Liturgy and Devotion in the Crusader States [1 ed.] 0367030497, 9780367030490

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LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES Edited by Iris Shagrir and Cecilia Gaposchkin

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LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES Edited by Iris Shagrir and Cecilia Gaposchkin

Liturgy and Devotion in the Crusader States

Examining liturgy as historical evidence has, in recent years, developed into a flourish­ ing field of research. The chapters in this volume offer innovative discussion of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem from the perspective of 'liturgy in history'. They demonstrate how the total liturgical experience, which was visual, emotional, motile, olfactory, and aural, can be analysed to understand the messages that liturgy was intended to convey. The chapters reveal how combining narrative sources with liturgical documents can help decode polit­ ical circumstances and inter-group relations and decipher the core ideals of the commu­ nity of Outremer. Moreover, understanding the Latins' liturgical activities in the Holy Land has much to contribute to our understanding of the crusade as an institution, how crusade spirituality was practised on the ground in the Latin East, and how people engaged with the crusading movement. This volume brings together eight original studies, forwarded by the editors' introduc­ tion, on the liturgy of Jerusalem, spanning the immediate pre-Crusade and Crusade period (11th-13th centuries). It demonstrates the richness of a focus on the liturgy in illuminat­ ing the social, religious, and intellectual history of this critical period of ecclesiastical self­ assertion as well as conceptions of the sacred in this time and place. This book was originally published as a special issue of the Journal of Medieval History. Iris Shagrir is Associate Professor of History and Chair of the Department of History, Phi­ losophy and Judaic Studies at The Open University of Israel, Ra'anana, Israel. She special­ ises in crusade history, religious and cultural history of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, pilgrimage, liturgy in the Latin East, and medieval anthroponymy. Her work includes The Crusades: History and Historiography (2014), The Parable of the Three Rings and the Idea of Religious Toleration in Premodern European Culture (2017), and Communicating the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of Sophia Menache (co-editor, 2018). Cecilia Gaposchkin is Professor of History and Assistant Dean of Faculty for Pre-Major Advising at Dartmouth College, Hanover, USA. She is the author of The Making of Saint Louis: Kingship, Sanctity and Crusade in the Later Middle Ages (2008); Blessed Louis, the Most Glorious ofKings: Texts Relating to the Cult of Saint Louis ofFrance (2012); The Sanctity of Louis IX: Early Lives of Saint Louis by Geoffrey of Beaulieu and William of Chartres (with Sean Field and Larry Field, 2014); and Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (2017).

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Liturgy and Devotion in the Crusader States

Edited by Iris Shagrir and Cecilia Gaposchkin

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First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN, UK and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Chapters 1-4, 6-9 © 2019 Taylor & Francis Chapter 5 © 2017 Daniel Galadza. Originally published as Open Access. With the exception of Chapter 5, no part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. For details on the rights for Chapter 5, please see the chapter's Open Access footnote. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN13: 978-0-367-03049-0 Typeset in Minion Pro by codeMantra Publisher's Note The publisher accepts responsibility for any inconsistencies that may have arisen during the conversion of this book from journal articles to book chapters, namely the possible inclusion of journal terminology. Disclaimer Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders for their permission to reprint material in this book. The publishers would be grateful to hear from any copyright holder who is not here acknowledged and will undertake to rectify any errors or omissions in future editions of this book.

Contents

Citation Information Notes on Contributors

vi viii

Liturgy and devotion in the crusader states: introduction Iris Shagrir and Cecilia Gaposchkin 2

The regular canons and the liturgy of the Latin East Wolf Zoller

3

The Zibelli of Lucca, Biblioteca Arcivescovile, MS 5: liturgy from the siege of Acre? CaraAspesi

24

Rewriting the Latin liturgy of the Holy Sepulchre: text, ritual and devotion for 1149 Sebastian Salvad6

43

Greek liturgy in crusader Jerusalem: witnesses of liturgical life at the Holy Sepulchre and St Sabas Lavra Daniel Galadza

61

Greek Orthodox monasteries in the Holy Land and their liturgies in the period of the crusades Andrew Jotischky

78

4

5

6

8

7

Processing together, celebrating apart: shared processions in the Latin East Christopher MacEvitt

8

Holy Fire and sacral kingship in post-conquest Jerusalem Jay Rubenstein

9

Royal inauguration and liturgical culture in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099-1187 Simon John

125

Index

145 V

95 110

Citation Information

The chapters in this book were originally published in the Journal of Medieval History, vol­ ume 43, issue 4 (September 2017). When citing this material, please use the original page numbering for each article, as follows:

Chapter I Liturgy and devotion in the crusader states: introduction Iris Shagrir and Cecilia Gaposchkin Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 359-3 66

Chapter2 The regular canons and the liturgy of the Latin East Wolf Zoller Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 3 67-383

Chapter 3 The libelli of Lucca, BibliotecaArcivescovile, MS 5: liturgy from the siege ofAcre? Cara Aspesi Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 384-402

Chapter4 Rewriting the Latin liturgy ofthe Holy Sepulchre: text, ritual and devotion for 1149 Sebastian Salvad6 Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 403-420

Chapter 5 Greek liturgy in crusader Jerusalem: witnesses of liturgical life at the Holy Sepulchre and St Sabas Lavra Daniel Galadza Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 421-437

Chapter6 Greek Orthodox monasteries in the Holy Land and their liturgies in the period of the crusades Andrew Jotischky Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 438-454

vi

CITATION INFORMATION

Chapter 7 Processing together, celebrating apart: shared processions in the Latin East Christopher MacEvitt Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 455-469

Chapters Holy Fire and sacral kingship in post-conquest Jerusalem Jay Rubenstein Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 470-484

Chapter9

Royal inauguration and liturgical culture in the Latin kingdom ofJerusalem, 1099-1187 Simon John Journal of Medieval History, volume 43, issue 4 (September 2017) pp. 485-504

For any permission-related enquiries please visit: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/help/permissions

vii

Notes on Contributors

Cara Aspesi completed her doctorate in Liturgical Studies in the Department of Theology at the University of Notre Dame, USA in 2017. Her dissertation, written under the direc­ tion of Margot Fassler, is entitled, 'The Breviary of Lucca, Biblioteca Arcivescovile MS 5: The Use of the Cathedral of Tyre', which she is currently revising for publication. Daniel Galadza is Lecturer at the Sheptytsky Institute of Eastern Christian Studies in the University of Toronto, as well as International Research Partner in the Division of Byzantine Research at the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria. Cecilia Gaposchkin is Professor of History and Assistant Dean of Faculty for Pre-Major Advising at Dartmouth College, Hanover, USA. She is the author of The Making of Saint Louis: Kingship, Sanctity and Crusade in the Later MiddleAges (2008); Blessed Louis, the Most Glorious of Kings: Texts Relating to the Cult of Saint Louis ofFrance (2012); The Sanc­ tity of Louis IX: Early Lives of Saint Louis by Geoffrey of Beaulieu and William of Chartres (with Sean Field and Larry Field, 2014); and Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (2017). Simon John is Lecturer in Medieval History at Swansea University, UK. His interests include medieval political thought on kingship and the sociocultural impact of the crusades in Latin Christendom. He has published articles on aspects of his research in journals in­ cluding The English Historical Review and The Journal ofEcclesiastical History. He is the author of the monograph Godfrey of Bouillon: Duke of Lower Lotharingia, Ruler of Latin Jerusalem, c. 1060-1100 (Routledge, 2018). Andrew Jotischky is Professor of Medieval History at Royal Holloway, University of London, UK. He has published articles on Greek Orthodox monasticism in the crusader states and Latin-Orthodox relations. His books include The Carmelites andAntiquity: Mendicants and Their Pasts in the MiddleAges (2002), Crusading and the Crusader States (2004, new edition 2017), and Latin and Greek Orthodox Monasticism in the Crusader States (co­ authored with Bernard Hamilton, 2019). Christopher MacEvitt is Associate Professor of Religion at Dartmouth College, Hanover, USA. His book, The Crusades and Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (2008), examines the relationship between the Frankish settlers in the Levant and indigenous Christians in the 12th century, and he is currently completing a book on Franciscan martyrs in Islamic lands.

viii

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Jay Rubenstein is the Alvin and Sally Beaman Professor of History, Chancellor's Professor, and the Riggsby Director of the Marco Institute for Medieval and Renaissance Studies at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA. He has published extensively on monastic intellectual history and on the history of the First Crusade, including the forthcoming

Nebuchadnezzar's Dream: The Crusades, Apocalyptic Prophecy, and the End of History (Oxford University Press, 2019).

Sebastian Salvad6 received his PhD from Stanford University, USA in 2011. He is currently an Independent Researcher based in Rome, Italy. His research interests include the art and liturgy of the Knights Templar, the liturgy and chant of Aragon-Catalonia, and the liturgy of post-Norman Conquest England. Iris Shagrir is Associate Professor of History and Chair of the Department of History, Phi­ losophy and Judaic Studies at The Open University oflsrael, Ra'anana, Israel. She special­ ises in crusade history, religious and cultural history of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, pilgrimage, liturgy in the Latin East, and medieval anthroponymy. Her work includes The Crusades: History and Historiography (2014), The Parable of the Three Rings and the Idea of Religious Toleration in Premodern European Culture (2017), and Communicating the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of Sophia Menache (co-editor, 2018). Wolf Zoller is a Postdoctoral Researcher at Heidelberg University, Germany, currently working on papal inscriptions of the early and central Middle Ages. He received his PhD in History from Heidelberg University, Germany in September 2016. His dissertation on the regular canons of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem is forthcoming in print as:

Regularkanoniker im Heiligen Land. Studien zur Kirchen-, Ordens- und Frommigkeits­ geschichte der Kreuzfahrerstaaten [Vita regularis vol. 73].

ix

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Liturgy and devotion in the crusader states: introduction Iris Shagrir and Cecilia Gaposchkin

ABSTRACT

This special issue contains eight essays on the liturgy celebrated in the Latin East in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The papers as a whole demonstrate how the study of the liturgy can open up the religious and cultural history of the crusades and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, reveal crusade spirituality and practice, and trace how the Latins of Outremer expressed through their liturgy their historical consciousness and awareness of contemporary realities.

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We will go into his tabernacle: We will adore in the place where his feet stood. (Psalm 131:7) Douay-Rheims Bible

In recent years historians, historically minded liturgists and musicologists have turned their attention to the dynamic functions of the liturgy in the religious and devotional life of Outremer. This is part of a larger trend in the study of medieval history that takes seriously the liturgy as a rich source for the cultural, social and intellectual interplay of ideas, con­ cepts and practices. The collection of texts, music, ritual action and theology that make up the liturgy constitutes a central feature of medieval religious culture, as well as a prism for assessing its cultural creativity. Liturgy's potency as a mechanism of individual and collec­ tive communication with God makes its content and its use worthy of examination. Yet for the most part, owing in large part to its highly technical formation and transmission, his­ torians have shied away from the liturgy. That said, in addition to its obvious musical, poetic, dramatic, theatrical and devotional significance, the liturgy, particularly at times of change, expressed a community's core ideals, its construction of sacred and lay memory, the way in which it defined identity and community, and the manner in which it structured regional history. Recent historical studies have shown how the liturgy has been used to construct and sanctify a vision of the past through the valorisation of saintly kings, particular saints and chosen events. 1 When read carefully in context,

1

Recent examples include Louis I. Hamilton, A Sacred City: Consecrating Churches and Reforming Society in Eleventh­ Century Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010); Margot Fassler, The Virgin of Chartres: Making History through Liturgy and the Arts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010); Helen Gittos and Sarah Hamilton, eds., Understanding Medieval Liturgy: Essays in Interpretation (Burlington: Ashgate, 2016); Eyal Poleg, Approaching the Bible in Medieval England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013); John F. Romano, Liturgy and Society

LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES

liturgy may also reflect power structures and struggles, as these may be contingent upon specific circumstances. Liturgy may thus be regarded as what Nathan Mitchell termed 'creative bricolage', 2 apparently uniform, but in fact packed with attributes that make it a true cultural product expressing a community's critical concerns. In the centuries preceding the First Crusade, Western Christendom increasingly defined itself as gens Latina, a characterisation that drew on the language of medieval Western liturgy. In this sense, the Latinity of the liturgy was an important component of Western European self-perception in the Middle Ages. Moreover, the imposition of the Latin liturgy was one of the major outcomes and markers of the European expansion in the medieval period. As such, Latin liturgy had an important role to play especially in areas of conquest and colonisation. It can tell us, subtly or explicitly, a great deal about relations between religious groups, and it can demarcate socio-cultural cohesion or division. All of this is especially true in Jerusalem, following the crusaders' conquest of the city on 15 July 1099. The goal was to retake the Holy City from Islamic dominion for the proper worship at its holy sites. The first thing the crusaders did upon assuming control of the city was to celebrate the Easter liturgy in the Holy Sepulchre. That act of liturgical piety, by commemorating Christ's triumph over death at the very site of his burial and Resurrec­ tion, affirmed the crusaders' own triumph over Muslims in Jerusalem as part of divine history. The liturgy was thus a potent conveyor of meaning, since in this sacralised medium the community defined itself and its purpose in history, both against other exist­ ing communities and with a view to the salvific value of the city. From this pivotal moment on - as the studies in this volume establish - the liturgy that evolved through adherence to tradition but also through ingenuity and innovation continued to reflect the ideals and preoccupations of the Latin settlers in the East. Following the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and to a certain extent the other Latin principalities, the Frankish authorities sought to install the Latin rite in the churches and chapels that covered the ancient territories. 3 For instance, Latin canons were immediately installed at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other main churches of the patriarchate of Jerusalem, and the Greek clergy consequently lost their primacy at the holy sites where they had celebrated their liturgy for centuries. Liturgical manuscripts were pro­ duced to uphold the Latin rite, apparently drawing on books brought from Europe,4 although, as several essays in this special issue demonstrate, the local clergy did not merely copy but rather confected new forms for their new purposes out of existing tra­ ditions. The dynamic applications and adaptations of the liturgy are crucial to the religious and devotional history of the Latin East. And yet, in spite of the arrival of the Latin clergy, local Christians continued to worship alongside their Western brethren and the liturgy in Medieval Rome (Farnham: Ashgate, 2014); Susan Boynton, Shaping a Monastic Identity: Liturgy and History at the Imperial Abbey of Far/a, 1000-1125 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006); Yitzhak Hen, 'Key Themes in the Study of Early Medieval Liturgy', in T&T Clark Companion to Liturgy, ed. Alcuin Reid (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 73-92; Y ossi Maurey, Medieval Music, Legend, and the Cult of St Martin: the Local Foundations of a Universal Saint (Cam­ bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014). 2 Nathan Mitchell, 'New Directions in Ritual Research', in Foundations in Ritual Studies: a Reader for Students of Chris­ tian Worship, eds. Paul F. Bradshaw and John Allyn Melloh (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2007), 129. 3 Mostly because of the lack of manuscript evidence, we know extremely little about the liturgy of the Kingdom of Jerusalem outside Jerusalem itself. 4 Cristina Dondi, The Liturgy of the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre ofJerusalem: a Study and a Catalogue of the Manuscript Sources (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004).

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IRIS SHAGRIR AND CECILIA GAPOSCHKIN

continued to be performed before a composite audience. That the Latin clergy were aware of, perhaps even sensitive to, local traditions is exemplified, prominently but not exclu­ sively, in their embracing of the Holy Fire ceremony. This continuity, and the effect of the Latin occupation on existing Christian communities and practices, is a critical part of this story. 5

Liturgy and history Liturgy and its study have a long and venerable history. Often taken on its own terms, liturgists have traditionally been interested in tracing the formation of the canon, particu­ larly of the Roman rite. Where the study of liturgy has intersected with the history of music, musicologists have examined the contexts and localities of important developments that occurred in the liturgical sphere, which was often historically contingent. In general, the field of medieval history, though often benefiting from the work of liturgists and musi­ cologists, has only recently come alive to the possibility of incorporating liturgy and its sources into its broader narrative. 6 Liturgy itself, of course, has its own history. But in addition to studying the history of liturgy per se, historians are increasingly examining the role of liturgy in history. Despite its ostensibly conservative nature, liturgy, particularly in the medieval world, was a dynamic and evolving sphere of expression. Baumstark noted a century ago that in broad terms liturgy evolved with society, responding to devotional and religious develop­ ments. It could also, as will be apparent from several essays in this special issue, respond to political and military developments. And liturgy opens up a window onto local affairs. Even in the face of frequent attempts at standardisation, liturgy was irrepressibly local, with developments often reflecting quintessentially local events, desires and ideas. Thus the careful examination of the manuscript record in relationship to locality and context has proved in recent years a highly fruitful avenue for research on medieval history. With the narratives of such giants as Baumstark, Martimort, Van Dijk, Andrieu, Vogel and others in hand, historians have gauged the ways in which liturgy responded to, and expressed, times of crisis, change, celebration and historical moment. 7 Sometimes this feature seems hidden, since innovation often tended to occur 5

Johannes Pahlitzsch, Graeci und Suriani im Palastina der Kreuzfahrerzeit. Beitriige und Quellen zur Geschichte des griechisch-orthodoxen Patriarchats van Jerusalem. Berliner Historische Studien 33 (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2001); Christopher MacEvitt, Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (Philadelphia: Univer­ sity of Pennsylvania Press, 2008). 6 e.g. Iris Shagrir, 'The Visitatio sepulchri at the Latin Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem', Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean 22 (2010): 57-77; eadem, 'Adventus in Jerusalem: the Celebration of Palm Sunday in Twelfth-Century Jerusalem', Journal of Medieval History 41 (2015): 1-21; M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2017). 7 Anton Baumstark, On the Historical Development of the Liturgy, trans. Fritz West (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2011), German original from 1922; Michel Andrieu, ed., Le pontifical romain au moyen-age, vol. I , Le pontifical romain du XIIe siecle (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1938); idem, ed., Le pontifical romain au moyen­ age, vol. 2, Le pontifical de la curie romaine au XIIIe siec/e (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1940); idem, ed., Le pontifical romain au moyen-age, vol. 3, Le pontifical de Guillaume Durand (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1940); Stephen Joseph Peter Van Dij k and Joan Hazelden Walker, The Origins of the Modern Roman Liturgy: the Liturgy of the Papal Court and the Franciscan Order in the Thirteenth Century (Westminster, Md.: Newman Press, 1960); Stephen Joseph Peter Van Dij k, Sources of the Modern Roman Liturgy: the Ordinals by Haymo of Faversham and Related Documents (1243-1307). Studia et documenta Franciscana 1-2 (Leiden: Brill, 1963); Cyrille Vogel and Reinhard Elze, eds., Le pontifical romano-germanique du dixieme siec/e. Studi e testi 226-7. 2 vols. (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1963); Cyrille Vogel, Medieval Liturgy: an Introduction to the Sources, trans. William G. Storey, Niels Krogh Rasmussen, O.P., and John K. Brooks-Leonard. NPM studies in

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LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES

through the purposeful reuse - or redeployment - of earlier forms. But at other times - as for instance upon the canonisation of a saint, when a new liturgical feast was established a liturgy could be written from scratch. In both cases, liturgy was a potent form of cultural expression, one that carried enormous potential for the study of intellectual, cultural and devotional history, since its crystalline language constituted, for all intents and purposes, speech with God. Through liturgy, we can thus analyse an ongoing - sometimes local, sometimes universal, sometimes contextual, sometimes eternal - conversation between human civilisation ( or a particular society) with its Creator. The study of this conversation at specific historical moments constitutes the study of liturgy in history. The liturgy of the Latin East in crusade history

The study of the Latin East in particular has long awaited the incorporation of liturgy, and the potential of this approach for grasping issues of religious and devotional history is enormous. This collection of essays proposes to do exactly that. It aims to study the liturgy in the crusader kingdoms of the Latin East by mining the evidence for data on what liturgy was used, how and when it was used, altered or manipulated, and what meaning it drew from the locale in which it was performed. The historiography of the crusades and the Latin East is a very old one, dating back to very shortly after the events themselves. 8 As a scholarly field, it has been quite conserva­ tive. Scholarship on the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, especially during the years of Frank­ ish rule over the city ( 1099- 1 187; 1229-44), has been driven largely by social, legal, political and archaeological questions. A comprehensive cultural history still remains a desideratum. And oddly, given the fact that the crusades are now accepted as having been a (sincerely, if not exclusively) religious enterprise, the religious and devotional life of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and the other crusader states has been largely left aside. In 1980 Bernard Hamilton commented that the history of the Latin East had not attracted ecclesiastical historians. His pioneering work The Latin Church in the Crusader States demonstrated definitively the importance of the secular church, the clergy and their fashioning of religious life, to the wider history of both Outremer and the crusades. 9 And Amnon Linder has laid the foundation for the use of liturgy in the study of the crusading movement in his pioneering work on the liturgy to retake Jerusalem that coalesced in the years following Hattin. 1 0 Yet, aspects of devotion, religious practice and spirituality issues that have become so central to scholarship on the motivation and meanings of the First and later crusades - have rarely been studied for the history of the Frankish societies themselves. This is remarkable given the religious importance of the city of Jer­ usalem itself as the place where King David ruled and Jesus walked, as the gateway to the Heavenly Jerusalem, and the prophesised site of the Second Coming. If ever there were a church music and liturgy (Washington, D.C.: Pastoral Press, 1986); Aime Georges Martimort and others, The Church at Prayer: an Introduction to the Liturgy. 4 vols. (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1985-8). For review, see Giles Constable, 'The Historiography of the Crusades', in The Crusadesfrom the Perspective of Byzan­ tium and the Muslim World, eds. Angeliki Laiou and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 200 l); Christopher Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011); Iris Shagrir, The Crusades: History and Historiography (Raanana: The Open University of Israel, 2014), in Hebrew. 9 Bernard Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States: The Secular Church (London: Variorurn, 1980). 10 See in addition to many articles, Amnon Linder, Raising Arms: Liturgy in the Struggle to Liberate Jerusalem in the Late Middle Ages. Cultural Encounters in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages 2 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003). 8

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IRIS SHAGRIR AND CECILIA GAPOSCHKIN

'place' that was inherently inscribed with religious meaning, it is Jerusalem. And if ever there were a form that could tell us how inhabitants perceived and experienced that place, it is liturgy, because liturgy attests to both what people thought (the texts), and how they experienced important aspects of devotional life (the rituals). 1 1 And since reli­ gion is never experienced in a vacuum but always in relation to social and political con­ texts, the liturgy can also be regarded as a bridge between devotional ideas and social and political realities. And so this special issue considers how the Franks, once they found themselves living in Jerusalem, worshipped in Jerusalem; and how Greek Orthodox, Syrian and Armenian devotion responded to and continued to be practised under Latin rule. At the heart of the investigation of the liturgy of the Holy Land as a dynamic feature of religious and cultural history are narratives in which these rituals are described, such as the Appendix liturgica attached to John of Wiirzburg's pilgrimage account, 1 2 and, more important, the manuscripts in which the rites and rituals are preserved. For the Latin liturgy that followed the rite of the Holy Sepulchre - probably in most secular churches in the Latin Kingdom and elsewhere in the Latin states - we are fortunate to have Cristina Dondi's introduction to the 18 surviving manuscripts that preserve the Holy Sepulchre rite. 1 3 Seven liturgical manuscripts from twelfth-century Jerusalem have been identified as having been written in the Latin East. These are: the sacramentary, Rome, Biblioteca Angelica, MS 477; and Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, MS McClean 49 (these two manuscripts are complementary sections of what was originally one sacramentary, prob­ ably the earliest extant manuscript from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre); a further sacramentary, Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France, MS lat. 12056, a copy of the Angel­ ica-McClean sacramentary; a psalter, London, British Library, MS Egerton 1139, famously known as the Psalter of Queen Melisende (d. 1 16 1); an ordinal, Rome, Biblioteca Aposto­ lica Vaticana, MS Barberini lat. 659, for Templar use, based on the use of the Holy Sepulchre; a missal, Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI. G. 1 1; and lastly, a breviary, Lucca, Biblioteca Arcivescovile, MS 5. To these seven manuscripts should be added Bar­ letta, Archivio della Chiesa del Santo Sepolcro, an unnumbered manuscript that is var­ iously described as a 'breviary', 'ritual' or 'ordinal', and is a composite manuscript dating to the first quarter of the thirteenth century, probably produced for a group of canons of the Holy Sepulchre in southern Italy. This manuscript, however, singularly rep­ resents the liturgy celebrated at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the twelfth century, with later additions. The liturgy of Jerusalem represented in these (and other liturgical manuscripts from the Holy Land and Cyprus) was above all Western Latin in character, initially composed from Western sources available to the Jerusalem clergy in the early years following the conquest. But the Latin liturgy from the West (mostly from France) was not simply imported and recycled, but, arguably and over time, curated to its new place, celebrants and audience. Gradually the liturgy of the Holy Sepulchre was shaped to express ideas of triumph, 1 1 The study of how people experienced the liturgy is now a thriving one. See for example Eric Palazzo, 'Art, Liturgy and the Five Senses in the Early Middle Ages', Viator 41 (201 0): 25-56; Bissera Pentcheva, Hagia Sophia: Sound, Space, and Spirit in Byzantium (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2017). 12 John of Wiirzburg, 'Peregrinatio', in Peregrinationes Tres: Saewulf, John of Wiirzburg, Theodericus, ed. Robert Huygens. Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis 139 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1994), 1 39-40. 13 Dondi, Liturgy of the Canons Regular. Dondi's work follows the earlier investigation by Hugo Buchthal, Miniature Painting in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957).

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LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES

thanksgiving and liberation of the Holy City, as well as a central devotional theme of Christ's Resurrection that resonated throughout much of the yearly cycle in an unprece­ dented way. The liturgical texts of the Holy Sepulchre reveal a consciousness of their own continuity and novelty, and insist on indicating instances where older ritual practices had been changed. This historical consciousness is coupled with an awareness of contemporary realities, expressed through the accommodation of pilgrims and ideas of pilgrimage into the liturgical celebrations. Moreover, the Latin liturgy was celebrated for most of the twelfth century in Jerusalem - alongside Greek Orthodox and other Oriental Christian cel­ ebration. And while evidence for non-Latin celebration is more limited, a couple of extant manuscripts enable an assessment of the interaction between Latin and non-Latin devo­ tional life.

Special issue contents The essays that follow explore various aspects of devotional life in the Holy Land during the Crusader period. They fall naturally into three separate groupings. The first, made up of papers by Wolf Zoller, Cara Aspesi and Sebastian Salvad6, is united by their rig­ orous and contextualising examination of manuscript evidence. Together, they unveil the development and use of the liturgy itself. These three ground-breaking essays demonstrate just how much new information and how many novel insights we can gain when we take the liturgy as a source of historical inquiry, about both institutions and devotion. Rooted in the extant liturgical sources representing the rite of the Holy Sepulchre, Zoller places the liturgical and devotional history at the Holy Sepulchre in the context of the broader history of the twelfth-century reforms of Augustinian canons in the West and their religious and spiritual priorities. By asking what the Vita apostolica meant in the land of the Apostles, Zoller explores how the ideals of the Europe-wide apostolic reform were implemented in the setting of Jerusalem itself. Cara Aspesi offers a close reading of one portion of a single twelfth-century manuscript, which she argues is the result of a makeshift assemblage of liturgy required for an army and a clergy exiled from their church and in a state of temporary crisis. Following an ingenious reading of the various rites and curated texts, she proposes that the portion of the manuscript reflects precisely the needs of the liturgical and spiritual community which, having lost Jerusalem to Saladin in 1 187, was then established outside the city walls during the long siege of Acre. Finally, Salvad6's essay examines the comprehensive liturgical reforms undertaken by Patriarch Fulcher of Angouleme in 1 149, on the occasion of the rededication of the Holy Sepulchre celebrated on the fiftieth anniversary of the Franks' capture of Jerusalem on 15 July 1099. Salvad6 demonstrates the extent to which the liturgical reforms of 1 149 integrated the liturgy of the Resurrection, which had taken place at the Holy Sepulchre itself throughout the entire liturgical year, curat­ ing a liturgy that spoke specifically to the place and the particular community of those who worshipped at Christ's Tomb. The second trio of essays, by Daniel Galadza, Andrew Jotischky and Christopher MacE­ vitt, assesses the impact that Latin rule had on local Oriental religious communities, and how existing local practices adapted to or competed with Latin worship and reverence. Jotischky and Galadza offer complementary accounts of the continuity of worship during Frankish rule. Using the evidence of the only two surviving Greek liturgical 6

IRIS SHAGRIR AND CECILIA GAPOSCHKIN

manuscripts of the twelfth century, Galadza, following a sweeping overview of the fortunes of Orthodox worship from the late antique period, demonstrates by an analysis of largely unexplored texts the essential resilience and determined autonomy of the Orthodox, Greek-language worship at the Holy Sepulchre itself and at the Lavra (the monastery) of St Sabas in Jerusalem. Jotischky provides a complementary perspective, drawing on a rich array of evidence for monastic devotional practices. He reconstructs the Greek mon­ astic observance before, during and after the period of Latin rule of the patriarchate of Jer­ usalem, describing practices that developed from the interaction of influences from Constantinople, existing local practices and the need to adapt to the crusader context. MacEvitt's essay, in turn, appraises what the narrative sources can tell us about the relationship between local and imported liturgical practices. He contrasts the function of Latin and Armenian religious processions - those moments when ecclesiastical commu­ nities left the confines of the churches and went into the shared space of the city - arguing that processions, in different ways, served as a mechanism to define boundaries and for each to claim its respective authority in the light of the multi-confessional Christian geography of the Holy Land. Finally, two essays by Simon John and Jay Rubenstein form a section on the political use of liturgy. Here, we see how liturgy could be exploited for what might be called secular purposes. Far from devaluing the religious quality of liturgy, these uses reveal the extent to which the liturgy, as a mechanism that connected the secular to the divine, could be deployed as an instrument of power. Rubenstein explores the explosive episode in 1 101 when the Holy Fire failed to light, suggesting that the liturgy of Holy Saturday was used in that year as part of the ongoing tug of war between ecclesiastical and secular authority. Here King Baldwin I leveraged the weight of the liturgy to strip Patriarch Daimbert of his claim to temporal authority in the new kingdom of Jerusalem. In turn, John demonstrates how the yearly cycle of the liturgy was used to define and buttress royal authority. Reviewing the liturgical dates on which and the liturgical spaces in which the kings and queens of Jerusalem elected to be inaugurated and crowned, John shows how liturgical sacrality and symbolism were appropriated to the royal image. Taken together, these essays signal the extent to which the liturgy of the Latin East con­ stitutes a wealth of information bearing on the broader history of the crusades and the life of the so-called 'crusader kingdoms'. The contributions show just how the liturgy, when taken as a record of intellectual, religious, devotional and cultural history, can be mined for historical and devotional information. There is much more work to be done, of course. We are at the beginning of a new direction in this field. But this is an important start on the road towards getting at the religious experience of the men and women who lived in, and came to worship in, the land of Christ. And to do so was, after all, the reason they had fought the crusades to begin with. Funding We thank the Israel Science Foundation for grants nos. 277/09 and 663/ 1 4, and the Mandel Scho­ lion Interdisciplinary Research Center in the Humanities and Jewish Studies. At Dartmouth College, we thank the Provost's Office, the Leslie Center for the Humanities, and the Departments of History and Religion for the funds for the symposium that permitted the contributors to this volume to meet, and to read and discuss each other's articles. 7

The regular canons and the liturgy of the Latin East Wolf Zoller

ABSTRACT

The present paper examines liturgical rites practised in the crusader states from the perspective of its agents, introducing the monastic and institutional framework in which the liturgy was commissioned and performed, that is, the history of canons regular in the Latin East. The first part identifies the normative basis of the Augustinian canons' vita communis and looks into the relationship between the clerics' monastic customs and their liturgical observances. The second part investigates how the canons' spiritual ideals influenced particular components and features of their liturgy, focusing on the mimetic highlights of the church year and their importance for the way in which the canons strove to impersonate the Apostles and the primitive Christian community of Jerusalem.

The Holy Land, perceived of as the hereditas Christi, Jerusalem, the city sanctified by Christ's Passion, and the Holy Sepulchre, the focus of his Resurrection and redemption, lay at the very heart of the crusading movement. Even for medievalists, it is hard to grasp the sheer wealth of associations that the loca sancta triggered in the minds of con­ temporaries, stirring the imagination of those who took up the cross to come to the rescue of the orientalis ecclesia. It is in this medieval world of religiosity and piety that we find the key explanations for the massive success of Pope Urban's call for crusade. 1 Little wonder that, after the religious fervour of the expedition and the euphoric performance of the

The following abbreviations are used in this paper: BAV: Rome, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana; BnF: Paris, Bib­ liotheque nationale de France; CCCM: Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis; Dondi, Liturgy: Cristina Dondi, The Liturgy of the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre ofJerusalem: a Study and a Catalogue of the Manuscript Sources (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004); Kohler, 'Un rituel': Charles Kohler, 'Un rituel et un breviaire du Saint-Sepulcre de Jerusalem (XIIe-XIIIe siecle)', Revue de /'Orient Latin 8 ( 1 900- 1): 383-469; MGH: Monumenta Germaniae Historica; PL: Patrologia cursus completus series Latina; Salvad6, 'Liturgy of the Holy Sepulchre': Sebastian Salvad6, 'The Liturgy of the Holy Sepulchre and the Templar Rite: Edition and Analysis of the Jerusalem Ordinal (Rome, Bib. Vat., Barb. Lat. 659) with a Comparative Study of the Acre Breviary (Paris, Bib. Nat., MS Latin 1 0478)' (Ph.D. diss., Stanford Uni­ versity, 2011); WT: William of Tyre, Chronique, ed. R.B.C. Huygens. CCCM 63 and 63A. 2 vols. (Turnhout: Brepols, 1986). 1 Colin Morris, The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West: From the Beginning to 1600 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Sylvia Schein, Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099-1187) (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005); William J. Purkis, Crusading Spirituality in the Holy Land and Iberia, c.1095-c.1187 (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2008); Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. 2nd edn. (London: Continuum, 2009).

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divine office at the liberated holy places, the maintenance of the newly established Latin service at Christendom's most sacred sites was to form the raison d'etre of crusader domin­ ion over much of medieval Syria and Palestine.2 The spiritual substance of the Frankish conquest was best captured by Raymond d'Aguilers, chaplain to Count Raymond of Tou­ louse, who bore witness to the notion that the liturgical appropriation prefigured the com­ mencement of a 'new day', that is, a new age in the history of Christianity. 3 All attempts at asserting Latin rule in the Levant ultimately came down to the desire to ensure perennial, unimpeded and, first and foremost, Latin commemoration of biblical events within their authentic spatial context. Each year, the ritualised re-enactment of salvific history in cru­ sader Jerusalem attracted thousands of pilgrims to take up the arduous journey across the Mediterranean towards the Latin East, resulting, inter alia, in a marked increase in Latin pilgrims' accounts during the crusader era. 4 Royal itineraries were arranged according to the dates of the triduum sacrum, allowing for kings and queens to showcase their dignity and divinely ordained rulership publicly. According to Albert of Aachen, Baldwin I returned to Jerusalem from Acre for the paschal festivities of 1 107 and an ensuing corona­ tion ceremony was staged on Easter Sunday, although he had already been crowned at Epi­ phany of the same year in the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. 5 Even military initiatives were projected in consideration of the spring passagium, as in 1 153, when Baldwin III had all Easter pilgrims residing in Outremer remain in the Holy Land and partake in the siege of the last Fatimid outpost. 6 Despite the overwhelming importance of liturgy in a socio-cultural landscape of utmost sacrality, the rites and practices performed within the Latin patriarchates of the East have only recently begun to attract systematic scholarly attention. Undisputedly, this develop­ ment owes much to Cristina Dondi's important survey of existing source material and its liturgical contents, a task which is far from finished.7 As with all documents that stem from the ecclesiastical archives of the crusader states, manuscripts that convey liturgical information pertaining to the churches of Outremer may be found scattered all over 2

Kaspar Elm, 'Die Eroberung Jerusalems im Jahre 1099. lhre Darstellung und Deutung in den Quellen zur Geschichte des Ersten Kreuzzugs', in Jerusalem im Hoch- und Spiitmittelalter. Konjlikte und Konjliktbewiiltigung - Vorstellungen und Vergegenwiirtigungen, eds. Dieter R. Bauer, Klaus Herbers and Nikolas Jaspert. Campus Historische Studien 29 (Frankfurt: Campus, 2001), 31-54; Yael Katzir, 'The Conquests of ) erusalem, 1099 and 1187: Historical Memory and Religious Typology', in The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades, ed. Vladimir P. Goss. Studies in Medieval Culture 21 (Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University, Med­ ieval Institute Publications, 1986), 103-13. 3 John H. Hill, Laurila L. Hill and Philippe Wolff, eds., Le 'Liber' de Raymond d'Aguilers. Documents relatifs a l'histoire des croisades 9 (Paris: Librairie Geuthner, 1969), 151: 'Quomodo plaudebant exultantes et cantantes canticum novum Domino. [ . . . ] Nova dies, novum gaudium, nova et perpetua leticia laboris atque devotionis consummatio, nova verba nova cantica, ab universis exigebat. [ . . . ] In hac die cantavimus officum de resurrectione, quia in hac die ille qui sua virtute a mortuis resurrexit, per gratiam suam resuscitavit.' Cf. Amnon Linder, 'A New Day, New Joy: the Liberation of Jerusalem on 15 July 1099', in L'idea di Gerusalemme nella spiritualita cristiana del medioevo. Atti del convegno internazionale in collaborazione con l'lstituto de/la Giirres-Gesellschaft di Gerusalemme. Atti e doc­ umenti: Pontificio Comitato di Scienze Storiche 12 (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2003), 46-64. 4 For pilgrimage to the Holy Land under crusader rule and the multitude of pilgrims' accounts see Aryeh Grabois, Le pelerin occidental en Terre Sainte au moyen age. Bibliotheque du moyen age 13 (Paris: DeBoek Superieur, 1998), 3844; John Wilkinson, Joyce Hill and William F. Ryan, Jerusalem Pilgrimage 1099-1 185. Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, 167 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1988), 24-84; Denys Pringle, Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land: 1 1 87-1291 . Crusade Texts in Translation 23 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), 1-19. 5 Susan Edgington, ed., Historia Ierosolimitana. History of the Journey to Jerusalem (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 744 (X, 27) and 746-8 (X, 31). See also Simon John, 'Royal Inauguration and Liturgical Culture in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099-1187', in this special issue, Journal of Medieval History 43, no. 4 (2017): 485-504. 6 WT, 17, 24, 793. 7 Dondi, Liturgy.

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LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES

the former European network of priories established by clerical as well as monastic com­ munities of the crusader states. 8 The history of crusader liturgy cannot be separated from the fate and fortune of those religious establishments and institutional agents who com­ posed, enacted and eventually transmitted the liturgical customs of the Latin Levant to the West. For the most important churches of the Holy Land, these were chapters of regular or Augustinian canons, the study of which represents a desideratum both within the field of crusader as well as medieval monastic history. The archival legacy of the canons of the Latin East remains largely unexplored, even though most of the commu­ nities survived the eventual loss of their mother house and continued to exist in Western European exile well into the early modern period. 9 Of all the canonical institutions of the crusader states, the Ordo SS. Sepulcri Dominici Hierosolimitani earned particularly high esteem among kings and nobles from Portugal to Poland and from Scotland to Sicily, 1 0 with rich bodies of liturgical material stemming from their daughter houses in later med­ ieval Iberia, the Low Countries and East Central Europe. 1 1 Our knowledge of the liturgy of the Latin East is almost exclusively derived from sources dealing with the divine office celebrated by the Jerusalemite patriarchal chapter. Gallo-Roman in nature, this ordo essentially assumed a twofold shape. On the one hand it consisted of the daily monastic office of the canons, private in character and adapted to the sacred topography of the Holy Sepulchre and its various adjoining chapels. This liturgy of the hours was integrated into the official cathedral rite of the 8

For the archival history of the Latin churches of Outremer, see Rudolf Hiestand, Papsturkunden far Kirchen im Heili­ gen Lande. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse 136. Vorarbeiten zum Oriens Pontificius 3 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985), 9-14, 19-86. 9 Kaspar Elm, 'Mater ecclesiarum in exilio: El capitulo del Santo Sepulcro de Jerusalen desde la caida de Acre', in La Orden def Santo Sepulcro. I Jornadas de estudio (Madrid: Alpuerto, 1991), 13-24; idem, 'Das Fortleben der lateinischen Kirche von Jerusalem nach dem Fall von Akkon (1291)', in L'idea di Gerusalemme, 211-33; Jonathan Riley-Smith, 'Latin Titular Bishops in Palestine and Syria, 1137-1291', Catholic Historical Review 64, no. 1 (1978): 1-15. 10 Kaspar Elm, 'Der Ordo SS. Sepulcri Dominici Hierosolimitani. Untersuchungen zu Geschichte und Selbstverstandnis des Kapitels vom Hlg. Grab' (professorial diss., Freiburg University, 1967); idem, ed., Umbilicus mundi. Beitriige zur Geschichte Jerusalems, der Kreuzziige, des Kapitels vom Hlg. Grab in Jerusalem und der Ritterorden. Instrumenta cano­ nissarum regularium Sancti Sepulcri 7 (Bruges: Sint-Trudo-Abdij, 1998); idem and James D. Mixson, Religious Life Between Jerusalem, the Desert, and the World: Selected Essays. Studies in the History of Christian Traditions 180 (Leiden: Brill, 2016); Wilhelm Hotzelt, 'Die Chorherren vom Heiligen Grabe in Jerusalem', in Das Heilige Land in Ver­ gangenheit und Gegenwart. Gesammelte Beitriige und Berichte zur Palastinaforschung, vol. 2, eds. Valmar Cramer and Gustav Meinertz. Palastinahefte des Deutschen Vereins vom Heiligen Lande 24-27 (Cologne: Bachem, 1940), 107-36. 11 Cf. Nikolas Jasper!, Stift und Stadt. Das Heiliggrabpriorat van Santa Anna und das Regularkanonikerstift Santa Eulalia de/ Camp im mitte/alterlichen Barcelona (1145-1423). Berliner Historische Studien 24. Ordensstudien 10 (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1996); Nikolas Jasper! 'Die Chorherren vom Heiligen Grab und ihre Nekrologtradi­ tion', in Wider das Vergessen und fur das Seelenhei/: Memoria und Totengedenken im Mittelalter, ed. Rainer Berndt. Erudiri sapientia 9 (Munster: Aschendorff, 2013), 149-74; idem Nikolas Jaspert, 'La "confraternitas" de l'Ordre de! Sant Sepulcre i el necrologi de Santa Anna de Barcelona', in La corona catalanoaragonesa, /'Islam i el m6n mediter­ rani. Estudis d'historia medieval en homenatge a la doctora Maria Teresa Ferrer i Mallo/, eds. Josefina Mutge i Vives, Roser Salicrii Lluch and Carles Vela Aulesa. Special issue of Anuario de Estudios Medievales. Anejo 71 (Barcelona: Consej o Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 2013), 397-408; Kaspar Elm, ed., Quel/en zur Geschichte des Ordens vom Hlg. Grab in Nordwesteuropa aus deutschen und niederliindischen Archiven (1 191-1603). Commission royale d'histoire. Publications in octavo 89 (Brussels: Palais des Academies, 1976); Maria Starnawska, 'Die Gebaude und die Ausriistung der Kloster des Heiligen Grabes im Mittelalter in Poland', in La vie quotidienne des moines et cha­ noines reguliers au moyen age et temps modernes. Actes du Premier Colloque International du L.A.R.H. C. O.R. , ed. Marek Derwich. Travaux du L.A.R.H.C.O.R., Colloquia I . Opera ad historiam monasticam spectantia, Series I, Col­ loquia 1 (Wroclaw: Publications de l'Institut d'Histoire de l'Universite de Wroclaw, 1995), 601-13; eidem, 'Das Bild der Kreuzherren-Hospitaliterorden (der Chorherren des Heiligen Grabes, der Kreuzherren mil dem roten Stern, der Chorherren des Heiligen Geistes) auf polnischem Gebiet in der Friihen Neuzeit', in Selbstbild und Selbstverstiindnis der geistlichen Ritterorden, eds. Roman Czaj a and Jiirgen Sarnowsky. Ordines militares 13 (Toriin: Uniwersytet Mikolaja Kopernika, 2005), 243-52; Henryk Piwonski, 'Antiphonaire des gardiens du Saint Sepulcre de Miech6w. Etude musicologique' (Ph.D. diss., Fabbri-Bompiani, 1980), 1-10, 22-47.

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Church of Jerusalem, founded upon age-old festivities native to the ancient bishopric, to which were added some notable Latin innovations. 1 2 Revised and reformed during the course of the twelfth century by the senior clergy of the Latin patriarchate, adopted and modified by its different religious institutions, the liturgical practice of ]erusalem's cathe­ dral chapter has partly been preserved until modern times by the Carmelites as well as the canonesses of the Holy Sepulchre. 1 3 Frequently neglected, however, are the many other communities of regular canons of the crusader states: the cathedral chapters of Bethlehem, Nazareth, Hebron and Sebaste, as well as the Jerusalemite communities of St Mary of Mount Sion, the Temple of the Lord and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives - despite the fact that over the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries many of these corporations developed their own set of customs and observances, norma­ tive as well as liturgical and independent of the Jerusalem's patriarchal chapter. 14 Ever since early Christian times, the forms, expressions and contents of the divine office were intimately bound up with and subject to the constant changes of religious sentiments and trends current within their respective historical contexts. 1 5 In order to comprehend fully the liturgy practised at such pilgrimage centres as the Church of the Nativity, the Basi­ lica of the Annunciation or the Cathedral of St Abraham, it is thus crucial to assess the com­ position and performance of liturgy with due consideration of the monastic background of its authors, commissioners and communicators. How far did their specific religious lifestyle influence or determine the structure and nature of their daily prayer? What do normative sources from the milieu of medieval vita religiosa like rules, customs, constitutions or sta­ tutes tell about the worship of the canons? What impact did the distinctive spiritual ideals of their clerical ordo exert on the composition of Mass and office? By way of tackling these and related questions from the perspective of medieval monasticism we may create an inte­ grated picture of the different layers of meaning attached to liturgy and its intricate connec­ tions to the ecclesiastical, socio-religious setting of the holy places under crusader rule. 16 12

Elm, 'Der Ordo SS. Sepulcri Dominici Hierosolimitani', 46-52, 68-72. Salvad6, 'Liturgy of the Holy Sepulchre'; Gabriel Wessels, 'Ritus Ordinis B.V. Mariae de Monte Carmelo', Analecta Ordinis Carmelitarum I (1909), passim; Agusti M. Forcadell, 'Ritus Carmelitarum antiquae observantiae', Ephemer­ ides Liturgicae 64 (1950): 5-52; Paschalis Kallenberg, Fontes liturgiae Carmelitanae (Rome: Institutum Carmelita­ num, 1962); Archdale A. King, The Liturgies of the Religious Orders (London: Longmans, 1955), 235-324; Kaspar Elm, 'La liturgie de l'eglise latine de Jerusalem au temps des croisades', in Le crociate. L'oriente et l'occidente da Urbano II a San Luigi 1096-1270, ed. Monique Rey-Delque (Milan: Electa, 1997), 243-45; Kaspar Elm, 'Fratres et sorores SS. Sepulcri. Beitrage zu Fraternitas, Familie und weiblichem Religiosentum im Umkreis des Kapitels vom Hlg. Grab', Friihmittelalterliche Studien 9 (1975), 287-333; Kaspar Elm, 'Die Frauen vom Heiligen Grab. Weibliches Religiosentum und laikale Frommigkeil im Dienste des Heiligen Grabes', in Umbilicus mundi, ed. Elm, 219-51. 14 For the smaller clerical institutions of the Crusader States and their liturgy, see Wolf Zoller, ' Regularkanoniker­ gemeinschaften in den Kreuzfahrerherrschaften. Studien zur Kirchen- , Ordens- und Frommigkeitsgeschichte des lateinischen Ostens, 1099-1291' (Ph.D. diss., Universitat Heidelberg, in submitted and in preparation for print); in the interim, see Hans E. Mayer, Bistiimer, Kloster und Stifte im Kiinigreich Jerusalem. MGH Schriften 26 (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1977), passim; Bernard Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States: the Secular Church (London: Variorum, 1981), passim; Jean Richard, 'Hospitals and Hospital Congregations in the Latin Kingdom during the First Period of the Frankish Conquest', in Outremer. Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, eds. Benjamin Z. Kedar, Hans E. Mayer and Raimund C. Smail (Jerusalem: Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute, 1982), 89-100; Andreas Rehberg, 'Una categoria di ordini religiosi poco studiata: gli ordini ospedalieri. Prime osservazioni e piste di ricerca sul tema "centro e periferia'", in Gli ordini ospedalieri tra centro e periferia, eds. Anna Esposito and Andreas Rehberg. Ricerche dell'Istituto Storico Germanico di Roma 3 (Rome: Viella, 2007), 15-70. 15 Anton Baumstark, Vom geschichtlichen Werden der Liturgie. Ecclesia orans. Zur Einfiihrung in den Geist der Litur­ gie 10 (Freiburg: Herder, 1922), 1-6. 16 A catalogue of desiderata for the combination of liturgical and monastic studies has been worked out by Hanns P. Neuheuser, ' Stift und Sinnstiftung: liturgiewissenschaftliche Ansatze zur Stiftsgeschichtsforschung', in Friimmig­ keit und Theo/ogie an Chorherrenstiften: Vierte wissenschaftliche Fachtagung zum Stiftskirchenprojekt des Instituts fur 13

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LITURGY AND DEVOTION IN THE CRUSADER STATES

The canons' monastic customs and the liturgy

With the eight congregations of Augustinian canons mentioned above, a multitude of smaller communities of regular canons, e.g. St Thomas of Acre, St Michael of Tripoli and St George of Antioch, and, finally, several priories of the Western orders of Premontre and Saint-Ruf d'Avignon, equally comprised of regular canons, the Latin East figured as a vibrant centre of this specific branch of medieval vita religiosa. 1 7 This particular type of professed religious life first emerged in southern France and northern Italy in the 1030s, deeply animated by what is commonly referred to as the eleventh-century reform movement, which called for a full-fledged renewal of the lifestyle of the clergy. 1 8 Spiritually, reformers propagated a return to the sources of Christian perfection by way of such themes as the imitatio Christi or the vita apostolica, which were supposed to lead back to an authentic, truly canonical life of the clergy. For the religious, this zeal for reform meant strict obedience to a common life of personal poverty in imitation of Jesus, his disciples and the primitive church. 1 9 The imposition of a cloistered regime for the canons resulted in a close approximation of the lifestyles of monks and clerics, but in opposition to traditional monasticism, the latter - as members of the priestly order and self-proclaimed successors to the officium apostolorum - declared the cure of souls as the pillar of their religio, guiding people on their way towards God and thereby provid-

Geschicht/iche Landeskunde und Historische Hi/fswissenschaften der Universitiit Tiibingen, ed. Ulrich Kopf. Schriften zur siidwestdeutschen Landeskunde 66 (Ostfildern: Thorbecke, 2009), 17-62. 17 Bernard Hamilton, ' Rebuilding Zion: the Holy Places of Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century', Studies in Church History 14 (1977): 105-16; Rudolf Hiestand, 'Saint-Ruf d'Avignon, Raymond de Saint-Gilles et l'eglise latine du comte de Tripoli', Anna/es du Midi 98 (1986): 327-36; Wolfgang Antweiler, Das Bistum Tripolis im 12. und 13. Jahr­ hundert. Personengeschicht/iche und strukturelle Probleme (Diisseldorf: Droste, 1991), 229-31; Denys Pringle, 'The Order of St Thomas of Canterbury in Acre', in The Military Orders 5: Politics and Power, ed. Peter W. Edbury (Alder­ shot: Ashgate, 2012), 75-82; Nikolas Jaspert, 'Kleine Ritterorden Paliistinas - und der Kanonikerorden vom Heiligen Grab', in Ritterorden im Mittela/ter, eds. Anthony T. Luttrell and Feliciano Novoa Portela (Darmstadt: WBG, 2006), 77-100; for the Premonstratensians, see Corliss K. Slack, 'The Premonstratensians and the Crusader Kingdoms in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries', Analecta Praemonstratensia 67, nos. 3-4 (1991): 207-31; idem, 'The Premonstra­ tensians and the Crusader Kingdoms in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries', Analecta Praemonstratensia 68, nos. 1-2 (1992): 76-110, with the necessary revisons by Rudolf Hiestand, 'Konigin Melisendis von Jerusalem und Pre­ montre. Einige Nachtriige zun1 Thema: die Priimonstratenser und