Literature and the Relational Self 9780814788738

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Literature an d th e Relationa l Sel f

Literature an d Psychoanalysi s General Editor: Jeffrey Berman 1. The Beginning of Terror: A Psychological Study of Rainer Maria Rilke's Life and Work by Davi d Kleinbar d 2. Loathsome Jews and Engulfing Women: Metaphors of Projection in the Works ofWyndham Lewis, Charles Williams, and Graham Green by Andre a Freu d Loewenstei n 3. Literature and the Relational Self by Barbar a An n Schapir o

Literature an d th e Relational Sel f Barbara Ann Schapiro

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New Yor k Universit y Pres s New Yor k an d Londo n

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S New Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 4 b y Ne w Yor k Universit y All right s reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Schapiro, Barbar a A . Literature an d th e relationa l sel f / Barbar a An n Schapiro . p. cm . — (Literatur e an d psychoanalysi s ; 3) Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-7969- 7 (alk . paper ) 1. Psychoanalysi s an d literature . 2 . Sel f i n Literature . 3. Objec t relation s (Psychoanalysis ) i n literature . 4. Interpersona l relation s i n literature . I . Title . II . Series . PN56.P92S33 199 3 809'. 93353—dc20 93-1287

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New Yor k Universit y Pres s book s ar e printe d o n acid-fre e paper , and thei r bindin g material s ar e chose n fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a 10

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To Ed y Nancy y Ellen, and Jane. And to Scotty y Owen y and Mira.

Contents

Foreword b y Jeffrey Berma n i x Acknowledgments x v 1. Introductio n 1 The Relational Paradigm 1 Psychoanalytic Relational Concepts : An Overview 5 The Relational Model and Feminist Theory 1 4 Transitional Phenomena , Creativity , an d Culture 2 0 Applications to Literary Criticis m 2 2 2. Wordswort h an d th e Relationa l Mode l o f Min d 2 9 3. Th e Rebirt h o f Catherin e Earnshaw : Splittin g an d Reintegration o f Sel f i n Wuthering Heights 4 6 4. Gender , Self , an d th e Relationa l Matrix : D . H . Lawrenc e and Virgini a Wool f 6 2 5. Boundarie s an d Betraya l i n Jean Rhys' s Wide Sargasso Sea 8 4 6. Updike , God , an d Women : Th e Dram a o f th e Gifte d Chil d 10 5 7. Interna l Worl d an d th e Socia l Environment : Ton i Morrison' s Beloved 12 7 8. An n Beatti e an d th e Cultur e o f Narcissis m 14 4 vn

viii Contents 9. Desir e an d Use s o f Illusion : Alic e Hoffman' s Seventh Heaven 16 0 10. Afterwor d 18

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Notes 18 3 Works Cite d 18 9 Index 19 7

Foreword

As Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s inaugurate s a ne w serie s o f book s o n literature an d psychoanalysis , i t seem s appropriat e t o paus e an d reflec t briefly upon the history of psychoanalytic literary criticism. For a century now i t ha s struggle d t o defin e it s relationshi p t o it s tw o contentiou s progenitors an d com e o f age . Afte r glancin g a t it s origins , w e ma y b e i n a bette r positio n t o speculat e o n it s future . Psychoanalytic literar y criticis m wa s conceive d a t th e precise momen t in whic h Freud , reflectin g upo n hi s self-analysis , mad e a connection t o two plays and thus gav e us a radically new approach t o reading literature . Writing to his friend Wilhel m Fliess in 1897 , Freud breathlessl y advance d the idea that "lov e of the mother an d jealousy o f the father" ar e universa l phenomena o f earl y childhoo d (Origins, 223-24) . H e referre d immedi ately to the gripping power o f Oedipus Rex an d Hamlet fo r confirmatio n of, an d perhap s inspiratio n for , hi s compellin g perceptio n o f famil y drama, namin g hi s theor y th e "Oedipu s complex " afte r Sophocles ' leg endary fictional hero . Freud acknowledge d repeatedl y hi s indebtednes s t o literature , my thology, an d philosophy . Ther e i s n o doub t tha t h e wa s a grea t hu manist, steepe d i n worl d literature , abl e t o rea d severa l language s an d range acros s disciplinar y boundaries . H e regarde d creativ e writer s a s allies, investigatin g th e sam e psychic terrai n an d intuitin g simila r huma n truths. "[PJsycho-analyti c observatio n mus t conced e priorit y o f imag IX

x Foreword inative writers," he declared i n 190 1 in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (SE 6:213) , a concessio n h e wa s generall y happ y t o make . Th e only exception s wer e writers like Schopenhauer, Nietzsche , an d Schnitz ler, who m h e avoide d readin g becaus e o f th e anxiet y o f influence . H e quoted effortlessl y fro m Sophocles , Shakespeare , Goethe , an d Dos toevsky, an d wa s himsel f a maste r pros e stylist , th e recipien t o f th e coveted Goeth e Priz e i n 1930 . Whe n h e wa s considere d fo r th e Nobe l Prize, i t wa s no t fo r medicin e bu t fo r literature . Upo n bein g greete d as th e discovere r o f th e unconscious , h e disclaime d th e titl e an d instea d paid generou s tribut e t o th e poet s an d philosopher s wh o precede d him . And ye t Freud's foray s int o literary criticis m hav e not bee n welcome d uniformly b y creativ e writers, largel y becaus e o f hi s allegianc e t o scienc e rather tha n art . Despit e hi s admiratio n fo r art , h e viewed th e artis t a s a n introvert, no t fa r remove d fro m neurosis . Th e artist , h e wrote i n a wellknown passag e i n th e Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1916 17), "i s oppresse d b y excessivel y powerfu l instinctua l needs . H e desire s to win honour, power , wealth , fam e an d the love of women; bu t he lacks the mean s fo r achievin g thes e satisfactions " (SE 16:376) . Consequently , Freud argued , artist s retreat from realit y into the world o f fantasy, wher e they attemp t t o mak e thei r dream s com e true. Whil e concedin g tha t tru e artists manag e t o shap e thei r daydream s i n suc h a way a s t o find a pat h back t o reality , thu s fulfillin g thei r wishes , Freu d nevertheles s theorize d art a s a substitute gratification . Littl e wonder, then , tha t fe w artist s hav e been please d wit h Freud' s pronouncements . Nor have many artists been sympathetic to Freud's preoccupation wit h sexuality an d aggression ; his deterministi c visio n o f huma n life ; his com bative, polemica l temperament ; hi s self-fulfillin g belie f tha t psychoanal ysis bring s ou t th e wors t i n people ; an d hi s imperialisti c clai m tha t psychoanalysis, which he regarded as his personal creation, would explor e and conquer vast new territories. H e chos e as the epigraph fo r The Interpretation of Dreams (1900 ) a quotatio n fro m The Aeneid: "Flecter e s i nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo" ("If I cannot bend the Higher Pow ers, I wil l mov e th e Inferna l Regions") . Althoug h h e denie d tha t ther e was anythin g Promethea n abou t hi s work, h e regarde d himsel f a s one o f the disturber s o f th e world's sleep . Th e ma n wh o asserte d tha t "psycho analysis i s i n a position t o spea k th e decisiv e wor d i n al l question s tha t touch upo n th e imaginative lif e o f man " (SE 19:208 ) could hardl y expec t to wi n man y convert s amon g creativ e writers , wh o wer e n o les s familia r

Foreword x

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with th e imaginativ e lif e o f humankin d an d wh o resente d hi s intrusio n into thei r domain . Freud viewe d psychoanalyst s a s scientists , committe d t o th e realit y principle an d t o heroi c self-renunciation . H e perceive d artists , b y contrast—and women—a s neuroti c an d highl y narcissistic , devote d t o the pleasur e principle , intuitin g mysteriou s truth s whic h the y coul d not rationall y understand . "Kindl y natur e ha s give n th e artis t th e ability t o expres s hi s mos t secre t menta l impulses , whic h ar e hidde n even fro m himself, " h e state d i n Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood i n 191 0 (SE 11:107) . Th e artist , i n Freud' s judg ment, create s beauty , bu t th e psychoanalys t analyze s it s meanin g an d "penetrates" it , wit h al l th e phalli c implication s thereof . A s muc h a s he admire d artists , Freu d di d no t wan t t o giv e the m credi t fo r knowing wha t the y ar e doing . Moreover , althoug h h e alway s re ferred t o artist s a s male , h e assume d tha t ar t itsel f wa s essentiall y female; an d h e wa s draw n t o th e "seductive " natur e o f ar t eve n a s he resiste d it s embrace , les t h e los e hi s masculin e analytica l power . He wante d t o b e calle d a scientist , no t a n artist . From th e beginning of his career, then , th e marriage Freu d envisione d between th e artis t an d th e analys t wa s distinctly unequa l an d patriarchal . For thei r part , mos t creativ e writer s hav e remaine d war y o f psychoanal ysis. Fran z Kafka , Jame s Joyce, an d D . H . Lawrenc e were fascinated b y psychoanalytic theor y an d appropriate d it , i n varyin g degrees , i n thei r stories, bu t the y al l remained skeptica l o f Freud' s therapeuti c claim s an d declined t o b e analyzed . Most artist s d o no t wan t t o b e "cured, " fearin g tha t thei r creativit y will b e imperiled , an d the y certainl y d o no t wan t psychoanalyst s t o probe thei r work ; the y agre e wit h Wordswort h tha t t o dissec t i s t o murder. Vladimi r Nabokov' s sardoni c referenc e t o Freu d a s th e "Vi ennese witc h doctor " an d hi s contemptuou s dismissa l o f psychoanalysi s as blac k magi c ar e extrem e example s o f creativ e writers ' mistrus t o f psychoanalytic interpretation s o f literature . "[A]l l m y book s shoul d b e stamped Freudian s Kee p Out, " Naboko v write s i n Bend Sinister (xii) . Humbert Humber t speak s fo r hi s creato r whe n h e observe s i n Lolita that th e differenc e betwee n th e rapis t an d therapis t i s bu t a matte r o f spacing (147) . Freud neve r los t fait h tha t psychoanalysi s coul d cas t ligh t upo n a wide variet y o f academi c subjects . I n th e shor t essay "O n th e Teachin g

xii Foreword of Psycho-Analysi s i n Universities " (1919) , h e maintaine d tha t hi s ne w science ha s a role no t onl y i n medica l school s bu t als o i n th e "solution s of problems " i n art , philosophy , religion , literature , mythology , an d history. "Th e fertilizin g effect s o f psycho-analyti c though t o n thes e other disciplines, " Freu d wrot e enthusiastically , "woul d certainl y con tribute greatl y toward s forgin g a closer link , i n th e sens e o f a universitas literarum, betwee n medica l scienc e an d th e branche s o f learnin g whic h lie withi n th e spher e o f philosoph y an d th e arts " (SE 17:173) . Regret tably, h e di d no t envisio n i n th e sam e essa y a cross-fertilization , a desire, tha t is , fo r othe r discipline s t o pollinat e psychoanalysis . Elsewhere, though , Freu d wa s willin g t o acknowledg e a more recip rocal relationship betwee n th e analyst an d the creative writer. H e opene d his first publishe d essa y o n literar y criticism , "Delusion s an d Dream s i n Jensen's Gradiva" (1907) , wit h th e egalitaria n statemen t tha t "creativ e writers ar e valued allie s and their evidenc e is to be highly prized, fo r the y are ap t t o kno w a whol e hos t o f thing s betwee n heave n an d eart h o f which ou r philosoph y ha s no t ye t le t u s dream " (SE 9:8) , a n allusio n t o his beloved Hamlet' s affirmatio n o f th e mystery o f al l things. Concedin g that literar y artist s hav e been , fro m tim e immemorial , precursor s t o sci entists, Freu d conclude d tha t th e "creativ e write r canno t evad e th e psy chiatrist no r th e psychiatrist th e creative writer, an d th e poetic treatmen t of a psychiatri c them e ca n tur n ou t t o b e correc t withou t an y sacrific e of it s beauty " (SE 9:44) . It i s in th e spiri t o f thi s equa l partnershi p betwee n literatur e an d psy choanalysis tha t Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s launche s th e presen t series . We inten d t o publis h book s tha t ar e genuinel y interdisciplinary , theo retically sophisticated , an d clinicall y informed . Th e literar y critic' s in sights int o psychoanalysi s ar e n o les s valuabl e tha n th e psychoanalyst' s insights int o literature . Gon e ar e th e day s whe n psychoanalyti c critic s assumed tha t Freu d ha d a master ke y t o unloc k th e secret s o f literature . Instead o f readin g literatur e t o confir m psychoanalyti c theory , man y critics ar e no w readin g Freu d t o discove r ho w hi s understandin g o f lit erature shape d th e evolutio n o f hi s theory . I n short , th e master-slav e relationship traditionall y implici t i n th e marriag e betwee n th e literar y critic an d th e psychoanalys t ha s give n wa y t o a healthie r dialogi c rela tionship, i n whic h eac h learn s fro m an d contribute s t o th e other' s discipline.

Foreword xii

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Indeed, th e prevailing ideas of the late twentieth centur y ar e strikingl y different fro m thos e o f th e lat e nineteent h century , whe n literatur e an d psychoanalysis wer e first allied . I n contras t t o Freud , wh o assume d h e was discoverin g absolut e truth , w e no w believ e tha t knowledge , partic ularly i n th e humanitie s an d socia l sciences , i s relativ e an d dependen t upon cultural contexts. Freud's classical drive theory, with its mechanistic implications of cathectic energy, has given way to newer relational model s such a s objec t relations , sel f psychology , an d interpersona l psychoanal ysis, affirmin g th e importanc e o f huma n interaction . Man y earl y psy choanalytic ideas , suc h a s th e deat h instinc t an d th e phylogeneti c transmission o f memories , hav e fallen b y th e wayside, an d Freud' s theo rizing o n femal e psycholog y ha s bee n recognize d a s a reflectio n o f hi s cultural bias . Significant development s hav e als o take n plac e i n psychoanalyti c lit erary theory . A n extraordinar y variet y an d synthesi s o f competin g ap proaches hav e emerged , includin g post-Freudian , Jungian , Lacanian , Horneyan, feminist , deconstructive , psycholinguistic , an d reade r re sponse. Interes t i n psychoanalytic literar y criticis m i s at an all-time high , not just i n the handful o f journals devote d t o psychological criticism , bu t in dozen s o f mainstrea m journal s tha t hav e traditionall y avoide d psy chological approache s t o literature. Scholar s ar e working o n identit y the ory, narcissism , gende r theory , mournin g an d loss , an d creativity . Additionally, the y are investigating new areas, such as composition theor y and pedagogy , an d explorin g th e role s o f resistance , transference , an d countertransference i n th e classroom . "In th e en d w e depen d / O n th e creature s w e made, " Freu d observe d at th e clos e o f hi s lif e (Letters, 425) , quotin g fro m Goethe' s Faust; an d in th e en d psychoanalyti c literar y criticis m depend s o n th e scholar s wh o continue to shape it. All serious scholarship is an act of love and devotion , and fo r man y o f th e author s i n thi s series , includin g myself , psychoan alytic literar y criticis m ha s becom e a consumin g passion , i n som e case s a lifelon g one . Lik e othe r passions , ther e i s a n elemen t o f idealizatio n here. Fo r despit e ou r criticism s o f Freud , w e stand i n awe of his achieve ments; an d eve n a s w e recogniz e th e limitation s o f an y singl e approac h to literature , w e find tha t psychoanalysis ha s profoundly illuminate d th e human conditio n an d inspire d countles s artists . I n th e word s o f th e fictional "Freud " i n D. M . Thomas' s extraordinar y nove l The White Hotel

xiv Foreword (1981), " L o n g ma y poetr y an d psychoanalysi s continu e t o highlight, fro m their differen t perspectives , th e huma n fac e i n al l its nobility an d s o r r o w " (143n.).

JEFFREY BERMA N

Professor of English State University of New York

at Albany

Works Cited Freud, Sigmund . The Letters of Sigmund Freud. Ed . Erns t Freud . Trans . Tani a and James Stern . Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1975 . . The Origins of Psychoanalysis. Ed . Mari e Bonaparte , Ann a Freud , an d Ernst Kris . Trans . Eri c Mosbache r an d Jame s Strachey . Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1954 ; rpt. 1977 . . The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Ed . Jame s Strachey . 2 4 vols. London : Hogart h Press , 1953-74 . Nabokov, Vladimir . Introductio n t o Bend Sinister. Ne w York : McGra w Hill , 1974. . Lolita. London : Weidenfel d an d Nicolson , 1959 . Thomas, D . M . The White Hotel Ne w York : Viking , 1981 .

Acknowledgments

Many relationships , bot h professiona l an d personal , hav e facilitate d m y writing of this book. I would especiall y like to thank Lynn e Layton, wh o read an d offere d man y helpfu l comment s o n the introduction an d on sev eral of th e essays . He r critica l insights an d her friendshi p hav e been inva luable to me. I would also like to thank my Rhode Island College colleague Maureen Redd y fo r he r enthusiasti c readin g o f th e Beloved chapter , an d Claudia Springer , anothe r frien d an d colleague , fo r he r unfailing suppor t and advice. I am grateful a s well to my chair, Joan Dagle, for giving me released time to work on this project, an d to Jeffrey Berma n for his encour agement and editorial suggestions. M y thanks also to Evelyn Hinz, edito r of Mosaic, for the particular care she took in editing the Wordsworth essay . I woul d lik e t o than k th e followin g journal s i n which earlie r version s of five o f th e essay s originall y appeared : Contemporary Literature pub lished b y the University o f Wisconsin Press , Mosaic, Nineteenth Century Studies, Soundings, an d The Webster Review. Finally, I would like to thank the following fo r giving me permission t o reprint fro m copyrighte d material : Toni Morriso n an d Alfre d A . Knopf , Inc., fo r permission to quote from Beloved b y Toni Morrison. Copyrigh t © 198 7 b y Ton i Morrison ; W . W . Norto n & Co. , Inc. , an d Andr e Deutsch, Ltd. , fo r permissio n t o quot e fro m Wide Sargasso Sea b y Jea n Rhys. Copyrigh t © 196 6 by Jean Rhys ; Alice Hoffman, th e Putnam Pub lishing Group , an d th e Elain e Markso n Agenc y fo r permissio n t o quot e from Seventh Heaven b y Alic e Hoffman . Copyrigh t © 1990 b y Alic e Hoffman. xv

Literature an d th e Relationa l Sel f

Chapter 1

Introduction

The Relational Paradigm The scientifi c theorie s o f an y age , a s Thoma s Kuh n ha s argued , ar e de pendent on the presuppositions, th e underlying belief systems and model s of realit y tha t determin e th e experiments , th e observations , an d th e con sequent "facts " o n whic h th e theorie s ar e built . Freud' s psychoanalyti c model of the mind was highly determined b y a Newtonian an d Cartesian based scientifi c paradigm . Hi s concep t o f min d a s a closed-energy , hydraulics-type syste m reflect s th e Newtonia n mechanica l mode l o f na ture; an d th e conflic t an d divisio n h e assume s betwee n th e subjectiv e inner worl d an d a n objectiv e externa l realit y i s premised o n a Cartesia n duality. Drive theory, a s Stephen Mitchell argues, was not only "perfectl y congruent wit h th e philosophy o f scienc e o f it s day, " bu t wa s als o con sistent "wit h wha t wa s know n o f brai n physiolog y an d neuroanatomy . This is no longe r th e case. The principles o f tensio n reduction , th e refle x arc model , th e close d energ y system—thes e hav e al l bee n supersede d i n our understanding of how the brain operates. Consequently, eve n zealous defenders o f th e driv e concep t hav e struggled t o updat e it, " an d Mitchel l concludes tha t "fo r mos t contemporar y theorist s an d clinicians , driv e theory (a t least as Freud conceive d an d developed it ) is no longer by itself a serviceable metapsychologica l system " {Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis 135 ; hereafter referre d t o a s RCP) . 1

2 Introduction Mitchell's thesi s i s that th e driv e mode l i n psychoanalysis i s currentl y being supplante d b y wha t h e call s "relational-mode l theories. " Th e re lational mode l encompasse s a wide rang e o f Anglo-America n psychoan alytic theorie s that , whil e heterogeneous , nevertheles s shar e a commo n view o f th e sel f not a s a conglomeration o f physically base d urges , bu t a s being shaped b y and inevitably embedded within a matrix of relationships with other people, struggling both t o maintain ou r ties to others and to differentiate ourselve s from them . I n this vision the basic unit of study is not the individual as a separate entity whose desires clash with an external reality, bu t an interactional field within which the individual arise s and struggle s t o make contact an d t o articulat e himself. Desire is experienced alway s in the context of relatedness, an d it i s that contex t whic h defines it s meaning. Min d is composed o f relational configurations. (RC P 3) According t o thi s model , th e psyche canno t b e understood a s a discrete, autonomous structure ; in the analysi s o f psychic reality , nothin g i s mor e fundamental tha n relationa l pattern s an d interactions . Thi s vie w give s u s a holisti c conceptio n o f sel f i n which , a s Mitchell states , "Th e perso n i s comprehensible onl y withi n th e tapestr y o f relationships , pas t an d pres ent. .. . the figure is always in the tapestry, an d the threads of the tapestr y (via identification s an d introjections ) ar e alway s i n th e figure " (RC P 3) . The psychoanalytic relationa l mode l correspond s wit h curren t model s in th e natura l sciences , wit h quantu m mechanic s an d system s an d field theories. A t th e deepest , subatomi c leve l o f th e physica l universe , quan tum theor y tell s us , identit y i s observe r dependent ; s o to o i n th e psy chological universe , theorist s ar e increasingl y suggesting , identit y a t th e core leve l of th e sel f i s other dependent , an d inextricabl y boun d u p wit h human recognition . Lik e th e relationa l mode l o f th e mind , quantu m theory present s a model o f realit y i n which nothin g i s more fundamenta l than dynamic , interactiv e patterns an d relationships . Accordin g t o phys icist Henr y Stapp , "a n elementar y particl e i s no t a n independentl y ex isting unanalyzabl e entity . I t is , i n essence , a se t o f relationship s tha t reach outward to other things" (Zukov 71). Similarly, Werner Heisenber g describes th e worl d fro m th e perspectiv e o f contemporar y theoretica l physics a s divided "no t int o differen t group s o f object s bu t int o differen t groups o f connections . . . . What ca n b e distinguishe d i s the kin d o f con nection whic h i s primaril y importan t i n a certai n phenomenon . . . . The world thus appears as a complicated tissue of events, in which connection s

Introduction 3 of differen t kind s alternat e o r overla p o r combin e an d thereb y determin e the textur e o f th e whole " (107) . Chaos an d system s theorie s als o present natur e a s an intricat e we b o r process structur e i n whic h complex , seemingl y chaoti c system s generat e pattern an d order in terms of the whole. The well-known Butterfl y Effec t in chao s theory , "th e notio n tha t a butterfl y stirrin g th e ai r toda y i n Peking ca n transfor m stor m system s nex t mont h i n Ne w York " (Gleic k 8), captures the holistic, weblike nature of this perspective. Contemporar y physics, wrot e Alfre d Nort h Whitehead , "ha s swep t awa y spac e an d matter, an d ha s substitute d th e stud y o f interna l relation s withi n a com plex stat e o f activity " (15) . Th e mode l o f th e univers e i s n o longe r on e of separat e workin g parts ; th e len s o f th e ne w science s delineate s a view of th e universe a s a dynamic patterning o f interactions , connections , an d interrelationships. Mitchell's descriptio n o f relational-mode l theorie s i n psychoanalysi s reveals th e sam e underlyin g paradigm . Th e psych e to o i s no w viewe d essentially a s a matte r o f relationa l pattern s rathe r tha n o f anatom y an d inherent energ y force s o r drives . A s Mitchel l states , "Min d ha s bee n redefined fro m a se t o f predetermine d structure s emergin g fro m insid e an individua l organis m t o transactiona l pattern s an d interna l structure s derived fro m a n interactive, interpersona l field" (RC P 17) . Psychologica l reality is thus both intrapsychic and interpersonal. Accordin g to Mitchell, the relationa l mode l doe s no t negat e th e importanc e o f conflic t no r o f bodily, sexua l experienc e s o fundamenta l t o th e classica l model . Rather , it argue s th e significanc e o f conflic t an d sexualit y a s both implici t i n an d shaped b y th e large r relationa l matrix . Mitchell propose s a specific "relational-conflic t model " i n which "th e antagonists i n th e centra l psychodynami c conflict s ar e relationa l config urations" (RC P 10) . Conflic t i s alway s implie d i n relatedness . Ambiva lence an d conflictua l passion s revolvin g aroun d issue s o f autonom y an d dependence ar e inevitable i n an y singl e significan t relationship ; an d con flict i s equall y unavoidabl e amon g th e competin g claim s o f differen t sig nificant relationship s in one's life. Sexuality is the "medium par excellenc e for the experience of self in interaction with others" (RCP 11) . It provides the prime arena for the playing out of relational issues because, as Mitchell explains, bodil y sensation s an d processe s dominat e th e child' s earl y ex perience, an d "sexualit y entail s a n interpenetration o f bodie s an d needs " that make s "it s endles s variation s ideall y suite d t o represen t longings ,

4 Introduction conflicts, an d negotiations i n the relations between sel f an d others" (RC P 103). Oedipa l wishe s an d oedipa l guilt , too , ma y stil l b e considere d a s universal, a s Hans Loewal d ha s argued , bu t no t becaus e the y expres s o r are derivativ e o f inheren t drives . Rather , the y ca n b e understood a s out growths o f ou r earlies t primary relationshi p i n which w e wish t o remai n tied t o ou r sourc e o f origi n bu t als o fea r engulfment . Th e inces t tabo o thus serve s to protect agains t a regressive dedifferentiation . Oedipa l con flict, Mitchel l believes , i s par t "o f th e unavoidabl y conflictua l struggl e for self-definitio n withi n a relational matrix" (RCP 87) , and he conclude s that "th e proble m o f sexualit y i s located no t i n its a priori nature , bu t i n an interactiv e relationa l field—the vicissitude s o f objec t relations—fro m which i t take s it s meanings " (RC P 88) . Psychoanalytic relational-mode l theorie s als o impl y a breakdow n o f absolute norm s o r categorie s fo r evaluatin g healt h o r patholog y since , a s Mitchell explains , "i f eac h perso n i s a specifically self-designe d creation , styled t o fit withi n a particular interpersona l context , ther e i s no generi c standard agains t whic h deviation s ca n b e measured " (RC P 277) . Never theless, evaluation s ca n stil l be mad e i n term s o f th e relativ e rigidit y an d constrictedness o f one' s relationa l pattern s (particularl y i n regar d t o th e earliest attachments) , an d th e degre e t o whic h internalize d conflictua l patterns limi t an d restric t one' s presen t experience s an d relationships . Despite th e absenc e o f universa l absolutes , relational-mode l theorie s find meaning in the specific nature of the connections and in the patterning of th e relationship s tha t construc t th e individua l an d tha t th e individua l also constructs . Th e notio n o f a patterned, structure d self , forge d i n th e relational matrix , i s stil l a fundamenta l assumptio n o f relational-mode l psychoanalytic theories—th e achievemen t o f a cohesiv e sel f i s indee d a goal o f mos t psychoanalyti c therapies . Unlik e Lacania n an d postmoder n critical theories , psychoanalyti c relational-mode l theorie s affir m th e meaning of self as subject. As Mitchell makes clear, the self is both creatio n and creator , designe r an d design ; th e sel f bot h shape s an d i s shape d b y the relationa l matrix . In postmoder n critica l theory , th e sel f i s considere d onl y a s cultura l construct, onl y a s designed ; tha t design , furthermore , ca n alway s b e unraveled sinc e i t lack s eve n th e potentia l fo r authenti c coherence. 1 A s such, poststructuralis t theor y collapse s th e boundarie s betwee n subjec t and context . Relational-mode l theories , o n th e othe r hand , maintai n boundaries an d a necessary tensio n betwee n th e sel f an d th e socia l sur -

Introduction 5 round, while at the same time stressin g a dynami c flexibilit y an d inter penetration o f th e two : again , "th e figur e i s alway s in th e tapestry , an d the thread s o f th e tapestr y ar e alway s i n th e figure. " Fro m Mitchell' s view, too , psychoanalyti c emphasi s shoul d b e a s much o n th e present a s on th e past ; hi s relational-conflic t mode l represent s th e sel f no t merel y as a passive victim o f experienc e bu t a s an activ e creator an d perpetuato r of conflictua l relationa l pattern s a s well . Th e emphasi s give s a les s de terministic cas t t o th e psychoanalyti c vie w o f th e self , revitalizin g exis tentialist notion s o f freedo m an d choice . The relational mode l in the social and natural science s has implication s for th e critica l model s an d framework s tha t w e brin g t o th e stud y o f literature an d th e arts . Wit h it s focu s o n dynamic , interactiv e pattern s and relationships , th e relationa l paradig m ca n redirec t ou r attentio n t o the interconnections , an d no t jus t th e disruptions , i n ou r cultura l an d literary analyses . Whil e dismissin g essentialis t structure s an d absolut e categories o r truths , th e relationa l mode l nevertheles s highlight s signifi cant order s o f connectio n an d relationship ; i t expand s th e possibilitie s for meaning in our understanding of human experience, and in the creative reconstruction o f tha t experienc e i n ar t an d literature . Psychoanalytic Relational

Concepts:

An Overview

In th e languag e o f psychoanalysis , th e term "object " refer s t o somethin g in the external environment—usually a person—significant t o the subject' s inner psychi c life . Whil e "objects " an d th e relationship s wit h the m ar e not primar y determinant s i n Freud' s dual-driv e mode l o f psychi c devel opment, th e evolutio n o f hi s theor y doe s reflec t thei r increasin g impor tance. Thi s i s apparen t i n th e mov e fro m hi s earl y topographic — unconscious-preconscious-conscious—model o f th e min d t o hi s late r structural mode l o f id-ego-superego . Th e eg o an d supereg o ar e psychi c structures define d b y thei r functiona l relationshi p wit h th e externa l en vironment; furthermore , the y ar e deepl y affecte d b y a specific relationa l history an d development—th e Oedipu s complex . A s Greenber g an d Mitchell explain, however , Freu d downplay s "interpersona l observation s in favo r o f constitutiona l factors " [Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory 73 ; hereafter referre d t o a s ORPT ) i n hi s theoretica l expositio n of th e Oedipu s complex , emphasizin g heredit y an d preordaine d devel opmental phase s i n th e oedipa l drama' s establishmen t an d unfolding .

6 Introduction Freud make s hi s stronges t statemen t o n th e importance o f objec t re lations t o intrapsychi c structur e i n his 191 7 paper analyzin g depression , "Mourning an d Melancholia. " I n it , h e postulate s tha t th e los s o f a n object i n realit y ca n b e experience d a s a los s i n th e ego : ther e i s "a n identification o f the ego with th e abandoned object . Thu s th e shadow of the object fell upon the e g o . . .. In this way an object-loss was transforme d into a n ego-los s an d th e conflic t betwee n th e eg o and th e love d perso n into a cleavag e betwee n th e critica l activit y o f th e eg o an d th e eg o a s altered b y identification " (249) . Conflic t an d ambivalence originall y ex perienced i n relation t o the object ar e transformed int o a cleavage withi n the eg o itself ; i n intens e lov e an d suicide , Freu d believed , th e eg o i s overwhelmed b y th e internalized object . Th e concepts expresse d here — particularly th e proces s o f identificatio n an d it s structura l effec t o n th e ego—provide th e groundwork fo r late r objec t relation s theories . It is not surprising tha t severa l of the most influentia l objec t relationa l theorists—Melanie Klein , D . W . Winnicott , an d Margare t Mahler , fo r instance—began b y workin g wit h children . A s Greenber g an d Mitchel l point out , wit h children , "instinctua l aim s ar e difficult t o discern, " bu t what i s most conspicuou s "i s the child's vulnerability"—hi s o r her nee d for securit y an d othe r people . Thi s force s attentio n o n "th e exquisit e interaction betwee n th e child an d his caretakers" (ORPT 74-75) . Klein' s work—generally considere d th e foundatio n o f th e Britis h schoo l o f object-relations theory—gre w out of her observations and interpretations of children' s play . Whil e sh e sa w her theor y a s largel y consisten t wit h Freud's driv e development model, her work nevertheles s represents som e significant revisions , particularl y i n its emphasis o n an elaborate, preoe dipal, unconsciou s fantas y lif e highl y involve d wit h th e mother's body . Her theor y als o present s a n importan t elaboratio n o f Freud' s concep t of identificatio n an d th e processe s o f internalization , splitting , an d projection. 2 Klein postulate s tw o "positions " i n the infant's developin g relations , both internal and external, with the primary object. I n the first six months of life , th e "paranoid-schizoi d position " dominates : th e objec t i s expe rienced a s bot h "good " ( a sourc e o f libidina l gratification ) an d "bad " (frustrating an d withholding), and in an attempt to protect the good objec t and th e self, th e object i s split—the goo d an d bad are kept separat e an d isolated. I n th e "depressiv e position " o f th e latter hal f o f th e first year , the eg o ha s develope d enoug h t o integrat e th e spli t an d perceiv e th e

Introduction 7 mother a s a singl e whole , bot h goo d an d bad . Th e ke y developmenta l task her e i s th e toleratio n o f ambivalence . Th e paranoi d anxiet y i s tha t the sel f wil l b e destroye d b y th e ba d externa l objec t o r world , whil e th e more develope d depressiv e anxiet y concern s fea r fo r th e objec t du e t o one's ow n aggressio n an d destructiv e fantasies . Th e depressiv e anxiet y and accompanyin g guil t lea d t o th e desir e fo r "reparation"—a n attemp t to repai r th e damag e an d restor e th e mothe r (Klei n an d Rivier e 65-69) . Klein extende d th e depressiv e position , a s Greenber g an d Mitchel l explain, "t o subsum e th e Oedipu s comple x itself, whic h i s redefined an d now portraye d largel y a s a vehicle fo r depressiv e anxiet y an d attempt s a t reparation" (ORP T 126) . I n summarizin g Klein' s contributio n t o th e development o f th e psychoanalyti c relationa l model , Greenber g an d Mitchell stres s he r subtl e bu t importan t reformulatio n o f th e Freudia n concept o f th e drives . Fo r Freud , drive s ar e physica l force s o r bodil y tensions tha t see k release an d gratification , an d th e objec t "remain s tem porally secondar y an d alway s functionall y subordinat e t o th e aim s o f drive gratification " (ORP T 136) . Fo r Klein , o n th e othe r hand , drive s "are no t discret e quantitie s o f energ y arisin g from specifi c bod y tension s but passionat e feeling s o f lov e an d hat e directe d towar d other s an d uti lizing th e bod y a s a vehicl e o f expression . Drives, for Klein, are relationships" (ORP T 146 ; italics theirs) . Klein's wor k wa s transitiona l fo r late r theorist s i n th e Britis h school , such as Harry Guntri p an d W. R . D . Fairbairn , wh o abandoned th e dualinstinct concep t altogether . "Libidina l aim s ar e of secondar y importanc e in comparison wit h object-relations... . a relationship with a n object an d not the gratification o f an impulse is the ultimate aim of libidinal striving," claims Fairbair n (50) . Eve n th e ter m "libidinal " ca n b e misleadin g here , since Fairbair n di d no t conceiv e o f libid o i n th e Freudia n sens e o f a n entity or form o f energy separate from th e person. Furthermore, althoug h aggression play s a n importan t rol e i n Fairbairn' s theory , h e di d no t se e it a s a primary drive , o r eve n i n Klein' s sense , a s a primary motivator . As Greenber g an d Mitchel l explain , "Fairbair n fel t tha t aggressio n i s no t a primary motivational factor . Rathe r tha n arisin g spontaneously , i t i s a reaction t o th e frustratio n o f th e primar y motivationa l aim—th e strivin g for contac t wit h objects " (ORP T 159) . Fairbairn' s theor y concentrate s on th e internalizatio n o f frustrating , ba d objects . Fairbair n sa w inter nalization a s a defense : internalizin g object s i s a n attemp t t o contro l o r master them . Hi s wor k explore s th e consequence s o f thes e internalize d

8 Introduction and the n represse d ba d object s o n th e emotiona l lif e an d intrapsychi c structure o f th e individual' s inne r world . Psychopathology , h e believed , resolves itsel f int o " a stud y o f th e relationship s o f eg o to it s internalize d objects" (Fairbair n 60) . As a n analysan d o f Fairbairn , Guntri p devote d muc h o f hi s wor k t o elucidating an d promoting Fairbairn' s theor y a s an alternative to Freud's . The mos t luci d an d syntheti c write r o f th e Britis h objec t relation s the orists, Guntrip , a s Greenber g an d Mitchel l note , ofte n depict s psycho dynamic issue s withi n a specifically mora l context . Guntri p objecte d t o what h e sa w a s th e dangerousl y depersonalized , biologisti c foundatio n of th e Freudia n model : "Scienc e ha s t o discove r whethe r an d ho w i t ca n deal wit h th e 'person, ' th e 'uniqu e individual, ' w e wil l dar e t o sa y th e 'spiritual sel f wit h al l the motives, values, hopes, fear s an d purposes tha t constitute th e rea l lif e o f man , an d mak e a purely 'organic ' approac h t o man inadequate" (Personality Structure 15) . He argues , furthermore, tha t "love-object relationships. . . and th e conflict s ove r the m ar e a n intens e and devastatin g dram a o f need , fear , ange r an d hopelessness . T o attemp t to accoun t fo r thi s by a hedonistic theor y o f motivation , namel y tha t th e person i s seeking th e satisfaction s o f oral , ana l an d genita l pleasure, i s so impersonal an d inadequat e tha t i t take s o n th e aspec t o f bein g itsel f a product o f schizoi d thinking " (287) . Guntrip's wor k focuse s o n th e schizoid personality , o n th e "regresse d ego" that du e to severe deprivation o f a nurturing relationshi p ha s totall y withdrawn fro m objects , bot h interna l an d external . Th e regresse d eg o seeks t o retur n t o th e securit y o f th e womb , t o a deathlike , objectles s state free fro m th e intense fear an d rage that its conflictual objec t relation s have produced . Wherea s fo r Fairbairn , psychopatholog y arise s ou t o f sustained attachmen t t o ba d objects , fo r Guntrip , psychopatholog y i s rooted i n a n abandonmen t o f object s an d a retreat fro m objec t relation s altogether. Bot h theorists , however , se e psychi c lif e a s originatin g i n a state of infantil e dependenc y tha t mus t b e negotiated. 3 Winnicott' s wor k probes eve n mor e specificall y int o th e various need s o f th e infan t i n tha t earliest dependen t state , an d th e materna l provision s necessar y t o it s successful negotiation . Winnicott introduce s th e concep t o f th e "good-enough-mother, " th e mother who provides a "facilitating environment " fo r th e infant's emerg ing sel f (Maturational Processes). The facilitatin g task s includ e providin g a "holdin g environment " fo r th e infant—"a n infan t wh o ha s n o on e

Introduction 9 person t o gathe r hi s bits togethe r start s wit h a handicap i n his own selfintegrating task" (Through Paediatrics 150) ; empathically anticipatin g the baby's needs and participating in its "moment of illusion" or hallucinatory omnipotence (i.e. , presentin g th e breas t whe n th e infan t i s excite d an d ready to "hallucinate" it); and functioning a s a mirror s o as to reflect th e infant's ow n experience an d being—"When I look I am seen, s o I exist " (Playing and Reality 134) . The mother's early , intens e empathi c partic ipation i n the infant's life , however , naturall y an d gradually diminishes , and a s Greenber g an d Mitchel l summariz e Winnicott' s position , "Th e mother's 'graduate d failur e o f adaptation' i s essential to the developmen t of separation , differentiation , an d realization" (ORP T 194). Excessive or prolonged impingemen t o f the maternal environmen t can lead t o a n atroph y o f th e infant's ow n expression o f spontaneou s need s and responses—a loss of what Winnicott characterizes as the "true self" — and th e cultivatio n o f a complian t "fals e self, " constructe d ou t o f th e mother's expectation s an d serving "t o hid e th e true Self " (Maturational Processes 147).4 In Winnicott's late r writings , h e stresses th e importanc e of th e mother' s increasin g separatenes s an d he r capacit y t o sustai n th e child's "use " and even "destruction " o f her in fantasy : The subjec t say s t o th e object: " I destroye d you, " and the object i s there t o receive the communication. Fro m no w on the subject says : "Hullo object! " " I destroyed you." "I love you." "You have value for me because of your survival of my destruction of you." "Whil e I am loving you I am all the time destroying you in (unconscious) fantasy." Here fantasy begins for the individual. The subject can no w use the objec t tha t ha s survived . (Playing and Reality 90 ; hereafte r referred t o as PR) Thus th e child' s "destruction " o f th e objec t paradoxicall y enhance s it s reality. A s Greenber g an d Mitchell explain , "Th e survival o f th e objec t is crucial . Th e mother' s nonretaliator y durabilit y allow s th e infan t th e experience of unconcerned 'usage, ' which in turn aid s him in establishin g a belief i n resilient other s outsid e hi s omnipotent control " (ORP T 196). For Winnicott , unlik e Freud , th e recognition o f external realit y i s not only o r eve n predominantl y painful , bu t ca n indeed b e a deeply joyfu l discovery. Infantil e narcissis m an d th e destructiv e fantasie s boun d u p with the illusion of omnipotence can be terrifying, an d thus the acknowledgment o f limit s an d boundaries—of a real worl d outsid e th e self—ca n

10 Introduction be profoundl y liberating . Finally , on e othe r importan t phas e i n Winni cott's formulatio n o f th e infant' s ongoin g negotiation s wit h mothe r an d the externa l worl d involve s th e creatio n o f "transitiona l objects, " a concept that will be discussed more fully i n a later section of this introduction . In contras t t o th e Britis h school , wit h it s almos t exclusiv e focu s o n the mother-chil d dyad , th e developmen t o f relationall y base d psychoan alytic theorie s i n Americ a ha s involved a stronger emphasi s o n th e socia l and cultural context. A movement known as interpersonal psychoanalysi s emerged i n th e lat e 1930 s wit h th e wor k o f Harr y Stac k Sullivan , an d includes the work o f suc h other prominent theorist s a s Erich Fromm an d Karen Horney. Thei r theories stress the concrete circumstances and social reality o f thei r patients ' lives , an d i s informe d b y a characteristicall y American "pragmatic sensibility" (ORPT 82). In a clear break with Freud, Sullivan asserts , "Th e fiel d o f Psychiatr y i s th e field o f interpersona l relations—a personalit y ca n neve r b e isolate d fro m th e comple x o f in terpersonal relation s i n whic h th e perso n live s an d ha s hi s being " (10) . As Greenberg and Mitchell explain, Sullivan drew explicitly on moder n physics, as well as the metaphysics of Whitehead, i n his conceptualizatio n of personalit y a s "a n interpersona l field" an d no t a concret e structur e that ca n b e know n o r measure d i n an y objectiv e sense . "Fo r Sullivan , a s for Whitehead, th e mind is a temporal phenomenon, energ y transformin g itself throug h time . Th e onl y meaningfu l referen t fo r th e term 'structure ' is a pattern o f activity ; th e onl y meaningfu l referren t fo r th e concep t o f a psychic 'energy' is the entire stuff o f mental life, not separable quantitie s that prope l menta l life " (ORP T 91) . Sulliva n has been enormousl y influ ential o n contemporar y psychoanalyti c thinking , bu t Greenber g an d Mitchell argu e that becaus e he never formally systematize d o r unified hi s concepts, hi s writings ar e rarely studie d i n th e origina l no r i s he credite d with havin g bee n th e first t o formulat e s o man y curren t psychoanalyti c ideas an d approaches . The othe r dominan t strai n i n America n psychoanalyti c relationa l the ories draws o n th e eg o psychology o f Hein z Hartmann , an d includes th e work o f Edit h Jacobson, Margare t Mahler , an d Ott o Kernberg . Green berg an d Mitchel l classif y thei r wor k a s "theorie s o f accommodation " because thei r relationa l concept s ar e elaborate d withi n th e classica l driv e model; unlik e th e wor k o f Sulliva n o r th e Britis h school , thei r idea s d o not significantl y modif y th e driv e concep t o r presen t a n alternativ e t o it . These theorie s nevertheles s highligh t relationa l issue s b y stressin g th e

Introduction 1

1

adaptive strategie s o f th e eg o i n it s developin g relationshi p wit h th e ex ternal environment , an d unlik e Freud , the y assig n a crucia l rol e t o th e preoedipal infant-mothe r dyad . The y focu s o n a proces s o f increasin g individuation an d internal integration a s the infant separate s ou t fro m th e original relationa l matrix . Mahler , Pine , an d Bergma n posi t a continuu m of "psychologica l birth " tha t begin s with a n undifferentiated autisti c an d symbiotic phas e an d graduall y move s towar d a full y differentiate d an d autonomously functionin g ego . Eri k Erikson' s influentia l theor y o f per sonality development , thoug h i t work s withi n a broade r psychosocia l framework tha n Mahler's , similarl y focuse s o n a developmental contin uum tha t stresse s increasin g separation-individuation . Thi s emphasi s ha s recently com e unde r attac k b y som e feminis t psychoanalyti c theorist s who, a s I wil l discus s mor e full y later , se e thi s perspectiv e a s reflectin g a particularly gendered , mal e concer n tha t i s especiall y inappropriat e t o female psychologica l development . Another curren t approac h t o infant developmen t tha t challenges Mah ler's perspectiv e i s tha t o f Danie l Stern . Basin g hi s view s o n th e mos t recent empirica l findings i n infant research , Ster n maintain s tha t th e bab y possesses a basic core sens e of sel f fro m th e beginning , an d h e reject s th e developmental continuu m tha t begin s wit h symbioti c fusio n an d pro gresses t o a state o f separatenes s an d autonomy . Accordin g t o Stern , th e infant i s interpersonal fro m th e start, capabl e of recognizing and respond ing to its caretakers an d evoking responses from them . Rathe r than seein g the infant-mothe r dya d i n term s o f sel f an d object , Ster n stresse s a n "intersubjective relatedness " {Interpersonal World of the Infant 124-38 ; hereafter referre d t o a s IWOI) . Th e sel f develop s b y buildin g o n initia l sets o r unit s o f interpersona l interaction , a developmen t tha t doe s no t involve separatio n o r movemen t ou t o f th e relationa l matrix ; huma n beings remai n fundamentall y interpersona l t o th e end . Stern's perspective als o places more emphasi s o n the "fit " betwee n th e particular infan t an d th e particula r mothe r o r caretaker , viewin g th e in teraction a s a mutua l engagemen t i n whic h th e bab y bring s hi s o r he r own constitutiona l an d temperamenta l qualitie s t o bea r o n th e relation ship. Thi s vie w offer s a n importan t correctiv e t o a tendenc y i n objec t relations theory t o see the baby only as a passive recipient of the mother' s failures o r successe s a t nurturance. Th e mos t importan t elemen t o f earl y interpersonal experience , accordin g t o Stern , i s th e sharin g o f affect , o r "interaffectivity"—"interaffectivity ma y b e the first, mos t pervasive, an d

12 Introduction most immediatel y importan t for m o f sharin g subjectiv e experiences " (IWOI132). Fo r Stern, the "affective attunement " between caretaker and child i s the determinin g facto r i n th e developmen t o f a strong sens e of self. Finally, Hein z Kohut' s "sel f psychology " represent s anothe r signifi cant model in American psychoanalytic theory tha t has relational aspects. A key feature of Kohut's theory is the concept of "selfobjects"—"object s . . . which ar e either used in the service of the self an d of the maintenance of its instinctual investment, o r objects whic h are themselves experience d as part of the self" (Analysis of the Selfxiv; hereafte r referre d t o as AOS). The emergenc e o f a cohesiv e sel f depend s o n particula r self-selfobjec t relations: th e primar y selfobject s mus t provid e a n empathi c mirrorin g response t o th e self' s earl y grandiosit y an d exhibitionis m ( a functio n Kohut generall y associate s wit h th e mother), an d they mus t sustai n th e self's idealize d projection s ( a role th e father usuall y assumes ) a s the self gives ove r it s own previous sens e o f perfection an d omnipotence. Thes e two "bipolar " selfobjec t relationship s ar e "transmuted " int o "psychi c structures" o f the self (AO S 49). Kohu t see s psychopathology a s arising not out of conflict, a s in the classical model, but out of deficient selfobjec t relations an d a resultan t "deficit " i n self-structure . Kohu t als o divide s libidinal energ y int o tw o realms—narcissistic libid o an d object libido — with eac h representing a separate, independent lin e of development. Nar cissistic libid o cathect s selfobject s an d leads t o th e development o f self esteem o r healthy narcissism , whil e objec t libid o cathect s "true " object s (objects experience d a s separate fro m th e self) an d leads t o the development o f objec t love . Kohut's work share s with othe r relational-mode l theorie s an emphasis on mirrorin g an d empathi c resonanc e a s crucial factor s i n health y self development. Hi s theory i s also founde d o n the conviction tha t th e self is conceived out of its relationships with early objects (as well as the belief that th e nee d fo r thes e relationship s i s neve r outgrown) . Nevertheless , his dua l line s o f developmen t sugges t tha t hi s theor y ma y no t b e a s relational a s it migh t appear . Lynn e Layto n indee d argue s convincingl y "that despit e appearances , an d to th e detrimen t o f th e theory , Kohut' s formulations ignor e relationship " (420) . Kohut' s sel f ma y be born fro m relationship, bu t a s Layto n point s out , "no t fro m relationship s wit h others experience d a s separate an d distinc t center s o f initiative . Rather , these relationship s ar e wit h other s experience d a s coexisten t wit h th e

Introduction 1

3

subject an d unde r th e subject' s control " (421) . Sh e argues , furthermore , that "i t i s absurd t o assig n empath y t o a realm o f sel f object relation s tha t is sharpl y differentiate d fro m th e real m o f objec t love.. . . relationships with other s undoubtedly includ e both what Kohu t describe s a s self object functions an d wha t Freu d describe s a s object functions , bu t th e tw o mi x in ways tha t mak e them inseparable, " an d I agree with he r that "the y ar e falsely an d incompletel y understoo d i f looke d a t separately " (426) . One o f th e accusation s sometime s levele d agains t objec t relation s an d relationally base d theorie s i s tha t the y assum e tha t conflict-fre e perfec tion—a stat e o f complet e happines s an d integration—i s possibl e i f onl y parents respon d appropriatel y an d provid e a properly relational , nurtur ing environmen t fo r thei r children . Whil e th e implication s o f som e par ticular theories—Guntrip's , fo r instance , o r Kohut's , a s i t ignore s conflict—might mak e thi s a valid charge , i t i s no t tru e o f th e relationa l view i n general . Mitchell , i n hi s syntheti c "relational-conflic t model, " insists tha t conflic t i s alway s involve d i n relatedness : "I n th e relational conflict model , th e antagonists in the central psychodynamic conflict s ar e relational configurations ; th e inevitabl e conflictua l passion s withi n an y single relationship , an d th e competin g claims , necessaril y incompatible , among differen t significan t relationship s an d identifications " (RC P 10) . From thi s perspective , th e eliminatio n o f conflic t woul d no t eve n b e a therapeutic goal ; rather , a s Mario n Milne r ha s suggested , th e ke y t o healthy livin g woul d b e th e abilit y t o tolerate conflict—"th e capacit y t o bear th e tension s o f doub t an d o f unsatisfie d nee d an d th e willingnes s to hold judgment i n suspense until finer and finer solutions can be discovered whic h integrat e mor e an d mor e th e claim s o f bot h sides " (10) . Object relation s theorie s ar e als o commonl y charge d wit h devotin g attention to o exclusivel y t o th e infant-mothe r dya d an d ignorin g large r cultural an d socia l influences . While , again , thi s ma y b e a fair charg e i n some cases , i t i s no t a weaknes s necessaril y intrinsi c t o th e relational model perspective. While the focus may be interpersonal and intrapsychic, most relational-mode l theorist s woul d no t den y tha t interpersona l rela tionships an d intrapsychi c dynamic s ar e deeply affecte d b y historica l an d cultural circumstances . Objec t relation s theoris t Arnol d Modell , fo r in stance, argues that the current increase in narcissistic personality disorder s reflects "th e impac t o f historica l processe s upo n th e ego " an d i s "sec ondary t o cultura l change " {Psychoanalysis 267-68) . H e believe s tha t culture influences developmen t primaril y i n adolescence, whe n a "certain

14 Introduction selective reinforcin g o r reorganizatio n o f th e personality " ca n occur : "Our contemporar y worl d confront s th e adolescen t wit h failure s i n th e protective environmen t analogou s t o thos e experience d earlie r i n rela tionship t o th e parenta l environment . Thi s secon d disillusionmen t wil l involve simila r copin g strategies " (270) . Modell' s vie w i s much th e sam e as Christophe r Lasch' s i n The Culture of Narcissism, wher e h e argue s that th e genera l "warlik e condition s tha t pervade American society " (64 ) foster narcissisti c anxietie s an d encourag e th e sort s o f defenses—suc h a s lack o f emotiona l dept h an d commitment—characteristi c o f pathologica l narcissism. From a relationa l perspective , cultur e ca n als o influenc e psychi c de velopment i n a n earlie r phas e a s i t i s transmitte d throug h th e perso n o f the caretake r an d affect s hi s o r he r interaction s wit h th e child . A s Jan e Flax explains , "Th e caretake r bring s t o th e relationshi p a complex serie s of experience s includin g no t onl y persona l histor y an d feeling s abou t being a particular gender , bu t als o the whole range of socia l experience — work, friends , interactio n wit h politica l an d economi c institutions , an d so on " (122) . Whil e I agre e wit h Fla x tha t mor e wor k need s t o b e don e in thi s area , th e psychoanalyti c relationa l mode l doe s no t inherentl y ex clude acknowledgmen t o f cultura l an d historica l force s i n it s conceptio n of self-formatio n an d development . The Relational Model

and Feminist Theory

Because objec t relation s theorie s hav e shifte d th e emphasi s awa y fro m the oedipal , father-base d mode l t o a preoedipal , mother-base d vie w o f psychological development , the y hav e been o f particula r interes t t o fem inist theorists . Nanc y Chodorow , i n he r influentia l boo k The Reproduction of Mothering, applie s objec t relation s theor y t o a stud y o f th e social construction of gender in Western culture. If mothers so profoundly affect emotiona l an d psychi c growth , wha t ar e th e implications , Cho dorow asks , of the fact that women, an d not men, mothe r i n our culture ? One consequenc e is that women ar e forever tie d to the intense experienc e of infantil e dependency—t o th e frightenin g feeling s o f helplessnes s an d ambivalence in relation to the all-powerful mother . Childre n als o "expec t and assum e women' s uniqu e capacitie s fo r sacrifice , caring , an d moth ering," Chodoro w explains , "an d associat e wome n wit h thei r ow n fear s of regressio n an d powerlessness . The y fantasiz e mor e abou t men , an d

Introduction 1

5

associate them with idealized virtues and growth" (83). Males and females, furthermore, "experienc e differen t interpersona l environment s a s the y grow up " an d thu s "feminin e an d masculin e personalit y wil l develo p differently an d b e preoccupied wit h differen t issues . The structur e o f th e family an d famil y practice s creat e certain differentia l relationa l need s an d capacities i n me n an d wome n tha t contribut e t o th e reproductio n o f women a s mothers " (51) . Chodorow argue s that the mother's unconscious attitudes and relation s with he r childre n ar e deepl y influence d b y thei r gender : sh e wil l expe rience a girl as an extension o f herself, ofte n discouragin g her from form ing a separat e identity , whil e sh e wil l experienc e th e bo y a s "other, " encouraging hi m t o differentiat e an d mov e ou t int o th e externa l world . Girls, then , wil l develo p les s firm eg o boundaries , an d du e t o th e pro longed preoedipa l bond , wil l remai n throughou t thei r live s preoccupie d with relational and affective issues . Boys, on the other hand, wil l be more occupied wit h issue s o f separatio n an d differentiation—wit h establishin g their masculin e identit y i n oppositio n t o th e mothe r an d he r femininity . "Masculine personality, then , comes to be defined mor e in terms of denial of relatio n an d connectio n (an d denia l o f femininity) , wherea s feminin e personality come s t o includ e a fundamental definitio n o f sel f i n relation ship" (169) . Chodoro w thu s argue s fo r a restructurin g o f th e typica l nuclear househol d s o that me n woul d participat e equall y wit h wome n i n primary chil d care : "Childre n coul d b e dependen t fro m th e outse t o n people o f bot h gender s an d establis h a n individuate d sens e o f sel f i n relation to both. I n this way, masculinity would not become tied to denial of dependenc e an d devaluatio n o f women " (218) . Chodorow's accoun t i s ope n t o som e question s an d possibl e objec tions. Stephe n Frosh , fo r instance , complain s tha t th e feminis t objec t relations vie w "suffer s fro m a subtl e for m o f determinism , suggestin g that th e systemati c similaritie s betwee n wome n i s due t o the similarit y i n the actual behavio r o f al l their mothers . Althoug h suc h similaritie s exist , so too d o substantia l differences " (Fros h 184) . Jane Fla x makes a similar point, arguin g that each woman brings her own particular social history— her clas s an d race , fo r instance—t o he r mothering , an d thi s i s no t ade quately recognized in Chodorow's unifor m depictio n of the mother-chil d dyad (Fla x 122-24) . Fro m Flax' s view , Chodoro w i s universalizin g a particular white , middle-clas s famil y an d motherin g dynamic . Madelo n Sprengnether believes that the "essentialist bias" of object relations theor y

16 Introduction undermines Chodorow' s argumen t for the cultural construction o f gende r and femininity : "Th e objec t relation s concep t o f mother-infan t fusion , by focusing o n the physical as well as the emotional bond between mothe r and child , introduce s a n instabilit y int o Chodorow' s argumen t fo r th e predominance o f socia l factor s i n th e psychologica l constructio n o f gen der. Th e resul t i s a drif t toward s essentialism , whic h threaten s t o re inscribe (albei t i n a mor e positiv e way ) th e existin g stereotype s o f masculinity an d femininity " (194) . One migh t als o as k i f th e child' s gende r reall y determine s th e degre e of separatenes s o r connectio n i n th e mother-chil d relationshi p t o th e extent that Chodorow suggests , or if other specific aspect s of the mother' s relational history—he r relationshi p wit h he r parents , he r husband , he r community, fo r instance—migh t no t b e th e mor e powerfu l factor s i n determining ho w th e mothe r bond s an d separate s fro m he r child , re gardless o f th e child' s sex . Chodorow' s characterizatio n o f th e mother daughter connection , furthermore , i s particularl y questionabl e sinc e a t times i t seem s t o normaliz e a pathologica l relationshi p i n whic h th e mother experience s her child only a s a narcissistic extensio n o r projectio n of herself . I t i s indee d possibl e fo r a mothe r t o experienc e he r femal e child a s both sam e and separat e fro m herself . Ther e i s a tendency amon g some feminis t theorist s t o glorif y th e preoedipa l mother-daughte r rela tionship, bu t a prolonged , undifferentiate d preoedipa l bond , fa r fro m producing a healthy o r flexible relationa l capacit y i n the daughter, woul d severely problematiz e boundar y issue s an d relationship s fo r her . The wor k o f Doroth y Dinnerstei n an d Caro l Gilliga n share s severa l of Chodorow' s assumptions . I n The Mermaid and the Minotaur, Din nerstein argue s tha t th e sexual division o f labo r i n child car e has not onl y adversely affecte d th e relation s betwee n me n an d wome n bu t als o i s responsible fo r ou r curren t ecologica l crisi s an d ou r genera l stat e o f ma laise. The need t o master an d dominat e natur e is an extension o f th e nee d to dominat e women , th e sourc e o f which , again , i s tha t intensel y am bivalent, infantil e experienc e o f th e mother' s earl y omnipotence . Din nerstein see s th e origina l divisio n o f labo r a s roote d i n biology : becaus e of pregnanc y an d lactation , wome n hav e been tie d t o th e domesti c real m while me n hav e ha d a more "wid e rangin g mobility " (20 ) tha t privilege s them i n th e "making " o f history . Ou r masculine-determine d histor y i s thus characterize d b y a denia l o f th e irrational , bodily , an d relationa l realm—the real m o f th e threatenin g infantil e experienc e o f th e mother .

Introduction 1

7

While Dinnerstein' s theor y i s illuminatin g an d suggestive , i n it s broadl y based depictio n o f a universa l mother-chil d experienc e i t present s a de terministic perspectiv e tha t lack s historica l specificity . A s Fla x comments , " A l t h o u g h w e ar e al l bor n helples s an d dependent , gro w u p , an d die , h o w w e experienc e thes e processe s i s socially mediated, " an d sh e suggest s that a genera l theor y o f motherin g an d socia l psycholog y need s t o b e more concretel y grounded , placin g "childbearin g an d rearin g int o a p o litical, economic , an d socia l context " (165) . Gilligan's w o r k i s les s abstrac t an d wid e rangin g tha n Dinnerstein's . H e r 198 2 stud y In a Different Voice draw s explicitl y o n C h o d o r o w ' s w o r k an d focuse s o n differin g mode s o f though t i n mal e an d femal e moral development . Boys , sh e says , ten d t o abstrac t a mora l proble m from it s interpersona l situatio n whil e girl s wil l se e i t a s inextricabl e from a comple x networ k o r " w e b " o f relationships . Becaus e o f differin g preoedipa 1 relations , boy s wil l conceiv e o f sel f i n relatio n t o worl d i n terms o f reparation , autonomy , an d control , an d wil l fee l mos t threat ened b y intimacy ; girls , o n th e othe r hand , wil l hav e a mor e seamless , interrelational view , an d wil l fee l mor e dange r i n situation s o f separatio n or isolatio n tha n closeness . W o m e n ' s development , sh e concludes , "points toward s a differen t histor y o f huma n attachment , stressin g continuity an d chang e i n configuration , rathe r tha n replacemen t an d separation, elucidatin g a differen t respons e t o loss , an d changin g th e metaphor o f g r o w t h " (48) . This i s th e sam e vie w hel d b y th e Ston e Cente r theorists , whos e writ ings ar e compile d i n th e recen t volum e Women's Growth in Connection (Jordan, e t al. ; hereafte r referre d t o a s W G C ) . Jea n Bake r Mille r argue s that th e earlies t interna l representatio n o f sel f i s tha t o f a " 'being-in relationship' "— a sens e o f sel f "tha t reflect s wha t i s happenin g between p e o p l e " ( W G C 13) . Th e cor e o f th e self , sh e explains , i s emotional , an d the earlies t menta l representatio n o f tha t cor e sel f i s on e tha t is attende d t o b y th e other(s ) an d i n turn , begin s t o atten d t o th e emotion s o f the other(s) . Par t o f thi s interna l imag e o f onesel f include s feelin g th e other' s emotions an d acting on the m a s the y ar e i n interpla y wit h one' s ow n emotions . This mean s tha t th e beginning s o f th e concep t o f sel f ar e not thos e o f a static an d lone sel f bein g ministere d t o b y anothe r (incidentally , thi s construc t ha s a stron g male flavor) , bu t rathe r o f a self inseparabl e fro m dynami c interaction . An d th e central characte r o f tha t interactio n involve s attendin g t o eac h other' s menta l states an d emotions . (WG C 14 )

18 Introduction While thi s earl y "interactin g sens e o f self " pertain s t o infant s o f bot h sexes, Mille r argue s tha t cultura l attitude s towar d suc h emotionall y attuned interactio n o r "caretaking " affect s th e developmen t o f thi s basi c sense o f sel f differentl y i n girl s an d boys . Girl s ar e encourage d t o cultivate thei r empathi c an d caretakin g ability , whil e boy s "ar e system atically diverte d fro m it " (WG C 14) . Thu s a girl' s self-esteem , unlik e a boy's , i s boun d u p wit h he r sens e o f hersel f a s i n relationshi p an d as "takin g care " o f relationships . A s Mille r argue s i n a n earlie r study , "women's sens e o f sel f become s ver y muc h organize d aroun d bein g able to make and the n to maintain affiliatio n an d relationships" (Towards a New Psychology of Women 83) . Girl s ar e thu s seekin g a differen t kind o f identity , sh e concludes , tha n tha t whic h ha s bee n define d an d prescribed fo r boys . The Ston e Cente r theorists ' expressio n "self-in-relation " implies , a s Janet Surre y explains , "a n evolutionar y proces s o f develophien t throug h relationship. Suc h languag e i s use d t o differentiat e thi s notio n fro m a static self construct an d to describe an experiential process implying open ness, flexibility , an d change " (WG C 59) . Thes e theorist s argu e tha t re lationship an d connection ar e vitally important t o psychic life throughou t the lif e span , an d the y posi t a mode l o f "relationship-differentiation " as oppose d t o th e Erikso n an d Mahle r concep t o f "separation individuation." This "ne w mode l emphasizes," Miller explains, "tha t th e direction o f growt h i s no t towar d greate r degree s o f autonom y o r indi viduation an d th e breakin g o f earl y emotiona l ties , bu t towar d a process of growt h withi n relationship " (WG C 60) . A s wit h Chodorow' s argu ment, som e o f th e Ston e Center' s sweepin g generalization s abou t differ ences in the mothering o f boys and girls are highly questionable . Surrey' s statement, fo r instance, that "the mother's easier emotional openness with the daughte r tha n wit h th e son , alon g wit h he r sens e o f identificatio n with thi s styl e o f persona l learnin g an d exploration , probabl y leav e th e daughter feelin g mor e emotionall y connected , understood , an d recog nized" (WG C 56 ) i s a dubious assertio n indeed . Nevertheless, th e Ston e Cente r theorist s mak e som e valuabl e argu ments. The y discus s empathy , fo r instance , a s a significant , an d partic ularly female , mod e o f relatio n tha t i s distinctl y differen t fro m merger , fusion, o r symbiosis . Judith Jorda n maintain s tha t empath y involves , a s Kohut ha s stated , " ' a recognitio n o f th e sel f i n th e other ' " tha t implie s a simultaneous connectio n an d separateness . Th e "parado x o f empathy, "

Introduction 1

9

she says , i s tha t "i n th e joinin g proces s on e develop s a more articulate d and differentiate d imag e o f th e othe r an d henc e respond s i n a more ac curate an d specifi c way , quit e th e opposit e o f wha t regressiv e mergin g would lea d to " (WG C 73) . Ston e Cente r theorist s als o prefe r Stern' s notion o f intersubjectivity, o r what they ter m "subjec t relation s theory, " as oppose d t o a n "objec t relation s theory " wher e th e objec t "ma y no t be experience d full y a s a subjec t wit h hi s o r he r ow n comprehensiv e personal constructio n o f continuou s reality " (WG C 61) . Th e failur e t o conceive of the mother a s a subject i n her own right, wit h her own desire s and bodil y realit y outsid e o f th e child' s experienc e o f her , i s a problem , as Jane Flax has noted, tha t many feminist critic s find with object relation s theory. "Withi n objec t relation s theory, " Fla x says, "th e stor y o f huma n development i s told fro m th e child' s viewpoint. . . . Mother an d chil d ar e presented a s misleadingly isomorphic " (123). 5 Finally, Jessic a Benjami n ha s als o addresse d thi s issue , an d he r stud y The Bonds of Love present s a n "intersubjective " vie w tha t argue s tha t the chil d ha s a fundamental nee d t o se e th e mothe r "a s a n independen t subject, no t simpl y a s th e 'externa l world ' o r a n adjunc t o f [th e baby's ] ego" (23) . I t i s precisel y th e failur e o f "mutua l recognition " betwee n infant an d m/othe r a s separate, independen t subjects , Benjami n believes , that lies at the root of various forms of domination in our culture. Drawin g on Stern' s work , sh e argue s tha t th e centra l issu e i n psychologica l de velopment i s no t "ho w w e separat e fro m oneness , bu t als o ho w w e connect t o an d recogniz e others ; the issu e i s not ho w w e becom e fre e o f the other , bu t ho w w e activel y engag e an d mak e ourselve s know n i n relationship t o the other" (18) . The essentia l interaction betwee n sel f an d other involve s a combination o f resonanc e an d difference , an d a delicat e tension betwee n self-assertio n an d mutua l recognitio n "tha t allow s sel f and othe r t o meet a s sovereign equals " (12). When tha t necessary tensio n breaks down , th e dynamic s o f dominatio n an d submissio n result . Th e search fo r recognitio n ca n becom e a struggle fo r power , an d assertio n a form o f aggressiv e control . I f th e nee d fo r attunemen t ha s no t bee n satisfied, pattern s o f submissio n ca n resul t a s th e sel f seek s t o remai n attuned b y surrenderin g completel y t o th e other' s powe r an d will . Ben jamin analyzes the manifestation o f these dynamics both in sexual relations and i n ou r contemporar y socia l institutions . He r wor k demonstrate s th e usefulness o f psychoanalyti c intersubjectiv e theor y t o feminis t an d cul tural analyses .

20 Introduction Transitional Phenomena,

Creativity,

and

Culture

Just a s contemporar y physic s ha s broke n d o w n th e stric t Cartesia n di vision betwee n min d an d matter , s o relational-mode l theorie s i n psycho analysis hav e loosene d rigi d distinction s betwee n th e subjectiv e interna l world an d th e externa l objec t world . Psychologica l meaning , i n fact , resides i n th e interactiv e spac e betwee n th e two . Winnicott' s influentia l concepts o f th e "transitiona l object " an d "potentia l space " highligh t thi s intermediate, transactiona l realm . Transitiona l object s ar e those objects — such a s tedd y bears , dolls , o r blankets—tha t infant s us e t o maste r th e anxiety o f individuatio n an d separatio n fro m th e mother . Thes e object s "are no t par t o f th e infant' s b o d y ye t ar e not full y recognize d a s belongin g to externa l reality" ; the y occup y a transitiona l real m betwee n insid e an d outside, a n "intermediat e are a o f experiencing t o whic h inne r realit y an d external lif e bot h contribute . I t i s a n are a tha t i s no t challenged , becaus e no clai m i s mad e o n it s behal f excep t tha t i t shal l exis t a s a resting-plac e for th e individua l engage d i n th e perpetua l huma n tas k o f keepin g inne r and oute r realit y separat e ye t interrelated " (P R 2) . Winnicott call s this are a or transitiona l real m betwee n bab y an d mothe r "potential space " becaus e i t occupie s a dimensio n tha t i s neithe r interna l nor external . Potentia l spac e i s th e are a o f play , an d i t form s th e groun d for creativity , symbolization , an d fo r cultur e a s a whole. I n hi s essa y o n " P l a y i n g , " Winnicot t repeatedl y stresse s it s intermediar y status : This are a o f playin g i s no t inne r psychi c reality . I t i s outside th e individual , bu t it is not th e externa l world. . . . Withou t hallucinatin g th e chil d put s ou t a sample of drea m potentia l an d live s wit h thi s sampl e i n a chose n settin g o f fragment s from externa l reality . . .. I n playing , th e chil d manipulate s externa l phenomen a in th e servic e o f th e drea m an d invest s chose n externa l phenomen a wit h drea m meaning an d feeling. (P R 51 ) In thi s potentia l spac e wher e absolut e categorie s ar e suspended , con nection coexist s wit h division . Susa n Der i argue s tha t transitiona l o r potential spac e "i s th e spac e fo r creativ e symbol-formation , becaus e i t i s the functio n o f symbol s t o connec t an d unit e opposites . Thi s transitiona l space, a space fo r connectedness , account s fo r a n orde r i n th e worl d base d on a n inner relatedness instea d o f a Cartesia n principl e o f dividedness . The processe s takin g plac e withi n thi s intermediat e spac e eliminat e th e

Introduction 2

1

disruption o f th e lif e spac e betwee n th e perso n an d hi s environment " (50). Winnicott' s concep t o f potentia l spac e i s als o compatibl e wit h in tersubjective theory , fo r eve n i f on e reject s a n initia l stat e o f symbiosi s that eventually gives way to autonomy an d separation, th e baby still needs to discove r an d negotiat e boundaries . Th e Ston e Cente r theorists , fo r instance, acknowledg e th e infant's proces s o f increasing "differentiation " from th e m/othe r tha t occur s withi n th e large r contex t o f ongoin g con nection an d relationship . Winnicott believes that transitional phenomena or play forms the foun dation fo r th e construction o f all human meaning—fo r understandin g th e contours of one's own subjectivity an d one's relationship with the external object world : "Th e transitiona l phenomen a represen t th e earl y stage s o f the us e o f illusion , withou t whic h ther e i s n o meanin g fo r th e huma n being i n th e ide a o f a relationshi p wit h a n objec t tha t i s perceive d b y others a s externa l t o tha t being " (P R 11) . Th e child' s individua l play , furthermore, lead s t o "share d playing , an d fro m thi s t o cultura l experi ence" (P R 51) . Thus th e creatio n o f "illusion " i n Winnicott's sense—th e investing of external reality with the meanings and fantasies o f the internal world—is a n essentiall y constructiv e phenomeno n tha t i s differen t fro m deception o r delusion. 6 This perspective o n illusion allow s us to regard th e products o f huma n culture—particularly art , literature, and religion—not merely as the products o f instinctua l sublimatio n an d defense , a s the y ar e i n th e classica l Freudian view , bu t a s various forms , i n Gilber t Rose' s terms , o f "realit y construction." Fro m thi s poin t o f view , Ros e argues , "th e functio n o f myth, religion , art , language , an d scienc e i s not , fo r example , escap e through wishfu l distortio n o f th e world , bu t orientatio n t o it— a syste m of idea s t o envisag e one' s relationshi p t o society , th e world , lif e an d death—all in the service of the reality principle" ("Creativity o f Everyda y Life" 349). The arts, and creative symbol-formation i n general, exemplif y the huma n constructio n o f meanin g tha t alway s occur s i n tha t interme diary real m o f interna l an d external , o f subjectiv e an d objective . Win nicott's perspectiv e o n pla y an d illusio n support s Suzann e Langer' s contention tha t symbolizing activit y is the definitive huma n activity ; onl y through th e ac t of symbolizin g d o w e giv e meaning t o ourselve s an d ou r experience.7 Recent psychoanalyti c theorist s o f religio n (see , fo r instance , Ana Maria Rizzuto, William Meissner, John McDargh , an d James Jones) have

22 Introduction found Winnicott' s notion s o f illusio n an d transitiona l phenomen a par ticularly valuable . Religio n ma y indee d b e a n "illusion, " bu t not , the y believe, i n th e wa y Freu d hel d i t t o be . Willia m Meissner , fo r instance , argues tha t "i n a health y resolutio n t o crise s o f development , ther e emerges a residual capacit y fo r illusio n tha t is among the most significan t dimensions o f man' s existence... . Man canno t d o without illusion , sinc e it give s meanin g an d sustenanc e t o hi s experienc e o f himself " (16-17) . From a relational-model view , i n other words , religiou s fait h ca n be seen as creative and adaptive. James Jones points out that faith is fundamentall y "a relationship (wit h God, th e sacred, th e cosmos, or some reality beyon d the phenomena l worl d o f spac e an d time) " (63) . Whil e i t ma y hav e in fantile an d regressive features, suc h a relational experienc e can also reflec t mature an d integrate d psychi c growth . Meissne r believe s tha t w e "ca n characterize level s o f religiou s experienc e a s reflectin g variou s phase s o f development fro m ver y primitiv e infantil e stage s t o th e mos t mature , integrated, an d adaptiv e level s o f psychi c functioning " (14) . Jones prefer s t o se e religiou s experienc e i n les s developmenta l term s and more a s a repetition o f the child's most primal an d intense experienc e of th e mothe r a s a "transformational object." 8 Religiou s experienc e per mits a reentry into a "timeless and transforming psychologica l space fro m which renewa l an d creativit y emerge " (134) , an d tha t spac e represent s neither a defensiv e retrea t no r a "neuroti c respons e t o th e threa t o f in stinctual force s bu t rathe r a continuation o f th e primar y experienc e tha t constitutes an d reconstitute s th e self " (122) . Th e relational-mode l per spective prompt s Jone s t o conclud e hi s stud y wit h th e followin g spec ulative remark: "If selve s necessarily stan d in relation, i t is not necessaril y irrational t o as k i f thi s comple x o f selve s i n relatio n doe s no t itsel f stan d in relation " (135) . Applications to

Literary Criticism

The linguisti c emphasi s o f Lacania n psychoanalysi s ha s contribute d t o that theory' s popularit y wit h literar y critic s an d scholars . Muc h o f th e current clinica l research , however—particularl y empirica l wor k suc h a s Stern's o n th e earl y interaction s an d response s o f infants—woul d see m to beli e Lacan' s vie w o f th e primac y o f languag e i n th e constructio n o f subjectivity. Affectiv e attunemen t precede s linguisti c developmen t an d creates it s ow n idiom . I n Christophe r Bollas' s words , "w e lear n th e

Introduction 2

3

grammar o f ou r bein g befor e w e gras p th e rule s o f ou r language " (36) . Arnold Model l ha s argue d a simila r point : "Th e capacit y o f a chil d t o know th e affectiv e stat e o f it s mothe r an d conversel y th e capacit y o f th e mother t o 'know ' th e affectiv e stat e o f th e child. . . antedates th e acqui sition of language and persists after th e acquisition o f language. S o affect s and symbolization ar e inseparable" (Psychoanalysis 234). Feeling and cognition, Model l maintains , ar e inextricabl y connected— a fac t tha t i s no t adequately recognize d i n eithe r Freudia n o r Lacania n theory . I n Lacan' s system, furthermore , languag e acts as an alienating force; in the relationa l model, contrarily , languag e can be seen as playing a binding and unifyin g role. Ster n argue s tha t "ever y wor d learne d i s th e by-produc t o f unitin g two mentalities in a common symbol system, a forging of shared meaning . With eac h word , childre n solidif y thei r menta l commonalit y wit h th e parent an d late r wit h th e othe r member s o f th e languag e culture , whe n they discover that their personal experiential knowledge is part of a larger experience o f knowledge , tha t the y ar e unified wit h other s i n a commo n culture base " (IWO I 172) . Stern als o talk s abou t languag e a s a form o f transitiona l phenomena . "The wor d i s give n t o th e infan t fro m th e outside , b y mother , bu t ther e exists a though t fo r i t t o b e give n to . . .. I t occupie s a midway positio n between th e infant' s subjectivit y an d th e mother' s objectivity . . . . I t i s in this deepe r sens e tha t languag e i s a unio n experience , permittin g a ne w level o f menta l relatednes s throug h share d meaning " (IWO I 172) . Loe wald, too , has discussed language as a unifying principl e that both bridge s primary an d secondar y processe s an d als o join s togethe r sel f an d objec t world: "Language.. . i n it s mos t genuin e an d autonomou s functio n i s a binding power. I t ties together human being s and sel f an d objec t world, " and it also reconciles the bodily concretenes s o f primary proces s with th e rational an d abstrac t though t o f secondar y proces s (Papers 204). Relational-model theories , i n other words, offe r a n alternative view of language tha t i s als o applicabl e t o th e psychoanalysi s o f a literar y text . Robert Roger s ha s applie d objec t relation s theor y t o a psychoanalyti c study o f metaphor. H e discusse s metaphor an d figures o f speech in term s of relationa l dynamic s involvin g th e restitution o f los t objects . Metapho r has a "paradoxica l potential, " h e believes , fo r "representin g a presen t absence" (Metaphor 112). 9 Readin g an d aestheti c experienc e involv e a relationship wit h th e tex t o r wor k o f ar t an d thu s relational-mode l con cepts ar e especiall y relevant . Murra y Schwart z ha s argue d tha t w e ex -

24 Introduction perience a literary tex t muc h a s a transitional object : a s we read , th e tex t feels bot h insid e an d outside , par t o f ou r ow n inne r world a s well a s part of th e externa l material an d cultura l world ("Wher e I s Literature?"). Fo r Christopher Bollas , aestheti c experienc e i s a reenactment o f th e infant' s primal experience of "fitting" wit h the mother: the aesthetic moment act s as " a spel l whic h hold s sel f an d othe r i n symmetr y an d solitude . Tim e seems suspended . A s th e aestheti c momen t constitute s a dee p rappor t between subjec t an d object , i t provide s th e perso n wit h a generativ e illusion o f fittin g wit h a n object " (32) . Because relational-mode l theorie s locat e psychological meanin g i n th e intermediate, interactiv e spac e betwee n sel f an d other , the y ar e als o par ticularly applicabl e t o reader-respons e criticism . Meanings , a s Norma n Holland ha s argued , ar e constructe d ou t o f th e interactio n o f reade r an d author relatin g throug h th e text. 10 Tha t sam e assumptio n underlie s th e essays i n thi s volume , eve n thoug h the y ar e focuse d o n th e tex t rathe r than th e reader . Whil e recognizin g th e inevitabl e limitation s o f m y ow n psychological defense s an d resistances , i t i s possible , I believe , t o rea d empathically—to ente r int o th e subjectiv e worl d o f th e tex t an d t o ex perience, bot h emotionall y an d intellectually , it s organizin g patterns. 11 Robert Rogers , drawin g o n Holland' s mode l o f th e introjectin g reade r (Dynamics of Literary Response), speak s of the "elaborate matching" tha t takes place between the internal worlds of reader and author. Th e author' s projections o f hi s o r he r interna l world , a s the y ar e represente d i n th e text, ar e introjected b y m e a s reader; thes e introject s I then "matc h wit h internalizations o f m y own , an d the n respon d to—o r not , a s th e cas e may be—cognitivel y an d affectively , a t bot h consciou s an d unconsciou s levels" (Self and Other 33) . Georg e Atwoo d an d Rober t Stoloro w hav e described psychoanalyti c understandin g a s "a n intersubjectiv e proces s involving a dialogu e betwee n tw o persona l universes, " th e "goal " o f which, the y argue , "i s th e illumination o f th e inner pattern o f a life, tha t distinctive structur e o f meaning s tha t connect s th e differen t part s o f a n individual's worl d int o a n intelligibl e whole " (5) . Thi s i s a goal tha t th e psychoanalytic reading s i n thi s collectio n als o pursue . The on e featur e tha t emerge s mos t prominentl y i n al l of th e essays i n this volum e i s th e dominan t rol e o f los s an d rag e i n th e creatio n o f th e text's subjectiv e world . A t firs t thi s ma y see m t o contradic t Winnicott' s argument about creativity, with its emphasis on the healthy and facilitatin g

Introduction 2

5

environment necessar y fo r symboli c play . Nevertheless , hi s mode l als o shows creative , transitiona l pla y a s triggere d b y th e onse t o f anxietie s over separatio n an d loss . Los s an d traum a ca n spu r a creative response , but perhap s th e issu e is a matter o f degree : if traumati c experienc e i s to o severe—if deprivatio n o r abuse , fo r instance , overwhel m th e personal ity—then traum a wil l hav e th e opposit e effect , blockin g th e ability , a s Winnicott ha s described , t o pla y a t all . Gilber t Ros e ha s writte n abou t the creativ e artist' s particula r sensitivit y t o loss : "One migh t sa y tha t th e unconscious reminiscenc e o f los t unit y befor e th e birt h o f sel f an d oth erness i s probabl y universal , bu t th e creativ e artis t i s loss-sensitiv e an d separation-prone. Therefore , hi s woun d ma y b e deeper ; th e spli t i n th e ego is such that it is set on a n endless course of repeating the loss in orde r to repai r it . . . . The novelist , then , woul d b e on e wh o refind s hi s los t world by creating one of his own, peopled with products of self" (Trauma and Mastery 127). 12 The essays in this boo k brin g relational-mode l perspective s t o bea r o n specific works of nineteenth-and twentieth-centur y literature . While these psychoanalytic theorie s ar e certainl y applicabl e t o th e literatur e o f an y period, th e heightene d an d self-consciou s exploratio n o f subjectivit y i n literary work s o f th e past tw o centurie s make s the m particularl y suitabl e for thi s sor t o f inquiry . Fou r o f th e essays , furthermore , focu s explicitl y on contemporar y America n literature . Th e cultura l influence s tha t hav e led to the development o f the relational paradigm i n the social and natura l sciences at this particular historica l momen t hav e also affected th e art an d literature o f ou r time , makin g thes e relationa l issue s an d dynamics , I believe, exceptionall y pertinent . The essa y o n Wordswort h applie s Winnicott' s concep t o f transitiona l phenomena t o th e poet' s writin g o n th e imagination . Lik e Winnicott , Wordsworth depict s th e creativ e imaginatio n a s an essentiall y interactiv e faculty tha t function s i n a paradoxica l stat e o f separatenes s an d union , originating i n th e child' s earlies t negotiation s o f separatenes s an d unio n with th e mother . A relational-mode l framewor k illuminate s Words worth's preeminen t them e abou t th e connectio n o f mora l developmen t to imaginativ e growth , an d i t offer s a view o f Wordsworth' s "mystical " or visionary imaginatio n a s a form o f realit y constructio n rathe r tha n (a s it i s ofte n see n fro m a classica l psychoanalyti c perspective ) a regressiv e defense agains t reality . Th e essay als o examine s th e connectio n i n The

26 Introduction Prelude betwee n th e growt h o f th e poet' s imaginatio n an d hi s religiou s faith; bot h ca n b e understoo d a s example s o f transitiona l phenomen a involving trus t an d developin g alon g a relational continuum . The essa y o n Wuthering Heights analyze s th e novel' s structur e an d character development in terms of the psychodynamics o f narcissistic rage and splitting . Th e Catherine-Heathclif f relationshi p reflect s th e interio r relational worl d o f a single bu t divide d self— a sel f tha t i s spli t betwee n idealized all-goo d an d contemptuous all-ba d self and object images. Split off rage , alon g wit h othe r component s o f Klein' s "schizoi d position" — such a s extreme env y an d hunger—infor m al l of th e characterizations , a s well a s th e imager y an d narrativ e perspectiv e o f th e novel . Th e essay argues, however, tha t the second half o f the novel demonstrates a gradual acknowledgment an d toleranc e o f interna l rage , an d a n empath y wit h one's ow n los t an d angr y self , tha t reflect s a movement toward s reinte gration an d wholeness . The essa y o n Wool f an d Lawrenc e compare s identit y issue s i n thei r fiction fro m th e perspectiv e o f curren t feminis t objec t relation s an d relational-model theories . Th e work s o f bot h writer s ar e fuele d b y con flicts surroundin g infantil e dependence , merging , an d separation ; bot h reveal dee p ambivalenc e towar d th e mother , alon g wit h attendan t prob lems i n self-cohesio n an d eg o boundaries . Th e essay studie s ho w gende r and relationa l issue s affec t an d complicat e eac h other. Th e threat t o mas culine identity tha t feminis t theorist s believ e always lurks i n the materna l bond become s intensifie d fo r Lawrenc e b y a n intrusiv e an d dominatin g mother, an d thu s th e predominan t metapho r o f self-in-relatio n i n hi s fiction i s one that follow s th e pattern Gilliga n ha s described o f hierarch y and stratifie d level s o f power . A s muc h a s female identit y i s particularl y involved wit h th e nee d t o fee l in relationshi p an d affectivel y attune d t o others, identit y become s problematized fo r Wool f b y a seemingly distan t and inaccessibl e mother . Th e we b metapho r tha t feminis t theorist s as sociate wit h th e femal e perspectiv e indee d dominate s Woolf' s work , th e threat t o identit y residin g no t i n intimacy , a s i t doe s fo r Lawrence , bu t in severe d connectio n an d psychi c isolation . Jean Rhys' s Wide Sargasso Sea share s th e modernis t vie w o f sel f an d universe in which "normal " or conventional structure s ar e collapsing an d the onl y certaint y i s a n ultimat e an d inescapabl e isolation . M y essay examines the psychological source s o f thi s condition i n the novel, tracin g relational pattern s o f sel f an d othe r tha t repeatedl y enac t a n origina l

Introduction 2 7 dynamic o f betraya l an d loss . Th e psychic consequence s o f thi s prima l experience of betrayal are figured thematically and stylistically throughou t the novel . A s Winnicott ha s discussed, lac k o f trus t i n a good o r stabl e other ca n impede th e process o f differentiatio n i n which boundarie s ar e established an d a reality is recognized tha t is external to the self. Withou t those boundaries , th e sel f i s trapped i n a state o f infantil e omnipotenc e that i s fa r mor e terrifyin g tha n pleasurable . Rhys' s nove l powerfull y demonstrates th e enrage d an d destructiv e fantasie s boun d u p wit h tha t infantile, solipsisti c state . Many critic s hav e commente d o n th e intertwinin g o f th e eroti c an d the religiou s i n Updike' s fiction. M y stud y o f hi s work focuse s o n his representations o f Go d an d women , revealin g ho w the y ar e bot h psy chologically determine d b y th e sam e conflictua l relationa l narrativ e in volving dependency , power , an d the need fo r recognition . Drawin g o n current psychoanalytic studie s of religion tha t locate the formation o f the God representatio n i n the child's earlies t mirrorin g experience , th e essay looks a t problems o f mirroring in the fiction and its roots in a narcissistic relationship wit h th e mother . Th e dram a Alic e Mille r describe s o f th e "gifted" child' s acut e sensitivit y t o th e emotional need s o f a narcissisti c parent, th e resultant los s of the "true self " along with alternatin g depres sion an d grandiosity , i s als o particularl y applicabl e t o th e dynamic s o f Updike's fictional world . Th e essa y examine s ho w thi s dram a i s mani fested no t onl y i n plotting , imagery , an d characterizations , bu t als o i n Updike's pros e styl e itself—in hi s use of language an d in the relationship he set s u p with th e reader . The essay o n Toni Morrison' s Beloved concentrate s o n the interrela tionship o f socia l an d intrapsychi c reality . Morrison' s character s suffe r the psychi c consequence s o f living in a culture i n which dominatio n an d objectification o f th e self hav e bee n institutionalized . Th e novel reveal s how th e condition o f enslavemen t i n the external world , particularl y th e denial o f one' s statu s a s a human subject , ha s deep repercussion s i n the individual's interna l world . I f fro m th e earlies t year s on , one' s funda mental nee d t o be recognized an d affirmed a s a human subjec t i s denied, that nee d ca n take o n fantasti c an d destructive proportion s i n the inne r world: intens e hunger , fantasize d fear s o f eithe r bein g swallowe d o r exploding ca n tyrannize one' s lif e eve n when on e is freed fro m th e external bonds o f oppression . Th e nove l wrestle s wit h th e centra l proble m o f recognizing an d claiming one' s ow n subjectivity, an d it show s ho w this

28 Introduction cannot b e achieve d independentl y o f th e social environment . Th e essay analyzes Beloved i n light o f Jessica Benjamin' s thesi s tha t a free, auton omous sel f i s an inherently socia l self , roote d i n relationship an d depen dent o n the recognizing respons e o f a n other . Ann Beattie' s fictio n ha s bee n celebrate d fo r it s incisiv e an d witt y portrayal o f th e lives an d relationships o f th e baby boo m generatio n i n the post-Woodstoc k era . My study o f her work examine s th e world sh e depicts fro m th e perspective o f Christophe r Lasch' s argumen t abou t th e cultural narcissis m o f contemporar y America . He r characters ar e unable to break out of a general condition of emptiness, boredom, an d paralyzing passivity. Relationship s ar e desired, bu t ultimately feare d an d shunned ; her fiction depict s abov e all else the profound insularit y o f contemporar y life, a disconnection an d discontinuity tha t th e culture enforce s an d perpetuates. W e see in her work, fo r instance, th e nostalgia fo r the past and the cul t o f celebrit y s o typica l o f ou r socia l world . A psychoanalyti c inquiry into these aspects of her fiction reveal s their source in a projected, idealized imag e o f self . Suc h idealization , a s usual, i s spli t of f fro m a n intolerable rag e an d hostility. Beneat h th e surface o f th e characters' en ervated Jives, as well as beneath the surface of Beattie's icy, polished pros e style, i s the threat o f impending disintegratio n an d a terror o f the raging destructiveness i n both sel f an d others. Finally, Alic e Hoffman' s Seventh Heaven offer s a more positive , en couraging vie w o f contemporar y life . Th e nove l depict s bot h th e pai n and the joys of dismantling a false-self defens e an d surrendering to desire, to th e full ambivalenc e o f passionat e existence . Narcissisti c illusion s are a vita l par t o f Hoffman' s worl d bu t the y ar e o f a benig n rathe r tha n malignant nature ; the y ar e the illusions o f creative, transitiona l pla y tha t lead t o th e discover y o f limits . Hoffma n set s he r nove l i n th e fifties , within th e particularl y rigi d confine s o f suburbia' s conformit y an d it s ideal o f th e goo d life . Th e relationshi p betwee n th e centra l character , Nora Silk , an d th e suburba n communit y struggle s towar d tha t mutua l recognition that feminist theorists advocate. Nora is a loving but imperfect mother; she is also a fully sexua l being, and a distinctly individual subject . The communit y firs t react s t o her presence wit h disma y an d alarm, bu t ultimately i t i s her integrit y a s a unique subjec t tha t liberate s th e com munity an d makes genuin e relationship s possible . Th e essay explore s the relational ground s o f th e novel's redemptiv e fait h i n sel f an d othe r an d in th e potential i t assume s fo r authenti c living .

Chapter 2

Wordsworth an d th e Relationa l Model o f Min d

A long-standin g debat e i n Wordswort h criticis m concern s th e relativ e weight o r dominanc e o f th e visionar y mind : on e vie w stresse s th e per ception o f natur e i n th e poetr y a s min d dependent , whil e th e opposin g view emphasize s natur e a s concret e an d solidl y "other " tha n th e mind . Some critics , suc h a s C . C . Clark e an d Eugen e Stelzig , hav e focuse d o n the tension between these two perspectives a s the source of Wordsworth' s creative genius . Stelzi g take s issu e wit h Geoffre y Hartman , wh o ha s argued tha t Wordswort h fail s t o achiev e th e visionar y o r apocalypti c imaginative powe r o f Blak e o r Milto n becaus e o f hi s blin d allegianc e t o nature. O n th e contrary, Stelzi g contends, "th e so-called tension betwee n nature an d imaginatio n doe s no t preven t Wordswort h fro m becomin g a visionary poet ; it is in fact th e fruitful tensio n ou t o f which hi s best wor k grew" (173) . The debat e rest s o n a Cartesia n oppositio n o r dualis m tha t Words worth's poetr y i n fac t undercuts : imaginatio n an d nature , o r th e sub jective min d an d th e externa l objec t world , ar e les s antithetica l tha n vitally interdependen t an d interconnected . Th e poetr y indee d demon strates ho w i t i s th e ver y solidit y an d othernes s o f natur e tha t promote s the ful l developmen t o f subjectivity , allowin g fo r symboli c thinkin g an d imaginative growth . Thi s is precisely the premise of the current relationa l 29

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model i n psychoanalyti c theory : th e mind , i n orde r t o develo p an d grow, require s a separate , externa l othe r wit h whic h t o interac t an d interrelate. From th e relationa l perspective , th e min d o r psych e i s fundamentall y social, an d it s basi c constituent s ar e no t inheren t energ y forces , bu t re lational configurations : "Min d ha s bee n redefine d fro m a se t o f prede termined structure s emergin g fro m insid e a n individua l organis m t o transactional pattern s an d interna l structure s derive d fro m a n interactive , interpersonal field" (Mitchel l 17) . Wordsworth i s the poet pa r excellenc e of thi s relationa l paradig m o f th e mind : hi s wor k trace s th e intricat e relational patterns an d interactive dynamics that constitute his developin g poetic an d mora l consciousness . Hi s poetr y effectivel y show s ho w th e creative imaginatio n an d th e mora l consciousnes s togethe r ar e derive d from sociall y negotiate d states . John Turner , i n a ric h an d suggestiv e essay o n Wordswort h an d D. W . Winnicott , maintain s tha t th e cultura l origin s o f severa l o f Winnicott's influentia l psychoanalyti c idea s ca n b e foun d i n th e concep t of th e Romantic , an d particularl y th e Wordsworthian , imagination . H e points ou t bot h Wordsworth' s an d Winnicott' s "hostilit y t o th e post Cartesian divisio n o f experienc e int o th e categorie s o f subjectiv e an d objective" (495) , an d h e emphasize s th e importanc e o f parado x i n th e work o f bot h writers . Turner' s essa y culminate s i n a historica l an d political critiqu e o f Winnicott' s ideas , an d hi s literar y analysi s concen trates o n th e paradoxe s o f Wordsworth' s od e "Intimation s o f Immor tality." Th e followin g essa y furthe r pursue s th e implication s o f thes e important parallel s Turne r notes , i n regar d bot h t o Wordsworth' s writ ing o n th e imaginatio n an d t o th e psychoanalyti c relationa l mode l i n general. Certain passage s i n Wordsworth' s poetr y strikingl y anticipat e th e re lational paradig m i n thei r depictio n o f th e min d a s a n interactiona l con struct. I n boo k 1 2 o f The Prelude (180 5 edition) , fo r instance , Wordsworth claim s tha t th e imaginatio n ha s for it s base That whence our dignity originates, That which both give s it being and maintains A balance, an ennobling interchange Of actio n from withi n an d from without ,

Wordsworth and the Relational Model of Mind 3

1

The excellence, pure spirit, an d best power Both of the object seen , an d eye that sees . (373-79) Similarly, i n th e languag e o f psychoanalyti c relational-mode l theories , the min d i s "fundamentall y dyadi c an d interactive; abov e al l else , min d seeks contac t wit h othe r minds . Psychi c organizatio n an d structure s ar e built fro m th e pattern s whic h shap e thos e interactions " (Mitchel l 3) . O r again, Wordswort h describe s th e "infan t Babe " i n boo k 2 a s An inmate of this active universe; From nature largely he receives; nor so Is satisfied, bu t largely gives again, For feeling ha s to him imparted strength , And powerful i n all sentiments of grief, Of exultation , fear , an d joy, hi s mind, Even as an agent of the one great mind, Creates, creato r and receiver both, Working but in alliance with the works Which it beholds. (266-75 ) According t o Danie l Stern , "th e infant' s state s o f consciousnes s an d ac tivity ar e ultimatel y sociall y negotiate d states " (104) , an d "th e infant' s life i s s o thoroughl y socia l tha t mos t o f th e thing s th e infan t does , feel s and perceive s occu r i n differin g kind s o f relationships " (118) . Wordsworth's poetr y reflect s thi s intersubjective , profoundl y socia l view o f menta l developmen t i n it s depictio n o f th e relationa l dynamic s with natur e (a s a manifestatio n o f th e mothe r o r materna l mind ) and , even mor e generally , i n th e fundamentall y socia l orientatio n o f th e poetic styl e an d form . Wordsworth' s insistenc e o n usin g "th e rea l language o f men " an d "incident s an d situation s fro m commo n life, " a s he say s i n th e "Prefac e t o th e Secon d Editio n o f th e Lyrica l Ballads, " stresses the priority tha t poetr y ha s for hi m a s a vehicle for interpersona l communication o f inne r affectiv e state s o r feelings . "Humbl e an d rusti c life wa s generall y chosen, " h e explains , "becaus e i n tha t conditio n o f life ou r elementar y feeling s co-exis t i n a state o f greate r simplicity , and , consequently, ma y b e mor e accuratel y contemplated , an d mor e forcibl y communicated." Th e essentiall y interpersona l o r intersubjectiv e thrus t of Wordsworth' s poeti c styl e i s manifest i n th e dialogu e for m tha t man y of hi s lyric s assume , an d als o i n hi s continua l referenc e t o a persona l

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other, b e i t Doroth y o r Coleridge , i n hi s mos t deepl y introspectiv e poems. In a psychoanalyti c stud y o f metaphor , Rober t Roger s remind s u s that "everyone' s firs t motiv e fo r usin g languag e i s to communicate wit h a nurturing, protectin g Other " (Metaphor 140) . The crucial rol e o f suc h an othe r i s everywhere apparen t i n Wordsworth's poetry . The Prelude, for instance , i s addresse d t o Coleridge , an d reference s aboun d t o thi s Friend "s o promp t i n sympathy " (1:645-46) , wh o allow s th e poe t t o speak "unapprehensiv e o f contempt " (2:470 ) an d "Who in my thought s art eve r a t m y side " (3:200) . "Tinter n Abbey, " too , end s wit h a n address t o hi s "deares t Friend " an d siste r Dorothy , i n who m h e see s a versio n o f hi s forme r childhoo d self : "i n th y voic e I catc h / Th e language o f m y forme r heart , an d rea d / M y forme r pleasure s i n th e shooting light s / O f th y wil d eyes " (116-19) . I n thi s cas e Wordswort h himself play s th e role o f th e empathic, nurturing , an d protecting other ; after imaginin g tha t Doroth y wil l inevitabl y experienc e he r ow n shar e of "solitude , o r fear, o r pain, o r grief," he exclaims, "wit h wha t healin g thoughts / O f tende r jo y wil t tho u remembe r me , / An d thes e m y exhortations!" (143-47) . "Tinter n Abbey " conclude s wit h a n expression of dee p gratitude , wit h a feelin g "O f holie r love " fo r th e landscape s of hi s yout h tha t ar e no w "Mor e dear , bot h fo r themselve s an d fo r thy sake! " Th e abidin g presenc e o f th e other , o f bot h Dorothy , wh o will carr y hi s consolin g thought s i n he r memor y afte r h e i s gone , an d the concret e forms—th e wood s an d cliffs—of natur e tha t hav e remaine d throughout th e poet' s absence s an d changes , allo w Wordswort h t o experience a love , an d a sens e o f self , tha t i s indee d "holier " o r mor e whole tha n h e ha d previousl y known . Having suffere d profoun d feeling s o f loss , absence , an d betraya l i n relation t o th e materna l other , Wordswort h nevertheles s reveal s a per petual struggl e i n hi s work t o maintai n fait h i n th e mother' s reliabilit y and goodness—"Natur e neve r di d betra y / Th e hear t tha t love d her " (122-23)—that als o implie s a reaffirmation, a re-cognition, o f th e soli d "thereness" an d separatenes s o f th e mother . I n a n earlie r stud y (The Romantic Mother) I have argue d tha t Wordsworth's struggl e t o maintai n faith i n the mother's goodnes s reflect s hi s struggle t o resolv e a n interna l split stemmin g fro m dee p ambivalenc e towar d her . M y argumen t her e extends tha t thesis : Wordsworth' s abilit y t o tolerat e ambivalenc e i s integrally relate d t o hi s abilit y t o recogniz e th e mothe r (an d a n externa l

Wordsworth and the Relational Model of Mind 3 3 reality) tha t i s separate, solid , an d other tha n th e self. A s Winnicott ha s argued, th e bab y mus t firs t b e abl e t o "destroy " th e objec t i n fantas y before th e bab y ca n perceive th e objec t a s rea l an d independen t o f th e self. Th e baby "destroys " th e object, bu t the object survives. Thu s "destruction become s th e unconsciou s backclot h fo r lov e o f a rea l object ; that is , a n objec t outsid e th e are a o f th e subject' s omnipoten t control " (PR 94). This notion is , typically for Winnicott, deepl y paradoxical: onl y by relinquishin g one' s concer n fo r the object—by ceasin g to overprotec t the objec t fro m one' s ow n ruthlessness—ca n on e develo p rea l concer n for a real object . Th e paradox i s crucial t o a n understanding o f Words worth's poetry : onl y b y tolerating hi s own aggression an d "destroying " his mother, i n other words , i s Wordsworth assure d o f her reality and her love. Other psychoanalytic studies of Wordsworth, suc h as those by Richard Onorato an d Michael Friedman , hav e als o highlighted th e importance of relations wit h th e mother, particularl y th e feelings o f abandonmen t an d grief ove r the mother's deat h (she died when Wordsworth wa s eight years old) an d th e oedipa l desire s an d conflicts . Thos e studies , however , d o not look specifically a t the relational interplay o f oneness and separateness that is the particular focus of my discussion here. The poetry demonstrate s how th e play o f relationa l dynamic s betwee n sel f an d m/other—partic ularly i n regar d t o issue s o f separatenes s an d union , o f absence , trust , and presence—i s crucia l no t only t o the psychic constructio n o f the self but also to the growth of the creative imagination, of moral consciousness, and o f religiou s fait h a s well. Psychoanalytic relational-mode l theorie s positio n psychologica l meaning i n th e interactiv e spac e betwee n sel f an d other . Th e spac e between th e subjectiv e interna l worl d an d th e externa l objec t worl d i s the "potentia l space " o f Winnicott' s "transitional " realm . Th e tran sitional objects , suc h a s tedd y bear s o r blankets , tha t infant s us e t o master th e anxiet y o f differentiatio n an d separatio n fro m th e mothe r "are no t par t o f th e infant' s bod y ye t ar e no t full y recognize d a s belonging t o externa l reality" ; the y occup y a transitional real m betwee n inside an d outside, a n "intermediate are a o f experiencing t o which inne r reality an d external lif e bot h contribute " (P R 2). In thi s potentia l spac e where absolut e categorie s ar e suspended , connectio n coexist s wit h di vision. Winnicot t indee d emphasize s th e opposition o r paradox o f unio n and separatenes s implici t i n th e us e o f th e transitiona l object : "Th e

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use o f a n objec t symbolize s th e unio n o f tw o no w separat e things , baby an d mother , at the point in time and space of the initiation of their state of separateness. . . . This i s th e plac e tha t I hav e se t ou t t o examine, th e separation tha t is not a separation bu t a form o f union" (P R 96-98). Separatenes s i n th e transitiona l real m i s thus th e sin e qu a no n o f union. This ke y parado x o f separatenes s an d unio n i s centra l t o Words worth's poetry , an d particularl y t o hi s concep t o f th e imaginatio n a s expressed i n The Prelude. I n tw o o f th e mos t visionar y passages , th e Simplon Pas s o f boo k 6 , an d th e clim b u p Snowdo n i n boo k 13 , th e essential creativ e activity—"Th e Soul , th e Imaginatio n o f th e whole " (65)—is locate d i n a "chasm. " I n th e Simplo n Pass , th e violen t para doxical actio n "O f wood s decaying , neve r to b e decay'd / Th e stationar y blasts o f water-falls " (557-58 ) occur s alon g a "hollo w rent " (559) , an d the oppositions—"Tumul t an d peace , th e darknes s an d th e light"—al l reflect t o Wordsworth' s min d th e "working s o f on e mind , th e feature s / O f th e sam e face , blossom s upo n on e tree , / Character s o f th e grea t Apocalypse" (567-70) . I n th e Snowdo n passage , i t i s a "fracture " (56) , a "breac h / Throug h whic h th e homeles s voic e o f water s rose " (62 63). Th e Wordsworthia n imaginatio n i s a n energ y o r voic e tha t unites , combines, an d make s one , an d i t arise s precisel y ou t o f a fracture d state o f separateness . I n al l o f Wordsworth' s visionar y o r mystica l passages, separatenes s an d unio n coexis t i n a singl e paradoxica l stat e that i s th e transitiona l domain . The eulog y t o th e "bles t Babe " i n boo k 2 offer s perhap s th e mos t explicit vie w o f th e imaginatio n a s a for m o f transitiona l phenomeno n arising ou t o f th e child' s negotiatio n o f separatenes s an d unio n wit h th e mother: Nurs'd i n his Mother's arms , the Babe who sleeps Upon his Mother's breast , who , when his soul Claims manifest kindre d wit h an earthly soul, Doth gathe r passion from hi s Mother's eye! Such feelings pas s into his torpid lif e Like an awakening breeze, an d hence his mind Even in the first tria l of its powers Is prompt an d watchful, eage r to combine In one appearance, al l the elements

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5

And parts of the same object, els e detach'd And loth to coalesce. (239-50 ) These line s the n lea d int o th e passag e abou t th e chil d bein g "creato r an d receiver both " an d "Such , verily, " Wordswort h concludes , "i s th e first / Poeti c spiri t o f ou r huma n life " (275-76) . I n transitiona l play , th e chil d is indee d bot h receivin g an d creating ; th e unifyin g creativ e illusio n de pends on the forms give n from th e external world. Throughout his poetry, Wordsworth expresse s a n awarenes s o f th e intermediar y statu s o f th e imagination. I n boo k 2 h e speak s o f a n abidin g "plasti c power " withi n him tha t wa s a t time s rebellious , "bu t fo r th e mos t / Subservien t strictl y to the external things / With which it commun'd. A n auxiliar light / Cam e from m y min d whic h o n th e setting su n / Bestow' d ne w splendor " (381— 89). I n "Tinter n Abbey " h e refer s t o "al l th e might y worl d / O f eye , and ear,—bot h wha t the y hal f creat e / An d wha t perceive " (55-57) , an d again i n book 7 of The Prelude h e recalls "th e thing s which I had shape d / An d ye t no t shaped , ha d seen , an d scarcel y seen " (514-15) . Turner maintain s tha t bot h Wordswort h an d Winnicot t wer e abl e t o "find substantial hop e i n th e futur e o f a n illusion" (493) ; bot h wer e expanding th e whol e concep t o f illusio n i n positiv e an d nonpositivisti c terms. Han s Loewal d ha s pointe d ou t tha t th e wor d "illusion " derive s from th e Lati n ludere, t o pla y (Papers 354) , an d fo r Winnicot t (an d Wordsworth), illusio n is indeed a form o f play that is quite different fro m "delusion." Alfre d Flarshei m ha s argued tha t Winnicott's us e of the ter m "illusion" involve s a "greate r respec t fo r an d acknowledgmen t o f th e actual characteristic s o f th e externa l objec t tha n i s implie d b y th e ter m delusion" (508) . Winnicott, h e explains , allow s u s to understan d tha t th e perception o f externa l realit y i s enriche d b y it s integratio n wit h interna l reality. "Thi s ca n b e contraste d wit h hallucinatio n o n th e on e han d an d with a totall y unimaginativ e perceptio n o f th e externa l worl d o n th e other" (508) . The area of illusion, Flarshei m concludes , i s an intermediat e area involvin g a "simultaneous awarenes s o f tw o kind s o f reality " (509) . Understanding Wordsworth' s visionar y imaginatio n a s "illusion " i n this sense—a s a form o f relationa l play involvin g a "simultaneous aware ness of two kinds o f reality"—makes possibl e an analytic framework tha t is fa r les s reductiv e tha n th e classica l Freudia n perspective . Fro m th e traditional psychoanalyti c view , Wordsworth' s visionar y passage s ar e

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generally regarde d a s defensiv e an d sublimatory , a s form s o f regressiv e illusions. I n a Freudia n stud y o f th e spot s o f time , fo r instance , Davi d Ellis see s th e Wordsworthia n imaginatio n a s pitte d i n a perpetual battl e against death, an d thus "imaginativ e power" become s a n "antidote t o th e threat o f extinction " (95) , providing a n illusion tha t th e min d dominate s or absorb s th e externa l world . Elli s point s t o th e final line s o f th e Win ander Bo y passag e i n The Prelude, fo r instance , i n whic h Wordswort h describes ho w the visible scene Would ente r unawares into his mind With al l its solemn imagery, it s rocks, Its woods, an d that uncertain Heaven , receiv' d Into the bosom o f the steady Lake . (5:409-13 ) Ellis argue s tha t th e lak e tha t receive s th e "uncertai n Heaven " i s a n analogy fo r th e boy' s min d incorporatin g th e uncertain , transitor y ma terial world , an d h e conclude s tha t th e "enclosur e o f th e worl d withi n the sel f make s deat h a n impossibility " (121) . In anothe r psychoanalyti c study , however , Jame s Hefferna n argue s that th e contex t fo r th e Winande r Bo y passag e i n The Prelude —the en suing scen e o f th e boy' s death , followe d b y th e inciden t o f th e drowne d man—shows tha t "th e boy' s ques t fo r reunio n wit h hi s mothe r ca n lea d only t o his death" (270) . Heffernan argue s for a n awareness o f the crucia l role o f separation , an d no t jus t idealize d union , i n th e developmen t o f Wordsworth's imaginativ e power . H e make s th e furthe r poin t tha t "re turning t o th e pas t i n memor y an d re-enactin g i t i n word s ar e no t th e same as regressing to infancy o r returnin g t o th e womb. I n killin g off th e boy o f Winander , Wordswort h repudiate s hi s ow n regressiv e wis h an d yet recover s th e powe r t o blow—no t th e infantil e instinc t t o suc k bu t the creativ e powe r t o mak e th e propheti c musi c w e hea r i n hi s poem " (270). Thi s i s a crucia l point , fo r word s an d languag e indee d becom e a form o f transitiona l objec t fo r Wordsworth . Arisin g ou t o f th e caver n o f separateness, poeti c languag e become s a vehicl e fo r union ; th e poeti c images occup y a n intermediar y real m betwee n th e interna l worl d o f th e poet's min d an d th e externa l worl d o f reference . At th e en d o f boo k 5 , Wordswort h writes ,

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Visionary Powe r Attends upo n th e motion s o f th e wind s Embodied i n th e myster y o f words . There darknes s make s abode , an d al l th e hos t Of shadow y thing s d o wor k thei r change s there , As i n a mansion lik e thei r prope r home ; Even form s an d substance s ar e circumfus' d By tha t transparen t vei l wit h ligh t divine ; And throug h th e turning s intricat e o f Verse , Present themselve s a s objects recognis'd , In flashes , an d wit h a glory scarc e thei r own . (620-29 ) The visionar y powe r o f poeti c languag e no t onl y transform s objects , bestowing "ligh t divine " an d " a glor y scarc e thei r o w n , " bu t jus t a s importantly, i t allow s thos e form s t o "Presen t themselve s a s object s re cognis'd." Recognitio n implie s th e separat e preexistenc e o f thos e forms ; the min d doe s no t creat e th e objects , th e object s themselve s ar e re presented an d re-cognize d b y th e mind . Th e imaginatio n agai n reveal s its intermediar y functio n fo r W o r d s w o r t h , operatin g withi n a simulta neous awarenes s o f tw o kind s o f reality . This sam e typ e o f awarenes s i s manifes t i n othe r aspect s o f W o r d s worth's poeti c styl e a s well. T u r n e r focuse s o n th e importanc e o f parado x in th e od e "Intimation s o f Immortality, " arguin g tha t parado x allow s th e poet t o pla y acros s categorica l boundar y lines : " T h e ordinar y categorie s of ou r l a n g u a g e . . . ar e inadequat e t o th e comple x relationa l structure s that mak e u p th e sel f an d it s multipl e way s o f perceivin g bot h th e worl d and itself . W o r d s w o r t h ' s us e o f parado x an d myth , therefore , i s designe d to distur b thos e ol d familia r categorie s an d facilitat e th e releas e o f ne w mental p o w e r " (484) . Th e coexistenc e o f opposin g o r paradoxica l realitie s throughout W o r d s w o r t h ' s poetr y i s enforce d furthe r b y th e poet' s ubiq uitous us e o f negative s i n hi s affirmativ e statements . Hi s assertion , fo r instance, tha t " N a t u r e neve r di d betra y / Th e hear t tha t love d h e r " in troduces th e ide a o f betraya l a t th e sam e tim e tha t i t denie s it . " A Slumbe r Did M y Spiri t Seal " employ s suc h negative s mos t effectively : A slumbe r di d m y spiri t seal ; I ha d n o huma n fears ; She seeme d a thing tha t coul d no t fee l The touc h o f earthl y years .

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No motio n ha s she now, no force ; She neithe r hear s no r sees; Rolled roun d i n earth's diurna l course , With rocks , an d stones, an d trees. The negative s agai n serv e t o mak e u s mor e acutel y awar e o f th e ver y h u m a n an d earthl y things—th e feelings , motion , force , sights , an d sounds—that ar e bein g negate d o r denied . H e r e agai n W o r d s w o r t h en tertains a paradox—th e notio n o f Lucy' s deat h bein g bot h a sa d an d a joyous occasion . Equall y paradoxica l an d significant, however , i s the fac t that Luc y ha s entered int o a n eternal union wit h natur e tha t als o maintain s separateness. T h e unio n describe d her e i s n ot on e o f merge d fusion , bu t of distinc t forms—th e "rocks , an d stones, an d trees"—with whic h Lucy' s form t o o orbit s i n balance d harmony . Thi s sam e separatenes s i n unio n also hold s tru e fo r tha t visionar y passag e i n "Tinter n A b b e y " i n whic h the poe t celebrate s th e "sens e sublime " Whose dwellin g i s the light o f settin g suns , And th e round ocea n an d the living air, And th e blue sky , and in the mind o f man: A motio n an d a spirit, tha t impel s All thinkin g things , al l objects o f al l thought , And roll s throug h al l things. (97-102 ) These so-calle d mystica l passage s i n W o r d s w o r t h 's poetr y d o not expres s regressive refusio n o r th e merge d onenes s o f a grandios e absorptio n o f the worl d int o th e mind . A s i n th e " L u c y " lyric , th e distinctness , an d therefore separateness , o f th e forms an d images—"setting s u n s , " " r o u n d ocean," "blu e sky"—ar e celebrated , an d " t h e min d o f m a n " t oo partic ipates in this union i n which boundarie s ar e maintained whil e als o crossed . O t t o Kernber g ha s written abou t thi s typ e o f nonregressive unio n wit h the other : In contras t t o regressiv e merge r phenomen a whic h blu r self-nonsel f differentia tion, concurring with the crossing of boundaries of the self—a ste p in the direction of identificatio n wit h structure s beyon d th e self—is th e persistent experienc e of a discrete self. I n this process, ther e is a basic creation of meaning, o f a subjective ordering o f the world outsid e th e self, whic h actualize s th e potential structurin g of huma n experienc e i n term s o f biological , interpersonal , an d valu e systems . Crossing th e boundarie s o f self , thu s defined , i s th e basi s fo r th e subjectiv e

Wordsworth and the Relational Model of Mind 3 9 experience o f transcendence. Psychoti c identification s wit h thei r dissolutio n of self-object boundarie s interfer e wit h th e capacity for passion thu s defined . (Internal World 289-90) While Kernber g i s talkin g her e abou t crossin g th e boundaries o f the self i n th e contex t o f sexua l passion , th e analog y ca n b e mad e t o th e mystical state . A s William Meissne r ha s observed, th e "capacity t o reac h beyond th e boundarie s o f self , t o empt y ou t th e self, a s it were , i n the loving embrac e o f the object, i s a transcendent capacit y o f the psyche t o immerse itsel f i n a loving objec t relationship . Thi s nee d no t in itsel f b e regarded a s regressive " (152) . Thi s typ e o f lovin g embrace— a simulta neous separatenes s an d union—is th e hallmark o f the most aspirin g and visionary passage s in Wordsworth's poetry . A s opposed t o the indistinct formlessness o f regressiv e merger , thes e passage s alway s highligh t th e distinctness o f imag e an d form. Th e profound jo y bound u p with thes e experiences i s indee d a produc t o f th e ver y solidit y o f th e form s an d images, of the ability of nature to maintain her separate boundaries whil e the poe t simultaneousl y experience s unio n wit h her . I n boo k 8 of The Prelude, Wordswort h describe s how his imagination was sometimes sub ject to fits o f "wilful fancy " (584) , but that growin g u p in nature, " I had forms distinc t / T o stead y me " (598-99), an d "I stil l / A t al l times had a rea l soli d worl d / O f image s abou t me " (603-5) . Similarly , i n th e "Fenwick Notes, " Wordsworth describe s how as a boy, to recall himself from slippin g int o a n "abyss o f idealism," he "grasped a t a wall o r tree " (Prose 194). The consolin g qualit y tha t reside s i n th e distinctnes s o f imag e an d form, i n th e solidit y o f th e externa l world , ca n als o contribut e t o ou r understanding o f th e spot s o f time , an d th e "pleasure " an d "radiance " that those ultradistinct images possessed for Wordsworth. Hi s description of the images in the second "spot, " for instance, highlights the singleness, the separatenes s an d "indisputable" natur e o f the "shapes" : The single sheep, and the one blasted tree, And the bleak music of that old stone wall, The noise of wood and water, an d the mist Which on the line of each of those two Roads Advanced in such indisputable shapes, All these were spectacles and sounds to which

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I often woul d repai r an d thence would drink , As at a fountain. (Prelude 11:378-85 ) Ellis concentrates solel y o n th e separatenes s o f th e image s in th e spot s as signals o f th e poet's anxiet y abou t hi s own separatenes s an d mortality . This is only one side, however, t o a larger psychoanalytic picture in which the separatenes s o f th e imag e embrace s bot h anxiet y and consolation . Other psychoanalyti c studie s o f th e spot s hav e concentrate d o n oedipa l anxiety—on sexua l transgressio n an d guilt—whic h ar e indeed significan t components i n th e tota l psychologica l compositio n o f th e spots . Con temporary relational-mode l theorie s d o no t den y th e importanc e o f oe dipal conflict o r sexuality in psychic development; rather, they see conflict and sexuality as both implicit in and shaped by the larger relational matri x (Mitchell 67-122) . The separatenes s o f sel f an d m/othe r i s a sourc e o f bot h sorro w an d joy, an d Wordsworth' s art , a s usual , expresse s th e paradox . Th e spot s of tim e als o reflec t th e paradoxica l natur e o f transitiona l object s i n tha t they resid e i n a n intermediar y real m betwee n interna l an d external ; th e images ar e "given " fro m th e oute r worl d bu t ar e equall y endowe d wit h projections fro m th e poet's inner world. They occupy that potential spac e in whic h th e questio n " 'Di d yo u conceiv e o f thi s o r wa s i t presented t o you fro m without? ' " (Winnicott , P R 12 ) is not t o be asked. Th e "spots " reflect tha t interactiv e facult y o f th e imaginatio n tha t i s "creato r an d receiver both , / Workin g bu t i n allianc e wit h th e work s / Whic h i t beholds." Not onl y doe s symboli c thinkin g an d th e creativ e imaginatio n gro w out o f thes e negotiation s o f separatenes s an d unio n i n th e relationa l pla y of sel f an d other , bu t s o to o doe s mora l consciousness . On e o f Words worth's dominan t themes , a s he state s i n The Prelude, i s "t o retrac e th e way that led me on / Through natur e to the love of human Kind " (8:587 88). Th e recognitio n o f th e separat e subjectivit y o f nature/mother — "Earth fills he r la p wit h pleasure s o f he r own ; / Yearning s sh e hat h i n her ow n natura l kind " ("Ode : Intimation s o f Immortality " 77-78)—i s the see d o f mora l awareness . A s Jessic a Benjami n ha s argued , th e chil d needs to experience the mother or most significant othe r as an independent subject, no t jus t a s the externa l worl d o r a s a mirror o r extensio n o f th e self. Th e m/othe r mus t embod y somethin g o f th e "not-me" ; he r rec ognition o f the child "wil l be meaningful onl y to the extent that it reflect s

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1

her ow n equall y separat e subjectivity " (24) . I n suc h intersubjectiv e ex perience lie the roots of empathy an d compassion; the mutual recognitio n of tru e intersubjectivit y prevent s th e enrage d nee d fo r aggressiv e domi nation an d possessio n o f th e other . Th e re-cognitio n o f th e mother' s separateness i s als o a reaffirmatio n o f he r soli d "thereness, " o f he r du rability an d stability , an d therefore lay s the foundation fo r trust , fo r fait h in a n abidin g strengt h an d goodnes s i n th e worl d a s well . The psychoanalyti c relationa l mode l o f menta l developmen t thu s throws into clearer relief th e correlation in Wordsworth's poetr y betwee n the growt h o f imaginatio n an d tha t o f religiou s faith , o r wha t th e poe t calls "intellectua l love. " I n th e "Conclusion " o f The Prelude, Words worth claim s tha t fro m chartin g th e progres s o f hi s imagination , h e ha s also drawn The feeling o f life endless, the great though t By which we live, Infinity an d God . Imagination havin g been our theme, So also hath that intellectual love, For they are each in each, an d cannot stand Dividually. (175-81 ) The symboli c pla y o f imagination , a s Winnicot t ha s argued , goe s han d in hand with faith in a good and stable "thereness" of the other or externa l world. Artisti c creativit y an d religiou s fait h bot h belon g t o tha t transi tional real m o f illusio n tha t i s no t simply , a s Freu d woul d hav e it , a defensive delusion . Rather , illusio n i n Winnicott' s an d Wordsworth' s sense represent s a n intermediat e are a i n whic h subjectiv e an d objectiv e reality interact; illusion a s such is the means b y which huma n being s giv e meaning an d a sense o f continuit y t o thei r experienc e o f themselve s an d their world . I n othe r words , illusio n i s the means b y which w e construc t the realit y o f ourselve s an d ou r universe . Arguing fro m a relational-mode l perspective , Meissne r indee d main tains tha t religiou s fait h ca n b e understood a s developing alon g a contin uum simila r t o tha t o f identit y formation : "th e elemen t o f t r u s t . . . a s an inherent constituen t o f th e experience o f faith, canno t b e envisioned sim ply a s a n infantile , narcissisti c investmen t i n an d dependenc e o n a need satisfying object ; i t shoul d b e envisione d a s spannin g a continuu m o f

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developmental state s i n whic h th e element s o f trus t ar e progressivel y modified t o represent increasingly mature levels of integration and expression" (150) . Wordsworth's chronicl e of his own imaginative growth is, finally, als o a chronicle of trust in a course of developing relational dynamics betwee n self an d other . Th e mind' s subjectiv e world , th e poetr y reveals , i s con stituted o f comple x interaction s wit h th e objectiv e o r oute r world . Th e development o f Wordsworth' s visionar y min d i s thu s no t thwarte d b y allegiance t o natur e o r th e externa l world , bu t o n th e contrary , i s facil itated b y it . Rosemar y Dinnag e make s a similar poin t i n a discussion o f Winnicott's idea s i n relatio n t o artisti c creativity : A histor y o f imaginatio n i n eac h individua l lif e woul d start . .. from th e firs t demarcation of self against object, and continue through the increasingly complex perceptual transaction s tha t en d i n th e averag e man' s takin g hi s existenc e fo r granted in a world of objects, but which in the artist are never finished. Spannin g the self/othe r boundar y lin e is the intermediat e are a that permit s objectiv e an d personal truth to interact, as the artist interacts with his material; and the richness or impoverishmen t o f thi s area , wher e object s ar e recreate d an d recombine d symbolically, depend s o n th e wa y th e oute r worl d coincide s wit h imaginativ e expectation in early life: on the fit between inner constructions and the behavior of things outside. (370) The "fit " betwee n min d an d th e externa l worl d o r natur e i s indee d one o f Wordsworth' s frequen t themes : "Ho w exquisitel y th e individua l Mind / . . . t o th e externa l Worl d / I s fitted:—and ho w exquisitely , to o / . . . The externa l worl d i s fitted t o th e Mind " (63-68) , h e proclaim s i n the prefac e t o The Excursion. Dinnag e goe s on e t o conclud e tha t "i f objects ar e unpredictable, to o muc h absen t o r present , th e experienc e o f solid identity an d of traffic wit h them fluctuates. I f ideas and expectation s in the mind coincid e frequently an d comfortably wit h thing s outside, th e growing huma n bein g know s an d retain s th e experienc e o f making hi s world—of exercisin g th e curiou s huma n tric k o f meetin g fac t halfwa y and recreatin g i t int o a differen t kin d o f time " (370) . Similarly , i n th e "Conclusion" o f The Prelude, Wordswort h maintain s tha t i n "higher " artistic o r creativ e human mind s w e find a "genuine Counterpart " t o th e creative powe r o f nature :

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3

They fro m thei r nativ e selve s ca n sen d abroa d Like transformations , fo r themselve s creat e A lik e existence , an d whene'e r i t i s Created fo r them , catc h i t b y a n instinct ; Them th e endurin g an d th e transien t bot h Serve t o exalt ; the y buil d u p greates t thing s From leas t suggestions , eve r o n th e watch , Willing t o wor k an d t o b e wrough t upon . (93-100 ) F r o m suc h interactiv e creativ e p o w e r comes , W o r d s w o r t h believes , " t h e highes t blis s / Tha t ca n b e k n o w n . " Tha t blis s i s th e jo y o f experiencing a dee p sens e o f reality . Th e "illusions " o f th e creativ e imagination p r o m o t e th e subjectiv e experienc e o f cohesivenes s an d con tinuity—the self' s experienc e o f it s o w n reality—a s wel l a s th e sens e of cohesivenes s an d "thereness"—th e gloriou s reality—o f al l th e worl d outside th e self : hence th e highes t blis s That ca n b e know n i s theirs, th e consciousnes s Of who m the y ar e habituall y infuse d Through ever y image , an d throug h ever y thought , And al l impressions; henc e religion , faith , And endles s occupatio n fo r th e sou l Whether discursiv e o r intuitiv e Hence chearfulnes s i n ever y ac t o f lif e Hence trut h i n mora l judgement s an d deligh t That fail s no t i n th e externa l universe . {Prelude "Conclusion" : 107-16 ) The characteristi c us e her e o f a negative i n th e affirmation—"deligh t / That fail s no t i n th e externa l universe"—consciousl y confirm s a depend able experienc e o f pleasur e i n th e externa l objec t worl d whil e a t th e sam e time insertin g th e thought , o r remindin g u s o f th e possibility , o f failure . Tension an d conflic t ar e alway s presen t i n W o r d s w o r t h ' s poetry , bu t thi s passage abov e al l celebrate s th e finding o f reality—th e realit y o f th e sel f as a coherent bein g "infused " throug h ever y though t an d perception , an d the realit y o f a goo d an d endurin g "externa l universe. " Mario n Milne r has referre d t o transitiona l phenomen a suc h a s creative symbolizatio n an d play a s " a two-wa y journey : bot h t o th e finding o f th e objectiv e realit y of th e objec t an d t o th e finding o f th e objectiv e realit y o f th e subject —

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the I AM " (251) . I n summarizin g th e wor k o f Marjori e Brierly , Milne r also remarks that "blissful experienc e is not the element most emphasize d by Christia n mystics , rathe r i t i s thei r overwhelmin g convictio n o f th e reality o f God : an d sh e speak s o f th e mystics ' convictio n tha t religio n i s the onl y tru e realism " (266) . John McDarg h make s a similar poin t i n hi s object-relationa l stud y o f religious faith . H e claim s tha t "th e lur e o f th e transcenden t derive s fro m the huma n yearnin g fo r communio n wit h mor e an d mor e reality " (108) , and h e quote s fro m theologia n Loui s Dupre : " 'Mor e primar y tha n th e sense o f th e holines s o r powe r o f transcenden t realit y i s th e sens e o f it s ontological richness—Go d i s eminentl y real.' " Th e "motivatin g hunge r for th e real, " th e "creativ e inquir y int o th e more-that-is-possible, " McDargh argues , i s roote d i n "th e child' s first effort s a t configurin g a lasting an d reliabl e sens e o f th e endurin g realit y o f th e parent " throug h the us e o f transitiona l object s an d "th e creatio n o f a symboli c sphere " (113). Thus th e discover y o f reality , a s bot h Wordsworth' s poetr y an d relational-model theorie s emphasize , i s relationally determined , founde d on th e tensio n o f onenes s an d separatenes s an d constructe d ou t o f th e creative negotiation s o f sel f an d other . Bot h th e poetr y an d th e theorie s suggest tha t onenes s an d separateness , subjectivit y an d objectivity , ar e dualities tha t nevertheles s d o no t for m a rigi d dualism . Thes e dualitie s are paradoxically interdependen t an d mutually necessary . Th e experienc e of fusio n an d th e illusio n o f onenes s ma y indee d b e a prerequisite , a s Winnicott ha s argued, t o separation an d th e ability t o perceive th e realit y of th e externa l worl d a t all ; th e illusio n mus t first b e ha d i n orde r t o b e surrendered. Conversely , som e experienc e o f separation , o f ruptur e o r absence, i s necessary i n orde r t o ente r th e creativ e transitiona l real m an d joyfully partak e agai n i n th e illusio n o f oneness . Wordsworth's poetr y make s abundantl y clea r tha t th e wor k o f th e creative imaginatio n i s a t once , a s Loewal d ha s suggeste d abou t al l act s of symbolic play, a form o f mourning and of celebration: "both a mourning o f los t origina l onenes s an d a celebration o f onenes s regained " {Sublimation 81) . B y describin g th e comple x paradoxe s o f th e huma n mind , relational-model theorie s ca n hel p u s understan d th e paradoxica l natur e of Wordsworth's poetr y an d fre e u s from th e dualistic trap i n our critica l interpretations. Th e theorie s ca n illuminat e th e visionar y an d religiou s

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dimensions o f th e Wordsworthia n imaginatio n i n a les s reductiv e ligh t than the y hav e formerly bee n seen . Th e poetry, i n turn, b y engagin g ou r whole mind—the min d that dreams a s well as thinks—permits u s actuall y to experienc e thos e creativ e paradoxe s tha t psychoanalysi s ca n onl y describe.

Chapter 3

The Rebirt h o f Catherin e Earnshaw : Splitting an d Reintegratio n o f Self i n Wuthering Heights

Perhaps n o lin e fro m Wuthering Heights ha s bee n quote d mor e ofte n than Catherine's exclamation, " 'Nelly , I am Heathcliff . . .' " (E . Bront e 74). Th e fuse d identit y o f thes e tw o characters—Catherine' s assertio n that "he' s mor e mysel f tha n I am " (72 ) an d Heathcliff' s furiou s lamen t over Catherine' s dea d body , " ' I cannot liv e withou t m y life ! I cannot live without m y soul! ' " (139)—spark s th e centra l psychologica l curren t of th e novel . One' s interpretatio n o f thi s fuse d relationshi p wil l indee d affect one' s readin g o f th e nove l a s a whole . Gilber t an d Gubar , fo r instance, argu e from a feminist sociohistorica l viewpoint tha t Heathcliff' s original arriva l o n th e scen e force s a "shif t i n famil y dynamics " tha t empowers Catherine , th e "dispossesse d younge r sister " (265) . They thu s see th e tw o a s formin g a n androgynous , initiall y vita l an d joyou s "un divided self. " Suc h wholeness , however , i s ultimately disallowed , "con quered b y th e concerte d force s o f patriarchy " (276) . Psychoanalytic reading s o f th e Catherine-Heathclif f relationshi p hav e typically focuse d o n it s incestuou s an d forbidde n sexua l nature . Eri c Solomon, fo r instance , i n his controversial article , "Th e Inces t Them e i n Wuthering Heights," offer s evidenc e that Catherin e an d Heathclif f coul d have bee n half-siste r an d half-brother . Elle n Moer s als o emphasize s 46

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7

brother-sister relations , claimin g tha t th e Catherine-Heathclif f relation ship reflect s th e commo n crueltie s an d eroticis m o f th e nurser y (106) . Others, suc h a s Richard Chas e ("Th e Brontes , o r Myt h Domesticated" ) and Thomas Mose r ("What I s the Matter with Emil y Jane?"), se e Heath cliff a s an embodiment o f the id, o f pure sexual energy or potency, whic h Catherine bot h desire s an d fears . From anothe r angle , Phili p Wio n ("Th e Absen t Mother" ) an d Jeffre y Berman (Narcissism and the Novel) stres s preoedipal separatio n issue s i n their psychoanalyti c studie s o f th e novel . Notin g th e preponderanc e o f dead o r dyin g mothers i n the book, bot h critic s se e the death o f Bronte' s mother whe n Emil y wa s thre e year s ol d a s th e sourc e o f th e novel' s central concer n wit h a deeply problematic materna l relationship . Berma n draws o n th e theorie s o f John Bowlb y t o discus s disturbance s i n attach ment an d the pathological mournin g displaye d b y al l of the novel's majo r characters. Wion views the relationship between Catherin e and Heathclif f "as a displaced version o f the symbiotic relationshi p betwee n mothe r an d child" (146) . H e offer s abundan t evidenc e throughou t th e wor k o f th e "fantasies an d fears associate d with the separation-individuation process " (146), suc h a s a longing fo r prima l oneness , a fear o f regressiv e fusio n o r death, a confusion o f boundarie s betwee n inne r an d oute r worlds , an d a primitive ora l mod e o f relationship . While a forbidden sexua l o r oedipa l componen t certainl y inform s th e Catherine-Heathcliff relationship , I thin k Berma n an d Wio n ar e correc t in stressin g preoedipa l separatio n issue s a s being stronge r an d mor e fun damental bot h t o th e relationshi p an d t o th e nove l a s a whole . Wion' s analysis, however , neglect s a dimensio n crucia l t o th e Catherine Heathcliff identity/relationshi p an d t o th e novel's overal l psychodynam ics—destructive rage . Berma n point s ou t th e importanc e o f narcissisti c rage i n th e nove l bu t doe s no t pursu e th e text' s representation s o f it s intrapsychic consequences . Intense , primitiv e rage , directe d bot h inwar d and outward , a t self an d other , an d th e consequen t intrapsychi c splittin g that suc h rage occasions, fuel s muc h o f the novel's dram a an d determine s its patterns. A psychological analysi s o f thi s rag e can illuminat e th e dar k dimension o f th e boo k tha t ha s s o trouble d reader s an d critic s fro m Charlotte Bront e on—th e violen t aggression , cruelty , an d pai n inter woven throughou t th e novel' s fabric . Suc h rag e underlie s wha t Wad e Thompson ha s calle d th e "perversity " o f th e book : th e pervasive theme s of sadis m an d infanticide , th e numerou s metaphor s o f th e "killin g o f

48 The

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helpless animals " (70) . Ye t no t onl y i s infanticid e a prevalent theme ; s o is it s reverse : th e killin g o f mother s b y infants . Th e recurren t death s o f mothers i n th e nove l ma y no t onl y reflec t los s o r absence , mirrorin g Bronte's ow n loss ; i t ma y als o b e a projectio n o f dee p infantil e rag e directed a t th e mother . Destructive rag e i s apparen t i n th e Catherine-Heathclif f relationshi p from th e beginning . Gilber t an d Gubar' s clai m tha t initiall y Catherin e and Heathcliff for m a n "undivided self" full of "joy" and vitality is simply not verifie d b y th e text . Afte r Catherine' s famou s assertio n tha t sh e is Heathcliff, fo r instance , sh e make s a point o f tellin g Nell y tha t thoug h he i s alway s i n he r mind , i t i s "no t a s a pleasure , an y mor e tha n I a m always a pleasure t o myself " (74) . Eve n earl y o n i n th e novel , Catherin e frequently expresse s irritation and anger with Heathcliff, an d her behavior in general , fro m Heathcliff' s initia l arriva l throug h t o he r death , betray s far more rage than joy. Consider , fo r instance , the early incident in which Catherine, without provocation, pinche s and slaps Nelly, an d then denie s that she touched her , leavin g Linton "greatl y shocked " at both the "false hood an d violenc e whic h hi s ido l ha d committed " (65) . Fa r fro m ex pressing a n "undivide d self, " Catherin e an d Heathcliff , I will argue , ar e projections o f a single, but deeply divided self. Heathcliff i s indeed Cath erine's self, but specifically a projection o f her enraged, "bad, " instinctua l self tha t sh e canno t full y accep t o r acknowledge , jus t a s Catherin e i s a projection o f Heathcliff' s idealize d "good " sel f tha t h e canno t bea r t o lose. Psychoanalyti c relational-mode l theorie s deal , lik e Bronte' s novel , with th e dee p interconnectedness o f love and identity , an d ca n she d ligh t on th e novel' s unconsciou s psychologica l structure . Wion, drawin g o n th e theorie s o f Margare t Mahler , see s inadequat e separation fro m th e mothe r du e t o Bronte' s "los s o f he r mothe r a t a crucial poin t i n he r development " (146 ) an d reflecte d i n th e death s o f mothers in the novel, a s the key to understanding th e novel's psychic an d emotional tensions . Althoug h th e Catherine-Heathclif f relationshi p ca n be seen a s a mother-child symbiosis , tragi c and impossibl e becaus e it ca n only lead to regressive refusion o r death, i t can also be seen, perhaps eve n more fruitfully , a s th e projecte d intrapsychi c dram a o f a child wh o ha s been narcissisticall y wounded . Th e woun d i s du e no t onl y t o los s o r absence of the mother at an important developmental point, but to absence of th e mothe r whil e sh e is present—to a mother wh o i s herself narcissis tically disturbe d an d incapabl e o f empathy , o f meetin g an d affirmin g th e

The Rebirth of Catherine Earnshaw 4 9 child's spontaneous , sensor y an d emotiona l self . Th e actua l los s o f th e mother thu s exacerbate s a preexisting traum a an d sense of loss; and what the nove l seek s t o recover i s less a n idealized symbiosi s wit h th e mothe r than th e experienc e o f a whole, authenti c self . Thi s interpretatio n als o allows us to see an essential coherence between the first an d second halve s of th e novel , an d a clea r developmenta l lin e connectin g th e first - an d second-generation Catherines . Unlik e Moser, wh o believes Bronte "lose s control o f the second hal f o f her novel an d writes insincerely " (13) , I see the novel's secon d half a s reflecting dee p and authentic, i f less powerfull y expressed, insight s abou t th e growth o f one' s abilit y t o love , an d abou t the profoun d interconnectio n o f lovin g sel f an d loving others . In The Analysis of the Self Hein z Kohu t argue s tha t th e development of a secure, cohesive self-structure i s highly dependent on the appropriate functioning o f the child's earlies t relation s wit h th e parents. Becaus e the mother i s initially experience d a s "part o f the self," h e refers t o her as a "self-object" (xiv) . I n th e earliest stage s o f development , th e self-objec t needs t o provide bot h "mirroring " an d "idealizing" functions : th e child needs t o fee l acknowledge d an d confirmed, reflected , a s it were, b y the approving "glea m i n th e mothe r eye " (116); an d th e chil d need s t o b e allowed t o idealiz e th e self-objec t an d experienc e a n empathi c merge r with it . Failur e i n either o f these function s lead s t o a structural defici t i n the self , t o the deeply impaire d self-estee m an d underlying rag e charac teristic o f pathologica l narcissism . Narcissisti c person s ar e foreve r de pendent o n other s t o provid e thei r missin g self-estee m an d ideals , an d because o f thei r structura l deficit , the y d o no t experienc e th e othe r a s other, but only as a missing part of the self, as a self-object. Th e Catherine/ Heathcliff relationshi p ca n be see n i n thes e terms : eac h i s a self-objec t for the other, a missing part of the self. Berman makes a similar argumen t about the narcissistic nature of the relationship: "Each remains incomplete without th e other, unabl e t o survive alone . Neithe r characte r recognize s the concept o f otherness o r object love " (92). As I will argue shortly, th e novel als o reveals massive failur e i n the empathic mirrorin g an d approval responses of the maternal self-object an d the consequent destructiv e rage. Although th e othe r leadin g theoris t o n narcissism , Ott o Kernberg , differs substantiall y wit h Kohu t i n man y respects , hi s theorie s ar e als o rooted i n th e dynamic s o f th e earl y mother-chil d relationship , an d his ideas o n narcissisti c rag e an d splittin g i n particula r ca n hel p illuminat e Bronte's novel. Unlike Kohut, Kernber g retains the primary dual drives—

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libidinal an d aggressive—o f classica l Freudia n theory . Th e infan t origi nally internalize s o r "introjects " th e mother, o r it s most significan t "ob ject," unde r thes e tw o driv e derivatives , an d thu s th e objec t i s initiall y split into "good " (libidinall y determined ) objec t an d "bad " (aggressivel y determined) object. Thi s splitting is first due to lack of integrative capacit y of the early ego, but can later be used and maintained as a defense, causin g severe ego weakness. Accordin g t o Kernberg , th e early eg o must accom plish two essential tasks: differentiation o f self-images from objec t images, and integration o f libidinally an d aggressively determined self-image s an d object image s {Borderline Conditions 25-27) . Melanie Klein , a n importan t influenc e o n Kernberg , als o stresse s th e initial splittin g o f th e mother , an d particularl y th e breast , int o "good " (the source of libidinal gratification) an d "bad" (as it frustrates o r deprive s libidinal needs). Every mother i s inevitably experience d a s both goo d an d bad, bu t i f th e mothe r i s especially withholdin g o r frustrating , th e inter nalized ba d object wil l become intolerably threatenin g an d the infant wil l attempt t o projec t it s badnes s outwar d (Sega l 3-5) . Fo r bot h Kernber g and Klein , splittin g ca n assume a defensive functio n b y keepin g th e goo d object apar t and protected fro m th e dangerous ba d object. Suc h defensiv e splitting ca n als o resul t i n excessiv e paranoi a an d feeling s o f persecutio n (due t o th e projectio n o f th e split-of f ba d object ) an d excessiv e ideali zation o f sel f an d objec t image s (a s a protectio n agains t persecution) . Envy, hunger , an d rag e characteriz e thi s spli t condition , o r wha t Klei n refers t o a s th e "paranoid-schizoi d position. " Th e secon d stag e o f de velopment, however , th e "depressiv e position, " involve s th e integratio n of the good and bad objects and the tolerance of ambivalence. As Kernberg explains it , interna l aggressio n i s no w "acknowledge d rathe r tha n spli t off o r projected, " an d th e "toleranc e o f ambivalenc e implie s a predom inance o f lov e ove r hat e i n relatio n t o whol e objects " {Internal World 30). Althoug h splitting , envy , hunger , an d rag e for m th e mos t powerfu l psychological component s o f Wuthering Heights, th e secon d hal f o f th e novel, a s I will show , reveal s a movement towar d suc h acknowledgmen t and toleranc e o f interna l rag e an d aggression , an d towar d a reintegratio n of self . The centra l mothe r figure i n Wuthering Heights i s Nell y Dean , an d an understandin g o f he r characte r an d functio n i n th e nove l i s ke y t o uncovering the work's psychodynamic structure. Wion sees her as serving a dual purpose: sh e functions a s a "reality testing " eg o in th e novel , an d

The Rebirth of Catherine Earnshaw 5

1

even mor e importantly , h e believes , sh e provide s a n opportunit y fo r Bronte "t o recreat e an d t o be , i n fantasy, th e mother sh e had lost " (162) . If tha t wer e th e case , however , on e woul d expec t a fa r mor e idealized , nurturing fantas y mothe r tha n Nell y presents . Whil e Nell y Dea n i s not , as James Hafley argue s ("The Villain in Wuthering Heights"), a malicious and calculating villain, neither is she a product of a wish-fulfilling fantasy . Rather, sh e is a reflection o f Bronte's internalize d experienc e o f a mother who wa s no t merel y absent , bu t absen t whil e present—distant , unem pathic, unabl e t o mee t an d affir m th e child' s physical , sensory , an d af fective life , particularl y he r angr y an d aggressiv e feelings . Conside r th e early scen e betwee n Catherin e an d Nell y i n whic h Catherin e want s t o confide a troubling dream . Immediatel y Nell y cries , " 'Oh ! don't , Mis s Catherine!' " an d the n counsel s he r t o " 'b e merry , an d lik e yourself!' " (72). Nell y i s only comfortabl e wit h a "merry," "sweet, " an d complian t self, an d i s terrifie d o f th e unconsciou s bodil y an d emotiona l lif e tha t dreams express . When Catherin e persists, Nell y become s more adamant , " ' I won' t hea r it , I won' t hea r it! " sh e insists . Finall y Catherin e hold s her dow n an d force s he r t o listen . Thi s scen e lead s int o th e famou s declaration, " 'Nelly , I am Heathcliff— ' " and , a s I wil l discus s mor e fully later , th e entir e scen e i s the singl e mos t importan t momen t o f self exposure fo r Catherine , i n which sh e tries t o uneart h t o Nell y he r deep , buried "true " self, wit h al l its rag e and pain. Sh e ends b y hidin g he r fac e in th e fold s o f Nelly' s gown . Nelly' s response : " ' I jerke d i t forcibl y away. I wa s ou t o f patienc e wit h he r folly! " (74) . Nelly i s unable t o empathiz e becaus e sh e is unable t o acknowledg e o r accept th e instinctual , passionat e life , bot h o f he r ow n unconsciou s an d that o f th e childre n sh e mothers. Thi s inability , a s Kernberg ha s shown , springs fro m intolerabl e rag e an d aggressio n tha t mus t b e spli t of f o r denied. Her failure of empathy is particularly apparent during Catherine' s illness: sh e show s littl e concer n fo r Catherine' s suffering , disdainfull y believing sh e "acte d a par t o f he r disorder " (104) , an d eve n lie s t o he r that Edga r care s littl e fo r he r sufferin g a s well . A s Hafle y ha s shown , Nelly i s often responsibl e fo r others ' suffering i n the novel. A t on e poin t she eve n admit s responsibility , "passin g hars h judgemen t o n m y man y derelictions o f duty ; fro m whic h i t struc k m e then , al l th e misfortune s of al l m y employer s sprang " (220) . Immediately , however , sh e qualifie s and denie s th e statement : "I t wa s no t th e case , i n reality , I a m aware ; but it was, in my imagination, tha t dismal night, an d I thought Heathclif f

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himself les s guilty than I." Nelly's unconscious ange r and aggression may indeed contribute to many of the tragic turns of events in the novel. Whe n close t o he r death , Catherin e i n fac t realize s tha t " 'Nell y ha s playe d traitor,' " and shrieks, " 'Nell y is my hidden enemy. You witch!' " (110). Nelly, however , i s no t a s Hafley woul d hav e her , a n evil , consciousl y manipulating Iag o figure . He r limitations reflec t a problematic selfhoo d that i s mirrored o n many level s throughou t th e novel. Unable t o tolerat e an y displa y o f rea l pai n o r suffering , o f ange r o r sadness, Nell y repeatedl y charge s bot h th e elder an d the younger Cath erine to be merry and gay, to "put on a happy face," as it were, regardles s of thei r rea l feelings . So , fo r instance , befor e th e distraugh t younge r Catherine visit s th e deathbed o f her father, Nell y implore s he r "to say, she shoul d b e happy wit h youn g Heathcliff . Sh e stared, bu t soo n com prehending wh y I counselle d he r to utte r th e falsehood, sh e assured m e she would not complain" (225). In her typical withdrawal from an y scenes of genuin e emotion , Nell y the n relate s ho w "sh e couldn' t abid e t o b e present a t thei r meeting. " Sh e stand s outsid e th e door , an d eve n late r "hardly venture d nea r th e bed. " Such withdrawal , alon g wit h he r emphasis o n a compliant facade , exemplif y wha t Winnicot t ha s termed th e "false self. " Thi s fals e sel f i s a compliant socia l sel f develope d t o protec t a "true" self ; only th e true sel f ha s the capacity t o feel real . The true sel f is roote d i n the infant's physica l being , i n its "sensori-moto r aliveness " (MaturationalProcesses 149) . If the mother is "good enough, " she mirrors and approve s th e child' s emergin g self , acknowledgin g th e child' s ful l emotional an d sensor y life . A s Alic e Mille r put s it , ever y "chil d ha s a primary nee d t o b e regarde d an d respected a s the person h e really i s at any given time," and by this she means the child's "emotions , sensations , and thei r expressio n fro m th e first da y onward" (7) . Without thi s regar d or acceptance , th e false sel f may set itself u p as real, keepin g the true sel f hidden throug h rigi d defenses . Thi s type of narcissistic pathology, Mille r argues, ca n creat e a vicious cycle : a "fals e self " mothe r wil l invariabl y engender a "false self " o r narcissistically disturbe d child . The relation s o f th e tru e an d fals e self , an d particularly th e struggl e of th e tru e sel f t o brea k forth , creat e th e underlyin g psychi c dram a o f Bronte's novel . Not only is Nelly Dean unempathic an d withdrawn fro m the sensor y an d emotional lif e o f th e children sh e raises, bu t s o too are almost al l of the parental figure s i n the novel. Eve n th e seemingly kindl y Mr. Earnsha w retreat s from th e emotional turmoi l he creates by bringing

The Rebirth of Catherine Earns haw 5 3 Heathcliff int o th e family . Further , Bront e make s a poin t o f ho w h e disappoints hi s children' s expectations : befor e hi s tri p h e promise s t o bring the m eac h a special gift , bu t o n hi s arrival , th e fiddle promise d fo r Hindley i s crushed , an d th e whi p fo r Catherin e i s lost . Catherin e im mediately flie s int o a rage, spit s a t Heathcliff, an d i s promptly struc k b y her father (39) . A child's sense of loss, disappointment, an d rage in relation to mothe r o r paren t indee d pervade s th e book . Th e entir e perspectiv e o f the novel—th e much-discusse d narrativ e distance—ca n i n fac t b e under stood no t onl y a s a psychological displacement , a s Doroth y Va n Ghen t has suggested (160), but also in terms of the perspective of a narcissistically deprived child . Th e intense passions of Catherin e an d Heathclif f ar e onl y accessed afte r the y ar e filtered throug h tw o level s o f narrative , tha t o f Lockwood an d Nelly; the distance can reflect th e child's sense of distanc e from it s ow n authenti c bu t dangerou s emotiona l life , or , similarly , th e mother's distanc e fro m th e child' s affectiv e life . Furthermore , th e first narrator, Lockwood , perfectl y exemplifie s th e conventiona l an d rigi d "false self " wh o ha s "locked " an d hidde n awa y hi s "true " self , wit h al l of it s narcissistic rage . H e i s fittingly th e novel's initia l narrator: th e fals e self i s presente d first, i s mos t accessibl e t o th e reade r o r outsid e world , and i s furthes t fro m th e explici t passion s an d rag e o f th e Catherine Heathcliff stor y a t th e novel' s emotiona l core . Lockwood's character , however , als o reveal s split-of f rag e an d a n un derlying "true " sel f longin g t o emerge . A t th e beginnin g o f th e book , Lockwood present s a few curiou s fact s abou t himself . Firs t h e states tha t his "dea r mothe r use d t o sa y I shoul d neve r hav e a comfortable home " (15), whic h h e the n immediatel y follow s wit h a n accoun t o f a previou s romantic interest in a young woman. H e was unable to express his feeling s toward he r explicitly—" I 'neve r tol d m y love ' vocally," h e explains , bu t imagines tha t hi s "look " reveale d all . Whe n th e youn g lad y finally re turned hi s look , however , h e "shrun k icily " int o himself , "lik e a snail ; at every glance retired colde r and farther" (15 ) until the woman retreated . Wion compare s thi s incident t o Lockwood' s inabilit y t o relat e to Heath cliff's dogs , particularl y th e "canin e mother, " an d rightl y connect s thes e problems t o hi s intensel y ambivalen t feeling s towar d tha t mothe r wh o predicted h e woul d neve r find a comfortabl e home " (Wio n 158) . Th e mother's comment , however , need s stil l furthe r analysis . Fro m Wion' s perspective, i t would sugges t tha t Lockwood , lik e Catherin e an d Heath cliff, wil l neve r find th e idea l comfor t an d hom e o f th e womb , o r th e

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symbiotic reunio n wit h th e mothe r tha t h e seeks . Th e ambivalenc e thu s stems from bot h th e desire and the fear o f this refusion an d is responsibl e for hi s fea r o f wome n i n general . A s I mentione d before , however , thi s perspective misse s th e psychodynamic s o f rag e an d splitting . A "com fortable home " i s indee d connecte d wit h th e mother , bu t als o suggest s being "a t home " o r a t on e wit h th e self . Lockwood' s restles s travelin g and avoidanc e o f an y rea l emotiona l relation s o r intimac y reflec t a profound discomfor t an d disconnectio n wit h hi s ow n interna l objec t rela tions. Afte r firs t meetin g Heathcliff , Lockwoo d immediatel y feel s a "sympathetic chor d within" that understands Heathcliff's "reserve " (15); Heathcliff i s the novel's pures t embodimen t o f narcissistic rage , an d thu s Lockwood's feelin g o f affinit y wit h hi m implicitl y assert s th e connectio n between rag e an d Lockwood' s withdrawa l an d fea r o f emotiona l expression. The projectio n o f unconsciou s rag e ma y als o b e apparen t i n thos e ferocious dog s wit h who m Lockwoo d ha s suc h difficult y relating , an d in th e stormy , hostil e natur e tha t h e i s force d t o battle . I t i s als o a significant componen t i n th e tw o dream s Lockwoo d reports . Thes e dreams hav e bee n submitte d t o a variety o f critica l interpretations , wit h the psychoanalytic readings again stressing the sexual imagery and oedipa l fantasies. Ronal d Fine sees the dreams of variations on the theme of inces t and unpardonabl e si n tha t run s throughou t th e novel , an d h e highlight s the castration fears the dreams express. While the sexual symbols throughout the book—the windows, locks, keys, pistols, and staffs—have oedipa l associations, th e oedipal issues are informed b y even stronger, unresolve d preoedipal conflict s revolvin g aroun d dependenc y an d autonomy , pow erlessness an d power , an d b y th e fear s an d rag e thes e conflict s evoke . The presence o f a n enraged , burie d chil d sel f i s most eviden t i n Lock wood's secon d dream , i n whic h h e i s terrified b y " a child' s fac e lookin g through th e window," wailing, " 'Le t me in—let me in!' " (30) . Explain ing ho w "terro r mad e m e cruel, " Lockwoo d describe s ho w h e rubbe d the child' s han d o n th e broke n glas s o f th e windo w unti l bloo d "ra n down an d soake d th e bed-clothes. " Van Ghen t discusse s th e meanin g o f the window, her e an d elsewher e in the novel, a s symbolic of a separation between th e sou l an d it s demoni c "otherness " (160-63) . Wio n als o see s the broke n windo w a s symboli c o f a broke n barrie r betwee n sel f an d other, bu t i n a convoluted an d unconvincin g interpretiv e leap , h e argue s

The Rebirth of Catherine Earnshaw 5 5 further tha t the young child, b y virtue of dream reversal, is representative of "th e older femal e othe r mos t importan t t o Lockwood , hi s mother " (159). A simpler , an d a s I se e it, mor e logica l interpretatio n involve s a broken barrier within th e self, and the child is neither the demonic "other " nor th e mother, bu t that wounde d an d enraged chil d sel f o r "true " sel f struggling t o brea k through . Th e fac t tha t th e chil d i s femal e an d th e ghost o f Catherin e doe s no t undermin e thi s view , fo r i t reflect s th e essential underlyin g psychodynami c o f al l of the novel's majo r characters . As Kohu t an d Kernber g hav e shown , th e result o f narcissisti c injur y i s violent, destructiv e narcissisti c rage . S o Lockwood refer s t o the child as a "littl e fiend " tha t probabl y woul d hav e strangle d me! " (31); the chil d self i s ful l o f destructiv e fury , jus t a s Lockwoo d i s move d t o violent , destructive behavio r b y the sound o f its "melancholy" sobbing . Lockwood's first drea m begin s wit h hi s trying t o find hi s way hom e through a heavy snow. Joseph, his guide, reproaches him for not bringing a "pilgrim' s staff, " whic h h e say s h e wil l nee d i n orde r t o get int o th e house. Lockwoo d consider s "i t absurd tha t I should nee d suc h a weapon to gai n admittanc e int o m y ow n residence." H e the n finds himsel f no t journeying home, bu t directed toward a chapel where the Reverend Jabes Branderham i s preaching and "either Joseph, th e preacher, o r I had committed th e 'Firs t o f th e Seventy-First ' [sins] , an d wer e t o b e publicl y exposed an d excommunicated " (28) . Wion an d others hav e pointe d ou t the seemingl y obviou s oedipa l fantas y here : th e hom e represent s th e mother, whic h h e need s a phalli c "staff " t o enter , an d th e forbidde n nature o f thi s "absurd " wis h lead s t o the dream's them e o f sin and guilt (Wion 159) . While this may be, the emphasis of the dream, a s Lockwood relates it , i s o n si n o r "badness " an d th e ensuin g eruptio n o f diffuse , violent rage—all of which can be understood equall y in preoedipal terms . Lockwood spend s severa l paragraph s relatin g ho w long an d tedious was the preacher' s exhortatio n o n sin. Finally, unabl e t o stand i t any longer, Lockwood erupt s an d enjoin s th e congregatio n t o "dra g hi m [th e preacher] down , an d crush hi m to atoms" (29). The deep sens e of sin or "badness" th e drea m emphasize s ca n sprin g fro m th e character' s split off bu t unconsciousl y recognize d "bad " self, wit h al l of it s destructiv e rage. Lik e th e helpless , narcissisticall y injure d child , Lockwoo d feel s defenseless, robbe d o f his own deep self an d the power t o assert that self , a power associate d wit h the phallic staff (whic h he enviously trie s to steal

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away from Joseph at the end). The diffuse, unfocuse d natur e of the violent rage tha t conclude s th e dream als o suggest s a more primitive , preoedipa l rather tha n oedipa l source . This sam e unconscious dynami c of a split-off o r deeply buried sel f ful l of destructiv e rag e an d therefor e "bad " als o characterize s Catherine' s dream. A s mentione d earlier , Catherin e force s Nell y t o liste n t o he r account o f this dream : sh e describes how she was in heaven bu t "heave n did no t see m t o b e m y home ; an d I brok e m y hear t wit h weepin g t o come back to earth; and the angels were so angry tha t the y flun g m e out, into th e middle o f th e heath o n the top of Wutherin g Heights ; wher e I woke sobbin g fo r jo y (72) . The goodnes s o f heave n i s associate d wit h her false , "good " self ; sh e i s thu s miserabl e i n heave n becaus e i t i s a betrayal o f he r "true " o r rea l self , despit e it s destructiv e rag e o r "bad ness." Heaven is also associated wit h her impending marriag e to Edgar — "I've no t mor e busines s t o marr y Edga r Linto n tha n I hav e t o b e i n heaven" (72)—an d thu s w e understan d th e marriag e a s a n ac t o f he r compliant, fals e socia l self . Heathclif f w e can now see as the projectio n of her true self—deprived , enraged , an d envious, bu t also full o f a primal physical an d emotional vitality . Thi s perspective allow s us to make sens e of Catherine' s claim s tha t "he' s more mysel f tha n I am " (72) and tha t if al l else perished , an d he remained, I shoul d continu e t o be; and, if al l else remained, and he were annihilated, the Universe would turn to a mighty stranger. I should not seem a part of it. My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time wil l chang e it , I' m well aware , a s winter change s th e trees. M y love for Heathcliff resemble s the eternal rocks beneath—a source of little visible delight, but necessary. (74) Nevertheless, Catherin e i s unable t o accep t o r embrace full y thi s par t of herself—she tell s Nell y tha t " 'i t would degrad e m e to marry Heathclif f now' " (72) . Knowing i t is a betrayal o f her true self , Catherin e marrie s Linton anywa y i n a n attemp t t o b e a "good girl " an d win the love and esteem o f which she' s alway s fel t deprived—"h e wil l be rich, an d I shal l like to be the greatest woma n i n the neighborhood, an d I shall be proud of havin g suc h a husband" (70). According t o Klei n an d Kernberg , th e split-off, angry , "bad " self i n the unconscious world of the narcissist is counterbalanced b y an idealized, grandiose, "all-good " self . Thi s is precisely th e role tha t Catherin e play s

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for Heathcliff : sh e is a projection o f hi s idealized "good " self , th e feare d loss of which would rende r hi m helpless to a consuming narcissisti c rage. He thu s sees he r a s perfect , a s superio r t o everyon e else : " 'Sh e i s im measurably superio r t o the m [th e Lintons]—t o everybod y o n earth , i s she not , Nelly? ' " (50) . Heathclif f i s leas t abl e t o tolerat e an y sig n o f inferiority, o f weakness or helplessness in himself or others. " 'It' s odd,' " he exclaims , " 'wha t a savage feeling I have to anythin g tha t seem s afrai d of me! ' " (215) . O r again , " ' I hav e n o pity ! I hav e n o pity ! Th e mor e the worm s writhe , th e mor e I year n t o crus h ou t thei r entrails! ' " (128) . A simila r feelin g motivate s Lockwood' s rag e agains t th e sobbin g chil d a t the window . A s Alic e Mille r explains , "Contemp t fo r thos e wh o ar e smaller an d weake r i s th e bes t defens e agains t a breakthroug h o f one' s own feelings o f helplessness: it is an expression of this split-off weakness " (67). Such narcissisti c splittin g determine s th e unconsciou s structur e o f Bronte's characters an d their relationships. Catherin e an d Heathcliff eac h reveal bot h self-contemp t an d grandiosity . Despit e he r feelings , a s ex pressed i n her dream, o f bein g bad an d undeserving o f love or happiness , Catherine als o reveal s a fantas y o f bein g universall y beloved : whe n sh e begins t o suspec t Nelly' s betrayal , sh e exclaims , " 'Ho w strange ! I thought, thoug h everybod y hate d an d despise d eac h other , the y coul d not avoid loving me—' " (104). In Catherine and Heathcliff's relationship , each primaril y function s a s a projected par t o f th e othe r or , i n Kohut' s terms, a s a self-object . Thi s perspectiv e ca n hel p u s understan d bot h characters' seemin g lac k o f empath y o r rea l car e fo r th e sufferin g o f th e other. O n he r deathbed , Catherin e crie s bitterly , " ' I wis h I coul d hol d you . . . till we were bot h dead ! I shouldn't car e what you suffered . I care nothing fo r you r sufferings . Wh y shouldn' t yo u suffer ? I do! ' " (133) . And a t he r death , Heathcliff , wit h "frightfu l vehemence, " screams , " 'Ma y sh e wak e i n torment! ' " an d " 'Catherin e Earnshaw , ma y yo u not rest , a s lon g a s I a m living! ' " (139) . Thei r lov e fo r on e another , though fierce, i s no t reall y a love o f othe r bu t o f a split-of f o r missin g part o f th e self . Thei r relationshi p reflect s th e psychologica l structur e o f Klein's paranoid-schizoi d conditio n o f extrem e splitting , envy , hunger , and rage . This sam e structur e underlie s th e nove l a s a whole . Th e hunge r i s apparent i n th e preponderance o f ora l imagery, whic h Wio n doe s a good job o f elucidating . Becaus e th e infant' s first mod e o f relationshi p i s oral,

58 The

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food an d lov e maintai n a primitiv e association . A s Wio n observes , "Nearly ever y socia l encounte r involve s foo d o r drink, " an d eve n th e secondary character s "ten d t o b e imagine d i n ora l terms " (149) , fro m Hindley's drinkin g himsel f t o deat h t o Isabella' s "fasting " an d "pining " for lov e o f Heathcliff . Hunge r an d ora l rag e ar e especiall y eviden t i n Catherine an d Heathcliff . Fo r Catherine , relationa l issue s ar e closel y connected to food an d eating. After Heathclif f ha s disappeared an d Edga r has retreate d t o hi s books , Catherin e expresse s he r feeling s o f outrage d betrayal b y refusin g t o eat . Accordin g t o Nelly , "sh e faste d pertina ciously, unde r th e idea , probably , tha t a t ever y meal , Edga r wa s read y to chok e fo r he r absence " (103) . Like th e narcissisticall y wounde d child , Catherin e i s indee d starvin g for food/love , fo r a fundamenta l affirmatio n o f he r whol e self . O n th e third da y o f he r fast , sh e doe s as k Nell y fo r foo d an d water , whic h sh e eats an d drink s "eagerly. " Immediately , however , sh e sink s bac k o n he r pillow, "clenching her hands and groaning. 'Oh, I will die,' she exclaimed, 'since n o on e care s anythin g abou t me . I wis h I ha d no t take n that ' " (103). He r anger , expresse d explicitl y her e i n ora l terms , reveal s th e primitive rag e o f a chil d wh o feel s denie d o f th e basi c emotiona l nour ishment i t need s fro m it s mothe r o r firs t lov e object . He r perceptio n o f Edgar's behavio r fit s th e narcissisticall y injure d child' s perceptio n o f it s parent tha t we'v e see n repeate d throughou t th e novel : h e i s present bu t absent, i n th e house bu t no t attentiv e t o he r needs ; he is unempathic an d indifferent—" 'Wha t i s that apatheti c bein g doing?' " (103 ) she demand s to kno w fro m Nelly . In he r rag e a t suc h indifference , Catherin e tear s he r pillo w "wit h he r teeth" (104) , an d th e feather s evok e th e memor y o f a lapwin g sh e ha d once see n o n th e moors . Th e bir d wa s tryin g "t o ge t t o it s nest," whic h she finds later in the winter "full o f little skeletons" (105). As Wion notes, "Catherine seem s t o identif y bot h wit h th e 'old ' lapwing , whic h want s to ge t hom e bu t can't , and wit h th e starve d an d abandone d littl e ones " (151). A child' s experienc e o f rejectio n an d withholdin g o f food/lov e i s again associate d wit h destructiv e rag e i n thi s memory/fantasy , an d i s projected, a s usual, i n th e characte r o f Heathcliff . Ther e i s confusio n i n Catherine's stor y a s to whethe r Heathclif f actuall y sho t th e lapwing, bu t she doe s describ e ho w h e se t a trap ove r th e nes t s o "th e ol d one s dar e not come, " an d sh e concludes , " ' I mad e hi m promis e he' d neve r shoo t

The Rebirth of Catherine Earnshaw 5

9

a lapwin g afte r that , an d h e d i d n ' t . . . . Di d h e shoo t m y lapwings , Nelly?' " (105) . Heathcliff's characte r is indeed the novel's most powerful manifestatio n of a greed y an d sadisti c ora l rage . Jame s Twitchel l ha s eve n devote d a n entire essay t o a discussion o f "Heathclif f a s Vampire." Wio n to o (149 ) points ou t th e man y reference s t o Heathclif f a s vampir e o r cannibal : Heathcliff exclaim s tha t ha d Catherin e cease d t o car e fo r Edgar , h e "would hav e tor n hi s hear t out , an d dran k hi s blood! " (125) ; Catherin e expresses fea r tha t Heathclif f wil l "devour " Isabell a (93) ; Isabell a men tions " 'hi s shar p canniba l teeth ' " (146 ) and describe s ho w " 'hi s mout h watered t o tea r yo u wit h hi s teeth ; becaus e he' s onl y hal f a man—not s o much' " (149) ; and Nelly, a t the novel's end , questions , " 'I s he a ghoul, or a vampire?' " (260) . Suc h intens e ora l rag e i s ofte n a consequence o f abandonment an d abus e (eithe r physica l o r emotional ) i n childhood , a condition epitomize d b y Heathcliff' s history . H e i s a foundling wh o a t Mr. Earnshaw' s deat h i s force d t o suffe r degradatio n an d humiliatio n a t the hand s o f Hindley . Heathclif f embodie s al l th e fur y o f th e helpless , narcissistically injure d chil d wh o feel s empty , powerless , an d alone . Hi s character i s driven b y rag e an d envy , a s well a s by a n obsessiv e desir e t o escape thi s empty , lonel y stat e throug h a perfec t fusin g lov e wit h a n idealized self-object . Thus the Catherine-Heathcliff relationshi p dramatizes, with power and acuity, th e interio r relationa l worl d o f th e narcissisticall y wounde d child—a worl d tha t i s deepl y divided , spli t betwee n idealize d all-goo d and contemptuous all-bad self and object images, and that harbors a fierce, destructive rage . Bronte' s nove l doe s no t sto p here , however , fo r i n th e second-generation Catherine-Hareto n relationshi p i t reveals a movement toward psychologica l healing : i n thi s secon d relationship , th e rag e an d loss ar e no t spli t off , bu t acknowledge d an d accepte d a s part o f oneself , and a whole , reintegrate d sel f emerges . Catherin e Earnsha w i s literall y and symbolicall y reborn . B y marryin g Hareto n Earnshaw , Catherin e Linton Heathclif f become s agai n Catherin e Earnshaw . Moreover , Nell y remarks ho w th e eye s o f youn g Catherin e an d Hareto n " 'ar e precisel y similar, an d the y ar e thos e o f Catherin e Earnshaw ' " (254) . Because , a s I hav e argued , th e entir e nove l reflect s th e interna l objec t relation s tha t result fro m wounde d narcissism , th e character s an d relationship s i n th e book's secon d hal f ca n als o bes t b e understoo d i n term s o f projection s

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of a single personality. W e can thus see the young Catherin e an d Hareto n together a s forming a single, cohesiv e self . The second half of the novel reveals the psychic tasks that are necessary to achievin g thi s reconstructe d self . First , th e younger Catherin e (who m I wil l refe r t o no w a s Cathy ) i s abl e t o lov e perhap s th e novel' s mos t unloveable, patheti c character, Linto n Heathcliff . Eve n afte r hi s marriag e to Cathy , Linto n remain s a sickly, whining , selfis h child , s o desperatel y needy tha t h e i s unabl e t o conside r anyone' s need s bu t hi s own . H e i s perhaps th e novel' s mos t explici t portrai t o f tha t desperate , broke n chil d clamoring beneat h th e surfac e o f th e self , th e helpless , need y chil d tha t so many of the other characters are trying to defend against . Nevertheless , Cathy acknowledge s an d accept s him . Sh e tells Heathcliff , " ' I kno w h e has a bad nature , he' s you r son . Bu t I' m gla d I'v e a better, t o forgiv e it ; and I kno w h e love s m e an d fo r tha t reaso n I lov e him ' " (228) . Unlik e the elde r Catherine , Heathcliff , o r Lockwood , Cath y i s able t o embrac e the frail, greed y chil d i n the self, t o forgiv e it , understandin g tha t i t onl y wants lov e an d tha t i t need s compassion . Cathy ha s a mor e difficul t time , however , learnin g t o lov e an d ac cept Hareton . Whil e Linto n i s Heathcliff's biologica l child , Hareton , hi s foster-child, i s more truly his son for he has inherited Heathcliff's ra w and savage nature. He is, as has been commonly noted, a younger reflection o f Heathcliff: Lockwood comments on his "rough and uncultivated" appear ance and his "haughty" air (19), and Hareton i s often describe d in animalistic terms. Lik e Heathcliff, Hareto n projects th e enraged, "bad, " sensua l and feelin g sel f tha t Cath y a t first reject s an d treat s with contempt . Ulti mately, however, sh e comes to accept and even love him, and the terms she uses to inform Hareto n o f her changed attitude emphasize the fact that she is, i n essence , comin g t o accep t a part o f herself. Sh e does not simpl y tel l Hareton tha t sh e ha s decide d t o lik e him , bu t " £ that I want—tha t I' m glad—that I shoul d lik e you t o b e m y cousin , now ' " (247) . Sh e has de cided to acknowledge their bond a s relatives and to accept that he belongs to her—" * I should like you t o be my cousin.' " Just a s she has decided t o possess o r ow n him , s o sh e demand s tha t h e d o th e sam e wit h her : " 'Come , yo u shal l take notice o f me , Hareton—yo u ar e my cousin , an d you shal l ow n me ' " (247) . Thi s perspectiv e allow s u s t o se e the Cathy Hareton relationshi p no t a s " a superficia l stereotype d tal e o f feminin e longings" (Moser 15) , but a s a genuine expression of emotional growt h i n the novel's underlying psychological narrative.

The Rebirth of Catherine Earnshaw 6 1 With Cathy' s marriag e to Hareton Earnshaw , Catherin e Earnsha w reemerges a s a mor e complete , integrate d whole . Thi s rebor n Catherin e Earnshaw ha s learned t o lov e eve n th e unloveable part s o f th e self—th e needy, helpless child and the enraged, "bad " destructive self. The internal aggression, in Kernberg's words again, is now "acknowledged rathe r tha n split of f o r projected" an d this "toleranc e o f ambivalenc e implie s a predominance of love over hate in relation to whole objects" {Internal World 30). Wio n claim s tha t Nell y i s a " c good enoug h mother ' " fo r Cathy , which thus allows for her emotional development. Given Nelly's unempathic and "fals e self " character , however , tha t interpretatio n seem s unlikely . Cathy's relationship with her father, o n the other hand, althoug h far fro m ideal, nevertheles s present s th e novel's stronges t parent-chil d bond . Al though Edgar is sickly and withdrawn throughout most of Cathy's life, she clearly feels a deep affection bot h for and from him , and is driven almost to madness whe n sh e fears Heathclif f wil l preven t he r fro m attendin g hi s deathbed. Further , w e are told that Edgar has strong nurturing and maternal qualities . H e take s Nelly' s plac e nursin g Catherin e i n th e las t tw o months of her life: " No mother could have nursed a n only child more devotedly than Edgar tended her" (113). Berman also points to Edgar as one of the only characters in the novel "who grows in stature" and is capable of a nonnarcissistic love: Edgar "adores his daughter but does not seek to possess o r contro l her " (107). Edga r i s perhaps th e "good enoug h mother " who provide s th e underlying suppor t fo r the psychological developmen t reflected i n the second half of the novel. While th e end of the novel achieve s a restructuring an d integration of self, the destructive rage is still a powerful presence . Catherine and Heathcliff's ghost s are still said to be stalking the moors. The narcissistic rage that fuels the novel remains a lurking force amon g the ghosts and dreams of the unconscious. Nevertheless , i n the second hal f o f the novel Bronte recog nizes the need for empathy with one's own enraged self. Such empathy, as Miller ha s argued , i s bor n ou t o f mourning , ou t o f confrontatio n wit h one's deep sense of loss. Mourning is the hallmark of Klein's depressive position and involves the acceptance—or, to use Cathy's word, the owning — of one's destructive as well as loving feelings, and the recognition that bot h are necessary to the experience of a whole, genuinely alive self.

Chapter 4

Gender, Self , an d the Relational Matrix : D. H . Lawrenc e an d Virginia Wool f

The proble m o f identity , o f th e cohesio n an d integrit y o f th e self , ha s long bee n recognize d a s a predominant issu e i n the modern novel . Psy choanalytic relational-mode l theorie s ca n provide a lens throug h whic h to vie w thi s centra l problem . B y seein g th e cor e sel f a s base d o n a n interactional construct , th e relational perspectiv e ca n show ho w textua l representations o f intimacy , love , an d sexual relationship s ar e bound u p with th e questio n o f identity . Th e works o f Virgini a Wool f an d D. H . Lawrence, despit e vas t difference s i n styl e an d aims , ar e equally fuele d by intensel y conflictua l preoedipa l relationship s involvin g infantil e de pendence, merging , an d separation . Th e novel s o f bot h writer s revea l evidence o f narcissistic injur y an d deep ambivalenc e towar d th e mother , along wit h attendan t problem s i n self-cohesio n an d eg o boundaries. 1 Feminist objec t relation s theories , whic h focu s o n gende r difference s i n the earlies t preoedipa l negotiation s betwee n sel f an d m/other , ca n hel p us t o understan d bot h novelists ' distinctiv e mode s o f addressin g thes e problems an d creatively recastin g the m i n literary form . In The Reproduction of Mothering Nanc y Chodoro w argues , "T o the extent tha t female s an d males experienc e differen t interpersona l environ ments a s they gro w up , feminine an d masculine personalit y wil l develo p differently an d be preoccupied wit h differen t issues " (51) . For the boy, 62

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3

the origina l primar y onenes s wit h th e mothe r ma y b e a n unconsciou s source o f conflictua l gende r identity ; th e underlyin g sens e o f femalenes s may undermine th e sense of maleness . Masculinit y thu s become s define d as "no t female " o r "no t mother. " Furthermore , th e mothe r ma y expe rience a so n a s mor e "other " tha n a daughter , an d thu s th e mal e sel f i s based o n a more fixe d "me"-"no t me " distinctio n tha n th e femal e self . Because th e girl' s gende r identit y doe s no t contradic t he r primar y sens e of onenes s an d identificatio n wit h th e mother , gende r identit y i s les s problematic fo r her . Preoedipa l separatio n issue s ar e not a s tied u p wit h sexual issue s fo r th e gir l a s the y ar e fo r th e boy . However , becaus e a mother ma y experienc e a daughter a s an extension o f herself, an d becaus e preoedipal mother-lov e i s prolonge d fo r a girl , sh e ma y suffe r greate r problems o f separatio n an d autonom y tha n a boy . These differin g relationa l experience s wit h th e mother , Chodoro w concludes, account for fundamental difference s i n masculine and feminin e personality: Feminine personality come s to be based less on repression o f inner objects, an d fixed and firm splits in the ego, and more on retention and continuity of external relationships. Fro m th e retentio n o f preoedipa l attachment s t o thei r mother , growing girls come to define and experience themselves as continuous with others; their experience of self contains more flexible or permeable ego boundaries. Boys come to define themselve s as more separate and distinct, wit h a greater sense of rigid ego boundaries an d differentiation. Th e basic feminine sens e of self is connected to the world, th e basic masculine sense of self is separate. (169) Carol Gilliga n has applied Chodorow' s theorie s in her study of gende r differences i n th e ethica l domain , an d sh e come s t o simila r conclusions . She finds two differing mal e and female modes of seeing the self in relation to other s an d th e world . Drawin g o n th e text s o f men' s an d women' s fantasies and thoughts, Gilligan discovers that the male mode is dominated by image s o f hierarch y whil e image s o f we b defin e tha t o f th e female . "Thus th e image s o f hierarch y an d we b infor m differen t mode s o f as sertion an d response : the wish t o b e alon e a t the to p an d th e consequen t fear that others will get too close; the wish to be at the center of connectio n and th e consequen t fea r o f bein g to o fa r ou t o n th e edge " (62) . Lik e Chodorow, Gilliga n see s masculinit y a s define d throug h separatio n an d femininity throug h attachment ; thu s mal e gende r identit y i s threatene d by intimac y an d femal e gende r identit y b y separation .

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Patricia Waugh, i n her study Feminine Fictions, also shares Chodoro w and Gilligan' s positio n tha t femal e gende r identit y i s strengthene d b y a relational vie w while a male's i s threatened b y it . I n he r argumen t abou t the psychologica l consequence s o f thi s fact , Waug h use s Klein' s tw o developmental positions—the "paranoid-schizoid " an d the "depressive. " A girl's longer preoedipal attachmen t t o the mother, sh e believes, "mean s that ambivalenc e ma y b e mor e successfull y resolve d throug h th e repar ations an d integration s o f th e depressiv e position " (76) . Sh e thu s argue s that "i t seem s likel y tha t th e mobilizatio n o f th e paranoid-schizoi d def ences o f splittin g (intens e idealizatio n an d denigration) , fragmentation , projection, an d introjection i s more likely to occur in the formal strategie s of mal e writers . A n expressio n o f 'depressive ' concern s an d anxieties — the struggl e t o cop e wit h ambivalenc e withou t splitting ; fea r o f loss ; recognition o f guilt; desire for reparatio n an d relationship—is more likely to occu r i n women's writing " (80) . Waugh admit s tha t thi s distinctio n i s not absolute , an d tw o o f th e othe r essay s i n thi s volum e woul d indee d seem t o argu e expressl y agains t it: the essa y on Emil y Bront e stresse s th e strong splittin g defense s i n he r work , whil e th e stud y o f Wordswort h reveals th e predominanc e o f depressive , reparative , an d relationa l con cerns i n his . I n regar d t o Lawrence , though , I d o agree wit h Waugh' s view o f gende r a s playin g a determinin g rol e i n th e preeminen t fea r o f regressive fusion an d th e need t o contro l an d separat e that we find i n thi s male writer' s work . Perhaps th e distinction s tha t Chodoro w an d Gilliga n dra w shoul d b e considered mor e a s indicator s o f genera l tendencie s tha n a s stric t alter native categories in understanding the psychology of gender identity. Thi s may b e particularl y importan t whe n considerin g th e wor k o f creativ e artists, whos e eg o boundarie s ar e ofte n mor e permeabl e an d whos e de fenses ma y b e les s rigi d tha n thos e o f ordinar y individuals. 2 Still , th e works o f Wool f an d Lawrenc e illustrat e th e predominanc e o f th e kin d of male/femal e patter n Chodoro w an d Gilliga n describe : th e metapho r of hierarch y (persona l an d sexua l relationship s conceive d i n term s o f stratified level s o f power ) i s highl y characteristi c o f Lawrence' s fiction; the metapho r o f we b (a n insistenc e o n unifyin g connection s i n huma n relations) i s th e prevailin g moti f i n Woolf' s work . Nevertheless , Law rence's wor k als o display s a yearnin g fo r connectio n an d relationship , and Woolf's novel s ar e not withou t a keen awarenes s o f power dynamic s in human an d sexua l relationships. Th e works o f both writer s revea l ho w

Gender, Self, and the Relational Matrix 6 5 gender an d preoedipal relationa l issue s affec t an d complicate eac h other , creating a level of intense emotional experience at the foundation o f human identity. Sons and Lovers an d To the Lighthouse bot h revolv e around powerful , ambivalently conceive d materna l figures, an d the structure o f eac h wor k rides o n th e tensions an d alternat e rhythm s o f mergin g an d separation . In Lawrence, the emphasis is on separation and autonomy. Intimac y wit h women threatens overdependence, possessiveness, total absorption or loss of self . I n Women in Love, Birkin' s "sta r balance, " his idealized notio n of a n abstract, impersona l love , arise s ou t of this fear o f personal depen dency and loss of self. In Lawrence's work, th e relation between the sexes is generall y perceive d i n term s o f dominanc e an d submission, a s a con tinuous powe r struggl e roote d i n th e first relationa l dynami c betwee n helpless infan t an d omnipotent mother . I n Woolf, intimac y an d merging issues pos e n o threat t o gender identity . Th e emphasis i n her work i s on connection an d unit y rathe r tha n o n separatenes s an d autonomy . Th e threat t o the self lie s not in the act of love , bu t in the state o f isolation . In he r work , whe n th e consciou s an d exhaustin g effor t a t sustainin g connections wit h other s an d the environment i s relinquished, death—o r the dissolutio n o f self—i s imminent . Much ha s bee n mad e o f th e obviou s oedipa l dynamic s i n Sons and Lovers.3 A s both Chodoro w an d Dorothy Dinnerstei n hav e argued , th e oedipal triangl e ha s a more powerful , primitiv e weigh t fo r th e boy tha n for th e girl sinc e fo r hi m it is an extension o f the earlier primitiv e ti e to the mother. Th e oedipal is informed b y the preoedipal, an d in Lawrence's novel th e specific psychodynamic s o f tha t mor e primitiv e infant-mothe r bond requir e critica l attention . Lawrence' s description s o f Paul' s rela tionship wit h hi s mother revea l a merged identity , a lack o f boundarie s or differentiation tha t extends well into Paul's adolescence and adulthood. He ha s no feeling , i n an y deep emotiona l o r psychological sense , o f his own separat e reality , o f an y realit y outsid e o f hi s mother : "Ther e wa s one plac e i n the world tha t stoo d soli d an d did not melt int o unreality : the plac e wher e hi s mother was . Everybody els e coul d gro w shadowy , almost non-existen t t o him, but she could not . It was as if the pivot and pole o f his life, fro m whic h h e could no t escape, wa s his mother" (222) . This passag e reveal s th e essential Lawrencia n ambivalence : his mother is for hi m bot h th e sourc e o f al l reality—of coherenc e an d meaning—an d the sourc e o f a suffocatin g bondage . Th e fierce self-assertio n tha t s o

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characterizes Lawrence' s work , a s well a s the insistenc e o n separatenes s and boundarie s i n his portrayal o f sexua l relationships, indee d grow s ou t of thi s condition . The roots of the condition lie in a particular relational dynamic between mother an d son . Mrs . More l bring s t o her motherin g a desperate unhap piness with he r lif e an d marriage , an d als o a consuming guil t ove r Paul' s birth: "Sh e n o longe r love d he r husband ; sh e ha d no t wante d thi s chil d to come . . . . With al l he r force , wit h al l her sou l sh e woul d mak e u p t o it fo r havin g brough t i t int o th e world unloved " (37) . Indeed , Lawrenc e repeatedly make s th e poin t i n th e earl y chapter s tha t Pau l wa s originall y unwanted an d unloved . Thus , behin d Mrs . Morel' s oversolicitou s an d overprotective lov e i s guil t ove r a n origina l antipath y o r lac k o f love ; a t least thi s seem s t o b e wha t i s unconsciousl y experience d b y th e child . This ca n help accoun t fo r Paul' s hyperconsciousnes s o f hi s mother: "Hi s soul," Lawrenc e says , "seeme d alway s attentiv e t o her " (57) . Such extrem e attentivenes s arise s ou t o f th e need t o pleas e th e mothe r in orde r t o gai n o r assur e he r love . I f th e mother' s lov e was give n freel y and naturally, the child would have no need for such anxious and relentless attention. Jeffre y Berma n {Narcissism and the Novel) make s a simila r argument abou t Mrs. Morel. H e claim s that she is "alternately overlovin g and underloving " (205 ) and tha t beneat h he r fervent , overprotectiv e lov e is underlyin g rejectio n an d coldness . Berma n compare s he r t o th e over solicitous but essentially cold, unlovin g mother o f "Rocking-Horse Win ner" (209) . In addition, Mrs . More l projects ont o he r child the ambition s and intellectual aspiration s she failed t o achieve for herself, an d she force s him t o provid e th e love , understanding , and , i n sublimate d form , th e sexual gratificatio n sh e fail s t o receiv e fro m he r husband . Chodoro w claims tha t th e mother' s failur e t o recogniz e he r chil d a s othe r tha n a n extension o f hersel f ma y b e mor e frequen t wit h daughters ; when i t hap pens with sons, however, th e threat to the boy's gender identity can incite acute unconsciou s rag e an d hostility . As man y critic s hav e noted , th e ange r an d aggressio n towar d wome n in Lawrence' s wor k i s roote d i n a fear o f materna l absorptio n an d con sequent los s o f masculin e potenc y an d autonomy . Thi s deepl y roote d fear, a s Chodorow an d other s hav e argued, ma y b e universal t o th e mal e psyche i n a culture i n which wome n ar e the primary caretakers . Ambiv alence is unavoidable, but in Lawrence's case, that ambivalence is inflamed by th e narcissisti c natur e o f th e mother-chil d bond ; th e mother' s ow n

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boundary problem s necessaril y complicat e boundar y an d differentiatio n issues fo r he r son , a point tha t I d o no t thin k ha s bee n adequatel y mad e in th e feminist psychoanalyti c criticis m o f Lawrence' s work . Lawrence' s characters, furthermore, ar e often arouse d to their most brutal and violent acts whe n the y ar e confronte d wit h an y displa y o f helplessness , depen dency, o r fragility , fo r the y ar e respondin g wit h fur y t o tha t sam e con dition i n themselves. Whe n Pau l accidently break s his sister Annie's doll , for instance , h e devise s a peculiarly sadisti c ritua l sacrific e o f th e doll : He mad e a n alta r o f bricks , pulle d som e o f th e shaving s ou t o f Arabella' s body, put the waxen fragments int o the hollow face, poured o n a little paraffin , and se t th e whole thin g alight . H e watche d wit h wicke d satisfactio n th e drop s of wa x melt of f th e broke n forehea d o f Arabella , an d dro p lik e swea t int o th e flame. S o long as the stupid big doll burned he rejoiced i n silence. At the end he poked among the embers with a stick, fished out the arms and legs, all blackened, and smashed them under stones. "That's the sacrifice of Missis Arabella," he said. "An' I'm glad there's nothing left o f her. " Which disturbed Annie inwardly, although she could say nothing. He seemed to hate the doll so intensely, becaus e he had broken it . (58 ) Margaret Storc h an d Danie l Dervi n bot h interpre t th e dol l i n thi s episode a s representative o f th e mother. Accordin g t o Storch, "Th e bod y of th e mothe r is , i n fantasy , dismembere d an d destroyed , disintegratin g in a flash of fiery consumin g anger , an d liquifie d int o th e wax an d swea t of elementa l fluids. . . . The scen e i s a vivid depictio n o f a child's sadisti c fantasy agains t th e mother " (99) . Dervi n see s th e inciden t a s th e first crucial ste p i n th e emergenc e o f Paul' s creativ e an d assertiv e self . Th e doll, h e believes , i s a n exampl e o f Winnicott' s "transitiona l object" ; i t contains projection s o f bot h th e bad mothe r an d th e badness withi n Pau l himself. Th e dol l als o represents , accordin g t o Dervin , a possessive an d symbiotic bon d wit h th e mothe r tha t "mus t b e smashe d befor e th e chil d can hatc h ou t int o separateness " ("Play , Creativity , an d Matricide " 89) . Dervin ask s whether Pau l hates th e dol l because , a s Annie states , h e ha d broken it , "O r di d h e break an d bur n i t because o f hi s hatred? Th e latte r seems mor e probable " (85) . I woul d argu e tha t bot h motive s ar e inter related an d equall y true . While I don' t disagre e wit h Storc h an d Dervin' s vie w tha t th e dol l burning reflect s Paul' s enrage d an d destructiv e feeling s towar d th e

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mother, I als o thin k the y d o no t giv e enoug h credi t t o Annie' s assertion . Paul's origina l breakin g o f th e dol l indee d reflect s inne r rag e an d it s potential t o destroy . Pau l i s mos t incensed , however , b y th e dol l i n it s fragile, broke n state—h e doe s hat e th e doll , a s Anni e says , because h e shattered it . Pau l i s terrifie d o f th e powe r o f hi s o w n unconsciou s rage — its abilit y t o hav e hur t an d destroye d th e doll . Th e fragile , broke n dol l represents ( I agre e with Dervi n i n thi s sense ) bot h hi s mothe r and himself . Paul's fea r o f hi s o w n destructiv e rag e an d th e fragil e vulnerabilit y o f mother/self, however , onl y incite s hi m t o furthe r violence . Eve n Law rence's femal e character s ma y becom e viciou s an d crue l a t an y reminde r of infantil e helplessnes s o r vulnerability . G u d r u n , fo r instance , despise s Gerald fo r wha t sh e perceive s a s hi s infantil e neediness : "Perhap s thi s was wha t h e wa s alway s doggin g he r for , lik e a chil d tha t i s famished , crying fo r th e breast . . . . An infan t cryin g i n th e night , thi s D o n Juan . O o h , bu t h o w sh e hate d th e infan t cryin g i n th e night . Sh e would murde r it gladly . Sh e woul d stifl e i t an d bur y i t " (524) . The relatio n betwee n th e sexe s i n Lawrence' s w o r k alway s threaten s to retur n t o thi s stat e of th e fragile , need y infan t an d th e powerful mother , and thu s al l persona l dependenc y mus t b e stifle d an d maternal/femal e power resiste d o r destroyed . I n Sons and Lovers Lawrenc e portray s Mir iam a s almos t monstrou s i n he r cravin g fo r a n absorbing , suffocatin g intimacy an d love . Pau l watche s i n horro r a s sh e embrace s he r younge r brother: And, foldin g hi m i n he r arms , sh e swaye d slightl y fro m sid e to side , he r fac e half lifted , he r eye s hal f closed , he r voic e drenche d wit h love . "Don't!" sai d th e child , uneasy—"don' t Miriam! " "Yes; yo u lov e me , don' t you? " sh e murmure d dee p i n he r throat , almos t a s if sh e were i n a trance, an d swayin g als o a s if sh e were swoone d i n a n ecstas y o f love. "Don't!" repeate d th e child , a frown o n hi s clea r brow . "You lov e me , don' t you? " sh e murmured . "What d o yo u mak e suc h a fuss for? " crie d Paul , al l i n suffering becaus e o f her extrem e emotion . "Wh y can' t yo u b e ordinar y wit h him? " (153 ) Similarly, Pau l i s repelled b y th e intensit y wit h whic h sh e smell s a flower : " T o her , flower s appeale d wit h suc h strengt h sh e fel t sh e mus t mak e them par t o f herself . Whe n sh e ben t an d breathe d a flower , i t wa s a s i f she an d th e flowe r wer e lovin g eac h other . Pau l hate d he r fo r it . Ther e

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seemed a sor t o f exposur e abou t th e action , somethin g to o intimate " (173). Lawrence repeatedl y describe s Miria m a s wantin g t o "absorb " Paul , or, a s Mrs. More l complains , t o "suc k hi m up. " Miriam "sa t o n th e sof a absorbed i n him. Sh e always seeme d absorbe d i n him, an d b y him, whe n he wa s present " (175) , o r again , "H e fel t tha t sh e wante d th e sou l ou t of hi s body , an d no t him . Al l hi s strengt h an d energ y sh e dre w int o herself throug h som e channe l whic h unite d them . Sh e di d no t wan t t o meet him , s o tha t ther e wer e tw o o f them , ma n an d woma n together . She wanted t o dra w al l of hi m int o her . I t urge d hi m t o a n intensit y lik e madness, which fascinated him , a s drug-taking might" (194). The analog y to dru g takin g is telling, fo r Pau l is as attracted t o the regressiv e mergin g that Miria m offer s a s h e i s repelle d b y it . Ther e ar e indee d passage s throughout Lawrence' s fictio n tha t celebrat e fusion , as , fo r example , th e following lin e fro m Women in Love: "Ther e wa s n o I an d you , ther e was onl y th e third , unrealize d wonder , th e wonde r o f existin g no t a s oneself, bu t i n a consummatio n o f m y bein g an d o f he r bein g i n a ne w one, a new paradisa l uni t regaine d fro m th e duality " (417) . As Heinz Kohu t ha s argued, a persistent unconsciou s desir e for merg ing o r fusio n ca n resul t fro m a n origina l frustratio n o r deficienc y i n th e mother-infant bond , particularl y i n th e origina l mirrorin g relationship . Intersubjective theorist s suc h a s Danie l Ster n an d Jessic a Benjami n se e the obsessio n wit h mergin g a s roote d i n a n origina l failur e o f infant mother attunement . Th e intensit y o f Paul' s repulsio n t o mergin g wit h women i s als o a product o f th e intensit y o f hi s unconsciou s wish . Thi s wish arise s ou t o f lack—no t th e lac k o f a n initia l merge d o r symbioti c experience—but th e lac k o f a primary facilitatin g o r "attuned " relation ship i n whic h th e sel f feel s acknowledge d an d affirmed . Lawrence recognizes , wit h intuitiv e psychologica l insight , tha t th e desire fo r a n all-absorbin g intimac y o r fusin g los s o f sel f i n othe r indee d arises ou t o f a n inne r deficienc y o r void . Pau l accuse s Miria m o f bein g incapable o f rea l love : "Yo u don' t wan t t o love—you r eterna l an d ab normal cravin g i s to b e loved . Yo u aren' t positive , you'r e negative . Yo u absorb, absorb , a s if you mus t fil l yoursel f u p wit h love , becaus e you'v e got a shortag e somewhere " (Sons and Lovers 218) . An d Miria m hersel f suspects th e trut h o f thi s accusation , o f th e "shortage " o r hollownes s a t the cor e o f he r being : "Perhap s sh e ha d no t i n hersel f tha t whic h h e wanted. I t wa s th e deepes t motiv e o f he r soul , thi s self-mistrust . I t wa s

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so dee p sh e dare d neithe r realis e no r acknowledg e it . Lik e a n infinitel y subtle shame , i t kep t he r alway s back " (221) . T o Lawrence' s credit , h e does no t attribut e thi s voi d o r deficienc y i n th e sel f solel y t o hi s femal e characters. Skrebensk y i n The Rainbow an d Geral d i n Women in Love suffer fro m thi s same condition. Incapabl e o f real love, the y smothe r an d oppress thei r wome n i n a n attemp t t o absor b them , t o compensat e fo r their dee p sens e o f emptines s an d shame . Ironically eve n Paul, so critical of Miriam, suffer s fro m thi s same inner void, th e same inability t o love. The condition i s a result o f a breakdow n in the earliest relations between sel f an d primary other : the unsatisfactor y and frustratin g natur e o f th e infant' s first lov e relationshi p prohibit s th e growth o f self-lov e o r self-esteem . Psychoanalyti c theorist s var y o n th e specific natur e o f th e self-othe r relationa l function s necessar y t o th e de velopment o f health y self-esteem . Fo r Kohut , i t i s successfu l mirrorin g and idealizin g functions ; fo r Ster n i t i s "affectiv e attunement" ; fo r Ben jamin i t is "mutual recognition " betwee n sel f an d mothe r a s independen t subjects.4 Theorists agree , however, o n the emotional an d relational con sequences i f self-estee m ha s no t bee n established . Th e inabilit y t o lov e oneself—the feeling s o f unworthiness , shame , an d emptines s a t th e cor e of one' s being—als o preclude s th e abilit y t o lov e others. Thu s Pau l com plains, "Yo u know , mother , I think ther e mus t b e somethin g th e matte r with me , tha t I can't love " (Sons and Lovers 350) . The closes t h e come s i s wit h Clar a Dawes , bu t h e i s attracte d t o he r precisely becaus e o f he r scornfulnes s an d defianc e o f men . Sh e thus con firms hi s ow n dee p sens e o f worthlessnes s an d shame . Unlik e himsel f and Miriam , i n who m needines s fuel s a hot intensity , Clar a i s cold, an d Paul perceive s thi s coldnes s a s strength : "H e marvelle d a t he r coldness . He ha d t o d o everythin g hotly . Sh e mus t b e somethin g special " (265) . Just a s h e accuse s Miria m o f "absorbing " him , s o h e a t time s feel s ab sorbed b y an d merge d wit h Clara . Lawrenc e describe s on e scene , fo r instance, i n whic h Pau l sit s besid e Clar a a t a play : He was Clara's white heavy arms , her throat, he r moving bosom. That seemed to b e himself. The n awa y somewher e th e play wen t on , an d h e was identifie d with tha t also . Ther e wa s n o himself . Th e gre y an d blac k eye s o f Clara , he r bosom comin g down o n him, he r ar m that he held grippe d betwee n hi s hands, were all that existed. Then he felt himself smal l and helpless, her towering in her force abov e him. (331)

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The ambivalenc e i s again clear : besides th e pleasure o f mergin g i s als o the feeling of being "small and helpless" beneath the woman's "towering " strength. Ultimatel y h e mus t resis t he r powe r an d domination . H e ac complishes thi s partiall y b y abstractin g her , b y strippin g he r o f he r in dividuality an d makin g he r symboli c o f "woman " i n thei r lovemaking , and partiall y b y holdin g bac k an d neve r trul y givin g o f himself . Indeed , Clara accuse s hi m o f no t reall y knowin g o r realizin g her : " 'Abou t me you kno w nothing, ' sh e sai d bitterly—'abou t meV " an d sh e continues , " 'you'v e neve r com e nea r t o me . Yo u can' t com e ou t o f yourself , yo u can't' " (362) . Interestingly, Pau l accuses Miriam of the very same things, of neve r realizin g him an d neve r trul y givin g o f herself . I n th e cas e o f Miriam, Lawrenc e provide s a n explanation :

She knew she felt in a sort of bondage to him, which she hated because she could not contro l it. Sh e hated he r love for hi m from th e moment i t gre w too stron g for her . And , dee p down , sh e ha d hate d hi m becaus e sh e love d hi m an d h e dominated her. Sh e had resisted his domination. Sh e had fought t o keep herself free o f him in the last issue. (296) Thus at the same time that Miriam is characterized a s exhibiting a merging or fusin g lov e fo r Paul , sh e is paradoxically describe d a s resistantly self contained and withdrawn. The same may be said of Paul in his relationship with Clara . Pau l and Miriam shar e a similar psychological condition , bu t perhaps Pau l wa s to o clos e t o Lawrence' s ow n sel f fo r hi m t o underg o the sam e degre e o f psychologica l self-scrutin y tha t h e achieve s i n th e characterization o f Miriam . Lawrence's philosoph y o f heterosexua l love , particularl y a s it i s articulated b y Birki n i n Women in Love, grow s ou t o f hi s terro r o f bein g swallowed, fuse d with , an d dominate d b y mother/woman . "Fusion , fu sion," Birki n thinks , "thi s horribl e fusio n o f tw o beings , whic h ever y woman an d mos t me n insiste d on , wa s i t no t nauseou s an d horribl e anyhow, whethe r i t wa s fusio n o f th e spiri t o r o f th e emotiona l body? " (348). Birkin' s insistenc e o n bein g "singl e i n himself , th e woma n singl e in herself," on both being "two pure beings, each constituting the freedo m of th e other , balancin g eac h othe r lik e tw o pole s o f on e force , lik e tw o angels, or tw o demons " (223-24) may reflect , a s both Dervi n an d Storc h have argued , th e intens e ambivalenc e surroundin g th e infant' s origina l symbiotic or merged experience with the mother. I t could equally reflect ,

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however, a failure^ i n Ster n an d Benjamin' s terms , o f "intersubjective " mutuality an d recognitio n i n tha t origina l mother-infan t relationship . Benjamin believe s tha t health y huma n relationship s ar e founde d o n a crucial an d "necessar y tensio n betwee n self-assertio n an d mutua l rec ognition" (12); when that tension breaks down, powe r dynamics of dom ination an d submissio n result . Fro m thi s perspective , Lawrence' s ambivalent obsessio n wit h mergin g an d hi s aggressiv e dominatio n o f women ar e par t o f th e sam e phenomenon : bot h reflec t a n origina l los s of tensio n an d resultin g omnipotence . "Omnipotence , whethe r i n th e form o f mergin g o r aggression , mean s th e complet e assimilatio n o f th e other an d th e self " (Benjami n 67) . A mothe r wh o lack s a sens e o f he r own agenc y an d coheren t selfhood— a conditio n enforce d b y a cultura l denial o f women' s subjectivity—wil l mak e identit y developmen t prob lematic fo r he r child . Drawin g o n Winnicott' s ideas , Benjami n asserts , "Only someon e who has achieved full subjectivit y ca n survive destructio n and permi t ful l differentiation " (82) . Fro m thi s poin t o f view , th e de structive impulse s towar d wome n i n Lawrence' s text s coul d als o b e see n as attempt s t o restor e a lost tension : onl y b y destroyin g th e mothe r ca n the infan t hop e t o discove r th e mother' s subjectivit y a s well a s his own . In Lawrence's fiction, th e breakdown o f tension an d boundaries i n the original lov e relationshi p lead s t o a depiction o f al l lov e relationship s i n terms of domination, possession , an d control. Birkin's reflections o n love again revea l thi s psychologica l configuration : He wante d s o muc h t o b e free , no t unde r th e compulsio n o f an y nee d fo r unification, o r torture d b y unsatisfie d desire . Desir e and aspiratio n shoul d find their object without all this torture, as now, in a world of plenty of water, simple thirst is inconsiderable, satisfied almos t unconsciously. And he wanted to be with Ursula as free a s with himself, single and clear and cool, yet balanced, polarize d with her . Th e merging , th e clutching , th e minglin g o f lov e was become madl y abhorrent t o him. But it seemed to him, woman was always so horrible an d clutching, sh e had such a lust for possession, a greed of self-importance in love. She wanted to have, to own, to control, to be dominant. Everythin g must be referred bac k to her, t o Woman, th e Grea t Mothe r o f everything , ou t o f who m proceede d everythin g and to whom everythin g must finally be rendered up . {Women in Love 224) Throughout th e novel , women' s lov e i s investe d wit h threateningl y oral an d materna l associations . Ursula , fo r instance , want s a differen t

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kind o f lov e tha n Birkin : "Sh e wa s no t a t al l sure tha t i t was thi s mutua l unison i n separatenes s tha t sh e wanted . Sh e wante d unspeakabl e inti macies. Sh e wanted t o hav e him, utterly , finall y t o hav e him a s her own , oh, s o unspeakably , i n intimacy . T o drin k hi m down—ah , lik e a life draught. . . . He mus t b e quaffed t o th e dreg s b y her " (299) . An d earlier , Lawrence describe s Ursul a a s wantin g t o worshi p a ma n "a s a woma n worships he r ow n infant , wit h a worship o f perfec t possession " (225) . While a merging love with a woman is always dangerous an d abhorren t to Lawrence , h e consider s th e sam e kin d o f fusin g lov e wit h a ma n a s desirable an d vitalizing . A fusin g bon d wit h a ma n doe s no t recal l th e ambivalence ove r fusio n wit h th e mothe r an d thu s doe s no t threate n hi s masculine identity an d potency. A s Storch has shown, Lawrence' s novel s often portra y th e allianc e betwee n me n a s a kind o f defianc e o f women , as i n th e cas e o f Pau l an d Clara' s estrange d husband , Baxte r Dawes , i n Sons and Lovers, an d Birkin' s relationshi p wit h Gerald , whic h trouble s Ursula i n Women in Love. Storc h i n fac t argue s tha t onl y b y forgin g a n ideal imag e o f masculin e strengt h wa s Lawrenc e abl e t o hea l hi s interna l split an d assimilat e th e loving , "good " mother . Thi s i s simila r t o Joh n Clayton's assertio n tha t Lawrenc e "i s abl e t o imaginativel y recreat e hi s father int o a n imag e o f mal e power wit h whic h h e ca n the n identif y an d from whic h h e ca n tak e sustenance " (195) . Clayto n believe s tha t thi s ability is what most distinguishes Lawrence from othe r modernist writers, permitting him "to identify wit h the center rather than long for the center, to asser t knowledg e rathe r tha n uncertainty " (195) . For Lawrence' s mal e characters, then , mergin g with anothe r man doe s not threaten their autonomy bu t rather fortifies thei r resistance to wome n and make s the m fee l stron g an d potent . I n th e wrestlin g scen e betwee n Gerald an d Birkin , fo r instance , Lawrenc e states , "I t wa s a s i f Birkin' s whole physica l intelligenc e interpenetrate d int o Gerald' s body , a s i f hi s fine, sublimate d energ y entere d int o the flesh o f the fuller man , lik e som e potency, castin g a fine net , a prison, throug h th e muscle s int o th e ver y depths o f Gerald' s physica l being " {Women in Love 305) . Th e desir e fo r fusion o r mergin g wit h a n other , lik e th e nee d t o dominat e an d control , can b e understoo d fro m Benjamin' s perspectiv e a s a transformation an d distortion o f a fundamental desir e fo r intersubjectiv e recognition . Law rence's shor t stor y "Th e Blin d Man " make s thi s dynami c particularl y apparent. Maurice Pervin lacks visual consciousness but possesses what Lawrenc e

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describes a s a vita l physical , sensua l consciousness— a "blood-contac t with th e substantia l world " ("Blin d Man, " i n Complete Short Stories 355). Whil e th e "ric h suffusio n o f thi s stat e generall y kep t hi m happy , reaching it s culminatio n i n th e consumin g passio n fo r hi s wife " (355) , Maurice stil l suffer s fro m dar k depressions : "A t time s th e flow woul d seem to b e checked an d throw n back . The n i t would bea t inside him lik e a tangle d sea , an d h e wa s torture d i n th e shattere d chao s o f hi s ow n blood" (355-56) . In other words, th e lack of recognition o f his innermos t being o r emotiona l cor e (th e wif e i s apparentl y incapabl e o f genuin e recognition o r contac t o n thi s innermos t level ) leave s Mauric e deepl y agitated and depressed. A t the end of the story, Mauric e attempts to mak e contact wit h a male frien d o f hi s wife. Berti e i s a lawyer, a clever, intel lectual ma n wh o i s emotionall y frigi d an d terrifie d o f intimacy : h e wa s "unable eve r t o ente r int o clos e contac t o f an y s o r t . . . . A t th e centr e o f him h e wa s afraid , helplessl y an d eve n brutall y afraid... . A t th e centr e he fel t himsel f neuter , nothing " (359) . Berti e finds himsel f alon e wit h Maurice i n th e dark , sensua l worl d o f th e blin d man' s barn . Mauric e forces hi m t o touc h hi s eye s an d face , an d th e physica l contac t betwee n the tw o leave s Berti e feelin g "annihilated " an d "imprisoned, " wit h "a n unreasonable fear, les t the other man should suddenly destroy him" (364). Maurice, o n th e othe r hand , i s deeply moved : " 'Oh , m y God, ' h e said , 'we shal l kno w eac h othe r now , shan' t we ? W e shal l kno w eac h othe r now' " (364) . Suc h dee p "knowledge " o f eac h other— a mutua l recog nition—is crave d but , a s usua l i n Lawrence' s fiction, i t collapse s int o a power dynami c o f dominatio n an d annihilatio n becaus e o f a n origina l lack of mutual subjectivity: Berti e has no self with which to acknowledg e Maurice. Whil e th e relationshi p her e i s betwee n tw o men , Berti e i s sig nificantly associate d wit h th e materna l wif e (sh e i s pregnant ) an d he r intellectual, nonsensua l world . An examinatio n o f th e preoedipa l relation s i n Lawrence' s work , a s Berman, Dervin , an d Storc h hav e als o shown , allow s u s t o understan d more full y th e misogyn y tha t feminis t critic s hav e been s o quic k t o con demn. Intimac y wit h wome n threaten s th e sam e overwhelmin g depen dence an d los s o f agenc y a s a n origina l limitles s infant-mothe r relationship. The threat is the same whether we consider that relationshi p as a normal mother-infan t symbiosi s or , a s I a m mor e incline d t o se e it , as a failure, i n Ster n an d Benjamin' s terms , o f attunemen t an d intersub jectivity. Th e characteristicall y mal e visio n o f hierarch y tha t Gilliga n

Gender, Self, and the Relational Matrix 7 5 describes, tha t o f perpetual powe r pla y betwee n dominanc e an d submission, indee d dictate s Lawrence' s conceptio n o f self-in-relation . Th e emphasis i n his work o n separateness an d boundaries i n love relationships , and his urgent demand for recognition of one's bodily, sensual, and sexual being, gro w ou t o f a feeling o f threa t t o differentiate d subjectivit y an d sexual identity. The origins of that threat lie in the infant's firs t ambivalen t love relationship , a relationshi p complicate d i n Lawrence' s cas e b y a particularly intrusiv e mothe r whos e ow n problematic subjectivit y exac erbates boundar y issue s fo r her son. Virginia Woolf' s wor k i s also characterize d b y a persistent threa t t o the integrity an d viability o f the self. 5 The maternal figures i n her works are often, a s Mrs . More l i s fo r Paul , th e sourc e o f reality , meaning , an d coherence fo r th e othe r characters . Wool f describe s Mrs . Dallowa y a s having th e gif t "t o be ; to exist ; t o su m it al l up i n th e momen t a s she passed" {Mrs. Dalloway 264) . Sh e i s investe d wit h a magica l quality : things com e together , cohere , an d gathe r meanin g i n her presence. Fo r Peter Walsh , he r unrequite d lover , he r mer e bein g i s a sourc e bot h o f terror an d of ecstasy , an d the novel end s wit h tha t assertion : What is this terror? what is this ecstasy? he thought t o himself. What is it that fills m e with extraordinary excitement ? It is Clarissa, he said. For there she was. (296) Mrs. Ramsa y ha s a similar functio n i n To the Lighthouse. Whe n sh e leaves a room " a sort o f disintegration set[s ] in": people disperse , thing s fall apart , an d meaning dissolves . Th e most dramati c instanc e o f thi s i s the "Tim e Passes " section o f the novel, i n which w e learn o f Mrs. Ram say's death . Withou t he r presence , th e hous e an d th e environmen t ar e rendered chaotic , empty , an d indifferent. Eve n th e trees an d flowers ar e "standing there, looking before them , looking up, yet beholding nothing , eyeless, an d so terrible" (203) . Fo r the infant o r nascent self , th e worl d without a primary carin g m/othe r i s a world withou t orde r o r meaning ; without th e m/other's presenc e t o behold an d recognize one' s being—t o affirm one' s reality—i t i s als o a world withou t sel f ( a conditio n Wool f returns t o agai n a t th e en d o f The Waves whe n describin g Bernard' s deathly experienc e o f an empty an d indifferent worl d withou t self) .

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Woolf's portrai t of these magical maternal figures who bestow meanin g and order , however , i s no t withou t ambivalence . Bot h Mrs. Dalloway and To the Lighthouse conve y a disturbingl y distant , stern , an d seale d quality abou t materna l love. Clariss a is described a s cold an d severe , an d Mrs. Ramsa y frustrate s th e other character s b y what the y perceiv e a s her remoteness an d inaccessibility. Lily' s portrait o f Mrs. Ramsay, th e vision that frame s th e novel , capture s th e ambivalence . Th e pictur e i s o f Mrs . Ramsay an d he r son , a s Lily see s the m throug h th e window . Th e visio n is one of ideal maternal love, madonn a an d child, an d yet it is also distan t and detached, observe d only from withi n a frame an d behind paned glass. Unlike Lawrence' s fiction , wit h it s clamorin g fo r boundaries , Woolf' s work depict s a continual struggl e t o shatte r boundarie s s o a s t o achiev e greater unio n an d identificatio n wit h th e mother . Lily' s thought s fre quently expres s a fantas y o f mergin g wit h Mrs . Ramsay . A t on e poin t she sit s o n th e floo r wit h he r arm s aroun d Mrs . Ramsay' s knee s an d reflects, What device for becoming, like waters poured into one jar, inextricably the same, one with th e objec t on e adored ? Coul d th e bod y achieve , o r th e mind , subtl y mingling i n th e intricat e passage s o f th e brain ? o r th e heart ? Coul d loving , a s people called it, mak e her and Mrs. Ramsay one? for i t was not knowledge bu t unity that she desired, no t inscriptions o n tablets, nothing that could be written in any language known to men, but intimacy itself, which is knowledge, she had thought, leanin g her head on Mrs. Ramsay's knee. {To the Lighthouse 79 ) Like the male, same-sex fusing fantasie s i n Lawrence's fiction, th e fantas y of unio n her e betray s it s sourc e i n a passionate desir e t o kno w an d b e known b y th e belove d other : intimac y i s knowledge . Th e mergin g Lil y craves, however, i s impossible: "Nothing happened. Nothing! as she leant her hea d agains t Mrs . Ramsay' s knee " (79) . Sh e conclude s tha t peopl e are impenetrabl y "sealed. " Lily is finally abl e to identify wit h Mrs . Ramsay , however , i n her rol e as artist. Th e artis t make s connection s an d forge s a permanent, ordered , and coheren t whole , an d thi s i s indee d onl y anothe r versio n o f Mrs . Ramsay's materna l role : "Mrs . Ramsa y saying , 'Lif e stan d stil l here' ; Mrs. Ramsa y makin g of the moment somethin g permanent (a s in anothe r sphere Lily herself trie d to make of the moment somethin g permanent) — this wa s o f th e natur e o f a revelation . I n th e mids t o f chao s ther e wa s

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7

shape. . . . 'Mrs. Ramsay ! Mrs. Ramsay! ' sh e repeated . Sh e owed i t al l t o her" (241) . Th e en d o f th e nove l present s th e resolutio n tha t Lil y seeks : she complete s he r painting , he r vision , a t th e momen t tha t Mr . Ramsa y and the children reach the lighthouse, the event that marks the culmination of Mrs. Ramsay' s vision. Thi s conclusion reflects , I believe, less a fantasy of mergin g than , i n Ster n an d Benjamin' s terms , a resonanc e o r dee p "attunement" betwee n sel f an d mothe r tha t i s deepl y satisfying . In Woolf' s fiction, mergin g fantasie s ar e enforced , no t threatened , b y gender. A girl' s sens e o f sel f i s highly involve d wit h he r feelin g o f iden tification wit h he r mother. 6 Nevertheless , mergin g an d dissolutio n o f self-boundaries i n Woolf' s fiction ar e roote d i n a relational dynami c be tween sel f an d mothe r tha t i s just a s ambivalen t an d problemati c a s i t i s in Lawrence . Th e problem s ar e manifes t i n th e ambivalen t characteri zation o f Mrs . Ramsay . Sh e i s identifie d wit h th e lighthous e an d th e symbol captures her dua l nature: she is a beacon, a figure who shed s light and order for the others; yet she stands alone, stark, exposed , an d isolate d (she is, t o Lily' s eyes , "a n augus t shape ; the shap e o f a dome"). Th e tri p to th e lighthouse , t o brin g gift s t o th e lighthous e keeper , represent s a n attempt t o comba t thi s conditio n o f isolatio n an d abandonment—o f los s of human contac t or connection—that Mrs . Ramsay perceives at the heart of life : For how would you like to be shut up for a whole month at a time, and possibly more in stormy weather, upo n a rock th e size of a tennis lawn? she would ask ; and to hav e no letters o r newspapers , an d to see nobody; i f you wer e married , not to see your wife, no t to know how your childre n were,—if the y were ill, if they had fallen down and broken their legs or arms; to see the same dreary waves breaking week afte r week , an d then a dreadful stor m coming , an d the windows covered wit h spray , an d bird s dashe d agains t th e lamp , an d th e whol e plac e rocking, and not to be able to put your nose out of doors for fear of being swept into the sea? (11-12) This passag e begin s b y describin g a conditio n o f isolatio n tha t the n es calates rapidl y t o a state o f extrem e violenc e an d destruction . Th e move ment reflect s th e intens e destructiv e rag e boun d u p wit h th e infantil e experience o f loss , abandonment , an d deprivation . Th e conditio n i s sim ilar t o Mrs . Dalloway' s feelin g tha t "ther e wa s a n emptines s abou t th e heart o f life ; an atti c room" (Mrs. Dalloway 45) . As Ernest an d In a Wol f have argue d abou t Mrs . Ramsay , an d J . Brook s Bouso n an d Jeffre y

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Berman abou t Mrs . Dalloway , th e lac k o f a secur e self-structur e i n th e narcissistically deprive d materna l character s themselve s i s integrall y re lated t o Woolf' s overal l visio n o f lif e a s ultimat e isolatio n an d ever threatening violenc e an d disintegration . Mrs. Ramsay , despit e he r husband' s gros s insensitivity , feel s vitall y dependent o n th e certaint y an d securit y tha t h e provides : She often fel t she was nothing but a sponge sopped full of human emotions. Then he said, Dam n you. H e said, I t must rain. H e said, I t won't rain ; and instantly a Heaven of security opened before her. There was nobody she reverenced more. She was not good enough to tie his shoe strings, she felt. (To the Lighthouse 51) Although sh e is maternally protectiv e o f him , sh e "di d no t like , eve n fo r a second , t o fee l finer tha n he r husband " (62 ) an d i s discomposed whe n he openl y display s dependence , "fo r the n peopl e sai d h e depende d o n her, whe n the y mus t kno w tha t o f th e tw o h e wa s infinitel y th e mor e important" (62) . Mrs . Ramsa y think s o f th e "masculin e intelligence " a s a fabric o f "iro n girders.. . upholding th e world, s o tha t sh e coul d trus t herself t o i t utterly " (159) , lik e a child . Woolf draw s a distinction betwee n masculin e an d feminin e mode s o f thinking tha t correspond s strikingl y wit h th e differences Gilliga n de scribes. Th e mal e rol e i s abstrac t an d hierarchical , an d base d o n clea r subject/object distinctions . Wool f describe s Mr . Ramsay' s wa y o f think ing: "I f though t i s lik e th e keyboar d o f a piano , divide d int o s o man y notes, o r lik e th e alphabe t i s range d i n twenty-si x letter s al l i n order , then hi s splendi d min d ha d n o sor t o f difficult y i n runnin g ove r thos e letters on e b y one , firmly an d accurately , unti l i t reached , say , th e lette r Q " (53) . An d whe n Lil y ask s Mr . Ramsay' s so n wha t hi s father's book s are about, h e replies, "Subjec t an d objec t an d th e nature o f reality " (38) . She does not understand, s o he continues, "Thin k o f a kitchen tabl e then, when you're no t there." As Lily strolls out into the orchard, sh e pictures a bare , scrubbe d kitche n tabl e an d wonder s abou t mind s tha t pas s thei r days "in seein g of angular essences, this reducing of lovely evenings, wit h all thei r flaming o cloud s an d blu e an d silve r t o a white dea l four-legge d table" (38) . Lily an d Mrs . Ramsa y liv e mentally an d imaginativel y i n a more em pathic an d weblik e mode . The y respon d foremos t t o nuance s o f huma n feeling an d the y alway s thin k i n term s o f relationship s an d connections .

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9

Although Lily' s painting is abstract—Mrs. Ramsa y i s reduced t o a purple triangle—it is based on essential relationships, on "the relations of masses, of light s an d shadows, " o n "ho w t o connec t thi s mas s o n th e righ t han d with tha t o n th e left " (82-83 ) s o a s t o creat e a whole, unbroke n unity . Elizabeth Abel has pointed out how the spatial relations in Lily's paintings also "articulat e th e boundar y negotiation s tha t shap e th e mother-infan t bond" {Virginia Woolfxvm). Mrs . Ramsay's matchmaking , he r continua l efforts t o brin g people together , he r dinne r party , lik e Clarissa' s parties , are all versions of the same attempt to make connections an d create order , unity, an d wholeness . Thes e effort s sprin g fro m a n underlyin g fea r o f boundary los s an d chaos , fro m a menacin g fragmentatio n o f sel f an d world. Mrs. Ramsay sees life as the enemy that must be continually combated : "She must admit that she felt this thing that she called life terrible, hostile , and quic k t o pounc e o n yo u i f you gav e it a chance"; sh e see s herself o n one side, an d life on another, "an d sh e was always trying to get the bette r of it , a s i t wa s o f her " (To the Lighthouse 92) . He r struggl e wit h lif e i s a solitary , lonel y battle , "somethin g private , whic h sh e share d neithe r with he r childre n no r wit h he r husband " (91) . He r dinner s an d match making are a form o f protection agains t fragmentation an d isolation: "Sh e was drive n on , to o quickl y sh e knew , almos t a s if i t wer e a n escap e fo r her too, t o sa y that people must marry ; people must hav e children" (93). She wonder s i f al l he r socia l effort s an d he r constan t solicitousnes s o f others ma y no t merel y b e shorin g u p he r fragil e self-esteem : "Fo r he r own self-satisfactio n wa s i t tha t sh e wishe d s o instinctivel y t o help , t o give, tha t peopl e migh t sa y o f her , ' O Mrs . Ramsay ! dea r Mrs . Ramsa y . . . Mrs . Ramsay , o f course! ' an d nee d he r an d sen d fo r he r an d admir e her?" (65) . Woolf nevertheles s make s i t clea r tha t Mrs . Ramsay , whateve r he r motives, doe s succee d i n bringin g comfor t an d i n creatin g moment s o f security and order for others. At the dinner party "they were all conscious of makin g a party togethe r i n a hollow, o n a n island ; ha d thei r commo n cause agains t tha t fluidit y ou t there " (147) . A s Mrs . Ramsa y serve s th e meal, sh e think s o f th e momen t i n th e sam e term s a s Lil y think s o f he r art: "Ther e i t was, al l round them . I t partook , sh e felt, carefull y helpin g Mr. Banke s t o a specially tende r piece , o f eternity; . . . ther e is coherenc e in things, a stability; something, sh e meant, i s immune fro m change , an d shines out . . . . Of suc h moments , sh e thought , th e thin g i s mad e tha t

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endures" (158) . I t i s no t coincidenta l tha t suc h moment s o f unit y ofte n revolve aroun d foo d an d meals . I n The Waves ', th e pivota l scene s o f reunion amon g th e character s (companion s sinc e childhoo d wh o period ically com e togethe r a s the y tr y t o dea l wit h th e deat h o f thei r frien d Percival) alway s occu r i n a restaurant , aroun d a tabl e an d food . Th e infant's first mod e o f union wit h th e mother outsid e of th e womb i s oral, and thi s unconsciou s associatio n agai n lend s psychologica l resonanc e t o the ques t fo r unit y an d orde r i n Woolf's work. 7 Th e mos t intimat e for m of orde r an d unit y i s indee d one' s ow n identity , th e coherenc e an d in tegrity o f th e self . Formlessness an d disintegration ar e always the dominant threat . Whil e Lawrence fights thi s threa t wit h a domineering insistenc e o n boundarie s and separateness , Wool f combat s i t b y ceaselessl y strivin g t o mak e con nections with others and with the environment. A s Bernard in The Waves asserts, "i t i s the effor t an d th e struggle , i t i s the perpetual warfare , i t i s the shatterin g an d piecin g together—thi s i s th e dail y battle , defea t o r victory, the absorbing pursuit" (203). Each of the characters in The Waves fights thi s battl e i n hi s o r he r ow n particula r mode : Bernar d wit h hi s words an d phrases , Jinn y wit h he r bod y an d sensuality , Loui s wit h hi s commercial transaction s an d structures , Nevill e wit h hi s poetr y an d friendships, an d Susa n wit h he r materna l earthiness . Rhod a ha s n o for m or structur e wit h whic h t o wag e thi s battle , an d th e utte r absenc e o f boundaries an d coherenc e i n her experienc e o f sel f lead s inevitably t o he r death. Rhod a ca n be paralyzed b y a mere puddle o n th e ground : " I cam e to a puddle. I coul d no t cros s it . Identit y faile d me . W e ar e nothing , I said, an d fell " (64) . Lif e fo r Rhod a i s perpetua l struggl e an d pain , an d the temptatio n t o which sh e eventually succumb s i s to abando n al l effor t and die : "No w I will relinquish ; no w I will le t loose . No w I will a t las t free th e checked , th e jerked-bac k desir e t o b e spent , t o b e consumed " (164). Rhoda's conditio n i s a n extrem e versio n o f th e psychologica l stat e underlying Woolf' s wor k an d informin g al l o f he r characters . Eve n th e magical materna l figures ar e a t time s tempte d t o relinquis h th e effor t o f living, o f tirelessl y constructin g connection s t o sustai n themselve s an d others. Mrs. Dalloway thinks, "Death was defiance. Death was an attempt to communicate ; peopl e feelin g th e impossibilit y o f reachin g th e centr e which, mystically , evade d them; closeness drew apart; rapture faded, an d one was alone. There was an embrace in death" {Mrs. Dalloway 281-82) .

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Death is conceived here in relational terms: it is a "defiance" o f the enem y life, an d i t i s "a n attemp t t o communicate, " a n ultimat e "embrace " o r final lovin g union . Mrs . Dallowa y i s symbolicall y allie d throughou t th e novel wit h th e characte r o f Septimu s Smith , wh o doe s kil l himself: "Sh e felt someho w ver y lik e him—th e youn g ma n wh o ha d kille d himself" ; yet hi s deat h free s her—"H e mad e he r fee l th e beauty ; mad e he r fee l th e fun. Bu t sh e mus t g o back . Sh e mus t assemble " (283) . Mrs. Ramsay , too , i n moment s o f solitude , abandon s he r usua l effor t and allow s hersel f t o retreat , t o becom e a "wedge-shaped cor e o f dark ness" (To the Lighthouse 95) . In this state, she also experiences a mystical embrace (muc h a s Mrs . Dallowa y conceive s o f deat h a s embrace ) wit h "inanimate things" : "It wa s odd, sh e thought, ho w i f one was alone , on e leant to inanimate things; trees, streams, flowers ; felt the y expresse d one ; felt the y becam e one; felt the y kne w one, i n a sense were one" (97). Mrs. Ramsay feel s hersel f merg e wit h a strok e fro m th e lighthouse : th e ligh t "seemed t o he r lik e her ow n eye s meeting he r ow n eyes " (97). Again w e see a t th e sourc e o f th e mergin g o r fusin g fantasie s th e yearnin g t o b e known or recognized—to be seen by one's own eyes is indeed the ultimate recognition. Mrs . Ramsay' s mergin g wit h th e bea m fro m th e lighthous e (the symbo l associate d wit h he r throughou t th e novel ) i s thu s a kind o f merging wit h herself—sh e "fel t a n irrational tendernes s thu s (sh e looke d at tha t lon g stead y light ) a s fo r oneself " (97-98) . Wool f portray s th e mother a s bein g recognize d an d affirmed , i n othe r words , b y he r ow n maternal gaze . This is a singular fantasy , however ; mos t o f Woolf's character s d o no t experience mergin g an d identit y los s a s affirmative . Rhod a i s terrifie d when, a s sh e says , "Identit y faile d me. " Waug h interpret s th e lac k o f boundary distinction s an d failure s o f identit y i n Woolf' s fiction a s par t of a "postmodern awareness " (96) of the self's illusoriness . Incorporatin g Lacanian an d postmoder n perspective s int o he r Kleinia n framework , Waugh states , "Wool f i s clearly awar e o f th e exten t t o which one' s sens e of sel f i s a theory o f th e sel f constructe d ou t o f availabl e socia l practice s and discourses" (95). She believes, for example , that Bernar d "recognize s the cultura l constitutio n o f subjectivit y throug h languag e an d thu s th e illusoriness o f th e self-determining , unifie d subject " (121) . I find thi s argument unconvincing . Jane Flax has noted tha t the postmodernist vie w tends t o confus e th e notio n o f a "unitar y subject " wit h tha t o f a core , cohesive sel f (218) , an d I believ e thi s applie s t o Waugh' s argumen t a s

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well. Awarenes s o f th e sel f a s a n indeterminat e subjec t i s no t th e sam e as the sense of utte r fragilit y an d th e terror o f disintegration tha t Woolf' s texts expose . Suc h a postmodernis t vie w o f Woolf' s wor k neglect s th e intense degre e o f narcissisti c anxiet y tha t permeate s he r fiction . Unlike Mrs . Ramsay' s experience , Bernard' s experienc e o f los s o f sel f does no t produc e a sense o f dee p recognitio n an d joy ; o n th e contrary , it betray s profoun d feeling s o f abandonment , o f negatio n an d denia l o f self. I n Bernard' s vision , th e worl d withou t a self i s specificall y a worl d without a confirming other . Hi s vision reveals the utter lack of recognitio n at th e hear t o f th e self' s relationa l experience , a lack o r los s that Virgini a Woolf's ar t itsel f persistentl y seek s t o repair : I waited . I listened . Nothin g came . I crie d the n wit h a sudde n convictio n o f complete desertion. No w there is nothing... . No echo comes when I speak, no varied words. This is more truly death than the death of friends, tha n th e death of youth.. . . The wood s ha d vanished ; th e eart h wa s a waste o f shadow . N o sound brok e th e silenc e o f th e wintr y landscape . N o coc k crowed ; n o smok e rose; no train moved . A man without a self, I said. A heavy body leanin g on a gate. A dea d man . Wit h dispassionat e despair , wit h entir e disillusionment , I surveyed th e dust dance. (The Waves 284-85) Gradually Bernard' s sens e o f identit y returns , an d wit h i t th e colo r an d substance o f th e landscape . Th e retur n t o identity , however , i s a retur n to effor t an d battle : "Alway s i t begin s again ; alway s ther e i s the enemy ; eyes meetin g ours ; fingers twitchin g ours ; th e effor t waiting " (293) . A s Septimus Smith' s deat h allow s Mrs . Dallowa y t o feel th e value o f life , s o Bernard's deathlik e experienc e enable s hi m t o appreciat e th e ric h com plexity o f realit y an d th e valu e o f th e struggl e t o remai n i n it . Th e con clusion of the novel poses Bernard in an image of heroic defiance o f death : Death is the enemy. I t is death agains t whom I ride with my spear couched and my hair flying back like a young man's, like Percival's, when he galloped in India. I strike spurs into my horse. Against you I will fling myself, unvanquishe d an d unyielding, O Death ! (297) In Woolf's work , th e maintenance o f identit y i s a matter o f sustainin g connections, an d it is always a supreme effort; th e temptation to surrende r that effor t i s a perpetual threat. 8 He r character s ceaselessl y striv e to mak e connections, t o assemble , t o unify , an d t o creat e a sens e o f orde r an d permanence. I n a sense , the y approac h thei r live s a s work s o f art , an d

Gender, Self, and the Relational Matrix 8 3 thus thei r fragil e selve s ar e bolstered throug h th e creation o f a cohesiv e artistic whole . Kohu t ha s mad e thi s argumen t abou t creativ e artist s i n general: "Th e broken sel f i s mended," h e states, "vi a the creation o f the cohesive artisti c product " (Ornstei n 781) . Winnicott argues , however , that persona l los s i n th e artist s themselve s ca n neve r b e trul y repaire d through th e artisti c product s alone : "Th e self i s not reall y t o b e foun d in what is made out of products o f body or mind, howeve r valuable thes e constructs ma y be in terms o f beauty, skill , an d impact. . . . The finishe d creation never heals the underlying lack of sense of self" (PR 54-55). Thi s seems to have been the case with Woolf herself . Whil e creativ e work had a reparative functio n fo r her, in the end it was not enough, an d the effor t of livin g becam e to o exhausting t o continue . The work s o f Lawrenc e an d Woolf ar e deeply concerne d wit h issue s of boundarie s an d fusion, issue s tha t dominat e th e earliest relation s between sel f an d m/other . Thei r novel s bot h illustrat e an d transcen d th e gender distinction s describe d b y Chodoro w an d Gilligan . Lawrence' s novels emphasiz e boundarie s an d separatenes s a s the primary mean s o f fortifying th e self. Fusio n wit h wome n threaten s mal e sexua l an d gender identity. Gender , identity , an d relationa l issue s wer e particularl y com plicated fo r Lawrenc e b y an impinging an d dominating mother . Woolf' s novels emphasiz e unifyin g connection s a s th e primar y mod e o f con structing an d fortifyin g th e self. A n apparentl y distan t an d inaccessibl e mother complicate d gende r identit y an d intensifie d relationa l concern s for Woolf. In both Woolf's and Lawrence's texts, we see how the mother's problematic subjectivity equall y problematizes issue s of identity and subjectivity fo r th e child. 9 The work s o f bot h writers , finally , displa y a need t o construc t an d maintain a coherent selfhood , alon g with a simultaneous yearning for and terror o f dissolution o f self boundaries . Whil e Freu d sa w this paradox as related t o the death instinct , relationa l theorist s attribut e i t to an under lying paradox o f human relationa l needs : the need fo r deep contac t wit h an othe r an d the need t o keep intac t a n inviolate cor e self—that "wedg e of darkness " Mrs. Ramsay covet s i n moments o f solitude. Thi s i s a paradox tha t Winnicot t emphasizes , an d tha t Benjami n recast s i n he r own terms a s the contradictory need s t o asser t th e self an d to recognize (and be recognize d by ) the other. I n thei r fiction, Wool f an d Lawrenc e pla y out imaginativel y comple x variation s o f thi s fundamenta l relationa l par adox, providin g insight s int o th e dee p dynamic s tha t construc t huma n and gende r identity .

Chapter 5

Boundaries an d Betraya l i n Jean Rhys' s Wide Sargasso Sea

Jean Rhys' s Wide Sargasso Sea i s a favorite fo r Englis h literatur e surve y courses. I n it s reworkin g o f Charlott e Bronte' s Jane Eyre, Rhys' s nove l makes the shift i n literary sensibilit y fro m th e nineteenth t o the twentiet h century particularl y discernible . Rochester' s lunati c first wife , Berth a Mason, th e madwoma n i n th e atti c in Bronte's tale , assume s cente r stag e in Rhys' s version . Rathe r tha n th e hauntin g "other " o f Jane Eyre, th e madwoman's searin g subjectivit y indee d define s Rhys' s novel . Th e col lapse of rationa l order, o f stabl e and conventiona l structure s o n al l levels, distinguishes Rhys' s visio n an d place s i t squarel y withi n th e modernis t tradition. Lik e man y modernis t works , Rhys' s nove l explore s a psychological condition o f profound isolatio n an d self-division , a state in whic h the boundarie s betwee n th e interna l subjectiv e worl d an d th e externa l object worl d hav e dissolved . Terro r an d despai r for m th e correspondin g affects. Th e conditio n i s boun d u p wit h anothe r o f th e novel' s charac teristically modernis t themes : th e convictio n tha t betraya l i s buil t int o the fabri c o f life . This convictio n underlie s al l o f Rhys' s novel s an d play s a formativ e role, stylisticall y a s wel l a s thematically , i n he r literar y art . He r work s reveal a violatio n o f trus t a t th e foundatio n o f huma n experienc e tha t serves to invest all human connectio n o r intimacy with danger an d threat ; 84

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5

at th e sam e time , however , thi s earl y experienc e o f betraya l onl y exac erbates th e nee d fo r an d dependenc y o n others . Lac k o f basi c trus t i n one's earlies t huma n relations , a s D . W . Winnicot t an d othe r objec t relations theorist s hav e argued , ca n als o imped e th e establishmen t o f boundaries i n whic h a reality i s recognize d a s outsid e o f an d othe r tha n the self . Thi s problemati c relationa l dynami c informin g Rhys' s wor k i s both persona l an d cultural : it s root s ar e interpersona l an d familial , bu t the family' s economi c an d socia l positio n impact s upo n thos e interper sonal dynamics ; th e familia l relationship s ar e influence d b y th e large r social network of relationships in which the family functions. Th e motherdaughter relationshi p i n particula r i s complicated b y th e patriarcha l cul ture i n whic h i t is embedded. Th e femal e experienc e i n patriarchy i s on e of bot h force d dependenc y an d exclusion . Thu s fo r a girl , betraya l i s indeed interwove n wit h dependency , troublin g a girl's relationa l histor y from infanc y throug h adulthood , an d affectin g he r relationshi p wit h he r own infan t shoul d sh e hersel f becom e a mother . Elizabeth Abe l ha s argue d tha t women' s helples s dependenc y i n pa triarchy ca n hel p accoun t fo r th e recurren t theme s o f madness , defeat , and passivit y i n s o muc h twentieth-centur y women' s fiction, an d sh e suggests tha t "women' s commo n experienc e ca n ope n almos t impercep tibly into the pathological" ("Women an d Schizophrenia" 169) . Her point about Jea n Rhys' s fiction i n particula r i s tha t th e psychologicall y path ological, schizoi d symptom s tha t Rhys' s heroine s exhibit—"impover ished affect , apathy , obsessiv e though t an d behavio r couple d wit h th e inability t o tak e rea l initiative , a sens e o f th e unrealit y o f bot h sel f an d world, an d a feeling o f detachmen t fro m th e body " (156)—ar e recogniz able to wome n a s an aspec t o f thei r commo n experience . Teres a O'Con nor, i n he r critiqu e o f Rhys' s Wes t India n novels , als o tie s th e psychological an d interpersona l t o the cultural an d historical. Sh e sees an unresolved relationshi p wit h a rejectin g mother , o r "negativ e motherli ness," that runs throughout Rhys's work as identified wit h the experienc e of Britis h colonialism : "Materna l indifferenc e an d failur e coincide d wit h the failur e o f colonialis m i n developin g a clearl y define d an d centere d people . . . the mother country to o failed t o give sustenance and definitio n to it s chil d colonies " (10) . Rhys's wor k ha s bee n submitte d t o a variet y o f othe r feminis t an d psychoanalytic readings , mos t o f whic h connec t th e them e o f madnes s to issue s o f femal e discours e an d narrativ e strategy. 1 Judith Kega n Gar -

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diner use s Heinz Kohut' s sel f psychology t o argu e that "Rhy s an d man y of he r heroe s manifes t a 'narcissisti c personalit y disorder ' wit h a wea k sense of sel f an d difficultie s wit h self-esteem... . Inadequatel y mothered , the narcissistic woman canno t b e an empathic mother herself " (21). Wide Sargasso Sea, Gardine r claims , "replace s Jane's absen t mother, typica l of the nineteenth-century novel , wit h th e more commo n twentieth-centur y figure o f th e rejecting mothe r whom th e daughter fear s becoming " (128). Her view lends support to John Clayton's thesis about the ruptured famil y relationships a t th e roo t o f modernis t angs t i n general . Tha t angst , h e claims, is a form o f narcissistic anxiety—"the experienc e of being a fragile or empt y sel f i n a n empt y world " (6) . Beneat h suc h sever e narcissisti c anxiety, a s Ott o Kernber g ha s shown , i s ofte n a borderline personalit y organization, an d thi s i s precisel y th e diagnosi s tha t Rhy s biographe r Carole Angie r receive d whe n sh e too k a summar y o f Jean' s lif e an d character t o severa l psychoanalyst s o f variou s school s (657) . The us e o f suc h clinica l diagnosti c term s a s "borderline, " "narcissis tic," an d "schizoid " ha s th e effect , I a m aware , o f immediatel y raisin g the hackle s o f som e literar y critics . Tha t reactio n reflects , I believe , a misconception abou t the point of clinical terminology i n literary analysis . The us e o f suc h a diagnosti c ter m doe s no t necessaril y impl y tha t th e critic i s brandin g th e wor k wit h a derogator y labe l an d dismissin g i t a s sick. Fro m a psychoanalytic perspective , artisti c creativit y ca n alway s b e understood a s a response t o an d creativ e transformatio n o f psychi c los s and pain. 2 Th e pertinen t issu e i n psychoanalyti c literar y criticis m i s no t a question o f whether th e pain infusing th e work i s "sick" o r not; rather , it i s a questio n o f ho w th e sufferin g shape s th e tex t an d relate s t o th e cultural context . Th e clinica l concept s an d definition s ca n hel p u s char t the territor y o f emotiona l pai n i n th e work—pai n tha t is , i n varyin g degrees an d forms , intrinsi c t o huma n life . While severa l critics , a s mentione d above , hav e note d th e schizoid , narcissistic, o r borderlin e symptom s apparen t i n Rhys' s characte r an d that o f he r heroines , the y hav e no t psychoanalyze d an y o f he r text s a s a whole i n term s o f th e dynamics , bot h interpersona l an d intrapsychic , engendering thos e symptoms. A close reading of Wide Sargasso Sea fro m a relationa l perspectiv e ca n revea l a coheren t psychologica l patternin g involved no t onl y i n th e novel' s characterization s bu t als o in it s imager y and narrativ e style . Th e novel' s patterning , i n turn , ca n illuminat e th e relational an d emotiona l vicissitudes involve d i n boundary formatio n an d

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 8 7 the psychi c constructio n o f th e self . Non e o f th e othe r psychoanalyti c readings o f Rhys' s wor k ha s focuse d o n thi s particula r area—o n th e connection between trust and boundaries and its relation to Rhys's literar y vision overall . The powe r o f Wide Sargasso Sea reside s mor e i n it s evocatio n o f a psychological an d emotiona l stat e tha n i n it s plo t o r story ; it s forc e i s more lyrica l tha n narrative . Lik e a poem, i t builds rhythmicall y throug h the repetitio n o f images—suc h a s fire an d th e colo r red—an d words — such a s "nothing." Word s an d names i n the novel function poeticall y b y assuming symboli c realit y beyon d thei r rol e a s signifiers—such a s when Antoinette insist s tha t "name s matter , lik e whe n h e wouldn' t cal l m e Antoinette, an d I sa w Antoinett e driftin g ou t o f th e window " (180) . Although par t 1 of the narrative i s told fro m Antoinette' s poin t o f view, and th e majority o f part 2 from Rochester's , th e two voices ar e in man y respects indistinguishable . Becaus e al l of th e characters, a s I wil l show , are projection s o r version s o f a single subjectiv e state , th e rea l tension s of th e narrative aris e no t ou t o f th e conflict s o f differen t o r competin g characters, bu t out of a split or divided interna l conditio n an d the terrors it generates . Th e fact tha t al l of the characters expres s a single sensibilit y is related t o the tragically paradoxica l conflic t kindlin g th e novel: a deep yearning fo r human contac t wit h a n other clashe s with, an d is ultimately defeated by , th e self's subsumin g o f the other i n its own subjectivity. A self withou t boundarie s doom s th e other t o nonexistenc e sinc e withou t delimiting borders , ther e i s nothing outsid e o f the self. True contac t wit h a n othe r demand s th e recognitio n an d acceptanc e of externa l reality . Fro m a Freudian perspective , suc h recognitio n i s always painful—external realit y inevitably conflicts wit h desire. Winnicott , however, ha s stresse d th e "relie f an d satisfaction " tha t externa l realit y affords: "I n fantasy thing s work by magic: there are no brakes on fantasy , and lov e an d hate caus e alarmin g effects . Externa l realit y ha s brakes o n it, an d can be studied an d known, and , in fact, fantas y i s only tolerabl e at full blas t when objectiv e realit y i s appreciated well . The subjective has tremendous value but is so alarming and magical that it cannot be enjoyed except a s a parallel t o th e objective " (Through Paediatrics 153) . This i s an insigh t tha t th e alarmin g an d magica l worl d o f Wide Sargasso Sea powerfully demonstrates . Angier's biographica l accoun t o f Rhys's infanc y an d childhood o n the island o f Dominic a suggest s som e o f th e complicatin g factor s i n Jean' s

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early emotional life. Prior to Rhys's birth, her parents lost a baby daughte r to dysentery. Angie r believes that "Jean was the baby they had to assuag e their grie f ove r the loss of her little sister" (11) . She speculates tha t Jean's birth di d no t pul l the mother ou t o f he r depression ; a mourning mother , Angier argues , lef t Jea n "wit h a lifelong sens e o f los s an d emptiness , o f being wante d b y n o on e an d belongin g nowhere ; o f bein g nothing , no t really existin g at all" (11). Angier als o points ou t tha t Jean wa s originall y named Ell a Gwen—bot h name s o f dea d girls , th e bab y daughte r an d th e mother's decease d sister . I t i s littl e wonder , Angie r suggests , tha t Jean , like he r heroines , ofte n fel t unreal , lik e a ghost , an d tha t sh e attache d peculiar importanc e t o names . When Jea n turne d five, he r relationshi p wit h he r mothe r wa s aggra vated furthe r b y th e birt h o f he r siste r Brenda . "M y mothe r didn' t lik e me after Brenda was born," Rhys wrote in her autobiography Smile Please (42). Th e father' s rol e i n he r ver y earl y childhoo d seem s minimal , an d Angier als o describe s a sou r an d unfeelin g nann y wh o Jea n believe d " Wouldn' t bear the sight of me' " (Angie r 12) . Jean's feelings o f rejectio n and marginalit y i n relatio n t o he r famil y wer e onl y intensifie d b y he r experience o f bein g a whit e colonia l chil d o n a Wes t India n island . A s Angier discusses , sh e envie d th e blac k peopl e fo r wha t sh e sa w a s thei r warmth, gaiety , an d eas y sense of belonging; she wanted t o be like them , felt the y " 'wer e mor e alive , mor e par t o f th e plac e tha n w e were ' " (Angier 13) . How the n does this early relational history figure into the compositio n of wha t mos t critic s conside r t o b e Rhys' s masterpiece , Wide Sargasso Sea} The novel, first o f all, took Rhys nine years to write, thoug h Angie r believes "it s essenc e wa s ther e afte r four , perhap s eve n afte r on e an d a half" (495) . Th e self-doub t tha t alway s plague d Rhy s onl y intensifie d with age . Sh e neve r fel t th e manuscrip t wa s read y an d wa s terrifie d o f having i t seen . Angie r describe s ho w sh e fired a string o f typist s becaus e once he r wor k wa s typed , i t looke d to o finished, to o read y t o b e seen : "It wa s thi s terror o f bein g seen which mad e her kee p Wide Sargasso Sea back for nine years" (495). The terror of being seen is a product of shame, of a dee p unconsciou s associatio n o f self-exposur e wit h humiliation . Shame not only kept Rhys from publishin g the manuscript for nine years, but, I woul d lik e t o suggest , i s als o a centra l organizin g affec t o f th e novel. Shame i s a subject receivin g increasin g attentio n fro m psychoanalyti c

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 8 9 theorists, particularl y a s i t i s roote d i n relationa l issue s an d intertwine d with narcissisti c disorder . Andre w Morriso n (Shame: The Underside of Narcissism), workin g fro m a self-psychologica l perspective , see s sham e sensitivity a s both a reflection o f a defective, incomplet e self and a defense against suc h defici t o r narcissisti c vulnerability . Sham e i s elicited , h e believes, b y failure s i n th e tw o vita l relationship s crucia l t o th e earl y construction o f th e self—wha t Hein z Kohu t ha s define d a s th e bipola r merging-mirroring an d idealizin g relationship s wit h a primary othe r o r selfobject. Sham e i s thus tie d t o a defective self-structure ; i t i s bound u p with poorl y differentiate d boundarie s betwee n sel f an d other , an d wit h conflicts ove r autonom y an d merger . Throughout Wide Sargasso Sea, sham e form s a sor t o f leitmotif , af fecting bot h characterizatio n an d plo t structure . Reference s ar e mad e repeatedly t o an enraged fear o f being laughed at , jeered, o r scorned. Thi s fear i s expresse d i n relatio n t o Antoinette , he r mothe r Annette , an d th e Rochester character , an d al l a t crucia l point s i n th e story ; th e drea d o f being laughe d at , th e shamefu l perceptio n o f onesel f a s expose d an d humiliated, direct s th e narrativ e b y playin g a determinin g rol e i n th e characters' choices . A t th e beginnin g o f th e novel , Antoinett e make s a point o f how her mother was laughed a t by the black people of the island: "the blac k peopl e stoo d abou t i n group s t o jee r a t her " (18 ) whe n he r mother went riding; or when sh e walked alon g the terrace, "The y stared , sometimes the y laughed . Lon g afte r th e soun d wa s fa r awa y an d fain t she kep t he r eye s shu t an d he r hand s clenched " (20) . Th e line s tha t immediately follo w revea l ho w th e mother' s sham e i s inexorably tie d t o the daughter's . Antoinett e describe s th e frown tha t would for m betwee n her mother' s eyebrows : "Onc e I touche d he r forehea d tryin g t o smoot h it. Bu t sh e pushe d m e away , no t roughl y bu t calmly , coldly , withou t a word, a s i f sh e ha d decide d onc e an d fo r al l tha t I wa s useles s t o her " (20). The mother' s final ac t o f spirit , o f self-assertion , befor e sh e succumb s to a state of complet e inertia and mental decay occurs a s the family estat e is burnin g down . Sh e want s t o g o bac k t o sav e he r pe t parro t bu t i s restrained b y he r husband . Onl y whe n Aun t Cor a call s he r nam e an d snaps, "The y ar e laughin g a t you , d o no t allo w the m t o laug h a t you " (41) does Annette sto p fighting an d submi t to being "half supported , hal f pulled" awa y fro m th e scene . Tw o othe r pivota l point s i n th e story , moments whe n Antoinett e ha s th e chanc e t o sav e hersel f b y rejectin g

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Rochester, ar e also linked to the fear of being the target of others' laughter. The mornin g befor e th e schedule d wedding , Antoinett e balks . Sh e ex plains t o Rocheste r tha t ther e wa s a momen t whe n h e laughe d an d " I didn't lik e th e wa y yo u laughed " (79) . Later , afte r th e marriag e ha s deteriorated, Antoinette' s belove d blac k caretake r Christophin e advise s her t o "pac k u p an d go, " bu t Antoinett e refuses : " N o , I wil l not , the n everyone, no t onl y th e servants , wil l laug h a t me " (109) . I n th e firs t instance, Rocheste r persuade s he r t o g o throug h wit h th e weddin g b y insisting tha t h e wa s no t laughin g a t her , bu t a t himself . H e kisse s he r and proclaims , "I'l l trus t yo u i f you'l l trus t me " (79) . Th e nove l onl y goes on to prove the bitter irony of that statement—the utter impossibilit y of suc h trust—an d confirm s Antoinette' s wors t fea r tha t sh e is indeed s o worthless an d ludicrou s tha t sh e mus t b e kep t hidde n awa y i n a n atti c room. The sam e shamefu l fea r o f bein g th e objec t o f others ' laughter , how ever, i s als o associate d wit h Rocheste r a t a turnin g poin t i n th e story . His rejectio n an d betraya l o f Antoinett e ar e firs t triggere d b y a lette r suggesting tha t h e i s a victi m o f he r family' s treachery : Antoinette' s mother i s mad, th e lette r explains , an d h e has bee n tricke d int o marriag e with a girl with "ba d blood, " whos e fat e will assuredly b e the same. Th e letter's autho r i s Danie l Cosway , a bo y o f mixe d bloo d wh o claim s t o be Antoinette's illegitimat e half-brother (an d thu s he too feel s victimize d and betrayed by the family). After readin g the letter, Rochester repeatedl y describes hi s perception tha t th e servan t girl s ar e laughin g a t him : Hild a "put he r han d ove r he r mout h a s i f t o stifl e laughter " (119) ; Ameli e "smiled a t me , an d I fel t tha t a t an y momen t he r smil e woul d becom e loud laughter " (120) ; "Lik e Hild a sh e pu t he r han d ove r he r mout h a s though sh e could not sto p herself fro m laughin g and walked away" (121). And Coswa y too , whe n h e pay s Rocheste r a visit, tell s him , "Mus t b e you dea f yo u don' t hea r peopl e laughin g whe n yo u marr y her " (125) . The extrem e sensitivit y t o sham e tha t th e fea r o f bein g laughe d a t reflects i s psychologicall y entwine d wit h th e novel' s pervasiv e them e o f betrayal. A s O'Conno r observe s o f th e novel , "Al l th e characters , earl y in thei r lives , hav e incorporate d a sens e o f betraya l fro m th e past : An toinette b y he r mother ; Antoinette' s mothe r b y th e blacks ; Daniel Cos way b y hi s fathe r an d Rocheste r b y his " (197) . Th e materna l betraya l Antoinette suffer s i s particularl y bitte r an d severe . Fro m th e beginnin g Antoinette portray s he r mothe r a s favorin g he r retarde d brothe r Pierre .

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 9 1 When Antoinett e wakes , fo r instance , fro m a terrifyin g nightmar e ( a recurring drea m tha t I wil l retur n t o later) , he r mothe r "sighe d an d covered m e up . 'Yo u wer e makin g suc h a noise . I mus t g o t o Pierre , you've frightene d him ' " (27) . After th e estat e has burned an d Pierr e ha s died, Antoinette' s reunio n scen e wit h he r mothe r i s devastating : She held me so tightly that I couldn't breathe and I thought, "It's not her." Then, "It mus t be her." Sh e looked a t the door, the n a t me, then a t the door again . I could not say, "H e i s dead," s o I shook my head. "Bu t I am here, I am here," I said, and she said, "No," quietly. Then "No no no" very loudly and flung me from her . (48) Antoinette's presenc e i s sai d onl y t o "mak e trouble " fo r he r mother . At anothe r attempte d reunion , Antoinett e describe s ho w he r mothe r "pushed m e awa y an d cried . . . . They tol d m e I made he r worse " (134) . A child' s sens e o f betrayal , o f worthlessnes s an d dee p sham e i n relatio n to her first belove d othe r is at the crux of this novel. A s O'Connor notes , "betrayal lead s t o madness , madnes s t o betrayal ; th e tw o ar e barely sep arable" (197) . I woul d lik e t o explor e thi s madness-betraya l connectio n more deeply , examinin g it s intrapsychi c dimension s an d it s effec t o n Rhys's visio n overall . Menta l disintegratio n o r madness , fro m a n objec t relations perspective , ca n indee d b e understoo d a s tie d t o betrayal , t o a breakdown o f trus t i n th e primary self-othe r relationship . Fo r th e infan t self, th e lac k o f a reliable , loving , an d "holding " othe r ca n imped e th e processes o f integratio n an d differentiatio n i n whic h boundarie s ar e ex plored an d externa l reality—o r th e "no t me"—i s discovered . Rhys's novels, particularly he r earlier ones, have in fact bee n criticize d for their solipsistic quality—for thei r failure to make any of the characters, other tha n th e femal e protagonist , real . Th e psychologica l univers e o f the femal e protagonist , furthermore , i s on e tha t conform s quit e closel y to wha t Melani e Klei n ha s describe d a s th e primitive , unintegrated , "paranoid-schizoid" positio n o f earl y psychi c life : he r heroine' s worl d is rule d b y feeling s o f persecution , envy , shame , an d self-pity , b y a "hungry love"— a starvin g neediness—tha t i s terrifyin g i n it s devourin g ferocity. Th e hungry sel f experience s the object o f its love as withholding and depriving ; th e destructiv e rag e tha t experienc e provoke s canno t b e tolerated an d i s consequentl y projecte d outward—th e externa l worl d i s thus perceived a s hostile and persecutory. Lov e itself i s felt t o be destruc-

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tive an d dangerous , an d Rhys' s novel s reflec t th e futilit y an d despai r b o u n d u p wit h thi s condition . In Wide Sargasso Sea, however , I agre e wit h Angie r tha t Rhy s gain s "artistic contro l ove r he r demo n o f self-pity " (528) . Unlik e he r earlie r fiction, i n thi s nove l th e oppressing , persecutin g other s ar e no t mer e shadowy, unrea l figures: Antoinette' s mother , an d especiall y Rochester , are investe d wit h thei r ow n inne r lives , indee d wit h th e femal e protag onist's o w n subjectivity . Fo r th e first tim e Rhy s extend s he r pit y t o characters othe r tha n he r alter-eg o heroine . I n a lette r t o Dian a Athill , Rhys i n fac t describe s wha t sh e considere d a " B r e a k t h r o u g h " i n he r characterization o f Rochester . Sh e realize s tha t he r initia l portraya l o f him a s " a heel " wa s "al l w r o n g " :

Mr. Rocheste r i s not a heel . H e i s a fierce an d violen t (Heathcliff ) ma n wh o marries a n alie n creature , partl y becaus e hi s fathe r arrange s it , partl y becaus e h e has ha d a ba d attac k o f fever , partl y n o doub t fo r lovely mun , bu t mos t o f al l because h e i s curious abou t thi s girl—alread y hal f i n love . Then (thi s i s goo d ol d Par t II ) the y ge t t o thi s lovel y lonel y magi c plac e an d there i s no " h a l f a t all. . . . I hav e trie d t o sho w thi s ma n bein g magicke d b y th e plac e whic h i s (o r was ) a lovely , los t and magic plac e but , i f yo u understand , a violent place . (Perhap s there i s violenc e i n all magi c an d all beauty—bu t there—ver y strong ) magicke d by th e girl—th e tw o ar e mixe d u p perhap s t o bewildere d Englis h gent , M r R , certain tha t she' s hidin g somethin g fro m him . An d o f cours e sh e is. He r ma d mother. (No t ma d perhap s a t all ) S o you see—whe n h e get s thi s lette r al l blow s sky high . (Letters 269 )

Rochester i s "magicked, " Rhy s says , jus t a s Antoinett e herself , an d the islan d wit h whic h sh e i s identified, i s "lovely , los t and magic." Magi c involves a n eradicatio n o f boundaries : inne r wis h become s on e wit h ex ternal reality . Magi c i s als o associate d wit h lov e i n th e novel . Antoinett e secures a magi c potio n fro m Christophin e i n a final desperat e attemp t t o win bac k Rochester' s love . Th e potion , however , prove s onl y t o hav e the opposit e effec t an d i n fac t seal s he r d o o m . Th e nove l effectivel y demonstrates Rhys' s belie f tha t violenc e an d destructio n ar e inheren t "i n all magi c an d all beauty"—i n al l lov e an d desire . Rhy s succeed s i n hu manizing Rocheste r b y investin g hi m wit h th e sam e tragi c subjectivit y a s her heroine : bot h Rocheste r an d Antoinett e ar e trappe d i n a boundles s

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 9 3 magical stat e i n whic h lov e i s inseparabl e fro m enrage d hostility , fro m violence an d destruction . Gardiner rightly argues that boundary issues of inclusion and exclusio n are central to Rhys's fiction. "I n Rhys's later work," she states, "inclusio n comes t o comprehen d exclusio n rathe r tha n b e oppose d t o it , an d th e spatial an d socia l aspect s o f inclusion/exclusio n deepe n t o a concern fo r the moral an d estheti c meaning s o f including other' s experience s i n one' s own" (23) . Whil e I agree tha t suc h inclusio n i n Wide Sargasso Sea doe s represent a breakthrough fo r Rhy s i n relatio n t o he r earlie r work , i t stil l poses problem s tha t Gardine r fail s t o recognize . Th e tota l inclusio n o f the othe r i n one' s ow n subjectivit y stil l dooms th e possibility o f genuin e relationship: the other needs to be recognized a s both same and externall y other. Wide Sargasso Sea plays out bot h th e yearning and the despair tha t arise fro m suc h a totally inclusionar y stat e i n whic h th e boundarie s be tween sel f an d othe r ar e missing . Antoinette's recurrin g nightmar e provide s a microcos m o f thi s terri fying subjectiv e stat e an d reveal s th e relationa l dynamic s tha t ar e agai n at it s root . Th e firs t tim e Antoinett e ha s th e dream , he r descriptio n o f i t is terse: she is walking in the forest, bu t "no t alone . Someon e wh o hate d me was with me , ou t o f sight . I could hea r heavy footsteps comin g close r and thoug h I struggle d an d screame d I coul d no t move " (26-27) . Th e context fo r th e drea m her e i s significant . Antoinett e ha d bee n caugh t wearing th e dres s o f he r blac k frien d Tia . Immediatel y precedin g th e dream, Antoinett e relate s ho w "al l tha t evenin g m y mothe r didn' t spea k to m e o r loo k a t m e an d I thought , 'Sh e i s ashame d o f me ' " (26) . Sh e wakes fro m th e drea m t o fin d "m y mothe r lookin g dow n a t me " (27 ) and i s the n admonished , a s quote d earlier , fo r havin g frightene d Pierre . The drea m i s encompassed , i n othe r words , b y th e experienc e o f sham e and rejectio n i n relatio n t o th e mother ; an d th e drea m itsel f reflect s th e psychic consequences : th e narcissisti c sham e an d rag e ar e projected out ward int o a paranoid fantas y tha t th e sel f i s bein g followed , persecute d by a shadowy , unrecognizabl e othe r wh o render s th e sel f helples s an d paralyzed. Th e shadow y persecuto r i s o f cours e associate d wit h Roch ester, wh o i s significantl y neve r actuall y named b y Rhys . Despit e th e novel's breakthrough i n granting him subjectivit y i n part 2, it never really prevails over Antoinette's underlyin g paranoid conceptio n o f th e other — and o f externa l reality—a s unrealize d an d obscure , an d a s invariabl y destructive o f th e self .

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The secon d tim e Antoinett e ha s th e drea m sh e i s i n th e convent , a place sh e experience s a s a "refuge. " Rochester , though , ha s begu n t o court he r there , an d followin g on e o f hi s visits , Antoinett e expresse s he r sudden resentmen t o f th e n u n s : " T h e y ar e safe . H o w ca n the y k n o w what i t ca n b e lik e outside}" (59) . Th e secon d versio n o f th e drea m immediately follow s thi s thought , illustratin g eve n mor e elaboratel y he r view o f th e outside—th e worl d o f th e othe r an d o f lov e an d desire—a s alien an d persecutory . Thi s tim e sh e i s followin g th e ma n w h o i s holdin g u p th e skir t o f he r dress : It i s white an d beautifu l an d I don' t wis h t o ge t it soiled . I follow him , sic k wit h fear bu t I mak e n o effor t t o sav e myself ; i f anyon e wer e t o tr y t o sav e me , I would refuse . Thi s must happen . No w w e have reached th e forest. W e ar e unde r the tal l dar k tree s an d ther e i s n o wind . "Here? " H e turn s an d look s a t me , hi s face blac k wit h hatred , an d whe n I se e this I begi n t o cry . H e smile s slyly . "No t here, no t yet, " h e says , an d I follo w him , weeping . No w I d o no t tr y t o hol d up m y dress , i t trail s i n th e dirt , m y beautifu l dress . W e ar e n o longe r i n th e forest bu t i n a n enclose d garde n surrounde d b y a ston e wal l an d th e tree s ar e different trees . I d o no t kno w them . Ther e ar e step s leadin g upwards . I t i s to o dark t o se e the wal l o r th e steps , bu t I kno w the y ar e there an d I think , "I t wil l be whe n I g o u p thes e steps . A t th e top. " I stumbl e ove r m y dres s an d canno t get up . I touc h a tre e an d m y arm s hol d o n t o it . "Here , here. " Bu t I thin k I will no t g o an y further . Th e tre e sway s an d jerk s a s i f i t i s tryin g t o thro w m e off. Stil l I clin g an d th e second s pas s an d eac h on e i s a thousand years . "Here , in here, " a strange voic e said , an d th e tre e stoppe d swayin g an d jerking . (60 ) This versio n o f th e drea m emphasize s agai n th e hostility , contempt , and obscurit y o f th e othe r (h e i s stil l shadow y an d "strange" ) bu t als o Antoinette's passiv e complianc e an d he r sens e o f inevitabilit y ("Thi s mus t happen"), particularl y th e inevitabilit y o f corruptio n an d contaminatio n (her beautifu l whit e dres s get s sullied). 3 I t stresse s th e betraya l o f th e familiar: th e tree s ar e suddenl y differen t an d unrecognizable , recallin g Antoinette's pani c whil e embracin g he r mothe r afte r th e fire—" 'It' s no t her.' Then , 'I t mus t b e her. ' " A n d th e tre e t o whic h sh e trie s t o "cling " for protectio n "jerk s a s i f i t i s tryin g t o t h r o w m e off, " evokin g agai n that sam e embrac e an d he r mother' s havin g "flung " he r away . Th e dream's association s wit h th e mothe r ar e furthe r enforce d b y th e whit e dress, whic h Annett e ofte n wore , an d als o b y a n explici t connectio n Antoinette make s herself . Afte r sh e wakes , on e o f th e nun s offer s he r a chocolate drink , an d Antoinett e recall s havin g drun k chocolat e a t he r

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 9 5 mother's funeral. Sh e reflects o n how she was unable to cry at the funeral , and thoug h sh e prayed, "th e word s fel l t o th e groun d meanin g nothing . Now th e though t o f he r i s mixe d u p wit h m y dream " (61) . The mother's rejection an d betrayal, which from th e child's perspectiv e includes he r death , leave s Antoinett e wit h a profoun d sens e o f futilit y and nothingness , wit h a fatalis m abou t al l intimat e relationships . Thu s her "thought " o f he r mother—he r menta l identificatio n an d internalize d relations wit h her—i s indee d inextricabl y "mixe d u p " wit h he r dream . The dream' s representatio n o f th e othe r (an d th e externa l world ) a s a vague, threatening , an d hostil e presenc e i s als o echoe d b y th e questio n the mother' s parro t Coc o repeatedl y shrieks , "Qu i es t la ? Qu i es t la? " Who i s there ? Wha t menacin g strange r lurks ? Th e parro t i s identifie d with bot h th e mothe r an d Antoinette . Coc o to o ha s bee n betraye d b y men—his wings were clipped b y Mr. Mason—an d hi s death foreshadow s Antoinette's. H e die s i n th e fire i n a final, brillian t self-exhibition : hi s "feathers alight, " h e fall s a s his clippe d wing s fail , "screeching " an d "al l on fire" (43) . The fatalisti c vie w tha t desir e an d lif e ar e inevitabl y mixe d u p wit h and contaminate d b y hatre d an d destructio n i s on e tha t Rocheste r ex presses a s well : "Desire , Hatred , Life , Deat h cam e ver y clos e i n th e darkness. Bette r no t kno w ho w close . Bette r no t think , neve r fo r a mo ment. No t close . Th e s a m e . . . " (94) . Ja n Curti s ha s interprete d thes e lines as expressing a profound parado x at the heart of the novel, a "secret" that Rocheste r refer s t o whe n h e says , "Onl y th e magi c an d th e drea m are true—al l th e rest' s a lie . Le t i t go . Her e i s th e secret . Here " (168) . Curtis compare s Rochester' s line s t o a Zenlik e embrac e o f paradox , o f death-in-life an d life-in-death, i n which ever y boundary lin e is a "myth " (187). On e proble m wit h thi s interpretatio n i s that th e nove l completel y lacks th e liberatin g serenit y tha t shoul d accompan y suc h a n enlightene d acceptance o f paradox . Hatre d an d deat h ar e no t integrated wit h desir e and life in balanced simultaneity o r cyclical harmony i n this novel; rather , hatred ultimatel y defile s desire , an d deat h defeat s life . The sam e comminglin g o f "Desire , Hatred , Life , Death " i s als o rep resented i n th e novel' s man y reference s t o zombie s an d blac k magic . A child taunt s Antoinett e tha t he r mothe r ha s "eye s lik e zombi e an d yo u have eyes like zombie too" (50). Finding a book o n the island black magic known a s "obeah, " Rocheste r reads , " ' A zomb i i s a dea d perso n wh o seems t o b e aliv e o r a livin g perso n wh o i s dead . A zomb i ca n als o b e

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the spiri t o f a place, usuall y malignan t bu t sometime s t o b e propitiate d with sacrifice s o r offering s o f flower s an d fruit. . . . They cr y ou t i n th e wind tha t i s thei r voice , the y rag e i n th e se a tha t i s thei r anger ' " (107) . Like th e zombi e spiri t o f th e islan d swep t b y th e win d an d se a here , Antoinette an d he r mothe r embod y a n isolate d death-in-lif e o r life-in death conditio n drive n b y pai n an d rage . Th e othe r characte r associate d with zombie s an d obea h i n the nove l is Christophine. Man y critic s shar e O'Connor's vie w o f Christophin e a s the novel' s "mos t sympatheti c an d unflawed character " (208) . O'Connor believe s that Christophine , a s "th e only characte r wh o doe s no t betray, " encompasse s a " 'realit y principle ' in a world in which most of the characters express difficulty i n determining what i s real" (197). Christophin e ma y represen t th e novel's "realit y prin ciple," but that reality is still an uncertain and far from wholl y trustworth y one. There i s a "hidden" dimensio n t o Christophine' s character , associate d with obeah—wit h dar k powe r an d death—tha t eve n Antoinette , wh o loves her, deepl y fears. While waiting in Christophine's room, Antoinett e was suddenl y ver y muc h afraid . Th e doo r wa s ope n t o th e sunlight , someon e was whistling near the stables, but I was afraid. I was certain that hidden i n the room. .. there was a dead man's dried hand, white chicken feathers, a cock with its throa t cut , dyin g slowly , slowly. . .. No on e ha d eve r spoke n t o m e abou t obeah—but I knew what I would find if I dared to look. Then Chrisophine came in smiling and pleased to see me. Nothing alarming ever happened an d I forgot , or told mysel f I had forgotten. (31 ) Her qualifyin g th e assertio n tha t sh e forgot wit h th e addendu m "o r tol d myself I ha d forgotten, " suggest s tha t th e memory , an d th e fear , di d i n fact remain . Thi s implies , again , a profound mistrust : hidde n withi n th e sunny room , a s behin d Christophine' s smilin g face , i s a darker , mor e sinister reality . Thoug h Christophin e is goo d t o Antoinette—sh e doe s try t o help—he r obea h lov e potion onl y vindicate s Rochester' s mistrust , turning hi s lov e irrevocabl y t o hate : " N o mor e fals e heavens . N o mor e damned magic . Yo u hat e m e an d I hat e you . We'l l se e who hate s best " (170). Thus, despit e goo d intentions , Christophin e to o i s bound u p wit h betrayal. Afte r Antoinett e secure s th e potion fro m her , sh e hear s a cock crow an d thinks , " 'Tha t i s for betrayal , bu t wh o i s the traitor? ' Sh e di d not wan t t o d o this . I force d he r wit h m y ugl y money . An d wha t doe s

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 9 7 anyone kno w abou t traitors , o r wh y Juda s di d wha t h e did? " (118) . I n other words , Christophin e i s indee d associate d wit h th e novel' s "realit y principle"—the principl e o f betraya l a s destiny. Tha t principl e i n tur n i s connected t o th e novel' s pervasiv e psychi c reality : a boundles s magica l state i n whic h lov e i s polluted b y rag e an d th e sel f i s trappe d i n it s ow n perilous omnipotence . Antoinette's relationshi p wit h anothe r blac k characte r i n th e novel , Tia, i s als o ambivalen t an d psychologicall y complex . I n th e traditio n o f the doubl e foun d i n s o much twentieth-centur y literature , Ti a function s as a reflectio n o r split-of f projectio n o f th e protagonis t herself . A s th e estate burn s i n par t 1 , Antoinett e see s Ti a an d run s t o her , for sh e was al l tha t wa s lef t o f m y lif e a s it ha d been . W e had eate n th e sam e food, slep t side by side, bathed in the same river. As I ran, I thought, I will live with Tia and I will be like her. No t t o leave Coulibri. No t t o go. Not. Whe n I was close I saw the jagged stone in her hand but I did not see her throw it. I did not fee l i t either , onl y somethin g wet , runnin g dow n m y face . I looked a t her and I saw her face crumple up as she began to cry. We stared at each other, blood on my face, tears on hers. It was as if I saw myself. Like in a looking-glass. (45) Despite bein g poo r an d black , Tia , fro m Antoinette' s poin t o f view , i s in a n enviabl e position: sh e is secure in her connectio n an d identificatio n with th e island . I n Antoinette' s eyes , thi s connectio n als o empower s Ti a with a n almos t invulnerabl e strength : "Fire s alway s li t fo r her , shar p stones di d no t hur t he r bar e feet , I neve r sa w he r cry " (23) . Antoinett e thus adore s Ti a fo r embodyin g wha t sh e hersel f lacks ; in contras t t o he r own fracture d an d enfeeble d state , Ti a represent s a n idealized , impreg nable wholeness . Yet Ti a i s als o explicitl y crue l an d treacherous . Sh e throw s th e ston e in th e abov e incident , jus t a s earlie r sh e trick s Antoinett e int o doin g somersaults unde r wate r i n orde r t o stea l her pennie s an d dress . Tia, lik e Antoinette, i s full o f envy and enraged hostility. Unlik e Antoinette, how ever, Ti a acts o n he r anger ; sh e i s assertiv e an d aggressiv e rathe r tha n helplessly passive an d submissive . I n thi s sense , Tia most accuratel y mir rors Antoinette' s represse d "true " self—he r enrage d aggressiv e sel f tha t is clamoring for expression . Thi s "true " self, however , i s the very sourc e of th e rejectio n an d sham e Antoinett e experience s i n relatio n t o he r mother. Sh e is significantly wearin g Tia's dress that evenin g of her drea m

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when he r mothe r refuse s t o spea k o r loo k a t her , convincin g Antoinett e that he r mothe r i s indee d "ashamed " o f her . Tia, however , i s no t th e onl y characte r wh o function s a s a double , mirror, o r ech o o f th e sel f i n thi s novel . Antoinett e an d he r mothe r Annette no t onl y ech o on e anothe r i n thei r names , bu t the y als o shar e the sam e betrayed , bereft , an d isolate d condition— " 'Marooned, ' sai d her [Annette's ] straigh t narro w back , he r carefull y coile d hair . 'Ma rooned' " (26) . Antoinette' s fat e o f fire, madness , an d deat h wil l equall y mirror he r mother's . Finally , Rochester , too , play s a simila r reflectin g role. Mos t feminis t critic s hav e interprete d Rocheste r a s representativ e of th e oppressiv e patriarch y wit h it s rigi d categorie s o f rationalit y an d logic. Lik e Abel , the y se e Antoinette an d Rocheste r a s embodying "tw o fundamentally differen t way s o f orderin g experience " ("Wome n an d Schizophrenia" 173) . O'Connor similarl y believes that in this novel, "th e male an d femal e world s ar e mor e completel y an d consciousl y polarize d than in any of Rhys's other fiction" (181) . Yet this interpretation neglect s the profoun d similaritie s i n visio n an d voic e o f thes e tw o characters . Rochester, first o f all, shares Antoinette's emotiona l history of betraya l by a parent wh o preferre d a sibling . H e write s t o hi s fathe r towar d th e end o f par t 2 , " I kno w no w tha t yo u planne d thi s becaus e yo u wante d to b e ri d o f me . Yo u ha d n o lov e a t al l fo r me . No r ha d m y brother " (162). Th e fathe r ha d indee d arrange d th e marriage , an d fo r mos t o f th e short perio d leadin g u p t o th e wedding , Rocheste r i s sic k an d feverish . Like Antoinette, h e passively submit s t o a destiny tha t has been arrange d for hi m b y other s wh o ar e indifferen t t o hi s ow n desire s o r needs . Jus t as Antoinette's drea m depict s he r strugglin g alon g a path sh e is forced t o follow, linke d wit h a menacin g strange r i n a n alie n an d ominou s envi ronment, s o to o Rocheste r finds himsel f livin g ou t a similar dream . H e repeatedly describe s th e islan d a s alie n an d menacing : "Th e tree s wer e threatening an d th e shadow s o f th e tree s movin g slowl y ove r th e floo r menaced me . Tha t gree n menace . I had fel t i t eve r sinc e I sa w thi s place . There wa s nothin g I knew , nothin g t o comfor t me " (149) . H e to o feel s forced int o connectio n wit h a stranger i n a n environmen t tha t threaten ingly pursues—"Thos e hill s would clos e in o n you " (69)—an d pressure s him o n al l sides : "Everythin g i s to o much , I fel t a s I rod e wearil y afte r her. To o muc h blue , to o muc h purple , to o muc h green . Th e flower s to o red, th e mountain s to o high , th e hill s to o near . An d th e woma n i s a stranger" (70) .

Boundaries and Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a 9 9 Nevertheless, Rochester hides his true feelings—"How ol d was I when I learne d t o hid e wha t I felt? A very smal l boy" (103)—and assume s his expected role—" I playe d th e par t I wa s expecte d t o play " (76) . This i s echoed i n Antoinette's confessio n t o Rochester tha t afte r th e day she was caught i n Tia' s dres s an d "everythin g changed, " sh e "learne d t o hide " her feeling s o f hatre d an d fear . Rocheste r recognize s th e ruse , though , and responds , "Yo u hav e neve r learne d t o hid e it " (132) . Ye t i n a n important sens e Rocheste r doe s experienc e Antoinette , an d th e islan d itself, a s hiding its secret truth—it s essentia l being—fro m him . He refer s repeatedly t o th e "secret " o f th e place: "Wha t I se e is nothing—I wan t what i t hides—that i s not nothing " (87) . He hate s th e place, h e says : I hated it s beauty an d its magic and the secret I would neve r know . I hated its indifference an d the cruelty which was part of its loveliness. Above all I hated her. Fo r she belonged t o the magic an d the loveliness. Sh e had left m e thirsty and all my life would be thirst and longing for what I had lost before I found it. (172) This sam e thirst fo r wha t wa s lost befor e i t was found applie s equall y t o Antoinette. Christophin e tell s Rocheste r tha t Antoinett e "lov e yo u s o much. Sh e thirsty fo r you " (157) , an d the phrase "sh e thirsty fo r you " echoes i n his head agai n later , thoug h h e thinks bitterly , "Sh e thirsts fo r anyone—not fo r me " (164-65). Both Rocheste r an d Antoinett e suffe r fro m a raging , "thirsty " lov e that ultimatel y overpower s it s object , negatin g th e other' s subjectivity . Feminist interpretation s o f Rocheste r stressin g th e rigid an d controllin g aggressor have missed this underlying dynamic. Rochester craves the same recognition o f hi s being, o f hi s singula r subjectivity , a s Antoinette, an d feels equall y a s denied. Towar d th e end of par t 2 , h e thinks , I'll watch for one tear, one human tear. Not that blank hating moonstruck face . Fll listen.... If she says good-bye perhaps adieu.... If she too says it, or weeps, I'll take her in my arms, my lunatic. She's mad, but mine, mine. What will I care for gods or devils or for Fate itself. If she smiles or weeps or both. For me. (165 66) Rochester's feeling s her e mirro r Antoinette' s rag e an d despai r whe n Rochester call s he r "Bertha, " a nam e sh e feel s i s no t he r own—i s no t her. Bot h character s ar e furious a t bein g unrealized b y th e other . Eac h

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expresses th e sam e feelin g tha t th e worl d o f th e othe r i s "unreal, " lik e a dream. Antoinett e ask s i f "Englan d i s lik e a d r e a m ? . . . a col d dar k dream," an d thinks , "Ye s a big cit y mus t b e lik e a dream. " Rochester , however, responds , "tha t i s precisely ho w you r beautifu l islan d seem s t o me, quit e unrea l an d lik e a dream" (80-81) . I f th e othe r i s unreal , the n the sel f to o remain s unrealize d an d trappe d i n it s ow n powerfu l dream . Wounded a t the core by th e experienc e o f a betraying other , bot h Roch ester an d Antoinette suffe r th e same enraged, thirst y lov e that doom s th e other t o nonexistence . Onl y thei r reaction s t o thi s conditio n differ . An toinette totall y surrender s t o he r dangerou s lov e and , a s Rochester note s about he r afte r lovemaking , i s "lost an d drowned" (92) . She yields to he r need fo r a total , fusin g love , knowin g tha t i t ultimatel y mean s death . Rochester seek s t o dominat e rathe r tha n merge , o r i n Christophine' s words, t o "brea k u p " th e wounding , threatenin g other . H e wil l ro b th e other of all passion, renderin g her powerless: "I will destroy your hatred . Now. M y hat e i s colder , stronger , an d you'l l hav e n o hat e t o war m yourself. Yo u will have nothing" (170) . Rhys show s that within bot h th e oppressor an d th e oppresse d ar e th e sam e yearnin g an d despair . I n thi s novel bot h absolut e surrende r an d absolut e dominatio n sprin g fro m th e same disruptio n i n th e fundamenta l self-othe r experience . At th e en d o f par t 2 , Rocheste r observe s a "nameles s boy " leanin g against a tree, cryin g i n "lou d heartbreakin g sobs. " Antoinett e explain s that whe n the y firs t arrive d o n th e island , th e bo y ha d aske d "i f we—i f you—would tak e hi m wit h yo u whe n w e left . H e doesn' t wan t an y money. Just t o be with you." The reason, sh e continues, i s that "h e love s you ver y much. " H e i s crying because he has learned tha t Rocheste r wil l not tak e him , thoug h originall y Antoinett e ha d sai d that h e would (171) . The nameles s bo y wit h hi s heartbreaking sob s expresse s th e dee p pain — the cor e experience—a t th e hear t o f thi s novel : th e experienc e o f a child who feel s mortall y betraye d b y th e on e h e mos t admire s an d loves . Th e fact tha t h e i s "nameless " reflect s th e lac k o f self-identit y o r "I-ness" — the sens e o f th e self' s nothingness—boun d u p wit h thi s experience . Rochester significantl y respond s t o th e bo y wit h fur y an d contempt : "I coul d have strangled him with pleasure" (170). The contemptuous rag e with which h e responds t o his own pai n an d helplessnes s mirrore d i n th e boy allow s u s t o understan d wh y h e respond s similarl y t o Antoinette , who evoke s these same feelings; he must strangle and destroy he r as well. Rhys refer s t o Rochester i n her letter t o Athill as a "Heathcliff" ma n an d

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the compariso n i s apt : bot h reac t t o thei r burie d los s an d rag e wit h th e same violen t contempt . Lik e Heathclif f i n relatio n t o Catherine , Roch ester i s less Antoinette's pola r opposit e tha n a vital part o r projectio n o f her. Par t 2 ends with Rochester's observation , "Tha t stupi d bo y followe d us. . . . Who woul d hav e though t tha t an y bo y woul d cr y lik e that . Fo r nothing. Nothing " (173) . Th e bo y i s cryin g fo r love—lov e tha t i s onc e again equate d wit h "nothing. " I t i s the sam e "nothing " Antoinett e feel s at he r mother' s funeral , th e sam e emptines s a t th e cor e o f th e self . The final, brie f par t 3 o f th e nove l return s t o th e origina l settin g o f Jane Eyre. Antoinett e i s locked i n th e atti c o f Thornfield Hall , an d mos t of par t 3 consists o f he r impressionisti c accoun t o f th e experience , alon g with a drea m tha t precede s an d predict s he r burnin g o f th e estate . Thi s last highl y imagisti c sectio n provide s on e mor e versio n o f th e nameles s boy scenari o above ; it creates a final tapestry o f the controlling emotiona l and psychologica l thread s runnin g throughou t th e novel . Antoinette' s associative musings reveal the dominant pattern. At one point she observes the tapestr y hangin g i n th e room : "Lookin g a t th e tapestr y on e da y I recognized m y mothe r dresse d i n a n evenin g gow n bu t wit h bar e feet . She looke d awa y fro m me , ove r m y hea d jus t a s sh e use d t o d o " (180) . This lead s t o th e though t tha t sh e wouldn' t tel l thi s t o he r caretaker , Grace Poole: "Her nam e oughtn't t o be Grace. Name s matter , lik e when he wouldn't cal l me Antoinette, an d I sa w Antoinette driftin g ou t o f th e window wit h he r scents , he r prett y clothe s an d he r looking-glass. " Th e looking-glass associatio n i s then elaborate d i n the paragraph tha t follows : There i s n o looking-glas s her e an d I don' t kno w wha t I a m lik e now . I remember watching myself brus h m y hair and how my eyes looked bac k at me. The girl I saw was myself yet not quite myself. Long ago when I was a child and very lonel y I trie d t o kis s her . Bu t th e glas s wa s betwee n us—hard , col d an d misted over with my breath. No w the y have taken everything away. What am I doing in this place and who am I? (180) Antoinette's though t o f he r mothe r lookin g awa y an d typicall y no t "seeing" he r lead s t o he r feelin g o f withdrawal , o f wantin g t o kee p he r thought hidde n (" I wouldn' t tel l Grac e this") . Thi s flow s int o he r re flection o n names—Rochester' s refusa l t o nam e he r properl y an d he r resulting sens e o f self-dispersal—an d finally t o he r pas t an d presen t lac k of identity—t o he r inabilit y t o "see " o r kno w hersel f i n an y meaningfu l

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way. Th e origina l lack o f recognitio n fro m th e othe r (Rochester' s failur e repeats th e mother's ) leave s th e chil d hidde n an d withdrawn , unabl e t o recognize an d affir m herself , t o mak e contac t wit h an y authenti c sens e of he r ow n being . A s wit h th e "hard , cold " glas s o f th e mirror , contac t with a n authentic sel f i s obstructed. Furthermore , bot h sel f an d othe r ar e blurred, obscure d b y a n inescapabl e solipsism : th e mirro r fail s t o reflec t because i t i s "miste d ove r with m y breath. " Th e locke d atti c roo m itsel f also typifie s thi s sens e o f entrapmen t i n one' s ow n menta l worl d an d it s nightmare projections . These sam e dynamic s fue l th e imager y o f Antoinette' s final dream . Prior t o th e dream , Antoinett e pull s dow n he r favorit e re d dress : "Doe s it make me look intemperat e an d unchaste?" she asks Grace Poole (186) . Throughout th e nove l th e colo r re d i s associate d wit h he r passionate , intemperate (Tia ) self . Sh e write s he r name , fo r instance , i n "fir e red " (53) o n th e needlepoin t tapestr y sh e cross-stitche s a t th e convent . Th e red als o associate s wit h th e fire o f th e drea m an d th e actua l burnin g o f Thornfield tha t i t forecasts . Th e fire i n th e drea m bot h protect s an d scorches: "Ther e wa s a wall o f fire protectin g m e bu t i t wa s to o hot , i t scorched m e an d I wen t awa y fro m it. " Th e sk y i n th e drea m "wa s re d and al l m y lif e wa s i n it. " Image s fro m he r lif e a t Coulibr i pou r forth , and th e drea m end s wit h thes e lines : Tia was there. Sh e beckoned t o m e and when I hesitated, sh e laughed. I hear d her say, Yo u frightened? An d I heard th e man's voice, Bertha ! Bertha! All this I saw and heard in a fraction o f a second. And the sky so red. Someone screamed and I thought, Why did I scream} I called "Tia!" and jumped an d woke. (190) The screa m i s a n impassione d cr y o f th e wounded , divide d self , an d the cal l for Ti a (stil l associated wit h laughte r an d th e feelin g o f shame ) i s a final attemp t a t self-contac t an d wholeness . Th e passionat e Tia-self , however, lik e th e fire, ultimatel y canno t b e tolerated ; th e sel f canno t survive it s ful l expression . A s th e fire bot h protect s an d scorches , s o th e buried passio n tha t signifie s salvatio n o f he r tru e sel f i s a scorching lov e that finally obliterates the self. Gardiner believes that Antoinette "achieve s her identity " an d "fulfill s herself " throug h he r drea m (131) . Abe l to o interprets th e endin g positively—th e burnin g o f Thornfiel d represent s a "liberating for m o f self-assertion " ("Wome n an d Schizophrenia " 174) . Antoinette an d th e nove l a s a whole , however , neve r brea k ou t o f th e

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imprisoning equatio n o f self-assertio n wit h annihilation , o f lov e wit h inevitable destruction . Th e endin g doe s no t portra y a n ac t o f free , spon taneous self-expression ; rather , i t merel y enact s a preordained destiny — the destin y o f fire , madness , an d deat h se t b y bot h th e mothe r an d th e mother text , Jane Eyre. I t is difficult t o se e the ending as liberating whe n it only confirm s Antoinette' s origina l nightmare : pursued b y a menacing stranger, sh e ha s climbe d th e step s tha t le d inexorabl y t o he r ow n de struction. Th e nove l indee d reflect s th e terro r an d despai r o f a conditio n in whic h on e canno t escap e th e omnipotenc e o f one' s ow n dreams . Wide Sargasso Sea exposes, finally , th e psychic pain and disintegratio n that resul t fro m a collapsin g relationa l network . Th e interpersona l be trayals i n thi s nove l ar e continuou s wit h th e encompassin g cultura l an d historical betrayals . Th e breache d an d distorte d relation s betwee n me n and wome n an d betwee n black s an d white s i n a patriarchal , colonia l society ar e inseparable fro m th e breache s an d distortion s i n th e relation ships of these particular characters. The mother's betrayal of her daughte r is intertwine d wit h he r subjectio n t o an d betraya l b y men , an d he r am bivalent positio n i n relatio n t o th e black s o f th e island . Similarly , Roch ester's betrayal of Antoinette is indissoluble from hi s betrayal by his fathe r and hi s subjectio n t o th e constraint s o f th e economi c system . Th e frac tured interpersona l relation s hav e intrapsychi c repercussions : boundar y construction i s impeded—both sel f an d worl d fee l unreal—an d lov e an d hate remai n unintegrated—hat e i s projecte d out , an d lov e i s fel t t o b e dangerously destructive . Cultura l an d persona l pathology , i n othe r words, ar e interlinked . The psychi c conditio n tha t Rhys' s nove l depicts—th e portraya l o f a n alienated, illusor y sel f i n relatio n t o a n incoherent , unreliabl e world—i s considered fro m a Lacanian an d postmodernist perspectiv e a s normative. While I believ e tha t i t doe s represen t a modernist norm , I d o no t thin k it present s a "normal " conditio n o f subjectivity , no r a n inevitabl e o r necessary relationshi p betwee n sel f an d externa l world . Th e conditio n i s historically specific—grounde d i n a relational instabilit y characteristi c o f the cultur e an d th e time . Tha t Wide Sargasso Sea depict s a pathologica l psychic state does not mean, however , tha t it is without aestheti c or social value. Th e nove l accesses , wit h grea t lyrica l force , th e intens e emotions , the primal self-other relation s and unconscious mental dynamics commo n to earl y psychi c life . No r i s th e pathologica l eve r wholl y alie n t o th e normal. A s Winnicott ha s pointed out , muc h sanit y "ha s a symptomati c

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quality, bein g charge d wit h fea r o r denia l o f madness , fea r o r denia l o f the innat e capacit y o f ever y huma n bein g t o becom e unintegrated , de personalized, an d t o fee l tha t th e world i s unreal. Sufficien t lac k o f slee p produces thes e condition s i n anyone' 5 (Through Paediatrics 150) . Win nicott append s a note t o thi s statemen t wit h whic h I woul d lik e t o con clude: "Throug h artisti c expressio n w e ca n hop e t o kee p i n touc h wit h our primitiv e selve s whenc e th e mos t intens e feeling s an d eve n fearfull y acute sensation s derive , an d w e ar e poor indee d i f w e ar e onl y sane. "

Chapter 6

Updike, God , and Women: The Drama of th e Gifted Chil d

One o f th e mos t prominen t feature s o f Updike' s fiction, an d a topi c equally prominen t i n the critical discussion s o f his work, i s the conjunc tion o f sex and religion. "No t many authors, " quip s Frederic k Crew s in a revie w o f Roger's Version, "ge t t o pleas e th e horn y an d th e sancti monious a t on e stroke " (7) . When aske d i n a n intervie w i f i t wa s not perhaps a mistake t o connect se x with religion , Updike , a s Brooke Horvath notes , "offere d a n implicit 'no, ' responding tha t 't o have a woman or ma n lov e yo u i s abou t lik e sayin g tha t th e universe , appearance s t o the contrary , love s me . S o mayb e th e sam e kin d o f peopl e ten d t o b e sexy an d religious ' " (73) . This notio n o f a lov e relationshi p a s funda mental no t onl y t o the sexual bu t also t o the religious impuls e i s in fac t the centra l assumptio n o f curren t revisionis t psychoanalyti c studie s o f religion. Workin g fro m relationa l mode l perspectives , thes e studie s vie w the self , a s James Jone s explains , a s "but on e pole o f th e relationship s through which we sustain ourselves" and thus "religio n would b e defined not primaril y a s a defens e agains t instinct s o r a manifestation o f inter nalized object s bu t rather a s a relationship" (63) . The relationship with God or the sacred grows out of, an d is congruent with, th e relationships—particularl y th e first, primar y relationshi p be tween infan t an d mother—tha t shap e an d suppor t th e self . Issue s o f 105

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dependency an d autonomy , o f helplessnes s an d power , ar e highl y in volved i n th e psycholog y o f religion . Th e religiou s threa d i n Updike' s fiction i s intertwined with a narrative of dependency and power in relation to women ; th e representation s o f Go d an d wome n ar e interconnecte d and relationall y determined . A psychoanalytic inquir y int o th e relationa l dynamics behin d th e erotic and religiou s in Updike's wor k ca n shed ligh t on othe r aspect s o f hi s fiction a s well: the underlying nihilis m tha t man y critics have noted, the strangely disdainful attitud e toward moral goodness or virtue , th e distancin g an d denigratio n o f a central character , an d eve n the linguisti c dazzl e o f hi s style . Apparent throughou t Updike' s writing , i n th e essay s a s wel l a s th e fiction, i s a scorn for liberal humanistic religion and a conception o f God , drawn fro m th e theolog y o f Kar l Barth , a s a "God me n d o no t invent, " as "totaliter aliter —Wholly Other " (Assorted Prose 273). Crew s define s Updike's religiou s stanc e a s "Christian-existential, " characterize d b y " a fear (borderin g o n phobia ) o f eterna l nonbeing ; a n attemp t t o reconcil e both spiritua l an d eroti c strivin g with awarenes s o f th e implacabl e heart lessness o f th e natura l world ; an d a resultan t struggl e t o believ e i n th e grace of personal salvation" (7). As Updike's career has progressed, Crew s argues, "h e ha s radicall y divorce d hi s notion o f Christia n theolog y fro m that o f Christia n ethics " (7) , an d Crew s i s severel y critica l o f tha t dis sociation. Th e separatio n betwee n fait h an d ethics , I would argue , i s no t only progressiv e i n Updike' s oeuvre , bu t i s ther e fro m th e beginning : faith ha s alway s represente d a fligh t fro m th e human , a n escap e fro m what i s intolerabl e an d threatenin g i n huma n relationship s an d huma n consciousness. "Faith, " Updike declared in a 1966 interview in Life mag azine, "i s a leap out of total despair" (Howar d 80) . That despai r is bound up wit h wha t Updik e identifie s i n a n essa y o n Deni s d e Rougemon t a s "our fundamental anxiety"—tha t "w e do not exist—or will cease to exist " (Assorted Prose 283). There seems little question, a s critic Bernard Schope n a s well as Crew s has argued, that when the minister Tom Marshfield i n A Month of Sundays calls "ethical passion th e hobgoblin o f trivia l minds" (192), he is expressing Updike' s ow n views . "Wha t interest s us, " Marshfield proclaims , "i s not th e goo d bu t th e godly . No t livin g well , bu t livin g forever " (192) . Similarly, a t the en d o f th e story "Pigeo n Feathers, " which I will discus s more full y later , th e centra l character , David , experience s a revelatio n after discoverin g th e elaboratel y patterne d feather s o f th e pigeons h e ha s

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killed: h e feel s rapturousl y certai n "tha t th e Go d wh o ha d lavishe d suc h craft upo n thes e worthles s bird s woul d no t destro y Hi s whol e Creatio n by refusin g t o let David liv e forever" (105) . In a n interview with Richar d Burgin, Updik e agai n suggest s "som e dee p allianc e between th e religiou s impulse an d th e sexual . Bot h ar e a wa y o f perpetuatin g ou r lives , o f denying ou r physica l limits " (Burgi n 10) . God is not a positive, felt reality in Updike's fictional world ; the terro r of disintegratio n an d th e drea d o f nothingnes s ar e th e overwhelmin g realities in response to which God is projected i n desperate counteraction . Faith become s a denia l o f helples s dependenc y and , a s Freu d believed , an identification wit h th e limitles s power an d bein g o f God . Th e allianc e with a n establishe d sourc e o f indifferent , implacabl e powe r i s precisel y what Crews finds so ethically despicable in Updike's work. Quotin g again from on e of MarshfiekTs sermons—"Somewhere , Bart h says, 'What shal l the Christia n i n societ y d o bu t atten d t o wha t Go d does. ' Wha t Go d does i n th e worl d i s Caesar"—Crew s the n comments , "Onl y b y ful l acquiescence i n establishe d power , i n othe r words , ca n th e salvation minded Christia n read y himsel f fo r ' a way ou t o f th e crush o f matte r an d time' " (10) . Th e resul t o f suc h a n attitud e i s no t Christia n compassio n for the weak or disadvantaged in society, but rather, contempt , an d Crew s points to several examples of this in Roger's Version (14). The constructio n of religious faith in Updike's work is, again, founded no t in the conviction of God's presence or reality, but , contrarily , i n the experience of absence , in th e feelin g tha t an y significan t o r meaningfu l realit y i s alie n fro m th e self—"Wholly Other"—an d inaccessibl y remote. I n an essay on Melville, Updike writes , "th e awfu l absenc e o f God . . . becomes, i n a way, God " and thi s absence is "a horror s o awesome a s to excite worship" {Hugging the Shore 97-98) . This sam e sens e o f alie n otherness , o f remot e an d indifferen t power , is also apparent i n Updike's attitud e toward wome n an d female sexuality . Kathleen Verduin , fo r instance , point s ou t th e connectio n betwee n Up dike's "totaliter aliter " God an d the line from hi s poem "Pussy" : " 'You r pussy, i t i s my pet , i t i s my altar , totalite r / aliter : unknowable , known , and wild , subdued ' " (310) . I f fait h an d se x ar e bot h leap s ou t o f th e despair of nothingness and death for Updike , the y nevertheless seem onl y to lea d hi m righ t bac k t o a void . I n The Centaur, Updike' s alte r ego , Peter, kneel s befor e hi s girlfrien d an d discover s " a fac t monstrou s an d lovely: wher e he r leg s mee t ther e i s nothing . . . . This the n i s th e secre t

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the worl d hold s a t it s center , thi s innocence , thi s absence " (184) . Th e experience o f absence , thoug h commo n t o Updike' s relation s t o bot h women an d God , nevertheles s arouse s suc h extrem e ambivalenc e tha t h e strives to keep those relationships a s separate as possible; the relationshi p with Go d need s to b e protected fro m th e intense rag e that th e experienc e of absenc e incite s an d tha t s o conflict s hi s relation s wit h women . The followin g passag e fro m th e minister' s sermo n i n Of the Farm expresses th e radica l divisio n betwee n woma n an d God , betwee n th e physical an d th e spiritual , tha t i s reflected throughou t Updike' s writing : Man, wit h Woman' s creation , becam e confuse d a s to where t o turn . Wit h on e half of his being he turns toward her, hi s rib, as if into himself, into the visceral and nostalgi c warmth wherei n hi s tensions fin d resolutio n i n dissolution . Wit h his other half h e gazes outward, towar d God , alon g the straight line of infinity . He seek s to solve the riddle of his death. Ev e does not. I n a sense she does not know death. He r very name, Hava, mean s "living." (152) This passag e reveal s a characteristic Updik e paradox : whil e proclaimin g that wome n ar e th e essenc e o f life , o f th e "living, " i t als o implie s tha t they ar e a source o f inne r "dissolution " an d connecte d wit h th e deat h o r nothingness tha t mus t b e fle d o r "solved " throug h th e pursui t o f God . In recen t year s feminis t critic s i n particula r hav e commente d o n thi s dualistic aspec t o f Updike' s work . Suzann e Uphaus , fo r instance , argue s that wome n (an d th e physicalit y the y represent ) alway s pos e a threat t o male spiritua l aspiratio n i n Updike' s fiction . Th e dominatin g powe r o f women, sh e says , "bring s abou t th e los s o f supernatura l yearnin g an d the myt h b y whic h i t seek s expression " (49) . Mary Alle n make s th e sam e argumen t eve n mor e censoriously . Sh e sees th e wome n i n hi s fictio n a s absolutel y exclude d fro m an y spiritua l or menta l life : "Fo r th e woma n wh o woul d b e anythin g mor e tha n a vegetable-wife, thi s writer i s the cunning enemy " (69) , and she conclude s that "only the woman a s a comfortable blan k is to be desired and accepte d by individua l me n an d b y society . Wome n wh o d o no t fi t thi s standar d are no t reall y huma n an d mus t b e rubbe d ou t o f th e world " (95) . Lik e Uphaus, sh e points t o al l of th e encircling image s of net s an d trap s i n th e Rabbit novels , thei r associatio n wit h femal e sexuality , an d th e threa t o f suffocation an d constrictio n the y inevitabl y represent . Man y critic s hav e indeed note d th e ubiquitou s allianc e betwee n women , nature , an d deat h

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in Updike' s work . "I t ha d al l seeme d lik e a pit t o hi m then , he r wom b and th e grave , se x and death, " think s Rabbi t Angstro m i n Rabbit Redux (27). O r again , i n Rabbit Is Rich, Rabbi t look s a t th e weed s i n hi s law n and proclaim s "Natur e suc h a crue l smotherer " (47) . "Th e natural, " Updike asserte d i n th e Life interview , "i s a pit o f horror " (Howar d 80) . Kathleen Verdui n argue s tha t i n The Witches of Eastwick, Updik e struggles t o com e t o term s wit h thes e dualitie s o f natur e an d th e super natural, o f mal e an d female , an d i n fac t resolve s o r transcend s them . B y making the Lucifer of the novel, Darryl Van Home, openly contemptuou s of th e physical , organi c world , Verdui n maintains , Updik e i s implicitl y rejecting thi s vie w sinc e i t i s "o f th e Devil' s party " (308) . Furthermore , she argues , Updik e grant s hi s femal e witche s masculin e qualitie s an d powers. Sukie' s bod y i s " 'boyish ' " ; Jane' s uppe r li p i s " 'slightl y hairy' " ; an d th e witche s no t onl y see k "t o wiel d th e masculin e powe r to kill " (308) , bu t the y als o revea l a "ques t fo r transcendenc e an d su pernature" (311 ) tha t i s usuall y reserve d fo r men . Whe n th e characte r Brenda shout s "Pray! " a t on e point i n th e novel , Verdui n note s tha t thi s is a "cry to a supernatural plane" rare for Updike's women and, moreover , it i s uttere d i n " ' a hollo w man' s voice ' " (314) . Verduin' s argumen t i s to my min d unconvincin g sinc e I cannot understand ho w making female s masculine is in any way resolving the dualism. I t seems to me only anothe r form o f denia l o r dismissal: only b y denyin g the women thei r femalenes s and thei r separatenes s ca n h e the n abid e o r empowe r them . Psychoanalytic relationa l mode l theorie s ca n offer a map for explorin g in the texts the sources o f his dualistic attitude; such a map, furthermore , can brin g int o relie f a complex o f interconnection s i n th e fiction , a psychologically determine d orde r o r desig n tha t migh t no t otherwis e b e visible. Recen t psychoanalyti c studie s o f religion , a s mentione d earlier , stress the relational characte r o f faith . Joh n McDargh , i n reference t o th e theology o f Reinhol d Niebuhr , writes , "Th e respons e whic h i s evoke d by th e objec t o f fait h i s th e respons e o f a sel f receivin g an d acceptin g recognition fro m anothe r self , regardles s o f whethe r th e locu s o f valu e and trus t i s conceive d o f a s a person" (26) . These recen t theorist s o n religio n al l stres s th e self' s nee d fo r recog nition and reflection b y an other as the core experience in self developmen t and i n th e formatio n o f religiou s faith . Ana-Mari a Rizzut o i n he r influ ential study The Birth of the Living God indee d argue s that we all harbo r some for m o f unconsciou s Go d representatio n derive d fro m ou r earl y

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relational need s an d experiences , thoug h tha t representatio n ma y b e repressed o r denied . Th e mirrorin g o r recognitio n o f onesel f b y th e m/other, sh e claims , "i s th e firs t direc t experienc e th e chil d ha s whic h i s used i n formatio n o f th e Go d representation " (185) . Willia m Meissne r similarly maintain s tha t "th e mirrorin g component s o f th e Go d repre sentation find thei r first experienc e i n ey e contact , earl y nursing , an d maternal persona l participatio n i n th e ac t o f mirroring " (188) . Further more, i f th e child "ha s no t foun d himsel f i n th e reflectio n an d th e objec t behind the mirror, he will maneuver defensively an d fantasize elaboration s to compensat e b y feelin g 'lik e God ' " (188) . D. W . Winnicott , o n whos e wor k thes e psychoanalyti c theorist s o n religion ofte n draw , ha s argue d tha t insufficien t mirrorin g ca n bloc k apperception an d th e experienc e o f " a significan t exchang e wit h th e world" i n whic h sel f an d othe r hol d bot h dept h an d meaning . "I f th e mother's fac e i s unresponsive, " h e adds , "the n a mirror i s a thing t o b e looked at but not to be looked into" (PR 113) . Common t o both Updike' s conception o f God an d his configurings o f women is the image of a blank, obdurate surfac e tha t defie s th e probing o r penetration o f consciousness , that canno t "b e looke d into. " Th e failur e o f th e mothe r t o provid e ad equate mirrorin g fo r he r baby , Winnicot t suggests , i s du e t o he r ow n narcissistic deprivation s a s a chil d an d th e consequen t rigidit y o f he r defenses. Thi s viciou s cycl e is the subjec t o f Alic e Miller' s Drama of the Gifted Child, an d th e dram a sh e describe s i s highl y pertinen t t o th e dynamics o f Updike' s fictional world . Miller's boo k i s abou t wha t sh e call s "th e los s o f th e self " du e t o th e child's earl y emotiona l adaptatio n t o an insufficiently responsiv e parenta l environment. B y "gifted " chil d sh e means the particularly sensitiv e chil d who i s aler t t o th e subtl e cue s an d unconsciou s emotiona l need s o f th e parents. Drawin g primaril y o n th e theorie s o f Winnicott , Mahler , an d Kohut, Mille r argues that the crucial prerequisite for "health y narcissism " or self-esteem i s the fulfillment o f the child's "primary need to be regarded and respecte d a s th e perso n h e reall y i s a t an y give n time , an d a s th e center—the centra l actor—in hi s own activity " (7). The "person h e really is" refer s t o th e child' s "emotions , sensations , an d thei r expressio n fro m the first da y onward, " whic h for m th e "cor e o f th e self . . . the crystal lization poin t o f th e 'feelin g o f sel f aroun d whic h a 'sens e o f identity ' will become established " (7) . Parents, however , wh o di d no t gro w u p i n

Updike, God, and Women: The Drama of the Gifted Child 11 1 this emotiona l climat e themselves , wh o ar e emotionally insecur e a t the core, wil l see k gratificatio n throug h thei r children—imposin g thei r own feelings o n them, usin g the m t o feel stron g an d important, seein g them selves mirrore d i n their children' s lov e an d admiration . The gifted chil d who grows up in such an environment wil l lack acces s to hi s or he r "tru e self, " t o a sense o f authenti c emotiona l lif e an d the feeling o f bein g trul y alive . Instead , th e child wil l cultivat e a n idealized , conforming fals e sel f an d will ofte n expres s contemp t o r derision fo r the needs an d emotions tha t wer e denied . Suc h childre n frequentl y ar e high achievers with well-developed intellectua l defenses, eve r desirous o f winning respec t an d admiratio n b y wa y o f thei r intellectua l achievements . Beneath thei r successes , however , "lurk s depression , th e feeling o f emp tiness and self-alienation, an d a sense that thei r lif e has no meaning" (6). Along wit h th e depression reside s "unconsciou s (o r conscious bu t spli t off) fantasie s o f grandiosity . I n fact , grandiosit y i s th e defens e agains t depression, an d depression i s the defense agains t th e deep pai n ove r the loss o f the self" (38). The above drama is enacted repeatedly in Updike's fiction. Le o Schneiderman refers to Updike's Roger Lambert in Roger's Version, for instance, as bein g "i n searc h o f a mirroring self-objec t tha t h e ca n make par t o f his own inert and empty self. Such an undertaking is bound to fail becaus e it i s a matter o f emptines s cryin g ou t t o emptiness " (218) . I n man y o f the novels, the vacillation betwee n depressio n an d grandiosity is apparent in th e alternatio n o f nihilis m an d contemptuous superiorit y tha t Crew s has pointed ou t in regard t o Updike's religiou s stance . Mos t o f Updike' s central male characters, furthermore, ar e essentially childlike—relating to women an d the world a s wounded, angr y children . Brook e Horvat h has described Rabbi t a s the perpetual "ki d with a grudge"; h e is constantl y represented, sh e argues, "mnemonically, psychologically , symbolically — as a child" (81) . The autobiographical Of the Farm indee d end s with the Updike-character's mothe r an d wif e bot h referrin g t o hi m a s " a goo d boy" (173). The narcissistic nature of the mother-child relationa l dynami c at th e roo t o f thi s dram a i s especiall y apparen t i n Updike' s earl y auto biographical storie s an d novels— Of the Farm an d Pigeon Feathers, i n particular—and i n a mor e recen t 199 0 stor y publishe d i n The New Yorker—"A Sandston e Farmhouse, " base d o n th e death o f hi s mother . The remainder o f this essay will concentrate o n these works, whic h fro m

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a psychoanalytic perspectiv e ar e far mor e revealing of the author's highl y conflictual, formativ e relationship s tha n hi s overtl y autobiographica l memoir, Self-Consciousness. Both th e 196 5 Of the Farm an d th e stor y " A Sandston e Farmhouse, " published twenty-fiv e year s later , revolv e aroun d th e centra l characte r Joey's return to the Pennsylvania farmhouse wher e he grew up and wher e his mother , alon e an d i n il l health , stil l resides . I n Of the Farm, Joe y brings alon g hi s secon d wife , Peggy , an d he r stepson , an d th e tensio n between th e tw o wome n i n th e hous e quickl y accelerate s t o a n angr y boil. Joey , meanwhile , alternate s i n hi s allegiances , revealin g hi s ow n anger and his resentful dependenc y o n both of them. Intens e ambivalenc e also characterizes Joey's fina l visi t with hi s mother befor e sh e die s in " A Sandstone Farmhouse. " Th e ambivalenc e i s represented b y a paradoxical state tha t i s repeatedl y evidenced—imagisticall y an d thematically — throughout Updike' s fiction : mother/woma n i s experience d a t onc e a s overwhelming an d remote , smotherin g an d distant , intrusiv e an d ye t hopelessly elusive . I n relatio n t o th e self , th e mothe r i s fel t t o b e suffo catingly invasiv e whil e simultaneousl y close d off , inaccessible , "wholl y other." I n " A Sandston e Farmhouse, " Joe y thinks , "H e kne w h e an d his mother wer e regarde d a s having bee n unusually , perhap s unnaturall y close; whe n i n fac t betwee n themselve s th e fea r wa s tha t the y wer e no t close enough " (44-45) . Joey's paradoxica l bin d ca n b e understoo d i n term s o f th e th e child' s entanglement i n th e mother' s unconscious , narcissisti c world . A s i n th e drama Mille r describes , th e mothe r experience s th e chil d onl y a s a projection o r extensio n o f herself, usin g him t o bolster he r ow n grandiosity . This deepl y affect s th e child' s ow n experienc e o f himself ; unrecognize d as a separate being in his own right, h e feels unreal, trappe d i n her dream . The mother' s lac k o f boundarie s give s ris e t o th e child' s experienc e o f being terrifyingl y overwhelmed , suffocated , o r smothered . Joe y indee d suffers fro m asthma , whic h i s alway s reactivate d whe n h e return s t o th e farm (Updik e write s abou t hi s ow n struggle s wit h asthm a an d hi s fear s of suffocatio n i n Self-Consciousness 88-102) . O n th e othe r hand , th e mother, close d of f fro m he r ow n authenti c emotiona l lif e o r "tru e self, " will als o b e experience d b y th e chil d a s close d off , distant , an d with holding. Whil e h e run s fro m her , h e wil l als o b e perpetuall y i n pursui t of her ; o n he r elusiv e "reality " depend s th e sens e o f hi s ow n realit y o r authentic being . Joe y an d hi s mothe r ar e indee d "unnaturall y close " i n

Updike, God, and Women: The Drama of the Gifted Child 11 3 that th e natural boundarie s betwee n the m ar e missing; a t the same time , however, a s Joey realizes , the y ar e "not clos e enough. " The mother' s narcissis m i s apparen t i n th e description s bot h o f he r and o f th e farm, th e symbol o f her world. I t was, Joey describes , "a s if in bein g surrounde d b y he r far m w e ha d bee n plunge d int o th e ver y territory o f her thoughts" (Of the Farm 13) . Similarly, i n " A Sandston e Farmhouse," Updike writes, "She loved the old house; she loved the idea of it . For most o f her life . . . she happily inhabite d a n idea" (37). In bot h the novel and the story, w e learn, furthermore , tha t the move to the farm was solely th e mother' s idea—bot h he r husban d an d Joe y oppose d it . Joey an d hi s passiv e father , however , ar e caugh t u p i n th e mother' s idealized fantasies , i n th e dominatin g projection s o f he r menta l world . The farmhous e i s the same hous e sh e had lived i n as a young chil d wit h her parents , an d he r buyin g i t bac k represent s a n attemp t t o recaptur e the idea o f he r childhood , particularl y a n idealized relationshi p o r con nection wit h he r parents: "Thi s wa s the private paradise , then , t o whic h she attempte d t o return , buyin g bac k th e old sandston e farmhous e tha t her parents . . . had sol d whil e sh e was innocently of f a t normal school " ("Sandstone Farmhouse " 37). The mother fel t betraye d b y her parents' sellin g of the farmhouse, bu t there i s evidence , particularl y i n th e shor t story , tha t sh e ha d fel t be trayed—narcissistically wounded—b y he r own mother lon g before , an d thus buyin g bac k th e farm i s an attempt t o recove r a paradise tha t neve r existed. Thoug h sh e moves bac k t o th e farm , sh e never reall y succeed s in recoverin g th e los t childhoo d sel f tha t i t represents . He r ow n chil d will in turn suffe r th e consequences o f her relentless searc h fo r self; Joey indeed feel s tha t sh e had "betraye d hi m with th e farm an d its sandston e house" (46 ) an d i s jealou s o f th e far m itself : "H e wa s determine d t o impress hi s mother—to wi n her back, sinc e her e o n this far m h e for th e first tim e encountere d somethin g sh e apparentl y love d a s muc h a s sh e loved him " (39). References ar e mad e throughou t " A Sandston e Farmhouse " t o th e difficulties i n the mother's relationshi p wit h he r own mother, providin g glimpses int o th e originatin g circumstance s o f he r impaired self-esteem . Her mother , w e are told severa l times , wa s a "little woman, " whil e sh e herself wa s "big. " He r birt h ha d bee n lon g an d agonizing , an d Joe y believed i t "shape d he r relations wit h he r own mother into , i t seemed , a ferocious apology , a futil e undyin g adhesio n i n a n attemp t t o mak e

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amends" (40) . W e lear n tha t sh e nurse d he r mothe r durin g he r equall y long and agonizing dying, but "no t alway s patiently, o r tenderly," whic h added t o he r patter n o f self-blame : " ' I spen t m y whol e life, ' sh e con cluded, 'tryin g t o pleas e m y mother , an d neve r did ' " (40) . Sh e als o believes tha t he r husban d admire d he r mothe r mor e tha n herself , tha t h e indeed marrie d he r onl y fo r he r mother' s sake : "H e reall y admire d m y mother, tha t style of little woman. . . . But admiring Mother was no reason to marr y me . I wa s big. I t wa s a mistake , an d w e bot h kne w it " (46) . She tell s Joey , i n addition , tha t littl e wome n "hav e th e bes t o f it , an d take th e me n fro m th e bi g wome n lik e herself , bi g wome n wh o hav e tortured thei r littl e mother s i n th e birthing " (46-47) . Joey reflect s tha t "behin d thes e formulation s ther e wa s something — about sex , h e believed—that h e didn' t want , a s a boy o r a man, t o hear " (47). Th e messag e wa s nevertheles s communicate d t o th e bo y i n a dee p and viscera l way . Th e mother' s sham e an d contemp t fo r he r ow n phys icality—her bodily , sexua l self—ma y b e on e o f th e contributin g factor s in th e contemp t fo r th e physica l an d th e ambivalenc e towar d femal e sexuality reflecte d throughou t Updike' s fiction. Joe y eve n wonder s "i f women ha d no t quit e bee n hi s thin g al l along . H e ha d alway s fel t mos t at ease, come to think o f it, i n the company o f men, especiall y thos e wh o reminded hi m o f hi s father " (39) . Anger , shame , an d self-contemp t rul e the mother' s inne r life , a n inne r lif e t o whic h th e bo y Joe y i s acutel y attuned: "Eve n a s a ver y smal l chil d h e ha d bee n awar e o f a weight o f anger hi s mothe r carried ; h e ha d quickl y evolved—firs t word , first crawl—an adroitnes s a t staying ou t o f he r way whe n sh e was heavy wit h it, an d a wis h t o amus e her , t o kee p he r light " (47) . Hi s negotiation s with hi s mother' s rage , i n othe r words , se t th e parameter s fo r hi s ow n evolution; hi s first word s an d movements , th e whol e directio n o f hi s being, aime d a t appeasin g her . Joey i s neve r mor e tha n a narcissisti c objec t fo r th e mothe r or , i n Heinz Kohut' s terms , a "selfobject"—a n objec t "use d i n th e servic e o f the self " o r "experience d a s part o f th e self " (Kohu t xiv) . Fro m Winni cott's perspective, the mother fails to provide an appropriately responsive , mirroring experience for the boy. Neve r having felt "real"—a s a separate, whole, an d loved bein g in his own right—i n relatio n t o the mother, Joe y is eve r i n pursui t o f hi s ow n reality , returnin g t o hi s mothe r agai n an d again for th e recognition tha t sh e is incapable o f giving . I n " A Sandston e Farmhouse," Joe y complain s tha t th e character s o n th e televisio n com -

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edies hi s mothe r faithfull y watche d " 'see m reale r t o yo u tha n I am ' " and hi s mothe r "di d no t den y it " (42) . After listenin g t o hi s mothe r giv e an account o f his birth, o f how delighted sh e was that the doctor "treate d her a s a norma l woma n an d no t a s th e monstrou s produc t o f he r ow n mother's agony," Joey suddenly realizes "that his own self. .. wa s lovable to he r abov e al l a s a piec e o f he r body , a s a livin g proo f o f he r wom anhood" (42) . We lear n tha t Joey's mothe r ha d ha d literar y aspiration s herself , an d thus he r promotio n o f Joey' s literar y ambition s i s a cultivatio n o f he r own fantasy . Sh e carefull y collect s an d preserve s eac h awar d h e wins , each toke n o f hi s achievement . Wit h a passio n Joe y find s curious , sh e hoards th e pictures , papers , al l the symbol s o f hi s life . "He r passio n fo r mementos of me," Joey reflects i n the novel, "ha d begun before I realized that I had trul y left " (16) . Bein g the mother' s grandios e selfobject , how ever, arouses deep ambivalence in the boy that continues into his manhood and affect s hi s relation s wit h women . Th e shor t stor y "Flight " i n th e Pigeon Feathers collectio n reveal s th e psychological repercussion s o f thi s central ambivalen t relationship . The stor y begins , "A t th e ag e o f seventee n I wa s poorl y dresse d an d funny-looking, an d wen t aroun d thinkin g o f mysel f i n th e thir d person . 'Allen Do w strod e dow n th e stree t an d home.' . . . Consciousnes s o f a special destin y mad e m e bot h arrogan t an d shy " (49) . Alternat e sham e and arroganc e defin e th e emotiona l pole s o f thi s character , th e Updik e alter eg o i n th e story , wh o feel s s o oddl y disconnecte d fro m hi s ow n being tha t h e think s o f himsel f i n th e thir d person . Allen' s "specia l des tiny" relate s t o hi s mother' s pronouncemen t earl y o n i n th e stor y tha t unlike hersel f an d thei r friend s an d neighbors , wh o wil l remai n i n thei r small town of Olinger forever, " 'you , Allen, ' " she says, " 'You'r e goin g to fly ' " (50) . Alle n feel s tha t "hi s mos t secre t sel f ha d bee n mad e t o respond, an d I wa s intensel y embarrassed " (50) . Allen's ow n grandiosit y indee d reflect s an d respond s t o hi s mother's , though he complains that she does not consistently perform thi s idealizing function fo r him : "Tha t sh e continued t o trea t m e like a n ordinar y chil d seemed a betrayal o f th e visio n sh e ha d mad e m e share . I wa s captiv e t o a hop e sh e ha d tosse d of f an d forgotten " (50) . Alle n suffer s fro m th e mother's ow n ambivalenc e an d inne r split ; h e mus t bea r th e projection s of he r self-contemp t a s wel l a s he r grandiosity . Sh e yell s a t hi m a t on e point, " 'You'l l neve r learn , you'l l stic k an d di e i n th e dir t jus t lik e I' m

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doing. Wh y shoul d yo u b e bette r tha n you r mother? ' " (51) . Neverthe less, th e grandios e fantas y prevails : "Th e entir e town, " Alle n believes , "seemed ensnarle d in my mother's myth, tha t escape was my proper fate " (67). A s a result, Alle n remark s tha t h e ha d alway s fel t "simultaneousl y flattered an d rejected " b y th e town ; thi s simultaneou s flatter y an d rejec tion agai n mirror s hi s deepes t experienc e i n relatio n t o hi s mother . Hi s conflicting feeling s towar d he r ar e repeate d i n hi s ambivalen t treatmen t of hi s femal e classmate , Molly , wit h who m h e become s romanticall y involved i n th e story : "Eve n i n th e heart o f intimacy , half-nake d eac h of us, I woul d sa y somethin g t o humiliat e her " (69) . H e torment s he r t o please hi s mother , wh o o f cours e believe s Moll y i s not goo d enoug h fo r him—"Don't g o wit h littl e women , Allen . I t put s yo u to o clos e t o th e ground" (65) . Allen's "most secre t self" certainly agrees with his mother about Moll y and hi s ow n superiority , an d ye t h e i s als o profoundl y resentfu l o f hi s mother's powe r an d dominanc e ove r him . Thinkin g back , h e believe s Molly may have been "th e on e person who love d me without advantage " (69). A s th e stor y ends , h e an d hi s mothe r ar e arguin g abou t th e gir l when the y hea r Allen' s grandfathe r first singing , an d the n coughing , i n the room abov e them: "Hi s voic e broke into coughing, a terrible rendin g cough growin g in fury, strugglin g t o escape , an d loud wit h fea r h e calle d my mother' s name . Sh e didn' t stir . . . . I fel t intensel y angry , an d hate d that blac k mas s o f suffering , eve n whil e I realized , wit h a rapid , ligh t calculation, tha t I was to o wea k t o withstan d it " (72) . The grandfather' s struggle i s a n over t expressio n o f Allen' s ow n inne r turmoil : th e feeling s of suffocation , fear , an d fur y i n relatio n t o th e mothe r wh o fail s t o respond. Alle n himself , however , doe s no t respon d t o th e grandfather' s suffering wit h compassionat e empathy , bu t wit h intens e ange r an d re sentment. Thi s respons e expose s th e dee p contemp t wit h whic h Alle n relates t o hi s ow n pai n an d neediness ; i t reveal s th e root s o f th e sham e and self-contemp t tha t s o man y o f Updike' s mal e character s display , a s well a s their scor n fo r an y displa y o f helplessnes s o r needines s i n others . In Of the Farm, w e lear n tha t a s a child, Joe y "woul d tormen t hi s toy s . . . tryin g to make them confess" (136), and that he cruelly teased a puppy that ha d onc e bee n trappe d i n a drainpip e b y repeatedl y threatenin g t o push he r i n again . Suc h childis h sadis m ca n b e understoo d a s the child' s attempt t o maste r an d contro l hi s ow n dee p feeling s o f helplessness , entrapment, anger , an d guilt .

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Following Allen' s har d an d dr y recognitio n o f hi s ow n weaknes s a t the en d o f "Flight, " h e say s coldly , " C A11 right. You'l l wi n thi s one , Mother; bu t it'll be the last one you'll win" (72) . That sentenc e leads int o the story' s concludin g paragraph : My pan g o f frigh t followin g thi s unprecedentedl y col d insolenc e seeme d t o blot my senses; the chair ceased to be felt under me, and the walls and furnitur e of th e roo m fel l away—ther e wa s onl y th e di m orang e glo w o f th e radi o dia l down below . I n a husky voice that seeme d t o com e across a great distance my mother said , with typical melodrama, "Goodbye , Allen. " (72-73) The terro r an d dissolution—th e fallin g awa y o f reality—tha t follow s Al len's expressio n o f rag e towar d hi s mothe r i s relate d t o th e generalize d fears o f deat h an d dissolutio n tha t haun t Updike' s character s throughou t his fiction. Alle n describe s t o Moll y "th e stee p wave s o f fearin g deat h that ha d com e ove r m e eve r sinc e earl y childhood. " Thi s fear , a "dense , lead-like sea, " make s hi m thin k tha t "i t woul d tak e grea t courag e t o b e an atheist " (62) . Everywher e i n Updike' s fiction, th e terro r o f deat h an d the counteractiv e belie f i n Go d ar e tie d t o a terrifyin g inne r rag e tha t poses a n ever-presen t threa t o f dissolutio n an d annihilation . The final image of Allen's ascendanc y i s also fraught wit h ambivalenc e and bitter irony. O n th e one hand, h e is flying fro m hi s mother, escapin g her, a s h e trie s t o dismis s he r wit h hi s final repudiatin g words . O n th e other hand , hi s fligh t i s precisel y wha t hi s mothe r predicted , indee d commanded o f him ; th e las t thin g h e hears , he r "melodramatic " voic e saying "Goodbye, " i s onl y a reminder o f th e theatrica l destin y sh e ha d always planne d fo r him . Howeve r muc h h e trie s t o flee , h e i s stil l "en snarled i n [his ] mother' s myth. " The intensel y conflictin g feeling s involve d i n thi s origina l materna l relationship infor m al l o f th e relationship s wit h wome n i n Updike' s fiction, an d thu s th e eroti c i n hi s wor k i s alway s heavil y investe d wit h aggressive an d destructiv e feelings . "Wha t ma n ca n exempt , fro m hi s purest sexua l passio n an d mos t chivalrou s love, " Updik e ha s written , "the itc h t o defile? " (Introduction , Soundings in Satanism x) . Th e wis h to defil e th e belove d ca n onl y b e du e t o a dee p resentmen t o f her — resentment, i n Updike' s case , o f wha t i s fel t t o b e he r pure , obdurat e impenetrability an d superio r powe r ove r th e self . Updike' s me n contin ually see k remote , inviolabl y self-containe d women , an d the n becom e

118 Updike , God, and Women: The Drama of the Gifted Child furious a t the m fo r thos e ver y qualities . Th e remotenes s i s desirable , however, no t onl y becaus e i t duplicate s a quality experience d i n relatio n to th e ever-desire d mothe r bu t als o becaus e i t i s fel t t o protec t agains t the mor e seriou s threa t o f suffocatio n an d entrapment . In Of the Farm, Joe y refer s t o Pegg y a s "withdraw n an d cool, " an d describes hi s sens e of he r "composure " a s a kind o f "non-commita l wit nessing that preserves me from claustrophobi a throug h an y descent how ever deep " (47) . H e say s h e neve r fel t thi s wa y i n relatio n t o hi s firs t wife, Joan , bu t th e imager y h e use s t o describ e he r suggest s otherwise : "I think I married Joan because, when I first sa w her wheeling her bicycle through th e autumna l dus k o f th e Yard , sh e suggested , remot e an d lith e and inward , th e gir l o f T h e Solitar y Reaper ' and , close-up , seeme d a cool Luc y whos e deat h migh t giv e me cause to sing " (109). The remote , cool qualit y o f th e woma n i s again connecte d wit h a death fantasy . Sim ilarly, whe n Joey return s hom e from churc h towar d th e en d o f th e nove l and find s Pegg y unexpectedl y absent , he r absenc e provoke s a violen t fantasy tha t sh e ha s bee n rape d an d assaulted . A s h e imagine s th e scene , he i s bemuse d b y th e fac t tha t h e feel s mor e pit y fo r Peggy' s son , " a pitiable witness, mor e pitied b y me , mor e clearl y pictured i n his helples s bright-eyed onlooking , tha n hi s mothe r m y wife , th e actua l victim , th e mangled nude " (160) . Lik e th e boy, Joey feel s excluded , smal l and help less i n relatio n t o mother/wife , an d th e fantas y play s ou t th e angry , vengeful consequences—th e woman' s mangle d body . These sam e dynamic s ar e als o apparen t i n th e attitud e towar d nature , earth, an d physica l matte r i n general . Joey' s descriptio n o f hi s mowin g strategy i n Of the Farm illustrate s onc e agai n the fusion o f th e erotic an d the destructiv e i n hi s mind : "Min e wa s t o slice , i n on e ecstati c straigh t thrust, u p th e middl e an d the n t o narro w th e tw o halves , whittlin g no w at on e an d no w th e other , entertainin g mysel f wit h flankin g maneuver s acres wid e an d piecemea l mop-ups " (58) . Whil e mowing , h e woul d ge t "so excite d b y destruction " tha t a t on e poin t h e feel s " a swellin g whic h I idl y permitte d t o stand , thinkin g o f Peggy . M y wif e i s a field" (59) . The comminglin g o f desir e an d destructivenes s toward s mater/matte r is, again , roote d i n th e inadequat e mirrorin g an d responsivenes s o f tha t original relationshi p betwee n sel f an d m/other . Th e oedipa l i s thu s in formed b y the preoedipal; desire is fused wit h rage, and sexuality become s an angry attac k o n th e nonresponsive other . I n th e brief story , " A Cro w in th e Woods, " Jac k watche s a "hug e blac k bird " swoo p toward s th e

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woods: "Hi s hear t halte d i n alar m fo r th e crow , wit h suc h recklessnes s assaulting an inviolable surface, seekin g so blindly a niche for its strenuous bulk wher e ther e wa s n o depth . I t coul d no t enter . It s blac k shap e shat tering lik e a n instan t o f flak , th e cro w ploppe d int o a hig h branc h an d sent sno w showerin g fro m a quadrant o f lace " {Pigeon Feathers 226) . The imager y her e betray s th e essentia l relationa l dynami c shapin g s o much o f Updike' s fiction . Mother/woman/natur e i s experience d a s "a n inviolable surface " wit h "n o depth" ; th e child/man's "assaulting " effort s at penetratio n o r unio n lea d t o a fear o f "shattering " o r disintegration . This fea r i s fa r mor e primitiv e an d intens e tha n th e ordinar y castratio n fears tha t typicall y accompan y th e oedipa l fantasy . A t th e conclusio n o f the cro w scene , Jack's "hear t overflowed " an d h e crie s hi s wife' s name . The story ends with these lines: "The woman's pragmatic blue eyes flicke d from hi s face t o th e window wher e sh e sa w onl y sno w an d reste d o n th e forgotten foo d steamin g betwee n hi s hands . He r lip s moved : 'Ea t you r egg' " (226) . The wife i s figured i n the sam e terms i n relatio n t o th e ma n as th e wood s i n relatio n t o th e crow : referre d t o impersonall y a s "th e woman," sh e is hard, "pragmatic, " an d unresponsive . Just a s the wood s ultimately defeat the crow, so the story ends with the wife's icy, imperiou s command. Not onl y is sex an assault on the inviolable surface o f the female other , but languag e an d religiou s fait h perfor m a simila r functio n i n Updike' s world. I n Of the Farm, th e ministe r give s a sermon i n whic h h e speak s of language as "an act of husbandry, a fencing-in o f fields," an d proclaims, "language aerates the barren density of brute matter with the penetration s of th e mind , o f th e spirit " (151) . W e thu s se e th e relationa l sourc e o f those dualities of the physical and the spiritual, o f female an d male, note d earlier. Language , mind , an d spiri t ar e associate d wit h th e male , phalli c effort t o penetrat e th e "barre n density " o f femal e matter , a n effor t tha t again reflect s bot h desir e an d destructiv e rage . Th e obdurat e an d unre flecting femal e real m mus t b e countere d an d combated ; belie f i n a n om nipotent spiri t tha t transcend s th e physical , a s wel l a s th e exaltatio n o f the mental and linguistic domain over the material, becomes the armamen t of th e self . Bot h languag e an d religiou s fait h serv e a s weapon s fo r a n offensive self-assertio n i n th e battl e agains t dissolutio n o r suffocatio n i n relation t o "brute " mater/matter . The stor y "Pigeo n Feathers " offer s perhap s th e cleares t illustratio n o f how religious faith in Updike's work is rooted in relational and narcissistic

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issues. The fourteen-year-ol d protagonist , David , ha s trouble, lik e Alle n Dow i n "Flight, " feelin g himsel f th e centra l agen t o f hi s ow n activity — he felt himsel f "mor e move d tha n a mover" (117) . He trie s "t o wor k of f some o f hi s disorientation " (117 ) b y prowlin g i n hi s mother' s boo k col lection. The books, acquired mostly in his mother's youth, ar e "obscurel y depressing to him" becaus e they sugges t "th e ominou s ga p between him self an d hi s parents , th e insultin g gul f o f tim e tha t existe d befor e h e wa s born" (117) . We ar e immediately reminded , i n othe r words , o f th e orig inating narcissisti c injury—th e feelin g o f nonexistenc e i n relatio n t o th e mother. Davi d the n come s upo n a boo k b y H . G . Well s tha t give s a n account o f Jesu s no t a s a divin e being , bu t a s a ma n wh o freakishl y survived hi s ow n crucifixion . Davi d experience s thi s denia l o f Christ' s divinity a s a devastating narcissisti c blow—a s a denia l o f hi s ow n gran diosity. Hi s own deep fears of extinction an d nothingness ar e reactivated, and h e think s tha t i f thi s blasphem y wer e true , the n i t "collapse d every thing int o a jumble o f horror " (119) . David struggle s with this "horror," thi s "formless dread, " throughou t most o f th e story , thoug h h e experience s i t mos t profoundl y i n on e particular scen e tha t occur s i n th e outhouse . Th e prelude t o tha t scen e is significant. A t dinne r wit h hi s parent s an d grandmother , Davi d watche s mutely as his parents argue and his mother insults her mother: " 'Mother , put you r waggle r awayV . . . For som e reason , th e sigh t o f he r ba d han d at the table cruelly irritated her daughter. . . . David's mother began, with out noise, to cry. His father di d not seem to have eyes at all; just jaundiced sockets o f wrinkle d skin " (122-23) . Th e castratio n anxiet y reflecte d i n both th e grandmother' s impaire d han d a s wel l a s th e father' s eyeles s sockets i s her e associate d wit h th e mother' s rage . Th e anxiety , whil e imaged i n bodily, sexua l terms, i s not confine d t o th e sexual domain; th e castration image s als o contai n a broader , mor e generalize d fea r o f dis integration and loss of self, evident in the outhouse scene that immediatel y follows. Whil e sittin g o n th e toilet , Davi d was visited by an exact vision of death: a long hole in the ground, no wider than your body, dow n which you are drawn while the white faces above recede. You try t o reac h the m bu t you r arm s ar e pinned. Shovel s pour dir t int o your face . There you wil l be forever, i n an upright position, blin d an d silent, an d in time no one will remember you, and you will never be called.... And the earth tumbles

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on, an d th e su n expires , an d unalterin g darknes s reign s wher e onc e there were stars. (123-24 ) Death i s significantl y figured, onc e again , i n term s o f suffocatio n i n the earth . Desperat e bu t unabl e t o reac h ou t fo r huma n contact , th e sel f is rendere d "blin d an d silent, " ultimatel y dissolvin g int o a genera l stat e of universa l nothingness . Thi s visio n i s connecte d psychologicall y bot h to th e mother' s ange r o f th e precedin g scen e an d t o th e terrifyin g rag e within Davi d himself ; the y ar e indee d interrelated . A s i n "Flight, " th e desire an d rag e i n relatio n t o mothe r ar e inextricabl y boun d u p wit h a terrifying dissolution , a los s o f sel f an d reality . Th e fac t tha t David' s vision occur s o n th e toile t i s very likely , a s Donald Greine r ha s pointe d out, a n allusio n t o Marti n Luther' s epiphan y whil e seate d o n th e priv y (Greiner 114) , bu t th e allusio n doe s no t exclud e othe r association s an d psychological implications . Melani e Klein , i n a letter t o Mario n Milner , has described som e of th e unconscious relationa l dynamic s tha t migh t b e bound u p i n th e ac t o f excretion : "Th e pourin g ou t o f lov e an d hatred , urine, faeces , product s o f th e body , implie s a projecting ou t first o f al l into th e mother . . . . The danger s implie d i n a n ejaculator y projectio n o f that kin d ar e a losing of th e ego into th e other person, 'th e total merging ' and a fea r o f no t bein g abl e t o retriev e it . Thi s i s a caus e o f grea t eg o disturbance" (Milne r 109) . While Davi d feel s tha t "nowher e i n th e worl d o f othe r peopl e woul d he find th e hint, th e nod, h e needed t o begi n t o buil d hi s fortress agains t death," h e does recognize a n ally in his depressed father : "Indeed , i n th e man's steep self-disgust th e boy felt a kind o f ally. A distant ally " (Pigeon Feathers 139) . I n muc h o f Updike' s earl y fiction, th e fathe r i s figured a s a rathe r ineffectual , pitiabl e perso n suffering , lik e hi s son , unde r th e mother's domination . A s th e objec t o f th e mother' s scorn , th e fathe r i s unavailable a s a figure o f positiv e identificatio n fo r th e boy , an d hi s attitude towar d th e fathe r vacillate s betwee n secre t admiratio n an d con tempt. I n "Pigeon Feathers, " however, fathe r an d son unite in their ange r and "self-disgust, " formin g a n alliance in hostile opposition t o the moth er's world : Even o n weekends , h e an d hi s fathe r contrive d t o escap e th e farm ; an d when , some Saturdays , the y di d sta y home , i t wa s t o d o somethin g destructive—tea r

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down a n ol d henhous e o r se t hug e brus h fires tha t threatened , whil e Mothe r shouted an d flapped he r arms , t o sprea d t o th e woods . Wheneve r hi s fathe r worked, i t was with rapt violence;.. . He was exhilarating to watch. (141 ) "Pigeon Feathers " end s wit h David' s ow n ac t o f exhilarating , rap t violence. Asked by his mother an d grandmother t o kill the pigeons roost ing in the barn, Davi d i s at first reluctant—" I don' t wan t t o kill anythin g especially" (143) , h e says—bu t th e ac t o f killin g th e bird s ultimatel y liberates hi m fro m th e stranglehol d o f hi s own terro r o f extinction . Afte r the first fe w bird s fall , h e fel t "full y maste r now . . . like a beautifu l avenger" (146). In the act of destruction, Davi d discovers his own creativ e self-expression: "H e ha d th e sensatio n o f a creator; thes e littl e smudge s and flicker s tha t h e wa s cleve r t o se e an d eve n clevere r t o hi t i n th e di m recesses o f th e rafters—ou t o f eac h o f the m h e wa s makin g a ful l bird . A tin y peek , probe , da b o f life , whe n h e hi t it , blossome d int o a dea d enemy, fallin g wit h good , final weight " (147) . Destructiv e fantasies , a s Winnicott ha s argued , ar e indeed boun d u p in the creative process. Mos t often, however , Updike' s character s are paralyzed, no t liberated, b y thei r destructive rage . Perhap s th e identificatio n wit h th e fathe r i n thi s stor y (when David' s mothe r enter s th e barn , sh e snaps , "Don' t smirk . Yo u look lik e you r father" ) defend s agains t th e fea r o f retributio n an d th e annihilation fantasie s tha t usuall y accompan y th e rage . David dig s a dee p hol e i n whic h t o bur y th e birds , whic h recall s hi s own deat h visio n o f bein g burie d i n th e earth . Now , however , h e i s th e avenger, no t th e victim . Befor e h e burie s th e birds , Davi d observe s hi s mother a s she returns t o th e house, an d th e image o f he r indee d suggest s a birdlik e association : sh e "hel d he r hea d rigidly , tilte d a little , a s i f listening t o th e ground " (149) . A s quote d earlier , th e story' s final line s at onc e reaffir m David' s religiou s fait h an d hi s ow n grandiosity . Afte r marveling a t the intricate design s o f th e pigeons' feathers , "h e wa s robe d in thi s certainty : tha t th e Go d wh o ha d lavishe d suc h craf t upo n thes e worthless bird s would no t destro y Hi s whole Creatio n b y refusin g t o le t David liv e forever " (150) . Despit e th e authoria l iron y (o f cours e Davi d will no t liv e forever), th e character' s reassertio n o f faith—fait h i n God' s grace an d hi s ow n everlastin g soul—rise s ou t o f th e momentar y triump h over hi s inne r object s an d th e terro r an d fur y the y provoke . The role s o f Go d an d wome n i n Updike' s fiction, finally, follo w a n underlying script : the y ar e par t o f th e drama , i n Miller' s terms , o f th e

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gifted child . A n almos t perfec t parabl e o f tha t dram a i s containe d i n a story tha t Joe y tell s hi s stepso n Richar d i n Of the Farm. Th e stor y concerns a frog wh o "hear d rumor s o f a wonderful treasur e store d dee p in th e dungeo n o f hi s guts , wher e h e ha d neve r been " (130) . Th e fro g burrows deep down into himself until he is sure he's reached the dungeon , and the n disappears . Joe y explain s tha t th e fro g ha d no t died . "H e jus t became s o smal l h e couldn' t find himself . H e wa s hibernating. " Even tually, h e climb s bac k up , "thre w ope n th e lids , an d looke d out " (131) . The treasur e i s th e "true " self—th e experienc e o f authenti c being—tha t has bee n burie d o r suppressed , locke d awa y i n a "dungeon. " Sadly , i n this story , th e treasur e i s never found ; th e searc h fo r th e sel f become s a disappearance an d retreat , an d th e final imag e o f th e fro g openin g it s eyelids lik e shutter s an d lookin g ou t suggest s a dee p self-alienation , a disconnection betwee n th e inner sel f an d th e outer, bodil y sel f tha t func tions i n the world. Thi s self-alienate d conditio n contribute s t o tha t dual ism o f spiri t an d bod y s o prominen t i n Updike' s work . The tru e sel f i s relationall y boun d t o th e mother , wh o i s als o expe rienced a s remote and retreating as she pursues her own narcissistic searc h for self . Thus i n "A Sandston e Farmhouse," a s Joey attend s his mother' s funeral, th e one image that Joey recalls , th e image that finally move s hi m to tears , i s th e imag e o f hi s mothe r running : His tears came and kept coming, in a kind of triumph, a breakthrough, a torrent of empath y an d pit y fo r tha t los t youn g woma n runnin g pas t th e ro w houses , under th e horse-chestnut tree , runnin g t o catc h th e trolly.... There was something amazing, something immortal to him in the image of her running. .. . Trying to do the right thing, th e normal thing, runnin g toward he r farm, he r death. I n his vision o f he r running sh e was bright an d quic k an d small, lik e an animal in a trap. This was the mother he had loved, the mother before they moved, befor e she betrayed hi m with the farm an d its sandstone house. (45-46 ) The imag e o f hi s mother here—trappe d an d desperatel y running—i s als o an imag e o f himself , th e empath y fo r he r als o a rar e breakthroug h o f empathy an d pit y fo r himself . Th e ac t of fleein g o r runnin g distinguishe s many o f Updike' s mal e characters—i t indee d form s th e centra l moti f o f the first Rabbi t novel . Back in Manhattan a t the end of " A Sandston e Farmhouse," Joey feel s as i f hi s "ow n uncluttere d rooms , suspende d abov e Manhattan' s stead y r o a r , . . . wer e flying somewhere . H e fel t guilty , anxious , displaced . H e

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had alway s wante d t o b e wher e th e actio n was , an d wha t actio n ther e was, i t turne d out , ha d bee n bac k there " (48) . Joe y ha s alway s bee n suspended i n th e paradoxica l dilemm a o f wantin g t o fle e bot h fro m an d to hi s mother , bu t i n eithe r direction , th e "action " elude s him . Th e experience o f authenti c being—th e "action"—i s perpetuall y elusiv e an d is projected ont o th e quest fo r a God wh o i s "Wholly Other " an d who m "we canno t reach. " Thi s psychologica l dynami c als o underlie s Rabbit' s feeling, expresse d i n a line found i n both th e first an d las t Rabbit novels , that "somewher e behin d al l this there' s somethin g tha t want s m e to find it" {Run 237 ; Rest 136) . Th e "it, " lik e th e frog' s treasure , canno t b e reached; i t i s burie d dee p withi n th e dungeo n o f th e self . This conditio n accounts , I believe , fo r th e ultimat e hollownes s an d nihilism o f Updike' s literar y vision . Eve n Joyce Caro l Oates , a n Updik e admirer, ha s note d th e "terrifyin g nihilism " (459 ) tha t emerge s whe n Updike's comic vision crumbles. Othe r critic s share John Aldridge's view that beneat h "th e rich , beautifu l scener y o f th e descriptiv e prose . . . Mr . Updike ha s nothin g t o say " (13) . Th e hollownes s o r lac k o f depth — particularly mora l depth—i s roote d i n a n origina l failur e o f significan t exchange between sel f an d m/other . I n Winnicott's terms , th e mirror ha s become " a thin g t o b e looked a t bu t no t t o b e looke d into. " The glu t o f surface detai l i n Updike' s fiction, howeve r precisel y o r beautifull y ren dered, ma y b e relate d t o Winnicott' s observatio n tha t whe n mirrorin g fails, "perceptio n take s th e plac e o f apperception , perceptio n take s th e place of that which might have been the beginning of a significant exchang e with th e world , a two-wa y proces s i n whic h self-enrichmen t alternate s with th e discover y o f meanin g i n th e worl d o f see n things " (P R 113) . Updike's character s hav e troubl e lookin g int o themselve s o r explorin g any dee p o r meaningfu l mora l experienc e becaus e "good " an d "bad " i n relation to both sel f an d mother stil l represents a n intolerable, ambivalen t split. Thu s Go d to o mus t b e divorce d fro m morality ; "ethica l passion, " as Marshfield believes , afflict s onl y "trivia l minds. " The relatio n o f Updike' s character s t o th e pain an d rag e o f thei r inne r lives is , a s we'v e seen , generall y characterize d b y contemp t rathe r tha n compassion; th e rag e i s projected , o r denie d an d scorned , rathe r tha n owned. Thi s sam e dynami c i s als o apparen t i n th e authoria l relationshi p with the characters. Particularly in the later novels, Updike seems to back away from hi s central characters—from Rabbit , Roge r Lambert, o r Colo nel Ellellou, fo r instance—and maintai n a cynical distance. Crews believes

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the "extrem e denigratio n o f a narrator " i n Updike' s late r fictio n serve s as a "cover" for expressio n of what Crews sees as the author's own mean spirited an d contemptible views (12). The hard-hearted view s themselves, however—the scor n for moral rectitude, compassionate service, or "goo d works"—are par t o f the same psychological defens e a s the distancing an d denigration o f th e character : bot h ar e attempt s t o distanc e th e inne r lif e and it s painful , need y claims . In a n interview o n Nationa l Publi c Radio , Terr y Gros s aske d Updik e about Rabbit' s lac k o f mora l fiber, abou t Rabbit' s neve r feelin g an y re morse i n Rest, fo r instance , abou t hi s affai r wit h hi s daughter-in-law . Usually i n literature , sh e pointed out , th e momen t o f deat h i s portraye d as a time of revelation or moral awakening. Sh e asked Updike to commen t on th e fac t tha t Rabbi t exhibit s hi s blin d prejudice s an d pett y grievance s up until the very end , neve r expressin g regret for havin g wronged others , particularly his wife. Updik e seemed surprised an d somewhat taken abac k by th e question , bu t afte r a moment's pause , suggeste d tha t Rabbit' s sin s in relatio n t o hi s wif e wer e mitigate d b y th e fac t tha t hi s wif e hold s th e superior position—ha s "one-u p o n him " throughou t th e novel—sinc e she, afte r all, i s aliv e an d health y whil e h e i s dying . Thi s i s a curiou s response indee d t o th e questio n o f Rabbit' s mora l culpability . Fro m a psychological perspective, however , i t betrays the familiar emotiona l sce nario i n whic h th e feelin g o f intractabl e femal e powe r o r superiorit y justifies aggressiv e vengeanc e o n th e par t o f th e male . I t suggest s agai n how strongl y mora l development i s linked t o that first relationa l dynami c between sel f an d m/other . Updike's prose style, itself, in the relationship it sets up with the reader, also represent s a repetitio n o f tha t origina l relationship . Th e reade r i s dazzled by a glittering display of linguistic agility—by rhythmic , polishe d sentences an d a skillful pla y of imag e and metaphor . Th e reader ma y als o be dazzled b y th e audacity o f th e opinions th e central character s express , as well as by scenes of extended , explici t sexuality . Th e reader is dazzled , finally, bu t no t allowe d t o care ; we ar e rebuffed fro m a n empathi c iden tification wit h the characters by a contemptuous authoria l distancing. Th e pattern repeat s th e child' s experienc e i n relatio n t o th e tantalizingl y de sirable, bu t essentiall y cold , narcissisti c mother . A s w e sa w i n th e min ister's sermo n i n Of the Farm, languag e fo r Updik e i s a primary mean s of self-assertion , a weapon wit h whic h t o penetrat e th e "barre n densit y of brut e matter. " Th e highl y develope d us e o f languag e ca n becom e a n

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assertive, almos t exhibitionisti c for m o f self-displa y i n Updike' s fiction . Ultimately, however , suc h displa y form s a surfac e tha t i s jus t a s dens e and barren for th e reader as mater/matter i s for Updike' s characters . Thi s is particularly tru e of the later novels. I n Updike's earl y autobiographica l fiction, an d i n " A Sandston e Farmhouse, " ther e i s less distancing o f th e central character , les s denia l o f th e inne r pai n an d loss . Thus Harold Bloom calls Updike a "minor novelist with a major style " (7), an d Garr y Will s accuse s hi m i n Rabbit at Rest o f "succumbin g t o his own stylisti c solipsism " i n which "descriptio n make s up fo r analysis ; detail fo r design ; inclusivenes s fo r rigor ; an d mer e lengt h fo r mora l hef t or grip " (14) . Th e experienc e o f authenti c being , an d th e mora l con sciousness tha t accompanie s it , ca n see m a s elusiv e t o th e reade r o f Up dike's fictio n a s the y d o t o Updike' s characters . Hi s wor k nevertheles s presents a vivid reflectio n o f contemporar y America n culture— a cultur e that prize s stylish , seductiv e surface s an d tha t als o harbor s deep-roote d ambivalence toward s women . I n a tim e i n whic h s o man y complaint s psychiatrists hea r concer n feeling s o f unrealit y an d emptiness , i t i s no t surprising tha t Updike' s fictio n resonate s wit h suc h a silvery ring .

Chapter 7

Internal Worl d an d the Social Environment : Toni Morrison' s Beloved

Toni Morrison' s Beloved penetrates , perhap s mor e deepl y tha n an y historical o r psychologica l stud y could , th e unconsciou s emotiona l an d psychic consequence s o f slavery. Th e novel reveal s how the condition of enslavement i n the external world , particularl y th e denial o f one's statu s as a huma n subject , ha s dee p repercussion s i n th e individual' s interna l world. Thes e interna l resonance s ar e s o profoun d tha t eve n i f on e i s eventually free d fro m externa l bondage , th e sel f wil l stil l b e trappe d i n an inne r worl d tha t prevent s a genuine experienc e o f freedom. A s Sethe succinctly put s it , "Freein g yoursel f wa s one thing; claimin g ownershi p of that freed sel f was another" {Beloved 95) . The novel wrestles with thi s central proble m o f recognizing an d claiming one' s ow n subjectivity, an d it show s ho w thi s canno t b e achieve d independentl y o f th e socia l environment. A free , autonomou s self , a s Jessica Benjami n argue s i n The Bonds of Love, i s still an essentially relational self, an d is dependent o n the reccognizing response of an other. Beloved powerfull y dramatize s th e fact that , in Benjamin' s words , "I n orde r t o exis t fo r oneself , one has to exis t fo r an other " (53) ; in s o doing , i t enact s th e comple x interrelationshi p o f social an d intrapsychi c realities . Fo r Morrison' s characters , African Americans in a racist, slav e society, ther e is no reliable other to recognize 127

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and affir m thei r existence . Th e mother , th e child' s first vita l other , i s made unreliabl e o r unavailabl e b y a slave system tha t eithe r separate s he r from he r chil d o r s o enervate s an d deplete s he r tha t sh e ha s n o sel f wit h which t o confe r recognition . Th e consequence s fo r th e inne r lif e o f th e child—the emotional hunger, th e obsessive and terrifying narcissisti c fan tasies—constitute th e underlyin g psychologica l dram a o f th e novel . "124 wa s spiteful . Ful l o f a baby's venom. " Th e openin g line s o f th e novel establis h it s psychi c source : infantil e rage . A wounded , enrage d baby i s th e centra l figure o f th e book , bot h literally , i n th e characte r o f Beloved, an d symbolically , a s it struggles beneat h the surface o f the othe r major characters . Eve n th e elderl y grandmothe r i s significantl y name d Baby, an d th e ferocit y o f a baby' s frustrate d need s color s th e novel' s overt mother-chil d relationship s a s well a s the lov e relationshi p betwee n Sethe an d Pau l D an d tha t betwee n Belove d an d he r siste r Denver . " A baby's frustrate d needs " refer s her e no t t o physica l need s bu t t o psychi c and emotiona l ones . Th e wors t atrocit y o f slavery , th e rea l horro r th e novel exposes, is not physical death but psychic death. The pivotal event , or crisis , o f th e nove l i s Sethe' s murde r o f he r bab y daughte r Beloved . The reade r i s allowe d t o feel , however , th e paradoxica l natur e o f th e murder. Sethe , havin g ru n awa y fro m th e sadisti c slavemaste r School teacher, i s o n th e verg e o f bein g recaptured . He r humanit y ha d bee n s o violated b y thi s man, an d b y her entir e experienc e a s a slave woman, tha t she kills her daughte r t o sav e her fro m a similar fate ; sh e kills her t o sav e her fro m psychi c death : "I f I hadn' t kille d he r sh e woul d hav e die d an d that i s somethin g I coul d no t bea r t o happe n t o her " (200) . Psychic death , a s th e nove l make s clear , involve s th e denia l o f one' s being a s a human subject . Th e infan t sel f ha s a n essential , primar y nee d to b e recognize d an d affirme d a s a whole being , a s a n activ e agen t o f it s own legitimat e desire s an d impulses , an d th e fulfillmen t o f thi s nee d i s dependent o n th e huma n environment , o n othe r selves . Th e premis e o f object relation s theory , a s Jessica Benjami n notes , i s tha t "w e ar e fun damentally socia l beings " (17) . Huma n being s ar e not innatel y sexua l o r aggressive; they ar e innately responsiv e and relational. A s Harry Guntri p explains, th e "nee d o f a love-relationshi p i s th e fundamenta l thing " i n life, an d "th e love-hunge r an d ange r se t u p b y frustratio n o f thi s basi c need mus t constitut e th e tw o primar y problem s o f personalit y o n th e emotional level " {Schizoid Phenomena 45) . Th e experienc e o f one' s co hesiveness an d realit y a s a self i s dependent o n thi s primary relationship ,

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on th e lovin g respons e an d recognitio n fro m a n other . Thi s issu e i s re peatedly illustrated an d explored i n Morrison's novels . Sula, for instance , speaks of the two most formative experience s of her life: the first concern s her overhearin g he r mothe r stat e matter-of-factl y tha t sh e simpl y didn' t "like" he r (Sula) , an d th e secon d involve s he r havin g throw n a child , seemingly b y accident , int o th e rive r t o drown . "Th e firs t experienc e taught he r ther e wa s n o othe r tha t yo u coul d coun t on ; th e secon d tha t there was n o sel f t o coun t o n either . Sh e had n o center , n o spec k aroun d which t o grow " (Sula 118-19) . Thes e experience s ar e intimatel y related : the lack of an affirming, reliabl e other leads to an unconscious, murderou s rage an d th e lac k o f a coherent, reliabl e self . In The Bonds of Love, Benjami n modifie s objec t relation s theory alon g the line s o f Danie l Stern' s "intersubjectiv e theory. " Sh e maintain s th e primacy of relationship in self development, bu t argues that the self grow s through relationshi p wit h anothe r subject rathe r tha n throug h relation s with it s object . Th e chil d ha s a need t o se e th e mother , o r his/he r mos t significant other , "a s a n independen t subject , no t simpl y a s the 'externa l world' o r a n adjunc t o f hi s ego " (23) . Th e intersubjectiv e view , whic h Benjamin see s as complementary t o intrapsychic theory , conceive s o f self and othe r "a s distinc t bu t interrelate d beings " (20 ) wh o ar e involve d i n an intricat e danc e o f assertio n an d recognition . Th e essentia l nee d i s fo r mutual recognition—"th e necessit y o f recognizin g a s wel l a s bein g rec ognized b y th e other " (23) . Benjami n als o emphasize s th e concep t o f attunement, a "combinatio n o f resonanc e an d difference " (26 ) i n whic h self an d othe r ar e empathicall y i n tun e whil e maintainin g thei r distinc t boundaries an d separateness . Whe n th e boundarie s brea k dow n an d th e necessary tension between self and other dissolves, domination takes root. The search for recognition then becomes a struggle for power and control , and assertio n turn s int o aggression . Beloved doe s no t delv e int o th e root s o f whit e domination , bu t ther e is a suggestion o f fea r an d inadequat e selfhoo d underlyin g th e problem . The whit e farme r Mr . Garner , whil e stil l sharin g i n th e cultura l objec tification o f blacks , nevertheles s boast s tha t hi s " 'nigger s i s me n ever y one o f 'em. ' " Whe n anothe r farme r argue s tha t ther e " 'ain' t n o nigge r men,' " Garne r replies , " 'No t i f yo u scared , the y ain't . . . . But i f you a man yourself , you'l l wan t you r nigger s t o b e me n too ' " (10) . A sel f wants th e recognitio n o f anothe r self ; thi s for m o f mutualit y i s mor e desirable, Garne r implies , tha n master y o f a n object . Garner , however ,

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dies—his perspectiv e canno t prevai l i n a world i n which dominatio n an d the denia l o f recognitio n ar e buil t int o th e socia l system . Beloved explore s the interpersonal an d intrapsychic effect s o f growin g up a s a black perso n i n suc h a system , on e i n whic h intersubjectivit y i s impossible. Ho w ca n a chil d se e sel f o r mothe r a s subject s whe n th e society denie s the m tha t status ? Th e mothe r i s mad e incapabl e o f rec ognizing the child, and the child cannot recognize the mother. A s a young girl, Seth e had to have her mother "pointe d out " t o her by another child . When sh e becomes a mother herself , sh e is so deprived an d deplete d tha t she cannot satisf y th e hunger fo r recognition , th e longed-for "look " tha t both her daughters crave. The major characters in the novel are all working out o f a deep los s t o th e self , a profound narcissisti c woun d tha t result s from a breakdow n an d distortio n o f th e earlies t relation s betwee n sel f and other. In the case of Beloved, the intense desire for recognition evolve s into enrage d narcissisti c omnipotenc e an d a terrifying , tyrannica l domination. The infantile rag e in the novel is a form o f frustrated, murderou s love . The bab y ghos t o f Belove d wreak s havo c i n Sethe' s home , promptin g Denver t o comment , " T o r a bab y sh e throw s a powerfu l spell, ' " t o which Seth e replies , " 'N o mor e powerfu l tha n th e wa y I love d her ' " (4). The power of Beloved's rage is directly linked to the power o f Sethe' s love. The intimacy o f destructive rage and love is asserted in various way s throughout th e book—Sethe' s lov e fo r Belove d i s indee d a murderou s love. Th e violation o r murder o f childre n b y thei r parents i s a theme tha t runs throughou t muc h o f Morrison' s work , fro m Choll y rapin g hi s daughter i n The Bluest Eye t o Ev a settin g fire t o he r so n i n Sula, an d i n these case s to o th e act s ar e incite d b y feeling s o f love. 1 I f th e infan t i s traumatically frustrate d i n it s first lov e relationship , i f i t fail s t o receiv e the affirmatio n an d recognitio n i t craves , th e intens e needines s o f th e infant's ow n lov e becomes dangerou s an d threatening . Th e fear, a s Gun trip an d other s have discussed, i s that one' s love will destroy. Th e baby' s enraged, destructiv e love is also projected outwar d onto the parent, whic h suggests on e perspectiv e o n th e strai n o f destructiv e parenta l lov e i n Morrison's novels . Because th e first physica l mod e o f relationshi p t o th e mothe r i s oral , the earlies t emotiona l need s i n relatio n t o mothe r ar e also figured i n ora l terms i n th e child' s inne r world . Frustratio n i n thi s first ora l stag e o f relationship lead s t o what objec t relation s theorist s cal l "lov e mad e hun -

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gry," a terrifyin g greedines s i n whic h th e bab y fear s i t wil l devou r an d thus destroy mother, an d conversely, tha t mother (due to projection) wil l devour an d destro y th e sel f (Guntrip , Schizoid Phenomena 35) . A pre ponderance o f ora l imager y characterize s Morrison' s novel . Beloved , i n her fantasies , repeatedl y state s tha t Seth e " 'chew s an d swallow s me ' " (213), whil e th e metapho r o f Belove d chewin g an d swallowin g Seth e i s almost literal : "Belove d at e u p he r life , too k it , swelle d u p wit h it , gre w taller o n it " (250) . Denver' s problem s o f identit y an d self-cohesion , too , are ofte n image d i n ora l terms : leavin g th e hous e mean s bein g prepare d to "b e swallowe d u p i n th e worl d beyon d th e edg e o f th e porch " (243) . When Denve r temporaril y lose s sigh t o f Belove d i n th e shed , sh e expe riences a dissolution o f self—"sh e doe s no t kno w wher e he r bod y stops , which par t o f he r i s a n arm , a foo t o r a knee"—an d feel s sh e i s bein g "eaten aliv e by th e dark" (123) . Beloved, i n the second par t o f th e novel , is sai d t o hav e tw o dreams : "exploding , an d bein g swallowed " (133) . Everywhere i n the novel, th e fantasy o f annihilatio n i s figured orally ; th e love-hunger, th e boundless greed , tha t s o determines th e life o f th e char acters als o threaten s t o destro y them . Sethe repeatedl y assert s tha t th e wors t aspec t o f he r rap e wa s tha t th e white boy s " 'too k m y milk! ' " (17) . Sh e feels robbe d o f he r essence , o f her mos t preciou s substance , whic h i s her materna l milk . W e lear n tha t as a child , Seth e wa s deprive d o f he r ow n mother' s milk : "Th e littl e whitebabies go t i t first an d I go t wha t wa s left . O r none . Ther e wa s n o nursing mil k t o cal l m y own " (200) . Seth e was no t physicall y starve d a s a baby—sh e di d receiv e mil k fro m anothe r nursin g slav e woman—bu t she wa s emotionall y starve d o f a significan t nurturin g relationship , o f which th e nursin g mil k i s symbolic . Tha t relationshi p i s associate d wit h one's cor e bein g o r essence ; i f sh e ha s n o nursin g mil k t o cal l he r own , she feels withou t a self t o cal l her ow n either . Thus , eve n befor e sh e was raped b y th e white far m boys , Seth e was ravage d a s an infant, robbe d o f her milk/essenc e b y th e whit e socia l structure . Beloved's first appearanc e i n he r incarnate d for m i s marke d b y he r excessive drinking , b y he r downin g "cu p afte r cu p o f water " (51) , whil e Sethe, suddenl y feelin g he r "bladde r filled t o capacity, " lift s he r skirt s and "th e wate r sh e voide d wa s endless " (51) . Th e dynami c suggest s a mother bein g drained b y th e child's greedy , excessiv e need. Sethe' s void ing i s als o associate d wit h he r ow n child-sel f i n relatio n t o he r mother : "Not sinc e she was a baby girl , bein g cared fo r b y the eight-year-ol d gir l

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who pointe d ou t he r mothe r t o her , ha d sh e ha d a n emergenc y tha t unmanageable" (51) . On e migh t rathe r expec t Seth e t o experienc e thirs t upon seein g her mother , bu t perhap s tha t thirs t i s so extreme , s o poten tially violen t an d destructive , tha t th e mor e urgen t nee d i s t o void , t o empty onesel f completel y o f thi s unmanageabl e hunge r an d rage . Seth e must drai n hersel f i n orde r t o avoi d draining , an d therefor e destroying , her mother. Thi s is the fearful fantas y s o central to the book; it is precisely what Belove d almos t succeed s i n doin g t o Sethe . Th e nursin g dynami c also characterize s Denve r an d Beloved' s relationship : "S o inten t wa s he r [Denver's] nursing " o f Belove d tha t "sh e forgo t t o eat " (54) , an d sh e hides Beloved' s incontinence . Pau l D , a s I wil l discus s mor e full y later , also plays a maternal, nurturin g role in relation to Sethe. When he arrives, Sethe feels "that the responsibility for her breasts, at last, was in somebody else's hands " (18) . The prima l nursin g relationshi p i s s o fraugh t wit h ambivalenc e tha t frequently i n th e nove l satiatio n lead s t o disaster . Th e mos t obviou s example i s th e gran d feas t Bab y Sugg s prepare s fo r ninet y people — "Ninety peopl e wh o at e s o well , an d laughe d s o much , i t mad e the m angry" (136) . Th e feas t i s th e prelud e t o th e abandonmen t o f th e com munity, th e retur n o f Schoolteacher , an d Sethe' s consequen t murde r o f her baby . Melani e Klei n ha s discusse d th e baby' s extrem e "envy " o f th e withholding breas t (Klei n 183) , and thi s projected env y ma y underlie th e anger o f th e neighbor s a t th e materna l bount y o f Bab y Suggs—sh e ha d "given too much, offende d the m by excess" (138). Similarly, th e overtur e to Beloved's appearanc e i n the flesh an d the ensuing disruption o f Sethe' s relationship wit h Pau l D i s the festiv e plentitud e o f th e carniva l a t whic h Paul D plie s bot h Seth e an d Denve r wit h cand y an d sweets . Pau l D' s abandonment o f Sethe , too , i s precede d b y a specia l dinne r tha t Sethe , feeling confiden t tha t "sh e ha d mil k enoug h fo r all " (100) , prepare s fo r him. The rag e an d ambivalenc e surroundin g th e love-hunge r i n th e nove l is illustrated agai n in the scene in which Sethe, while sitting in the Clearin g associated wit h Bab y Sugg s an d he r sermon s o n love , experience s fingers touching he r throat . Th e fingers ar e first soothin g an d comforting , bu t then begi n t o chok e an d strangl e her , an d th e hand s ar e associate d wit h those o f bot h Bab y Sugg s and Beloved , o f bot h mothe r an d child . Whe n Denver accuses Beloved of choking Sethe, Beloved insists that she "fixed " Sethe's neck—" ' I kissed her neck. I didn't choke it' " (101). The incident,

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of course , parallel s Sethe' s murde r o f Belove d b y sawin g throug h he r neck, th e oral associations once more enforced b y mention of the "teeth" of th e saw (251) having chewed throug h th e skin. Afte r denyin g tha t she choked Sethe' s neck , Belove d adds , " T h e circl e o f iro n choke d it ' " (101), an d th e imag e recall s th e collar s locke d aroun d th e neck s o f th e black slaves. Her statement is thus true in that the slave system has choked off th e vital circulatio n betwee n mothe r an d chil d s o crucia l t o th e development o f the self. Som e of the most vivid , disturbin g passage s in the novel describe the experience of having a horse's bit forced in one's mouth ; the sense of deep, searing injury t o one's humanity that these description s evoke is perhaps compounde d b y unconscious resonance s o f violation a t the earlies t ora l root s o f our human identity . The ora l imager y i n th e nove l i s als o closel y associate d wit h ocula r imagery, wit h image s o f eye s an d seeing . Seth e i s describe d a s bein g "licked, tasted , eate n b y Beloved's eyes " (57) ; when Seth e lies hidden in the field, anticipatin g th e approac h o f on e of th e white boys , sh e "was eager for his eyes, t o bite into them . . . . 'I was hungry,' sh e told Denver , 'just a s hungry a s I could b e for his eyes' " (31) . For Denver, "looking " at Belove d "wa s food enoug h t o last . Bu t t o b e looke d a t i n tur n wa s beyond appetite ; it was breaking throug h he r own skin t o a place wher e hunger hadn' t bee n discovered " (118) . I n th e logi c o f th e unconsciou s world, th e desire t o ge t and "drink in " with th e eyes i s akin t o the ora l wish t o consume . Hein z Kohu t ha s written abou t th e oral-visua l rela tionship. I f th e mothe r i s physicall y an d emotionall y distan t fro m th e child, i f sh e withholds he r body , h e says , th e visual wil l becom e "hy percathectic" for the child (116) . One can also understand th e connection from Benjamin' s perspectiv e i n that th e real hunger i n this first relation ship betwee n sel f an d other i s the hunger fo r recognition—th e desir e t o be, i n Denver' s words , "pulle d int o vie w b y th e interested , uncritica l eyes o f th e other" (118) . Th e gaz e o f th e beloved othe r recognize s an d affirms th e wholeness and intrinsic value of one's being. Denver describe s the qualit y o f bein g looke d a t b y Beloved : "Havin g he r hai r examine d as a part o f he r self , no t a s materia l o r a style . Havin g he r lips , nose , chin caresse d a s they migh t b e if she were a moss ros e a gardener pause d to admire " (118) . Th e look take s Denve r t o a "place beyon d appetite, " to wher e sh e is "needin g nothing . Bein g wha t ther e was " (118). T o be recognized b y the beloved is all the nourishment on e needs; it brings one into coherence, int o meaningful existence . Before Beloved' s arrival , Den-

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ver crave d thi s loo k fro m Sethe : non e o f th e losse s i n he r lif e mattered , she felt , "a s lon g a s her mothe r di d no t loo k away " (12) . Sethe's eyes , however , ar e describe d a s "empty" ; Pau l D think s o f Sethe's fac e a s " a mas k wit h mercifull y punched-ou t eyes . . . . Even punched ou t the y neede d t o b e covered , lidded , marke d wit h som e sig n to warn folks of what that emptiness held" (9). Her eyes reflect the psychic loss an d denia l o f sel f sh e ha s experience d o n al l level s i n he r life . Th e face of Sethe' s mother was also masklike, distorte d int o a permanent fals e smile fro m to o man y time s wit h th e bit . Seth e comment s tha t sh e neve r saw he r mother' s ow n smil e (203) . Sethe' s mother , deprive d o f he r au thentic selfhood , he r statu s a s a human subject , canno t provid e th e rec ognition an d affirmatio n tha t he r chil d craves . Th e cycl e i s vicious , an d thus Sethe' s children , Belove d an d Denver , wil l suffe r th e sam e loss . Beloved's eye s to o ar e remarkabl e fo r thei r emptiness : "Dee p dow n i n those bi g blac k eye s ther e wa s n o expressio n a t all " (55) . The cravin g fo r mutua l recognition—fo r simultaneousl y "seeing " th e beloved othe r an d bein g "seen " b y her—propels th e centra l character s i n the novel . Belove d say s sh e ha s returne d i n orde r t o "see " Sethe' s face , and she wants "t o be there in the place where her face is and to be looking at i t too " (210) . When , a s a child, Seth e i s show n th e bran d burn t int o her mother' s ski n an d i s told tha t sh e will be abl e to "know " he r b y thi s mark, Seth e anxiousl y responds , " 'Bu t ho w wil l yo u kno w me ? Ho w will you kno w me ? Mark me , too . . . . Mark th e mar k o n m e too' " (61) . Love i s a form o f knowin g an d bein g known . Belove d repeatedl y com mands Pau l D , " ' I wan t yo u t o touc h m e on th e insid e part an d cal l m e my name ' " (116) . Th e hunge r i s t o b e touched , recognized , known , i n one's inne r bein g o r essentia l self . Thi s yearnin g i s poignantl y capture d in the image of two turtles mating. Denver and Beloved observe the turtles on th e ban k o f th e river : The embracing necks—hers stretching up toward his bending down, th e pat pat pat of their touching heads. No height was beyond her yearning neck, stretche d like a finger toward his , riskin g everythin g outsid e th e bow l jus t t o touc h hi s face. Th e gravit y o f thei r shields , clashing , countere d an d mocke d th e floatin g heads touching. (105) The yearnin g o f Beloved , Sethe , an d Denve r t o touc h face s wit h th e beloved other , t o kno w an d b e known , is , lik e tha t o f th e turtles , ob structed an d mocke d b y th e shield s o r shell s eac h ha s constructed . Th e

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shell, however , i s a necessar y defense ; i t attempt s t o preserv e th e sel f from a cultur e tha t seek s t o den y it . A s Josep h Wesslin g argue s i n a n article on narcissis m i n Sula, narcissisti c defenses , suc h a s "self-division " and a n inabilit y t o empathiz e o r experienc e huma n sympathy , ma y b e "the pric e o f survival " (286 ) i n a n oppressive , unjus t society . Th e shel l also serve s t o protec t th e sel f an d it s boundarie s fro m th e intensit y o f it s own frustrate d desire . Th e hunge r fo r recognition , a s discussed, ma y b e so overwhelmin g tha t i t threaten s t o swallo w u p th e othe r an d th e self , destroying al l boundaries i n on e tota l annihilation . The nove l a s a whole i s characterize d b y a fluidity o f boundaries , b y a continuousl y alterin g narrativ e perspectiv e tha t slide s i n an d ou t o f characters' minds, b y a mutable, nonsequentia l tim e structure, an d by a n absence o f th e conventiona l line s betwee n fantas y an d reality . Suc h flu idity, a s Nanc y Chodoro w an d Caro l Gilliga n hav e argued , i s charac teristic o f female , a s oppose d t o male , mode s o f perceptio n an d expression. I t derive s fro m th e preservatio n o f a n origina l identit y an d preoedipal bondednes s betwee n sel f an d mother . Th e serie s o f mono logues b y Beloved , Sethe , an d Denve r i n par t 2 o f Morrison' s novel , however, suggest s somethin g mor e extrem e an d dangerou s tha n mer e fluidity o f boundaries : the monologue s revea l a n utter breakdow n o f th e borders betwee n sel f an d other , a collapse tha t i s boun d u p wit h incor porative fantasies . Sethe' s sectio n begins , "Beloved , sh e m y daughter . She mine" (200). Denver's opens , "Belove d i s my sister . I swallowed he r blood righ t alon g with m y mother' s milk " (205) , an d Beloved' s wit h th e line, " I a m Beloved an d she is mine" (210). After tha t sentence, Beloved' s monologue i s marked b y a total absenc e of punctuation, highlightin g th e fantasy o f mergin g an d oneness—" I a m not separat e from he r ther e is n o place wher e I sto p he r fac e i s m y own"—a t th e essenc e o f he r plaintiv e ramblings. Her words reveal the psychic loss—the denial of recognition — at th e cor e o f th e fantasy : there is no one to want me to sa y me my name... she chews and swallows me I am gone now I am her face my own face has left me. . . Sethe sees m e see her and I see the smile her smiling face is the place for m e it is the face I lost she is my face smilin g at me doing it a t last a hot thin g now we can join a hot thing . (212-13) A simila r mergin g fantas y als o figure s prominentl y i n Sula, i n th e relationship betwee n Sul a an d Nel . Th e tw o character s ar e describe d a s

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so close that "they themselves had difficulty distinguishin g one's thought s from th e other's " (83) ; fo r Nel , "talkin g t o Sul a ha d alway s bee n a conversation wit h herself " (95) ; and Sul a eventuall y realize s tha t neithe r Nel no r anyon e els e "woul d eve r b e tha t versio n o f hersel f whic h sh e sought t o reac h ou t t o an d touc h wit h a n ungloved hand " (121) . Eac h i s compelled continuall y to seek the self through an other, an d such blurrin g of boundaries ca n lead to one of the forms o f domination an d submissio n Benjamin describes : th e sel f ca n surrende r totall y t o th e wil l an d agenc y of th e other , o r th e sel f ca n consum e an d appropriat e th e othe r a s par t of itself , a s a n objec t o f it s possession . The repetition of the word "mine" in the monologues of Sethe, Denver, and Belove d suggest s exactl y thi s sort o f possession an d incorporatio n o f the othe r a s a n object . "Mine " i s th e hauntin g wor d tha t Stam p Pai d hears surrounding Sethe's house in ghostly whispers, an d is stressed agai n in a lyrical section followin g Beloved' s unpunctuate d monologue . I n thi s section th e voices o f Beloved , Sethe , an d Denve r ar e joined (th e identit y of th e speake r i n eac h lin e i s sometime s unclear ) whil e a t th e sam e tim e each voic e remain s essentiall y isolate d (th e voice s spea k t o bu t no t with each other) : Beloved You are my sister You are my daughter You are my face; you ar e me I have found yo u again ; you have come back to me You are my Beloved You are mine You are mine You are mine {Beloved 216) This for m o f possessin g an d objectifyin g th e other , however , canno t satisfy; i t imprison s th e sel f withi n it s ow n devourin g omnipotence , it s own narcissism . Tru e satisfactio n o r joy , a s Benjamin explains , ca n onl y be achieve d throug h "mutua l recognition " betwee n sel f an d other , be tween tw o subject s o r selves . Both side s of the power dynamic, bot h surrende r t o and incorporatio n of th e other, ar e apparent i n the relationship betwee n Seth e and Beloved . Toward th e end o f the novel, Seth e relinquishes hersel f completel y t o th e will an d desir e o f Beloved . Sh e neglect s t o fee d o r car e fo r hersel f an d

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becomes physicall y draine d an d emotionall y depleted . Seth e literall y shrinks whil e Belove d literall y expand s an d swells ; both ar e caught u p i n a mutuall y destructive , frighteningl y boundles s narcissism . Th e prelud e to Sethe' s declin e i s a n inciden t tha t agai n stresse s lac k o f recognitio n a t the sourc e o f thi s narcissisti c condition . Seth e ha s bee n abandone d onc e again, thi s tim e b y Pau l D (he r previou s abandonment s includ e thos e o f her mother , he r husban d Halle , Bab y Suggs , an d he r tw o sons) , an d t o cheer herself , sh e take s Denve r an d Belove d ic e skatin g o n th e froze n creek. Th e thre e ar e unable t o kee p thei r balance , an d a s they fal l o n th e ice, the y shrie k wit h bot h pai n an d laughter . Th e scen e i s evocativ e o f childhood an d o f childlik e helplessness . "Makin g a circl e o r a line , th e three o f the m coul d no t sta y uprigh t fo r on e whol e minute , bu t nobod y saw them falling " (174) . The phrase "nobod y sa w them falling " become s the dominan t moti f o f th e scene ; th e lin e i s repeate d fou r time s i n th e two-page description . Sethe' s laughte r turn s int o uncontrollabl e tears , and he r weepin g i n th e contex t o f th e scene' s refrai n suggest s a child' s aching sense of loss or absence, specifically th e absence of the confirming , legitimizing gaz e o f th e other . Once i t i s asserte d tha t "nobod y saw " he r falling , tha t ther e i s n o "other" t o confer th e reality of her own existenc e on her, Seth e falls pre y to a consuming narcissism . Suddenl y sh e consciously recognize s Belove d as the incarnatio n o f he r dea d chil d an d surrender s hersel f totall y t o her . Sethe now feel s tha t "ther e i s no worl d outside " he r doo r (184 ) an d tha t since her daughter has come back, "sh e can sleep like the drowned" (204) . In psychologica l terms , sh e retreat s fro m externa l realit y an d succumb s to her destructive, narcissistic fantasies, t o her murderously enraged child self a s well a s he r insatiabl e nee d t o mak e reparatio n fo r he r murderou s love. Pau l D recognizes , an d fears , th e narcissistic natur e o f Sethe' s love : "This her e ne w Seth e didn' t kno w wher e th e worl d stoppe d an d sh e began. . . . more importan t tha n wha t Seth e ha d don e wa s wha t sh e claimed. I t scare d him " (164) . Pau l D i s th e on e characte r i n th e nove l who ha s th e powe r t o resis t an d disrup t th e destructive , narcissisti c mother-child dyad . Seth e recalls, "There was no room for an y other thin g or bod y unti l Pau l D arrive d an d brok e u p th e place , makin g room , shifting it , movin g i t ove r t o someplac e else , the n standin g i n th e plac e he had made" (39). Sethe also tells Beloved that she would have recognized her "righ t off , excep t fo r Pau l D " (203) . Pau l D i s th e externa l "other " who triangulate s th e dyad, a s the image of th e "thre e shadows " of Sethe ,

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Denver, an d Pau l D "holdin g hands " a s the y wal k t o th e carniva l (47 ) emphasizes. Th e excursio n t o th e carnival is Sethe's firs t ventur e int o th e community sinc e th e murder ; Pau l D ha s th e capacit y t o lea d Seth e ou t of he r narcissistic isolation an d int o relationshi p wit h th e externa l world . The claim s o f th e angr y bab y Beloved , however , ar e stil l to o powerfu l to allo w fo r thes e othe r attachments : sh e make s he r firs t appearanc e i n the fles h immediatel y followin g th e excursion . While Pau l D play s th e rol e o f th e savin g othe r i n contradistinctio n to Belove d an d th e narcissisti c dyad , h e doe s no t represen t th e typica l world o f th e father . H e i s not , fo r instance , a token o f mal e rationalit y countering the irrationality o f the female world. H e too is deeply affecte d by Beloved' s irrationa l power—sh e literall y "moves " him , makin g hi m physically restles s an d forcin g hi m t o slee p wit h he r i n th e she d outsid e the house. Hi s powe r lie s precisely i n his maternal, nurturin g quality ; h e is tha t "other " wit h th e powe r t o recogniz e an d affir m th e inne r o r essential self . H e i s describe d a s "th e kin d o f ma n wh o coul d wal k int o a hous e an d mak e th e wome n cry . Becaus e wit h him , i n hi s presence , they could " (17) . Th e wome n se e him an d no t onl y wan t t o weep ; the y also want t o confes s thei r deepes t secrets , t o expos e al l the pain an d rag e bound u p wit h thei r tru e selves . Seth e think s o f ho w h e "cradle d he r before th e cookin g stove " an d i s deeply comforte d b y "th e min d o f hi m that kne w he r own " (99) . Paul D ha s th e powe r t o satisf y th e cravin g tha t fuel s th e novel , th e craving t o b e "known, " t o hav e one' s existenc e sanctione d b y th e em pathic recognitio n o f th e other . Tha t Morriso n bestow s thi s qualit y o n an African-American mal e character is an interesting, an d unusual, point . A commo n criticis m o f blac k wome n novelist s i s that thei r portrayal s o f black males ar e often flat , stereotypic , o r unempathic. Fo r Morrison , th e maternal, nurturin g qualit y i s a for m o f lov e tha t i s no t restricte d b y gender; thi s vie w expand s th e possibilities, an d i s a liberating factor , fo r her characters . Ye t Pau l D , too , i s no t a totall y reliabl e other : h e tem porarily retreat s whe n learnin g o f Sethe' s murde r o f he r child . Lik e al l of the other black characters in the novel, he must work out of a condition of psychi c fragmentation—hi s selfhoo d ha s bee n severel y impaired , hi s status a s a human subjec t denie d b y th e slav e culture . H e feel s tha t eve n the old rooster , Mister , wa s allowed a n essential integrity of being denie d him: " 'Miste r wa s allowe d t o b e an d sta y wha t h e was . Bu t I wasn' t allowed t o b e an d sta y wha t I was . Eve n i f yo u cooke d hi m you' d b e

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cooking a rooster name d Mister . Bu t wasn' t n o wa y I' d eve r b e Pau l D again, livin g o r dead ' " (72) . Only Denve r doe s no t se e Pau l D a s the othe r wome n do ; fo r he r h e does no t pla y th e sam e nurturin g role . Sh e sees him onl y a s a threat, a n intruder int o he r intens e an d deepl y ambivalen t relationshi p wit h he r mother. Denve r is terrified o f Sethe's murderous love: she has "monstrou s and unmanageabl e dream s abou t Sethe " (103 ) an d i s afrai d t o fal l aslee p while Seth e braid s he r hai r a t night . I n he r fantasies , "Sh e cu t m y hea d off ever y night " (206) . Fo r Denver , th e idealized , savin g othe r i s he r father Halle , who m sh e calls "Angel Man. " Yet the father i s significantl y incapable o f playin g th e savio r role . Th e "other"—whethe r represente d by mother o r father—is alway s untrustworth y i n Morrison's world , ren dered thus by the social environment. A s a result, the self remains trappe d within it s ow n destructiv e narcissism . Sethe regard s Hall e a s th e ultimat e betrayer : h e witnesse d he r rape , she learns, bu t di d no t protes t o r tr y t o protec t her . Hi s absen t presenc e is wors e tha n mer e absenc e fo r i t confirm s a n essentia l hollownes s an d undependability o f th e other an d o f love . Ye t Hall e i s not simpl y a "ba d guy"; Morriso n extend s he r compassio n equall y t o he r mal e characters . The reade r i s allowed t o se e Halle to o a s a deeply wounde d child . Trau matized b y th e rap e o f Seth e an d th e materna l violatio n tha t i t als o rep resents, Hall e literall y lose s hi s mind—hi s selfhoo d shatters . Pau l D observes hi m late r squattin g b y a churn, wit h butte r al l over hi s face. H e smeared tha t butter al l over his face, Seth e thinks, "becaus e the milk the y took i s o n hi s mind " (70) . Th e imag e o f Hall e her e recall s Belove d an d the image a t the psychological bas e of th e book: i t is the picture o f a lost, greedy chil d whos e ravenou s hunger/lov e i s ou t o f control . Ultimately Denve r i s abl e t o escap e th e narcissisti c vacuum , an d sh e is helpe d no t b y Halle , a s sh e ha d fantasized , bu t b y anothe r materna l figure i n the novel, Mrs . Jones. Denve r is first propelled ou t of the hous e by litera l hunger , fo r Sethe , locke d i n he r obsessio n wit h Beloved , ha s become obliviou s t o foo d an d t o al l externa l o r physica l considerations . Denver realizes that "i t was she who had to step off th e edge of the worl d and di e becaus e i f sh e didn't , the y al l would" (239) . Exclude d fro m th e Beloved-Sethe dyad , Denve r i s forced int o th e rol e o f th e outsid e other , and assuming that role is her salvation. Sh e goes first to her former teache r Lady Jones , a n ol d woma n o f mixe d rac e wh o ha s lon g struggle d wit h the contemp t o f th e blac k communit y and , equally , wit h he r ow n self -

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contempt. Lad y Jone s thu s ha s a specia l "affectio n fo r th e unpicke d children" (247) , a n empath y wit h those , lik e Denver , wh o hav e neve r been recognized or "picked," who have never had their existence validated or confirmed . Afte r Denve r ask s he r fo r food , Mrs . Jone s compassion ately croons , " 'Oh , baby, " an d tha t empathi c recognitio n o f the hungr y baby withi n finall y free s Denve r fro m th e tra p o f he r infantil e needs : "Denver looke d u p a t her. Sh e did no t kno w i t then, bu t i t was the wor d 'baby,' sai d softly an d wit h suc h kindness , tha t inaugurate d he r lif e i n the worl d a s a woman" (248) . With thi s recognition , Denve r fo r th e firs t tim e begin s t o experienc e the contours o f he r ow n separat e self. When Nelso n Lord , a n old schoo l acquaintance, affectionatel y says , " 'Tak e car e o f yourself , Denver, ' " Denver "hear d i t a s thoug h i t wer e wha t languag e wa s mad e for, " an d she realizes tha t "i t wa s a new thought , havin g a self t o loo k ou t fo r an d preserve" (252) . Self-recognitio n i s inextricabl y tie d u p wit h self-love , and thi s is precisely th e message of the sermons tha t Baby Suggs preaches to he r peopl e i n th e Clearing . I n a white societ y tha t doe s no t recogniz e or love you, sh e tells them, you must fight t o recognize and love yourself: "Here," sh e said , "i n thi s her e place, w e flesh ; fles h tha t weeps , laughs ; fles h that dances on bare feet in grass. Love it. Lov e it hard. Yonder they do not love your flesh . The y despis e it. They don't lov e your eyes; they'd jus t as soon pick em out. . .. Lov e your hands! Love them. Rais e them u p and kis s them. Touc h others with them, pat them together, strok e them on your face 'cause they don't love that either. You got to love it, you\" (88 ) Baby Suggs continues to enjoin he r people to love every appendage, ever y organ i n thei r bodies , an d especiall y t o " 'lov e you r heart. ' " Thi s i s th e crucial lesson , bu t i t canno t b e learne d i n isolation ; self-lov e need s a relational foundation an d a social context. Thus even Baby Suggs is unable to sustai n he r conviction s an d hee d he r ow n teachings . Afte r Sethe' s murder, Bab y Sugg s retreat s an d cease s t o car e abou t hersel f o r others , showing interes t i n nothin g excep t "colors. " Morrison's novel , however , i s not hopelessl y blea k o r despairing . He r characters ar e wounded, bu t no t al l of the m ar e ruined. Denve r an d Pau l D, b y courageousl y facin g thei r inne r terrors—Denve r leave s th e hous e even thoug h sh e expect s t o b e "swallowe d up, " an d Pau l D return s t o Sethe an d he r fearful , murderou s love—ar e abl e t o salvag e ou t o f th e

Internal World and the Social Environment 14 1 wreckage a bolstering fait h i n bot h sel f an d other. Pau l D trie s t o pas s this fait h o n to Sethe at the end. He assumes agai n a maternal, nurturin g role. H e hold s Sethe , call s he r "baby, " an d gentl y tell s he r not to cry. Beloved i s gon e an d Seth e feel s beref t an d lost : " 'Sh e wa s m y bes t thing,' " (272 ) she tells Paul D. He "leans ove r and takes her hand. Wit h the other he touches he r face. 'Yo u your bes t thing , Sethe . You are.' His holding fingers ar e holdin g hers " (273). 2 Whil e th e wor d "thing " stil l suggests a sense o f sel f a s object (a n objectification o f sel f tha t perhap s no blac k perso n i n the slave culture coul d eve r totall y escape) , th e scene between Seth e and Paul D at the end comes closest to that state of mutual recognition an d attunemen t tha t Benjami n describes . Pau l D' s gentl y touching Sethe' s fac e recall s the touching face s o f the mating turtles ; the relationship here is not one of merging nor of domination, bu t of resonating "likeness" and empathic understanding. Pau l D recalls Sixo's description o f his mistress, th e "Thirty-Mile Woman" : " 'Sh e is a friend o f my mind. Sh e gather me , man. The pieces I am , sh e gather the m an d giv e them bac k t o me in all the right order . It' s good, yo u know, whe n you got a woma n wh o i s a frien d o f you r mind ' " (272-73) . Th e belove d other ha s the power t o giv e to the self it s own essential wholeness . The role o f th e othe r her e i s neithe r a s a n objec t t o posses s no r eve n a s a mirror fo r the self; a s a "friend o f (the ) mind," th e other i s a subject i n its ow n right , wit h a n inner lif e tha t correspond s wit h tha t o f th e self . In suc h correspondence , i n tha t mutualit y o f inne r experienc e an d suf fering, lie s th e self-confirming an d consoling powe r o f the relationship . Paul D tell s Seth e i n thi s final scen e tha t "h e wants t o put his stor y next t o hers " (273) . Throughou t th e novel , storie s an d storytellin g ar e associated with the self and with the primary ora l relationship at its root. 3 Beloved i s tireles s i n he r demand , i n "he r thirs t fo r hearing " Sethe' s stories: "I t becam e a wa y t o fee d her . . . Sethe learne d th e profoun d satisfaction Belove d go t fro m storytelling " (58) . Denver to o feed s Be loved's cravin g fo r storie s abou t Sethe , "nursin g Beloved' s interes t lik e a love r whos e pleasur e wa s to overfee d th e loved " (78) . Denver's sto rytelling, becaus e o f th e empathi c identificatio n i t involves , als o allow s her t o fee l a closer bon d an d oneness wit h he r mother. A s she narrate s the tal e o f Sethe' s escap e t o Beloved , "Denve r wa s seein g i t no w and feeling it—through Beloved . Feelin g how it must have felt to her mother" (78). Pau l D doe s no t wan t t o merg e o r incorporat e Sethe' s stor y int o his own at the end; rather, h e wants to "put his story nex t to hers." Thi s

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suggests agai n a n essentia l maintenanc e o f boundaries , a balance o f tw o like bu t separat e selves , a n attunement . The nove l doe s no t end , however , wit h th e scen e betwee n Seth e an d Paul D , bu t wit h on e las t lyrica l sectio n o n Beloved . Th e refrai n o f th e last tw o page s i s th e line , repeate d thre e times , "I t wa s no t a stor y t o pass on. " Th e final sectio n arouse s a dee p sens e o f patho s fo r tha t un recognized, ravenousl y need y infant-sel f tha t i s Beloved : Everybody knew what she was called, but nobody anywhere knew her name. Disremembered and unaccounted for, she cannot be lost because no one is looking for her , an d eve n i f the y were , ho w ca n the y cal l he r i f the y don' t kno w he r name? Although she has claim, she is not claimed. I n the place where long grass opens, th e gir l who waite d t o b e loved an d cr y sham e erupt s int o he r separat e parts, t o make it easy for th e chewing laughter to swallow her all away. It was not a story t o pass on. (274) The poignancy o f Beloved' s story/sel f i s that i t is not a story/self. Sh e has been denied the narrative of her being, the subjectivity an d continuit y of inne r experienc e tha t shoul d b e everyone' s birthright . Beloved' s des olation, he r sorrow , i s a more extrem e versio n o f th e sam e sorro w tha t all o f th e blac k character s i n th e nove l experience . Thu s Bab y Suggs , finally free d fro m slavery , expresse s no t th e elatio n o f freedom , bu t th e deep sadnes s o f no t knowin g he r self , o f no t bein g abl e t o rea d he r ow n story: "Th e sadnes s was at her center, th e desolated cente r where th e self made it s home . Sa d a s i t wa s tha t sh e di d no t kno w wher e he r childre n were burie d o r wha t the y looke d lik e i f alive , fac t wa s sh e kne w mor e about the m tha n sh e kne w abou t herself , havin g neve r ha d th e ma p t o discover wha t sh e wa s like " (140) . I n th e end , th e nove l i s mor e abou t Beloved tha n Sethe . Beloved' s characte r frame s th e book , an d i t i s he r story—or her desperate struggle to know and experience her own story — that is the pumping heart o f th e novel. Beloved' s struggle is Sethe's strug gle; it i s als o Denver's , Pau l D's , an d Bab y Suggs's . I t i s th e struggl e o f all black people in a racist society, Morrison suggests, to claim themselve s as subject s i n thei r ow n narrative . Beloved demonstrates , finally, th e interconnectio n o f socia l an d in trapsychic reality . Th e nove l play s ou t th e dee p psychi c reverberation s of livin g i n a culture i n whic h dominatio n an d objectificatio n o f th e sel f have bee n institutionalized . I f fro m th e earlies t year s on , one' s funda -

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mental nee d t o be recognized an d affirmed a s a human subjec t i s denied, that nee d ca n take o n fantasti c an d destructiv e proportion s i n th e inne r world: th e intense hunger , th e fantasized fea r o f eithe r bein g swallowe d or exploding , ca n tyrannize one' s lif e eve n whe n on e is free d fro m th e external bonds of oppression. The self cannot experience freedom withou t first experiencin g it s ow n agenc y or , i n Sethe' s words , "claimin g own ership" o f itself . Th e free , autonomou s self , Beloved teaches , i s a n inherently socia l self , roote d i n relationshi p an d dependent a t its cor e o n the vita l bon d o f mutua l recognition .

Chapter 8

Ann Beatti e an d th e Cultur e o f Narcissis m

Ann Beattie' s fiction ha s bee n haile d fo r it s trenchan t portraya l o f th e baby boo m generatio n strugglin g t o mak e sens e of lif e afte r Woodstock . Her worl d o f agin g postwa r childre n i s marke d b y bot h passivit y an d restlessness, b y a profoundly apatheti c a s well a s a n anxiousl y obsessiv e quality. He r representation o f contemporary lif e lends credence to Chris topher Lasch' s diagnosis of contemporar y America n societ y a s a "cultur e of narcissism. " I n hi s controversia l boo k o f tha t title , Lasc h argue s tha t individual characte r structur e reflect s th e structur e o f th e societ y o r cul ture a t large . Ever y societ y i n ever y age , h e believes , develop s it s ow n particular for m o f pathology : post-1960s Americ a manifest s pathologica l narcissism. Lasch point s t o certai n narcissisti c traits—suc h a s th e lac k o f dee p personal attachment s an d commitments , an d th e nee d fo r approva l an d power t o validate self-esteem—a s th e very trait s tha t mak e fo r succes s i n our bureaucrati c an d corporat e world . Th e genera l "warlik e condition s that pervade American society" (64), he maintains, foster narcissistic fear s of disintegration an d breakdown, a s well as feelings of futility an d despair. He cite s a genera l dependenc e o n socia l institution s an d bureaucrati c organizations a s reinforcing infantil e helplessnes s an d narcissisti c depen dence o n externa l validations o f th e self . Ou r mas s media's cul t o f celeb rity, furthermore , serve s only to intensify grandios e fantasies o f fame an d glory. 144

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Beattie's visio n confirm s Lasch' s view : he r worl d i s on e o f boredom , emptiness, an d paralyzin g passivity ; he r character s experienc e n o rea l connections wit h on e anothe r no r an y sens e o f continuit y i n thei r lives . They ar e fascinate d wit h celebrity , an d develo p idealize d fixations o n others tha t the y hopelessly , ineffectivel y pursue . A s An n Hulber t ha s remarked, "Wit h character s s o convincingl y lackin g i n spirit , i t has bee n natural t o assum e tha t he r rea l subjec t i s th e spiri t o f th e time : sh e ha s been ou r exper t a t takin g th e wea k puls e o f th e anticlimacti c Seventie s and the soulless Eighties" (33). Beattie's fiction ove r the past two decades, despite it s carefu l chroniclin g o f surfac e change s i n th e cultura l environ ment, ha s continue d t o manifes t th e sam e underlyin g narcissisti c condi tion. Thoug h he r work o f th e seventie s depict s posthippie s i n communa l houses an d he r lat e eightie s an d earl y ninetie s fiction feature s successfu l professionals wit h summe r homes , th e pervasiv e sens e o f isolatio n an d impending disintegratio n endures . He r fiction ca n offe r a glimps e int o the psychodynami c source s o f th e narcissisti c anxiet y tha t continue s t o plague ou r time . Although th e tw o leadin g theorist s o n pathologica l narcissism , Hein z Kohut an d Ott o Kernberg , diffe r i n thei r idea s abou t th e origi n an d development o f th e condition, bot h connec t i t with th e failure t o achiev e a securel y structure d o r integrate d self . Du e t o traumati c separatio n o r empathic failur e i n th e earlies t self-othe r relationship , th e infan t sel f i s unable t o integrat e it s rag e o r t o fee l loved , "good, " an d whole . Th e absence o f a coheren t self-structur e ca n giv e ris e t o a generalize d sens e of incoherenc e i n life , t o fear s o f disintegration , an d t o feeling s o f emp tiness an d boredom . Accordin g t o Kernberg , th e narcissis t experience s the pas t a s lost , an d du e t o th e failur e t o accumulat e a n interna l life , h e or sh e lives in a n "eterna l present " {Internal World 138) . Lasc h connect s this t o th e "wanin g o f a sens e o f historica l time " (3 ) tha t h e finds s o characteristic o f ou r culture . Beattie's 198 0 nove l Falling in Place typifies th e genera l sens e o f dis continuity, emptiness , an d boredo m pervadin g he r world . Th e nove l focuses o n th e unhapp y member s o f a suburban Connecticu t famil y an d the people aroun d them . Althoug h w e ar e presented wit h family , lovers , and friends , n o on e i s full y connectin g wit h anyon e else . I f th e Knap p family i s a unit, i t is bound onl y b y th e accident s o f birt h an d a mutually felt ange r and frustration. Th e characters no t onl y fai l to understand eac h other; the y canno t understand , muc h les s control, thei r ow n rea l feeling s

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or th e pattern s tha t thei r live s hav e taken . Joh n Knap p trie s t o expres s his exasperation to his children: " 'Don' t you think I might already realize that m y existenc e i s a little silly ? D o yo u thin k I ha d vision s o f workin g at a n a d agenc y dancin g i n m y hea d lik e sugarplums ? Everybod y I wor k w i t h . . . i s stoned o n Valium al l day' " (82) . Knapp's bored , aloo f daugh ter, Mary, responds, " ' I haven't finished th e book, bu t that's what Vanity Fair i s like . Thing s jus t fal l int o place ' " (83) . Knap p think s thi s a re markable insight an d wonders ho w his daughter coul d b e failing English . He als o realizes , though , tha t i f sh e trul y though t thi s fro m readin g th e book o r "fro m wha t sh e kne w o f life, " the n wh y shoul d sh e mak e th e effort t o succeed ? "O f course , i f tha t wa s wha t sh e thought , the n ther e wasn't muc h poin t i n he r tryin g t o organiz e he r lif e o r i n an y o f th e things he had believed abou t gettin g ahead, th e necessity of getting ahead , when h e was her age" (85-86). Many of Beattie's characters canno t imag ine a future tha t the y hav e a role i n shaping ; the y canno t thin k throug h the consequence s o f thei r action s or , a s a result , fee l an y meanin g o r purpose i n thei r presen t lives . In Beattie' s first novel , Chilly Scenes of Winter (1976) , th e sens e o f futility an d empt y boredo m i s bes t exemplifie d b y th e dail y encounte r between th e centra l character , Charles , an d a blin d ma n wh o run s a concession stand . Charle s routinel y pick s u p a candy ba r an d th e blin d man routinely asks , "What hav e you got? " At on e point Charle s reflects , " 'Wha t hav e yo u got? ' Th e blin d ma n ther e ever y da y t o remin d hi m that, a t th e clos e o f th e day , h e ha s nothing . I t add s insul t t o injur y t o have t o answer , ' A peanu t butte r cup ' " (142) . Th e las t lin e i s typical o f Charles's, an d Beattie's , ironic , self-deprecatin g humor . Ye t th e humo r has a bitte r edge , an d iron y alway s implie s a distanc e fro m it s subject . Charles's detache d self-reflectio n i s characteristi c o f th e genera l sens e o f detachment th e novel conveys, a detachment th e characters fee l fro m on e another a s well a s from themselves . Lif e fo r Charle s i s as predictable an d meaningless a s his daily routine with th e blind man. "Predictable . Every thing i s predictable " (31) , h e thinks , an d th e though t become s a moti f that run s throughou t th e text . Hi s stepfather , Pete , accuse s him o f neve r having don e anythin g excitin g i n hi s lif e an d Charle s replies , " 'There' s not muc h excitin g t o do ' " (88) . Life , excludin g hi s obsessio n wit h hi s unattainable forme r girlfriend , Laura , hold s n o meanin g o r promise ; th e world, lik e th e blin d man , i s a blank presenc e tha t canno t recogniz e o r

Ann Beattie and the Culture of Narcissism \A1 affirm hi s existenc e an d tha t ca n offe r nothin g mor e tha n a peanut butte r cup. In Love Always (1985) , on e characte r quit s th e jo b tha t ha d define d his lif e fo r severa l year s an d videotape s himsel f cleanin g ou t hi s office : "Everything migh t have been anyone's. Lookin g a t the videotape, h e was convinced, lon g befor e i t wa s over , tha t h e ha d neve r bee n ther e a t all , in spit e o f al l th e thing s h e sa w himsel f luggin g away " (246) . Anothe r character feels "sorr y for al l the people who didn't realize that their worl d could chang e i n a second " (213) . Lac k o f continuit y distinguishe s bot h the physica l an d emotiona l live s o f Beattie' s characters . Th e titl e Love Always refer s t o th e closin g o f a n ambiguou s lov e letter on e o f th e char acters receives . Th e letter' s recipient , Lucy , ponder s whethe r th e word s are flippan t o r sincere , finally feelin g "unsur e o f wha t wa s o r eve r ha d been true " abou t thei r relationship , abou t he r lover' s feelings , o r abou t her own . The on e connectio n tha t Beattie' s character s d o see m t o fee l i s t o th e celebrities o f th e popular culture . I n Falling in Place a character proudl y relates, " I hav e a friend wh o know s Lind a Ronstadt , an d m y aun t wen t to school with Joan Kennedy . A girl who lived in my buildin g once wen t to a beach part y an d jumpe d o n a trampoline wit h Davi d Nelson " (35) . In Chilly Scenes of Winter, reference s t o roc k musician s for m anothe r o f the novel' s runnin g motifs . On e woma n tell s Charle s o f a friend whos e daughter "though t Dyla n wa s comin g fo r her . Sh e had substantia l proo f from th e last two records" (135). The rock celebrities are idealized, glam orous figures wit h who m th e character s year n t o identify . Attachin g oneself i n fantas y t o thos e who radiat e power, glamor , an d charism a ca n be a method o f compensatin g fo r one' s ow n missin g self-esteem . Ideal ization i s indeed on e of th e prime narcissistic defenses, protectin g agains t fragmentation an d against the sense of inner "badness" and worthlessness. The roc k figures i n Chilly Scenes of Winter, however , ar e als o associate d in Charles' s min d wit h agin g and death , an d wit h th e loss of a n idealize d past. "Elvi s Presle y i s forty " (13) , h e remind s himsel f afte r hearin g on e of hi s songs . "Jani s Jopli n i s dead, " i s anothe r o f th e novel' s refrains . "Janis Joplin i s dead . Ji m Morrison' s widow i s dead " (20) . Beattie's character s ofte n loo k bac k t o th e sixtie s a s an ideal time no w past. I n Chilly Scenes, one character exclaims , "Everybody' s s o pathetic. . . . What i s it ? I s i t jus t th e en d o f th e sixties? " (215) . Thes e sixtie s

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characters woul d lik e t o believ e tha t tha t i s th e simpl e reason , bu t thei r idealization o f th e pas t decad e i s par t o f a large r narcissisti c patter n o f idealization an d disillusionment . Charle s i s fascinated wit h th e rock star s and yearns fo r th e idealize d sixtie s for th e same reason tha t he yearns fo r his inaccessibl e ex-girlfriend , Laura—the y ar e al l associate d wit h a lost , idealized self. Laura, firs t o f all, exists more in Charles's imagination tha n elsewhere (sh e actuall y appear s i n th e nove l onl y twice , briefl y towar d the beginnin g an d agai n a t th e end) , an d h e eve n admit s "tha t h e wasn' t that wil d fo r he r whe n h e ha d her " (73) . Bot h Laur a an d th e celebrit y figures are , i n Kohut' s terms , idealize d sel f objects tha t Charle s experi ences primaril y a s projections o r extension s o f himself . Th e idealizatio n of Laur a als o reveal s root s i n a deeply ambivalen t materna l attachment . Charles relate s t o mos t o f th e wome n i n th e novel , i n fact , a s a chil d to a mother . H e fantasizes , fo r instance , abou t hi s siste r Susan : "H e would lik e t o b e smaller , an d he r chil d instea d o f he r brother , an d the n he woul d cur l u p an d shu t hi s eyes , an d everyon e woul d thin k h e wa s being good , instea d o f bein g bad " (32-33) . H e want s he r t o tel l hi m "what t o do " (69) . H e relate s t o Laur a i n th e sam e way . H e feel s h e needs he r becaus e sh e know s ho w t o tak e car e o f hi m an d ca n explai n things fo r him . H e i s entrance d whe n h e learn s tha t sh e bake s cookie s and brea d i n he r rol e a s "roo m mother " fo r th e elementar y schoo l clas s of he r stepdaughter , Rebecca . H e is , i n fact , jealou s o f Rebecca : "Sh e [Laura] i s a devote d stepmother . Sh e i s devote d t o everybod y bu t him . He envies Rebecca" (45). Charles's real mother is portrayed as a ridiculous crazy woman wh o dance s naked with broomsticks an d tries to kill herself with laxatives . Sinc e th e deat h o f Charles' s father , sh e ha s bee n i n an d out o f menta l institutions. Charle s think s tha t sh e purposely wen t crazy , that i t make s thing s easie r fo r he r tha t way . Th e narrativ e presentatio n of he r share s Charles' s vie w an d i s utterl y devoi d o f sympathy . Like Charles , mos t o f Beattie' s character s ar e essentially terrifie d chil dren desperatel y seekin g a n idealize d materna l love . Joh n Knapp , fo r instance, i s obsesse d wit h hi s mistres s Nina , an d hi s obsessio n betray s roots i n a n infantil e fea r o f materna l abandonment : He would ge t obsessed with calling her. A t night, i n New York, h e would tea r himself awa y from her , an d then he would stop to call three times before he got back to Rye and then call again from the dark hallway, whispering like a criminal who ha d broke n int o th e house . H e woul d tal k t o he r abou t love , standin g in

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the dark of his mother's house, feeling lik e a child who couldn't possibl y kno w what he was saying. (258) Sometimes h e woul d hav e nothin g t o sa y an d remai n silent , the n pani c at th e though t o f he r hangin g up . No t onl y doe s hi s "standin g i n th e dark o f hi s mother's house , feelin g lik e a child" connec t hi s anxiou s lov e for hi s mistres s wit h a child' s frustrate d attempt s t o mak e contac t wit h its mother, bu t his feeling "lik e a criminal" also underscores th e preoedi pal content . Jus t a s Charle s expresse s th e desir e t o cur l u p lik e a bab y on hi s sister' s la p s o people woul d thin k h e wa s "bein g good , instea d o f being bad, " man y o f Beattie' s character s feel , a t bottom , criminall y "bad," unworth y an d unlovable . Th e sens e o f badnes s stem s fro m rag e over narcissisti c injury ; th e character s fee l "bad " becaus e the y harbo r a good dea l o f unconsciou s ange r an d hostility . Throughout Chilly Scenes Charles reveal s suc h unconsciou s rage . H e is afraid, fo r instance , o f fallin g aslee p i n public . "H e think s tha t h e wil l scream. H e doesn' t eve n clos e his eyes on buse s an y more . I n fac t h e ha s started drivin g t o work instea d o f takin g th e bus s o he won't b e tempte d to fal l asleep " (30) . O r again , whil e waitin g i n hi s ca r fo r Laura , "H e opens hi s eyes , convince d tha t h e wil l fal l aslee p an d scream , tha t sh e will wal k u p t o hi s ca r an d h e wil l b e screamin g inside " (44) . Charle s i s obviously terrifie d o f losin g control, o f relaxin g his defenses an d regress ing t o a state o f boundles s rage . Tha t rag e an d th e guil t associate d wit h it ar e als o a t th e roo t o f Charles' s variou s othe r terrors . H e i s paranoid , for instance , o f policemen . H e take s hi s hand s ou t o f hi s pocket s whe n a policeman passes—"h e think s tha t th e policema n migh t thin k tha t he' s hiding something " (63) . H e recall s bein g stoppe d fo r a routine speedin g ticket an d afterwar d experiencin g a wild, uncontrollabl e shakin g fit. H e had finally managed to pull himself togethe r and driven to a friend's hous e where h e ha d immediately , an d unaccountably , gon e int o th e bathroo m and take n a shower . Th e "badness, " th e rag e an d guil t tha t Charle s i s hiding and fears ma y be discovered, make s him feel criminal and unclean . It i s als o th e sourc e o f hi s hypochondria , nightmares , an d fantasie s o f impending doom . Charles repeatedl y expresse s anxietie s abou t deat h an d diseas e tha t expose frightenin g fantasie s o f narcissisti c disintegration . H e remember s being i n th e hospita l onc e an d overhearin g th e docto r infor m hi s room mate tha t h e (th e roommate ) ha d inoperabl e melanoma . Th e phras e "in -

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operable melanoma " become s anothe r o f th e novel' s repeate d strains , a reminder o f th e self' s helples s subjectio n t o arbitrary , destructiv e forces . Feeling tired, Charle s think s tha t h e "should hav e a checkup. H e doesn' t want to . The y wil l fin d ou t h e ha s a n inoperabl e melanoma " (77). A s a child, Charle s ha d rea d a n articl e abou t lepros y an d ha d "though t tha t his limbs wer e goin g t o fal l off , g o clunk o n th e sidewalk . . . . For a long time h e wen t aroun d expectin g t o hea r a clunk" (237) . A simila r not e ofte n sound s followin g fantasie s abou t Laura . H e dreams, fo r instance , abou t goin g t o Bermud a wit h Laura , runnin g o n the beac h an d drinkin g rum . The n h e thinks , "H e woul d b e eate n b y a shark; Laura would ge t an inoperable melanoma.... H e and Laura would probably b e blow n u p i n th e plan e flyin g the m there " (225) . Charle s projects hi s own destructiv e rag e onto th e world a t large. Lik e his fragil e self, th e world i s unstable an d untrustworthy . Thi s i s the essentia l visio n informing al l o f Beattie' s work . I n th e stor y "Yo u Kno w What " fro m her 199 1 collection What Was Mine, a father learn s that his child's teache r has bee n hi t b y a truck : "Sh e wa s struc k fro m behind . . . . She wa s ou t getting groceries . I t seem s clea r tha t tha t i s s o ofte n th e way . Tha t i n some very inconspicuou s moment , a person ca n be overwhelmed" (153) . In Falling in Place, one of the characters, Spangle , is disturbed b y dream s about fireballs , fiery nightmare s o f annihilation . H e explain s t o hi s girl friend Cynthi a tha t h e love s he r becaus e o f "th e impressio n sh e gav e o f being a t peace—no nightmare s abou t fireballs" (313) . Beattie' s me n ma y turn t o thei r idealize d wome n fo r materna l protection , bu t th e wome n are reveale d t o b e n o mor e grownu p o r secur e tha n they . Cynthi a love s Spangle, sh e determines , becaus e h e would "hol d he r han d fo r a minut e before sh e went i n an d face d a root canal . Wha t sh e had don e fo r hi m i n return, wa s to sa y that ther e was no fireball whe n ther e was" (341). Eve n Laura i n Chilly Scenes "liked t o b e rocked ; sh e like d t o preten d t o b e a child again" (220). The women, moreover, prove to be dangerously boun d up wit h th e underlyin g terror s an d hostility . In Chilly Scenes Charles frequently fantasize s th e deaths of the wome n around him . H e remember s a n old girlfrien d wh o fell asleep on his shoulder while they were sitting together on a park bench: "He couldn't believ e that she' d falle n asleep . Policeme n kep t walkin g by , an d h e was terrifie d that sh e wa s dead , an d tha t eventuall y h e woul d hav e t o cal l ou t t o on e of th e passin g policeme n tha t th e woman nex t t o hi m wa s dead " (62) . A friend o f hi s sister' s disappear s an d Charle s thinks , "Sh e wil l b e dea d

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somewhere. Twiste d an d dead . An d th e polic e wil l find hi s fingerprints on he r coat . . . and the y wil l com e t o wor k an d arres t him " (119) . Suc h irrational fear s sugges t a n unconscious wis h an d a profound ambivalenc e toward women . Laur a accuse s hi m a t on e poin t o f no t trustin g her , an d Charles admits that it's probably tru e (46); he often question s the veracity of things she's told him. His mistrust perhaps also accounts for his inexplicable rejection o f forme r girlfriends . H e wonders , "Wh y ha d h e left an y of them ? Surprisingly , h e left a s many o f the m a s had lef t him " (60) . H e also reveal s a discomfor t wit h femal e bodies . H e remember s bein g i n dancing schoo l wit h girl s wh o ha d "bi g breast s h e wa s afrai d t o touch " (113). Hi s mothe r als o mad e hi m danc e wit h he r an d h e recalls , "Sh e towered ove r him—n o chanc e o f runnin g int o he r breasts , than k God " (113-14). The dee p ambivalence , th e mistrus t o f wome n an d femal e sexualit y that run s throughou t Beattie' s fiction, emphasize s th e poin t tha t suc h unconscious dynamics are not exclusive to the male psyche in our culture. The ambivalenc e towar d wome n an d sexua l relationship s i s mos t strik ingly reveale d i n on e o f Charles' s nightmares : Thinking of Bermuda, h e falls aslee p and has a dream of a jolly fat man , water skiing. H e mus t b e the fat man , becaus e the fat ma n is wearing his clothes.. . . He i s water-skiing dow n a narrow, wav y line—no t th e rea l ocea n a t all , bu t a line that has been drawn. There are boundaries to Bermuda—to the left and right there ar e concrete walls , an d i f th e fat ma n isn't carefu l h e will smash int o on e of them. There is nothing on the other side of the walls. The fat ma n is so jolly that h e pays n o attention , come s withi n a fraction o f a n inc h o f crashin g int o walls. (229) Charles wake s u p i n a sweat , the n fall s bac k asleep . Thi s tim e h e an d Laura ar e swimmin g i n th e ocean . The y ar e turnin g somersaults , bu t "Laura doesn' t com e .out o f he r somersault , bu t keep s sinking , ben t i n half, sinkin g deepe r tha n h e ca n go . H e trie s t o mak e hi s bod y heavier , to sin k wit h her , bu t h e i s light , buoyant , h e can' t follow. " H e wake s again, falls back asleep, and "this time the jolly fat man is following Laur a down, laughing , cackling . Ther e ar e bubble s a s th e fa t ma n sinks . H e can n o longe r se e Laura , onl y th e fa t man' s head , grow n immense , an d the gus h o f bubbles. " Onc e agai n h e wake s an d fall s bac k asleep . No w he "i s tryin g t o catc h th e fa t man' s arm , t o hol d hi m back , bu t h e i s sinking fast , an d Charle s i s buoyin g upward , frightened , realizin g tha t

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he has no air tank, tha t h e will drown . H e has to get to the top fast. . . . What doe s th e fat man want wit h Laura ? Wh y isn't h e floating?" (230) . The imager y o f th e drea m sequence , firs t o f all , arise s ou t o f hi s Bermuda fantas y wit h Laura . Lov e an d desire , i n othe r words , lea d t o disastrous chaos , t o drowning an d annihilation. Th e consecutive dream s again betra y Charles' s characteristi c fear s o f losing control an d imminent destruction. The y ar e symbolic expression s o f his deepest terror s an d so threatening the y canno t b e sustained : h e keeps wakin g an d falling bac k asleep. Th e self-representations, furthermore , ar e split: h e is the manic, jolly fa t man and he is also Charle s attemptin g t o sav e the fat man fro m sinking a t th e en d wit h Laura . Th e imag e o f th e fat ma n suggest s tha t Charles feel s hi s love fo r Laur a i s greedy, an d it is this greed y lov e tha t wants t o incorporat e it s objec t tha t i s so potentially dangerou s an d destructive. I n one sequence h e tries t o sin k an d drown wit h Laur a bu t is unable t o follow her ; as in reality, sh e is inaccessible an d the merging o r union h e desires , impossible . I n th e las t sequence , however , a s the fat man, h e experience s th e terror o f self-annihilatio n tha t hi s desire reall y signifies. Th e regressiv e natur e o f hi s greed y lov e implie s a passive re fusion, a submerging o r los s o f the self. Th e novel contain s a few othe r instances i n whic h Charle s expose s th e sam e desir e fo r suc h regressiv e merging o r extinctio n o f self . H e dream s o f fallin g aslee p i n th e snow , sinking i n the "deep white " (213) . Anothe r tim e h e expresses a wish t o drown (213) . The desir e fo r merging , an d th e ambivalenc e associate d wit h it , ar e apparent throughou t muc h of Beattie's work. I n Falling in Place, Spangl e is afrai d t o commi t himsel f t o a relationship wit h Cynthi a becaus e "th e realization tha t h e di d no t hav e a private , separat e existenc e fro m he r began t o bothe r him " (269). A s in Charles' s drea m abou t th e fat man, the mergin g an d ambivalenc e ofte n revea l oral/materna l associations . Charles's frightenin g fantasy , mentione d earlier , o f fallin g aslee p an d screaming whil e waitin g i n th e ca r fo r Laura , immediatel y follow s a memory o f her standing befor e him , having playfully pu t two grapefrui t under he r sweater . Charles indeed admits to himself that "he thinks about food to o much" (57), an d his thoughts abou t Laur a frequentl y involv e hi s craving fo r a particular desser t sh e used t o make for him—a souffl e mad e with cogna c and oranges. Although he has the recipe, he won't make it himself becaus e "he want s t o thin k o f i t as magic" (24) . When Laur a finall y allow s him

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to mee t wit h he r a t th e en d o f th e novel , h e exclaims , " J e s u s . . . . F m going to get that dessert." When sh e tells him that she doesn't understan d why he loves her, h e replies again, "Th e orange souffle" (317) . Doubtles s this i s no t mean t t o b e take n literally ; nevertheless , th e associatio n o f food wit h Laura , an d wit h mother s i n general , i s psychologically signif icant. Anothe r materna l figur e i n the novel—Rebecca's natura l mother — is, lik e Charles's mother , i n a sanitarium. Sh e makes her ex-husban d an d Laura brin g he r package s o f jun k food , whic h sh e eat s i n enormou s amounts an d i n gros s combinations : "Sh e woul d ea t olive s wit h Tootsi e Rolls, an d the n drin k grap e soda . Th e food s Laur a name d mad e a grea t impression o n Charles ; h e ha s troubl e forgettin g them " (36) . In Falling in Place, on e o f th e children , Joh n Joel , i s grossl y over weight, an d i t become s clea r tha t hi s obesit y i s connecte d t o a n unap peasable hunger an d rage. His fat bot h shield s him from a world i n which he feels exclude d an d also expresses an angry hostility towar d tha t world . John Joe l i s pleased , fo r example , tha t hi s obesit y upset s hi s father . I n the novel' s climacti c scene , h e shoot s hi s siste r wit h a pisto l h e didn' t think wa s loade d o r aimed . H e i s genuinel y baffle d whe n sh e falls . Th e rage tha t surface s i n Beattie' s wor k i s indeed neve r understoo d no r eve n directly experienced by the characters. As in a dream, it is given a symbolic form, an d alway s i t i s relate d t o a large r sens e o f abandonmen t an d isolation. In the short story "Distant Music" (Secrets and Surprises), for instance , a young woman's boyfriend run s off to California t o become a pop singer . The woman' s dog , whic h th e coupl e ha d formerl y shared , suddenl y be comes inexplicabl y mea n an d ferocious . Th e woman hersel f expresse s n o anger o r hostilit y a t her loss , bu t th e connectio n betwee n rag e and aban donment i s there. I n "Th e Lifeguard, " i n the sam e collection, th e angry , destructive act , a s i n Falling in Place, i s execute d b y a child. A twelve year-old bo y take s tw o othe r childre n ou t i n a boat and , agai n inexpli cably, set s fir e t o it . Th e fac t tha t th e aggressiv e act s i n Beattie' s wor k are ofte n performe d b y childre n i s appropriate , fo r th e narcissisti c rag e infusing he r world belongs to the powerful, primitiv e emotions of infanc y and earl y childhood . Spangle' s nightmar e o f th e firebal l expresse s th e same rage , ye t h e to o doe s no t consciousl y experienc e anger—Spangl e only feels , a s d o th e othe r characters , afraid . The insecurit y an d untrustworthines s o f th e worl d th e Beatti e char acters inhabit have grounds in the objective conditions , th e economic an d

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social instabilit y o f th e times . I n Falling in Place i t i s 197 9 an d i n th e novel, a s in fact , Skyla b i s falling an d terrifyin g everyone . Love Always makes frequen t reference s t o th e McDonald' s massacre . A s Lasc h ha s argued, the external social conditions serve to reinforce a n internal psychic condition. Beattie' s worl d i s bot h a reflectio n o f rea l instabilit y an d vi olence in the culture and a projection o f inner psychic anxieties—anxietie s rooted i n th e subjectiv e experienc e o f emptines s an d isolation , an d i n th e threatening rage , terror , an d aggressio n a t it s core . Detachment, then , bot h fro m other s an d fro m one' s ow n affectiv e o r emotional life, provide s the main defense agains t these dangerous feeling s for Beattie' s characters ; i t als o characterize s Beattie' s ironicall y detache d narrative style . Falling in Place offer s a metaphorica l representatio n o f her characters ' live s i n th e Sega l exhibi t John Joe l visit s a t th e museum : "All thes e plaster people sittin g around o n subway s o r sprawle d i n bed. " He reads the artist's description o f one of the scenes: "Though th e figures are cas t fro m friends , b y addin g colo r t o them , I touche d o n terror , hallucination, nightmare " (120). Beneath the mundane settings, the bored poses, an d the featureless face s of these plaster people, th e artist expresse s the same rage and aggression , th e sam e violence, tha t Beattie' s character s secretly harbor . Joh n Joe l stare s a t on e sculptur e o f a woman breakin g through a tile wall, "he r lef t breas t showing , he r lef t le g an d pubi c hair , some monster o f the shower, wit h eye s that you couldn' t reall y look int o because the y wer e lookin g down , jus t indentations , o r becaus e o f th e way th e ligh t was . T o th e sid e o f th e woma n breakin g throug h th e tile s were fou r othe r women , o r fragment s o f women' s bodies " (121) . The angry violence toward women that this sculpture displays is related to th e fac t tha t i t ha s n o eyes , o r "eye s tha t yo u couldn' t reall y loo k into": th e rag e i n Beattie' s wor k stem s fro m a child's rag e a t bein g "un seen," unrecognize d o r unaffirme d b y it s mothe r o r th e environmen t (much a s Charles' s despai r i n Chilly Scenes i s elicite d b y hi s dail y en counter wit h a blind man) . Th e sculptur e provoke s Joh n Joe l t o angry , destructive thought s abou t hi s sister : "H e woul d lik e t o b e abl e t o pus h her fro m behin d s o tha t sh e woul d g o throug h a wal l lik e Superman , though hopefull y wit h mor e pain " (121) . Th e aggressiv e violence , i n th e sculptures a s well as in the characters' lives, is also linked t o a n inhuman , deathlike isolation . Late r i n th e novel , Joh n Joe l associate s th e exhibi t with hi s desir e t o escap e fro m a n afternoo n picni c wit h hi s mother .

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Imagining th e sculptures , h e thinks "tha t i t would b e wonderful t o b e s o white an d still " (149) . A more recent story, "Wind y Day at the Reservoir" {What Was Mine), reveals thes e sam e dynamic s stil l a t play . Th e stor y begin s b y focusin g on tw o marrie d couples , clos e friends , wh o ar e characteristicall y har boring secret s fro m eac h other . Fra n an d Cha p ar e hous e sittin g i n Pi a and Lou Brunetti's Vermont summer home. While occupying the Brunetti house, Fra n an d Cha p com e to realize how littl e they kno w thei r friends ; as usual in a Beattie story , th e facade o f huma n relationship s collapse s t o expose th e realit y o f distanc e an d isolatio n underneath . Fra n an d Cha p also come t o understan d th e distanc e tha t exist s within th e Brunetti mar riage, a s well a s the chasm yawnin g beneat h th e surfac e o f thei r own . B y the end of the story, bot h couples have separated. W e learn, furthermore , that th e tw o wive s idealiz e an d worshi p on e another , an d thei r identitie s are, t o som e extent , merged : Fra n trie s o n Pia' s stylis h clothes , fo r in stance, an d i s delighted a t how perfectl y the y fit. Pia , however , ha s kep t from Fra n th e fac t tha t sh e ha s recentl y ha d a breas t removed . Chap , who i s i n o n th e secret , believe s Pi a wa s "worrie d tha t wit h he r breas t gone, she'd . . . lose stature in [his] wife's eyes" and that it would "distanc e them" (196). Beneath the merged and idealized relationship is, once again, the threa t o f bodil y disintegratio n an d loss , exposin g th e familia r narcis sistic scenario . The story also includes two other significant characters—th e Brunetti' s neighbor, Mrs . Brikel , an d he r 26-year-ol d retarde d son , Royce . Th e mother-child relationshi p enacte d her e provide s th e underlyin g psycho logical contex t fo r th e story' s predominan t them e o f distanc e an d isola tion; i t reveal s agai n th e primar y relationa l dynami c a t th e hear t o f Beattie's vision . Th e descriptio n o f Royce' s earl y childhoo d feature s a mother-child dya d define d b y mutua l rage : Though h e had no memory o f it, hi s screaming when he was two years old had brought hi s mothe r t o tears , daily . Sh e had take n tranquilizer s an d considere d institutionalizing him. His father had stopped coming, because his mother would no longer spea k t o him . Sometimes , fo r a s much a s a week, h e and his mothe r would sta y insid e th e house . I n th e house , sh e coul d ru n awa y fro m hi m an d lock hersel f behin d a door... . When h e reache d fo r he r glasses , sh e stoppe d wearing them an d functione d i n a fog.. .. She would smas h delicat e things tha t fascinated hi m before h e had a chance. (229)

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The mother' s rag e mirror s th e child' s an d lead s t o he r isolatio n an d despair. Bot h mother and child embody an isolated, enfeeble d stat e fuele d by narcissisti c rage . Th e child' s rag e i s agai n connecte d t o a voraciou s and frightenin g appetite . Royc e i s portraye d a s greedy ; h e covet s hi s mother's pie s (Mrs . Brike l bake s a pie fo r Fra n an d Cha p bu t ca n onl y give the m hal f sinc e i t woul d "upset " Royce) . Hi s gree d i s als o tie d u p with hi s fea r o f choking : whe n eatin g fish "h e chewe d an d chewe d s o carefully t o mak e sur e ther e wer e n o bones " (226) , an d h e practice s th e Heimlich maneuve r o n imaginar y victims . Royce' s appetite , lik e Joh n Joel's fat , i s als o a for m o f aggression . H e enjoy s sittin g o n th e mos t sloping par t o f th e livin g roo m floor , a cop y o f The Cat in the Hat propping u p on e sid e o f hi s recliner chai r t o mak e "th e til t better" : "H e teased hi s mothe r b y leanin g wa y ove r th e sid e o f th e chai r an d wavin g his arms , sayin g 'Whooooooo ' sometimes , pretendin g h e was fallin g of f the sid e o f a ship . H e coul d alway s mak e he r as k wh y h e didn' t si t elsewhere" (227) . The Cat in the Hat, tha t stor y o f childhood' s secre t anarchy, reflect s Royce' s ow n riotou s appetit e i n relatio n t o hi s mother . Though i t threaten s t o g o ou t o f control , Royc e enjoy s teeterin g o n th e edge, tauntin g hi s mother wit h tha t ver y threat . B y th e en d o f th e story , however, th e tauntin g threa t become s a reality : h e lose s control , slip s over th e edge , an d drowns . While hi s mother i s out on e afternoon , Royc e put s o n hi s father's ol d top ha t i n a n attemp t t o imitat e a man h e saw in a movie, a n Englishma n who "reache d fo r som e princess' s hand " (228) . Th e to p hat , o f course , also recall s tha t o f th e Seus s character . H e walk s of f b y himsel f t o th e reservoir. A gir l late r report s tha t sh e think s sh e sa w his ha t blo w i n th e water. Royce' s descen t int o th e lak e i s describe d a s follows : Maybe the fish said glug-glug. Mayb e they talked the way fish did in fairy tales, and said something like: Come into the kingdom of the deep. Or maybe the hat itself started to talk, an d that was what made Royce edge into the water, lookin g back a s if taunting someone behind him as he advanced. (231 ) As i n Charles' s Bermud a drea m o f Laur a an d th e fa t man , lov e an d fulfillment—the fair y tal e kingdom i n which th e princess's han d i s finally grasped—is associate d wit h drownin g an d death . Th e hat , symboli c o f

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the love-hunger , th e unrul y appetit e wit h whic h h e taunt s hi s mother , ultimately call s hi m t o hi s death . With Royc e gone , Mrs . Brike l fixes the sloping floo r an d insulates th e house, whic h sh e couldn' t d o befor e becaus e Royc e "wa s neve r cold " and didn' t lik e th e heat . A t th e en d o f th e story , sh e sit s i n th e newl y upholstered recline r chai r an d admire s th e freshl y lai d floor : "Th e hig h polyurethane glos s made the floorboards gliste n like water. I t looked lik e a large, calm lake that she could imagine gliding swiftly over . Just lookin g at it, she could feel the buoyance of her heart" (237). At last fully insulate d from he r child's narcissistic rage, and her own, he r life has become a calm surface that she can glide "swiftly over. " The placid surface life is achieved at the expense of the angry child-self. This brings us back to the detache d lives o f th e story' s driftin g couples , indee d t o th e numbe d an d shallo w lives o f s o man y Beatti e characters . Finally, th e 198 9 novel Picturing Will was greeted b y several reviewer s as a breakthrough fo r Beattie , a s a work i n which sh e shed s som e o f he r ironic detachmen t an d display s a firmer sens e o f direction . I agre e tha t there i s a n effor t t o asser t somethin g beyon d th e usua l drif t an d despai r here, thoug h whethe r i t succeed s i s ope n t o question . Th e parent-chil d relationship i s the focal them e of thi s novel and even determines its structure: the book i s divided into three parts, title d "Mother, " "Father, " an d "Child." Th e child , Will , i s a produc t o f a n accidenta l birt h fro m a n equally accidental , arbitrar y marriage : hi s mother , Jody , me t hi s father , Wayne, when the heel of her shoe snapped as she passed him on a crowded street; sh e passively move d int o marriag e "withou t knowin g muc h abou t him" (5) . Soo n afte r Wil l i s born , th e restles s Wayn e disappears . Jody , a photographer, struggle s wit h motherhoo d whil e supportin g hersel f b y taking wedding pictures. The novel opens when Will is five years old an d Jody i s debatin g whethe r t o commi t hersel f t o Mel , th e manage r o f a New Yor k ar t gallery , wh o i s devotedl y attache d t o he r a s wel l a s t o Will. Mel talks the gallery owner, Haverfor d (Jod y refers t o him jokingl y as Haveabud) , int o showin g Jody' s photograph s an d becomin g he r manager. As Jody's caree r take s off , Me l assume s th e mor e maternal , nurturin g role i n relatio n t o Will . Intersperse d throughou t th e boo k ar e italicize d passages tha t recoun t th e worries an d trial s o f raisin g a child. A t th e en d of th e novel , w e lear n tha t th e passage s ar e entrie s fro m Mel' s journal .

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The lyrica l nature o f thes e section s represent s a stylistic change for Beattie , though th e conten t reveal s th e familia r anxieties . Al l o f th e passage s essentially dea l with a child's fragilit y i n relation t o a perilous an d unstabl e world. Th e followin g passag e abou t cartoon s i s typical : Cartoons aren' t satirica l exaggeration s bu t normativ e presentation s o f everyda y situations. Th e chil d als o wil l suddenl y cras h int o a wall , unabl e t o correctl y judge spee d versu s distance . In cartoons , peopl e dro p of f cliffs . The chil d wake s u p o n th e floor, tangle d i n covers , havin g toppled—wh o knows how?—fro m th e bed . In cartoons , beast s roa r an d devou r people . Turn a corner i n a city, an d a gan g o f pink-haire d punk s hurtle s i n fron t o f the child . In cartoons , building s suddenl y explode . Remember tha t th e chil d als o see s T V news . (91 ) The nove l indee d validate s Mel' s view o f a shockingly unreliabl e world . Haveabud accompanie s Me l an d Wil l o n a tri p t o Florid a t o visi t Will' s father. Haveabu d bring s alon g a youn g boy , Spencer , an d i n a mote l room on e evening , Wil l i s force d t o witnes s a luri d sexua l encounte r between th e t w o . A s H u l b e r t note s i n he r revie w o f th e novel , " I t seem s not jus t tha t adult s can' t protec t Will , bu t tha t the y ar e al l unwittingl y complicit i n hi s c o r r u p t i o n " (34) . I n th e brie f par t 3 " C h i l d " sectio n tha t concludes th e book , w e lear n tha t "year s ag o Wil l ha d starte d t o tel l J o d y about Haveabud , an d sh e a d shushe d him . N o t h i n g negativ e coul d b e said abou t he r mani c m e n t o r " (228) . Will , grow n u p wit h a chil d o f hi s o w n n o w , wonder s w h y h e ha d neve r tol d Me l abou t th e incident . Per haps, h e thinks , "Me l ha d bee n s o shak y whe n h e arrive d bac k i n Florid a that Will realize d h e should no t brin g up anythin g tha t migh t caus e furthe r t r o u b l e " (228) . Th e caretaker' s fragilit y matche s th e child's : neither Will' s mother no r th e materna l Me l coul d b e truste d t o suppor t him . Nevertheless, th e nove l seem s t o b e wantin g t o asser t som e for m o f trust. Mel' s final journa l entr y reads : Who wa s th e rea l child ? Wh o wa s naive ? Le t th e curren t rus h aroun d us , I thought, heady , a s I ofte n was , wit h m y certaint y tha t we' d stan d firm. Tha t we'd mak e it . Always . Ever y tim e w e tempte d fate . (221 )

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The nove l end s wit h Wil l urgin g hi s so n t o "thro w th e b a l l . . . . Com e on. Yo u hav e t o le t g o o f i t sometime . Com e on , baby , thro w m e th e ball" (230) . Th e paren t i s encouragin g th e child , i n othe r words , t o "le t go"—an encouragemen t tha t implie s trust . Usuall y i n Beattie' s fiction , relaxing one' s defense s an d "lettin g go " means , a s i t doe s fo r Royc e o r Charles, disaster . Th e imag e tha t immediatel y precede s Will' s soothin g encouragement, however , suggest s that the trust here too may be suspect. Will observes tha t hi s child, a s he holds hi s arm s stiffly an d jumps, look s "something th e wa y penguin s di d befor e the y becam e extinct " an d tha t word "extinct " insert s th e ominou s note . I t recall s th e obsessiv e interes t in dinosaur s an d th e fac t o f thei r extinctio n exhibite d b y th e sexuall y abused boy , Spencer . "How , i n short , coul d anythin g b e truste d whe n something a s calamitou s a s th e mas s extinctio n o f dinosaur s ha d tran spired?" Spence r wonder s (108) . As Hulber t notes , thi s nove l "aim s a t greate r certainty " (35) . No t al l of th e character s ar e driftin g o r directionless—the y hav e mad e commit ments an d forme d attachments . Th e reade r i s stil l lef t wondering , how ever, ho w dee p those commitments an d attachment s ar e and whether th e certainty o r trus t i s real—s o littl e i n th e nove l seem s t o confir m it . Ar e the characters , i n effect , simpl y holdin g hands , lik e Spangle' s girlfrien d in Falling in Place, sayin g tha t "ther e wa s n o firebal l whe n ther e was" ? Hulbert claim s tha t th e characters ' effort s "t o brea k ou t o f thei r barre n worlds" ultimatel y "com e t o see m act s more o f dut y tha n o f discovery " (35). I agree. The sa d fact abou t thi s novel is that th e certainty—the trus t in sel f an d other—tha t i t appears t o asser t finall y seem s more willed tha n genuinely found .

Chapter 9

Desire an d th e Use s o f Illusion : Alic e Hoffman's Seventh Heaven

Alice Hoffman' s nove l Seventh Heaven is , abov e all , abou t desire . B y desire I mea n no t onl y th e eroti c bu t als o a mor e genera l conditio n o f being an d feeling. Th e conditio n i s generate d b y absence ; loss o r lac k i s the see d o f desire . I a m associatin g desire , therefore , wit h a yearning o r striving fo r presence—presence a s an experientia l stat e that involve s bot h self an d other . Th e yearnin g fo r th e presenc e o f a n othe r als o contain s the wish t o recaptur e one' s ow n existentia l presence o r fullnes s o f being . Desire seek s to restore what ha s been lost, denied , o r spli t off fro m one' s being s o tha t on e ma y b e mor e full y present , mor e full y alive . Hoffman's nove l i s specifically abou t th e pain, a s well a s the potentia l joys, boun d u p wit h th e conditio n o f desire , an d th e difficult y o f awak ening t o it . Desir e i s painfu l becaus e i t involve s recognition , o r a t leas t an unconsciou s connection , wit h th e absenc e o r loss—an d th e accom panying fea r an d anger—a t it s source . Seventh Heaven depict s a whol e community—a fictitiou s subur b o f Lon g Islan d i n 1959—tha t ha s insu lated itsel f fro m desire . Int o thi s communit y move s a youn g divorce d mother—Nora Silk—wh o disrupt s it s surfac e orde r an d cal m bu t ulti mately revive s it s inne r life . Nor a become s th e agen t o f desire , an d th e fact tha t sh e i s a mother is , a s I will discuss , psychologicall y significant . Nora i s also associated with witchcraft an d voodoo. The house she moves 160

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into is said to be haunted, an d runnin g throughou t thi s novel, a s in man y of Hoffman' s othe r works , i s a magical, mystica l element . A chil d read s minds, a ghost appears , an d inne r wishe s hav e external , materia l effects . In th e middl e o f th e novel , whe n th e inhabitant s o f th e communit y find themselves "overcom e wit h desire , a desir e tha t mad e everythin g ache , fingers an d elbow s an d toes " (151) , tha t desir e i s accompanie d b y a n atmosphere o f fog , disorientation , an d th e presenc e o f ghosts : "Peopl e stared a t eac h othe r fro m thei r driveway s an d wondere d wha t the y wer e doing o n thi s street , an d th e ghost s whispere d i n thei r ears , eggin g the m on, an d thing s bega n t o happe n fo r n o reaso n a t all " (152) . Our earlies t experienc e o f desir e originate s i n a n irrationa l o r prera tional realm . Desir e als o generate s creativ e activity , particularl y th e cre ation of illusions. Thus the irrational and the illusory, a s Hoffman's wor k imaginatively conveys , ar e indeed entangle d wit h desire . He r nove l play fully tap s a deep level of psychodynamic functioning. Illusion s are created out o f desir e an d ca n provid e a route bac k t o it . I f desir e comprehend s the intens e an d painfu l trut h o f inne r experience , the n on e can , para doxically, acces s trut h vi a illusion. Seventh Heaven show s ho w illusion s can actuall y promot e honest , creative , an d health y living . The positiv e rol e o f illusio n i n psychic lif e i s also a central concer n o f D. W . Winnicott's theoretical writing. Winnicott uses the term "illusion " at variou s times , a s Thoma s Ogde n ha s noted , t o refe r t o tw o quit e different phenomena : "Th e first i s th e illusio n o f th e subjectiv e objec t (more accuratel y describe d a s th e illusio n o f th e invisibl e subjec t an d object), wher e th e mother' s empathi c responsivenes s protect s th e infan t from prematur e awarenes s o f th e sel f an d o f th e other" (210) . This i s th e illusion of oneness and omnipotence or, i n Winnicott's words, the illusion that mother' s "breas t i s par t o f th e infant . I t is , a s i t were , unde r th e baby's magica l control " (P R 11) . Th e mother' s tas k i s graduall y t o dis illusion th e infant , makin g possibl e th e second , mor e developmentall y advanced for m o f illusion—th e illusio n foun d i n playing , i n th e makin g of transitional objects or symbols. Transitional objects such as teddy bear s occupy a n intermediate , illusory , o r "potential " spac e betwee n interna l fantasy an d externa l reality . The y represen t a form o f illusion , a s Ogde n explains, i n whic h "th e experienc e o f onenes s wit h th e mothe r an d sep arateness fro m he r coexis t i n a dialectica l opposition " (210) . Thi s for m of illusio n i s create d ou t o f desire : it arise s ou t o f necessar y frustration , out o f imperfec t o r incomplet e materna l adaptatio n t o infantil e need .

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Thus desir e generate s creativ e illusio n o r symbo l making . A s Ogde n states, "Symbol s ar e required onl y whe n ther e i s desire" (211) . Lacan' s ideas about the relationship of desire to the creation of the symbolic realm are quit e simila r t o Winnicott's here . Th e crucial differenc e betwee n th e two theorists , however , i s that fo r Lacan, th e symbolic alienate s us fro m the intensit y o f inner experience , whil e for Winnicott, th e symbolic pro vides th e very rout e bac k t o tha t intensity . Creativ e illusion s kee p u s in touch wit h a passionate inne r reality . Th e potentia l spac e o f symboli c play, Winnicot t argues , "constitute s th e greate r par t o f th e infant' s ex perience, an d throughout lif e i s retained i n the intense experiencin g tha t belongs to the arts and to religion and to imaginative living, and to creative scientific work " (P R 14). Winnicott als o emphasizes the paradoxical real ity, or , in Ogden's terms , the "dialectical opposition, " o f the transitional realm of illusion. The inability to maintain this paradoxical state of illusion can i n fact hav e pathologica l results : "Wha t emerge s fro m thes e consid erations i s the further ide a that paradox accepte d ca n have positive value. The resolutio n o f parado x lead s t o a defence organizatio n whic h i n the adult on e can encounter a s true an d false sel f organization " (P R 14). The suburban communit y a s a whole in Seventh Heaven ca n be understood metaphoricall y a s a n expressio n o f Winnicott' s "false " self . Th e false sel f i s a compliant , socia l sel f tha t protects—o r i n pathology , en gulfs—an underlyin g "true " self . Th e true sel f refer s t o a basic "sensori motor aliveness " (Winnicott , Maturational Processes 149), to a sponta neous, authentic expression of core being. The false self can defend agains t the helples s dependency , th e needines s an d frustrations , o f earl y emo tional life. It is an ideal, "good" self that denies the painful, "bad " feeling s of separation , anger , an d hostility . Hoffman' s depictio n o f America n suburbia i n th e fifties reflect s thi s typ e o f defensiv e structure : buil t o n the principle s o f complianc e an d conformity, suburbi a project s a n idea l of th e good lif e tha t denie s th e existence o f separatenes s an d difference , of los s an d pain—indeed, o f an y passion a t all . The following descrip tion o f th e subdivisio n als o typifie s Hoffman' s playfu l "transitional " style: it is at once fantastic an d naturalistic, exaggerate d beyond ou r sense of ordinar y reality , ye t plainly an d factually asserted . Each house in the subdivision was the same, and for the longest time husbands pulled int o the wrong driveways after work ; children wandere d int o the wrong houses for cookies and milk; young mothers who took their babies out for walks

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in thei r ne w carnage s foun d themselve s wanderin g pas t identica l houses , o n identical streets , los t unti l twilight , whe n th e ice-crea m man' s truc k appeared , and they could follow th e sound o f his bell, which traced hi s reliable route past their doorsteps. (14) Hoffman make s th e falseness , th e flimsines s o f th e suburba n facad e quite obvious . Compliance , conformity , an d a neatly kep t law n cannot , of course, stave off th e reality of loss—of death—o r of "bad," dangerous , and violen t passions . Th e mai n stree t i n th e subdivisio n i s significantl y named Hemloc k Street , an d o n the other sid e of the parkway intersectin g the area protrudes Dea d Man' s Hill. Though th e children ar e told "Goo d night, slee p tight," the y ar e aware of monsters i n closets an d unde r trees . "They neve r tol d thei r parent s o r whispere d t o eac h other . Sometime s the monster s reappeare d o n pape r i n school , draw n wit h crayon s an d colored pencils ; the y ha d purpl e hai r an d larg e yello w eyes , an d yo u could tel l the y didn' t believ e i n goo d night s o r sleepin g tight " (23) . Th e novel i s als o frame d b y tw o incidenta l account s o f abusiv e families . I n an earl y chapte r entitle d "Slee p Tight, " th e detectiv e Jo e Henness y i s called t o a house wher e neighbor s ha d mad e anonymou s complaints . H e discovers a battere d wife—he r "leg s wer e purpl e wit h bruises"—an d a little gir l wh o kep t he r roo m perfectl y nea t an d "wa s doin g a goo d jo b of fakin g sleep " (47-48) . Th e wif e refuse s t o mak e a complaint , an d a few weeks later Hennessy discover s that th e family ha s silently lef t town . Toward th e en d o f th e novel , Henness y i s called t o a home wher e a boy has stabbed hi s father t o death . H e learn s tha t th e father ha d consistentl y beaten th e boy , bu t neithe r th e neighbors no r hi s fellow policeme n wan t to hea r th e story . Th e bo y i s dismisse d a s crazy , "off hi s rocker, " an d quickly carte d of f t o th e stat e menta l hospital . Though th e hollow, fraudulen t natur e o f fifties suburba n lif e i s hardl y an origina l them e i n contemporar y ar t an d literature , Hoffman' s per spective i s distinguishe d b y it s affectionat e attitude . He r portraya l o f suburbia's deceptiv e facad e i s suffuse d wit h compassio n fo r th e vulner abilities an d fear s tha t prompte d it s construction . He r perspectiv e doe s not projec t th e sam e sens e o f impendin g disintegration , th e sor t o f ex plosive violence, that lurks beneath the placid surface lives of, fo r instance, Ann Beattie' s agin g fifties children . No r doe s i t conve y th e menac e an d malignancy harbore d withi n a David Lync h visio n o f suburba n life . Th e type o f deat h o r los s tha t mos t haunt s Hoffman' s suburba n character s i s

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a deadnes s within , a loss o f inne r vitality , expresse d throug h image s of ice, entrapment , an d constriction. Th e novel is dedicated t o the memory of Houdini , th e escape artis t whose magica l feats o f release dominat e the imagination o f Nora Silk' s so n Billy. Th e deadliness o f Dead Man' s Hil l is specificall y associate d wit h tha t o f froze n entrapment : "Th e sunligh t reflecting of f th e ice would mak e yo u so dizzy you' d jus t li e there afte r your sle d overturned , an d then i n a panic you'd get up as quickly a s you could, terrified , convince d tha t i f yo u didn' t mov e soo n th e ice woul d freeze yo u int o place , an d that' s th e way they'd find you , sometim e i n the spring , dee p withi n th e thaw o f Dea d Man' s Hill " (91-92) . Only throug h a painful reawakenin g t o desire, th e novel suggests , can one escape this frozen, deathlik e state that constricts and isolates the self. In the middle of the novel, Joe Hennessy's wife , Ellen , feel s "somethin g she didn' t wan t an d didn' t understan d surfac e withi n her . I t wa s th e desire, an d it hit her hard, an d she was so furious abou t al l those year s when sh e had never wanted anythin g that she grew colder eac h day, until she wa s a perfect piec e o f ic e and Joe Hennessy couldn' t touc h her , he couldn't eve n b e in the same roo m wit h her " (154). Th e agent o f desir e in thi s suburba n community , a s stated before , i s Nora Silk . Thoug h sh e is represented a s possessing a vivacious, irrepressible spirit, she also comes significantly weighte d with associations of loss, death, an d abandonment. She is , first o f all, divorced , a word s o threatenin g t o th e wives o f the neighborhood tha t "n o one had to say it, but the word wa s there, i t had entered thei r vocabularie s an d now hung abov e them , a cloud ove r thei r coffee cups " (62) . She move s int o th e hous e o f Mr . Olivera , th e first person in the neighborhood t o have died and therefore "violate d the pact" (15), th e unspoken agreemen t t o keep u p appearances. Furthermore , w e learn tha t Nor a i s parentles s an d wa s raise d i n a n isolated , run-dow n house b y a misanthropic grandfathe r wh o practiced voodoo . Th e spiri t of desir e sh e embodies, i n other words , i s directly relate d t o her history of rupture d huma n connections , o f absenc e an d loss. Nora i s a threat t o the community becaus e o f these association s wit h violated trus t o r connection, an d because the desire she emanates ha s the power to expose these possibilities beneath the suburban facade—th e fals e self-defense—erected t o protect agains t them . Desir e rise s fro m th e tru e self, fro m th e passionate an d bodily claim s o f one' s uniqu e subjectivity . It is precisely Nora' s passion , sensuality , an d uniqueness a s she attempts to functio n a s a suburban mothe r tha t s o disrupt s th e community. Th e

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sensuality implie d i n her nam e is expressed i n he r fantasies—sh e look s a t Hennessy's hands , fo r instance , an d "wondere d wha t hi s touc h woul d feel lik e o n he r shoulders , o n he r thigh " (65)—an d enacte d i n he r affai r with a seventeen-year-ol d bo y i n th e neighborhood , Ac e McCarthy . Though sh e doe s tr y t o fit i n an d accommodat e hersel f t o th e suburba n conventions—"she woul d tr y t o remembe r t o fix Bosc o an d mil k ever y day a t three " (37)—sh e i s unable t o suppres s he r differenc e an d vitality . " 'Ge t a loa d o f that, ' " on e o f th e husband s remark s o n seein g he r a t the hardwar e store : "Instea d o f wearin g a skirt , a s thei r wive s woul d have, Nor a ha d o n blac k pant s an d blac k leathe r boots ; he r hai r wa s pulled bac k into a pony tail and sh e wore silve r earrings shaped lik e stars" (84). Although Ac e McCarth y comment s t o Bill y tha t hi s mo m "doesn' t look lik e someone's mother " (55) , the point i s that sh e is a mother. Mos t importantly, sh e is a loving, thoug h imperfec t an d flawed mother . Unlik e the other mother s o f th e neighborhood, Nor a ha s not forfeite d he r bein g in assuming the part o f the perfect, conventiona l mother ; he r subjectivit y has no t bee n sacrifice d t o th e materna l rol e prescribe d b y th e suburba n community. Nor a Sil k represent s a materna l subjec t o f desire , an d a s such, sh e has a liberating effec t o n the community . Th e issue of materna l subjectivity ha s becom e a major topi c i n recen t feminis t psychoanalyti c theory (see the introduction t o this volume). Jessica Benjamin (The Bonds of Love), i n particular , ha s discusse d th e importanc e o f recognizin g th e mother a s a subject o f desire . Health y developmen t involve s mothe r an d child's mutua l recognitio n o f th e othe r a s a n individua l subject , a s a n agent o f desire . Onl y a mother wit h he r ow n selfhoo d intac t ca n mak e selfhood full y possibl e fo r he r child . Hoffman' s nove l plays ou t a similar dynamic: Nora' s ver y inabilit y t o suppres s he r individua l subjectivity , her passio n an d sexuality , i n he r rol e a s suburba n mothe r i s wha t free s the other s t o discove r themselve s a s subject s o f desir e a s well. Nora's imperfection s a s a mothe r ar e par t o f th e novel' s affirmatio n of he r a s a fully huma n (therefor e imperfect ) materna l subject . Tha t sh e genuinely love s bot h he r sons , Bill y an d James, i s never questioned . He r mothering o f Billy , however , i s obviously flawed ; i n regar d t o he r eldes t son, Hoffma n present s Nor a a s insufficientl y empathic . Eight-year-ol d Billy i s the sor t o f hurt , trouble d chil d wh o appear s frequentl y i n Hoff man's fiction, fro m four-year-ol d Simon , wh o ha s stoppe d growing , i n Illumination Night, t o th e angry , juvenil e delinquen t Keit h i n Turtle

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Moon. Bill y suffer s fro m th e los s o f hi s fathe r (afte r hi s fathe r left , w e are told , h e develope d th e habi t o f twirlin g hi s hai r s o har d he' d pulle d it ou t i n larg e patches ) a s wel l a s fro m a n acut e awarenes s o f hi s own , and hi s mother's , differenc e an d alienatio n fro m th e suburba n commu nity: "B y th e en d o f October , ever y mothe r o f ever y chil d i n hi s clas s knew tha t Nor a wa s divorced; . . . and tha t wa s th e en d o f Billy' s chanc e for an y sor t o f socia l alliances " (74) . Nor a onl y exacerbate s hi s socia l problems i n he r attempt s t o hel p hi m mak e friends : "Already , sh e ha d completely humiliate d hi m b y invitin g thre e kid s h e hate d ove r t o thei r house, on e pe r week " (74) . Nor a fail s t o recogniz e tha t he r effort s ar e intrusive an d counterproductiv e unti l Henness y gentl y chides , " 'The y have t o mak e thei r ow n friendships . You'v e go t t o le t i t happe n natu rally' " (86) . Nora's empathi c flaw s ar e relate d t o Billy' s particula r defenses—hi s obsessions wit h fire , magic , an d Houdini . H e practice s makin g himsel f invisible: "H e coul d almos t believ e h e wa s becomin g invisible ; he coul d feel something curling up inside himself" (54). In keeping with Hoffman' s magical, transitiona l vision , th e psychologica l o r interna l i s als o give n external validation. A t one point, "Henness y noticed that Billy was growing fainter. I t wa s a s if h e were retreatin g insid e his clothe s o r a s if—an d this wa s probably jus t a trick o f th e fluorescen t lightin g abov e them—h e were disappearing " (85) . Afte r Henness y tell s Nor a tha t sh e shoul d le t Billy mak e hi s ow n friends , however , "H e swor e tha t Bill y wa s gettin g visibly mor e solid " (86) . Bill y need s t o discove r hi s ow n selfhoo d an d agency, his own desire— a process that his mother's intrusiv e efforts wer e only impeding . H e i s fascinate d wit h fir e perhap s becaus e i t i s bot h a potent, effectua l forc e tha t he longs to possess and a source of destructiv e energy, symboli c o f inne r rag e i n nee d o f release . Houdini , wh o Bill y believes "coul d shin e lik e a lamp li t fro m withi n an d pas s righ t throug h the hemp, th e metal, th e tides" (76), through al l external constraints, als o represents a liberating expressio n o f subjectiv e agency . Despite his withdrawn an d reticent nature, Billy does possess a curious power—he ca n read people's minds . Nor a "wa s never quite certain i f sh e had sai d somethin g ou t lou d o r i f Billy' s antenna e ha d picke d u p wha t she'd bee n thinkin g i n spit e o f an y silence " (32) . Bill y doe s no t perceiv e this ability , however , a s power: "Clairvoyance, " h e thinks , "wa s a bur den" (76) . Billy' s min d readin g i s no t a true powe r becaus e i t reflect s a regressive, undifferentiate d state— a lac k o f boundarie s betwee n sel f an d

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other. Bill y stresse s ho w Houdini' s "talen t wa s pure an d true " precisel y because "h e coul d fight agains t rea l boundaries " (76) . Clairvoyanc e ex emplifies th e sor t o f "bad " o r malignan t narcissisti c illusio n tha t Em manuel Ghen t ha s discussed , a defensiv e rathe r tha n creativ e illusion . Defensive illusions , Ghen t believes , aris e out o f a breakdown o r "failur e of th e norma l processe s o f creativ e illusio n an d play " (147) . Billy' s clair voyance protect s agains t separatenes s an d loss , bu t i n s o doing , prevent s the recognitio n o f bot h sel f an d othe r a s individua l subjects . I n it s sug gestion o f narcissisti c onenes s an d omnipotence , clairvoyanc e represent s a defense tha t onl y enforce s Billy' s insularit y an d isolation . Thu s hi s los s of thi s abilit y a t th e en d o f th e nove l i s characterize d b y a Houdinilik e unshackling o r release : "Th e constan t hu m h e hear d wa s gon e an d wit h it th e headach e h e alway s ha d whe n h e picke d u p anyone' s thoughts " (240). In th e proces s o f achievin g hi s freedom , Bill y i s assiste d no t b y hi s mother bu t b y hi s mother's teenag e lover , Ac e McCarthy. Ac e befriend s him an d teache s hi m t o pla y baseball . Th e nove l conclude s wit h Bill y making the Littl e Leagu e team, thereb y breakin g ou t o f hi s isolation. B y internalizing Ace's care and confidence i n him—"He kep t thinkin g abou t what Ac e had sai d to him until he believed it " (239)—Bill y is able to pla y out hi s potentia l an d discove r th e tru e powe r o f hi s singula r mind , hi s own subjectivity . A Lacania n criti c migh t interpre t Ace' s rol e i n Billy' s emancipation a s tha t o f a necessar y thir d force—representativ e o f th e father o r phallus—tha t break s u p th e narcissisti c mother-chil d dyad . A more plausibl e interpretation , t o m y mind , i s tha t Ac e provide s a n em pathic, nurturin g functio n tha t wa s deficien t i n th e origina l relationship . Ace's empathi c an d caretakin g abilities , a s I will discus s later , ar e indee d highlighted throughou t th e novel. Indirectly , however , Bill y is also free d by hi s mothe r a s a subjec t o f desire . Ha d Nor a no t acte d o n he r desir e and violate d th e socia l nor m b y havin g a n affai r wit h thi s teenager , Ac e would neve r hav e entere d Billy' s life . Nora's liberatin g effec t o n othe r character s i n the novel is more direct . In Joe Hennessy sh e triggers an almost unbearable desire: "After a dinner of fish stick s an d bean s an d twelv e hour s o f blac k coffee , he' d b e s o stricken wit h desir e tha t h e woul d hav e give n i t al l away , hi s house , hi s family, hi s job , fo r on e nigh t wit h Nor a Silk " (155) . Nursin g fantasie s of divorc e an d escape , Henness y open s u p a secret saving s accoun t an d hangs aroun d th e courthous e t o hea r th e lawyer s discus s thei r divorc e

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cases: "Eac h stor y gav e hi m hop e an d fuele d hi s desire " (156) . Whil e lying i n bed , h e fantasize s makin g lov e t o Nor a an d th e illusio n feel s s o real, s o palpable , h e wonder s ho w hi s wif e canno t hea r them : "Ho w could sh e not se e the shap e o f Hennessy' s mout h o n Nora' s skin? " (88). Nevertheless, Henness y i s forced t o face th e illusory natur e o f hi s desire. One night he discovers Nora's affair wit h Ace McCarthy. H e immediatel y goes home , sleep s " a lon g dreamles s sleep, " and th e nex t mornin g with draws al l the saving s fro m hi s account . It i s no t th e reality , however , bu t th e drea m o f hi s affai r wit h Nor a that constitute s Hennessy' s rea l awakening . Los s an d illusio n ar e buil t into desire, an d Hennessy, lik e many of the other characters in the novel, desperately neede d t o ope n himsel f t o th e ful l experience . W e lear n tha t "he ha d alway s wanted t o b e a cop .. . because h e was addicte d t o order . He like d t o kno w hi s shirt s woul d b e hangin g o n th e lef t sid e o f th e closet; h e like d t o kno w he' d b e havin g tunafis h casserol e an d ric e ever y Friday night , althoug h h e preferre d steak " (43) . Hi s addictio n t o orde r mirrors tha t o f the suburban communit y a s a whole, bu t unlike the othe r residents, Henness y i s unabl e t o suppres s a n awarenes s o f th e fals e se curity tha t orde r provides . Hi s promotio n a t th e beginnin g o f th e nove l from uniforme d co p t o plainclothe s detectiv e suggest s a metaphoric dis mantling o f th e fals e sel f tha t prefigure s th e mai n them e an d movemen t of th e novel . Th e los s of hi s unifprm i s accompanied b y a dizzying sens e of disorientation : He ha d bee n tryin g t o mak e plainclothes fo r tw o years, bu t a s soon a s he gave up his uniform something had gone wrong. In the past few days he had completely lost hi s sens e o f taste ; he' d stoo d a t th e refrigerato r an d guzzle d hal f a jar of black-olive water, thinking it was grape juice, until an olive slid down his throat. .. . The telephone would rin g and he'd g o to open the front door . (42-43 ) As a detective, Henness y i s now "priv y t o things he never knew abou t before," thing s tha t h e coul d hav e know n whil e i n uniform , "bu t h e realized h e ha d neve r wante d t o hea r abou t certai n cases . I t wasn' t ten dollar speeding tickets and school assemblies now, i t was dirtier business" (45). A s h e enter s th e hom e o f th e abuse d wife , h e i s forced t o confron t the pai n an d violenc e beneat h th e fals e self-construc t o f bot h th e com munity an d th e self . Tha t confrontation , howeve r abhorren t an d fright ening, i s nevertheless a vital part o f hi s desire—thi s i s a job h e ha d bee n

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wanting for years. Hennessy's desir e for Nora is an extension of a process of desir e tha t ha d begu n wit h hi s promotion— a proces s o f releasin g a defensive rationa l contro l an d surrenderin g t o th e ful l ambivalenc e o f passionate existence . Afte r leavin g th e battere d woman' s home , h e see s Nora fo r th e first time : He should have turned around and walked up the path to his house, but instead he looke d u p a t th e las t fe w stars , an d the y fille d hi m wit h yearnin g th e wa y diamonds di d othe r men . H e turne d hi s gaz e east, t o se e if th e sun was rising, and that was when he saw the woman up on Olivera's roof, cleaning out the rain gutters, obliviou s t o anythin g els e o n th e street , an d Henness y realize d tha t i t was to o lat e t o mak e an y deals . H e ha d alread y aske d fo r things , an d wha t happened was what always happened whenever a desire was granted. He wanted more. (52) While Nora extend s an d accelerate s the process of desir e in Hennessy , she initiate s tha t proces s fo r severa l o f th e othe r characters . Henness y sees Nora and "wanted more," but many of the characters come to realize, like th e teenag e Ricki e Shapiro , tha t the y "ha d neve r trul y wante d any thing before " (111) . Ricki e "ha d alway s don e exactl y wha t sh e was sup posed t o " an d ha d "though t everyon e wa s doin g wha t sh e wa s doing , being a good girl " (203). Under Nora' s influenc e (sh e babysits for Nora) , Rickie tentativel y begin s t o loose n he r fals e self-defense , lettin g he r hai r go natural—"i t wa s thicke r an d someho w wild , a s i f sh e ha d give n u p trying t o contro l it " (97)—an d submittin g t o he r "ba d girl " desir e fo r Ace McCarthy . Afte r arrangin g a secret rendezvou s wit h Ace , however , Rickie suddenly close s up in fear an d reject s him . Fo r a while she retreat s to a safer choice , th e captai n o f th e footbal l team , wh o whisper s t o he r lovingly, " 'God , you'r e perfect' " (202). By the end of the novel, though , Rickie realizes that the facade of perfection i s actually the more dangerou s choice. He r "perfect " famil y ha s begu n t o unravel : he r parent s separat e and he r brillian t brothe r Dann y ha s becom e withdraw n an d reclusive . "Nothing wa s perfect, Ricki e Shapiro could se e that now. . .. Everythin g seemed t o b e on shak y groun d now , sil t really , tha t gav e way whe n yo u touched i t wit h you r toe . Ricki e ha d bee n taugh t t o respec t an d follo w all th e rules , a t an y cost , eve n losin g he r chanc e wit h Ace , an d no w i t seemed ther e wa s a possibility tha t she' d bee n tricked " (202-3) . Rickie's realization—he r abilit y t o tolerat e th e loss , hurt , an d ange r of a n imperfec t realit y an d a n imperfec t self—i s als o he r release : i t free s

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her fro m th e bondage, th e deathliness, o f a false sel f existence . Similarly , her brothe r Danny , a hig h schoo l basebal l sta r an d clas s valedictorian , had always been a good boy—"He was trustworthy, everyon e knew that " (139). Hi s liberation , lik e Hennessy's , finall y come s i n th e pursui t o f illusion an d th e ver y disillusionmen t boun d u p wit h th e experienc e o f desire. Towar d th e en d o f th e novel , Dann y run s awa y t o Florida , pur suing th e fantas y o f tryin g ou t fo r th e Yankee s a t thei r sprin g trainin g camp. O n th e bu s south , "Dann y fel t dizz y wit h joy . H e ha d almos t been swallowe d u p b y hi s hometow n an d no w h e wa s read y fo r th e world, no t som e safe , constricte d suburb , o r eve n a protected campus , like Cornell " (218) . Onc e a t th e camp , h e talk s hi s wa y pas t th e guard , and a bemused coac h let s hi m tak e a turn a t bat . Danny actuall y hit s th e bal l hard , severa l times , an d o n th e las t pitc h even knocks a sparrow out of the sky. The coach tells him that he's good , " 'Bu t I se e a doze n boy s a s goo d a s yo u ever y week ' " (221) . Dann y then watche s a rookie hi t th e bal l farthe r tha n h e "coul d hav e i f h e ha d hit balls for the rest of his life. The rookie batter was a nothing, a nobody, he probabl y wouldn' t eve n mak e th e final cut , bu t a s soo n a s he hi t th e curveball Dann y kne w h e didn' t hav e a chance . No t now . No t ever " (222). Dann y buy s a box o f orange s fo r hi s mother , return s home , an d sends i n hi s acceptanc e t o Cornell . Danny' s retur n home , however , i s not a defeat; rather, i t represents a return to himself, a sober but liberatin g self-acceptance. Danny' s freedom , lik e Billy' s los s o f clairvoyance , lie s paradoxically i n th e discover y o f hi s ow n limits . Onl y b y pursuin g th e illusion o f hi s desir e coul d h e bot h exten d an d find hi s limits , a proces s of self-discovery . Desir e i n Hoffman' s worl d doe s no t lea d t o ecstasy ; the releas e i t provides i s not a n escap e bu t a return—a retur n t o a deeper and mor e authenti c experienc e o f self . The nove l feature s othe r character s lik e Henness y an d th e Shapir o children wh o ar e "good, " trustworth y caretakers . Wit h th e adven t o f Nora Sil k int o th e community , however , the y experienc e a crisi s tha t threatens t o shatte r tha t role . Donn a Durgin , fo r example , ha d alway s been a model wif e an d mother . Sinc e he r first pregnancy , however , sh e had als o bee n fat , an d i t i s clea r tha t th e fa t represent s a los s o f self contact o r centeredness : "Most o f th e time she didn't loo k a t herself, sh e didn't eve n thin k abou t herself , or , i f sh e did , sh e imagine d hersel f a s a cloud, a s i f th e cente r o f hersel f ha d drifte d awa y i n strand s o f cotto n netting" (119) . Whil e havin g he r washin g machin e repaire d on e day ,

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Donna i s suddenl y jolte d bac k t o hersel f b y a casua l complimen t th e serviceman pay s her : "I can tell you work hard," the serviceman said. "You wouldn't believe some of the laundry room s I've seen. You're somebod y who really cares." The servicema n turne d an d wen t bac k t o th e washin g machine , bu t Donn a Durgin didn't move. She'd been wounded b y his kindness; all it took was a few words from a stranger an d something inside her snapped. (121 ) The serviceman' s kindness , hi s recognitio n o f he r "caring, " i s painfu l because i t make s he r awar e o f wha t sh e ha s bee n missing . Th e materna l caretaker ha s hersel f bee n deprive d o f car e an d recognition : "Wh o ha d smiled a t Donn a i n th e pas t fe w months ? Wh o ha d aske d he r wha t sh e thought o r what wa s inside her o r notice d tha t th e cuffs o f Robert' s ink y shirts wer e alway s white afte r Donn a ha d washe d the m an d irone d the m and folde d the m int o th e burea u drawer? " (123) . Donn a begin s t o diet , to drea m abou t fanc y clothes , an d t o watc h Nor a wit h increasin g fasci nation. Sh e sees Nora playin g i n th e sno w wit h he r childre n an d notice s the bab y stuffin g sno w i n hi s mouth : "Donn a stoo d ther e staring , eve n though an y othe r mothe r o n th e bloc k woul d hav e looke d away " (126) . Nora's spontaneity , he r natura l exuberance , ha s no t bee n squelche d b y her rol e a s caretaker o r by materna l overconcern . Donna , however , feel s she mus t she d th e materna l caretakin g rol e completel y i n orde r t o fre e herself, muc h lik e th e Nor a o f Ibsen' s A Doll's House. Withou t givin g notice, Donn a run s off , leavin g he r famil y an d th e communit y stunned . When Henness y finall y locate s her , sh e i s workin g i n th e lingeri e de partment o f Lor d & Taylo r an d i s s o sli m an d fashionabl e h e barel y recognizes her . Donn a explains , " ' I wa s dead . . . . I wa s disappearin g more eac h day . I s that wha t lif e i s supposed t o be? ' " (193) . When Hen nessy ask s abou t he r kids , Donn a responds , agai n echoin g Ibsen' s Nora , " 'Wha t goo d wa s I t o them? ' " The nove l nevertheles s enforce s Donna' s dee p lov e fo r he r children . The clairvoyan t Bill y i s able t o hea r he r inne r pai n a s she secretl y stand s outside he r hous e on e night : "Th e cr y wa s s o awful , i n a wordless way , that Bill y go t ou t o f be d an d pulle d th e blind s u p an d h e hear d muc h more tha n he' d eve r hear d fro m anyone' s silence before " (185-86) . Th e intensity, an d th e painfu l fragility , o f th e mother-chil d bon d i s indee d central t o Hoffman' s vision , a poin t tha t I wil l com e bac k t o later . B y

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the end o f the novel, Donn a ha s begun divorc e proceedings, an d sh e tells Nora, " T m goin g to get my children , too , yo u know ' " (254) . Donna' s desire, lik e Hennessy' s an d Danny's , finally lead s t o a return tha t i s als o a renewa l an d reaffirmatio n o f self . Donn a return s t o mothering , an d thus he r mode l i s ultimatel y Nor a Silk , no t Nor a Helmer . Nor a Sil k i s perhaps Hoffman' s deliberat e reworkin g o f Ibsen' s Nor a int o a femal e subject o f desir e wh o ca n als o mother . Ace McCarth y i s anothe r trustworth y caretaker , constricte d b y hi s role i n hi s famil y an d communit y an d finally free d b y hi s surrende r t o desire. Ac e no t onl y nurture s Billy , patientl y teachin g hi m t o pla y ball , but h e was als o the on e who ha d taugh t Dann y Shapir o ho w t o hit: "H e didn't min d spendin g hour s i n th e deserte d athleti c field whe n th e tem perature hi t ninety-five degree s in the shade. He wa s the only one willin g to pitc h ball s t o Dann y unti l dark , o r unti l on e o f thei r mother s cam e looking fo r them " (138) . I n hi s rol e a s selfles s nurturer , Ac e take s afte r his father , wh o i s s o goo d an d caring , s o perfect , hi s childre n refe r t o him a s "the Saint." As with Rickie Shapiro and Donna Durgin , however , the novel exposes the defensiveness o f the saintly, all-good role that denies anger an d pain ; i t reveal s th e danger s o f to o successfull y repudiatin g th e full realit y o f inne r experience . Ace an d hi s brothe r Jacki e struggl e wit h th e inne r badnes s tha t thei r father seem s unabl e t o acknowledg e o r tolerate . Unlik e Ace , Jackie act s out hi s anger ; h e i s th e quintessentia l rebelliou s "ba d boy " wh o eve n steals car s fro m th e garag e o f hi s father' s ga s station . Whil e Jackie wait s for hi s fathe r t o discove r a missin g Cadillac , w e ar e tol d tha t h e "wa s looking forwar d t o seein g th e Sain t blo w up . .. . This i s when th e Sain t goes nuts , whe n h e raise s hi s voice , mayb e eve n smack s me " (92) . Thi s is th e respons e Jacki e wants—i t woul d b e a profoun d relie f t o se e hi s father express, admit, an d survive rage. The Saint, however, only collapses against th e wal l "a s i f someon e ha d hi t hi m hard " (93) . Jackie provoke s him furthe r b y makin g a n anti-Semiti c remar k abou t Mr . Shapiro , th e Cadillac's owner . Th e Sain t grab s hi m an d pushe s hi m u p agains t th e wall: This wa s it , thi s wa s th e explosio n Jackie ha d though t h e wanted; finall y he' d see the Saint act like a human being. Bu t it wasn't the way Jackie had expected, and i t brough t hi m n o satisfactio n whe n th e Sain t le t g o o f him . A s th e Sain t

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backed of f h e looke d smalle r tha n ever ; you coul d sna p hi m i n tw o wit h on e strong hand. (93-94 ) The Saint' s fragilit y prevent s hi m fro m full y recognizin g th e "bad " Jackie and thus giving him the support he needs. Jackie is finally punished in the novel's mos t tragi c incident, whe n h e picks u p th e high schoo l fas t girl, Cathy Corrigan . Th e narrator tells us that you went to Cathy "whe n you wante d a girl to do things no on e in her right mind would d o " (102). Hoffman present s he r a s an awkward , patheticall y need y chil d wh o use s sex i n a desperat e bi d fo r acceptanc e an d love . Cath y ha s a crus h o n Jackie, bu t becaus e o f Jackie' s ow n sens e o f worthlessness , he r feeling s only mak e hi m mor e contemptuou s an d cruel . Onc e i n th e car , Cath y finds hersel f pressure d int o havin g se x not onl y wit h Jackie bu t wit h al l of hi s friend s a s well. Afte r th e other s hav e left , Cath y ask s Jackie i f h e would kiss her. Though he knows the kiss would be a gesture of affection , not merel y sex , h e relents . Jacki e i s surprise d t o find himsel f enjoyin g the kiss when the car containing his pals pulls up: "He didn't want anyon e to se e them together ; i t was deat h t o b e caught kissin g her" (106) . Jackie shoves her over the front sea t and floors th e gas pedal; the car hits a patch of ic e an d Cath y i s kille d i n th e wreck . The acciden t i s les s a resul t o f Jackie' s cruel , aggressiv e sid e tha n o f his fea r o f exposin g hi s carin g side— a tendernes s tha t kissin g Cath y Corrigan betrayed . Jacki e emerge s fro m th e experienc e shattere d bu t transformed. H e become s a good boy , marrie s a girl he meets a t church , and i s mad e a partner o f hi s father' s ga s station , a position Ac e ha d al ways assumed woul d b e his. Nevertheless, Jackie is haunted, literally , b y Cathy's ghost , an d develop s a terrifying phobi a o f th e dark . Whil e mos t of the other character s experienc e a liberating return t o self in the proces s of yieldin g t o desire , Jackie, b y defendin g agains t desir e an d th e vulner ability o f caring , undergoe s a retreat . Unabl e t o tolerat e darknes s an d loss, h e seek s refug e i n th e suburba n convention s h e ha d originall y re belled against . With th e hel p o f Nor a Silk , Ac e i s mor e successfu l tha n hi s brothe r in strugglin g wit h hi s ow n inne r darknes s an d pain . Unlik e hi s father , Ace recognizes Jackie's "badness " and indeed identifies wit h it. As Jackie hands hi m som e mone y fro m th e stole n Cadillac , "Ac e fel t a new kin d of badnes s insid e hi s chest , an d i t wa s crackin g hi m apar t tryin g t o ge t

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out. Ba d bloo d move d dow n hi s arm s an d legs . I t wa s th e beginnin g o f the en d o f something " (41) . Ace' s initiatio n int o badnes s her e echoe s Hennessy's entranc e int o th e dar k interio r o f suburba n lif e tha t first accompanied hi s promotion , hi s initia l descen t int o desire . Ac e i s not a s adept a s his brother, however , a t denying his inner pain or that of others : he canno t hel p feelin g sorr y fo r Cath y Corriga n a s sh e sit s i n fron t o f him i n class , an d afte r th e accident , h e canno t forgiv e Jacki e o r himself . He adopt s Cathy' s abandone d pupp y an d form s a fierce bon d wit h it . He also witnesses Cathy's ghost, but rather than fleeing from it , he reaches out i n a n attemp t t o mak e contact . H e know s i t i s he r ghos t "becaus e no othe r ghos t coul d fill hi m wit h suc h despai r o r mak e hi m blee d fro m a wound tha t wasn' t eve n there. " Afte r th e ghos t disappears , Ac e "low ered hi s hea d an d wept ; no t knowin g i f he' d bee n blesse d o r cursed , h e was completel y lost " (147) . I t i s a t thi s poin t tha t h e "foun d himsel f i n Nora Silk' s arms , wher e h e crie d fo r a s lon g a s h e needed , befor e sh e took hi m home " (148) . This i s also the poin t a t which th e nove l mark s a transition fro m 195 9 to 1960 . Th e unres t an d vitalit y o f th e comin g decad e correspond s wit h the increasing disturbanc e an d reviva l of Hoffman' s suburba n characters . Like Ace , the y ar e lost , aching , an d "overcom e wit h desire " (151) , a condition tha t entails , however , th e recover y o f passionate , authenti c living. Hennessy and his wife come to rediscover their sexual relationship, several o f th e wive s ventur e int o job s outsid e th e home , an d Ac e finds that his ruptured relationshi p with his father an d brother, thoug h painful , is als o a release: h e wil l no t b e pumpin g ga s fo r th e res t o f hi s lif e a s h e had alway s assumed . Fortifie d b y Nora' s love , Ac e dare s t o expan d th e limits o f hi s imaginatio n an d ac t o n hi s ow n desire . A t th e en d o f th e novel, h e accept s hi s father's gestur e o f love—th e gif t o f a new car—an d leaves tow n wit h Cathy' s do g i n tow . Though mos t o f th e characters , lik e Ace , mov e towar d a posi tive, "happy " ending , Hoffman' s visio n i s not wholly , o r naively , rosy . Cathy's dog , Rudy , wh o accompanie s Ace , i s a reminder o f loss , aban donment, an d sorrow—o f th e danger s o f huma n attachmen t a t th e roo t of desire . Th e dog , moreover , i s particularl y associate d wit h tha t mos t primal huma n attachment—th e mother-chil d bond . Th e do g i s signifi cantly a puppy, "no t mor e tha n si x month s old, " whe n Cath y die s an d he i s lef t outsid e i n th e cold . H e immediatel y bond s t o Ac e an d won' t let hi m ou t o f hi s sight . Whe n Ac e pick s th e do g u p fo r th e first time ,

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"He coul d fee l a second heartbea t agains t his own; he could fee l his ches t go tigh t wit h col d an d a n agon y tha t ha d n o name " (117) . Th e secon d heartbeat suggest s tha t o f a baby an d it s excruciating vulnerability. Ace' s agony recall s Donna Durgin' s silen t pain a s she stands outsid e he r hous e after havin g abandone d he r children . I n a n extraordinar y scen e towar d the en d o f th e novel , th e narrativ e voic e enter s th e dog' s hea d an d w e hear a n expressio n o f th e sam e anguish , th e sam e desire. Th e abandone d puppy, in a reversal of the dynamic now, assumes the maternal, caretakin g role. Rudy hears Nora's baby banging on his crib, clamoring for attention ; he pushes open the bedroom doo r with his nose and enters James's room : "Rudy sa t b y th e cri b unti l th e bab y move d hi s thum b int o hi s mout h and close d hi s eyes. ... H e kep t hi s eye s ope n an d listene d t o th e soun d of huma n breathing , a sound s o helples s i t coul d mak e eve n a dog she d tears" (249) . A s th e scen e continues , Rud y imagine s runnin g free , "Bu t the soun d o f huma n breathin g mad e hi m sta y o n th e red-and-whit e ra g rug." Tru e freedo m fo r th e do g lies in th e attachment , th e huma n bond , that i s th e essenc e o f hi s desire : It didn' t matte r tha t h e could ru n faste r tha n an y man , o r i f somewher e ther e were still rabbits who put down their ears and trembled in the dark. Even when he was asleep he was ready for the whistle or the clap of human hands that might wake him. He longed for the call; in his dreams when he was running only inches away from th e moon, a full moon , whit e enough to blind a man in seconds, he was ready to be claimed by the person he belonged to. (249) The portraya l o f huma n attachment , particularl y th e origina l infant mother attachment , a s bot h powerfu l an d terrifyingl y frail , i s a them e that run s throughou t Hoffman' s fiction. Fortune's Daughter trace s th e lifelong agon y o f a woman who , a s a teenager, wa s forced t o giv e up he r baby. I n Turtle Moon th e ba d bo y Keith , wh o lik e Bill y i s a product o f divorce, come s t o dea l wit h hi s los s an d pai n throug h th e experienc e o f two intense attachments: one with an abandoned bab y whose mother wa s murdered, an d th e other , again , wit h a dog. Seventh Heaven reinforce s the mother-chil d attachmen t them e throug h a variety o f othe r image s a s well. Towar d th e en d o f th e novel , Nor a trie s t o get ri d o f th e ant s i n her kitchen b y putting ou t poison. A s she watches th e ant s race back an d forth "tryin g desperately to save their eggs," she breaks down an d weeps: she "wep t a s th e ant s dragge d mor e an d mor e unsalvageabl e egg s ou t

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from thei r nest . Sh e wept a s she brushe d th e egg s into a paper plat e an d took the m ou t t o th e backyard " (252) . A t th e beginnin g o f th e novel , Nora use s sal t t o ge t ri d o f th e crow s i n he r chimney , "knowin g a s sh e did tha t i f thos e crow s ha d ha d egg s i n thei r nest , sh e would neve r hav e been abl e t o chas e the m of f wit h salt " (36) . A baby' s helplessness , th e vulnerability o f it s trust, i s also highlighte d in a n incident i n which Henness y watche s a baby carriag e rol l of f a cur b into a parking lot : " A ca r pullin g ou t ha d jus t misse d th e damne d thin g as Henness y leap t ou t o f th e patro l ca r s o h e coul d gra b th e baby , wh o had been sound asleep. Hennessy stood there sweating as the baby opene d its eyes and stare d har d int o his face with complet e trust" (44) . Similarly , we ar e tol d tha t Bill y woul d sometime s forge t abou t hi s bab y brothe r when h e wa s suppose d t o b e takin g car e o f him . H e woul d ru n bac k u p the stree t t o find Jame s "hysterical , hi s fac e snott y an d streake d wit h tears." James woul d the n gra b ont o Bill y an d no t le t go ; he would "pu t his face agains t Billy' s ches t to liste n for hi s heartbeat," an d Nora woul d find them "glued together" (82)—a dynamic repeated in Ace's relationship with th e abandone d puppy . A t suc h times , th e narrato r tell s us , Bill y would thin k abou t Houdini . Th e associatio n her e link s th e escap e artis t with releas e fro m th e frighteningl y intense , symbioti c bon d o f infantil e attachment. The nove l a s a whole, however , ultimatel y confirm s infantil e trus t b y asserting a n overriding fait h i n maternal presence. Thi s bring s u s back t o Nora Sil k and he r association s wit h magi c and illusion . Lik e many o f th e other characters , Nor a to o pursue s a n illusion—th e illusio n o f th e sub urban communit y a s good an d safe, a s the perfect protectiv e environmen t for he r children . Sh e als o i s force d t o confron t a dark , disorderly , an d imperfect reality . He r house , i n perpetua l disarray , i s fallin g apart ; sh e is shunne d b y th e othe r mother s i n th e neighborhood ; an d he r so n i s being tease d an d attacke d b y th e othe r childre n a t school . Thoug h Nor a comes to recogniz e full y th e imperfect reality , sh e nevertheless maintain s her fait h i n th e essentia l goodnes s o f th e community . Sh e stands outsid e her hous e o n Ne w Year' s Eve , listenin g t o th e sound s o f a neighbor' s party, an d thinks , Who were thes e people wh o dance d i n th e dark , whos e childre n taunte d Bill y and threw rocks? Good people, she had to believe that, people who tucked their children in at night, who packed school lunches with tender care, who made the

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same sacrifices sh e did, mayb e eve n more , s o tha t thei r childre n coul d pla y i n the grass and sleep tight and walk to school holding hands, safe on the sidewalk, safe in th e streets , saf e th e whole night through . An d i t was not thei r fault , o r anyone else's, that tonight Nora felt as if she were the only person on the planet who was all alone. (144) Nora accept s th e darkness—th e cruelt y i n life , th e pai n o f he r sepa rateness an d aloneness—bu t maintain s he r fait h nonetheless . He r abilit y to forgiv e imperfectio n bot h i n th e protectiv e environmen t an d i n her self—"So Nor a wa s wrong, she' d bee n wrong abou t othe r thing s before , she wasn't perfect " (59)—make s thi s sam e process possibl e fo r th e com munity a s a whole . Th e dynami c i s similarl y reflecte d i n th e novel' s forgiveness o f Nora' s imperfectl y empathi c mothering . Th e narcissisti c ideal of onenes s an d perfection , rigidl y uphel d i n the defensiv e suburba n facade, i s loosene d an d released . Th e protectiv e environment—th e mother—is imperfec t an d separate , an d tha t recognitio n i s finall y liberating. Nora's fait h i n goodnes s ma y b e base d i n illusion , bu t i t ultimatel y has a real, transformativ e power : he r presenc e allow s th e communit y t o shed its false sel f defense , an d her enduring faith make s genuine goodnes s possible. I n orde r t o surrende r t o desire—t o a passionate realit y outsid e or beyon d rationa l control—on e need s t o hav e faith . I n psychodynami c terms, th e bab y need s t o believ e tha t neithe r sel f no r mothe r wil l b e destroyed b y the angry, "bad " passions released in the process of "lettin g go." On e need s fait h i n th e durabilit y o f materna l presence , fait h tha t goodness will survive. Nora's association s with magic and witchcraft (he r voodoo literall y shrink s th e clas s bull y wh o ha d bee n tormentin g Billy ) connect he r wit h th e earlies t infantil e illusio n o f magica l control ; a t th e same time , however , sh e i s figured a s a limite d an d imperfec t materna l subject. He r characte r agai n maintain s th e paradoxica l tensio n typica l o f Hoffman's vision . A s Winnicot t ha s argued , som e experienc e o f magica l or omnipoten t illusio n i s necessar y i n orde r fo r th e illusio n t o b e shed ; the illusio n engender s th e fait h tha t make s surrenderin g th e illusio n possible. Interestingly, Nora' s ex-husband , Roger , i s also a magician, bu t h e is a ba d magician—"Hi s hear t wasn' t i n it . . . . children coul d se e righ t through him " (29) . H e i s bad becaus e h e i s cynical abou t th e worl d an d his magic: "He was a putdown artist " with " a particular knac k for killin g

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his audienc e wit h cynica l one-liners " (30) . Hi s lac k o f fait h connects , moreover, wit h hi s curiou s lac k o f presenc e o r reality . Childre n coul d indeed "se e righ t throug h him " becaus e "hi s hear t wasn' t i n it. " Eve n when thei r marriag e wa s good , Nor a "ha d sense d somethin g fals e abou t Roger. Sh e wanted t o believe in him, bu t ther e seeme d t o b e less and les s of hi m t o believ e i n ever y day " (29) . Billy , too , wheneve r h e "trie d t o conjure u p hi s father h e got nothing mor e than a n image of Roge r durin g his blackou t trick , a n illusio n i n whic h Roge r wa s a man i n to p ha t an d tails wit h n o body , n o face , an d n o hands " (30) . In contrast , Nora' s magica l qualit y i s associate d wit h fait h an d pres ence, a qualit y tha t i s als o relate d t o th e novel' s narrativ e perspective . The omniscien t narrativ e voic e tha t enter s th e mind s o f al l o f th e char acters, includin g th e dog's , create s th e sens e o f a n abidin g presence— a presence tha t transcend s an d connect s th e separat e subjectivitie s o f th e individual characters . Althoug h w e hea r th e first-person voic e o f eac h character i n th e novel' s dialogue , th e inne r voice s o f th e character s ar e never hear d directl y fro m th e subjectiv e " I " perspective . Th e character s are consistentl y referre d t o i n th e thir d person—"Henness y realized, " "Danny felt, " "Nor a believed"—a s w e hea r thei r innermos t thought s and feelings . Th e renderin g o f inne r subjectiv e realit y fro m thi s outsid e perspective enforce s th e sens e o f a n objectiv e presenc e tha t encompasse s even th e mos t intimate , solitar y self . The magical , omnipresen t narrativ e voice thus stand s i n dialectica l oppositio n t o th e novel' s centra l them e o f confrontation wit h limits , separateness , an d loss . Th e dialecti c agai n re flects th e transitiona l natur e o f Hoffman' s vision , it s abilit y t o sustain , rather tha n resolve , th e paradoxica l tensio n a t th e hear t o f creative , im aginative living . The concludin g scene , a s i t capture s a suspende d momen t i n time , contains th e sam e tension . Wit h he r bab y i n he r lap , Nor a sit s i n th e bleachers, watching Billy's Little League game. She is now a valued frien d of th e othe r mothers ; Nor a an d th e communit y hav e forme d a genuin e bond. He r illusio n o f th e suburba n neighborhoo d a s a good plac e to liv e has i n fac t becom e a reality . Nevertheless , th e possibilit y o f broke n bonds—particularly th e mother-child bon d tha t th e image of Nor a hold ing James evokes—an d th e potentia l o f los s an d absence , o f death , stil l figures i n th e picture . Th e fulfillmen t o r flowerin g o f desire , lik e th e "wild rose s tha t bloome d fo r onl y on e wee k ou t o f th e year " o n Dea d Man's Hil l (253) , i s a t best , temporary .

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The nove l end s wit h a n imag e o f th e moon : Nor a "leane d agains t th e bleachers an d pointe d upwar d s o tha t th e bab y coul d se e th e firs t bal l rise int o th e outfield , fa r abov e them , wher e th e moo n hun g suspended , white and full, appearin g in the sky hours befor e dark " (256) . The moon , that long-hel d symbo l o f romanti c desire , recall s th e ful l moo n o f th e dog's dream—th e blindingl y intense , whit e moo n tha t urge s him t o free dom a t the same time that it tugs him bac k to human attachment , makin g him lon g fo r th e huma n cal l an d it s promise o f reunion . Th e final visio n both acknowledge s th e comin g dar k an d celebrate s th e suspende d ligh t of th e full , whit e moon—th e momentar y fullnes s an d wholenes s tha t i s the dream , th e sevent h heaven , o f th e heart' s desire .

Chapter 10

Afterword

The essays in this volume reveal certain recurring relational themes. While those themes obviously reflect m y own psychological issues and interests, I hop e I hav e als o prove d thei r significant , shapin g rol e i n th e text s themselves. Th e firs t an d perhap s mos t fundamenta l them e concern s th e paradoxical tensio n inheren t i n huma n relationa l life . Fro m th e momen t of birth , w e nee d an d ar e dependen t o n othe r huma n beings , an d tha t dependency make s for inevitabl e ambivalence . W e love and hate the sam e person; w e nee d th e other' s recognitio n an d care , bu t th e helplessnes s bound u p wit h tha t nee d incite s ange r an d fear . Th e ke y developmenta l task, a s Winnicott an d othe r objec t relation s theorist s hav e argued , i s t o tolerate th e tensio n o f ambivalenc e an d accep t th e paradoxica l natur e o f passionate life . Ou r nee d fo r dee p contac t an d connectio n wit h a n othe r also competes with the need to keep intact an inviolate core self, an d thu s the dialectical tension betwee n I-nes s an d we-ness, separatenes s an d one ness, play s beneat h th e surfac e o f ever y significan t relationshi p through out ou r lives . The two writers who frame thi s collection, Wordsworth an d Hoffman , both celebrat e a liberatin g visio n tha t i s achieve d precisel y throug h th e struggle to tolerate ambivalence and sustain paradox. The tension betwee n oneness an d separatenes s i s no t resolve d i n favo r o f eithe r pol e i n thei r work; thei r imaginativ e world s shar e a n enjoymen t o f th e intermediary , suspended stat e o f transitional , illusor y play . Fo r bot h writers , freedo m 180

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is found no t in an escape from bond s an d limits, but in the very discover y of limit s an d i n th e revitalize d trus t i n huma n bonds . I n th e work s o f several o f th e othe r writers , w e se e th e tensio n ofte n resolvin g i n favo r of on e o r th e othe r pole . Mergin g an d drownin g fantasie s figur e consis tently throughout thes e works, though they are accompanied b y differin g defensive responses . The Rhys novel yields to despair and death; Beattie' s work defend s wit h ironi c detachment ; an d th e tw o othe r mal e writers , Lawrence an d Updike, displa y th e characteristically mal e defensive strat egies of dominatio n an d control . Morrison' s nove l shows how th e abilit y to sustai n th e dialectica l tensio n i s deeply affecte d b y th e large r cultura l context. I f subjectivit y o r I-nes s ha s bee n denie d o n th e cultura l a s wel l as the immediat e baby-caretake r level , the n th e establishmen t o f bound aries and the maintenance o f tension, a s Beloved's character s s o movingl y reveal, becom e al l the mor e difficult . Severa l o f th e works, furthermore , depict narcissistic mothers with impaired boundaries , a phenomenon tha t must b e understood, again , a s part o f th e larger cultural denia l of female / maternal subjectivity . Another interestin g patter n tha t emerge s i n th e work s o f th e wome n writers i s the important rol e played b y a nurturing, materna l male figure . Edgar i n Wutbering Heights, Pau l D i n Beloved, Me l i n Picturing Will, and Ac e in Seventh Heaven ar e all tender caretaker s wh o provide critica l psychological suppor t fo r othe r characters . Th e pattern suggest s tha t th e nurturing car e o f a chil d i s no t restricte d b y gender , an d tha t a male' s involvement ca n b e a s profoun d a s a female's . I d o no t interpre t th e liberating rol e tha t thes e mal e character s pla y a s evidenc e tha t a mal e figure i s necessar y t o rescu e th e chil d fro m th e materna l dyad . Rather , these work s al l conve y th e clamorou s nee d fo r a nurturing other ; i f th e experience with th e original female othe r has been particularly frustratin g and thu s ambivalenc e remain s severe , th e tur n t o a nurturing mal e rep resents a safer choic e tha n anothe r female . Real liberatio n comes , however , no t onl y wit h th e alternativ e mal e mothering, bu t also , a s i n th e Hoffma n novel , wit h forgivenes s o f th e female mother' s imperfection . I f th e child , lik e Wordsworth , ca n com e to fee l tha t th e mothe r "neve r di d betra y th e hear t tha t love d her, " the n the stag e i s se t fo r trust—trus t i n wome n a s wel l a s men . A s lon g a s women remain the primary caretakers in our society, then trusting women will continu e t o b e mor e problemati c tha n trustin g men . An d trust , fi nally, i s perhap s th e mos t pivota l them e o f thi s study . I f selfhoo d i s

182 Afterword relationally constructed , the n trus t i s th e glue . Muc h i n th e worl d con spires agains t trust ; numerou s form s o f socia l oppressio n an d injustic e create rea l an d presen t obstacle s t o th e formatio n o f trust . Nevertheless , without it—withou t fait h i n th e potentia l goodnes s i n bot h sel f an d other—we remain imprisoned, personall y a s well as politically, b y apath y and despair . Eve n th e bleakes t o f th e literar y work s i n thi s study , how ever, stil l represen t testament s o f faith . Trus t i s implici t i n th e creative , artistic act itself, in the conversion of private suffering int o communicabl e form, an d i n th e assumptio n tha t inne r experience , n o matte r ho w dar k or painful , ca n indee d b e shared .

Notes

1. Introduction 1. Jan e Flax , i n Thinking Fragments: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and Postmodernism in the Contemporary West, make s th e poin t tha t postmodernist s "seem t o confus e tw o differen t an d logicall y distinc t concept s o f th e self : a 'unitary' an d a 'core' one," and sh e argues tha t "thos e wh o celebrat e o r cal l for a 'decentered' sel f see m self-deceptivel y naiv e an d unawar e o f th e basi c cohesion withi n themselve s tha t make s th e fragmentatio n o f experience s something othe r tha n a terrifying slid e int o psychosis " (218-19) . 2. Th e bes t summar y o f Klein' s wor k ca n b e foun d i n Hann a Segal , Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein. A n in-dept h accoun t o f th e variou s object relation s theorie s presente d her e i s beyon d th e inten t an d scop e o f this introduction . I refe r th e intereste d reade r t o Greenber g an d Mitchel l for b y fa r th e mos t comprehensiv e synthesi s an d incisiv e analyse s o f objec t relations theorie s withi n th e psychoanalytic tradition . Fo r brie f synopse s o f several of these preoedipal theories as they bear on the concept of narcissism , see als o Lynn e Layto n an d Barbar a Schapiro , 1-19 . 3. Joh n Bowlby' s wor k als o focuse s o n infantil e dependence , specificall y o n attachment an d los s a s th e mos t powerfu l determinant s i n psychologica l development. Unlik e th e othe r Britis h objec t relation s theorists , however , Bowlby ground s hi s theor y i n etholog y an d i n th e Darwinia n theor y o f natural selection . H e postulate s "attachment " a s a form o f instinc t {Attachment and Loss, 2 vols.). Bowlby's work, wit h its heavy biological emphasis , does no t delv e int o th e emotiona l an d relationa l vicissitude s o r th e variou s symbolic manifestation s o f unconsciou s menta l life . 183

184 1.

Introduction

4. Alic e Miller' s The Drama of the Gifted Child, an d James Masterson' s The Real Se/fan d The Search for the Real Self, also present extensiv e discussion s of th e "false self"—it s strategies , behaviora l traits , an d consequences o n th e emotional lif e o f th e individual . 5. Th e "isomorphism" of the child/mother experience in psychoanalytic theor y is also raised a s a critical issu e in th e introduction t o The (M)other Tongue: Essays in Feminist Psychoanalytic Interpretation, ed . Shirley Nelson Garner , Claire Kahane , an d Madelo n Sprengnether , e.g. , 25 ; by Susa n Suleima n i n "Writing an d Motherhood, " i n tha t volum e (352-77) ; i n th e introductio n to Narrating Mothers, ed . Brend a O . Dal y an d Mauree n T . Reddy , 1-18 ; and b y Madelo n Sprengnethe r i n The Spectral Mother. Sprengnethe r trie s to bridg e Frenc h an d Anglo-America n psychoanalyti c theorie s b y reorient ing the mother's position a s both present (as she is in object relations theory ) and absen t (he r rol e i n th e Lacania n formulation) . Sh e conceptualize s sub jectivity a s base d o n a n "elegia c construct"—understandin g th e ego , i n Freud's terms , a s " 'th e precipitat e o f abandone d object-cathexes ' "—an d thus sh e see s th e organizatio n o f th e sel f a s always precipitate d b y th e los s of th e mother . Fo r Sprengnether , thi s los s i s originary , no t secondar y t o symbiosis or, i n Lacanian terms, the Imaginary. The mother's body is "bot h origin an d Other " (9) , representativ e o f bot h hom e an d no t home , th e sit e of Freud' s uncanny . I f suc h separatio n i s originary , the n ther e i s n o nee d for th e fathe r o r phallu s t o instigat e differenc e an d th e proces s o f signifi cation. Thu s "th e bod y o f th e (m)othe r ma y actuall y provid e a new , an d material, groun d fo r understandin g th e pla y o f languag e an d desire " (10) . While Sprengnethe r present s a fascinatin g critiqu e o f bot h Freu d an d Lacan, i n he r ow n theorizin g sh e bot h normalize s an d universalize s a con dition o f radica l self-estrangement . Th e assumptio n o f suc h dee p self alienation o r "interna l splitting " (234) , whic h Sprengnethe r see s a s fun damentally characteristi c o f th e materna l experienc e an d o f th e huma n condition i n general , i s ope n t o questio n fro m othe r psychoanalyti c an d clinical perspectives . 6. Se e Alfred Flarshei m (508) for a discussion of Winnicott's concept of illusio n and th e specifi c way s i n which Winnicott' s "illusion " differ s fro m th e ter m "delusion." 7. Arnol d Model l als o discusse s th e transitiona l objec t a s th e basi s fo r a psy chology o f creativit y i n ar t an d life . Se e Object Love and Reality, e.g. , 2 8 42, an d Psychoanalysis in a New Context, e.g. , 187-98 . 8. Jone s draw s o n Christophe r Bollas' s conceptio n o f th e mothe r a s a "transformational object. " A s Bolla s explain s i n The Shadow of the Object, "th e mother help s to integrate th e infant's bein g (instinctual, cognitive , affective , environmental). . . the mother is experienced as a process of transformation " (14). 9. Rogers' s most recent book, Self and Other, argue s not only for a reorienting of psychoanalyti c theor y fro m drive-centere d t o person-centered , bu t als o for a reorienting o f objec t relation s theor y suc h tha t i t will have completel y

4. Gender, Self, and the Rational Matrix 18 5 "dispensed with the assumptions of libido theory an d the metapsychologica l trappings o f eg o psychology" (44) . Rogers woul d lik e t o se e an objec t relations theor y grounde d i n Bowlby' s biologica l attachmen t theor y an d developed i n terms simila r t o the systemic mode l o f cybernetics. 10. Se e in particular Holland' s Critical I, i n which h e argues agains t Laca n and postmodern critica l theorie s fo r an acknowledgment o f autho r an d reader as individual persons . 11. Fo r an interesting discussio n o f "empathic reading " fro m a Kohutian per spective, se e J. Brook s Bouson , e.g. , 169-72. 12. Fo r a brie f summar y o f recen t psychoanalyti c idea s abou t th e relation ship of narcissistic injury t o artistic creativity, se e also Layton an d Schapiro , 19-27.

4. Gender, Self, and the Relational Matrix: D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf 1. Joh n Clayton' s recen t boo k Gestures of Healing: Anxiety and the Modern Novel use s a n object relation s framewor k t o make a compelling argumen t about modernis m i n general. Clayto n look s a t modernism a s "a conditio n of feelin g shape d b y particula r kind s o f childhoo d experienc e durin g th e unfolding o f a particular historica l moment" (viii) . That conditio n of feeling is primarily anxiety—"th e experienc e o f being a fragile o r empty sel f i n an empty world " (6)—an d i t is shaped, Clayto n believes , b y a specific familia l configuration i n whic h th e mother i s narcissisti c an d controlling an d the father wea k an d ineffectual: "Controllin g mother , wea k fathe r wh o has fallen: Thi s descriptio n i s a kind o f cultural metapho r fo r altered relation s in th e modern nuclea r family ; i t is also a description o f the actual familie s of Britis h an d American earl y modernis t novelists " (33) . Clayton i s not arguing fo r the resurrection o f the patriarchal family , bu t he is analyzin g the anxiet y arouse d whe n "traditiona l ground s o f support hav e bee n lost " (31). H e concludes tha t modernis t literatur e an d art offer "a n orientatio n to a disorientin g reality " (140) ; the y reflec t reparativ e acts—gesture s o f healing—in respons e to , and in a struggle against , anxiety , emptiness , and alienation. 2. Hein z Kohu t discusse s the particularly flui d self-structur e o f creative artist s in "Childhoo d Experienc e an d th e Creativ e Imagination, " i n Ornstei n 1:271-74. 3. Th e first extensiv e Freudia n stud y o f Lawrenc e i s Daniel Weiss' s Oedipus in Nottingham. Othe r psychologica l studie s focusin g o n Lawrence's rela tionship wit h hi s mother an d his attitude towar d wome n hav e employe d a variety o f approaches , includin g Jungian , Eriksonian , an d Laingian. See, for instance , Marguerit e Beed e Howe , Gavrie l Ben-Ephraim , an d Judith Ruderman. Jeffre y Berma n analyze s Pau l More l a s a "troubled Narcissus " and illuminates the preoedipal ambivalence that informs al l of the characters' relationships i n Sons and Lovers. Danie l Dervi n an d Margaret Storc h als o

186 4.

Gender, Self, and the Relational Matrix

highlight preoedipa l dynamic s i n Lawrence's texts . Dervin' s i s a more gen eral, theoretical examination of Lawrence's work, applyin g Winnicott's idea s in particular t o an analysis o f Lawrence' s creativ e process an d developmen t as a writer. Storc h relie s almos t exclusivel y o n Melani e Klein' s theorie s t o illuminate th e dee p ambivalenc e an d splittin g o f mother/woma n tha t sh e finds i n Lawrence' s fiction. 4. Se e Kohut ; Stern ; an d Benjamin . Fo r brie f summarie s o f thei r ideas , se e also th e introduction t o thi s volume . 5. Woolf' s wor k ha s attracte d a voluminou s amoun t o f attentio n b y bot h psychoanalytic an d feminis t literar y critic s i n recen t years . Som e notabl e psychological studie s includ e thos e b y Jea n O . Love , Roge r Poole , an d Louise DeSalvo. These critics view Woolf's fiction a s a therapeutic workin g through o f trauma ; Lov e an d Pool e concentrat e o n Woolf' s menta l illnes s and breakdown s i n relation t o her art, while DeSalv o focuse s o n the child hood sexua l abus e Wool f suffere d a t the hands o f he r half-brothers . Mar k Spilka stresse s Woolf' s inabilit y t o mour n he r mother's deat h an d see s her incomplete grievin g as central to her writing. Phylli s Rose and James Nare more discus s Wool f fro m th e Laingia n perspectiv e o f "th e divide d self, " while Makik o Minow-Pinkne y use s Lacania n concept s i n he r feminis t argument. Shirley Panken' s stud y offer s a balanced psychoanalyti c vie w o f th e intersections o f Woolf' s lif e an d art . Sh e views Woolf' s fiction "a s a mean s of gainin g th e love o f exalted , materna l figures, o f mournin g he r losses, o f grappling with her emotional dilemmas " and sees evidence in both th e work and th e life as pointing towar d a n overriding "nee d fo r rescue" (7). Because Woolf wa s unabl e t o internaliz e " a consistentl y nurturin g an d sustainin g relationship wit h he r mothe r o r father, " Panke n conclude s tha t "Woolf' s ability to heal early emotional wounds, he r capacity to separate, individuat e and creat e a n integrate d identity , remaine d unresolved " (13) . Despite th e conflicts reveale d i n the fiction, however , Panke n stresse s Woolf' s creativ e "power t o impos e for m ove r chaos " (12). Elizabeth Abel , Elle n Bayu k Rosenman , an d Jane Lillenfel d als o focu s on the centrality of the relationship with the mother in Woolf's novels . Abe l examines wha t sh e sees a s both Freudia n "patricentric " an d Kleinian "ma tricentric" narrative s i n Woolf' s fiction, outlinin g "th e force s guidin g Woolf's trajector y fro m matrilinea r t o patrilinear definition s o f th e daugh ter" {Virginia Woolf 85) . Sh e tie s Woolf' s wor k t o th e socia l histor y o f gender withi n psychoanalysis . Rosenma n an d Lillenfeld focu s o n the desire for fusio n o r symbiotic onenes s with th e mother. Lillenfel d work s with the archetype o f th e Grea t Mother . Rosenma n emphasize s Woolf' s desir e t o recover her dead mother (who died when Virginia was thirteen). Rosenman' s critical analysis , thoug h i t mentions Chodoro w a couple o f times , doe s not really emplo y a depth-psychological perspective . Ernest an d Ina Wolf, J . Brook s Bouson , an d Jeffrey Berma n al l analyze Woolf's character s i n term s o f underlyin g an d pervasiv e narcissisti c dis -

4. Gender, Self, and the Rational Matrix 18

7

turbance. Berma n sees th e repeate d reference s i n Mrs. Dalloway t o a wounded o r disease d hear t a s highlightin g th e injure d narcissis m tha t i s the novel' s prim e subject . Th e Wolf s an d Bouso n examin e Woolf' s wor k within a specificall y Kohutia n framework . Th e Wolf s analyz e th e fragile , narcissistic self-structur e o f Mrs . Ramsa y an d relat e i t t o Woolf' s ow n family history . Bouso n emphasize s th e defensiv e strategie s i n Mrs. Dalloway tha t serv e t o protec t agains t a narcissistic disintegratio n o f self , an d she show s ho w critic s collud e i n upholdin g thes e defense s i n thei r reading s of th e text . 6. Panke n analyze s th e difficultie s Wool f hersel f face d i n establishin g a fir m feminine identificatio n wit h he r mother : "Juli a Stephen' s depression , ex cessive involvement wit h he r famil y o f origin , preoccupatio n wit h he r dea d husband, favoritis m o f son, distancing of Leslie, at the same time envisionin g him a father-figure, di d no t provide a consistent o r firm feminin e mode l fo r Virginia. Followin g th e mother' s death , Woolf' s inabilit y t o mourn , t o resolve her submerged ange r regarding he r mother, interfere d wit h th e evolution o f he r feminin e an d heterosexua l identification " (15-16) . 7. Panke n als o discusses th e importanc e o f th e ora l an d incorporativ e imager y in Woolf's wor k an d it s root s i n Woolf's ow n developmenta l histor y (e.g. , 134-35). 8. Joh n Clayto n believe s tha t beneat h th e separat e voice s an d multipl e point s of vie w i n Woolf' s work , ther e i s a n assuranc e o f unit y i n th e underlyin g voice: the omniscient narrative voice offers "lovin g reassurance of wholenes s and continuit y eve n a s th e worl d represente d i s on e o f fragmentatio n an d evanescence" (118). For him, Woolf' s aesthetic s manifest a "healing fusion " (176), an d h e claim s t o leav e he r text s wit h a n "assuranc e o f wholeness " (180). I don' t shar e this response; rather, I a m moved mor e b y th e sens e of heroic effor t (epitomize d b y th e fina l imag e o f Bernard ) tha t he r wor k evokes, b y th e struggl e not t o succum b t o a deathlik e fusio n o r dediffer entiated state . 9. Som e feminist critic s complai n tha t psychoanalyti c objec t relation s theorie s contribute t o "mothe r bashing"—blamin g th e mothe r fo r al l psychologica l ills. This is a simplistic notion that should not be inferred fro m m y argument s about th e narcissisti c problem s o f mother s i n th e text s I analyze . Th e re lational perspectiv e allow s u s t o understan d all psychologica l problem s a s contextual, a s belongin g t o a large r systemi c networ k o f relationships . I f the mother s ar e represente d a s lacking ful l subjectivity , a s being withou t a sense of thei r ow n agenc y an d authenti c selfhood , thi s mus t b e understoo d as part o f a larger cultura l deprivatio n an d negatio n o f women' s narcissisti c needs. Th e culture' s denia l o f women' s authorit y an d freedo m enforce s an d exacerbates women' s narcissisti c wounds ; suc h narcissisti c problem s the n necessarily complicat e women' s mothering . Thi s genera l assumptio n un derlies m y perspectiv e her e bu t i s outsid e th e scop e o f m y critica l analysis , which focuse s specificall y o n th e interpersona l an d intrapsychi c dynamic s of th e texts .

188 7

. Internal World and the Social Environment

5. Boundaries and

Betrayal in Jean Rhys's Wid e Sargass o Se a

1. See , fo r instance , Debora h Kell y Kloepfer , Kath y Mezei , an d Nanc y R . Harrison. Mos t recen t psychoanalyti c studie s o f Rhy s hav e employe d a Lacanian perspective . Thes e studie s ti e the novel' s portraya l o f femal e sub jectivity a s alienated an d illusory t o Lacan' s ideas about the maternal/femal e position i n languag e an d culture . 2. See , i n particular , Gilber t Rose' s Trauma and Mastery in Life and Art an d Davi d Aberbach' s Surviving Trauma. 3. I t i s interestin g t o not e h o w th e them e o f corruption/contaminatio n by th e othe r get s playe d ou t i n th e whit e an d blac k imager y her e (he r white dress , hi s fac e "blac k wit h h a t r e d , " etc.) . Th e imager y ha s racia l implications an d i s indee d tie d i n wit h Antoinette' s complicate d an d am bivalent relationship s wit h th e blac k character s i n th e novel . Ton i M o r rison, i n he r recen t stud y Playing in the Dark, explore s th e politica l dimension o f suc h imager y a s i t figure s throughou t America n literature . 7. Internal World and the Social Environment: Toni Morrison's Belove d 1. Madonn e Mine r see s Cholly' s rap e o f Pecol a a s arising ou t o f hi s desperat e desire for recognition, for "confirmation o f his presence" (179). This reading again support s Benjamin' s thesi s abou t th e dee p intertwinin g o f love , rec ognition, an d domination. Mine r als o discusses identity issue s in The Bluest Eye i n term s o f a "constantl y shiftin g balanc e betwee n seein g an d bein g seen" and the "distortion o f this visual balance" (184) that sexism and racism create. 2. Th e emphasis her e o n Pau l D's "holding " qualit y call s to min d Winnicott' s argument abou t th e need for th e mother t o provide a reliable and protectiv e "holding environment " fo r th e infant . Suc h "holding " form s th e basi s fo r trust i n bot h sel f an d worl d (se e Winnicott , Maturational Processes, e.g., 43-44). 3. Storie s an d storytellin g figure prominentl y i n th e fiction o f man y black w o m e n writers , an d thei r significanc e i s roote d historicall y i n th e slave narrativ e an d i n th e ric h fol k traditio n o f blac k culture . Se e Willi s for a historically informe d rhetorica l analysi s o f h o w blac k ora l traditio n shapes narrativ e for m i n blac k women' s fiction; se e Skerret t fo r a dis cussion o f storytellin g i n Song of Solomon. M y depth-psychologica l anal ysis o f th e functio n o f storie s i n Beloved i s compatibl e wit h an d ca n complement historical , sociological , an d rhetorica l perspectives .

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Oates, Joyce Carol . "Updike' s America n Comedies. " Modern Fiction Studies 2 1 (1975): 459-72 . O'Connor, Teres a F. Jean Rhys: The West Indian Novels. Ne w York: New Yor k UP, 1986 . Ogden, Thomas. The Matrix of the Mind: Object Relations and the Psychoanalytic Dialogue. Northvale , NJ : Aronson , 1986 . Onorato, Richard. The Character of the Poet: Wordsworth in the Prelude. Prince ton: Princeto n UP , 1971 . Ornstein, Paul , ed . The Search for the Self: Selected Writings of Heinz Kohut, 1950-1978. 2 vols. Ne w York : Internationa l P , 1978 . Panken, Shirley . Virginia Woolf and the "Lust of Creation": A Psychoanalytic Exploration. Albany : Stat e U o f Ne w Yor k P , 1987 . Poole, Roger . The Unknown Virginia Woolf. Cambridge, England : Cambridg e UP, 1978 . Rhys, Jean . The Letters of Jean Rhys. Ed . Franci s Wyndha m an d Dian a Melly . New York : Viking , 1984 . . Smile Please: An Unfinished Autobiography [1979] . Ne w York : Harpe r & Row , 1980 . . Wide Sargasso Sea [1966] . New York : Norton , 1982 . Rizzuto, Ana-Maria . The Birth of the Living God: A Psychoanalytic Study. Chi cago: U o f Chicag o P , 1979 . Rogers, Robert . Metaphor: A Psychoanalytic View. Berkeley : U o f Californi a P , 1978. . Self and Other: Object Relations in Psychoanalysis and Literature. Ne w York: Ne w Yor k UP , 1991 . Rose, Gilbert . "Th e Creativit y o f Everyda y Life. " Between Reality and Fantasy. 347-62. . Trauma and Mastery in Life and Art. Ne w Haven : Yal e UP , 1987 . Rose, Phyllis . Woman of Letters: A Life of Virginia Woolf and the MotherDaughter Relationship. Bato n Rouge : Louisian a Stat e UP , 1986 . Rosenman, Elle n Bayuk. The Invisible Presence: Virginia Woolf and the MotherDaughter Relationship. Bato n Rouge : Louisian a Stat e UP, 1986 . Ruderman, Judith . D. H. Lawrence and the Devouring Mother: The Search for the Patriarchal Ideal of Leadership. Durham , N C : Duk e UP , 1984 . Schapiro, Barbara . The Romantic Mother: Narcissistic Patterns in Romantic Poetry. Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s UP , 1983 . Schneiderman, Leo . "Moder n Fictiona l Protagonists : Motherles s Children , Fa therless Waifs. " American Journal of Psychoanalysis 5 0 (1990) : 215-29. Schopen, Bernard. "Faith , Morality, an d the Novels of John Updike." TwentiethCentury Literature 2 4 (1978) : 523-35. Schwartz, Murray . "Wher e I s Literature? " College English 3 6 (1975) : 756-65 . Segal, Hanna . Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein. 2 d ed . Ne w York : Basic, 1974 . Skerrett, Josep h T . "Recitatio n t o th e Griot : Storytellin g an d Learnin g i n Ton i Morrison's Song of Solomon." Conjuring. 192-202 .

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Solomon, Eric . "Th e Inces t Them e i n Wuthering Heights." Nineteenth-Century Fiction 1 4 (1959): 80-83 . Spilka, Mark . Virginia Woolfs Quarrel with Grieving. Lincoln : U o f Nebrask a P, 1980 . Sprengnether, Madelon . The Spectral Mother: Freud, Feminism, and Psychoanalysis. Ithaca : Cornel l UP , 1990 . Stelzig, Eugene . All Shades of Consciousness: Wordsworth's Poetry and the Self in Time. Paris : Mouton, 1975 . Stern, Daniel . The Interpersonal World of the Infant. Ne w York : Basic , 1985 . Storch, Margaret . Sons and Adversaries: Women in William Blake and D. H. Lawrence. Knoxville : U o f Tennesse e P , 1990 . Sullivan, Harr y Stack . Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry. Ne w York : Norton , 1940. Thompson, Wade . "Infanticid e an d Sadis m i n Wuthering Heights." PMLA 7 8 (1963): 69-74 . Turner, John . "Wordswort h an d Winnicot t i n th e Are a o f Play. " International Review of Psycho-Analysis 15. 4 (1988) : 481-97. Twitchell, James . "Heathclif f a s Vampire. " Southern Humanities Review 1 1 (1977): 355-62 . Updike, John . Assorted Prose. Ne w York : Knopf , 1965 . . The Centaur. Ne w York : Knopf , 1963 . . Hugging the Shore: Essays and Criticism. Ne w York : Knopf , 1983 . . Introduction . Soundings in Satanism. Ed . F . J. Sheed . Ne w York : Shee d & Ward , 1972 . . A Month of Sundays. Ne w York : Knopf , 1975 . . Of the Farm. Ne w York : Knopf , 1965 . . Pigeon Feathers and Other Stories. Ne w York : Knopf , 1962 . . Rabbit at Rest. Ne w York : Knopf , 1990 . . Rabbit Is Rich. Ne w York : Knopf , 1981 . . Rabbit Redux. Ne w York : Knopf , 1971 . . Rabbit, Run. Ne w York : Knopf , 1960 . . Roger's Version. Ne w York : Knopf , 1986 . . " A Sandston e Farmhouse. " New Yorker 1 1 June 1990 : 36-48. . Self-Consciousness: Memoirs. Ne w York : Knopf , 1989 . . The Witches of Eastwick. Ne w York : Knopf , 1984 . Uphaus, Suzanne . John Updike. Ne w York : Ungar , 1980 . Van Ghent , Dorothy . The English Novel: Form and Function. Ne w York : Holt , Rinehart, & Winston , 1953 . Verduin, Kathleen . "Sex , Nature , an d Dualis m i n The Witches of Eastwick." Modern Language Quarterly 4 6 (1985) : 293-315. Waugh, Patricia . Feminine Fictions: Revisiting the Postmodern. London : Rout ledge, 1989 . Weiss, Daniel . Oedipus in Nottingham. Seattle : U o f Washingto n P , 1962 . Wessling, Joseph. "Narcissis m i n Ton i Morrison' s Sula." College Language Association Journal 3 1 (1988) : 281-98.

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Whitehead, Alfre d North . Nature and Life. 1934 . New York: Greenwood, 1968 . Willis, Susan . Specifying: Black Women Writing the American Experience. Mad ison: U o f Wisconsi n P , 1987 . Wills, Garry . "Long-Distanc e Runner. " New York Review of Books 2 5 Oct . 1990: 11-14 . Winnicott, D . W . The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. Ne w York : Internationa l UP, 1965 . . Playing and Reality. London : Tavistock , 1971 . . Through Paediatrics to Psycho-Analysis. London : Hogarth , 1958 . Wion, Phili p K . "Th e Absen t Mothe r i n Emil y Bronte' s Wuthering Heights." American Imago 4 2 (1985) : 143-64 . Wolf, Ernest , an d In a Wolf . " 'W e Perished , Eac h Alone' : A Psychoanalyti c Commentary o n Virgini a Woolf s To the Lighthouse." Narcissism and the Text. 255-72 . Woolf, Virginia . Mrs. Dalloway [1925] . New York : Harcourt , Brace , & World , 1953. . To the Lighthouse [1927] . New York : Harcourt , Brace , & World, 1955 . . The Waves [1931] . New York : Harcourt , Brace , & World , 1959 . Wordsworth, William . The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth. 5 vols. Ed . Ernest d e Selincourt an d Hele n Darbishire . London : Oxfor d UP , 1940-1949 . . The Prelude (Tex t o f 1805) . Ed . Ernes t d e Selincourt . 2 d ed . revise d b y Stephen Gill . London : Oxfor d UP , 1970 . . The Prose Works of William Wordsworth. 3 vols . Ed . W . J . B . Owe n and Jane Worthingto n Smyser . London : Oxfor d UP , 1974 . Zukov, Gary . The Dancing Wu Li Masters: An Overview of the New Physics. New York : Bantam , 1980 .

Index

Abel, Elizabeth , 79 , 85 , 98 , 102 , 18 6 n. 5 Aberbach, David , 18 8 n. 2 Aldridge, John , 12 4 Allen, Mary , 10 8 Analysis of the Self, The (Kohut) , 12 , 4 9 Angier, Carole , 86-88 , 9 2 Athill, Diana , 92 , 10 0 Attachment and Loss (Bowlby), 18 3 n. 3 Atwood, George , 2 4 Barth, Karl , 106- 7 Beattie, Ann , 28 , 144-60 , 163 , 18 1 Works cited : Chilly Scenes of Winter, 146-54, 156 ; "Distant Music " (Secrets and Surprises), 153 ; "The Lifeguard " (Secrets and Surprises), 153 ; Falling in Place, 145-150 , 152 , 155 , 159 ; Love Always, 147 , 154 ; Picturing Will, 157 59, 181 ; "Windy Da y a t th e Reservoir" (What Was Mine), 155-57 ; "You Kno w What " (What Was Mine), 15 0 Ben-Ephraim, Gavriel , 18 5 n. 3 Benjamin, Jessica , 19 , 28 , 40-41 , 69 , 70 , 72-74, 77, 83 , 127-29 , 133 , 136 , 141, 165, 18 6 n.4, 18 8 n.(7) l Bergman, Anni , 1 1

Berman, Jeffrey , 47 , 49 , 61 , 66, 74 , 7778, 18 5 n.3, 186-18 7 n. 5 Birth of the Living God, The (Rizzuto) , 109 Blake, William , 2 9 Bloom, Harold , 12 6 Bollas, Christopher , 22-24 , 18 4 n. 8 Bonds of Love, The (Benjamin) , 19 , 127 , 129, 16 5 Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (Kernberg) , 5 0 Bouson, J . Brooks , 77, 18 5 n. 11, 186-8 7 n.5 Bowlby, John , 47 , 18 3 n.3, 18 5 n. 9 Brierly, Marjorie , 4 4 Bronte, Charlotte , 47 , 8 4 Bronte, Emily , 26 , 46-61 , 6 4 Works cited : Wuthering Heights, 26 , 46-61, 100-1 , 18 1 Burgin, Richard , 10 7 Cat in the Hat, The (Dr . Seuss) , 15 6 Chaos theory , 3 Chase, Richard , 4 7 Chodorow, Nancy , 14-18 , 62-66 , 83 , 135, 18 6 n. 5 Clarke, C . C , 2 9

197

198 Index Clayton, John , 73 , 86 , 18 5 n. l Coleridge, Samue l Taylor , 3 2 Critical I, The (Holland) , 18 5 n.l 0 Culture of Narcissism, The (Lasch) , 1 4 Curtis, Jan , 9 5 Daly, Brenda , 18 4 n . 5 Deri, Susan , 2 0 de Rougemont , Denis , 10 6 Dervin, Daniel , 67 , 71 , 74 , 185-8 6 n. 3 DeSalvo, Louise , 18 6 n. 5 Dinnage, Rosemary , 4 2 Dinnerstein, Dorothy , 16-17 , 6 5 Doll's House, A (Ibsen) , 17 1 Drama of the Gifted Child, The (A. Miller) , 110 , 18 4 n. 4 Dupre, Louis , 4 4 Dynamics of Literary Response, The (Holland), 2 4 Ellis, David , 36 , 4 0 Erikson, Erik , 11 , 1 8 Fairbairn, W . R . D. , 7 , 8 Feminine Fictions (Waugh), 6 4 Fine, Ronald , 5 4 Flarsheim, Alfred , 35 , 18 4 n. 6 Flax, Jane , 14-15 , 17 , 19 , 81 , 18 3 n. l Freud, Sigmund , 1 , 5-7 , 9 , 83 , 87 , 107 , 184 n. 5 Friedman, Michael , 3 3 Fromm, Erich , 1 0 Frosh, Stephen , 1 5 Gardiner, Judit h Kegan , 85-86 , 93 , 10 2 Gestures of Healing (Clayton) , 18 5 n. l Ghent, Emmanuel , 16 7 Gilbert, Sandra , 46 , 4 8 Gilligan, Carol , 16-17 , 26 , 63-64 , 74 , 78 , 83, 13 5 Gleick, James , 3 Greenberg, Jay , 5-10 , 18 3 n. 2 Greiner, Donald , 12 1 Gross, Terry , 12 5 Gubar, Susan , 46 , 4 8 Guntrip, Harry , 7-8 , 13 , 128 , 130-3 1 Hafley, James , 51-5 2 Harrison, Nanc y R. , 18 8 n. l

Hartman, Geoffrey , 2 9 Heffernan, James , 3 6 Heisenberg, Werner , 2 Hoffman, Alice , 28 , 160-79 , 180-8 1 Works cited : Fortune's Daughter, 175; Illumination Night, 165 ; Seventh Heaven, 28 , 160-79 , 181 ; Turtle Moon, 165-66 , 17 5 Holland, Norman , 24 , 18 5 n.l 0 Horney, Karen , 1 0 Horvath, Brooke , 105 , 11 1 Howe, Marguerit e Beede , 18 5 n. 3 Hulbert, Ann , 145 , 158-5 9 Ibsen, Henrik , 17 2 Illusion: a s creative construction , 21-22 , 28, 35-36 , 41 , 43 , 161-62 , 176-78 , 184 n.6. See also Objec t relations : an d transitional phenomen a In a Different Voice (Gilligan), 1 7 Internal World and External Reality (Kernberg), 50 , 61 , 14 5 Interpersonal psychoanalysis , 1 0 Interpersonal World of the Infant, The (Stern), 11-1 2 Intersubjectivity, 11-12 , 19 , 21 , 31 , 40-41 , 69, 72 , 74 , 129 . See also Atwood , George; Benjamin , Jessica ; Stern , Daniel; Stolorow , Rober t Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein (Segal), 18 3 n. 2 Jacobson, Edith , 1 0 Jane Eyre (C . Bronte) , 84 , 101 , 10 3 Jones, James , 21 , 22 , 105 , 18 4 n. 8 Jordan, Judith , 1 8 Kernberg, Otto , 10 , 38-39 , 49-50 , 51 , 55 56, 61 , 86 , 14 5 Klein, Melanie , 6 , 7 , 26 , 50 , 56 , 61 , 64 , 81, 91 , 121 , 132 , 18 3 n.2, 18 6 n. 3 Kloepfer, Debora h Kelly , 18 8 n. l Kohut, Heinz , 12-13 , 18 , 49 , 55 , 57 , 69 , 70, 83 , 86 , 89 , 110 , 114 , 133 , 145 , 148, 18 5 n.2 , 18 6 n. 4 Kuhn, Thomas , 1 Lacan, Jacques , 4 , 22-23 , 81 , 103 , 162 , 184 n.5 , 185n.l0 , 18 8 n. l Langer, Suzanne , 2 1

Index 19 9 Lasch, Christopher , 14 , 28 , 144-45 , 15 4 Lawrence, D . H. , 26 , 62 , 64-77 , 80 , 83 , 181, 185-8 6 n. 3 Works cited : "Th e Blin d Man, " 73-74 ; The Rainbow, 70 ; "The Rocking Horse Winner, " 66 ; Sons and Lovers, 65-71, 73 , 18 5 n.3 ; Women in Love, 65, 68-7 3 Layton, Lynne , 12-13 , 18 3 n.2, 18 5 n.1 2 Lillenfeld, Jane , 18 6 n. 5 Loewald, Hans , 4 , 23 , 35 , 4 4 Love, Jea n O. , 18 6 n. 5 Lynch, David , 16 3 McDargh, John , 21 , 44 , 10 9 Mahler, Margaret , 6 , 10 , 11 , 18 , 48 , 11 0 Masterson, James , 18 4 n. 4 Meissner, William , 21 , 22 , 39 , 41-42 , 11 0 Mermaid and the Minotaur, The (Dinnerstein), 1 6 Mezei, Kathy , 18 8 n. l Miller, Alice , 27 , 52 , 57 , 61 , 110-11 , 112 , 122, 18 4 n. 4 Miller, Jea n Baker , 17-1 8 Milner, Marion , 13 , 43-44 , 12 1 Milton, John , 2 9 Miner, Madonne , 18 8 n.(7) l Minow-Pinkney, Makiko , 18 6 n. 5 Mitchell, Stephen , 1-5 , 7-10 , 13 , 17 , 30 31, 40 , 18 3 n. 2 Modell, Arnold , 13-14 , 23 , 18 4 n. 7 Moers, Ellen , 46-4 7 Morrison, Andrew , 8 9 Morrison, Toni , 27-28 , 127-43 , 181 , 18 8 n.3 Works cited : Beloved, 27-28 , 127-43 , 181 , 188 n.(7)3 ; The Bluest Eye, 130 , 18 8 n.(7)l; Playing in the Dark, 18 8 n.(7)3; Song of Solomon, 18 8 n.3 ; Sula, 129 , 130 , 135-3 6 Moser, Thomas , 47 , 49 , 6 0 (M)other Tongue, The (Garner , Kahane , and Sprengnether) , 18 4 n . 5 "Mourning an d Melancholia " (Freud) , 6 Narcissism: an d boundaries , 9 , 27 , 62 , 65 , 72, 75 , 77, 79 , 80 , 83 , 85-104 , 112 , 135-36, 142 , 181 ; and culture , 28 , 85 , 103, 126 , 144-45 , 18 7 n.9 ; an d

emptiness, 70 , 75 , 77, 95 , 101 , 111 , 126, 134 , 145-46 , 154 ; and fragmentation, 78 , 79 , 120-21 , 138 , 149-50, 155 , 187n.8;an d grandiosity, 12 , 57 , 111-12 , 115-16 , 122; and idealization , 12 , 28 , 49 , 97 , 147-48; an d loss , 24 , 53 , 100 , 130 ; and merging , 38 , 49 , 62 , 65 , 69 , 71 , 76-77, 81 , 89 , 100 , 135-36 , 152 , 181 ; and mirroring , 12 , 49 , 69 , 89 , 111 ; and mother , 48 , 50-52 , 62 , 65-73 , 90-91, 93-94 , 97-98 , 101 , 112-26 , 154-58, 177 , 181 , 18 7 n.9 ; an d rage, 24 , 26-28 , 47-61 , 77, 97 , 101 , 117, 121 , 124 , 128-32 , 149-57 ; and self-esteem , 12 , 49 , 70 , 79 , 110, 113 , 147 ; and sel f objects , 12-13 , 49, 57 , 59 , 89 , 111 , 114 , 115 , 148 ; and shame , 56 , 70 , 88-91 , 93 , 97-98 , 114-16 Narcissism and the Novel (Berman) , 6 6 Naremore, James , 18 6 n. 5 Narrating Mothers (Dal y an d Reddy) , 18 4 n.5 Niebuhr, Reinhold , 10 9 Oates, Joyc e Carol , 12 4 Object Love and Reality (Modell) , 18 4 n. 7 Object relations : an d aggression , 7 , 32-33 , 50, 61 ; and ambivalence , 6-7 , 32 , 50 , 61, 62 , 65 , 71 , 76 , 77, 108 , 112 , 115 , 124, 151-52 , 180 ; and America n school, 10-14 ; an d Britis h school , 6 10; and culture , 13-14 , 20-22 , 85 , 103, 181 ; and depressiv e position , 6 7, 61 , 64 ; and gender , 14-17 , 26 , 6 2 83, 181 , 18 4 n.5 ; an d mirroring , 9 , 49-110, 114 , 118-19 , 124 ; and mothering, 14-19 , 26 , 32 , 62-83 , 148 49, 170-72 , 176-78 ; an d oedipa l dynamics, 33 , 40 , 47 , 54-55 , 65 , 118 , 119; and orality , 57-59 , 72-73 , 80 , 99, 130-34 , 139 , 141 , 152-53 , 18 7 n.7; an d paranoid-schizoi d position , 6, 26 , 50 , 57 , 64 , 91 ; and splitting , 6 , 26, 47-50 , 54-61 , 87 ; and transitiona l phenomena, 10 , 20-25 , 28 , 33-37 , 40 , 41, 43-44 , 67 , 161-62 , 166 , 178 , 180 , 184 n.7 ; an d tru e an d fals e self , 9 , 28 ,

200 Index Object relation s (Continued) 51-61, 97-98 , 102 , 111 , 123 , 162 , 164, 168-70 , 18 4 n. 4 Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory (Greenberg an d Mitchell) , 5-7 , 9-1 0 O'Connor, Teresa , 85 , 90 , 91 , 96, 9 8 Oedipus in Nottingham (Weiss) , 18 5 n. 3 Ogden, Thomas , 161-6 2 Onorato, Richard , 3 3 Ornstein, Paul , 8 3 Panken, Shirley , 18 6 n.5, 18 7 n.6, 18 7 n. 7 Personality Structure and Human Interaction (Guntrip) , 8 Pine, Fred , 1 1 Poole, Roger , 18 6 n. 5 Postmodernism, 4 , 81-82 , 103 , 18 3 n . l , 185n.l0 Psychoanalysis in a New Context (Modell) , 13, 18 4 n. 7 Quantum mechanics , 2 Reader-response criticism , 2 4 Real Self, The (Masterson) , 18 4 n. 4 Reddy, Mauree n T. , 18 4 n. 5 Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis (Mitchell), 1-5 , 1 3 Relational model : an d conflict , 3-5 , 13 ; and dependency , 8 , 14 ; and drives , 1 3, 6-7 , 10 ; and eg o psychology , 10 11; an d empathy , 12 , 13 , 18 ; and feminist theory , 11 , 14-19 , 26 , 165 , 184 n.5 ; and language , 22-24 , 36-37 , 125-26; an d oedipa l complex , 4-5 , 14, 40 ; a s paradigm, 1-5 , 25 ; and religion, 21-22 , 27 , 41-44 , 105-10 , 122; an d sexuality , 3-4 , 40 ; an d symbolism, 20-23 , 29 , 43-4 4 Reproduction of Mothering, The (Chodorow), 14-15 , 62-6 3 Rhys, Jean , 26-27 , 84-104 , 181 , 18 8 n. 5 Works cited : Smile Please, 88 ; Wide Sargasso Sea, 26-27 , 84-104 , 18 8 n.l , 188 n. 3 Rizzuto, Ana-Maria , 21 , 109-1 0 Rogers, Robert , 23 , 24 , 32 , 184-8 5 n. 9 Romantic Mother, Th e (Schapiro) , 3 2 Rose, Gilbert , 21 , 25, 18 8 n. 2

Rose, Phyllis , 18 6 n. 5 Rosenman, Elle n Bayuk , 18 6 n. 5 Ruderman, Judith , 18 5 n. 3 Schapiro, Barbara , 32 , 18 3 n.2, 18 5 n.1 2 Schizoid personality , 8 Schizoid Phemonena (Guntrip) , 128 , 13 1 Schneiderman, Leo , 11 1 Schopen, Bernard , 10 6 Schwartz, Murray , 23-2 4 Search for the Real Self, The (Masterson) , 184 n. 4 Segal Hanna , 50 , 18 3 n. 2 Self and Other (Rogers) , 24 , 184-8 5 n. 9 Self psychology , 12-13 , 49 . See also Kohut, Hein z Separation-individuation, 11 , 18 , 20 , 47 , 48 Shadow of the Object, The (Bollas) , 18 4 n.8 Shame (Morrison) , 8 9 Skerrett, Joseph , 18 8 n. 3 Solomon, Eric , 4 6 Spectral Mother, The (Sprengnether) , 18 4 n.5 Spilka, Mark , 18 6 n. 5 Sprengnether, Madelon , 15-16 , 18 4 n. 5 Stapp, Henry , 2 Stelzig, Eugene , 2 9 Stephen, Julia , 18 7 n. 6 Stern, Daniel , 11-12 , 19 , 22 , 23 , 31 , 69, 70, 72 , 74 , 77, 129 , 18 6 n. 4 Stolorow, Robert , 2 4 Stone Cente r theorists , 17-19 , 2 1 Storch, Margaret , 67 , 71 , 73, 74 , 185-8 6 n.3 Suleiman, Susan , 18 4 n. 5 Sullivan, Harr y Stack , 1 0 Surrey, Janet , 1 8 Surviving Trauma (Aberbach) , 18 8 n. 2 Thinking Fragments (Flax) , 18 3 n. l Thompson, Wade , 47-4 8 Towards a New Psychology of Women (J. Miller) , 1 8 Trauma and Mastery in Life and Art (Rose), 25 , 18 8 n. 2 Turner, John , 30 , 35 , 3 7 Twitchell, James , 5 9

Index 20 1 Updike, John , 27 , 105-26 , 18 1 Works cited : The Centaur, 107 ; "A Crow i n th e Woods," 118-19 ; "Flight," 115-17 , 120 ; Hugging the Shore, 107 ; Of the Farm, 108 , 111 , 112-16, 118 , 119 , 123 , 125 ; ,4 Month of Sundays, 106 ; "Pigeon Feathers, " 106-7, 119-22 , 123-24 ; Rabbit at Rest, 124 , 125 , 126 ; Rabbit Redux, 108, 109 ; Rabbit is Rich, 108-9 ; Rabbit, Run, 108 , 123-24 ; Roger's Version, 105 , 107 , 111 ; "A Sandston e Farmhouse," 111 , 112-15 , 126 ; SelfConsciousness, 112; The Witches of Eastwick, 10 9 Uphaus, Suzanne , 10 8 Van Ghent, Dorothy , 53 , 5 4 Verduin, Kathleen , 107 , 10 9 Waugh, Patricia , 64 , 8 1 Weiss, Daniel , 18 5 n. 3 Wells, H.G. , 12 0 Wessling, Joseph , 13 5 Whitehead, Alfre d North , 1 0 Willis, Susan , 18 8 n. 3 Wills, Garry , 12 6 Winnicott, D . W. , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 20-22 , 25 , 27, 30 , 33 , 35 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 44 , 52 , 67 ,

72, 83 , 85 , 87 , 103-4 , 110 , 114 , 122 , 124,161-62,177,180,184 n.6,188 n. 2 Works cited : Maturational Processes, 8, 9, 52 , 162 , 18 8 n.2 ; Playing and Reality, 9 , 20 , 33 , 124 ; Through Paediatrics, 9 , 87 , 10 4 Wion, Philip , 47 , 48 , 50-51 , 53-55 , 57 59, 6 1 Wolf, Ernest , 77, 186-8 7 n. 5 Wolf, Ina , 77, 186-8 7 n. 5 Women's Growth in Connection (Jorda n e t al.), 17-1 9 Woolf, Virginia , 26 , 62 , 64-65 , 75-83 , 186-87n n.5- 8 Works cited : Mrs. Dalloway, 75 , 76-78 , 80-81, 82 , 18 7 n.5; To the Lighthouse, 65 , 75-79 , 81-82 ; The Waves, 75 , 80 , 8 2 Wordsworth, Dorothy , 3 2 Wordsworth, William , 25-26 , 29-45 , 64 , 180, 18 1 Works cited : "Intimation s o f Immortality," 30 , 40 ; "Preface t o th e Lyrical Ballads, " 31; The Prelude, 26 , 30-32, 34-37 , 39-45 ; " A Slumbe r Di d My Spiri t Seal, " 37-38; "Tinter n Abbey," 32 , 35 , 3 8 Zukov, Gary , 2