Local Government and the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Global Perspective (Local and Urban Governance) 303091111X, 9783030911119

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Local and Urban Governance

Carlos Nunes Silva   Editor

Local Government and the COVID-19 Pandemic A Global Perspective

Local and Urban Governance Series Editor Carlos Nunes Silva, Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

This series contains research studies with policy relevance in the field of sub-national territorial governance, at the micro, local and regional levels, as well as on its connections with national and supranational tiers. The series is multidisciplinary and brings together innovative research from different areas within the Social Sciences and Humanities. The series is open for theoretical, methodological and empirical ground breaking contributions. Books included in this series explore the new modes of territorial governance, new perspectives and new research methodologies. The aim is to present advances in Governance Studies to scholars and researchers in universities and research organizations, and to policy makers worldwide. The series includes monographs, edited volumes and textbooks. Book proposals and final manuscripts are peer-reviewed. The areas covered in the series include but are not limited to the following subjects: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Local and regional government Urban and metropolitan governance Multi-level territorial governance Post-colonial local governance Municipal merger reforms Inter-municipal cooperation Decentralized cooperation Governance of spatial planning Strategic spatial planning Citizen participation in local policies Local governance, spatial justice and the right to the city Local public services Local economic development policies Entrepreneurialism and municipal public enterprises Local government finance Local government and sustainable development Anthropocene and green local governance Climate change and local governance Smart local governance

The series is intended for geographers, planners, political scientists, sociologists, lawyers, historians, urban anthropologists and economists.

Carlos Nunes Silva Editor

Local Government and the COVID-19 Pandemic A Global Perspective

Editor Carlos Nunes Silva Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning Universidade de Lisboa Lisboa, Portugal

ISSN 2524-5449 ISSN 2524-5457 (electronic) Local and Urban Governance ISBN 978-3-030-91111-9 ISBN 978-3-030-91112-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91112-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Acknowledgment

This book is the outcome of the collaborative research project, launched by the IGU Commission on Geography of Governance in March 2020, Local Government Response Towards Covid-19 Pandemic: Strategies, Plans, Actions, Outcomes, Impacts. A Worldwide Survey and Comparison. It reflects the hard work carried out in a period full of difficulties, due to the restrictions associated with the Covid-19 Pandemic, by the authors of each chapter. Without their knowledge and time devoted to this research project, the book would not have been possible. I would like express here my gratitude to all of them for the effort devoted to the project and for the excellent work done. I would also like to express my gratitude to Doris Wastl-Walter, Professor Emerita, at the University of Bern, Switzerland, for her insightful review of an earlier version of the book’s manuscript. For the continuous support, professionalism, and attention to detail in the preparation of this book, I also thank the colleagues in the Springer book series Local and Urban Governance.

v

Contents

1

Local Government and the Covid-19 Pandemic: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlos Nunes Silva

1

Part I 2

3

4

5

Renaissance of Public Health as a Determining Factor of Urban Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria del Pilar Tellez Soler and Remy Sietchiping Local Actions to Combat Covid-19 Crisis: Contextual Insights into Local Institutional Responses to Covid-19 in Europe and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ari-Veikko Anttiroiko and Arto Haveri Metropolises Overcoming the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Urgent Call for Territorializing Global Agendas at Subnational Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rafael H. Forero H and Remy Sietchiping

27

59

85

The Political Economy of COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons Learned from the Responses of Local Government in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Abraham R. Matamanda, Verna Nel, Nelson Chanza, Lucia Leboto-Khetsi, Fortune Mangara, and Partson Paradza

Part II 6

German Local Authorities in the COVID-19 Pandemic: Challenges, Impacts and Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Jochen Franzke

vii

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7

Momentum of Federalism? National, State, and Municipal Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Sascha Krannich

8

Local Government Response Towards the COVID-19 Pandemic in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Carlos Nunes Silva

9

Local Government Response to COVID-19: Some Insights from Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Ramon Galindo Caldés and Marc Vilalta Reixach

10

Administrative Boundaries and Covid-19: The Case of Catalonia, Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Ramon Galindo Caldés, Joan Tort Donada, and Albert Santasusagna Riu

11

COVID-19 and Multilevel Territorial Governance: Transcalar Patterns, Frictions of Competencies and Planning Conflicts in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Teresa Graziano

12

Local and National Government Response Towards COVID-19 Pandemic in Lombardy, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Sara Belotti

13

The 2020 Pandemic Governance in Italy and Lombardy: Institutional Conflict in Health Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Renzo Riboldazzi

14

Reorganisation of Businesses and Processes, and the Development of Policies to Safely Emerge from the Covid-19 Pandemic in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Anna Trono and Valentina Castronuovo

15

Coping with COVID-19 Pandemic in Greece: A Joint Effort at the National and Urban Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Anastasia Stratigea, Andreas Alexopoulos, Spyros Sapounas, and Angeliki Bistaraki

16

COVID-19 Crisis Management in Croatia: The Contribution of Subnational Levels of Government . . . . . . . . . 405 Dana Dobrić Jambrović

Part III 17

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Local Government Units in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Mariusz W. Sienkiewicz and Katarzyna A. Kuć-Czajkowska

Contents

ix

18

Presidential Elections in Poland During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Unexpected Challenge for Political Actors and the Relationship Between Central Government and Local Government . . . . . . . . . . 451 Tomasz Kaczmarek and Łukasz Mikuła

19

Local Self-Government and Governance During Covid-19 Pandemic in Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Ján Buček

20

Anti- and Post-COVID-19 Measures Taken by the Czech Government in Relation to the Spatial Distribution of COVID-19 Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Vít Pászto, Karel Macků, and Jaroslav Burian

21

The Role of Regional and Local Governance in Dealing with the Socioeconomic Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Olga Glezer, Evgeny Antonov, Sergey Safronov, Alexander Sheludkov, Kirill Strakhov, and Maria Zotova

Part IV 22

Local Governments in Networked Space: Changing Social Media Networks of Local Governments During the Covid-19 Pandemic in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 Eda Ünlü-Yücesoy, Özge Sivrikaya, Görsev Argın, Büşra İnce, and Almıla Akdağ Salah

23

Jalisco versus COVID-19: Local Governance and the Response to Health, Social, and Economic Emergency . . . . . . . 607 Katia Magdalena Lozano-Uvario and Rocio Rosales-Ortega

24

Local Governments and the Meanings of Social Distancing: Implementation Deficiencies in the Times of COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . 631 Paulo Nascimento Neto

25

Small-Scale Farming and Alternative Food Alliances in the Context of COVID-19 Crisis in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Felipe da Silva Machado

26

The South African Local Government and Municipal Planning Responses to COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Verna Nel and Martin Lewis

27

The Impact of COVID-19 on Urban Form and Governance: Early Experiences from the City of Cape Town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Daniël J. du Plessis

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28

Sub-national Political Culture and COVID-19 Pandemic: Governance Response Towards Life and Livelihood Vulnerabilities of Urban Poor in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 Tathagata Chatterji, Souvanic Roy, and Atanu Chatterjee

29

Technological Interventions During the COVID-19 Pandemic in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 Falguni Mukherjee

30

End of the World: New Zealand’s Local Government and COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Jeff McNeill and Andy Asquith

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783

List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2

Fig. 10.1 Fig. 10.2 Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4 Fig. 10.5 Fig. 10.6 Fig. 10.7 Fig. 10.8 Fig. 10.9

Fig. 10.10

Four phases of first six months of COVID-19 timeline: the case of City of York Council. (Source: Cox 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . Map showing metropolises with 300,000 or more inhabitants in 2020. (Source: UN-Habitat 2020a) . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . Map showing countries in where governance arrangements were analysed. (Source: Authors with information of UN-Habitat 2021a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National borders. Le Perthus/Els Límits Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . Lockdown de-escalation phases by province (state of alarm) Source: Authors, based on Spanish Ministry of Health maps . . . Catalan provinces Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . The El Segrià district (the June 2020 outbreak) Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . Catalan health regions Source: Authors, based on Catalan Government maps . . . . . . . . . . . La Conca d’Òdena Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . Metropolitan Barcelona’s healthcare regions Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . Carrer de la Riera Blanca Source: R. Galindo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special measures against COVID-19 in L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (July 2020) Source: Adapted from Civil Protection (Government of Catalonia 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barcelona–L’Hospitalet de Llobregat municipal boundary Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. .

71 90

92 256 258 259 261 262 266 268 269

270 271

xi

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List of Figures

Fig. 10.11

Special measures against COVID-19 in L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (July 2020) in the regional media Source: Adapted from TV3 (July 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Fig. 11.1

The EU Territorial Governance Source: Author’s elaboration based on ESPON (2014) . . . . . . . . . . 281

Fig. 12.1

Number of infected with Covid-19, 22 March 2020 Source: Italian Ministry of Health (map elaboration by Sara Belotti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Fig. 14.1

Total deaths in Italy from February 2020 to March 2021. (Source: Ministero della Salute, 2020–2021) (Ministero della Salute, http://www.salute.gov.it/portale/nuovocoronavirus/ homeNuovoCoronavirus.jsp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of cases of Covid-19 and cumulative infections per 100,000 inhabitants by region/autonomous province. (Source: Istituto Superiore di Sanità) (Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Roma, 31 marzo 2021 https://www.epicentro.iss.it/coronavirus/ bollettino/Bollettino-sorveglianza-integrata-COVID-19_31marzo-2021.pdf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of deaths by region 31 March 2021. (Source: Ministero della Salute, 2021) (Ministero della Salute, http:// www.salute.gov.it/portale/nuovocoronavirus/ homeNuovoCoronavirus.jsp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of countries adopting policies per world region (n ¼ 167). (Source: UNWTO 2020a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig. 14.2

Fig. 14.3

Fig. 14.4 Fig. 15.1

Fig. 15.2 Fig. 15.3

Fig. 15.4

Evolution of COVID-19 cases in Greece from 7 April to 31 December 2020. (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), data on a weekly base, collected from NPHO reports) . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . Milestones and main phases of policy response for combating the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece. (Source: Own elaboration) . . . . Phase I – First coronavirus wave – pattern of weekly laboratory confirmed COVID-19 cases between 2 March and 4 May (Nationwide lockdown between 23 March and 4 May). (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), Report of 28 April 2020 on ‘Plan for the Gradual Easing of COVID-19 Restrictive Measures – A Bridge of Safety toward a New Daily Reality’. Additional data from 20 April to 4 May drawn from NPHO Report of 4 May 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cumulative laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 on 31 December 2020 in the Greek territory. (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), Daily Report on 31 December 2020) . . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .

343

345

346 353

369 369

370

371

List of Figures

Fig. 15.5

Fig. 15.6

Fig. 15.7

Fig. 15.8

Fig. 15.9

Fig. 15.10

Fig. 15.11

Fig. 15.12

Fig. 15.13

Fig. 15.14

xiii

COVID-19 RT-PCR and Rapid AG tests on a weekly basis from 20 February to 31 December 2020, in Greece (‘Date of confirmation’ is the date of test reporting to NPHO). (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), Report of 31 December 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spatiotemporal distribution of COVID-19 in the Greek territory – cumulative laboratory confirmed COVID-19 cases per 100,000 population in distinct time slots. (Source: Reports of the National Public Health Organization (NPHO), https://eody.gov.gr/ epidimiologika-statistika-dedomena/ektheseis-covid-19/) . . . . . . . . Cumulative number of COVID-19 infected population by age group from March to December 2020. (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), data from daily reports at the end of each month) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . – Mortality by age group in the time span from March to December 2020 in Greece – cumulative number of deaths from COVID-19 per age group. (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), data from March to December 2020 from cumulative reports at the end of each month) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trajectory of cumulative laboratory confirmed deaths from COVID-19 in Greece in the time span from March to December 2020. (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), Data from NPHO Report on 31 December 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase I – Outcome of the first lockdown in terms of decrease of daily new cases. (Source: National Public Health Organization (NPHO), Report of 4 May 2020) . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . Regional entity-specific mapping (NUTS 3 level) according to virus load on (a) 9 October and (b) 21 October 2020, demarcating diversified policy handling. (Source: General Secretary of Civil Protection, https://bit.ly/35Cf93M (9 October) and https://bit.ly/3pzXhOD (21 October)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (a) Number of confirmed COVID-19 cases per month (March to December 2020) in Larissa, Trikala and Piraeus urban contexts, (b) Location of selected urban contexts and related population. (Source: (a) COVID-19 data from National Public Health Organization (NPHO), 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Larissa case study – (a) Spatial segregation of population classes – location of Roma population (red circle) and (b) Evolution of COVID-19 confirmed cases in the city of Larissa from March to December 2020. (Source: (a) Maloutas and Somaras 1997; (b) COVID-19 data from National Public Health Organization (NPHO), March to December 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Areas of COVID-19-related policy actions implemented in the city of Larissa. (Source: Own elaboration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

372

373

374

375

376

378

379

384

386 387

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Fig. 15.15

Fig. 15.16 Fig. 15.17

Fig. 15.18 Fig. 18.1

Fig. 18.2

Fig. 18.3

Fig. 18.4

Fig. 19.1

List of Figures

The Trikala case study – (a) Spatial segregation of marginal groups – location of Roma population (red circle) and (b) Evolution of COVID-19 confirmed cases in the city of Trikala from March to December 2020. (Source: (a) Region of Thessaly 2015; (b) COVID-19 data from National Public Health Organization (NPHO), 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Areas of COVID-19-related policy actions implemented in the city of Trikala. (Source: Own elaboration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Piraeus case study – (a) View of the densely urbanized pattern and the Piraeus port, and (b) Evolution of COVID-19 cases in the city of Piraeus from March to December 2020. (Source: (a) www.piraeusport.gr; (b) COVID-19 data from National Public Health Organization (NPHO), from March to December 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Areas of COVID-19-related policy actions implemented in the city of Piraeus. (Source: Own elaboration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decisions on holding elections during the COVID-19 by country Source: International IDEA. https://www.idea.int/newsmedia/multimedia-reports/global-overview-covid-19-impactelections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voter turnout during the COVID-19 pandemic by country Source: International IDEA. https://www.idea.int/newsmedia/multimedia-reports/global-overview-covid-19-impactelections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The course of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland from March to August 2020: number of daily cases Red bars with numbers: important dates from the 2020 presidential election calendar 1. Adoption by the Sejm of an act on postal ballot (6 April) 2. Initial election date (10 May) 3. Announcement of a second election in a traditional form (3 June) 4. First round of the election (28 June) 5. Second round of the election (12 July) 6. President Duda sworn in for his second term of office (6 August) Source: Author’s work based on COVID-19 in Poland database compiled by Michał Rogalski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The course of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland from March 2020 to February 2021: daily number of cases Source: Author’s work based on COVID-19 in Poland database compiled by Michał Rogalski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

390 391

393 394

457

459

461

463

First wave of Covid-19 pandemic in Slovakia: Daily positive cases (March–June 2020) Source: korona.gov.sk . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . 484

List of Figures

Fig. 19.2

Fig. 19.3

Fig. 20.1

Fig. 20.2

Fig. 20.3

Fig. 20.4

Fig. 20.5

Fig. 20.6

Fig. 20.7

Fig. 20.8

Fig. 20.9

xv

Second wave of Covid-19 pandemic in Slovakia: Daily cases/ deaths (until 31 March 2021) Source: korona.gov.sk . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . 485 Monthly personal income tax transfers to sub-national budgets 2008–2020 Source: Financial Administration of the Slovak Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . 492 COVID-19 in Czechia from 1 March to 31 October 2020: (a) number of active cases; (b) number of hospitalised cases Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . MEPs with statistically significant Mann-Kendall test, but Sen’s slope equal to zero (Phase 1) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Prevalence of COVID-19 cases per 100,000 people in MEPs during Phase 1 (1 March–24 May) Source: Authors . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . Bivariate combination of absolute and relative total cases in Czech MEPs during Phase 1 (1 March–24 May) showing the spatial distribution of COVID-19 Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Spatial distribution of the COVID-19 cases trend analysis during Phase 1 (1 March–24 May) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Prevalence of COVID-19 cases per 100,000 people in MEPs during Phase 2 (25 May–31 August) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic, 2021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bivariate combination of absolute and relative total cases in Czech MEPs during Phase 2 (25 May–31 August) showing the spatial distribution of COVID-19 Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Spatial distribution of the COVID-19 cases trend analysis during Phase 2 (25 May–31 August) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Prevalence of COVID-19 cases per 100,000 people in MEPs during Phase 3 (1 September–4 October) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. .

510

514

515

516

517

518

519

520

522

xvi

Fig. 20.10

Fig. 20.11

Fig. 20.12

Fig. 20.13

Fig. 20.14

Fig. 20.15

Fig. 21.1

List of Figures

Bivariate combination of absolute and relative total cases in Czech MEPs during Phase 3 (1 September–4 October) showing the spatial distribution of COVID-19 Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Spatial distribution of the COVID-19 cases trend analysis during Phase 3 (1 September–4 October) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Prevalence of COVID-19 cases per 100,000 people in MEPs during Phase 4 (5–31 October) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Bivariate combination of absolute and relative total cases in Czech MEPs during Phase 4 (5–31 October) showing the spatial distribution of COVID-19 Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . Spatial distribution of the COVID-19 cases trend analysis during Phase 4 (5–31 October) Source: Authors, Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (2021) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . COVID-19 Government Stringency Index in Czechia and neighbouring countries during the observed periods Source: Hale et al. (2021) . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .

524

524

527

528

528

532

Assessment of structure of distribution of tax revenues from various types of economic activity by levels of Russian Federation budgetary system in 2019 (in %) Source: Compiled from Federal Tax Service (FTS) data: https:// www.nalog.ru/rn77/related_activity/statistics_and_analytics/ forms/ (accessed January 15, 2021). Type of economic activity: 1, all economic activities; 2, mining and quarrying; 3, manufacturing; 4, construction; 5, accommodation and food service activities; 6, administrative and support service activities; 7, information and communication; 8, other service activities; 9, water supply; sewerage, waste management, and remediation activities; 10, electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply; 11, professional, scientific, and technical activities; 12, real estate activities; 13, financial and insurance activities; 14, wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; 15, arts, entertainment, and recreation; 16, education; 17, healthcare and social work activities; 18, public administration and defense; compulsory social security .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 554

List of Figures

Fig. 21.2

Fig. 21.3

Fig. 21.4

xvii

Dynamics of tax revenues by type of economic activity for 2020 to the corresponding period of 2019 (in %) Source: Compiled from Federal Tax Service data: https://www. nalog.ru/rn77/related_activity/statistics_and_analytics/forms/ (accessed January 15, 2021). Type of economic activity: 1, all economic activities; 2, tertiary sector; 3, administrative and support service activities; 4, wholesale trade; 5, retail trade; 6, public administration and defense; compulsory social security; 7, information and communication; 8, water supply; sewerage, waste management, and remediation activities; 9, professional, scientific, and technical activities; 10, manufacturing; 11, healthcare and social work activities; 12, education; 13, construction; 14, electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply; 15, other service activities; 16, agriculture, forestry and fishing; 17, financial and insurance activities; 18, arts, entertainment, and recreation; 19, real estate activities; 20, transportation and storage; 21, accommodation and food service activities; 22, other economic activities; 23, mining and quarrying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Dynamics of number of man-hours worked by employees of medium and large enterprises and organizations in 2020 to corresponding period of 2019 (in %) Source: Compiled from EMISS: https://www.fedstat.ru/ indicator/57851 (accessed January 15, 2021). Type of economic activity: 1, all economic activities; 2, information and communication; 3, administrative and support service activities; 4, professional, scientific, and technical activities; 5, public administration and defense; compulsory social security; 6, wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; 7, water supply; sewerage, waste management, and remediation activities; 8, mining and quarrying; 9, financial and insurance activities; 10, electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply; 11, real estate activities; 12, agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 13, construction; 14, healthcare and social work activities; 15, transportation and storage; 16, arts, entertainment, and recreation; 17, education; 18, manufacturing; 19, other service activities; 20, accommodation and food service activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Types of Russian regions by ratio of share of tertiary sector in tax revenues in 2019 and dynamics of tax revenues in second quarter of 2020 to the corresponding period of 2019 Source: Compiled from Federal Tax Service data: https://www. nalog.ru/rn77/related_activity/statistics_and_analytics/forms/ (accessed January 15, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

xviii

Fig. 21.5

Fig. 21.6

Fig. 21.7

Fig. 21.8

Fig. 21.9

Fig. 21.10

Fig. 21.11

List of Figures

(a) Dynamics of number of SMEs (y-axis, %) as function of share of number of SMEs belonging to tertiary sector (x-axis, %), by regions. (b) Dynamics of number of subjects and people employed in SMEs, January 10, 2021, compared to January 10, 2020 (%, number of regions) Source: Compiled from FTS SME registry, https://rmsp.nalog.ru (accessed January 17, 2021). 1, legal entities; 2, sole proprietorships; 3, legal entities’ employees; 4, sole proprietorships’ employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sectoral dynamics in the labor market of Russia in the first–third quarters (Q1, Q2, Q3) of 2020 to corresponding period of 2019 Source: Rosstat data: https://www.fedstat.ru/indicator/57851 . . . Differences between the expected (IELMD, open circles) and observed (closed circles) labor market dynamics by Russian regions in the second (Q2) and third (Q3) quarters of 2020 Note: Obl. stands for oblast; R. is republic/republic of; AO is autonomous okrug; A. Obl. is autonomous oblast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drop-in hours worked in Russian regions under the pandemic crises in the second quarter (Q2) of 2020 compared to the corresponding period of 2019, depending on the level of sectoral diversification of labor market Note: Sectoral diversification estimate is based on Herfindahl– Hirschman index (HHI) for the sectoral structure of hours worked at end of the second quarter of 2019. In accordance with the obtained HHI values, the regions were divided into four equal groups. Within the groups, the observations were weighted by absolute values of hours worked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship between severity of restrictive measures (measured by purchasing activity) and deviation of the observed changes in hours worked in hotel business and food enterprises in Russian regions from national average in the second quarter of 2020 Note: Trend line is weighted by absolute values of hours worked. Obl. stands for oblast; R. is republic of .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . Total mortality in St. Petersburg for calendar year (2011–2020), people Source: Rosstat: https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/ rKYssRaN/edn01-2021.htm (accessed April 18, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . Dynamics of COVID-19 crisis in St. Petersburg in 2020 (values of indicators for April 2020 are taken as reference values equal to 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

558

561

563

564

566

569

571

List of Figures

Fig. 21.12

Fig. 21.13

Fig. 21.14

Fig. 21.15

Fig. 21.16

Fig. 22.1

xix

Dynamics of individual economic indicators in St. Petersburg since the beginning of 2020 (monthly, in %, vs. corresponding month of 2019) Source: Unemployment according to Rosstat data (Socioeconomic situation in St. Petersburg in January– December 2020. SPb.: Petrostat, 2021. https://petrostat.gks.ru/ storage/mediabank/JXDSgd8p/11001021_122020_SPB.pdf (accessed April 20, 2021).); receipt of revenues and profit taxes on organizations and income of individuals according to FTS data (Calculated by author as ratio of monthly data on tax receipts in St. Petersburg for January–December 2020 to similar data for corresponding months of 2019 (cumulative total) according to reports on accrual and receipt of taxes, fees, insurance premiums, and other mandatory payments to Russian Federation budget system. https://www.nalog.ru/rn78/ related_activities/statistics_and_analytics/forms/ (accessed April 20, 2021).) . . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . Dynamics of changes in approved expenditures of St. Petersburg at end of 2019, during 2020, and according to plan for 2021 (RUB bln) Source: Federal Treasury data: https://roskazna.gov.ru/ ispolnenie-byudzhetov/konsolidirovannyj-byudzhet (accessed April 20, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamics of execution of expenditures in St. Petersburg in 2020 (%, to the corresponding month of 2019) Source: Federal Treasury data: https://roskazna.gov.ru/ ispolnenie-byudzhetov/konsolidirovannyj-byudzhet (accessed April 20, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamics of changes in approved expenditures of local budgets of St. Petersburg intracity municipalities at end of 2019, during 2020, and according to plan for 2021 (RUB bln) Source: Federal Treasury data: https://roskazna.gov.ru/ ispolnenie-byudzhetov/konsolidirovannyj-byudzhet (accessed April 20, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamics of execution of aggregate local budget of St. Petersburg municipalities in 2020 (in %, compared to the corresponding month of 2019) Source: Federal Treasury data: https://roskazna.gov.ru/ ispolnenie-byudzhetov/konsolidirovannyj-byudzhet (accessed April 20, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

572

574

575

577

578

Geographical position of the Marmara Region and borders of the provinces and districts within the region. (Source: The maps are developed by the authors) . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . 594

xx

Fig. 22.2

Fig. 22.3

Fig. 23.1

Fig. 23.2

Fig. 23.3

Fig. 23.4

Fig. 24.1 Fig. 24.2

Fig. 24.3

Fig. 24.4

Fig. 27.1

Fig. 27.2

Fig. 27.3 Fig. 27.4 Fig. 27.5

List of Figures

An overall view of Twitter networks of municipalities between 1–31 December 2019 (left) and 15 March–15 April 2020 (right). (Source: The map is developed by the authors using Graph Commons) . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. An overall view of Twitter networks, retweet and quote networks of Bilecik Municipality between 1–31 December 2019 (left) and 15 March–15 April 2020 (right). (Source: The map is developed by the authors using Graph Commons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Members of the Specialized Health Panel (MES). (Source: Elaborated by the authors based on Gobierno del Estado de Jalisco 2020m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total number of patients in hospitals in Jalisco with COVID-19 symptoms, positivity rates, and emergency button (EB) periods, March 2020–March 2021. (Source: Elaborated by the authors based on Gobierno del Estado de Jalisco 2020c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of confirmed daily and accumulated cases in Jalisco, April 18, 2020 to March 31, 2021. (Source: Elaborated by the authors based on data from Gobierno del Estado de Jalisco 2020d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of accumulated deaths due to COVID-19 by month, nationally and in Jalisco, to March 2021. (Source: Elaborated by the authors based on data from CONACYT et al. 2021) .. . . . . . . . Geographical position of Curitiba in national, state and metropolitan regions. (Source: author) . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . Brazilian municipalities according to correlation between GDP and population size. (Source: author, based on demographic census data (IBGE 2010) and data on COVID-19 in Brazil (Brasil.io 2020)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Severity of social distancing measures, numbers of new cases and COVID-19 occupancy of ICU beds. (Source: author, based on own data (index) and data from Curitiba (2020a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . Severity of social distancing measures, number of new cases and COVID-19 occupancy of ICU beds  election period. (Source: author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the extent and stringency of government responses – South Africa and global mean. (Source: Based on data from BSG 2020b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stringency of South African government’s response and number of daily cases. (Source: Based on data from: (a) BSG 2020b, (b) DST 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COVID-19 vulnerability index. (Source: CSIR 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . Number of property registrations in Cape Town (2011–2020). (Source: Based on data from Lightstone Property 2021) . . . . . . . . . Total value (R ‘000000) of property transactions in Cape Town (2011–2020). (Source: Based on data from Lightstone property 2021) . . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .

598

601

611

615

617

618 638

639

644

647

698

699 700 702

702

List of Figures

Fig. 27.6 Fig. 27.7 Fig. 28.1 Fig. 28.2

Fig. 28.3

Fig. 28.4

xxi

Office vacancy rates (2019Q1 to 2020Q4). (Source: Rode & Associates 2021) . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . 704 Cape Town Municipal income (R ‘000) from property rates and services charges. (Source: Quantec 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Number of confirmed cases in India. (Source: WHO COVID-19 Dashboard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monthly unemployment rate (in percentage). (Source: Prepared by the authors based on publicly available data sourced from the CMIE 2021) . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . Total number of confirmed cases in Kerala and Odisha between Mar 2020 and Apr 2021. (Source: Prepared by authors based on publicly available data sourced from CovidIndia.org) .. . . .. . . . .. . Number of people vaccinated in Kerala and Odisha. (Source: Prepared by authors based on publicly available data sourced from CovidIndia.org) .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .

716

718

720

721

Fig. 29.1

COVID GIS portal. (Source: The National Disaster Management Authority COVID dashboard (public domain)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743

Fig. 30.1

Case study council locations. Map shows territorial authorities and district health boards and the number of patients treated for COVID-19 during initial lockdown period (March 2020). (Cartography: John Lowry, Massey University. (Data: Ministry of Health 2020a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 3.1

Measures adopted for the transformation and promotion of sustainable transport in the context of COVID-19 pandemic . . . Unconventional functions granted to urban facilities . . .. .. . .. . .. Informal settlements intervened to reinforce the capacity of response to the pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scheme and composition of the new multilevel governance models . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . Technological designs to mitigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Tier 2 requirements concerning San Francisco County, November 2020 .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. .

38 39 40 44 50 68

Table 5.1 Table 5.2

COVID-19 cases in Lesotho .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. 117 COVID-19 responses in Lesotho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Table 7.1

Overview about the Main Federal and Selected State and Municipal Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany from March 2020 to March 2021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Table 8.1 Table 8.2

Local Government . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. Number of municipalities according to the level of risk in mainland Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures adopted by Central Government on 20.11.2020 according to the level of risk (based on number of cases by 100,000 inhabitants) .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. New package of measures for the control of the COVID-19 pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cumulative value of the measures adopted by Central Government to support the economy and employment, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, between 4 March 2020 and 10 December 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 8.3

Table 8.4 Table 8.5

180 182

196 196

198

xxiii

xxiv

Table 8.6 Table 8.7 Table 8.8 Table 8.9 Table 8.10 Table 8.11 Table 11.1 Table 11.2

List of Tables

The structure of the municipal ‘Economic and Social Support Plan—Lisboa Protege’ (Lisbon Protects) . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . The ‘Economic and Social Support Plan—Lisboa Protege’ (Lisbon protects): Social organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ‘Economic and Social Support Plan—Lisboa Protege’ (Lisbon Protects): Clubs and Community Organizations . . . . . . . The ‘Economic and Social Support Plan—Lisboa Protege’ (Lisbon protects): Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ‘Economic and Social Support Plan—Lisboa Protege’ (Lisbon Protects): Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ‘Economic and Social Support Plan—Lisboa Protege’ (Lisbon protects): Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .