LIS Education in Developing Countries: The Road Ahead 9783110355383, 9783110355291

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IFLA Publications

Edited by Michael Heaney International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques Internationaler Verband der bibliothekarischen Vereine und Institutionen Международная Федерация Библиотечных Ассоциаций и Учреждений Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y Bibliotecas

Volume 165

LIS EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The Road Ahead Edited on behalf of IFLA by Ismail Abdullahi, A. Y. Asundi and C. R. Karisiddappa

DE GRUYTER SAUR

ISBN 978-3-11-035529-1 e-ISBN 978-3-11-035538-3 ISSN 0344-6891 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2014 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover Image: Wesley VanDinter/Getty Images/iStockphoto Typesetting: Dr Rainer Ostermann, München Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck ♾ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com

To people who always supported LIS Education in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, and to our families.

Contents About IFLA 

 IX

Acknowledgements  Preface 

 1

 2

Ismail Abdullahi Introduction   5

1.

C. R. Karisiddappa Rediscovering LIS Education in Developing Countries in the Knowledge Society: Opening Keynote Address   8

Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano and Patricia Lucia Rodríguez Vidal 2. LIS Education in Latin America   19 Bernard Dione 3. The Future of LIS Education in French-speaking West Africa 

 32

Chutima Sacchanand 4. Online Learning in Library and Information Science in the ASEAN Countries: Issues and Trends   42

5.

Peter Burnett Challenges and Problems of LIS Education in Selected African Countries   53

Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri, Salim Said Alkindi and Abdullah Humood Al-Sarmi 6. Library and Information Science in Oman’s New Information Environment Stakeholder Perspectives and Practical Recommendations   72

7.

Kanwal Ameen Challenges of LIS Education in South Asia Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh 

 86

VIII 

 Contents

A. Y. Asundi and C. R. Karisiddappa 8. LIS Education in Developing Countries A Knowledge-society Perspective with Special Reference to India 

 101

Abiola Abioye 9. Enhancing library and Information Science Education through Cross-border Collaboration The Experience of University of Ibadan, Nigeria and University of Ghana   115 Ismail Abdullahi, C. R. Karisiddappa and A. Y. Asundi 10. Philosophical and Pedagogical Foundations of LIS Curriculum Design Perspectives for the Third World Nations   131 Takashi Nagatsuka, Hiroyuki Tsunoda and Tomoko Harada 11. The Improvements in Quality of LIS Education through the Mutual International Exchanges of Students in East Asia   146 Eno Joseph Ottong and Ubong Joseph Ottong 12. Teaching and Learning for Development through Collaborative Curriculum Design A Study of the University of Botswana and University of Calabar, Nigeria   158 A. Y. Asundi 13. Marching Ahead towards an Operational South-South Collaboration – A Road Map A Proposal (Closing Keynote Address)   174

About the authors 

 181

About the editors 

 183

Index 

 184

About IFLA www.ifla.org IFLA (The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions) is the leading international body representing the interests of library and information services and their users. It is the global voice of the library and information profession. IFLA provides information specialists throughout the world with a forum for exchanging ideas and promoting international cooperation, research, and development in all fields of library activity and information service. IFLA is one of the means through which libraries, information centres, and information professionals worldwide can formulate their goals, exert their influence as a group, protect their interests, and find solutions to global problems. IFLA’s aims, objectives, and professional programme can only be fulfilled with the co-operation and active involvement of its members and affiliates. Currently, approximately 1,600 associations, institutions and individuals, from widely divergent cultural backgrounds, are working together to further the goals of the Federation and to promote librarianship on a global level. Through its formal membership, IFLA directly or indirectly represents some 500,000 library and information professionals worldwide. IFLA pursues its aims through a variety of channels, including the publication of a major journal, as well as guidelines, reports and monographs on a wide range of topics. IFLA organizes workshops and seminars around the world to enhance professional practice and increase awareness of the growing importance of libraries in the digital age. All this is done in collaboration with a number of other non-governmental organizations, funding bodies and international agencies such as UNESCO and WIPO. IFLANET, the Federation’s website, is a prime source of information about IFLA, its policies and activities: www.ifla.org. Library and information professionals gather annually at the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, held in August each year in cities around the world. IFLA was founded in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1927 at an international conference of national library directors. IFLA was registered in the Netherlands in 1971. The Koninklijke Bibliotheek (Royal Library), the national library of the Netherlands, in The Hague, generously provides the facilities for our headquarters. Regional offices are located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Pretoria, South Africa; and Singapore.

Acknowledgements We heartily acknowledge our gratitude to all the authors of papers in this exclusive volume of LIS Education in Developing Countries. Special thanks to Chihfeng P. Lin, Peter Lor, Leif Lorring, Leif Kajberg, Bob Wedgeworth, Michel Gorman, Dennis Ochola, Sajjad ur-Reman, Abdus Sattar Chaudhry, Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano, Isaac Kigongo-Bukenya, Theo Bothma, Buhle Mbambo-Thata, Helena Asamoah-Hassan, Sjoerd Koopman, Kanwal Ameen, Zhou Quingshan, Takashi Nagatsuka, Bernand Dione, Chutima Sacchanand and the Royal School of Library and Information Science in Denmark for their considerable support of LIS Education in Developing Countries. We also thank IFLA for considering the proposal to publish the papers submitted and presented at different assemblies of LIS educators in developing countries.

Preface Preface Education is the life blood of any country and higher education is its heart. Since the dawn of decolonization, developing nations have been marshalling their efforts to increase the literacy status with free and compulsory elementary education to all age-eligible children. It has been a national mission of most of the countries of the world. Human resource is considered as the knowledge capital of a country and this is accomplished with the spread of education and in particular, higher education. Professional education has been one of the important sectors of higher education. Education for librarianship with its formal genesis in the late nineteenth century has been spreading all over the globe since then, and there is wide disparity among nations, especially between the North and South hemispheres. So efforts have been made since the 1960s in the countries of the South to train personnel for librarianship, but this was mostly with the support from the western countries like the USA and UK. Now the third world has realized that they must have a kind of education which projects their identity and have started their own schools of library and information science and in this context have been seeking for a South-South collaboration to march ahead with their own unique features. Since 2005, there has been a persistent effort in this regard, and IFLA has been supporting this cause by creating a discussion group on ‘LIS Education in Developing Countries’. This group has been coming together at IFLA Congresses and arranging satellite meetings. LIS educators from developing countries have been contributing papers to these meetings to highlight the status of LIS education in their respective countries and presenting some case studies to highlight various issues of concern. In August 2013, the satellite meeting was held in Singapore prior to the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, and this volume is a compilation of papers from LIS Education from developing countries presented at that and previous meetings. It consists of eleven papers and two keynote addresses from sixteen contributors from different countries, as follows. The opening keynote paper by Dr C.R. Karisiddappa delineates the share of the developing countries in terms of number of nations among the nations of the world and the share of their population against the world population. He posits several challenges faced by developing countries in imparting LIS education in the present digital revolution and the emergence of the knowledge society. His address attempts to rediscover LIS education in the developing nations within a clear background of happenings in the world around. The paper by Dr C.R. Karisiddappa and Dr A.Y. Asundi on harmonizing LIS education in developing countries makes a comprehensive inventory of work

Preface 

 3

done by many scholars and suggests a need-based educational pattern for the developing countries. They conclude with suggestions for consideration of some issues relevant in this regard. The paper discusses the impact of IT on LIS education and the emergence of the information society, which focuses on the creation, accumulation, processing and management of information. Education for LIS has been altered worldwide and affected the developing nations. Bernard Dione’s paper on LIS education in francophone West Africa gives a comprehensive account of the development of library and information science education programmes in French-speaking West Africa, covering eight French-speaking countries: Benin, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. Fifty years after the opening of the Regional Centre for Library Training for Francophone Africa the author analyses challenges and perspectives for librarianship education in the region. Dr Chutima Sacchanand suggests the need for online education for LIS in the ASEAN countries. The paper examines the factors facilitating online learning in LIS and how the challenges of online learning in LIS in ASEAN countries have been synthesised with trends of increasingly progressive online learning in LIS and collaborative efforts and networking of LIS educators, programmes and institutions in ASEAN countries. Peter Burnett, authoring on the challenges and problems of LIS education in selected African countries, profiles the work of INASP in supporting LIS education in light of the rapidly changing digital environment, and the support extended by INASP in enhancing knowledge and skills by curriculum review exercises in selected countries of Africa, viz., Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. The paper by Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri, Salim Said Alkindi and Abdullah Humood Al-Sarmi is a research study conducted in Oman on library and information science in Oman’s new information environment and predicts a growing demand for specially skilled manpower to handle the tasks in the emerging information industry. It highlights that LIS needs to evolve by training its students in new types of skills and expertise to meet the needs of the new information industry, building on the basis of previous research on LIS in developing countries that has highlighted the problems and challenges faced by this sector as new information industries emerge. Kanwal Ameen discusses LIS education in four of the seven countries of South Asia, viz., Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and identifies some common challenges faced by these countries, one of them being technological advances and their impact on LIS education. The joint paper by A.Y. Asundi and C.R. Karisiddappa reviews the emergence of the knowledge society and its characteristic impact on LIS education. The

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 Preface

National Knowledge Commission of India has delineated several criteria for the knowledge society as a dimension of higher education and the ongoing efforts in building ICT infrastructure to impart quality professional education in the country, and the benefits accrued in this regard. Abiola Abioye strongly advocates for fruitful and effective collaboration among LIS schools. In this regard he presents the experience of a good case study of collaboration among the LIS schools of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria and University of Ghana. A joint contribution by Ismail Abdullahi, C.R. Karisiddappa And A. Y. Asundi presents the philosophical and pedagogical foundations of LIS curriculum design. They suggest several curriculum models in this regard that are suitable for adopting to meet local needs. Takashi Nagatsuka, Hiroyuki Tsunoda and Tomoko Harada present cases on bringing the desired “Improvements in Quality of LIS education through the Mutual International Exchanges of Students in East Asia”. Their paper also gives the detailed schedule of the programme of such international exchanges and presents them for the exchange programmes between Japan and Taiwan. The paper on ‘Teaching and Learning for Development through Collaborative Curriculum Design: A Study of the University of Botswana and University of Calabar, Nigeria’ by Eno Joseph Ottong and Ubong Joseph Ottong examines the curriculum of library and information science programmes in the two universities under study. The study also sets out to find areas of possible collaboration between the two universities in order to reposition the programmes’ effective teaching and learning for development. In the concluding session of the 2013 conference, A.Y. Asundi presented an action plan for South-South collaboration with a tentative sketch of the plan and also the required organizational set-up. The presentation of the action plan was followed with a very lively discussion and question-and-answer session, the gist of which is also presented at the end of the concluding keynote address. The editors of this volume hope that these scholarly presentations will provide a landscape and a good augury for LIS education in developing countries, and provide momentum for the proposed South-South collaboration. Ismail Abdullahi, A. Y. Asundi, and C. R. Karisiddappa, Editors

Ismail Abdullahi

Introduction The world is on the verge of a major change in economic, social, educational, demographic, and technological advancement. Access to knowledge and information has become the basis for national development. Developing countries that make up 85% of the world population need to organize, develop, and strengthen LIS education and LIS institutions should play a key role in advancing all national development sectors through preparing the library and information science leaders of the future. The IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group (SIG) was established as a Discussion Group in 2006 under Division VIII at that time. Since its establishment, it has held successful open sessions and satellite meetings. In 2008, it became a SIG. The objectives of the LIS Education in Developing Countries SIG are: − curriculum development for LIS schools in developing countries; − exchange of expertise and experience; − design policy and procedures for assessment and accreditation/certification; − organizing of workshops, conferences, seminars, etc.; − promoting research and development activities. The SIG has been active in every IFLA Congress since 2007, organizing meetings and paper presentations. Its meetings have been open to all IFLA participants, and participants were encouraged to ask questions, comments and make inputs. Besides the sessions the SIG has organized three satellite meetings in Milan 2009, San Juan (Puerto Rico) in 2011 and Singapore 2013. In all of the above programmes, participants interacted with issues related to their respective fields and countries and were able to discuss and learn from each other. It was also pointed out that the Discussion Group and SIG have encouraged many LIS educators from the regions to establish collaboration based on the objectives of the SIG. Issues that came to the forefront during the discussions at open sessions and at the satellite meetings included networking of LIS schools in developing countries and exchange programmes for teachers and students. In this regard, participants also found out that there is a need for inculcating fresh initiatives in the curricula of LIS schools in developing countries. At the San Juan satellite meeting, the theme and paper presentations were entirely focused on curriculum development and creating a greater understanding of the need for the development of guidelines to enhance the contribution that libraries could make, both in the development of democratic foundations and in establishing cultural

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 Ismail Abdullahi

understanding among people, as well as the development of understanding of the political, economic, and social challenges facing the developing world. Since its first establishment as a Discussion Group the LIS Education in Developing Countries SIG has reached out to LIS educators in Africa, Asia-Oceania and Latin America and the Caribbean to establish a platform of discussion and networking. This network and collaboration that the LIS Education in Developing Countries SIG initiated have become a catalyst of movement that ties its members together by their common will to combine individual forces into one enterprise. Their purpose is to develop a self-sustaining bond and to promote their common aspirations and vision. For LIS educators in developing countries, cooperation is not only desirable but also critically necessary to eradicate the underdevelopment of libraries and library education. In the last several years through the LIS Education in Developing Countries SIG we have witnessed a high degree of interest and activity among LIS educators in developing countries. The interest for such kinds of cooperation was mainly driven by motivation and by a strong desire to improve, revitalize in their respective institutions, and jointly explore ways and means by which they could draw schemes to solve the existing problems and challenges facing LIS education in developing countries. Cooperation for the common good will create activities such as scholarly studies, international seminar discussions, and joint programmes while serving as an added propelling force toward the urgent quest for answers to the common problems in the hope of making plans for effective LIS education cooperation among LIS educational institutions in developing countries. So today LIS educators in developing countries are challenged with many issues that demand the greatest attention. They are challenged to work together for the common good, to improve their curriculum, to conduct research, to improve their programs, and to better educate and serve their students. They must also reclaim their history by acknowledging that they are a community of scholars bound together by rich cultural heritage that extends back to Sumerian archives dating from 3,000 BC, to Ashurbanipal’s library in the eighth century BC, to the Alexandrian library in Egypt and the thirteenth-century Timbuktu library in Mali, to name just a few. That means they can look at our ancestors and current generations and claim lost strengths. They are challenged to develop and nurture their communities. Information can, and must, become the connecting link in communities because the library is often the intellectual centere of the community. It is the meeting place, a learning place, an oasis of knowledge and democracy.

Introduction 

 7

Now is a time of new beginnings, new commitments, new challenges, and awesome responsibilities. As professionals and as LIS educators, we have the stewardship of organizing and providing access to information in a time when information is the critical factor for the success of any individual in their communities. For library educators’ progress in developing countries and preparing professionals for the twenty-first century, we must refocus the curriculum to alter teaching strategies that adhere to national needs and that increase multicultural understandings of diverse learning styles and variations in the learning environment. The commitment of LIS educators in developing countries should have a shared vision, a collaborative attitude across borders and boundaries, increased involvement, and a common purpose, all of which are important dimensions in LIS education in the developing world. Education of the library professionals of the 21st century requires also collaboration from others in the field, such as library associations, employers, and individual efforts. In conclusion, LIS education in developing nations faces many challenges to provide quality LIS education for their citizens. This will not be achieved easily. The difference between the developed and developing world is that, unlike the now developed world that had many centuries to develop its information and knowledge infrastructure, the current developing countries are expected to do it in a shorter period of time. They will not be able to do it on an individual basis. If they are to succeed, collaboration is the only way to progress by bringing LIS education under one organization that can provide guidance and direction through the establishment of a collaborative scheme. In other words, a definitive solution should come from LIS educators through a united effort of the developing countries. Therefore, I am grateful to my co-editors Dr C. R. Karisiddappa and Dr A.Y. Asundi for their continuous support and commitment to LIS education in developing countries and to many colleagues from Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean who always responded enthusiastically in support of the work of the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries SIG. It is our hope that this publication places in perspective some of the key issues in LIS education facing the developing countries and their possible solutions in the near future.

C. R. Karisiddappa

1. Rediscovering LIS Education in 1. Developing Countries in the Knowledge 1. Society: Opening Keynote Address¹ Abstract: Delineating the share of the developing countries in terms of number of nations among the nations of the world and the share of the population, this keynote address implies that due to colonial rule these countries could not progress well in higher eduation and in professional eduation. In LIS too many of them lag behind. They have missed the first revolution, the industrial revolution and also the information revolution. The emergence of the knowledge society has posed new challenges and equally opportunities. The address makes an attempt to rediscover LIS education in the developing nations with a clear background in happenings in the world around. Keywords: LIS Education, Rediscovery, Developing Countries

Introduction

Rediscovering LIS Education in Developing Countries in the Knowledge Society

The developing nations, despite their unique social, cultural and anthropological characteristics, are subjects of neglect due to their historical colonial past. On the economic front they are on the recovery path, their vast and distinct natural resources and landscape are diverse and rich. On the educational front, what the developed nations have been able to achieve the developing countries have to accomplish, and that within a short span after decolonization effected since 1960s; and due to liberalization and globalization the changes are happening faster than before. Social institutions and organizations like libraries, museums and archives consequently have to be rebuilt and reconstructed to display and project local culture. Though the technology can facilitate this, the adoption of the fast changing technological advances would be highly challenging. They have missed two landmarks of modern civilization – the industrial and information revolutions – and to embrace the knowledge society would require some gestation period to

1 Delivered at the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group satellite meeting, “The Future of LIS Education in Developing Countries: The Road Ahead” held at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, on 14 August 2013.

Rediscovering LIS Education in Developing Countries in the Knowledge Society 

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change to the new electronic and digital era. The knowledge society per se has been profiled with progress in three areas – Education, Economy and Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and the developing countries are yet to achieve a satisfactory level of capabilities in these three fronts. Education is a key sector of the knowledge society, as demonstrated by the recommendations of the National Knowledge Commission of India (2008) and in particular the thrust given to vocational, professional and distance education to enhance the coverage of skilled manpower. The impact of ICT on education has been noteworthy, and the incident of e-learning and virtual classroom learning would be new modes of imparting education, especially in the area of higher education. Libraries, which have been supporting education for centuries, have assimilated the new technology to offer better services to the users on their desktops now. So the role of libraries and education for librarianship is on the threshold of a big transformation and the developing countries need to rediscover their education progremmes in this context. Hence this keynote address focuses on these aspects and presents them before this learned delegation of representatives of developing nations. The key issues intertwined in this address are three: 1. the status and profile of developing countries and their share in the world; 2. the genesis and progress of education and in particular professional education; and 3. the incidence and emergence of the knowledge society which has been influenced by the ever changing technological landscape. In this context I have chalked out a five-point agenda which would be discussed, with an integrated approach representing developing countries, LIS education and the knowledge society.

Where Do We Stand? Proposition 1 The first proposition is on rediscovery, and in this context let me first calculate the proportion of the developing world in terms of number of countries and population. There are 196 countries in the world, among which 136+ belong to developing nations, that is 69.4% of the total number of countries in the world.² Among

2 http://www.ams.org/membership/individual/mem-develop; http://geography.about.com/cs/ countries/a/numbercountries.htm. Accessed on 24 July 2013.

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these developing countries two are the most populous countries of the world³ – China (1.344 billion) and India (1.241 billion), which account for 36.6% of the world population.⁴ So this is a point to re-examine the state of higher education in general and LIS education in particular in the developing world. It has been found convenient to group under one term all these countries in spite of the fact that they are at different stages of development and demonstrate fundamental differences in education, cultural, political, and social environments and traditions. Of the 136+ nations, approximately 50-55 countries possibly have LIS education, out of which a few have progressed well, and 4-5 have a well developed LIS professional base, as they had inherited the legacy of their colonial past in this regard. This is a broad inductive assessment which can be discussed further with real facts and figures. If we analyse the definitions and features of knowledge-society indicators as they appear in the 2013 Manorama Yearbook (World panorama 2013), more than 100 are yet to achieve the status of being considered as knowledge-based economies. The four nations tagged as BRIC – Brazil, Russia, India and China – are countries at a similar stage of economic development and this applies to the status of their knowledge economies. So we have made some rediscovery as how we can proceed from here to make some comparative study of the problems and issues of LIS education. In this context it would be desirable to bring out a status list – with number of schools offering LIS education vis-à-vis higher education, programmes of LIS education, course curriculum, organizational support, infrastructure, government support through legislation, ICT infrastructure, research and publication output and some historical background on the genesis and growth of LIS profession and education.

Education in Developing Countries: Proposition 2 When the UN was established in 1945 there were 750 million people living in colonial territories and today it has come down to only 2 million people in the seventeen remaining non-self-governing territories. The first major decolonization of nations started with India in 1947. Then many countries followed this movement

3 http://www.google.co.in/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&ctype=l&strail=false&bcs=d&nselm=h&met_y=sp_pop_totl&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=region&idim=country:CHN:IND&ifdim=region&hl=en&dl=en&ind=false. Accessed on 24 July 2013. 4 http://www.worldatlas.com. Accessed on 24 July 2013.

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and by the end of 1960s a large part of the world was decolonized. So the cut-off period for the progress of developing countries can be reckoned from the 1970s. The genesis and growth of education from elementary to higher education in developing countries has to be assessed as education is one of the important constituents of the knowledge society – as human capital is knowledge capital and the creative and innovative traits are sensed through good higher and professional education. The challenge developing nations face in the twenty-first century is to ensure access to quality higher education for their citizens. This will not be easily achieved. Most developed nations have been building their higher education systems for many decades and, in some cases, centuries. Now developing nations must do the same – but in a much shorter period of time. In the course of adapting to the knowledge age, the developing nations are faced with the imperative to provide mass education to all their citizens in the immediate future, because the twenty-first century is the knowledge age. Ideas are the currency of our time, meaning that individuals need access to education if they are to succeed, while societies need a well educated population if they are to progress. If any profession wants to progress it has to have in its hold three essential pillars: provision for professional education, organizational and institutional preparedness to provide employment, and the third – though of recent origin – the ICT infrastructure. This holds well in the context of LIS profession too. In this context libraries and librarians have been associated with education since ancient times.This has to be looked into the situation and conditions of education, because LIS education can only be meaningfully discussed within the context of education in general vis-à-vis the cultural milieu for which it is provided. Growing globalization is equally a necessary factor to consider in this discussion, given its sweeping impact on culture, economy and education, especially in developing countries. LIS education in developing countries mostly started with western help and education models, which inherently lacked the respect for the profession and needed to upgrade the skills of librarians and other information professionals to address the challenges of the information society and now the knowledge society. This will be viewed from the genesis and trends in LIS education.

Growth and Trends of LIS Education: Proposition 3 As suggested earlier, study of the trend and growth of LIS education in developing countries could be reckoned to begin from the 1970s. This claim has some evidence expressed in the paper by Shiholo and Ocholla (2003). They conclude by stating

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that “It must be noted here that no establishment of a school or curricula directly resulted from these studies conducted in the 1970s”. Further surveys conducted in the 1980s and 1990s revealed many new needs of information professionals in Kenya, yet higher-level courses were absent. Most of the developing nations that came out of their colonial rule needed to recoup and stabilize their economic, education and political conditions. For instance the formation of Bangladesh was in two stages; even when it was part of India before partition, libraries were in existence but formal LIS education was totally absent. Another example is Kenya where in-service training was offered in librarianship in collaboration with the UK without a formal course. Ahmad (1981, 105) states that the first part of the twentieth century was considered as a “dark age” of education for librarianship in Bangladesh and the situation would be similar in other developing nations. The courses which began in these countries were associated with western countries, as in India. The findings of the author reveal that LIS education in Bangladesh has received very little attention, although libraries need dynamic people with the proper education to achieve their goals. There is need for conducting surveys to assess the manpower for various libraries. Alimohammadi and Jamali (2011) made a survey of LIS Education in Asian developing countries; they do not touch upon the progress of LIS education in India excepting its brief historical background, but have made succinct deliberations on other Asian countries, like Thailand, Indonesia, Pakistan, Iran and Kuwait. They have identified the undermentioned common problems of LIS education in these countries: 1. Lack of academic and financial autonomy; 2. Lack of accreditation process; 3. Professional associations – weaknesses; 4. Mushroom growth of departments creating problems of quality control; 5. Lack of flexibility in the selection of courses, duration, diversity etc.; 6. Incompatibility between teaching, research and research collaboration; 7. Need for more distance education programmes; 8. Allocation of LIS departments to various faculties; 9. Lack of infrastructure including teaching staff; 10. Curriculum development; 11. Slow adoption and application of ICT in LIS; 12. Course material and textbooks in particular in local languages; 13. Recognition of professional status. In the light of the earlier deliberations on the topic of paper, it is implied that the developing countries especially face a challenge on the professional education front, as there is need for providing training in appropriate and related specific areas taking into consideration the local needs. To understand the basic philos-

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ophy of libraries, and methods of information organization and the systems and services, it is necessary to frame a curriculum that both augments the traditional and also covers all traditional and emerging technological areas. A suitable blending of the two is one of the harmonization exercises. Answers are needed to some of the questions facing the professional education – such as: – What pre-requisites should be expected from those entering the profession? – What are the means and facilities that are to be provided for the practitioner to maintain currency and extend their professional competencies? – What do prospective employer expects from graduates of various programmes? What should schools teach and what knowledge should they impart to their graduates for productive employment, both now and for the future? In addition to the above, in an earlier occasion some new issues that are to be considered are: – information literacy; – Open Learning Initiative; – distance education programmes; – overcoming the digital divide with new approaches; – networking of schools of library and information science.

Establishment of Libraries and Public Library Law: Proposition 4 Libraries, and especially the public libraries, give social recognition to the profession. It is so in the case of any profession – for instance for legal education it’s the courts of law, for health education it is the hospital and for technical education it is the industries and scientific laboratories which are the organizational systems of any profession; and each one is supported and governed by a policy and legislation framed by respective countries. In India, the Science Policy enacted in 1958 by the Indian Parliament resulted in the establishment of series of scientific laboratories and R and D organizations under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The libraries and information centres attached to these institutions support them uniquely and have adopted recent digital technology. In India again it was the forethought and vision of Dr Ranganathan who framed a Model Library Bill as early as the 1930s, which formed the bases for public library legislation in India with nineteen states enacting public library legislation in that country. Today information services and support to these institutions are

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facilitated by the library and information centres established in these organizations. Similarly the genesis and development of public library law or legislation or system in the nations under purview is to be looked into as an image builder for a profession and avenues for employment. We must have information on the public library system of developing countries, which would be very important. Knowledge about academic libraries could be easily reckoned from educational directory sources but for public libraries we need some concrete and comprehensive source to assess the situation and conditions. One of the recommendations of the National Knowledge Commission in India was to take a census of libraries, the objective of which is to assess the manpower needs.

Transforming to a Knowledge Society – Obstacles: Proposition 5 It is often stated that the most of the nations of world missed the first industrial revolution. It is also realized that they have also escaped the second revolution, the information revolution. This is exemplified with some developments from and after the 1970s. The 1970s saw the formal entry of information science and the realization of the emergence of information society perceived by Daniel Bell (1973). The decade also saw the new era of cooperative international information systems, but only few countries could actively participate in them due to lack of computer and communication capabilities. Among the developing nations only India then could participate as a national focal point for processing information inputs for the international information systems like INIS and AGRIS. So it is generally observed that developing countries wishing to cooperate in international programmes and systems encountered many obstacles and present many interlinked problems in need of solutions. They include inter alia language difficulties; the high cost of acquiring new technologies as well as primary literature and of linking to international systems; the emphasis on the supply of information rather than demand; legal and administrative barriers; low salaries; lack of trained personnel and the brain-drain problem; minor relevance of available information to local problems; frequent personnel changes that occur with every government change, and the lack of adequate government support. The second aspect of information society then discussed was cultural diversity. It is generally agreed that internationally available information products and sources are insufficiently attuned to local cultures and practices. Information technology was then alien to local users and the technology was not as userfriendly as it is now. In many cases there is a lack of knowledge of technology

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among potential users of information services which are not conceived within the educational system. The developing nations, it was presumed, would be much benefited by international information systems like INIS and AGRIS, and as such no evaluation or assessment of their impact was made. In the present context, with the prolific growth of electronic information, especially again in the developed nations, they have lost their importance. As early as in 1979 a team of experts conducted a study of the use of information and information services in eight developing countries (Salman 1981). The team listed five problems generally encountered by most developing countries; 1. Infrastructure organization; 2. Availability of trained manpower; 3. Under utilization of information systems; 4. Access to information; including its availability; and 5. New information technologies.

UNESCO Agenda for Knowledge Society A representative of UNESCO in its document-post lecture on “Education in and for the Knowledge Society” identified four principles of the building of equitable knowledge societies.⁵ They are: 1. The principle of freedom of expression must apply not only to traditional media but also to the new media including the Internet. It is the basic premise of knowledge societies. Freedom of expression is a major avenue through which creativity, innovation, criticism and questioning can be brought. The nature of knowledge societies should be conceived as plural, variable and open to choice, and freedom of expression is inseparable from this vision. 2. The second principle, access to quality education for all, is essential for building and developing the necessary skills and capacities for development, progress and social peace in all societies. Access to education is in fact a basic right, to which information and communication technologies (ICTs) provide immense opportunities of increasing access. 3. The third principle concerns respect for cultural and linguistic diversity. The aim is to foster the expression of cultural and linguistic pluralism, both in

5 www.osce.org/fom/36398

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content and in the various types of production – news, documentaries and educational materials, as promulgated in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity; the Recommendation concerning the Promotion and Use of Multilingualism and Universal Access to Cyberspace, the new Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage. 4. Lastly, the fourth principle, universal access to information and knowledge, especially information in the public domain, is a prerequisite for broader processes. Especially for the developing world the second principle is most relevant as it is one of the key avenues for building human capital in all sectors and also applies to LIS education in and for the knowledge society. Education for All is the foremost priority of UNESCO, because education is both a fundamental human right and a key to sustainable development and peace within and among countries. ICT invites a profound rethinking of the purpose of education and its relevance to national development. It has the potential to widen access to education at all levels, to overcome geographical distances, to multiply training opportunities, and to empower teachers and learners through access to information and innovative learning approaches – in the classroom, from a distance, and in non-formal settings. Specialists widely agree that without judicious use of technology, defined in the broadest sense to encompass radio, television and computers, many developing countries will be unable to satisfy the basic educational needs of all children, youth and adults, nor will they be in a position to meet the rising demand for higher, professional and continuing education. Many developing countries are still not fully occupied with the knowledge society characteristics but its penetration in education would bring several changes in LIS education too. The Nigerian example would be an evidence, as the paper by Ozioko and Nwabueze states: “Furthermore, the teachers handling the training of the students in the Nigerian library schools need to be re-trained in the modern theory and practice of information and communication technologies if they are to meet with the demands of the society and the Nigerian labour market in the next millennium. There is no doubt that in the twenty-first century, Nigeria will be moving towards an information society.” (Ozioko and Nwabueze 2010, 4)

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The Proposal for Rediscovery of LIS Education So based on these five propositions, discussed with appropriate meaning for the progress of LIS Education in developing nations, it would be desirable that the thinking should focus on the following issues: – curriculum need, re-examining the existing pattern and finding the gap between what is needed and what is desired; – infrastructure development – manpower, equipment, ICT and so on; – reading materials, course content available in print and for distance learning; – strengthening distance learning where the formal mode cannot reach majority learners but the quality of courses must be maintained; – assessment and accreditation process which has to be very rational and stringent; – building open courseware; – diversity in LIS education; – research and collaboration – national and international; – publications and open access to scholarly literature in LIS; – placement and counselling.

Conclusion In the preceding sections a discussion on five proposals for rediscovering LIS education in developing countries is presented. The prognosis is that changes in social and economic sectors are largely now impacted by ICT, and that to build an appropriate ICT infrastructure within a time frame is a difficult proposition, as the technological changes are becoming uncertainly certain and their adoption is faster than before. Take for example, open-source software and its adoption in libraries. Integrated open-source library management systems like KOHA and NewGenLib have been developed and put into use only in the last five years or so and KOHA in this short span has been implemented by 1,000 libraries in India. Similar is the case with open-source systems for digital libraries like DSpace and Greenstone, which have found a majority of users in building digital libraries. Another example would be of e-learning open-source systems which have found their way into LIS schools for teaching purposes. From the above deliberations the issues and other factors to be seriously discussed by all the participants of developing countries could be as listed below: 1. Curriculum updating and developing curricula for situation-specific education and training programmes;

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2.

Exchange of expertise, students, transfer credits, awarding and equivalence of degrees; 3. Policy and procedures for assessment and accreditation/certification; 4. Sponsoring of global and intergovernmental organizations for conducting/ organizing workshops, conferences, seminars, etc.; 5. Promoting R&D activities with mutual collaboration and linkage.

Acknowledgements I thank the IFLA SIG on LIS Education in Developing Countries and especially its convener Dr Ismail Abdullahi and my Indian friend Dr A.Y. Asundi for extending the benefits of his expertise in the preparation of this keynote paper.

References Ahmad, N. 1981. “Education for librarianship in Bangladesh.” International Library Review 13: 103–115. Alimohammadi, D. and H.R. Jamali. 2011. “Common Problems of Library and Information Science Education in Asian Developing Countries: A Review Article.” International Journal of Information Science and Management 9(2): 79–92. Bell, Daniel. 1973. The coming of the post-industrial society. New York: Basic Books. “World Panorama.” 2013. Manorama Yearbook, 289–493. National Knowledge Commission. 2008. Towards a knowledge society: Three years of the National Knowledge Commission. New Delhi: NKC. http://knowledgecommission.gov.in/ downloads/documents/towards_knowledgesociety.pdf (Accessed on 18 February 2014). Ozioko, R.E. and A.U. Nwabueze. 2010. “Justification for reform in Library and Information Science Education in Nigerian Universities.” Library Philosophy and Practice. http:// digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/397/ (Accessed on 18 February 2014). Salman, Lamia. 1981. “The Information Needs of Developing Countries: Analytical Case Studies.” UNESCO Journal of Information Science, Librarianship & Archives Administration 3(4): 241–246. Shiholo, Benson Misco and Dennis Ocholla. 2003. “Changing trends in training needs for information professionals in Kenya.” LIBRES 13(1). http://libres.curtin.edu.au/libres13n1/ shiholoocholla.htm (Accessed on 24 July 2013).

Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano and Patricia Lucia Rodríguez Vidal

2. LIS Education in Latin America

Abstract: Library and Information Science (LIS) education is experiencing great changes today. The development of information and communication technologies (ICT) has had a strong impact on LIS education. New topics like digital libraries, virtual reference, digital preservation, metadata and web applications, among other ones, have been incorporated to existing courses or taken the place of place to old ones. Likewise, new specialization areas have emerged. Programme names have also changed, removing the “L” word from them, adding the “Information” word. Technology and online communication have given LIS education new learning approaches such as online and virtual programmes. New programmes based in e-learning promote collaborative work and global cooperation among faculty, and LIS internationalization is a present issue. Matching to labour markets and needs has brought again old concerns like the relationship between theory and practice. Like many other worldwide countries, Latin American countries also face these challenges in LIS education looking for approaches to the new settings. Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to give an overview about how Latin American countries are managing these LIS education challenges. Keywords: LIS Education, ICT, Information Science, Latin America. LIS Internationalization

Introduction Undoubtedly, ICT has changed library and information services, and therefore, the formation of those librarians who should provide such services on a new technological environment. Chauhan (2004) states in the following terms some of the major changes that ICT has brought in library and information services: 1. Changes in formats, contents and methods of production & delivery of information products, and a new business model for use of information products. This requires procedural and infrastructural changes and cost implications in libraries; 2. Emergence of the internet as the largest repository of information and knowledge; 3. Extinction or significant transformation of some of the conventional information services such as press clippings, contents pages, and company information etc.;

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4. Use of new tools and technologies for dissemination of information; 5. Transformation of the role of LIS professional as the subject specialist and end-user gets directly involved in the information work and consequent need for new skills; 6. Shift from physical to virtual services that offer convenience of time and location for access to services. Likewise, this author mentions the new library and information setting has had a strong impact on librarian formation: “The focus has shifted from owning the information to right to use. This has opened a whole new area of interest in issues like licensing, copyrights, pricing and evaluation of services and products. New skills in information retrieval, marketing, web design; the LIS professionals require user training, technology management etc. The LIS professional’s focus is on making partnership and designing user-friendly interfaces to facilitate users to do their information work.” Additionally, making reference to the present time characteristics, where libraries are immersed in an environment where technology prevails, Haythornthwaite (2012) points out the following ones: – Net generation – Immersed in electronic access – Digitization of everything – E-resources, e-journals, e-books, digitization – Open access, creative commons – Ethical collection, creation and use – Ubiquitous e-access – Wireless, mobiles, internet – E-learning – LMS, blended, distributed – Participatory culture – Social networking, crowdsourcing, online communities – “Big data” and analytics – data production, data sources, analytic tools – academic analytics – learning analytics – Perpetual beta – Continuous change, emergent practices – Virtual and physical – Supporting both

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LIS Education Trends Undoubtedly, ICT development has had a strong impact on LIS education and new courses and topics have been included in formation programmes. Some examples of these are digital libraries, virtual reference, digital preservation, and metadata and web applications, among other ones. Likewise, new specialization areas have emerged. Referring to this situation in LIS education, Smith (2012, slide 5) also notes that new topics have been included in the current courses “e.g., virtual reference in reference, RDA in cataloging, e-resources in collection development”. Likewise that new courses and specialization fields hav been established: “digital preservation; museum informatics; special collections certificate; community informatics; community engagement; community informatics certificate; media literacy and youth; youth services certificate” (slide 5). In other areas, one of the specializations that it has become important in LIS schools is health informatics. Making mention of that, Cloonan (2008, slide 3) states (citing the University of Pittsburgh programme): “The intent of this graduate education program is to orient prospective health information professionals to the theory, methodology, and practice of medical information management (including but not limited to medical librarianship). The curriculum is designed to support the concept that medical librarians and medical information managers are team players in the integrated information environments characteristic of modern medicine.” Another present feature of LIS education is that programme names have also changed, removing the “L” word from them, and adding the “Information” word. Changes in schools denominations, degrees awarded, and programmes offered are now present in LIS education. In the last part of the 1960s schools of librarianship began to add the term ‘information science’ to their names. The first school to do this was the University of Pittsburgh in 1964. More schools followed during the 1970s and 1980s and during the 1990s almost all library schools in the USA added information science to their names. A similar development has taken place in large parts of the world (Hjørland, 2005).

At the present time, diverse schools and departments in USA have dropped from their names the word “library”, which has caused many discussions. A review of the North American schools and programmes that have dropped the word “library” from their names shows the following universities have done that: University of California (Los Angeles), South Florida, Maryland, Missouri, Washington, Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Toronto, Valdosta State University (Georgia), State University of New York (Albany), Syracuse University, Dalhousie University,

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McGill University (ALA 2009). Nevertheless, some of them continue granting a Master of Library and Information Science (MILS) degree. Certainly, ICT has had a strong impact on education and learning methods, and LIS education has not been immune to it. ICT has given to LIS education new learning approaches such as online, virtual and e-learning programmes. The new education programmes based in ICT promote collaborative work and global cooperation among faculty, and LIS internationalization is a present issue. The inclusion of ICT in LIS education has been pointed out by Cloonan (2008, slide 6), among other many authors, in the following way: Web-based Information Science Education (WISE) is a unique and groundbreaking opportunity in online education. Leading library and information science schools have extended their reach on a global basis to broaden the educational opportunities available to students. WISE uses advanced online technology to enrich education and foster relationships among students, faculty, and universities. The vision of this initiative is to provide a collaborative distance education model that will increase the quality, access, and diversity of online education opportunities in library and information science.

Additionally, matching of labour markets and education needs has brought again old concerns like the relationship between theory and practice. In discussing training of librarians, the double dimension in which LIS education should be contextualized may not be ignored; in one hand, there is an approach based on everyday reality, and on the other one, a perspective based on a theoretical framework that attempts to shed light on processes and library activities. However, sometimes LIS educators despise the theoretical dimension, considering it unrealistic. Likewise, LIS theorists sometimes underestimate those working in the front lines, considering their lack of theoretical formation as a constraint to optimizing their work. Finally, another discussion point at the present time in LIS education is the search for a core curriculum. Virkus (2012) has pointed out this issue in the following terms (slide 9): “What should constitute the core in the LIS curriculum has always been the focus in the field”, which has been discussed by diverse organizations “IFLA, ALA, ASIST, CILIP, LIS Education in Europe: Joint Curriculum Development and Bologna Perspectives, 2005, etc.”

LIS Education in Latin America The beginning of LIS education in Latin America dates back to the third decade of the twentieth century in Argentina (1922). Between the 1940s and 1950s differ-

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ent library schools were opened in diverse countries: Panama (1941), Peru (1943), Uruguay (1943), Mexico (1945), Chile (1949), Costa Rica (1950), and Colombia (1956) (Munera Torres 2006). Unlike LIS education in the United States, Canada, and other European countries, professional librarian education in Latin America is placed at the undergraduate level, which is called “licenciatura”. In Latin America, a licenciatura is usually an academic degree awarded by a university or a higher education institution that generally lasts four years, but can range from three to five years depending on the country. University students obtain a licenciatura in their respective fields enabling them to work as professionals in their chosen areas; in LIS, a licenciatura enables a person to work as a librarian in public, academic or specialized libraries. At the present time, there is not an updated directory of Latin American LIS schools. Nevertheless, Johnson in his Directory of Schools of Librarianship and Information Science in Latin America included 100 active LIS schools and departments in Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America, of which 40 were placed in Brazil and the other 60 in Spanish-speaking countries, the latter being the subject of this paper (Johnson 2006; 2011, 4).

Challenges for LIS Education in Latin America Like in other in other parts of the world, Latin American LIS schools have undergone a continuous process of adaptation mirroring the development of the profession and encouraging future professionals to acquire new knowledge and skills that are necessary for a successful professional practice. Therefore, there have been changes in Latin American LIS education, including library schools’ denominations, curriculum changes, inclusion of new courses and specializations, and new learning approaches based on e-education and e-learning. LIS education in Latin American Spanish-speaking countries has been substantially influenced for many years, maybe since its emergence, by American LIS education. As it was previously mentioned, diverse American LIS schools have removed the “L” word from their denominations, degrees awarded, and programmes, using now the “Information” word. Similarly, LIS schools in Latin American Spanish-speaking countries have modified their names, programmes, and degrees granted, adding to them terms such as “Information Science(s)”, attempting to show a new disciplinary perspective focused on a broad information presence.

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The inclusion of the terms “Information” or “Information Science” should mean an adaptation to the new settings of our profession, but this is not the reason in all the cases because there are also some practical explanations, as in other parts of the world. An example of this situation is when the Rutgers University School of Communication, Information and Library Studies (SCILS) decided to change its name to School of Communication and Information in 2009. Jorge Reina Schement, SCILS Dean, said the change will make them “more competitive”: “Prior to the vote, I consulted with a number of library leaders, including the MLIS Program Associates, past ALA presidents, and others… We don’t all agree, but I believe that most understand that success in the 21st century requires us to reposition ourselves within the university and across the country” (Oder 2009). There is a similar trend in LIS Latin American schools. Regarding this issue, Escalona Ríos (2008) has pointed out that professional degrees (licenciatura) granted in the region are diverse, showing about eleven different names to refer to the same professional degree. In some cases, there is a prevailing trend to append to the degree name other terms to “try to expand” the scope of their studies. Although this could be an acceptance sign for recognizing the contemporary features of our profession, programme objectives and professional profiles of graduates remain the same. LIS schools and programmes educate librarians for working in all types of libraries and only few institutions are moving the field of study beyond traditional settings. Nevertheless the above-mentioned diverse Latin American LIS schools are including in their curriculum courses diverse aspects dealing with ICT to adapt to the new environment and evolution of the profession. For example, the Escuela de Bibliotecología, Documentación e Información de la Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica [School of Library, Documentation and Information of the National University of Costa Rica] offers to its students the following courses (Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica 2012): – database design; – use and evaluation of databases; – databases administration and optimization; and – documentary information in virtual units. The Escuela Interamericana de Bibliotecología de la Universidad de Antioquía [InterAmerican School of Library Science at the University of Antioquía] in Medellín, Colombia, includes in its programme the courses (Universidad de Antioquía 2011): – informatics and ICT; – information transfer; and – digital repositories.

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The Programa de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información de la Universidad de Buenos Aires [LIS Program of the University of Buenos Aires] includes a formation line in Information Technology in which the following courses are considered (Universidad de Buenos Aires 2013): – databases management; – information retrieval systems; – information systems and networks; – information technology management; – advances in information technology; and – internship or fieldwork in information technology. The Escuela Universitaria de Bibliotecología y Ciencias Afines de la Universidad de la República de Uruguay [University School of Library Science and Other Related Sciences at the Uruguay Republic University] includes in its programme an education module, called “Digital Documentation and ICT Application”, where the following courses are placed (Universidad de la República de Uruguay 2012): – introduction to automated data processing; – databases; – networks and systems; – electronic government; – content management systems; – integrated systems for library management; – geographic information; – information architecture and web information design; – electronic documents management; – digital preservation and preservation metadata. The “Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Estudios de la Información de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México” (2002) [Licenciatura in Library Science and Information Studies of the National Autonomous University of Mexico] includes a training area in “Information Technology” where are placed the following courses (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 2002): – computing applied to libraries; – information technology in libraries; – databases, – telecommunications in information units; – systems and software for library automation; – automated systems management; and – digital resources and multimedia.

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Certainly, as can be observed and as Escalona Rios (2008) points out, LIS schools programmes in Latin America are incorporating diverse aspects of ICT, offering their students, sometimes from the beginning of their career, the acquisition of knowledge and skills related to the use and application of them in their future professional practice. Certainly, LIS Latin American schools have paid great interest to the inclusion of ICT in librarian education, in order to prepare them for an appropriate use of those activities and services in the library and other information units where they perform. However, this situation has also been criticized, since there are programmes that have overestimated the inclusion of courses related to technology, considering their understanding is one of the librarian training purposes, and not only a means to carry out in a better way their professional duties. Undoubtedly, the inclusion of courses dealing with ICT in the LIS schools’ curricula has been a success, since in training of new professionals the use of tools generated by technological development must be taken into account to get an adequate professional performance and a better answer to current social demands (Munera Torres 2006). However, since education institutions in Latin America operate independently, generating their own curricula and the graduate profile they want to have, there is not any homogeneous profile that allows us to know the characteristics and skill a professional librarian can have anywhere. LIS education in Latin America should be placed in the context of globalization and a common market, in which the library professional must display the same quality and competences in any country of the region. In this regard, it can be mentioned that valuable efforts have been made by associations such as the Asociación de Educadores e Investigadores en Bibliotecología, Archivología, Ciencias de la Información y Documentación de Ibero América y el Caribe (EDIBCIC) [Association of Teachers and Researchers in Library, Archival, Information and Documentation Sciences of Ibero America and the Caribbean] and the Colegio Nacional de Bibliotecarios (CNB) de México [National Association of Graduate Librarians of Mexico], to establish guidelines for a common LIS core profile, but they have been ignored by LIS schools (Escalona Ríos, 2008). Certainly, it is very important to include in Latin American LIS schools learning of new technologies, but they need to be valued in their own dimension, without falling into errors like those pointed out by Gorman (2004, 377): The seductions of modern communications technology have led many library educators to concentrate on that technology and dismiss anything about libraries that is not amenable to a technological solution. This is a world in which fantastic schemes for virtual libraries and the worlds’ recorded knowledge available on the Internet and the Web are presented as if

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they were real components of the short-term future, despite the fact that they fly in the face of history and facts. We do not need these urban myths to be propagated in LIS schools or, worse, to be presented as facts to a new generation of librarians.

Moreover, a LIS education based on ICT would lead us to a learning approach focused mainly on the practice, which would reinforce a prevailing trend in Latin American librarian formation. “The approach that has been taught in most schools until now, has promoted the repetition of technical activities, focusing on the technology use, as if in its use would be found the discipline paradigms.” (Rodríguez Gallardo 2010, 243–244). LIS has been criticized for being more than one discipline, a profession eminently practical, where its rules are based on reaching specific pragmatic purposes and it seems not to be clear its theoretical structure. However, like every practical discipline, it also rests on theoretical foundations. Thus, it is important to consider both theory and practice, as essential and complementary elements, and therefore, to be maintained in a smooth and proper relationship. If there is an excess of each one, the profession degenerates. Additionally, it is convenient to establish a core common curriculum, based on what has been proposed by Gorman, who noted the following (2004, 378): “The nub of the question of library education, as it is with any level of education in any subject, is what is taught. It is instructive to look at what goes on in libraries and the areas in which a would-be librarian should be knowledgeable, if we are to devise a core curriculum that would apply to all schools.” That common curriculum should include: – collection development and acquisitions; – cataloguing; – reference and library instruction; – circulation, maintenance, preservation, etc.; – systems; – management; – types of library. Furthermore, the establishment of a basic common curriculum in Latin American LIS schools is a necessary condition for its internationalization in this region, which allows the exchange of students so they can take courses in other programmes of the region as well as enabling outstanding teachers from diverse LIS schools to offer courses in other institutions, enriching the student education through the participation of specialist in diverse subjects. It is also important to point out that taking advantage of ICT features, diverse Latin American LIS schools have developed and implemented online distance

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education programmes and courses. An advantage of distance education using ICT is the creation of new learning settings, where the necessity for coincidence in space and time of professors and students is eliminated. Also, online education features allow LIS students the possibility for participating in programmes and courses given not only within an institution, but also in many different institutions, strengthening student learning in that way. Online education features allow a student virtual mobility, which constitutes a great support for LIS education internationalization, since students would take courses with compatible content, or new matters in other programmes, through an international collaboration previously established among LIS schools. Using this approach, LIS students registered in their own institution would have access codes to courses in other institutions, which would contribute to their formation, sharing learning content and educational resources at an international and global level. Nevertheless, the establishment of a core common curriculum in Latin American LIS schools is a necessary condition for its internationalization, particularly among the countries of this region. This would allow the exchange of students who may take courses in other programmes of the region, as well as enabling leading professors in different subjects from a specific school to offer courses in other institutions, enriching the students’ virtual learning. As pointed out by Munera Torres (2006), is vital that LIS schools link to international cooperative work, allowing them the generation of academic networks through which they can consolidate projects aimed at the development of our profession at the local, national and international level, and facilitate the interaction of teachers and students for contributing to its global development. It is repetitive to point out that ICT use in LIS education allows this global interaction.

Conclusions Latin America LIS schools face a set of challenges derived from the adoption on ICT in library and information activities and services, and consequently in the training of librarians that provide those services. Indeed, ICT should be included in LIS education, but without losing sight of its role as a tool to let them properly perform their professional activities. Many Latin American LIS schools have changed their names, and also denominations of their programmes, including the term “information” in them. Likewise, they have included numerous ICT-related courses, although in many

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cases only following current professional trends to achieve a better public image for the profession. Undoubtedly, it is important to tailor LIS education programs and courses to the new settings, but they must not lose sight of the essential goals of our profession. This implies the establishment of a core common curriculum for librarian education in Latin America, to which it would be added the particular ICT needs of each country. Finally, it is important to point out that LIS education, like education in all disciplines, is being affected and modified by ICT use to support and strengthen student learning through virtual education and e-learning, among other approaches. These new education approaches provide numerous advantages for LIS education, such as the possibility to participate in a global education, sharing courses, programmes, activities and learning resources, and obviously, the knowledge of leading teachers. Latin American LIS schools have not fully taken advantage of these new education models, so it is necessary to look for a global and international LIS education, among LIS schools of this region and worldwide.

References ALA (American Library Association). 2009. Library & Information Studies: Directory of Institutions Offering Accredited Master’s Programs 2009–2010. Chicago, Ill.: American Library Association Office for Accreditation. http://www.ala.org/accreditedprograms/ sites/ala.org.accreditedprograms/files/content/directory/pdf/LIS%20DIR2009-2010.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Chauhan, B.P. 2004. “ICT Enabled Library and Information Services.” Winter School on ICT enabled Library and Information Services TIET, Patiala. http://dspace.thapar.edu:8080/ dspace/bitstream/123456789/54/1/ICTLIS+PROGRAMME.doc and http://web.unair.ac.id/ admin/file/f_33720_PSP_3_opac.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Cloonan, Michèle V. 2008. “Trends in LIS education.” Presentation given at the University of Kansas. http://hdl.handle.net/1808/3938 (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Escalona Ríos, Lina. 2008. “La Educación Bibliotecológica en Iberoamérica: Introducción. In Flexibilidad curricular en la educación bibliotecológica, 1–24. México: UNAM. Centro Universitatio de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. http://cuib.unam.mx/publicaciones/7/ flexibilidad_curricular_LINA_ESCALONA_RIOS.html (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Gorman, Michael. 2004. “Whither library education?” New Library World 105 (9/10):376–380. Alternative version at http://www.fh-potsdam.de/EUCLID/tmp/Gorman-keynote.doc (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Haythornthwaite Caroline. 2012. “{Future} Trends in LIS Education.” Paper delivered at the University of British Columbia as part of the BC Research Libraries Group Lecture Series. https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/43176 (Accessed on 15 May 2012).

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 Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano and Patricia Lucia Rodríguez Vidal

Hjørland, Birger. 2005. “Core Concepts in Library and Information Science (LIS)”. http://www. iva.dk/bh/Core%20Concepts%20in%20LIS/; page on “Library and Information Science (LIS)” http://www.iva.dk/bh/core%20concepts%20in%20lis/articles%20a-z/library_and_ information_science.htm (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Johnson, Ian M. 2006. “Directory of Schools of Librarianship and Information Sciences in Latin America – Past and Present.” Education for Information 24(4):201–254. Author’s version at https://openair.rgu.ac.uk/bitstream/10059/223/1/2006%20Directory%20of%20SLIS%20 in%20LA%20-%20text.pdf (Accessed on 2 March 2014). Johnson, Ian M. 2011.“Information resources for the Schools of Information Sciences in Latin America.” In La Dimensión Docente e Investigadora de las Ciencias de la Información y de la Documentación en Iberoamérica: Diagnóstico Regional: Memoria del [EDIBCIC/2008] VIII Encuentro de la Asociación de Educadores e Investigadores de Bibliotecología, Archivología, Ciencias de la Información y Documentación de Iberoamérica y el Caribe, [Mexico City,] 12, 13 y 14 de noviembre del 2008, edited by E. Sanz Casado, S. Gorbea Portal, and M.L. Lascuraín Sánchez, 3–18. Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. http://www.edicic.org/ textos/Actas_VIII_EDIBCIC.pdf (Accessed on 2 March 2014). Munera Torres, María Teresa. 2006. “Panorama Actual de la Enseñanza de la Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información en América Latina y el Caribe.” Paper presented at the 8° Congreso Nacional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información, Bibliotecas y educación en el marco de la globalización, Colombia. http://ascolbi.org/eventos/congreso_2006/ documentos/Ascolbi_Congreso_2006_Ponencia_Maria_Teresa_Munera.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Oder, Norman. 2009. “Rutgers Faculty Agrees to Drop ‘Library’ from SCILS Name.” Library Journal 10 February. http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2009/02/library-education/rutgersfaculty-agrees-to-drop-library-from-scils-name/ (Accessed on 2 March 2014). Rodríguez Gallardo, Adolfo. 2010. La Formación Humanista del Bibliotecario: Hacia su Recuperación. México: UNAM, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Smith Linda C. 2012. “21st Century Library and Information Science Education: Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities.” http://www.midwest.cala-web.org/annual_program/ postannual_program2012/linda_smith_presentation.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Universidad de Antioquía. 2011. “Escuela Interamericana de Bibliotecología. Bibliotecología.” http://www.udea.edu.co/portal/page/portal/portal/b.EstudiarUdeA/a.Pregrado/a. ProgramasPregrado (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Universidad de Buenos Aires. 2013. “Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información.” http://www. filo.uba.ar/contenidos/carreras/biblio/ (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Universidad de la República de Uruguay. 2012. “Escuela Universitaria de Bibliotecología y Ciencias Afines: Plan de Estudios para las Carreras de Grado de la EUBCA: Licenciatura en Bibliotecología, Licenciatura en Archivología.” http://www.eubca.edu.uy/sites/ default/files/text/ensenanza/Plan%20Estudios%20EUBCA.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. 2002. “[Colegio de Bibliotecología] : Anexo: Programas de Estudio de las Asignaturas Obligatorias.” http://www.filos.unam.mx/ LICENCIATURA/bibliotecologia/Documentos/asigOBL2002.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012).

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Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica. 2012. “Escuela de Bibliotecología, Documentación e Información. Malla Curricular.” http://www.una.ac.cr/bibliotecologia/index.php/ documentos/func-startdown/25/ (Accessed on 15 May 2012). Virkus, Sirje. 2012. “Challenges of Library and Information Science (LIS) Education.” http:// www.unica-network.eu/sites/default/files/Sirje%20Virkus_0.pdf (Accessed on 15 May 2012).

Bernard Dione

3. The Future of LIS Education in 3. French-speaking West Africa Abstract: The education and training of librarians in French-speaking West Africa has come a long way. This paper gives a comprehensive account of the development of library and information science education programmes in French-speaking West Africa, 50 years after the opening of the Regional Centre for Library Training for Francophone Africa. It analyses challenges and perspectives for librarianship education in the region. There are eight French-speaking countries in West Africa: Benin, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. The first library education programme in the region started in 1963 with the Regional Training Centre for Francophone Africa in Dakar, Senegal. The level of training, the requirements and the structure of the programmes are very different, so these programmes need to be assessed in the context of information needs of the region. Besides, there is need to collaborate for the harmonization of LIS education curricula in French-speaking West African countries. Keywords: LIS Education, West Africa, French-speaking Countries, Curriculum Change The Future of LIS Education in French-speaking West Africa

Introduction The paper aims to expose, in its main lines, the evolution of the professional education and training of librarians in French-speaking West Africa, gives an overview of different library education programmes of the region, and briefly analyses some challenges faced by the library schools. It also suggests some avenues to be explored for the development of librarianship and libraries in francophone Africa. The description of library education programmes is mainly based on internal reports and on documents available on the internet. A questionnaire was sent to library schools, but only two responses were received. Discussions on social media have been also initiated to get opinions from librarians on some topics such as professional status and social image, employment, training needs, etc. The region Francophone Africa – the French-speaking countries in West Africa South of the Sahara – covers eight countries: Benin, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. All these countries have a common historical background. Excepting Togo, which joined the Federation after World War I, all countries belong to Afrique Occidentale Française (AOF), a federation of eight

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French colonial territories in Africa from 1895 until 1960. They all gained independence from France in 1960, except Guinea which voted overwhelmingly for independence during a 1958 referendum. Their official language remains French even if there are many local languages spoken by their populations.

Library Development and Library Education The development of LIS education is closely related to the development of library services and institutions. But in Africa the development of the library movement is very weak. Some scholars describe the difficulties posed in supplying the information needs of sub-Saharan Africa as a failure of conventional librarianship Sturges and Neill, for example, note (Sturges and Neill 1998, 83) that: The inescapable conclusion drawn by the observer is that libraries as a response to information needs in Africa have proved a real disappointment, even in the anglophone countries which accorded them the most respect. The nature of their failure, and the reasons for it, have to be addressed by anyone with a serious interest in the future of libraries.

The weakness of the library infrastructures in Africa is more pronounced in francophone sub-Saharan Africa (Dione 2012). Modern libraries in French-speaking countries in West Africa South of the Sahara constitute a colonial legacy. The influence of this colonial legacy was not particularly a positive one. As Sturges and Neill (1998, 3) state: The French library tradition was also not an especially positive one. France had had richlystocked libraries since the Middle Ages, but these tended to be the preserve of the scholar and bibliophile, rather than the ordinary information user. The idea of the library as more of a symbol of civilization than an instrument for its progress continued to characterize French library provision until the middle of the twentieth century, and this attitude communicated itself to the former French colonies.

In Senegal, the history of libraries goes back to 1803, with the creation of the first library in Saint Louis, capital of the colony of Senegal (Sène 1992, 308; Maack 1981, 9). Libraries started during this period essentially served the needs of colonists. The small number of African natives who came to use these libraries often consisted of state employees of the colonial administration, then later pupils and primary school teachers (Diakité 1999; Sène 1992,306) Maack (1981, 9) mentions that:

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 Bernard Dione The libraries and archives established in Senegal during the nineteenth century were designed to serve the interests of the tiny group of French colonists. Important to certain members of the European community, these small collections were seldom used by Africans, most of whom came from cultures without a written literature.

Most librarians working in those libraries were French and trained in France. There were no indigenous librarians. Until 1960, when francophone sub-Saharan Africa countries achieved independence, there were no library schools in these countries. One of the first attempts to train librarians was organized in October 1961 in Toulouse, France. The training was planned to last for eight months only. Besides the cost of this training, there was another limitation due to the difference between the economic, cultural and intellectual environment of French libraries and the African ones. This limitation was pointed out earlier by the UNESCO Ibadan Seminar in the following terms (Development 1954, 100): Training in professional library schools outside Africa, in countries and institutions geographically and intellectually remote from the realities of African problems does not and cannot provide a fully satisfactory alternative to properly organized professional library training on African ground.

Ibadan Seminar The necessity to create African library schools was especially emphasised during the Seminar on the Development of Public Libraries in Africa, held at Ibadan, Nigeria, 27 July to 21 August 1953. The Ibadan Seminar states (Development 1954, 97): It is all important for public library development in Africa to have trained personnel – personnel adequate in terms of numbers, competence and vision for the enormous task ahead. […]. The group agreed that the planning and provision of library training, to be effective, must be based on a clear conception of the aims and the nature of the service […] for which the training agency is preparing personnel and on a realistic understanding of relevant socio-economic, cultural and educational conditions prevailing in Africa).

According to the Ibadan Seminar outcome, to be effective, library training programmes in Africa must take into account factors such as political groupings, language and cultural affinities, etc. Objectives of library schools in Africa were defined as follows (Willemin 1967, 381):

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–

– – –

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to provide a level of culture and qualification which gives to the state and to the profession of librarian an honourable place among the other traditional professions; to give special attention on the future needs for libraries; to adapt, if needed, the current methods of education and teaching to the local conditions and circumstances; to ensure the publication of original works treating specifically African problems.

Based on these inputs, the Ibadan Seminar suggested the creation of three regional library schools: “In any case, full-scale library schools doubtless would, and should, remain very few in number – perhaps no more than (in due course) one for English-speaking Africa, one for French-speaking territories and one for Egypt (including) possibly also the Sudan.” (Development 1954,102). It was from that perspective that UNESCO decided to support the creation of the first library school for French-speaking countries, Regional Training Centre for French-speaking Countries (CRFB). An agreement was signed on 28 March 1962 between UNESCO and the Senegalese government to establish the CRFB in Dakar, Senegal. Initially planned to begin courses in November 1963, the CRFB started its first course only in 1964 with twenty students from eleven French-speaking countries: Ivory Coast, Dahomey (now Benin), Togo, Mali, Cameroon, Guinea, Senegal, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), Madagascar, Congo-Brazzaville, Chad. One of the strong recommendations of the Ibadan Seminar was to create library schools in Africa as departments of universities. The Seminar argues that (Development 1954, 101): In Africa today, university graduation is already generally recognized and accepted as a qualification for posts at leadership level in such closely comparable fields as government civil service and education. [...] In Africa university graduation seems to provide both the most effective means and the most reliable measuring-rod to ensure that persons aspiring to reach highest leadership levels in librarianship shall be well-educated individuals, with formal schooling not less good than the best which the continent affords.

Given that perspective, the agreement between the Senegalese Government and UNESCO holds that the CRFB should become part of Dakar University. Thus, in application to this agreement, the CRFB became Ecole de Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes (EBAD) by Decree 67–1235, dated 15 November 1967. From 1979 to 2009, 2551 librarians from 26 African countries graduated from EBAD (EBAD 2013). EBAD has kept this status of regional library school for francophone countries since 1976.

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Independent Library Schools From 1977 most countries of the region have begun to establish their own library schools. One of the first national library education programmes was established in 1977 at Abdou Moumouni University, Niamey, Niger as a programme of the Institute for Training in Techniques of Information and Communication (IFTIC). IFTIC – the main journalism training institution in Niger – began to run short courses on digital editing, archiving, photography, sound recording, and library science. As UNESCO was not able to maintain the scholarship programme that enabled students from other countries to come to Senegal, most of the countries decided to establish library schools because it was expensive to send students to EBAD. From 1981 to 1983, UNESCO launched a programme for the creation and establishment of national and regional training programmes in library and information science. During this period, feasibility studies were conducted by UNESCO experts in some countries to help establish library education programmes (Lafont 1983, 1985). In Benin, the decision to establish a national training programme for librarians was taken in 1979. After a feasibility study done by Lafont (1983) for UNESCO, the Benin government decided to establish the Centre de Formation aux Carrières de l’information (CEFOCI) in November 1981 (Mehissou 1982). In Ivory Coast the library education programme, created in 1991, is located at the Ecole de Formation à l’Action Culturelle (EFAC), which is one of the schools that comprise the Institut National Supérieur des Arts et de l’Action Culturelle (INSAAC). In Guinea, the High School in Information Science (Ecole Supérieur des Sciences de l’Information, ESSI), was created in 2003 at Julius Nyerere University, Kankan, Guinea. And for Mali, the LIS education programme launched in 2004 is sheltered by the Faculty of Arts of Bamako University. Even if the decision to establish a training programme for assistant librarians was taken in 1985 (Lafont 1985), Burkina Faso is the last country to create a library school. The Institute for Information Sciences and Techniques (Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l’Information Documentaire) (ISTID) was founded in 2005–2006 by a professional association, the Groupe d’Appui à la Formation Professionnelle des Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes. It is also the only library programme which is not connected to an academic institution.

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Library Programmes Profile Comprehensively, all African francophone countries except Togo have their library training school. All library schools of the region, except Burkina Faso, are university or high-school departments. Table 3.1 gives library programmes by country in francophone West Africa, their trusteeship and year of establishment. Table 3.1: Library Programmes Profile Country

Name of the School

Trustee

Benin

Centre de Formation aux Carrières de l’Information (CEFOCI) Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l’Information Documentaire (ISTID)

Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA), 1982 Université Nationale du Bénin

Ecole Supérieure des Sciences de l’Information (ESSI) Ivory Coast Ecole de Formation à l’Action Culturelle (EFAC) Mali Filière Métiers du Livre, de la Documentation et des Archives (MLDA) Niger Institut de Formation aux Techniques de l’Information et de la Communication (IFTIC) Senegal École de Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes (EBAD).

2003

Burkina Faso

Guinea

Founded by an association : Groupe d’Appui à la Formation Professionnelle des Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes (GRAF–BAD). Université Julius Nyéréré de Kankan

Year of foundation

2005–2006

Institut National Supérieur des Arts et 1991 de l’Action Culturelle (INSAAC) Faculté de Lettres, Arts et Sciences 2004 Humaines (FLASH), Universités de Bamako Université Abdou Moumouni de Niamey 1977

Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar

1963

It is desirable to conduct a comprehensive and comparative survey to get a complete description of library education programmes in West African francophone countries, on curricula, programmes by each LIS school and the composition of the teaching staff. Unfortunately there is lack of response to our questionnaire which has rendered some gaps in this study. Besides, only one LIS school, EBAD, has its own website and makes available its courses, the teaching staff, the diplomas awarded and the history of the programme. From the early beginning to 1983, EBAD delivered only vocational training certificates after two years of study. But from 1983 a graduate diploma was started for the holders of the vocational certi-

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 Bernard Dione

ficates who work in libraries for three years. Since 2005, EBAD has implemented the Bologna Process and since then has delivered a Bachelor’s and a Master’s in LIS.

Challenges of LIS Education After presenting the programme details, some challenges that LIS education programmes are facing and some opportunities that can be turned to good account are discussed here. LIS education in West African francophone countries is faced with two kinds of problems: (a) problems related to the sociological situation of the organization of the profession and (b) problems concerning directly the training itself. One cannot analyse the challenges of LIS training in francophone West Africa without exposing the problems related to the political, economical and sociological situation of the organization of the profession of librarians. From a sociological point of view, the first challenge that training institutions are faced with is one of the significant lack of social prestige, status, image and reputation of the library profession in the various French-speaking western African countries (Willemin 1967, 325). Besides this remarkable lack of prestige of the profession, there is a lack of political will and vision from decision-makers of the region. There is a total absence of policies and planning from governments regarding library services. A total absence of new library buildings projects is noticeable in some countries like Senegal. In Senegal for example, the national library project has not progressed since the late 1970s. The situation of libraries is particularly bad since the departure of President Léopold Sédar Senghor in 1981. The public library system is totally marginalized. Because of the economic situation and the financial crisis, libraries are not considered priorities and all budgets for this sector are cut. Decision-makers do not see libraries as factors that contribute to economic development and social progress. The most immediate consequence of this situation is the unemployment of librarians. Once graduated from library school, young librarians are not guaranteed a job because of the shortage of libraries. They are obliged to look for other jobs. This situation reinforces the lack of attraction to the library profession and thus impacts negatively on the training. The second type of challenge is related to training itself. Globally speaking, these problems are related to the capacity of West African francophone LIS educational programmes to update their curricula, to modernize their equipment, to acquire or offer access to updated library physical and online materials and to recruit teaching staff.

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LIS as a discipline is experiencing rapid changes. In the past, LIS educational programmes usually focused on developing physical collections of books and other materials in library buildings. Librarians were trained to select, acquire, organize, retrieve and circulate these materials. But “Today library information educational programmes extend beyond the physical collections and buildings to the virtual world of the Internet. Today the concentration is on information provision to users in a variety of contexts, public, private and third sector; users who may not be necessarily able or willing to enter the library building or environment” (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012). Information technologies, especially the internet, have introduced a lot of deep changes in LIS services and systems. One of the challenges related to the rapid changes of the information environment is actualization of the LIS curricula of the region. In some countries, a lack of computer skills has been noticed. For example, Mêgnigbêto (2008) assessing the training need of librarians in Benin, mentioned that most of the students who get their certificates from CEFOCI are confronted with the lack of ICT skills in their daily professional life. As library-science schools are experiencing budget cuts every year, they cannot afford to pay for modern ICT laboratories. They also cannot renew their library collections. It is necessary to make radical changes to make West African francophone library schools more dynamic. First, it is essential to review curricula, eliminate subjects that do not contribute to practice or theory and reinforce the teaching of most advanced technologies. They must also offer alternatives and stimulate research programs that consider the historical and sociological background of the region.

Some Solutions to Challenges To set up a common education area, West African francophone library schools must define a common core of subjects to serve as a basis for the training of all information specialists of the region. They should also think about an accreditation system to enable equivalence between LIS programmes. From this perspective, developing the political will to build a West African francophone education area is a goal. From 2008, most of the universities in francophone West Africa are implementing the Bologna Process. One of the objectives of the Bologna Process is harmonizing education systems with the introduction of the three-cycle system bachelor, master and doctorate in francophone West Africa.

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The Réseau pour l’Excellence de l’Enseignement Supérieur en Afrique de l’Ouest (REESAO) [Network for Higher Education Excellency in West Africa], is promoting this reform in order to create a harmonized education area. Library schools can benefit from this situation to review and harmonize their programs. The conclusions of the workshop held on 12–14 August 2007 at EBAD, funded by IFLA/ALP, on the topic “Review curriculum in library schools in Francophone Africa”, can help to start thinking on that process. Library schools in francophone West Africa must work with library associations in order to build a new professional image. IFLA as the global voice of the library profession should play an important role in helping to improve awareness of concerns in the LIS profession. IFLA should help sensitize government bodies about the value of information in personal, national and regional development and the role of libraries as local gateways to information and knowledge. The LIS education programmes must also upgrade the skills of their academic staff. It is necessary to hire a sufficient number of teachers to bring new experiences (both local, regional and international) with an innovative spirit. This academic staff should also open out to international librarianship. Thus, library schools in francophone West Africa must introduce intensive English-language courses for their students and for their teachers. Since at least 70% of scientific and technical information on the web is in English, not knowing that language means that librarians from francophone West Africa are isolated from these information sources. Library education programmes deliver only vocational training certificates and masters. There is no PhD programme in LIS in francophone West Africa. Thus LIS schools have many problems to recruit teachers to renew their academic staff. This has also an impact on the development of research in LIS in the region. It would also be important to create postgraduate programmes of library and information science in order to produce teachers for library schools and also skilled professionals able to interact with other specialists.

Conclusion After fifty years of evolution, LIS education in West African francophone countries needs to make radical changes. A lot of innovation is necessary to face both the global rapid changes of the library profession and the socio-economic and political context of the organization of the profession in this region. Library schools must review and harmonize their curricula, reinforce the teaching of most advanced technologies, modernize their equipment and recruit new teaching staff.

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To accomplish this, they must initiate efficient cooperation with other library schools and international library associations and bodies around the world.

References Bowden, Russell and Donald Wijasuriya, eds. 1992. The Status, Reputation and Image of the Library and Information Profession: Proceedings of the IFLA Pre-Session Seminar, Delhi, 24–28 August 1992 under the Auspices of the IFLA Round Table for the Management of Library Associations. München: K. G. Saur:1994. Development of Public Libraries in Africa: The Ibadan Seminar. 1954. Paris: UNESCO. Diakité, Fatogoma. 1999. “Services of Libraries and Reading in Mali.” Paper presented at the IFLA Council and General Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 1999. http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ ifla65/papers/133-85e.htm (Accessed on 11 March 2014). Dione, B. 2012. “The Development of Libraries in Francophone Africa.” In Libraries in the Early 21st century: An International Perspective, vol. 2, edited by R.N.Sharma. Berlin/Munich: De Gruyter Saur. EBAD (Ecole de Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes). 2013 “Statistiques des diplomés”. http://www.ebad.ucad.sn/diplomes/statistiques.html (Accessed on 12 August 2013). Lafont, S.1985. Burkina-Faso: Formation des Aides Bibliothécaires-Archivistes-Documentalistes. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000680/068024fo.pdf (Accessed on 12 August 2013). Lafont, S. 1983. Programme de Formation en Sciences et Techniques de l’Information de l’Université Nationale: République Populaire du Bénin. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0005/000570/057081fo.pdf (Accessed on 12 August 2013). Maack, M.N.1981. Libraries in Senegal: Continuity and Change in an Emerging Nation. Chicago: ALA. Mêgnigbêto, E. 2008. “La Formation en Science de l’Information au Bénin: Jugement et Souhaits des Bénéficiaires.” In Actes du Premier Congrès de l’Association Internationale Francophones des Bibliothécaires et Documentalistes, Montréal, 3–6 Août 2008, sous la direction de Dominique Gazo et Réjean Savard, 63–74. [Montréal]: AIFBD. http://www. aifbd.org/doc/actes_montreal.pdf (Accessed on 12 August 2013). Mehissou, M. 2002. “La formation des professionnels béninois de l’information documentaire.” La Nation (Porto-Novo) 22 May 2002. Reproduced as http://www.adadb.bj.refer.org/spip. php?article27 (Accessed on 12 August 2013). Sène, Henri. 1992. “Les bibliothèques en Afrique Occidentale Française: 1880–1958.” Libri 12 (4): 306–329. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam and S.B. Ghosh. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional Library/ Information Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012 (Accessed on 10 September 2013). Sturges, P. and R. Neill. 1998. The Quiet Struggle: Information and Libraries for the People of Africa. 2nd ed. London: Mansell. Willemin, S.1967. “La formation professionnelle des bibliothécaires en Afrique.” Bulletin de l’UNESCO à l’Intention des Bibliothèques 21(6): 320–329.

Chutima Sacchanand

4. Online Learning in Library and 4. Information Science in the ASEAN 4. Countries: Issues and Trends Abstract: Library and information science (LIS) education and continuing professional development have been affected by radical changes due to information and communication technologies. Online learning has pervaded the field of education, challenging the LIS educators worldwide as well as in ASEAN countries. An overview of ICT in education as well as the status of online learning in LIS in ASEAN countries is presented. Factors facilitating online learning in LIS and the challenges of online learning in LIS in ASEAN countries are synthesised with trends of increasingly progressive online learning in LIS , and collaborative efforts and networking of LIS educators, programmes and institutions in ASEAN countries. Keywords: LIS Education, ASEAN Countries, ICT, Online Learning

Introduction

Online Learning in Library and Information Science in the ASEAN Countries

Online learning is widely used in interchangeable terms with e-learning, webbased learning, or distance learning even though the terms represent concepts with subtle, yet consequential differences (Tsai and Machado 2002). Online learning, an innovative approach to learning, has pervaded the field of education, broadened the scope of traditional education and blurred the concept and scope of conventional distance education. It has gained its popularity in higher education, including LIS, which has dramatically changed both theories and practices. It is also challenging to LIS educators worldwide as well as in ASEAN countries. (ASEAN is comprised of ten countries, namely Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.)

Overview of ICT in Education in ASEAN Countries ASEAN is one dynamic region in terms of social and economic development as well as the impact of ICT in its development. Thioune (2003, 1) notes that for the past two decades, most developed countries have significant changes that can be

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traced to ICTs. These multi-dimensional changes have been observed in almost all aspects of life: economics, education, communication and travel. Some of the projects and plans on the use of ICT in education in ASEAN countries can be enumerated as follows: – Brunei Darussalam National IT Strategic Plan “IT 2000 and Beyond”; – Lao PDR’s National ICT Policy; – Malaysia’ s National IT Agenda and National IT Framework; – Thailand’s ICT policy , IT 2010 , ICT 2020; – Indonesia’s Education Strategic Plan 2010–2014; – Cambodia’s Master Plan for ICT in Education, 2009–2013; – Singapore’s Master Plans for IT in Education: MP 1, MP2 and MP3; – Vietnam’s Master Plan for ICT in Education, and – Act to Integrate Computer Education Program into the Educational System and for other purposes of the Philippines. These projects and plans on ICT development have brought crucial changes in education and training. Online learning is one of the most influencing impacts of ICT, creating learning experiences, opening new opportunities to teaching, learning, training and other continuing professional development programmes. It has brought new opportunities and new dimensions to both traditional and distance education. Its key strengths are: anywhere, anytime, just-in-time, flexible learning, It is learner-centred; the self-paced, self-directed approach meets the needs of the information-age learners as staying connected is essential for them. Online learning has become one key policy among the teaching and learning strategies at the institutional and the national level in ASEAN countries.

Status of Online Learning in LIS in ASEAN Countries The library and information profession in ASEAN countries has a long history and is consistent with the development of LIS education. The education levels offered in ASEAN library schools at university level can be categorized into certificate, diploma, advanced diploma, bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degree programmes. Three ASEAN countries, namely Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand, offer all levels of LIS degree programmes, while Singapore offers only graduate programmes. Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam offer master’s degree as the highest degree in LIS. Laos has just started offering a bachelor programme, while Brunei offers the Advanced Diploma in Information Science and Diploma

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in Information and Library Science, both awarded by the Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council. Cambodia is the only country in the region that has no LIS schools but is in the planning stage to offer a LIS programme. The mode of instruction in LIS education has been mostly with traditional mode or face-to-face delivery approach. Open education or distance education mode in LIS has been offered by three ASEAN countries: Indonesia by Universita Terbuka, Thailand by two open universities, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) and Ramkhanhaeng University, and in Malaysia by University Technology MARA (UiTM). Universita Terbuka offers a diploma programme in library science. Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) which is the largest and the only distance/open university in the region, offers bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degree programmes in information science while Ramkhamhaeng University offers bachelor’s and master’s degree programmes. In Malaysia, flexible learning using online learning supplementing face-to-face has been offered to master’s students majoring in information management (MSc) by University Technology MARA (UiTM). From the research conducted by Islam et al. (2011) into the global scenario of e-learning in LIS schools, although e-learning has been used in academia for the last two decades, the diffusion of the e-learning in LIS education is not at a satisfactory level. The geographical distribution of e-learning programmes shows that America had the most LIS programmes offering e-learning. There were 11 programmes (13%) in Asia (6 in India, 1 each in Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia and Thailand). About 23% of LIS programmes are using e-learning systems for delivering education; they are embracing e-learning for overcoming the barriers to students who cannot enter a traditional educational system due to workload, family commitments or geographical location. The status of online learning in LIS in ASEAN countries, established from literature review and online interviews using email to collect data comprising thirteen key persons in ten ASEAN and three countries in Asia-Pacific is synthesised as follows: 1. LIS schools in ASEAN countries are aware of the importance of and need for online learning in LIS education and try to keep up with the changes in information and communication technology and paradigm shift in the profession. There is an increased demand for online learning due to its many advantages, e.g. more enriching experience than traditional distance learning; offering equitable opportunities for people to study, without any limitations of distance and time; enhancing students’ self-directed learning, and information and communication skills, and allowing the students to combine work and study with home life effectively and efficiently. Online learning is regarded highly as a driver for change in the new educational environment.

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Online learning has brought a convergence of ideas from distance learning and face-to-face learning (Bach, Haynes and Smith 2007, 32–61). It was found that the traditional and open universities had similarities and differences regarding online learning courses. Both use online almost exclusively as a supplement to existing courses, and use synchronous and asynchronous interaction and offline techniques for the interaction between lecturers and students. 3. Online learning is still at a nascent stage in some countries where LIS education at higher level is in the infant stage. Traditional classroom teaching is still predominant. However , there are many means of employing online learning in LIS schools that offer education and training; the two main methods used include blended learning and online learning support for faceto-face delivery. Blended learning may include face-to-face meetings, asynchronous online modules (no real-time interaction) and synchronous online modules (realtime online interaction). According to Khoo (pers. comm. 28 January 2013), asynchronous online modules are best for stable well-specified skills, e.g. cataloguing with AACR2R and MARC 21, Dublin Core metadata etc. Computer-based learning modules can be developed for these skills. For skills that are evolving, e.g. linked open data, semantic web, RDA, video recordings of lectures are likely to be used. This is also an asynchronous type of online learning module. Face-to-face interactions will increasingly be used for teaching of soft skills. 4. Online learning has been used in LIS education and training in ASEAN countries, in the teaching and learning process, in the course content and in communication. In the teaching and learning process online learning is an attractive teaching mode, and in course delivery teaching and learning materials is a supplement to traditional face-to-face teaching, as well as information and reference sources for students in the field, in both traditional and distance universities. Online learning integrates information and technological skills to enhance information skills and allows students to experiment with cutting-edge educational technologies, and thus provides them the skills they will need to become the information professionals in this new era. This adds value of online learning to the field of library and information science in higher education. Online learning is integrated in all courses such as Information Services, Information Resources and Access, Information Storage and Retrieval and Online Searching, Digital Libraries, etc., due to the strong technological focus of library and information science curricula, as well as its being a practice-

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oriented course. One of the most popular courses given using online learning is information literacy. In the communication process, students are encouraged to communicate through email, to participate in virtual discussion and to engage in collaborative learning with their peers. With new forms of scholarly communication, students expand their knowledge and develop their reading and comprehension skills and become active in their learning communities. Online learning has impacted on the knowledge and skills of academic staff and students. Teaching methods, activities, communication patterns and research behaviour of academic staff have been transformed and thus affect students’ learning behaviour. Academics and online learners should have the ICT skills as well as English-language competencies to make full use of online learning, and online learners should be self-disciplined and have the initiative to succeed in the online environment. According to Reddy (pers. comm. 29 January 2013), many challenges exist for LIS educators and professionals to march further to meet the present and future situations and to get opportunities to learn the latest developments across the world and bring in quality in teaching and learning and practice using online learning. As online learning adds value to both traditional and distance learning, thus, ASEAN countries should focus more in using online learning mode to improve knowledge, competencies of the educators, professionals and students in the LIS field.

Factors Facilitating Online Learning in LIS in ASEAN Countries Major external factors and internal factors that facilitate online learning are as follows:

External factors The emerging societal demands, the convergence of several key factors, especially the growing need for flexible, self-directed and lifelong learning, the increased availability of and access to ICT and new technologies, as well as the need to explore alternative methods of delivering educational opportunities, have all shaped the development of online learning in LIS in ASEAN countries. Many initiatives at the national, regional and international levels with regard to ICT in education and specifically online as well as collaborative initiatives in the field

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of LIS have been developed. This led to ICT cooperation and network, formally and informally among nations, institutions, professions and professionals in this region. They are aware of strengthening their competiveness by increasing ICT investment and online learning is one key attention. This facilitates and strengthens online learning in the field of LIS and online learning in this region. Some collaborative efforts supporting e-learning are the ASEAN University Network (AUN), the Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher Learning (ASAIHL) ASEAN Cyber University Project, the e-Learning Network, Asia Pacific Distance Multimedia Education, International ICT Cooperation on e-Learning in Asia. Specifically in the field of LIS, some examples are the Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL), Consortium of iSchools Asia Pacific (CiSAP), International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL), Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education (A-LIEP), Asia Library and Information Research Group (ALIRG). In addition, the vision of the ASEAN ICT Master Plan 2015 (ASEAN 2011), and the strategic thrusts – three pillars supported by three foundations towards human capital development and bridging the digital divide – will enhance online learning in this region.

Internal factors Internal factors include issues relating to the paradigm shift in the LIS profession, education and changes in the library organization. Paradigm shift in the library and information profession. Online learning has a strong impact on library and information management and services especially in terms of the provision of learning resources and electronic reference services. More library and information resources become available online; and libraries provide more networked access to resources to the distance users. This offers opportunities and threatens the library and information educators and professionals at the same time. Nature of library and information science. The core of LIS is focused on recordable information, knowledge and technologies to facilitate the management, access, retrieval and use of information while online learning enhances students to navigate the digital world in pursuit of knowledge in the complex learning environment. This allows students to experience access to information literacy, digital library or virtual library concepts, especially information retrieval, services and related courses. This strengthens the statement of Liebscher and McCaffrey (1996, 384) that distance learning technology is also information delivery technology and as such fits well in a programme for library and information professionals who are examining a range of information technologies.

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Reforms of library and information science education. LIS education has changed dramatically to respond to rapidly changing societies and cope with the needs of the workforce in the digital age. Reforms in LIS education, especially in teaching and learning process with the advancement of ICT, allow flexibility and responsiveness to accommodate learner-centred learning with no limitation of time and location.

Challenges of Online Learning in LIS in the ASEAN Countries Challenges of online learning in LIS ASEAN countries include the following; they are limited to the development and growth of online learning in LIS in some countries in the region. 1. Language barrier. As online learning modules are conducted in their native languages, therefore it is impossible to share with other ASEAN countries unless they are translated into English, which is considered to be the core language of ASEAN countries, as well as modified to fit to the context of each country. The expected English knowledge of the students is not sufficient to comprehend most of the LIS materials published in English. Therefore, the students have to depend largely on the course materials and lecture notes given during the contact classes by the teachers. 2. Poor ICT infrastructure and support services. Major constraints some ASEAN countries face in the online environment are poor ICT infrastructure that limits the internet service, coverage, awareness, security and support services. Connectivity and low bandwidth are still the problems of some countries due to geographical factors. Thus there is the “digital divide” and wider gap among the ASEAN countries in the application of ICT in education. 3. Economic barrier. Online learning requires a certain investment in hardware, software, and human-ware. Lack of adequate finances in many ASEAN countries is one of the major constraints in making successful online learning programmes and learning resources available online to the students. Special grants are needed to be invested in ICT infrastructure, online learning software and tools, courseware development supports as well as staff development. 4. No accreditation of LIS entire online degree programme. To ensure quality education in the technology-driven mode of teaching and learning, a quality LIS online learning degree programme is needed. There is need for accreditation of entire online systems in ASEAN countries to ensure reasonable standards and quality of outputs in the LIS online learning system. There is a strongly felt need

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and pressure to have quality assurance for regular control and enforcement of minimum standards in training and education for LIS programmes through total online system in this region. 5. Competencies and motivation of instructors and learners. Online learning has been introduced and become popular with the influence of ICT on LIS education, as there is an increasing need of new pedagogies to take full advantage of the opportunities of multimedia in the digital world. As mentioned by Hoffman (2013) organizations use a great deal of resources planning for and investing in technologies, but often forget about the culture change involved with this new learning environment. It is thus critical for the online instructors to find ways to motivate learners and overcome various potential barriers caused by technology, time, communication and interaction. Major challenges facing the online instructors include new competencies/skills and new roles in the online learning environment that put pressure on them and could prevent them from moving forward to online learning. The online instructor needs to be reconceptualized from that of an expert, a main deliverer of knowledge, an organizer of learning events, to that of a resource, a scaffolder, a coparticipant, a facilitator of learning. (Dabbagh and Bannan-Ritland 2005, 54), managers of an educational process (Bach, Hayes, and Smith 2007, 3).

Trends The prospects of online LIS education in the ASEAN countries seem to be encouraging due to ICT development, the national ICT policies of ASEAN countries, ICT master plans, awareness of ICT to education at the policy level, as well as educational reform of all ASEAN countries. This will lead to the development of online learning as an innovative approach to learning, a cost-effective and convenient educational method in the digital environment. In addition, support from countries outside the region and international organizations also provides opportunities to online learning in many countries. An example is the ASEAN Cyber University Project, which was first proposed at the ASEAN-South Korea Summit in 2009, to help establish a foundation for sharing experiences, knowledge, and skills in higher education and long-distance education among ASEAN countries and South Korea. Having been piloted in South Korea since 2010, the project helped set up e-learning centres in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam in 2012. Many factors influence the outcomes of online learning LIS online learning will obviously play an important role in delivering education in the ASEAN region as well as worldwide with the following trends:

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An increasing demand for online learning: Online learning in LIS will become more and more active in ASEAN countries both in the traditional and distance learning, as well as continuing professional development, as learning is considered to be a lifelong process and the means to cope with continuous changes. There is a need for new pedagogies to take full advantage of the opportunities of multimedia and participating in collaborative learning activities. In addition, the educational reform towards open, flexible, student-centred learning has moved away from imparting knowledge to inculcating skills in self-directed learning and self-reliance. Resistance to reading textual material online will diminish as the screen resolution on mobile devices improves. Development of online learning modules may replace writing of textbooks and some LIS educators will specialize in development of online modules. Collaborative effort and networking: Collaborative effort and networking of LIS educators, programmes, institutions in ASEAN countries need to be enhanced to avoid duplication, competition, waste of time and efforts. As mentioned by Chaudhry (2007), the need for cooperation between LIS education programmes is highlighted by various studies and several projects have been undertaken to promote collaboration in the LIS education programs in Southeast Asia and shown that collaborative projects undertaken by them are more useful to improve the quality of LIS education. Regional accreditation schemes, a repository of learning objects and faculty development are considered important areas of possible future collaboration in the region.

Suggestions The following online learning activities for LIS in ASEAN region through collaborative efforts are recommended: – to develop online learning materials that best suit the context and needs of the ASEAN library and information professional. More sharable digital learning materials to be made available among LIS programmes/schools/institutions in the region; – to develop and share online courses in the similar subjects among the network institutions; – to conduct research and development of online learning, online learning materials and mobile technologies as well as on the quality of learning on the part of the students; – to offer online degree or diploma programmes in LIS as well as training programmes for continuing professional development;

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to develop regional accreditation system for LIS online learning degree programmes in the region.

Summary Library and information schools in the ASEAN countries are keeping up with changes through the influence of the ICT. Online learning has been increasingly and widely used in library and information schools in ASEAN countries in both the traditional and distance institutions. Online learning has been seen as important technology, to improve the quality of teaching and learning in a technology-driven system of teaching and learning, and to enhance the image and academic profile of the profession, institutions, countries and regions. The rapid growth in the number of LIS online learning programmes/courses worldwide presents significant challenges to LIS educators in ASEAN countries. Online learning presents immense opportunities for the promotion of an effective educational environment in the digital age and calls for new competencies and strong motivation for the faculty and learners that are best suited to the nature of LIS, particularly to the ASEAN context, through collaborative effort among LIS educators, professionals and institutions as well as strong support at the national and regional level.

References ASEAN. 2011. We’re Stronger When We’re Connected: ASEAN ICT Masterplan 2015. Jakarta: ASEAN. http://www.asean.org/images/2012/publications/ASEAN%20ICT%20 Masterplan%20(AIM2015).pdf (Accessed on 24 April 2013). Bach, S. , P. Haynes and J.L. Smith. 2007. Online Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. Berkshire: Open University Press. Chaudhry, A.S. 2007. “Collaboration in LIS education in Southeast Asia.” New Library World 108(1/2): 25–31.Preprint at http://mg.csufresno.edu/papers/forum_2/Chaudhry.pdf (Accessed on 5 January 2013). Dabbagh, N. And B. Bannan-Ritland. 2005. Online Learning: Concepts, Strategies, and Application. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. Hofmann, J. 2013. “Motivate online learners.” http://ngolearning.org/courses/availablecourses/lingos/Shared%20Documents/Motivating%20Online%20Learners.doc (Subscription database accessed on 30 April 2013). Islam, S., S. Kunifuji, T. Hayama and M. Miura. 2011. “Towards Exploring a Global Scenario of E-learning in Library and Information Science Schools.” The International Information

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& Library Review 43(1): 15–22. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S1057231711000051 (Accessed on 24 April 2013). Liebscher, Peter and Nancy McCaffrey. 1996. “Library Education at a Distance.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science. 37(4): 384–388. Thioune, R.M.C., ed. 2003. Information and Communication Technologies for Development in Africa, Volume 1: Opportunities and Challenges for Community Development. Ottawa: IDRC. http://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/33242/33/118794.pdf (Accessed on 14 January 2013). Tsai, S. And P. Machado. 2002. “E-learning Basics: Essay E-learning, Online Learning, Web-based Learning, or Distance Learning: Unveiling the Ambiguity in Current Terminology.” eLearn Magazine. http://elearnmag.acm.org/archive.cfm?aid=568597 (Accessed on 16 March 2013).

Peter Burnett

5. Challenges and Problems of LIS 5. Education in Selected African Countries Abstract: It is widely known that LIS schools in many developing countries are not keeping abreast of the rapidly changing digital environment and are facing new knowledge and skills demands from employers. In the period 2008–2012 INASP supported eleven curriculum review workshops in Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Also, in November 2012 INASP commissioned four research reviews to gather more up-to-date information on: (1) Assessment of LIS education in Ethiopia; (2) Investigation into the current state of LIS education in the East Africa region; (3) Tracer study of LIS education in Tanzania; (4) Empowering Library Association leaders in quality assessment for LIS education; (5) Assessment of the changing needs of information professionals in Zimbabwe.This paper summarizes the main findings of these activities. Curriculum development and support are activities which INASP intends to intensify. These reviews will inform our future work. Not only will INASP continue to offer support for curriculum revision but also training in curriculum delivery with a view to improving pedagogical skills, identifying where LIS staff need new knowledge, and offering appropriate training opportunities. It is hoped to encourage the formation of a network/consortium of LIS schools across partner countries to work collaboratively in areas such as teaching, research, staff and student exchanges, workshops, curriculum developmentand distance teaching Keywords: Library Education; Curriculum Development; Developing Countries INASP Challenges and Problems of LIS Education in Selected African Countries

Introduction In April 2013 INASP, the International Network for theAvailability of Scientific Publications,¹ launched a new flagship programme, Strengthening Research and Knowledge Systems (SRKS). This five-year programme will work closely with 22 partner countries and will provide online scholarly literature to a further 44 countires in Africa, Asia and Latin America. SRKS builds directly on the achievements

1 http://www.inasp.info

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of the Programme for the Enhancement of Research Information (PERI) that ran from 2002 to 2012. The SRKS programme encompasses: – working with publishers to ensure researchers have affordable access to the latest scholarly literature in their discipline; – supporting library consortia to negotiate successfully with publishers for the purchase of journals and books; – working with library consortia and library and information science schools to train librarians in the management and effective use of digital resources; – building the academic literacy and writing skills of researchers; – helping developing country journals improve their publishing processes and get their content online and visible to the global scholarly community; – promoting the widest possible availability of local research through open access; – ensuring ICT staff can develop and manage university networks that allow easy access to digital resources. This paper considers the background leading to our decision to work more concretely with schools and departments of library and information science, and to support their endeavour to produce a cadre of technically competent graduate librarians able to respond to change and work in the rapidly evolving digital environment.

Role of Higher Education Higher education institutions have responsibility for equipping individuals with the knowledge and skills required for key positions in government,business, industry and professions. They produce new knowledge through research and can transfer, adapt and disseminate knowledge as well as being important institutions of civil society. (Universities and Development 2010, 2)

The development of tertiary education is generally a core component objective in many of the national strategic plans or visions developed by the governments of our developing country partners. Zambia’s Vision 2030 plan (2006, 4) emphasises the importance of investing in people through education and training to ensure job creation and socio-economic transformation. The goals advanced in Namibia Vision 2030 (2004, 41) include provision of full and appropriate education at all levels in order to leverage knowledge and technology forthe benefit of the people. Similarly Rwanda Vision 2020 (2000, 9–10)

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recognizes that in order to transform from a subsistence agriculture economy to a knowledge-based society, the secondary and tertiary education sectors need to expand in order to produce.an efficient and productive workforce. Even in those Vision plans where education is not specifically mentioned there is an unstated assumption that the achievement of wider socio-economic and political goals is dependent on the ability of the citizens to access and use information.

The Growth of Higher Education In the decade immediately following independence, many of the former colonies enjoyed considerable success in the higher education sector. Unfortunately the 1980s and 1990s witnessed a slow decline, due partly to the focus on primary education but also to insufficient funding and general under-investment. It is only since the beginning of this new century that the role of universities in building the knowledge economy has been recognized and universities are now slowly being rebuilt and institutions receiving more investment and support from both government and external funding agencies. At the same time the demand for access to higher education is growing rapidly. In Kenya, for example, over the past five years, Kenyatta University has seen student numbers triple from 15,000 to around 45,000. Not surprisingly therefore the Kenyan government increased funding for higher education by 30% from July 2013. Having recently upgraded 15 former constituent colleges of universities into fully fledged universities, the extra funds are to be directed to these institutions, allowing them to admit more students and offer degree programmes on their own. The hope is that these new universities will help admit an additional 10,000 students thereby easing the country’s admissions crisis (Nganga 2013). In Ghana a new university is to be built in order to meet growing demand for higher education, bringing the number of public universities to ten. Also ten polytechnics are to be upgraded into technical universities (Kokutse 2013). In Zambia the government unveiled plans in 2012 to construct seven new universities, to improve currently low levels of access to higher education (Seven New Public Universities 2012). Additionally Zambia’s government is set to build a university in its Western province to be named King Lewanika University. Further, Copperbelt Secondary Teachers College has been turned into a university and is now called Mukuba University. In Chinsali in Muchinga province, Robert Makasa University is under construction, while Paul Mushindo University will be established at Lubwa in the same region (Hope 2013)..

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In Malawi the University of Malawi’s strategic plan for 2012–2017 envisages increasing undergraduate student numbers from some 8,400 to 15,000, masters’ enrolments from around 300 to 2,000 and PhD student numbers from 46 currently to 500 by 2017. Its capacity-building targets include constructing, within five years, four new auditoria, sixteen lecture theatres, seven laboratory complexes, four engineering laboratories, seven office and classroom complexes and four library extensions as well as new student accommodation, through public-private partnerships (Top University 2012).

In Ethiopia the number of public universities in the country has grown from two to 34 over the past 12 years, and there are now seven private universities and 52 polytechnic colleges. Around 320,000 undergraduate students currently attend public universities, and this number is targeted to reach 467,445 by 2015 under Ethiopia’s five-year “Growth and Transformation Plan for 2011–15”. There are now 15,445 postgraduate students at public universities, and this number is expected to double every year for at least the next three years (Dyson 2012). Given the large number of new and planned institutions, the growth of private universities in several of the countries, and the general massification of higher education, there is an imperative to constantly develop and improve the teaching and learning support offered through the library. Indeed, in the light of the rapid changes in communication technology and scholarly communication, the shift towards learner-centred teaching, technology-assisted learning, new demands and growing expectations of scholars and students to access information, the role of the library is assuming ever greater importance. Librarians are expected to undertake new roles (digitization, copyright), add value to existing services (manage electronic collections), integrate and develop new and transformative technologies (IR, LMS, ERM), be more proactive. In this rapidly evolving environment a heavy responsibility lies with those institutions charged with producing the next generation of suitably qualified professionals. Numerous studies have been conducted on different aspects of LIS education in East African countries. Mammo (2007) identified many skills that seem to be lacking (or not practised) by LIS professionals in Ethiopia: leadership, human resources management, evaluating and reporting skills, communication skills, professional ethics, marketing of library services, teaching skills. These are in addition to the more obvious IT-related skills such as gateway and portal development, web authoring and database development. In his assessment of the training of LIS professionals in Kenya, Kavulya (2007, 220) noted that “current LIS programmes in the country do not address current job market requirements due to: inadequate teaching resources at LIS training; lack of adequate ICT content in the courses; inadequate length of courses; courses that are outrightly irrelevant to the job market, and inadequate industrial attachment for LIS students”. He

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concluded that there is a need for LIS institutions “to review and redesign their courses in line with market requirements” and also that there is a need “for a system of accrediting LIS courses at the national level for the purposes of quality assurance”. Okello-Obura and Kigongo-Bukenya (2011) identified many challenges facing Ugandan LIS education, including: – most LIS schools are still inadequate in terms of standard and quality to meet the high intake due to the high demand for higher education; – lack of adequate LIS educators: there are inadequate educators especially at postgraduate level and especially in the fields of records and archive studies, publishing studies, IT-related courses; – lack of appreciation by policy makers of the role the libraries play in the development of the country; – lack of standardization of LIS programmes: this role is mandated in the constitution of the Uganda Library and Information Association (ULIA) but it is not happening; – poor technology infrastructure at LIS schools; – continuing education for LIS school lecturers is problematic – they need to keep up to date but training courses are not always readily available and those that are available tend to be expensive. Ocholla (2008) discussed the history of collaboration between LIS schools. This has been largely been unsuccessful due to lack of commitment and leadership. Nevertheless opportunities for collaboration do exist but require new initiatives, commitment and leadership. Challenges facing LIS education include: knowledge of LIS job markets; development of technology infrastructures; allowing efficient access to and the continued development of education through short courses that provide new knowledge, skills and attitudes to LIS workers. He concluded by noting that there is a need to improve LIS websites as a means to increase visibility and easy access to information which would, in turn, be useful for collaborative activities. Ocholla and Bothma (2007) noted that LIS schools tend to receive much lower funding when compared to other disciplines in the applied and natural sciences; even though changes in the information environment necessitate resource support for their growth and sustainability. As in the article by Ocholla (2008) the authors additionally proposed greater collaboration and partnerships between LIS schools in areas such as teaching, research, student and staff exchange, conferences and workshops,curriculum development, publications, research supervision and examination, and distance teaching/research. They also identified the need for the development of partnerships with industry/employers in curriculum development, research, publication and experiential learning. In so far as curriculum development is concerned, the authors stated (75):

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Redesigned curricula obviously have very serious implications for faculty members in LIS department. Faculty members have to move away from their traditional comfort zones and ensure that they keep up-to-date with developments, thus enabling quality in teaching and research.

They continue (75): Faculty members tend to take their own training very seriously, but this is unfortunately not necessarily always the case. Change management is, therefore, a serious issue and quality control is extremely important.

Among the challenges in Kenya considered more recently by Amunga and Khayesi (2012) were a shortage of teaching staff in LIS schools and the resulting problems of hiring part-time staff from other institutions – travel of staff from main campus to Nairobi campus. Also lack of practical library experience and/or pedagogy by some lecturers; lack of computer laboratories in some institutions, no software applications for specific LIS practicals as laboratories are often shared; low funding. The authors recommended more frequent reviews of curricula to align them with changing needs and proposed a regional approach “an annual convention on LIS education and training in the East African Community Region” (12). In personal email correspondence, Harry Akussah, former Head of Department of Information Studies, University of Ghana, Legon wrote (2 February 2012): The major problem we are facing is capacity – enough lecturers on the ground to handle all the causes,particularly the IT related ones. This has left us with no choice but to rely on part-time-lecturers. Unfortunately, ours is the only LIS institution in Ghana so we have very little to draw on in terms of collaboration of schools.

Another colleague from Ghana, Nina Chachu, Head Librarian, Ashesi University College noted (pers. comm. 15 February 2012): I am concerned when students come on attachment … that they seem to have been taught in quite traditional ways [chalk and talk] and they have had little or no experience in using electronic resources. They have heard of social media but only in connection with Facebook, and its relevance seems to be purely personal, not professional.

Also from Ghana, Helena Asamoah-Hassan wrote (pers. comm. 14 February 2012): A lot of the teachers were trained in the old traditional library skills – they manage to teach the theories in digital library skills because with their library professional experience they can read and impact modern developments in the field and pass it on to students in only theory. To impact practical lessons they need to go beyond just reading – they need to be convinced to actively participate in practical hands-on workshops that can help them

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to better train the generation of professionally qualified librarians that we require in our libraries.

And according to Mathews Phiri (pers. comm. 19 January 2010): Malawi is experiencing a severe shortage of well-trained human resource beyond the graduate level to support learning and research including the management of libraries and documentation centres, and helping to build information capabilities. For instance, currently, there are only Seventeen (17) qualified postgraduate librarians, archivists, and documentalists all (combined) in Malawi.

INASP Curriculum Development Workshops The above review of the literature and discussions with librarians from our African partner countries confirmed that LIS curricula were not keeping up to date with the developments in the area of ICT and digital technology. Between 2008 and 2012 INASP had facilitated several workshops as a small component within its larger Library Development programme. It was partly as a result of the outcomes of these workshops that the decision was taken to expand the activity into a separate, discrete programme of activity within SRKS with its own budget and programme outputs. Some of the issues encountered during the workshops included: – the need to depend on materials already existing in the library, so that all students had access, and sadly, the library’s collection in this area was sparse and outdated (Tanzania); – problems of updating staff skills and knowledge? (Tanzania); – capacity building; “I have only one area of concern, but it is a fairly major one, relating to the capacity of the staff at EASLIS in the field of records management. I feel that some key issues of capacity building remain & will need to be addressed if the new programme is to succeed” (Uganda); – the urgent need to launch a professional journal as a medium for academics to communicate their research findings for the increase of information and knowledge dissemination for teaching, learning and research processes of the profession (Ethiopia); – the need for a nationwide study on the various types of libraries and information centres so as to ascertain the training needs of the country to serve in various constituent types of libraries, which include archives, records management and museums (Ethiopia);

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many of the trained personnel are pegged at undergraduate training and currently very few proceed for postgraduate training. This is so, because there is no institution of higher learning in the country that offers postgraduate education and training in LIS (Malawi).

Another recurrent theme that was mentioned both in discussion and in the workshops was the issue of pedagogical skills and the general failure to produce information-literate critical thinkers and independent learners (Hepworth and Duvigneau 2012). In November 2012 INASP commissioned four pieces of research on the current state of LIS education in selected African countries, the goal of which was both to get an up-to-date picture of the state of LIS education and also to inform INASP’s future work in this area. The four studies were: 1. Assessment of library and information science (LIS) education in Ethiopia; 2. Investigation into the current state of LIS education in the East Africa region; 3. Tracer study of LIS education in Tanzania; 4. Assessment of the changing needs of information professionals in Zimbabwe. The first report was authored by Addis Ababa University staff, Mekelle University and Alpha University College (Teferra et al. 2013). The main objective was to explore existing market needs in LIS, examine existing LIS programmes in the country, ascertain how far these curricula meet identified needs, and propose a way forward.The report identified a strong market need for LIS graduates as evidenced inter alia by: 1. plans to launch LIS programmes at several new institutions; 2. the number of advertised vacancies that are not filled; 3. current government initiatives (e.g. the Growth and Transformation Plan) which will generate a strong market demand for information professionals. At the present time five master’s programmes are offered at three universities. The School of Information Science at AAU runs an MSc in Information Science (MScIS) and recently launched an MSc in Information Science with major in Library Science (MScISLS). The Department of Information Science at Jimma University runs an MSc in Electronic and Digital Resource Management (MScEDRM) and an MSc in Information and Knowledge Management (MScIKM) in parallel. The Department of Information Science of the Haramaya University recently opened an MSc programme in Information Science (MScIS). In so far as undergraduate education is concerned the Ministry of Education (MOE) designed in 2012 a National Modular Curriculum for undergraduate LIS education in Ethiopia as part of harmonization efforts. All LIS schools have been

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instructed to use the new curriculum and the MOE expects all schools to fully adopt this. So far the curriculum has been adopted by Haramaya and Gondar Universities. At the present time Mekelle and Jimma Universities still each use their own curriculum. However all of the LIS schools had curriculum review plans in hand and all of the respondents agreed on the need for undergraduate harmonization. Unfortunately the departments at both Jimma and Haramaya universities have a chronic staff shortage for their master’s programmes. Unless they work hard on their staff development at the PhD level their master’s programmes will have a sustainability problem. Although the report concluded that the curricula address the majority of the needs expressed, it also identified unmet needs, including: – strategic planning and leadership skills; – customer interfacing relations; – information literacy skills; – communication and outreach skills; – library 2.0 technologies; – networking and outreach; – copyright issues; – licensing of e-resources and access management; – project management; – library space design; – indigenous knowledge management; – marketing of library and information resources and services; – fundraising; – content development and management; – pedagogical skills; – forging partnership and collaboration. Other non-curricular problems identified included: – poor image of librarians and of the profession; – absence of well qualified professionals in the market; – migration of professionals to better paid jobs with higher prestige; – closure and termination of LIS programmes, re-instatement and changing names of programmes; – new roles transcending the traditional job market; – absence of well qualified teachers to teach in the already established LIS schools; – absence of a professional association that advocates for the profession and professionals.

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The report recommended: 1. There should be an exhaustive national need assessment for LIS education and the use of tracer studies as part of the curriculum review process should also be considered; 2. Existing curricula must be reviewed and updated following the national need assessment in order to respond to the identified market needs; 3. Even though harmonization of curricula is important, it must not be to the extent to make all LIS curricula uniform across Ethiopia. Rather, institutions of higher learning that are engaged in LIS education must be encouraged to inculcate some sort of specialization in their curricula; 4. A LIS collaborative network at national and possibly at regional level must be established and strengthened in the light of addressing scarcity of human as well as other resources relevant for the commencement and sustainability of LIS programmes in Ethiopia. In respect of this final recommendation the LIS schools in the country subsequently signed a Memorandum of Understanding to create CELISS (Consortium of Ethiopian Library and Information Science Schools), with the membership including Jimma, Addis Ababa, Mekelle, Haramaya and Gondar Universities together with St Mary’s University College. It is envisaged that this collaborative network will help LIS schools to create opportunities that will support continuous professional development for teaching staff and will enable LIS Schools and communities to share experiences nationally and from LIS regional networks in Africa and beyond. INASP will be exploring ways in which this new development might be further nurtured. The second study examined the nature of the LIS programmes offered in Kenya and Uganda,the market for information professionals and whether the programmes offered match with the demands of the industry. The main question was whether the curriculum and delivery methods are in tandem with market needs and whether LIS graduates are adequately equipped to handle automated systems, and navigate the e-resources and electronic databases in addition to training users in their use. Twelve LIS schools were covered in the study (six in Kenya and six in Uganda). Programmes offered by the schools varied, ranging between certificate and doctorate.degree levels. Only one institution, Kenya Technical Teachers College (KTTC), exclusively offered a diploma programme. Uganda Christian University (UCU) on the other hand offered a bachelor’s programme only. Unlike Ethiopia, great dissimilarity was observed regarding courses offered by different LIS schools. The diploma-awarding institutions in Kenya, for example, follow a curriculum developed by the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (formerly the Kenya Institute of Education). This course is examinable by the Kenya

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National Examination Council. The current curriculum was developed in 1997; a revised version is being developed which will offer courses that are more relevant to the market. Institutions offering degree courses, on the other hand, had the flexibility to create and regularly revise their curriculum and are therefore in a better position, at least theoretically, to respond to market needs.After discussing the changing information needs and how libraries are meeting these needs, and the changes in technical operations, the report described the level of satisfaction with LIS graduates as given in Table 5.1. A rather mixed set of responses was received from employers, though “it is worth noting that none of the respondents described their level of satisfaction as very high” (Kibandi et al. 2013). Table 5.1: Satisfaction of Employers with LIS Graduates Level

Explanation

High

–

– – – – Fairly High – – – –

Low

– –

– –

There is emphasis on ICT, leadership and management, records management and communication, marketing in the way they (graduates) practise skills and how they advance in their careers The graduate schools are doing well but more practical exposure may be required Most young staff are efficient in use of technology They are well trained in all aspects of information management They are knowledgeable and competent in what they do They should have better management skills through more industrial attachments Most graduates lack skills in IT, information literacy, copyright of electronic resources Some high, some low it depends on institution Most graduates have elementary computer knowledge, little search knowledge – some only want to work in cataloguing and classification and not in circulation and shelving Lacking in job motivation, keenness in quality service delivery and willingness to learn new skills Some are more interested in ICT-related work and what equipment the employer can offer than in traditional practices and “hands-on” jobs such as shelving There is low enthusiasm in service delivery and poor attitude towards work While a few LIS schools produce high quality graduates with contemporary skills required for a present day librarian, quite a number of schools produce graduates who come to the field with traditional librarianship training, expecting to sit in a library and wait to circulate books

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Remarks by the graduates resonated in some respects with those of the employers. Most respondents for example felt they had acquired some skills that suited the current market situation. Some, however, noted that the curriculum had incorporated many repetitive courses; others noted that some courses had no relevance to the situation on the ground. Skills cited by the graduates as of key importance included customer care, public relations and selective dissemination of information. They also commented that the individual library environment dictated skill relevance. From the LIS School perspective the greatest challenge was the provision of student attachment opportunities, due both to student numbers and their unwillingness to undertake “hands-on” activities such as shelving. In Uganda students were unable to undertake attachments far from Kampala due to logistical issues and the non-availability of professional supervision. Strategies for bridging the gap between LIS education and market needs, as suggested by the employers (through questionnaires, focus groups and at two consultative meetings following release of the preliminary findings), included: – stakeholders in the profession should be involved in developing the curriculum, e.g. KNLS is mandated by law to advise government on library education and training needs in addition to carrying out research (Laws of Kenya, Chapter 225, section 4(c)); – the curriculum should be geared towards meeting local information needs for development and enhancing literacy; – there is need to review the LIS curriculum at all levels and align it to the expectations of the job market and to produce graduates who can multitask; – the schools need to carry out market surveys to get an overview of what is needed; LIS schools need to compare notes with other international LIS schools tokeep abreast of global trends; – delivery methods should be more participatory, learner-centred and practical with less use of the lecture method and rote learning; – as most LIS graduates work as subject librarians, LIS schools should consider producing graduates who would work as subject librarians. This would require the development of a master’s degree for holders of a bachelor degree in other subject areas; – LIS schools should have partnerships and collaboration to facilitate resource sharing and student visits; – there is a need for thorough vetting of the competence and resources of institutions providing LIS training to avoid producing ill-equipped graduates; – some courses should be conducted by practising librarians, while the lecturers should undertake practical attachment in libraries in order to update their skills and keep abreast with market trends;

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–

–

–

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LIS schools find it a challenge to respond to the myriad market requests such as public relations, customer care, psychology, soft skills etc. and they struggle to find a balance between core courses and non-core courses; Teacher-centred pedagogy was a serious problem in Uganda owing to privatization of education. The many private universities and self-sponsored programmes in public universities lead to high teacher-student ratios and declining teaching standards. This negatively affects the quality and employability of graduates; LIS graduates suffer from low esteem and tend to feel demeaned by other professionals; there is need for the library association to look for ways of raising the profile of the profession.

The overall conclusions of the report are unsurprisingly negative: – there is little interaction between producer and consumer of LIS graduates; – in some cases, no connection between what is taught in class and what is done in practice; – lack of job placement programmes and/or tracer studies implies that LIS schools are out of touch with the market; – training required by employers includes computer studies, IT-related skills, database searching and training, customer care and public relations; – although the schools claim to revise their curricula, from the employers’ and graduates’ point of view the changes have not been comprehensive enough and at times have not involved the clients; – the library and information science market is very dynamic and the schools are not keeping up with the changes taking place. The recommendations are very clear: – LIS schools should carry out tracer studies; – LIS schools, professional associations and employers in the region should work more closely; – regular curriculum revision should be conducted by the schools as per the accreditation bodies’ guidelines; – the Commission for Higher Education (Kenya) and the National Commission for Higher Education (Uganda) should ensure the schools incorporate practitioners in curriculum development and reviews; – the professional associations should have a mandate in regulating LIS education and licensing of practitioners; – LIS lecturers and practitioners should be mandated to undertake continuous professional education.

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The authors of the third report (from Ardhi University, University of Dar es Salaam and Sokoine National Agricultural University in Tanzania) assert that despite the efforts being made, the quality of library and information services provided in Tanzania is still poor; and moreover the performance of most LIS graduates employed in Tanzania is still questionable. This is the rationale for investigating how LIS education is provided in Tanzania (Lukwale et al. 2013). This study aimed at assessing the relevance of LIS curricula to the job market; determining ways in which LIS curricula addressed the advancements in ICT; investigating ways in which LIS training was conducted; assessing the efficiency of LIS graduates in the job market; and determining the library users’ satisfaction. In addition, the study attempted to ascertain the strength and weakness of current LIS education in Tanzania and to make recommendations for improving the contribution of libraries to building an information society. The need for LIS graduates in Tanzania is high and is expected to increase. To meet this challenge, several training institutions have introduced LIS programmes to produce graduates in the job market. Among the training institutions with certificate and/or diploma LIS programmes are the School of Library, Archives and Documentation Studies (SLADS) Bagamoyo; the Moshi College of Cooperatives and Business Studies; the Jordan University College; the Ruaha University College; the Eckenford University of Tanga; the Tanzania Public Service College; Mzumbe University (recently introduced); and Sokoine University of Agriculture. Tumaini University Dar es Salaam College offers LIS and an information management programme at undergraduate level. Other universities including Mzumbe University (MU) and the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) are about to introduce programmes at undergraduate level too. The University of Dar es Salaam through the College of Arts and Social Sciences offers LIS programmes at master’s and PhD levels. The study involved a total of 180 respondents: 60 LIS students (both current and past), 60 lecturers (12 from each LIS training institution involved in the study) and 60 LIS employers from academic, government, NGOs and parastatal organisations.The report offered numerous tables on age, gender, qualification level of educators,length of work experience of graduates, levels of specific graduate competencies, relevance of specific aspects of LIS education in job market, based on views of educators, employers and graduates. We concentrate here essentially on the recommendations for the improvement of LIS education. Respondents were asked to recommend on areas of improvements for LIS teaching methodology. Results indicate that 34.2% of LIS graduates indicated that teaching methodologies for LIS education should be improved by 25% (to some degree); 23.6% proposed a 50% improvement (a large degree); 21.1% of respondents recommended a 75% (a very great degree)

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improvement and 2.6% indicated that there was a need for 100% (total overhaul) improvement of LIS education teaching methodology. On the other hand 18.4% of respondents indicated that there was no need for improvements on LIS education teaching methodology. Moreover, results show that 42.1% of LIS graduates recommended a 25% improvement on LIS education course content; 26.3% respondents proposed a 50% improvement; 13.2% of respondents proposed a 75% improvement of LIS education course contents. However 18.4% of respondents indicated that there was no need for improvement of LIS education course contents. Interesting findings included: – many LIS educators have been in post for less than 5 years and had relatively little experience; – it takes more than one year for most of the graduates to find employment, despite the lack of qualified personnel; – there were mixed views from employers, educators and graduates regarding the quality of LIS education, the strengths and weakness of LIS curricula and the way LIS education was provided but the overall view of LIS educators and graduates was that LIS education prepared graduates adequately in the job market; – the quality of faculty members, teaching and research supervision was identified by both LIS educators and graduates as some of the major strengths of their LIS programmes. However, LIS educators identified areas that needed improvements, including emphasis on different IT-related components, research methodology, customer care, information ethics and workplace practical training. LIS graduates noted that areas that needed improvement in the provision LIS education included teaching and learning environment, course content, field work, classroom practical works and teaching methodologies. One of the implications of these findings is that existing curricula of library and information science offered by various LIS institutions in the country have to be reoriented to reflect the changes that are experienced in the profession. The survey also attempted to assess the competence of LIS graduates in the job market from the employers’ perspective. Generally LIS graduates demonstrated a high level of competence in management skills, technical knowledge,communication skills, working in a changing environment and in a team work. But the findings also identified areas that required improvement in terms of competencies, including individual creativity at work, ability to work under pressure and IT skills. LIS graduates also identified inadequate training opportunities and heavy work load as some of the challenges experienced in the work environment.

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Based on the findings of the study this study has the following recommendations: – Review of existing curriculum. It is recommended that there is a need to reorient library and information science education to reflect global changes and evolving market demands; – Establishing links and collaborations between LIS schools and industry. There is a need to introduce and maintain interaction and collaboration between LIS employers and LIS professionals, particularly the educators, to create dialogue among stakeholders; – Introduction and strengthening of students field work and internship. Fieldwork training to be introduced for LIS students so as to impart practical experience and give them opportunity to practise what they learn in classes. The fourth study (Chikonzo 2013) sought to answer the following question: What are the changing needs of information professionals that may inform curriculum development in Library Schools in Zimbabwe? The study also sought to answer the following sub-questions: – What are the perceptions of information professionals of LIS curricula? – What strategies are information professionals using to adapt to their changing needs? The research focused on practising information professionals rather than library educators. All the respondents, regardless of length of service, reported changes in roles and responsibilities, driven mainly by the changing expectations of users, the new ICT landscape, electronic resources and staff shortages. These changed roles were not necessarily reflected in formal job descriptions. Although respondents believed that the LIS curricula give information professionals a sound basis to be able to work, many of them considered the curricula inadequate for them to fulfil their roles and responsibilities as expected. The most glaring gap that was prevalent in almost every response was that of inconsistencies and imbalances that existed between theory and practice. Most interviewees pointed to the fact that the curricula were mostly theoretical with limited application in industry. The general perception of the curricula was that they were outdated, having too many gaps and not applicable in industry. To this end the respondents suggested a number of courses that they felt were needed to bridge the knowledge and skills gap: – project management; – information literacy; – public relations; – serials management / purchasing and supply;

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– – – – – – – – –

 69

digital libraries / virtual research environments; open access; programming /software development; metadata indexing / Resource Description and Access; special needs librarianship; advanced human resources management; subject librarianship; reference management; semantic web.

The suggestion of courses such as project management, public relations and purchasing and supply show the multi-disciplinary nature of Library and Information Science. It implies that those who are involved in the development of LIS curricula should look beyond the conventional and seek ways of integrating aspects from other disciplines in order for them to produce professionals who are adequately prepared to deliver in their work environments.Most of the suggested courses centred on ICTs and their application. These gaps were mainly attributed to automation, changes in user needs and expectations, increasing use of electronic resources as well as use digital applications in the creation, storage and dissemination of information. The proliferation of the use of ICT in libraries has led to a demand in the associated skills. These skill sets were highlighted in both the training needs and the new courses suggested for LIS curricula. From the responses drawn from the interviews, it is apparent that they need skills and courses that are in tandem with the digital era we are living in. The suggestion of the introduction of courses such as programming, virtual research environments and software development is a testament to the influence that ICT has had on information professionals in Zimbabwe. Change is inevitable as noted by the study, therefore there is a need for continuous knowledge and skill upgrading for information professionals in Zimbabwe for them to remain relevant in the digital era as well as keep up with global trends. This can be done through workshops or a constant revamp of the curricula to incorporate new/suggested skill and knowledge sets. LIS curricula in Zimbabwe should be critically reviewed on a yearly basis so as to keep pace with the changing needs of information professionals in Zimbabwe. Using the findings of the above studies INASP has already started developing its Curriculum Development Programme and has conducted its first activity at Mzuzu University in Malawi. The review process will be integrated with associated activities such as pedagogical skills training, the development of CPD plans, tracer studies and longer-term curriculum review and evaluation.

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References Amunga, Hellen A. and Marie K. Khayesi. 2012. “Library and Information Science Education in Kenya: An Overview of Potential and Challenges: Presented at SCECSAL XXth Conference. http://scecsal.viel.co.ke/images/3/3a/Library_and_Information_Science_education_in_ Kenya-_an_overview_of_potential_and_challenges.pdf (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Chikonzo, A. 2013. “An Assessment of the Changing Needs of Information Professionals in Zimbabwe.” Unpublished report to INASP, April 2013. Dyson, Jonathan. 2012. “Agency Fights to Maintain Standards during HE Expansion.” University World News 16 December. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article. php?story=20121121172656320 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Hepworth, Mark and Siobhan Duvigneau. 2012. “Building Research Capacity: Enabling Critical Thinking through Information Literacy in Higher Education in Africa.” Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/13115 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). “Hope that New University Will Pacify Restive Region”. 2013. University World News 23 February. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20130222161009519 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Kavulya, Joseph M. 2007. “Training of Library and Information Science (LIS) Professionals in Kenya.” Library Review 56(3): 208–223. Kibandi, I.M. et al. 2013. “An Investigation of the Current State of Library & Information Science Education in the East Africa Region.” Unpublished report to INASP, March 2013. Kokutse, Francis. 2013. “More Universities to Tackle Growing Student Demand.” University World News 16 March. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article. php?story=20130315172914126 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Lukwale, S. et al. 2013. “Report on a Tracer Study of Library and Information Science (LIS) Education inTanzania.” Unpublished report to INASP, April 2013. Mammo, W. Demise. 2007. “Renaissance or Existence of LIS Education in Ethiopia: Curriculum, Employers’ Expectations and Professional Dreams.” International Information & Library Review 39: 145–157. Namibia Vision 2030. 2004. Windhoek: Office of the President. http://www.npc.gov.na/?page_ id=210 (Accessed on 28 February 2014). Nganga, Gilbert. “Spending Boost of 30% to Finance New Universities.” University World News 16 March. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20130314135924295 (Accessed on 28 February 2014). Okello-Obura, Constant and I.M.N. Kigongo-Bukenya. 2011. “Library and Information Science Education and Training in Uganda: Trends, Challenges and the Way Forward.” Education Research International Article ID 705372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/705372 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Ocholla, Dennis N. 2008. “The Current Status and Challenges of Collaboration in Library and Information Studies (LIS) Education and Training in Africa.” New Library World 109(9/10): 466–479. Ocholla, Dennis N. and Theo Bothma. 2007. “Trends, Challenges and Opportunities for LIS Education and Training in Eastern and Southern Africa.” New Library World 108(1/2): 55–78.

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Rwanda Vision 2020. 2004. Kigali: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning. http://www. gesci.org/assets/files/Rwanda_Vision_2020.pdf (Accessed on 28 February 2014). “Seven new public universities on the cards.” 2012. University World News 30 September. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=201209211312433 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Teferra, S. et al. 2013. “Assessment of Library and Information Science Education in Ethiopia: Harmonization and Shaping the Curricula to Changing Needs.” Unpublished report to INASP March 2013. “Top University Plans to Double Student Numbers.” 2012. University World News 11 November. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20121110132937640 (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Universities and Development: Global Cooperation. 2010. London: Universities UK. http://www. universitiesuk.ac.uk/highereducation/Documents/2010/UniversitiesAUniversitiesA.pdf (Accessed on 28 February 2014). Vision 2030. 2006. [Lusaka]: Republic of Zambia. http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/ public/documents/cpsi/unpan040333.pdf (Accessed on 28 February 2014).

Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri, Salim Said Alkindi and Abdullah Humood Al-Sarmi

6. Library and Information Science in 6. Oman’s New Information Environment Stakeholder Perspectives and Practical Recommendations

Abstract: The Middle Eastern country of Oman has a new and rapidly developing information sector being promoted by the government in efforts to diversify the economy. Currently, there is a disconnection between this sector and the LIS profession, yet LIS specialists have skills and knowledge that are relevant and potentially valuable to the new information industry. The study objective was to identify ways in which the LIS profession can best contribute to Oman’s new information sector. This is a qualitative study, based on workshop discussions to explore the experiences and views of a range of key stakeholders from leading government and academic libraries. The study has identified a range of important LIS skills and expertise that can add value to the new information industry of Oman, such as the ability to transfer traditional information management and retrieval skills to the new digital information environment. LIS education leaders need to ensure that their graduates are well equipped with IT skills as well as English-language communication skills. The workshop participants suggested that working groups or committees should be established to identify and implement collaborative activities between the LIS sector and the new information industry. The findings are used to develop a set of practical recommendations for the LIS sector.The significance of this study lies in the way it has generated concrete examples of ways in which the LIS sector might collaborate with Oman’s new information industry in order to help promote the effective development of these industries and support national economic development. It also highlights practical ways in which the LIS needs to evolve, by training its students in new types of skills and expertise, to meet the needs of organizations in the new information industry: Based on on previous research on LIS in developing countries the study has highlighted the problems and challenges faced by this sector as new information industry. It makes an original contribution to this body of research by drawing on stakeholder perspectives to generate practical recommendations for measures that will enable the LIS sector to play an enhanced role in the economic and social development of Oman. Keywords: Middle East, Library and Infomation Science, Developing Countries, Collaboration, Information Industry Library and Information Science in Oman’s New Information Environment

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Introduction The Government of Oman’s new Five-Year Development Plan (2011–2015) emphasises the development of the information industry and the transformation of Oman into a digital society (eOman 2014). This initiative addresses the need to diversify Oman’s economy in the face of expected depletion of the oil resources that have underpinned national development in the past. Oman has also experienced considerable progress in its LIS sector in recent years, which is reflected in the establishment of the Department of Library and Information Science and the Omani Library Association (Jabr 2010). However, there is currently a disconnect between the LIS sector, and the new information industry being promoted by the government, and driven by developments in information and communications technologies (ICT). The industries making up this new sector include ICT service providers, media and broadcasting companies and organizations involved in the development and supply of digital information resources and services. These are well placed to play a leading role in the social and economic development of Oman, and to facilitate its participation in the global economy, since many of these services can be delivered remotely to users throughout the world. This study aims to examine ways in which the LIS sector can contribute most effectively to national development, through closer collaboration and improved alignment with the newly evolving information industry in the region.

Statement of Problem Oman’s LIS sector must take a leading role in identifying and cultivating opportunities for collaboration with the new information industry that are developing within the context of IT-focused policies and programmes. Although relationships between the traditional and new information sectors are fairly weak at present, the traditional field of LIS can provide important expertise to ensure the integrity and effective management of digital information; these include, for example, an understanding of data protection and copyright issues. At the same time, LIS education needs to evolve in line with the emerging skill requirements of the new information industry in order to ensure that its graduates can compete in the labour market for information service jobs. Unfortunately, numerous studies have found that LIS education in developing countries is not able to meet the present needs of employers, within the traditional LIS sector.

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 Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri, Salim Said Alkindi and Abdullah Humood Al-Sarmi

Objectives The main objective of this study is to assist Oman’s LIS sector to better understand the role that it can play in the economic and social development of the country through improved collaboration and working relationships with the new information industry and with government policymakers, through improved preparation of LIS students to compete for jobs in the new information industry.

Research Questions The study addresses the following key research questions: 1. What are the key LIS skills and expertise that can add value to the new information industry of Oman and ensure that they are prepared to compete effectively in the global economy? 2. What are the newly emerging requirements of skills and expertise in the new information industry that LIS students must acquire in order to meet the needs of this sector? 3. How can the LIS sector and the new information industry work more effectively together in the interest of social and national development?

Literature Review In the Gulf States of the Middle East, including Oman, national governments have recently placed greater emphasis on the development of digital information initiatives and the promotion of the information sector. This is in large part a response to the impending depletion of oil reserves and the need to diversify their industries in order to compete effectively in the global economy. Improved information access, especially to resources in Arabic, is also seen as a means of improving the education and knowledge of the native populations, thus reducing the reliance of employers on expatriate recruitment. In Oman, the Information Technology Authority (ITA) has been established to oversee the digitization programs in the country (Al Balush 2010) through initiatives such as the eOman public sector electronic service delivery programme. In the neighboring UAE, Dubai Internet City, Dubai Silicon Oasis, “smart cities” and other information-industry-focused developments form a major component of the government’s economic development policy and have already attracted many high-tech companies and media organizations from around the world (Walters,

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Kadragic and Walters 2006). The types of industries which are being attracted to the Gulf by these types of initiatives include print and multimedia content providers; information agencies and services; telecommunications, radio and TV services, and newspaper and magazine companies, to name a few. The success of the region’s initiatives in this area is also reflected in high internet penetration, such as 49.8% in the UAE in 2008 compared with a global average of 21.9%. This situation provides new opportunities for LIS specialists to adapt their traditional areas of knowledge and expertise to the new information environment, and create a wealth of new job opportunities for LIS graduates. Information industries based on electronic and digital forms of delivery face new challenges relating to information security, privacy and intellectual property rights (Al-Suqri and Afzal 2007; Al-Suqri and Fatuyi 2009), areas which also fall now within the domain of LIS. Additionally, there is a role for LIS specialists to provide guidance regarding information management, organization, and retrieval, as well as how to verify the accuracy and reliability of information (Marcum 1997), an issue, which is particularly pertinent to data, accessed via the World Wide Web. There is evidence that LIS education in developing countries is falling behind the evolving needs of industry employers. Even in the case of more traditional LIS jobs, researchers have found evidence of gaps between the education of LIS and the requirements of employers for particular types of skills and expertise (Jabr 2010; Rehman and Marouf 2007; Walters, Kadragic and Walters 2006). More generally, studies have highlighted the need for LIS graduates to be equipped with better interpersonal, communication and business-related skills (BlanksonHemans and Hibberd 2004) to enable them to compete in rapidly changing labour markets. In developing countries, good English-language skills are becoming especially important as an employer requirement (Marion, Kennan, Willard and Wilson 2005). Further, information professionals must develop a new range of technical skills in order to design and implement digital libraries and operate effectively in the new digital information environment (Bhattacharya 2004; Ongus, Nyamboga and Veerabasavaiah 2008; Singh and Pinki 2009). According to Sreenivasulu’s “The Role of a Digital Librarian in the Management of Digital Information Systems” (The Electronic Library (2000) 18:(1):12–20), cited in Ongus, Nyamboga and Veerabasavaiah 2008) these include online search and web publishing skills; an understanding of and ability to use multimedia and digital technology and internal and external networking knowledge and skills.

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Methodology The authors conducted four workshops with representatives of the LIS sector and government agencies in Oman. Each workshop included between 13 and 16 participants. The duration of each workshop was between 60 and 90 minutes, and all workshops were conducted in the Arabic language were tape-recorded with the permission of the participants. The recorded data were subsequently transcribed by the authors. The organizations or groups represented in the study were Sultan Qaboos University Main Library, Medical Library and Information Centre; University of Nizwa; German University of Technology; the Oman branch of the Arab Open University; Sohar University; Diwan of Royal Court’s “Public Knowledge Library”; the Directorate of Continuing Professional Development (DCPD) of the Ministry of Education; Learning Resource Centres of the Ministry of Education; Ministry of Higher Education; Royal Hospital Library of the Ministry of Health; and Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque. The purpose of the workshops was to generate awareness and understanding of the information-management issues facing the new information industry, and of the skills and expertise within the LIS sector that can be utilized to address the issues, from the stakeholder perspectives. The interactive workshops also explored the emerging skill and knowledge requirements of the new information industry that need to be incorporated into LIS studies in order to prepare students to compete effectively in the Omani labour market. The results of the workshops are used to develop a set of recommendations for the future development of the LIS sector in Oman, based on closer relationships and collaboration with government policymakers and the new information industry.

Findings 1 Key Skills and Expertise When asked what key skills and expertise they believe are relevant to the new information industry, the responses of workshop participants fell broadly into three categories: information technology skills and expertise; knowledge management skills and expertise and interpersonal communication skills. It was highlighted that, in the new online information environment, advanced IT abilities are crucial. For LIS professionals, there is a need to develop new skills and knowledge such as those required for the purpose of digitizing information

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resources, implementing and managing the library’s IT infrastructure and identifying and using appropriate software for information management and retrieval. Individuals working in this environment need to have good IT skills in general, including the ability to resolve technical issues as well as having a broad familiarity with the online information environment and the types of electronic resources needed by users. Good typing skills as well as fast online searching and reading skills are also important. The workshop participants also stressed, however, the importance of more traditional knowledge management skills and expertise and the need to adapt these to the new information environment. More than ever, information specialists are needed who have a good familiarity with a range of relevant information sources or how to find them, and who can assist users in searching these sources, such as online databases and e-resources through the electronic library portal. Further, they need knowledge of copyright, data protection and data privacy laws, among other important information management issues, in order to provide accurate and reliable advice on the appropriate use of material by users. One of the workshop groups also highlighted the important role of library management and administration in the new information environment: for example, given the high cost of many subscription-based e-resources such as professional and scientific journals, librarians need to develop procedures for the evaluation of these on a cost-benefit basis, and ensure that funding is made available for the purchase of subscriptions to those resources required by their users. Finally, two of the workshop groups also stressed the importance of interpersonal communication skills in the new information environment. LIS specialists need to be able to communicate effectively with their users to understand their information needs and translate these into appropriate online search strategies. The ability to network and collaborate with other librarians is also important, the participants noted. This is especially important to secure specialist knowledge of online resources such as those in the areas of medicine and law.

2 Issues Facing the New Information Industry The workshop participants were also asked for their views on the main information and data-related issues currently facing the new information industry. Again, the points raised could be categorized under three headings: technological challenges, cost considerations and information-management-related. The technological challenges facing the new information industry relate largely to the rapid pace of technological developments and the need to continually adapt to these in order to remain competitive and provide the best possible

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service to users. Individuals working in these industries generally need a strong IT background and specialist knowledge of computer infrastructure and software relevant to their specialist areas. There is a need for design and programming abilities, for example relating to website design and database development and implementation. However, workshop participants noted IT-related difficulties and challenges being experienced, such as a lack of adequate IT support and frequent or lengthy computer downtime due to technical problems. They also noted the need to provide an appropriate IT infrastructure to enable IT to be used in teaching and learning, so that the workforce can develop the relevant skills to support this industry. The issue of cost is closely related to the technological challenges and the need to secure adequate funding for IT and electronic-data-related purchases and ensure that the expected value of these is properly assessed. Participants highlighted the high cost of access to reliable and affordable online resources, and the lack of adequate financial support for producing electronic information within Oman. The third main category of responses related to information management issues. The sheer volume of information in the online environment and the need to manage this was observed to be a particular challenge for the information sector in Oman. Specific difficulties mentioned by the participants in this context were how to manage the information search process, how to verify the reliability and accuracy of data, and issues relating to data management and retrieval as well as data preservation and archiving. Reference was also made to the relative lack of awareness of the role and importance of libraries and LIS professionals in Oman, and relatively limited availability of libraries and information centres.

3 Filling Skills and Expertise Gaps The workshop participants were asked to consider whether there are currently skills or expertise gaps within the new information sector that LIS specialists can fill. In general, there was agreement that this is the case, and a variety of different types of skills and expertise was cited. The types of skills and expertise that LIS professionals often have that can be readily transferred to the new information sector include, for example, communication and English-language skills, subject-area knowledge, information search and retrieval skills and IT skills. More specifically, it was observed that LIS professionals can offer expertise in establishing and managing information systems within organizations to facilitate the retrieval of relevant data, and in guiding and teaching individuals and organizations in the use of search strategies and techniques. It was also suggested that LIS

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specialists could play a valuable role in managing intra-organizational communications to facilitate knowledge sharing and transfer. Finally, it was noted that with adequate training, LIS specialists could manage the IT-related aspects of library management, such as designing databases and online portals, digitizing resources and managing the Internet connection.

4 Modifying LIS Education and Training When asked whether LIS education and training needs to be modified or adapted to meet the needs of the new information industry, the workshop participants generally agreed that changes are necessary. In particular they highlighted the need for LIS students to be educated and trained in the use of up-to-date IT knowledge, including internet technologies; web 2.0 tools as well as those more specific to the LIS environment, electronic knowledge management tools. Training is also desirable, it was noted, in the use of social networks and the internet for marking, collaboration and communication purposes. In one of the workshops, it was suggested that this might be achieved through closer cooperation or integration of LIS education with IT studies. It was also suggested that English should be adopted as the medium of instruction for LIS education and training, to keep up with the needs of the new information industry. Finally, it was noted that LIS professionals need to develop enhanced problem-solving skills due to the greater complexity of challenges likely to be faced in this environment.

5 Collaboration between the LIS Sector and the New 5 Information Industry The interactive workshops explored stakeholder views on the ways in which the LIS sector and the new information industry might collaborate better, in the interests of Oman’s social and economic development. Some participants argued that the LIS sector should play a central role in the development and management of the new information industry in Oman, acting as mediator between these and consumers. It was suggested that LIS professionals might use their expertise to collect data on user requirements and provide feedback to industry participants for use in developing products or services that meet these needs. More commonly, the stakeholders envisioned that collaboration would take the form of LIS specialists playing a more supportive role in relation to the new information industry. This might consist, for example, of developing digital libraries and databases and information gateways for use by these industries and

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the Omani population in general. It was also suggested that the LIS sector could play an important role in demonstrating and modelling the importance of information in the new knowledge-based society and by providing training in the use of information for strategic planning and decision-making. The participants were also asked for their views on potential areas for collaboration and the mechanisms that might be developed to facilitate it. Some indicated that collaborations or knowledge exchange strategies might usefully be developed between LIS specialists and any service or product suppliers in the new information sector. These could be used to generate mutual benefits between the sectors, such as raising awareness and expertise of LIS specialists in relation to the best technologies and programmes for library services, while educating users in the new information sector about best practice information management and retrieval techniques. It was also suggested that the LIS sector might provide training and recruitment services to the information industry, helping to ensure that they have appropriate information management expertise. Finally, it was suggested that collaborative development of resources would be particularly useful in the specific areas of nursing literature and allied health resources. When asked to suggest possible mechanisms for collaboration between the LIS sector and the new information industry, a variety of ideas were put forward. Many participants felt that committees, working groups or advisory councils should be established, with representation from the LIS sector and new information industry, to identify and initiate collaborative activities. Conferences and other types of networking events were also suggested as means of raising awareness of the issues faced across both sectors and identifying useful areas for collaboration. Additionally, the use of social networks and group email services were suggested as potential mechanisms for improving linkages and communications between the two sectors. The workshop discussions also generated more specific suggestions for the sharing of information resources between the sectors, such as the distribution of documents using cloud computing, the harvesting of specialized open access resources and the establishment of inter-library loan programs. Finally, career fairs and joint recruitment programs were suggested as possible collaborative activities to bring the sectors closer together as well as helping to provide them with the right skills and expertise to operate collaboratively in the best interests of Oman.

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Discussion The results of this qualitative study with key LIS and government stakeholders clearly demonstrate the potential of the LIS sector to make a significant contribution to the development of the new information industry in Oman, and highlight specific ways in which this might be achieved. The study builds on the findings of previous research in this area by exploring the views of leading stakeholders from a practical perspective. In this way it enables concrete recommendations to be developed which can help ensure that LIS professionals contribute effectively to Oman’s national development through collaboration with and involvement in the new information industry. With regard to the three main research questions of the study, the following main conclusions can be drawn from the workshop findings: Research Question 1: According to the stakeholders who participated in this study, there is a range of important LIS skills and expertise that can add value to the new information industry of Oman and ensure that it is prepared to compete effectively in the global economy. In particular, these include good IT skills, but also the ability to transfer traditional information management and retrieval skills to the new digital information environment. The legal expertise of LIS specialists, for example relating to data protection and privacy laws, is also likely to be of great importance in the new information environment. Further, the well developed interpersonal communication skills of many LIS specialists can play an important role in the new information environment, by enabling user needs to be effectively translated into information search and retrieval strategies as well as information industry products and services. Research Question 2: The newly emerging requirements for skills and expertise in the new information industry that LIS students must acquire in order to meet the needs of this sector are mainly in the IT area, according to the views of workshop participants. The views of workshop participants were in line with the findings of earlier research projects indicating that LIS has been falling behind the needs of industry in developing countries (Bhattacharya 2004; Ongus et al. 2008; Singh and Pinki 2009), particularly in the area of technology (Al-Suqri, Al-Hinai and Al-Hashmi 2011). The workshop participants in this study highlighted that LIS specialists need to be trained in the use of technologies and programmes relevant to the new online information environment. Additionally, since English is the operating language of many in the new information industry, LIS students should either be educated and trained in English, or provided with Englishlanguage classes to ensure they attain a high level of proficiency, another view that was in line with the findings of earlier research on LIS in developing countries (Marion, Kennan, Willard and Wilson 2005).

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Research Question 3: The workshops generated many interesting ideas for ways in which the LIS sector and the new information industry might work more effectively together in the interests of social and national development. Many of the participants expressed the view that inter-sectoral working groups or committees should be established to identify and implement collaborative activities. More specifically, it was suggested that the LIS professionals could play a more central and integrated role in information management within new information industry organizations and that the LIS sector might provide training and guidance to these industries in the areas of information management and retrieval. This would help address concerns arising from earlier research findings (Al-Suqri and Afzal 2007; Al-Suqri and Fatuyi 2009) that the new information industry is facing challenges in areas such as information security, privacy and intellectual property rights.

Implications and Significance of the Study 1 Practical Implications The practical significance of this study lies in the way it has generated concrete examples of ways in which the LIS sector might collaborate with Oman’s new information industry in order to help promote the effective development of these industries and support national economic development. It also highlights practical ways in which LIS needs to evolve, by training its students in new types of skills and expertise, to meet the needs of organizations in the new information industry. It is important that the LIS sector plays a proactive and leading role in implementing these changes, raising awareness of the value it can add to the new information industry and establishing linkages with these industries.

2 Theoretical Implications Though the study has a very practical focus, there are also theoretical implications arising from the findings. Many developing countries, especially in the Middle East, are focusing on the information sector as a driver of economic development and diversification. There is a need for the formulation of explicit theories and models describing the assumed relationships between development of the information sector and national economic growth, so that these can be tested in empirical research. By exploring the ways in which the LIS sector can contrib-

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ute to the growth of the new information industry in Oman, this study helps to identify many of the factors that should be incorporated in models and theories of this type, and which help shed light on how the economic growth potential of the information sector can be maximized. It highlights the types of technical expertise relevant to information management that must be present, and flags up the importance of linkages between the new information industry and the LIS sector.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this qualitative research, it is recommended that leaders of the LIS sector in Oman should take the following steps to ensure that it contributes effectively to the new information industry: – review and redesign LIS education and training curricula, to ensure these incorporate the technical skills and expertise needed in the new information industry; – consider adopting English as the medium of instruction in LIS education; – develop and cultivate connections with organizational leaders in the new information industry and initiate discussions about establishing formal collaborative mechanisms; – subject to discussion with information industry stakeholders, play a leading role in the establishment of a working group to identify and implement collaborative activities between the LIS sector and the new information industry; – initiate discussions within the working group or other forums on pertinent issues including: – how to raise awareness of LIS skills and expertise within the new information industry; – the LIS sector as an information management training provider to organizations within these industries – the formal employment of LIS specialists as information managers in this sector; – the use of inter-sectoral social networks, conferences, recruitment fairs, information-sharing mechanisms and other approaches to improving linkages between the LIS sector and the new information sector.

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Conclusion This study provides valuable insights into the specific ways in which the LIS sector can play an improved role in the economic and social development of Oman through improved collaboration with the new information industry and by improved preparation of LIS students to meet the needs of employers in these industries. LIS specialists potentially offer a range of valuable skills and expertise that are much needed in the new information industry but at present there are insufficient linkages between these sectors. The successful growth of the new information industry may be hindered if they are unable to recruit personnel with specialist information management expertise or train their staff in best practices in information management and retrieval methods. At the same time, the LIS sector may increasingly fall into decline and become peripheral to the Omani economy if it does not evolve to meet the needs of organizations in the new information industry. Closer collaboration and linkages between these sectors is the only way to avoid these risks. The research-based recommendations made in this paper might help the LIS sector to play a leading role in taking forward these changes and creating an integrated and successful information sector at the very centre of Oman’s economy.

References Al Balush, T. 2010. “ICT in Oman.” Inconet-GCC. http://www.inconet-gcc.eu/wp-content/ uploads/2010/07/INCONET-GCC_ICT_oman_final.pdf (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Al-Suqri, M.N. and W. Afzal. 2007. “Digital Age: Challenges for Libraries.” Information, Society and Justice 1(1): 43–48. Al-Suqri, Mohammed Nasser, Khlasa Al-Hinai and Kawther Mohammed Al-Hashmi. “Towards Arab Digital Libraries: Challenges, Requirements, and Future Trends.” Paper presented at the International Conference on Digital Library Management (ICDLM 2011) Kolkata, 11–13 January, 2011. Al-Suqri, Mohammed Nasser and Esther O.A. Fatuyi. 2009. “Information Security and Privacy in Digital Libraries.” In Handbook of Research on Digital Libraries: Design, Development, and Impact, edited by Yin-Leng Theng, Schubert Foo, Dion Goh and Jin-Cheon Na, 8–15. Singapore: IGI Global. Bhattacharya, Partha. 2004. “Advances in Digital Library Initiatives: A Developing Country Perspective.” The International Information & Library Review 36(3): 165–175. Blankson-Hemans, Liz and Betty Jo Hibberd. 2004. “An Assessment of LIS Curricula and the Field of Practice in the Commercial Sector, New Library World 105(7/8): 269–280. eOman services for government. 2014. [Muscat]: Information Technology Authority. http://www. ita.gov.om/ITAPortal/Government/Government.aspx (Accessed on 28 February 2014).

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Jabr, Naeema H. 2010. “Measuring Omani Information Professionals’ Competencies: From the Professionals’ Perspectives,” The Electronic Library 28(2): 263–275. Marcum, Deanna B. 1997. “Transforming the Curriculum: Transforming the Profession.” American Libraries 27(1): 35–38. Marion, Linda, Mary Ann Kennan, Patricia Willard, and Concepción S. Wilson. 2005. “A Tale of Two Markets: Employer Expectations of Information Professionals in Australia and the United States of America.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, Oslo. http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla71/papers/056e-Marion.pdf (Accessed on 28 February 2014). Ongus, R., Kemparaju, T., Nyamboga, C. M. and Veerabasavaiah, M. 2008. “Digital Library Management: A Worthy and Well Timed Makeover for the Information Professionals.” SRELS Journal of Information Management 45(3): 251–264. Rehman, Sajjad and Laila Marouf. 2007. “MLIS Program at Kuwait University: Perceptions and Reflections.” Library Review 57(1): 13–24. Singh, S.P. and Pinki .2009. “New Skills for LIS Professionals in Technology-intensive Environment.” Paper presented to the International Conference on Academic Libraries (ICAL–2009), 5 to 8 October 2009, Delhi: ICAL. http://crl.du.ac.in/ical09/papers/index_ files/ical-55_200_422_3_RV.pdf (Accessed on 21 February 2014). Walters, Timothy N., A. Kadragic and Lynne M. Walters. 2006. “Miracle or Mirage: Is Development Sustainable in the United Arab Emirates?” Middle East Review of International Affairs 10(3): 79.

Kanwal Ameen

7. Challenges of LIS Education in South Asia Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh Abstract: The paper discusses LIS education in four of the seven countries of South Asia. The focus is on Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka and gives historical snapshots of LIS education in these countries. It states that there are number of issues to be addressed in the case of LIS education in South Asia and identifies some common challenges faced by these countries, one of them being technological advances and their impact on LIS education. It also studies the levels and courses, the curriculum and other pedagogical issues and concludes that there are lots of commonalities in these countries. Keywords: South Asia, LIS Education, Curriculum, ICT, LIS Schools

Introduction South Asia comprises seven countries: Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives. Four out of these seven countries – Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh – have programmes of LIS education. The other three – Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives – are still to have their own established LIS education programmes. In Nepal, library education is still in the stage of infancy as only one school offers LIS education (Baradol 2009) while Bhutan and Maldives depend on other countries in this regard. This paper, therefore, mainly focuses on four countries: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Being under the reign of the British Empire for long time these four countries have much in common, such as their overall political, social, legal and educational system. The same is the case with library education and the related issues. Voluminous literature has been produced globally on LIS education. Experts have discussed various aspects in this regard which include its quality, nomenclature, curriculum, standards, market needs, competencies needed, vision, roadmap, challenges and preparedness to meet them, research requirements and so forth. The subject has many dimensions: the more one goes through the literature the harder one finds it to address the overall future of LIS education. South Asian countries are emerging economies with digital evolution taking place at varying paces. Furthermore, there is a wide gap between haves and have-nots within each country. This economic disparity has certain social, cultural and edu-

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cational bearings on these societies. The developments in the ICT and related infrastructure have changed the working culture of government and public sector organizations while increasing an individual’s access to cyberspace. Internet access is available to people at net-cafés, on smart phones, at home, and through wireless devices. Its impact is visible on the overall information behaviour of people. Since 2000 rapid technological developments have affected library services significantly in terms of their collections, access and other user services in the developed world. All the concepts are being redefined. The libraries in the region under discussion are also following the trends by embracing the technological developments in so far as resources are available to them. Subsequently library schools strive to address these changes in their academic programmes. They ought to produce graduates who are able to meet the ever emerging needs of the employment market. The literature on LIS education shows that its scope has had been in flux since its beginning in the late nineteenth century. This discussion has become even serious since the emergence of the World Wide Web and its subsequent growth in ICT. The experts have been discussing the challenges of designing LIS curriculum and training to meet the challenges ahead. A literature review from the South Asian countries revealed that LIS schools generally lack the desired infrastructure and human resources to meet the challenges in the region. One finds a long list of issues and challenges faced by the librarianship as a profession, and LIS education as a market-oriented discipline. The present paper aims to identify the most common challenges of future and seek the opinion of experts on their gravity, followed by discussion and suggestions. It also gives brief historical snapshots of LIS education in these countries and reviews selected literature.

A Brief Historical Note on LIS Education in the Region The development of library education in these countries more or less followed the same pattern. Presently, LIS courses are provided at various levels ranging from certificate to doctorate. A good amount of literature is available on the history and progress of LIS education in these countries. The modern library movement in united India began in 1910. The then Maharaja of Baroda, Sayyaji Rao Gaekwad III, a strong supporter of libraries, invited William A. Borden, a librarian from the United States, to organize a public library system in the State of Baroda. As Director of the State Library Department, Borden discovered that there was no library training for the public library system in the State of Baroda. In addition to organizing public libraries, he started formal library training in 1910. The purpose

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was to train future librarians for the State of Baroda as well as those employed in various libraries of the State. Borden remained in India for only three years, but gave a good start to the library education programs (Aman and Sharma 2005). After India gained independence in 1947, Pakistan was formed as a result of partition. Asa Don Dickenson had been the founder of the first LIS education programme at the University of Punjab, Lahore in 1915. He designed a postgraduate day-time course, but undergraduate working librarians were also admitted to it in the beginning. This course remained suspended after Dickinson’s departure in 1916 and was revived in 1918. It was converted to a postgraduate course in 1928 and the study of German and French was made compulsory in 1936 (Khurshid 1982). The certificate course remained suspended from 1946 to 1950 due to the partition of India in 1947. The certificate course was raised to a one-year diploma in 1959. From 1947 to 1957, there was no library education programme in Bangladesh, former East Pakistan, with the exception of a three-month training programme for the library staff at Dhaka University Library. The first training programme was introduced in the country by the East Pakistan Library Association in 1958. It was a six-month certificate course in librarianship offered at Dhaka. In 1959, Dhaka University started a one-year postgraduate diploma course on the University of London model (Ahmad 1994). Regarding Sri Lanka Wijetunge (2009a) writes; “Formal Library and Information Science (LIS) education in Sri Lanka began in 1961 with the commencement of a short programme by the Sri Lanka Library Association (the then Ceylon Library Association). From 1961 to 1997, many programmes were introduced but some were terminated due to various reasons. The introduction of new LIS programmes was accelerated from 1997 onwards as a result of the reforms in the education system which brought significant changes in LIS education. There were many issues affecting the LIS education system of Sri Lanka but without due attention of the authorities.” Khurshid (1970) states that library education in Ceylon started in 1957 by the Colombo plan expert attached to the Ceylon Institute of Industrial and Scientific Research. It seems that the authors defined various starting efforts differently and hence recorded according to their own understanding of the beginnings.

Literature Review: Challenges The literature on LIS education from these countries mostly discusses the issues, challenges and shortcomings of the prevailing situation with some light on the future curriculum needs. Being the largest country, a major part of the literature in this context comes from India. Besides journal articles, the Indian Association

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of Teachers of Library and Information Science (IATLIS) and Asia-Pacific Conference on Library and Information Education and Practice (A-LIEP) proceedings have valuable articles on the subject. Regarding Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, some papers on the challenges and issues of the LIS field are available. A review of the IFLA Asia and Oceania Section’s papers from the last five years showed that no study on LIS education was reported. The recent literature from the South Asian region hardly discusses the future vision or needs of an emerging era. The following sections present an overview of the selected literature on the issues or challenges discussed. Phuritsabam and Devi (2009) state that the situation in South Asian countries is much different from the developed world as the major emphasis here is on technical courses like classification and cataloguing. Varalakshmi (2007) addresses the market needs and identifies a clear gap between teaching and practice. She shows concern over the parallel running of courses like master’s and postgraduate diplomas by the universities and lack of uniformity in admission criteria, course contents and accreditation in the courses offered nationwide. She opines that this results in low-quality products from LIS schools that ultimately leads to a low image of the profession and under-employment. Khurshid (1982) and Jagtar Singh and Wijetunge (2006) believe that the graduates of this region do not meet the needs of the international job market. The nomenclature of the courses in LIS education has changed but the courses are still not compatible with the emerging needs. The most disappointing fact is that none of the LIS schools/departments in South Asia is accredited by any professional organization. Jagtar Singh and Shahid (2010) argue that the job of the librarians has become more competitive because of the blurring boundaries with other fields such as information technology. Therefore, the professionals must acquire relevant skills in order to be competent in a digital culture. Kaur Walia (2008) also emphasises the latest trends in the library profession that require knowledge of the latest technological developments. She argues that globalization, financial restraints, increasing social culpability and incompatible educational programs are the major factors affecting the library schools in South Asia. Rehman and Ahmad (2007) and Ameen (2011) discuss the challenges and the opportunities faced by library professionals in the emerging era and identified certain competencies they should develop to cope with them. Wijetunge (2009b) presents a critical evaluation of the curriculum development strategy of the LIS education programmes in Sri Lanka. She finds that most programmes provide a general knowledge in LIS but not opportunities for specialization, and there is no national core in LIS enabling all programmes to cover a set of common subjects at appropriate depths and breadths suitable for different levels of programmes. Rahman, Khatun, and Islam (2008) present an overall review of library education in Bangladesh and

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state (page 3) that “The first part of the 20th century may be termed the ‘dark age’ for education and training for librarianship in Bangladesh”. It appears that the country shares the same kind of challenges and problems. In their opinion necessary attention had not been given to library education. Nevertheless, the situation is changing and it’s not hopeless. Munshi (2007) mentioned that most of the libraries are still working on the traditional pattern in Bangladesh. Islam, Chowdhury and Islam (2009) discuss the possibilities and problems of adopting an e-learning model for LIS education in Pakistan. The following extract by Johnson (2007, 64) on developing countries is quoted to sum up the review: This special issue on education for library and information science in developing countries reviews papers from The International Information and Library Review. The papers have revealed that the topic has been of interest to readers and contributors to the journal since its beginning. Some issues have remained constant throughout the history of the journal, for instance, the relevance of LIS curriculum to developing countries, dependence on Western education models, lack of respect for the profession and need to upgrade the skills of librarians and other information professionals to address the challenges of the information society. In addition it focuses on the need for LIS education to prepare graduates to become more involved in the economic and social development of their countries.

The review shows that experts have addressed various issues of the LIS education. The present study aims to identify the challenges and issues to get the opinions of the LIS educationists, to know its future aim.

Research Design The literature from these countries has helped in understanding the major challenges in the region and identifying the more common and peculiar ones to further explore through a web-based survey. Second, a questionnaire was developed in the light of the collected literature and peers’ input to collect responses electronically using Survey Expression,¹ a free online survey software and questionnaire tool. The link was sent to almost all those faculty members in Pakistan whose email access was available. The questionnaire link was also sent to personally known faculty members from India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka with a request to share the link with their colleagues. Very few from Pakistan, one from Bangladesh, two from Sri Lanka and none from India responded by the due date. Then the link was sent to the President, Indian Association of Teachers of Library

1 http://www.surveyexpression.com

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and Information Science (IATLIS) to upload on the Indian academic community’s e-lists. It was posted on [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], without further response Since India is a country with the highest number of schools, students and faculty members, further efforts were made to get a substantial representation from there. The author got email addresses from the IATLIS conference proceedings available to her, and sent a personal request to forty-four persons as a group; again no response. Then, it was sent again to a few colleagues already known, with a personal message. It resulted in three responses. A last attempt was again made by sending individual messages to the silent respondents. All these efforts resulted in only seven responses. Nevertheless, these respondents have very rich academic and publishing experience and one can rely on the accuracy and soundness of their responses. The addresses of the faculty from Bangladesh were also looked up on their university’s websites for sending the questionnaire link and it resulted in getting four responses. For Sri Lanka, researcher’s own contact and a friend from India’s reference were used to send the email request with web link. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: the personal profile of the respondents, their opinion on the identified challenges using a seven-point semantic scale, and an open-ended question to seek their insight on the future aims of LIS education in their countries. The quantitative data was analysed using SPSS 17, and content-analysis technique was used for the analysis of the qualitative data obtained in the textual form.

Data Analysis The following section presents data analysis. Mostly descriptive analysis was made; however, ANOVA and t-test were also conducted to compare the opinions of various independent variables.The responses to the questionnaires received from various countries of South Asia are tabulated and presented under Table 7.1. Table 7.1: Responses from the four countries Country Pakistan India Sri Lanka Bangladesh Total

Frequency

Percent

28 7 6 5 46

61 15 13 11 100

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1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The data revealed that 65% of the respondents are male and 35% female; 61% were from Pakistan, 15% from India, 10% from Bangladesh and 13% from Sri Lanka (Table 7.1). Nevertheless, the profile showed that these acquired responses were from the most experienced and internationally acclaimed personalities.

2 Respondents’ Experience, Publications and Designation Respondents’ average years of experience and number of publications were 17 and 29 respectively (Table 7.2). The majority of the respondents were Assistant Professors and Professors (Table 7.3). It establishes that the opinions come from both experienced faculty with a good average of publishing profile as well as from the younger ones. Table 7.2: Respondents’ publications and experience Statistics

Publications

Experience

Mean Mode Minimum Maximum

30 20 0 161

18 15 4 52

Frequency

Percent

11 3 18 9 1 3 1 46

23.9 6.5 39.1 19.6 2.2 6.5 2.2 100

Table 7.3: Respondents’ Positions Designation Professor Associate Professor Assistant Professor Lecturer Librarian/Visiting Faculty Sr. Assistant Librarian/Visiting Faculty Assistant Librarian/Visiting Faculty Total

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3 Academics’ Perception about the Challenges of LIS The main part of the questionnaire was about seeking the academics’ opinion on various challenges which were identified during the literature review, discussions with peers and author’s insight. The aim was to see that how various academics foresee these challenges. Table 7.4 ranks their opinion according to the degree of seriousness regarding the given challenges. They were asked to rank each challenge on a seven-point semantic scale (1 for the least serious and 7 for the most serious). Table 7.4: Challenges of LIS education in South Asia (N=100) Rank

Statements

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Lack of coordination among LIS schools at regional level Lack of coordination among LIS schools at national level Lack of quality assurance Lack of faculty development programmes Keeping curriculum updated Not designing collaborative projects Availability of insufficient infrastructure Lack of mutual coordination with LIS professionals Lack of competent faculty Role of merit in performance assessment of faculty Lack of internal quality assurance mechanism Producing high quality publishable research Offering of LIS education programmes by private sector universities Lack of internal practice of cooperation among faculty Unplanned proliferation Insufficient research programmes of good quality Confusions in the identity of the discipline Low motivation level of LIS faculty Low status of LIS schools Providing access to current information resources Rule of merit in performance assessment of students Lack of consistency between nomenclature of programmes and courses’ contents Lack of uniformity in admissions Variation in syllabus and programme duration Total

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Mean

SD

5.54 5.48 5.48 5.46 5.43 5.37 5.35 5.28 5.28 5.24 5.20 5.17 5.11

1.559 1.574 1.329 1.345 1.470 1.254 1.609 1.425 1.559 1.401 1.327 1.253 2.111

4.96 4.93 4.91 4.83 4.83 4.74 4.74 4.72 4.59

1.414 1.879 1.330 1.322 1.610 1.598 1.482 1.455 1.557

4.50 4.17 5.0543

2.019 1.717 0.90769

It shows that none of the challenges got the highest mean point of ‘most serious’. In respondents’ opinion the top three challenges are ‘Lack of coordination among

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LIS schools at regional level’ (mean value 5.54), ‘Lack of coordination among LIS schools at national level’ (5.48) and ‘Lack of quality assurance’ (5.48). The mean value for all the challenges is either above or towards 5 on the scale, except the challenge of ‘Variation in syllabus and programme duration’ (4.17); yet it is higher than the neutral value. This establishes that South Asian LIS schools are still not prepared to meet most important challenges; these have been repeatedly discussed in the literature with wishful recommendations.

4 Gender-based Difference of Opinion about Challenges The researcher also explored the gender-based difference of opinion between male and female regarding the enquired challenges in South Asia. For this purpose, an independent sample t-test was used to check the difference of opinion between these two independent variables using overall mean score of challenges. Table 7.5: Independent sample t-test: Gender-based difference of opinion Gender

Mean

Male

4.9417

Female

5.2656

F

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

-1.157

0.253

5.631

The t-test result shows that there was no significant difference in mean score (t = -1.157, p=0.253) as both male and female gave almost similar opinions (Table 7.5). A review of overall mean scores indicated that females had a slightly higher opinion than male on the degree of seriousness of the given challenges (males = 4.94, females = 5.26).

5 Opinions Based on Countries and Academic Qualifications of 5 the Subjects The ANOVA test is highly recommended for seeing the difference of opinion among three and above independent groups. As there were four groups of respondents, ANOVA test was conducted to investigate the difference of opinion among respondents from Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. The results of ANOVA demonstrated that there was no significant difference among the four groups (F = 2.71, p = 0.057). The LIS faculty from each country more or less looks at the challenges in the same manner (Table 7.6).

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Table 7.6: ANOVA test country-based difference Country Pakistan India Bangladesh Sri lanka Total

N

Mean

SD

F

Sig

28 7 5 6 46

5.3125 4.7976 4.8917 4.2847 5.0543

0.80376 0.89379 1.10421 0.88875 0.90769

2.710

.057

Table 7.7: ANOVA test academic-qualification-based difference LIS Education PhD M.Phil MLIS B.A Total

N

Mean

SD

22 11 11 2 46

4.8655 5.5985 4.9962 4.4583 5.0543

0.85109 0.63527 0.86511 2.35702 0.90769

F

Sig.

2.077 0.118

The results of ANOVA did not show significant difference based on academic qualification of respondents i.e,. F = 2.077, p = 0.118 (Table 7.7). The faculty members of various academic qualifications have almost similar opinions. The open-ended question was asked about the future aims of LIS education in the respondents’ opinion and it got forty-five responses. Their analysis was categorized according to the themes. It has not been reported in frequencies but the important aspects/suggestions are grouped as follows: – LIS education must develop the competencies to meet the market’s evolving needs; – we should not focus on preparing professionals for work in libraries only; – we need to broaden up the field with inclusion of the courses such as developing and managing web contents, knowledge management, social media, information and communication technologies, electronic information services, archival management, taxonomy, and so forth; – research, innovation, analytical problem-solving and communication skills also need to be polished for better performance and professional image; – LIS professionals should be able to work as freelance knowledge workers in the emerging knowledge societies. Both professional and research skills should be developed;

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the collaboration amongst the schools within each country and within region must be promoted; the name of the discipline should be changed.

Discussion The analysis shows that still the situation about challenges and issues has not been changed much. The study finds the same kind of challenges, issues and problems reported in the regional literature followed by the suggestions (as the literature review section shows). Nevertheless, it appears that it was not feasible to implement even some of the suggestions. In the author’s opinion, on the one hand, there are challenges related to getting the required resources’ and recognition from the community, and on the other hand the challenge are combating with the attitudes and vested interests as a member of an academic, scholarly community. The top five aspects on the ranking, i.e., ‘Lack of coordination among LIS schools at regional level’, ‘Lack of coordination among LIS schools at national level’, ‘Lack of quality assurance’ and ‘Lack of faculty development programmes’ seems to be more related to our collective behaviour and less to the material resources. In each country there are some good schools and some not so good. But mostly all of them are working in isolation. Even a country like Pakistan with a limited number of schools has this culture of working in isolation. It appears true in rest of the three countries too. Then, the rule of merit is also a question of practicing ethics rather than of resources; nepotism surely has deep roots in the culture of South Asian countries. It causes colossal damage to institutions and delivers low-quality output in every walk of life including academic institutions. Of course exceptions are there, but exceptions do not make an overall culture of a society. Globally, the professional identity crisis is becoming even complex due to the endlessly blurring boundaries of the discipline with fast growing information and communication technologies as well as with the appearance of more and more scholarly communication in the digital formats. In respondents’ opinion, ‘Confusions in the identity of the discipline’ (4.83) is a serious challenge too in the region. This is followed by the ‘Low motivation level of LIS faculty’ (4.83), and ‘Low status of LIS schools’ (4.74) on campus as compared to other schools. In the absence of any accreditation agency the unchecked growth of schools without meeting minimum requirements is found. Then, offering low quality professional and research education programmes even by old schools is also

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observed. The outcome of such programmes contributes further to creating a low professional image in the society’s eyes. ‘Variation in syllabus and programme duration’ of various schools got the least mean value (4.17). This is a common practice in various other parts of the world. The schools offer indigenous programmes with varying content combinations according to their aims and market needs.

Future of LIS Education Talking about the future of LIS education in South Asian countries is quite difficult in the presence of the aforesaid challenges and the emerging digital paradigm. Common perception among the educated ones is that “all is there on web; rather on Google” and it is true of LIS in the students’ mind. Nevertheless, in the author’s opinion, LIS academic elite will have to respond to the challenges for survival in upcoming competitive environment. The challenges of giving quality output and expanding the discipline with innovative curriculum contents for meeting market needs will be certainly addressed by the schools. However, it will mostly depend on the vision of their leadership and its ability to generate the required resources instead of waiting for the resources to come. More research will be produced internationally by presently less research-producing countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri-Lanka. The move for changing the name of discipline is already there and a few schools have included “information management” in their names. However, the change in the names of the degree is itself a serious issue as it requires employers’ acceptance, which is beyond control of LIS schools. The South Asian employment market is somewhat familiar with what a librarian’s job is----though not exactly--but the confusion for the job of informational professional is very much there. The schools and faculty members which lack vigour and vision will lose their worth and might find it difficult to run the programmes successfully. Public-sector universities do have pressures by the government for generating funds and being less dependent on their government’s support. Moving from the low status of the LIS schools on campus will again depend on their re-branding as an integral part of a developing knowledge community. For example, I would like to share the case of my LIS school. After getting the headship in 2009, I assessed a gap among the community on campus, and started offering information and digital literacy short training courses for the faculty and researchers from other disciplines. Within a couple of years this strategy helped in creating a very positive corporate identity in the eyes of the university authorities

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and the peers. Furthermore, it has raised the motivation and self-esteem level of the LIS faculty. Regarding collaboration, inter-country research projects might be planned in future due to fast growing social-media and communication technologies. Unfortunately the political atmosphere is not congenial for collaboration among these countries. Therefore, to design faculty development or faculty exchange programmes for this purpose is really hard.

Suggestions –

–

–

–

–

The challenges are inter-related and need addressing in a holistic manner to bring a positive, cohesive change. We must look at the brighter side of the whole evolving phenomenon. There are opportunities for rebranding our discipline in many innovative ways. We have to lead change in order to flourish in the coming times rather than following them. First of all, I believe we need to change our attitudes: open our minds and hearts in order to appreciate versatile ideas, people and happenings around us. To begin with, at country level cooperation and exchange amongst various schools must be initiated for learning from each other’s strengths and weaknesses. The rule of merit must prevail. We are human beings and favouritism is a common emotion, exercised to various extents everywhere. However, its base should be the attributes of merit, level of competencies required for the betterment of an organization and not on the vested and personal benefits or friendships. Furthermore, the suggestion furnished by the respondents and reported above are very important to follow for creating the future and needs no repetition.

Conclusion To conclude, getting along with the emerging knowledge era in the South Asian region is direly needed. The survey responses show that though the academics have been writing on the issues of LIS education in this region, yet in real terms progress is either very slow or not there. None of the challenges got neutral or lower mean value. To meet the challenges, the ongoing developments occurring

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in our societies, in our market, and in behaviours of our information and knowledge seekers has to be watched. LIS education ought to evolve accordingly, and indigenously. It is desired devising our own future with an open heart and mind at individual and institutional level. In order to broaden our scope and sustainability we will have to keep on learning new things and plan our future. Otherwise, we may become redundant very soon, or perhaps we are already becoming.

References Ahmad, Nasiruddin. 1994. “Personnel requirements in the libraries of Bangladesh.” International Information and Library Review 26(4): 315–326. Aman, M. M., and R.N. Sharma. 2005. “Development of Library and Information Science Education in South Asia with Emphasis on India: Strengths, Problems and Suggestions.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 46(1): 77–91. Ameen, Kanwal. 2011. “Changing Scenario of Librarianship in Pakistan: Managing with the Challenges and Opportunities.” Library Management 32(3): 171–182. Baradol, A. K. 2009. “Bologna Process of Library and Information Science Education in SAARC Countries: A Proposal.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 75th IFLA General Conference and Council, Milan, Italy. Islam, Shiful, Salma Chowdhury and Anwarul Islam. 2009. “LIS Education in E-learning Environment: Problems and Proposal for Bangladesh.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2009. http://www.slis.tsukuba. ac.jp/a-liep2009/proceedings/Papers/a27.pdf (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Johnson, Catherine A. (2007). “Library and Information Science Education in Developing Countries.” The International Information & Library Review 39(2): 64–71. Kaur Walia, Paramjeet. 2008. Library and information science education in South Asia. In Challenges for South Asian Resources and Information Services: Essays in Honour of Dr. Ravindra N. Sharma, edited by Rajwant Singh Chilana, 48–57. New Delhi: Concept. Khurshid, Anis. 1970. “Library Education in South Asia.” Libri 20(1–2): 59–76. Khurshid, A. 1982. “Library Education in Pakistan: Concerns, Issues and Practices.” In Library Education in Pakistan: Past, Present and Future, edited by Sajjad ur Rehman and Abdus Sattar Chaudhry and Afzal Haq Qarshi, 11–28. Lahore: Punjab University Library Science Alumni Association. Munshi, M. Nasiruddin. 2007. “Library and Information Science Education and Training in Bangladesh: An Inclusive Picture.” The CDR ]oumal 3(1). http://journal.cdrbd.org/index. php/cdr/article/view/19 (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Phuritsabam, Bobby and Th. Purnima Devi. 2009. “Trends in Library and Information Science Education in South Asia: Issues and Challenges.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2009. http://www.slis.tsukuba. ac.jp/a-liep2009/proceedings/Papers/a23.pdf (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Rahman, A. I. M. Jakaria, Momena Khatun and Mohammed Mezbah-ul-Islam. 2008. “Library education in Bangladesh: Strengths, Problems, and Suggestions.” Library Philosophy and

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Practice 12–12–2008. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1225&c ontext=libphilprac (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Rehman, S. U. and P. Ahmad. 2007. “Challenges and Opportunities for Libraries of Pakistan in the 21st Century.” Paper presented at the 17th All Pakistan Library Association Conference held at Islamabad 26–28 March 2007. Joginder Singh and Syed Mohd. Shahid.2010. “Changing Needs of Library and Information Science Curricula in India.” Library Philosophy and Practice 5–12–2010. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1373&context=libphilprac (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Jagtar Singh and Pradeepa Wijetunge. 2006. “Library and Information Science Education in South Asia: Challenges and Opportunities.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education and Practice 2006. http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/106432/1/jagtar.A-LIEP2006.pdf (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Varalakshmi, R. S. R. 2007. “Need for National Consensus on Library and Information Science Education in India.” DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology 27(2): 13–20. http:// publications.drdo.gov.in/ojs/index.php/djlit/article/view/128/43 (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Wijetunge, Pradeepa. (2009a). “A Descriptive Analysis of Current LIS Education Providers and Programmes in Sri Lanka.” Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science 14(2): 117–134. Wijetunge, Pradeepa. (2009b). “A Critical Evaluation of the Curriculum Development Strategy of the LIS Education Programs in Sri Lanka.” Library Review 58(9): 670–684.

A. Y. Asundi and C. R. Karisiddappa

8. LIS Education in Developing Countries A Knowledge-society Perspective with Special Reference to India Abstract: The dawn of knowledge society (KS) has brought in drastic changes in education – the main sector of human resource development. Knowledge society is a society in which the creation, distribution, use, integration and manipulation of knowledge is unabatedly going on and the library and Information profession have been part and parcel of it. The changes in LIS theory and practice and in the educational pattern will also be impacted by the emergence of KS. The paper discusses issues arising out of KS resulting from National Knowledge Commission recommendations and the establishment of the National Knowledge Network and National Mission on Libraries. In the background of all these developments, the paper implies, there is need for change in the course content of LIS education and it discusses them in the context of India as one of the progressive developing nation. Keywords: Knowledge Society, LIS Education, Developing Countries

Introduction: The Knowledge Society Perspective At the beginning of this presentation we would give a succinct account of the background that has given rise to the knowledge society in India. In the early 1990s India’s economic policy was changed from shallow socialism to liberalization and this momentous event has turned it to one of the progressive developing nations in the world. At that instant India’s foreign exchange reserves were almost been empty. In contrast to this dismal state, as per the annual report of Ministry of Communications & Information Technology, the revenue earnings of IT-BPO Industry in 2008–09 has been to the tune of US$ 71.7 billion as compared to US$ 64 billion in 2007–08, an increase of nearly 12% (India, MIT 2009, 1,3). Obviously this can be attributed to the growth and impact of the IT sector, closely associated also with the information and knowledge sector. In the words of Peter Drucker, the concept of economy in knowledge society is a transition from an economy based on material goods to one based on knowledge which is central resource, a single word broadly comprising “data, information, images, symbols, culture, ideology and values”: an all inclusive term for

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knowledge. Several leading authors pioneered by Daniel Bell, who conceived the emerging information society, have repeatedly emphasised the significance of knowledge in the ensuing social and economic activities and saw the dawn of the knowledge society. (Koganuramath 2008, vii) Knowledge society is a society in which the creation, distribution, use, integration and manipulation of knowledge is unabatedly going on. In this context, Fritz Machlup conceptualized the “knowledge industry” which consists of five important sectors: Education, Research and Development, Mass Media, Information Technology and Information Services (Machlup 1962). All these have been the part and parcel of the library and information profession its contemporary development. In consequence of these happenings in the world over, parallel changes and developments emerged in India which had already made its visibility through its growth of IT industry. The Government of India, realizing its prime role is the knowledge based economy, re-equipped to take stock of the impact of knowledge in its economic and social planning and the five-year plans, and to prepare a blueprint for its sustainable growth. This resulted in the constitution of the “National Knowledge Commission” (NKC) in 2005 by the Prime Minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh. The NKC is the first such body to come after independence and has been considered as a landmark for the future growth of India. It has made a distinct realization of the emerging “knowledge society” and came out with some concrete recommendations under the heading “Towards Knowledge Society”. This has included among other things the education sector as its primary focus. It further emphasised establishing a) National Knowledge Network and b) the “National Mission on Libraries”, the areas of interest to LIS profession in particular which have been the backbone for the growth and development of the LIS sector.(India, NKC 2007)

THE NKC Recommendations towards a Knowledge Society The NKC has identified several issues towards a knowledge society and considered education, research and ICT as key factors. The summary of recommendations in this context is given below: 1. To take steps to acquire and access knowledge through education; 2. To inculcate better communication skills to facilitate global access to knowledge;

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3.

To make higher education accessible to large portion of the population through formal and informal modes of delivery (more schools of LIS) and expansion of higher educational institutional infrastructure; 4. To ensure access to higher education to all deserving students; 5. To enhance excellence in higher education e.g. quality Ph.Ds., Curricular development; 6. To increase the elements of infrastructure that support the teaching-learning process, such as libraries, laboratories and connectivity, which need to be monitored and upgraded on a regular basis; 7. To take proactive steps that would foster quality in higher education; 8. To achieve the above there is need for a stringent mechanism of accreditation in higher education; 9. To make open and distance education (ODE) more effective a national ICT infrastructure should be developed to connect all ODE institutions; 10. To create common open web-based resources and Open Educational Resources (OER). All these points have implications on LIS education in India too, suggesting a need for a flexible, dynamic and choice-based interdisciplinary approach. The result of these recommendations has been the establishment of National (Central) Universities and institution of LIS courses in these universities. In order to cover the large number of students seeking LIS education courses were also started in open and distance education programmes. Some premier institutions with good ICT infrastructure facilities have also started specialized courses in LIS such as the Postgraduate Diploma in Digital Library and Information Management and Postgraduate Diploma in Library Automation and Networking. More on the issues relating to LIS education post NKC recommendations would be dealt in the forthcoming sections.

The National Knowledge Network The second important recommendation coming under this is establishing the National Knowledge Network (NKN). The NKN is a high-speed digital broadband-based network with adequate capabilities and access speed to exchange sharing resources and collaborative research. The salient features of the NKN are as follows: 1. to optimally utilize the potential of institutions engaged in the generation and dissemination of knowledge in various areas;

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2. 3.

importantly, to connect them through a high-speed broadband network; in order to explore the feasibility of establishing broadband connectivity among such institutions, to create an integrated national knowledge network; 4. to build a national knowledge network with gigabit capabilities to connect all universities, libraries, laboratories, hospitals and agricultural institutions to share data and resources across the country. The primary objective of the NKN is to provide gigabit broadband connectivity to all institutions of higher learning and research in the country. The Annual Report of the Ministry of Communications & Information Technology, Government of India (India, MIT 2009) has reported the establishment of NKN with scalable multi-gigabit connectivity across the country (56,78). This has turned into a backbone for sharing of resources among universities and libraries in particular and that has now been very well utilized by the e-resources consortia. By this facility, the flow of information and knowledge and access has led to more collaborative research in the country. One of the major implementation of NKN in the education sector is creation of “Six virtual Class Rooms” in six IITs (78). The task of implementing the NKN has been entrusted to National Informatics Centre (NIC) which is playing a key role in consolidation, organization, communication and evaluation of information and knowledge across different sectors including Library and Information Services (100). The NIC in pursuance of its task has connected 15 locations across the country. Fifty-seven institutions of higher learning and advanced research are connected on high speed NKN Backbone in the first phase connecting Labs of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research CSIR, Department of Atomic Energy and Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) (78).

The NKC and Library Sector The NKC’s “goal is to transform libraries from guarded storehouses of publications into open stockpiles of knowledge” (India, NKC 2007, 3).The LIS profession received a fillip by the NKC with the formation of the “Working Group on Libraries”. In the preamble it stated “Libraries have a recognized social function in making knowledge publicly available to all. They serve as local centres of information and learning, and are local gateways to national and global knowledge” (India, NKC 2007, iii). The Working Group on Libraries, within its terms of reference made specific recommendation on LIS Education implied into “Revamp Library and Information Science education, training and research facilities” (India, NKC 2007, 8). It

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also made a proposal to assess the manpower requirements of the country in the area of LIS management, and take necessary steps to meet the country’s requirement through LIS education and training. The follow-up to this recommendation has culminated with the formation of “National Mission on Libraries”. The Working group has also made a proposal for establishing an Indian Institute of Library and Information Science for advanced training and research in LIS that would provide the necessary impetus to this task (India, NKC 2007, 8, Annexure 2, 11). The National Mission on Libraries has also taken recourse to the educational sector to map the profile of provision and pattern of LIS education in the country and to revamp its structure and content to build manpower to suit the emerging impact of the knowledge society. The signs of these key changes from information to knowledge society descending in India are very much imperative. They are going to impact its economy, education, research and its socio-cultural scenario. Education being the key sector for building human capital in the knowledge society, its impact on professional education like LIS is also seen. India being one of the frontline developing countries imparting LIS education, this proposal looks at the characteristics of knowledge society and envisages the implied changes and the future pattern of LIS education in this country.

Knowledge Society Perspective and LIS Education India, well known as a country of multidimensional diversities, has also made substantial progress on the technology front and can endure the challenges of its ramifications, and support its education, research, administrative and management applications. It gives ample opportunity now more than before. As put forth by Malhan, “there was no time in the history of Librarianship as today that offers us so much opportunities to expand on our existing program provided we pro-actively pull together and team up to leverage advantage from the fluid information environment”. (Malhan 2011). The information and knowledge content in India across its space-time is spread not only its print media, but more so in its ancient scriptures and manuscripts, an estimated corpus of nearly a million items. In order to consolidate this outstanding knowledge and give visibility to it, the National Mission of Manuscripts was formed to digitize its content (National Mission for Manuscripts 2014). This has been possible only due to the appropriate digital technology available today to enable access to their knowledge content to all. Until now, archival man-

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agement and manuscriptology were relegated to the traditional preservation and conservation practices endowed to personnel with specialized knowledge and skills. Now LIS education has also been thinking of introducing technologyoriented courses in archival and manuscript management. Besides this, the Digital Library of India has completed many projects in collaboration with Carnegie-Mellon University, USA. Another implied perspective of the knowledge society is expansion of the education sector and in this context the pattern of growth of LIS is also overviewed. The growth of LIS education in the last two decades in India has been remarkable and noteworthy. At the beginning of the new millennium the CDC reported about 100 LIS departments and schools in India, which has almost doubled in the last decade to the point where an estimated 180-200 universities, specialized institutions and organizations are offering LIS courses in different levels, through formal and informal modes. As against only five open and distance education universities and institutions, today there are more than 25 universities and institutions offering LIS courses from certificate to doctoral degrees (UGC 2001). Research in LIS education is also showing an upward trend in the last two decades. The number of PhDs awarded in LIS in the last fifty years is estimated to be around 2000 from all universities. As shown in the paper by Mini Devi (2012, 110), 83.6% of these were awarded during the decade 1999–2008 and almost 98% during 1989–2008. The creation of open course ware for LIS has also shown some initiation with the advent of the Open Access initiative. The Indian Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD) launched a project entitled ePGPathashala (for eLearning) – e-content creation for postgraduate studies. LIS is included among the areas of studies selected by MHRD for this purpose and INFLIBNET is coordinating this project for LIS course content. The above project is one of the open education resources in LIS, in addition to the eGyankosh project of IGNOU (Jha 2008). The infrastructure support to LIS education is quite adequate. Public library legislation is implemented in 19 states of India. (Public Library – India 2009). University and college libraries have also been networked through the initiative of INFLIBNET again. Projects like “Book Share” and access to theses and dissertations are facilitated by the initiatives taken by the Association of Indian Universities (AIU) Vidyanidhi Project of University of Mysore (Urs and Raghavan 2001) and the “Shodhganga” project of INFLIBNET (Shodhganga 2014). The process of accreditation is not present for LIS formally, but autonomous mechanisms are created to assess and accredit the institutions of higher learning in which LIS courses and library facilities offered are also covered. The agencies which are empowered with this mandate in different subject areas are:

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1.

National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) for universities and colleges; 2. National Board of Accreditation (NBA) created by the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) for professional courses in engineering and technology; 3. Medical Council of India (MCI); 4. Bar Council of India (BCI); 5. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE). ICT facilities in LIS education are quite adequate as most of the departments have been equipped with IT laboratories with internet connectivity. Coverage of the LIS departments under the NKN is yet to be accomplished; however, it is found that nearly 750,000 institutions of higher learning comprising universities and colleges are brought under the purview of accessing the e-resources acquired through 17 e-resources consortia operating in India (Malhan, 2012). Open source software (OSS) has made a new breakthrough horizontally across various disciplines and sectors for facilitating knowledge management in Libraries. OSS in integrated library management systems (ILMS), digital libraries, e-learning and content management systems have been part of the LIS curriculum in many universities and more than 100 research projects have been completed using digital library software such as DSpace, Eprints, Greenstone and so on. In summary it can said that the descriptive account presented above shows that the LIS education in India has been on the road of the fulfilling the aspects of knowledge-society perspectives as given earlier.

Changing Scenario of LIS Education In India LIS Education the world over has been diversely changing since its inception in the last decade of the nineteenth century. These changes have happened from contemporary social, economical and technological alterations that are perceived all over the world wherever LIS education has its roots. India ranks as fifth nation chronologically in imparting LIS education in the world but would be second in strength of producing LIS manpower, and the institutional provisions, and the levels of courses offered. Since the mid 1960s diversity is seen in the pattern and content of LIS education in India, and it has a sustained development in consonance with the changing scenario in the higher education. Several complementary factors have been identified in this context and the emergence of the knowledge society has given a boost to its further expansion and maintaining

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equity in imparting education to meet the challenges thrown out by the knowledge society.The major key components of the knowledge society are education, research and ICT. These have also seen marked changes in LIS profession in the last two decades,some of them being: 1. changes in the workplace environment and the changes in LIS professional education; 2. collection management has changed to content development; 3. handling of hybrid resources – print, multimedia and electronic; 4. growth of free open source software with application to libraries; 5. open access to scholarly communication; 6. growing and changing demands of users; 7. digital preservation and archiving; 8. imparting information literary to diverse groups. These changes have definitely made some impact on LIS education in India, especially in terms of its expansion, course content, infrastructure, instituting needsbased specialized courses and continuous professional development.

Proposed Changes in Structure and Content of LIS Education Libraries in general have moved from provision of books to provision of information and now to knowledge resources. Parallel to these shifts, course content and structure has been changing in India. Many schools have already introduced courses on digital libraries, knowledge management, knowledge organization and also on information literacy. India has one of the best institutional infrastructures for continuous professional development programmes for LIS professionals.

The Core Concept of LIS The changes in structure and content of LIS courses should be based on an understanding of the cognitive content of the new subjects, which in fact form the core ideas derived from the traditional subjects of study. The core idea or core facet of LIS is definitely the ideas generated around “recorded knowledge”. The structure, constituting the surface, media, format and content of recorded knowledge, as early as from the era of clay tablets, is ever changing. How to “read” this content

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of recorded knowledge, has been changing since the earliest times, from direct human perception to machine mediation and now to electronic media, reaching the virtual surfaces on which content is represented in the form of codes and can be read only by machine intervention. These are some of the ideological issues that become part and parcel of any subject, whether traditional or emerging. In the light of these perceptions the emerging subjects of LIS, which would be core content of the curriculum at least for the next one or two decades, are listed below and analysed to help in working out the detailed syllabus and also adopting suitable instructional methods in teaching and learning process (Asundi and Karisiddappa 2011). From the trends of the developments in library and information science education research and training (LISERT) we conceptualize that the following areas of discourse are accomplished which would be the core content of the LIS curriculum of the future, at least for the next decade. The case studies on these subjects discuss the issues in order to augment them in the curriculum design and in the method of instruction: 1. information/knowledge management; 2. knowledge organization; 3. library automation and networking; 4. information literacy; 5. internet/World Wide Web; 6. digital libraries and digital curation; 7. scientometrics, webometrics.

1 Information/Knowledge Management The basic structural components of the subject would be handling the information and knowledge resources in the libraries and the related activities – selection, acquisition, processing, storage and maintenance. This also applies to the all kinds of resources – print, non-print and electronic. In this context, the content of the curriculum should focus on the traditional and modern techniques of handling information resources, as it provides the learner with a broader outlook of the subject and also knowledge of various application methods. The libraries in the present context would continue to handle “hybrid” collection in the years to come.

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2 Knowledge Organization The core content of the subject constitutes concepts, tools, techniques and method used in the organization of information resources, physical or otherwise. It has been very well presented by Hjorland (2008) that the fundamental aspects of knowledge organization (KO) have evolved out of the practice of classification and cataloguing used in libraries for centuries. The fundamental components of KO, such as gazetteers, authority lists, subject headings, ontologies, semantic networks and metadata have been the genetic elements of library classification and library cataloguing, hence the programme of study on KO examines the scope of these genetic elements in the two domains of library classification and KO. The ideological basis of KO can be discussed in more detail with reference to its precedence with library classification, cataloguing and indexing to show how there is exchange of ideas between traditional subjects and emerging areas of study like KO.

3 Library Automation and Networking The genesis of this subject is from the semi-automated systems, and now also entering in the area open source software employed in integrated library management systems and networking. The subject can be studied either as an independent paper or as part of library and information centre management, since the functional units or sections of a library subjected to automation have to follow the same operations and procedures employed in manual work. Another important element of study that is missing in this paper is “systems study” which empowers the learners in the acquisition of knowledge on information systems design. The concept of networking has its roots when libraries in the West created consortia of libraries and was primarily studied as part of resource sharing. So the course content of this paper should have elements of library operations and procedures, systems study and the resource sharing, which in fact are missing elements of study in this paper. Another important element that can also become part of library automation would be “e-governance” in libraries and information centres. The ideological issues discussed here are derived mainly from the authors’ experience in teaching and practice.

4 Information Literacy This is now one of the areas of study much deliberated upon in the Indian context. In the span of six months two national conferences on information literacy were

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organized in Mysore and Tumkur,showing the attention given to this subject in LIS. It is well known that information literacy has evolved from freshman orientation, library use and user education in general. In specific instances it was extended to “bibliographic instruction”, which involved empowering the user with the skills of information search and referencing. The change in the environment of finding information from virtual space has created a new body of knowledge in this subject – such as computer literacy, internet literacy, media literacy and so on. The stress to be given here is more on “information search skills” than computer literacy skills. The search skills empower the user to find his/her information and also a sense of evaluation, as to what is relevant and irrelevant. So these issues should become the core content of the paper, rather giving more stress on “computer literacy and internet literacy”. The studies on categories of search engines and their merits and demerits in searches should become part of internet literacy. As matter of fact today’s users have already been initiated to these skills as part of their education, and what they lack is more on “informational skills” and that in different domains of knowledge, for instance, information literacy skills in the legal profession, medicine and so on.

5 Internet/World Wide Web Often “internet” and “World Wide Web” are used interchangeably. The internet existed without the World Wide Web but it is more or less now conceived as the latter. What is more important in teaching and instructional design of the internet and the World Wide Web? Many courses stress more in the content of this paper “internet programming and web design” which is more technical and is the domain of a technocrat rather than the LIS professionals. Here the stress for the LIS teaching should be more on the creation, development and organization of content for the web, and that should become the part of the curriculum on this subject. However, elementary knowledge of “internet programming and web design” would definitely help in understanding the types of content and mode of their formatting on the web. Another missing element in this subject is on the “search skills and tips” which is more advisable than the technical aspect of the web or the internet. The content on the web and on content management systems (CMS) has some subtleties –content on web is more or less is static whereas it tends to be dynamic and a continuous process of addition and replenishment occurs on CMSes.

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6 Digital Libraries and Digital Curation There is some conceptual ambiguity between the internet and digital libraries, consortium and that of e-resources and so on. The internet deals mainly with access to digital content where as “digital library” deals with the capture and organization of content. The content appears both on the internet and in digital libraries; the former deals with its “creation”, the latter deals with “capture” from the already existing content. Pomerantz observed “for decades, perhaps centuries, Libraries, Archives and Museums have operated more or less independent of one another, working behind their liberal, physical and metaphorical disciplinary walls.” He further states that there is an incidence of “mass digitization of physical artefacts, and mass curation of born digital” (Pomerantz 2011). So the incidence has brought the isolates “libraries, archives and museums” into an integrated whole and there are incidents where proposals on specialization on “digital library” education are made, and a detailed curriculum on the specialization is worked out and exclusive courses on digital library and information management are offered both in India and abroad now (Tata Institute of Social Sciences Mumbai 2010. Pomerantz, Wildemuth, Yang and Fox 2006). Another term, “digital curation”, is used by Yakel (2007) and also by Fulton, Botticelli and Bradley (2011). Both suggest courses on digital libraries and suggest a curriculum for professional development.

7 Scientometrics, Webometrics A course on bibliometrics has been part and parcel of the library and information ccience curriculum for the last two and a half decades now. In recent years, studies on scientometrics and webometrics have been numerous. The studies on bibliometrics primarily are quantitative and mainly focus on the traditional laws of bibliometrics: obsolescence, impact factor, half-life and so on. The core content of bibliometrics is quantification and analysis of citations, whereas scientometrics deals with techniques of mapping, science policies, degrees of collaboration (Repanovici 2011). Webometrics deals with the evaluation of websites and it infers rather qualitative aspects of the websites (Thelwall 2009, 1). Hence the paper suggests when courses on bibliometrics, scientometrics and webometrics are designed there should be a clear demarcation among the three with clear understanding of the course content, its scope and the implications. When studies entitled “scientometrics” are made they also include the bibliometrics laws – Bradford,’s Lotka’s and Zipf’s laws and others. In fact, there is need for a

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clear understanding of the content of each one of them – bibliometrics, scientometrics and webometrics. In the light of these changes it is imperative that the course pattern, content and structure of LIS education in India take a diversified view and this paper would map the changes and also to propose a road map of LIS Education suited to knowledge-society requirements. This is hoped to be a model for the developing countries to adopt and implement.

Conclusion The authors in this paper have attempted to juxtaposition the knowledge society perspectives as envisaged in India and their resultant impact on LIS Education. This country, though classed under the developing nations based on its GDP and other socio-economic parameters, as far as the developments in ICT and LIS education in particular can match many developed nations. It has completed a hundred years in imparting education for librarianship; only few countries have passed this landmark, and in this context its progress in imparting education and training in LIS is quite noteworthy. The country has a host of achievements in this area and can provide guidance to many nations to chalk out a road map for South-South collaboration in this context.

References Asundi, A.Y. and C.R. Karisiddappa. 2011. “Ideological and Pedagogical Issues in Curricular Constructs: A Study of Emerging Areas of Discourse.” In Library and Information Science Education: Vision 2020:Conference Papers and Proceedings: XXVIII IATLIS National Conference, 26–28 November 2011, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, edited by Jagtar Singh and Trishanjit Kaur, 218–226. Patiala: IATLIS. Fulton, Bruce, Peter Botticelli and Jana Bradley. 2011. “DigIn: A Hands-on Approach to a Digital Curation Curriculum for Professional Development.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 52(2): 95–109. Hjorland, Birger. 2008. “What is Knowledge Organization (KO)?” Knowledge Organization 35(2/3): 86–101. India, MIT (Ministry of Communication and Information Technology). 2009. Annual Report. http://deity.gov.in/sites/upload_files/dit/files/annualreport2008-09%281%29.pdf (Accessed on 8 November 2009). India, NKC (National Knowledge Commission). 2007. Libraries: Gateways to Knowledge: A Roadmap for Revitalization. New Delhi: NKC. http://knowledgecommission.gov.in/ downloads/documents/NKC_Library.pdf (Accessed on 9 March 2013).

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India, NKC (National Knowledge Commission). 2008. Towards a Knowledge Society: Three years of National Knowledge Commission. New Delhi: NKC. http://knowledgecommission.gov.in/ downloads/documents/towards_knowledgesociety.pdf (Accessed on 9 March 2013). Jha, Ajit Kumar. 2008. “Open Educational Resources: Courseware and Repositories.” In Koganuramath 2008, 75–88. Koganuramath, Muttayya, ed. 2008. International Conference on Knowledge for all: Role of Libraries and Information Centres, 12–15 November 2008, Mumbai. Mumbai: Sita. Machlup, Fritz. 1962. The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Malhan, I.V. 2011. “Library and Information Science Education: Vision 2020”. In Library and Information Science Education: Vision 2020:Conference Papers and Proceedings: XXVIII IATLIS National Conference, 26–28 November 2011, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, edited by Jagtar Singh and Trishanjit Kaur, 1–10. Patiala: IATLIS. Malhan, I.V. and Shivarama Rao. 2012. “Refocusing Attention on Institutional and Collective Responsibility for an Effective Consortia Model.” Annals of Library and Information Studies 59(3):143–147. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/14972/1/ ALIS%2059%283%29%20143-147.pdf (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Mini Devi, B. 2012. “Library and Information Science Research in India: A Critical Study.” In International Conference on Trends in Knowledge and Information Dynamics,edited by Devika P. Madalli et al., 1:108–113. Bangalore: ISI, DRTC. National Mission for Manuscripts. 2014. “History.” http://www.namami.org/history.htm (Accessed on 10 March 2014). Pomerantz, Jeffrey, Barbara Wildemuth, Seungwon Yang and Edward A.Fox.2006. “Curriculum Development for Digital Libraries.” In Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, 175–184. New York: ACM.Subscription database at http://doi.acm. org/10.1145/1141753.1141787 (Accessed on 24 February 2014). Pomerantz, Jeffrey. 2011. “Digital Library and Digital Curation Education, Part 2.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 52(2): 77. Public Library – India. 2009. “States of India those passed Public Libraries Act.” http://publiclibraryindia.blogspot.co.uk/2009/07/states-of-india-those-passed-public.html (Accessed on 10 March 2014). Repanovici, Angela. 2011. “Measuring the Visibility of the University’s Scientific Production through Scientometric Methods.” Performance Measurement and Metrics 12(2): 106 – 117. “Shodhganga: A Reservoir of Indian Theses.” 2014. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/ (Accessed on 10 March 2014). Tata Institute of Social Sciences Mumbai. 2010. Post Graduate Diploma in Digital Library and Information Management: Prospectus. Mumbai, TISS. Thelwall, Mike. 2009. Introduction to Webometrics: Quantitative Web Research for Social Sciences. San Rafael: Morgan and Claypool. UGC (University Grants Commission). 2001. UGC Model Curriculum: Library and Information Science. New Delhi: UGC. http://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/modelcurriculum/lib_info_ science.pdf (Accessed on 19 February 2014). Urs, Shalini R. and K.S. Raghavan. 2001. “Vidyanidhi: Indian digital library of electronic theses.” Communications of the ACM 44(5): 88–89. Yakel, Elizabeth. 2007. “Digital curation.” OCLC Systems and Services 23(4): 335–340.

Abiola Abioye

9. Enhancing Library and Information 9. Science Education through Cross-border 9. Collaboration The Experience of University of Ibadan, Nigeria and University of Ghana Abstract: Collaboration has been widely acknowledged as a potent tool for meeting the challenges of library and information science (LIS) education. Collaboration is forged not only among LIS institutions within national boundaries but also across borders. While collaboration is known to have been well developed in the developed countries of Europe and North America and is,indeed, advancing the cause of LIS education, not much seems to have been done in developing countries, particularly those in the West African region. Nigeria and Ghana are two West African countries with strong historical ties. They share, among others, a common colonial experience which culminated in the establishment of the University of Ibadan,Nigeria and the University of Ghana in the same year (1948) as affiliate colleges of University of London. The University of Ibadan’s Department of

Library, Archival and Information Studies and the University of Ghana’s Department of Information Studies are notable centres of LIS education in West Africa. While the Ibadan LIS department started as the Institute of Librarianship in 1959 and admitted its first batch of six students in 1960, the Ghana LIS department evolved from the Ghana Library School established in 1961 under the auspices of Ghana Library Board. The two LIS departments have since been in the forefront in the development and sustenance of LIS education in West Africa. In view of their unique position and the long-standing relationship, what is the level of collaboration between them? This is what this study investigated. A survey research design was adopted with questionnaire and semi-structured interview with faculty in the two LIS institutions as instruments for data collection. Based on the findings and in the light of experiences in other parts of the world, recommendations are made towards improving collaboration in LIS education in theregion.

Keywords: Collaboration, West Africa, LIS Schools, West African Library Association Enhancing Library and Information Science Education

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Introduction Library and information science (LIS) education plays a significant role in the production of high-quality LIS professionals who occupy a unique position in national development. LIS professionals are gatekeepers and brokers of information which is essential for knowledge acquisition, decision-making and national development. The success of libraries, archives and information centres in effectively meeting their obligation of information provision hinges, in part, on the development of skilled manpower. Trained personnel, according to Korsah (1996) are a key requirement in library and information work. In this respect, LIS education plays a vital role (Edegbo, 2011). Although early LIS professionals, particularly librarians, did not undergo any formal training (Wikipedia 2013), the modern-day challenges of library and information work require that personnel should be well trained and educated to make for effectiveness. Melvil Dewey, the famous proponent of the Dewey Decimal Classification system, was said to have established the first library school in the United States in 1887 at Columbia University (Wikipedia 2013). In Europe, the library school established in Barcelona in 1915 is reputed to be the oldest library school in that continent. Many other library schools were said to have been established during the Second World War. In Africa, however, South Africa is credited with the longest history of LIS in the continent dating from 1938 (Ocholla 2008, 467). In West Africa, the earliest formal training in librarianship consisted of short courses organised by practising librarians and these were aimed solely at preparing the participants for the British Library Association examinations (Ojo-Igbinoba 1995, 218) which then constituted the only gateway for aspiring librarians (Ahmed 2012, 4, citing Aguolu and Aguolu 2002). One such course took place in Achimota College, Gold Coast (now Ghana) in 1944 (Ahmed 2012, 4) and it drew participants from various West African countries including Nigeria. This appears to be the earliest evidence of the strong historical link between Ghana and Nigeria in the education and training of LIS professionals. In the same vein, when the Centre for Archival Education in English-speaking Africa was established in Ghana in 1976, Nigerians involved in archival work were trained at the Centre (Abioye 2008). The West African Library Association (WALA) played a major role in the establishment of the first LIS School in Nigeria. In 1956, WALA solicited the support of Carnegie Corporation of New York to develop its headquarters. In reaction to this request, Harold Lancour was commissioned to study the library situation in West Africa and advised on intervention strategy for its development. The report of the study, popularly known as The Lancour Report, established training needs and recommended the establishment of a library school at the then University College, Ibadan (Ojo-Igbinoba 1995, 218). Thus, Ibadan LIS School was estab-

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lished in October 1959 with a grant from Carnegie Corporation. It, however, took off in1960 with its first batch of six students in the University Library where it was housed until 1965 when it moved to the Faculty of Education due to space constraint occasioned by increased numbers of staff and students. The evolution of the School over the years is highlighted in Table 9.1. Table 9.1: Evolution of Ibadan LIS School (Source: Departmental Prospectus and Fieldwork) Name of Department

Period

Available Programme

Institute of Librarianship Dept of Library Studies Dept of Library, Archival and Information Studies

1960–1970 1971–1985 1986 to date

Diploma in Librarianship Master in Library Studies Diploma in Library Studies (Distance Learning Programme) Bachelor of Library (now Bachelor of Library and Information Studies) Master in Library Studies ( now Master in Library and Information Studies) Master in Archival Studies ( now Master in Archives and Records Management) Master in Health Information Management Programme Master in Publishing and Copyright Studies PhD in Library and Information Studies, Records Management, Publishing

The University of Ghana LIS School started as Ghana Library School in 1961 under the auspices of the Ghana Library Board. It moved to the University of Ghana in 1965 and became the Department of Library Studies. Its evolution over the years is presented in Table 9.2. Table 9.2: Evolution of Ghana (Legon) LIS School (Source: Department’s website)¹ Name of Department

Period

Available Programme

Ghana Library School

1961–1964

Dept of Library Studies

1965–1975

Associateship-level programme of the British Library Association Sub-degree programme in librarianship

1 http://www.ng.edu.gh/index1.php?linkid=1183 and http://www.ng.edu.gh/index1.php?linkid=629 (Accessed on 29 March 2013).

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Name of Department

Period

Available Programme

Dept of Library and Archival Studies

1976–2000

Dept of Information Studies

2001 to date

Two sub-degree programmes in librarianship and archives administration Two graduate diploma programmes in librarianship and archives administration An MA library studies programme Diploma programmes in librarianship and archives administration Bachelor of Arts in Information Studies programme MA/MPhil in information studies PhD in information studies

While Ibadan LIS School is the oldest and perhaps remains the best LIS School in Nigeria, the Ghana LIS School remains the first and the only LIS School in Ghana. The ever increasing need for formally trained LIS professionals to cope with the rapid expansion in library and information services and the continuing yearning for LIS education have led to exponential growth in LIS Schools in Nigeria. Table 9.3 presents the list of accredited LIS Schools in Nigeria as at the time of this study. All the schools have Library and Information Science Approved Programmes, except numbers 3, 22 and 23 whose programmes are Library Science. Accreditation of academic programmes in Nigerian universities is undertaken from time to time by the National Universities Commission which is the regulatory body for university education in Nigeria. Table 9.3: List of Accredited LIS Schools in Nigeria (Source: Librarian Registration Council of Nigeria)² Serial No

Universities

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Abia State University, Uturu Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi Adeleke University, Ede Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Ambrose Ali University, Ekpoma Bayero University, Kano Baze University, Abuja

2 http://www.lrcn.gov.ng/LIST%20OF%20ACCREDITED%20LIBRARY%20INSTITUTIONS.pdf (Accessed on 29 March 2013).

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Serial No

Universities

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Benson Idahosa University, Benin City Benue State University, Markurdi Delta State University, Abraka Federal University of Technology, Minna Federal University of Technology, Yola Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida University, Lapai Imo State University, Owerri Kwara State University, Ilorin Madonna University, Okija Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Akwa Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu-Ode Umaru Musa Ya’adua University, Kastina University of Calabar, Calabar University of Ibadan, Ibadan University of Ilorin, Ilorin University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri University of Nigeria, Nsukka University of Uyo, Uyo

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Challenges of LIS Education The challenges of LIS education are enormous. These have been identified in the literature to include poor funding (Ocholla 2008), resource limitations (Al-Suqri, Al Saleem and Gharieb 2012), technological change and lack of adequate LIS educators (Okello-Obura and Kigongo-Bukenya 2011), constantly changing landscape of information (Malhan 2011) and the challenges of globalization which require strengthening the LIS curricula and courses to prepare students for the needs of the global employment market (Virkus, 2008). The challenges of LIS education are particularly acute in Africa where most LIS schools – especially those funded by the government – are faced with the problem of funding, which makes it difficult for them to meet their need for infrastructural facilities. There is also the problem of a weak ICT base, which makes LIS education in some of these LIS schools less responsive to the needs of the society. Ocholla (2008) for instance observed disparities in the nature and level of ICT access and use at different levels and attributed the disparities to both economic and political reasons. The issue of changing student enrolment has also been identified as a critical challenge facing LIS education in Africa (Okello-Obura & Kigongo-Bukenya, 2011). Okello-Obura and Kigongo-Bukenya (2011, 4, citing

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Ocholla and Bothma 2007) observed increasing or stable enrolment for LIS with qualification programmes at the expense of library science. This problem may, however, be country- or LIS school-specific, as the reverse seems to be the case for Ibadan LIS School which, over the years, has witnessed increasing student enrolment in library and information studies at the expense of specialized information programmes like records management, publishing and health information management. Equally important is the challenge of continuing education for LIS faculty, as the quality of the products of LIS schools, to a large extent, depends on the quality of LIS educators. In view of the fact that challenges are better addressed through concerted efforts, collaboration among LIS schools has become a potent strategy for overcoming some of the problems associated with LIS education.

Statement of the Problem Availability of well trained manpower to provide quality library and information services that are required for national development hinges on the quality of LIS education. Provision of quality LIS education, in turn, is dependent on the ability of LIS schools to keep up with and adapt to the changes in the field of LIS education. In doing so, LIS schools are faced with severalchallenges which are better tackled through collaboration. While collaboration is known to be well developed in the developed countries of Europe and North America and is, indeed advancing the cause of LIS education, not much seems to have been done in developing countries, particularly those in West Africa. Nigeria and Ghana have the two oldest LIS schools in the region – the University of Ibadan’s Department of Library, Archival andInformation Studies and the University of Ghana’s Department of Information Studies. In view of their unique position as notable centres of LIS education in the region, coupled with the long historical ties between Nigeria and Ghana, the two LIS schools are expected to be models in collaboration for the sustenance and advancement of LIS education in the region.However, little seems to be known about collaborative initiatives between them. What then is the nature and extent of collaboration in LIS education between the two LIS schools? This is the focus of this study.

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Objectives of the Study The general objective of the study was to investigate collaborative activities between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana (Legon) LIS School in the promotion and development of LIS education. Specifically, the study set out to: 1. determine the existence of collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School in LIS education; 2. ascertain the areas or nature and extent of collaboration between the two LIS schools; 3. find out the barriers to collaboration in LIS education between the two LIS schools; and 4. determine the existence of collaboration in LIS education between either of the two LIS schools and other LIS schools outside their respective country.

Literature Review In view of its strategic importance not only for meeting the challenges but also in promoting LIS education, collaboration has received prominent attention in the literature. It is, therefore,“not a new phenomenon in education for librarianship and information work” (Johnson 2009, 258). The term “collaboration” has been defined in the literature in relation to other terms like cooperation, partnership, networking and alliance (Ocholla 2008; Al-Suqri 2010; Sacchananand 2012). Al-Suqri (2010, 48), for instance, rated as accurate description of the term collaboration the definition of the term ‘cooperation’ given by Lin (2004). As a matter of fact, Lin (2004, 2) defined cooperation to include network, collaboration and consortium. In the same vein, Ocholla (2008, 469), citing the definition of the Commonwealth of Australia viewed collaboration as “partnership, alliance or network aimed at mutually beneficial clearly defined outcome”. In addition Chisita and Abdullahi (2012, 4) cited Dakers (2003) as describing collaboration as a form of cooperation. The tendency, therefore, is for collaboration to be equated with these other terms and used interchangeably (Omotosho and Igiamoh 2012; Osuigwe, Jiagbogu and Osuchukwu 2012).The essence of collaboration among LIS schools is to jointly tackle the problems and challenges of LIS education that are common to them so as to achieve mutually beneficial results. These problems and challenges include shortcomings in resources, expertise and facilities (Al-Suqri 2010), changes in LIS environment (Okello-Obura and Kigongo-Bukenya 2011; Al-Suqri, Al-Saleem and Gharieb 2012), funding which is short of the modern-day

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requirements of LIS schools (Ocholla 2008) and shortage of manpower with requisite skills and competencies (Malhan 2011). The requirements of the global LIS market demand that products of LIS schools be adequately equipped with desired skills and knowledge that will enable them operate in a new LIS environment. The tremendous potentials of LIS education also require that LIS schools have strong infrastructural base and this is lacking in some of the LIS schools in Africa. Collaboration is, therefore, a strategic means of tackling some of these problems. The dawn of the digital age and the constantly changing global outlook make collaboration inevitable (Kajberg 2009). Collaboration in LIS education may be local, regional or international. Local collaboration is the one existing among LIS schools within defined national boundaries while regional collaboration can exist among LIS schools in a particular region of the world. International collaboration exists among LIS schools across national boundaries and it has been described by Johnson (2009, 258) (citing Jefferson’s 1977 book Library Cooperation) as “a natural extension of national cooperation”. Cross-border collaboration, therefore, exists among LIS schools located in different countries. It can be regional or international. Collaboration among LIS schools thrives in the presence of certain critical success factors.These have been identified in the literature to include formal commitment among partners (Ngulube and Sibanda 2006), quality, credit, awareness, legitimate authorization, academic culture and funding (Chisita and Abdullahi 2012). Sacchanand (2012, 11) rolled up successful collaboration factors into “3PC” strategies which are Policy, People, Process and Communication, Commitment, Credibility. Johnson (2009, 261–262) particularly enumerated the success actions to include the following: – evaluating the potential for collaboration before entering into a commitment; – understanding the prospective partner’s capacity, motivation for the collaboration and the sense of shared purpose; – recognizing political and other realities; – creating an enabling environment with incentives and resources to collaborate; – creating trust in the partnership and developing mutual respect and a shared culture; and – identifying the key individuals to “champion” the collaboration – both students and staff. It is by taking cognizance of these success factors and building them into the planning process that collaboration can achieve some measure of success. Collaboration among LIS schools can be in several areas of LIS education. These include teaching, research, curriculum development, research supervision and

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publications (Ocholla 2008). Other areas of collaboration identified in the literature include LIS faculty and student exchange, conferences and workshops, shared online resources, quality control initiatives (Al-Suqri, Al Saleem and Gharieb 2012) and academic exchanges such as academic meetings, exchange visits and research papers (Fan 2006). Whether at the institutional or individual faculty level, collaboration can also exist in oral examination of research students, knowledge sharing and industrial training supervision.

Methodology Taking a cue from Al-Suqri, Al Saleem and Gharieb (2012), a qualitative research method was adopted for the study since the essence is to investigate the experiences of the targeted LIS schools in collaboration in LIS education. A questionnaire was designed, copies (eight in number) of which were administered to LIS faculty in each of the two LIS schools. This step was taken to enable the researcher to capture the views of a cross-section of LIS faculty, particularly the senior and experienced faculty who might not necessarily be the heads of the LIS schools. The researcher had face-to-face semi-structured interviews with the head of Ibadan LIS School and two other senior faculty members and personally administered the questionnaire in Ibadan where he was based. Contact was made with the head of Ghana LIS School by email and copies of the questionnaire were administered to the faculty there by the same means. Discussions with the heads of the LIS schools were noted and their content analysis undertaken. Of the sixteen copies of the questionnaire administered, nine were completed and returned. Data collected with the questionnaire were analysed based on the research questions, using SPSS. Relevant records were also consulted online and offline.

Findings and Discussion The findings of the survey are presented and discussed under the following headings:

1 Staffing Level of the LIS Schools The staffing level of the LIS schools is presented in Table 9.4.

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Table 9.4: Staffing Level of the LIS Schools Cadre Professors Associate Professors/Readers Senior Lecturers Lecturer I Lecturer II Assistant Lecturers Graduate Assistants Total

Ibadan LIS School

Ghana LIS School

3 1 3 1 4 0 0 12

3 0 5 1 Not Applicable 3 1 13

The finding as shown in Table 9.4 indicated a low level of staffing for academic positions in the two LIS schools. The staffing situation becomes more serious and worrisome in view of the number of academic programmes run by the schools as indicated in Tables 9.1 Table 9.2. The major findings of the survey are presented in Table 9.5. Table 9.5: Simple percentages showing responses from the respondents on collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School S. No. Statement

1

2

Yes (%)

Existence of collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School There is collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS 5(55.6) School Areas of collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School Collaboration exists in the area of : a) Research 1 (11.1) b) Student exchange 0 (0) c) Staff exchange 0 (0) d) Staff development 1 (11.1) e) Teaching visitation(sabbatical/visiting lecturership) 2 (22.2) f) Student visit 3 (33.3) g) Industrial training (IT) supervision 0 (0) h) Post-doctoral fellowship 0 (0)

No (%)

4(44.4)

8 (88.9) 9 (100) 9 (100) 8 (88.9) 7 (77.8) 6 (66.7) 9 (100) 9 (100)

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S. No. Statement i) Joint conferences, seminars and workshops j) Joint publication of books k) Joint publication of journal articles l) Research supervision m) Research examination (orals) n) Distance teaching o) Quality management in research and teaching p) Accreditation of courses q) Curriculum development r) Knowledge sharing

Yes (%)

No (%)

0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (11.1) 0 (0) 5 (55.6) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 4 (44.4)

9 (100) 9 (100) 8 (88.9) 9 (100) 4 (44.4) 9 (100) 9 (100) 9 (100) 9 (100) 5 (55.6)

3 (33.3)

6 (66.7)

8 (88.9) 6 (66.7) 3 (33.3) 1 (11.1) 6 (66.7)

1 (11.1) 3 (33.3) 6 (66.7) 8 (88.9) 3 (33.3)

4 (44.4) 2 (22.2)

5 (55.6) 7 (77.8)

0 (0) 4 (44.4) 4 (44.4)

9 (100) 5 (55.6) 5 (55.6)

Collaboration with other LIS School outside the country 3

There is collaboration with other LIS schools outside the country Barriers to collaboration

4

Barriers to collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School are: a) Absence of a formal policy b) Lack of/inadequate funding c) Bureaucracy d) Distance e) Lack of commitment on the part of collaborating partners f) Lack of motivation g) Weak information and communication technology infrastructure h) Lack of relevant professional skills i) Shortage of manpower j) Absence of requisite government support

Existence of Collaboration between Ibadan and Ghana LIS Schools The majority of the respondents (5 or 55.6%) claimed that collaboration existed between the two LIS schools in LIS education while the remaining respondents (4 or 44.4%) denied the existence of any such collaboration. Interviews conducted, however, revealed that the existing collaboration between the two LIS schools was at the informal and individual faculty level.This finding is similar to that of Al-Suqri Al-Saleem and Gharieb (2012) in the Gulf region.

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1 Areas of Collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana 1 LIS School The main areas of collaboration in LIS education between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School identified by the majority of the respondents (5 or 55.6) were oral examination of research students and knowledge sharing (identified by 4 or 44.4% of the respondents). Other less visible areas of collaboration in which the respondents (3 or 33.3% and 2 or 22.2%respectively) claimed that collaboration existed between the two LIS schools were student visits and teaching visitation, particularly sabbatical. Interviews conducted, however, revealed that collaboration in student visits and sabbatical had been one-sided, the movement being from Ibadan to Ghana and not vice versa. A negligible percentage of the respondents (11.1%) claimed that collaboration also existed between the two LIS schools in research, staff development and joint publication of journal articles. Interviews conducted also indicated academic assessment of faculty members for the purpose of promotion as another area of collaboration between the two LIS schools.

2 Collaboration with other LIS Schools outside the Country The majority of the respondents (6 or 66.7%) claimed that no collaboration existed in LIS education between their LIS schools and other LIS schools outside Nigeria and Ghana while the rest of the respondents (3 or 33.3%) agreed that such collaboration existed. The respondents in the latter category cited the examples of the exchange visit between Nigeria LIS School and the School of Oriental and African Studies, University College London and the collaboration between Ghana LIS School and the Department of Library and Information Studies, University of Botswana on external examination. They also claimed that collaboration existed between Ghana LIS School and School of Library, Archive and Information Studies, University College,London in research, curriculum development and review of teaching methods.

3 Barriers to Collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and 3 Ghana LIS School The respondents identified as the major barriers to collaboration between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School absence of a formal policy (8 or 88.9%), lack of or inadequate funding (6 or 66.7%) and lack of commitment on the part of

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collaborating partners (6 or 66.7%). Other barriers that the respondents claimed confronted collaboration between the two LIS schools were lack of motivation (4 or 44.4%), shortage of manpower (4 or 44.4%), absence of requisite government support (4 or 44.4%), bureaucracy (3 or 3.33%), weak ICT infrastructure (2 or 2.22%) and distance (1 or 11.1%). The finding in respect of this research question is consistent with those of Ocholla (2008), Al-Suqri (2010), Al-Suqri, Al-Saleem and Gharieb (2012) and Sacchanand (2012).

Conclusion Although collaboration has been widely acknowledged as a potent means for meeting the challenges of LIS education, Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School which have existed for about fifty years as the leading LIS schools in West Africa have not been shining examples in cross-border collaboration in the region. Not much, at the moment, is being done to foster collaboration between the two LIS schools in LIS education despite the high level of awareness of the potentials of collaboration among faculty members in the two LIS schools. The barriers to collaboration between the two LIS schools are legion but not insurmountable, particularly with the absolute commitment of the two partnering institutions at both the formal and informal levels.

Recommendations Since collaboration presents immense opportunities for growth in LIS education, efforts must be made to promote it. In view of the barriers to collaboration in LIS education between Ibadan LIS School and Ghana LIS School established in this study, the following recommendations are being made toward solving the problems and consequently enhancing collaborative initiatives: – the heads of the two LIS schools should, as a matter of urgency, meet to work out modalities for collaboration between their institutions; – a formal policy guiding the relationship is an essential ingredient for a successful collaborative initiative – this should be formulated and implemented; – collaboration can only thrive in an environment where collaborating partners are committed to the cause; it is, therefore, important for the two LIS schools to show strong commitment rather than pay lip service to the initiative; – the problem of funding which seems to be the bane of collaboration between the institutions should be addressed. Modalities for funding collaborative

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programmes should be worked out. International organizations and agencies like UK Department for International Development (DFID) and Macarthur Foundation can be approached with good proposals for funding of exchange programmes. The parent institutions of the LIS schools as well as the governments also have an important role to play in funding some of the collaborative programmes of the LIS schools. The schools on their part must also justify the need for funding; faculty should be motivated to appreciate and show commitment to collaboration with colleagues across the borders for their career growth and professional development; the problem of shortage of manpower in the LIS schools should be addressed by appointing qualified LIS educators to improve the staffing level in the LIS schools.

References Abioye, Abiola. 2008. “Education and Training in Preservation.” Paper presented at the First National Heritage Preservation Conference, Abuja, Nigeria, 19–22 February, 2008. Aguolu, Christian Chukwunedu and I.E. Aguolu. 2002. Libraries and Information Management in Nigeria: Seminal Essays on Themes and Problems. Maiduguri: Ed-Linform Services. Al-Suqri, Mohammed Nasser. 2010. “Collaboration in Library and Information Science Education in the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC): Current Status, Challenges and Future Trends.” Emporia State Research Studies 46(2):48–53. http://academic.emporia.edu/ esrs/vol46/suqri.pdf (Accessed on 25 February 2014). Al-Suqri, Mohammed Nasser, Naifa Eid Al-Saleem and Majda Ezzat Gharieb. 2012. “Understanding the Prospects and Potential for Improved Regional LIS Collaboration in the Developing World: An Empirical Study of LIS Departments in the GCC States.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, Helsinki 2012. http:// conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2012/213-suqri-en.pdf (Accessed on 15 April 2013). Chisita, Collence. T. and Ismail Abdullahi. 2012. “Rising above the Grain Silo Mentality through Collaboration: Creating Opportunities between the LIS Educators and Practitioners in Developing Countries.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, Helsinki 2012. http://conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2012/213-chisita-en.pdf (Accessed on 15 April 2013). Edegbo, Wilson I. 2011. “Curriculum Development in Library and Information Science Education in Nigerian Universities: Issues and Prospects.” Library Philosophy and Practice 4–1–2011. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1591&context=libphilprac (Accessed on 25 March 2013). Fan, Fan. 2006. “Collaboration and Resource Sharing Among LIS Schools in China.” In Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2006 (A-LIEP 2006), edited by Christopher Khoo, Diljit Singh and Abdus Sattar Chaudhry,

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283–286. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University, School of Communication and Information. Johnson, Ian M. 2009. “International Collaboration between Schools of Librarianship and Information Studies: Current Issues.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2009. http://www.slis.tsukuba.ac.jp/aliep2009/proceedings/Papers/a50.pdf (Accessed on 15 April 2013). Kajberg, Leif Mogens. 2009. “Whither International LIS Education? Some Reflections on the Pertinence,Problems and Applicability of Cross-country and Cross-continental Analysis.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2009. http://www.slis.tsukuba.ac.jp/aliep2009/proceedings/Symposium/003. pdf (Accessed on 15 April 2013). Korsah, J. E. 1996. “Graduate education in Library, Archive and Information Science in Ghana.” Aslib Proceedings 48(11/12): 255–258. Lin, Chihfeng. P. 2004. “The Challenges and Opportunities of Regional Cooperation in LIS Education in East Asia.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, Buenos Aires 2004 Retrieved 15 April 2013 from http://www.ifla.org.sg/IV/ifla70/ papers/065e-lin.pdf. Malhan, I. V. 2011. “Challenges and Problems of Library and Information Education in India: An Emerging Knowledge Society and the Developing Nations of Asia.” Library Philosophy and Practice 12–1–2011. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1744& context=libphilprac (Accessed on 12 March 2013). Ngulube, Patrick and Rosemary Sibanda. 2006. “The Role of National Archival Institutions in the ESARBICA Region in Fostering Collaboration and Building Partnerships in the Information Society.” ESARBICA Journal 25: 16–25. Ocholla, Dennis N. 2008. “The Current Status and Challenges of Collaboration in Library and Information Studies (LIS) Education and Training in Africa.” New Library World 109(9/10): 466–479. Ocholla, Dennis N. and Theo Bothma. 2007. “Trends, Challenges and Opportunities for LIS Education and Training in Eastern and Southern Africa.” New Library World 108(1/2): 55–78. Ojo-Igbinoba, M.E. 1995. History of Libraries and Library Education. Lagos: UTO Publications. Okello-Obura, Constant and I.M.N. Kigongo-Bukenya. 2011. “Library and Information Science Education and Training in Uganda: Trends, Challenges and the Way Forward.” Education Research International Article ID 705372 . http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/705372 (Accessed on 8 March 2013). Omotosho, D. and V. Igiamoh. 2012. “Library Statistics: A Basis for Collaboration and Networking for Improved Library and Information Services in Nigeria.” In Nigerian Library Association at 50: Promoting Library and Information Science Profession for National Development and Transformation, edited by L. O. Aina and I. Mabawonku, 90–112. Ibadan: University Press. Osuigwe, N. E., O.C. Jiagbogu and N.P. Osuchukwu, N. P. 2012. “Partnering for Professional Development: Evolution of Writing Group among Library and Information Science (LIS) Professionals in Anambra State, Nigeria.” In Nigerian Library Association at 50: Promoting Library and Information Science Profession for National Development and Transformation, edited by L. O. Aina and I. Mabawonku, 80–95. Ibadan: University Press. Sacchanand, Chutima. 2012. “Building Collaboration between Library and Information Science Education and Practitioners in Thailand: Transcending Barriers, Creating Opportunities.”

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Paper presented at the World Library and Information congress, Helsinki 2012. http:// conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2012/213-sacchanand-en.pdf (Accessed on 22 February 2013). Virkus, Sirje. 2008. “LIS Education in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Informationskonzepte für die Zukunft: ODOK ’07, herausgegeben von Eveline Pipp, 191–204. Graz: Neugebauer. http://eprints.rclis.org/14978 (Accessed on 11 March 2013). Wikipedia, s.v. “Education for Librarianship.” 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_ for_librarianship (Accessed on 29 March 2013).

Ismail Abdullahi, C. R. Karisiddappa and A. Y. Asundi

10. Philosophical and Pedagogical 10. Foundations of LIS Curriculum Design Perspectives for the Third World Nations Abstract: The inception of Library and Information Education (LIS) was very modest and ad hoc without any philosophical basis, mostly aimed at pragmatism. In the last one hundred years since, it has turned out to be one of the multidisciplinary subjects of study, with uneven growth and development in particular in the context of developing countries. Issues relating to this cause are well known and to meet this divergence a plan of action is initiated by several international bodies. The paper identifies the philosophical and pedagogical issues in this context to suggest an appropriate curriculum model to be adopted horizontally taking into consideration social, economic, cultural and technological conditions of the developing countries. Keywords: LIS Education, Philosophical Foundation, Pedagogy, Curriculum Structure, Developing Countries Philosophical and Pedagogical Foundations of LIS Curriculum Design

Introduction Library and information science (LIS) education had no strong philosophical foundations at its inception. The beginning of the education for “library economy” (as librarianship was then termed) evolved from voluntary action by notable professionals. It is a well known fact that Melvil Dewey started an apprenticeship training for working library staff. Hence it is devoid of the natural cause and effect phenomenon inherent in the scientific method – the body of philosophy. Despite this ad hoc beginning, today LIS education has reached a status of global importance with the confluence of several cognate disciplines. The pedagogy has also gone through a similar transformation; it retains no methods of its origin and has been influenced by the pedagogical systems adopted by other professional disciplines. There was also similar concordant situation in the design and formulation of the curriculum: its nomenclature, content and delivery mechanism.

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Evolving a Philosophical Base LIS education since its inception from late nineteenth century has been in search of a structured framework and design. “Education for being” is the philosophical basis of any educational system, so also it applies to library science The philosophical and pedagogical issues in LIS education have however evolved from practices like those in the health and engineering professions. As stated earlier, since the late nineteenth century LIS education has been in search of a structured framework, culminating in the introduction and application of scientific method by the Father of Library Movement in India, Dr Ranganathan, who, by enunciating the “Five Laws of Library Science” evolved a philosophical basis for library science (Ranganathan,1957). The Laws changed the perspective of the profession and showed distinctively what “being” a library profession is and what it needs to change its philosophical basis. One of them to quote is his first law “Books are for Use” which changed the perspective of “book” from its traditional adage “Preservation for posterity”. The Five Laws have been reinterpreted to reorient them to contemporary developments in the profession in consonance with the introduction of documentation, information studies and the application of IT. Sen (2008) has given an account of the reinterpretation with the contemporary changes in the profession

Developing Countries vis-à-vis LIS Education The other facet that needs to be addressed here is the spread of LIS education to other countries of the world. Obviously it is not even. Till the mid-twentieth century most of the countries in the world were under colonial rule and suffered from economic poverty, illiteracy and lack of educational facilities. These countries were called by, as less developed, underdeveloped or later as developing and/or third-world nations. These countries lacked innumerable basic facilities and as Bowden identified “A typical developing nation has a shortage of food, few resources of power and low GNP.” He continues by stating that “Social capital like good education and health systems and stable government, disease, illiteracy and others including, most of the people live in rural areas” (Bowden 1982). The countries include almost all that have geographical contiguity with Africa, Asia and South America. The economies of these third-world countries, as they are called, are characterized by cheap unskilled labour. Nearly 80% of world population lives in these countries. Though the statement hails from the early 1980s, the situation might have some improvements, though yet not on a par with

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developed nations. Countries like India in Asia, Kenya in Africa and Brazil and Mexico in South America have shown some identifiable progress in the areas of economic development, and one such area is human resource development. LIS education is one of the disciplines which have seen an upward trend of requirements of manpower with varied skills, both traditional and technological. The countries still have their own inherent differences in this context, and the paper has identified them in the design of a suitable curriculum for LIS education and in portraying its philosophical and pedagogical foundations. The growth of LIS education in the world presents a three-phase development geographically. The first phase began in the late nineteenth century in the USA and UK, and the second in the Asian subcontinent and in particular in India. The third phase took place mostly in the decolonized nations of Africa, Latin America and in some South-east Asian countries. This philosophically sublimates three levels of developments, except India where the progress of LIS education has been almost on par with the west. The library systems in India also present a spectrum of libraries representing every domain of knowledge. So pedagogy in LIS education could get better inputs from different disciplines in its curriculum design. The two scenarios that are distinctly important for the genetic growth of library science education in any country, and in particular the incidence of LIS education in developing countries are the development of libraries and higher education in these nations (which is quite distinct), and the cultural characteristics, literacy and economies of these nations that speak of their divergence. Before sensibly discussing LIS education programmes and curriculum design, it is essential that we have to be quite clear about the library and information environment or system or lack of system. The context of the development of LIS education for instance in India thus can be exemplified. The development of public, academic and special libraries begins first with the enactment of library legislation by several states, second, by constituting two higher education commissions, and third by recognizing the importance of scientific and industrial research with the adoption of a science policy by the Indian government which triggered the rapid progress of industrialization. The establishment of a University Grants Commission in India gave impetus for the growth of higher education, which also recognized the importance of libraries in higher education. The UGC and the government of India in this context created two committees under the chairmanship of Dr Ranganathan, to make an overview of libraries in higher education and library science education in India (UGC 1965a and 1965b). The latter event incidentally is the first systematic effort made in the design of a structured curriculum for library science education in India. All these have been responsible for the systematic growth and development of LIS education in India. A detailed

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account of all these developments is presented by Karisiddappa and Asundi (2011) in their treatise on LIS education in India. Similar efforts have not been recorded in the literature on LIS Education in the developing world. The earliest study of library science education in developing countries was made by Palmer (1959). But it is not on the lines as mentioned above, where it shows concrete and legislative measures initiated by the Indian Government immediately after the country gained independence.

Dawn of Information Society Throughout the world in-depth diffusion of information technology brought a sea of changes in the working conditions within institutions, communities and nations. The change, primarily marked by information and communication technology, has brought a shift in the economy, social stratification and government policies and in a wide range of numerous areas and sectors. The economy that was marked by a transition from agriculture and industrial base after the industrial revolution has a new economic façade: an economy based on information and knowledge. This centrality of information and knowledge has resulted in the emerging society often referred to as the “Information Society and Knowledge Society”. The acceptance of these new social beings by communities and governments has resulted in a conscious recognition on the part of the governments in the creation, accumulation, processing, managing and distribution of information. The role of information is clearly worded as “information as a critical resource for all human activities at all levels: Education, research and development, advancing the frontiers of knowledge, competitiveness in business and industry, economic and societal development, improving the quality of life, etc” (Malwad 1998, vii). As early as 1975 Gilpin (1975, 166) recognized education, information processing, and research and development, as the knowledge industries, and as the most important sectors of industrialised societies. In this context it is an obvious conclusion that the institutions engaged in providing education, training and conducting research in information related sectors have also transformed and are gearing up concurrently to face the global changes and to meet the local needs as well. The educational sector that has seen overall changes is the field of library and information science, which has consistently evolved universally acceptable techniques and methodologies of information handling and management, in every contemporary society – agricultural, industrial and information.

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Educational Paradigm and Pedagogy Resulting from the global changes, the educational paradigm and pedagogical content of library and information science courses has completely changed in developed countries and is in the process of change in other nations. However, the change process in education and training in library and information science has not been undifferentiated, with marked disparities and differences seen among the developed and developing countries. Education for library and information science has emerged as one of the global professional subjects of reckoning, without exception, but in its profile, curriculum, available infrastructure and in the levels of collaboration and cooperation there are still disparities. All this has impacted upon educational developments, in terms of curriculum, infrastructure, services and other facilities. Education for library and information science in many developing countries is in the grip of this situation. This is one manifestation of library and information science education in developing nations. Keenan (1992) prepared a comprehensive report on professional training requirements in developing countries and the survey covered 151 schools from 49 countries. In the span of two to three decades since the earliest study, many such research papers were published. The spread of library and information science education in developing nations, especially in Africa, Asia, and South America needs to be accorded serious thought, addressing the relevant and appropriate issues in their social, economic, educational and of the present the technological contexts. Strickland (1959, 163) has stated that “to the Africans there is one pre-requisite that is basic to all development – education”. Education in every sector for the developing countries, is pre-requisite for its over all development and library and information education is without exception one such need. In the 1950s and 1960s many nations gained independence and experienced drastic changes in every sector of nation building including higher education. The period also saw equivalent changes in library science, which moved from librarianship to documentation to library and information science, not only in its nomenclature but in content and practice. During the period a new philosophy, “New International Information Order” was also contemplated to bridge the gaps between information haves and information have-nots. But “a new information order including library, documentation and information though a topic of at most importance, was rarely focused in international debates” (Low cost documentation 1980, 322). O’Brien and Helleiner (1980, 445–446) rightly remarked “Information handling capacity already offers industrialized countries and firms considerable economic and political leverage in North-South interaction. Information vital to developing countries is frequently concentrated in the capitals of

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the North.” The early 1970s saw the emergence of the field of information science. The phase of reckoning in the progress of library and information science education dawned in the mid-1970s. The decade was most fluently the information age where new vistas of information science gradually started creeping in librarianship. UNESCO and other UN intergovernmental agencies started programmes for the smooth information flow between “information haves” and “information have-nots” with the launching of UNISIST, a concept spearheaded by ICSU and FID, the professional bodies of scientists and library and documentation science. As early as in 1979 a team of experts conducted a study of eight developing countries in the use of information and information services. The team listed five problems generally encountered by most developing countries (Salman 1981): 1. Infrastructure organization; 2. Availability of trained manpower; 3. Under utilization of information systems; 4. Access to information; including its availability; and 5. New information technologies. Information science education was a key issue in this context, and Saracevic and others have later also associated many issues this in their paper (Saracevic, Bruga and Afolayan 1985). Though international bodies like UNESCO and IFLA reviewed a number of projects to cater to the needs of developing countries (Bowden 1982), the gap has widened now due to the onslaught of electronic revolution in the information sector. The often phrased digital divide is still a gap that needs longterm plans to shadow it. In this context this implies developing ‘appropriate’ education for library and information science, which in the words of Havard-Williams (1994, 14) is that, “professional education needs to provide for the elimination of illiteracy (now two kinds of illiteracy), support education (development of academic libraries), and give a wide range of knowledge about information sources, computers, optical storage devices, satellite communication and against the background of the relevant social, economic and cultural factors”. These and other factors as profiled above show on one hand the growth and development in library and information science, and secondly the way LIS educational systems of the developing countries adopted them religiously but without real benefits. It is time now to look back and adopt a different strategy for restructuring LIS education to the conditions, situations and adoption of a curriculum consonant with the needs of each country. In consideration of these and many emerging developments, it is necessary to give a balancing touch to the library and information education relevant to the needs of developing countries.

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Pointers to Future LIS Education and Training Two important studies, one on Competencies for Information Professionals of the 21st Century prepared by the Special Libraries Association (SLA 2003), and the ERIC Digest (Eisenberg 1989) on Trends in Library and Information Science suggest the strategy for the global educational needs of library and information science. The first document in the SLA’s revised statement, “Putting our knowledge to work” emphasises evidence-based practice, which is highly relevant to the context of the information society. Further, the professional competencies required relate to the practitioner’s knowledge of information resources, access, technology and management, and the ability to use this knowledge as a basis for providing the highest quality information services. The four major competencies and skills are: 1. Managing information organizations; 2. Managing information resources; 3. Managing information services; 4. Applying information tools and technologies. Eisenberg’s ERIC Digest on library and information professionals suggests that “There are important emerging roles and responsibilities for information professionals” (Eisenberg 1989). Themes related to the expanding role of information professionals are; 1. the need for librarians to take a proactive approach to some of their traditional activities; and 2. the possibilities for information professionals to take on new roles, which are often stimulated by emerging information technologies. Eisenberg further states that “Librarians are encouraged to reinterpret ‘traditional’ library skills, to explore new ways of putting those skills to work, and to promote themselves to administration. Models for ‘electronic libraries’ show librarians taking responsibility for the provision and management of information that comes not from the traditional collections but from databases.” The paradigm shift due to digital media and volatility of technology (obsolescence) needs tools: techniques, formats and the digital media are emerging very frequently. As the digital infrastructure is becoming economincally viable, traditional techniques and methods become isolated. In this context library and information science professionals need to do an introspection as what would happen to the basic philosophy of librarianship, the study of the universe of knowledge and the classification of knowledge, developing a symbiotic relationship of users’ approaches, structured abstracts, thesaurus development and so on. But a close

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look at knowledge organization and digital media in which the principles and philosophy of library science are applied in the web based tools or Google shows an interrelation among the disciplines of library and information science, for example, “Knowledge Organization” and “Digital Libraries”.

Basic Issues Relating to Developing Countries The earlier deliberations on this topic imply that the developing countries are especially facing a challenge on the professional education front, as there is a need to provide training in appropriate and related specific areas taking into consideration the local needs. To understand the basic philosophy of libraries, and methods of information organization and the systems and services, it is necessary to frame a curriculum that both augments the traditional and also covers all traditional and emerging technological areas. A suitable blending of the two is a harmonization exercise. In addition to the above, some new issues that are to be considered would be as listed as below.

1 Information Literacy The facets of information literacy in meaning and content have been in constant change, since they began with “Orientation to freshmen” or “Assisting users to find a book” to web cataloguing, which is an aspect of bibliographic instruction. So there are new areas identified in these information literacy programmes as suggested by Kathy Schrock (1998). They are the questioning process, the searching process, the evaluation process, the citation process and so on. This has augured for the inclusion of new components in the information literacy programmes, such as computer literacy and internet literacy, analogous to the situation when bibliographic instruction had a place in user education programmes offered by libraries. Ten Krooden (2004) has highlighted the need for information literacy courses in Southern Africa, in particular for computer literacy, in constructing personal databases. In addition, as Leena Siitonen (1996) puts it “the concept of literacy has been expanded into information literacy which goes beyond traditional literacy including computer literacy and use of computer produced information”. The new information literacy according to her would include media literacy, on changing text literacy, and in addition library and information literacy.

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2 Distance Education The developing countries have a very rich cultural heritage, beautiful landscapes, and natural resources, of which the information content is not properly documented yet. The main attention of the students of library and information science is drawn to e-resources created by the west, whereas the rich heritage of these nations still in the dark and has remained unexposed to the western world. The digital library concept has to be extended to these resources and the gap of the digital divide could be narrowed down not by the use of the resources created elsewhere, but by practical knowledge and skill developments in creating in-house digital resources. This has two benefits: the acquisition of knowledge and skills in digitizing non-conventional documents, and exposing the vast knowledge resources to the Western world. The trend in digital libraries all over the world is focusing more on the creation of electronic and neo-electronic resources for current and specialized resources. The ongoing projects on archives in developed countries are for more of the local materials; similar programmes and projects should be initiated in developing countries, and the educational programmes for the developing nations should include skills for the identification, evaluation of such resources and also the practical knowledge of digitizing these resources too. The African Heritage Research Library¹ (established in 1988), and UNESCO projects in Eritrea (Eritrea: Ancient Manuscripts²) and Cameroon (Cameroon: Masks and Statues³) are some of the examples of digitization projects and programmes of non-conventional sources, where the international organizations evince keen interest. In this context, there is ample scope for the promotion of the digital library concept in developing countries with a new approach. Similar projects are under way in India and other South-east Asian countries.

3 Networking of Schools of Library and Information Science The internet has thrown open an ocean of opportunities for sharing, exchanging through interlinking, and inter- and intra- access to resources, services and

1 http://africanheritageresearch.net/index.html (Accessed on 19 February 2014). 2 No longer extant: see http://web.archive.org/web/20021201094351/http://www.unesco.org/ webworld/africa/eritree2.htm (Accessed on 19 February 2014). 3 No longer extant: see http://web.archive.org/web/20021215191908/http://www.unesco.org/ webworld/africa/cameroon.htm (Accessed on 19 February 2014).

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facilities. The library schools in the developing countries should develop a network system in this regard. What is needed simply is to host a home page with a few web pages of the departments or schools of library and information science, declaring their resources for sharing. This will be extremely useful to all the countries. This will also help in monitoring and coordinating the activities; in this process the departmental libraries and staff resources can also be shared. Dosa and Katzer (1991) have already shown the feasibility of such a South-South cooperation, through their pilot project covering ten developing countries: Brazil, China, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Nigeria, the Philippines and Venezuela. The ultimate goal of the proposed project, as stated by them, was to support educational innovations through increased cooperation among developing countries. Collaborative activities get accelerated in this context, and papers and books can be produced with joint authorship, which is facilitated by the web-publishing facilities now available.

Other Divergent Issues Divergence is also observed in the current situation in LIS education, in qualification systems, changes in curricula and job markets. There is a serious lack of understanding among employers to accept LIS graduates as capable knowledge workers. The LIS curriculum should address these in the context of broad-based information environment and studies on information and its changing paradigm. The distinct core of LIS that has taken shape is predominantly user-oriented in respect of the investment and infusion of IT into the curriculum. It is said that international LIS learning must address pedagogy, technology, and culture as well as content to be successful (Townley, Geng and Zhang 2003). LIS students will learn more in learning situations that reflect both the culture and content of international environments. This experience is predictable given differences in pedagogy and technology; library and information science educators have long sought to internationalize scholarship to enrich the quality of educational programmes and professional practice. But many obstacles restrict the size and growth of traditional international education efforts, particularly in developing countries. Townley, Geng and Zhang’s paper presents a case study that uses emerging distance education techniques to deliver a graduate course on knowledge management in the Peoples’ Republic of China and the USA, sponsored by the US Fulbright Program. This demonstration project blends learning technologies, using web-based WebCT software, videoconferencing, personal contacts.

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Curricular Models and Design: Suggestions The philosophical and pedagogical basis of LIS education should be considerably forward-thinking now to develop in the minds of students the power to devise innovations in routines rather than to train them in the use of existing routines. The objective of this proposal is to develop a curriculum for developing countries taking overall situations and conditions of library systems, patterns of higher education, employers’ demands and political governance. So a profile of the library systems, patterns of higher education, the levels and patterns of courses in LIS and employability will be presented in summary. In this context the six trends visualized by KALIPER (Marshall et al. 2000) and the eight distinct objectives presented by Hayes (1983) can also be considered in the design of curriculum apart from other divergent issues and trends. The organization structure and pattern of the LIS education curriculum for developing countries on the basis of ongoing discussions could follow any one of the following models : 1. Traditional structure or course-oriented structure; 2. Modular structure; 3. Integrated core structure; 4. Choice-based credit system.

1 Traditional Structure or Course-Oriented Structure The traditional strucutre can be conceived as a classical approach dealing purely with fundamentals of librarianship, library economy, library organization and administration, collection organization and physical facilities. It was quite an advocated approach when the profession was in its elements of infancy. In the present context it may fit within the ambit of professional core subject development. It also consisted of a fair integration of theory and practice with about 80:20 ratio of distribution. The course content in this approach was suitable just for running a traditional library with conventional resources, services and methods and procedures.

2 Modular Structure The modular approach deals with the first transition from book to information. In this context we may identify four important facets of information content:

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Information creation; Information collection; Information communication; and Information Consolidation.

Moore has observed three broad sectors of the information industry as below (Moore 1997): 1. Information content; 2. Information delivery; and 3. Information processing. As early as 1987 Large proposed a modular approach to the curriculum for information studies (Large 1987, iii). A similar approach was also advocated in the Asia-Pacific report on “A Curriculum for an Information Society” (UNESCO 1998). This structure was developed by the Curriculum Development Committee of the University Grants Commission in India and proposed for implementation by Indian LIS departments (UGC 2001). The modular structure consisted of six core modules and one elective module.

3 Integrated Structure The influence of other subjects has been long been observed in the discipline of library and information science. Extracting from the definitions of integrated or interdisciplinary curricula the following features can be posited for the design of an integrated curriculum: – a unified combination of subjects; – an emphasis on projects and practices or rather cases/evidences; – emphasis on learning beyond textbooks; – relationships among core concepts, interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary subjects; – flexible schedules of subjects (like the credit-based systems); – group learning with assorted groups of cross-discipline students. An Integrated Curriculum model was suggested by Karisiddappa and Asundi (2006) in their paper presented at the IATLIS Conference.

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4 Choice-based Credit System The choice-based credit system (CBCS) is a known as a flexible system of learning. The credit system is a common curricular structure in USA and now patterns with choice of subjects from open electives have been introduced in many universities in India. In this mode of curriculum, “credit” refers to the quantum of contents/syllabus prescribed for a course and determines the number of hours of instruction required. A credit is a unit measure of the work or the quantum of syllabus required to be done or number of hours of study by a student for a particular course. The choice refers to the student’s choice of an interdisciplinary general subject normally levelled as open electives. The distinguishing features of CBCS are (Biradar and Dharnikumar 2007) that it helps the students: – to learn at their own pace; – to choose electives from a wide range of elective courses offered by the other departments of the university; – to undertake additional courses and acquire more than the required number of credits and knowledge; – to adopt an interdisciplinary approach in learning; – to make best use of the expertise of available faculty.

Conclusion The LIS profession is in perpetual transition as are education, training and research trends. Education for librarianship, starting as apprenticeship training in library economy, has evolved into one of the highly reckonable interdisciplinary studies. Educational facilities, including organizational and infrastructural needs, are distributed unevenly between the developed and developing nations. In order to bring the developing nations within the mainstream of the educational system for the LIS professional, curriculum plays an important role. Due to divergent social, economic and technological situations and conditions, the pedagogy also needs to be addressed and discussed. An attempt is made to conceive them in this context and is presented here for a fruitful discussion and outcome. Since there are identified disparities even among the developing nations, a multi-mode curriculum structure is suggested for adoption, taking into consideration their suitability to the countries under question. For instance where library system development is in its infancy, the traditional structure would be most suitable

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approach, that can be upgraded in phases of the development of systems of libraries.

References Biradar, B.S. and J. Dharnikumar. 2007. “LIS Curriculum with Special Reference to CBCS.” In XXIV IATLIS National Conference on “Equity of LIS Education in IT-based Pedagogical Environment of the Knowledge Society”, 196–206. Dharwad: DLISc, Karnatak University. Bowden, Russell. 1982. Preface to Library Education Programmes in Developing Countries with Special Reference to Asia: Proceedings of the Unesco Pre-IFLA Conference Seminar, Quezon City 15 to 19 August 1980, edited by Russell Bowden, ix-x. London: Library Association, 1982. Dosa, Marta and Jeffery Katzer. 1991. “Electronic Networking in Support of South-to-South Cooperation.” Journal of Education for Library & Information Science 32(1/2):84–96. Eisenberg, Michael B. 1989. “Trends in Library and Information Science: 1989.” Based on Trends and Issues in Library and Information Science by Michael B. Eisenberg, Carolyn K. Trombly and Lindsay D. Ruth. Syracuse, N.Y.: ERIC. http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/ library.htm (Accessed on 19 February 2014). Gilpin, R. 1975. U.S. power and the multinational corporation. New York: Basic Books. Havard-Williams, Peter. 1994. “Appropriate Education for Library and Information Science.” Libri 44 (1): 14–27. Hayes, R.M. 1983. “The Core Curriculum for LIS Education.” Journal of Education for Librarianship 26: 167–168. “Low cost documentation.” 1980. Third World Quarterly 2(2): 322–327. Karisiddappa, C.R. and A.Y. Asundi. 2006. “Integrated Curriculum Building in the Context of Changing Dimension of the Profession.” In Building Curriculum with a Difference: A Vision for LIS education in the 21st century: Conference Papers and Proceedings: XXIII IATLIS National Conference, Patiala, 23–25 November 2006 , edited by C.R. Karisiddappa and B.D. Kumbar, 61–74. Dharwad : Indian Association of Teachers of Library & Information Science. Karisiddappa, C.R. and A.Y. Asundi. 2011. Readings in Library and Information Science Education in India. Canchipur: Manipur University. Keenan, S. 1992. Brain Train : Professional Education and Training Requirements in Developing Countries. [London]: British Library Research and Development Department. Large, J.A. 1987. A modular curriculum in information studies. Paris:UNESCO. Marshall, Victoria, Thomas D. Wilson, Joanne Gard Marshall and Roma Harris. 2000. “Plus ça Change, Plus c’est Différent: A Report from the KALIPER Project on Six Case Studies in LIS Education”. Paper presented at the 2000 ALISE Annual Conference January 11–14, 2000, San Antonio. http://www.informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/kaliper00.html (Accessed on 25 February 2014). Malwad, N.M. 1998. Preface to Towards the New Information Society of Tomorrow: Innovations, Challenges and Impact: 49th FID Conference & Congress, Jaipur & New Delhi, 11–17 October 1998, vii-viii. New Delhi: INSDOC.

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Moore, Nick. 1997. “Information society.” In World Information Report 1997–98, 3:274–276. Paris:UNESCO. O’Brien, Rita Cruise and G.K. Helleiner. 1980.”The political economy of information in a changing international economic order.” International Organization 34(4): 445–470. Palmer, Bernard I.1959. “Education and Training of Librarians in the Newly Developing British Commonwealth Countries.” Library Trends 8(2):229–242. https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/ bitstream/handle/2142/5873/librarytrendsv8i2g_opt.pdf?sequence=1 (Accessed on 25 February 2014). Ranganathan, S.R. 1957. Five Laws of Library Science. 2nd ed. Bombay, Asia Publishing House. Salman, Lamia. 1981. “The Information Needs of Developing Countries: Analytical Case Studies.” UNESCO Journal of Information Science, Librarianship & Archives Administration 3(4): 241–246. Saracevic, Tefko, Gilda M. Bruga and Matthew A. Afolayan. 1985. “Issues in Information Science Education in Developing Countries.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 36(3): 192–199. Schrock, Kathy. 1998 : “Evaluation of World Wide Web Sites: An Annotated Bibliography: ERIC Digest.” Syracuse, N.Y.: ERIC. http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/wide.htm (Accessed on 19 February 2014). Sen, B.K.2008. “Ranganathan’s Five Laws.” Annals of Library and Information Studies 55:87-90. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/1769/1/ ALIS%2055%282%29%2087-90.pdf (Accessed on 25 February 2014). Siitonen, Leena.1996. “Information Literacy : Gaps between Concept and Application.” 62nd IFLA General Conference: Conference Proceedings, August 25–31, 1996. http://archive.ifla. org/IV/ifla62/62-siil.htm (Accessed on 19 February 2014). SLA (Special Libraries Association). 2003. Competencies for Information Professionals of the 21st Century. Revised Edition. Prepared for the SLA, Board of Directors by the Special Committee on Competencies for Special Librarians. http://sla.org/wp-content/ uploads/2013/01/0_LRNCompetencies2003_revised.pdf (Accessed on 19 February 2014). Strickland, John T. 1959. “Patterns of Library Service in Africa.” Library Trends 8(2): 163–167. Ten Krooden, Els. 2004. “Teaching Information Literacy Courses in Southern Africa: Lessons Learned in Training on Constructing Personal Bibliographic Databases.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 45(3): 221–228. Townley, Charles, T., Qian Geng Qian and Jing Zhang. 2003. “Using Distance Education to Internationalize Library and Information Science Scholarship.” Libri 53(2): 82–93. UGC (University Grants Commission). 1965a. Universities and College libraries, Containing the Report of the Library Committee of the University Grants Commission, and the Proceedings of the Seminar on “From Publisher to Reader” held on March 4–7, 1959. New Delhi: UGC. UGC (University Grants Commission). 1965b. Library Science in Indian Universities. New Delhi: UGC. UGC (University Grants Commission). 2001. UGC Model Curriculum: Library and Information Science. New Delhi: UGC. http://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/modelcurriculum/lib_info_ science.pdf (Accessed on 19 February 2014). UNESCO. 1998. Curriculum for Information Society 1998: Educating and Training Information Professionals in the Asia-Pacific Region, edited by Nick Moore and others. Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office for Asian and Pacific.

Takashi Nagatsuka, Hiroyuki Tsunoda and Tomoko Harada

11. The Improvements in Quality of 11. LIS Education through the Mutual 11. International Exchanges of Students 11. in East Asia

Abstract: A great deal of useful content now does not go through the publishing process. It is going directly online by blog or wiki. At present, academic libraries are undergoing a radical transformation deriving from changes in teaching and learning, new information technologies, and the new needs of students. The academic curriculum has been a matter of interest worldwide, as library schools have embraced information studies and have sought to determine the appropriate changes useful to the profession. The popularity of offering practical experience as a part of library education has fluctuated over the years, largely due to differing opinions on the importance of such programs to LIS education. There is no consensus about what to call practical experience in LIS programmes. However, practical experience across borders, in other words, international internship, in LIS programmes is gaining in importance in the East Asia. In recent years, a growing need of international collaboration to expand university education and research has attracted attention in Japan. Tsukuba University, as the largest organization to provide LIS programmes in Japan, developed an international internship programme. In general, the international linternship programme aims to help students to develop worldwide communication skills and to gain a greater insight into information and knowledge specialists abroad through work experience. In this paper, precious experiences in mutual exchange of students in the international internship between Shih Hsin University in Taiwan and Tsurumi University in Japan is explained and discussed. Keywords: International Internship, Curriculum, LIS Education, East Asia, Exchange of Students. The Improvements in Quality of LIS Education

Introduction In the twenty-first century, the dominant form of recorded thought is changing from print to electronic with the rapid progress of ICT in every country. A great deal of useful content now does not go through the publishing process but is going directly online by blog or wiki. At present, academic libraries are under-

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going a radical transformation deriving from changes in teaching and learning, new information technologies, and the new needs of students. Over the past 20 years, people all over the world have been increasingly influenced by the forces of internationalization and globalization. The cultural background of people that interact at an intercultural level has a strong impact on the manner in which this type of interaction takes place. Cultural diversity should not be regarded as an obstacle to communication and a threat to the specificity of one particular culture (Flanja and Gâz 2011). Many universities have recognized the importance of an international perspective by incorporating global or international elements into their curriculum or graduation requirements. The international experience of students is considered to enhance learning, the acquisition of competencies, the development of critical soft skills and, potentially, overall employability. For this reason alone universities would do well to encourage a greater up-take on international exchange programmes, particularly to non-English-speaking countries, where both language acquisition and cultural experience can provide valuable additions to a graduate’s portfolio of employability skills (Crossman and Clarke 2010). The academic curriculum has been a matter of interest worldwide, as library schools have embraced information studies and have sought to determine the appropriate changes useful to the profession. LIS educators must meet the challenges of cultural diversity in preparing future library professionals by their instruction (Abdullahi 2008). The Japanese government is promoting universities’ activity in implementing internationalization as well as exchanges with Asia and the United States, etc. In the area of higher education, Japan will expand its scholarship systems, work to ensure the quality of universities and make them more international in nature, expand and improve graduate education, and promote vocational education, such as by cultivating students’ entrepreneurial abilities (On the New Growth Strategy 2009). The popularity of offering practical experience as a part of library education has fluctuated over the years, largely due to differing opinions on the importance of such programmes to LIS education. There is no consensus about what to call practical experience in LIS programmes. However, practical experience across borders, in other words, international internship, in LIS programmes is gaining in importance in East Asia. In recent years, a growing need for international collaboration to expand the university education and research has attracted attention in Japan. Tsukuba University, the largest organization to provide LIS programmes in Japan, developed an international internship programme. In general, the international internship programme aims to help students to develop worldwide communication skills and to gain a greater insight into the information and knowledge specialists abroad through work experience (Joho et al. 2011).In this paper, precious experiences in mutual exchange of students as the international internship between Shih Hsin

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University in Taiwan and Tsurumi University in Japan were explained and discussed. Another purpose of this paper is to clarify the role of the mutual exchange of students in international internship, based on a wide variety of practical experiences in both Tsurumi University and Shih Hsin University.

Practical Experience across Borders The mobility of international students across borders has emerged in a common theme in many countries and also the Japanese government has been attaching importance to it (On the New Growth Strategy 2009). With the development of knowledge societies, international students has become the key driving force of economic development and the guarantee of improvement of national strength (Wei 2012 ). Cultural diversity should not be regarded as an obstacle to communication and a threat to the specificity of one particular culture. All in all, one of the advantages of short-term student exchange programmemes, widely developed in the contemporary era of globalization, is that the period is short enough not to alter a pre-established identity, but long enough to offer the opportunity of perceiving one self from a different perspective, in offering a point of comparison (Flanja and Gâz 2011). What is the reason universities promote internationalization? In the higher education sector, despite debate over how it should be defined and measured, graduate employability has become a critical benchmark for measuring performance at both an individual and an institutional level. Therefore, the universities in many countries would do well to encourage a greater up-take on international exchange programmes (Crossman and Clarke 2010). International experience does enhance learning, the acquisition of competencies, the development of critical soft skills and potentially, overall employability.

International Internship in LIS Programmes The internationalization of LIS education is considered not only desirable but also critically necessary. The education of future library and information professionals who are able to understand global information access, and to promote systems of communication among people throughout the world, is also considered vital for the success of the profession. A range of thoughts and suggestions is given on how LIS schools can respond to the challenges of an increasingly global world and, more specifically, how they can develop LIS programmes and create classroom settings that are truly international in orientation and scope (Abdul-

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lahi, Kajberg and Virkus 2007). The four concepts of internships in LIS education for the new information society have been defined as: (i) international and (ii) interdisciplinary that allow them to expand beyond the local and disciplinary, and (iii) intentional and (iv) interconnected, that draw attention to their purpose, the learning process and the role of participants (Bird, Chu and Oguz 2011). International internship in LIS education is thought to provide an opportunity for students to expand beyond the local and disciplinary. In Japan, a need for international collaboration in higher education and research is growing along with three stages of the Asian region, the Asia-Pacific region and the world. The University of Tsukuba, the largest organization to provide LIS programmes in Japan since 1979, established and developed an international relationship with universities and institutions in a three-step approachcorresponding to the three stages. The College of Knowledge and Library Sciences in the University of Tsukuba established a course of international internship programme for third-year undergraduate students to acquire real job experience at a certain company or organization of interest to the student. This international internship programme aims to support students to improve communication skills in English and to gain insight into the work contents of information and knowledge specialists through work experience of around ten days. In the programme, students enrolled in the course had to prepare for the internship over about three months. After the internship, students give a presentation on their activities during the international internship to other students in the college. The results of the survey to all internship students indicated a very high level of satisfaction with the programme (Joho et al. 2011). The earlier stage of the international internship programme depended largely on personal relationships of trust with some particular faculties. The operational works for the international internship programme placed a disproportionate emphasis on the particular faculties between both sides. To get a good result from the international internship, faculties in each university or institution should divide work properly and also an organization should establish a lasting relationship with a partner organization. If the organization concludes an academic exchange agreement with the counterpart, the international internship between two organizations will continue in a stable condition (Mizoue et al. 2010).

Case Study: Japanese Students in Taiwan The Tsurumi University in Japan concluded the academic exchange agreement with Shih Hsin University in Taiwan in 2011. In the first stage, the academic

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exchange programme started as a short-term faculty exchange between the departments in charge of LIS education in each university, namely the Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies at Tsurumi University and the Department of Information and Communication at Shih Hsin University. The faculties who were invited from the partner university gave lectures and exchanged research information with researchers in the home university. In the second stage, the Tsurumi University department accepted graduate students of the Shih Hsin University department, with a short-term course of international internship. The short-term course of international internship that was originally introduced at Tsurumi University was implemented in a time-frame of two weeks in July 2012. In the third stage, an actual mutual exchange of students under the international internship programme between the two universities was first accomplished by the newly introduced course of “Special Practical Experience 2” at Tsurumi University in 2012. In total, twelve students of the Tsurumi University department signed up for the course in 2012 (Table 11.1). Nine of them were female students and the other three were male students. The students who enrolled in the course were confined exclusively to first- and second-year students. Table 11.1: Students enrolled in the course of “Special Practical Experience 2” Enrolled Students

Male Students

2nd grade

3rd grade

Female Students

2nd grade

3rd grade

12

3

2

1

9

5

4

The new course was agreed by the department and announced to students in April 2012. In July 2012, the details of course content were communicated to students who had decided to take the course and also to those still considering it. A total of five lessons were conducted from November 2012 to the end of February 2013 before the international internship in Taiwan, primarily in Taiwanese history and culture, an outline of Shih Hsin University, libraries and archives in Taiwan, daily language lessons in Chinese and self-introduction in English. The twelve students and two faculty members of the Tsurumi University department were in on the international internship during nine days from 5 to 13 March 2013 in Taiwan. In March 2013, students submitted their reports written on the basis of their experience of international internship in Taiwan and then students presented about it in class.

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Table 11.2: The teaching process on the course of “Special Practical Experience 2”. Date

Teaching Process

April 2012

New course of “Special Practical Experience 2” announced to students Briefing session about the course content for students who decided to take the course and for those considering it

July 2012 Nov. 2012 to the end of February 2013 5–13 March 2013 March 2013 27 March 2013

Operation of five lessons before the international internship in Taiwan, primarily in Taiwanese history and culture, an outline of Shih Hsin University, libraries and archives in Taiwan, daily language lessons in Chinese and self introductions in English International internship in Taiwan Submission of the report after the experience of international internship Presentation meeting after the experience of international internship

The daily schedule of the international internship programme in Taiwan is shown in Table 11.3. The success of the programme depended to a large extent on the efforts and assistance of faculties of the department at Shih Hsin University. All places visited during the international internship programme in Taiwan were arranged by faculties of the Shih Hsin University department. The faculties and graduate students of the Shih Hsin University department received our students kindly during the international internship programme in Taiwan. The programme of international internship in Taiwan was made up of two special lectures, visits to libraries and museums, and meetings and discussions. Table 11.3: The daily schedule of the international internship programme in Taiwan Day

Daily schedule

1

Students’ arrival at Taipei, visit to Shih Hsin University (SHU) and accounts of the international internship programme Museum visit to National Palace Museum guided by a faculty member of the Dept of IC in Shih Hsin University Two special classes focused on the topics “Information Literacy” by faculty members of the Dept of IC in Shih Hsin University and visit to the film & radio studio and university library at SHU Library visit to National Central Library, and University visits to National Taiwan Normal University and National Taiwan University Library guided by a faculty member Free activities and cultural experiences Free activities and cultural experiences National Park visit

2 3 4 5 6 7

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Day

Daily schedule

8

Library visits to Intelligent Library and Taipei City Library-Beito,and round-table meeting between the representatives of faculty members and students in Shih Hsin University and Tsurumi University Flight back to Japan

9

According to the reports written by students on the basis of their experience of international internship in Taiwan, they achieved many results involved in the course of international internship in Taiwan away from their everyday life in a different circumstance. The students were deeply touched by the warm welcome shown to them by faculty and students at Shih Hsin University and also the people that they met in the visited places. It is already been noticed that students can develop worldwide communication skills and gain a greater insight into the information and knowledge specialists abroad through work experience (Joho et al. 2011). In this study, we got similar opinions from our students’ feedback on their experience of international internship in Taiwan. We gave considerable attention to the active exchanges occurred and continued during and after the international internship in Taiwan between students at Shih Hsin University and students at Tsurumi University.

Case Study: Taiwanese Students in Japan As we already mentioned, in the first stage, the academic exchange programme started as a short-term faculty exchange. This case study on Taiwanese students in Japan corresponds to the second stage. In the second stage Tsurumi University department accepted graduate students of Shih Hsin University with a short term course of international internship in a time frame of two weeks in July 2012. In total, five students of the Shih Hsin University department signed up for a shortterm course of international internship organized by the Tsurumi University department in 2012 (Table 11.4). Two of them were female students and the other three were male students. Table 11.4: The number of graduate students who do their internship in Tsurumi University Accepted students

Male students

Female students

5

3

2

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The graduate students who are enrolled at the Department of IC at Shih Hsin University were accepted into a short-term course of international internship at Tsurumi University (Table 11.5). As noted previously, Tsurumi University in Japan concluded the academic exchange agreement with Shih Hsin University in Taiwan in 2011. After the conclusion of agreement, the Department of LAIS at Tsurumi University decided to accept graduate students in the short term course of international internship in October 2011. In April 2012, the course outline of the two-week international internship was decided for five graduate students of the Department of IC at Shih Hsin University. In June 2012, the details of the course were decided. The five students of the Department of IC at Shih Hsin University were in on the international internship during fifteen days from 1 July to 15 July 2012 in Japan. The five students submitted their reports written after their experience of international internship in Japan. Table 11.5: The acceptance process of graduate students to Tsurumi University Date

Accepting Process

May 2011

Execution of the agreement of international exchange between Shih Hsin University in Taiwan and Tsurumi University in Japan Decision to accept graduate students in the short-term international internship course Course outline decision of the two-week international internship for five graduate students Course details decision of the two-week international internship Operation of the two-week international internship Submission of the report after the experience of international internship

October 2011 April 2012 June 2012 1–15 July 2012 15 July 2012

The daily schedule of the international internship programme in Japan is shown in Table 11.6. All places visited during the international internship programme in Japan were arranged by faculty of the Tsurumi University department. The programme of international internship in Japan was made up of participation in several classes, experiences of customer service and the cataloguing process in the library, visits to libraries and museums and to meetings and discussions. According to the reports written by graduate students on the basis of their experience of international internship in Japan, they achieved many results involved in the course of international internship in Japan away from their every day life in a different circumstances. The students were deeply touched by the warm welcome shown to them by faculty and students of the Tsurumi University department and also by people that they met in the visited places. In this case, we got similar opinions to our students’ feedback on their experience of international internship in

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Taiwan. We are particularly interested in active exchanges occurring during the international internship in Japan between students at Shih Hsin University and students at Tsurumi University and continued afterwards. Table 11.6: The daily schedule of the international internship programme in Japan Day

Daily Schedule

1 2

Students’ arrival at Haneda Visit to Tsurumi University, accounts of the international internship programme and attendance at the class on “Introduction to Library Science” At university library, brief introduction to university library and experience of customer service, and attendance at the class on “Japanese Rare Books” At university library, brief explanation of libraries in Japan and experience of cataloguing process, and attendance at the exercise class on “Graduation Thesis” Attendance at the class on “Document Handling” and the exercise class on “Graduation Thesis” Visit to Tokyo International Book Fair Free activities and cultural experiences Free activities and cultural experiences Visit to public libraries in Yokohama and Kawasaki Visit to National Diet Library Visit to Keio University Free activities and cultural experiences Visit to book stores Attendance at the departmental meeting Flight back to Taiwan

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Conclusions Many universities have recognized the importance of an international perspective by incorporating global or international elements into their curriculum or graduation requirements. The international experience of students is considered to enhance learning, the acquisition of competencies, the development of critical soft skills and, potentially, overall employability (Crossman and Clarke 2010). As in the case of LIS education, the international exchange of students, especially international internship, is considered not only desirable but also critically necessary (Abdullahi, Kajberg and Virkus 2007; Bird, Chu and Oguz 2011). In Japan, the University of Tsukuba established and developed an international relationship with universities and institutions in a three-step approach, comprising the Asian region, the Asia-Pacific region and the world (Joho et al. 2011).

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We discovered a strong mutual interest among students in the international internship achieved in Taiwan and Japan from their reports written on the basis of their experience of international internship. First, they achieved many results involved in the course of international internship in Taiwan or Japan away from their everyday life in different circumstances. Secondly, the students were deeply touched by the warm welcome shown to them by faculty and students in both universities and also people that they met in the visited places. Third, we are particularly interested in active exchanges during and after the international internship in Japan between students at Shih Hsin University and students at Tsurumi University. The mutual exchange of students as the international internship is thought of as making a significant beneficial effect on the attitudes and behaviour of students in everyday school life. Because of making the beneficial effects on mutual exchange of students as the international internship more clearly, we need further study. More departments or schools in change of LIS education at universities in the East Asian countries may be expected to introduce international internship into their curriculum for growth for students. On the other hand, a new attempt has been made to enable students to participate in this experience regardless of their physical location; in other words, to develop a virtual internship (Franks and Oliver 2011). Further studies are needed how we do balance between a real international internship and a virtual internship.

Figure 11.1: Mutual exchanges of students under the international internship programm

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Acknowledgments We express our appreciation to President Ting-Ming Lai, Director Ming-Shu Yuan, Professors Chih-Feng P. Lin, Shien-Chiang Yu, Tao-Ming Chuang, Nei-Ching Yeh and Shun-Tzu Tsai of the Department of Information and Communication at Shih Hsin University for their positive support. We also thank persons in Taiwan and Japan who accepted our visit. We take all responsibility for the content of this article.

References Abdullahi, Ismail, Leif Kajberg and SirjeVirkus. 2007. “Internationalization of LIS Education in Europe and North America.” New Library World 108(1/2): 7–24. Abdullahi, Ismail. 2008. “Cultural Mediation in Library and Information Science (LIS) Teaching and Learning.” New Library World 109(7/8): 383–389. Bird, Nora J., Clara M. Chu and Faith Oguz. 2011. “Four ‘I’s of Internships for the New Information Society: Intentional, Interconnected, Interdisciplinary and International.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, San Juan, Puerto Rico. http://conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2011/120-bird-en.pdf (Accessed on 27 February 2014). Crossman, Joanna Elizabeth and Marilyn Clarke. 2010. “International Experience and Graduate Employability: Stakeholder Perceptions on the Connection. Higher Education 59(5): 599–613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9268-z (Accessed on 27 February 2014). Flanja, Delia and Roxana-Maria Gâz. 2011. “Intercultural Adaptation: The Case of International Student Exchange Programmes.” Review of the Air Force Academy: The Scientific Informative Review 8(2): 135–140. Franks, Patricia C. and Gillian C. Oliver. 2011. “Virtual Internships: Opportunities for Experiential Learning and International Collaboration in Digital Curation Curricula.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, San Juan, Puerto Rico. http:// conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2011/217-franks-en.pdf (Accessed on 27 February 2014). Joho, Hideo, Norihiko Uda, Atsuyuki Morishima, Hirotoyo Ishii and Chieko Mizoue. 2011. “Globalization of LIS Education in Japan: A Case of the University of Tsukuba.” Paper presented at the International Workshop on Global Collaboration of Information Schools. (WIS 2011), ICADL 2011, 24 October 2011, Beijing. Mizoue, Chieko, Makoto Matsumoto, Shin-ichi Nakayama, Hirotoyo Ishii and Hideo Joho. 2010. “Ideas for the International Collaboration in the LIS Education and Research at Tsukuba.” Presentation at the WIS2010 Workshop on Global Collaboration of Information Schools post-conference workshop of JCDL-ICADL 2010, Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia. Accessible from https://sites.google.com/site/wischool2010/ (Accessed on 2 March 2014). On the New Growth Strategy (Basic Policies). 2009. http://www.rio.br.emb-japan.go.jp/ NewGrowth.pdf (Accessed on 27 February 2014).

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Wei, Hao. 2012. “An Empirical Study on the Determinants of International Student Mobility: A Global Perspective.” Higher Education 66(1): 105–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.007/s10734012-9593-5 (Accessed on 27 February 2014).

Eno Joseph Ottong and Ubong Joseph Ottong

12. Teaching and Learning for Development 12. through Collaborative Curriculum Design A Study of the University of Botswana and University of Calabar, Nigeria Abstract: The study examines the curriculum of LIS programmes in the Universities of Calabar and Botswana. The study also sets out to find areas of possible collaboration between the two universities in order to reposition the programmes for effective teaching and learning for development. The methodology was a descriptive as well as a prescriptive approach, involving content analysis of the curriculum in relation to course titles, programme structure, compulsory courses and practicum/field experience in libraries. Findings from the study reveal that the curricula of the two LIS programmes have similar courses and structure and are therefore quite compatible. The study concludes that this sets the stage for collaboration between the two institutions and recommends drafting a framework to properly streamline the curricula, obtain international perspectives on the extent to which local curricula or course work is consistent with evolving professional needs and finally develop ways to assess areas of specialization and competencies in each university. Keywords: Curriculum Design; Curriculum Content; Teaching and Learning; Collaboration. Teaching and Learning for Development through Collaborative Curriculum Design

Introduction Library and information science (LIS) is an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives and tools of management, information technology and education and other areas of libraries. LIS also involves the collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of information resources and the political economy of information. The first American school for library science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in 1887.¹ Library and Information Science is critically concerned with provid-

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvil_Dewey#School_of_Library_Economy (Accessed on 27 February 2014).

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ing instruments (documents, organization, bibliographies, indexes) to enable people become better informed through the use of documents (Konrad 2007). The phrase “library and information science” is associated with schools of library and information science, which generally developed from professional training programmes to university institutions during the second half of 20th century, (Chua and Yang 2008). Universities are established to help in teaching, learning and research. The main objectives in designing the library and information science programme include producing library and information professionals for all types of libraries, equip the products of the programme with relevant theoretical knowledge, practical skills and techniques to develop and enhance their job performance, encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity among the library and information professional, provide an understanding of the role of new ICTs in the handling of information (Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards 2007, 342–343). In order to achieve the desired goal for teaching and learning for development of future African libraries, there is need to have good curriculum design in the departments of library and information science in all African universities. The process of curriculum design should be adaptable and applicable to many different subjects and situations (Singh and Shahid 2010). It involves thinking about the students themselves and what aspect of the curriculum would be most appropriate. It usually takes into account the expected learning outcomes, associated learning and teaching and assessment in evaluation. Curriculum design may also face a considerable number of limitations which include issues like funding, access to textbooks, moral norms, integration and subjects. Curriculum design leads to production of core programme/modules such as course description, validation documents, prospectus, entry and course handbook. The process involves consideration of resource allocation, marketing of the course, and learners’ final outcome and destinations’ as well as general learning and teaching approaches and requirements.The core issue of this paper is the analysis of the curriculum of LIS programmes, using library schools in Africa as a case study. The main objective is to examine the curriculum design of LIS contents of the two library schools in Africa in relation to course titles, programme structure, compulsory courses, required courses and practicum/field experience in libraries. The study will also assess the curriculum for possible collaboration and repositioning it for effective teaching, learning and research. It will also determine areas of strengths and needs.

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Literature Review According to Singh and Shahid (2010, 1), citing Ocholla, a curriculum is a fundamental part of any educational or training programmes largely because it provides not just a list of courses or modules offered in a programme, but it also gives information on content, purpose, method, time/duration, trainers and location or situation of a programme or course – all of which are essential in a successful dispensation of manpower training and education. The LIS curriculum for teaching and learning should not only mirror what is being offered to train librarians and information professionals with knowledge and skills to become qualified personnel in the field, but also meet the challenges of the ever changing information society (Chu 2006). The twenty-first century information professional must possess skills in selection, content management, knowledge management, organization of information, research services, developing and maintaining digital libraries, and bringing information resources to the desktop. People with the right skills are crucial to the success and competitiveness of contemporary information environments (Varalakshmi 2006). Library professionals must therefore be equipped with the relevant skills and expertise to be competent in a digital culture. The education and training of LIS professionals has to be such that it empowers them to unleash their potential as they endeavour to offer relevant and efficient services within the current levels of technological sophistication (Minishi-Majanja 2007). Curry (2000) observed that library and information science have witnessed not only the increasing globalization of higher education but also that of the LIS workplace, including the consequent extension of competition beyond traditional,institutional, national and regional boundaries. According to Curry, this environment has made it important for LIS education and training to strive to improve their quality of programmes. Efficient and effective LIS education programmes and library and information services can be realized through collaborative partnership. Lillard and Wales (2003) recommended that academic librarians and LIS educators must work together to seek creative approaches to strengthening LIS education. Fostering a closer collaboration between library educators and academic librarians through a variety of activities can help ensure that library education meets the need of the profession. According to Al-Suqri (2010), without collaboration with others in their profession, LIS departments are unlikely to be able to keep up with these developments and deliver international standards in teaching, research and information services. A networked environment, therefore, lends itself to cooperation and the sharing of ideas and solutions to problems common to libraries no matter where they are located (Sacchanand 2012).

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The IFLA “Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs” (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012) recommends the inclusion of material in LIS curricula that reflects developments in the provision of library and information services in the twenty-first century. The guidelines include: – students should acquire a broad general education (topics from other disciplines) as a significant component of the total educational programme for the library/information professional; – programmes should refer to educational policy statements issued by government or professional associations that identify important knowledge and skill components; – the programme should incorporate appropriate means to allow students, in a practical way, to appreciate the interplay between professional theories and their application in professional practice. Depending on the required learning outcomes it can also include applied project research and/or projects that involve authentic practical activities, undertaken in a placement environment; – in order to assist practising librarians and information specialists to maintain competence in a changing society and to keep educators aware of issues and trends in practice, the programme should either conduct suitable workshops and short courses for the benefit of practising librarians and information specialists or partner with other agencies in doing so; – a process of formal curriculum review should take place on a regular basis and the next review should take place on or before 2017. This review should be informed by input from employers, practitioners and professional associations, as well as students and faculty and will be overseen by the IFLA Standards Committee.

Setting and Methodology The study is a survey of existing curriculum contents in the Department of Library and Information Studies, University of Botswana, Botswana and the Department of Library and Information Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria, both in Africa. The University of Botswana is said to be the country’s leading academic environment, established in 1982. It has seven faculties with over 50 programmes, which include the Bachelor of Library and Information Studies, housed in the Department of Library and Information Studies, in the Faculty of Humanities. The University of Calabar, established in 1975, is among the leading research and teaching institutes of the world. It has eight faculties with over 50 programmes

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which include the Bachelor of Library and Information Science housed in the Department of Library and Information Science, in the Faculty of Education. The study adopts both a descriptive as well as a prescriptive approach. The methodology also involves content analysis of the curriculum in relation to course titles, programme structure, compulsory courses and practicum/field experience in libraries. The crucial element of the approach is the presentation of possible collaborative strategies that could invigorate LIS progammes and reposition them for effective teaching, learning and research.

Result and Discussion Table 12.1: Analysis of the 100-level programme structure of the library and information science programmes in Calabar and Botswana Programme structure

Calabar

Botswana

First semester BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters 100 level

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters Semester 1

Level 100 Course Core courses code LIS 161

Course code LIS 100

Course Title

Credit Unit

Information Environment

3 Units

LIS 101

Introduction to Organising Information

3 Units

LIS 103

Basic Reference Sources and Services

3 Units

LIS 110

Administration 3 Units and Management of Information Centres

LIS 163

LIS 165

LIS 167

Course Title

Credit Unit 2 Units

Introduction to Library and Information Science History Of 2 Units Libraries And Information Centres Administration 2 Units and Management of Library and Information Centre Visit Government 2 Units Publications

Teaching and Learning for Development through Collaborative Curriculum Design 

Programme structure

Calabar

 163

Botswana

One elective in another academic discipline BIM 100 100-level course in any language: French, Spanish, German General Studies and Education Courses GSS 101 Use of English I 2 Units Citizenship 2 Units Education GSS 121 Philosophy and 2 Units Logic

GEC 121 -

Communication and Study Skills Communication and Study Skills -

EDU 101 History of Sociology of Edn.

-

-

-

Introduction to Information Science Collection Development & Management Introduction to the Internet and Web Design

3 Units

GSS 111

II Semester Core Courses LIS 160

LIS 161

2 Units

Organization of 2 Units Knowledge 1 Library and Society

GEC 111

Introduction to Information Management

Semester 2 BIM 100

2 Units

LIS 104

Introduction 2 Units to the Internet and Electronic Library Optional Courses/Electives LIS 166 Repackaging of 2 Units Information

LIS 114

LIS 164

LIS 168

Multimedia

2 Units

LIS 106

LIS 112

One elective in other academic discipline 2 Units 100 level course in any language: French; Spanish; German

Information Resources Management Introduction to Publishing and Book Trade

3 Units 3 Units -

3 Units

3 Units

3 Units

3 Units

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Table 12.2: Analysis of the 200-level programme structure of the library and information science programmes in Calabar and Botswana Programme structure

Calabar

Botswana

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters 200 level First Semester Course Course Title Credit Code Unit General Courses, Education GSS 102 Use of English/ Library GSS 131 History and Philosophy of Science Core Courses

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters Semester 3 Course Course Title Credit Code Unit

2 Units GSS 112 2 Units GSS 122

Communication and 3 Units study skills Computing and 3 Units Information Skills. Fundamentals II

LIS 261

Theory and 2 Units LIS 202 IT Tools and 3 Units Practice of Applications Bibliography LIS 263 Organization of 2 Units LIS 223 Digital Librarianship 3 Units Knowledge II LIS 265 Repackaging of 2 Units LIS 206 Introduction to 3 Units Information Infopreneurship GSS & Education Courses 10 GEC not exceeding 6 credits for credits for the two semester the two semester (324)

Required Courses LIS 267

LIS 226

LIS 269

Optional Courses Library and 2 Units LIS 203 Information Services to the Rural Community Legal Issues of 2 Units LIS 211 Information Management Information Management System and Development

2 Units LIS 236

BMS 200

African Information 3 Units Environment

Information and Society

3 Units

Legal Issues of Information

3 Units

Information Management and Systems Development

3 Units

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Programme structure

Calabar

Botswana

II Semester Core Courses

 165

Semester 4 LIS 260 LIS 262

LIS 262

LIS 264

Information Use and Literacy Legal Issues of Information Management Serials Management

Units

LIS 200

Information Technologies

2 Units LIS 227

2 Units LIS 208

2 Units BIM 202

Organizing Information Principles of Data Communication

3 Units

Introduction to Database and Information Retrieval Introduction to Knowledge

3 Units

3 Units

3 Units

management Required Courses LIS 266

LIS 268

Optional Courses Preservation and 2 Units LIS 212 Information Conservation Resources in of Information Business Resources Literature and 2 Units LIS 230 Legal Issues of Library Services Information to Children and Adolescents

3 Units

3 Units

Table 12.3: Analysis of the 300-level programme structure of the library and information science programmes in Calabar and Botswana Programme structure

300 Level First Semester

Calabar

Botswana

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters 300 level

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters Semester 5

Course code

Course Title Credit Unit

Course code

Course Title

Credit Unit

Entrepreneurship Education

GSS 112

Communication and study skills

3 Units

General Courses, Education GSS 201

2 Units

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Programme structure

Calabar

Botswana

EDU 311

Fundamentals 2 Units of Educational Administration in Nigeria

GSS 122 Computing and Information Skills. Fundamentals II

3 Units

EDU 371

Basic Statistics 2 Units for Education/ Library Science

LIS 202

IT Tools and Applications

3 Units

EDU 343

Test and Measurement

2 Units

LIS 223

Digital Librarianship

3 Units

LIS 361

Collection Development

2 Units

LIS 300

Online Information Retrieval

3 Units

LIS 303

School 2 Units Libraries/ Media Resource Centres

LIS 304

Understanding the User

3 Units

LIS 365

Reference and 2 Units Information Services Online Information Retrieval

LIS 303

Advanced IT Application

3 Units

LIS 369

Health Information System

Core Courses

Required Courses

Optional Courses 2 Units

II Semester

LIS 309

School 3 Units Librarianship

LIS 303

Health Information System

Semester 6

General Courses/ Education GSS 302

Entrepreneurship in Education (Practical II)

2 Units

General Education courses not exceeding six credits for both semester

3 Units

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Programme structure

Calabar

 167

Botswana

EDU 342

Research Methods in Library & Information Science Education

EIS 322

Information Use and Literacy

LIS 360

Principles of Cataloguing and Classification

Core Courses

LIS 362

2 Units

LIS 305

Advanced 3 Units Organization of Information

Automation in 2 Units Libraries

Required Courses

LIS 306

Professional Attachment

3 Units

Optional Courses

LIS 362 National and Public Libraries

2 Units

LIS 311

Business Information Systems

3 Units

LIS 366 Academic and Special Libraries

2 Units

LIS 312

Legal Information System

3 Units

LIS 368 Gender and Information Management

2 Units

LIS 313

Gender and Information Management

3 Units

LIS 310 Business Information Systems

2 Units

LIS 314

Agricultural Information Systems

3 Units

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Table 12.4: Analysis of the 400-level programme structure of the library and information science programmes in Calabar and Botswana Programme structure

Calabar

Botswana

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters 400 level

BLIS – Full Time – 8 semesters Semester 7

400 Level First Course Semester code

Course Title

Credit Unit

Course code

General Courses Core Courses LIS 404 LIS 461

Research 4 Units project Field Expe4 Units rience /Professionalism

Required Courses

LIS 404 LIS 406

LIS 418

Course Title

Unit General courses (4 credits) Advanced 3 Units Entrepreneurship Database 3 Units Management Systems and Design Project work 3 Units

Optional Courses LIS 425 LIS 426

II Semester

Semester 8

Core Courses

Core Courses LIS 460

LIS 462

LIS 466

LIS 468

Credit

Global Information 3 Units Systems Independent Study

Entrepreneur- 2 Units ship in Information Services Indexing and 2 Units Abstracting

LIS 401

Organizing 3 Units Internet resources

LIS 402

3 Units

Archives and Record Management Book Production Publishing and Trade

2 Units

LIS 403

Marketing of Information Resources Knowledge Management

2 Units

BMI 402

Research in Information Management

3 Units

3 Units

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Programme structure

Calabar LIS 410

Botswana Issues and 2 Units Themes in Librarianship

(In addition to the required courses student may take a minimum of 12 optional or elective courses) Optional Courses

LIS 407

Emerging Technologies

2 Units

CSI 461

LIS 405

Information 2 Units Policies Computer 2 Units Communication and Network Management

LIS 407

Required Courses

LIS 421

 169

LIS 412

ENV 440

Computer communication Network Management Emerging Technologies Information Policies

Geographical Information System

3 Units

3 Units 3 Units

3 Units

Findings 1 Core courses Findings of the survey indicate that the programme is named in University of Calabar “Bachelor of Library and Information Science” and in University of Botswana “Bachelor of Library and Information Studies”. In the two universities it is studied as a four-year full-time programme and spans eight semesters. Both universities use the course code “LIS” (in Calabar, Library and Information Science and in Botswana, Library and Information Studies). Table 12.1 reveals that in the 100 level, University of Calabar and University of Botswana have similar LIS introductory courses as in second semester LIS 164 and LIS 114; in Table 12.2 first semester LIS 265 and LIS 206; in Table 12.3 first semester LIS 365 and LIS 303, and in Table 12.4 first semester LIS 404 and LIS 404. Among others are similar core courses in University of Calabar and University of Botswana designed to equip library professionals with the relevant skills to be competent

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in a digital culture. The choice of core courses is in line with the views expressed by Varalakshmi (2006), that people with the right skills are crucial to the success and competitiveness of contemporary information environments

2 Required /Optional Courses The survey of LIS curricula of the two universities reveals that while some courses are referred to as“required courses” in University of Calabar, in University of Botswana they are referred to “optional courses”. Tables 12.1–12.4 show that University of Calabar offers a total of 15 required courses while University of Botswana offers a total of 18 optional courses. According to Chu (2006) LIS curricula should not only mirror what is being offered to train librarian and information professionals with knowledge and skills to become qualified personnel in the field, but also meet challenges of the ever changing information society. These additional courses to the LIS curricula are in line with the findings of Minishi-Majanja (2007) that education and training of LIS professionals has to be such that it empowers them to unleash their potential as they endeavour to offer relevant and efficient services within the current levels of technological sophistication. Also according to Curry (2002) the increasing globalization of higher education and the LIS work place has made it important for LIS education and training to strive to improve their quality of programmes to be able to produce graduates whose workplace spans the whole world.

3 Practicum/Field Experience in Libraries The analysis of the curriculum of the LIS programmes in the two universities shows that in University of Calabar LIS 461(Field Experience) is offered in the 400level first semester while in University of Botswana LIS 306 (Professional Attachment) is offered in the 300-level second semester. These courses are in line with the principles of the IFLA guidelines (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012) which state that LIS programmes should incorporate appropriate means to allow students, in a practical way, to appreciate the interplay between professional theories and their application in professional practice. Depending on the required learning outcomes it can also include applied project research and/or projects that involve authentic practical activities, undertaken in a placement environment.

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4 General studies and Education courses The study reveals from Tables 12.1–12.4 that University of Calabar offers 13 general studies education courses while University of Botswana offers 8 courses. This is in line with the National Universities Commission benchmark for Nigerian Universities that all programmes should offer general studies courses (Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards 2007) and special regulations for faculty of humanities in the University of Botswana Undergraduate Academic Calendar 2010/2011 (112–113). It also follows the principles of the IFLA guidelines (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012) which state that students should acquire a broad general education (topics from other disciplines) as a significant component of the total educational programme for the library/information professional.

5 Areas of collaboration LIS practitioners should play an important role in curriculum planning and development. This is in line with Al-Suqri (2010, 51), who said that without collaboration with others in their profession, LIS departments are unlikely to be able to keep up with developments and deliver international standards in teaching, research and information services. Also Lillard and Wales (2003) recommend that academic librarians and LIS educators must collaborate to seek creative approaches to strengthening LIS education and help ensure that library education meets the need of the profession. LIS education can collaborate through staff/student exchange, workshops and short courses to assist information professionals maintain competence in a changing society and to keep them aware of issues and trends in practice. According to Kesselman and Weintraub (2004, x) a networked environment lends itself to cooperation and the sharing of ideas and solutions to problems common to libraries no matter where they are located.

Conclusion This survey examined the undergraduate LIS curricula of the Universities of Calabar and Botswana in relation to core courses, required/optional courses, practicum/field experience, general studies/education courses and areas of collaboration. The findings reveal that the curricula of the two universities are compatible because course content and structure are similar for the four levels of study, also both curricula follow IFLA Guidelines for Professional Library/

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Information Educational Programs (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012). In Africa these universities would equip a new generation of librarians and information professionals with 21st-century professional skills. The study concludes that the curricula of the two library schools are quite compatible and this sets the stage for collaborations between the two institutions. Collaboration between the two LIS schools will help strengthen their ability to increase the quality of teaching and learning. The study recommends drafting a framework to properly streamline the curricula of the two universities, obtain international perspectives on the extent to which local curricula or course work is consistent with evolving professional needs, produce ideas to be used for developing the framework for short courses, staff/student exchange and workshops and finally develop ways to assess areas of specializations and competencies in each university.

References Al-Suqri, Mohammed Nasser. 2010. “Collaboration in Library and Information Science Education in the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC): Current Status, Challenges and Future Trends.” Emporia State Research Studies 46(2):48–53. http://academic.emporia.edu/ esrs/vol46/suqri.pdf (Accessed on 25 February 2014). Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards for Undergraduate Programmes in Nigerian Universities. 2007. Abuja: Nigerian Universities Commission. Chua, Alton Y.K. and Christopher C. Yang. 2008. “The Shift towards Multi-disciplinarity in Information Science.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 59(13): 2156–2170. Chu, Heting. 2006. “Curricula of LIS Programs in the USA: A Content Analysis.” In Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2006 (A-LIEP 2006), edited by Christopher Khoo, Diljit Singh and Abdus Sattar Chaudhry, 327–336. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University, School of Communication and Information. Curry, Ann. 2000. “Canadian LIS Education: Trends and Issues.” Education for Information 18 (4): 325–337. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam and S.B. Ghosh. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional Library/ Information Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012 (Accessed on 10 September 2013). Kesselman, Martin Alan and Irwin Weintraub. 2004. Global Librarianship. New York: Marcel Dekker. Konrad, Allan Mark. 2007. “On Inquiry: Human Concept Formation and Construction of Meaning through Library and Information Science Intermediation” ( doctoral thesis, University of California, Berkeley). http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1s76b6hp (Accessed on 27 February 2014). Lillard, Linda L.and Barbara A. Wales. 2003. “Strengthening the Profession: Educator and Practitioner Collaboration.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 29(5): 316–319.

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Minishi-Majanja, Mabel K . 2007. “Integration of ICTs in Library and Information Science Education in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress, Durban. http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla73/papers/083-Minishi-Majanja-en.pdf (Accessed on 27 February 2014). Sacchanand, Chutima. 2012. “Building Collaboration between Library and Information Science Education and Practitioners in Thailand: Transcending Barriers, Creating Opportunities.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information congress, Helsinki 2012. http:// conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2012/213-sacchanand-en.pdf (Accessed on 22 February 2013). Joginder Singh and Syed Mohd. Shahid.2010. “Changing Needs of Library and Information Science Curricula in India.” Library Philosophy and Practice 5–12–2010. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1373&context=libphilprac (Accessed on 24 February 2014). University of Botswana undergraduate academic calendar 2010/2011. Varalakshmi, R.S.R. 2006. “Educating 21st Century LIS Professionals: The Needs and Expectations: A Survey of Indian LIS Professionals and Alumni.” In Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2006 (A-LIEP 2006), edited by Christopher Khoo, Diljit Singh and Abdus Sattar Chaudhry, 337–345. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University, School of Communication and Information.

A. Y. Asundi

13. Marching Ahead towards an Operational South-South Collaboration – A Road Map A Proposal (Closing Keynote Address)¹

The Background

Marching Ahead towards an Operational South-South Collaboration – A Road Map

For the last eight years, Dr Ismail Abdullahi and his close associates from India and developing nations in Africa and Latin America, Dr C.R. Karisiddappa and myself are putting on concrete efforts towards a dream realization, to bring together all developing nations offering LIS education. The landmark association of we three along with LIS educators for Asia, Africa and Latin America (AALA) was solemnized at the three days’ working seminar held on 10–12 August 2005 at the Royal School of Library and Information Science, Copenhagen, Denmark, which was so admirably organized by Mr Leif Larring and Leif Kajberg with the most benevolent financial support received from the Danish Ministry of Culture, the Danish Centre for Culture and Development (DCCD), and which was also attended by ten other representatives of the LIS education fraternity from Africa, Latin America and Asia. In the three days’ programme, eight workshops with paper presentations were held. Two important issues that came to the fore during the discussion were a) networking of LIS schools in developing countries and exchange of teachers and b) encouraging and enhancing intake to the LIS schools by inculcating fresh initiatives in the curriculum of LIS schools in these countries. The members of the developing nations group also had the privilege of meeting their counterparts of LIS educators from Europe over a luncheon meeting and then a joint session of both groups was addressed by Dr Michael Gorman, then President of ALA. The title of his address was “A Unified Approach to Teaching Libraries, Culture and Information in LIS Education”. This meeting incidentally coincided with the World Library and Information Congress and 71st IFLA General Conference and Council held in Oslo, Norway. We also had a joint meeting with Dr Peter Johan Lor, the then Secretary General of

1 Delivered at the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group satellite meeting, “The Future of LIS Education in Developing Countries: The Road Ahead” held at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, on 14 August 2013.

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IFLA along with Dr Michael Gorman, Dr Robert (Bob) Wedgeworth, the former President of IFLA, Dr Ismail Abdullahi, Dr C.R.Karisiddappa and myself. The follow-up process initiated by Dr Ismail Abdullahi after the meeting, and after the IFLA congress at Oslo Dr Koopman of IFLA Headquarters in 2006 mailed a message to Dr Abdullahi and Dr Wedgeworth to ask the IFLA Education and Training Section to put forward a proposal to the Professional Committee to establish a Discussion Group on LIS Education in Developing Countries; and proposed that it apply for a meeting slot in the Seoul conference held in 2006. Accordingly Dr Abdullahi made a request to the section chair Terry Weech to establish such a discussion group. All these consolidated efforts culminated in the formation of the IFLA Special Interest Group on LIS Education in Developing Countries from the discussion group at Puerto Rico in 2011. In the meantime Dr Abdullahi also visited India three times, in 2006, 2007 and 2013, and attended the IATLIS national conferences and one international conference, holding thorough discussions with LIS professionals from India.

Proposed Road Map In pursuance of these sequences of happenings and after hearing and reading the deliberations, hereto before and now an operational South-South collaboration is proposed in this closing keynote address. The proposed plan consists of the following issues for consideration: 1. Formation of homogenous LIS groups in the southern hemisphere covering all continents and all the developing countries; 2. Organizational framework of the network plan to connect LIS schools; 3. Review of curriculum and a broad overview of the cultural, linguistic and politico-economic conditions to frame the curriculum; 4. Assessment of the organizational system profile – different types of libraries and especially public library legislation or any other suitable law empowering government to establish public libraries; 5. Information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure to support education, research and practice in the LIS profession; 6. Bringing out course material, textbooks with local emphasis and considering local needs; 7. Encouraging access to LIS open courseware (open educational resources); 8. Preparation of a source book on the LIS education in developing countries; 9. Bringing out a publication of papers presented/submitted at the various forums of LIS education from 2004 to date;

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10. Seeking the cooperation of international and national professional bodies in order to achieve the desired objectives of this collaborative effort.

The Formation of LIS Groups This issue is a conceptual plan and could be achieved without any financial liability and organizational ambiguity. As the title of this closing address states, though collaboration is primarily conceived of South-South nations it might also include some of developing nations placed in the northern hemisphere. The plan is like this: 1. Identifying one or more nodal nations in each of the continents or part thereof. For example the Asian continent can have three or four nodal nations to which LIS schools in other neighbouring countries can be attached. Such a network within the specific geographical area would help in the formation of homogeneous group; 2. For instance for Asia India, China and Russia can be nodal nations. A homogeneous group with the neighbouring countries can be formed; 3. For example India as one of the nodal nation to which all the LIS Schools coming under the SAARC Nations are included to form a group. The SAARC Countries’ cultural, social, economic and other characteristics are not very diverse; 4. Similar socio-cultural pattern can be seen with China as one nodal nation and Russia as another; 5. Similarly for Latin America, Brazil, Mexico can be nodal nations; 6. For Africa, Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Ethiopia. According to this plan, 8-10 homogenous groups can be formed and the LIS schools/departments of the neighbouring countries be connected to the respective nodal country. This forms the first level; in the second level all the nodal nations are connected in the ring network topology. The plan is illustrated here below:

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Figure 13.1: Nodal countries network

In the identification of a nodal nation, the geographical contiguity of each nation with other countries can be observed. The other issues like political relations and activities within a nodal point and of the associated countries can be undertaken. This will ensure homogeneity within the doctrine of their social. cultural, and linguistic specialties. For instance the India as a nodal point is connected with SAARC Countries and their social, cultural and linguistic doctrines are almost similar; in framing the courses, curriculum would be compatible. In this context more views of the participants are sought, as I have proposed this on my limited personal knowledge and it would require an in-depth study.

Organizational Structure of the Network Each nodal nation will have a committee headed by a Director or Chief Executive Officer. The term of this committee will be 2-3 years. The office of the Director or the CEO will be on rotation basis term of the committee. The other members of the committee constitute a General Secretary, Treasurer, and members. Each one of them will hold office for the term specified for the committee being. No election process is considered for the office bearers, it would only be on rota-

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tion basis. However a memorandum for each of the nodal point would be prepared for the smooth working of the node. There can be an apex body which can coordinate the activities of all nodal nations and this apex body will have similar kind office-bearers and will also draft a common model memorandum which help the nodal nations to draft individual memoranda. Each of these committees and the apex body would be a registered society, under the legal provisions of each country and this would help seeking financial assistance from national and international funding agencies. The governments in each of these nodal nations would fund for an initial gestation period of 3-5 years and afterwards they would be self-sustaining. The nodal nations’ committees would mobilize finances from their respective member nations and also by undertaking projects, consultancies and publications and/or any other source or activity that can generate income. 1. After the formation of various bodies other activities and issues can be taken by individual nodal nation; 2. In this manner the networking of LIS schools/departments can be accomplished to further the desired South–South and South-North collaboration.

End Note This road map is prepared at a conceptual level and to accomplish and implement the proposal some systematic documentation and project plan has to be prepared in black and white and circulated to all the nodal nations and to their respective schools within for their opinion and inputs after which a final document be prepared. After the approval of the formation of the body each nodal country can proceed with registration and other organizational processes.

Discussion on Proposed Road Map Held at the Satellite Meeting (14 August 2013) Dr Ismail Abdullahi opened the issues for discussion stating that Dr Asundi has pointed out a road map for a road ahead for LIS education in developing countries and a plan for South-South collaboration. He also pointed out we have moved from Discussion Group to Special Interest Group (2005–2008) but failed to become a Section in IFLA. In this connection the Africa Asia and Latin America (AALA) Library and Information Science Education Association (LISEA) will take a further step.

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Dr Asundi made it very clear that the formation of groups as proposed above is only a conceptual plan and on his personal knowledge of the geography of the world and has not worked out in detail assessing the pros and cons of formation of such groups and there and it is subjected to discussion. The discussion was mainly focused on the modalities of formation of groups with identified nodal nations and the following issues have emerged and clarified. The gist of discussion and clarifications offered are presented below: 1. Dan Dorner stated that nodal nations become a question when looking at countries in Oceania, such as Micronesia, Polynesia, Melanesia or looking at large-sized countries such as China. However it is a good idea to have nodal countries, another model of category like the IFLA Section of Asia and Oceania may be formed; Asia is divided into five sub-regions, such as NorthEast Asia, South Asia, West Asia (Arab Countries), Central Asia, South-East Asia, and Oceania. Dr Asundi clarified, the formation of the groups is to some extent “linguistic-based and will follow RSCAO’s sub-regions model”. 2. Shaheen Majid expressed his apprehension as “Nodal countries may cause political sensitivities, for example, Iran may have restrictions from other countries in the region”. 3. Mohammed Al-Suqri said “Considering in Arab countries, be cautious on choosing a particular country such as Iraq and Iran they have restriction in between”. Dr Asundi pointed out “We would study issues of sensitivity and maybe we overcome them in educational and academic ways. In consideration of collaboration, we will put cultural/ political/ historical sensitivities into consideration, but not consider those are issues and problems, as countries like India and Pakistan have come together in the sports arena despite their political differences.” 4. Dr Ian Johnson commented “Considering lessons from some failed projects such SLISNET, UNESCO projects, AAIS and SCECSAL projects, in what way the network will work?” Dr.Asundi clarified that he has studied the proposals made by Dr Johnson from his papers and analysed the causes, such as the state of computer and communication technological advances then and now. So a larger group was unwieldy and therefore he suggested formation of smaller groups and then connect them globally. Dr Johnson remarked that technology was not a issue but something else. On this Dr Asundi also pointed out some successful international projects like INIS and AGRIS which have come out with cooperative efforts of all countries including the developing nations whose share of contribution was very meagre. 5. Theo Bothma commented that French-speaking and English-speaking countries in Africa lack communication. Opportunities for discussion are essential. Funding by government is almost impossible.

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6.

Theo Bothma further added that the South Africa Association failed to connect with other parts of the continent. Dr Abdullahi responded that cultural and regional differences do exist. Concept of South-South – understanding and initiatives will be possible if the mission is indicated. We shall look at the positive side of the matter. We shall find out why those projects failed. 7. Anthony Olden said “There was a successful conference of West and East Africa Associations”. Dr Abdullahi mentioned about the “Africa Library Summit” in 2011 which gathered French-, Portuguese- and English-speaking countries in the meeting centred with one common purpose. On the second Summit, in July 2013, the official African Federation of Library Science was realized with strong and firm purposes. So, let us think positively. 8. Dan Dorner said a ground-up approach has been successful. The nodal country model looks like top-down . Dr Abdullahi stated that developed and developing countries are facing the same problem in historic/ language/ geographic spheres, as educators/researchers, we can take this problems as a research question and find out solutions. ICT has changed the missions of LIS institutions, we need to look at the successful cases and copy and cope with the change. We need to understand where technology is taking us to. We have seen “human” was dropped while conducting automation. We have to critically look at culture, tradition, and their inter-relations. The road is not smooth, we will try. Thanks to authors and participants of the conference for a lively discussion. As a closing remark Dr Abdullahi pointed out that we must take some decisive action to convert the SIG into a Sectional Committee.

About the authors

About the authors

Ismail Abdullahi Associate Professor, School of Library and Information Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, USA. [email protected]. Abiola Abioye Senior Lecturer, Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Salim Said Al-Kindi Lecturer, Department of Information Studies, College of Arts and Scial Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. [email protected] Abdullah Humood Al-Sarmi Training Supervisor, Department of Information Studies, College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University. Oman. [email protected]. Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri Assistant Professor, Department of Information Studies, College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. [email protected]. Kanwal Ameen Professor and Chairperson, Department of Library and Information Science, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. A.Y. Asundi Professor and Chairman (retired), Department of Library and Information Science and Officer-incharge, IT Centre, Bangalore University, Bangalore, India. [email protected]. Peter Burnett Programme Manager, Library Curricula and Network Management, International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP), Oxford, United Kingdom. [email protected]. Bernard Dione Head, EBAD Université Cheikh Anta de Dakar, Senegal. Tomoko Harada Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies, Tsurumi University, Yokohama, Japan. [email protected]. C. R. Karisiddappa Visiting Professor, Emeritus Professor (2008–2010); Department of Library and Information Science, Karnatak University, Dharwad, India. [email protected].

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 About the authors

Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano National Autonomous University of Mexico, Institute of Research in Library Science and Information, Mexico. Takashi Nagatsuka Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies, Tsurumi University, Yokohama, Japan. [email protected]. Eno Joseph Ottong Department of Library and Information Science, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. Ubong Joseph Ottong Department of Business Management, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. Patricia Lucia Rodríguez Vidal National Autonomous University of Mexico, Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, Online Program in Library Science, Mexico. Chutima Sacchanand Chairperson, PhD Programme in Information Science, School of Liberal Arts Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand. Hiroyuki Tsunoda Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies, Tsurumi University, Yokohama, Japan. [email protected].

About the editors

About the editors

Dr Ismail Abdullahi is a professor of Global Library and Information Science. He is a graduate of the Royal School of Library and Information Science in Denmark. He has an MLS from North Carolina Central University and a PhD from the University of Pittsburgh. Prior to his NCCU appointment, he was on the faculty at Clark Atlanta University 1992–2005 and the University of Southern Mississippi 1989–1992. He has worked as a librarian in public, special, and academic libraries in Demark and the United States. He has also worked as a library consultant in Denmark, the United States and United Kingdom. Dr Abdullahi is a recipient of many awards. Among them are the Harold Lancour Award for Excellence in International and Comparative Study in Library and Information Science; the Meyers Center Award for the Study of Human Rights in the United States, and the Emerald Literati Award for Internationalization of Library Education in Europe and North America. He is active in ALA and IFLA and currently serves a fourth term as ALA Councilor-at-large. He is one of the founding members of the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group and its convener since 2005. Dr C.R. Karisiddappa is retired Professor and Chairman of the Department of Library and Information Science, Karnataka University, Dharwad. He also served as Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences 2005–2007 and University Grants Commission (UGC) Emeritus Professor 2008–2010. He has been associated with 55 universities in India and served on several committees and boards. Professor Karisiddappa was a convener of the UGC Curriculum Development Committee (Library and Information Science) and completed the task of designing the UGC Model LIS Curriculum, which is now implemented in the majority of Indian universities. He was one of the founding members of the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group. Dr A. Y. Asundi is former Professor and Chairman, Department of Library and Information Science, Bangalore University, Bangalore. He has a rich blend of experience as practitioner and a teacher of LIS for more than four decades. He obtained his BLibSc from Karnataka University, Dharwad and PhD from Gulbarga University. His experience has a rare blend of traditional and modern knowledge of library and information science. He has authored six books, nearly 200 papers, book reviews and editorials in a number of learned periodicals. He is a life member of the Indian Library Association, the Society for Information Science, the Indian Association of Teachers of Library and Information Science and founding Secretary General and life member of Karnataka State Library Association. He is also one of the founding members of the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group.

Index Index Abdou Moumouni University 36 Abdullahi, Ismail 4, 18, 121, 122, 174, 175, 180 Abiola, Abioye 4, 115 Addis Ababa 60 Africa 6, 7, 34, 53, 132, 133, 159, 161, 174, 176, 178, 179 Akussah, Harry 58 ALA 174 Al Kindi Salim Said 3 Al Sami, Abdullahi Humood 3 Al Suqri, Mohammed Nasser 3 Ameen, Kanwal 3 Ardhi University 65 Argentina 22 ASEAN Countries 42, 43, 48, 51 ASEAN Cyber University Project 47 Ashesi University 58 Asia 4, 34, 53, 132, 133, 159, 161, 176, 178, 179 Ardhi University 65 Asia-Ociana 6 Asia Pacific Distance Multimedia Education 47 Association of Indian Universities (AIU) 106 Association of Southeast Asian Institution of Higher Learning (ASIHL) 47 Assomah-Hassan, Helena 58 Bamako University 36 Bengladesh 86, 88, 90, 97 Benin 32, 35 Bhutan 86 Bothma, Theo 179 Brazil 10, 23, 133, 176 Brunai 42, 43 Burkina Faso 32, 35, 37 Burnett, Peter 3 Cambodia 42 Canada 23 Carnegie Corporation 117 Chad 5 China 10, 176, 179 Colegio National de Bibliotecarios 26 Columbia University 158 Congo Brazaville 35

Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) 47 Consortium of i-schools Asia Pacific (CISAP) 47 Copenhagen 174 Costa Rica 23 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) 13 Curriculum 17, 62, 64, 142, 159, 160, 175 Dahome see Benin Dakar 32 Dakar University 35 Danish Centre for Culture 174 Danish Ministry of Culture 174 Dark Age 12 Denmark 174 Dewey Decimal Classification 116 Dhaka University Library 88 Dione, Bernard 3 Dorner, Dan 180 e-learning Net-Work 47 English Speaking Africa 35 Ethiopia 3, 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 176 Europe 116 French Speaking Countries 35 Ghana 3, 53, 55, 58, 116, 120, 123, 126 Ghana Library Board 115 Gorman, Michael 27, 174 Guinea 32, 35, 36 Harada, Tomoko 4 Haramaya University 116 Ibadan , Nigeria 34, 35 IFLA 2, 161 IFLA/ALP 40 IFLA LIS Education for Developing Countries Special Interest Group (SIG) 5, 7, 18 INSP 53, 59, 60 India 4, 10, 44, 86, 88, 105, 132, 133, 174, 175

Index  Indian Association of Teachers of Library and Information Science (IATLIS) 91 Indian Parliament 13, 16 Indonesia 12, 42, 43 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 9, 15 Information Literacy 46 International ICT Cooperation on e-Learning In Asia 47 Iran 12 Ivory Coast 32, 35 Japan 44, 146, 149 Jimma University 60, 154 Julius Nyerer University 36 Kajberg, Leif 176 KALIPER 141 Kankan, Guinea 36 Karisiddappa, C.R. 2–4, 7, 134, 175, 142 Kenya 55, 56, 58, 133, 176 Kenya Technical Teachers University 62 Kenyatta University 55 Koopman, Sjoerd 175 Lancour, Harold 116 Laos 42, 43 Latin America and Caribbean 7, 22, 23, 53, 174, 176, Lienciatura 23 Lor, Peter Johan 42, 43 Lørring, Leif 174 Madagascar 35 Majid, Shaheen 179 Malaysia 42, 43 Malaysia by University Technology 44 Malawi 3, 53, 56, 60, 69 Maldives 86 Mali 32, 35, 36 Mekele University 60 Malenesia 179 Melvil Dewey 116, 158 Manorama Yearbook 10 Mexico 23, 133, 176 Micronesia 179 Milan 3, 59

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Mushindo University 55 Mzumbe University 66, 69 Nagatsuka, Takashi 4 Nanyang Technological University 8 National Knowledge Commission of India 9 Nepal 86 Niger 32, 36 Nigeria 115, 116, 120, 176 Olden, Anthony 180 Oman 72 Open University of Tanzania (OUT) 66 Oslo, Norway 174 Ottong, Eno Joseph 4 Ottong, Ubong Joseph 4 Pakistan 12, 87, 90, 97 Palynesia 179 Panama 23 Peru 23 Philippines 175 Puerto Rico 175 Ramkhamhaeng University 44 Ranganathan, S.R. 10, 132, 133 Robert Makasa University 55 Royal School of Library and Information Science (RSLIS) 174 Russia 10, 176 Sacchanand, Chutima 3 San Juan, Puerto Rico 5 Senegal 32, 33, 35 Senegal, Leopold 38 Singapore 5, 8, 42–44 Singh, Man Mohan 102 Siri, Lanka 86, 88, 97 South Africa 116, 132, 176, 180 South America 132, 133 Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) 44 Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque 76 Taiwan 44, 146 Tanzania 3, 53, 59

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Thailand 12, 42–44 Togo 32, 35, 37 Toulouse, France 34 Tsunoda, Hiroyuki 4 Tsurumi University 146, 148 UAE 74 Uganda 3, 53, 59 Uganda Christian University (UCU) 62 UK 2, 12 United States 23 Universidad National Autonoma de Mexico 25 Unesco 15, 34, 35, 36, 142, 179 University of Botswana 4, 126, 161, 169 University of Calabar 4, 161, 169

University of Dar es Salam 65, 66 University of Ghana 4, 115 University of Ibadan 4, 115 University of Tsukuba 149, 154 Upper Volta see Burkina Faso Uruguay 25 USA 2 US Fulbright Program 140 Vietnam 42 Wedgeworth, Robert (Bob) 175 West Africa 32, 120 West African Library Association (WALA) 116 Zimbabwe 3, 53, 55, 69, 176