THE GROUP WEDDING ˆ AN INDICATOR OF RESOURCES IN THE REGION

Sexuality in Democratic Kampuchea -ANY PUBLISHED ACCOUNTS ON SEXUALITY PREGNANCY AND ABORTION DURING THE $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA ERA OFFER BRUTAL DETAILS "IT "OEN #OUGILL  P  $OCUMENTATION #ENTER PRESENTED HER EXPERIENCE IN +ANDAL 0ROVINCE FROM3HEDESCRIBEDHERWEDDINGTO4HONGAShARRANGEDv3HESAIDSHE HAD BEEN MARRIED ONE MONTH BEFORE HER HUSBAND WAS ARRESTED )WASPREGNANTWHENTHEYARRESTED4HONG2ITHSENTAWOMANTOASKME ABOUT THIS4HEN THEY GAVE ME AN INJECTION OF SOME KIND OF MEDICINE AND MADE ME JUMP UP AND DOWN TO MAKE ME LOSE MY BABY ) NEARLY DIEDTHENANDCOULDNOTMOVEMYARMSANDLEGS BUT)DIDNTLOSEIT!



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)N THE SAME VEIN (AING .GOR  P  DESCRIBES TORTURE OF PREGNANT WOMEN )N THE AFTERNOON THE GUARDS RETIED MY ROPES BUT NOT TOO TIGHTLY 4HEN THEY BROUGHT A NEW PRISONER DOWN THE LINE OF THE MANGO TREES A PREGNANT WOMAN !S THEY WALKED PAST THE WOMAN ) HEARD HER SAYING THAT HER HUSBAND WASNT A ,ON .OL SOLDIERx 3HE BEGGED THEM TO SPARE HER LIFEx 7HAT HAPPENED NEXT MAKES ME NAUSEOUS TO THINK ABOUTx (E CUT THE CLOTHES OFF HER BODY SLIT HER STOMACH AND TOOK THE BABY OUT x HE TIED A STRING AROUND THE FETUS AND HUNG IT FROM THE EAVES WITH THE OTHERS WHICH WERE DRIED AND BLACK AND SHRUNKENx )N THE DEPTHS OF THE NIGHT A PACK OF CHHKE CHAR CHARK SIMILAR TO WOLVES BUT SMALLER DRIFTED INTO THE MANGO GROVE AND SNIFFED THE AIR 4HEY TROTTED TOWARD THE CORPSE OF THE PREGNANT WOMAN AND BEGAN TEARING AT HER mESH EATING NOISILY AND GREEDILY

3OME AUTOBIOGRAPHIES REFER TO CONTROLLED SEXUAL ACTIVITY AND SUBSEQUENT PREGNANCIES &OR INSTANCE (AING .GOR  WRITES 4HE+HMER2OUGEWANTEDTOREGULATEANDCONTROLSEX JUSTASTHEYTRIED TOCONTROLALLOTHERBASICHUMANPRACTICES LIKEEATINGANDWORKINGAND SLEEPINGP )RONICALLY WHILETHEREGIMEWASSLOWLYDISINTEGRATING INFRONTOFOUREYES WITHFORCEDMARRIAGES INCREASEDSTEALING REBELLIONS FROMBELOW ANDDEFECTIONSATTHEHIGHESTLEVELS (UOYAND)BEGANTO LIVEBETTERTHANBEFOREP 6IRTUALLYNOPREGNANCIESRESULTEDFROM THESE MARRIAGES BECAUSE THE FOOD RATIONS WERE TOO LOW FOR THE WOMEN TO BE FERTILE P  

-EN AND WOMEN DID NOT SPEAK ABOUT INFANT DEATHS UNTIL THE SECOND OR THIRD INTERVIEW SO ) THINK THIS COMPONENT OF $+ MARRIAGES WAS VERY UNDERREPORTEDPARTICULARLYINACCOUNTSABOUTn !LSO )OFTENASKED WOMEN IF THEY COULD COMPARE THE SIZE AND ALERTNESS OF THEIR BABIES DURING THE REGIME WITH CHILDREN THEY BIRTHED AFTER THE REGIME !LMOST ALL SAID THAT THEIR REGIME INFANTS WERE SMALLER AND ONLY FOUR WERE ABLE TO QUANTIFY THE SIZE )N RELATION TO THIS TOPIC ON BIRTH RATES 6ICKERY  CRITIQUED A  REPORT ON CRUDE BIRTH RATES DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD AND ARGUED THAT BIRTH RATES OF OLD AND NEW PEOPLE COULD NOT HAVE VARIED SO MUCH IN

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BETTERAREASOFTHECOUNTRYP 9ET RATHERTHANSHOWINGREGIONAL SPECIlC BIRTH RATES MY STUDY REVEALED A TREND TOWARDS AN INCREASE IN PREGNANCIES BY  ACROSS REGIONS WHILE STILLBIRTHS AND INFANT DEATHS ONE WEEK AFTER BIRTH REMAINED THE SAME OVER TIME NEW AND BASE WOMEN REPORTED EQUAL RATES IN PREGNANCIES ) HAVE NO DOUBT ABOUT THE TRUTH OF THESE INCIDENTS AS ) HEARD EVEN MORE GRAPHIC ACCOUNTS HOWEVER THEY WERE NOT USUAL )N GENERAL ABORTION BYINJECTION HARDWORK ORINGESTIONISFAIRLYCOMMONIN#AMBODIA7HITE 0 ANDPERSONALCONVERSATIONSWITHWOMENWHOGAVEBIRTHBEFOREAND AFTER  4HOSE TREATED MOST BRUTALLY OF COURSE MAY NOT BE ALIVE TO TELL THEIRSTORIES"UT)ALSOTHINKTHATSUCHIMAGESOFHORROR BASEDONSINGLE CASE TESTIMONIES HAVE INTERFERED WITH THE COMPLETENESS OF HISTORICAL ACCOUNTING

Marriage Patterns and Sexual Relations: Prescriptive or Not? %IGHTY PER CENT  OUT OF  OF THOSE INTERVIEWED ARE STILL TOGETHER TODAYWHENACCOUNTINGFORTHElRSTPURPOSIVESAMPLEOFCOUPLES .EARLY HALF WERE PAIRED WITH SOMEONE FROM THEIR ORIGINAL DISTRICT OR PROVINCE4HIS MAY BE ONE REASON FOR PEOPLE KNOWING WHICH WOMEN FROM THEIR GROUP MARRIAGE GAVE BIRTH DURING THE $+ REGIME THEY RECOUNTED LIVE BIRTHS STILL BIRTHS ANDDEATHSFOLLOWINGDELIVERY/NE FOURTHOFMYRESPONDENTSCONTINUE TOLIVENEARTHEIR+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGSITESAFTERTHECOLLAPSEOF$+!FTER THEIRWEDDINGS MOSTSTAYEDTOGETHER BUTSOMETIMESAMANORWOMANWOULD GO TO DIFFERENT WORK SITES FOR MONTHS AT A TIME THEY MOST OFTEN RETURNED TO THEIR SPOUSES PLACE 7EDDING PLACES GENERALLY HAD BEEN PRIMARY SCHOOLS THE COMMUNAL CANTEEN lELDS OR LEADERS HOUSES IN THEIR BASE REGION &OR INSTANCE -RAND-RS/MSAIDTHATOUTOFCOUPLESINTHEIRGROUP ARE STILL TOGETHER AND  HAVE DIED !NOTHER COUPLE IN +AMPONG 3PEU SAID THAT  OUT OF  HAVE STAYED TOGETHER 4HOSE MARRIED IN GROUPS LARGER THAN  HAD FEWER DETAILS OF OTHER COUPLES IN THEIR GROUP 2ESPONDENTSSPOKEABOUTOTHERCOUPLESWHOWEREINTHEIRGROUPWEDDINGS AND SEEMED TO KEEP UP WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIP STATUSES 0EOPLE IN +ANDAL AND 3VAY 2IENG 4AKEO AND +ANDAL IN PARTICULAR REPORTED HIGH NUMBER OF DEATHS TO MEMBERS OF THEIR WEDDING COHORT DURING $+ /NE WOMAN WHO WAS MARRIED IN 3VAY 2IENG IN  WITH  COUPLES SAID h!NGKAR KILLED MY HUSBAND IN v4HE LEADERS OF THE YOUTH GROUPS SEEMED TO PRIORITISE THE PAIRINGOFYOUNGMENANDWOMENBYPLACEOVERNEWORBASESTATUS.EWSOF OTHERSINONESCOHORTMOVEDLIKEDOMINOSWHEREINSOMEONETOLDOFSOMEONE



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WHO TOLD OF ANOTHER !LSO AFTER  MANY REMAINED IN THE SAME DISTRICT REGIONINWHICHTHEYWEREMARRIEDSOTHEYCOULDSPEAKOFOTHERSFATESDURING THIS TIME 7ITHIN THE GROUP OF WOMEN REPRESENTED IN MY STUDY THERE WERE  PREGNANCIES  LIVE BIRTHS  DEAD BIRTHS AND  SPONTANEOUS ABORTIONS 3OME WOMEN HAD MULTIPLE PREGNANCIES &OR EXAMPLE ONE MAN WHO WAS A FORMER MONK MARRIED IN  AT THE AGE OF  WITH  COUPLES IN4AKEO HE SPOKE OF HIS WIFES  PREGNANCIES AND  BIRTHS BETWEEN  AND  )T WASDIFlCULTFORHIMTOTHINKABOUTHISWIFESTIMEDURINGCHILDBIRTHBECAUSE hNO ONE ATTENDED HER BIRTHSv .ON BIRTH DATA INDUCED OR SPONTANEOUS ABORTIONS MAY NOT REPRESENT ACTUALITY .O ONE SPOKE OF ABORTING A FOETUS UNTIL OUR SECOND INTERVIEW 7OMEN AND MEN WERE MORE INCLINED TO MENTION A DEAD BIRTH WITH SAD REmECTION &OUR PEOPLE SAID IT WAS A hDANGEROUSv TIME WHEN BABIES DIE PER HAPS REFERENCING hSPIRITv PLAY OR DESTRUCTION BY !RPH ) FOUND THAT WOMEN INGROUPSWEREMOREINCLINEDTOSPEAKOPENLYWITHEACHOTHERANDTOLETME LISTEN /F THOSE GIVING BIRTH TO A LIVE OR DEAD INFANT  PER CENT  OUT OF  REPORTED ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL BIRTH METHODS WHEREIN A TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT WAS PRESENT WITH EITHER A MOTHER OR MOTHER IN LAW 4HIS SHOWS A GRAVE BREAKDOWN OF TRADITION DURING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA CUSTOMARILY  PER CENT OF BIRTHS ARE EXPECTED TO BE ATTENDED IN #AMBODIA .INE WOMEN SAID THAT THEIR BIRTHS WERE ATTENDED TO BY A +HMER 2OUGE NURSE /F THE EIGHT WOMEN WHO GAVE BIRTH TO A DEAD BABY ONLY THREE HAD AN ATTENDANT PRESENT WHICH THEY DESCRIBED AS A VERY SAD AND WORRISOME TIME BPROO AY  4HE PLACES IN WHICH TRADITIONAL BIRTHS OCCURRED MOST WITH FAMILY OR TRADI TIONAL ATTENDANTS PRESENT WERE IN 0REY 6ENG "ATTAMBANG AND +ANDAL4HE REGIONS THAT HAD MORE ABORTED OR STILLBIRTHS WERE 4AKEO +ANDAL AND 0REY 6ENG IN 4AKEO HAD THE HIGHEST RATIO OF LOSS FOLLOWING PREGNANCY IN A COHORT OF  WOMEN THERE WERE  PREGNANCIES  LIVE BIRTHS  DEAD BIRTHS AND  SPONTANEOUS ABORTIONS REPORTED WITH NO CORRELATED YEAR FACTOR "ECAUSE THE NOTION THAT THE +HMER 2OUGE RESTRICTED ANDOR FORCED MARRIEDCOUPLESTOHAVESEXHASBEENCONTROVERSIAL )INQUIREDFORMALLYDURING EACH INTERVIEW h7ERE YOU TOLD TO HAVE SEX AT THE TIME OF YOUR WEDDINGv &ORTYPERCENTOFRESPONDENTSSAIDYESTHOUGHITAPPEARSTHATTHEHUSBAND WAS MORE OFTEN TOLD ALONE WITHOUT THE WOMAN PRESENT %IGHT PEOPLE WHO MARRIED IN 0REY 6ENG REPORTED THAT THEY WERE hTEASEDv ABOUT HAVING SEX IN WAYS CONSISTENT WITH +HMER WEDDING CUSTOM WHEREIN SEXUAL RELATIONS ARE OFTENENACTEDINDRAMATICSKITSDURINGCEREMONIES.EARLYPERCENTOUT OF STATEDTHATTHEYWEREUNDERSURVEILLANCEMOSTSAIDTHATTHEYPRETENDED

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TO HAVE SEXUAL RELATIONS BY LYING CLOSE TO EACH OTHER .O ONE REPORTED BEING THREATENED BY DEATH IF THEY DID NOT SUCCUMB -OST STRIKING HOWEVER IS THE lNDINGTHATPRESCRIPTIVESEXSEEMEDMORECOMMONDURINGANDAFTERTHERAINY SEASONININCERTAINREGIONS JUSTBEFORETHEINVASIONBYTHE6IETNAMESE AND WITH A TREND APPARENTLY SPREADING OUT FROM +ANDAL 0ROVINCE 2EPORTS OF BEING PLACED UNDER SURVEILLANCE AT NIGHT WERE COMMON IN +ANDAL AND 4AKEO FROM MID  4HESE WERE THE TWO MOST REPRESENTED REGIONS IN MY STUDY  RESPONDENTS MARRIED IN +ANDAL AND  MARRIED IN 4AKEO  -ANY SAID THEY WERE FRIGHTENED INTO SILENCE FOR FEAR OF BEING HEARD PEOPLE IN THESE REGIONS REPORTED MOST THAT THEY WERE TOLD TO HAVE SEX ON THEIR WEDDING NIGHT BY THE COMMUNE CHIEF OR OTHER PRESIDING LEADER -OST THOUGHT THEY WERE BEING WATCHED TO ENSURE THAT THEY HAD SEX )N WEDDINGS BEFORE   PER CENT  OUT OF  OF THE RESPONDENTS STATED THAT THEY WERE TOLD TO HAVE SEX FOLLOWING THE WEDDING &ROM RAINY SEASON  TO *ANUARY PERCENTOUTOF REPORTEDSUCHAPRACTICE!GAININ MOST OF THESE CASES THE MAN WAS TOLD TO HAVE SEX WITH THE WOMAN BUT SHE WASNOTINFORMEDOFTHISDEMAND&IVEMENSAIDTHEYDIDNOTTELLTHEIRWIVES )N MY SAMPLE ) DID NOT HAVE ANY REPORTS OF RAPE BY SPOUSES OR NON SPOUSES DURING$EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEA4WOWOMENALLUDEDTOSEXUALVIOLENCEAFTER  BY THEIR SPOUSES WITH RELATED ALCOHOL ABUSE THEY HAVE SINCE SEPARATED FROM THEIR HUSBANDS

Communal Honeymoon Huts )NKEEPINGWITHWHATSEEMSTOHAVEBEENASHIFTIN$EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEAIN TOWARDSSOLIDIFYING+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGANDPOST WEDDINGPROTOCOL RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF A RANGE OF +HMER 2OUGE HUTS BEING BUILT SPECIlC FOR WEDDING NIGHTS 0EOPLE WHO MARRIED IN "ATTAMBANG IN THE HARVEST OF  REPORTEDTHElRSTOFTHISHUTACTIVITY&ROM!UGUSTTO.OVEMBER )FOUND ASERIESOFWEDDINGSINTHE+ANDALREGIONRANGINGFROMTOCOUPLES THEY WERE PROVIDED WITH PALM LEAF COTTAGES SMALL  BY  METRE CUBICLES OR GROUP HOUSES IN WHICH COUPLES SLEPT AFTER A FULL DAY OF WORK 4HE CUBICLES WERE OFTEN USED FOR THREE NIGHTS WHICH IS CONSISTENT WITH THE TIME PERIOD IN WHICH COUPLES TRADITIONALLY STAY TOGETHER AFTER THEIR WEDDING  )N 0URSAT +AMPOT AND"ATTAMBANG THESAMEDRIFTWASREPORTEDINRAINYSEASON BUT COTTAGES WERE BUILT FOR MORE PERMANENT RESIDENCE ) HEARD ONE REPORT IN 3EPTEMBER  WHERE MORE THAN EIGHT COUPLES IN 4AKEO WERE TOLD TO HAVE SEX IN THE SMALL HUTS BUILT FOR THEM 3IMILARLY IN A WEDDING WITH TWO COUPLES IN +AMPOT IN  A HOUSE WAS MADE FOR THEM THEY WERE MARRIED



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2EPLICAOFTHEHUTWHERECOUPLESSTAYEDONTHEIRWEDDINGNIGHT+AMPONG3PEU  

DURING "ON 0CHUM "EN A PERIOD WHEN WEDDINGS DO NOT OCCUR TRADITIONALLY &IVE PEOPLE IN A VILLAGE IN +AMPONG 3PEU TOOK ME TO A PALM BUILDING THAT THEYSAIDWASAREPLICAOFTHE+HMER2OUGESTRUCTURETHEYSTAYEDINFOLLOWING THEIR WEDDING )N THE SAME VEIN IN +ANDAL IN !UGUST  FOLLOWING A WEDDING IN AN OPEN lELD  COUPLES WERE GIVEN hA SMALL CELL OF  METRE SHAPE WHERE WE WEREWATCHEDATNIGHTBECAUSEWEWERETOLDTOHAVESEXv)N.OVEMBER  COUPLES IN +ANDAL WERE MARRIED IN THE 0ARTY (EADQUARTERS AND ADVISED TO HAVE SEX IN SIMILAR  METRE SQUARE STRUCTURES BUT THEY WERE EACH GIVEN A WOVENMATANDMOSQUITONETFORTHEOCCASION3UCHPOST WEDDINGSTRUCTURES MAYHAVEBEENSPREADINGFROM"ATTAMBANGINTO4AKEOANDOTHERREGIONSMORE FORMALLY BEFORE THE 6IETNAM INVASION IN *ANUARY  ) CANNOT GENERALISE TOO WIDELY ABOUT THE +HMER 2OUGE HUTS THAT WERE BUILTFORPOST WEDDINGHABITATION(OWEVER THEFOLLOWINGLISTCLEARLYSHOWSA PROCESSTHATBEGANIN-ANYCOTTAGESWEREMADEFROMSUGARPALMLEAVES AND TREE OR BUSH LIMBS &IRST HUTS WERE REPORTED FOR THE HARVEST OF  IN "ATTAMBANG 4HE LISTS ARE ORGANISED ACCORDING TO DATE OF WEDDING IN ORDER TO SHOW THE PROGRESSION OF +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY

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s

"ATTAMBANG HARVEST   COUPLES RESIDED FOR ONE MONTH IN SMALL HUTS PROVIDED FOR THEM AFTER THEIR WEDDING -ANY STAYED ON IN THE COMMUNE TO LIVE AND WORK 3EX WAS PRESCRIBED

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+ANDAL HARVESTCOUPLESWEREGIVENONEHUTFOREACHCOUPLE FORONEMONTHAFTERTHEWEDDINGSEXWASPRESCRIBED-OSTREMAINED IN THIS REGION AND WORKED BY DAY AND RETURNED TOGETHER AT NIGHT

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"ATTAMBANG NEAR -OUNG 2USSEY 3EPTEMBER   COUPLES WERE GIVEN  HUTS NEAR EACH OTHER ON THE EDGE OF A VILLAGE

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+AMPONG 3PEU  WED WITH  COUPLES HUT WAS GIVEN TO EACH COUPLE THE MAN WAS A SOLDIER

4HE REMAINDER OF THE LIST IS COMPRISED OF PEOPLE WHO HELD NO SPECIAL ROLE IN THE REGIME THERE WAS EQUAL DISTRIBUTION FOR NEW AND BASE PEOPLE s

4AKEO3EPTEMBER COTTAGESWEREGIVENTOCOUPLES WITHNO SPECIAL ROLE BY ANY PARTY

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+ANDAL!UGUST COUPLESMARRIEDINANOPENlELDANDEACH hGIVEN  BY  METRE CELLS BY CHIEF OF COMMUNEv

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+ANDAL IN4REA COMMUNE !UGUST  COTTAGES FOR  COUPLES

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+ANDAL 3EPTEMBER  SMALL COTTAGES MADE FOR  COUPLES

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+ANDAL /CTOBER  COTTAGES FOR  COUPLES

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+ANDAL IN4REA COMMUNE .OVEMBER   COTTAGES

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0URSAT 3EPTEMBER   COTTAGES FOR  COUPLES

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+AMPOT 0CHUM "EN   COUPLES MARRIED AND ONE hSPECIAL COTTAGEv WAS MADE FOR  COUPLES TO SHARE

Group Wedding Practices After the 1979 Supposed Collapse of the Khmer Rouge )NTHEMOREREMOTE%ASTERNAND7ESTERNREGIONS GROUPWEDDINGSDIDNOTEND IMMEDIATELY ON  *ANUARY  THE SO CALLED LIBERATION DAY /NE MAN SAID h!FTER THE 6IET .AM INVASION OUR REGION "ATTAMBANG STILL HAD WEDDINGS THAT NEEDED APPROVAL BY THE +HMER 2OUGEv4HE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF h0OST +HMER 2OUGE GROUP WEDDINGSv THAT RESPONDENTS IDENTIlED  0REAH 6IHEAR IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES MARRIED NO SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  0REAH 6IHEAR IN RAINY SEASON   COUPLES NO SEX WAS PRESCRIBED



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 "ATTAMBANG 3TUNG4HMAR COMMUNE IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES HADAWEDDINGARRANGEDBYTHEIRTEAMLEADERITTOOKPLACEINACANTEEN NO SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  "ATTAMBANG IN RAINY SEASON   COUPLE WED IN A HOSPITAL THE MAN WAS A SOLDIER AND THE WOMAN IDENTIlED AS A NEW PERSON THE MANS PARENTS MADE A REQUEST TO THE COMMUNE LEADER BOTH WENT FROM +AMPONG #HAM TO "ATTAMBANG BEFORE THEIR WEDDING THEY ARE STILL TOGETHER SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  "ATTAMBANG IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES WERE PAIRED BY THE VILLAGE LEADERONEWOMANWASANURSEhTRAINEDBY6IETNAMESE vANDPARTNERED TO A MAN WHO WAS A NEW PERSON NO SEXUAL RELATION WAS PRESCRIBED 4HEY WERE SENT TO +AMPONG #HAM AFTER THE WEDDING THEY DID NOT STAY TOGETHER  0REY 6ENG 0EARANG DISTRICT IN *UNE   COUPLES WERE MARRIED hON THE ROADv ONE MAN WAS ASKED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE LEADER TO MARRY A CERTAIN WOMAN AT lRST HE DID NOT AGREE BUT LATER AGREED DUE TO FEAR HE SAID hWE WORKED IN DAY BUT STAYED TOGETHER AT NIGHTv NO SEX WAS PRESCRIBED THEY STAYED TOGETHER UNTIL THE HUSBANDS DEATH IN   0REY 6ENG IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES WERE MARRIED IN A GROUP THE MANS PARENTS CHOSE SPOUSE  3VAY2IENGINRAINYSEASON COUPLESWEREMARRIEDINAGROUP THEWOMANSPARENTSCHOSEHERHUSBANDTHEYSANGh!NGKARSSONGvATTHE WEDDINGTHEY STAYED AT THE WEDDING PLACE AFTER AND REMAINED TOGETHER UNTIL THE DEATH OF HER HUSBAND IN   3VAY2IENGINRAINYSEASON COUPLEMARRIEDANDWEREPAIREDBY h!NGKARv A CEREMONY WAS HELD AT THE WIFES FAMILY HOME  +ANDAL IN RAINY SEASON   COUPLES WERE WED IN THE CANTEEN SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  +ANDALIN/CTOBER 0REK3LENGVILLAGE COUPLESWEREWED THE WOMANS FATHER CHOSE HER HUSBAND SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  +ANDAL IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES WERE WED TOGETHER THE MAN CHOSE HIS WIFE SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  +ANDALINRAINYSEASON COUPLESWEREWEDTHECOMMUNELEADER CHOSE THE COUPLES SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  +ANDAL IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES WERE WED h!NGKAR CHOSEv SEX WAS PRESCRIBED

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 +AMPONG #HAM IN DRY SEASON   COUPLES WERE CHOSEN BY THE VILLAGE LEADER ONE COUPLE ASKED PERMISSION AND THEY HAD A CEREMONY AT WIFES AUNTS HOUSE AFTER THE GROUP WEDDING SEX WAS PRESCRIBED  +AMPONG 3PEU IN DRY SEASON  COUPLES !NGKAR CHOSE +HMER MUSIC AT WOMANS PARENTS HOUSE SEX WAS PRESCRIBED 4OGETHER UNTIL  ALCOHOL AND VIOLENCE BY MAN LED TO HER SEPARATION  4AKEO #HAM"ORK +OUK0RICH +IRIVONGIN-ARCH ONECOUPLE WAS WED ARRANGED BY +HMER 2OUGE COMMUNE LEADER WHO DELIVERED THE 0ARTYS SPEECH WHILE ALLOWING MOTHER AND ELDERS TO SPEAK AT THE WOMANS MOTHERS HOUSE THE MAN SAID h4HIS WAS AFTER THE +HMER 2OUGE ENDED BUT WE WERE STILL LIVING IN AN ARRANGED MARRIAGE STATE WE COULD MARRY AT OUR HOUSE BUT WE HAD TO ACCEPT THE LEADERS CHOICE OR ASK PERMISSIONv  4AKEOIN-AY ONECOUPLEWASARRANGEDBYh!NGKARvIN4RUMKOKAT ATTHEHOUSEOFTHELEADEROFTHE+HMER2OUGEAFTERTHE#HINESE.EW 9EAR  NO SEX WAS PRESCRIBED NO TRADITIONAL MUSIC WAS GIVEN BUT THE MOTHER FATHERANDGRANDPARENTSATTENDEDTHECEREMONYANDWHITEWINE AND FOOD WAS OFFERED  0URSAT IN DRY SEASON  ABOUT  COUPLES WERE WED BY THE VILLAGE CHIEF WHO CHOSE THEM THE WEDDING WAS IN THE COMMUNAL CANTEEN  4HEMOSTREMOTEWEDDINGRECORDEDWASININTHE-ALAIMOUNTAIN AREA 3AMPIVLOUN DISTRICT #HANGKRENG VILLAGE WHERE A +HMER 2OUGE SOLDIER DESCRIBING HIMSELF AS hNEW BASEv PERSON AND HIS WIFE AS A BASE PERSON hASKED !NGKAR PERMISSION TO MARRY THE WOMAN ) LOVEDv 4HE CEREMONY WAS WITH ONE COUPLE AT THE hTRAINING SCHOOLv WITH THE PRESIDENT OF THE HOSPITAL MAKING A SPEECH THEY WERE TOLD TO HAVE SEX ON THEIR WEDDING NIGHT !T THE CEREMONY THEY WORE BLUE CLOTHES AND RED KARMAS FOOD AND 4HAI BEER WERE SERVED &OLLOWING THE WEDDING THEY WENT TO LIVE IN THE LOCAL HOSPITAL THEY RESIDE TOGETHER NEAR THERE TODAY

Reasons Couples Stay Together 7HAT FOLLOWS ARE COLLATED THEMES THAT REPRESENT COUPLES DESCRIPTIONS OF WHAT HAS KEPT THEM TOGETHER )N MY lRST PURPOSIVE SAMPLE OF  PEOPLE  COUPLES ) SOUGHT THOSE WHO HAVE REMAINED TOGETHER )N MY RANDOM SAMPLE OF  ) DID NOT SPECIFY MARITAL STATUS AND YET AS STATED PREVIOUSLY MOSTHAVEREMAINEDTOGETHER/FTHOSETHATSEPARATED THETWOMAINREASONS



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GIVENWEREhLACKOFFAMILYHARMONYvlGHTINGBETWEENIN LAWS ANDDOMESTIC VIOLENCE OFTEN ALCOHOL AND GAMBLING RELATED WITH AN EQUAL MALE FEMALE DIVISIONINIDENTIlEDVIOLENTPARTNER &ORINSTANCE TWOMENSEPARATEDFROM THEIR WIVES IN THE LATE S DUE TO THE WOMENS ALCOHOL RELATED VIOLENCE ANDOR NEGLECT 4HEPRIMARYREASONSCOUPLESGAVETHAThKEEPTHEMTOGETHERvWERE ONE WITNESSEDTHEOTHERSGENUINECHARACTEROFKINDNESSSUCHASTHEYSHAREDFOOD WHENSTARVINGWITHOUTACTSOFCRUELTYORDECEPTION  ONEHASANALLIANCEAND EMOTIONAL TIE WITH A DECEASED FAMILY MEMBER TO WHOM SHE HAD AN ALLIANCE OR MADE A PROMISE  THE PARTNERS HOME VILLAGE WAS IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO THE OTHERS BEFORE THE REGIME  ONE EXPECTED TO DIE BUT DID NOT WHICH OFTEN MEANT GOOD LUCK FROM ASSOCIATION WITH THE PARTNER AND  VARIOUS PROTECTIVEFORCESWEREOPERATING4HEREWERERARELYHINTSOFPASSIONORLUSTAS FACTORSTHATBONDEDPEOPLESRELATIONS!NDYETTHISISCONSISTENTWITHCULTURAL NORMS WHEREIN FAMILY HARMONY IS EXPECTED TO BE THE BONDING AGENT !LSO MOST COUPLES SAID THAT THEY LEARNED TO LOVE EACH OTHER OVER TIME

Togetherness Themes Presented in Rank Order of Frequency  !SPOUSEWITNESSEDHERHISPARTNERSTRUECOMPASSIONATECHARACTERATTHE WORST OF TIMES SOME SPOKE OF hHARMONY IN EATINGv MOST OF THE TIME OUT OF  RESPONDENTS  PER CENT OR  RESPONDENTS MADE THIS CLAIM   /NE HAS AN ALLIANCE AND EMOTIONAL TIE WITH A DECEASED FAMILY MEMBER  PER CENT   !COUPLESHAREDAVILLAGEINYOUNGERYEARSANDTHEREGIONTHATCOINCIDED WITH FAMILY RECOGNITION AND PLACE RECOGNITION  PER CENT   /NE EXPECTED TO DIE BUT DID NOT WHICH SIGNIlED GOOD FORTUNE FROM ASSOCIATION WITH SPOUSE  PER CENT   0ROTECTIVE FORCES BY THE "UDDHA ANDOR +U 0REAN WERE PRESENTED OFTEN AFTER A THIRD INTERVIEW +U 0REAN REPRESENTS A UNION THAT WAS ARRANGEDBY"UDDHABEFOREONEWASBORN4HOSECOUPLESWHOREFERENCE +U0REANALSOMENTIONED+U+AMASTHEFORCETHATSEPARATESACOUPLE  PER CENT MENTIONED THIS PHENOMENON IN THE lRST SAMPLE  PER CENT MENTIONED THIS ACROSS SAMPLES /THER PROTECTIVE FACTORS WERE PRESENTED SUCH AS THE FORMATIVE POWERS OF MOTHERS BREAST MILK WHEN A RESPONDENT WAS AN INFANT

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 4HEEXTENDEDFAMILYPLAYEDAROLEINARRANGINGTHEMARRIAGEPERCENT   3IGNIlCANCE OF MARRIAGE STATUS MEANT REDUCED HARDSHIP DURING +HMER 2OUGE GOOD FORTUNE IN GENERAL  PER CENT   0ITYFORTHEPARTNERWASAREASONGIVENTOSTAYWITHASPOUSEPERCENT   #OUPLES STAY TOGETHER FOR STABILITY OF THEIR CHILDREN  PER CENT   #OUPLES STAY TOGETHER FOR ECONOMIC REASONS PARTICULARLY WHEN ONE PARTNER IS SIGNIlCANTLY LESS EDUCATED THAN THE OTHER REGARDLESS OF AGE AND GENDER  PER CENT  &OR MOST THAT REMAIN TOGETHER EACH WITNESSED THE OTHERS KINDNESS AT THE WORST OF TIMES -OSTLY PEOPLE SAID THAT WHEN THEY WERE BOTH STARVING THEIR SPOUSE SHARED FOOD WITHOUT CONmICT OR TRICKERY -RS ! SAID h(ARMONY MEANT THAT WE SHARED EQUALLY THE NUMBERS OF RICE GRAINSv 4HEY COUNTED THE GRAINS FOR EQUAL DISTRIBUTION -R ! MARRIED IN 0URSAT 7E HAD HARMONY WHEN EATING AND AT THAT TIME MANY COUPLES HAD QUARRELS BECAUSE IF THEY ATE IN THE SAME PLATE THEYHADTWOSPOONS&ORUS MYWIFECOOKEDAND)WENTTOlNDFOOD ANDWHENSHEFOUNDVEGETABLESINTHElELD)WOULDGOOUTTOGETlSH 7E HAD TWO PIECES OF FOOD AND ONE FORK THERE WAS HARMONY WITH NO lGHTING !T THAT TIME EATING WAS THE MAIN PROBLEM OTHERS WERE VERY SELlSH AT THAT TIME WE DID NOT HAVE ANY QUARRELS ABOUT FOOD

!NEQUALLYCOMPELLINGREASONCOUPLESSTAYEDTOGETHERWASBECAUSESOMEONEHADAN ALLIANCE AND EMOTIONAL TIE WITH A DECEASED FAMILY MEMBER -ONI MARRIED IN "ATTAMBANG 4HE !NGKAR ASKED ME TO MARRY "UT ) SAID TO MY FATHER IN !PRIL  THAT ) WOULD LIKE TO BE SINGLE ALL MY LIFE)WOULDLIKETOhRECONNAISSANCEvBEGRATEFULTO HIM)WANTEDTO WORK FOR MY FATHER WHEN HE WAS OLD AND ) DID NOT WANT TO MARRYx -YFATHERASKEDMEIN*ULYTOMARRYAPERSONCHOSENFORMEBY THECOMMUNECHIEFAND)SAID)DONOTWANTTOMARRYANYONE"UTHE CRIED AND HE SAID IF ) DID NOT ACCEPT THE MARRIAGE THEN !NGKAR WOULD KILLHIMASTHEYALREADYHURTHIMTHREETIMES4HE+HMER2OUGESOLDIER CAME TO GET HIM TO KILL ALREADY BUT THE CHIEF OF THE COMMUNE WHERE WE LIVE HAD TOLD HIM MY FATHER WOULD AGREE 3O ) SAY THAT ) MUST RESPECT TRADITION AND ) MUST RESPECT MY PARENTS ADVICE ALL MY LIFE ) AM A #AMBODIAN GIRL AND ) MUST RESPECT LIVING MY LIFE WITH ONLY ONE #AMBODIANHUSBAND)MARRIEDFORMYFATHERSSAKE-WROTETHEWORD hTRADITIONvONAPIECEOFPAPER -YFATHERTOLDMETHIS)MUSTRESPECT



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA MY FATHER %SPECIALLY MY FATHER LOVES ME A LOT ˆ NOW HE IS DEAD ) MUST RESPECT WHAT HE WANTED EVEN THOUGH ) AM NOT HAPPY ) MUST RESPECTTRADITIONBECAUSEMYFATHERISNOTHEREFORMETOASKHISADVICE

-ONIMADEMANYSTATEMENTSABOUTTHESIGNIlCANCEOFHERFATHERANDWAS TEARFUL WHEN SPEAKING ABOUT HIM 7HEN ) ASKED HER IF LEAVING HER HUSBAND WOULD BE AN ACT OF DISHONOURING HER DEAD FATHER SHE SAID YES (ER FATHER DIED DURING THE $+ REGIME AND SHE SAID SHE NEVER HAD AN OPPORTUNITY TO SPEAK WITH HIM ABOUT HER UNHAPPINESS OR TO ASK HIS PERMISSION FOR HER TO SEPARATE 3HE STATED CLEARLY THAT SHE IS hMISERABLEv LIVING WITH HER HUSBAND h-Y HUSBAND AND ) CANT SPEAK ABOUT THINGS THAT MATTER ) AM UNIVERSITY EDUCATED AND HE HAS ONLY PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION HE DOES NOT AGREE WITH MEREGARDINGTHE EDUCATION OF OUR CHILDREN (E THINKS THEY SHOULD JUST lND WORK AND FORGET ABOUT SCHOOLv (ONOURING THE DEAD WAS TIED TO THE REMORSE IN NOT BEING ABLE TO ASK A DECEASED PARENT FOR ADVICE -ONI 4HEN WHEN HE FATHER DIED HOW COULD ) LEAVE MY HUSBAND -YFATHERBELIEVEDINTRADITION)HAVETOHONOURMYFATHERHEISDEAD NOW ) CANNOT GO BACK -R 4 -Y WIFE HAD A SIMILAR STORY AS ME BECAUSE BOTH HER PARENTS WEREDEAD(ERMOTHERDIEDINTHE,ON.OLYEARSANDHERFATHERDIED INTHE0OL0OTYEARS)NANEARLIERDISCUSSION HESPOKEABOUT$ECEMBER ˆTHETIMEWHENHISFATHERDIEDOFSTARVATION 3HELIVEDWITHHER BROTHERTHENANDHEISSTILLALIVEANDNOWISAPHYSICIAN!ND)HADAN IDEA TO NOT GET SENT FAR FROM MY MOTHERS VILLAGE ) KNEW SHE HAD NO PARENTSHERMOTHERDIEDINTHE,ON.OLREGIMEANDHERFATHERINTHE 0OL0OTTIME)FELLINLOVEWITHHERJUSTBYWATCHINGHER)KNEWWHAT ITWASLIKEWITHOUTMYFATHER)HADTOASK!NGKARPERMISSIONTOMARRY 3O ) TOLD MY MOTHER ) WANTED TO MARRY HER AND SHE WENT TO SPEAK WITH MY WIFES BROTHER 7E WERE MARRIED IN THE RICE lELD DURING THE HARVEST7E STAYED IN THE VILLAGE LIKE OLD PEOPLE EVEN THOUGH WE WERE NEW PEOPLE 7E LIVED WITH MY MOTHER AND NEAR MY WIFES BROTHER BUT HAD TO EAT IN THE COMMON KITCHEN

! SHARED VILLAGE REGION THAT COINCIDED WITH FAMILY RECOGNITION AND PLACE RECOGNITION -R /M 7E KNEW EACH OTHER WHEN WE WERE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL BUT DID NOT THINK TO GET MARRIED 7HEN WE GOT MARRIED WE CALLED IT KUN !FTER MARRIAGE WE STAYED IN THIS VILLAGE SITE OF INTERVIEW IN

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+AMPONG 3PEU  "ECAUSE WE MARRIED NOT FAR FROM MY WIFES VILLAGE OUR PARENTS KNEW EACH OTHER SO ) FEEL WE CAN LIVE TOGETHER BECAUSE WE DONTWANTTOGOTOAPLACEFARFROMEACHOTHER3OOTHERSWERELIKETHIS )FTHEYCAMEFROMFARFROMEACHOTHERTHENAFTERGETTINGMARRIEDIN0OL 0OTTIMES THEYEACHWENTBACKTOTHEPLACEWHERETHEYWEREBORN7E KNEW EACH OTHER AND OUR PARENTS KNEW THE BACKGROUND OF EACH OTHER -R 0 7E WERE ENGAGED BEFORE THE +HMER 2OUGE CAME TO OUR VILLAGE 4HOUGH SEPARATED FOR A LONG TIME WHEN ) WAS SENT AWAY ) WASCOMMITTEDEVENTHOUGH!NGKARWANTEDMETOMARRYSOMEONEELSE ) ASKED PERMISSION TO MARRY HER -R " ) WAS A SOLDIER BY THEN )N  THEY +HMER 2OUGE HAD A BIGMEETINGFORDAYSANDTHEYCOLLECTEDALLTHEPEOPLEANDTHENTHEY ASKED h$ONTYOUWANTTOFORMAFAMILYv)SAIDITWASDIFlCULTAND) REFUSED4HEY SAID h9OU ARE  YEARS OLD AND NEED TO MARRY $O YOU HAVE SOMETHING ELSE IN YOUR MINDv !ND ) SAID ) HAD A WOMAN LIVING NEARMYPARENTS)WANTEDTOMARRYHERANDSHEWANTEDTOMARRYME !T THAT TIME !NGKAR ARRANGED MARRIAGES FOR THE SOLDIERS BUT ASKED h$OYOUAGREEWITHOURCHOICEv!NDIFTHEYAGREE THEYMARRY!NGKAR ARRANGED BUT DID NOT FORCE THE PERSON -RS"ADDSTOHERHUSBANDSSTORY )WASSENTALETTERANDINVITED TO 0HNOM 0ENH AND TOLD ) WAS TO MARRY AND COME FOR THE WEDDING SMILES  MY PARENTS KNEW BUT ) CAME ALONE AND STAYED IN 4AKHMAU ONENIGHTANDINTHEMORNING)WENTTO0HNOM0ENH)WASCONFUSED FORTWOREASONS FORONE )WASHAPPYTOMARRYMYHUSBANDBUT)WAS THE OLDEST IN MY FAMILY AND NOT WITH MY PARENTS SO ) WAS SAD TOO ) WAS NOT IN GOOD HEALTH DUE TO LACK OF FOOD AND ) WAS WORKING SO HARD ) WAS SO THIN AND WHEN ) CAME TO 0HNOM 0ENH THEY KEPT ME INAPLACENORTHOFTHEPALACE/NENIGHTMYHUSBANDSFRIENDHADME STAYNEARTHESOLDIERSPLACE WHICHWASNEARTHEMOVIEHOUSEWHEREWE MARRIED 7E MARRIED JUST  OR  DAYS BEFORE THE 6IETNAMESE CAME TO 0HNOM0ENHIN$ECEMBERBUTWEDIDNOTKNOWTHEEXACTDATE -RS " CRIES AND WIPES HER EYES WITH CLOTH HANDKERCHIEF -R " ADDS TO HIS WIFES ACCOUNT 7E WERE MARRIED IN $ECEMBER  NEAR THE SOLDIERS STATION WITH  COUPLES IT WAS MAYBE A BIT SPECIAL 7E WERE ALLOWED  DAYS TO STAY AT A PRIVATE PLACE IN 0HNOM 0ENH AT NIGHT BECAUSE ) WENT TO WORK IN THE DAY 4HEN AFTER  DAYS MY WIFE WAS SENT TO DO AGRICULTURE SHE WENT TO "ATTAMBANG AND WAS SENT BY CAR ) WENT TO +AMPONG 3PEU

0ROTECTIVE FORCES WERE MENTIONED BY COUPLES AS REASONS THEY SURVIVED OR STAYED TOGETHER



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA

"UDDHIST INmUENCES WERE MENTIONED IN THE lRST SAMPLE BY  OUT OF PEOPLEASAREASONTHEYHAVESTAYEDTOGETHER)NTHESECONDSAMPLE PER CENTMENTIONEDTHISASAREASONTHEYARETOGETHER WHILEPERCENTREFERENCED "UDDHA AS A PROTECTOR IN GENERAL )N PARTICULAR +U 0REAN REPRESENTS A UNION ARRANGED BY "UDDHA BEFORE ONE WAS BORN  PER CENT MENTIONED THIS SPECIlCALLY 4HOSE COUPLES WHO REFERENCED +U 0REAN ALSO MENTIONED +U +AM AS A FORCE THAT SEPARATES A COUPLE 4HUS THEY THOUGHT THAT SOME COUPLESSEPARATEDBECAUSEOFTHEABSENCEOF+U0REANANDORTHEPRESENCEOF +U +AM -R , 4HERE ARE TWO TYPES OF MARRIAGES TWO TYPES OF COUPLES ˆ +U 0REAN OR +U +AM +U MEANS COUPLE 0REAN MEANS SOMETHING LIKE IN THE PAST WHEN IN THE PAST IT MEANS THAT THE COUPLE OFFERED OR DESIREDTOMEETEACHOTHERFORTHEPAST"UDDHAARRANGEDITBEFORETHEY WERE BORN  THIS IS THE GOOD ONE BECAUSE PEOPLE COULD LIVE TOGETHER FOREVER

)NTERESTINGLY THE PHENOMENA OF +U 0REAN AND +U +AM WERE NOT MENTIONEDUNTILTHEENDOFASECONDINTERVIEW)NITIALLYCOUPLESWEREHESITANT TO SPEAK OF THIS UNTIL ) RAISED IT AS A MATTER OF FACT4HEN BOTH HUSBAND AND WIFE AND ELDERS SPOKE IN ANIMATED VOICES AND GESTURES WHEN DISCUSSING THESE PHENOMENA -R, 9ES +U+AM+AMMEANSHAVINGKARMAOFAPARTICULARBADTYPE COLLECTED3OIFACOUPLEHAS+U+AMTHENTHEYWONTSTAYTOGETHERTHE REST OF THEIR LIFE )T MEANS THEY WILL BREAK UP AT SOME POINT IN TIME DURING THEIR LIFE OR HAVE QUARRELS AND LIVE WITHOUT HARMONY

/THERTYPESOFPROTECTIVEFORCESWEREALSOMENTIONED-R4SPOKEOFHIS MOTHERS BREAST MILK -R 4 -Y MOTHERS MILK HAS BEEN PROTECTING ME SINCE ) WAS LITTLE -Y MOTHER IS STILL ALIVE WHICH SHOWS HER POWERx 4O STAY OR LEAVE MEANSTOSTAYSAFEORNOTSAFEMOTHERSMILKGIVESTHESTRENGTHTOSTAY OR LEAVE

4HE EXTENDED FAMILY PLAYED A ROLE IN SELECTING A POTENTIAL SPOUSE AND SEEKING PERMISSION FROM !NGKAR FOR A WEDDING -R , -Y ADOPTED MOTHER SPOKE TO MY WIFES MOTHER AND THEY PAIRED US TOGETHER BECAUSE THEY SAID IT WOULD MAKE US SAFER 4HEN MY ADOPTED MOTHER SENT ME A LETTER AND TOLD ME TO GET PERMISSION TO MARRY HER

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0ITY FOR OTHERS WAS ANOTHER REASON GIVEN FOR STAYING WITH A SPOUSE -R! )WASANEWPERSONANDSHEWASALOCALBASE PERSONxBEFORE SHE THOUGHT EDUCATED PEOPLE WERE RUBBISH BUT SHE BEGAN TO SEE HOW VALUABLE MY EDUCATION WAS ) THOUGHT BECAUSE SHE WAS ILLITERATE AND BECAUSE ) WAS LITERATE OUR NEIGHBORS SPOKE ILL OF ME AND SHE BELIEVED THE NEIGHBOURS 3HE BEGAN TO CHANGE HER MIND ABOUT ME OVER TIME 3O ) FORGIVE HER !ND IF ) DIVORCED HER HOW COULD SHE MAKE A LIVING 3O ) TRY TO LOVE HER AND ) FEEL PITY FOR HER

4HERE WAS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATUS AND PITY THE PERSON WITH TERTIARY OR SECONDARY EDUCATION TENDED TO PITY THE PARTNER WHO HAD LESS EDUCATION4HOSE WHO HAD CITY LIFE EXPERIENCES TENDED TO LOOK DOWN ON OR PITY THOSE WHO NEVER LIVED IN THE CITY !LSO THOSE WITH SURVIVING PARENTS TENDED TO PITY PARTNERS WHOSE PARENTS HAD DIED PARTICULARLY IF BOTH PARENTS HAD DIED /NES BELIEF THAT SURVIVAL WAS RELATED TO THE UNION -R ! -Y FAMILY SAYS ) SHOULD LEAVE MY WIFE BECAUSE SHE IS NOT EDUCATED)WILLNOTLEAVEHERBECAUSE)DIDNOTDIE)EXPECTEDTODIE (OW COULD ) STILL BE ALIVE ) WILL NOT LEAVE MY WIFE )T IS GREATER THAN LUCK THAT WE SURVIVED IT IS SOMETHING ABOUT HER OR HER AND ME

&UNCTIONAL BENElTS OF MARRIAGE AND REGIONAL STATUSES DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE -R , -Y WIFE ALSO WORKED IN THE SAME PLACE BUT WE DIDNT KNOW EACH OTHER THEN x THERE WAS JUST ONE TIN OF RICE FOR TWO PEOPLE WHO WERE MOBILE WORKERS BUT IF PEOPLE STAYED IN THE VILLAGE THEY GOT LESS THAN THAT )T WAS HARD WORK AND WE HAD TO CARRY AND DIG THE SOIL  SQUARE CUBIC METERS A DAY AND THE SOLDIER MEASURED THE HOLE TO TELL IF IT WAS ENOUGH OR NOT x AND IF ANYONE DID NOT lNISH THEY DO NOT GETANYFOODFORDINNER!NDTHEPURPOSEOFTHEWORKWASTODIGABIG PONDTOKEEPTHEWATERFORTHEDRYSEASONSOWECOULDMAKEMORERICE DURING DRY SEASON x WHEN WE WERE STILL SINGLE WE WERE CONSIDERED AS THEFORCENUMBERONEANDWEHADTOWORKHARDBUTIFWEMARRIEDWE WERE CONSIDERED AS AN OLDER PERSON ) DID NOT WANT TO MARRY BUT THE PURPOSE OF MARRIAGE WAS TO GET LESS WORK 4HAT IS WHY SOME COUPLES WHO MARRIED IN THE +HMER 2OUGE GOT DIVORCED AFTER LIBERATION BUT ) STAYED BECAUSE ) COULD HAVE DIED IF ) DID NOT MARRY -R ! ) MARRIED TO LIVE SO THAT ) WOULD NOT DIE OF OVERWORK SINCE MARRIAGE OFTEN MEANT LESS HARD LABOR  ) DID NOT MARRY TO BUILD A FAMILY



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA -R4 /URWEDDINGOF PEOPLE WASMIXED SOMENEWPEOPLE WERE PAIRED WITH SOLDIERS 3OME NEW PEOPLE WERE MARRIED TO OLD PEOPLE )F A LOCAL PERSON LOVED A NEW PERSON SHE COULD NOT ASK TO MARRY BUT IF A LOCAL PERSON LOVED A NEW PERSON SHE HAD THE PRIVILEGE TO MARRY ANYONE x IF THE NEW PERSON MARRIED THE OLD PERSON SHE COULD HAVE SOME BETTER TREATMENT

(OWEVER ONE MAN WHO IDENTIlED AS A NEW PERSON AND MARRIED A BASE PERSON SAID HE WAS FEARFUL BECAUSE HE WAS AN hOUTSIDERv IN THE VILLAGE (E WAS MARRIED IN A GROUP OF  COUPLES IN +ANDAL PROVINCE AND HE WAS NOT SURE HOW MANY WERE NEW OR OLD PEOPLE BUT HE KNEW THAT THERE WERE TWO SOLDIERS IN HIS GROUP 3OME STAY TOGETHER FOR THE CHILDREN -RS ! ) WAS REPULSED AT lRST AND DID NOT WANT TO MARRY HIM BUT BECAUSEMYRELATIVETOLDME )DIDNOTREFUSE"UT)BEGANTOLOVEHIM SLOWLY 7E HAD CHILDREN LATER AND THAT IS IMPORTANT TO HELP THEM -R, 4HEPERSONWHOPAYSTHEPRICEFORDIVORCEISTHECHILDANDWE CAN RECALL GOOD TIMES WITH CHILDREN DURING THE DIFlCULT ONES

#HAN4ET 3TRONG WILL DElANCE  #HAN TET IS A +HMER CONCEPT THAT MEANS STRONG WILL OR SPIRIT )T CAN ALSO MEANlGHTINGAGAINSTALLODDSORDElANCE2ESPONDENTSINTHISSTUDYSEEMED TO THINK THAT CHAN TET ASSISTED THEIR SURVIVAL HOWEVER CHAN TET REQUIRED A CUNNINGNESS OR INTELLECTUAL ASTUTENESS IN ORDER TO PERSEVERE -RS , "OTH OF US WORKED IN THIS PLACE IN THE WATER AT THIS TIME AND ) STOLE A BOAT ) ASKED PERMISSION TO GO HOME AND THEY DID NOT ALLOW ME TO GO SO ) DECIDED TO STEAL A BOAT SO ) COULD GO HOME WITH MY FRIEND 7E ROWED AND ROWED MY GIRLFRIEND HAD CHAN TET STRONG WILL  !ND THEN ) ARRIVED AT HOME AND SPENT ONLY ONE NIGHT AND THEN ) WENT BACK TO THE SAME PLACE "UT WHEN ) ARRIVED AT THAT PLACE THE GROUP WAS GONE THEY WENT TO A DIFFERENT PLACE AND ) DID NOT KNOW WHERETOGOANDSO)WENTBACKHOME4HEGODMOTHEROFMYHUSBAND SAW ME AND THEN HAD AN IDEA TO ASK HIS MOTHER PERMISSION FOR OUR MARRIAGE AND THEN MY GODMOTHER ADOPTED ME AND WROTE A LETTER TO HER GODSON TO COME AND SEE HIS FUTURE WIFE AND THEN HE CAME AND AGREED TO MARRY THEN HE ASKED PERMISSION OF THE VILLAGE LEADER AND THEN THE LEADER ASKED PERMISSION AND THEN WE WERE BROUGHT TO THE GROUP TO GET MARRIED )F WE DID NOT HAVE PERMISSION WE WOULD HAVE BEEN KILLED

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-RS /MS NEIGHBOUR -Y OLDER SISTER PROTECTED ME BECAUSE SHE WAS CLEVERANDHADCHANTETxSOMEPEOPLEHADCHANTETBUTWEREDANGEROUS IF THEY DID NOT HAVE A CLEVER MIND

+HMER 2OUGE WEDDING PATTERNS EMERGED BUT WITH VARIATIONS ACROSS PLACES IN WEDDING PROCEDURES #EREMONIES WERE OFTEN DEPENDENT ON THE PRESIDING ATTENDANTS AND MILITARY LEADERS !ND YET THERE WERE BASIC ELEMENTS THAT WERE PRESENT ACROSS REGIONS SUCH AS PLEDGES TO !NGKAR WERE MENTIONED BY  PER CENT OF THE COUPLES THOUGH THE CONTENT OF THE PROMISES WERE SPECIlC TO THE WORK FORCE IN THE REGION )N MY SAMPLE MANY COUPLES ARE TOGETHER BUT MORE SEPARATED IF MARRIED BETWEEN  AND  AND MORE COUPLES REMAINED TOGETHER FROM MID  ONWARDS +EEPING SILENT FOR DAYS AFTER THE WEDDING WAS MENTIONED BY  PER CENT OF THE COUPLES -R/M 7EWEREASKEDTOSWEARTO!NGKARWITHOURVOICE4HEREWAS NOTHINGTOREAD*USTTELL NOTREADTOTHEM&ORME )WASMARRIEDLAST AND)JUSTFOLLOWEDWHATOTHERPEOPLEHADSAID!NDTHEOATHTO!NGKAR WASTOMAKEADAMTOMETRESLONGADAYRELATEDTOTHEWORKOFTHE SEASON AND PLACE4HIS DID NOT SEEM POSSIBLE TO DO -R ! )T WAS &EBRUARY OR -ARCH  4HE WEDDING WAS ORGANISED IN THE 0AGODA $ACAR )T WAS KIND OF SECRETLY ARRANGED AS ENTERING A 7AT WAS NOT ALLOWED AT THAT TIME 7E MARRIED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE CHIEF PROVINCIAL WOMAN 0URSAT  7E HAD A SMALL RICE CAKE AT THE CEREMONY %VERYTHING WAS BLACK THOUGH ONE KRAMA WAS RED AND ONE WAS BLUE 4HE BLUE KRAMA WAS USED IN 3VAY 2IENG DISTRICT 7E SAT IN CHAIRS AND HEARD THE SPEECH OF THE CHIEF 7E SAT LIKE THIS IN ROWS  7E HAD TO WORK TO SERVE !NGKAR 7E WERE TOLD THAT !NGKAR GIVESTHEGIFTOFMARRIAGE BUTINMYHEART)DIDNOTBELIEVEIN!NGKAR BUT ) HAD TO KEEP SILENT 7E MADE A PROMISE AT THE MARRIAGE THAT WE WOULD PRODUCE  TONS OF RICE FOR !NGKAR IN ONE SEASON BECAUSE WE ARE TWO NOW IN ONE SEASON 4HEN WE SHOOK HANDS AND GOT ONE RICE CAKE EACH PERSON WE HAD NO OBSERVERS THAT WE KNEW AT THE CEREMONY /UR CUSTOM OF GREETING WAS NOT ALLOWED AND WE HAD TO SHAKE HANDS -RS! !FTEROURWEDDINGWESTAYEDTHEREORWEEKSINONEPLACE WITHOUT WALLS WITH OTHER COUPLES  7E SHARED ONLY ONE ROOM IN A HOUSE THAT THEY GAVE US FOR ONE WEEK 4HEN AFTER ONE MONTH WE WERE SEPARATED &ROM THE DAY WE MARRIED ) BEGAN TO FEEL LOVE FOR HIM BECOMES TEARFUL 



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA -R / ) HAD A BLUE KRAMA AND MY WIFE HAD A BEAUTIFUL RED KRAMA !FTER THE WEDDING CEREMONY WE ATE 4HE !NGKAR DID NOT HAVE MUCH FOR US BUT A PIG HAPPENED TO DIE SO THEY MADE FOOD FROM IT !FTER GETTING MARRIED WE WENT TO MY WIFES HOUSE WE WALKED FOR  HOURS IN SILENCE TO GET THERE !NOTHER MANWEDINRAINYSEASONINNEARADAMIN"ATTAMBANG SAID h7E HAD TO AGREE ON BOTH SIDES TO MARRY AND THEY ASKED DO YOU TAKE HER OR NOT )T WAS NOT FORCED AT MY PLACE "UT ) KNEW THAT IN OTHER PLACES PEOPLE WERE FORCED TO MARRY THERE WAS RUMOUR ABOUT ITv

Deception and Dis-placement 4HEREWASANACCUMULATEDLOSSOFCULTURALOBJECTS SUCHASWHEELEDTRANSPORT BICYCLE MOTORBIKE ANIMALS ANDPHOTOSANDCERTIlCATES4HUS MANYBECAME DIS PLACED FROM THEIR BELONGINGS -R ! "EFORE ) GOT IN THE CAR THE +HMER 2OUGE TOOK ALL MY PAPERS MYBOOKS CERTIlCATES EVENPHOTOGRAPHS MYBIRTHCERTIlCATE ANDEVERY SINGLEPIECEOFPAPERTHEYJUSTTOOKALLTHISTODESTROY3OMYPROPERTY WAS LOST GRADUALLY ALL BELONGINGS PERSONAL BELONGINGS CERTIlCATES AND MY BIRTH CERTIlCATE AND EVEN MY BICYCLE (E HOLDS HIS HANDS TO CRADLE A LARGE OBJECT AND THEN ADDS h4HEY EVEN TOOK MY CHICKEN THEYJUSTTOOKIT)FPEOPLEDIDNTGIVEALLTHATTHEYWANTED THEYWOULD ASK DO YOU WANT TO BE ALIVE OR DO YOU WANT TO DIE 3O HOW CAN YOU CHOOSEv 3ILENCE FOR  SECONDS HE STARES AND THEN PUTS ON EYE GLASSES THEN POINTS TO MAP AND REPEATS HIS PHRASE h(OW CAN YOU CHOOSEv

!LSO PEOPLEWEREDIS PLACEDFROMFAMILIARGEOGRAPHICLOCATIONSANDTIME MARKERS WHICH MEANT THEY HAD TO DEVISE WAYS TO KEEP TRACK OF TIME 0EG (OWDIDYOUKEEPTRACKOFTIME(OWDIDYOUKNOWITWASTHE TH OF -ARCH -R /M /H TIME WAS FUNNY AS ) REMEMBER THAT IN THE 0OL 0OT YEARS THEY ORDERED HOLIDAY TIME ON THE TH AND TH OF THE MONTH 

)T IS NOTED THAT TRADITIONALLY WEDDINGS TOOK PLACE DURING CERTAIN MONTHS *ANUARY -ARCH -AY EARLY *ULY .OVEMBER  THESE MONTHS COINCIDE WITH HARVEST AND FESTIVALS )N  AND PEOPLETENDEDTOARRANGETHEDAYOFTHEIROWNMARRIAGESSOMETIMESACCORDINGTOASECRET FORTUNE TELLING  "UT OVER TIME THE DATES WERE PRESCRIBED MORE

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BUT WE DID NOT THINK ABOUT THE DAY OF THE WEEK OR WHETHER IT WAS -ONDAYOR3UNDAYWEJUSTSAIDh/HITISTHETHv3O)REMEMBERED SPECIAL DAYS LIKE THIS 7E HAD NO 3UNDAY AS A FAMILY TIME ANYMORE ) DID NOT THINK ABOUT 3UNDAY %VERY DAY WAS THE SAME EXCEPT THE TH AND TH )T WAS THE POLICY FOR THEM -R ! )T WAS &EBRUARY OR -ARCH  AT THE TIME OF MY MARRIAGE )T WAS THE YEAR OF THE BIG mOOD -R 4 &ROM 0HNOM 0ENH TO +AMPONG 3PEU WE WENT BY FOOT ) WAS  MONTHS WITHOUT MY FAMILY IN TWO PLACES THERE THEN ) WENT TO 0URSAT BY CAR THEN BY TRAIN TO "ATTAMBANG x THEN BY FARM TRACTOR TO 0REAH .EP 0REAH CLOSE TO THE BORDER OF 3IEM 2EAP TO WORK ON THEMOBILEWORKTEAM(EMETHISWIFEINTHISREGIONWHOWASALSOA MOBILE WORKER -RS " &OR YEARS WE THOUGHT IN OUR MINDS OF GOING TO THE BORDER CAMPS SO IT WAS LIKE WE WERE STILL MOVING

)NADDITIONTOAWAKE TIMEDISORIENTATION THEREWERESLEEP TIMEDISRUPTIONS TO PEOPLES EXPERIENCE OF TIME AND PLACE 0EG )S THIS A DREAM OR REAL -R, )TWASREALATTHATTIMEBUTALSO)HAVEDREAMSOFBEINGBROUGHT TO BE KILLED FOR ALL THESE YEARS ) GET UP AND SHAKE (E CLENCHES BOTH lSTS AND SHAKES THEM IN FRONT OF HIS BODY -RS , 3HE INTERRUPTS AS HER HUSBAND SHAKES HIS lSTS HER HUSBAND STARESATTHEmOORSHEUSESHANDSWHENSPEAKING )HADABADDREAM A NIGHTMARE )N MY DREAM ) DREAMED THAT IT WAS AFTER THE TH OF !PRIL ) DID NOT GO TO CAMP AT THE BORDER TO ESCAPE FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE -ANY PEOPLE mED TO THE CAMPS ) DID NOT GO TO THE CAMPS ON THE4HAI BORDER IN ORDER TO GO ABROAD ) REGRET THAT AND BLAME MYSELF THAT)DIDNOTGO THATISHOW)RE EXPERIENCETHE+HMER2OUGEˆALL THE TIME IN MY DREAM RUNNING AWAY OR TRYING TO RUN 0EG 3O IN THE DREAM YOU REGRET THAT -RS , 9ES 0EG !ND IN REAL LIFE -RS , 9ES NOW ) DO TOO

4HEWAYSINWHICHRESPONDENTSEXPERIENCEDTHEDECEPTIONBYOTHERSWAS ACATALYSTTOTHEIRCOUNTER DECEPTION$ECEPTIONTENDEDTOINCREASEASINTERNAL MIGRATION ACCUMULATED



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA -R4 %ACHTIME)WENTTOANEWPLACE )REHEARSEDTHEDETAILSOFMY NEWLIFESTORY4HEMORE)WALKEDTHEMORE)SAWANDTHEMORE)KNEW )HADTOFOLLOWTHEMADE UPSTORYSO)COULDLIVE SOMYFAMILYCOULD LIVE4HEY +HMER 2OUGE BECAME TRICKIER AS TIME WENT ON

&OR MOST IT WAS CLEAR THAT DECEPTION BY THE +HMER 2OUGE WAS GRADUAL ANDPERVASIVE!CCORDINGTORESPONDENTSINTHISSTUDY BY*ANUARYMOST KNEW IT WAS A MATTER OF SURVIVAL TO CONCEAL PAST ASSOCIATIONS EVEN IF THEY WERE BASE PEOPLE 3ISTER OF A COUPLE WHO LEFT 0HNOM 0ENH REQUESTED CONlDENCE -Y OLDERSISTERMADEUPASTORYFORMEANDSHEMADEMEREPEATTHEDETAILS OVERANDOVEROFTHISOTHERLIFEASWEWEREWALKINGSOMETIMESWEWERE WALKINGFORDAYSATATIME ADDINGMORETOMYNEWLIFESTORY3HEMADE UP A STORY OF ME BEING A GIRL IN THE MARKET WHO HAD A HUSBAND WHO WAS MISSING4HIS STORY PROTECTED ME FROM MARRYING

3OME PEOPLE SPOKE OF A MOMENT WHEN THEY REALISED THAT THEY KNEW THEYHADTODECEIVEOTHERSINORDERTOSURVIVETHEYCOULDRECALLTHEMOMENT PLACE AND TIME THAT THEY BEGAN TO CONCEAL THEIR HISTORY 0EG TO -R ! !ND HOW DID YOU HIDE THE FACT THAT YOU WERE A STUDENT -R ! ) TOLD THE TRUTH IT WAS STILL OK AT THAT TIME (E WAS IN +AMPONG 3PEU FROM LATE !PRIL TO *UNE  IN THE lRST PLACE AND BY 3EPTEMBER  IN ANOTHER PLACE TRAVELING BY FOOT 4HEN ) WAS MOVED FROM +AMPONG 3PEU TO 0URSAT IN LATE   4HOUSANDS OF PEOPLE WERE BROUGHT IN CARS 4HEN IT ALL BEGAN EVERYTHING WAS TAKEN FROM ME x THEN A TRAIN TO "ATTAMBANG 4HEN THEY TOOK TRACTORS THAT THE FARMERS USED TO FARM THEIR LAND THE PLACE WAS CLOSE TO THE BORDER OF 3IEM 2EAP ) REMEMBER THAT IT WAS ON THE WAY TO 0URSAT THAT ) BEGAN TO LIE (E WAS ON A MOBILE WORK TEAM AT +OMSPIEL 3REI 0EG TO -R4 $ID YOU SPEAK ABOUT THAT BEFORE THIS TIME -R 4 ) WAS AT THE BORDER OF 4AKEO AND +ANDAL IN +OH 4HOM IN LATE  ) WAS KEPT THERE FOR  DAYS BUT MANAGED TO SWIM ACROSS THE RIVER WITH MY MOTHER AND FATHER AND GET TO +ANDAL !ND WHEN WEGOTTOMYFATHERSHOMEVILLAGE ITWASATTHATPLACETHATMYFATHER DIDNOTTELLTHETRUTHBECAUSETHOSETHATTOLDTHETRUTHWEREKILLED(E DIDNOTSAYHEWASANOFlCIALORTHAT)WASASTUDENTHESAIDHEWASA SMALLTRADER7HENWEWERELEAVING0HNOM0ENHWEDECIDEDWEMUST

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SAY THIS SO WE COULD RETURN TO OUR HOME VILLAGE7E GOT THERE IN *UNE  7E BEGAN THE LIES IN THE COLD SEASON OF 

4HIS TENDENCY TO COVER THE TRUTH AS DECEPTION GREW ON BOTH SIDES 0EG 7HAT HAPPENED WHEN YOU WERE CALLED OUT BY !NGKAR -R/ )HADFEAR YES ALMOSTEVERYDAYBECAUSEATTHATTIME)THOUGHT THAT NOT SO MANY DAYS BEFORE YES THEY ASKED ONE FRIEND OF MINE TO KILL YES ATNIGHTTIME YES3ILENCEFORSECONDS ;4HISWASONTHE BORDER BETWEEN 0URSAT AND +AMPONG 3PEU= "UT WHEN WE SLEEP WE TALK TOGETHER AND THEY SAY h/H !NGKAR CALLED YOU SO !NGKAR CALLED YOUTOHAVEAMEETINGATNIGHTSOTHAT!NGKARNEEDSTOGETSOMETHING FROM YOU SO YOU HAVE TO GO RIGHT NOWv !ND THEN AFTER THAT YES WE LOST HIM UNTIL NOW 3O THAT WE THINK WIPES HEAD IN LARGE SWEEPING MOTION WITH LEFT HAND !NGKAR TOOK HIM TO KILL YES SO THAT ) THINK ANY DAY IS THE TIME OF MY DEATH THE SAME AS MY FRIEND EYES TENSE RIGHT HAND TO TEMPLE SO THAT MAKES ME WORRIED ABOUT THIS BECAUSE WE DID NOT KNOW WHAT THEY DID WE DID NOT KNOW 3O WE WENT TO VISIT THE VILLAGE AND DID NOT KNOW IF IT WAS THE PLACE TO BE KILLED 3O THAT THIS IS THE PROBLEM THIS IS THE WORRY YES ) WORRIED ) AM NOT COMFORTABLE TO SPEAK OF THIS ;) NOTED HOW MANY RESPONDENTS WOULD REPEAT CERTAIN WORDS LIKE hYESv AND HOW THEIR RATE OF SPEECH WOULD DECREASE OR INCREASE WHEN SPEAKING OF UNCOMFORTABLE EVENTS THIS HAS IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSESSING BEHAVIOURAL CUES THAT INDICATE CULTURE SPECIlC RESPONSES TO ANXIETY=

-EN MORE THAN WOMEN SAID h4HIS REALLY HAPPENEDv AS A WAY OF HIGHLIGHTINGTHATWHICHSEEMEDIMPOSSIBLE-R,SAIDhMYMINDISHURTINGTO THINKONTHISBECAUSE)STILLlNDTHATTHEREWASNOOTHERSOLUTIONv&ABRICATION OF STORIES WAS A SURVIVAL NEED AND THE CONCEPT OF BAUK SBAT FEAR RELATED TO DECEPTION WAS FREQUENTLY PRESENTED 4HE INCREASED OPERATION OF DECEPTION WITHIN AND BETWEEN PEOPLE WAS DIS ORDERING PEOPLE COULD NO LONGER READ THEIR FAMILIAR CONTEXTS OF SAFETY ˆ AND THE GEOGRAPHIC MIGRATION LED TO A KINDOFPSYCHOLOGICALMIGRATIONˆLIKEGOINGTOAFOREIGNPLACEWITHINONES OWN MIND ) FOUND THAT MANY PEOPLES ADJUSTMENTS TO AGRARIAN LIFE UNDER $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA WERE OFTEN RELATED TO THEIR MIGRATIONS DURING THE ,ON .OL YEARS n  )N MY STUDY THOSE DRIVEN OUT OF THE CITIES BY THE +HMER 2OUGE FOUND THE AGRARIAN LIFE MORE DISCONCERTING THAN THOSE WHO HAD BEEN LIVING IN REMOTE REGIONS PRIOR TO  &OR BASE



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PEOPLE IF HUNGER EASED THEN THIS hOTHERv AGRARIAN LIFE SEEMED SOMEWHAT FAMILIAR IN RHYTHM ˆ WORKING IN THE lELDS BY DAY AND RETURNING TO THE FAMILY BY NIGHT THOUGH WITH PHYSICAL DEMANDS THAT WENT BEYOND SUSTAINABILITY 6ARIATIONS WERE NOTED IN WOMENS ACCESS TO PREGNANCY AND BIRTH RITUALS SUCH AS TYING A STRING AROUND ONES WAIST THOUGH RARELY IF EVER WITH THE NORMALLY PRESCRIBED AMULET FOR PROTECTION OF THE UNBORN BABY )N SOME PLACES SUCH AS +AMPONG 3PEU A KIBBUTZ LIKE STRUCTURE OF CHILDCARE WAS ESTABLISHED BY  7HEN SPEAKING WITH VILLAGERS IN +ONG 0ISEY IN +AMPONG 3PEU   IN PARTICULAR THE SOLIDIlCATION OF COM MUNAL LIFE EVOLVED OUT OF THE GROUP WEDDING AND BIRTH ARRANGEMENTS &OR EXAMPLE VILLAGERS TOLD ME THAT NEWLY WED WOMEN NOT YET PREGNANT CARED FOR WORKING MOTHERS INFANTS DURING THE DAY UNTIL THEY THEMSELVES WERE IN LATE STAGES OF PREGNANCY ˆ WHEREUPON THE NEXT CHILDLESS MARRIED COHORT TOOK OVER THE CAREGIVER ROLES )N THE +AMPONG 3PEU REGION BIOLOGICAL MOTHERS USUALLY BREASTFED THEIR INFANTS IN THE MORNING BEFORE WORKING IN THE lELDS OR CANALS MOST RETURNED FOR FEEDING AT MID DAY AND SLEPT WITH THEIR BABY AT NIGHT THEIR SPOUSE OFTEN SLEPT WITH THEM AS WELL 4HESE PATTERNSWEREQUITEUNUSUALWHENCOMPAREDTOOTHERREGIONS

The Evolution of “Neo-Collectives” -Y DATA DISTRIBUTION SHOWS PATTERNS IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEAS RECON STRUCTION OF AGRARIAN VILLAGE LIFE ALONGSIDE CHANGES IN THE SOURCES OF AUTHORITY AND VILLAGE STRUCTURES .EO COLLECTIVES BEGAN TO EXPAND IN LATE  AND TRADITIONAL MIDWIVES AND LOCAL WOMEN ASSISTED MORE BIRTHS WHILE HUSBANDS BURIED PLACENTAS AND PROTECTIVE SALVES WERE MADE FOR THE FONTANEL #OMMUNITY STRUCTURES SEEMED TO HAVE SOLIDIlED AROUND  IN SOME REGIONS HEADS OF COMMUNES GRADUALLY TURNED A BLIND EYE ON TRADITIONAL PRACTICES THAT WERE CREEPING BACK INTO DAILY LIFE "Y INTERVIEWING COUPLES AND NON COUPLES OVER A NUMBER OF YEARS ) HEARD ABOUT ROLE BASED ALTERATIONS AND hRECLAMATIONSv WITHIN AND BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN IN DAY TO DAY AND YEAR TO YEAR REVOLUTIONARY LIFE ˆ AS THEY PROGRESSED INTO ADULTHOOD !FTER PLOTTING DATA ACROSS TIME AND PLACE MY lNDINGS DID NOT MATCH SUMMARIES OFFERED BY SOME RESEARCHERS &OR EXAMPLE -AM  INTERVIEWED A SERIES OF WOMEN FROM +ANDAL A PROVINCE THAT IS CLOSE TO 0HNOM 0ENH IN /CTOBER AND .OVEMBER OF  SHE ASKED ABOUT COMMUNAL CHILDCARE AND WET NURSE PRACTICES ESTABLISHEDBY$+ /F  PEOPLE WHO WED IN +ANDAL   PER CENT SAID

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THAT SEX WAS PRESCRIBED -AM ASSERTS THAT $+ TARGETED WOMENS ROLES AS A BREAKDOWN POINT FOR RESTRUCTURING AND TRANSFORMING SOCIAL ORDER ) FOUND +ANDALTOBEAREGIONWITHMOREREGULATEDPOST WEDDINGACTIVITIESAFTER AND AN AREA WITH A HIGH RATE OF PRESCRIBED SEX BY THE +HMER 2OUGE ;THIS COULD HAVE INTERACTED WITH -AMS  CONCLUSIONS FROM INTERVIEWS IN THAT REGION= 7AS IT THAT $+ SOUGHT TO hCONTROL WOMENS SEXUALITYv AS -AM CONTENDS OR THAT SEX IN MARRIAGE AS PRESCRIBED BY RATHER THAN CONTROLLED BY THE 3TATE LED TO ABRUPT DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURES THAT DISRUPTED WOMEN AND MENS CAPACITY TO CARE FOR EACH OTHER IN TRADITIONAL WAYS 2ESULTS IN MY STUDY POINT TO THE LATTER )T IS POSSIBLE THAT BY  THE +HMER 2OUGE MAY HAVE BEEN MOVING TOWARDSACOMMUNITYPLANNEDSTRUCTURETHATMIGHTHAVESPREADMOREWIDELY HAD THE REGIME CONTINUED IN POWER 4HOUGH THE +HMER 2OUGE ALTERED THE TRADITIONAL STRUCTURES RELATED TO WEDDING RITUALS IT WAS AS IF ACCOMMODATING PREGNANCIESANDBIRTHSWASANAFTERTHOUGHTBY$+4HUS BY COMMUNAL STRUCTURES WERE NEEDED TO ASSIST THE SHIFT IN POPULATION IN THESE NEO VILLAGES )NITIALLY THE DEVELOPING INFRASTRUCTURE DID LITTLE TO FACILITATE CONTACT BETWEEN MOTHERSANDBABIES BUTTHISBEGANTOCHANGEBYINPLACESWHEREWOMEN WEREGIVENMORETIMETOBEWITHTHEIRBABIES;)TISPOSSIBLETHAT-AMSSTUDY  REPRESENTS A CROSS SECTION OF THIS SEVERE PERIOD= 3UCH DEPICTION OF PEOPLES MOMENTARY REPRIEVE INTO NORMALCY IS BY NO MEANS A WHITEWASHING OF THE +HMER 2OUGES DESTRUCTIVE NATURE BUT RATHER A REmECTING GROUND FOR THE COMPLEX CONTRADICTORY AND EVOLUTIONARY NATURE OF THE REGIMES ACTIVITY 4HE COMMUNAL STRUCTURES IN SOME VILLAGES ALLOWED WOMEN TO HAVE CONTACT WITH THEIR BABIES FOR BREASTFEEDING DURING THE DAY 'IVEN THAT MEN AND WOMEN DESCRIBED BREAST MILK TURN AS PROVIDING PROTECTION FROM SPIRIT HARM A MOTHERS ROLE AS CARER OF HER CHILDS SPIRITUAL AND PHYSICAL WELLBEING WAS TIED TO HER CAPACITY TO BREASTFEED OFTEN &REQUENTLY WHEN ) AM IN A VILLAGE WOMEN SAY INFORMALLY THAT THEY BREASTFEED THEIR CHILDREN TO PROTECT THEM FROM SPIRIT RELATED ILLNESSES ) RECALL OTHER RITUALS SUCH AS BURYING THE PLACENTA THAT CARRIED PROTECTIVE VALUE IN THIS STUDY 0ARADOXICALLY THESE NEW STRUCTURES COMPROMISED COLLECTIVE WELLBEING DUE TO ISOLATIONIST PRACTICES BUT TRADITIONAL PRACTICES WITH HUMAN TOUCH TENDED TO RETURN IN REGIONS WHERE COMMUNAL STRUCTURES ACCELERATED

 )N+ANDAL PRESCRIPTIONSFORSEXWEREREPORTEDBYPERSON WHO WED IN   WHO WED IN   WHO WED IN  AND  PEOPLE WHO WED IN   )NOTETHATTHISISCURRENTLYADIFlCULTYFORWOMENWHOAREDIAGNOSEDAS()6POSITIVEWHEN HEALTH AGENCIES ADVISE THEM NOT TO BREASTFEED THEIR FEARS INCREASE



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)NSUM REPORTSOFTHEHUTSRANGEDFROMTOHUTSINONELOCATION DEPENDING ON THE RESPECTIVE GROUP WEDDING SIZE 4HESE CUSTOMS AND STRUC TURES HAD SPREAD IN MID  FROM +ANDAL AND +AMPOT INTO4AKEO AND AS FAR AWAY AS 0URSAT BY LATE 4HE EXISTENCE OF HUTS HINTS STRONGLY AT THE REGULATION OF A SYSTEM OF MARRIAGE PROTOCOL THAT WAS SPREADING OUT FROM +ANDALSUCHPRACTICEMAYHAVESPURREDSOCIALSTRUCTURESTHATCOULDACCOMMO DATEINCREASINGBIRTHRATES4HOUGHORDERSFORTHISACTIVITYPROBABLYEMANATED FROM 0HNOM 0ENH HEADQUARTERS ESTABLISHED BUILDINGS IN THE CITY PROVIDED POST WEDDING PURPOSES SO THAT NEW STRUCTURES IN THE CAPITAL DID NOT HAVE TO BE BUILT

Weddings and Births: Relief and Dashed Dreams -ARRIAGES AND BIRTHS PROVIDED BREATHING SPACE AS WELL AS APPREHENSION THIS IS EVIDENT IN THE ACCOUNT GIVEN BY -R 0 WHO TOLD ME THAT HE WAS ALLOWED TO STAY SINGLE DURING A GROUP CEREMONY OF  COUPLES )N HIS CASE IN  A NEW DISTRICT CHIEF PRESIDING IN 3AANG $ISTRICT SAID TO THE GROUP h3PEAK IF !NGKAR NEEDS TO KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT YOUR SITUATIONv -R 0 SAID h/F COURSE ) WILL MARRY WHO !NGKAR TELLS ME TO MARRY BUT ) AM ENGAGED TO ANOTHER .OW !NGKAR IS ASKING ME TO LOVE THE PERSON HERE TODAY BUT IT WILL TAKE ME TIME TO LOVE HERv 3OMEHOW THIS PARTICULAR RESPONSE CAUGHT THE CHIEF OFF GUARD THE MAN DESCRIBED THE CHIEF S HESITATION "ECAUSE THE MAN WAS EXPRESSING CONCERN WHILE APPEALING TO AUTHORITATIVE POWER HIS RESPONSE CREATED A DOUBLE BIND 2ATHER THAN FORCING A MARRIAGE OR KILLING HIM THE CHIEF SAID HE WOULD lND ANOTHER HUSBAND FOR THE WOMAN 4HE MAN WAS SENT OFF INTO SEVERE LABOR AT ANOTHER CAMP IN THE %ASTERN :ONE !T THE END OF THE REGIME EARLY *ANUARY  HE WENT TO +AMPOT TO lND THE WOMAN FOR WHOM HE HAD PUBLICLY DECLARED HIS LOVE (E HEARD FROM A FRIEND THAT HISlANC£EWASALIVEANDTHATSHEHADRETURNEDTOHERHOMEVILLAGE (ESAID THATTHISWASWHENTHE7ESTERN:ONEWASSTILLOCCUPIEDBYTHE+HMER2OUGE (E BUILT A HUT BESIDE A RIVER OPPOSITE THE WOMANS NATIVE VILLAGE (E WAITED UNTIL IT WAS SAFE BEFORE CROSSING THE RIVER TO ASK THE WOMANS FAMILY IF THEY COULDMARRYANDGAINEDAPPROVAL4HISCOUPLERETURNEDTOTHEHUTTOLIVEAFTER A SMALL WEDDING CEREMONY 4HOUGH A COMPLICATED LOVE STORY THE WEDDING WAS A STARK CELEBRATION ˆ WITHOUT DOWRY DANCE CAKE OR TRADITIONAL MUSIC AND BY THIS TIME THE MANS PARENTS WERE BOTH DEAD !ND YET HE SAID THAT hx THE DAY ) MARRIED MY WIFE WAS THE DAY ) KNEW ) WOULD LIVEv 0RESENTLY THISCOUPLELIVESIN0HNOM0ENHWITHTHEIRTHREECHILDRENTHEYHAVEAFAMILY INTERNET BUSINESS

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.EW BASE PEOPLE HAD GENERATED FUTURE GOALS AND DREAMS FROM EARLY ADOLESCENCE MUCH DIFFERENT FROM THEIR RURAL BASED RELATIVES AND FRIENDS 4HESE DREAMS WERE DISCLOSED MOST OFTEN BY THOSE IDENTIFYING AS NEW BASE NEW SOLDIER OR NEW MONK -ANY hNEW BASEv PEOPLE LEFT THE COUNTRYSIDE IN EARLY TO MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE TO SEEK EDUCATION IN THE CITY OR TO TAKE REFUGE THERE AND WERE PUSHED BACK TO THE COUNTRYSIDE AFTER  4HUS A STRONG DEVELOPMENTAL FACTOR MAY HAVE BEEN IN PLAY WITH REGARD TO THEIR IMAGININGS /NE MAN WHO HAD LEFT HIS FAMILY HOME IN  TO STUDY IN 0HNOM 0ENH SAID h) PRETENDED THAT MY EDUCATION WAS FROM MY OTHER LIFE AFTER ) MARRIED IN  ) WAS RELIEVED TO BE WITH MY WIFE BUT HOW COULD WE HAVE HOPE TO EDUCATE OUR CHILDREN IT WAS LIKE THE END OF THE LINE FOR THAT FUTUREv "ECAUSE ) MET EXTENDED FAMILY MEMBERS OFTEN DURING INTERVIEWS ) NOTED THAT THOSE WHO IDENTIlED AS NEW BASE PEOPLE HAD HIGHER EXPECTATIONS FOR THEIR OWN CHILDRENS EDUCATION TODAY THAN NEW OR BASE PEOPLE "YDOCUMENTINGDYNAMICINTERACTIONSASWELLASCONCRETEACTIONS )OFTEN UNCOVERED A PECULIAR QUALITY EMBEDDED IN PEOPLES EXPERIENCES OF DREAD AND CONSOLATION &OR INSTANCE ) FOUND THAT PEOPLE SPOKE OF SEXUALITY WITH LITTLE HESITATION WHEN ASKED BUT THE ACCOUNTS WERE lLLED WITH CONTRADICTIONS THEY TRIED TO RECONCILE 0EG TO -R AND -RS 2 7ERE YOU SENT TO DIFFERENT PLACES -R 2 9ES MY WIFE STAYED ABOUT  KILOMETRES AWAY 0EG !ND WERE YOU SUPPOSED TO BE TOGETHER SEXUALLY AFTER MARRIAGE -R2 7EJUSTFOUNDAWAYTONOTBESEXUALBECAUSEWEDIDNOTWANT TO HAVE CHILDREN SO WE DID NOT TOUCH EACH OTHERS SEXUAL PARTS 0EG 3O DID !NGKAR WANT YOU TO HAVE CHILDREN -R 2 4HEY SAID THEY WANTED COUPLES TO HAVE CHILDREN BUT IN FACT THEY SENT THEM TO DIFFERENT PLACES SO IT DID NOT SEEM SO IT WAS VERY CONFUSING 0EGTO-RSAND-R2 7HATHAPPENEDHOURSAFTERYOUWEREMARRIED -R 2 7E DID NOT HAVE ANY STRENGTH TO BE SEXUAL 0EG $ID YOU SLEEP TOGETHER -R 2 9ES IN A SMALL HUT WE WERE GIVEN FOR TWO DAYS 0EG #AN YOU RECALL WHAT YOU DID OR SPOKE ABOUT

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-RS 2 WIFE ENTERS CONVERSATION $URING THAT TIME A SOLDIER WOULD SNEAK BEHIND US IN CASE THEY OVERHEARD SOMETHING OR IN CASE WE WERE AGAINST !NGKAR SO PEOPLE LEARNED TO JUST EAT AND SHUT THEIR MOUTHS 4HIS WAS OUR STRATEGY TO LIVE TO BE QUIET AND ALONE UNTIL WE COULD LIVE IN A VILLAGE TOGETHER

3EXUALACTIVITYSEEMEDTOINCREASEONCECOUPLESRESUMEDSOMESEMBLANCE OF A VILLAGE LIFE 3OME WOMEN SAID THEY WORRIED THAT THEY COULD NOT PROTECT THEMSELVES FROM HARMFUL SPIRITS WHEN THEY WERE PREGNANT 4HEY MENTIONED SECLUSION AND STARVATION AS BEING ESPECIALLY HARROWING DURING PREGNANCY AND BIRTH !ND YET WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS PROVIDED SOME REPRIEVE AND SOLACE PARTICULARLY WHEN A HEALTHY BABY WAS BORN 2ECALL OF EXPERIENCES OF EXTREME ISOLATION PROMPTED DISTRESS MEN AND WOMEN SPOKE WITH AS MUCH FERVOUR WHEN DESCRIBING SECLUSION AS THEY DID WHEN RECOUNTING PHYSICAL TORTURE

Politics of Analysis 7HILE REVIEWING MY lLM AND TRANSCRIPTS ADMITTEDLY SOMETIMES ) WOULD FEEL IN CONmICT BY THINKING ) WAS BEING POLITICALLY INCORRECT BY NOT ADOPTING A GENOCIDE FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD )D SIDESTEP AND RESEARCH MORE ON GENOCIDE AND TRAUMATIC STUDIES )N ONE OF THESE SKIRTING MOMENTS 0ROFESSOR $AVID #HANDLER SCRAWLED h*UST THE WEDDINGS
v ALONG THE MARGINS OF MY MANUSCRIPT )N THE END HIS WISDOM ASSISTED MY UNPACKING OF $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEAS RITUAL DISPLACEMENT WHICH LED TO MY DISCOVERY OF A BACKDOOR INTO +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITIES OF A DIFFERENT GENRE4HE REVOLUTION GENERATED COMMUNAL SATELLITE STRUCTURES TO ACCOMMODATE GROUP WEDDINGS AND INCREASED BIRTH RATES $+S CHILDREARING STRUCTURES SEEMED TO EVOLVE OUT OF THE LARGER GROUP WEDDINGS AS YET TO BE PREGNANT WOMEN BECAME PART OF THE CHAIN OF SERVICE PROVIDERS TO NEW MOTHERS AND THE COLLECTIVE  3OME TRADITIONAL RITUALS TRICKLED BACK INTO THESE COMMUNES BUT GRIM BIRTH AND POST BIRTH EXPERIENCES STILL ISOLATED WOMEN FROM WOMEN MEN FROM WOMEN ˆ AND MEN FROM MEN ) BEGAN TO SEE MY STUDY AS A DOCUMENT OF FALLOUT FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE ˆ FALLOUT AS INVISIBLE AS RADIATION FROM THE ATOMIC BOMBINGS OF (IROSHIMA AND .AGASAKI ˆ THOUGH WITHOUT SCIENTIlC READINGS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE LEVELS THAT SHOW WHAT THE BODY CORE HAS ENDURED )N #AMBODIA PEOPLE CAN POINT TO EVIDENCE FROM PRISONS AND KILLING lELDS BUT WHEN COUPLES RETURNED TO $+ WEDDING OR BIRTH SITES THEY WOULD POINT TO A WALL THAT WAS NO LONGER THERE THOUGH THERE IN THEIR MINDS 0LACES HOLD HISTORY AND SPIRIT LIFE ) REmECT ON HOW /TA A *APANESE NOVELIST AND SURVIVOR OF

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THE ATOMIC BOMBS DESCRIBES HER VISIT TO A RUINED CASTLE IN (IROSHIMA ON A SUMMERDAYIN*UNE SEVENYEARSAFTERTHEBOMBINGS3HEANIMATESTHEPLACE AND GAINS COMFORT FROM KNOWING THAT SHE AND THE PLACE SHARE A PAST hx AND YET ) KNEW ABOUT THE NIGHTMARES THAT THIS PLACE HAD SEENv 3HE WROTE ABOUT HER IMPRESSIONS OF VISITORS FROM 4OKYO WHO HAD hNEVER EXPERIENCED THE INTENSE LIGHT OF RADIATION v OR ANNIHILATION OF PLACE TREES INSECTS AND WATER SOURCES 3HE CONTENDS THAT THEY WERE UNABLE TO SEE THE COLOURS OR TO FEEL THE BITTERNESS EMBOSSED IN THE PLACE 4HE FOLLOWING IS A PASSAGE FROM HER BOOK &IREmIES 4HESUNWASABOUTTOSET4HESTONEWALLSWERESINKINGINTODARKNESS !NDYET)WASABLETOMAKEOUTEACHSTONECLEARLY ASIFITWEREALIVING BEING4URNINGMYBACKONTHESTONEWALLS )BEGANWALKING)TSEEMED ASTHOUGHTHOSESTONECLIFFS TURNINGINTOmAMES WERECOLLAPSINGBEHIND ME4HEFEELINGWASNOTAFALSEONE4OMETHATWASTHEULTIMATETRUTH /4! &IREmIES IN /%  P 

!CCORDINGTO*APANESEFOLKLORE THEDEADRETURNTOTHEWORLDINTHEFORM OF lREmIES )GARASHI IN 9OSHIKUNI   &IREmIES ARE SEASONAL REMINDERS OF MASS DEATH AS IF ROAMING SOULS LIGHT THE SKY )RONICALLY lREmIES ARE MOST PREVALENT IN THE LATE SUMMER OF !UGUST DURING /BON OR "ON THE "UDDHIST SEASON FOR HONOURING THE DEAD #AMBODIA TOO HAS 0CHUM "EN ITS SEASON OFTHEDEADˆSEASONALHAUNTINGREMINDERSFORCULTURESSTEEPEDINSPIRITISM 0OLITICALQUESTIONSCONTINUETOSTIRINMEABOUTCULTURAL MIND BODY ANDSPIRIT FALLOUT FROM $+ ˆ WHICH ) ATTEMPT TO UNRAVEL IN THE NEXT CHAPTERS

Chapter

5 Displaced without Imagination

)MAGINATIONCANBEDAMAGED&ORINSTANCE WHENACHILDFEELSAFRAID CONFUSED OR LOST SHE OR HE MAY CREATE AN IMAGINARY PLACE OR FRIEND AS REFUGE AND WITNESS 7HEN CHAOS AND CRUELTY DO NOT LET UP THE CHILD MAY EXPERIENCE MEANNESS AS NORMAL ˆ PARTICULARLY IF SHE OR HE IS LED TO BELIEVE IT IS hFOR YOUR OWN GOODv (EREIN TENSION ARISES BETWEEN LOYALTY AND BETRAYAL /VER TIME THE IMAGINARY FRIEND RECEDES OR INTRUDES AND THE CHILD NO LONGER HAS THE CAPACITY TO WISH FOR ANYTHING4O WISH IS TO IMAGINE (ALF WAY THROUGH THIS STUDY ) WONDERED WHAT HAPPENS TO IMAGINATION WHEN ONES REALITY FALLS INTO THE REALM OF CULTURAL TABOO AND THAT BECOMES NORMALISED OVER TIME !ND WHAT IF IN THE SPIRIT CONTEXT OF #AMBODIA THAT WHICH IS IMAGINED IS AN INTRUDER AKIN TO AN EERIE SCARY SPIRIT )N ART AND LITERATURE EVEN AMONG THE SURREALISTS IMAGINATION IS OFTEN PORTRAYED AS A hCONSTRUCTIVEv PHENOMENON 2EBER   9ET ) HAVE FOUND FROM MY STUDY THAT YEARS WITHOUT ANY COLOUR DANCE LAUGHTER AND SAFE TOUCH PARTICIPATED IN THE EROSION OF CONSTRUCTIVE IMAGINATION 2EALITY CAN BE HARSH ENOUGH TO DAMAGE IMAGINATION AND DAMAGED IMAGINATIONS ARE USED BY HUMANS TO JUSTIFY CREATING NOVEL METHODS FOR PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TORTURE ) FOUND THAT THE MORE #AMBODIANS IN MY STUDY TRIED TO RECONCILE DESTRUCTIVE ACTS INDUCED BY !NGKAR AND LOCAL VILLAGERS THE MORE DETACHED THEY BECAME FROM SELF OTHER TIME AND PLACE !ND THE MORE THE +HMER 2OUGECUTPEOPLEOFFFROMPROTECTIONSUCHASFROMVILLAGES LAND WATER AND FAMILIARANDRELIABLESOURCESOFPROTECTION THEMORETHEIRIMAGINATIONSWERE AT RISK



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Turning Points -ANYWHORETURNEDTOFORMER+HMER2OUGESITESSPOKEOFWHATTHEYSMELLED SAW TOUCHED TASTED AND HEARD IN THEIR PAST AT THOSE PLACES -R /M WHO WED IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN THE RAINY SEASON OF  HEARD COUGHING SOUNDS BY PEOPLE IMPRISONED UNDER THE SITE OF HIS WEDDING 0EOPLES IMAGINATIONS WEREPRIMEDBYTHESESITEVISITS ANDSOMESPOKEOFGROTESQUEDETAILSINWAYS THAT HOVERED BETWEEN THE SANE AND INSANE ˆ TAKING STORIES INTO THE REALM OF THE TABOO 2ESEARCH RARELY ACCOUNTS FOR THE WAYS THAT PEOPLES CONTACT WITH THE hCULTURALLY FORBIDDENv DISRUPTS THEIR IMAGINATIONS ˆ BUT ) FOUND TWISTED IMAGININGS IN THOSE EXPOSED TO THE +HMER 2OUGE REGIMES BREAK DOWNOFCULTURALSTRUCTURES)NPARTICULAR PEOPLESACCESSTOFAMILIARTHOUGHTS AND IMAGES INCLUDING MEANS FOR EXPRESSING EMOTIONS BECAME DISTURBED /NEMANWHOWASMARRIEDIN3AANGSAID h)COULDNOTEVENCRYBECAUSEMY MIND KEPT TELLING ME IT WAS NOT REAL BUT WHEN ) KNEW IT WAS REAL CRYING WAS NOT ENOUGHv #OUNTERPOSED TO THESE EXPERIENCES WAS THE GRASPING AT FAMILIARANDNORMALHUMANEXCHANGES&ORINSTANCE ONCEWEDBYTHE+HMER 2OUGE A SPOUSES KINDNESS SERVED AS A REMINDER OF ANOTHER REALITY ) THINK THAT SOME WEDDING ENCOUNTERS MAY HAVE CUSHIONED A CATASTROPHIC PSYCHIC CULTURAL BREAKDOWN ˆ WHICH MAY RELATE TO THE CONTINUATION OF MARRIAGES SINCE $+ 0EOPLE INDICATED POINTS IN THEIR LIVES WHEN THEY BECAME EITHER NUMB OR DRIVEN WITH LITTLE SCOPE FOR MUCH ELSE &OR SOME IT SEEMED THAT THEIR PERCEPTIONS WERE STRETCHED SO FAR THAT THEIR SENSES WERE OVERLOADED 0EOPLE SOUGHT PROTECTION UP TO A POINT ˆ AND THEN EITHER LOST OR BLOCKED ACCESS OR STOPPED SEEKING HELP /NE MAN WHO WAS IN WORK CAMPS IN +AMPONG 3PEU SAID h4HE MORNING AFTER MY FRIEND WAS TAKEN AWAY IN THE CAMP ) SAW HIS CUT OFF LEG ON THE GROUND NEAR THE BUSHES IT WAS LEFT AS A SIGN FOR THE REST OF US ABOUT OUR POSSIBLE FATE !FTER THAT NOT EVEN "UDDHA CAME TO MEv (E WAS  YEARS OLD AT THAT TIME ANOTHER KIND OF IMAGE FORCED ON YOUTH AT THAT TIME 0EOPLEPOINTEDTOTURNINGPOINTSINTHEIRLIVESUSINGSUCHPHRASESAS h7HEN )COULDlNDFOODFORMYWIFE )KNEWTHINGSWOULDBEBETTERFORUSvORh)HAD MORESTRENGTHWHEN)MADEITTOMYSISTERSVILLAGEv/NEMANTOLDMEHOWHE SAWTHEMURDEROFHISSISTERhCUTOPENRIGHTINFRONTOFME vANDHOWHELOST HISWILLTOLIVEIN(ISTURNINGPOINTCAMEIN WHENHEWASPAIRED WITHHISWIFEINAGROUPWEDDING(EWASANEDUCATED NEWPERSON ANDSHE WAS A BASE PERSON AND RESENTED HIM FOR HIS STATUS (E DESCRIBED HIS WIFES ATTEMPTS TO POISON HIM AND TO DROWN HIM 0ARADOXICALLY HIS WIFES VIOLENCE MOBILISEDHISDElANCETOLIVEh4HEMOREDETERMINEDSHEWASTOKILLORTRICK



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ME THE MORE ) AVOIDED THAT FATEv ) CLASSIlED THIS MANS TENACIOUS RESPONSE AS A SIGNIlCANT TURNING POINT IN HIS SURVIVAL 4HEN AFTER HER FATHER DIED OF STARVATION SHE APOLOGISED (E SAID HE FELT PITY FOR HER AFTER HER FATHER DIED AND THAT HE DECIDED TO STAY IN THE RELATIONSHIP SINCE hSHE WAS NOT EDUCATED ANDSHEHADNOFAMILYTOSUPPORTHERvTHISWASANOTHERTURNINGPOINT4OFAST FORWARD THIS HISTORY TO TODAY THEY HAVE lVE CHILDREN OVER WHICH HE ASSUMES FULLCARE(ISMORERECENTTURNOCCURREDINWHENHECHOSETOLEAVEHIS WIFEPERMANENTLYBECAUSESHEWASDRINKINGALCOHOLANDhSHEBECAMEVIOLENTTO ME AGAINv

Vital Touch — Dreadful Touch under DK ) AM INTERESTED IN HOW PEOPLE LIVE THROUGH UNIMAGINABLE CIRCUMSTANCES AND EITHER MAINTAIN LOSE OR REGAIN THEIR CAPACITY TO IMAGINE BENIGNLY &OR THOSE WHO ENDURED AND LIVED THROUGH THE +HMER 2OUGE IMAGES OF STARVATION WERE THE MOST DEVASTATING TO RECALL AS WELL AS THE WAYS THEY SAW LIVE AND DEAD BODIES VIOLATED &OR INSTANCE EVEN THOUGH ONES BODY IS ONES OWN PEOPLE BECAME OVERWHELMED WHEN TRYING TO EXPLAIN THE EXTREME DISTORTION THAT THEIR OWN HUMAN FORM TOOK ˆ AS IF THESE WERE NOT THEIR OWN BODIES -R , SAID h) DID NOT DARE TOUCH MY OWN BODY BECAUSE IT WAS FALLING APART AND ) COULDNT TRUST IT TO WORK FOR ME ANYMOREv -R ! SAID h.O SHADE NO SHADE AT ALL ) DID NOT KNOW THAT SKIN COULD BE SO THIN AGAINST THE BONEv 3USTAINING SAFE AND PREDICTABLE TOUCH WAS PARTICULARLY CHALLENGING UNDER THE +HMER 2OUGE -OSTLY TO TOUCH ONES OWN BODY WAS EXCRUCIATING AND REPULSIVE /VER TIME ) FOUND THAT THE BIRTH STORIES TENDED TO PROVIDE MORE INSIGHT INTO FAMILY LIFE DURING THE REGIME THAN THE WEDDING STORIES $URING THIS TIME MANY WOMEN AND MEN WERE ABLE TO TOUCH AGAIN IN WAYS THAT ALLOWED THEM TO EXPERIENCE A FAMILIAR +HMER INTIMACY /NE WOMAN WHO WED IN +AMPOT SAID h!T THE END OF OUR WEDDING WE WERE TOLD TO SHAKE HANDS x WHEN WE GOT TO MY PARENTS VILLAGE WE COULD BE MORE NORMAL IN OUR GREETINGv4HE VILLAGE STRUCTURES SET UP BY THE REGIME POST  SEEMED TO OFFER MORE MUTUAL NON SEXUAL AND SEXUAL TOUCH 3HE CONTINUED h7HEN ) CAMEBACKFROMTHElELDSMYHUSBANDWOULDSOMETIMESMAKEAlREANDWE SLEPT TOGETHER WITH OUR BABY 4HIS WAS THE MOST SPECIAL TIME AND IT HELPED MEFORGETWHATWASHAPPENINGAROUNDUS)COULDSLEEPAGAINAFTERSUCHHARD WORK IN THE DAYv 4OUCH IS EMBEDDED IN THE PERFORMANCE OF CULTURAL RITUALS AND IS OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY MANY OTHER SENSATIONS ˆ SOUND SIGHT TASTE SMELL )N

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PARTICULAR WOMENS ACCESS TO SAFE TOUCH DURING PREGNANCY AND BIRTH ASSISTED THEIR WELLBEING &OR EXAMPLE DURING A VILLAGE VISIT WITH -R AND -RS /M A WOMAN IN THE VILLAGE SAID THAT HER GRANDMOTHER SANG TO HER WHEN SHE WAS YOUNG SHE REMEMBERED THAT SONG DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE YEARS AFTER HER CHILD WAS BORN AND SANG IT QUIETLY AT NIGHT TO HER OWN CHILD h)N MY HEAD THISSONGCAMEANDLETHERDECEASEDGRANDMOTHER STAYNEARMYSONANDME -AYBE ) HAD HER VOICE IN MEv /THER SENSATE MEMORIES WERE DISTURBING ) WAS SUPPOSED TO MEET WITH A WOMAN AND SPEAK ABOUT HER BIRTH FROM  IN +AMPOT BUT INSTEAD SHE SENT HER YOUNGER SISTER TO SPEAK FOR HER ) ASSISTED MY SISTERS BIRTH ALONG SIDE A LOCAL WOMAN VILLAGER IN THE PROVINCE +ANDAL  ) MADE THE WATER VERY HOT AND WIPED MY SISTERS FACE "ECAUSE WE USED OLD CLOTHES TO PUT AROUND MY SISTER THE BLOOD HADASOURSMELL)REMEMBERTHATSMELLEVENTODAY4HEPLACENTAWAS BURIED ACCORDING TO CUSTOM "UT THE BABY DIED AFTER  DAYS -AYBE IT WAS TETANUS OF THE UMBILICAL CORD -Y SISTER NEVER BECAME PREGNANT AFTER THAT TIME AGAIN4HIS IS WHY SHE CANNOT SPEAK ABOUT THIS TODAY

&OR ALL HUMANS SOOTHING AND BENIGN TOUCH VIOLENT TOUCH ABSENCE OF TOUCH AND ANTICIPATION OF TOUCH ARE IMPORTANT DETERMINERS OF EXPERIENCES IN GENERAL AND SO IS THE SEQUENCE OF TOUCH 3OMETIMES THROUGH TOUCH A PAST MEMORY IS STIMULATED4OUCH HAS THE CAPACITY TO CONJURE FEELINGS OF LONGING AS WELL AS FEAR !LL IN ALL THE +HMER 2OUGE LEFT MANY PEOPLE WITH TWISTED EXPERIENCES RELATED TO TOUCH !LSO PERCEPTIONS OF !NGKARS OMNIPRESENCE OMNIPOTENCE ADDED A PARTICULAR KIND OF hANTICIPATORY FEARv THAT TOOK TOUCH INTO A FORBIDDEN REALM -R4 SAID h)T GOT TO THE POINT WHERE ) DID NOT SEE TRáNAN FAIRY LIKE CREATURES ANYMORE AND ) THOUGHT THAT !NGKAR HURT THEM TOO ) SAW NOTHING PRETTY %VEN ) BECAME UGLY TO TOUCH BY MY OWN HANDS ) STOPPED TOUCHING MY OWN BODYv 3OME PERCEIVED !NGKAR AS HAVING THE POWER TO DESTROY BY AN INVISIBLE TOUCH ASIFANINVISIBLEFORCECAMEFROMANOTHERWORLD)MAGINETHEDISTRESS OF ANTICIPATION ATTACHED TO SUCH UNPREDICTABILITY h!NGKAR IS THE SELlSH FORCE THATHURTSFARMERSORSOMETIMESCOMESTHROUGHTHEWATERTOHURTlSHERMENv 4HIS WAS TOLD TO ME BY A BASE WOMAN WHO WORKED IN CAMPS AND MARRIED IN DRY SEASON  IN "ATTAMBANG !NOTHER BASE WOMAN WHO WAS MARRIED IN 4AKEO DURING 0CHUM "EN IN  SAID h!NGKAR LIVES SECRETLY IN TREES AND COMES DOWN TO KILL PEOPLEv -R4 RECOUNTED hSOMETIMES !NGKAR WENT INTO A SOLDIERS BODY SO HE COULD DO HORRIBLE THINGSv4HE THREAT OF !NGKARS DESTRUCTIVE NATURE AND hITSv CAPACITY TO INlLTRATE THE HUMAN BODY RENDERED PEOPLE ALL THE MORE VULNERABLE



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#UMULATIVE BLOWS TO THE SENSES TENDED TO NARROW THE RANGE OF WOMEN AND MENS IMAGINARY ACTIVITY AND THEIR CAPACITY TO IMAGINE A FUTURE WITHOUT GROTESQUE IMAGES 7HEN PEOPLE SPOKE ABOUT PAST IMAGES TASTES OR SMELLS SUCH AS hTHE SMELL OF A PERSON JUST BEFORE THEY DIE v THEY WOULD OFTEN SHAKE WHILETRYINGTOSITSTILLORTHEYWOULDTREMBLEASTHEYSTAREDINTOSPACE0EOPLE USED METAPHORS THAT COINCIDED WITH THEIR GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS STATEMENTS ABOUT lRE SUN WATER SOIL HEAT AND COLD -R ! SPOKE OFTEN OF SEEINGANDTOUCHINGDISTORTEDBODIES INCLUDINGHISOWN(ESAID hxWEWERE LIKEHARDBODIESCOOKEDBYlREˆWEHADNOSHADEˆNEVERANYSHADEJUST BURNINGALLDAYMYSKINWASSOSOREANDSOON)DIDNOTEVENNOTICEWHEN) WAS BLEEDING ) COULD NOT BEAR TO TOUCH MY OWN BODYv (IS TORSO TREMBLED AS HE SPOKE !LSO -R , RECALLED HIS HYPOTHERMIA WHILE DIGGING DITCHES IN THE .ORTHWEST :ONE IN  h-Y BODY MOVED BUT MY MIND WAS NUMB ) WAS SCARED TO SEE MYSELF BECAUSE ) DID NOT KNOW ME ) WAS STUCK ) COULD NOT SEE ANY FUTUREv !GAINANDAGAIN THEMOSTFREQUENTLYREPORTEDDISTRESSINGIMAGEWASTHAT OFONESOWNBODYDEFORMITYFROMSTARVATION4HISDE HUMANISINGPROCESSWAS PROFOUND&ORMANY THEIRHUMANBODYWASNOTREPRESENTATIVEORRECOGNISABLE AS HUMAN ACCORDING TO THEIR STANDARDS OF CULTURE /VERALL  MEN AND  WOMENPERCENTOFTHERESPONDENTS GAVEDESCRIPTIONSSPONTANEOUSLY OFSTARVINGBODIESDURINGTHEIRINTERVIEWS$URINGSUCCESSIVEINTERVIEWS MOST PEOPLESPOKEOFTHEIROWNANDOTHERSEMACIATEDBODIES)NADDITION )HEARD ACCOUNTSOFDEATHSBYSTARVATIONFROMVILLAGERSWHOLISTENEDNEARBYWHILEMY RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF THEIR OWN EXPERIENCES )LLUSTRATED DETAILS WERE MORE FORTHCOMINGASBEINGhHORROR LADENvINLATERINTERVIEWSANDDURINGINTERVIEWS AT NIGHT $ESCRIPTIONS OF STARVING BODIES AND OF DEATH BY STARVATION WERE MORE FORTHCOMING THAN ACCOUNTS OF DEATH BY MORE VIOLENT METHODS 7HEN SPEAKINGABOUTTHESEIMAGES SEVENMENCRIEDONEMANSTOPPEDTHEINTERVIEW 7OMENGAVEFEWEREXPRESSIVECUESORVERBALDETAILSTHANMEN BUTSHOOKTHEIR HEADS FROM SIDE TO SIDE AND WERE TEARFUL WHEN LISTENING TO THEIR HUSBANDS ACCOUNT #HILDREN OF COUPLES BEING INTERVIEWED LISTENED AND LOOKED ON WITH A QUIET STILLNESS %NDURANCEWASGRUELLINGASTHEREWASLITTLEREPRIEVEFROMTHELOSSOFONES OWN TOUCHABLE BODY THE LOSS OF FAMILY AND PHYSICAL BELONGINGS AND LOSS OF ACCESSTORITUALSANDSAFEORPROTECTIVEPLACES3UCHANACCUMULATIONMAYHAVE CONTRIBUTEDTOTHEANNIHILATIONOFCONSTRUCTIVEIMAGINATIONDURING$+!ND ALTHOUGH %ISENBRUCH  DEVELOPED THE SIGNIlCANT CONCEPT OF hCULTURAL BEREAVEMENTv FOR REFUGEES TO SIGNIFY AN INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE EXPERIENCE OF CULTURAL LOSS THE CONCEPT IS POSITIONED IN THE REALM OF 7ESTERN GRIEF AND

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DOESNOTFULLYEXPRESSENCOUNTERSWITHTHEhFORBIDDENORTABOOvˆENCOUNTERS THAT FRAY PEOPLES IMAGINATION -R, 7EWERETOLDTHATEVERYONEHASTOCOMPLETETHESQUARECUBIC METRES A DAY AND IF ANYONE DOES NOT lNISH THEY DO NOT GET ANY FOOD FOR DINNERx )T IS DIFlCULT SO DIFlCULT TO lND WORDS OH SO HARD ) COULD NOT ACCOMPLISH THE TASK ORDERED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE BECAUSE ) DID NOT HAVE ENOUGH ENOUGH TO EAT NOT ENOUGH TO SLEEP AND NO MUSCLE ONLY SKIN ON THE BONE ) WAS JUST A BIG KNEE AND A BIG ELBOW MY KNEE WAS BIGGER THAN MY HEAD -Y BONES WERE SO BIG ˆ JUST BONES AND ) COULD NOT DO ANY WORK AND IT WAS SO HARD AND EVERYONE HAD TO DO THEIR BEST AND MORE THAN THEIR BEST !ND THE BEST WAS NOT ENOUGH BECAUSE IF WE DID NOT COMPLETE THE TASK WE COULD BE KILLED WEWERETOOWEAKTOWALKAND)WASJUSTLIKEAWIRE )COULDFALLATANY MOMENT3OMETIMES)WALKEDANDCOULDNOTMOVEMYFEET)WASJUST A WIRE BODY ) JUST WANT TO SAY TO YOU 0EG THAT THERE WAS NO MUSCLE NOMUSCLEATALL7ECOULDNOTWORKANDWHENWEGOTSICKWEDIDNOT DID NOT HAVE ANY HOPE TO GET BETTER BECAUSE THE HOSPITAL WAS NOT THE PLACETOTAKECAREOFPEOPLE!NYHOSPITALWASTHEPLACEPEOPLEWAITED TO DIE BECAUSE THE HELP WAS NOT REAL HELP WAS JUST APPOINTED WIPES EYES  ;2ESEARCH NOTE !GAIN THERE WAS REPETITION OF WORDS SUCH AS DIFlCULTANDNOTENOUGH DIDNOT BONES WIRE ANDNOMUSCLE2EPETITION OF PHRASES WERE SPOKEN EMOTIONALLY OFTEN IN TEARS= -R 3 %VEN THE COWS WERE STARVING THEY COULDNT EVEN CHEW -R /M 4HEN ) WAS  KILOGRAMS NOW ) AM  KILOGRAMS ) STILL CAN SEE MY WRIST BONES WITH NOTHING ON THEM

2ECALLING IMAGES DURING INTERVIEWS GENERATED PERCEPTIONS AND FEELINGS IN PEOPLE BUT THEY DID NOT KNOW HOW TO CATEGORISE THEIR EXPERIENCES ˆ PARTICULARLYWHENTHEYTHEMSELVESFELThOTHER THANHUMANv-R,SAID h)WAS SOME CREATURE ) NEVER METv 'RAPHIC IMAGES OF STARVATION BEGAN TO INlLTRATE MY IMAGININGS )N PARTICULAR MANY #AMBODIANS TALKED GRAPHICALLY ABOUT THEIR OWN DISTORTED AND PROTRUDING BONES AS THEY SPOKE ABOUT THEIR OWN STARVING BODIES SUCH AS -R , SAID hx MY KNEES WERE BIGGER THAN MY HEAD ˆ JUST WIRE BITS HUG FROM MY KNEESv 4HUS BY SCULPTING IN CLAY AND WAX ) WAS ABLE TO PROTECT MYSELF FROM AN OVER ACCUMULATION OF OTHERS VISUAL ACCOUNTS ˆ THIS BECAME A METHOD FOR MAINTAINING MY POISE WHEN REPORTING OTHERS HISTORY /NE WOMAN SUMMED UP HER LIFE DURING $+ hx MY HEAD WAS SO BIG BIGGER THAN MY BELLY AND ONCE ) HAD MY BABY ) BECAME A SACK OF BONESv

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4ABOO   "RONZE ,E6INE  0HOTO BY *ENNY (ALL

Spirit Humiliation .EARLY EVERYONE SPOKE OF DEATH IN THE $+ PERIOD 4HERE WERE DEATHS BY STARVATION DEATHSTHATWEREASSUMEDFOLLOWINGDISAPPEARANCES RANDOMDEATHS BY BEING CALLED OUT AT NIGHT DEATHS DURING INTERROGATION DEATHS FOLLOWING INTERROGATION SIGNS OF DEATH SUCH AS SEEING A SEVERED ARM ON THE GROUND DEATHS BY TORTURE DEATHS BY MALARIA DEATHS BY HYPOTHERMIA AND DEATHS BY THE SUN 4HIS SUITCASE OF DEATH WAS MORE THAN THE MIND BODY COULD HOLD 4HIS WAS EVIDENCED BY THE WAY PEOPLE SPOKE OFTEN WITH LONG PAUSES AND REPETITIVE STARES -R , SAID h) WORRY ABOUT MY WHOLE FAMILY AND ANCESTORS NO ONE RESTSv 0EOPLES RELATIONSHIPS TO THEIR WORKING BODY THEIR BIRTHING BODY THEIR EATING BODY THEIR SMELLING BODY THEIR OWN FAMILY AND MORE WERE TAINTED OVER TIME )N ADDITION TO THE HUMAN BODY +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITIES ALSO DISRUPTED THE MEANING OF MANY SACRED SOURCES &OR INSTANCE RICE PLAYS A ROLE IN CEREMONY AND SOCIAL ACTIVITY RICE IS PART OF THE GEO CULTURAL FABRIC OF #AMBODIA AND SEASONAL RITUALS4HOUGH RICE WAS MENTIONED BY NEARLY ALL RESPONDENTS MANYREFERENCEDRICEINCONJUNCTIONWITHSTARVATIONTHEBROTHER OF-RS,SAID h7HENOURFATHERDIED HECOULDNOTEVENSWALLOWAGRAINOF RICEv 2ICE TOOK ON A DIFFERENT MEANING DURING +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS BY REPRESENTINGSTARKNESSRATHERTHANCELEBRATIONh2ICEWASALLWEHADvh7EDID NOTEVENHAVERICEv!DJUSTMENTSTOTHEWATERYTEXTUREOFRICE SOUPBOR BOR WASMENTIONEDFREQUENTLYANDASSOCIATEDWITHHUNGER h7EHADONLYWATERED

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RICE TO EAT IN TIMES MOST DIFlCULTv 4HERE IS A WATERY RICE DISH MADE WITH SALTTHAT#AMBODIANPEOPLEUSUALLYEATWHENSICKCALLEDBORBOR!LOVEDONE IN A COMPASSIONATE WAY OFTEN SERVES THIS DISH TO ANOTHER WHO IS ILL "UT THE GRUELDURINGTHE+HMER2OUGEWASWITHOUTSALT ANDSERVEDWITHOUTHUMAN CARE ! NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS MENTIONED THAT THEY LONGED FOR THE TASTE OF SALT !LSO THE RICE SEASON WAS A MARKER OF TIME AS TRADITIONAL CALENDAR DAYS WERE NOT CELEBRATED ANY LONGER -RS, !TTHEBEGINNINGWEHADJUSTTHREEORFOURTINSOFRICEFOR ORPEOPLE9OUKNOWTHETINSOFMILK4HEYUSEDTHEMTOMEASURE RICE x LATER ONE TIN WAS SHARED BETWEEN TWO PEOPLE -R, )NTHE0OL0OTTIME)DIDNOTKNOWHOWMANYDAYS)WASLIVING JUST WORKING AND WORKING AND ) WOULDNT KNOW THE 0CHUM "EN TIME JUSTWOULDNTKNOW)NTHEBEGINNING THERICEHARVESTLETMEKNOWTHE TIME THE SENSE OF TIME HMM BUT THAT CHANGED TOO -OTHEROF-RS, )FWEDIDNOTFOLLOWTHESOLDIERSORDERS WEWOULD HAVE NO RICE TO EAT -R4 7EWERETOLDTOGOTO"ATTAMBANGANDWEWEREHAPPYBECAUSE IT IS A WELL KNOWN PLACE FOR RICE "UT SOON IT WAS NOT SO HAPPY -R ! 2ICE BECAME GRUEL WE DID NOT CELEBRATE A HARVEST ANYMORE

!PARTICULARHUMILIATIONEMERGEDTHEMOREPEOPLECOULDNOTOPENLYSEEK RELATIONS WITH DECEASED ANCESTORS DURING THE REGIME BECAUSE THEY ABANDONED THEM (ALF THE PEOPLE WHO HAD ONE OR BOTH PARENTS DIE DURING $+ SPOKE OF THE PLACE WHERE THE PARENT DIED ONE MAN SPOKE AT LENGTH ABOUT SECRETLY BURYINGHISFATHERUNDERATAMARINDTREEFACING7EST4HEPLACESANDMETHODS FORhRESTvHELDSIGNIlCANTMEANINGFORRESPONDENTS-R4SAID h-AYBE)WILL REST AFTER ) GO TO MY FATHERS PLACEv )T HAD BEEN OVER  YEARS SINCE HE HAS BEENTOHISFATHERSBURIALSITE !LSO THEWAYTHE$+REGIMEDISCARDEDDEAD BODIESINTOPILESONTHEGROUNDORINWATERWASHUMILIATINGTOTHEDECEASED WHILECONTAMINATINGSURVIVORSMEMORIESTHISINCLUDEDTHETREATMENTOFDEAD INFANTSSOONAFTERBIRTH/NEWOMANSAIDTHATSHEFEAREDBECOMINGPREGNANT AGAINBECAUSEHERDECEASED BABYWASNOTATREST(AVINGNOACCESSTODEATH RITUAL FRIGHTENED PEOPLE $URING VILLAGE VISITS SOME WOMEN SPOKE OF THEIR FEAR OF DYING IN BIRTH BECAUSE THEY DID NOT HAVE AN AMULET OR STRING TO TIE TRADITIONALLY AROUND THEIR ABDOMEN IN LATE PREGNANCY !T A DEEP CULTURAL LEVEL DESTRUCTIVE KARMA MAY HAVE BEEN BUILDING THROUGH ANCESTRAL SPIRIT HUMILIATION WHERE ANCESTORS SPIRITS WERE DISRESPECTFULLY TREATED AT THE TIME OF PHYSICAL DEATH



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4HEFOLLOWINGSHOWSACONVERSATIONALSEQUENCEBY-RAND-RS,4HERE WAS A PROGRESSION OF DETAILS REGARDING DEATH RELATED CONTEXTSEXPERIENCES AS THERESPONDENTSPROGRESSEDFROMSESSIONTWOTOSESSIONTHREE$URINGANALYSIS OF THIS DISCUSSION ) NOTICED MANY PAUSES WITH MORE THAN TEN SECONDS OF SILENCEITWASLATEATNIGHTANDDESPITEAFATIGUEFACTOR)NOTEDTHATTHEMORE GRAPHIC THE DESCRIPTIONS THE LONGER THE SILENCES WERE ) NOTE THE REPETITION OF CERTAIN WORDS OR PHRASES SUCH AS hNOT ENOUGH NOT ENOUGH FOODv WAS INDICATIVE OF DISTRESS -R , SECOND SESSION (E IS REFERRING TO HIS MOBILE WORK TEAM IN 0URSAT 4HERE ARE THREE THINGS THAT MADE ME THINK ) WOULD NOT LIVE &IRST ) HAD TO STAY IN A BOAT AND THEN JUMP INTO WATER  METRES DEEP AND THEN ) HAD TO lND A CERTAIN TREE WITH ROOTS UNDER THE WATER ) CUT THE TOP OF THE TREE AND MOVED DOWN TO THE SOIL BUT ) WOULD RUN OUT OF OXYGEN ) HAD TO GO TO THE TOP TO BREATHE AND THEN IT WAS VERY COLD THE COLDEST SEASON AND ) WAS SO VERY COLD )NTERPRETER INSERTS hHYPOTHERMICv 4HECOLDISTHESECONDREASON)ALMOSTDIED4HETHIRD REASON IS THAT THERE WAS NOT ENOUGH FOOD TO EAT SO ) USED A LOT OF ENERGY BUT THE FOOD WAS VERY SMALL HE MAKES CUP SHAPED HANDS  ) COULD ONLY SURVIVE BECAUSE ) COULD CATCH A SNAKE IN THE WATER OR EAT TROKUON MORNING GLORY PLANT OR A FROG OR RAT ;) NOTE A GENDER DYNAMICWHEREINMENWHOGAVEDISTRESSINGMATERIALTENDEDTOORGANIZE EVENTS INTO SEQUENCE MORE THAN WOMEN= -RS, 4HEREISSTILLAFEELINGTHATWEREGRETWEDIDNOTGOOVERSEAS BECAUSE WE ARE STILL AFRAID THE +HMER 2OUGE WILL COME BACK AGAIN -R , JOINS IN TO ADD THE FOLLOWING !ND ) JUST WANT TO SAY THAT DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE TIME THERE WERE TWO KILLING SESSIONS )N THE lRST SESSION THEY ASKED THE IDENTITY OF A MOBILE WORKER AND TOLD HER ORHIMTOTALKABOUTWHATSHEORHEDIDIN,ON.OLTIMES4HEYASKED QUESTIONSLIKE h!REYOUASTUDENTWHATDIDYOUDOWEREYOUASELLER A FARMER A PARENT SOLDIER OR BUSINESS PERSONv !T THIS JUNCTURE -R " MADE MOVEMENTS WITH HIS RIGHT HAND AS IF WRITING AND POINTING AS A REENACTMENT OF THE QUESTIONING 4HEY JUST TOOK NOTES ABOUT OUR BACKGROUNDANDTHEHISTORYOFPEOPLEWEKNEW4HEYTOLDTHEBUSINESS PERSON AND AN OFlCIAL TO JUST WRITE DOWN THE RESUME OF THE PERSON 4HEY JUST KEPT ASKING AND THEN THEY WENT QUIET AND THERE WASNT ANYTHINGTODOEXCEPTWAITFORTHATKILLINGSESSION3OTHEYWOULDJUST PICK UP A lLE AND SAY THIS IS A STUDENT OR FRIEND OF THE OFlCER AND THEY JUST COLLECTED THEM AND GAVE THE ORDER TO KILL !T THIS TIME -R " SPOKE MORE RAPIDLY AND BEGAN TO STARE OFF !ND IN THE NEXT KILLING SESSION THEYRETURNEDTOTHEMOBILEWORKERANDASKEDTHESAMETHINGS

$ISPLACED WITHOUT )MAGINATION AGAIN4HENTHEYJUSTCOLLECTEDSOMENAMESANDCALLEDTHENAMESOUT AFTER THEY TOOK THEM OUT TO THE lELD TO KILL -R " SAT IN SILENCE FOR  SECONDS AND STARED -R,CONTINUED )TISDIFlCULTUMDIFlCULTUMTOlNDWORDS )COULD NOTACCOMPLISHTHETASKORDEREDBYTHEM+HMER2OUGE BECAUSE)DID NOTHAVEENOUGHNOTENOUGHFOODTOEAT)TWASSOHARDINTHATREGION ONCE ) GOT THERE ) DID NOT HAVE ENOUGH SLEEP THERE WAS NO MUSCLE ONLY SKIN OVER MY BONES ) HAD A BIG KNEE AND A BIG ELBOW ˆ SUCH BIG BONES ) WANT TO SAY THERE WAS NO MUSCLE UNDER MY SKIN AND ) COULDNOTWORKANDWHENWEGOTSICKWEDIDNOTHAVEANYHOPETOGET BETTER x THE HELP WAS NOT REAL -EDICAL HELP WAS JUST APPOINTED AND THE HELPERS ROLE WAS TO CARRY TRADITIONAL MEDICINE )T COULD NOT CURE MUCHILLNESS7HETHERONECANLIVEORDIEISNOTDONEWITHANYCHOICE /N TOP OF THIS WE COULD GET KILLED AT ANY TIME ANY TIME WITHOUT ANY TRIAL JUST LIKE KILLING ANIMALS ) KEPT EXPECTING TO DIE ) WAITED TO DIE 7IFE WIPES EYES THEN SMILES ;0EGS lELD NOTE -R " REPEATS CERTAIN PHRASES SUCH AS hNOT ENOUGHv AT TIMES WHEN HE IS DISTRESSED AND TEARFUL= -R"WASA+HMER2OUGESOLDIERIN0HNOM0ENHANDTHE3OUTHWEST PORTREGION ANDRECOUNTSHISHISTORY )N!UGUST THEYCOLLECTEDALL THE MEN IN 3AANG DISTRICT EVEN THE MONKS EVERYONE HAD TO BECOME PART OF THE ARMY OR WE WOULD BE KILLED 7IFE TEARFUL LOOKS AWAY WRINGSHANDS &ROMLATEn )WASTRAINEDINHOWTOSHOOTAND HOLD A GUN4HEN IN  WHEN THE +HMER 2OUGE WENT INTO 0HNOM 0ENH THEY SENT ME TO 0HNOM 0ENH )N  ) BECAME A DRIVER IN THE lELD AT THAT TIME ) DID NOT lGHT 7HEN THEY REMOVED ME FROM BEINGADRIVER )HADTODOMORE)SOMETIMESDROVEFROM0HNOM0ENH TO +AMPONG 3AM ˆ THE PORT WHERE THEY TRANSFERRED SUGAR AND OTHER SUPPLIES TO #HINA ) BROUGHT MATERIAL BUT DID NOT USE MY NAME -Y WIFE DID NOT KNOW WHERE ) WAS THEN WE WERE STILL ENGAGED -R # BECAME SERIOUS IN HIS FACIAL EXPRESSION SUDDENLY WITH MORE HESITATION HIS WIFE ADDED SOME INFORMATION AND HE BEGAN TO APPEAR UPSET AND WAS IN NEAR TEARS WHEN SPEAKING h)N  THE6IETNAMESE HAD A WAR WITH THE +HMER 2OUGE AND ) WAS A DRIVER AND WENT TO THE BORDER FROM !UGUST TO 3EPTEMBER  )F ) MADE ANY MISTAKE OR ACCIDENT THEY WOULD SAY KONSAN WHICH MEANS hTO DO SOMETHING WRONGv ) WOULD HAVE BEEN KILLED FOR DOING SOMETHING WRONG EVEN WHEN LIVING IN 0HNOM 0ENH -Y JOB WAS TO TAKE ARMY MATERIAL AND GUNS TO THE BORDER OF 6IETNAM ;0EGS lELD NOTE (E SHAKES HIS HEAD ANDISMILDLYTEARFULHISWIFESITSNEXTTOHIMRUBBINGHERINDEXlNGER INTO HER FOREARM REPETITIVELY=





,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA -RS/MSPOKEONSITEATHERFORMER0AGODAWORKCAMP -YBROTHER AND SISTER WERE KILLED ALL KILLED4HEY KILLED MY BROTHER AND SISTER SO WHEN ) COME HERE ) THINK ABOUT MY FAMILY !LSO SOME GOT MARRIED ANDDIEDANDTHEYDIDNTTHINKTHATALLOFTHISCOULDHAPPENBEFORETHEY WERE MARRIED !ND ALSO SOME DIED BECAUSE AT THAT TIME LIFE DEPENDS ON !NGKAR !NGKAR WANTS THEM TO BE ALIVE SO THAT 0OL 0OT CAN HAVE SOME GIRLS ALSO 3O THE TRUE STORY ABOUT THE GIRLS WHO GOT MARRIED IS ABOUT THOSE THAT HE HAD TOO !LSO IF SOMEONE REFUSES TO MARRY WHO THEY CHOOSE THEN ANYTHING COULD HAPPEN SOMETIMES ONE IS KILLED AND SOMETIMESONEISNOTKILLED ANDSOMETIMESEACHPERSONAGREESTOMARRY AND SOMETIMES NOT ˆ MAYBE IT WAS WORSE OR BETTER OTHER PLACES ) DONT KNOW -R /M SPOKE DURING OUR DRIVE IN +AMPONG 3PEU ON THE WAY TO HIS WEDDINGSITE )NTHEPASTTHISLAKEWASVERYDEEP"UTIN0OL0OTTIMES THEYCHANGEDTHISLAKETHISIS,AKE"UTTAHANDALSOTHEYWEREWAITING HERE TO KILL THE YOUTH IN  0EG ,IKE A KILLING lELD -R /M 9ES LIKE A KILLING lELD !ND THEY COLLECTED THE YOUTH AT THE COMMUNE AND TOOK THEM TO WORK TOGETHER DIGGING HERE USES BOTH HANDS AS IF DIGGING  7E HAD TO DIG DEEPER SO THAT THE LINE OF THE WATER OF THE LAKE COULD BE LIKE A FERTILISER TO USE FOR THE RICE "UTTAH ,AKE "UTTAH ,AKE ,ATER IN THE DRIVE -R / POINTED TO VARIOUS LANDMARKS ALONG THE WAY 4HIS IS 7AT 3OPHI WHERE LEADERS OF THE +HMER 2OUGE STAYED AND AFTER IN  THE +HMER 2OUGE OCCUPIED THIS PLACE &ROM  UNTIL  THE +HMER 2OUGE HID HERE 4HEY HADANOPPORTUNITYTOSTAYSECRETFROMTHEGOVERNMENT LIKETHEIRSECRET HEADQUARTERS

!NCESTORS WERE AT RISK FOR BEING DISPLACED BY !NGKAR &OR EXAMPLE THE REGIMES SYMBOLIC GESTURE OF ANY FOOD AFTER THE WEDDING WAS CENTRED ON !NGKARS ROLE AS GREAT PROVIDER RATHER THAN IT BEING A SACRIlCIAL GESTURE TO APPEASE SPIRITS OR GIVE HOMAGE TO DECEASED RELATIVES 4RADITIONAL SYMBOLISM WAS ERODED FURTHER BECAUSE MANY OF THE COUPLES THAT WERE GIVEN FOOD AFTER THEIR WEDDING WERE STARVING )N #AMBODIAN TRADITION FOOD IS SERVED WHEN PEOPLE ARE IN A STATE OF MERRIMENT DURING THE TIME OF OFFERING NOT IN A STATEOFSTARVATIONANDFEAR-RS/MSPOKEOFVOMITINGAFTEREATINGTHEFOOD PROVIDED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE ! PIG HAPPENED TO DIE IN THE VILLAGE THE DAY BEFORE OUR WEDDING AND THE +HMER 2OUGE COOKED IT AND SERVED FATTY BROTH TO US ) COULD NOT

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DIGEST THE FAT -Y BODY WAS ONLY HAVING RICE AND PLANTS ) BECAME MORE TIRED

/NLY TWO COUPLES SAID THAT THE WIFES MOTHER WAS PERMITTED TO ATTEND THE WEDDING AS A SILENT WITNESS AT THE CEREMONY !T ANOTHER WEDDING PLACE IN +ANDAL THE FATHER AND GRANDPARENTS OF THE BRIDE WERE INVITED BUT THE MOTHERHADTOSTAYHOMEINTHISCASETHEEXCLUSIONOFMOTHERBYTHE+HMER 2OUGELEADERWASESPECIALLYPAINFULFORTHEBRIDE)NANOTHERCASEOFACOUPLE MARRIED IN +AMPOT AROUND THE TIME OF 0CHUM "EN IN  WITH ONE OTHER COUPLE THEMANWASAFORMER,ON.OLSOLDIERANDWIDOWER ANDTHEWOMAN WAS A NEW PERSON THE COUPLES FAMILIES WERE PRESENT FOR THE WEDDING AND A SPECIAL COTTAGE WAS MADE FOR THEM THEY ARE STILL TOGETHER 7HEREAS IN +IRIVONG IN 4AKEO IN -ARCH  THE COMMUNE LEADER CHOSE ONE COUPLE TO MARRY AT THE BRIDES HOUSE AND THE MOTHER ATTENDED AND ELDERS GAVE A SPEECH h/UR COUNTRY WAS RELIEVED SO MY MOTHER COULD BE THERE BUT THE LEADER OF OUR COMMUNE STILL CHOSE MY HUSBAND (E HAD LIVED IN 0HNOM 0ENH BEFORE THE REGIME LIKE ME ) WAS  AND HE WAS  YEARS OLD -Y lRST HUSBAND DIED AND ) HAD TWO CHILDREN THAT WERE BORN IN 0HNOM 0ENH SO IT WAS GOOD TO HAVE A HUSBAND ) HAVE THREE CHILDREN TO HIM AND WE ARE STILL TOGETHER BECAUSE HE IS GENTLE AND KIND ) DONT WANT TO CHANGE THE +HMER WAY SO WE STAY TOGETHERv

The Manifestation of Chaos !SMYRESEARCHPROGRESSED THEMESEMERGEDINMYSTUDYTHATPAIREDPEOPLES LEVEL OF WORRY AND EXPERIENCE OF CHAOS 4WO PEOPLE WHO MARRIED IN 3IEM 2EAP SAID THAT THEY WORRIED THEIR SPIRITS COULD BE CAPTURED BY OTHER ENTITIES BUT THEY WERE UNSURE WHAT WOULD HAPPEN 3OME GAVE DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR INTERNALEXPERIENCEOFCHAOSh-YHEADWASSOFULLOFWORRYANDTHOUGHTSTHAT ) COULD NOT PLAN ANYTHING AND IT WAS LIKE ) HAD A BIG HOLE IN MY BODY AND EVERYTHING GOT LOST AND RAN OUT OF MEv /NE MAN SAID h) FELT NOTHING AND THEN GOT SCARED WHEN ) LOST MY FEELINGSv /VER  PER CENT OF RESPONDENTS  OUT OF  WORRIED THAT THEY hTHOUGHT TOO MUCHv IF THEY STAYED AWAY FROMTHEIRVILLAGEANCESTRAL PLACETOOLONG-ANYHADDOUBLE WORRY MEANING THAT THEY WORRIED ABOUT THEIR WORRY #HAOS CAN BE EXPERIENCED ON MANY LEVELS INSIDE THE SELF AND OUTSIDE THESELF)NMYSTUDY PEOPLEWERESENSITIVETOCHAOSALONGTHREEDIMENSIONS CHAOS WITHIN SELF AS IN LOSING ONES PURPOSE TO LIVE OR IN THE WITNESSING OF HORROR THAT WAS BEYOND ONES IMAGINATION CHAOS BETWEEN SELF AND OTHER PEOPLE AS IN ACTS OF BETRAYAL BY ANOTHER AND CHAOS BETWEEN SELF AND THE



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NATURALANDSUPERNATURALMILIEU ASINLACKOFSUSTAINABLERESOURCES ORSENSING THE PRESENCE OF A FORETELLING OMEN OR SPIRIT ) PONDERED THESE DIMENSIONS OF CHAOS AND HOW $+ GAINED THE MOMENTUM IT NEEDED TO PERPETUATE AND SUSTAIN FORCES OF ANNIHILATION .O DOUBT $+S GENERATION OF CHAOS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THE WITHDRAWAL OF THEIR ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL CULTURE ASSISTED THEIR FEROCITY "UT MY RESPONDENTS WERE POINTING TO SOMETHING WHEN THEY SAID h!NGKAR IS JUST UNDER THE GROUND WAITINGv 4HOSE WHO HAVE EXPERIENCED THE JUXTAPOSITION OF PROTECTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE POWERS INSIDE #AMBODIA CARRY A PARTICULAR PERCEPTION ON THE DORMANCY OF SUCH FORCES 0ROCESSES THAT ARE RESTORING FOR THE HUMAN AND CULTURAL SPIRIT ARE AS PERENNIAL AS THE PROCESSES THAT COLLAPSE THEM 9ES IT IS ESSENTIAL TO TRACE THE PATHWAYS INTO THAT NIGHTMARISH REALITY BUT IT IS EQUALLY VITAL TO REMEMBER THE SAFE AND ORDINARY LIFE AND MAP THE WAY BACK TO ORDINARINESS ˆ OUT OF DESTRUCTIVE CHAOS 4OSTAYAWAYFROMASAFEPLACETOOLONGMEANTBEINGAWAYFORMORETHANA YEAR WHILE SOME WOMEN AND MEN MENTIONED THAT TO BE AWAY FROM ONES MOTHER FOR MORE THAN THREE TO SIX MONTHS WAS TOO LONG /THERS HAD WAYS TO COMPENSATE ONE MAN SAID HE TOOK SOIL FROM HIS PARENTS VILLAGE WHEN TRAVELLINGTOANOTHERPLACEANDINGESTEDNATIVESOILDISSOLVEDINWATERTOWARD OFF ILLNESS4WENTY MEN AND WOMEN SPOKE OF BEING AWAY FROM THEIR MOTHER TOOLONGANDTHEIRSUBSEQUENTLOSSOFENERGYORLIFEFORCE.EARLYPERCENT OUTOF OFALLRESPONDENTSSAIDTHATTHEBREASTMILKFROMTHEIRMOTHER GIVEN TO THEM IN INFANCY WAS A PROTECTIVE LIQUID FOR THEIR LIFETIME )N THIS REGARD BEING NEARER TO AND BEING TOUCHED BY ONES MOTHER WAS PROTECTIVE AS WELL 3OME WOMEN WORRIED THAT THEIR OWN BABIES WOULD NOT GET ENOUGH PROTECTION IF THEY DID NOT BREASTFEED THEM OFTEN THIS WORRY WAS ANOTHER CULTURAL FORM OF INTERNAL CHAOS FOR THEM  (INTON TOOKONTHETASKOFFOLLOWINGTHETHREADSTHATSUPPORThGENOCIDALPRIMINGvBY LOOKING AT INTERSECTIONS BETWEEN MACRO SYSTEMS AND PSYCHO SOCIO CULTURAL SYSTEMS (IS THESIS POINTS TO INTERACTING VARIABLES THAT INCLUDE GENOCIDAL PRIMING AND ACTIVATION MANUFACTURING DIFFERENCE IDEOLOGICALTAKE IDEOLOGICALINTERFERENCE ONTOLOGICALRESONANCE hGENOCIDALBRICOLAGE v LOCAL MOTIVATIONS AND MIMETICS OF DIFFERENCE  &OR INSTANCE IN THE )NTERNATIONAL (ANDBOOK OF -ULTIGENERATIONAL ,EGACIES OF4RAUMA $ANIELI  A CHAPTER ON FORMER #AMBODIAN 2EFUGEES REFERENCES A COMMUNITY IN /REGON 53! WHEREMEMBERSWEREASSESSEDFORPSYCHIATRICSYMPTOMSOF0OSTTRAUMATIC3TRESS$ISORDER+INZIE "OEHNLEIN AND3ACK  2ESULTSSHOWEDTHATADULTSANDTHEIRCHILDRENHADSIMILARSYMPTOMS WHICHLEADTOACONCLUSIONOFTRANSMISSIONOFTRAUMAFROMONEGENERATIONTOTHEOTHER(OWEVER RESEARCHERS DID NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE RE ORDERING PROPERTIES OF SYMPTOMS ACROSS TIME AND PLACE AS WELL AS THE MEANING OF A SHARED SYMPTOM IN RELATION TO INTRA PERSONAL INTER PERSONAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHAOS ;,E6INE  BOOK REVIEW IN *OURNAL OF #ROSS #ULTURAL 0SYCHOLOGY 6OL  .O  *ULY 3AGE 0UBLICATIONS=

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!THIRDOFRESPONDENTSOUTOF WERECONCERNEDABOUTINTERACTIONS THEY HAD WITH ROAMING AND RESTLESS SPIRITS MANY DESCRIBED 0CHUM "EN THE AUTUMN SEASON FOR PAYING HOMAGE TO THE DEAD AS A PARTICULARLY SAD AND ANXIOUS TIME 4HE EXPERIENCE OF CHAOS SEEMED INmUENCED BY SOMEONES CULTURAL STATUS PLACE OF THEIR HOME VILLAGE AND VULNERABILITY TO SPIRITS SUCH AS PAST AND PRESENT ROLES AS SOLDIERS MONKS FARMERS PARENTS lRST BORN SON OR DAUGHTER TEACHERS AND SO ON  #ERTAIN PLACES CONTAINED PROTECTIVE SOURCES OF SPIRITS FOR PEOPLES ACCESS 'UARDIAN SYLPH OR FAIRY ELEMENTAL SPIRITS TRáNAN WERE MENTIONED BY THOSE WHO LIVED IN4AKEO +AMPOT AND +ANDAL )N AREAS WHERE THERE WERE A WIDER VARIETY OF PROTECTORS REFERENCED PEOPLE REFERRED MORE OFTEN TO !NGKAR AS A PARTICULAR ANIMATED FORCE TO BE FEARED 3OME EXAMPLES ARE h!NGKAR WAS THE CRUEL FORCEv OR h!NGKAR WAS THE BLACK FORCE THAT LIVED IN TREESv OR h!NGKAR HAS MANY EARS THAT KNOWS YOUR ACTIONSv

Displacement and Referential Power /CCASIONALLYDURINGMYINTERVIEWS PEOPLESEYESTOOKONAVACANTAPPEARANCE AS THEY SPOKE OF THE BRUTALITY THEY LIVED THROUGH ˆ THEY WERE UNSURE ABOUT HOW THE WORLD HAD GONE SO MAD !SSOCIATED SCENES OF GRAY LIGHT WERE PREVALENT &OR INSTANCE -R /M SPOKE OF WALKING FROM +AMPONG 3PEU TO 0URSAT IN  )WALKEDALLNIGHTTOGOTOTHEPLACEWHERE)WASMARRIED)WASDIZZY ALLNIGHTANDTHENIGHTWASSOMETIMESDARKANDSOMETIMESLIGHT)WAS AFRAIDOFSHADOWS4HEMOONWASDIFFERENT!SMORNINGCAME )HEARD SOMETHING BUT COULD NOT SEE ANYTHING ) DID NOT SAY ANYTHING ) DID NOTDARETHINKANYTHING)KNEWTHELAND BUT)DIDNOTKNOWTHELAND ) WORRIED )D NEVER SEE MY VILLAGE LIFE THE SAME AGAIN

) WAS ABLE TO FOLLOW THIS MANS HISTORY INTO AND OUT OF DESPAIR FROM HIS 0URSAT DEPARTURE DURING THE ,ON .OL YEARS TO HIS ENTRANCE TO AND EXIT FROM 0HNOM 0ENH TO THE DEATH OF HIS FATHER TO HIS GROUP WEDDING TO THE BIRTH OFHISlRSTCHILDINˆUNTILHISCURRENTSTAGEOFPOSTGRADUATEEDUCATION AND HIS LIFE WITH  CHILDREN BY THE SAME SPOUSE (E HIGHLIGHTED HIS +HMER 2OUGE WEDDING AND THE BIRTH OF HIS lRST CHILD IN  AS hRELIEF x BECAUSE SOMETHINGNATURALHAPPENEDWHENOURlRST SONWASBORN WHENEVERYTHING WAS SO SAD AT THAT TIME SO SADv (OWDOTHEMINDANDTHEBODYDIGESTTHEPREVIOUSLYUNIMAGINEDWHEN IT BECOMES ONES LIVING EXPERIENCE 7HEN RESPONDENTS SPOKE ABOUT HORRIlC



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EVENTS THEIR WHOLE BODIES OFTEN SHOOK /NE OF MY #AMBODIAN COLLEAGUES SAID TO ME h%VEN TODAY WHEN ) AM SEPARATED FROM MY OLDER SISTER ) FEEL WORRIED $URING THE +HMER 2OUGE WHEN WE WERE SEPARATED MY ARM ACHED AT NIGHT BECAUSE WE USED TO LIE WITH OUR ARMS TOUCHING HERE WHEN WE SLEPT SHE TOUCHES HER SHOULDER  ) COULD HARDLY SLEEP WITHOUT HERv4HE BODY CAN BE A CONDUIT FOR EXPERIENCE ˆ AS IF IMAGES OF HORROR lLL THE MIND AND SPILL INTOTHEBODYUNTILTHEREISNOLONGERACONTAINERBIGENOUGHTOHOLDTHEM )N THIS STATE OF OVERLOAD AND CONFUSION BEING DISPLACED OR DETACHED FROM SELFSEEMSALIKELYOUTCOMEh7HEN)TOUCHEDMYBULBOUSBONES ITWASLIKE )HADNOSKINANDMYHANDWASONACHAINOFTHEBONESSKELETON )SMELLED MYOWNROTv!GAIN PEOPLESPOKEOFBEINGMOREREPULSEDBYTOUCHINGTHEIR OWNDISTORTEDBODIESTHANTOUCHINGANOTHERS4HISEMBODIMENTOFTHEBIZARRE BECAMEANOTHERTURNINGPOINTˆORTHEPOINTWHENREALITYWENTBEYONDTHE MINDS CAPACITY TO HOLD OR PROJECT IMAGES ˆ AND ONES IMAGINATION BECAME THREADBARE -ANYTOLDMETHATTHEYIMAGINEDLAST STRAWCIRCUMSTANCESTHATLEDTHEM TO CONTEMPLATE SUICIDE OTHERS SPOKE OF A DESIRE TO MAGICALLY DIE /NE MAN SAID h)THOUGHTTHATIFONLY)COULDSEEMYSELFDEADBEFORE)WENTTOSLEEP THEN ) THOUGHT ) MIGHT DIE IN MY SLEEPv "UDDHIST TABOOS ON SUICIDE WERE ALSO MENTIONED -RS ! WHO WAS WED IN 0URSAT SAID h"Y THE TIME ) MARRIED SO MUCH WAS GONE AND ) THOUGHT ) COULD DIE THEN BUT THEN ) WAS MARRIED "UT THEN MY WORRY GOT BIGGER BECAUSE IF SOMEONE HAD TAKEN MY HUSBAND TO KILL ) KNEW ) COULD NOT STAND IT ) WOULD HAVE WANTED TO DIE THEN FOR CERTAINv)TWASASIFSHEWASGIVENANOTHERCONNECTINGPOINTVIATHEWEDDING WHENALLSEEMEDGRIM WHILESIMULTANEOUSLYBRINGINGTHEPOTENTIALFORANOTHER LOSS TO THE FOREFRONT AS A KIND OF ANTICIPATORY FEAR THAT HAD STRONG ODDS OF COMING TRUE  /F COURSE THERE WERE CASES WHERE THE CHOSEN SPOUSE WAS A POINT OF DISCONNECTION -Y STUDY UNCOVERED A MAJOR PHENOMENON THAT ) DID NOT ANTICIPATE !S BIZARREASITMAYSOUND THEARRANGEDGROUPMARRIAGESGAVEMANYPEOPLESOME CULTURAL AND PERSONAL TRACTION ˆ JUST WHEN THEY THOUGHT THEY WERE SLIPPING OFF THE DEEP END THEY FOUND A hPLACEv TO BELONG 7EDDINGS REPLACED RATHER THAN DISPLACED PEOPLE $ESPITE $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEAS RITUAL BREAKDOWN MARRIAGE OFTEN MEANT LESS WORK MORE FOOD REGULAR TOUCH AND A PLACE TO LIVE AS GROUPS BEGAN TO CONVERGE IN COMMUNAL SETTINGS 0EOPLEDESCRIBEDLIFEIN$+ASMOSTLYUNREAL WITHSHORTEXCURSIONSINTO THEIR FORMER REAL LIFE "UT AFTER THE WEDDINGS PEOPLE BEGAN TO NEGOTIATE A FUTUREWITHINTHEMSELVESANDWITHOTHERFORCES SUCHASTALKINGTO"UDDHA OR CONTACTING ANCESTORS BY GIVING AN OFFERING &OR INSTANCE -R ! WHO MARRIED

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ANDWORKEDIN0URSATSAID h-YBODYKEPTLIVING BUT)FEDSOMEONEELSEAND IT WAS ME x THEN AFTER ) MARRIED ) BEGAN TO BELONG SOME WHERE AGAIN AND SOMETIMESMADEANOFFERINGTOMYANCESTORSv3OMETRANSITIONEDFROMFEELING AS IF THEY DID NOT BELONG ANYWHERE OR TO ANYONE ˆ TO BELONGING AGAIN TO A PLACE AND FAMILY ˆ GOING FROM BEING DISPLACED TO RE PLACED &EELINGS OF UNREALITY OR DISCONNECTEDNESS WERE GENERALLY HEIGHTENED BY A NUMBER OF FACTORS SUCH AS DECREASED ACCESS TO SPIRIT SOURCES OR RITUALS FOR PROTECTION4HOSEWHOWORKEDINPROJECTSWHERETHEYHADROAMINGACCESSTO NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS WITH TREES SHADE WATER AND SO ON FARED BETTER THAN THOSEWHOWERECONlNED2ESPONDENTSDESCRIBEDTIMESWHENTHEYCOULDNOT THINK OR IMAGINE ANYTHING ˆ NOT EVEN IMAGES OF DESTRUCTION "UT AS THEY GOT SOME REPRIEVE THE CAPACITY TO IMAGINE RETURNED 3OMETIMES INTRUSIVE IMAGES COINCIDED WITH ONES CAPACITY TO IMAGINE AGAIN BUT MANY PEOPLE DESCRIBED LONG PERIODS OF BEING VOID OF IMAGINATIVE ACTIVITY -R 4 SAID h!FTER A WHILE GOING FROM PLACE TO PLACE ) WAS TORTURED TWO TIMES ) SAW NOTHING ) HEARD NOTHING ) WAS STONEv &OR SOME FOLLOWING THE WEDDING OR A HEALTHY BIRTH THEY REGAINED THEIR CAPACITY TO IMAGINE A FUTURE )F PEOPLE WERE FORTUNATE TO RETURN TO A VILLAGE AFTER THE WEDDING THEY GAINED SUPPORT FROM A MORE PREDICTABLE MILIEU ALSO THEY TENDED TO HAVE ACCESS TO MORE RITUAL AND PREDICTABLE REST )MAGINATION IS A mUID PHENOMENON THAT CAN COME AND GO ) FOUND THAT PEOPLES IMAGINATIVE CAPACITY REGARDLESS OF WHETHER IT WAS CONSTRUCTIVE OR DESTRUCTIVE IN CONTENT DURING $+ WAS IMPACTED BY PEOPLES hREFERENCE CAPACITYv "Y THIS ) MEAN THAT FAMILIAR SITUATIONS FROM ONES PRE $+ PAST HAD THE CAPACITY TO GIVE MEANING TO NEW EXPERIENCES BECAUSE THERE WAS A PRE EXISTING FRAMEWORK OF EXPERIENCE AS IN hTHIS REMINDS ME OF THE TIME WHENxv  )NTERESTINGLY AS POINTED OUT PREVIOUSLY SOME RESEARCHERS HAVE DEPICTED !NGKAR AS THE MOTHER FATHER REPLACEMENT FOR THE COLLECTIVE DURING THE 0OL 0OT REGIME (OWEVER BECAUSE !NGKAR WAS REFERRED TO AS )T BY MOST IN MY STUDY RATHER THAN HE SHE OR THEY THE TRANSFER OF FEELINGS ABOUT A PARENT ONTO !NGKAR WOULD BE INTELLECTUAL RATHER THAN EMOTIONAL )F THERE WERE NO SPECIlC NURTURING ENTITY TO IMAGINE DISPLACEMENT IS MORE PROBABLE4WORESPONDENTSWEDIN0REY6ENGAND+AMPONG#HAM SAIDTHAT !NGKAR WAS hA MOTHER AND FATHER v BUT THIS WAS IN REFERENCE TO A PARTICULAR  ) USE THE TERM hREFERENTIALv RATHER THAN THE PSYCHOANALYTIC TERM TRANSFERENTIAL BECAUSE IT ACCOUNTS FOR REFERENCE OF THE SPIRIT REALM AS MUCH AS THE HUMAN REALM 7ITHOUT GOING INTO DETAILEDDISCOURSE INPSYCHOANALYTICTHEORY MOSTSIMPLY TRANSFERENCEHAPPENSWHENONEPLACES DISPLACES FEELINGSANDATTITUDESONTOANOTHERPERSONBECAUSESHEISREMINDEDOFCLOSELYKNOWN RELATIONS SUCH AS PARENTS SIBLINGS PARTNER OR TEACHER 2EBER  



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COMMUNE LEADER OF THE GIRL AND BOYS CAMPS /NE WOMAN WED IN +ANDAL SAID h!NGKAR WAS SUPPOSED TO BE THE MOTHER AND FATHER BUT MAYBE NOTv ) THINK THAT THIS NON REFERENTIAL TERRITORY CREATED BY $+ THAT SURROUNDED THEMYTHOLOGYOF!NGKAR INCREASEDPEOPLESEXPERIENCEOFTHEUNREALSURREAL (OW COULD THEY CUSHION REALITY AND STAY SOMEWHAT SANE WHEN FEW REFERENCE POINTS WERE OFFERED ˆ EXCEPT TO APPEAL TO RITUAL RELATED TO THE METAPHYSICAL REALM )N SUCH OVERWHELMING TIMES WEDDINGS AND BIRTHS SEEMED TO YIELD A MOST SIGNIlCANT REFERENTIAL POINT FOR THAT TIME PERIOD ALSO MARRIAGES WERE MOSTLY SLOTTED FOR MEN AND WOMEN WITHIN THEIR CUSTOMARY MARRYING YEARS SO THAT ACTIVITY ALLOWED FOR AGE STAGE REFERENCE AS WELL 7EDDINGS PROVIDED SOME SEMBLANCE OF THE KNOWN ˆ A TEMPLATE FOR TRANSMISSION OF HISTORY IN A COUNTER HISTORICAL ERA 4O MY AMAZEMENT MARRIAGE AND BIRTH EXPERIENCES TENDED TO CUSHION THE ACCUMULATION OF TABOO EXPERIENCES WHILE BRINGING PEOPLEBACKINTOTHEIRCAPACITYTOIMAGINEASAFELIFE&ORINSTANCE -R,SPOKE OF VIOLENT DETAILS FROM $+ AND SUDDENLY STOPPED HE SAID HE WAS hTOO FULLv OVERLOADED BY HIS RECALL OF IMAGES &ILM FOOTAGE TAKEN AT THIS TIME SHOWS AN INCREASE IN HIS BODY MOVEMENTS AS HE ATTEMPTED TO DESCRIBE SOMETHING AWFUL (E MOVED HIS HANDS RAPIDLY OVER HIS KNEES ELBOWS AND HEAD AS HE TRIED TO PORTRAY HIS FORMER STARVING BODY THEN HE BECAME MOTIONLESS ALL OF A SUDDEN HE SAID AFTERWARDS THAT h) SAW NOTHING NOT EVEN THIS ROOM BUT ) HEARD EVERYTHINGv "UT WITHIN A FEW MINUTES HE REMARKED ON HIS WEDDING AND BECAME CALMER hx BUT THEN ) WAS PAIRED WITH HER POINTS TO HIS WIFE AND ) KNEW ) HAD A CHANCE TO LIVE v (IS HAND AND EYE MOVEMENTS SLOWED DOWN AS HE SPOKE OF HIS WEDDING 4HE WEDDINGS AND LIVE BIRTHS GAVE PEOPLE SOME REPRIEVE DURING THE REGIME EVEN IF THE mEETING MOMENT INTO THE POTENTIAL FOR KINDNESS ˆ FELL SHORT "UT THERE WAS TYPICALLY THE JUXTAPOSITION OF RELIEF AND ALARM IN MOST WOMENANDMENSHISTORIES)RECALLSPEAKINGTOAWOMANWHOSElRSTPREGNANCY ENDEDASASTILLBIRTHDURINGTHEREGIMEIN0URSATINh!FTERALLTHAT)SAW ) THOUGHT AT LEAST ) WOULD HAVE A BABY AFTER MY WEDDING "UT THEN BECAUSE MY BABY DIED ) DO NOT DARE ASK FOR ANYTHING AGAIN EVEN IN MY NEXT LIFEv /VERALL )FOUNDTWOPOIGNANTTURNINGPOINTSFORMENANDWOMENDURING THEIR$+YEARS)FTHEYHADASAFEPLACETOLIVEAFTERTHEIRWEDDINGS ANDTHEY DELIVEREDAHEALTHYBABY REGARDLESSOFTHEBIRTHEXPERIENCEˆTHEYWEREBETTER ABLETONEGOTIATEWITHTHESPIRITSFORANAFTERLIFEFORTHEMANDTHEIRCHILDREN (OWEVER AS)WILLSHOWINTHENEXTTWOCHAPTERS PEOPLESATTEMPTSTORETREAT FROMCRUELTYDURING$+WERETHWARTEDBYTHEIRDISPLACEMENTFROMPROTECTIVE SOURCES AND THEIR OWN DEVELOPMENTAL CAPACITY

Chapter

6 Field Diaries: Exposé on Cruelty

Atrocity Saturation -Y lELD DIARIES ARE lLLED UP WITH PENCIL SKETCHES HAIKU ONE WORD EMBOSSMENTS PHOTOS OF MY SCULPTURES LISTS OF METAPHORS AND DESCRIPTIONS FROM RESPONDENTS &OR EXAMPLE IN *ANUARY  ) WROTE  THEN -R4 RAN THE PALM OF HIS HAND OVER THE SKIN OF HIS ARM HE WAS DISTRESSED JUST REMEMBERING HIS BODY FROM THAT TIME x AND AN IMAGE CAME TO ME AS HE SPOKE "LACK LUMPS OF mESH PEEL OFF IN STRIPS LIKE BARK ON A DEAD TREE

)TWASTHROUGHSCULPTINGTHATMYGUTREACTIONSFOUNDAPLACEFOREXPRES SION WITHOUT CENSORSHIP #LAY AND WAX GAVE ME A CHANCE TO OVER EXTEND A FORM AND THEN PULL IT BACK INTO BALANCE OR LEAVE IT DERANGED #ASTING A WAX BODYTOBRONZEWASAPROCESSTHATREmECTEDPEOPLESDESCRIPTIONSOFTHEIROWN METAMORPHOSIS /NE MAN SAID h"Y THE END OF MY SECOND TORTURE BY THE +HMER 2OUGE THE SUN COULD NOT BURN ME ANY MORE ) WAS HARDER THAN HARDv 3IMILARLY ) PREFERRED BLACK VOLCANIC CLAY FOR SCULPTING HUMAN FORMS ANDlRINGINRAKUBECAUSE)COULDNOTPREDICTTHEOUTCOMEOFTHElREˆAKIN TO THE CONDITIONS IN WHICH PEOPLE LIVED UNDER $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA



2AKU IS A lRING PROCESS FOR CERAMICS WITH ORIGINS IN THE MAKING OF *APANESE TEA CEREMONIAL BOWLS4HECLAYISIMMERSEDINCORElRE TAKENOUTWITHTONGS PLACEDINCOMBUSTABLEMATERIAL AND lNALLY PLACED IN WATER FOR COOLING 4HE RESULTS ARE UNPREDICTABLE AND THE CLAY BODY IS RENDERED MOST POROUS





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)RECALLGOINGTOACAF£IN0HNOM0ENHTOMAKEWHAT)THOUGHTWOULDBE THElNALEDITSONTHISMANUSCRIPT7HILEREREADINGAPASSAGEABOUTAWOMAN WHO WAS MARRIED TO A FORMER MONK IN  IN4AKEO ) BECAME TEARFUL "Y THETIMESHEWAS YEARS OLDANDBETWEENAND THISWOMANHAD EXPERIENCEDFOURPREGNANCIESWITHTWOLIVEBIRTHS ONESPONTANEOUSABORTION ANDONEDEADBIRTHˆALLBETWEENAND!NDDURINGALLOFTHOSE LOSSES SHE WAS ALONE WITHOUT AN ATTENDANT )N #AMBODIAN CULTURE WHERE VILLAGEWOMENSTROKEANDSURROUNDTHEWOMANGIVINGBIRTH SUCHANABSENCE IS CRUEL DEPRIVATION ,IVING THROUGH THE +HMER 2OUGE ERA WAS LIKE HAVING A STAKE OF REMOTENESS DISCONNECTEDNESS AND UTTER ALONENESS DRIVEN INTO HER CORE)PUTAWAYMYPAPERS ANDWALKEDALONGBACKSTREETSˆLOOKINGATMEN SQUATTINGAROUNDACARDGAME WATCHINGWOMENTOUCHCHILDRENSHAIRASTHEY LOOKED FOR LICE ˆ SIMPLE PREDICTABLE SOOTHING TOUCH )N THE END ) THINK THAT PARTICULAR DISTURBING IMAGES EMERGED BECAUSE ) ONLY INTERVIEWED AND TRAVELLED WITH +HMER 2OUGE SURVIVORS WHO HAD NOT LEFT#AMBODIA EVENTHOUGH)HADACCESSTOFORMERREFUGEESIN!USTRALIA THE 53! AND &RANCE 4HERE IS LITTLE WRITTEN MATERIAL ON DYNAMIC METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES OUTSIDE OF ART THERAPY THAT COULD HELP RESEARCHERS ATTEND SIMULTANEOUSLY TO THE lGURE AND GROUND OF RESPONDENTS LIVED HISTORIES 4RADITIONAL PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION METHODS RARELY ACCOUNT FOR INTERACTIONS THAT ARE PERSONAL AND POLITICAL IN NATURE "ERNARD  MUCH LESS THE RESEARCHERS INTRAPERSONAL CHALLENGES &OR INSTANCE DEMOGRAPHIC DATA IS PROVIDED ABOUT SUBJECTS BUT RARELY ON RESEARCHERS ˆ DESPITE THE OBVIOUS POTENTIAL FOR INTERACTION EFFECTS )N THIS STUDY PLACE DYNAMICS HELD ITS OWN POWER SUCH AS HOW THE PLACE OF AN INTERVIEW INmUENCED SOMEONES LEVEL OF DISCLOSURE "Y MAKING SKETCHBOOK DIARY ENTRIES ) COULD SAFEGUARD AGAINST BEING TOO REMOVED OR TOO INmUENCED BY RESPONDENTS MATERIAL AND THE SITES OF THE INTERVIEWS /N A MORE PERSONAL LEVEL BEING A VISUAL AND TACTILE LEARNER MY RISK WAS IN REPLAYING OTHERS IMAGED ACCOUNTS IN MY OWN MIND &OR INSTANCE ) RECALL ONE MORNING WHEN ) WOKE FROM A DREAM WHERE ) HAD BEEN RUNNING ALONGSIDEARIVERWHEREBULBOUSEYESBOBBEDUPANDDOWNINTHEWATER4HIS WAS DURING THE  COUP WHEN ) WAS IN 0HNOM 0ENH AND ) THINK ) WAS IMPACTEDBYTHEANTICIPATORY ANXIETYAROUNDME"YMAKINGCONCRETEFORMS ) WAS ABLE TO ACCOUNT BETTER FOR THE VISUAL THEMES SUCH AS THE WAY PEOPLE SPOKE OF WALKING PAST hHUMAN lSH EYESv IN DEAD BODIES THAT WERE STREWN ALONG WATER PLACES 

) USE THE TERM hDEAD BIRTHv RATHER THAN STILLBIRTH AS A WAY OF DEPICTING REALITY

&IELD $IARIES %XPOS£ ON #RUELTY



/FTENTIMES lELD RESEARCH INVOLVES BOTH THE lELD WHERE OBSERVATIONS ARE MADE AND THE lELD IN WHICH ANALYSIS IS MADE OR CONCLUDED 4HE WRITE UPISOFTENTHEHOMEPLACEWHENRESEARCHERSRETURNTOANALYSEANDEDITTHEIR WORK !LL OF MY INTERVIEWS WERE HELD IN #AMBODIA -Y HOME BASE WAS IN RURAL 6ICTORIA !USTRALIA FOR HALF OF THE STUDY $URING THE OTHER HALF ) LIVED ON +YUSHU IN *APAN AN ISLAND RICH IN 3HINTO SPIRITISM !CCOUNTING FOR MY OWN CONTEXT WAS AN EXPERIMENTAL PART OF ANALYSIS BUT ) THINK ) WAS MORE SENSITIVE TO THE SIGNIlCANCE OF RESPONDENTS SPIRIT REFERENCES WHILE LIVING ON +YUSHU 4HIS CHAPTER IS ABOUT MY RESPONSE TO PEOPLES ENDURANCE OF THEIR OWNHISTORIES HAVINGANEXPRESSIVECONSEQUENCEMORETHANAREACTIVEONEFOR ME4HUS THISCHAPTERISPERSONALANDILLUSTRATIVELYPOLITICALBECAUSE)NEEDED TOlNDMETHODSTHATWOULDASSISTINKEEPINGMYHISTORYSEPARATEFROMTHOSE OF WOMEN AND MEN IN MY STUDY &OR INSTANCE THERE WAS AN OCCASION WHEN HYPERVIGILANCE FOR ME AND FOR MY RESPONDENTS WAS CONNECTED TO THE ANTICIPATION OF UNPREDICTABLE VIOLENCE BY INVISIBLE SOURCES ) NOTED THAT THE MORE NEBULOUS THE SOURCE OF VIOLENCE THE MORE THE RISK FOR HYPERVIGILANCE4HE RECOGNISED TERM VICARIOUS TRAUMA DOESNOTCAPTURETHEFULLSCOPEOFhCOLLECTIVEvATROCITIESFELTBYTHELIVING AND BYTHEROAMINGSPIRITS4HEPHENOMENON !TROCITY3ATURATION EMERGEDINMY STUDYANDSEEMSMOREAPTFORBROADENINGTHENOTIONOFACCUMULATEDDISTRESS IN WAYS THAT ALLOW FOR SUCH METAPHYSICAL AFTERMATH

Field Diary 2003 4ODAY    THE4HAI %MBASSY IN 0HNOM 0ENH WAS SET ON lRE AND 4HAIBUSINESSESWERERANSACKEDˆRUMOURSPUTINTOCIRCULATIONHOLDPOWER MOBILE PHONE MESSAGES DENTED THE VENEER OF PEACE AND DEVELOPMENT TODAY ASVIOLENCEERUPTEDSORAPIDLYˆLIKEANOILlRETHATSPLATTERSOFFCOLDSTEEL ˆ HAVING THE CAPACITY TO DART IN RANDOM PATTERNS 3OMEHOW TONIGHT ) WANT TO RETURN TO *APAN AND JUST SIT IN A PREDICTABLE PLACE    9ESTERDAY LATEINTOTHENIGHT)INTERVIEWEDANDlLMEDACOUPLE OUR THIRD SESSION 4HE WOMAN SPOKE OF HER REPEATED DREAM h&OR THIRTY YEARS ) HAVE HAD THE SAME DREAM WHERE ) TRY TO TAKE OUR CHILDREN TO THE 4HAI BORDER SO THEY CAN GET OUT OF THE DANGER BUT THE JUNGLE IS SO DARK

 /VERTHECOURSEOFMONTHS)MADEFOURONE MONTHTRIPSTO#AMBODIAFROM*APAN$URING THElNALSTAGESOFANALYSIS )RETURNEDTO#AMBODIAFORTWOMONTHSTOCOMPLETETHElRSTDRAFT 'IVEN THESE CONTEXTS THE METHODS OF INQUIRY REQUIRED A VERSATILITY THAT COULD ACCOUNT FOR THE UNFOLDING NATURE OF PEOPLES RECOLLECTION AND THE RESEARCHERS CONTEMPLATION

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AND THERE ARE DANGEROUS THINGS IN THE DARK LATER DESCRIBED AS POSSESSING SPIRITS  ) WAKE BEFORE ) CAN GET MY CHILDREN TO THE BORDERv

) SEE AGAIN HOW WORRY INCREASES AS ONES PERCEPTION OF UNPREDICT ABLE AND INVISIBLE SOURCES OF VIOLENCE INCREASES SUCH AS SPIRIT INTRUSION FOR MY RESPONDENTS OR THE MOBILE PHONE DRIVEN RUMOURS ON THE STREETS OF 0HNOM 0ENH

Keeping Histories Separate ) SPOKE TO A WOMAN WHOSE DAUGHTER DIED THREE DAYS AFTER SHE WAS BORN IN 4HEWOMANWAS YEARS OLDIN ANDHASHADNOPREGNANCYSINCE SHE COULD NOT SPEAK ABOUT THE DETAILS AND ASKED HER YOUNGER SISTER TO SPEAK ON HER BEHALF OF THE EARLIER TRAGEDY !NOTHER WOMAN SPOKE OF HER FRIENDS ABORTION ) AM UNSURE WHETHER HER OWN HISTORY WAS GIVEN AS A THIRD PARTY ACCOUNT 4HERE IS A TABOO ABOUT SPEAKING OF UNBORN CHILDREN JUST IN CASE THERE IS SPIRIT FOUL PLAY

Field Diary 2004    )FEELBURDENEDBYMYDESIRETOSCULPTACERTAINIMAGETODAY)T WAS NOT UNTIL ) WAS WELL INTO9S STORY OF HER SISTER THAT ) SAW THREADS TO MY HISTORY )T WAS LIKE A hBODYv TRANSFER OR INFUSION 4ODAY MORE THAN EVER ) REALISE THAT9S SISTER WAS MY AGE AT THE TIME OF HER +HMER 2OUGE WEDDING AND PREGNANCY ) TOO WAS  IN  WHEN ) WAS PREGNANT FOR THE lRST TIME ) WAS ALSO YOUNG WHEN ) WITNESSED PERVERTED MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS BEING CONDUCTED ON SOLDIERS WHO WERE INVOLUNTARILY COMMITTED TO A PSYCHIATRIC UNIT OF A 53! MILITARY HOSPITAL !T THAT TIME ) WAS A CLINICAL INTERN AND POSTGRADUATE STUDENT WORKING AT A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL THAT TREATED !MERICAN 6IETNAM WAR VETERANS )T WAS n -EN WERE RETURNING FROM THE WAR WITH PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS AND THE MILITARY HAD APPROVAL TO CONDUCTMEDICALRESEARCHONTHESEDISABLEDVETERANS4HEIRREASONINGlTTHE POLITICSOFPSYCHIATRYATTHATHISTORICALTIMEWHENBEFORE 0OSTTRAUMATIC 3TRESS $ISORDER DID NOT EXIST SHELL SHOCK WAS THE TERM !LSO HOMOSEXUALITY WAS CONSIDERED TO BE A PSYCHIATRIC DISORDER AT THAT TIME4HUS ) SAW MEN INTERVIEWEDAFTERBEINGINJECTEDWITHHIGHDOSESOFSODIUMPENTOTHALTRUTH SERUM WITH THE GOAL OF GAINING INFORMATION ABOUT HOMOSEXUAL ACTIVITY THAT MAY HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THEIR PSYCHOSIS BY hREPRESSIONv  $URING MY INTERNSHIP ONEMANSUFFEREDACARDIACARRESTFROMANOVERDOSE&OLLOWING

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THEREWASMUCHCOVER UP ANDMYINQUIRIESWEREDISMISSEDDUETOMYSTATUS AS A STUDENT WOMAN AND CIVILIAN ) CONTEMPLATE ALL THE WAYS CRUELTY CAN BE JUSTIlED

) SCULPTED MY lRST PIECE CASTING IT FROM CLAY TO WAX TO BRONZE AFTER ONE WOMAN TOLD ME OF HER  BIRTH IN +AMPONG 3PEU h-Y BELLY COULD HAVE BEEN CUT OPEN LIKE MY FRIENDS ) DID NOT KNOW IF MY BABY WAS GOING TO BE KILLED BY THE WOMAN WHO WAS SHOWING OTHERS HOW TO ATTEND THE BIRTH4HEY USED PREGNANT WOMEN SOMETIMES SO THEY COULD SHOW THEIR NURSES WHAT THE BABY LOOKED LIKE INSIDE BEFORE THE BABY CAME OUTv 4HE FOLLOWING CLAY IMAGE 5NDERCUT ) HAS BEEN PHOTOGRAPHED ON A SLAB OF WOOD WHEN THE CLAY WAS STILL WET hxMY BODY HAS CRACKS THAT NO ONE CAN SEE WHEN ) TOUCH MY BODY ) REMEMBER MANY SAD THINGS AND ) CAN STILL BECOME SCAREDv

5NDERCUT ) 5NlRED CLAY ,E6INE 

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5NDERCUT )) "RONZE ,E6INE  0HOTO BY *ENNY (ALL

Field Diary 2005    ! COLLEAGUE ASKED ME ABOUT THE ABORTION METHODS USED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE DURING AN !SIAN 3TUDIES SEMINAR ) GAVE IN -ELBOURNE 3HE WAS OVERWHELMED BY MY DESCRIPTIONS AND CALLED THE +HMER 2OUGE hBRUTAL BASTARDSv (ER COMMENT DID NOT SIT WELL WITH ME ) DO NOT WANT TO PARADE ANALOGOUS HISTORY THAT MIGHT DILUTE THE ATROCITIES ENACTED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE 9ET THE MORE ) REmECT ON THE +HMER 2OUGE YEARS THE MORE ) TUMBLE INTO MY OWN POLITICAL HISTORY FROM THE EARLY S IN THE 53! A TIME WHEN ABORTIONS WERE NOT LEGAL 5NWANTED PREGNANCIES ARE A REALITY FOR YOUTH ) RECALL GIVING SUPPORT TO MY  YEAR OLD GIRLFRIEND WHOM )LL CALL ,ISA WHEN SHE WENT FOR AN ILLEGAL ABORTION BACK ALLEY STYLE IN7ASHINGTON $#4HE GOING RATE WAS  FOR A COAT HANGER EXTRACTION WITH ANTIBIOTICS4HE ATTENDANT STUFFED CLOTH IN HER MOUTH AND TOLD HER TO BITE DOWN DURING THE hEXTRACTIONv ,ISA BLED FOR WEEKS (ER

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STORYHAPPENEDINAPARTICULARPLACEˆINADEMOCRACYWHERESOMEPOLICY MAKERS DO NOT DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MORALITY AND ETHICS ,ISAS EMOTIONAL STORY IS NOT SO DIFFERENT FROM #AMBODIAN WOMENS EXPERIENCES DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD EXCEPT THAT SHE WAS GIVEN ANTIBIOTICS AND A CLOTH TO BITE !ND SHE COULD SPEAK ABOUT HER LIMPNESS WHILE RESTING EATING CRYING AND BATHING7OMEN IN #AMBODIA COULD NOT SPEAK OR CRY OPENLY OR EAT ANDRESTPROPERLYNORCOULDTHEIRFRIENDSSOOTHEANDHOLDTHEMˆVIOLATION INCLUDES MORE THAN ACTS OF VISIBLE VIOLENCE

Raw Text ) TOOK MY RAW REmECTIONS TO TASK WHILE ATTEMPTING TO SEPARATE MY OWN SUBTEXT FROM RESPONDENTS TEXT #ONTEXT/N3UNDAYAFTERNOON*ANUARY )MET-RAND-RS!IN THEIRHOME)ASKEDIF)COULDMAKEASKETCHOFTHEROOMANDNOTEDOBJECTS SUCH AS CALENDAR TELEVISION STRAW BASKET WITH BANANAS AND WHERE PEOPLE SAT AND STOOD4WO OF THEIR CHILDREN STOOD IN THE DOORWAY -R ! SAT NEAR THE DOOR -RS ! AND HER OLDER SISTER SAT DIRECTLY ACROSS FROM EACH OTHER -R!SPOKETOHISWIFEABOUTONEOFTHEIRJACKFRUITTREESANDWITHINSECONDS HELEANEDTOWARDSTHEINTERPRETERANDSPOKEABOUTAFRIENDHEKNEWINTHE +HMER 2OUGE WORK CAMPS 4EXT h)T WAS A FEW DAYS BEFORE OUR WEDDING )T WAS EARLY MORNING FOUR OF US MEN WERE IN THE WORK SHED WHEN A SOLDIER TOLD MY FRIEND TO GO OUTSIDE -Y FRIEND WAS GONE ALL DAY 7HEN WALKING BACK AT THE END OF THE DAY ) SAW A LEG ON THE GROUND NEAR THE BUSHES ) KNEW IT WAS HIS CUT LEG ) WALKED STRAIGHT PAST AND PRETENDED NOT TO SEE 4HIS IS HOW THE +HMER 2OUGE WARNED US TO COOPERATE 3O THE DAY ) MARRIED WAS A RELIEF FOR ME BECAUSE IT MEANT ) MIGHT LIVE AFTER ALLv 2ELATIONAL TEXT -R ! LOOKS AT HIS WIFE AND SHE LOOKS AT HIM SHE SAYS THIS IS THE lRST TIME SHE HAS HEARD ABOUT THIS !T THE EDGE OF THEIR GLANCE -R ! GETS UP FROM WHERE HE IS SITTING AND GETS A MAP TO SHOW ME WHERE THEY WERE MARRIED 2ESEARCHERS SUBTEXT -Y MIND SEES AN IMAGE OF A CHOPPED OFF LEG ˆ WHICHLINGERS)HUNTFORTHEMISSINGBODYINSOMEBUSHES)BECOMEINTEL LECTUAL ALMOST INSTANTLY AND NOTE HOW MY INVESTIGATION TAKES THE PUNCH OUT OF !S DESCRIPTION ) TELL MYSELF TO OBSERVE MOVEMENT IN THE ROOM ) INTUITDECADESOFhRESIGNED SILENCEvTHATSTILLSMOLDERINTHISCOUPLE3ILENCE BETWEEN EVERYONE IN THE ROOM IS PROLONGED  SECONDS 



,OVE  $READ IN #AMBODIA !CCUMULATEDACCOUNTSBUILDUNTILANIMAGEOFSUN SMOLDERINGmESHSURFACES ) WATCH THE INTERPRETER SIT WITHOUT MOVING SOON SHE AND -R ! LOOK AT A MAP AND HE POINTS TO THE PLACE ) REACH FOR A PIECE OF GRAPEFRUIT AND BITE INTO PULP

#ONTAINING MY OWN SUBTEXT WAS A METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGY -Y NATURAL REACTIONS COULD SERVE AS DATA AS LONG AS ) KEPT MY EMOTIONS SEPARATE FROM MY ANALYSIS &OR INSTANCE -RS ! HEARD HER HUSBANDS ACCOUNT FOR THE lRST TIME 4HIS MEANT THAT -R ! HAD HELD SECRET THESE DETAILS ALL THESE YEARS ) CONTEMPLATED THE ALONENESS OF THIS CONTAINMENT PERHAPS THE SMOULDERING IMAGE WAS RELATED TO THIS QUALITY OF SILENCE ˆ AS IF IT HAD BEEN DORMANT FOR DECADES  2ETURNING TO THE PRESENT MOMENT WAS DELIBERATE ON MY PART FACILITATED ODDLY ENOUGH BY BITING INTO A SOUR GRAPEFRUIT -R ! MAY HAVE POINTED TO THE MAP IN THE SAME WAY ˆ TO RE ENTER THE MUNDANE4HE INTERPRETER ALSO TOOK THE FRUIT AND PRESSED IT IN HER MOUTH .ONE OF US SAT IMMOBILE VERY LONG -RS ! DID NOT INQUIRE PUBLICLY ABOUT HER HUSBANDS FRIEND ,IMITATIONS WAXED AND WANED 3OMETIMES BEING AN OUTSIDER WAS A STRENGTHANDSOMETIMESANIMPEDIMENT/VERALL MYOWNHISTORYANDIDENTITY ASSISTED MY ACCESS TO WOMENS STORIES OF PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS AS A WOMAN AND A PARENT WHO BECAME A WIDOW IN MY EARLY S AND AS A PSYCHOLOGIST WORKINGINTHElELDINMYSINTOMYEARLYS 7OMENWANTEDTOKNOW ABOUT MY HISTORY AND WOULD COME ROUND IN A GROUP AND TOUCH MY ARM WHILE SOMEONE ASKED ME IF ) HAD A CHILD OR A HUSBAND "Y FOCUSING ON HOW PEOPLE RECOUNTED THEIR EXPERIENCES GENDER DIFFERENCES EMERGED &OR INSTANCE WHEN STRESSED MEN EITHER SAT UNMOVING WHILE STARING OFF TREMBLED IN THEIR ARMS AND HANDS ANDOR SPOKE RAPIDLY /N THE OTHER HAND WOMEN SAT UNMOVING WHILE MAINTAINING EYE CONTACT SAT WITHOUT SPEAKING OR HELD HANDS WITH OTHER WOMEN 7OMEN ALSO DISPLAYED MORE HAND ACTIVITY SUCH AS WRINGING THEIR HANDS THOUGH WOMEN TRADITIONALLY USE THEIR HANDS FOR CUTTING FRUIT OR SEWING AND WEAVING MATERIAL ) SAW CHANGES OVER TIME IN WOMEN AND MENS LANGUAGE AND IN THEIR VOICE TONE THEIR REPETITION OF WORDS AND THEIR MOBILITY IN SPACE 7HEN lLMING SOME COUPLES CERTAIN DETAILS WERE CAPTURED VISUALLY THAT ) DID NOT SEEORHEARWHEN)WASONSITE!LSO )COULDSHOWTHElLMTOA#AMBODIAN PSYCHIATRIST FOR HIS CLARIlCATION (E HELPED ME TO DECIPHER WHAT MAY HAVE BEEN AN AFTERMATH RESPONSE FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE AND WHAT COULD BE AN ON GOING IDIOSYNCRATIC ANDOR CULTURAL RESPONSE

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0EOPLESDISTRESSWASPALPABLEAND)PUSHEDMYSELFTOSCULPTWHATHAUNTED MEˆSUCHASONEWOMANSDESCRIPTIONOFABORTINGHERFOETUSSPONTANEOUSLY WHILE DIGGING TRENCHES ON A CANAL PROJECT 3HE SAID THAT THOSE AROUND HER PRETENDEDNOTTOSEEh)WASALLBYMYSELFEVENWHENTHEREWEREPEOPLEAROUND ME ) HAD TO COVER MY BABY WITH DIRTv -Y SCULPTURES BEGAN TO REPRESENT THE TABOO ) SCULPTED A WOMANS DESCRIPTIONOFHERSELFASAh&LYINGHEAD BODYv)TITLEDONESERIESOFSCULPTURES 4ABOO BECAUSE IT SEEMED TO REPRESENT THE +HMER 2OUGE REGIMES CULTURAL CASTRATION ˆ WOMEN STOPPED MENSTRUATING STOPPED TOUCHING SILK STOPPED FEELING PRETTY STOPPED FEELING FEMALE OR SEXUAL STOPPED COMBING THEIR HAIR !ND MEN STOPPED HAVING ERECTIONS AND WERE CUT OFF FROM FEELING DESIRE !LL SEVERED FROM THE BEAUTIFUL THE SENSUAL

4ABOO  7AX ,E6INE  0HOTO BY *OHN -AYGER

Chapter

7 Angkar’s Potency

Forces that Protect, Transform, and Harm 4HESIGNIlCANCEOFSPIRITINRELATIONTOPLACEANDTIMEKEPTSURFACINGDURING MYMEETINGSWITH#AMBODIANS DESPITEMYATTEMPTSTOFOCUSONTHEWEDDINGS PREGNANCIESANDBIRTHSIN$EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEA!NDREFERENCESTO!NGKAR KEPT REVEALING AN AMORPHOUS OFTEN CREEPY AGENT OF INTRUSION 0EOPLE INTERACT WITH THE SPIRIT REALM ON A REGULAR BASIS IN #AMBODIA ˆASREPRESENTEDBYDAILYOFFERINGSOFFRUIT INCENSEANDmOWERSFORANCESTORS ON HOME ALTARS #AMBODIAS CULTURE CONTAINS A COMPLEX STRUCTURE OF SPIRIT PHENOMENA THAT OFTEN OVERRIDES MORE FORMALISED RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 7ITHIN METAPHYSICAL BASED SYSTEMS CONSCIOUS LIFE CAN BE ASCRIBED TO NATURE BODIES CANBEINHABITEDBYSOULSASEITHERMATERIALORIMMATERIALSPIRITSCANEXISTAS SEPARATEDISEMBODIEDSTATESANDTHEACTIVITYOFSPIRITSOFTHERECENTLYDECEASED CAN VISIT ANDOR POSSESS THE LIVING #AMBODIANS HAVE HAD LONG ASSOCIATIONS WITH THE ANIMISTIC REALM AND +HMER LANGUAGE HAS 0ALI AND 3ANSKRIT TERMS THAT ACCOUNT FOR ANIMATING FORCES WITH STRONG CONNECTIONS TO (INDU IMAGES OF GODS WITH TRANSFORMING POWERS (ERBERT  +NIPE   /VERALL SPIRIT NOTATIONS RAN RIGHT THROUGH MY INTERVIEWS AND PEOPLES WORRIESSHIFTEDACCORDINGTOCONTEXT&ORINSTANCE BYNOTBEINGABLETOFREELY SEEK A FORTUNE TELLER OR AN ASTROLOGERS ADVICE BEFORE OR AFTER A WEDDING IN $+ SOME WERE UNEASY ABOUT THE FATE OF THAT DAY -RS 0 WHO MARRIED IN A GROUP OF  AS A NEW PERSON IN .OVEMBER  IN +ANDAL SAID h7HEN WE WENT TO MY PARENTS THEY SECRETLY MADE A CEREMONY FOR US AND WE HAD A CHICKEN AND GAVE SOME TO OUR ANCESTORS AND MY MOTHER SPOKE TO A FORTUNE



!NGKARS 0OTENCY



TELLERANDWEFOUNDTHATWEWERELUCKYTOHAVEMARRIEDONTHATDAYv.EARLY  PER CENT  OUT OF  OF RESPONDENTS SAID THEY LIVED NEAR OR WITH A PARENT OR RELATIVE DAYS AFTER THEIR WEDDING WHICH PROVIDED A CONTEXT FOR SOME TRADITIONAL GESTURES 7HEN PEOPLE RECOUNTED THEIR HISTORIES THEY OFTEN SPOKE ABOUT FORCES OUTSIDETHEPHYSICALREALM WHICHHADTHREEPOWERSPROTECTIVEORFOREWARNING  TRANSFORMINGANDDESTRUCTIVE4RANSFORMINGPOWERSWERETHEMOSTFRIGHTENING FOR PEOPLE BECAUSE THEY WERE THE LEAST PREDICTABLE AND WITH THEIR FORMLESS NATURE THEY COULD MANIFEST INTO ANYTHING 3EEKING PROTECTION FROM VARIED SOURCES SERVED AS AN ANTIDOTE FOR HARMFUL AND UNPREDICTABLE FORCES 4HE MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED PROTECTORS WERE PEOPLES ANCESTORS4HIS WASFOLLOWEDBYTHE"UDDHAAMENTALIMAGEOFONESPARENTSKARMICSOURCES ORBUILDINGMERITMOTHERSBREASTMILKCONSIDEREDTOGIVELIFETIMEIMMUNITY TO HARMING POWERS  ETHEREAL ENTITIES CALLED TRáNAN AND VARIOUS GEOGRAPHIC PROTECTING SPIRITS SUCH AS THE SPIRITS OF THE RICE lELDS 4HE INmUENCE OF SPIRITS HAD NO TIME FRAME "Y THIS ) MEAN THAT IF TIME IS CONSIDERED FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF #AMBODIAN ANCESTRAL TIME WHEREIN SPIRITS OF THE DECEASED CAN ROAM INDElNITELY THEN PROTECTION AND TIME HOLD A PARTICULAR RELATIONSHIP )N MY STUDY PEOPLE SOUGHT IMMEDIATE PROTECTION AS IN CALLING TO "UDDHA FUTURE PROTECTION AS IN SEEKING AN AMULET DURING PREGNANCY AND REMOTE PROTECTION AS IN SEEKING AN ASTROLOGER SECRETLY TO CLARIFYAPASTDATEABOUTITSLUCKPOTENTIAL -OREOFTEN PEOPLEATTEMPTEDTO SEEK PROTECTION ACROSS PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE TIME 7HEN ) BEGAN MY STUDY ) DID NOT ASSUME THAT SPIRIT BASED PHENOMENA WEREBELIEFSORCULTURALARTEFACTS1UITEFRANKLY )BELIEVETHATSUCHINTERPRETATIONS REPRESENTAPATRONISINGWORLDVIEW4HECOSTOFSO CALLEDDEVELOPMENTMAYWELL HAVE BEEN TO DECREASE ACCESS OR SENSITIVITY TO AN EPI PHENOMENAL WORLD THAT MANY #AMBODIANS EASILY PERCEIVE /VERALL ) TREATED RESPONDENTS REFERENCES TO AN ANCESTORS VISIT A MEDIUMS COMMUNICATION AND SPIRIT POSSESSION AS EXPERIENCES THAT WERE VALID WITHIN CERTAIN COMMUNITIES AND PLACES  4HESE CATEGORIES SUPPORT THE FOUNDATIONAL CLASSIC WORK BY ,ECLÞRE ON ,E BOUDDHISME AU #AMBODGE  ORIGINAL STUDY 0ARIS  WHEREIN MAGICAL POWERS FUNCTION AS DANGEROUS AMBIGUOUS ANDBENElCIAL4HATWHICH)VECALLEDATRANSFORMINGFORCECOMESCLOSESTTO,ECLÞRES AMBIGUOUSCATEGORY BUTREQUIRESDISTILLINGWITHREGARDTO!NGKARSPRESENCE)NPARTICULAR !NGKAR HAS BEEN REPRESENTED AS DOUBLY DANGEROUS BECAUSE IT WAS AMORPHOUS AND UNPREDICTABLE  /FTENTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENSPIRIT BASEDFORCESANDMAGICWASUNCLEARINRESPONDENTSDESCRIP TIONS HOWEVER THE FUNCTIONS OF THESE SOURCES WERE CLEARLY DElNED AS BENElCIAL OR DESTRUCTIVE  !STECHNOLOGYINCREASESANDSEASONALANDAGRICULTURALRHYTHMSRECEDEASCUESFORPEOPLESDAILY LIFE RHYTHMS NATIONS OF PEOPLE BECOME DIS EMBODIED DESENSITISED FROM THE ECOLOGICAL AND SPIRIT DOMAIN



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Transforming Spirit Phenomena in Cambodia 2ESPONDENTS SPOKE OF SEEKING POWER FROM MAGICAL AND SPIRIT SOURCES THAT COULD BENElT THEM )N PARTICULAR SOURCES OF MAGIC ARE EMBEDDED IN NATURE SUCHASlREORTREE HUMANCEREMONIALACTIVITY ANDOBJECTSSUCHASAMULETS OR SYMBOLIC TYING OF STRINGS  4ERWEIL  HAS CHARTED THE RANGE OF MAGICALPOWERSIN#ENTRAL4HAILANDANDCLASSIlEDTHEMINTOPRIMARYSOURCES BENElCIALANDDESTRUCTIVE AMULETS ANDTATTOOS"ENElCIALMAGICALSOURCESCAN BEACCESSEDTHOUGHMEDITATIONANDORUTTERING0ALITEXTSLISTENINGTORECITATION BYMONKSHOLDINGORHONOURINGSMALL"UDDHAIMAGES MEDALLIONS OROBJECTS THAT COME FROM SACRED RITUALS HEARING THE SOUNDS OF SACRED SYLLABLES AND PLACINGTATTOOSONTHESHOULDERORONTOPOFTHEHEADSUGGESTINGCONNECTIONS TO "UDDHA $ANGEROUS REALMS OF PRIMARY SOURCES INCLUDE CONTACT WITH HUMAN EXCREMENT MENSTRUAL BLOOD AND LIQUID EXTRACTED FROM CORPSES AS WELL AS AMULETS OR OBJECTS USED IN AGGRESSIVE LOVE OR BY PLACING TATTOOS OF NAKED WOMEN ON THE THIGH 4HE hDANGEROUS REALMv OF POWER WAS EMBEDDED MOST IN RESPONDENTS REFERENCESTO!NGKAR ORWHENTHEYGAVEACCOUNTSOFHAVINGWITNESSEDDEATHS BY VIOLENT MEANS &OUR PEOPLE FROM THE 3OUTHEAST :ONE SPOKE OF HIDING UNDER DEAD OR NEAR DEAD BODIES WHEN WALKING ALONG ROADS NEAR WATER AS A WAY OF SEEKING IMMEDIATE PHYSICAL SAFETY ˆ THEY ENDURED THE DANGER FELT FROMANDFORSPIRITS4WENTYPEOPLESPOKEOFTOUCHINGDEADBODIESANDTHEIR WORRIES RELATED TO THIS DIRECT CONTACT &OR SOME SUCH CONTACT REPRESENTED BAD LUCK ANDOR CONTAMINATION VIA CONTACT WITH A HARMFUL FORCE OR BLOOD SOURCE 5SUALLY PEOPLE SPOKE EXPLICITLY ABOUT THE DEPTH OF SPIRIT MATERIAL WHEN THEYVISITEDTHEIRFORMERWEDDINGANDBIRTHSITESPERHAPSTHERELATIONSHIPTO PLACEWASTIEDTOSPIRITRECALLORCONNECTION3OMERESPONDENTSSAIDTHATTHEIR LUCKCHANGEDFORTHEWORSEWHENTHEIRSACREDOBJECTSWERECONlSCATEDBYTHE +HMER 2OUGE /NE WOMAN SPOKE OF BECOMING MORE FEARFUL AFTER LOSING AN AMULETTHATWASHERMOTHERS/NEMANREPEATEDSOKSBAYINHISHEAD WHICH HESAIDSOOTHEDHIM/NEMANSCRATCHEDASYMBOLINTHEDIRTFORPROTECTION OF A HEAD SITUATED OVER CROSSBONES AS SHOWN IN THE FOLLOWING TWO PHOTOS  HE DREW THE SYMBOL FOR ME DURING OUR INTERVIEW ) OFTEN SEE THESE SYMBOLS ON DOORS IN VILLAGES WHEN DOING MENTAL HEALTH TEAM WORK  )N MANY PLACES IN !SIA TOUCHING BLOOD INCLUDING WOMENS MENSTRUAL BLOOD CAN LEAD TO CONTAMINATION WITH BAD LUCK OR BAD KARMA $E CONTAMINATION REQUIRES PURIlCATION VIA WATER RITUAL MONK OFFERINGS USE OF SALT DEPRIVATION FASTING ENDURANCE OF PHYSICAL SUFFERING SUCH AS WALKING ON HOT lRE IN *APAN ANDOR SACRIlCE OF ANIMALS "URUMA  

0ROTECTIVE SYMBOL 4HIS SYMBOL WAS PAINTED ON THE DOOR BY A FAMILY WHO LIVES IN 4AKHMAU A NURSE IS INTERVIEWING A WOMAN WHO LIVES BESIDE A NEIGHBOUR WITH TUBERCULOSIS 0HOTO BY ,E6INE 

0ROTECTION SYMBOL h3PIRIT 'UARDv h) DREW THIS @SPIRIT BODY GUARD WITH CROSSBONES AT THE ENTRANCE DOOR TO PROTECT MY FAMILY FROM ILLNESS AND HARM ) AM THE OLDEST SON AND MY GRANDMOTHER TAUGHT ME TO DRAW THIS WHEN ) WAS THIRTEENv ˆ ;)NTERVIEW WITH "UT "UNTHOEUN +IENSVAY DISTRICT +ANDAL 0ROVINCE= 0HOTO BY -AKI 

!NGKARS 0OTENCY



Politics of Myth and Angkar )NMYSTUDY )TRIEDTOTEASEOUTRESPONDENTSREPEATEDREFERENCESTO!NGKARAND ASSESSWHETHER!NGKARWASREPRESENTEDASMYTH MAGIC SPIRIT HUMAN ANDOR SOMEORGANISATIONALlGUREHEAD7HEREASMYTHANDRELIGIONINCLUDELOREABOUT CAUSALITY AND THE ORDERING OF THE #OSMOS MAGIC OCCURS WITHOUT CAUSAL LINKS ORWORSHIP)NAGRARIAN BASEDSOCIETIESSUCHAS#AMBODIA GODSANDMAGICARE CALLED UPON ON A REGULAR BASIS FOR PLANTING AND HARVESTING AND FOR TREATING ENVIRONMENTAL BASEDILLNESSESSUCHASMALARIA)NTHEREALMOFMAGIC THEREIS GREATVARIATIONINTHEINTERPRETATIONOFhTHEMYSTERIOUSvˆWHEREASINTHEREALM OFRELIGION PRINCIPLESANDMORALSINTERPRETTHECOSMICORDERANDTENDTOBEMORE CONCRETE)NITIALLY RESPONDENTSREPRESENTED!NGKARASANhITvWITHLITTLEFORM BUTOVERTIMETHEYADDEDMAGICBITSTOTHEIRDESCRIPTIONS SUCHAShAPPEARINGAT NIGHT BUT ONE CANT SEE ITv OR hCOMING DOWN FROM TREESv 7HEN ) WAS IN A VILLAGEWITHGROUPSOFPEOPLECHATTING SOMESPOKETOEACHOTHERASIF!NGKAR LURKEDNEARBY$ESCRIPTIONSWERESOMETIMESTWO TIEREDWHEREBYBEINGSINGLED OUTBYALEADERREFERENCEDAS!NGKAR MEANTBEINGSUBJECTEDTOANINVISIBLEFORCE )N #AMBODIAS LANDSCAPE IMAGES OF (INDU GODS ARE PREVALENT IN PLACES LIKE !NGKOR 7AT AND MAY HAVE HAD SUBLIMINAL IMPACT IN MANIFESTING !NGKARS DEVOTEES SINCE IMAGES DESCEND TO EARTH SOMETIMES mYING SOME TIMES TRANSFORMING !LSO THE UNIQUE BLEND OF (INDU AND "UDDHIST IMAGES THROUGHOUT #AMBODIA IS WOVEN INTO COSMIC AND MYTHIC STORIES OF CREATION  -YTH CAN BE GENERATED OUT OF UNCERTAINTY 'IAMBATTISTA 6ICO IN 3CIENZA .UOVA OR .EW 3CIENCE lRST EDITION IN  INTERPRETS MYTH IN EVOLUTIONARY TERMS ˆ AND PLACES IT MORE SQUARELYINSIDELIVINGHISTORY)FUNCERTAINTYPROMPTSMYTH MAKING THEDOUBTFULFATEOFPEOPLE DURINGTHE+HMER2OUGEWOULDHAVEMADEMYTHPRIMEFORTRANSFORMATION)NTERESTINGLY 6ICO ASSOCIATEDTHE'REEKROOTOFMYTHUSWITHTHE,ATINROOTOFMUTUS ORhMUTEvSINCEMYTHOLOGYCAN EMERGE WITHOUT WORDS OUT OF OTHER SENSORY EXPERIENCES  !NTHROPOLOGISTS AND SOCIOLOGISTS FROM THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES SUCH AS $URKHEIM 4URNER -ALINOWSKI ,EVI 3TRAUSS 0RITCHARD $OUGLAS AND 7EBER HAVE SANCTIONED MAGIC AS A CORE SOCIAL PHENOMENON REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY TAKE A FUNCTIONAL OR STRUCTURAL VIEW OF THE MATTER -AX7EBER IDENTIlES (INDUISM AS UNIQUE TO OTHER WORLD RELIGIONS BY THE COMBINATION OF THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS AND COMPENSATORY KARMA (E ALSO TOOK ISSUE WITH +ARL -ARX AND POINTED TO A MORE COMPLICATED WEB OF AUTONOMOUS AND MUTUALLY INmUENCING SOCIAL STRUCTURES SEE h%CONOMY AND 3OCIETYv IN 3OCIOLOGY OF 2ELIGION    )NPLACESLIKE*APAN SPIRITISMISEMBEDDEDIN3HINTOWHEREONECANTAKEONMULTIPLEIDENTITES SUCH AS 3HINTO AND "UDDHIST OR 3HINTO AND #HRISTIAN ˆ BUT REGARDLESS OF RELIGIOUS PRACTICE ANIMISTIC PERCEPTION AND RELATED PRACTICES AROUND ANCESTOR AND SPIRIT RELATIONS IS FOUNDATIONAL  4HE SAME CAN BE SAID OF #AMBODIAS INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS WHEREIN IMPORTED SYSTEMS SUCH AS +HMER 2OUGE CULTISM OR PRESENT DAY #HRISTIANITY HAVE YET TO DISTURB THE SYNCRETIC NATURE OF TRADITIONAL PRACTICE BEYOND REPAIR !GAIN IN *APAN ANIMISTIC BASED SECTS HAVE NOT BEEN EXILED BYFORMALISEDCREEDS AND3HINTOISMCONTINUESTOmOURISHALONGSIDEVARIOUSRELIGIONS"URUMA  P  



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(INDU MYTHOLOGY COMBINES GODS AND DEMONS IN WAYS THAT MAKE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN THE TWO UNCLEAR WHICH LEAVES MORE ROOM FOR FEAR THAT GOOD FORCES MAY BE OVERCOME BY DESTRUCTIVE ONES AT ANY TIME )N PARTICULAR IFGODSANDDEMONSHADCLEARSEPARATEFUNCTIONSTHENPREDICTIONSABOUTTHEIR INTENT GOOD AND BAD COULD BE MORE EASILY ASCERTAINED &OR MANY !NGKAR DESCENDED FROM A FAR AWAY PLACE AND LIKE 6ISHNU COULD TRANSFORM INTO A GOD LIKE OR DEMON LIKE IMAGE AND POTENTIALLY POSSESS ANOTHER HUMAN IN ONE OF THESE FORMS  +HMER 2OUGE SAYINGS ABOUT!NGKAR CONJURE A VISIONARY IMAGE!LSODEVOUTNESSTO!NGKARWASEXPECTEDANDSOMERESPONDENTSALLUDED TO THEIR MARRIAGE AS AN ACT OF DEVOTION )F ONE PERSON DID NOT KNOW WHAT THEOTHERPERSONSRELATIONSHIPWASTO!NGKAR THENSUSPICIONWOULDINCREASE h7E PROMISED !NGKAR THAT WE WOULD LOVE EACH OTHER FOREVERv WAS A PHRASE SPOKEN BY MANY COUPLES AS ONE REASON THEY HAVE STAYED TOGETHER !T MANY WEDDINGS THECHIEFOFTHEDISTRICTORCOMMUNEMADEASPEECHABOUT!NGKAR S DEVOTION TO THE PEOPLE AND COUPLES OBLIGATION TO WORK HARD TOGETHER OFTEN TO PRODUCE IMPOSSIBLE TONS OF RICE  3OME RESPONDENTS DESCRIBED !NGKAR IN WAYS THAT RE ENACT THE COMPLEX VIEW OF (INDU GODS WITH POLARISED FORCES WHEREIN THE CREATOR AND DESTROYER AREONEENTITY(INDUISMISDISTINCTIVEBECAUSEOFMANYGODSAND/NE'OD +NIPE   3YNCRETIC "UDDHISM OR "UDDHISM THAT HAS A MAGIC ANIMISTIC FOUNDATION IMPACTSTHEWAYSPEOPLEMAKESENSEOFTHENON SENSIBLE4AMBIAH  .AKAMURA  4HOMPSON  STATES THAT THE h+HMER SOUL IS ITSELF NOT A SINGULAR DElNABLE ENTITY BUT RATHER A COMPOSITION OF NUMEROUS CONCEPTS EACH OVER TIME HAVING BEEN SLIGHTLY DISPLACED BUT NEVER REPLACED BYTHENEXTvP )THINKTHATTHISNOTIONTHATTHE+HMERSOULISACOMPOSITE THAT IS SOMETIMES DISPLACED BUT NEVER REPLACED CAN BE EXTENDED AS A WAY OF UNDERSTANDING PEOPLES COMPLEX RELATIONSHIPS TO !NGKAR AND HOW IT MAKES CULTURAL SENSE THAT SOME FEAR !NGKAR S RETURN )N THIS MILIEU THE POSSIBILITY OF SUDDEN APPEARANCES OF SPIRITS OR RELATED MANIFEST FORCES WAS PERCEIVED AS GREAT WHICHCOULDHAVEGENERATEDANANXIETYOFANTICIPATION4RANSFORMINGOR OMNIPRESENT SPIRIT FORCES WOULD BE PERCEIVED AS HAVING LESS PREDICTIVE POWER



&OR EXAMPLE AT !NGKOR 7AT THE STORY OF THE h#HURNING OF THE 3EA OF -ILKv IS PICTORIALLY TOLD )N THE LEGEND OF 2AHU THE MONSTER STEALS THE AMRITA THE ELIXIR OF IMMORTALITY AND IS DENOUNCED BY THE 3UN AND -OON TO 6ISHNU WHO CUTS HIS BODY IN TWO "OTH HALVES BECOME IMMORTAL (E TRIES TO DEVOUR THE 3UN AND -OON WHENEVER THEY CROSS )T IS CUSTOMARY TODAY FOR LOCALS TO SHOOT THE MOON DURING AN ECLIPSE TO SCARE THE MONSTERDEMON AWAY  #ONNECTIONSBETWEENMAGICAND"UDDHISMAREDISCUSSEDIN4AMBIAH 3TANLEY IN4HE "UDDHIST 3AINTS OF THE &OREST AND THE #ULT OF !MULETS AND .AKAMURA -ITSUO  IN 4HE #RESCENT !RISES OVER THE "ANYAN4REE

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THANAHUMANFEROCIOUSFORCE/NEMANSAID h)KNEWTOACTSTUPIDANDNOT SAY MUCH WITH A SOLDIER BUT !NGKAR WAS DIFFERENT !NGKAR MIGHT JUST KNOW SOMETHING ) DID NOT SAYv !NG #HOULEAN  P  WRITES OF h&ANTON GHOSTSv 0HANTOMS IN WAYS THAT COINCIDE WITH RESPONDENTS MANIFESTATION CAPACITIES OF !NGKAR 3PIRITS WOULD MANIFEST SPONTANEOUSLYx ! SPIRIT CAN BE WISHED BECAUSE A GHOST IS ANGRY OR WANTS TO ANNOUNCE AN IMPORTANT EVENT AND SUDDENLY PRESENTS IT AND POSSESSES A PERSON 4HE GHOSTS WHO COME TO BOTHER THE LIVING ARE OFTEN THOSE FROM THE VILLAGE DEAD A LONG TIME AGO OR RECENTLY 4HE MOST DREADFUL ONES ARE THOSE KILLED THOSE MURDERED DROWNED OR THE SPIRIT OF A WOMAN STILL IN A STATE OF VIRGINITY OR JUST AFTER GIVING BIRTH 4HESE CORPSES DO NOT HAVE THE RIGHT TO BE INCARCERATED AND HAVE TO BE BURIED IN THE SOIL !T BEST THEY CAN BE BURIED IN THE hFOREST OF THE DEADv FORãT DES MORTS 4HEFORESTOFTHEDEADISACEMETERYLOCATEDORKILOMETRES FROM THE VILLAGE ALWAYS ON THE BORDER OF THE FOREST WHICH IS THE hTERRITORY OF THE SPIRITSv IN THE DIRECTION THAT IS NOT SPECIlC BUT ACCORDINGLY NO CEMETERY IS ON THE %AST DIRECTION OF LIFE AND BIRTH  ;)N ,ES !PPARITIONS DE &ANTOMES AU #AMBODGE !NG #HOULEAN  4HE &ANTOM 'HOSTS IN #AMBODIA BY #HEMINEMENTS !3%-) 8) n =

)NFOLLOWINGTHISTHEMEABOUTTHEWAYSMYTHSLEGITIMATESOCIALSTRUCTURES )RETURNEDTO-ALINOWSKISWRITINGSn BECAUSEOFHISREMARKSABOUT MYTHSTHATGETPUTINTOSOCIALCIRCULATION ANDTHECAPACITYOFMYTHTOEVOKE MYSTERY IF WE SEE hMYTHS AS PART OF THE FUNCTIONAL PRAGMATIC OR PERFORMED DIMENSION OF CULTURE ˆ THAT IS AS PART OF ACTIVITIES WHICH DO CERTAIN TASKS FOR PARTICULAR HUMAN COMMUNITIESx -YTHS DO NOT HAVE INTRINSIC MEANING THEIR MEANING IS GIVEN BY THEIR HOME CONTEXT OF SITUATIONv 3TRENSKI  P XI  'ENERALLY MYTHMAKERS ARE ENDOWED WITH HIGH SOCIAL POSITIONS AS WAS THE CASE IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA AND !NGKAR AS A HOLDER OF MYTHICAL POTENTIAL GAINEDPOWER4HUSREGARDLESSOFWHATTHE+HMER2OUGEINTENDED AS THE CREATORS OF !NGKAR THEY PUT !NGKAR INTO CIRCULATION


 -ALINOWSKIS INTERPRETATION OF HOW MYTHS CIRCULATE INVOLVES CULTURALLY UNCONSCIOUS MATERIAL STRUCTURES  (OWEVER DESPITE HIS INTERESTS IN SOCIAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO VIOLENCE HE DID NOT CONTEMPLATE FULLY THE WAYS IN WHICH A MYTH COULD FUNCTION DESTRUCTIVELY IN PART BECAUSE HE PROPOSED THAT MYTH SAFEGUARDS MORALITY WHICH PERHAPS WAS RESIDUE OF HIS LIVED HISTORY IN 2OMANTIC %UROPEAN CULTURE AND #ATHOLIC CHILDHOOD 



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-YTH IS NOT AN EXPLANATION FOR !NGKAR BUT A BI FACTOR EMERGING FROM CULTURAL INFRASTRUCTURE WHICH IN TURN MAY HAVE LEGITIMATED !NGKAR S POWERS AND MAINTAINED ITS LEGITIMACY OVER TIME )T IS AT THIS JUNCTURE THAT -ALINOWSKI ACCOUNTS FOR THE SOCIOLOGICAL AND POLITICAL AS MUCH AS THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IN HIS FUNCTIONAL THEORY OF MYTH -ORE TO POINT WITH THE +HMER 2OUGE HIS THEORY ON h-YTH AS $RAMATIC $EVELOPMENT OF $OGMAv INCLUDES TOTALITARIAN IDEOLOGIES ˆ WHEREIN MYTH CAN PROVIDE A hBREAK IN HISTORY v CODIFY NEW BELIEFS AND GIVE ACCESS TO THE DESIRES OF THE MYTHMAKER 4HUS THE MYTH EVOLVES AS IT IS BEING RECYCLED AND RE CIRCULATED ACROSS TIME AND PLACE 0AUL 2ADIN  IN HIS CLASSIC TEXT 0RIMITIVE 2ELIGION TEASES OUT LEGITIMATE ROLES CONTAINED IN QUALITIES OF 3UPREME "EINGS AND OFFERS lVE QUALITIES OMNIPOTENCE OMNISCIENCE OMNIPRESENCE IMMORTALITY AND UNAL TERABLE GOODNESS AND RIGHTEOUSNESS #0+ AS WELL AS !NGKAR SEEMED TO HOLD ALL THESE QUALITIES THOUGH UNALTERABLE GOODNESS WAS MERGED WITH UNALTERABLE DESTRUCTIVENESS ˆ AKIN TO THE (INDU DIMENSION OF DUAL REPRESENTATION IN ONE FORM SUCH AS 3HIVA WHO WAS BOTH CREATOR AND DESTROYER !NGKAR HAD A STARTLING NATURE WHEN PERSONIlED ANDOR ANIMATED !T WEDDING CEREMONIES CONDUCTED BY THE +HMER 2OUGE !NGKAR WAS PRESENTED AS GREAT PROVIDER REGARDLESS OF ITS FURY .EARLY  PER CENT  OUT OF  RECITED PLEDGES TO !NGKAR AND PLEDGED IMPOSSIBLE DEEDS RELATED TO RICE PRODUCTION AND IRRIGATION 3ACRIlCE WAS REQUESTED IN CULT LIKE MANNER !CTS IMPOSED BY CEREMONY COMPROMISED FOUNDATIONAL RITUAL ˆ AND RUPTURED NUMEROUS STRUCTURES THAT PROVIDED INTRINSIC CULTURAL ORDER AND SAFETY FOR #AMBODIAN PEOPLE /VERTIME ) THINK THAT !NGKAR BECAME A LEGITIMATE AND OMNIPOTENT

 /THER THEORISTS FROM THE 7EST WRITING ON MYTHS #ARL *UNG -IRCEA %LIADE AND *OSEPH #AMPBELL FELL SHORT OF SHOWING HOW MYTHS EVOLVE OVER TIME ACCORDING TO SOCIO POLITICAL CONTEXTS %VEN #ARL *UNGS FAMOUS THEORY ON THE hCOLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUSv SUGGESTS A POTENT SHARED CONSCIOUSNESS EMBEDDED IN AGES OF ANCESTRAL SPIRITS BUT IT IS BASED ON A PSYCHOANALYTIC SCHEMA OF LINEAR LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS ˆ AND LACKS ATTENTION TO POLITICAL INmUENCES  -AGICISAPOWERTHATISAUTONOMOUS WHEREASMYTHMIGHTBESEENASASSISTINGTHEDEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTONOMOUS STATE !KIN TO -ALINOWSKIS WORK IS THAT BY *APANESE ETHNOGRAPHER )WATA   (E ACCOUNTS FOR THE ANIMATION OF SPIRITS AND CULT LIKE AFlLIATIONS ACROSS VILLAGE GROUPS AND KINSHIP ACROSS /KINAWA AND OTHER RURAL ISLANDS IN *APAN )WATA FOUND THAT SPIRITS OF LOCALITY IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA ARE SIMILAR TO ELEMENTS OF KAMI SPIRIT SOURCES IN RICE PADDY CULTIVATION CULTURES IN *APAN ˆ SPIRITS THAT GAIN UTILITARIAN LEGITIMACY AS AUTONOMOUS FORCES )NTHECASEOF!NGKARIN#AMBODIA SPIRITCULTUREPROVIDEDTHESTRUCTUREFORMAGICALSITUATIONS ANDINTERPRETATIONS)N!NGKARSCASEITWASUNPREDICTABLEAUTONOMOUSPOWERTHATGAVEITMORE POWER ˆ WITH MYTHMAKING AS A DRIVING FACTOR &ROM THAT CONTEXT A SUPREME BEING COULD BE CREATED AND SUSTAINED

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CREATOR AND DESTROYER AND HAD THE POTENTIAL TO BECOME A MYTHOLOGICAL LORE HAD THE +HMER 2OUGE FORMALLY EXPLOITED PERHAPS WITHOUT INTENT OR KNOWLEDGE OF SUCH %VIDENCE OF THIS IS EMBEDDED IN THE FACT THAT MANY RESPONDENTS REMAIN FRIGHTENED THAT !NGKAR IS hJUST UNDER THE GROUND AND CAN APPEAR AT ANY TIMEv ) REmECTED ON THE WORK BY +APFERER  IN 4HE &EAST OF THE 3ORCERER 0RACTICES OF #ONSCIOUSNESS AND 0OWER AND HOW HE DESCRIBED THE POWER OF RITUALINITSPOLITICALCONTEXT(EDISCUSSESACONTEXTWITHhMYTHICIMAGINARIESv OF 3INHALA HISTORY WHERE SORCERY GENERATES HIERARCHIES WHILE IT DESTROYS OTHERS AND THUS HARMS THE ENCOMPASSING ORDER +APFERER ACCOUNTS FOR THE POTENCYOFRITUALINTHE3RI,ANKANCONTEXTINWAYSTHATCLASSICANTHROPOLOGICAL WORKSBY-ALINOWSKIONTHE4ROBRIAND)SLANDERSCOULDNOTDOBECAUSEOFTHE CONTEXT OF THAT SOCIETY /VERALL THE 3UNIYAMA ADDRESSES SORCERY AS NOTHING LESS THAN A TOTAL OUTRAGE AGAINST HUMAN EXISTENCE THAT IS FOUNDED IN THE CIRCUMSTANCES OFEXISTENCEITSELF4HEDEPTHANDGROUNDOFTHEHORROROFSORCERY WHAT SORCERY IS THE EXPRESSION OF IS DEMONSTRATED THROUGH RECONSTRUCTIVE DYNAMICSOFTHERITUALPRACTICExTHERETURNTOSPEECHSILENCEDINTHE ATTACKANDTERROROFSORCERYxANDITSPLACINGOFTHEVICTIMATTHEWORLD CENTER AT THE VORTEX OF THE REGENERATION OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORDER MAKESTHEENORMITYOFSORCERYCLEARxINDEEDTHEMEANING THATSUCH TERMS;ALIENATION MISFORTUNE ANDSUFFERING=MAYREACHTOWARDBUTCAN NEVER CAPTURE +APFERER  P 

.OTWITHSTANDING THE HURTFUL WAYS THE +HMER 2OUGE DISLOCATED RITUAL PRACTICES ASSOCIATED WITH BIRTH MARRIAGE AND DEATH THEY INSERTED THEIR OWN RITUALSOVERTIME&OREXAMPLE THECHIEFOFTHERESPECTIVEBOYSANDGIRLSWORK CAMPS USUALLY PAIRED THE COUPLES THOUGH !NGKAR WAS SUPPOSED TO APPROVE SUCH ARRANGEMENTS )N MANY WAYS THE hRITE DOES NOT PLAY WITH REALITY BUT RATHERISTHEDYNAMICPLAYFROMWHICHTHECONSTRUCTIONSOFREALITYTAKEFORM x ;RITES= CONSTITUTE THEIR OWN SPACE AND TIME AND ARE ORIENTED IN TERMS OF THEIR OWN MEANS END SCHEMAv +APFERER  P   $OUBLE BINDING CONDITIONS WERE CONFOUNDED BY PRE EXISTING RITES IN $EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEA2EFORMULATIONOFRITUALSMEANTTHATMARRIAGESWERE STILL ARRANGED ACCORDING TO A TRADITIONAL PROCESS BUT THE EMPHASIS WAS ON !NGKARS ROLE 4HIS SHIFTED THE MEANS END SCHEMA WHEREIN COUPLING WAS A MEANS BY WHICH PEOPLE COULD SERVE !NGKAR AND THE COLLECTIVE BODY 3UCH RE CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY ELEVATED THE ROLE OF !NGKAR TO SUCH AN EXTENT THAT !NGKAR WAS GIVEN hFORMv AS THE ARBITRATOR FORBY SOCIETY



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) AM SUGGESTING THAT IT IS PROBABLE THAT $+S CONSTRUCTION OF !NGKAR WITHINTHESYNCRATIC"UDDHISTCONTEXTGENERATEDAMYTHOLOGICALCREATURE4HIS CREATURES POWER INCREASED WHILE THE +HMER 2OUGE RE CODIlED TRADITIONAL STRUCTURES AND SEQUENCES OF RITUALS %MANATING FROM THIS WAS AN INCREASE IN PEOPLES VIGILANCE ABOUT DESTRUCTIVE AND PROTECTIVE FORCES THAT DWELLED AROUND THEM

Obligation-exchange in the Spirit World -OST IN MY STUDY CALLED TO ANCESTORS THE "UDDHA AND THEIR MOTHERS FOR PROTECTION OR SHIELDING /NE THIRD OF MY RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF BEING VULNERABLE TO SPIRITS AND WOULD SEEK SOME PERSON OR RITUAL ACCORDING TO THE SITES IN WHICH THEY FELT UNSAFE 3PIRIT EXCHANGE IN #AMBODIA CAN OCCUR THROUGHAMEDIUM ASOURCEOFMEDIATIONBETWEENTHELIVINGANDSPIRITWORLD THATTHE+HMER2OUGEOVERLOOKEDINTHEIRTARGETSFORERADICATIONBECAUSETHEY WERE NOT A THREAT TO THEM 4HE MEDIUM IS KNOWN TO ENTER A TRANCE AND CONTACT A SPIRIT FOR HELP IN IDENTIFYING THE ORIGINS OF SOMEONES MISFORTUNE OFFERINGS CAN BE MADE ACCORDINGLY!NG#HOULEAN   )NMYSTUDY ONLYONEMANSPOKE IN CONlDENCE OF HIS ATTEMPT TO lND A MEDIUM DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD !NOTHER MAN SAID HE SOUGHT A MEDIUM AFTER THE REGIME IN ORDER TO FACILITATE HARMONY FOR A RELATIVE WHO DIED A VIOLENT DEATH $ESCRIPTIONS OF MEDIUMS ROLES PROVIDE ILLUSTRATION OF THE TRANSFORMING AND ARBITRARY NATURE OF THE SPIRIT REALM IN #AMBODIA "ERTRAND   HAS CLASSIlED THE NAMES AND IDENTITIES OF #AMBODIAN BORAMEY THE SPIRITS THAT POSSESS HUMAN FORMS AND GENERATE MEDIUM POWER 4HE TERM BORAMEY ORIGINATES FROM THE 0ALI WORD PARAMI WHICH RELATES TO THE TEN VIRTUES OF "UDDHA "ORAMEY IDENTIFY A HUMANREPRESENTATIVECALLEDASNANGORRUPTOACTASAKINDOFHOST"ERTRAND NOTES THAT BORAMEY ARE CONJURED ACCORDING TO NEED SOME ARE INVENTED AND REINVENTEDOVERTIME ANDSOMEMEDIUMSCLAIMTHATTHEREAREATLEAST  BORAMEY IN #AMBODIA BUT NUMBERS ARE UNCERTAIN GIVEN THE EVOLUTION OF THEIR EXISTENCES



0ERSONAL DISCUSSIONS WITH $R "ERTRAND HAVE BEEN ON GOING REGARDING HIS WORK ON h4HE 4HERAPEUTIC2OLEOF+HMER-EDIUMSIN#ONTEMPORARY#AMBODIA vANDTHEROLEOFTHEBRALIN IN COMMUNITY WELLBEING  3OME BORAMEY ARE TIED TO (INDU MYTHOLOGY AND SOME TO WILD CREATURES SUCH AS DRAGONS AND THE SEVEN HEADED NAGA SNAKE THAT PROTECTS THE "UDDHA 3NANG OR ONE WHO REPRESENTS A SPIRIT COME FROM ALL WALKS OF LIFE 4HERE ARE LOCAL AND HISTORICAL lGUREHEADS AND RELIGIOUS SPIRITS /NE SUCH HISTORICALLY ELITE BORAMEY IS KNOWN AS h$IVINE -OUTHv

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/BLIGATION EXCHANGEDYNAMICSAREPARTOFTHESNANG BORAMEYRELATIONSHIP THE SNANG IS EXPECTED TO SACRIlCE WORK AND TO DONATE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE TO THE BORAMEY SUCH AS BUILDING FENCES OR CONSTRUCTING BUILDINGS AS FAVOUR 4HOUGH THE ROLES OF THE TWO ARE DIFFERENT THE PROCESS BY WHICH !NGKAR DEMANDED LOYALTY OF LABOR IS SIMILAR TO THE SNANGS OBLIGATION TO THE BORAMEY !LSO WITHIN BORAMEY CULTURE THE SOULS OF MYTHICAL AND HISTORICAL CHARACTERS ARE DISTINGUISHED FROM THE SOULS OF THOSE WHO DIE FROM VIOLENT OR SUDDEN DEATHS 4HE MAJORITY OF THOSE IN THIS STUDY MENTIONED THEIR CONCERNS FOR SOULS THAT THEY SENSED WERE ROAMING PARTICULARLY AFTER SEEING OR HEARING ABOUT VIOLENTDEATHS-R!SAID hTHEWAYDEATHHAPPENSCANMAKESPIRITSWORRIEDv 4EN PEOPLE MENTIONED THE ROLE OF AN INTERMEDIARY THAT CAN BRIDGE THE SPIRIT AND TRANSIENT WORLDS BUT THEY DID NOT SAY WHETHER THEY PERSONALLY SOUGHT SUCH A SOURCE -EDIUMS ARE KNOWN TO TAKE STRENGTH FROM GUARDIAN SPIRITS ANDPROTECTORS3OULSARECALLEDDURINGTRADITIONAL+HMERMARRIAGES FUNERARY

3PIRIT MEDIUM IN4RANCE "AKAN DISTRICT IN 0URSAT PROVINCE ,E6INE 



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RITUALS ADOPTION CEREMONIES AND CONSECRATION OF NEW HOMES #AMBODIAN MARRIAGE RITUALS DOCUMENTED BEFORE  INCLUDED OFFERINGS OF FOOD TO DECEASED RELATIVES SPIRITS AT THE WEDDING A PRACTICE THAT CONTINUES TODAY ˆ DESPITE THE BREAK FROM THIS TRADITION DURING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA #OUPLES AND THEIR RELATIVES IN THIS STUDY SAID THAT THEY SECRETLY MADE SUCH OFFERINGS THROUGHOUT THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD -EDIUMS WERE AND STILL ARE CONSULTED IN CASES OF CONJUGAL MISUNDERSTANDING AND FOR ADVICE RELATED TO MARRIAGE AND SEPARATION 4HE WORSHIP OF THE PLACE SPIRIT NEAK TA IS REFERENCED IN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES ABOUT #AMBODIA A TREE OR PLOT OF LAND CAN REPRESENT ANDOR CONTAIN SUCHSPIRITS&OREST !NG#HOULEAN  -ISFORTUNEISOFTENREGARDED AS PUNISHMENT A SPIRITS RETRIBUTION OR BLACK MAGIC 3OMETIMES AN ANCESTOR SPIRIT AREAK IS SOUGHT PARTICULARLY IF AN ACUTE SITUATION MENTAL DISORDER OR DISTRESS IS PRESENT $IDIER "ERTRAND PERSONAL CONVERSATION ,AOS &EBRUARY   0EOPLE IN MY STUDY SOUGHT ANCESTORS SPIRITS MOST FREQUENTLY FOR PROTECTION WHEN WORRIED OR WHEN THEY FELT THEY HAD A FAMILY OBLIGATION OR WHEN THEY REQUIRED MERIT /NE MAN MENTIONED THE POWER OF A TREE SPIRIT FROM HIS VILLAGE IN 3VAY 2IENG h4HE +HMER 2OUGE CHOPPED DOWN A SPECIAL TREE AND WE WERE AFRAID OF HARM THAT WOULD COME TO ALL OF US BECAUSE OF THISv !NOTHER MAN FATHER OF A MAN WHO WAS WED IN 3AANG TOLD ME THAT HIS SON WAS MARRIED JUST OUTSIDE THE WAT AND THIS WAS A GOOD PLACE BECAUSE IT WAS PROTECTED 6ILLAGERSHAVEBEENKNOWNTOBANISHASORCERERSUSPECTEDOFBLACKMAGIC OR A PERSON ASSUMED TO BE POSSESSED ) HAVE HEARD THESE ACCOUNTS FROM THE BANISHED AND BANISHING SIDES DURING MY CONSULTATIONS IN MENTAL HEALTH IN #AMBODIA &OR EXAMPLE ) RECALL MAKING A VILLAGE VISIT IN  TO +AMPONG 3PEU TO ASSESS A WOMAN WITH A TRAUMA BASED PSYCHOTIC CONDITION SHE WAS EXCLUDED FROM VILLAGE CELEBRATIONS BECAUSE LOCALS FEARED SHE WAS POSSESSED &ORMER +HMER 2OUGE SOLDIERS HAVE BEEN ISOLATED OR DRIVEN OUT OF THEIR VILLAGESFOLLOWINGGOVERNMENTDEMOBILISATIONSOMEWORRYTHATFORMERSOLDIERS BRING EITHER POSSESSING SPIRITS OR hBAD KARMAv TO THEIR PLACE OF RESIDENCE CONVERSATIONSWITH"ERTRAND  )N#AMBODIA BANISHMENTISARESPONSE TO A COMPLEX SET OF SOCIAL FACTORS 4HESE TYPES OF COMMUNAL RESPONSES RUN DEEP IN THE CULTURAL PSYCHE OF #AMBODIA )N ADDITION TO COMMUNAL BANISHMENT AS A CULTURAL STRATEGY TO DEmECT HARM ) NOTICED A KIND OF AVOIDANCE INERTIA USED AS A STRATEGY FOR SAFETY )N ESSENCE A FAMILY OR VILLAGE MAY DECIDE TO hDO NOTHING AS AN ACTIONv THAT IS CONSIDERED SAFER THAN hDOING SOMETHINGv /NE MAN WHO HAS A UNIVERSITY DEGREE AND WAS MARRIED IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN  SAID h)T IS BETTER TO

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SAY NOTHING AND TO STOP MOVING IF A SPIRIT IS NEARBY BECAUSE ) DONT WANT TO UPSET ANYTHINGv 3UCH TACTICS OPERATED DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE AND IT SEEMS THAT NO ACTION PARADOXICALLY WAS AN ASSERTIVE MOVE RATHER THAN A COMPLIANT ACT &OREST  CONTENDS THAT #AMBODIANS HAVE FOUND SPIRITS TO BE MORE ACCESSIBLE THAN "UDDHA AS WELL AS MORE USEFUL FOR SOLVING DAY TO DAY PROBLEMS ) FOUND THIS TO BE SO IN MY STUDY 3PIRITS ARE FREE FROM KARMIC OBLIGATION THOUGH THEY MAY ACCRUE KARMA THAT THE LIVING CAN RECOGNISE "Y SEEKINGAMEDIUM APERSONCANMAKEAMENDSWITHOUTINCREASINGOBLIGATION TO A SPIRIT AND ONE MIGHT INCREASE HOPE FOR SETTING THINGS RIGHT AGAIN )N ADDITION SEEKING A MEDIUM CAN BE LESS SPIRITUALLY FATAL THAN THE SEEKING OF "UDDHABECAUSEONECANMAKEADEALWITHASPIRITTHROUGHTHEMEDIUMˆAS IF HAVING A BROKER TO ASSUME THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR AN OUTCOME 4HE SPIRIT FORGIVES AND FORGETS WHEREAS ONE HAS DIFFERENT OBLIGATIONS TO THE "UDDHA IN WAYS THAT ASSIST IN THE STORING OF MERITS FOR GOOD KARMA 2ELATIONS WITH THE SPIRIT WORLD SEEM FREER FROM KARMIC OBLIGATION THAN RELATIONSWITHTHE"UDDHA&ORESTALSODISCUSSESTHEPRICEFOREXERTINGAhBAD MOUTHv ! NEAK TA MAY PUNISH A PERSON WHO BOASTS USES LOUD AND LEWD LANGUAGE OR SPEAKS OUT OF TURN THIS MAY ALSO HAVE SOME RESONANCE WITH THE WAYS PEOPLE COMPLY ) THINK THAT THIS FACTOR MAY HAVE LED OUTSIDERS TO INTERPRET#AMBODIANBEHAVIOURASCOMPLIANTWHENPEOPLECOULDBEOPERATING FROMACOMPLEX PROTECTIVERESPONSETOSPIRITINmUENCES)NESSENCE PEOPLEARE SAFER FROM SPIRIT HARM IF THEY KEEP THEIR MOUTHS SHUT /NE MAN TOLD ME h7ECOULDNEVERBESUREIFTHEPLACESTHE+HMER2OUGESENTUSWEREFRIENDLY PLACES HOW COULD WE KNOWv /NE THIRD OF RESPONDENTS MOVED ACROSS REGIONS IN #AMBODIA THAT WERE UNFAMILIAR TO THEM SOME WERE PRESSED INTO MOUNTAIN REGIONS WHERE THEY HAD LESS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SURVIVAL CUES SUCH AS EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS "ERTRAND PERSONAL CONVERSATION  -AY  NOTES THAT THESE REGIONS MAY HAVE MINGLED PEOPLE WITH THE (MONG ,AO HIGH MOUNTAIN PEOPLE THAT INTRODUCED THEM TO OTHER MAGIC AND SPIRIT SOURCES !LSO SPIRIT MEDIUMS ARE UBIQUITOUS AND ARE FOUND AMONG THE LESS EDUCATED AND ACROSS FARMING AND MOUNTAIN COMMUNITIES !SMENTIONEDPREVIOUSLY ITWASUSUALFORRESPONDENTSTOSPEAKOFSEEKING MULTIPLE SOURCES OF PROTECTION /NE WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN  AT THE AGE OF  IN +OH +ONG *IMAL DISTRICT SAID HER MOTHERS hTURNv MILK AND THE TURN OF "UDDHA  PREAH THOR PROTECTED HER 4WENTY PEOPLE MENTIONED TURN AS A PROTECTOR %IGHT PEOPLE REFERENCED TURN IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE "UDDHA WHILE SEVEN MENTIONED THE POWER OF TURN ALONGSIDE GOOD ACTIONS

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ANDOR FAIRIES TRáNAN  /THERS MENTIONED THE BREAST MILK TURN AS A SOLE AGENT OF PROTECTION 'ENERALLY#AMBODIANSCOVER ALL BASESWHENTHEYSEEKHELP&ORINSTANCE EVENTODAY INAHEALTHSERVICEWHERE)CONSULTNEAR0HNOM0ENH MYCLIENTS OFTEN WILL SEEK A PHYSICIAN FORTUNE TELLER MONK AND +RUU +HMER FOR THE SAME AILMENT $URING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD PEOPLE SOUGHT EXTERNAL SOURCES OF POWER SUCH AS FORTUNE TELLERS WHILE MOBILISING INTERNAL FORCES SUCHASRECITATIONOFAPHRASEOR"UDDHASNAME$URING$+ WHENSOURCESOF PROTECTIONWERELOW WHICHWASOFTEN PEOPLEFELTVULNERABLETOTHEDESTRUCTIVE POWERS OF !NGKAR

Angkar’s Potency !NGKAR WAS THE MOST PERVASIVE AND IRONICALLY CONSISTENT ENTITY MENTIONED IN MY STUDY !NGKAR WAS PORTRAYED MORE OFTEN AS A SUPREME ENTITY THAT WAS TO BE FEARED AND REVERED SIMULTANEOUSLY )N FACT +HMER 2OUGE 3LOGANS HAVE BEEN COMPILED BY THE $OCUMENTATION #ENTER OF #AMBODIA AND SHOW !NGKARS BOLDNESS$# #AMBY3ER3AYANAANDTRANSLATEDBY3OUR"UNSOU ALSO(ENRI ,OCARD PROVIDES A COMPILATION OF SAYINGS IN HIS BOOK 0OL 0OTS ,ITTLE 2ED "OOK4HE 3AYINGS OF !NGKAR 3ILKWORM  4HESE SLOGANS POINT TO $+S POLITICAL AGENDA BUT THE WAYS THEY INlLTRATED THE INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE PSYCHE REQUIRE FURTHER INVESTIGATION ) SAW HINTS OF SUBLIMINAL IMPACT BY THE SLOGAN DEPICTING !NGKAR AS A SIGN OF ONES hHUMAN AND SPIRITUAL STRENGTHv 4HIS WAS MORE PREVALENT FOR MEN THAN WOMEN s !NGKAR IS VERY CORRECT BRIGHT AND TERRIlC
s -UST BE LOYAL AND LOVE !NGKAR
s "E COMMITTED TO SACRIlCING OUR LIVES IN FULlLLING !NGKAR S LABOR TASKS
s !NGKAR SELECTS ONLY THOSE WHO ARE NEVER TIRED
s /NE FEELS FRIGHTENED ONLY JUST TO HEAR THE WORD h!NGKARv s 4HECOMPARISONOF!NGKARDOESNTMEANCOMPARISONOFMILITARYAND ECONOMIC STRENGTH BUT HUMAN AND SPIRITUAL STRENGTH THAT IS THE HUMAN BEING IS CHOSEN TO LEAD ECONOMIC AND MILITARY FORCES 4HEMAINMESSAGEISTHATBEINGREJECTEDBY!NGKARISASIGNOFWEAKNESS ANDDISLOYALTYTOTHEMASTER9ETIFONEISSELECTEDASACHOSENONE SHEMUST 

0EOPLE MENTIONED FAIRIES TRáNAN ONLY AS A PROTECTING AGENT

!NGKARS 0OTENCY



DEFYHUMANITY4HEREISSOMETHINGSEDUCTIVEABOUTTHISAPPEALh!NGKARSELECTS ONLY THOSE WHO ARE NEVER TIREDv !NGKAR IS THE MASTER OF THE TERRITORY 7ITH THESE CULT LIKE REVERENT REFERENCES TO !NGKAR PEOPLE WERE RIPE FOR SERVICE !NGKAR SPOTENTIALASANINVADINGORHARMINGENTITYLURKEDNEARBYWHEN PEOPLESETTLEDINTOARECONSTITUTEDVILLAGELIFE BUTMANYSEEMEDTOHAVESOME REPRIEVE AFTER THEY WERE WED -ARRIAGES MORE THAN BIRTHS PROVIDED CLUES TO !NGKAR SDOMINANCESINCE!NGKARPLAYEDAHANDINTHEUNIONS4HEBOOKSTHAT ) REVIEWED FOR THIS STUDY OFTEN INCLUDED A GLOSSARY OR STATEMENT THAT DElNES !NGKAR AS THE h0ARTY /RGANIZATIONv %TCHESON  WRITES h4HE +HMER 2OUGE INTERNAL SECURITY APPARATUS KNOWN AS THE 3ANTEBAL WAS CHARGED WITH THE LIQUIDATION OF ALL ENEMIES OF !NGKAR @4HE /RGANIZATION THE CHILLINGLY MODERNALIAS0OL0OTCHOSEFORTHE#OMMUNIST0ARTYOF+AMPUCHEA vP  !NGKAR SMULTIPLEMEANINGSAREALLUDEDTOBY(INTON h!KEYSYMBOL OF THE NEW ORDER !NGKAR CONSTITUTES A +HMER 2OUGE IDEOLOGICAL PALIMPSEST LINKINGHIGH MODERNISTTHOUGHT COMMUNISTIDEOLOGY ANDLOCALUNDERSTANDINGS TO IDEALISE A NEW POTENT CENTERx $URING $+ THE WORD !NGKAR SEEMS TO HAVETAKENONALLOFTHESECONNOTATIONSx!TTIMESTHESESENSESCONVERGED AS WHEN!NGKARWASPORTRAYEDASAQUASI DIVINEENTITY COMPRISINGBOTHTHEPARTY LEADERSHIPANDTHEPOPULACE THATSHOULDBEWORSHIPEDBYEVERYONEv(INTON PPn (INTONHIGHLIGHTS!NGKAR SPOWER BUTFALLSSHORTOFFULLYTEASING OUT THE SIGNIlCANCE OF !NGKAR S OMNIPRESENCE IN THE POLITICAL DISCOURSE "Y FORMALISINGMYRESEARCHTOINCLUDEQUESTIONSABOUTTHEhMEANINGOF!NGKAR v )FOUNDSTARTLINGCONCLUSIONS0EOPLESEXPERIENCEOF!NGKAREMERGEDFROMTHE PERCEPTUALGROUNDEMBEDDEDINAMETAPHYSICALREALITY&ORTHOSEINMYSTUDY THE MEANING OF !NGKAR RAN DEEPER THAN hLOCAL UNDERSTANDINGS THAT IDEALISE A NEW POTENCYv SINCE hIDEALISINGv IS A COGNITIVE BASED PROCESS ) CONTEND THAT !NGKAR SINmUENCENEEDSTOBESEENFROMOUTSIDEhANIDEOLOGICALFRAMEWORK v SUCH AS FROM NON MEMBERS OF THE #0+ *USTASTHEREAREDIFFERENCESBETWEENRELIGIOUSSCHOLARSVIEWSON"UDDHISM AND VILLAGERS USER FRIENDLY VERSIONS OF "UDDHISM THERE ARE VARIATIONS IN DEPICTIONS OF !NGKAR .EARLY ONE FOURTH OF THE RESPONDENTS IN MY STUDY  OUTOF SAID h)DONTKNOWvWHENASKED h7HATWAS!NGKAR v7OMENS UNSURENESS ABOUT !NGKAR WAS SIGNIlCANTLY HIGHER THAN MENS  TO  RATIO  7OMEN TENDED TO PRESENT THEIR CORE EXPERIENCES AS INVOLVING A KIND OF A WEAR AND TEAR PROCESS -ANY RESPONDENTS GAVE TWO OR THREE MEANINGS BUT MOST PORTRAYED !NGKAR AS A PERPLEXING AND INTRUDING ENTITY OR FORCE4HESE INTERPRETATIONSWEREEQUALLYDISTRIBUTEDACROSSREGION EDUCATION NEWORBASE STATUS YEAROFWEDDING AND#HINESE +HMEROR+HMERIDENTITY OROTHERWISE $ESCRIPTIONSWERETIEDTOWHETHERPEOPLEASKED!NGKAR SPERMISSIONTOMARRY



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A PERSON SELECTED BY THEM WHETHER A FAMILY MEMBER MADE THE REQUEST OR IF A COMMUNE OR CAMP LEADER MADE THE CHOICE FOR THE COUPLE WITHOUT PARENTSINVOLVEMENT)NCASESWHEREALEADERPAIREDTHECOUPLES PEOPLEOFTEN CLARIlED !NGKAR S ROLE SUCH AS h!NGKAR WAS THE LEADER OF THE COMMUNEv /NE WOMAN IN +ANDAL SAID h7E MADE PROMISES TO !NGKAR TO LIVE TOGETHER FOREVER BUT ) DID NOT KNOW WHERE OUR PROMISE WAS SENTv (OWEVER MANY WERE UNSURE ABOUT WHETHER THE LEADERS WERE INTERMEDIARIES FOR !NGKAR OR WHETHER THEY WERE ONE OF MANY !NGKARS4HERE WAS LACK OF CONSENSUS ACROSS RESPONDENTS AS WELL AS BETWEEN HUSBANDS AND WIVES ABOUT JUST WHAT WHERE OR WHO !NGKAR WAS ! WOMAN MARRIED IN RAINY SEASON OF  IN 2ANTANAKIRI CLAIMED THAT HERAREASTILLHADGROUPWEDDINGSAFTERTHEhLIBERATIONDAYv3HESAID h0EOPLE SAIDJUSTDOWHATYOUARETOLDSOYOUCANLIVE7HENTHELEADEROFTHETEAM CHOSE FOR US TO MARRY WE GAVE PROMISES TO !NGKAR BUT ) STILL DONT KNOW WHAT!NGKARWASv-RS/MSAID h)KNOW!NGKARDIDNOTREALLYCAREABOUTUS EVENTHOUGHTHEHUSBANDCHOSENFORMEISKINDv/NEWOMANWHOMARRIED IN4AKEO DURING 0CHUM "EN IN  SAID h) STILL DONT KNOW ABOUT !NGKAR  SOMETIMES ) SAW PEOPLE CLIMB A TREE AND COME DOWN FOR MEETINGS ) ASKED OTHERPEOPLEBUTTHEYDIDNTSEEMTOKNOWEITHER"UTONOURWEDDINGNIGHT IF WE DID NOT SLEEP CLOSE TOGETHER !NGKAR WOULD COMMAND US TO CARRY MORE DIRT THE NEXT DAY THERE WERE TWO OR THREE PEOPLE WHO WOULD PEEK AT US AT NIGHT FOR !NGKARv !S ANOTHER EXAMPLE CONSIDER THE ACCOUNT BY ONE WOMAN )LL CALL4AM 3HE LEFT 0HNOM 0ENH IN  AND RETURNED TO LIVE WITH HER PARENTS IN "ATI DISTRICT 4AKEO (ER COMMUNE LEADER WHOM SHE CALLED !NGKAR SELECTED4AMS HUSBAND WHO WAS A  YEAR OLD BASE PERSON SHE WAS  AND CONSIDERED TO BE A NEW PERSON 4HEY MARRIED IN THE HARVEST SEASON OF  WITH  OTHER COUPLES IN 4AKEO /NE MONTH AFTER THEIR WEDDING 4AM WAS SENT TO PRISON IN #HEY +ORK 0ROVINCE 3HE SAID h!NGKAR IS THE DEPRESSIONv -ONTHS LATER HER HUSBAND HEARD WHERE 4AM WAS LIVING FROM OTHERS AND WENT TO lND HER h7E ARE TOGETHER BECAUSE WE GAVE A PROMISE TO !NGKAR TO BE MARRIEDv !NGKAR WAS THE MIGHTIEST TRANSFORMING FORCE REFERENCED IN MY STUDY ! SIGNIlCANT NUMBER OF PEOPLE DESCRIBED !NGKAR AS A MYSTERIOUS OTHER OR AN INVISIBLE POWER THAT COULD TAKE MANY FORMS IN MANY PLACES -OSTLY !NGKAR DElED NATURE -R AND -RS , SAID hx IT CAN LIVE FOREVERv !S PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED !NGKAR WAS REPRESENTED AS AN IT WITHOUT GENDER OR PERSONIlED REFERENCE BY  PER CENT OF RESPONDENTS WHO GAVE DESCRIPTIONS 4HOUGH PRONOUNS ARE OFTEN LEFT OUT IN +HMER REFERENCING IN GENERAL THE TENDENCY

!NGKARS 0OTENCY



WAS TO DESCRIBE !NGKAR OUTSIDE THE HUMAN REALM !NGKAR WAS REGARDED AS A THREATENINGFORCEˆWITHSUCHDEPICTIONEMERGINGSTRONGLYDURINGINTERVIEWS AT NIGHT AND DURING SITE VISITS 3OME CLAIMED THAT THEY WERE HAUNTED NOW BY THE PROSPECT THAT !NGKAR COULD RETURN AT ANY TIME 4HIS IDENTITY COULD HAVE INCREASED PEOPLES FEAR OF !NGKAR BECAUSE THERE WAS MUCH UNKNOWN WITH LITTLE TO NO SITUATIONAL TRANSFER OF PRIOR EXPERIENCE  !NGKAR COULD CUT A PERSON OFF FROM HERHIS PLACE AND COMMUNITY !ND MORE OMINOUSLY THE PRESENCE OF !NGKAR COULD SEVER A PERSONS ACCESS TO PROTECTIVE SOURCES 4HIS COULDBEAREASONTURNWASMENTIONEDBYRESPONDENTSASAPROTECTIVEELEMENT IT WAS A PRE EXISTING AGENT BEFORE !NGKAR AND COULD HAVE BEEN LESS EFFECTED BY TAMPERING FORCES 7HATSURFACEDMOSTFROMDESCRIPTIONSWASANINTERMEDIATEFORCEBETWEEN SUBJECT AND OBJECT !NGKAR IN PARTICULAR TENDED TO FUNCTION AS AN AGENCY THAT PERMITTED A POSSESSING ENTITY TO INlLTRATE PEOPLE AND THEIR PLACE 5NDERSTANDING HOW THIS PHENOMENON INTERACTS WITH PEOPLES WELL BEING IS CONFOUNDED CULTURALLY AND PERSONALLY )T IS USEFUL TO mESH OUT SUCH COMPLEXITIES 4O DATE THEORIES ON ANXIETY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA ARE VOID OF hANTICIPATORY FEARSv RELATED TO THE CULTURAL POWER EMBEDDED IN SPIRIT TRANSFORMATION -ORE SPECIlCALLY NEARLY ONE THIRD OF RESPONDENTS DESCRIBED !NGKAR AS OMNIPRESENT )N THIS REGARD FULL COMPREHENSION OF PEOPLES ASSOCIATIONS TO !NGKAR WAS PIVOTAL FOR GRASPING THE SPECTRUM OF THEIR EXPERIENCES ACROSS WEDDINGS PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS !NGKAR AFTER ALL WAS THE MASTER OF CEREMONY AT THEIR WEDDINGS 2EFERENCES TO !NGKAR WERE REPORTED WITH MORE lERCENESS IN EACH SUCCESSIVE MEETING WITH THE SAME PEOPLE )T WAS NOT UNTIL THE SECOND INTERVIEW  HOURS LATER THAT -R 2 CALLED !NGKAR ˆ -AGIC -OUTH /NE FRIEND OF -R /MS TOLD ME THAT HE SAW A SOLDIER HURT SOMEONE AND THAT h!NGKAR SPOKE FROM THE SOLDIERS MOUTHv 4HIS COMMENT PORTRAYS !NGKARASAPOSSESSINGAGENT3OMEOTHERPORTRAYALSOFTHISFORCEPOTENTIALARE AS FOLLOWS h!NGKAR HAS MANY EARS AND KNOWS ALL YOUR ACTIONS !NGKAR JUST APPEARS !NGKAR IS THE LAW FOR KILLING AND HEARS EVERYTHING !NGKAR IS THE HARMING FORCE !NGKAR KNOWS YOUR ACTIONSv /THERS DESCRIBED A POSSESSION LIKE PHENOMENON BY WHICH +HMER 2OUGE CADRES WERE MOMENTARILY hTAKENv ˆASIF!NGKARENTEREDAPERSONSBODYLONGENOUGHTODELIVERAMESSAGE OR ENACTATORTURE&ORCE LADENDEPICTIONSWEREPREVALENTTHROUGHOUTTHISSTUDY REGARDLESS OF AGE GENDER +HMER #HINESE +HMER EDUCATION BASE NEW OR SOLDIER STATUS -EN WERE MORE INCLINED TO GIVE OPERATIONAL DESCRIPTIONS OF !NGKAR 3OME OF THE FOLLOWING DIRECT QUOTES ARE REPRESENTATIVE !NGKAR IS THE



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LEADER THAT GIVES NO INFORMATION !NGKAR KILLS LIKE AN ANIMAL !NGKAR IS THE LEADER THAT DROVE PEOPLE TO DO HORRIBLE THINGS !NGKAR IS A COMMUNIST TEAM THAT HAD NO EMOTION !NGKAR IS THE BAD COMMUNIST !NGKAR IS THE HARSH MANAGER!NGKARISTHEPASSWORDTHAT0OL0OTUSEDTOHEADHISREGIME!NGKAR IS THE MINISTRY WITH NO CLEAR PRINCIPLES !NGKAR IS THE ONE THAT TRIED TO KEEP ORDER!NGKARISTHEFORCETHATDOESNOTTHINKOFTHESICKCHILD/NEMANSAID h!NGKAR WAS THE LEADER THAT YOU CANNOT MUTINYv4HIS DESCRIPTION REPRESENTS OTHERS VIEWS ABOUT !NGKAR S EVER LASTING PRESENCE ˆ SOME HAVE SPOKEN OF !NGKAR IN A HAUNTING SENSE AS IF IT NEVER REALLY GOES AWAY 4HOSE MARRIED IN THE 3OUTHERN AND %ASTERN :ONES TENDED TO REPRESENT !NGKAR MOST AS AN IMPERVIOUS ENTITY THAT COULD APPEAR OR CHANGE AT ANY TIME /NE MAN WHO MARRIED IN +ANDAL IN .OVEMBER  SAID h!NGKAR IS THEWHEELTHATCUTSHANDSANDLEGSIFWETOUCHITv/NEWOMANWHOMARRIED IN +ANDAL IN  SAID h!NGKAR HURTS CHILDREN AND OTHERS BUT NO ONE CAN HARM !NGKARv !NOTHER MAN WHO WAS A NEW PERSON AND MARRIED IN 4AKEO IN  SAID h!NGKAR IS THE MAD FORCE THAT CAN DO ANYTHING SHARP AT ANY TIMEv4HOUGH SOME DESCRIPTIONS WERE CONSISTENT WITH VIEWS THAT h!NGKAR IS THE WHEEL OF HISTORYv FOR OTHERS !NGKAR TRANSCENDED THE WHEEL AND IS STILL TURNING JUST BELOW THE SURFACE &OUR PEOPLE GAVE DESCRIPTIONS THAT REPRESENTED !NGKAR AS HAVING SOME BENElCIAL QUALITIES /NLY ONE WOMAN MADE REFERENCE DIRECTLY TO !NGKAR AND THE WEDDINGS 3HE MARRIED IN  AS A NEW BASE PERSON IN A MOUNTAIN REGION OF /DDAR -EAN #HEY WITH ONE OTHER COUPLE 4O HER h!NGKAR WAS A GROUP OF LEADERS WHO TRIED TO LEAD PEOPLE TO LOVE EACH OTHER AND TO LOVE THEIR COUNTRYv 3HE SAID SHE LEFT HER HUSBAND IN  BECAUSE HE TOOK ANOTHERWIFE/NEWOMANWHOMARRIEDASABASEPERSONININ0REY6ENG SAID h!NGKAR WAS THE BRIGHT LEADERv !NOTHER BASE WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN  IN +ANDAL SAID h!NGKAR HELPED PEOPLEv /NE WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN ASANEWPERSONCLAIMED h!NGKARMANAGEDWELLBECAUSETHEREWERENO KIDNAPPINGS BECAUSE IF PEOPLE DID SOMETHING WRONG THEY WOULD BE KILLEDv (OWEVER THIS SAME WOMAN SAID THAT SHE PRAYED TO "UDDHA EVERYDAY THAT THE REGIME WOULD END 3INCE!NGKARHELDANON GOINGPOTENCYFORSOMANYOFMYRESPONDENTS )WASCOMPELLEDTOCONSIDERMEANINGSOUTSIDETHOSEOFTENATTRIBUTEDTO!NGKAR

 !S A SOCIOPOLITICAL NOTE PEOPLE DISCRIMINATED BETWEEN A COMMUNIST PERSON WHO IS HARMFUL AND ONE WHO IS NEUTRAL 0EOPLE DID NOT MAKE SWEEPING STATEMENTS LIKE ALL COMMUNISTS ARE BAD THOUGH ) HAVE HEARD SUCH STATEMENTS FROM #AMBODIAN COLLEAGUES WHO WERE EDUCATED IN THE 53!

!NGKARS 0OTENCY



AS THE h0ARTY /RGANIZATIONv REFERENCE OR A NAME USED TO HIDE THE IDENTITY OF THE +HMER 2OUGE !NGKAR WAS REFERENCED AS A LEADER BY  PER CENT OF RESPONDENTS WITH SUCH DESCRIPTIONS AS A CRUEL LEADER A HARMING PERSON A VIOLENT PARENT THE HEAD OF THE MACHINE A LEADER YOU CANNOT MUTINY AND SUPERIORS THAT MAKE US AFRAID4HREE PEOPLE REFERENCED !NGKAR AS HELPFUL OR PROTECTIVE WHEREINh!NGKARISTHECONFUSINGKILLERTHATTRIEDTOSTOPSTEALING THE!NGKARTHATMARRIEDUSWASTHEGOOD!NGKAR AND!NGKARGAVEPROJECTSTO BOYSANDGIRLSv!BOUTPERCENTOFRESPONDENTSGAVE!NGKARAMETAPHYSICAL NATURE WITH MOST REFERENCES TO A DESTRUCTIVE ANDOR HARMING FORCE  7HEN INTERVIEWED TOGETHER MOST COUPLES WOULD PAUSE AND LOOK AT ONE ANOTHER BEFORESPEAKINGABOUT!NGKAR ASIFTHEREWERESOMEPRESENTDAYAPPREHENSION THAT LINGERS 4HOSE WHO ATTRIBUTED DESTRUCTIVE AND TRANSFORMING UNPREDICTABLE POWERS TO !NGKAR GAVE MORE DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR OWN FEARS AND ACCOUNTS OF FALLING IN LINE -R /M DESCRIBED HIS MOVEMENTS h) WALKED WHERE ) WAS TOLD BECAUSE !NGKAR COULD FOLLOW ME AT ANY TIMEv (IS VIEW OF !NGKAR HAD ELEMENTS OF BEING UNPREDICTABLE AND OMNIPRESENT -R ! WHO WAS A FORMER MONK AND NEW PERSON SAID h) HID A PHOTO AND WAS SAFE BECAUSE LEADERS KNEW ME BEFORE THEY WERE LEADERS 7E HAD TO USE OUR CONNECTIONS TO LIVE AND!NGKARWASNOTCLEVERSOMETIMES AND)COULDNOTSHOWWHEN)WASTOO AFRAID ONLYALITTLEAFRAID)HADTOBEMOSTCLEVERv4HISVIEWOF!NGKARHAD MORE PREDICTABILITY AND THE MAN PRESENTED HIMSELF AS HAVING MORE INTRINSIC POWER OR AN INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL ,OCUS OF CONTROL IS A CONCEPT THAT ACCOUNTS FOR A PERSONS PERCEPTION OF POWER AND WHETHER CONTROL OVER LIFE IS INTERNAL SELF EMPOWERED OR EXTERNAL SUCH AS BY LUCK FATE OR CHANCE 2OTTER   4HIS PERCEPTION IS NOT lXED AND CAN CHANGE ACCORDING TO CIRCUMSTANCE ) NOTE THAT THE CONSTRUCTION OF THIS .ORTH !MERICAN VARIABLE DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR ANIMISTIC ELEMENTSCONTEXTS !CCOUNTING FOR SUCH VALUES SYSTEMS AS mUID PHENOMENA HAS BEEN ESSENTIAL IN ANALYSIS OF THIS RESEARCH SO THAT CULTURAL VALIDITY IS NOT COMPROMISED )N THIS REGARD AS ) DISTILLED IMAGES ATTRIBUTED TO !NGKAR ) SAW HOW COMPLIANCE WAS MORE mUID AND COMPLEX THAN A CULTURAL CHARACTER FACTOR SUCH AS THE h#AMBODIAN CULTURAL DISPOSITIONv SUGGESTED BY (INTON   -Y RESPONDENTS PRESENTED A MYSTERIOUS FACTOR THAT SEEMED MORE PERCEPTUAL

 )N 7ESTERN CULTURES INTERNAL CONTROL IS OFTEN MORE VALUED AND IS EVIDENT IN THE FACT THAT .ORTH!MERICANNOMENCLATUREINMENTALHEALTHHASAhDEPENDENTPERSONALITYDISORDERvCATEGORY BUT DOES NOT HAVE AN hINDEPENDENT PERSONALITY DISORDERv



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ANDOR SENSATIONAL THAN TEMPERAMENTAL PARTICULARLY WHEN ) ACCOUNTED FOR INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC POWER FACTORS RELATED TO SPIRITISM 3OME RESPONDENTS USED METAPHORS ! WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN  IN +AMPONG 4HOM SAID h!NGKAR WAS LIKE A RUMOUR MAKER THAT WANTED TO CRUSH PEOPLEv *OHN -ARSTON  IN HIS WORK h-ETAPHORS OF THE +HMER 2OUGEv HINTS AT THE POSSIBILITY OF AN OMNIPRESENT REFERENCE $ESCRIPTIONS HE COLLECTED FROM

#OMPOSITE SKETCH OF !NGKAR ,E6INE 

!NGKARS 0OTENCY



#AMBODIAN REFUGEES IN THE 53! SURFACED THE METAPHORICAL REFERENCE TO !NGKAR AS A PINEAPPLE ˆ HAVING EYES IN ALL DIRECTIONS -ARSTON FOLLOWS THREADS TO THE "AYON IMAGES AT !NGKOR 4HOM WITH HEADS LOOKING IN FOUR DIRECTIONS THUSPORTRAYINGTHEMETAPHORASACULTURALREMNANT)NMYSTUDY ONLY ONE PERSON MENTIONED EYES SEVERAL MENTIONED EARS AND MOUTHS ! WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN  IN 4AKEO AS A BASE PERSON SAID h!NGKAR WAS INTHETREESxANDCOULDLOOKDOWNANDSEEEVERYTHINGv3OMERESPONDENTS MENTIONED EARS AND MOUTHS AS DESCRIPTORS OF !NGKARS FACULTIES /NE WOMAN WHO MARRIED IN "ATTAMBANG SAID h!NGKAR IS 4HE (EARING v AND A MAN WHO MARRIED IN 0REY 6ENG SAID h!NGKAR WAS THE LAW FOR KILLING AND IT HEARD EVERYTHINGv

DK’s Cult-ure of SacriÄce 0EOPLE IN MY STUDY DESCRIBED +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY IN CULT LIKE TERMS 4HEY SAT THROUGH REPETITIVE SPEECHES DURING THEIR WEDDINGS AS REPORTED BY TWO THIRDS OF MY SAMPLE  MEN AND WOMEN WORE MATCHING GARB UNSKILLED LABOR WAS TRAINED MARGINALLY TO CONDUCT MEDICAL CARE AND PEOPLE FEARED RETRIBUTION IF THEY DID NOT COMPLY WITH LEADERS DEMANDS #OUPLES REPORTED SURVEILLANCE OF THEIR SEXUAL RELATIONS BY THE +HMER 2OUGE !T THE WEDDING CEREMONY NEAR HALF OF RESPONDENTS SAID THEY WERE TOLD TO PRODUCE RICE AS INDEBTEDNESS FOR !NGKAR S SACRIlCE TO THE PEOPLE ˆ TO DO OTHERWISE WOULD BE UNGRATEFUL ! CULT IS DElNED AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL OR RELIGIOUS GROUP WHOSE LEADERS ENGAGEINEMOTIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SPIRITUAL ANDPHYSICALSEXUALINTIMIDATION ,IFTON    ! KIND OF MYSTICAL MANIPULATION IS OFTEN PART OF A CULT LEADERS AGENDA ,EADERS CLAIM TO HAVE COSMIC WISDOM IN EMPLOYING LONG REPETITIOUS AND EUPHEMISTIC SPEECHES )N A CULT CONTEXT SECRECY AND SURVEILLANCE ARE FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF DAILY LIFE ,EADERS SEEK INSULARITY THAT RESTRICTS MEMBERS FROM WORLD ACCESS WHILE DETACHING FOLLOWERS FROM COMMUNITY FAMILY AND RELIGIOUS TIES !N INDIVIDUALS LIFE BECOMES DEVALUED WHEN COMPARED TO THE COLLECTIVE AND ITS CAUSE !LSO DEATH RESULTS FROM POOR CONDITIONS ABSENCE OF MEDICAL TREATMENT FOR MEMBERS ANDOR HARSH TREATMENT FOR THOSE WHO CRITICISE OR BETRAY AUTHORITY ! CULTURE OF SACRIlCE GENERATES PAUCITY OF COLOUR ART HUMOUR AND SPONTANEITY ENVIRONMENTS ARE STRIPPED TO STARK FORMS 4HOUGHT REFORM FOCUSES ON MILIEU CONTROL DEMAND FOR PURITY WITH A CULTURE OF CONFESSION AND hDISLOCATIONv FROM RITUAL STRUCTURES !LL THESE COLOURLESS AND HUMOURLESS CULT BASED IMAGES RESONATE WITH PEOPLES COLLECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR WEDDINGS ˆ AS MUCH



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ASACCOUNTSOFBIRTHS ANDTHEPAUCITYOFMEDICALCAREANDDEATHSREPORTEDBY HARSH CONDITIONS -R"HADBEENA+HMER2OUGESOLDIER(EWASMARRIEDINAGROUPWITH THREE OTHER COUPLES COMPRISED OF THREE MALE SOLDIERS TWO WOMEN SOLDIERS AND ONE BASE WOMAN WHOM HE GAINED PERMISSION TO MARRY IN $ECEMBER   ) WENT WITH HIM AND HIS WIFE TO THEIR WEDDING SITE IN 0HNOM 0ENH AT THE FORMER 3ORIA #INEMA (E OFFERED DETAILS ABOUT HIS INTENSIVE PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAINING AS WELL AS ASSIGNMENTS BY THE +HMER 2OUGE AND HOW HE AND LOCAL VILLAGERS WERE IN THE DOUBLE BIND OF BEING CHOSEN MADE TO FEEL SPECIAL YET WITHOUT DISCUSSION OF OTHER OPTIONS -EN IN HIS VILLAGE 3AANG $ISTRICT WERE ROUNDED UP FOR GUN TRAINING HE WAS  YEARS OLD AT THAT TIME (E WAS A DRIVER INITIALLY AND RAN WEAPONS BETWEEN 0HNOM 0ENH +AMPONG 3OM AND THE 6IETNAM BORDER %MBEDDED IN HIS ACCOUNTS WERE ELEMENTSOFPERSUASIONBYTHE+HMER2OUGE ASFOUNDINCULTINITIATIONSAND ACTIVITIESSIMILARTOTHATOUTLINEDBY,IFTON !NECDOTESBYRESPONDENTS SUGGEST THAT MIDDLE RANKED COMMUNE LEADERS MAY HAVE RECOGNISED AND USED CULT BASEDPROCEDURESTOEXPLOITPEOPLESSPIRIT BASEDPERCEPTIONSASAMETHOD OF CONTROL 4HE AMBIGUITY ABOUT hBEING CALLED FOR SERVICEv SEEMED TO HEIGHTEN PEOPLES PERCEPTIONS OF A MYSTERIOUS OR MYTHICAL OTHER /NE lFTH OF THE RESPONDENTS SPOKE ABOUT BEING CALLED TO MEETINGS AND NOT KNOWING IF IT WASINREALITYFORMARRIAGEORKILLING(ALFSPOKEOFhTHEMOMENTOFREALISING DECEITv AFTER THE +HMER 2OUGE EVACUATED THE CITIES !CCORDINGLY SECRECY SURVEILLANCE AND DECEPTION INTERACTED STRONGLY WITH SUSCEPTIBILITY &OR EXAMPLE -RS /M RECOUNTED HOW SHE WAS hTOLD BY !NGKAR TO GO TO A MEETING AT THE COMMUNE HEADQUARTERS v WHICH BECAME THE PLACE OF HER GROUP WEDDING CEREMONY 3HE WALKED ALONE ALL NIGHT TO GET THERE 3HE SAID SHE DID NOT DARE RUN AWAY DURING THE NIGHT DESPITE THE FACT THAT NO ONE SUPERVISEDHERWALK&ROMACULTPERSPECTIVE !NGKAROPERATEDASANINVISIBLE SURVEILLANT 3HE SAID h) DID NOT KNOW WHAT WAS GOING TO HAPPEN NEXT SO ) JUST WALKED IN SILENCE IN CASE !NGKAR COULD HEAR MEv

DK Fallout: Vulnerable Minds and Bodies !S ) DELVED INTO THE ROLES THAT METAPHYSICAL FORCES PLAYED IN RESPONDENTS LIVES ALONGSIDE CULT BASED ACTIVITIES ) KEPT WONDERING IF KEY +HMER 2OUGE

 .OTE THAT THERE IS NOT A +HMER WORD FOR hVULNERABILITY v THUS MY INSERTION OF THE NOTION OF SUSCEPTIBILITY #ONVERSATION WITH 3YLVAIN 6OGEL  *ANUARY  0HNOM 0ENH

!NGKARS 0OTENCY



LEADERS HAD AN INTENTIONAL DESIGN TO EXPLOIT CULTURAL LEANINGS TOWARDS SPIRIT CULTURE "RASSARD  NOTES THAT IN THE "UDDHIST DOCTRINE OF 3KILFUL -EANS UPAYA KAUSHALYA hA TEACHING CAN BE ADAPTED TO THE PRESUPPOSITIONS OF THE CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THE RELIGION SPIRIT WORLD IS BEING ARTICULATEDxvP )NTHECASEOFTHE+HMER2OUGE THEQUESTIONMIGHTBE ASKED h"YWHAT3KILFUL-EANSWERE"UDDHISTAND(INDUIDEASRECONSTITUTEDv 4HOUGH THE +HMER 2OUGE REMOVED MONKS AND THE ROLES THEY PROVIDED FOR COMMUNITIES THEY GENERALLY IGNORED THE SOCIAL SPIRIT FUNCTIONS SERVED BY FORTUNE TELLERS MEDIUMS AND +RUU +HMER AS THE AGENTS OF PROTECTION THAT ASSISTED PREDICTABILITY )T SEEMS AS IF THE +HMER 2OUGE PARTICIPATED UNKNOWINGLY IN MAINTAINING SOME INTRINSIC FABRIC OF THE SOCIO SPIRIT SPHERE OF#AMBODIAˆBUTTAMPEREDENOUGHTOHEIGHTENPEOPLESEXPERIENCESOFFEAR BY CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT lLLED WITH CULTURALLY TABOO IMAGES AND ACTIONS 0ROBABLY THE +HMER 2OUGE DID NOT CONSCIOUSLYDELIBERATELY EXPLOIT THE CULTURALPROPENSITYFORANIMISTICPERCEPTIONAKINTO(AITIS0APA$OC BECAUSE THEY WERE TOO ATTACHED TO THEIR ANTI ESTABLISHMENT PLATFORM 2EGARDLESS OF INTENT IT WAS LUCK OF THE CULTURAL DRAW FOR $+ THAT !NGKAR WAS SO NEBULOUS A CREATURE IN PEOPLES MINDS AND VULNERABLE BODIES ) THINK THAT RESPONDENTSANTICIPATORY FEAROFSPIRITHARMCOLLIDEDWITH+HMER2OUGESHOCK ACTIVITIES WHICH COULD EASILY HAVE PLAYED A PART IN A COLLECTIVE COMPLIANCE IN A MILIEU DESIGNED FOR SACRIlCE 4HIS IS ONE ASPECT OF CULTURAL FALLOUT THAT WARRANTS MORE CONSIDERATION 0ROFOUND FALLOUT FROM $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA IS EVIDENT IN PEOPLES ACCOUNTS OF THEIR OWN OR ANOTHERS PHYSICAL BODY IMAGES ˆ SOME ARE STILL CONFUSED AND HAUNTED BY MEMORIES OF HUMAN DECAY -R , SPOKE REPEATEDLY ABOUT HIS BODY h-Y LEGS MOVED BUT THEY DID NOT LOOK HUMAN TO ME JUST LONG BITS HANGING OFF MEv /NE WOMAN WHO REQUESTED CONlDENCE TOLD ME THAT HER SISTER GAVE HER WEAKEST CHILD TO ANOTHER PERSON ALONG THE ROAD SO SHE COULD TRAVEL MORE EFlCIENTLY WITH HER OTHER CHILD h7HAT COULD SHE

 4O FURTHER MY THINKING ) INVESTIGATED OTHER COUNTRIES POLITICAL AGENDAS )N PARTICULAR ) WAS INTERESTEDINREGIMESTHATUSEDTHEOCCULTFORPOLITICALPERSUASION SUCHASTHE(AITIDICTATORSHIP OF&RAN½OIS$UVALIERKNOWNAS0APA$OC ANDHISSUCCESSORSON *EAN #LAUDEn 4HEY BOTHMADELEGITIMATEUSEOFVOODOOANDTHE4ONTON-ACOUTES(AITIAN#REOLEFORBOGEYMAN A SECRET FORCE THAT ROUTINELY EXECUTED OPPONENTS ) SOUGHT FURTHER COMPARISONS SUCH AS THE 'ERMAN 0EASANT7AR AND INmUENCES BY ,UTHERS RELIGIOUS IDEAS h)F A SPIRITUAL OR RELIGIOUS IDEA CAN BE USED TO CREATE SOCIAL DIFFERENCES THEN ONE IS NOT VERY FAR FROM HAVING A SOCIETY THAT DISCRIMINATES AND EVEN OPPRESSES SOME OF ITS MEMBERS ON THE BASIS OF SUCH IDEAv "RASSARD  P  



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DO 3HE COULD HARDLY MOVE ) WILL ALWAYS SEE HER THIS WAYv 3IMILARLY THESE IMAGES RAN ALONGSIDE DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHERS BODIES /NE FRIEND OF -R /M WITNESSED TORTURE ENACTED IN +ANDAL BY A FORMER PRIMARY SCHOOL FRIEND FROM HIS HOME VILLAGE AND SAID hx SOMETHING ELSE WAS IN MY FRIENDS BODY AND HIS MOUTH FOR A FEW MINUTESv 0EOPLE WERE IN A CONTINUAL BIND ABOUT WHETHER TO CENSOR THEIR OWN IMAGES 4HIS QUANDARY IS ANOTHER LAYER OF FALLOUT FROM THIS ERA ˆ BODY IMAGES TOO DISTORTED TO EVER DIGEST OR TO FORGET )NTHISCONTEXT PERHAPSONEREASONMOSTOFMYRESPONDENTSCONSIDEREDTHE +HMER2OUGEORGANISEDMARRIAGESASAUTHENTICISTHATWEDDINGSFUNCTIONEDAS AN ANCHOR TO SOME SEMBLANCE OF A PAST KINSHIP MEMORY7HEN RESPONDENTS SPOKEOFTHEIRHISTORY THEYTENDEDTOSEPARATETHEFEIGNEDFROMTHEUNFEIGNED h4HISWASWHAT)SAIDTHEN BUTNOW)CANSAYITWASLIKETHISv$ESCRIPTIONS OF !NGKAR WERE THE MOST mUID WITH REGARD TO TIME MANY SPOKE OF !NGKAR IN THE PRESENT TENSE !T THE END OF A LATE NIGHT INTERVIEW -R , TOLD ME THAT h!NGKAR CAN LIVE UNDER THE GROUNDv4HIS OUTCOME IS STARTLING BECAUSE REALITY READS LIKE A lCTITIOUS SCRIPT )MAGES OF THE GROTESQUE HAVE BECOME EVIDENCE OF ONES LIVED HISTORY -R /M SAID h/UR COUNTRY GROWS SO QUICKLY NOW SOHOWCANMYCHILDRENBELIEVEWHAT)TELLTHEM4HEYTELLMETOFORGET ) AM AFRAID TO REMEMBER AND ) AM AFRAID TO FORGETv

Chapter

8 Agentless Victimiser

I Did Not Interview the Dead (Boder) !FTERMYANALYSISWASCOMPLETE )SEARCHEDFORSCHOLARSWHOWERENOTSOCIALISED INTO THE LANGUAGE AND CONCEPTS FROM 4RAUMA 'ENOCIDE OR +HMER 3TUDIES RELATED TO THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD !T THE SAME TIME ) WANTED TO lND THOSE WHO ACCOUNTED FOR EXTREME POLITICAL CONDITIONS CULTURAL UPHEAVAL AND DISRUPTIONS TO HUMAN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ) FOUND AN UNUSUAL STUDY YET TO BE FULLY RECOGNISED IN THE LITERATURE CONDUCTED BY $R $AVID "ODER IN THE LATE S )N PARTICULAR "ODER ACCOUNTED FOR CONTRADICTION IN HIS METHODS AND ANALYSES MORE THAN ANY CONTEMPORARY TRAUMA RESEARCHER )D REVIEWED )N THE S HE WAS WORKING AS A PSYCHOLOGIST ACADEMIC IN THE 53! HAVING MIGRATED FROM ,ATVIA  (E WENT TO %UROPE TO MEET FACE TO FACE WITH $ISPLACED 0EOPLE $0S IN  JUST AFTER THE SURRENDER OF .AZI 'ERMANY$0SWEREBEINGSHELTEREDFOLLOWINGTHEIRRELEASEFROMCONCENTRATION CAMPS (E INTERVIEWED THEM AT THE SHELTERS "ODERBEGANBYSITTINGWITHPEOPLEINDIVERSELANGUAGEGROUPSANDASKING THEM TO SING FAMILIAR SONGS IN THEIR OWN LANGUAGE 2USSIAN 0OLISH ,ATVIAN 9IDDISH AND (EBREW $UTCH &LEMISH 'ERMAN AND SO ON  3ONG CAN TRIGGER MEMORY AND IS A FAMILIAR CULTURAL ARTIFACT ) THINK THAT THIS METHOD OF ENTRY INTO PEOPLES STORIES MAY HAVE ASSISTED THEIR SENSE OF SAFETY (E INTERVIEWED  PEOPLE SINGLE INTERVIEWS WITH METHODS THAT IMITATED PSYCHOANALYTIC PROCEDURES THUS HE MINIMISED EYE CONTACT AND GENERATED UNSTRUCTURED ENVIRONMENTSFROMWHICHPEOPLECOULDRECOLLECT"ODERPRODUCEDTRANSCRIPTS HOURSONSPOOLSOFWIRERECORDER JUSTASRESPONDENTSWERETRANSITING





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OUTOFTHE.AZICAMPS OFTENJUSTDAYSORWEEKSFOLLOWINGRELEASE"ODERSWORK MAY BE THE FRESHEST HISTORICAL COLLECTION OF %UROPEAN (OLOCAUST SURVIVORS EXPERIENCES IN THE WORLD &ROM THE TRANSCRIPTIONS HE PRODUCED A BOOK ) $ID .OT )NTERVIEW THE $EAD  5NIVERSITY OF )LLINOIS 0RESS  ) OBTAINED COPIES OF HIS TRANSCRIPTS FROMTHE,IBRARYOF#ONGRESSIN7ASHINGTON$# ANDSEARCHEDFORSIMILARITY ANDCONTRASTTOMYRESPONDENTSACCOUNTS)FOUND"ODERSTHEMATICMATERIAL TO RESONATE WITH SOME OF MINE &OR INSTANCE "ODER  COMMENTED ON THE YEARS OF SILENCE ENDURED BY HIS INTERVIEWEES )KEPTINMINDTHATMOSTOFTHEDISPLACEDPERSONSHADSPENTTHEIRTIME OF IMPRISONMENT IN CAMPS AMONG INMATES OF DIVERGENT TONGUES AND DIALECTS &OR YEARS THEY HAD BEEN DEPRIVED OF ALL READING MATTER EVEN PRAYERBOOKS OFRELIGIOUSSERVICES OFRADIOS ANDOFTENOFOPPORTUNITIES TO TALK WITH OTHERS IN THEIR OWN TONGUE )T IS NO WONDER THAT THEIR LANGUAGE HABITS SHOW EVIDENCE OF TRAUMA -OREOVER THE EMOTIONAL STATESAROUSEDBYTHERECOLLECTIONOFEPISODESOFSUCHUNPARALLELEDSTRESS DElNITELY CONTRIBUTE TO PECULIAR VERBAL STRUCTURE AND THE DISCREPANCIES IN TIME AND PLACE FOUND ON OCCASION IN THE NARRATIVES P XIV

"ODERGAVEACCOUNTSOFPEOPLEIN TRANSIT&ROMARESEARCHPERSPECTIVE THIS MAY HAVE GENERATED UNREHEARSED ACCOUNTS OF THE CAMP MILIEU MUCH LIKE MY VISITS TO PAST SITES ASSISTED UNREHEARSED MATERIAL TO EMERGE DURING MY STUDY  -OSTSTRIKINGISHOW"ODERSDESCRIPTIONSHOLDSTRONGPARALLELSTOTHEPOLITICAL CONTEXTSTHATAREGIVENBY#AMBODIANRESPONDENTSINMYSTUDY&ORINSTANCE "ODER DISCUSSED THE hSURVIVAL AT ALL COSTSv PHENOMENON WHICH PARADOXICALLY PROPAGATED A CLASS STRUCTURE FOR THE VIOLENT AND A CONTEXT FOR VIOLENCE )TWASAMONGTHESE'ERMANPOLITICALPRISONERSTHATTHEINFAMOUSTHEORY OF hSURVIVAL AT ALL COSTv WAS CONCEIVED IN THE NAME OF INDISPENSABLE SERVICETO'ERMANYIF(ITLERSHOULDBEDEFEATED4HISTHEORYPROVIDED SUCH PRISONERS WITH JUSTIlCATION FOR THE MISTREATMENT TORTURE AND MURDER THEY PERPETRATED ON THEIR FELLOW INMATES (OWEVER IN SPITE OF THEIR PRIVILEGED STATUS THOUSANDS OF 'ERMAN POLITICAL PRISONERS FOUND THEIR DOOM IN THESE CAMPS )N TIME ANOTHER TYPE OF CONCENTRATION CAMP INMATES BECAME TRUSTIES 4HEY WERE THE "6ERS ˆ PRONOUNCED h"EFAUERv A CONTRACTION OF "ERUFSVERBRECHER WHICH MEANS hPROFESSIONAL CRIMINALvx !ND THEY BECAMETHEELITEINTHECONCENTRATIONCAMPSASSOONASTHE*EWSBEGAN TO ARRIVE )N ADDITION THERE WAS NO SHORTAGE OF DESIRE AMONG CONCENTRATIONCAMPPRISONERSTOBECOMETRUSTIES!SUBSTANTIALNUMBER

!GENTLESS6ICTIMISER



OF INMATES *EWISH AND #HRISTIAN ALIKE COVETED THE EXTRA PRIVILEGES THATWENTWITHTHISODIOUSJOBANDWEREALLTOOREADYTOPROCEEDWITH THE MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE OF THEIR OWN WITH REQUIRED BRUTALITY PP XIVnXV

3IMILARLY THERE WAS A TYPE OF CLASS STRUCTURE THAT EMERGED IN THE #AMBODIAN ACCOUNTS OF WORK CAMPS AND OTHER PLACES THAT MY RESPONDENTS HIGHLIGHTED ˆ PARTICULARLY WHEN WE WERE WALKING ON THE GROUNDS OF THE FORMER BIRTH AND WEDDING SITES $ESPITE THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCE THAT VIOLENCE WAS AN EXTERNALLY DRIVEN PHENOMENON IT WAS AS IF THE RUPTURE TO CULTURAL FOUNDATIONANDFORMERCLASSSTRUCTURESPOWERSTRUCTURES EVOLVEDINTOANEW CLASSSTRUCTUREFOREMPOWERMENTANDDIS EMPOWERMENT)NSUCHBREAKDOWN #AMBODIAN PERPETRATORS WERE TURNED INTO h/THERv -EN AND WOMEN IN MY STUDY SPOKE OF WATCHING OTHERS ENACT VIOLENCE TO EACH OTHER JUST TO SECURE A FEW MORSELS OF RICE -R ! SAID h(E WAS NOT HUMAN x JUST LIVING LIKE AN ANIMAL x SOMETIMES LIKE A DEAD BODY WITH NO FEELINGv #OMMENTS SUCH AS THIS WERE MADE MORE OFTEN IN REFERENCE TO ONES PRE MARRIAGE PERIOD IN THE +HMER 2OUGE 4HERE IS A PERVERSE QUALITY IN EXCERPTS IN "ODERS TRANSCRIPTS THAT MATCH THOSE THAT ) ENCOUNTERED IN MY OWN WORK )N "ODERS INTERVIEWS PEOPLE SPOKE OF THE TRIVIAL EXCUSES MADE BY THE .AZI REGIME FOR ASSEMBLING PEOPLE WHO EXPECTED NO HARM 'ROUPS WERE DIVIDED AND TOLD ERRONEOUSLY THAT THEY WERE BEING hSENT TO PLACES WHERE THERE WAS LIGHT WORK AND MORE FOODxv P XVII 4HIS ASSEMBLING WAS RECOUNTED BY #AMBODIANS h&IRST WE TOOK A TRAIN AND THEN WE WALKED FROM +AMPOT TO "ATTAMBANG ˆ WALKING ALL DAY AND NIGHT BECAUSE WE WERE TOLD THERE WOULD BE MORE FOOD THERE )T WAS A LIEv )N ADDITION CONlSCATION OF BELONGINGS AND IDENTITY OBJECTS WAS A TACTIC USED BY BOTH THE .AZI AND +HMER 2OUGE REGIMES -R ! RECOUNTS THE FOLLOWING "EFORE ) GOT INTO THE CAR THE +HMER 2OUGE TOOK ALL MY PAPERS MY BOOKS CERTIlCATES AND EVERY PAPER THEY JUST TOOK THEM TO DESTROY 3O PROPERTY WAS LOST GRADUALLY ALL BELONGINGS PERSONAL BELONGINGS CERTIlCATES MY BIRTH CERTIlCATE EVEN MY BICYCLE (E CUPS HIS HANDS TO HOLD IMAGINED OBJECT %VEN MY CHICKEN THEY TOOK IT )F PEOPLE DIDNT GIVE ALL THAT THEY WANTED THEY ASKED h$O YOU WANT TO BE ALIVE OR DO YOU WANT TO DIEv 3O HOW CAN YOU CHOOSE DIE OR STAY ALIVE

7HAT DIFFERS BETWEEN "ODERS INTERVIEWS AND MINE IS THE WAY PEOPLE PRESENTEDTHEIRHISTORY&ORINSTANCE #AMBODIANSGAVEUNREHEARSEDACCOUNTS INWAYSTHATSURPRISEDTHEM PARTICULARLYWHENTHEYVISITEDFORMERWORKCAMP



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AND WEDDING SITES h) CAN HARDLY BELIEVE ) AM SAYING THISv 4HIS TYPE OF RESPONSE MAY BE A FUNCTION OF TIME BETWEEN THE LIVED EVENT AND REPORTING OF THE EVENT "ODERS RESPONDENTS DID NOT HAVE THESE ASTONISHED TYPES OF COMMENTS -RS /M WHO INITIALLY DID NOT WANT TO RETURN TO HER BIRTH AND WEDDINGSITESAID h)COULDNOTSLEEPALLNIGHT)KEPTTHINKINGOFBEINGHERE AGAIN ) WAS AFRAID OF WHAT ) MIGHT REMEMBER "UT NOW ) AM GLAD ) CAME HERE BECAUSE ) CAME WITH MY HUSBAND AND SAW OLD FRIENDSv 6ISITS TO PAST GEOGRAPHIC SITES FOR #AMBODIAN RESPONDENTS WERE MORE SETTLING FOR ALL WHO VENTURED THERE THOUGH ANTICIPATORY ANXIETY WAS PRESENT IF NOT OVERWHELMING BEFORE THE TRIP )N MANY WAYS MY RESPONDENTS SPOKE MOREOFTHEPLACESWHEREEVENTSHAPPENED MORETHANTHEEVENTSTHEMSELVES WHENCOMPAREDTO"ODERSRESPONDENTS4HOSEWHOSURVIVEDTHE.AZICAMPS HADNOPRIORATTACHMENTSTOTHOSEPLACES'OINGBACKTOTHESESITESWASABOUT GOING TO A MEMORIAL PLACE FOR %UROPEAN (OLOCAUST SURVIVORS "Y CONTRAST WHEN RESPONDENTS IN MY STUDY RETURNED TO CAMP OR WEDDING SITES THEY MET LOCAL VILLAGERS WHO WERE MARRIED OR WHO WORKED AT THE SAME LOCATION BUT AT DIFFERENTTIMES&OR#AMBODIANS SITESARECOMPRISEDOFCOMMUNITIES7HEN PEOPLE RETURNED TO THESE PLACES THEY lRST GATHERED INFORMALLY WITH LOCALS TO UPDATE EACH OTHER PARTICULARLY ABOUT THEIR CHILDRENS LIVES

Dis-placed, Dis-spirited, and Double Distress /FPRIMARYINTERESTTOMYSTUDYWAS"ODERSCOININGOFTHETERMDE CULTURATION ANDHOWCULTURALBREAKDOWNRELATESTOTHEHUMANEXPERIENCEOFSUFFERING)N MYSTUDY PEOPLESAIDTHEYWEREOFTENINUNFAMILIARPLACES4HISDIS PLACEMENT WAS SIGNIlCANT ON A UTILITARIAN LEVEL AS THEY DID NOT KNOW CERTAIN PLANTS OR LANDFORMATIONS/NAPSYCHO SPIRITLEVEL THEYBECAMEOVERWHELMEDBECAUSE THEY COULD NOT READ SIGNS OR PREDICT WHETHER THE SPIRIT REALM WAS BENIGN OR NOT4HUS PEOPLE WERE DIS PLACED AS WELL AS DIS SPIRITED $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA ACTIVITIES ALTERED THE lBRE OF #AMBODIA BY RE CODIFYING THE MEANING OF RITUAL OBJECTS FOR EXAMPLE THE KRAMA AS A TRADITIONAL OBJECT "Y  BEING CALLED TO MEETINGS WAS NOT UNUSUAL4HIS OFTEN FOLLOWED POLITICAL MEETINGS HELD BY +HMER 2OUGE #OUPLES KNEW THAT IF THEY WERE CALLED TO ASSEMBLE AND GIVEN A KRAMA THEY WOULD BE TAKEN FOR MARRIAGE IF THEY WERE CALLED FOR A MEETING AND NOT GIVEN A SCARF THEN THEY WORRIED THAT !NGKAR MIGHT BE CALLING THEM FOR DEATH 4HUS OVER TIME THE SYMBOL OF THE KRAMA CARRIED A CODED MESSAGE FOR MARRIAGE OR DEATH WITHIN THEGROUP4HEOMISSIONOFTHEOBJECTWHENBEINGCALLEDTOAMEETINGMEANT DEATH -R /M MAKES THE FOLLOWING COMMENT

!GENTLESS6ICTIMISER



) WAS TOLD TO GO TO A MEETING THE NEXT MORNING AND ALL NIGHT WORRIED BECAUSEOURFRIENDWASCALLEDANDNEVERCAMEBACKHEWASKILLED"UT THENEXTMORNING)WASGIVENAREDSCARFANDMYFRIENDSAID h/HYOU WILL BE MARRIEDv

#ULTURE AND GEOGRAPHY WERE MORE INTERCONNECTED IN MY #AMBODIAN STUDYTHANIN"ODERSWORK!MAJORVARIATIONBETWEENMYRESULTSAND"ODERS IS THAT #AMBODIAN RESPONDENTS REPORTED AN INTANGIBLE TAP ROOT EMANATING FROM A TRANSNATURAL OR ANIMISTIC SOURCE THAT SAT DEEP IN THE GEOGRAPHIC lBRE OR THEIR TERRITORY ˆ WHEREIN SOMETHING OUTSIDE THE SELF FAMILY OR KNOWN COMMUNITY CAN RISE UP FROM SOME UNKNOWN SOURCE AND GENERATE HARM 3UFFERING INCREASED AS ANTICIPATORY FEAR INCREASED )T IS PLAUSIBLE THAT !NGKAR ARRIVED AT A TIME IN #AMBODIAS HISTORY WHEN FEARWASPEAKINGˆTIMERIPEFORAGEO CULTURALINTRUDERANDDISTRESSMAKER #ULTURALEROSIONDE CULTURATION WASONLYONEPARTOFTHEBREAKDOWNPEOPLES GEOGRAPHIC TERRITORY BECAME UNSAFE WITH SAFETY RISKS REACHING DEEPER THAN LANDMINE DANGERS  !T ONE INTERVIEW SITE WITH -R AND -RS , A FEW PEOPLE HYPOTHESISED COLLECTIVELY ABOUT !NGKAR h)F !NGKAR IS UNDER THE GROUND IT COULD COME UP THE HOLES LIKE A SNAKEv -ORE DISTURBING WAS A COMMENT BY -RS , THAT !NGKAR IS STILL UNDER THE GROUND TODAY WAITING TO COME BACK SHE DID NOT INDICATE A RETURN TIME BUT DID SAY SHE WANTED HER CHILDREN TO MOVE OVERSEAS JUST IN CASE !NGKAR RETURNED !GAIN COUPLES SPOKE OF !NGKAR AShALWAYSHEARINGvORhAPPEARINGATANYTIME vORASAPOSSESSINGFORCE4HIS WAS NOT THE CASE IN "ODERS lNDINGS "ODERSSUBJECTSDIDNOTREFERENCEMETAPHYSICALORSPIRIT BASEDPHENOMENA AS PART OF THEIR COLLECTIVE UNDERSTANDING ˆ AND PEOPLE DESCRIBED BEING IN CONlNED PLACES FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME ,ONG TERM PHYSICAL CONlNEMENT GENERATES PARTICULAR RELATIONSHIPS TO TIME PLACE AND OTHER WHEN COMPARED TO SHORT TERM CONlNEMENT "RUNO"ETTELHEIMWHOENDUREDTHECONCENTRATIONCAMPSAT$ACHAUAND "UCHENWALD COMMENTS IN 4HE )NFORMED (EART hx BECAUSE RIGHT FROM THE BEGINNING)BECAMECONVINCEDTHATTHESEDREADFULANDDEGRADINGEXPERIENCES WERE SOMEHOW NOT HAPPENING TO @ME AS A SUBJECT BUT ONLY TO @ME AS AN OBJECT x MANY PRISONERS BEHAVED AS IF THEIR EXISTENCE IN CAMP HAD NO CONNECTION WITH THEIR @REAL LIVESv  PP n  (EREIN IS A DISTINCTION BETWEENACCOUNTS)RECORDEDABOUTTHE+HMER2OUGEPERIODAND"ETTLEHEIMS COMMENTS0EOPLEWEREGIVENATOUCHSTONETOVITALITYIN$+VIATHEWEDDING ANDBIRTHEXPERIENCES PARTICULARLYIFTHEYWEREABLETOMOVEINTOACOMMUNAL SITE AND GENERATE A UNIT /NCE MY RESPONDENTS MARRIED OR BIRTHED A HEALTHY



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CHILD THEY SEEMED TO HAVE MORE OPTIONS FOR A MORE PREDICTABLE DAY TO DAY LIFE EVENIFTHATSTILLMEANTGOINGOFFINTHEDAYTOWORKINLABORCAMPSAND RETURNING TO THE COMMUNE AT NIGHT $ESPITEPOTENTIALLYSAFERCONDITIONSANDMOREACCESSTOFOOD hCONlNEMENTv IN$EMOCRATIC+AMPUCHEAWASDIFFERENTFROM.AZICAMPS$URINGTHE+HMER 2OUGE PEOPLE MIGRATED TO DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE COUNTRY AND IT APPEARS AS IF SATELLITE COMMUNES WERE BEING ORGANISED INTO CONlNED UNITS FOLLOWING THEGROUPWEDDINGS!LSO THESEUNITOPERATIONSSEEMEDMORECHALLENGINGFOR THOSENEWPEOPLEWHOHADMOVEDTOTHECITYASYOUTH4HEYHADATASKTHAT WASDIFFERENTFROMTHEIRBASECOUNTERPARTSˆlNDINGMEANINGINTHEAGRARIAN RHYTHM)FTHEYPARTNEREDWITHABASEPERSON ANDTHEREWASFAMILYHARMONY THE ADJUSTMENTS SEEMED LESS SEVERE "UT THERE WERE OTHER CHALLENGES ABOUT THE PLACE OF SETTLEMENT -R 4 SAID h7E TRIED TO GET TO MY FATHERS PARENTS VILLAGEYESTHEREWASMOREFOODTHEREBUTWECOULDBEMOREPROTECTEDTHERE TOOv7HEN)ASKEDhWHATvWOULDPROTECTHIM HERESPONDED hMYANCESTORS SPIRITS ARE THEREv )N LIGHT OF THIS PASSAGE IF ONE WERE CONlNED TO LIVE IN A RECONSTITUTED COMMUNAL UNIT EVEN IF MORE PHYSICAL SAFETY EXISTED SHE OR HE MAY STILL BE CUT OFF FROM CERTAIN GEO PSYCHO SPIRIT SAFETY /BVIOUSLY hPLACEv WAS A MAJOR SIGNIlCANT FACTOR IN PEOPLES EXPERIENCE OF SAFETY 0LACES ARE CONTAINERS FOR SPIRITS 4HE WAY IN WHICH PEOPLE WERE DIS PLACEDONACONTINUALBASISFROMTHE,ON.OLPERIODONWARDS WASASMUCH PSYCHOLOGICALLY AND PHYSICALLY DISPLACING AS IT WAS SPIRIT DISPLACING AS WHEN MIGRATING TO THE CITY FOR SCHOOLING DURING THE ,ON .OL YEARS BEING SENT TO A NEW WORK GROUP WEDDING SITE RE EDUCATION CAMP AND SO ON %VERY +HMER VILLAGE IS BASED ON GEOGRAPHY OF THE SPIRITS NEAK TA WHO PLAY AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN ITS EXISTENCE AND ARE PERFECTLY DISTINCT FROM THOSE OF NEIGHBOURING TERRITORIES )N THE SROK BASIC UNIT CAN BE FOUND THE SPIRIT WHO IS MASTER OF THE WHOLE OFTEN REPRESENTED BY A HOLY POST NODOUBTTHEOLDESTSURVIVINGBASICCONCEPTOFTHIS COUNTRY x THE VILLAGE AND THE SROK ARE VERY CLEARLY FELT TO BE SEPARATE ENTITIES xINHABITANTSRESPECTTHEMSTRICTLY ASLONGASTHEVILLAGECONTINUESTO EXIST )F HOWEVER A NEW VILLAGE COMES TO CLEAR SOME LONG ABANDONED AREAWHERETHATTRADITIONHASBEENLOST ITWILLCUTDOWNASACREDCORPSE WITHOUTAQUALM OREVENmATTENANANCIENTSITE)TWILL HOWEVER REBUILD A NEW NEAK TA NETWORK BIT BY BIT x ALMOST WITHOUT DISCONTINUITY THE VILLAGE AND THE SROK COULD PERHAPS BE DElNED AS SACRED TERRITORIES BUILT UP BY A COMMUNITY RENDERING A CULT TO THEIR TUTELARY SPIRITS )N THISlELD "UDDHISMHASMODIlEDPRACTICALLYNOTHING'ROSLIER  PP n

!GENTLESS6ICTIMISER



4HOUGH ) TRIED TO FOCUS THE INTERVIEWS ON MARRIAGES AND BIRTHS IN THE +HMER2OUGEAGAINANDAGAIN THEREWASACONTINUALDRIFTBYRESPONDENTSTO SPEAK OF SPIRITS SPIRIT PLACES DEATH AND NEAR DEATH ENCOUNTERS WITH DISTRESS RELATED TO SPIRIT UNCERTAINTY AND ON GOING THREAT OF DEATH )T WASNT UNTIL THE SECOND OR THIRD INTERVIEW THAT WOMEN SPOKE OF THEIR OWN STILL BIRTHS OR OF WITNESSING SOMEONE GIVING BIRTH TO A DEAD BABY THOUGH MOST SPOKE OF ANOTHERS EXPERIENCE &OR EXAMPLE IN +AMPONG 3PEU AND +ANDAL ) WAS TOLD BY SOME VILLAGE WOMEN THAT IF A WOMAN AND INFANT DIE IN CHILDBIRTH AND THE HUSBAND FATHER IS AWAY THE BODIES ARE BURIED WITH THE EYES OPEN UNTIL THE LOVED ONE ARRIVES UPON WHICH THE CORPSES ARE CREMATED OR REBURIEDSOTHEYNOLONGERWANDERlVEWOMENOUTSIDEMYFORMALSAMPLES MENTIONED THIS DURING MY STUDY 4HE WAY THE BODY IS TREATED AT DEATH IS EVIDENCE OF THE DECEASED PERSONS STATUS DURING LIFE ALSO THE WAY SOMEONE DIES SUICIDE MURDER ACCIDENT POSSESSION AND SO ON CAN DETERMINE THE RITUAL AFTER DEATH $EATH WITHOUT RITUAL CAN BE RELATED TO SPIRIT ANXIETY AS A KIND OF hDEATH DISTRESSv IN THE LIVING AND THE DEAD BECAUSE THE SPIRIT OF THE DEAD CAN BECOME RESTLESS )DIOSYNCRATIC TO REGIONS OF 3OUTHEAST !SIA IS A DIS ORDER )VE CALLED COMPLEX SPIRIT DISTRESS IT ARISES WHEN A LIVING PERSON HAS THE CAPACITY TO SENSE DISTRESS IN THE SPIRITS OF THE DEAD THAT ROAM AROUND THEM &ROM THIS THE LIVING CAN HAVE DOUBLE DISTRESS WHEREIN THE DEAD ARE DISTRESSED AND THE LIVING FEEL THAT DISTRESS AND THEIR OWN SIMULTANEOUSLY %MBEDDED IN $+ BIRTH ACCOUNTS WAS MENTION OF TRADITIONAL PROTECTIVE AMULETSSOUGHTDURINGPREGNANCYONEWOMANSPOKEOFHAVINGACOTTONSTRING WITHANAMULETWITHAWRAPPEDLEAF AROUNDHERWAIST4RADITIONALLYAMETAL LEAF IS USED 2ELATED TO THE NEED FOR PROTECTION WAS AN ANECDOTAL STORY THAT OCCURRED WHILE ) WAS CONDUCTING MY RESEARCH7HILE ) WAS IN 0HNOM 0ENH ) WENT TO SEE A lLM WITH FOUR #AMBODIAN WOMAN FRIENDS )N THAT lLM A REVENGEFUL SPIRIT KILLED PEOPLE IN A VILLAGE IT WAS THE SPIRIT OF A MOTHER WHO DIED GIVING BIRTH -Y #AMBODIAN FRIENDS WERE SCREAMING ALOUD ALONG WITH OTHERS DURING THE SHOW !FTERWARDS THEY TOLD ME ABOUT A FEMALE !RPH SPIRIT 

&OR EXAMPLE SPIRITS NAMED +NOC ARE ANTHROPOMORPHIC MOST OF THE TIME AND hALWAYS HAVE SOMETHINGMISSINGTHATMAKESTHEMNOTHUMANv!N!RPHHASSOMETHINGADDEDLIKEAHIDEOUS ELONGATED NECK WITH ORGANS THAT SERVE TO TERRORISE VILLAGES ,E6INE CONVERSATIONS WITH WOMEN RESPONDENTS 3UCHSPIRITSFALLONACONTINUUMWITHLESS TO MOREHUMANATTRIBUTION4HE+NOC SPIRITSENTERHUMANSTHATHAVESUFFEREDVIOLENTDEATHSORMAGICALRITUAL7HENTHEYAPPEARTHEY TERRIFY HUMANS AND IN CERTAIN CASES PROVOKE THEIR DEATH4ERRITORIAL SPIRITS AKIN TO THE NEAK TA HAVE RELATIONSHIPS WITH HUMANS AND COMMUNICATE THROUGH MEDIUMS OFTEN WOMEN DURING A POSSESSION CEREMONY !DHEMARD ,ECLÞRE  



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THATCANEMERGEWHENAWOMANDIESDURINGDELIVERYhxSOMETIMESITISTHE SPIRITOFASMALLREDBALLWITHALOTOFLIGHTWHICHGOESFROMONETREETOANOTHER x BRAY SPIRITS ARE THE ONES THAT BRING MAGICAL ENERGY FOR lLTERS FOR CHARMS LIKE FABRICATIONMAKING OF LOVE WAX TO HELP PEOPLE FALL IN LOVEv 'ROSLIER  PP n  4HE BRAY VERY OFTEN ENTERS THE BODY OF THE VICTIM TO ASK FOR FOOD 0EOPLE TRY TO STOP THIS AND DONT FEED THE POSSESSED PERSON x AWHOLECOMMUNITYCANBEATTACKEDBYTHESPIRITLIKEANEPIDEMIC"UTBRAY CAN SERVE THOSE WHO KNOW HOW TO USE SUPER POWERS h/UTSIDE IN BUSHES AND TREES THE BRAY CAN lND HOME IN THE PRADAL PLANT WHICH ARE CULTIVATED BY PEOPLE WHO KNOW ABOUT THEM 4HESE PLANTS ARE USED FOR MAGIC 4HE BRAY CAN GO IN THIS PLANT (UMANS CAN ASK THE BRAY TO GO INTO THE PLANTv 'ROSLIER P  

Agentless-Victimiser )TISUSUALINTHESOCIALSCIENCESTOSEEKCAUSE EFFECTTHEORIESFORUNDERSTANDING HUMAN EXPERIENCES ) TOO HAVE ATTEMPTED TO UNDERSTAND SOCIO POLITICAL INDUSTRIES THAT JUSTIFY GRINDING DOWN PEOPLE PLACES RITUALS MEDICAL INFRASTRUCTURESANDSOON-YSTUDYBEGANASANINVESTIGATIONINTOWEDDINGS PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA ˆ BUT MANY CRACKS IF NOT BOTTOMLESS CREVASSES IN PEOPLES DEVELOPMENTAL AND CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS EMERGED4HISWASRELATED )THINK TOALARGERDYNAMICOFSPIRITPOLITICSTHAT HEIGHTENED COLLECTIVE AND ON GOING DISTRESS 2EGIMESTHATPARADEIDEOLOGYASTHEFOESUCHASREVOLTSAGAINSTCAPITALISM COMMUNISM TERRORISM AND SO ON DEPEND ON SUBSEQUENT PARANOIA IN THEIR POPULACE /NCE MOBILISED COLLECTIVE PARANOIA ACTS AS AN INSULATING SHIELD FOR THOSE IN POWER WHILE DISTORTING PEOPLES PERCEPTION OF RISK AND

 4HISTOPICREQUIRESFURTHERRESEARCHFROMTHE+HMER2OUGEPERIODAS)WASUNABLETOESTABLISH A RELIABLE TREND IN THIS REGARD  3OMERESEARCHERSHAVEBORROWEDFROMhOBJECTRELATIONSvOROTHER7ESTERNPSYCHOSOCIALTHEORIES IN ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN VIOLENT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR DURING $+ (INTON    ) TAKE A MOMENT TO DIGRESS INTO THE DYNAMICS OF LETHAL OPERATIONS DESCRIBED BY RESPONDENTS ABOUT REGIME LEADERS WHICH RUNS PARALLEL TO WHAT ) SEE CLINICALLY WHEN WORKING WITH FAMILY SYSTEMS ) NOTICE THAT THOSE MOST DESTRUCTIVE IN A FAMILY SYSTEM HAVE THREE QUALITIES POSITION POWERSUCHASAPARENTORDISTURBEDMEMBER ENTITLEMENT ANDPARANOIA7HENTHISTRIAGEOF DYNAMICSISACTIVE THESYSTEMBECOMESSEGMENTEDˆDESPITETHETENDENCYTOINSULATETHESYSTEM FROM OUTSIDERS )F THOSE WITH LESS POWER FORM MINI SYSTEMS INSIDE THE INSULATED MACROSYSTEM THE CHANCES OF THEIR MOVING THROUGH CULTURALLY NORMED STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ARE GREATER IF NOT THEIR DEVELOPMENT IS COMPROMISED VIA EXCLUSIVITY 3UCH RECONSTITUTION OF EXCLUSIVE MICRO AGRARIAN VILLAGE SYSTEMS SEEMED TO BE FORMING DURING $+ AFTER 

!GENTLESS6ICTIMISER



TIME IT ALSO ALLOWS FOR UNETHICAL DECISIONS TAKEN BY LEADERS WHO REACT TO SITUATIONS THEY DElNE AS URGENT ) THINK PARANOID BASED FEARS MAGNIFY THE URGENCY hTO DO SOMETHINGv IN A SPIRIT BASED CULTURE !S MENTIONED EARLIER !NGKAR WAS PERCEIVED AS MORE THAN A PARENTAL lGURE FOR THE MAJORITY OF MY RESPONDENTS )N MANY WAYS !NGKAR S ELUSIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE POWER FUNCTIONED AS AN AGENTLESS VICTIMISER ˆ IN A CULTURE THAT HAS A COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEM BASED ON RANDOM ORDEREDNESS 4HROUGHOUT COUPLES NARRATIVES THERE WAS A LEGITIMACY ATTRIBUTED TO !NGKAR S POWER WITHOUT PHYSICAL EVIDENCE JUST AS LEGITIMACY IS GIVEN TO SPIRITS IN ROCK AND TREES 4HE VISCERAL EXPERIENCE OF hOTHERv WAS EVIDENCE OF ITS EXISTENCE -R 4 MENTIONED hx TORTURE IS SOMETHING YOU CAN SEE BUT !NGKAR IS THERE EVEN WHEN YOU DONT SEE ITv 7HILE TRAVELLING TO THEIR WEDDING SITES HALF OF THE RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF !NGKAR IN THE PRESENT TENSE /NCE ) DIGESTED THE RAMIlCATIONS OF THIS ) BECAMEQUITESTUNNED4HREEEXTENDEDFAMILIES PEOPLE TOLDMETHATTHEY WORRIEDABOUT!NGKAR SRETURN3UCHPERCEPTIONBEGSSPECULATIONONWAYSTHAT THE LINGERING PRESENCE OF !NGKAR IMPACTS PEOPLES ON GOING SENSE OF SAFETY &OR MOST IN MY STUDY !NGKAR WAS MORE THAN A SYMBOL OF THE /RGANISATION OR A PARENTAL SUBSTITUTE -Y OVERRIDING CONCLUSION !NGKAR IS AN )T !ND UNDERLYING ITS ELUSIVE ANDlERCEPOWERS ITHASREELEDITSELFBACKINTOAFUGITIVESTATEˆBUTISALIVE WITHIN THE COLLECTIVE PSYCHE OF THOSE WHO SURVIVED THIS PERIOD OF HISTORY ˆANDITISTHEIRANXIETYABOUT!NGKARRISINGAGAINTHATMATTERSˆREGARDLESS OF HOW GROUNDED THIS IS IN REALITY 4HE RISE OF ANTICIPATORY ANXIETY IN THIS REGARD IMPACTS RECONCILIATION

 !ND AT THE TIME THE +HMER 2OUGE TOOK POWER OTHER NATIONS WERE WRESTLING WITH THEIR OWN IDEOLOGICAL DEMONS AND WITH SUCH GLOBAL PARANOID MAKING COMPETITORS $+ WAS RIPE FOR INSULARITY AND NEGLECT BY OTHER NATIONS  !N ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TO ,LOYD 7ALKER  AND OUR DISCUSSIONS AROUND HIS RESEARCH ON ! .ARRATIVE #OMPARISON OF ,IVED %XPERIENCES -IYAZAKI AND +YOTO FROM  THROUGH THE /CCUPATION  )NTERESTINGLY .ACUNAN 3AEZ IN 4ORTURE ! $ISCOURSE ON 0RACTICE  PP n DISCUSSES THE REPORT .UNCA -AS .EVER !GAIN REGARDING THE THOUSANDS OF CASES OF TORTURE IN !RGENTINA BETWEENnˆAPERIODTHATSPANSTHE+HMER2OUGE(EPONDERSHOWlGURESGAINEDAND HELD THEIR EXCLUSIVE LEGITIMACY AS CULTURAL ARTEFACT ;.ACUNAN 3AEZ IN -ASCIA ,EES AND 3HARPE 0ATRICIA 4ATOO 4ORTURE -UTILATION AND!DORNMENT4HE$ENATURALIZATIONOFTHE"ODYIN#ULTURE AND4EXT .EW 9ORK 3TATE 5NIVERSITY OF .EW 9ORK 0RESS  =  4HIS MAY NOT BE THE CASE FOR REFUGEES WHO NO LONGER WALK ALONG THE EARTH INHABITED BY !NGKAR ANDAREASONPOST TRAUMARESEARCHON#AMBODIANREFUGEESHASMISSEDTHIShANTICIPATORY ANXIETYv FACTOR



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"YACCOUNTINGFOR!NGKARAShMYSTERIOUSOTHER vITISEASIERTOCOMPREHEND HOW!NGKARCOULDCONTINUETOROAMASANAGENTLESS VICTIMISER/NEMANSAID AFTERATHIRDINTERVIEW h/H)CANTELLYOUNOWABOUT!NGKARBECAUSEWEARE HEREv 4HIS WAS SPOKEN DURING AN EXCURSION TO HIS WEDDING SITE 7HILE AT SITEVISITS )NOTICEDTHATMANY#AMBODIANSWEREINADOUBLEBIND$O)TELL 0EG A FOREIGNER WHAT ) REALLY SENSE "Y RAISING THE POSSIBILITY OF AN INVISIBLE PERPETRATOR THE CREDIBILITY OF ONES ACCOUNT COULD INCREASE OR DECREASE )N MANYWAYS SILENCECONTINUESFORMOSTSINCETHE+HMER2OUGEPERIOD THOUGH LIFEANDDEATHSTAKESHAVECHANGED-ANYKEEPSILENTABOUTTHEIRSPIRITVIEWS TO OUTSIDERS BECAUSE THEY MIGHT BE FRAMED AS HARBOURING FOLK BELIEFS OR SUPERSTITIONS !ND THEIR READ IS MOSTLY ACCURATE

Chapter

9 Not So Simple: Neither Benign nor Hideous

4HROUGHOUT THE COURSE OF MY lELDWORK A SENSE OF DREAD SAT UNDERNEATH #AMBODIANSPORTRAYALOFLOVEANDYEARNING4HEWORDhUNDERvSURFACEDAGAIN AND AGAIN 0URE EMOTION TENDED TO SIT UNDER SOMEONES SILENCE AND MOST UNDERSTATED THEIR EXPERIENCE OF THE SPIRIT WORLD ) BEGAN TO SEE MYSELF AS AN UNDERWRITER FOR HISTORIES THAT NEEDED TO BE TOLD ) MADE THE FOLLOWING ENTRY IN MY lELD DIARY

under UNDERFED UNDERSLEPT UNDER $+ UNDERCOVER UNDERAGE UNDERMINED UNDERBELLY UNDERCUT 5NDER THE ,IE UNDER DREAD UNDER DOUBT x JUST UNDER THE GROUND !FTER BEARING IN MIND THE MARRIAGES PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS DURING THE +HMER2OUGEYEARSOFTOIN#AMBODIA ANDWELLINTO MORE QUESTIONS SURFACED ABOUT THE REGIMES CONCEALED UNDERGROUND OPERATIONS ) HAVENODOUBTTHATTHEWEDDINGSLEDTOVILLAGECHANGESTHATTHE+HMER2OUGE HAD NOT ANTICIPATED AND THAT AT TIMES THE REGIME HAD TO CATCH UP WITH ITS OWNMACHINE$IDTHE+HMER2OUGEDESIGNCOMMUNALSTRUCTURESTOCONTROL





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SEXUALITYANDERADICATETRADITIONALGENDERROLESANDFAMILYSTRUCTURES/RWAS ITTHATTHEVERBALCOMMANDFORSEX AFTER MARRIAGELEDTOCOMMUNALSTRUCTURES THATFURTHERDISRUPTEDTRADITIONALWAYS!SWEHAVESEEN MANYOFTHEREVISED VILLAGESEMERGEDORGANICALLYTOACCOMMODATEPOST WEDDINGSTRUCTURESANDIN PARTS OF THE COUNTRY LED TO AN INCREASE IN LIVE BIRTHS AFTER 4HE PRISON ANDWORKORGANISATIONSFUNCTIONEDASTHEIROWNSATELLITESEARLIERINTHEREGIME WHILECANTEENANDRELATEDVILLAGE BASESBEGANTOFORMTHEIROWNSTRUCTURESOF OPERATIONOVERALONGERPERIODOFTIME)NADDITION MALELEADERSOFTHEWEDDINGS GAVEMENTHEPRESCRIPTIONSFORSEX WITHWOMENRARELYBEINGTOLDANYTHINGIN THIS REGARD )T MAY BE THE CASE THAT MALE DOMINATED GOALS WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DELAY IN RESPONDING TO THE NEEDS OF PREGNANT WOMEN !ND YET AS VILLAGE STRUCTURES PROGRESSED PEOPLE SOUGHT CONCRETE TRADITIONAL PRACTICES AGAIN SUCH AS TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS OR THE BURIAL OF PLACENTAS "UT THAT WAS RITUAL LIP SERVICE SINCE TRADITIONAL hTIMEv TO HOLD FEED AND NURTURE ONES OWN INFANT WAS PERMANENTLY LOST !NDINALL THIS LOSTNESS )HEARDOFWAYSINWHICHPEOPLEATTEMPTEDTOlND PREDICTABILITY &OR MANY DAY TO DAY LIFE IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA WAS LIKE TRYING TO PLANT SEEDS IN A MONSOON 3OME SOUGHT GROUNDING BY RECITING A MANTRAUNDERTHEIRBREATH ORINANIMAGEOFONESMOTHERORTHE"UDDHA OR THETHOUGHTOFAPOTENTIALWEDDING4HEREWERESIGNIlCANTPOINTSINPEOPLES HISTORYINWHICHTHEYLOSTACCESSTOPROTECTIVEFORCES$ESPAIRMOVEDTODREAD THE LONGER PEOPLE WENT WITHOUT RITUAL ACCESS AND SPIRIT PROTECTION 7HEN ) ASKED PEOPLE WHAT KEPT THEM SAFE OVER  PER CENT OF RESPONDENTS SPOKE OF NON TANGIBLE PROTECTING FORCES SUCH AS ANCESTRAL SPIRITS MOTHERS IMAGE SOILFROMONESHOMEVILLAGE ORMOTHERSBREASTMILKDURINGCHILDHOODYEARS ,IKEWISE OTHERFORCESSUCHASABLACKBIRDPASSINGOVERHEADWERESAIDTOHAVE HADDANGEROUSQUALITIES0EOPLESDRIVETOCONJUREANINTERNALSOURCEINGESTION OF SOIL OR EXTERNAL SOURCE ANCESTOR VISITATION OF PROTECTION WAS DEPLETED IT WAS AS IF THEIR IMAGINATIONS SHUT DOWN -R 4 SAID h-Y MIND BECAME TOO SERIOUS ) COULD NOT LAUGH ) WAS BROKEN EVEN TODAY ) TRY NOT TO GET TRICKED BY HAPPY TIMESv )NTHEEND )WENTBACKTOTHElRSTDIARYENTRYˆTOTHATINITIALWEDDING STORY TOLD TO ME BY -R /M WHO WAS MARRIED IN +AMPONG 3PEU IN  4HATVERSIONWASIDYLLICHESAIDHECHOSEHISWIFEBYALERTINGAFORMERSCHOOL FRIENDTOPAIRHIMWITHAWOMANHEFANCIED(ISSECONDANDTHIRDACCOUNTS WERETOLDINWAYSTHATMADEMEPONDERIF)HADMISHEARDTHElRSTSTORY-Y JOURNAL NOTES CONlRMED THAT ) DID NOT )N FACT WHEN ) VISITED THE WEDDING SITE IN +AMPONG 3PEU WITH -R /M AND HIS WIFE HE RELATED TO ME THAT HIS GROUP WEDDING HAPPENED IN THE WAY IT DID WITH MOST OF MY RESPONDENTS

.OT 3O 3IMPLE .EITHER "ENIGN NOR (IDEOUS



HE HAD TO WAIT UNTIL HIS NAME WAS CALLED BEFORE SEEING HIS ASSIGNMENT FOR MARRIAGE4HUS GETTING MARRIED WAS MORE LIKE A MILITARY ASSIGNMENT DRAFTED ORCONSCRIPTEDINTOMARRIAGESERVICEˆBYTHENEWMILITARYINSTITUTION!ND YET THIS DUTY LED SOME TO A LESS CHAOTIC LIFE IF THEY BECAME PART OF A NEW COLLECTIVE EVEN WHEN THE WORK DEMANDS REMAINED GRUELLING $ESPITE WAYS THAT $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA DISRUPTED PEOPLES ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL RITUAL GROUP WEDDINGS WERE STILL A RITE OF PASSAGE )N THE CONTEXT OFTHATTIME RESPONDENTSUSEDTHEWORDhFORCEDvTODESCRIBEWORKCONDITIONS BUT NO ONE USED THE SAME WORD TO DESCRIBE THEIR MARRIAGES 7ITH SUCH HARSH LIVING CONDITIONS MANY WEDDINGS REPRESENTED A RELIEF AT THAT TIME PARTICULARLY SINCE RESOURCES AND FOOD COULD BE COMBINED (INTONS DISCOURSE  ONTHETENSIONBETWEENORDERANDDISORDER ANDhCLARITYANDBLINDNESSv HAS PARTICULAR RELEVANCE TO THE SYMBOLIC MEANING THAT THE WEDDINGS HAD ASSUMED LATER IN THE REGIME 3OME EVEN DESCRIBED THEIR WEDDING AS A TURN IN KARMA OR A CHANCE FOR LIVING 4HOUGH OBVIOUSLY ONLY SURVIVORS VIEWS COULD BE REPRESENTED

Taboo and Cultural Elasticity 7HENCONSIDERINGWHATTODOABOUTTRADITIONALPRACTICESANDRELATEDOBJECTS THE +HMER 2OUGE HAD AN ERRATIC HISTORY OF ATTENDING TO SOME OMITTING SOME INCLUDING SOME REVAMPING SOME AND VIOLATING MANY SACRED RITES )N WEDDINGS THEY DID AWAY WITH MUSIC HUMOUROUS SKITS CANDLES FAMILY MEMBERS THEDOWRY COLOUR THEPOPIL SYMBOLICCUTTINGOFTHEHAIR FORTUNE TOLD LUCKY DATES AND SO ON IN BIRTHS THEY DECREASED WOMENS ACCESS TO TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS TRADITIONAL HEALERS MOTHERS MIDWIVES AND ROASTING4HEYREPLACED TRADITIONAL SONG WITH REVOLUTIONARY LYRICS AND ADDED THE 7ESTERN STYLE HANDSHAKES TO SEAL THE SPOUSE COMMITMENT4HEY VIOLATED THE CULTURE BY PROHIBITING MOTHERS FROM PARTICIPATING IN WEDDINGS WHILE SOMETIMES ALLOWING OTHER RELATIVES TO ATTEND 2ITUAL WAS NEARLY ANNIHILATED AT THE START OF THE REGIME WITH A CHAOTIC AND VIOLENT FERVOUR IN n (OWEVER BY LATE  /CTOBER ONWARDS THE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS IN CERTAIN REGIONS SEEM TO HAVE BECOME MORE SYSTEMATISED AND SOME RITUALS TRICKLED BACK

 #ONSCRIPTION WAS RIPE INTERNATIONALLY DURING THE S WHEN !MERICAN AND !USTRALIAN MEN WERE DRAFTED INTO SERVICE AT THE AGE BEFORE THEY COULD LEGALLY VOTE ˆ OFTEN BY LOTTERY 4HIS COHORT BECAME LIABLE FOR THE DRAFT AT 



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-ARRIAGES HAPPENED ANYWHERE DURING $+ ˆ IN lELDS NEAR PAGODAS IN THE MIDDLE OF A ROAD IN CANTEENS "IRTH PRACTICES WERE MOST DEPENDENT ON SHELTERRESOURCESACROSSTHE+HMER2OUGEYEARS WHEREASMARRIAGESWEREMORE DEPENDENTONTHEPRESIDINGLEADERSOFAREGION7OMENREPORTEDBIRTHINGhON THEROADvINTHEEARLYYEARSWITHFEWRITESSUCHASBURYINGTHEPLACENTAORA STILL BIRTH ANYWHERE RATHER THAN BY TRADITION NEAR THEIR HOMES WITH GREATER ACCESSTOPREDICTABLEBIRTHPLACESBY"UTBYTHEENDOF COMMON INGREDIENTS ENTERED WEDDINGS ACROSS REGIONS SUCH AS SPEECHES WERE SIMILAR IN CONTENT AND STYLE REGARDING PROMISES TO !NGKAR AS WERE POST WEDDING PROCEDURES )N EARLIER CHAPTERS ) SUGGESTED THAT RUPTURE TO PEOPLES IMAGINATIONS COINCIDED WITH LOSS IN THEIR VITAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ˆ DESIRE COULD NO LONGER BE MUSTERED ONE COULD NO LONGER IMAGINE ANY FUTURE !DOLESCENCE WAS DASHED ,OSS ALWAYS SEEMED GREATER THAN GAIN $URING THE MANY DEATH PURGESTHATWERECARRIEDOUTBY GROUPWEDDINGSBECAMEMORECOMMON AND FORMALISED 9ES WOMEN GAINED MORE ACCESS TO SOME BIRTH CUSTOMS BUT THEY GAVE OVER POST BIRTH TRADITIONS TO $+S WORK FORCE ) BEGAN TO SEE +HMER 2OUGE ACTIVITY DIFFERENTLY BY THE END OF MY STUDY PARTICULARLY WHEN PLACINGTHEDEATHPURGESALONGSIDETHEEROSIONOFCULTURALINFRASTRUCTURE4HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW COMMUNES THAT EMERGED FROM THE GROUP WEDDINGS ANDNEEDFORCOMMUNALINFANTCARESYSTEMSANDWORKFORCES WEREDEPENDENT ON THE SUCCESS OF THE EARLIER DEATH PURGES BY !NGKAR 3OMEWHERE IN THE MIDDLE OF MY RESEARCH ) BECAME SATURATED BY WHAT PEOPLE WERE TELLING AND SHOWING ME ) CONTEMPLATED FURTHER THE MEANING OF hTABOOv WITH REGARD TO POLITICAL ACTIVITY AS A PROCESS OF INSTITUTIONALISING TABOO4HISTERMISUSEDBYANTHROPOLOGISTSANDSOCIOLOGISTSMOREOFTENWITH REFERENCE TO RELIGION AND CULTURE AS IN THE TABOO IN EATING CERTAIN FOODS OR TOUCHING A CORPSE 3OME OTHER TABOOS EMERGED IN MY RESEARCH SUCH AS THE VIOLATION OF A WOMANS BODY WHILE GIVING BIRTH ˆ IN THE NAME OF MEDICAL TRAINING ) BEGAN TO MAKE SCULPTURES THAT ILLUSTRATED THE FORBIDDEN 2ETURNING TO THE :EN PHRASE h4HE TRUTH IS UNDER THE LIE v ) FOUND THAT h4ABOO IS UNDER THE CONFUSIONv #ONSIDER -R 4S REMARK h) CAN NEVER GO BACKTOPRETENDINGAND)CANTPRETENDTHISCOULDNOTHAPPENAGAIN"UT)GET CONFUSEDABOUTWHATTHEWORSTPARTSWERE)AMCONFUSED7ASTHISWORSETHAN THATv 0EOPLE WERE LIVING UNDER A REGIME THAT SANCTIONS TABOO AS NECESSARY FOR THE COMMON GOOD AND DISMISSES THE SACRED AS IF IT WERE MISPLACED TO BEGINWITH ANDWHERESMELLS SOUNDS TASTES ANDSIGHTSFALLOUTSIDETHEMINDS CAPACITY TO IMAGINE (ERE CONFUSION RUSHES IN /NE MAN WHO MARRIED IN +ANDALADMITTEDASSISTINGHISRELATIVETODIE WHICHISACULTURALTABOOINTHE

.OT 3O 3IMPLE .EITHER "ENIGN NOR (IDEOUS



"UDDHISTCONTEXT BUTMAYHAVEBEENJUSTIlEDASAMATTEROFPERSONALSHIFTIN PRINCIPLESh-YUNCLESUFFEREDMORETHANASLAUGHTEREDANIMAL WHATCOULD) DOv4HIS MAN ASKED FOR CONlDENCE WHEN MAKING THIS STATEMENT !NGUISH AND TABOO COLLIDE 7HEN MEN SPOKE OF WITNESSING A PARENTS DEATH BY STARVATION VERSUS A FRIENDS DEATH BY MURDER OR TORTURE IT WAS THEIR REACTION TO DEATH BY STARVATION THAT CARRIED A TREMOR OF TORMENT MOST WERE SHAKINGORCLENCHINGTHEIRHANDSWHENRECOUNTINGASTARVED TO DEATHSIBLING FRIEND OR PARENT 3OME FEARED THAT THEY WOULD GO CRAZY IF THEY hTHOUGHT TOO MUCHvKITCHRAEN !LSOMORETORMENTCAMETOTHESURFACEWHENPEOPLESPOKE OF VIOLENCE ENACTED BY NON SOLDIERS AND THE LINES OF TABOO BEING CROSSED SHIFTED ACCORDING TO ACTORS AND CONTEXT 4HOUGHTHE+HMER2OUGETHREATENEDSOCIALCONVENTIONINEXTENSIVEAND EXTREME WAYS THE SPIRIT BASED CULTURE MADE ADJUSTMENTS MORE COMPLICATED WHEN COMPARED TO SIMILAR COUNTER TRADITIONAL REGIMES LIKE THE #ULTURAL 2EVOLUTION IN #HINA4HE +HMER 2OUGE SEEMED TO GRAFT hOTHERv IDEAS ONTO THE#AMBODIANLANDSCAPEINWAYSTHATPRODUCEDGROTESQUEFORMS EXAGGERATING CERTAIN BITS THAT -ARX OR -AO INTENDED !S %NGELS SAID x THE PROHIBITION AND PERSECUTION OF RELIGION CAN ONLY INTENSIFY RELIGIOUS FEELING x THAT RELIGION CANNOT BE ELIMINATED UNTIL THE SOCIAL ANDPOLITICALCONDITIONSTHATFOSTERITAREABOLISHED)NTHEREVOLUTIONARY lGHT FOR THEIR ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL EMANCIPATION THE WORKING PEOPLE FREE THEMSELVES FROM RELIGIOUS VIEWS AND SUPERSTITIONS  P 

4HEIMPLEMENTATIONBYLEADERSOFSUCHTHINKINGREQUIRESRADICALMEASURES ˆTOGOALLTHEWAYORNOTATALL4HE+HMER2OUGESEEMEDTOQUICKENSUCH REFORMIST IDEAS BY EITHER OVEREXTENDING OR CONSTRICTING THE ELASTICITY OF THEIR OWN CULTURAL AND GEOGRAPHIC STRUCTURES &OR INSTANCE THEY OVEREXTENDED THE ECOSYSTEM BY ADVANCING RICE GROWING REGIONS THROUGH WATER REDIRECTION DIKE PROJECTS AGAIN THESE WERE THE REGIONS WITH LARGE WORK FORCES AND THE LARGEST GROUP WEDDINGS n PEOPLE  #ULTURAL RITUALS WERE IGNORED MORE OFTEN IN THESE MASS LABOR AREAS

 7HEN MEN AND WOMEN MOVED TO SMALLER COLLECTIVES RITUALS TRICKLED BACK INTO DAILY LIFE )N #AMBODIA RITUAL IS EMBEDDED IN PLACE AND UTILISES THE VARIOUS FORCES THAT ARE FELT BUT NOT OFTEN SEEN ˆ INCLUDING THE METAPHYSICAL )N %UROPE RITUAL SEEMS MORE HIGHLY ATTACHED TO SOCIAL PROTOCOL (EREIN -ARXIST IDEAS ON FREEDOM HINGED ON ERADICATING hRELIGIOUS VIEWS AND SUPERSTITIONSvTHISAGENDAWASMISPLACEDINTHE#AMBODIANCONTEXTWHERESPIRITDYNAMICSRUN DEEPER THAN SUPERSTITION



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-OST OFTEN INDIGENOUS RITUALS ARE TIED TO PEOPLES INTERACTION WITH THE SPIRIT ANDTHEIRVISCERALEXPERIENCESOFhOTHERv"RIAN&AWCETT P WRITESh!NDNOWHEREˆNOTINTHE3OVIET5NIONORELSEWHEREINTHE-ARXIST INmUENCEDWORLDˆHAVE-ARXSUTOPIANPRINCIPLESBEENAPPLIEDSOERRONEOUSLY NOR FAILED SO IRONICALLY AND BRUTALLY AS IN #AMBODIAv $+ PROBABLY DID NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE UTILITARIAN STRENGTH OF SPIRIT RELATIONS WHEN THEY DESTROYED OTHERINFRASTRUCTURES SUCHASEDUCATIONANDRELIGION3PIRITINFRASTRUCTUREWAS BLOCKED BUT STILL ABLE TO BE ACCESSED 7HEN THE +HMER 2OUGE DEVELOPED THE IDEA OF GROUP MARRIAGES THEY GENERATED THEIR OWN COUNTER RITUALS IN A CULTURE OF COMMUNICATION THAT DID NOT REQUIRE A FORMAL MANIFESTO &OR INSTANCE A DECREE ON MARRIAGE IN #HINA WAS WELL IN PLAY BEFORE THE #ULTURAL 2EVOLUTION TOOK HOLD 4HE -ARRIAGE ,AW OF THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA WAS SUPPOSEDLY A FEUDAL MARRIAGE SYSTEM WITH A DECREE FOR THE .EW $EMOCRATIC MARRIAGE SYSTEM AND INCLUDED FREE CHOICE OF PARTNERS AND INTERESTS OF WOMEN 4HERE WAS A CLAUSE IN THE h#ONTRACTING OF -ARRIAGEv WHEREIN hNEITHER PARTY SHALL USE COMPULSIONANDNOTHIRDPARTYSHALLBEALLOWEDTOINTERFEREv4HEREWASALSO A NOTE ON WHAT CONSTITUTES AN UNlT MARRIAGE SUCH AS MARRYING ONE WITH A SEVERE PHYSICAL OR MENTAL DISABILITY PP n  4HE #ULTURAL 2EVOLUTION INCLUDED DISCOURSE ON GENDER RELATIONS IN WAYS THAT THE +HMER 2OUGE DID NOT PROMULGATE4HERE ARE NO WRITTEN RECORDS OR LAWS BY THE +HMER 2OUGE THAT LED TO THEIR MARRIAGE OVERHAUL ˆ OR ANY OTHER CULTURAL RITE SUCH AS BIRTH OR DEATH PROTOCOL -OST PEOPLE TRIED TO HOLD FAST TO THE FAMILIAR $ESPITE SUCH ATTEMPTS AT UPHEAVAL MY lNDINGS POINT TO WAYS THE REGIMES REVAMPED RITUALS WERE NOT UNIFORM OR PERVASIVE ENOUGH AND PARADOXICALLY SERVED TO STRENGTHEN THE MEANING OF PRE EXISTING SPIRIT RITUALS FOR MOST IN MY STUDY $URING $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA WEDDING STRUCTURES WERE LOOSE ENOUGH FOR PEOPLE TO lLL IN THE SPIRIT STRUCTURES AS THEY COULD SUCH AS lNDING A FORTUNE TELLER SECRETLY OR MAKING AN OFFERING TO ANCESTORS AFTER THE EVENT /VERALL THE DEVELOPMENT OF WEDDING PROTOCOL WAS GIVEN FAR LESS ATTENTION THANTHEDEVELOPMENTOFPRISONSTRUCTURES/UTSIDETHEWEDDINGS THEREGIME EVOLVED THEIR NEO COMMUNES IN A mY BY THE SEAT OF THEIR PANTS MANNER )T IS MIND BOGGLING TO THINK ABOUT THE LEVEL OF CULTURECIDE THAT WOULD HAVE OCCURRED HAD STRATEGIC RITUAL PLOTTING OCCURRED &OR THE LEADERS OF $+ AT THAT TIME BECOMING A COMMUNIST AND BEING ENRICHED WITH SACRILEGE WENT HANDANDHAND0ERHAPSOVERTIME LIKETHE+HMER2OUGESOLDIERSWHOWERE INDOCTRINATED INTO THE REGIME AT A YOUNG AGE AND LOST THEIR SPIRIT ACUITY $+ LEADERS TURNED TO NON SPIRIT SOURCES OF POWER AS A UTILITARIAN OPTION ˆ

.OT 3O 3IMPLE .EITHER "ENIGN NOR (IDEOUS



WHICH DOWNGRADED THE STRENGTH OF SPIRIT AND ANCESTOR INmUENCES IN THEIR MILITARY ACTIVITY )FOUNDMYSELFASKINGANAWKWARDQUESTIONATTHEENDOFMYSTUDY#OULD THE REGIMES LEADERS HAVE MADE MORE PROGRESS WITH THEIR #OMMUNIST AGENDA HAD THEY STRATEGICALLY PLOTTED AGAINST VILLAGERS ACCESS TO SPIRIT PHENOMENA AS THEIR hlRSTv PORT OF CALL )N MY CLOSING CONVERSATIONS WITH $AVID #HANDLER *UNE AROUNDTHISISSUE HETHOUGHTTHATTHERESIMPLYWASNOTENOUGH TIME TO hPULL IT OFF v BECAUSE OF OTHER CONTEXTUAL FACTORS SUCH AS6IETNAMESE CONmICTS ANDBECAUSETHE+HMER2OUGECOURSEWASONEOFhARUNAWAYTRUCKv ) ACCEPT THIS CONTEXTUAL POINT BUT THINK THERE IS ANOTHER QUESTION hUNDERv MY QUESTION 7HAT COULD THE REGIME HAVE DONE DIFFERENTLY THAT WOULD HAVE GENERATEDAPURECOMMUNISTSTATE4OME THEREGIMESVITALmAWINNOTSEALING THEIR PURE COMMUNIST NATION WAS THAT THEY GAVE LESS WEIGHT TO STRUCTURING NEW RITES OF PASSAGE THAN THEY GAVE TO THEIR DEATH PURGES FROM THE TIME OF IDEOLOGICAL CONCEPTION (OWEVER BY SUCH EXAMINATION ) HAVE BEEN ABLE TO ISOLATE THE POWER EMBEDDED IN THE SPIRIT BASED FABRIC OF #AMBODIA WHICH WAS A SAVING SOURCE FOR DIGNITY FOR MOST

The Generations that Bracket the Khmer Rouge ) CAME TO SEE PATTERNS IN HOW WHEN AND WHERE PEOPLE SHIFTED THEIR STORIES ) CONCLUDED THAT MEN AND WOMEN WHO MARRIED IN $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA INSERTED A COURTSHIP SCENE INTO A PAIR OF LIVES THAT HAD NONE !ND BECAUSE MANYHAVESTAYEDTOGETHER THEYWILLNEVEREXPERIENCETHE#AMBODIANCOURTING PROCESS!CROSSTHEWORLD WHENHUMANSPARTNERTHEREISATENDENCYTORECALL HOW THEY MET AND HOW THEY PROGRESSED TO FEEL VARIOUS STAGES OF AFFECTION OVER TIME 0EOPLE SAVOUR THESE EVENTS WITH INTIMATE DETAILS ˆ BOTH PRIVATELY AND PUBLICLY ˆ ACROSS GENERATIONS )NMYSTUDY MOSTOFTHERESPONDENTSCHILDRENDIDNOTKNOWTHEDETAILS OFTHEIRPARENTSWEDDINGS3OMESTOODNEARBYLISTENINGTOTHEIRPARENTSSTORIES FOR THE lRST TIME DURING MY MEETINGS WITH THEM "ECAUSE MY INTERVIEWS OCCURREDMOSTOFTENATPEOPLESHOMES )SPOKEWITHRESPONDENTSPARENTSAND OLDERSIBLINGS ASWELLASTHEIRCHILDREN)COULDCOMPARETHEhMEETINGSTORIESv ACROSSGENERATIONSFROMRESPONDENTSOLDERRELATIVESTOTHEIROFFSPRINGWHOARE NOWENGAGEDORRECENTLYWEDINMOSTCASESBYMARRIAGESARRANGEDBYFAMILY  4HESE OLDER AND YOUNGER PEOPLE ARE THE GENERATIONS THAT BRACKET THE +HMER 2OUGE COUPLES AND UNLIKE THOSE MEN AND WOMEN THEY COULD TELL THEIR COURTINGSTORIES SPEAKINGOFTENWITHAUTHENTICAFFECTIONABOUTHOWTHEYMET THEIRlANC£ORSPOUSE-OREPROFOUNDLYTHEYSPOKEABOUTTHELONGDRAWNOUT



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PERIOD OF COURTSHIP INCLUSIVE OF SHOPPING FOR THE FORTUNE TELLER WHO WOULD ENDORSE A FAMILYS PREFERRED WEDDING DATE  )N MARRIAGES ARRANGED FOR MY RESPONDENTSCHILDREN THEGROOMISEXPECTEDTOWINTHERESPECTOFTHEWOMANS FAMILY HE DOES SO WITH PRIDE "Y CONTRAST MY RESPONDENTS WHO MARRIED IN $+TENDEDTOADVANCETHEIRSTORYTOATIMEWHENTHEYHADACHILDTOGETHER OR TO A TIME THEY LIVED TOGETHER IN A VILLAGE 4HIS DIVISION IN GENERATIONAL NARRATIVES HAS LED ME TO CONCLUDE THAT THE +HMER 2OUGE ROBBED PEOPLE OF AN INTIMACY PATTERN THEY WOULD HAVE OTHERWISE HAD !ND WITHIN THESE GAPS THEY GENERATED COMPLEX ANXIETIES RELATED TO !NGKAR S INTRUSIVE NATURE

Fast Tracked and Stunted in the Angkarian State )T HAS BEEN AN ARDUOUS PROCESS TO DIGEST DATA THAT PORTRAY THE REGIMES ACTIVITIES AS NEITHER CATEGORICALLY BENIGN NOR HEINOUS ACROSS TIME AND PLACE %XAMINATIONOFTHEINTERSECTIONBETWEENPLANNEDANDORGANICCHANGEREQUIRED TOUGH ANALYSIS PRIMARILY BECAUSE THE RATIONALE FOR THE REGIMES WEDDING SCHEME FOR EXAMPLE HAS YET TO EMERGE 4HE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD CREATED A GENERATION THAT SKIPPED A VITAL STEP IN THEIR DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN INTIMACY -R 4 DESCRIBES SUCH LOSS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE FOLLOWING PASSAGE 7HEN THE +HMER 2OUGE PUT THREE COMMUNES INTO ONE DISTRICT MY MOTHER AND FATHER MOVED INTO A NEW AREA BUT STAYED TOGETHER SHE WORKED TO GRIND RICE AND HE MADE BASKETS FROM BAMBOO EVEN THOUGH HE HAD BEEN AN OFlCIAL IN THE -INISTRY BEFORE  ) WAS THEIR ONLY SONYET)HADTOKEEPMOVINGWITHTHEMOBILEWORKFORCEANDCOULDNOT STAYWITHTHEM!FTERALONGTIME )WENTBACKTOMYPARENTSFORDAYS -Y FATHER WAS SO SICK HE WAS ALL SWOLLEN AND HE DIED IN $ECEMBER  WHEN ) WAS THERE ) WAS THE ONE TO DIG THE HOLE TO BURY HIM UNDERATAMARINDTREE)PLACEDHISHEADTOTHEWEST!NDAFTERTHAT ) DIDNOTSEEMYMOTHERATNIGHTAFTERWORKINGINTHElELD7ECOULDNOT EATTOGETHER(EBEGINSTOCRYANDASKSFORTHEAUDIOTAPETOBETURNED OFF FOR A FEW MINUTES HE CONTINUES  &OR ME ) FELT THE STRAIN ON MY LIFEASAYOUNGMANBECAUSE)WASFORCEDTOKEEPMOVING)COULDNOT

 !GAIN THIS STUDY SHOWS THAT COUPLES LIVED TOGETHER IN COMMUNAL VILLAGES FOLLOWING THEIR WEDDINGS MORE OFTEN BY MID  ACROSS REGIONS !LSO BIRTH RATES WERE RISING IN MANY AREAS TOWARD THE END OF THE REGIME AS COLLECTIVE ACTIVITY THROUGHOUT $+ BECAME MORE PATTERNED 4HISSTUDYONTHEWEDDINGS PREGNANCIESANDBIRTHS INADVERTENTLYLEDMETOUNCOVERSTRUCTURES BEING BUILT OUT BY THE !NGKARIAN 3TATE

.OT 3O 3IMPLE .EITHER "ENIGN NOR (IDEOUS



STAYWITHMYMOTHERAFTERMYFATHERDIED)HADTOKEEPMOVINGUNTIL MY WEDDING IN  ) COULD NOT lNISH GROWING UP WITH MY PARENTS KINDNESS ) HAVE NOT GONE BACK TO MY FATHERS PLACE YET

4HEWEDDINGSANDBIRTHSFASTTRACKEDPEOPLESDEVELOPMENTASWORKERSAND CITIZENS WHILE ERODING PSYCHO EMOTIONAL FAMILIAL CULTURAL AND SPIRIT BASED INFRASTRUCTURES ˆ LEAVING MOST DISABLED TO HANDLE THE PACE ) THINK THIS HAS BEENAMOSTGRAVE ANDTODATE UNRECOGNISEDLOSSFORTHOSEWHOLIVEWITHOUT COURTSHIP MEMENTOS !ND THIS IS WHERE SCHOLARS WHO WRITE OF THE hFORCED MARRIAGESvMISSTHEPOINT)FTHEREWEREANYTHINGFORCED ITWOULDHAVEBEEN FORCED OUT OF COURTSHIP FORCED OUT OF SPIRIT PROTECTION AND FORCED INTO MAKESHIFT EXTENDED FAMILIES /VERALL AS VIEWED FROM WITHIN THE CONTEXT GENERATED BY $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA #AMBODIANS WHO WERE MARRIED IN GROUPS ACTUALLY HAD SOME CONTACT WITH NORMALCY AND ACCESS TO SOME RITUALS WHILE AT THE SAMETIMEHAVINGTHEBURDENOFEITHERCREATINGCOURTSHIPMEMENTOS ORLIVING WITHOUT ANY 4HOUGH ) ANALYSED MUCH OF WHAT PEOPLE SAID IN MY STUDY ESPECIALLY PROFOUND RESULTS CAME FROM THE hDISJOINTED WAYSv THAT MANY SPOKE ABOUT THEIRHISTORY-ENANDWOMENPORTRAYEDTHEIRDEVELOPMENTˆTHEIRPASSAGE OUT OF ADOLESCENCE INTO ADULTHOOD ˆ WITHOUT A MIDDLE GROUND4HERE WERE NO INTERVALS AS "UDDHIST MONKS FOR EXAMPLE AND THERE WERE NO TRADITIONAL BUFFER ZONES OF COURTSHIP BEFORE MARRIAGE 4HE hDEVELOPMENTAL OMISSIONSv IN #AMBODIANS LIVES GIVE MEANING TO THE CHANGING STORIES 4HE TRAGEDY THAT RIPPLED OUT FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS WAS THAT A FULL GENERATION WAS FAST TRACKED INTO SPOUSEHOOD PREGNANCY LIVE BIRTHS DEAD BIRTHS DISTORTED BIRTHS  AND PARENTING -OST PEOPLE SOLDIERS OR NOT HAVE BEEN STUNTED AND ROBBED OF THEIR CULTURAL AND DEVELOPMENTALPOTENTIAL!NDINALLOFTHAT MANYARESTILLNOTSUREIF!NGKAR LURKS NEAR BY ˆ AN ULTIMATE DREAD !LL THINGS CONSIDERED WOMEN AND MENS SENSE OF SAFETY IN #AMBODIA REMAINS COMPROMISED BY THE DOUBLE BINDING NATURE OF SPIRIT FORCES AND IS EXACERBATEDBYTHEAFTERMATHOFTHEIR+HMER2OUGEEXPERIENCES#LEARLY MOST WERE GENUINELY FRIGHTENED BY !NGKARS HARMFUL POTENTIAL AS AN ANIMATING FORCE (OWEVER THEIR SENSE OF OBLIGATION TO PROTECT ANCESTORS AND TO SECRETLY

 )TISNEARIMPOSSIBLETOACCOUNTFORTHENUMBEROFTRAUMATICBIRTHS INCLUDING#EREBRAL0ALSY ANDOTHERRELATEDBIRTHDEFECTSTHATWEREHIGHERTHANNORMALFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRYRATESSOME CHILDDISABILITIESWEREREPORTEDBYWOMENINMYSTUDYANDTHISREQUIRESMORERESEARCHINORDER TO FORM ANY CONCLUSIONS



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SEEK PROTECTION WAS GENERALLY STRONGER THAN THEIR SENSE OF DUTY NEVER HIGHLY DEVELOPED IN MOST CASES TO THE +HMER 2OUGE "ECAUSE SPIRIT INmUENCES WERE NOT FORMALLY TARGETED FOR ERADICATION BY THE LEADERS OF $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA A KIND OF SPIRIT REVOLUTION WAS ABLE TO EXIST NEXT TO THE +HMER 2OUGE REVOLUTION )N THE END SPIRIT PROTECTION TRICKLED INTO COMMUNAL LIFE AS RITUALS CONNECTED WITH WEDDINGS BIRTHS ILLNESS AND DEATH RITUALS EMERGED IN THE FRINGES $ESPITE THIS SPOTTY REVIVAL OF RITUAL PRACTICE MANY PEOPLE REMAINEDSCAREDOFWHAThMORPHINGvSPIRITSCOULDDO!NDMOSTREMAINSCARED OFWHATMORPHINGSPIRITSMIGHTDOTODAY!LONGWITHITSWHOLESALEIMPOSITION OF-ARXISM ,ENINISMONTHEPOPULATION THEDISINTEGRATIONOFRITESOFPASSAGE COURTSHIP MARRIAGE PREGNANCY AND BIRTH AND RELATED SPIRIT RITUALS DURING THE +HMER 2OUGE PERIOD MADE 0OL 0OTS REGIME DIFFERENT FROM REGIMES THAT PRECEDED IT

Responsive Reconciliation in the Aftermath of Ritualcide -YSTUDYBEARSLITTLE RELATIONSHIP TO FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY OR GENOCIDE STUDIES ) WAS NOT INTERESTED IN APPORTIONING BLAME #URIOUSLY BY NOT ENTERING THE DEBATEABOUTWHETHERTHEPRIMARYLOCUSOFVIOLENCEIN#AMBODIAWASLOCALOR CENTRALISED )WASABLETODOCUMENTPROFOUNDNON VIOLENTPROCESSESLINKEDTO THEFRENZIEDOPERATIONSOFTHE+HMER2OUGEVIATHEPHENOMENAOFCOURTSHIP WEDDINGS PREGNANCIES AND BIRTHS )RECALLTHEDAY)WALKEDONASITEWITHAWOMANWHODESCRIBEDGIVING BIRTHATTHATPLACE)HEARDANOTHERACCOUNTOFSEEINGAWOMAN+HMER 2OUGE LOYAL WHO WAS TRAINING NEW BIRTH ATTENDANTS 3HE WATCHED HER FRIENDHAVEHERBELLYCUTOPENDURINGLABORBYTHATTRAINERˆSACRIlCE FORABIZARREANATOMYLESSON7OULDSHEBENEXT)WOULDHAVETHOUGHT THAT PANIC ABOUT HER OWN PHYSICAL HARM WOULD HAVE BEEN MOST PROFOUND &OR HER HOWEVER SHE WAS MOST FRIGHTENED BY THE SPIRITS RELEASED OUT OF THE WOMAN AND BABY BECAUSE THEY DIED BY VIOLENT MEANS AND WERE NOT GIVEN A PROPER BURIAL WITH OFFERINGS (EREIN LIES 2ITUALCIDE ;&IELDNOTE &EBRUARY =

"Y GENERATING THEMATIC IMAGES OF DISTRESS ) HAVE UNCOVERED UNNERVING VIOLATIONSTHAThUNDERCUTv#AMBODIANSPROTECTIVEINDIGENOUSPRACTICESINWHAT

 4HE LAW THAT ESTABLISHED THE h%XTRAORDINARY #HAMBER IN THE #OURT OF #AMBODIAv FOR THE PROSECUTION OF CRIMES COMMITTED DURING THE PERIOD OF $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA WAS PASSED BY THE #AMBODIAN .ATIONAL !SSEMBLY IN *ANUARY 

.OT 3O 3IMPLE .EITHER "ENIGN NOR (IDEOUS



)CALL2ITUALCIDE4HEBREAKDOWNOFRITUALIN#AMBODIAGOESUNNOTICEDWHEN THEREARENOCORPSESTOCOUNTORMASSGRAVESTOLOCATE'IVENTHAT)RECORDED MENANDWOMENSGRAPHICDESCRIPTIONSANDWORRIESABOUTSPIRITHARMFORTHE LIVINGANDTHEDEAD )AMLEFTWONDERINGHOWANCESTORSRECONCILEVIOLENCEDONE TO THEM $OES ANY LEGAL SYSTEM HAVE THE CAPACITY TO ADDRESS SUCH QUESTIONS AS A MATTER OF METAPHYSICAL FACT )S THERE SUCH A THING AS SPIRIT JUSTICE 4O THIS DAY THE COMPLEX NATURE OF #AMBODIANS LOYALTIES AND THE NEED FOR SPIRIT PROTECTION HAS NOT YET BEEN FULLY REALISED !S THE REGIME EXPANDED PEOPLE HAD TO LEAVE THEIR FAMILIES AND VILLAGES MARRY A STRANGE PERSON HAVE SEX WITH AN UNKNOWN SPOUSE GIVE BIRTH WITHOUT AN ATTENDANT FORSAKE A STARVINGPARENTANDLEAVEDEADBODIESEXPOSED!SACOLLECTIVESENSEOFPREDICT ABILITYWEAKENED SEEKINGSAFETYBECAMEVERYTRICKYBUSINESS3HAREDSUSPICION AND WORRY RIPPLED OUT !ND DOUBT RAN DEEPER THAN SIMPLY FEARING AN IDEN TIlABLE REGIME &OR EXAMPLE ONE MAN TOLD ME THAT THE hHURTINGv SPIRITS OF THE +HMER 2OUGE SLEEP UNDER THE GROUND WAITING TO COME OUT AGAIN (E WORRIES STILL ) CONCLUDE THAT SUFFERING HAS BEEN MAGNIlED BY THE WAYS IN WHICH THE +HMER 2OUGE INTERRUPTED CULTURALLY NORMED EXCHANGES BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL AND METAPHYSICAL REALMS !S ) SHOWED IN MY STUDY THE +HMER 2OUGE RUP TURED A NATIONS PARTICIPATION IN COSMIC ORDERING AND GENERATED WHAT ) CALL #OSMIC "ETRAYAL 5NTIL SPIRIT PLACES AND SPIRIT RITUALS ARE GIVEN NORMATIVE STANDING IN RESEARCH ON TRAUMA PERPETUATION OF SPIRIT BETRAYAL IS LIKELY AND RECONCILIATION LESS LIKELY ON THIS PLANE ˆ THOUGH MANY WILL REMAIN SILENT hUNDERv THIS SPIRIT FACT

 4HISREGIMELASTEDOFlCIALLYFROM !PRILTO*ANUARY BUT)DOCUMENTED+HMER 2OUGE SUPERVISED MARRIAGES INTO  WHICH POINTS TO THE AFTERMATH FROM RITUAL TAMPERING WHILE REVEALING THE LESS THAN CLEAR CUT TIME FRAME USED IN WAR CRIME RULINGS REGARDING REGIME ACTIVITY 

Appendices

Method Analysis: Context-Content-Process -R AND -RS /M IN THEIR DIALOGUE BELOW WERE CODED IN ORANGE IN ORDER TO PLOT THEIR RELATIONSHIP DYNAMICS ALONG CONTENT CONTEXT AND PROCESS DATA #ONTEXT 4HISEXCERPTTOOKPLACEATTHE/MS+HMER2OUGEWEDDINGSITEAT +AMPONG 3PEU  *ANUARY   4HIS IS THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN THIS PAIR WHILE GREETING LOCAL VILLAGERS #ONTENT 7HAT IS SAID

0ROCESS (OW WHERE WHEN

-RS/Mh7HEREISYOUR DAUGHTERLIVINGNOWv

-RS/MHOLDSHANDSWITH AWOMAN LOOKSDOWNAND BECOMESTEARFUL -R/MTAKESHISWIFESHAND ASTHEYWALKUPTHESTAIRSTO WHERETHEYWEREMARRIED(E REPEATSAPHRASE(ELOOKSAT HISWIFEANDSMILES

-R/Mh)TISMORETHAN YEARSWEAREHERE WEAREHERExv

-R/MWALKSAROUND INACIRCLEINTHESAME SPOTTIMES(EPOINTS TOTHEMISSINGWALL

-R/M!LOUDTOHIMSELF h4HISWALLISGONE) REMEMBERHEARINGCOUGHS THROUGHTHEmOORSv



!PPENDICES



Research Summary: How the Study was Conducted 3URVEY q ;3AMPLE 0URPOSIVE %LEVEN COUPLES . = &IRST INTERVIEW4HE lRST INTER VIEW WAS OFTEN IN A COUPLES HOME ) ASKED PERMISSION TO MAKE PAPER AND PENCIL NOTES AND DRAWINGS IN A SKETCHBOOK SUCH AS DRAWINGS OF THE ROOM ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURE OF HOUSE PERSONAL POSSESSIONS IN THE HOME AVAILABIL ITY OF TRANSPORT AND SO ON  !LL COUPLES PERMITTED STILL PHOTOGRAPHS SOME ALLOWED DIGITAL lLMING4HREE PEOPLE DID NOT WANT THEIR NAMES AND IMAGES MADEPUBLIC3ECONDINTERVIEW4HESECONDINTERVIEWWASINSIDEANDOUTSIDE PEOPLESHOMESWITHTAPERECORDERANDORDIGITALlLMnHOURSPERSESSION  4RAVEL INTERVIEWS 4HE ADDITIONAL INTERVIEWS OCCURRED WHILE TRAVELING AND VISITINGSITESWHERECOUPLESHADBEENWED ORWHEREWOMENGAVEBIRTHDURING THE+HMER2OUGEERATHESEWEREOFTENFULLDAYEXCURSIONSWITHMULTIPLEVILLAGE VISITSINCLUDINGnHOURSOFDIGITALVIDEOTAPING &OLLOW UPINTERVIEWS4HE FOLLOW UPINTERVIEWSWEREINSIDEHOMESOFTENFORnHOURS  q ;3AMPLE2ANDOM. =!SURVEYWASCONSTRUCTEDFROMTHERESPONSESIN THElRSTSAMPLE s

&OR THE PURPOSE OF ADMINISTERING A SURVEY IN +HMER ) TRAINED ELEVEN TH YEAR PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS WHO HAD mUENCY IN +HMER AND %NGLISH AT THE 2OYAL 5NIVERSITY OF 0HNOM 0ENH TO USE CONVERSATIONAL INTER VIEW SKILLS AND GENERATE AN ATMOSPHERE OF SAFETY ) ENCOURAGED THEM TO MAKE USE OF PRE EXISTING RELATIONS VIA THEIR PARENTS OR NEIGHBOURS ˆ GIVEN THAT THEIR PARENTS WERE FROM THE +HMER 2OUGE WEDDING GENERA TION 4HIS PURPOSIVE SNOWBALL SAMPLING METHOD WAS USED IN ORDER TO MAXIMIZE TRUST 3TUDENTS MET WITH ME ON THREE OCCASIONS DURING THEIR INTERVIEWS ) ALSO MADE MYSELF AVAILABLE VIA TEXT MESSAGING ON THEIR MOBILE PHONES WHEN THEY WERE IN REMOTE REGIONS !FTER CROSS CHECKING THE TRANSLATION WITH MY INTERPRETERS ) CONTINUED TO INTERVIEW MEN AND WOMEN BY REFERRALS FROM FORMER INTERVIEWEES COLLEAGUES AND THEIR RELATIVES ) PUT THEIR TRANSCRIBED MATERIAL INTO THE SURVEY FORMAT !T TIMES THERE WAS A NEED FOR DEBRIElNG WITH SOME OF THE STUDENTS INDIVIDUALLY &OR INSTANCE ONE YOUNG MAN DISCOVERED THAT HIS PARENTS WERE MARRIED IN A GROUP WEDDING AFTER HE HAD TOLD THEM ABOUT MYSTUDY

q 0OSTANALYSISINTERVIEWSREGARDINGPREGNANCYDETAILS4HESEOCCURREDAFTERANALYSIS OFTHESURVEYSlVEWOMENFORMERLYINTERVIEWED WERECONTACTEDWHOINDICATED PREGNANCIESAFTERTHEIRGROUPMARRIAGEARRANGEMENTSWEREMADETOTRAVELWITH THEMTOTHESESITES

Man (base) age 40 married to woman (new-base) age 27 in Takeo in 1975; they have remained together.

Man (base) age 40 married to woman (new) age 27 in Takeo, year uncertain; (Angkar chose); they have remained together.

Man (new) age 40 married to woman (new) age 28 in Svay Rieng in 1978; (Angkar chose); they have remained together.

Man (soldier) age 36 married to woman (base) age 25 in 1978 in Phnom Penh, though they were engaged before 1975; they have remained together.

Man (base) age 28 married to woman (base) age 20 in Prey Veng in 1977; (Angkar chose); they have remained together.

Man (base) age 23 married to woman (base) age 16 in Prey Veng in 1977; (man asked permission from Angkar); they have remained together.

Woman (base) age 35 married to man (base) age 28 in 1979 in Battambang; they were together until her husband’s death in 1994.

13 years

13 years

12 years

11 years

8 years

7 years

7 years

Largest Variance in Age and Status between Partners

Man (new) age 38 married to woman (base) age 22 in Phnom Penh factory canteen in 1978; (leader of factory chose); they have remained together.

Table I:

16 years difference between husband and wife

Tables

!PPENDICES 

Identities of Respondents between 1975–79

1

Chinese Khmer

1

5

50 (those who stayed in rural region)

32 (those who left Phnom Penh to return to district rural area)

107 (those who left Phnom Penh and identiÄed as urban)

7 (2 were spouses of soldiers)

2

1 (self-identiÄed)

Muslim

Monk

Base

New-Base

New

Soldier

Nurse

Intelligentsia

3INO +HMER IS A TERM THAT DESCRIBES THE OFFSPRING OF MIXED #HINESE AND +HMER MARRIAGES )N MY STUDY FEW IDENTIlED AS #HINESE +HMER THOUGH SOME RECOGNISED THEIR #HINESE HERITAGE -OST 3INO +HMER IDENTIlED AS +HMER DUE TO +HMER AS THEIR lRST LANGUAGE 0ERHAPS THIS COMPLEX IDENTITY FEATURE IS A LIMITATION IN MY STUDY HOWEVER ) CLASSIlED DEMOGRAPHIC DATA ACCORDING TO RESPONDENTS hSELF v IDENTITY RATHER THAN THEIR ETHNIC HISTORY ;3EE7ILLMOT 7% h4HE#HINESEIN+AMPUCHEAv *OURNALOF3OUTHEAST!SIAN3TUDIES NO-ARCH nAND&ORMOSO "ERNARD )DENTIT£S EN 2EGARD $ESTINS #HINOIS EN -ILIEU "OUDDHISTE4HAÆ #.23 ›DITIONS ›DITIONS DE LA -AISON DES 3CIENCES DE ,HOMME 0ARIS=



180

Khmer

8

189

Buddhist

(Sino Khmer)

104 (average age at time of wedding was 22)

Female

1

88 (average age at time of wedding was 24)

Male

(Note: some claimed more than one status, such as nurse and new person.)

Table II:

 !PPENDICES

153 Total (includes the 22 people who were interviewed purposively with their spouse in the Ärst sample, and 2 respondents who remarried) 2 (after death of spouse during regime) 39 24

Number that remained married to DK partner or married until death

Number that remarried

Total “Not Together” Not Together due to Separation

Not Together due to Death of Spouse (all who had a spouse that died were together until death)

Table III: Partnership Results

!PPENDICES 

Total respondents in region

5

53

21

8

7

1

Regions (place of weddings; may be different from place of resident)

Phnom Penh

Kandal

Prey Veng

Svay Rieng

Kampong Cham

Koh Kong

23

1–70

1–60

1–85

5–300 (300 people were married together in the north)

3–70

Range of numbers of people married in groups

1 (1978, harvest)

1 (early 1979)

5 (two wed in rainy season 1977)

7

24 (from dry season 1976 onwards; including those given huts after wedding; no relationship to pregnancy status)

1

Regional Patterns

Those told to have sex (accounted for couples; most told from 1977–80, unless speciÄed)

Table IV:

1

1 LB

1 LB

3 LB 1 DB (late ‘77 or early ‘78 “in Pol Pot hospital”)

4 preg

1

12 LB 2 DB (and death of mother)

12 LB 1 SA (‘79) 1 DB (‘78)

1 LB (‘80)

Birth status (all births in 1978–79 unless speciÄed; special cases noted) Live birth (LB) Dead birth (DB) Death one week after birth (DA) Spontaneous Abortion (SA) Induced Abortion (IA)

14 (2 pregnancies for 3 women)

14

1 pregnancy

Pregnancies (most in 1978 and 1979, unless speciÄed)

 !PPENDICES

7

18

6

1

0

Kampot

Kampong Speu

Kampong Thom

Ratanakiri

Stung Treng

2

4–20

2–115

2–19

3–48

8

1–200

Pursat

18

Battambang

40–78

1

3

Siem Reap

1–250

Malai Mountain 1 (near Thai borderBattambang region)

28

Takeo

(continued)

0

5

6

4

3

8 (from rainy and dry season 1977 onwards)

0

8 (one in dry season 1975, most in 1977–78)

Table IV:

0

2

6

2

2

0

8

2

12

0

2 LB

6 LB

2 LB (‘79)

1 LB 1 DB (‘79)

1 LB (‘79)

(continued overleaf)

6 LB 2 SA (Woman married in 1977 and delivered LB in 1979 said, “My baby was just over 2 kilograms.”)

2 LB

6 LB 3 SA 3 DB (2 dead births in late ‘77) (one woman was married in 1975; she had 4 pregnancies, 2 LB, 1 SA, 1 LB; all without an attendant)

!PPENDICES 

0 2–3 (1979; chief of military base chose couple)

0

1–300

2

0

0

0

N=192

Preah Vihear (one near Dangkrek Mountain)

Mondolkiri

Stung Treng

Kratie

TOTAL

(continued)

76 reported that sex was prescribed

0

1 (in early 1979)

2

1

2

Oddar Mean Chey

1–50

4

Kampong Chhnang

Table IV:

70 pregnant, (67% pregnancy rate out of 104 women, primarily in 1978–79)

0

0

0

1

No one indicated forced or selfinduced abortions

Spontaneous Abortions (6) 8% of pregnancies

Dead Births (8) 11% of pregnancies

Live Births (56) 80% of pregnancies

0

0

0

1 LB (‘79)

 !PPENDICES

!PPENDICES



Purposive Sample by Colours 4HOSE IN THE lRST SAMPLE WERE CODED IN COLOUR SINCE THEIR NARRATIVE TEXT WAS RICH ) ATTEMPTED TO GIVE MORE LIFE TO THE TRANSCRIPT MATERIAL FOR THE READER BYREFERENCINGACOLOURCODEDNAME SUCHASh-RS"SAIDxv4HISSAMPLEIS COLOURCODEDFOREASIERACCESSTOTHEREADER&OREXAMPLE -RAND-RS/IN THE TEXT ARE CODED IN ORANGE -R AND -RS " ARE CODED IN BLUE AND SO ON 4HERE ARE ELEVEN COLOURS IN TOTAL FOR THE ELEVEN COUPLES . 4HE SECOND SAMPLE . WAS RANDOM WITH REGARD TO MARITAL STATUS #OLOUR #ODE #OUPLE

3EQUENCE IN #HART

"LUE ,IME 9ELLOW 'REEN 2OSE 0URPLE 4URQUOISE 3ILVER !PRICOT /RANGE -USTARD

.     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .    

-R AND -RS " -R AND -RS , -R AND -RS 9 -R AND -RS ' -R AND -RS 2 -R AND -RS 0 -R AND -RS4 -R AND -RS 3 -R AND -RS ! -R AND -RS / -R AND -RS -

4HE PURPOSIVE SAMPLE OF ELEVEN COUPLES WHO ARE STILL TOGETHER WERE CODED IN COLOUR !LL INTERVIEWS WERE FACE TO FACE IN RESPONDENTS HOMES OR CENTRAL VILLAGECOMMUNALSITESUNLESSSPECIlED!LLINTERVIEWSWEREHELDFORANAVERAGE OF TWO HOURS OFTEN IN A FAMILY ANDOR VILLAGE ENVIRONMENT UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIlED  0ROVINCE ANDOR DISTRICT ARE PROVIDED BUT VILLAGE INFORMATION IS OFTEN WITHHELD FOR CONlDENTIALITY

4HEENTIRECOLLECTIONOFDATAANDTHESEQUENCELISTPRESENTED CAN BE FOUND IN ,E6INE  DOCTORAL DISSERTATION  ! #ONTEXTUAL 3TUDY INTO -ARRIAGES 5NDER THE +HMER 2OUGE 2ITUAL 2EVOLUTION -ONASH 5NIVERSITY !USTRALIA

(Interviewer/ interpreter initials)

Interviews Dates Places

Status information: At time of Khmer Rouge wedding Gender (M = Man; W = Woman), Age at marriage, Education, Base, New, Soldier, Monk, etc.; Together or Not Together; (#) is coded data and transcripts; Requested ConÄdence (RC)

2.

1.

24–8–03 (Phnom Penh) (Peg/Nv)

24–8–03 Takhmau (Peg/Nv)

24–8–03 (Phnom Penh) (Peg/Nv)

24–8–03 Takhmau (Peg/Nv) Phnom Penh

Place of wedding

(155a) W, base from Phnom Saang, (M, soldier-driver Penh for KR, 36); Together

(155b) M, 36 years old at time of wedding; “base soldier,” driver for Khmer Rouge; W, age 25, Saang (both were from Saang as birth place; Together as arranged by families before DK take over).

Wedding Place: PHNOM PENH

N

1978, December; 3 couples

1978, December; 3 couples

Wedding date; # of couples in group wedding

Soria Cinema (5 soldiers), one chicken per couple, 3 days together; he requested her since they were from same village.

Soria Cinema (5 soldiers); though he was paired by KR leader with another soldier, he requested his “base” Äancée since they were from the same village and had previously been arranged by both families. One chicken per couple after wed; stayed together for 3 days in room near Soria cinema; she returned to her home village; he was sent to work.

Marriage details (rituals/ secret ceremony, etc.)

Buddha, parents, ancestors

Buddha

Protection (What protected you during Democratic Kampuchea?)

O pregnancy

Pregnancy/ Birth details during DK period

Not sure

“The leaders that made you do things you did not want to do.”

What is Angkar?

 !PPENDICES

4.

3.

14–1–03 (Peg/LH, Älm)

14–1–03 (Peg/LH) (8–11 pm; Älm)

11–11–01 Peg/DH

SIEM REAP

(3a) W, 22, new, began university education; Together due to harmony and sharing of food, and Ku Prean (Buddha arranged)

(3b) M, 30 (W, 22), both new, university educated; Together due to harmony and sharing of food, and Ku Prean (Buddha arranged)

Siem Reap

Siem Reap (Northwest border of province)

1978, November; 78 couples

1978, October or November; 78 couples

“No food, not even rice at the wedding.”

“All couples agreed on both sides to marry. We just had to get approval from the village chief about our choice.”

Told to have sex, soldiers watched at night on the wedding night. “My adopted mother spoke to my wife’s mother and they paired us because it would make us safer. Then my adopted mother sent me a letter and told me to go to the village and get permission to marry her.” No food, not even rice. “When single we were called Force Number One but when we married we were older and did not have to work as hard. Together a few days, then wife sent 8 km away to be with mother. He was sent to work in Prean Net Preah in Banteay Meanchey (hypothermic conditions — digging in cold water). Family, ancestors, Buddha

Buddha, ancestors

1 pregnancy/ 1 birth

“I don’t want to think about this.”

Black Pot that makes the pond full of blood. “Leaders who drove people to do horrible things; some parents killed their own children to eat.”

!PPENDICES 

Interviews Dates Places

(Interviewer/ interpreter initials)

9–2–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH; Älm) (7–11pm)

9–9–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH; Älm)

5.

6.

KANDAL

N

(148a) W, age 22, new, high school education; Together for mother

(148b) M, age 23, new, high school education; Together due to love and family, and Ku Prean

Status information: At time of Khmer Rouge wedding Gender (M = Man; W = Woman), Age at marriage, Education, Base, New, Soldier, Monk, etc.; Together or Not Together; (#) is coded data and transcripts; Requested ConÄdence (RC)

Kandal Saang

Kandal Saang

Place of wedding

1978, August; 50 couples

1978, August/ September; 50 couples

Wedding date; # of couples in group wedding

Husband requested her; stayed in same place after wedding. Wed in communal kitchen that was converted to group eating in 1977.

He refused Ärst and sent to hard labor by new district head as other leader was killed — said former leader would have killed him due to his refusal; requested wife after labor camp.

Marriage details (rituals/ secret ceremony, etc.)

Buddha, past life

Buddha

Protection (What protected you during Democratic Kampuchea?)

0 pregnancy

Pregnancy/ Birth details during DK period

Not sure

Those with power.

What is Angkar?

 !PPENDICES

11–11–01 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

9.

20–1–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

30–8–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH; Älm)

30–8–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH; Älm)

28–8–03 (Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

8.

7.

(147a ) W, age 19, new; Together, work hard, love

(159b) M, 24, new, (W, 23, new). Together, due to parents’ dying and Ku Prean

(159a) W, 23, new, (M, 24, new). Together; Ku Prean

Kandal Saang

Kandal

Kandal

1978, October; Pchum Ben; 72 couples

1977, Harvest; 44 couples

1977, Harvest; 44 couples

Man requested her; rice, promises; together for 2 days then separated for 3 months for work; (celebrated 20th anniversary).

I was a single child and my father died and I saw my wife whose parents died so I asked her brother permission to marry her, and then asked leader to be paired with her. Blue and red krama, rice.

Married in rice Äelds with thatched roof overhead. Then went to village for 7 days (at man’s mother’s house). Then sent to work. Told in ceremony to make one child a year and produce 3 tons of rice; blue and red krama, rice eaten after wedding. Had secret ceremony at mother’s house.

Buddha, merit, ancestors

Luck, past deeds, Buddha

Buddha

1 pregnancy, 1 birth in early 1979

0 pregnancy

Unsure

Ones who kill like animals and could return at any time.

Powerful people who try to control everything and use power for killing. Those who murdered at night.

!PPENDICES 

11.

10.

Interviews Dates Places

(Interviewer/ interpreter initials)

26–1–02 Phnom Penh (Peg/Lina)

20–1–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

11–11–01 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

KANDAL

N

(111b) M, 29 (W, 26) both new and high school; Together due to “pity for my wife because her parents died.”

(147b ) M, age 22, new; Together, support the other, love, Ku Prean

Status information: At time of Khmer Rouge wedding Gender (M = Man; W = Woman), Age at marriage, Education, Base, New, Soldier, Monk, etc.; Together or Not Together; (#) is coded data and transcripts; Requested ConÄdence (RC)

Kandal Kandal Stoeng (Trea commune)

Kandal Saang

Place of wedding

1978, November; 50 couples

1978, October; 72 couples

Wedding date; # of couples in group wedding

Wed in canteen, chief chose, secret ceremony after, given small cottage by village chief, no food or drink, violet krama, 2 Angkar representatives presided; (no sex prescribed) [refused to marry Ärst choice by leader and sent to hard labor; married second choice].

He asked Angkar; rice given after ceremony, promises to produce rice.

Marriage details (rituals/ secret ceremony, etc.)

Make a kind of confusion but show loyalty to the leaders.

Buddha, mouth, clever

Protection (What protected you during Democratic Kampuchea?) Pregnancy/ Birth details during DK period

Angkar is the password used by the heads of the regime.

Cruel force “Magic Mouth”

What is Angkar?

 !PPENDICES

26–1–02 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

13.

30–8–03 (Phnom Penh (Peg/LH; Älm) 4 hours

23–8–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH) (restaurant)

KAMPONG CHAM

12.

(197b) M, 22, new, diploma; Together, Ku Prean, kindness, hard life

(111a) W, 26, (M, 29), both new and high school; Together, Ku Prean

Kampong Cham

Kandal Kandal Stoeng (Trea commune)

1977, Harvest; 44 couples

1978, November; 50 couples

Blue and red scarves, no music. “My father died December 1976 and I buried him under a tamarind tree. Then I knew her parents had both died and she lived with her brother; I saw her on the mobile team and fell in love. Then asked to marry her.” Married under thatched roof; only rice to eat.Told to make one child a year, and gather 3 tons of rice a year. Together 7 days and slept in the Äelds, then separated for a long time; then I went to be with her in her mother’s village.

50 couples, Wed in canteen, chief chose, secret ceremony after, given cottage, no food or drink, violet krama, 2 leaders presided, (no sex prescribed).

Buddha, ancestors

Careful, work hard

0 pregnancy

Starving Machine

“Some thing that can harm you at anytime if you are not careful.”

!PPENDICES 

(Interviewer/ interpreter initials)

Interviews Dates Places

15.

TAKEO

14.

2–2–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

30–8–03 (Peg/LH; Älm) 4 hours

KAMPONG CHAM

N

(163b) M, age 24, new, (W, age 24, new) Together because family gets along; shared food

(9a), W, 20, Together, Ku Prean, love, parent’s deaths.

Status information: At time of Khmer Rouge wedding Gender (M = Man; W = Woman), Age at marriage, Education, Base, New, Soldier, Monk, etc.; Together or Not Together; (#) is coded data and transcripts; Requested ConÄdence (RC)

Takeo

Kampong Cham

Place of wedding

1978, August or September; 250 couples

1977, Harvest; 44 couples

Wedding date; # of couples in group wedding

Dam project with thousands, went to wife’s village 3 hours away after the wedding, little food.

“My mother died in Lon Nol time and my father died in Pol Pot times; he was kind to me and asked my brother if we could marry. Then we asked the village chief.”

Marriage details (rituals/ secret ceremony, etc.)

Buddha, ancestors, self effort

Buddha, ancestors

Protection (What protected you during Democratic Kampuchea?)

0 pregnancy, “no menstrual cycle at that time because I was so thin.”

Pregnancy/ Birth details during DK period

Mad force

Unsure

What is Angkar?

 !PPENDICES

2–2–03 Phnom Penh (Peg/LH)

18.

17.

10–11–01 Phnom Penh (Peg/LT; tape) (3 hours)

13–11–01 Phnom Penh Phone call (Ln)

10–11–01 Phnom Penh (Peg/LT; tape) (3 hours)

PURSAT

16.

(142a) W, age 28, new, her parents both died in Lon Nol time; (M, age 35, new, former Monk in Phnom Penh (code: w/ Lny). Together; “from day I married him I began to love him”.

(142b) M, age 35, new, former Monk in Phnom Penh; (W, age 28, new) (code: w/ Lny). Together, “… she brought me luck because I did not die after we married.”

(163a) W, age 24, new, (code: lc) (M, age 24, new), together, family, kindness, struggle

Pursat

Pursat

Takeo

1978, November, married in pagoda; 7–13 couples

1978, November, “Year of the Big Flood,” married in pagoda by woman chief of province from Oudong Camp; 7–13 couples

1978; 250 couples

Given rice, cake, blue krama from Svey Rieng, together one month, “the only money was rice”; stayed together at night for one week with 3–4 couples in one room.

“Given just one rice cake after wedding,” blue krama from Svey Rieng, together one month, “the only money was rice” (promised 7 tons of rice a year); stayed together at night for one week with 3–4 couples in one room; “My relatives wanted me to leave my wife because she is from the countryside, but because of her I could live so I cannot leave her.”

Dam project with thousands, went to wife’s village 3 hours away after the wedding

Buddha

Buddha, being clever, relationships with some soldiers from before 1975

Buddha, share food with husband

0 pregnancy

0 pregnancy

Hard force

Cruel leaders

Cruel force that is under the ground

!PPENDICES 

(Interviewer/ interpreter initials)

Interviews Dates Places

19.

20–2–04 (Peg)

20–2–03 Phnom Penh

27–1–03 (wedding site/ Älm) (Peg)

26–1–03

20–01–02 Phnom Penh (Peg)

22–1–1999 Phnom Penh (Peg)

KAMPONG SPEU

N

(131a) W, age 21, new, (M, age 22, new),Together, trust, love (code: m); Ku Prean

Status information: At time of Khmer Rouge wedding Gender (M = Man; W = Woman), Age at marriage, Education, Base, New, Soldier, Monk, etc.; Together or Not Together; (#) is coded data and transcripts; Requested ConÄdence (RC)

Kampong Speu

Place of wedding

1977, March; 32 couples

Wedding date; # of couples in group wedding

Leader of boys workgroup chose, but from same village area, KR headquarters w/ prison below, stayed together after in village. Went to her mother’s after and had secret ceremony.

Marriage details (rituals/ secret ceremony, etc.)

Buddha, family ancestors

Protection (What protected you during Democratic Kampuchea?)

[* 7 out of 32 women in cohort had baby died]

1 pregnancy, 1 birth 1979

Pregnancy/ Birth details during DK period

Cruel agents

What is Angkar?

 !PPENDICES

20.

20–2–03 Phnom Penh (Peg)

27–1–03 Kampong Speu (wedding site/Älm)

26–1–03 Oudong Mountain (Peg)

28–4–01 Phnom Penh (Peg)

20–01–02 Phnom Penh (Peg)

29–4–2000 Phnom Penh (Peg)

(131b), M, age 22, new, (W, age 21, new), Together, trust, love

Kampong Speu

1977, March; 32 couples

Leader of girls work group chose; from same village region, Wed at KR ofÄce w/ prison below building, stayed together after in village; went to wife’s mother after. [Fearful of Wat Po as they were near there; “…scared because it was the early headquarters of KR from ‘72–‘74”]. Buddha, family, ancestors; “afÄnity for sharing” (mizn visa)

!PPENDICES 

(Interviewer/ interpreter initials)

Interviews Dates Places

26–5–05 Kampong Speu (Peg/Om/ Älm)

26–5–05 Kampong Speu (Peg/Om/ Älm)

21.

22.

KAMPONG SPEU

N

(150b) M, base, Together, kindness and family

(150a) W, new, Together due to kindness; parents knew each other when they were young

Status information: At time of Khmer Rouge wedding Gender (M = Man; W = Woman), Age at marriage, Education, Base, New, Soldier, Monk, etc.; Together or Not Together; (#) is coded data and transcripts; Requested ConÄdence (RC)

Kampong Speu Kong Pisey

Kampong Speu Kong Pisey

Place of wedding

1978, April; 12 couples; 4 are together and 3 people died

1978, April; 12 couples; 4 are together and 3 people died

Wedding date; # of couples in group wedding

Stayed in village for 3 days after wedding in hut, then went to wife’s village.

Stayed in village for 3 days after wedding in hut, then went to her mother’s village (married cousin to be safe); no food at wedding, sang “comrade song” (man given blue scarf and woman given red silk scarf); stayed together after wedding.

Marriage details (rituals/ secret ceremony, etc.)

Buddha protected

Buddha protected

Protection (What protected you during Democratic Kampuchea?)

0

0

Pregnancy/ Birth details during DK period

Unsure, but maybe a harming force

Unsure

What is Angkar?

 !PPENDICES

Bibliography

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"IBLIOGRAPHY



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Index

"ATTAMBANG      n   n     "AYON  BETRAYAL XXI        COSMIC   SPIRIT XXI  BIRTH EXPERIENCES      PLACESSITES n      n RATES n    RITUALS    "ODER $AVID n "ON 0CHUM "EN n BORAMEY n "UDDHA XXII        n      n  n   "UDDHISM  n n   

 COUP   ACHAA n n !NGKAR    n  n n  n    n  n n n  n    n n n n n n n   n ,OEU  n !NGKOR4HOM  !NGKOR 7AT n ANIMISM   ANXIETY AND WORRY   n        n       ANTICIPATORY ANXIETY     COLLECTIVE ANXIETY  SEPARATION ANXIETY  SPIRIT BASED ANXIETY   UNBOUND ANXIETY  !PSARAS XIX  

#HINA    n COMMUNISM   #OMMUNIST 0ARTY OF +AMPUCHEA #0+    





)NDEX

COURTSHIP XX n      n #0+ SEE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY OF +AMPUCHEA CULT   n  #ULTURAL 2EVOLUTION  n $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA $+ n  n  n  n   n n n n  n   n  n n  n  n   n  n n n n n $HAMMAYUTTIKA SECT n $IS PLACEMENT   $+ SEE $EMOCRATIC +AMPUCHEA %URO !MERICAN CULTURE   INTERPRETATIONPERSPECTIVES XIX   'ANDHARVAS  'ENOCIDE XXInXXII  'ULF OF4HAILAND  (ENG 3AMRIN  )NDIA  *APAN XXInXXII n        +AMPONG #HAM       n n  +AMPOT   n     n    +ANDAL       n  n n   n            +HMER 2OUGE XIXnXX XXIII n n n n   



n n n n n n  n n n n n     n   n n      n     n n n   n n BIRTHS    PLACES  COURTSHIP  ERAPERIODYEARS XXI n n   n  n n  n          n    LEADERS    n   REGIME    WEDDINGS GROUP    n  n n                    n SEE ALSO MARRIAGES FORCED +AMPONG 3PEU         n   n n   n   n        +AMPONG4HOM     KRAMA       ,AOS    ,ON .OL  REGIME   n    YEARSPERIOD         LOVE n MARRIAGES ARRANGED    FORCED  n n  SEE ALSO +HMER 2OUGE WEDDINGS -ARX-ARXISM  n 

)NDEX MEDIUM SEE SPIRIT MEDIUMS -EKONG 2IVER  .AZI CAMPSREGIME n  NEAK TA  n n .EW PEOPLE   n     .'/S XXInXXII  .ORODOM 3IHANOUK  /LD"ASE PEOPLE     n      0CHUM "EN          0HNOM 0ENH XIX  n  n  n   n n  n   n  n    n     0OL 0OT XX       REGIME     YEARS    n   POPIL n   0OSTTRAUMATIC 3TRESS $ISORDER 043$    0REAH 6IHEAR    0REY 6ENG           0URSAT         n   n 2ITUALCIDE   ROASTING ANG PLOENG n PERIOD  3AANG        SEX    n  SEXUAL REPRESSION  VIOLENCE 



3IEM 2EAP  n n  n  3OUTHEAST !SIA XXnXXI          3OVIET 5NION  SPIRITS XIXnXXII    n   n   n n n n n       n n n n DOMAIN XXII  EXCHANGE   MEDIUMS XIXnXX   n   PHENOMENON XIX        PLACES      POSSESSION   RITUAL XXnXXI XXIII   STRUCTURES  WORLD XIX    n    3VAY 2IENG         4AKEO         n           4AKHMAU     4HAILAND   4ONLE 3AP  TRAUMA XIX   POST TRAUMA XX 4UOL 3LENG 0RISON -USEUM  6IETNAM    INVASION  n WAR   WEDDING PLACESSITES       n     n