Limes Scythiae: Topographical and stratigraphical research on the late Roman fortifications on the Lower Danube 9780860541028, 9781407352312

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Limes Scythiae Topographical and stratigraphical research on the late Roman fortifications on the Low-er Danube

C. Scorpan

B A R International Series 88 1980

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :\I. A.

B. A. R. International Series 88, 1980: ©

"Limes Scythiae"

C. Scorpan, 1980

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541028 paperback ISBN 9781407352312 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541028 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS Page ABBREV IAT IONS B IBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER I :

1

I NTRODUCTION

The h is tory o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch .

Genera l s urvey

o f t he d efensive s ys te m o n t he L ower Danube . REFERENCES AND NOTES CHAPTER I :

1 2

TOPOGRAPHICAL AND S TRATIGRAPHICAL

RESEARCHES ON THE L I MES S CYTH IAE A .

B .

1 7

N ov iodunu m

1 7

D inoge t ia

2 3

Troes m is

3 1

Beroe

3 3

C arsiu m

3 4

Cap idava

3 4

Axiopo lis

3 9

( L )Ibida

4 0

U l metu m

4 1

Tropaeu m T ra ian i

4 4

S ac idava

5 0

C .

Co mpara t ive n o tes .

7 5

H is tria

7 5

I a tru s

8 0

S uc idava

8 3

Novae

8 6

Oescus

8 6

O ther f or t if ica t ions

8 7

REFERENCES AND NOTES

9 1

CHAPTER I I : A .

CONCLUSIONS

9 9

Topograph ica l p rob le ms i n t he L ower Danube r egion . The e vo lut ion f ort if ica t ions a nd c ons truc t ion me thods .

B .

The c hrono logy o f t he R o man f or ts .

9 9

The Bar-

b ar ian i nvas ions a nd t he ma in p er iods i n t he h istory o f t he L ower Danube . REFERENCES AND NOTF

1 17 1 37

SYNOPSIS

1 43

PLATES

1 44

APPEND IX

2 03

F IGURES

2 21

ABBREV IATIONS

AA

A rchäo log ischer Anze iger

Ac ta A rch .

Ac ta Archaeo log ica , B udapes t

A c tes

Ac tes d u I : Xe C ongres i n terna t iona l d 'e tudes s ur l es f ron tf eres

AEM

Archäo log isch-ep igraph ische Mi t te i lungen a us i sterre ich-

A JA

Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy

A IESEE

B u l le t in d e l 'Assoc ia t ion I n terna t iona le d 'ttudes d u S ud Es t

A ISC

A nuaru l I ns t i tu tu lu i d e s tud i i c las ice , C lu j-S ib iu .

AMN

Ac ta Muse i N apocens is , C lu j

ARMS I

Acade m ia R o mänä . .

r oma ines ( Ma ma ia 1 972 ) ;

B ucuree t i , K ö ln , Wien 1 974

U ngarn , Wien

E uropeen ( Year-

B ook o f t he I ns t i tu te o f C lassica l S tudies )

R o man ian Acade my . AUB

Me mor i i le s ecVe i i stor ice .

( The

Me mo irs o f t he H istor ica l S ec t ion )

Ana le le U n ivers i tät i i B ucuree t i ( Anna ls o f t he U n ivers i ty o f B uc lares t )

BCMI

B u le t inu l C om is iun i i Monu men te lor I s torice ( Bu l le t in o f t he

BMI

B u le t inu l Monu men te lor I s tor ice

BSNR

B u le t inu l S oc ie tät i i N um is ma t ice R on : Line ( Bu l le t in o f t he

H is tor ica l Monu ments C o mm ission )

R o man ian N um is ma t ic S oc ie ty ) C ap idava

C ap idava ( archaeo log ica l monograph ) I , 1 958

C IL

C orpus I nscr ip t ionu m L a t in c aru m

C IG

C orpus I nscr ip t ionu m G raecoru m

Dac ia

Dac ia .

D ID

D in i s tor ia Dobroge i , v o l . I , 1 965; v o l . I , 1 968 ( Fro m t he

R evue d 'archeo log ie e t d 'h is toire a nc ienne

Dobru ja H is tory ) D iss P ann

D isser ta t iones P annon icae

ED

E phe mer is Dacoro mana , B uc ., R o ma , 1 923-1945

F on tes I

I zvoare p r iv ind i s tor ia R o män ie i , v o l . I , 1 964 ( Sources o n t he H is tory o f R o man ia )

F on tes U ,FHG H is tria 1

F on tes h is tor iae Daco-Ro manae , v o l . I , 1 970 F rag men ta H is tor icoru m G raecoru m H is tr ia , I( archaeo log ica l monograph ) e d . Em . C ondurach i , B uc ., 1 954

H is tr ia I

C . P reda , H . N ubar , H istr ia , v o l . I I , Descoperir i le mone tare , B uc ., 1 973 ( Nu m is ma t ic D iscover ies )

I zves t i ia-Sof ia

B u l le t in d e l ' Ins t i tut Archeo log ique B u lgare .

I GB

I nscr ip t iones Graecae i n B u lgaria r eper tae , e d . C . Miha i lov , S of ia , 1 956

I LS

I nscr ip t iones L a t inae s e lec tae , e d . H . Dessau

JHS JRS

The J ourna l o f H e l len ic S tudies , L ondon The J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies , L ondon

K l io

K lio .

Ma ter ia le

Ma ter ia le § i c erce tär i a rheo log ice , B ucure§ t i ( Archaeo log ica l

B e i träge z ur a l ter G esch ich te , B er l in

Research a nd Ma ter ia ls ) P on t ica

R ev iew o f a rchaeo logy , e d . t he A rchaeo log ica l Museu m o f C ons tan tza

P euce

Rev iew o f t he T u lcea Museu m

RE

R ea l—Encyc lopädie d er K lass ischen A l tertu msw issenschaf t

RESEE

R evue d es e tudes s ud-es t e uropeennes , B ucure§ t i

R IR

Rev is ta i s tor icä r o mänä .

( Pau ly- W issowa )

Rev iew ) R ,M M

R ev is ta muzee lor

B ucure§ t i ( Ro man ian H istor ica l

e i monu mentelor.

B ucure§ t i ( Rev iew o f

Museu ms a nd Monu men ts ) RRH

R evue R ou main d 'H is toire

S CIV

S tudi i § i c erce tär i d e i s tor ie v eche , B uc . ( S tud ies a nd R esearch i n Anc ien t H is tory )

S CIVA S CN

S tudi i § i c erce tär i d e i s tor ie v eche § i a rheo log ie , B uc . S tudi i § i c erce tär i d e n um is ma t ica ( S tudies a nd R esearch i n N um is ma t ics )

S HA

S cr iptores H is tor iae Augus tae

S CS C lu j

S tudi i § i c erce tär i § t i ingf ice , C lu j ( Sc ien t if ic S tud ies a nd R esearch )

S CS I a§ i

S tudi i § i c erce tär i

S t . C l .

S tudi i C lasice , B ucur W i ( C lass ica l S tudies )

t i in 1if ice , I a§ i

S tud ien

S tudien z u d en Mi l i tärgrenzen R o ms , K ö ln , G raz , 1 967

U l metu m

V . P ärvan , U l me tu m

T IR

Tabu la Imper il R o manae , 3 5 , 1 969

B uc ., 1 912-1915

B IBL IOGRAPHY

Ac tes d u I Xe C ongres i n terna t iona l d 'e tudes s ur l es f ron t ieres r o ma ines , Mama ia , 6 -13 S ep t . 1 972 ;

B uc ., K ö ln , Wien , 1 974 .

A . Ar icescu , Q ue lques p rec is ions s ur l a c ar te d e l a S cy th ia Minor , Dac ia , N S , 1 4 , 1 970 . A . Ar icescu , A r ma ta i n Dobrogea r o man, B uc ., 1 977 . I . A tanassova-Georg ieva , L e q uadr iburg iu m d e l a f or teresse C as tra Mart is e n Dac ia R ipens is , i n Ac tes . I . B arnea , Da te n o i d espre A x iopo l is , S C IV , 1 , 1 960 . I . B arnea , C on tr ibut ions t o D obru ja H is tory u nder Anastas ius I , Dac ia , N S , 4 , 1 960 . I . B arnea , The m is t ios d espre S cy th ia Minor , S CIV , 4 , 1 967 . I . B arnea , 0c asä r oman ät i rz ie d e l a D inoge t ia , S CIV , 2 , 1 969 . I . B arnea , L 'incend ie d e l a c i te d e D inoge t ia a u V Ie s iec le , Dac ia , N S , 1 0 , 1 966 . I . B arnea , D inoge t ia e t N ov iodunu m , d eux v i l les b yzan t ines d u Bas-Danube , RESEE , 3 , 1 971 . I . B arnea , L es v i l les d e l a S cy th ia Minor a u c ours d es V I e-V I Te s f ec les , B u l le t in A IESEE , 2 , 1 972 . I . B arnea , Gh . S tefan , L e l imes s cy th icus d es o r ig ines h l a f i n d e Pan t iqu i te , Ac tes . N . H . B aynes , Three N o tes o n t he R efor ms o f D ioc le t ian a nd C onstant ine , JRS , 1 5 , 1 925 . D . v an B erche m , L 'ar mee d e D ioc le t ien e t l a r efor me c ons tan t in ienne , Par is , 1 952 . V . B e§ev l iev , L es c i tes a n t iques e n Mes ie e t e n T hrace e t l eur s or th . Pepoque d u H au t Moyen Age , hudes Ba lkan iques , S of ia , 5 , 1 966 . S . N . B obcev , L e p are men t a rasee d ans l es c onstruc t ions r o ma ines e t b yzan t ines d e l a p re m iere p er iode , I zves t i ia-Sof ia , 2 4 , 1 961 . B . B ö t tger , D ie I mpor tkeram ik a us d em S pä tan t iken Donau limeskas te l l I a trus , Ac tes . I oana B ogdan C ä tän ic iu , Mon ica Märgineanu-Ci rsto lu , C ons iderag i a supra c arac teru lu i u l t ime i l ocu ir i i n C iv i tas T ropaeu m , RM M , 2 , 1 975 . Mar ia C o ja , C erce tär i n o i i n a §ezarea g e to-ro manä d e l a C apu l Do lo j manArga mu m , BMI

3 , 1 972 .

R . G . C o l lingwood , I an R ichmond , The Archaeo logy o f R o man B r i ta in , L ondon , 1 969 . Em . C ondurach i , H is tr ia ' a Pepoque d u B as-E mpire d 'apres l es d ern ieres f ou i l les a rcheo log iques , Dac ia , N S , 1 , 1 957 . Em . C ondurach i , N eue P rob le me u nd E rgebn isse d er L i mes -Forschung i n S cy th ia Minor , S tudien . Em . C ondurach i , L es c ondi t ions p o l i t iques a u B as-Danube e t Porgan isa t ion d u l imes r o ma in , R o man F ront ier S tudies , T e l-Av iv , 1 971 . The C ongress o f R o man F ron t ier S tudies , 1 949 , D urha m , 1 952 . A . v on D o maszewsk i , D ie P rinc ip ia d es r öm ischen L agers , i n NHJ , 9 , 1 899 . R . F e l l mann , D ie P rinc ip ia d es L eg ions lagers V indon issa u nd d as Z en tra lg ebäude d es R öm ischen L ager u nd K as te l le , D rug , 1 958 . R . F e l l mann , L e " Ca mp d e D ioc le t ien"

P a l myre e t Parch i tec ture mi li ta ire

d u B as-E mp ire , i n Me langes d 'h is to ire a nc ienne e t d 'archeo log ie o f fer t

ä Paul C o l lar t , C ah iers d 'archeo log ie R o mande , 5 , L ausanne , 1 976 . G r . F lorescu a nd R . F lorescu , C ap idava ( monograph ) , I , B uc ., 1 958 . F on tes H istor iae Dacoro manae , I , B uc ., 1 970 . G . F orn i , I lr ec luta men to d a l le l eg ion i d a Augus to a D ioc lez iano , Mi lanoR o ma , 1 953 . G . F ron i , L i mes ,i n D iz ionar io E p igraf ico d i A n t ich i ta R o mane , I V , f asc , 3 4-40 , 4 0 , R o ma , 1 959-1962 . S . S . F rere , B r i tann ia .

AH istory o f R o man B r i ta in , L ondon , 1 967 .

M . Gae likowsk i , L e t e mp le p a l myren ien , Warszawa , 1 973 . M . G ichon , E xcava t ions a t Mezad T a mar-"Tamara" 1 973-65 , P re l i minary R epor t , i n S aa lburg-Jahrbuch , 3 3 , 1 976 . M . G ichon , The O r ig in o f t he L i mes P a les tinae a nd t he Ma jor Phases i n i t s Deve lop men t , i n S tudien . N . Gos tar , Monu men te e p igraf ice i ned i te d in l ap idaru l Muzeu lu i r eg iona l d e a rheo log ie Dobrogea , i n S t . C l ., 5 , 1 963 . M . Gran t , T he Ar my o f t he C aesars , L ondon , 1 974 . R . Grosse , R öm ische Mi li tärgesch ich te v on G a l lienus b is z um B eg inn d er b yzan tin ischen The menverfassung , B er lin , 1 920 . N . G udea , B efes t igungen am B ana ter D onau-L i mes a us d er Z e i t d er T e trarch ie , Ac tes . H is tr ia , I( e d . Em .

C ondurach i ) ( monograph ) , B uc ., 1 954 .

H is tr ia , I I ( C . P reda , H . N ubar ) , Descoper ir i mone tare , B uc ., 1 973 . T . I vanov , D ie l e tz ten A usgrabungen d es R öm ischen u nd F rühbyzan t in ischen Donau-L i mes i n d er UR B u lgar ien , A c tes . I zvoare p r iv ind i s tor ia R om n ie i , I , B uc . 1 964 ( Fon tes I ) .

A . H . M. J ones , The L a ter R o man Emp ire , O xford , 1 964 . V l . K ondiC , E rgebn isse d er n euen F orschungen a uf d em o ber moes ischen D onau l mes , Ac tes . P . L e mer le , I nvas ions e t migra t ions d ans l es B a lkans d epu is l a f i n d e l 'epoque r o ma ine j usqu 'au V I I Ie s f ec le , i n R evue h istor ique , 2 11 , P ar is , 1 954 . F . L o t , L a f i n d u monde a n t ique e t l e d ebu t d u Moyen-Age , Par is , 1 927 . K . Ma jewsk i , R echerches a rcheo log iques d e N ovae e n B u lgarie , i n Quin tus C ongressus i n terna t iona l is l im i t is R o man i S tud ioru m , Z agreb , 1 963 . I . N estor , L a p ene tra t ion d es s laves d ans l a p en insu le b a lkan ique e t l a G reces C on t inen ta le , RESEE , 1 -2 , 1 963 . H . N ubar , Mone c le b izan t ine d e l a i nceputu l s ec . a l WIlea § i s fi r§ i tu l c e tät i i H istr ia , S CN , 3 , 1 960 . R . O che§eanu , A . D um i tra§cu , U n t exaur d e l a Theodos ius Id escoper i t l a Medg id ia , P on t ica , 5 , 1 972 . V . P ärvan , S a lsov ia , B uc ., 1 906 . V . P ärvan , C e ta tea T ropaeu m :

c ons idera W i s tor ice , ( BC MI , 4 , 1 911) .

V . P ärvan , C e ta tea U l metu m , I , I , I I , ( ARMS I , s er . I , v o l . 3 4 , 3 6, 3 7 , B uc . ,1 912-1915 ) . V . P ärvan , Dac ia :

C iv i l izag i le a n t ice d in t g-r i le c arpa to-danub ienne , B uc .,

1 967 . V . P ärva r i , f ncepu tur i le v ieU i r o mane l a g uri le Dunär i i , B uc ., 1 974 . V . P ärvan , Descoper ir i n ouä i n S cy th ia Minor ( ARMS I 1 913 ) .

s er . I , v o l . 3 5 , B uc .,

V . P ärvan , Z idu l c e tä t , i i T om is , ( ARMS I , s er . I , v o l . 3 7, B uc ., 1 915 ) . A . P e tre , Q ue lques d onnees a rcheo log iques c oncernan t l a c on t inu i te d e l a p opu la t ion e t d e l a c u lture r o mano-byzan t ine d ans l a S cy th ie Mineure a ux We e t WIe s f ec les d e n o tre e re , Dac ia , NS , 7 , 1 963 . H . v on P e tr ikov i ts , F or t if ica t ions i n t he N orth-wes ternRo man Emp ire f ro m t he Th ird t o t heF if th C entur ies A .D . ,JRS , 6 1 , 1 971 . A . P igan io l , L a n o t ion d e L i mes , i n Q uintus , 1 963 . D . M . P ipp idi , C ontr ibut . i i l a i s tor ia v eche a R o män ie i , 2 , B uc ., 1 967 . D . M . P ipp idi , S cy th ia Minora , B uc ., 1 975 . Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , Q ue lques monna ies t rouvees h A da mc lis i e t l a f i n d e C iv itas T ropaens iu m , Dac ia , N S , 1 2 , 1 968 . G h . P oenaru-Bordea , N um is ma t ica e .n ., S CN , 5 , 1 971 .

id is trugerea H is tr ie i i n s ec . a l I llea

G h . P oenaru-Bordea , Monede r ecen t d escoperi te l a H is tr ia § i u ne le p rob le me d e c ircu laVe mone tarä i n Dobrogea a n t ic, P on t ica , 4 , 1 971 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , Monede b yzan t ine d e b ronz d in s ec . V -V I I i n D obrogea , BMI

3 1 971 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , V . H . B au mann , Monede r o mane § i b izan t ine p roven i te d in n ordu l Dobroge i , P euce , 4 , 1 975 . A l . P opeea , Monede b izan t ine d in n ordu l D obroge i , P euce , 4 , 1 975 . C . P reda , G . S im ion , T ezauru l d e monede r o mane imper ia le d escoper it l a I saccea § i a tacu l g o t ic d in v re mea l u i Ga l l ienus , i n P euce , 2 , 1 971 . E xcava t ion R epor ts , i n Dac ia , Ma ter ia le , S C IV , P on t ica . G . R e mondon , L a c r ise d e l 'E mp ire r o ma in , P ar is , 1 9 . W. S es ton , D ioc le t ien e t l a t e trarch ie , P ar is , 1 946 . A l . S uceveanu , O bserva t ions s ur l a s tra t igraph ie d es c i tes d e l a D obrogea a ux I e-IVe s f ec les ' al a l u mf ere d es f oui l les d 'H is tr ia , Dac ia , N S , 1 3 , 1 969 . A l . S uceveanu , C . S corpan , S tra t igraf ia H is trie i r o mane t i rzi i i n l u mina s äpä tur i lor d in 1 969 § i 1 970 i n s ec toru l c en tra l , P on t ica , 4 , 1 971 . A l . S uceveanu , I n L ega tura c u d a ta d e a nexare a D obroge i d e care r o man i , P on t ica , 4 , 1 971 . A l . S uceveanu , L a d efense d u l i tora l d e l a D obroud ja

l ' epoque r o maine ,

RRH , 2 , 1 3 , 1 974 . A l . S uceveanu , V iata e cono m ic äi n Dobrogea r oman , s ec .

e .n ., B uc .,

1 977 . S tare c u lture u Derdapu , B eograd , 1 969 . E . S te in , H is to ire d u B as-E mp ire , Desc lee d e B rouwer , P ar is-Bruxe l les , 1 949-1959 . A l . S . S tefan , Apeduc te le c e t i i Tropaeu m T ra ian i , BMI , 3 , 1 972 . H . S chönberger , The R , o manFron t ier i n G er many :

a n Archaeo log ica l S urvey ,

JRS , 5 9 , 1 969 , a nd i n S tudien z u d en Ml li tärgrenzen R o ms , V or träge d es 6 . I nterna t iona len L i meskongresses i n R id Deutsch land , K ö ln-Graz , 1 967 . A l . S . S tefan , T roes m is , c ons ider g i i t opograf ice , BMI , 4 , 1 971 , p . 4 3 .

CHAPTER I I NTRODUCTION THE H ISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RESEARCH. GENERAL S URVEY OF THE DEFENS IVE S YSTE M ON THE LO WER DANUBE.

The l imes p oses s o me o f t he mos t c o mp lex a nd i mpor tan t p roble ms i n t he Ro man Emp ire 's h is tory i n t he L ower Danube r eg ion . I t s s tudy a nd t he r esu lt ing k now ledge a re impor tan t f or t he u nderstand ing o ft he ,e n t ire p o li t ica l, a dm in is tra t ive , s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic d eve lop men t o f t he p rovince o f S cy th ia M inor . I f , i n t he h is tory o f

Dobru jan a rchaeo logy , t opograph ica l s tud ies h ave

b een c arr ied o u t f or many y ears , p rov id ing d a ta o f p er manen t v a lue f or r esearch i n to f or ti f ica t ions , s tra t igraphy was l ess we l l s tud ied u n t i l t he * S econd Wor ld War , w h ich i s e xp la ined b y t he e vo lu t ion a nd p rogress ive d eve lop men t o f me thods o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch . T he f i rs t a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions i n D obru ja , d irec ted e xc lus ive ly t owards t he d iscovery o f i nscr ip t ions a nd w i thou t a ny c oncern f or s tra t igraphy o r c hrono logy , b ut l ead ing f or tui tous ly t o t he a cquisi t ion o f s o me t opograph ic d a ta , were t hose a t T roes m is, c arr ied o ut i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he n ine teen th c en tury .

1

The me thod o f e xcava t ion emp loyed , t ha t o f ar ap id u ncover in g o f

wa l ls, l ed t o i rrecoverab le l osses f or s cience .

2

A f ter t he r e turn o f Dobru ja t o R o man ia i n 1 877 , b eg inn ing w i th a n e xa mi na t ion o f t he monumen t a t A damc l is i ( Tropaeum T ra ian i ) , G r . T oc i lescu u nder took s o me e xcava t ions i n t he f or t o f T ropaeum , t he ir p urpose b e ing t o d iscover i nscr ipt ions , a n a i m wh ich was c rowned w i th g rea t s uccess .

A f ter

1 895 t he e xcava t ions i n t he f or t were i n tensi f ied , b u t were l e f t i n t he c harge o f a rch i tec ts who were n o t t ra ined i n a rchaeo lo g y .

3

T he e xcava t ions h ave

r evea led t he l a te R o man p rec inc ts , t he ma in s tree t a nd t he b as i l ica .

D esp i te

t he l ack o f r ecords o f t he s tra t igraph ica l a nd t opograph ica l r esu l ts ,V . Pärvan h as s ucceeded c arrying o u t ar e trospec t ive h is tor ica l r e-eva lua t ion o f t hese e xcava t ions , e xp la in ing i n ar e markab le way t he t opograph ic d a ta a nd e ven s o me o f t he s tra t igraph ic o bserva t ions .4 G r . T oci lescu a nd h is a ss is ten ts a lso e xcava ted a t A x iopo l is , T om is , C a l la t is a nd Troesm is . On ly t he e xcava t ions o f V . Pärvan a t U l me tum , a nd t hose c arr ied o u t a t H istr ia a nd To m is ( modern C onstan ta ) were t ru ly s cien t if ic , b e ing m i les tones i n a rchaeolog ica l r esearches i n Dobru ja .5 V .

P ' arvan s ucceeded i n c orre la t ing t he s tra tigraph ic a nd t he t opogra-

p h ic d a ta , e p igraph ic a nd n um is ma t ic e v idence p roducing t he f irst t ru ly 1

h is tor ica l e xp lana t ions .

H e a lso emphas ised i n 1 906 6 t he i mpor tance o f t he

D obru jan l imes a s ap r inc ipa l o b jec t f or f u ture r esearch , b u t e xcava t ions o n t he l imes s tar ted l a ter .

B e tween t he t wo Wor ld Wars t here h ave b een t he

e xcava t ions a t C ap idava ( s tar ted i n 1 923 ) , w i th more o r l ess a t ten t ion t o s tra t igraphy ,

7

a nd D inoge t ia ( 1939 ) .

8

F or t he r es t o f t he L ower D anube

l imes t here h ave b een t he e xcava t ions a t S ucidava ( Ce le i ) , s tar ted i n 1 936.

9

I n f ac t , t hanks t o t he o ld e xcava t ions we h ave t he p lans o f s o me f or ts , many o f t he m s t i l l u sefu l t oday .

More d i f f icu l t a nd s o me t i mes i mposs ible ,

d ue t o t he l ack o f s tra t igraphy , i s t he c hrono log ica l a nd h is tor ica l i n terpret a t ion o f t hese d efences a nd monu men ts , a nd o f t he ir s tages o f d eve lop men t a nd e vo lu t ion .

T oday we mus t a ccep t t he l ead ing r o le o f s tra t igraphy i n a l mos t a ny a rchaeolog ica l r esearch ;

t he modern , s cien ti f ic o u t look means a u n i tary

c o mp lex o f c o mponen t p ar ts .

T opography a nd e ven a rch i tectura l e le men ts

c an s o me t i mes o f fer g enera l i nd ica t ions o f c hrono log y , b u t o n ly s tra t igraphy h as a ccuracy a nd p recis ion . T he ma in p urpose o f t h is work i s t o e s tab l ish a s tra t igraph ica l ly b ased c hrono logy , s tar t ing f ro m t he e v idence o f t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t a t S acid ava ( Musa i t ) a nd f ro m t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he d a ta f ro m t he o ld a nd n ew i nves t iga t ions c arr ied o u t i n t he f or ts o f t he l ower Danube l imes . We w i l l u se f or c o mpara t ive p urposes t he s tra t igraphy o f t he c i t ies o f t he wes tern s hores o f t he B lack S ea , b u t t he b as is o f o ur a rgumen t l i es i n o ur o wn e xcava t ions a nd o r ig ina l r esu l ts f ro m w ork c arr ied o u t a t S ac idava , Tropaeum T ra ian i , H is tr ia , T om is a nd C a l la t is . E xcep t f or S ac idava , t he f or ts a long t he L ower Danube l imes h ave b een p ar t ly s tud ied , r a ther l im i ted .

1 0

t hough t he w ork d one i n t he f or ts o f t he S cyth ian l imes i s Among t he 1 8 f or t i f ica t ions a nd f or t if ied s e t t le men ts k nown

f ro m a ncien t s ources a nd i den t if ied o n t he g round , a nd o f t he 3 0 f or t if ied s i tes d iscovered o n t he g round , o n ly 1 1 h ave b een e xcava ted a t a l l , a nd o f t hese o n lya f ew h ave r ece ived c loser a t ten t ion ( Sacidava , D inoge t ia , C apidava , Tropaeu m ) .

The L a t in word l imes h as b een d iscussed b y s cho lars , who a re i n r e lat ive ly u nan i mous a gree men t .

I td oes n o t h ave a n e xac t modern e qu iva len t .

1 1

G enera l ly s peak ing , a nd p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ase o f t he l ower Danube , t he c haracter is t ic f ea ture o f t he l imes i s i t s t wo-d imens iona l n a ture , i mp lying ad e f in i te w id th , a s w e l l a s i t s l ong i tud ina l d eve lop men t . F or e f f ic ien t s uperv is ion a nd d e fence i t was n ecessary t o h ave a n o rgan isa t ion i n d ep th , b ased o n an e twork s ys te m d irec t ly c onnec ted w i th t he l imes . We mus t d raw s pec ia l a t ten t ion t o av ery i mpor tan t a nd c haracter is t ic a spec t o f t he S cyth ian d efens ive s ys te m ; f ica t ion .

i th as t wo p r inc ipa l l i nes o f f or t i-

T he f irs t l i es a long t he Danube , w i th r egu lar ly s paced f or t i f ica t ions ;

t he s econd o ne i s i n d ep th , b u t n ear t he Dan u be ,1 2 a nd l i es a long a r oad wh ich r uns f ro m s outh t o n or th p ara l le l t o t he Danube , t hrough T ropaeu m , U l me tu m a nd t b ida

I ta lso i nc ludes s ome f or t if ica t ions o n t he c rossroads i n t he i n ter ior . 2

s uch a s Ques tr is , P a l ma t is , t he s i te a t P lopen i , o r H or ia . Dur ing t he t e trarchy , a n a dd i t iona l f or t i f ied l i ne was c rea ted i n t he n or th-wes t c orner o f S cyth ia ;

Tra ian , C erna , N i fon , N icu l ie 1 . The t owns a long t he c oas t l ine

were a lso s trong ly r e for ti f ied a t t he s ame p er iod . S i mu l taneous ly w i th t he o rgan isa t ion o f s uch a s trong l imes a long t he l i ne o f t he L ower Danube , i t was a lso n ecessary t o b u i ld s o me b r idge-heads o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he r iver . S uch b r idge-heads o n t he S cyth ian l imes were a t A l iobr ix , BarboO . , a nd p erhaps a t t he I a lo mga mou th o f t he r iver , b u t we d o n o t h ave a ny e v idence o f t he r es tora t ion o r e ven e x is tence o f t hese f ort resses i n t he f our th t o s ix th c en tur ies .1 3 A l though we h ave a f a ir u nders tand ing o f t he o rgan iza t ion a nd o pera t ion o f t he Ro man d e fens ive s ys te m o n t he L ower Danube f or t he f our th c en tury f ro m t he l i terary s ources , t he d a ta i s i nadequa te f or t he t wo s ucceed ing c en tur ies . I n t he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies A .D. t he s o ld iers o f t he f ron t ier u n i ts c on t inued t o l i ve a nd f igh t , t i ed t o t he ir l ands , l os ing t he o r ig ina l n a mes o f t he ir u n i ts , t he g arr isons o f l im i tane i s urv iv ing i n t he p lace-names a nd t he n ames o f t he f or ts . R epea ted r e for ms l ed t o t he a ppearance a nd d eve lop men t o f a n i nst i tu t ion o f t he l ima tane i o n t he L ower Danube , i m mob i lising a nd t y ing t he s o ld iers d own t o t he l and .

T he o r ig ina l n ames o f t he u n i ts d isappeared

a long t he l imes , a nd t here a ppeared i ns tead t he f ron t ier s o ld ier , whose p os it i on was i nher i ted b y h is d escendan ts , t oge ther w i th h is p os t i n t he f or tress , h is r ank , a nd a l l h is m i l i tary r igh ts a nd o bl iga t ions t owards t he Empire . We b e l ieve t ha t t hese p rofound c hanges e xp la in why P rocop ius s peaks o n ly o f t he f or ti f ica t ions , w i thou t men t ion ing t he n a mes o f t he m i l i tary u n i ts s ta t ioned i n t he m , b ecause i n n am ing t he f or tress h e a lso n a med t he g arr ison o f t im i tane i l i v ing u nder i t s n ame a nd f l ag .

We c ons ider t ha t P rocop ius d oes

n o t om i t o r f a i l t o p ay a t ten t ion t o t he ma t ter o f u n i ts , b u t t ha t i n h is t ime t he n a me o f af or t i f ica t ion was t he s a me a s t he n a me o f t he g arr ison .

T he o rgan iza t ion o f t he S cyth ian l imes i n t he f our th t o t he s ix th c en tur ies r evea ls a g rand s tra teg ic c ,ncep t , s hown b y : , a ) t he t wo p ara l le l ma in l i nes , t ha t a long t he r igh t b ank o f t he Danube a nd t ha t r unn ing n or th-sou th a long t he i mper ia l r oad ; b )t he e x traord inary f or t i f ica t ion o f t he n or th-wes tern t r iang le T roes m is-D inoge t ia-Nov iodunu m , w i th i n ter med ia te c i tade ls ( Arrubiu m , L uncav i ta , Rache l ) a nd a s upp le men tary f or t i f ied l imes ( Tra ian , C erna , N i fon , N icu l i el ) a nd i n a dd i t ion , b eh ind t h is , t he l arges t o f t he l a te R o man f or t i f ic a t ions , I b ida ( L ib ida ) ;

c ) t he f or t i f ica t ion o f t he more i mpor tan t i n ter ior

l oca l i t ies a t c rossroads ( P lopen i , C e ta tea , H or ia ) a nd a lso o f t he B lack S ea c oas ta l t owns ;

d ) w e may a lso a dd t he d e fens ive s ys te m , w idespread a nd

w i th r oots i n S cyth ia M inor ( modern D obru ja ) , e ncoun tered o n ly i n Dacia a nd R o man Br i ta in , c ons is t ing o f s o me s trong e ar thwork f or ti f ica t ions ( d i tches a nd b anks ) p ro tec t ing e x tens ive e x tra muros u rban a reas ( see t he c hap ters o n N ov iodunum , T roes m is a nd S acidava ) . We c an r ecogn ise n o t o n ly t he s tra igh t forward f or t i f ica t ion o f l arge t owns i n t he i n ter ior , b u t a lso a c arefu l ly p lanned d ep loy men t i n d ep th o f a l l

3

t he d e fens ive works .

Thus , b eg inn ing i n t he f our th c en tury A . D., t he p ro-

v ince o f S cyth ia was t rans for med i n to a s trong f or tress , r epa ired a nd r ebu i l t b y as uccess ion o f emperors f or t he p rotect ion o f t he e as tern p ar t o f t he Ba lkan P en insu la a nd o f t he n ew c ap i ta l o f t he Emp ire , C ons tan t inople. *

*

*

*

*

The work o f i den t i f ica t ion a nd l oca t ion o n t he g round o f t he f or t if ica t ions o f t he L ower Danube l imes s tar ted a l ong t ime a go a nd i s s t i l l f ar f ro m c o mp lete .

1 4

I th as a s i t s b as is t he i n terpre ta tion a nd c o mpar ison o f t he l i terary

s ources w i th t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd e pigraphic e v idence . Researches s tar t f ro m P tole my 's G eograph ia ( wr i t ten i n t he 2 nd c en tury A . D.) ;1 5

t he S cu tu m Durae Europi r eper tu m ( da ted t o 2 30-250 A . D.); 1 6

t he An ton ine I t inerary(f irs t wr i t ten c a . 2 12-218 A . D., b u t modi f ied i n t he t ime o f D ioc le t ian); 1 7 d a t ing f ro m t he

t he T abu la P eu t inger iana ( t he f irs t manuscr ip t

3 rd c en tury b u t r evised i n t he

4 th c en tury) ; 18

t he No t it ia

D ign i ta tum ( a v ers ion d a ting f ro m t he t ime o f C onstan t i lus I , w i th l a ter a ddenda f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury b u t r ef lect ing ma in ly t he t imes o f D ioc le t ian a nd C ons tan t ine a nd H ierocles ( 5 27-528 A . D.) ; 20 J us t in ian ; 21

t herefore v a l id f or t he . 4th c en tur 2Y1a 9:d

Procopius o f Caesarea ( f ro m t he t ime o f

t he Anony mous G eographer o f Ravenna ( 7 th c en tury ) ;2

t he ' No t i t ia E piscopa tuum ( edi ted i n t he 8 th c en tury ) .

2 3

Fro m t hese s ources we u se ma in ly t he An ton ine I t inerary , t he Tabu la Peu t inger iana , t he N o ti t ia D ign i ta tu m a nd Procop ius . The A n ton ine I t inerary 24

d ep ic ts t he f ol lowing s i tua t ion i n Dobru ja :

Doros toro , l eg . X I C l . m.p. XL I ; X I I ;

C apidava , m.p. XVI I ;

S ucidava , m .p. XVI I I ;

C orso , m.p. XV I II ;

m. p . X I I II; Troes m is , l eg . II ov ia , m.p. XV I I I ; V I I I ;

D in igu tt ia , m.p . V I I I ;

Ax iupol i , m.p .

C io , m.p. X ; S cyth ica ;

B ire ,

Arrubio

N ov ioduno , l eg . I H ercu l ia m.p. XX ;

m.p . XXI I I I ;S a lsovia , m .p . XV I I ;

m. p . Aeg iso ,

S a l morude , m. p . V IL I I ( probably t he l a t in

t ranscr ip t iön o f Ha l myr is ). The N o t i tia D ign i ta tum 25

e nu mera tes t he f o l lowing f or ti f ica t ions :

Duros toru m , C i mbr iana , S ucidava , A l t inu m , S acidava , F lav iana , Ax iopo l is , Capidava , C ars ium , C ius , B eroe , Troes m is , A rrubium , D inoge t ia , Nov iod onum , A egyssus , Ta la mon iu m , S a lsov ia , G ra t iana , P la typeg iae . The d e A ef id ici is o f P rocopius o f C aesarea i s o f g rea t impor tance f or t he 6 th

c en tury a nd i s much r eferred t o b y h is tor ians a nd a rchaeo log is ts .

T he f or tresses men t ioned b y Procop ius 26 a re :

i n t he a rea i n wh ich we a re i n teres ted

I n Moes ia S ecunda , a f ter Trans mar isca , t he f or ts o f A l t ina a nd C and id iana

" des troyed l ong a go b y t he e ne my" , S a l tupyrgosjD oros tolos a nd S ucidava , t he d es troyed p ar ts o f e ach o f t hese f or ts b eing r es tored .

A l i tt le f ur ther f ro m

t he Danube b ank t here a re n oted Ques tr is , Pa l ma t is a nd Adina , t hen T i l ic ion , a nd " a f or tress t o t he l e f t" . I n S cyth ia " f irs t ly t he f or t n a med S anctus C yr i lus" , t han I lmetu m , I b ida , A egyssus , Ha l myr is .

A long t he I s tru r iver :

N icopol is , Z icid .eva ,

S pibyros , t he t own C as te l lon , C is t id izus , Bas ternas , Meta l los , V er ipara , S pa th izos , Marcerota , B edas , Z isnudeva , Turu les , I us t ian ianopol is , Ther ma , G e me l lo mun tes , A s i lava , C uscaur i , C uscu l i , F ossa tu m , p o l is , S cyth ias , G rapso , N ono , Tros m is , Nea iodun, 4

B isd ina , Marciano-

Resid ina , C onstan t iana ,

C a l la t is , Bass id ina , B e led ina , A br i t tos , Rubus ta , D in iscar ta , Mon tereg ine , B ee , A l t ina , Mauroba l le , T igra , S cedeba , N ovas . I n t he i n ter ior o f t he c oun try:

Ax iopa , C arso , G ra t iana .

T he n umber o f f or t i f ica t ions i n Dobru ja i s 4 0 , many o f wh ich c anno t b e i den t if ied .

Those l oca ted a re u nder l ined b e low .

I ti s d if f icu lt t o d e ter m ine

wh ich r ea l ly e x is ted a nd wh ich d id n o t among t hose l i s ted b y P rocop ius , b u t c er ta in ly t oo many f or t i f ica t ions a re a ss igned t o t he t ime o f J us t in ian .2 7 A t t he b eg inn ing o f J us t in ian 's r e ign , H ieroc les l i s ts t he f o l lowing f or ts a long t he S cyth ian l imes : A eg issos a nd Ha lm ir is .

A x iopo l is , C apidava , C arsos , T ros m is , N ov ioduno ,

2 8

Af ew n ames o f f or ts c an a lso b e f ound i n t he C os mograph ia o f t he s oc a l led " Anony mous G eographer o f R avenna" : 29

S to ma P euci , S a lsov ia ,

Eg ypsu m , N ov ioduno , D inogess ia , A rub ion , R oranus , B ira fon , C ars ion , C ap idava .

I n t he o ther p lace we mee t :

B ireon , C ars ion , C apidava ,

S anc i-

d apa a nd Doros to lon . I f we l i s t t he f or ts men t ioned i n t he v ar ious s ources , we o bta in f or t he 4 th c en tury a t o ta l o f 2 6, a nd f or t he 6 th c en tury a t o ta l o f 4 0 n a mes, o f wh ich a pprox i ma te ly 2 5 a re n o t l oca ted o r a re a pprox i ma te ly f i xed ) . We h ave o n ly 1 8 a nc ien t f or ti f ied s e t t le men ts wh ich a re l oca ted w i th c er ta in ty . B u t a r chaeo log ica l r esearch h as r evea led 3 0 f or t if ica t ions, t he a ncien t n a mes o f w h ich we d o n o t k now .

We w i l l n ow c ons ider t he a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures wh ich a re r evea led b y s urveying t he g round a long t he Danube , f ro m s ou th t o n or th , t ha t i s t o s ay t he f i rs t d e fens ive l i ne ( see map , P l . I ) . B ugeac .

A pparen t ly a l a te R o man f or t . »

D erven t .

N o e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t .

Ap robable l a te R o man f or t i f ica t ion , w i th a d efens ive d i tch .

3 1

N o e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t . C an l ia .

AR o man f or t ( accord ing t o T oc i lescu , P o Ion ic a nd T IR ) mea-

s ur ing 1 54 x 1 40 m .

3 2

N o e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t .

One o f t hese t hree s i tes , mos t p robably C an l ia , may b e i den t i f ied a s C imbr iana . I zvoare le . Al arge f or t i f ica t ion w i th 2 me tre t h ick wa l ls s urrounded b y ad i tch . 33 N o e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t . P robab ly S uc idava . S a tu Nou .

T he o ld p ub l ica t ions r efer t o i ta s aR o man f or t , b u t t he more

r ecen t o nes c onsider i tt o b e as e t t le men t . O l t ina . r a mpar ts .

3 4

N o e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t .

F or t i f ica t ions c over ing 4 h a ., s urrounded b y d i tches a nd e ar th

3 5

D unären i .

N o e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut .

P robab ly A lt inu m .

T he o lder s ources r efer t o aR o man f or t w i th a l a ter o ne o n

t op o f i t , t o t he wes t o f t he v i l lage , b u t o ur g round s urvey r e fu tes t h is . Musa i t .

AR o man f or t i f ica t ion i s s i tua ted o n t he h i l l o f t he s a me n a me ,

o n t he b ank o f t he Danube , b e tween Dunh .ren i a nd Rasova .

5

I ti s c urren t ly t he

s i te o f a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions . S ac idava .

I ti s i den t i f ied w i th c er ta in ty a s

E ar l ier c la i ms a re r e fu ted .3 7

Rasova .

On " Pesc-a r ie" h i l l , al a te R o man f or t .

C och ir len i .

Ap robab le f or t .

C ernavoda-H inog .

Probab ly F lav iana .

3 8

3 9

On a t errace f ac ing H inog i s land , t wo R o man f or t i f i-

c a t ions w i th wa l ls , b as i l ica , i nscr ip t ions , e tc . h ave b een r ecorded . was t he s i te o f Ax iopo l is . S e i men i .

4 °

T h is

V eri f ied b y g round s urvey a nd o ld e xcava t ions .

B etween S e i men i v i l lage a nd l ake D o mneasca t here i s a Ro man

s e t t le men t w i th a d i tch a nd b anks . ( 2 0 x2 0 m ) 42

N ear S e imen i i Mar i ad e fens ive t ower

4 1

h as b een p o in ted o u t .

C apidava . T opa lu .

An i den t i f ied f or tress , e xa m ined i n e xcava t ions . 43 Af or t w i th s tones wa l ls , d i tch a nd b ank h as b een r ecorded .

N ow d es troyed b y aq uarry. 44 G h indare9 t i .

Veri f ied .

P . P o Ion ic n o ted a f or t w i th wa l l , d i tch a nd b ank . 45

N o t v er i f ied . H ir9ova .

C er ta in l oca t ion o f C ars ium , b u i l t b y Tra jan i n A .D. 1 03 .

S o me e xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied o u t .4 6 G Ir l iciu .

Probably C ius .

O ld r epor ts r e fer t o t wo c oncen tr ic p recinc ts

( 1 20 x 1 20 m a nd 8 5 x6 0 m ) s urrounded b y 7d i tches a nd r a mpar ts . 47

N o

e xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied o u t . P ia tra F reca te i .

I den t i f ied a s B eroe .

E xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied

o u t i n t he n ecropo l is a nd s e t t le men t . 48 P eceneaga . I g l i ta .

Traces o f f or t i f ica t ions . 49

I den t i f ied a s Troes m is .

C arca l iu .

O ld e xcava t ions ( see a bove ) .

Probably a f or t b u i l t u nder C ons tan t ius I .

c o mes f ro m a n i nscr ip t ion d iscovered t here . Macin .

U nver i f ied .

The o n ly e v idence

N o t v er i f ied o n t he g round .

I den t i f ied w i th c er ta in ty a s A rrub ium .

N o e xcava t ions h ave

b een c arr ied o u t .5 0 J i ji la ( Gher ma ). e xcava t ions .5 1

O ld r epor ts r e fer t o t wo f or ts .

G arvä .n ( B iser icu ta ) . c a l ly e xcava ted . L uncav i ta . 2 7 5 m .5

N o t v er i f ied b y

I den t i f ied w i th c er ta in ty a s D inoget ia ;

O ld r epor ts , u nver i f ied , r e fer t o af or t measur ing 2 25 x

Rache lu .

O ld r epor ts r e fer t o af or t .

I saccea .

I den t i f ied a s N ov idunum .

S o mova .

Probab ly a s e t t le men t f or t i f ied w i th wa l ls .

T u lcea . N u färu l .

s ys te ma t i-

I den t i f ied a s A egyssus .

U nver i f ied .

5 3

Excava t ions h ave b een c arr ied o u t . 5 4

U nveri f ied .

5 5

O ld r epor ts o f aR o mano-Byzan t ine f or t .

6

I den t i f ied a s

Ta la mon iu m , b u t n ot v er i f ied b y e xcava t ions .

An i nscr ip t ion g ives t he

5 6

n ame o f t he f or t a s S a lsov ia . Mur igh io l .

O ld r epor ts o f af or t a nd s o me n ew e xcava t ions .

5 8

May

b e G ra t iana . Dunavh ; tu l d e S us . ( ? ) .

P robab ly a f or t b u t n o t v eri f ied .

May b e A d S to ma

5 9

Dunav 4u 1 d e J os . t owers .

6°

F or t measur ing 4 5 x6 6 m w i th s tone wa l ls a nd r ound

T oday t h is i s c a l led " Ce ta tea Z aporo jen i lor" a nd i s i den ti f ied

p robably w i th H a l myr is . T he s econd l i ne o f f or t i f ica t ions r epresen t ing t he f or t i f ica t ion i n d ep th , a re d i f f icu l t t o l oca te .

Ques tr is , P a l ma t is , A d ina , T i l icion migh t b e i den-

t i f ied w i th t he r e ma ins a t C eta tea . A da mcl is i , T ropaeum T ra ian i ( i n t he 6 th c en tury ,

S anc tus C yr i l lus ).

E xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied o u t . M ircea Voda . T a l ien i".

O ld r epor ts r e fer t o a n e ar ly f or t ( 50 x 2 0 m ) a t " La

T here i s a no ther l a te R o man f or tress n ear t he r a i lway s ta t ion .

P an te l i mon d e S us . o u t b y V . Pärvan . S lava Rusa .

C er ta in ly U l me tum .

6 1

E xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied

6 2

L arge f or t c over ing 2 4 h a .

V ery p robab ly I b ida ( or L ibida ) .

O ld a nd u ncer ta in r epor ts , b u t a n o u t l ine p lan b ased o n a er ia l p ho tography i s a va i lable . 63 S o me d a ta s ee ms t o i nd ica te a n a dd i t iona l f or t i f ied l i ne i n t he n or th-wes t c orner o f D obrud ja .

F or ti f ica t ions h ave b een r ecorded i n g round s urveys

a t T ra ian ( 60 x 6 0 m ) w i th s em icircu lar wa l ls a nd t owers , ( p recincts a nd r ampar ts ) , N icu l i tel ( 225 x 7 0 m ) , i n t he i n ter ior .

6 7

6 5

6 4

a t C erna

N i fon ( f or tress w i th wa l ls a nd t owers ) ,

a l l o f wh ich l i e o n as tra igh t l i ne .

6 6

H or ia i s d eeper

U n for tuna te ly t he o ld r epor ts h ave n o t b een v eri f ied b y

a rchaeolog ica l i nves t iga t ions .

On ly a t Tra ian h as a er ia l p ho tography c on-

f i rmed a s quare f or t ( quadr iburg ium ) w i th 4 5 m s ides . 68 *

*

*

*

*

T he e v idence f or t he i den t i f ica t ion a nd l oca t ion o f t he f or ts w i l l b e p res en ted f or e ach o ne i n t urn . F or t he t ime b eing we w i l l o n ly s ta te t ha t , u s ing a l l t he a va i lable l i terary a nd e pigraph ic i n for ma t ion , c o mb ined w i th a rchaeo log ica l d iscover ies , we c an l oca te o n t he S cyt ian l imes , f o l lowing t he f l ow o f t he Danube d own t o t he s ea a nd s tar t ing f ro m D uros torum ( S i l is tra ) :

C i mbr iana ( Bugeac , D erven t

o r C an l ia ) , S uc idava ( Izvoare le ? ) , A l t inum ( O l t ina ) , S ac idava ( Musa i tD unaren i ) , Flav iana ( Rasova ) , A x iopo l is ( Cernavoda ) , C apidava ( Capidava ) , C ars iu m ( H irsova ) , C ius

B eroe ( P ia tra Freca te i ) , T roes m is

A rrubium ( Mac in ) , D inoge t ia ( B iser icu ta- G arvan ) , N ov iodunum ( I saccea ) , A egyssus ( Tu lcea ) , T ha lamon ium ( probab le Nu faru l ) , S a lsov ia ( p robably Mah mud ia ) , H a l myr is ( Zaporo jen i ? ). V a l l is Do m i t iana a nd A d S a u ces .

7

V ery d i f f icu l t o n G ra t iana ,

A egyssus . Tu lcea ,

6 9

We emphas ise t he i mpor tance o f ag rave s tela d iscovered a t

wh ich f or med t he f irs t e p igraph ic e v idence f or t he n ame o f Aegyssus

f or tress , c on f ir m ing t he o lder i den t i f ica t ion . S a lsov ia c an b e l oca ted a t Mah mud ia t hanks t o aL a t in i nscr ip t ion d isc overed t here , d a t ing f ro m t he r e ign o f L ic in ius ( A .D . 3 22 ) , c on ta in ing t he a nc ien t n ame o f t h is c i tade l : D inoge t ia .

c as t (r is ) S a lsov iens ib(us ). 7 6

T he e ar l ies t r eference t o D inoge t ia i s t o b e f ound i n P to le my.

7 1

T hanks t o t he r a ther c on fused d a ta o f t he a ncien t g eographer , o p in ions d i f fer , s o me s cho lars l oca t ing D inoge t ia o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he Danube a t G hergh inaBarbo e ,

7 2

wh i le o thers p lace i to n t he r igh t b ank a t B iser ic t4a-Garvän .

7 3

P rec ise d escr ip t ions i n t he f our th c en tury s ources l oca te D inoget ia o n t he S cy th ian l imes , o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he r iver , b e tween Arrub iu m a nd N ov iodunu m a t d is tances t ha t c ou ld b e v er i f ied . T hus , t he An ton ine I t inerary p laces D in igu t t ia b etween t he t wo f or tresses , 9 000 p aces ( 13.5 km ) f ro m A rrubium a nd 2 0 ,000 i p aces ( 3 0 km ) f ro m N ov idunu m .

T he s a me i n for ma t ion

i s g iven i n t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tum ( where D ir igo th ia i s p laced b e tween Troes m is a nd N ov idunum ) o r i n t he A nony mous G eographer o f Ravenna ( D inogessia ) . G h .

* t efan t r ied t o r eso lve t h is c on trad ic t ion b y p ropos ing t ha t i n t he s econd

a nd t h ird c en tur ies D inoge t ia was t he n a me o f t he R o man c a mp a t B arbos i o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he D anube a nd t ha t , a f ter t he a bandonmen t o f t h is s i te i n t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury , an ew f or tress was b u i l t o n t he h ead land o f B iser ic e-Gärvan ,

7 4

wh ich wou ld a lso e xp la in why i ti s miss ing f ro m t he

Tabu la P eut inger iana . . T h is v iew i s b ased o n t he a na lys is o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta o b ta ined i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t i n t he p as t y ear , wh ich h ave p roved t ha t t he f or t i f ica t ions were c ons tructed a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury . A t T roes m is , b es ides t he o ld e v idence , a t I g l4a ( Turco ia ) a re i n for ma t ive .

7 5

t wo more i nscr ip t ions d iscovered

T he f i rs t o ne r e fers t o Q . C aeci l ius

R edd i tus , l ega tus l eg ion is V Macedon icae a nd t o T . F lav ius A lexander , v e teranus o f t he V th l eg ion Macedon ica .

T he s econd i nscr ip t ion men t ions

L . L ic in ius C le mens , v e teran o f t he V th l eg ion Macedon ica , q u inquenna l is c anabens i tun a nd d ecur io T roes mens ium .

7 6

We t h ink i ti s e nough t o empha-

s ise t he c onnec t ion b e tween t he V th l eg ion Macedon ica a nd Troem is .

A lso

impor tan t i s t he i nscr ip t ion d iscovered a t I g 14 _a wh ich r e fers t o V a ler ius T h iumpus , p re fec t o f t he s econd l eg ion H ercu l ia , h av ing t heir h eadquar ters a t T roes m is ( No t i t ia D ign i ta tum ). F ro m t he t ime o f C ons tan t ias I , we h ave a n i nscr ip t ion d iscovered a t C araca l iu , i n t he t err i tory o f T roes m is , s how ing t ha t , u nder t he a u thor i ty o f S appo , v ir p er fect iss i mus d ux l im i t is S cy th iae , t he c ons truct ion o f af or t if ica t ion h as b een c arr ied o u t t here ( erec ta i s t ius f abr i (c )ae mun i t ione c lauserun t ). 7 7 T h is d ocu men t s hows t ha t t he c are t aken t o k eep t he l imes i n r epa ir was n o t d irected o n ly t o t he b ig f or ts a nd w e l l-known c amps , b u t a lso e x tended t o t he e rec t ion o f sma l l f or t i f ica t ions a t v u lnerab le p o in ts . H owever , i ti s h ard e nough t o l oca te t hese

l as t s truc tures .

T he m is t ios i n forms u s 78 t ha t o n t he o ccas ion o f t he Emperor Va lens ' e xped i t ion i n 3 69 a ga ins t t he G o ths , when t he R o man a r my p assed t he Danube a t N ov iodunum , s evera l f or ts were r es tored , a nd o thers were n ew ly bu i l t ,

8

a nd a queducts a nd h arbours w ere r epa ired .

T he m is t ios h i msel f was p resen t

a t t he b u i ld ing o f af or t o n t he b anks o f t he Danube , o n ap ro mon tory , af or t t he c ons truct ion o f wh ich h ad b een c o m menced e ar l ier , b u t wh ich h ad b een l e f t u n f in ished .

U n for tuna te ly t he G reek r he tor , who e scor ted Va lens i n h is

a c t ions , d oes n o t t e l l u s where t h is f or t was s i tua ted .

An i nscr ip t ion f ro m

t he t ime ( A.D . 3 69 ) , d iscovered a t G fr l iciu , s ays t ha t a f ter t he d e fea t o f t he G o ths ab urgus was e rec ted b y t he s o ld iers , p robably .f ro m t he l eg ion P r i ma F lav ia G em ina .79

T he f or tress o f C ius h as b een l oca ted a t G ir l ic iu .

T he l oca t ion o f C ap idava i s a lso n ow s ecure ly b ased f irs t ly o n a n i nscr ipt i on men t ion ing a v ex i l la t io C apidabes ium , 8 0 a nd o n t he measure men ts made o n t he g round , f o l low ing t he d is tances i nd ica ted i n t he T abu la P eu t inger iana , wh ich g ives 1 8 ,000 p aces ( 2 7 km ) b e tween C ap idava a nd C ars ium ( H irsova ) , a nd 1 8 ,000 p aces b e tween C apidava a nd A x iopo l is ( Cernavoda ) , wh ich c orresp ond t o t he r ea l d is tances . T he a ccuracy o f t he d a ta f ro m t he T abu la h as a lso b een v eri f ied b y t he d iscovery a t S e i men i i M ic i o f a mi les tone i nd ica t ing 6 000 p aces f ro m A x iopo l is ,

8 1

wh ich c orresponds t o t he a ctua l d is tance ( 9 km ) ;

a nd f ro m S e i men i t o C ap idava i s af ur ther 1 8 km ( 1 2 ,000 p aces ) , 1 8 ,000 p aces i n a l l f ro m A x iopo l is t o C ap idava . Excep t f or t he m i les tone f ro m S e i men i i M ici , we d o n o t h ave a ny o ther a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t o c on f ir m d irec tly t he i den ti f ica t ion o f t he f or t o f Ax iopo l is a t C ernavoda , f acing H inog .

The n a me Ax iopo l is i s e ncoun tered

o n ly o nce o n at o mbs tone d iscovered a t Tropaeu m T ra ian i .

8 2

An i nd irec t

t es t i mony i s t he i nscr ip t ion d iscovered i n t he d ebr is o f ab as i l ica o f t he f or tress , t ha t men t ions t he n ame o f t he C hr is t ian mar tyrs C yr i l lus, K yndeas a nd Tas ios , who w e k now w ere k i l led a t Ax iopo l is .

I n a ny c ase , t he d is-

8 3

t ances g iven i n t he s ources ( t he T abu la a nd t he I t inerary ) , a gree w i th t he o ther e v idence a nd c on f ir m t he i den t i f ica t ion w i th t he r u ins t ha t c an b e s een a t H inog .

I ti s a lso t rue t ha t t he f or t o f A x iopo l is a ppears i n t h is p lace o n

s o me maps d a t ing f ro m t he 1 7-18 th c en tur ies:

8 4

T he d iscovery o f a n i nscr ip t ion a t H ir eva p roves t he c ons truct ion o f a c a mp ( Cars iu m ) i n 1 03 b y t he R o man t roops . 85 Among t he mos t i mpor tan t p ieces o f e v idence f or t he i den t i f ica t ion o f s o me o f t he f or ts i n t he s ou th-wes t o f Dobru ja , t here i s a mi les tone d isc overed s ou th-wes t o f Rasova . 8 6 I td a tes f ro m t he r e ign o f t he Emperor Decius ( 2 49-251 ).

T he i mpor tance o f t he d iscovery c ons is ts f irs t o f a l l i n

t he p oss ib i l i ty i to f fers o f a n i den ti f ica t ion o f t he s i te o f t he f or t o f S acidava . F o l low ing t he d is tance o f 7 km u ps trea m we a rr ive a t t he r u ins o f aR o man f or tress o n t he h i l l o f Musa i t b etween R a .sova a nd D unären i . The p roposed i den t i f ica t ion w i th Musa i t i s p erhaps s uppor ted b y f unerary i nscr ip t ions d iscovered h ere , i f we s uppose t ha t t he n u merus e qu itu m r ef erred t o i n t ha t i nscr ip t ion c ou ld b e c ons idered t o b e t he Cuneus E qu i tum . S cu tar iorum o f t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m f ro m S ac idava . t he f o l low ing c o mp le t ion :

..qu i mi l i t (au i t ) S ac ( i daue ) ,

mi l i t(au i t ) ( i n ter ) S ag ( i t tar ios ).

We i nc l ine t owards

8 7 8 8

i ns tead o f ..qu i

The i den t i f ica t ion o f S ac idava a t Musa i t i s

impor tan t f or t he c lar i f ica t ion o f t he s i tua t ion a long t he S cyth ian L i mes , b ear ing i n m ind t he o ld i n terpre ta t ion o f G r . F lorescu who p laced S acidava s o mewhere n ear C ap idava , p erhaps a t T opa lu , c on trad ic ts t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m . 9

8 9

d esp i te t he f ac t t ha t t h is

On ly i n t he N o t i t ia

i s t he n a me o f S acidava c orrec t ly t ranscr ibed w i th

t he v ery i mpor tan t i nd ica t ion t ha t i n t h is f or t was t he h eadquar ters o f t he Cuneus E qu i tu m S cu tar iorum , t he s ou thern mos t c ava lry u n i t i n t he p rov ince o f S cy th ia ,s i tua ted b e tween t he Cuneus E qu i tum S o lens iu m a t C ap idava ( nor th ) a nd t he C uneus E qu i tum S tab les ianorum a t S uc idava ( sou th ) , t he l a t ter u n i t b e ing t he l as t o ne a t t he n or thern e nd o f t he L i mes o f Moes ia S ecunda .

T he

e xact i n for ma t ion g iven b y t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tum b eco me more c onclus ive f or t he i den t i f ica t ion o f S acidava a t Musa i t , e spec ia l ly a f ter t he d iscovery o f t he mi l iar ium men t ioned a bove . P to le my men t ions t wo p laces b e tween D uros toru m a nd A x iopo l is , T rans mar isca a nd S uc idava ,

T he T abu la P eu t inger iana men t ions S agadava ,

b u t b e tween Duros toru m a nd S uc idava , t he o rder b e ing i nver ted p robably b ecause o f t he r ese mblance o f t he n ames , wh ich may b e t he r eason f or i t s om iss ion f ro m t he An ton ine I t inerary.

S kedeba a ppears i n t he l i s t o f f or ts

g iven b y P rocop ius , b u t n o t among t hose e rec ted o r r ebu i l t b y J us t in ian . T he Ravenna G eographer marks o n ly o ne p lace b e tween D oros to lan a nd C ap idava : S anc idapa . The i den t i f ica t ion o f t he s i te o f S acidava i s a lso i mpor tan t f or t he i den t if i ca t ion o f o ther a ncien t s i tes s i tua ted b e tween Duros torum a nd A x iopo l is . B o th e ar ly a nd more r ecen t g round s urveys 9 0 h ave d iscovered , u pstrea m a long t he r iver , R o mano-Byzan t ine f or t i f ied s e t t le men ts a t Bugeac , S erven t , C an l ia , I zvoare le , S a tu N ou , O l t ina , V i i le , Dunaren i , Musa i t , Rasova a nd C och ir len i .

S tar t ing f ro m t he i den t i f ica t ion o f S acidava , a t te mp ts t o c orre la te

t he i t inerar ies w i th t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta b ecame e as ier , t he f or t a t Musa i t f or m ing t he p o in t o f r eference .

There fore a c ase c an a lso b e a rgued f or t he

i den t i f ica t ion o f S ucidava w i th t he r uins a t I zvoare le . F or C i mbr iana ( i n Moes ia S ecunda , where t he Mi l i tes C i mbr ian i was s ta t ioned ) , we may p ostu la te B ugeac , D erven t o r C an lia .

F ur ther t o t he n or th ,

t he n ex t l oca li ty A l tinu m was t he b ase o f t he l as t a ux i lary u n i t i n Moes ia ( mi l i tes n auc lor i i A l t inens is , t ha t c annot b e p laced a nywhere b ut a t O l tina ( F lav iana ) , a nd may n ow b e i den t if ied w i th t he s e t t le men t a t P escar ie , t o t he s outh-wes t o f R asova . Ar ecen t a t te mp t t o l oca te S anctus C yr i l lus , Q ues tr is a nd T i lic ion , may h ave s o me c hance o f s uccess .

9 1

T i l ic ion may b e a t C e ta tea?

h as b een more p robab ly l oca ted a t R asova o r A x iopo lis , b e s ough t a long t he Danube .

9 2

S anc tus C yr i l lus

b ut i tc annot o n ly

O n a nother h ypo thes is , t h is was t he n a me o f t he

s e t t le men t i n t he t ime o f J ust in ian , wh i le i n t he o ther s ources i ti s c a l led b y t he n ame o f T ropaeu m T ra ian i .

I n t h is way we c an a lso e xp la in t he a bsence

f ro m t he l i s t o f P rocop ius o f s uch a n i mpor tan t p lace a s T ropaeu m :

t he r oad

f ro m S ac idava d ev ia ted f ro m t he r iver p assing t hrough Q ues tr is , P a l ma tae , A dina a nd a rr iv ing a t Tropaeu m Tra ian i ( ca l led S anc tus C yr i l lus i n t he t ime o f J ust in ian ) r ather t han t he r oute t hrough U lme-t um - a nd I b ida ( L ib ida ) . H owever , p end ing t he d iscovery o f s o me c onc lus ive e v idence , we r e ma in i n t he f i e ld o f h ypo thes is , a nd we c anno t o ver look t he a l terna t ive v iew , b ased o n t he i nscr ip t ion w i th t he n a mes o f t he mar tyrs C yr i l lus , K yndeas a nd Tas ios d iscovered a t A x iopo l is , a f ter wh ich A x iopo l is may h ave r ece ived ( i n t he t ime o f J us t in ian ) t he n ame o f t he mar tyr S anc tus C yr i l lus , c o m mon p rocedure a t t ha t t ime .

9 3

1 0

I n t he n or th-eas t o f D obru ja , a re more s er ious .

t he d i f ferences b e tween t he t wo i t inerar ies

S tar t ing f ro m t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he d i f ferences a re d ue

t o t he f ac t t ha t e very i t inerary f o l lowed a d i fferen t r ou te , t he T abu la f o l lowing aw a ter r ou te , a nd t he An ton ine I t inerary a l and r ou te , we a rr ive a t t he f o l lowing h ypo the t ica l l oca l iza t ions ;

A d S to ma a t C araor man ( t he p o in t where

t he P euce b ranch d ebouches i n to t he s ea ) , H a l myr is a t t he f or tress o f Z aporo jen i ( Dunava tu l d e J os ) , Va l l is D om i t iana a t Ag igh io l a nd A d S a u ces a t C ara manch io i . I n f ac t , o n t he n or thern b ranch o f t he r iver , o n ly t wo f or ts a re p rec ise ly i den t i f ied ;

A eg yssus a nd S a lsov ia ( see a bove ) .

We t h ink t ha t t he a rgumen ts f or t he l oca l iza t ion o f t he f or ts Tropaeu m T ra ian i , U l me tum a nd I b ida ( L ib ida ) a t A damcl is i , P an te l i monu l d e S us a nd S lava Rusa r espec t ive ly , a re s o we l l k nown t ha t i ti s n o t n ecessary t o s tudy t he m t horough ly .

T he v iew t ha t T ropaeum T ra ian i , s i tua ted a s i ti s o n t he

i mper ia l v ia Marcianopo l is-Nov iodunu m a nd t here fore o n t he s econd r ou te , w as p ar t o f t he d e fens ive s ys te m o n t he S cyth ian l imes

i s c on f ir med b y t he

c o m me mora t ive i nscr ip t ion d iscovered a t t he e as tern g a te o f t he f or t a nd d a ted t o 3 16.

9 4

I ts hows t ha t a f ter t he b arbar ians h ad b een d e fea ted e verywhere ,

t he f or t o f T ropaeum was r ebu i l t f ro m t he f ounda t ions , i n o rder t o s treng then t he l imes ( "ad c on f irmandam l im i t is" ). V . Parvan .

A s f or U l me tu m , t he p roof i s d ue t o

An i nscr ip t ion o f 1 40 was e rec ted i n h onour o f t he An toninus P ius

b y C ons is ten tes v ico U l me tu m .

9 5

T he b ig f or t i f ied s e t t le men t a t S lava Rusa

w as i den t i f ied w i th I b ida ( L ibida ) f or t he f i rs t t ime b y V . Parvan .

9 6

H is

h ypothes is was b ased o n t he f ac t t ha t S lava Rusa was t he b igges t L a te Ro man f or ti f ica t ion i n S cy th ia a nd s o c ou ld n o t b e i gnored ;

a lso i t was s i tua ted

b e tween U l me tum a nd A egyssus , a s P rocop ius t e l ls u s , a nd j us ti f ied b y i t s s i ze ( 24 h a ) t he n ame o f " po l is" g iven t o i tb y t he s ame a u thor .

R ecen t ly ,

s tar t ing f ro m a n i nscr ip t ion o f t he 2 nd-3rd c en tury d iscovered a t S lava R usa a nd f ro m t he c orre la t ion o f P rocop ius ' d a ta w i th t hose o f T heophylactus S imoca t ta who c a l ls i tL ibidon p o l is , t here h as b een a f ur ther a t te mp t t o i dent i fy i tw i th

L ib ida .

9 7

1

NOTES TO CHAPTER I 1 .

Excava t ions i n 1 864 , c f . L . Ren ier , Revue A rchgolog ique e t b p igraph ique e n Moldav ie e t e n Va lach ie , Arch ives d es M iss ions S cien ti f iques e t L i tt ra ires . 1 867.

C hoix d e r appor ts e t i ns truct ions , Ie s er ies , t om . I V ,

E . Des jard ins , Voyage a rch6olog ique e t g 6ograph ique d ans l a

r eg ion d u Bas Danube , Revue a rch o log ique , 1 7, 1 868 ;

V . Duruy ,

H is toire d es R ou ma ins , Par is , 1 883 , p . 2 6. 2 .

J . We iss , D ie Dobrudscha im A l ter tum , S ara jewo , 1 911, p . 4 9 ; : R .

N etzham mer , D ie c hr is tl iche A l ter tümer d er Dobrudscha ,

Buchares t , 1 918 , p . 1 33. 3 .

n ote 1 .

R . V u lpe , Dobrogea : 1 928, p p . 1 20-127 .

A B e tz , RE , X I I I , 1 93 .9 , c ol . 9 52f f .

C inc izec i d e a ni d e v ia ta r o maneasca , B ucharest I de m , HAD , 3 6-37 , i de m , R ev is ta d e i s torie 2 8, 1 0 ,

1 975 , p . 1 553 . 4 .

V . Parvan , C eta tea Tropaeum , BC MI , 4 , 1 911 , I , p . 1 , I p . 1 63 .

5 .

V . Parvan , C eta tea U l me tu m , I I I I , Buchares t , 1 912-1915. sr ie I , t om .3 4 , 3 6 , 3 7) ;

( AR MS I ,

H is tr ia , I V ( AR MS I , I , 3 8 , 1 916 ) ;i de m

H is tr ia , V I I ( AR MS I , I I , 2 , 1 923 ) ;

i de m , Z idu l c e ta t i i To m i ( ARMS I ,

I , 3 7 , 1 915 ). 6 .

V . Parvan , S a lsovia , Buchares t , 1 906.

7 .

G r . F lorescu , Dacia , 3 -4 , 1 927-1932 , p . 4 83.

8 .

C h . S tefan , Dac ia , 7 -8 , 1 937-1940 , p . 4 01.

9 .

D . Tudor , Dacia , 5 -6 , 1 935-36 , p . 3 91-396 a nd i de m , S ucidava , C ra iova , 1 974 , p . 1 4-17.

1 0.

C f . a nd I . Barnea , A ctes , p . 1 7. c hap ter i n t h is work .

S ee a lso t he b ibl iography t o e ach

Even i n t he r ecen t b ook Tropaeu m Tra ian i I ,

Buchares t , 1 979 , s tra t igraphy o ccup ies o n ly f our p ages o f t he t ex t , a nd w i th a l o t o f c on trad ic tory d a ta . 1 1.

Em . C ondurach i . L es c ondi t ions p ol i t iques d es Bas-Danube e t l i organ isa t ion d es L i mes r ouma in , i n R o man Fron t ier S tud ies , T el-Av iv , p . 1 56-165 ; D . Tudor , S CIV , 9 , 2 , 1 960 , p . 3 37; Bruxel les , 8 0 , 1 965 ;

i de m , S ucidava , La to mus ,

R . Vet ters , Dacia R ipens is , Wien , 1 950 S .6-7

( S chr i f ten d er Ba lkanko m m iss ion , An t iq. A bt . X I/11 ) ;

J . B . Ward-

Perk ins , The L i mes Tr ipol i tanus i n t he L igh t o f r ecen t D iscover ies , JRS , London , 2 9 , 1 949 , p . 8 3 ;

H . S chönberger , T he Ro man F ron t ier

i n G er many , JRS , 5 9 , 1 969 , p . 1 44;

H . v on P etr ikov i ts , For t i f ica tions

i n t he N or th- Wes tern Ro man Empire f ro m t he Th ird t o t he F i f th C en tur ies A .D., JRS , 6 1 , 1 971 , p . 1 78 . 1 2.

C o mpare t he g rea t d is tance f ro m t he Danube o f t he e as t-wes t r oads i n Dacia R ipens is a nd Moes ia S ecunda .

1 3.

I . Barnea , A c tes , p . 2 1 , 2 3.

1 4.

We emphas ise t ha t we h ave u sed o n ly c er ta in a nd s c ien t if ic d a ta i n t h is c hapter .

S o me t opograph ic d a ta i s g iven i n P . Poion ic , C e ta ti le

1 2

a n tice d e p e ma lu l d rep t a l Dunar i i ( Dobrogea ) p ina l a g ur i le e i , 2 4.7. 1 935 ,

P .

1 9 ;

J . Weiss , D ie Dobrudscha i m A l ter tü mer :

L andscha f tskunde , S ara jevo , 1 911;

h is tor ische

R . N etzha m mer , D ie c hr is t lichen

A l ter tü mer d er D obrudcha , Buchares t , 1 918 ;

i de m , Aus Ru män ien ,

I , I , E ins iede ln . Un for tuna te ly a l l t hese s ta te men ts c anno t b e c hedked o n t he g round , a nd a re d oubt fu l . 1 5 .

C l . P to le maeus , G eograph ia , L eipzig ( Tauchn iz ) ;

1 843.

S ee a lso

F on tes , 1 , p . 5 45 . 1 6. I . Mi t i te lu , B SNR , 3 7.1943 , p . 7 8-91. 1 7 .

F ontes , 1 , p . 7 46 .

1 8 .

F ontes , 1 , p . 7 36 .

1 9 .

F ontes , 2 , p . 2 06 .

2 0 .

S ynecde mus , F on tes , 2 , p . 3 50 .

2 1 .

F ontes , 2 , p . 4 58 .

2 2 .

F ontes , 2 , p . 5 79 .

2 3 .

F on tes , 1 . p . 7 25 .

C ar l d e Boor , Z e itschr if t f ür K irchengesch ich te , 1 2 , 1 891 , 3 -4 , p p . 1 311 32 .

2 4 .

Fon tes , 1 , p . 7 47.

2 5 .

Fon tes , 2 , p p. 2 09-210.

2 6 .

De a edif ic i is , I V , 7 , 1 1 .

2 7 .

H is work De a edif ic i is was a n o f f ic ia l a nd e u log is t ic b ook , af ac t r ecogn ized b y t he e x is tence o f t he S ecre t H istory , t oo .

2 8 .

S inekde mos , 6 37 , 1 -15 .

2 9. I V , 5 -6. 3 0 .

3 1 .

P .

P o lonic , 2 2 . c i t . ,p . 1 9;

p .

2 9 .

Rev . Muz ., 5 , 1 968, p . 3 49;

T IR , L3 5 ,

R ev . Muz . p p . 3 48-349 .

3 2. P . Po lon ic , l oc. c i t .; D . V i lceanu , S C IV , 1 , 1 962 , p . 1 41; c i t .; T IR , L3 5 , p . 2 9 . 3 3 . P . P olon ic , l oc. c i t .;

Rev . Muz. c i t .;

3 4 . V . Parvan , D escoper ir i n oua , p . 3 15 ; p . 6 4. 3 5 . J . Weiss , o p. c i t ., p . 4 4 ; 3 6.

P . Polon ic , o p. c i t ., p . 1 9 ; HAD , p . 1 65 , 3 41;

Rev . Muz.

J . We iss , o p . c i t ., 2 3 ; Rev . Muz. c i t .;

4 4.

T IR , L2 5 ,

T IR , L 3 5 , 2 2. J . Weiss , o p. c i t ., p . 4 3 ;

R . Vu lpe ,

T IR , L3 5 , p . 4 0 .

3 7.

P . Polon ic . l oc. c i t .; p . 6 0 .

3 8 .

J . We iss , l oc . c i t .; p . 6 0 .

V . Parvan , U l metum , 1 .

p . 5 80 ;

V . Parvan , U l metum , 1 , p . 5 80 ;

T IR , L 3 5 ,

T IR , L 3 5 ,

3 9.

J . Weiss , l oc . c i t .;

4 0.

RE , I , 2 628-2629 ;

R . Vu lpe , HAD , p . 3 60 ; Weiss , l oc. c i t .;

P . P o Ion ic , o p. c i t ., p . 2 0-21 ;

P arvan , U l metu m , 1 .580 ;

I . Barnea , S CIV , I , 1 960 , p . 6 9.

4 1.

We iss , 4 6;

4 2.

G r . F lorescu , C ap idava , I , 1 958 ( Buchares t ).

4 3.

I b id ., p ass im .

4 4.

P . Polon ic , l oc. c i t .;

4 5.

I b id .

4 6.

RE , I I , 1 616; p . 6 01;

T IR p . 3 4.

P . P oIon ic , l oc. c i t .;

T IR , 6 5 .

T IR , p .73.

R . Vu lpe , HAD , p . 1 40 , 1 60 , 2 17;

Em . C ondurachi , S tud ien , p . 1 70 ;

SCIV , 4 , 1 954 ,

A . Ar icescu , P on tica , 4 ,

1 971 , p . 3 51. 4 7.

P . P oIon ic , l oc . c i t .;

Weiss , l oc . c i t .;

R . Vu lpe , o p. c i t ., p . 1 95 ,

3 11 4 8 .

P . Poion ic , l oc. c i t .; T IR , 4 9.

Weiss , l oc. c i t ., T IR , 2 6.

P . Po ion ic , l oc. c i t .;

4 9.

P . P oIon ic , l oc. c i t .;

5 0 .

RE , I , 1 487;

o p. c i t . p assi m ;

T IR , 5 7.

T IR , 5 7.

Weiss , l oc. c i t ., R . Vu lpe , o p. c i t . p ass im ;

T IR ,

2 4. 5 1.

P o Ion ic , l oc. c i t .;

T IR , 4 8 .

5 2.

Weiss , l oc . c i t .,;

T IR , 4 9.

5 3 ,

P o Ion ic , l oc. c i t .;

T IR , 6 0 .

5 4.

Po Ion ic , l oc. c i t .;

T IR , 6 8 .

5 5 .

RE , I , 4 77;

Weiss , p . 3 4 , 4 3 , 5 4;

S CIV , 9 , 1 958 , 1 55 ;

A . Opa i t ,

P on t ica , X . 5 6.

P o Ion ic , l oc . c i t .;

We iss ,loc . c i t .;

T IR , 5 4.

5 7.

Weiss , l oc . c i t ., V . Parvan , S ä lsov ia , 1 906;

5 8 .

Po Ion ic , l oc . c i t .;

T IR , 5 2.

5 9.

P o Ion ic , l oc. c i t .;

T IR , 3 9.

6 0 .

Weiss , l oc . c i t .;

6 1.

V . Parvan ;

T IR . 6 3.

T IR , 3 9.

U l metum , I , 5 , 7 , n o. 6 0 ;

T IR , 5 0 .;

A l.-S . S tefan ,

A ctes , p . 1 08 . 6 2. 6 3.

V . Parvan , o p. c i t . R . N etzham mer , C hr is ti . A l ter t ., 1 54-156; T IR . 6 5 ;

6 4.

Po Ion ic , l oc . c i t .;

6 5. T IR , 3 2 ;

R . Vu lpe , o p . c i t . 3 41 ;

A l .-S . S tefan , o p. c i t ., 1 05 . T IR , 7 3 ;

A l.-S . S tefan , o p. c i t.

A l.-S . S te fan , l oc . c i t .

6 6. Weiss , l oc . c i t .;

T IR , 5 3 ;

A l .-S . S te fan , l oc . c i t .

1 4

6 7. Weiss , l oc. c i t .; 6 8 .

T IR , 5 3;

A l.-S . S te fan , l oc. c i t.

A l .-S . S tefan , l oc . c i t .

6 9. I . Barnea , S CIV , 2 , 1 950 , p . 1 76-78 . 7 0 . V . Parvan , S a lsov ia , p . 2 7-28 . 7 1. I I ,

8 , 1 ;

I I , 1 0 , 1 ;

I I ., 1 0 , 5 .

7 2. T h . Mo m msen , C IL , I I , t he map .

C . S chuchard t , Wä l le u nd C hausseen

i m s üd l ichen u nd ö s t l ichen Dacien , AE M , I X , 2 26;

G r . T oci lescu , AE M ,

X IV , p . 1 6. 7 3 . W . To mascheck , D ie a l ten T hraker , 2 , p . 7 2 .

V . Parvan , C as tru l d e

l a Poiana s i d rumu l r o man p r in Mo ldova d e J os , AR MS I , 1 913 , p . 2 4. 7 4 .

G h . S tefan , D inoget ia- A p roble m o f Ancien t Topography , Dacia , NS , 2 , 1 958 , p . 3 17.

7 5 .

T he f or tress o f I g l i ta was i den t i f ied w i th Troes m is , t hanks t o s o me i nscr ip t ions .

I tb eco mes a r eference p oin t f or t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he

o ther f or t i f ica t ions i n t he r eg ion , o n t he b as is o f c a lcu la t ions o f t he d istances f ro m a ncien t i t inerar ies .

G r . Toci lescu , Monu men te e p igra fice

s i s cu lp tura l i , I . B uchares t , 1 902 , p . 6 8 , n ote 1 1;

C IL , I I , 7 73-776,

6 160-6217 , 6 235 , 6 239 , c , 6 240 , 6 242 , 7 497-7511 , 7 599 . 7 6.

R . Vu lpe , Canabenses s i Troes menses .

Doua i nscr ip t i i i ned i te d in

Traes m is , S CIV , 3 -4 , 1 953 , p . 5 57-582. 7 7.

C IL , I I , 1 2483 ;

V . Parvan , S a lsov ia , p . 9 ;

7 8 . T he m is t ios , Ora t iones . X ; S CIV , 4 .1967, p . 5 63 ;

3 07.

I . Barnea , The m is t ios d espre S cyth ia M inor ,

D ID.I I . p . 3 95 .

7 9.

C IL , I I , 6 159;

8 0 .

G r . F lorescu , C apidava , 1 .1958 , p . 1 20.

8 1.

R . Vu lpe , HAD , p .

I . Barnea , o p. c i t .;

p . 5 69.

V . Velkov , o p . c i t . p . 2 57.

G r . F lorescu , BC M I , 1 7 , 1 924 , f asc. 4 0 , p . 8 8 ;

i de m , C apidava 1 ,

1 958 , p . 1 20. 8 2 .

C IL , I I , 1 4214; I . Barnea , Da te n o i d espre Axiopo lis , S CIV , 1 1 , 1 , 1 960 ,

P .

7 0 .

8 3 . I . Barnea , Dacia , NS

1 . 1 957 , p . 2 80 .

8 4 . I . Barnea , Da te n o i d espre Ax iopo l is , p . 7 1. 8 5 . V . Parvan , Descoper ir i , n o .ua i n S cyth ia Minor , Buchares t , 1 913 ( AR MS I , 2 , 3 5 ) , p . 4 85 . 8 6 .

C .

S corpan , S ac idava , P on t ica , 6 , 1 973 , p . 2 68 .

8 7 . N . Gos tar , l oc. c i t . 8 8 . 8 9 .

A . Ar icescu , Dacia , NS , 1 4 , 1 970 , p . 2 98 . G r . F lorescu , C apidava , 1 , p . 1 21. p . 2 37.

1 5

I de m , i n Dacia , NS , 1 , 1 957 ,

9 0.

T IR , p . 2 9 , 3 8 , 4 7 , 6 4 , 2 2 , 4 0 , 2 6, 3 4 , 6 0 .

9 1.

A . Ar icescu , o p. c i t ., p . 3 01.

9 2.

J . Weiss , o p. c i t ., p . 4 4 ; I . Barnea , D ID , 2 ,

9 3. 9 4.

P .

R . Vu lpe , HAD , p . 2 90 ;

4 21 ;

T IR , L3 5 , p . 6 3 .

i de m , Ac tes I X c ongr s , p . 1 8-19.

I bid ., p . 1 8 . C IL , I I , 1 3734;

I . Barnea , D ID , 2 , p . 3 84 a nd n ote 8 1;

Em . P opescu ,

o p . c i t ., p . 1 84 . 9 5 . 9 6.

C IL , I I , 1 4314 ;

V . Parvan , U l me tu m . I , p . 5 85 .

V . Parvan , o p . c i t ., p . 5 78 .

n o te 3 ;

p . 2 4 . 9 7.

A . Ar icescu , BM I , 3 , 1 971 , p . 5 8 .

1 6

I . Barnea , Actes IX C ongres

CHAPTER I

TOPOGRAPH ICAL AND S TRATIGRAPH ICAL RESEARCHES ON THE L IMES S CYTH IAE

A .

NOV IODUNU M , D INOGET IA , TROESMIS , BEROE , CARS IU M , CAP IDAVA , AX IOPOLIS , I B IDA , UL METU M , TROPAEU M TRA IAN I .

P l . I .

We mus t s tar t b y s ta t ing t ha t o n t he L i mes S cyth iae we d o n o t h ave d a ta o n t he e ar ly R o man f or ts , s o t ha t we c anno t a t te mp t a ny r econs truct ion o f a f or t p lan .

T h is i s b ecause t he e ar ly s tructures a re c overed b y La te Ro man

c ons truct ions , a nd a lso b ecause o f t he l ack o f d eep e xcava t ions . S o me t races o f e ar ly f or ti f ica t ions

w i th s tone d e fens ive wa l ls h ave b een

f ound o n ly a t S acidava , C apidava a nd T ropaeum .

I n c on tras t , t he s tra t i-

g raph ica l d a ta a nd e v idence f or t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tury o ccupa t ion t here a re much more a bundan t . We w i l l d iscuss i n t he f o l low ing p ages t he t opography a nd s tra t igraphy o f t he f or ts a long t he L ower Danube , f ro m n or th t o s ou th , l eav ing S acidava t o as pecia l d iscuss ion a t t he e nd . NOV IODUNU M N ow I saccea , i n Tu lcea c oun ty.

P l . I I a nd I V .

N oviodunum ( t oge ther w i th Troes m is a nd ( L )lb ida ) were f or ts which were r espons ible f or t he mos t i mpor tan t p ar t o f t he s uperv is ion a nd d e fence o f t he n or thern s ec tor o f t he S cyth ian l imes , wh ich was p erhaps t he mos t t hrea tened f ron t ier t hroughou t t he R o man p er iod . N oviodunu m was men t ioned b y P to le my ( Geograph ia , I I , 1 0 , 2 ) a s a p o l is .

Ag rea t n umber o fb r icks a nd t i les b ear ing t he s ta mp CF M a nd a n

i nscr ip tion w i th t he n ame o f ap rae fec tus c lass is s how t ha t N ov iodunu m was t he h eadquar ters o f t he Ro man Navy o n t he L ower D anube .

I n t he f our th

c en tury i t was t he r es idence o f t he c o m mander o f l eg io II ov ia . I n A . D. 3 69 ab r idge o f s h ips was b u i l t t o e nable t he R o man a r my t o p ass o ver t he Danube , a nd a t rea ty was c oncluded o n as h ip b e tween t he Emperor V a lens a nd t he V is igo th A thanar ic ( Amm ianus Marce l l inus , XXV I I , 5 , 6 ; T hem is t ios , Or ., X ). N oviodunum was s i tua ted a t o ne o f t he mos t h eav i ly u sed c rossings o n t he Danube , a t t he e nd o f t he c en tra l r oad t ha t p assed t hrough Tropaeum , U l me tum a nd ( L ) Ibida , T he g eograph ica l p os i t ion mean t t ha t t he f or tress o f N ov iodunu m e n joyed a n e xce l len t d e fens ive s i tua t ion :

i t was s i tua ted o n ah e igh t o ver-

l ook ing t he l akes a nd marshy l ands wh ich s urrounded i t .

1 7

N ov idunum was i den t i f ied w i th t he f or t a t I saccea , a s f ar b ack a s t he 1 9 th c en tury ,

1

a f ter t he i nscr ip t ions f ro m T roes m is-Ig l i ta were d iscovered , f or-

ming a r e ference p o in t f or t he c a lcu la t ion o f t he d is tances g iven i n t he a nc ien t i t inerar ies .

T he i den t i f ica t ion o f N ov iodunu m was u nan i mous ly a ccepted .

T he a rchaeo logy o f t he v ic in i ty o f N ov iodunu m i s l ess wel l k nown , a l though i ti s t he mos t e x tens ive i n t he p rov ince .

T he o n ly t opograph ic d a ta i s t ha t o f

P . P o Ion ic , a nd i s r a ther b r ie f , r e ferr ing o n ly t othe f or t .

2

Recen t i nves t i-

g a t ions h ave r evea led a nd p ubl ished o n ly t he p lan o f t he a rea n ear t he Danube b ank .

3

I nves t iga t ion o f t he c e me tery a re i n a more a dvanced s ta te .

Recen t ly ,

a er ia l p ho tography h as e nab led u s t o e xp la in s ome o f t he b as ic e le men ts o f t he f or t t opography a nd o f t ha t o f t he s urround ing a rea .

4

A rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions o f a n i n ter m i t ten t a nd r escue c haracter

h ave

b een c arr ied o u t e specia l ly i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he f or t a nd o n t he Danube b ank , r evea l ing t he f ounda t ions a nd l ower p ar ts o f t he wa l ls f or a d is tance o f a bou t 2 50 m , r unn ing i n a n e as t-wes t d irec t ion , b u t w i th p ronounced c hanges o f d irec t ion t o t he wes t .

T he d e fences o n t he n or thern s ide , a s f ar a s t hey

were i nves t iga ted , were 3 -4 m w ide w i th 7 mass ive e x terna l t owers o f

U

f or m a nd a n e n trance p ro tected b y t wo r ounded a nd o ne v ery b ig q uadr i la tera l t ower , a t t he wes tern e x tre m i ty. o n t he e as tern s ide t oo .

5

T races o f a no ther t ower were d iscovered

T o t he s ou th , 3 0 m i ns ide t he f or tress , l ess p re-

c ise ly d a ted s truc tures o f d i f feren t p er iods h ave b een f ound , t he ir d a ting b e ing s uppor ted n o t b y s tra t igraphy b u t b y t he s uperpos i t ion o f s tructures o r t he c o mpos i t ion o f c e men t .

I n t h is way , t he p rec incts were d a ted t o t he p er iod

b etween t he 4 th c en tury ( t he C ons tan t in ian a ge ) a nd t he 6 th c en tury . The b u tt resses t o t he west , wh ich a re s uperposed b y t he p recinc ts, were d a ted t o t he 3 rd c en tury A .D ., p erhaps l a ter r e-used i n p ar t i n t he n ex t p er iod , a nd a n e d if ice w i th t hree n aves a nd a n a pse t o t he n or th b e longs t o t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies .

6

R egard ing t he s tages o f d eve lop men t o f t he f or tress a s a who le , i ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t he o bserva t ions made i n t wo p erpend icu lar s ec t ions o n t he e as t s ide , wh ich p rove t he e x is tence o f t wo p rec inc t wa l ls 1 2 m a par t .

T hus ,

t he s ec t ion o n t he e as t s ide r evea led a p recinc t wa l l 3 .5 m t h ick made o f s tone w i th mor tar m ixed w i th g rave l , a nd 1 2 m i ns ide i t was a no ther p rec inc t wa l l 3m w ide , b u i l t o f s tone w i th h or izon ta l c ourses o f b r icks , b ound w i th mor tar m ixed w i th p ounded b r icks . s ou th s ide .7

T he s a me s i tua t ion was f ound o n t he

The a u thors o f t he e xcava t ion r epor ts p resumed ( i n 1 965 ) t ha t t he e x terna l wa l l was o lder t han t he i n terna l o ne , b u t w i thou t a ny s tra t igraph ic o r n um isma t ic e v idence t o s uppor t t h is v iew .

T he i n terna l 3 m-w ide wa l l s hou ld d a te

f ro m t he p er iod o f D ioc le t ian - C ons tan t ine , c ons ider ing t he d i mens ions a nd t he mode o f c ons truc t ion i nvo lv ing b r ick c ourses . T he 3 .5 m-w ide wa l l may b e s o mewha t l a ter , e xa mp les o f p rec inct

e x tens ions b e ing c o m mon a nd t he

t h ickness b e ing t he s ame a s t ha t o f t he n or th p rec inc t wa l l , w i th U for m t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts , c harac ter is t ic o f t he l a ter p er iod o f t he f or tress ' l i fe ( Theodos ius I?). 8

1 8

On t he n or th s ide o f t he f or tress , t hree p er iods h ave b een d e mons tra ted f or t he p recinc t wa l ls s i tua ted o n t he b ank o f t he Danube , a nd f or s o me i n tern a l c ons truct ions c lose b y t he n or th p recinct . P recise d a t ing o f t hese wa l ls i s v ery d i ff icu l t o w ing t o e x tens ive d is turbance a nd i n s o me c ases c o mp le te d es truct ion b y f l oods , wh ich h as d es troyed t he s equence o f d epos i ts , a nd i n t he a bsence o f s tra t igraph ic d a ta t he c r i ter ia o f t he r e la t ive s uperpos i t ion o f t he wa l ls a nd t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he mor tars u sed i n t h e ir c ons truct ion h ave b een u sed .

9

Al arge r oo m ( No . 1 ;

1 0 x1 4 m ) h as t h ick wa l ls ( 1-1.60 m ) o f wh ich t he

e as t wes t o ne was r ein forced w i th a s hor t ( 3 .50 m ) b u t t h ick ( 2 .50 m ) b u t tress .

T he n or th wa l l i s s em ic ircu lar

u s b e l ieve t ha t i ti s a wa l ltower .

( 8 m l ong , 1m t h ick ) wh ich makes

I ti s j o ined t o t he s ou th-eas t b y a wa l l

7 .50 m l ong , t o al arge r ectangu lar t ower ( 1 6 x1 3 m ) w i th wa l ls 3 .5 m t h ick . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t o n t he e x terna l s ide o f t he N or th p rec inc t ( ZI ) t here a re f our b u t tresses , o ne a t t he n or th-wes t c orner o f t he t ower a nd t he o ther t hree a t r egu lar i n terva ls o f 6 -7 m o n t he e as t s ide o f t he t ower .

Ano ther

l arge b u t tress i s s i tua ted o n t he n or th-eas t c orner o f t he l arge t ower Z .I t o t he e as t o f t he l arge t ower .

Th is was s treng thened b y t hree b ig p i l lars

wh ich f or med a s ing le s truc ture 9 m l ong a nd 2 -3 m w ide wh ich i nc luded s o me o f t he b u t tresses men t ioned a bove .

Fur ther o n ,

t he p recinc t wa l l ( now c a l led

Z. I I ) s udden t ly t urns t o f or m a n u nusua l c ons truct ion , w i th t he n or th a nd wes t s ides a t r igh t a ng les a nd a s ing le s em i-c ircu lar wa l l f acing t he s ou th-eas t . I t was p robably a t ower , t o j udge f ro m i t s l oca tion .

F ro m t h is t ower s tar ts

a 3 mth ick masonry wa l l w i th i n terna l b u t tresses .

A dd i t iona l c onso l ida t ion

t ook p lace i n t wo l a ter p hases , a s c an a lso b e s een i n t he p recinc t wa l ls n earby.

Fro m t h is p o in t , t he n or th p rec inc t wa l ls o f N ov iodunu m , a f ter a

marked c urve , c on t inues t owards t he e as t ( Z.I I I ) o n t he Danube b ank .

T he

p rec inc t wa l l i s v ery t h ick h ere ( 4 m ) , a nd i s f urn ished a t 1 6-17 m i n terva ls w i th l arge U -shaped t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts .

S o f ar s even d efensive t owers

h ave b een f ound o n t he n or th wa l l o f t he f or tress i n i t s f ina l p hase , al eng th o f wa ll a bout 1 70 m l ong .

A t t ower n o . 7 ( 10 m w ide a nd 9 .5 m d eep ) w h ich i s

b e t ter p reserved , t he o uter f ace was made o f c ha lky s tones a nd t he emp lecton o f i rregu lar s tones. T he mor tar c on ta ins f ine g rave l wh ich i nd ica tes, a t l east f or t he t ower b ase , a n e ar l ier c ons truct ion t han t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c ent ury A . D. wh ich i s a lso t rue o f t he p rec inc t wa l l a nd t owers 5 a nd 6 . T he b es t p reserved t owers a re n os . 5a nd 4 , s i tua ted o n ly 8 .50 m a par t .

The ir d i mens ions a re t he s a me a s t hose o f t ower 7 .

T hey were v ery

c are fu l ly c ons tructed f ro m l arge s tones , as ty le o f c ons truc t ion t ha t c on t inues o n t he c ur ta in-wa ll t oo . The emp lecton i s d if feren t a s r egards t he t ype o f mor tar u sed ( w i th g rave l a t t ower 5 a nd p ounded b r icks a t t ower 4 ) . Two s trong wa l ls 2 .50 m w ide were o f o ne b u i ld w i th t he p recinc ts , c ons truc ted p erpend icu lar ly ( w i th b u t tresses ) o n t he i ns ide o f t he f or tress , a nd a re s epara ted b y t he s ame d is tance ( 8 .50 m ) a s a re t owers 4 a nd 5 .

T h is

f ac t a nd a lso t he p rox im i ty o f t hese t wo t owers , i nd ica tes a g a teway i n t he l a te R o man f or tress . T ower n o . 1t o t he n or th-eas t i s v ery mass ive ( 15 m w ide ) a nd a ppears t o b e t he n or th-eas t c orner o f t he f or t .

1 9

T hree ma jor p er iods o f c ons truct ion c an t hus b e d is t ingu ished : I . I . I I .

T he p er iod o f t he wa l ls made w i th s i mple mor tar ; T he s tage when f ine g rave l was u sed i n t he mor tar ; T he s tage when c rushed b r ick was u sed i n t he mor tar (w i th a s ubs id iary p hase o f mor tar w i th f i ne p ounded b r ick ) .

T he mor tar u sed i n t he wa l ls o f t he e as tern g a te ( r oo m n o . 1 7) , i nc luded ab ronze c o in o f Maxen t ius ( Aqu i le ia A .D . 3 08/309 ) , wh ich g ive u s at er m inus a n te q ue m n on f or t he wa l l 's c ons truc t ion w i th p ounded o r b roken b r ick .1 0 S o me wa l ls ( Z. I I I ) h ave b een f ound t o c on ta in o ne k ind o f mor tar a t t he b o t to m a nd a no ther i n t he ir u pper p ar ts , wh ich i nd ica tes more p hases o f c ons truct ion .1 1 We c an n ow p os tu la te f ro m t he a va i lab le d a ta ( so me o f i tc on trad ic tory ) , t he f o l low ing s equence f or t he n or th s ide o f t he f or t o f N ov idunu m .

The

e ar l ies t p er iod c o mpr ises t he wes tern p rec inct wa l l ( Z.I ) w i th t he s em ic ircu lar e x terna l t ower w i th ab u t tress a nd t he r ho mbic t ower , a nd w i th t he p recinc t wa l l i nc l ined t owards t he n or th .

I ti s v ery p robable , t ak ing i n to

a ccoun t t he c o in d iscovered i n t he t h ird p er iod c onstruct ion , t ha t t h is p ar t o f t he p recinc t wa l l b e longs t o t he l a te R o man p er iod , t o a t l eas t t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury A .D .

The wa l l r unn ing t owards t he n or th-eas t may a lso b e

c onnec ted w i th t he c ons truc t ion o f t h is p er iod , wh ich we t h ink may j us t i fy t he p rec inct s truc ture a nd t he p os i t ion o f t he o dd ly-shaped t ower w i th t he i n terna l s em i-c ircu lar s ide .

T he l ine o f t he wa l l , t he a fore men t ioned t ower

a nd t he sma l l s em i-circu lar t ower t o t he w cst , t he s purs a nd b u t tresses , a l l p rove t he a dap ta t ion o f t he c onstruct ion t o t he l oca l c ond i t ion o f t he g round . I t means , t ak ing i n to a ccoun t w i th u se o f mor tar w i th p ounded b r ick , t ha t t he l arge s quare t ower a dded l a ter i s c on te mporary w i th t he l a tes t p recinc t wa l l , t ha t o n t he e as t s ide w i th t owers 1 a nd 4 . t ha t t he wes t s ide o f t he p rec inct

Th is migh t a lso p rove

s t i l l f unc t ioned i n t he l a te p er iod , when

t he u pper p ar t o f t he wa l l h ad p robab ly b een r ebu i l t a nd when t he l arge r ect angu lar t ower was a dded t o i t .

T he c o mpos i t ion o f t he mor tar w i th p ounded

b r ick a nd n o t w i th g rave l o r p ieces o f b roken b r ick , a s i n t he wes tern p recinc t wa l l w i th i t s s em ic ircu lar t owers , may i nd ica te a n ew p hase , o r i t may b e a n i n ter med ia te s tage b e tween t he l a te wa l ls w i th g rave l i n t he mor tar ( t owers 5 -7) a nd t he l a te wa l ls w i th b roken b r icks ( t owers 1 -4 ) , o r i t may b e c on te mporary w i th t he l as t .

more p robably

Fur ther p roof o f t he e x is tence o f t he

wes t wa l l i n t he l a te p er iod i s g iven b y t he c onso l ida ted wa l ls wh ich i nclude t he b u t tresses a nd Z .I I ( c on ta in ing mor tar o f t he t ype u sed i n t he l a te p er iod ) a nd s pec ia l ly t he t h ick p rec inc t wa l ls ( Z.I I I ) wh ich make a c lear c onnec tion b e tween t he t wo p ar ts o r t wo p r incipa l p er iods ( ear ly a nd l a te ) o f t he wa l ls o f N ov iodunu m f or t . The s econd s tage i s r epresen ted b y t he 4 mth ick wa l l w i th t owers 5 , 6 a nd 7 w i th f ine g rave l i n t he ir mor tar .

D esp i te t he d i f ference i n mor tar

c o mpos i t ion , t he f orm , s ize a nd s pacing o f t he t owers c lose ly r ese mb les t ha t o n t he e as t s ide , w i th t owers 1 -4 , a nd p resumab ly r epresen ts a s tage im med ia te ly a n ter ior t o t he l as t o ne ( da ted b y t he c o in o f Maxen t ius , a nd t herefore t o C ons tan t in ian t imes a t t he e ar l ies t ) . We h ave , t herefore , as ing le e nc losure o f t he l a te R o man f or tress

a t t he

e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury s tar ted i n t he t ime o f D ioc le t ian , a nd p erhaps i n t he f irs t 2 -3 y ears o f t he 4 th c en tury , a nd c on t inued ( or r ebu i l t ) i n t he t ime o f C ons tan t ine t he G rea t , a f ter A . D. 3 09-310 . 2 0

Fur ther p roof t ha t we h ave a s ing le l a te R o man p rec inct w i th t owers 1 -7 i s g iven b y t he e n trance-ga te w i th i t s t owers ( nos . 4a nd 5 ) v ery c lose t oge ther , a nd wh ich h ave a d i f feren t mor tar c o mpos i t ion .

T he f ina l r e-

b ui ld ing migh t b e g enera l ly d a ted t o t he p er iod o f Anas tas ius a nd J us t in ian . H owever , d esp i te t he l ack o f s tra t igraph ic e v idence c oncern ing t he p er iods o f c ons truc t ion , we c an make s o me d educ t ions e spec ia l ly c oncern ing t he w es tern p ar t .

The t h ickness o f t he p recinc t wa l l , t he U -shape o f t he t owers

a nd t he ir s pacing , a l l p rove t ha t f ro m t ower 1 t o t ower 7 t he n or th s ide o f t he f or tress was i n u se f ro m t he 4 th t o t he 6 th c en tur ies . N ear t he n or th wa l l v ar ious b u i ld ings h ave b een d iscovered , among t he m t he t her mae a nd ab as i l ica . N ov iodunum h ad ( a ccord ing t o P . P o Ion ic ) ar ough ly t r iangu lar s hape . T he e xcava t ions o f 1 956 h ave o n ly d e f ined t he l i ne o f t he n or th wa l l a long i t s e as tern h a lf , w i thou t d e ter m in ing i t s c onnect ion w i th t he o ther s ides , b u t a er ia l p ho tographs h ave p er m i t ted u s t o c ons truct a more a ccura te p lan o f t he f or t ,

1 2

more c o mp lex a nd d i f feren t i n s o me r espec ts f ro m t ha t r ecor-

d ed b y P . P o Ion ic.

T he f or tress h as t he g enera l f or m o f al ong t rapezium

w i th t he wes tern s ide n arrowed , b u t t he o ther s ides p erfect ly s tra igh t . T he wes t s ide , wh ich i s t he s hor tes t , h as s u f fered e x tens ive d es truct ion . T he l ong s ide , w i th a n or th-west - s outh-east o r ien ta t ion , af ter f o llow ing a s tra igh t l ine f or a t h ird o f i t s l eng th t urns n or thwards f or a s hor t d istance b efore t urn ing b ack t o t he e ar l ier l i ne , f ina l ly t urn ing a l i t t le t o t he n or th b efore j o in ing t he e as t wa l l a t ar igh t a ng le .

The e ast s ide r uns i n as tra igh t

l i ne f or a t h ird o f i t s l eng th a nd t hen i tc hanges d irect ion t owards t he n or th . T he l ine o f t h is s ide c ou ld b e s een b o th i n t he l im i ts o f t he d eposi ts o f o ccupat i on ma ter ia l e x tend ing f ro m t he f or tress a nd t he d irect ion , a lso e asi ly v is ib le , o ft he d i tch i n f ron t o f t he wa l ls, t ha t f o l lows t he l ong s outh s ide f or i t s e n t ire l eng th . T he q ua l i ty o f t he p ho tographs a nd t he much d is turbed g round d id n o t a l low l oca t ion o f t he t owers a nd g a tes .

H owever , a n e n trance i n to t he f or t

h as b een p resu med t o e x is t i n t he s ou th-wes t c orner , u p t o wh ich r uns a n a nc ien t r oad c om ing f ro m t he s ou th-wes t , t umu l i.

wh ich i s f l anked b y s o me

T here migh t p oss ibly b e a n e n trance i n t he m idd le o f t he s ou thern

s ide a nd a no ther o n t he e as tern s ide . I n c onnect ion w i th t he a rea i ns ide t he f or t , e xa m ina t ion o f a er ia l p ho tographs d id n o t r evea l t he p lan o f t he f ina l u rban s tage .

S t i l l , i ti s v ery i mpor tan t

t o n o te t ha t o n t he p ho tographs t aken i n 1 969 , a n a no ma ly c ons is t ing o f ad ark s tr ip a cco mpan ied b y al i gh t o ne c ou ld b e s een c ross ing t he f or t f ro m t he s ou th-wes t t o t he n or th-eas t i n as tra igh t l i ne , s tar t ing f ro m a p o in t o n t he s ou thern wa l l al i t t le t o t he wes t o f t he c en tre a nd r each ing t he n or th wa l l where t he l a te wa l l p ro jects o u t f ro m t he b ank ( Z.I I I ). T h is o bserva t ion f ro m t he a er ia l p hotographs , c orrobora ted b y t he f ac t t ha t p rec ise ly a t t he p o in t o f j unc t ion t he l a te n or th p recinc t wa l l t urns s ou th , l ed u s t o s uppose t ha t t he l a tes t n or th p rec inc t n o l onger i nc luded t o t he wes t t he e n t ire a rea o f t he f or tress , b u t o n ly a more l im i ted e x ten t o f g round .

2 1

T herefore , we wou ld h ave i n t he l a te R o man e poch a h a lving i n a rea f ro m t he p rev ious l im i ts , t he f or tress h av ing a t rapezo ida l p lan . I nfor ma t ion a bou t t he e x tra- mura l a rea i s a lmos t c o mp lete ly l ack ing , e xcep t f or t he men t ion b y P . P o Ionic o f a n e x tens ive s e t t le men t a nd o f a5 0 m l ong r a mpar t o n t he e as t s ide . A er ia l p ho tography h as a lso r evea led v ery i mpor tan t f ea tures i n t h is a rea .

T hree e ar then f or t if ica t ions h ave b een r e-

v ea led , w i th c oncentr ic b anks a nd d i tches , d esigned t o p ro tect t he s e tt le men t o uts ide t he f or t wa l ls .

T he f or t if ica t ions r un p ara l le l t o , a nd a t ad istance

f rom , t he e ast a nd s outh s ides o f t he f or ts , s tar ting f ro m t he Danube b ank . T he d efence n eares t t o t he f or t s tar ts a t 1 70 m f ro m t he n or th-eas t c orn er o f t he f or t a nd s tar ts b y r unn ing p ara l le l , w i th i t s e as tern s ide , a f ter wh ich i td escr ibes a c urve c orrespond ing t o t he s ou th-eas t c orner o f t he f or t . T he b ank i s v ery we l l p reserved a nd t he d i tch i s d eep .

T he b ank h ad n o s tone

r eve t men ts , a s c an b e s een f ro m t he f ew s ec t ions r ecorded . A long t he c urved s ec t ion a nd f or a d is tance a long t he s ou th s ide , t here i s as econd b ank r unn ing p ara l le l t o t he d i tch o n t he e x terna l s ide .

T he l as t s ec t ion c on t inues i n a

s tra igh t l i ne f ro m e as t t o wes t d iverg ing a way f ro m t he f or tress .

T he i n ter-

r up t ion o f t he b ank i n t he s ou th-eas t c orner c orresponds t o t he a nc ien t r oad wh ich r an u p t o t he f or tress . T he midd le e ar thwork f o l lows t he l i ne o f t he f irs t r ampar t , s o met i mes a pproach ing w i th in 3 0 m o f i t . b u t f o l lows a more i rregu lar l ine , n o t s o we l l p reserved b ecause o f a gr icu l tura l works .

I tr eaches t he wa ter ' sidge a t t he

s a me p o in t a s d oes b ank I . T he t h ird e ar thwork p ro tec ts a w ide a rea , a bou t f our t imes g rea ter t han t he f or t i t sel f .

I tg enera l ly f o l lows a w ide c urve a nd i s f ur thest a way f ro m :

t he f or t o n t he s outh s ide . A er ia l p ho tographs h ave t hus r evea led a l arge e x tra- mura l a rea e nclosed b y t hree c oncen tr ic l i nes o f e ar thworks w i th b anks a nd d i tches , s how ing a t t he s ame t ime t he g rea t f luc tua t ions i n s ize o f t he b ig u rban f or t i f ied s e t t lemen t o f N ov iodunum a t d i f feren t p er iods . T he p roble m o f t he d a t ing o f t hese e ar thworks a nd o f t he e x tra- mura l a reas r e ma ins i n t he s tage o f h ypo thes is ; i tc an o n ly b e s o lved b y f ur ther e xcava t ions .

F or a r e la t ive c hrono logy we c an u se t he g enera l h is tor ica l

d a ta a va i lable t o u s o n u rban d eve lop men t i n S cy th ia M inor , wh ich w ou ld i nd ica te t ha t t he mos t e x tens ive e x tra- mura l a rea , t ha t i s t he t h ird e ar thwork , d a tes f ro m t he 2 nd-3rd c en tur ies A . D., wh i le t he n eares t e ar thwork t o t he f or tress , t ha t w i th t he d i tch a nd t wo b anks, i s t he l a test ( 5 th-6th c en tur ies) . T he mos t f avourable c ond i t ions f or t he a ppearance a nd d eve lop men t o f a n o ccup ied a rea o f s uch l arge e x ten t a s t ha t p ro tected b y t he t h ird e ar thwork were f ound i n t he 2 nd-3rd c en tur ies A . D.

I n l a te R o man t imes t he f or ts

t he mse lves c on tract ( Cap idava , N ov iodunu m , H istr ia ) .

1 3

The e ar ly f or t o f N ov iodunum was r e markab ly l arge , t he l ong s ides e ach measur ing a pprox i ma te ly 5 00 m .

I th as b een p roved a rchaeo log ica l ly

t ha t a t l eas t o n t he e as t s ide t he e ar ly f or t was l arger t han t he o ne d a ting f ro m t he 4 th-6th c en tur ies A .D.

T he p er iod o f max i mum e x ten t b e longs v ery

p robab ly t o t he 2 nd-3rd c en tur ies A .D., t he t ime when l arge e x tra- mura l s e t t le men ts a re d eve lop ing e as t a nd s ou th o f t he f or t , s urrounded b y e ar thworks

2 2

( l ine I I ) .

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o d ec ide when t h is d e fens ive l i ne was c ons tructed .

We migh t t h ink o f t he i nvas ion o f t he C os toboc i i n A . D. 1 70.

We a lso d o n o t

k now h ow b ad ly N ov idunum was a f fec ted b y t he c r ises i n t he 3 rd c en tury , b u t t ha t i t was a f fec ted i s s hown b y t he c ons truct ion a t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c ent ury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th

o f an ew e ar thwork f o l low ing a d i f feren t l ine

o n t he n or thern a nd e as tern s ides , a nd p robably e nclos ing a sma l ler a rea . We t h ink i tp laus ib le t o s uppose t ha t t h is n ew c ons truct ion mus t b e c lose ly c onnec ted w i th t he i ns ta l la t ion a t N ov iodunum i n t he l as t y ears o f t he 3 rd c en tury o f t he L eg io

II ov ia .

The n ew f or t mus t b e t he work a nd h eadquar ters

o f t he n ew L eg ion , h av ing a mi l i tary t ype o f wa l l w i th a l l t he l a te a rch i tec tura l c haracter is t ics . T he a na log ies w i th T roes m is-Eas t e rec ted b y L eg io I H ercu l ia a nd w i th o ther l a te f or ts a re o bv ious . T he f ac t t ha t L eg io II ov ia a nd L eg io I H ercu l ia w ere f i rs t c rea ted o n t he o ccas ion o f D ioc le t ian 's m i l i tary r e for ms i nd ica te t ha t t he n ew f or ts w ere e rected a t N ov iodunu m a nd Troes m is i n t he t ime o f t he T e trarchy. We h ave a rchaeo log ica l d a ta o n ly f or t he n or th a nd e as t s ides wh ich r ema ined i n u se , w i th r ebu i ld ings , u n t i l t he 6 th c en tury.

F or t hese t wo s ides ,

a t l eas t , t he r es tora t ion u nder J us t in ian mus t b e u nders tood o n ly a s ar epa ir ing o f t he o ld s tructures .

I n t he l a te p er iod , t he u rban e x tra- mura l a rea p robably

u nderwen t t wo s uccess ive r educt ions i n e x ten t . T opograph ic r esearch a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f a er ia l p ho tographs h ave made s o me i mpor tan t c on tr ibu t ions t o o ur k now ledge

o f t he l a te Ro man r oads .

A er ia l p ho tographs s how a l o t o f r oads c om ing t owards t he f or t f ro m v ar ious d irect ions , f ro m t he s ou th-wes t a nd t he s ou th .

T he mos t impor tan t r oad ,

f o l low ing a s ou th-wes t -n or th-eas t l i ne , i s a lso s tra igh t a nd c an b e s een f or 5 km , w i th a l igned t umu l i o n o ne s ide o r t he o ther . 1 km f ro m t he f or t , t he r oad d iv ides .

A t ad is tance o f a bou t

T h is r oad r uns t owards t he s ou th ,

c onnec t ing a t L ibida w i th t he c en tra l i mper ia l v ia .

T he s econd r oad v is ib le

o n t he a er ia l p ho tographs , l y ing wes t o f t he f irs t a nd r unn ing s ou th- e as t , a lso d iv ides a t a bou t 1 km f ro m t he f or t .

I ti s p robab ly d irec ted t owards

T roes m is . At h ird r oad , r unn ing e as t-wes t , was p robab ly d irec ted t owards A rubiu m o r D inoge t ia . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese r oads , t here was o ne r unn ing a long t he b ank t owards A egyssus a nd D inoge t ia .

D INOGETIA T he f or t o f D inoget ia i s s i tua ted o n ar ocky i s land k nown t oday a s " B iser icu t ,a" ( t he l i t t le c hurch ) , i n t he t err i tory o f G arvän v i l lage.

I th as

e xce l len t n a tura l d efences , b e ing s urrounded b y wa ter a nd marsh .1 4 ( P l . V ) . D inoget ia i s men t ioned b y P to le my ( Geograph ia , I I , 8 , 2 , 1 0 , 1 ) a s l y ing o n t he l e f t b ank o f t he Danube a t t he mou th o f t he r iver S ire t .

T he

An ton ine I t inerary ( 2 25 , 5 ) p laces D inoge t ia o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he Danube , b e tween A rubium a nd N ov iodunu m .

I ti s a lso men t ioned i n t he N o t i t ia

D ign i ta tum ( 21 ' . XXX IX , 2 4 ) a nd t he Ravenna C os mography ( IV , 1 , 1 7).

2 3

Br icks h ave b een d iscovered d a t ing f ro m t he e ar ly R o man p er iod a nd b ear ing s ta mps o f t he L eg io V Macedon ica , C ohors IC i l icu m , C ohors I Ma t t iacoru m a nd C lassis F lavia Moesica , wh ich wou ld c on f ir m t he e x istence o f a n e ar ly f or t if ica t ion , n o t y et d iscovered . A f ter r esearch a nd e xcava t ions , we c o me t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t he f or t o f D inoget ia was e rec ted a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury.

An e ar l ier

f or t i f ica t ion h as n o t y e t b een f ound , b u t o n ly a c iv i l s e t t le men t d a t ing f ro m t he 2 nd c en tury.

1 5

T he p recinct wa l l i s 3m t h ick a nd s urrounded t he r ocky p la teau ( area 1h a ) o f t he i s land , t he i rregu lar p lan o f t he f or tress r epresen t ing a n e xa mp le o f a d jus t men t a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he c ond i t ions a nd n a tura l c on for ma t ion o f t he g round . The b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls u sed a re s ch is t , b onded w i th l ime mor tar , s and a nd p ounded b r ick . S o me t i mes t he s tone a l terna tes w i th c ourses o f b r ick . L i mestone b locks w ere r are ly u sed , b eing emp loyed i n c on junct ion w i th r eu sed s tones o n ly f or t he o uter f ace o f t he p r inc ipa l g a te , a nd f or t he l i t t le west g a te .

F or t he r es t o f t he wa l ls t he b ui lders u sed l arger s tones i n o pus

i ncer tu m s o me t i mes a l terna t ing w i th t he b r ick c ourses. made o f t he u sua l c ae men ta , w i th g ood l ime mor tar . T he p r incipa l g a te o f t he f or tress i s

The emp lecton i s

1 6

s i tua ted o n t he s ou th-eas t s ide a nd

t wo o ther sma l l e n trances h ave b een f ound o n t he n or th a nd wes t s ides . D inoge t ia h as 1 4 e x terna l t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts . t hree a t t he e as t , s ou th a nd n or th-wes t c orners ; n or th-eas tern a nd s ou th-wes tern wa l ls ;

T hese c o mpr ise :

9U -shaped t owers o n t he

a nd t wo U -shaped t owers c lose t o-

g ether , f lank ing t he p r inc ipa l e n trance g a te .

I ns ide t he c orner t owers a nd

i n t ower n o . 8a t t he n or th c orner , a mass ive p i l lar s uppor ted f l oors w i th wooden j o ists .

1 7

We s ha l l d escr ibe h ere o n ly s o me e le men ts o f t he f or t i f ica t ions ( cur ta inwa l ls , t owers , g a tes ) , whose d e ta i ls a re b es t p reserved a nd wh ich a re t yp ica l o f t he r es t . Cur ta in-wa l ls A : 2 0 .80 m l ong ;

E :

2 1 m l ong ;

B :

2 2.25 m l ong ;

2 1 m l ong , a nd s o o n .

C :

2 0 m l ong ;

D :

T h is s hows t ha t t he t owers were

p laced a t r egu lar i n terva ls , a t a pprox i ma te ly e qua l d is tances o f 2 0-23 m .

1 8

T ower n o . 1 0 c ons is ted o f as em i-c ircu lar wa l l c onnected b y t wo s hor t s tra igh t s ect ions t o a d jacen t l eng ths o f c urta in wa l l . b e tween 2 .60-2 .85 m .

T he t h ickness o f t he w a lls v ar ied

The g a te o f t he f or tress i s 2 .50 m w ide .

The f l ank ing

t owers a re 6 m d eep a nd t he d ia meter o f t he s em i-c ircu lar t ower i s 1 6 m . There a re e xac tp ara l le ls i n t he t owers a t C ap idava a nd Troes m is . T ower n o . 5 , wh ich i s U -shaped , i s 5 .50 m w ide a nd 8 .20 m d eep ; t h ickness o f. the wa l l i s 2 .60-2.80 m.

t he

Wi th o n ly sma l l v ar ia t ions ( t owers

7a nd 8 a re l arger ) , t hese d i mens ions a pp ly t o a l l t he U-shaped t owers a t

-

D inoge t ia . T ower n o . 2h as a n e longa ted h orseshoe s hape ( 5 .70 m l ong a nd 4 m w ide ) The t h ickness o f t he t ower wa l ls i s 2 .40 m. i n t he f or t wa l l .

Ag a teway 1 m w ide was made

On ly t he l ower r oo m , u sed a s as tore , s urv ives .

p la tfor m a nd t he s ta irs were made o f wood , i n t he a u thor 's o p in ion .

2 4

T he

T ower 2 i s b u i l t d irec t ly o n t he r ock , b e ing b onded i n to t he wa l l o f t he f or t .

T he e x terna l f ace i s b u i l t o f b locks a nd t he emp lec ton i s o f c ae men ta .

The mor tar i s made o f l ime , s and , g rave l a nd a sma l l p ropor t ion o f p ounded b r ick . T he e n trance g a te . I n i t ia l ly , t he s ou th eas tern g a te a t D inoge t ia c ons is ted o f a n o pening 2 m w ide i n t he p recinc t wa l l , t ha t was c losed b y a f o ld ing d oor l ocked b y a wooden b ar , t he s ocke ts f or wh ich s urv ive i n t he l a tera l wa l ls . T he e n trance was d e fended b y aq uadr i la tera l i n ter ior t ower ( 1 1 x 8m ) , i n t he n or th-wes t wa l l o f wh ich was a s econd e n trance , 2 .50 m w ide .

T h is s ys te m i s a l mos t t he s ame a s t ha t a t S acidava , a l lowing f or t he

d i f ferences o f p lan a nd s i tua t ion . T he e n trance g a te was d e fended o u ts ide b y t wo U -shaped t owers , 6m a par t . T he ir f orm i s t he s a me a s t hose a t D inoget ia a nd t he ir p os i t ion ing i s c haracter is t ic o f 4 th c en tury f or t i f ica t ions . T he l a te R o man f or t was b u i l t d irec t ly o n t he n a tura l r ock .

B ecause

o f t he i rregu lar i t ies o f t he r ock , t wo s uccess ive l eve l l ings were u nder taken , r epresen ted b y t wo mass ive d epos i ts i n wh ich a re f ound p o t tery f ro m t he i s t -2 nd c en tur ies , a nd a bove wh ich l i e t he 4 th - 6 th c en tury l eve ls .

T he g round

was l eve l led s o t ha t t he c ur ta in-wa l l c ou ld b e b u i l t d irec t ly o n t he r ock , a t a l eve l 1 .50 m a bove t he f ounda t ions o f t he wa l l o f t he c ornertower .1 9 Ano ther o bserva t ion made a s e ar ly a s 1 951 t he i n terna l wa l ls were c ons truc ted :

c oncerns t he way i n wh ich

t he s tone wa l ls b onded w i th c lay b elong

t o al a te p er iod , p oss ib ly t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies , a nd c er ta in ly a f ter Anas tas ius , b u t t he wa l ls b u i l t o f b e t ter s tone ( s ch is t ) b ohded w i th mor tar ( l i me , s and , p ounded b r ick ) , s o me t i mes w i th t he s tone a l terna t ing w i th b r ick c ourses , d a te f ro m t he 4 th c en tury ( perhaps C ons tan t ine I ) . S o me b u i ldings d a t ing f ro m t he 4 th-5 th c en tur ies d eserve c loser a t ten t ion . I n t he m idd le o f t he f or t , t owards t he n or th-west , ab ig , r ectangu lar b ui ld ing h as b een d iscovered w i th s tone a nd mor tar wa lls 1 m t h ick , b ui lt u sing t he s a me t echn ique a s t he p rec inct wa l l .

I ti s p aved w i th b r icks a nd i nside i t

a re f our b ig s tone a nd b r ick p i llars t o s uppor t t he r oof .

I t was c lear ly b ui l t

a t t he s a me t i me a s t he f or t if ica t ions, a nd i s v ery p robab ly t he p r incip ia . Ano ther b u i ld ing , among t he mos t i mpor tan t i n t er ms o f t he p lan a nd u rban o rgan isa t ion o f t he f or t , i s t he b as i l ica . o f t he f or t .

I ti s l oca ted i n t he s ou thern c orner

I ti s 1 6 m w ide , t he p r inc ipa l a x is b e ing o r ien ta ted n or theas t-

s ou thwest , p ara l le l t o t he e as t p recinct wa l l , a nd 9 .7 0 m d eep .

T he i n ter ior

i s d iv ided i n to t hree n aves . T he a pse i s a t t he n or th-east s ide . T he wa l ls a re 0 .70 m t h ick , made o f s tone ( and s o me b r icks ) b onded w i th mor tar . T he e ast wa l l i s b ui l t o n to t he f or t wa l l , s o t he e n trance i s p laced o n t he w est s ide .

The b asi lica was p aved w i th b r icks a nd t he s uperpos ing o f t wo

p ave men t l eve ls s hows t wo p er iods. "

L a ter , i n J ustin ian ic t imes a p en ta-

g ona l wa ll was a dded o n t he e astern s ide a round t he a pse .

The n ave was

d ivided i n to t hree p ar ts a nd t he t ransverse r oo m o f t he n ar thex i s m issing , wh ich s hows t ha t t he b asi lica was b u i l t b efore t he 5 th c en tury , t he n ar thex b e ing a Greek i nnova t ion o f t he 5 th c en tury , s pecif ic t o t he p a laeo-chr ist ian b as i licae i n C onstan t inop le , ma in land Greece a nd t he A egean a rea i n t he 5 th6 th c en tur ies A .D .

I t was n o t iced a s f ar b ack a s t he 1 953 e xcava t ions t ha t i t

2 5

i t was a l a te c ons truc t ion , d a t ing a t t he e ar lies t f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he 4 th c en tury , v ery p robab ly f ro m t he r e ign o f C ons tan t ius I ( 340-361) . A t t he e nd o f t he 4 th c en tury o r i n t he 5 th c en tury t he b as i lica a t D inoge t ia was d est royed a nd was c er ta in ly r ebu i lt i n t he r e ign o f J us t in ian .

2 1

On t he e as t s ide , o ccupying t he s pace b e tween t he p r inc ip ia a nd t he p rec inc t wa l l , t here a re t he

r u ins o f al arge h ouse ( d o mus ) b u i l t i n t he 4 th c en tury.

The wa l ls , 0 .70-0 .90 m t h ick a nd , u p t o 1 .50 m h igh , a re b u i l t o f s tone b onded w i th mor tar , c on t inu ing i n o pus mix tum .

T he e n trance i s o n t he e as t s ide ,

a nd l eads t o a n i nner c our tyard s urrounded b y ap or t ico s uppor ted b y p i l lars . The p ave men t i s made o f b r icks .

Wes t o f t h is p er is tyle t here was i n i t ia l ly

o ne r oo m , l a ter d iv ided i n to t hree b y i n terna l wa l ls , a nd t o t he e as t a no ther f ive r oo ms .

N or th o f t he p er is tyle t here was a l arar ium .

A t t he e nd o f t he

4 th c en tury o r a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th t he h ouse was d es troyed , a nd was t hen r ebu i l t i n Anas ta t ius o r J us t in ian 's r e ign , u p t o A . D. 5 59 . T h is d o mus , wh ich we c ons ider t o b e t he p r inc ipia ,h as g rea t s ign i f icance f or t he u nders tand ing o f c iv i l ian l i fe i n t he f or t o n t he S cy th ian l imes , o f t ownp lann ing a nd a rch i tec ture , o f s ocia l d i f ferences a nd o f t he B yzan t ine s tyle o f t he a rch i tecture o f t he f or t . T he t hermae a t D inoge t ia , ab u i ld ing o f ag rea t impor tance , c ur ious ly , o u ts ide t he d e fences .

a re s i tua ted

T he b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls a nd t he mode o f

c ons truct ion a re t he s a me a s t hose o f t he d e fence wa l l ( l oca l s tone , b r ick a pses , mor tar w i th p owdered b r ick ) .

T he t her mae measure 2 5 x1 5 m.

They h ave t hree a pses , t wo w i th s em i-c ircu lar i nner f aces b u t w i th t he o uter f ace f or med f ro m t hree s tra igh t s ec t ions .

T h is i s av ery w idespread t ype o f

a pse b eg inn ing o n ly i n t he r e ign o f J us t in ian a nd t hose a t D inoge t ia a re t he e ar lies t d iscovered u p t o t he p resen t t ime , b eing d a ted t o t he t ime o f C ons tant ine Io r h is s ons .

T he b u i lding c eased t o e x is t a t t he e nd o f t he 4 th c en tury

o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury .

2 2

The t own p lan o f t he i n ter ior o f t he f or t was modi f ied d ur ing t he g enera l r ebu i ld ing wh ich o ccured u nder Anas tas ius a nd e spec ia l ly u nder J us t in ian . The 4 th c en tury b u i ld ings r e ma ined u nmod i f ied , o r o n ly s l igh t ly mod i f ied . They a re s t i l l v ery f ew ( e .g . t he p r incip ia ) .

A l though t he ma jor i ty o f t hese

b u i ld ings b e long t o t he 4 th-5 th c en tur ies a nd were ma in ta ined w i th many r eb u i ld ings d own t o t he 6 th c en tury , t he i n ter ior p lan o f t he f or t s hows mos t n otably t he 6 th c en tury t own p lan . E specia l ly i n s o me a reas s uch a s s ec tor B , i n t he 6 th c en tury ( under J us t in ian ) a l l t he f ormer s truc tures were c o mp le te ly d es troyed a nd t he s i te c leared d own t o t he r ock , i n o rder t o r ebu i ld n ew e d i f ices .2 3 D esp i te t he ir s ee ming ly i rregu lar a nd a sy m me tr ica l a spect , t he h ouses o f t he 6 th c en tury d e f ine a n umber o f s tra igh t , s hor t a nd n arrow s tree ts , p ar t o f a n o vera l l s tree t p lan o r r oad s ys te m , a nd b ased o n r e la t ive ly p ara l le l a nd p erpend icu lar l i nes . T he wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ings w ere 0 .70 m t h ick w i th f ound a t ions u p t o 1 .50 m d eep , made o f i rregu lar s ch is t o r g ran i te b locks a nd b onded w i th c lay. I n many b u i ld ings t he u pper p ar ts o f t he wa l ls , a bove 1 .50-2 .0 m f ro m t he g round , were b u i l t o f a dobe a f ter t he d estruc t ion a nd t he t e mporary i n terr up t ion o f l i fe i n A .D . 5 59 , i n s o me p laces , e spec ia l ly i n t he n or thern p ar t o f

2 6

t he f or tress .

Bu i ld ings c ons tructed i n a n i n fer ior t echn ique w i th s o me wa l ls

b onded w i th b lack e ar th were b u i l t o ver t he e ar l ier r u ins .

A ccord ing t o t he

s tra t igraphy , t h is p hase d a tes f ro m t he l as t t hree o r f our d ecades o f t he 6 th c en tury A .D .

There i s h owever a c er ta in t endency t owards u rban o rgan isa t ion ,

more o bv ious i n t he 4 th c en tury t han i n t he 6 th .

T he l arger b u i ld ings a re

s i tua ted i n t he midd le o f t he f or tress , t he b ig p rae tor ium l y ing a t t he e as tern e nd a nd t he p r incip ia a t t he n or thern e nd o f t he ma in s tree t t ha t r an f ro m t he ma in g a te .

T he b as i l ica o ccup ied t he s ou th c orner b ecause , when i t was b u i l t ,

a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury , n o o ther c en tra l a rea r e ma ined v acan t . G enera l ly , t he s ou thern h a l f ( sec tors B a nd C ) , s i tua ted n ear t he g a te

o n

b o th s ides o f t he ma in s tree t a nd e nd ing w i th t he b ig c en tra l b u i ld ings r epres en ts ab e t ter o rgan ised a rea , more r egu lar , a nd w i th l arge , r ich h ouses , wh i le t he n or th s ide o f t he f or tress s i tua ted b eh ind t he p rae tor ium h as a w ind ing s tree t s ys te m , w i th modes t h ouses o f o ne o r t wo l i t t le r oo ms . A s e ar ly a s t he 1 951 e xcava t ions , we n o ted t ha t t he l a te Ro man f or tress d a t ing f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury h ad b een e rec ted d irec t ly o n t he n a tura l r ock o f t he i s land o f B iser icuta .

The r ocky s urface b e ing i rregu-

l ar , t wo s uccessive l eve l lings w ere made i n i t ia l ly w i th t wo s tra ta o f s tones, p o t tery o f t he l s t-2nd c en tur ies , a nd e ar th . d epos i ts l ay t he l a te R o man s tra tum .

On ly a bove t hese t wo l evel ling

I th as b een f ound t ha t d epos i ts d a t ing

2 4

f ro m t he 4 th c en tury a re n o t a lways f ound a bove t hese l evel l ing d epos i ts . T h is i s e xp la ined b y t he r e mova l o f ma ter ia l a nd t he c lean ing o f t he g round wh ich t ook p lace i n t he 6 th c en tury p r ior t o t he e rec t ion o f n ew b u i ld ings . A l though a t t he t ime when a rea A was e s x cava ted t here were n o v ery a ccura te r ecords k ep t o f t he s tra t igraphy , s t i l l a n impor tan t f act was n o ted , n ame ly t he e x is tence o f t wo s tra ta b e long ing t o t he l a te R o man e poch. U nder t he f our th l eve l , d a t ing f ro m t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod , t here was a f i f th l eve l o f e ar th w i th r ed c o loured d ebr is c o mpr is ing d i f feren t ma ter ia ls ( l amps , t yp ica l o f t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies , ab r ick f ound i n s i tu s ta mped w i th t he n ame o f Anas tas ius , a6 th c en tury c o in , f ragmen ts o f u n f ired b r icks f ro m t he u pper p ar ts o f t he s tone wa l ls b onded w i th e ar th wh ich d a te f ro m t h is p er iod). B e low t h is d epos i t , d a ted b y t he e xcava tors g enera l ly t o t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies ,

2 5

( i nthe p resen t a u thor 's v iew t he 6 th c en tury ) , c ame a l eve l o f d ense c lay , c on ta in ing p o t tery ( amphorae , h igh-qua l i ty r ed d ishes , l a mps a nd c o ins o f t he 4 th c en tury , d a t ing f ro m t he C ons tan t in ian p er iod ) .

T he wa l ls i n t h is l eve l

were b u i l t i n l oca l s tone , b onded w i th f ine q ua l i ty mor tar ( l i me , s and , p ounded b r ick ) , t he s a me a s t he mor tar u sed i n t he o u ter wa l ls o f t he f or t i t se lf , a s t he a u thors r e marked .

T hese o bserva t ions i nd ica ted a d a te i n t he 4 th c en tury ,

t he s ix th l evel b e ing t herefore c on te mporary w i th t he o ccupa t ion t ha t f o l lowed t he e rec t ion o f t he d e fence wa l ls f ro m t he ir f ounda t ion t o t he f i rs t r ebu i ld ing . I th as b een e stab l ished t ha t l eve l n o . 5 , a nd i n t he p resen t a uthor ' so p in ion t h is t h ick s tra tu m c on ta ins many o ccupa t ion l eve ls, i s a lso t ha t wh ich c on ta ins t he l arge b asi lica i n t he s outh c orner o f t he f or t . w ere d iscovered s ix b r ick

2 6

Among i t s r uins t here

s ta mps w i th t he n a me o f t he emperor Anastasius

a nd a f rag men t o f ab r ick w i th t he s ta mp L eg . II ov iae S cy . T owards t he s ou th , n ear t he e n trance , p ar ts o f ab r ick p ave men t a re s t i l l p reserved .

Th is p ay ' emen t , s i tua ted o n as and s tra tum , l i es a bove t he r e-

ma ins o f a no ther p avemen t .

The b r icks o f t he s econd p ave men t a re t he s a me

2 7

a s t hose wh ich b ear t he n ame o f t he emperor A nas tas ius , o ne o f w h ich was d iscovered i n s i tu , af ac t wh ich c on f ir ms t he v iew t ha t t he r ebu i ld ing o f t he b as i l ica t ook p lace a t t h is t ime .

T he e ar l ier p ave men t

t hus marks t he i n i-

t ia l e rec t ion o f t he b as i l ica . C lear ly t he e rect ion o f t he b as i l ica mus t p os t-da te t he c ons truc t ion o f t he f or t wa l ls .

Al a ter d a t ing i s a lso s uppor ted b y t he marg ina l p os i t ion o f

t he b u i ld ing i n t he o vera l l t own p lan , wh ich v ery p robably i nd ica tes t ha t a t t he t i me when t he b asi lica was b ui lt t here was n o f ree s pace a va i lab le i n t he c en tra l p ar t o f t he f or tress, t he c en tre a lready b e ing o ccup ied b y l arge o ff ic ia l a nd p r iva te e d if ices s uch a s t he p rae tor iu m , ab ig d o mus a nd t he s tree t s yste m .

S o me a nnexe r oo m s w i th s em i-c ircu lar wa l ls were a dded i n t he

n or th-eas t s ide o ft he a pse , p ara l le l t o t he a pse w a l l .

The t wo b ui ld ings

h ave s tone wa l ls b onded w i th y e l low c lay i n c on trast t o t he r est o f t he b as i l ica w i th i t s mor tared wa l ls, wh ich imp l ies at h ird s tage o f r ebui ld ing .

Th is

t h ird s tage i s d a ted t o t he 6 th c en tury , ad a t ing wh ich i s s uppor ted b y c o ins ; ac o in o f J ust in ian , d a t ing f ro m t he y ears 5 38-539 , was f ound i n t he wa l l s epara t ing t he n or th a nd c en tra l n aves, n ear t he a pse .

2 7

I n s ector B t he s a me s tra t igraph ic a nd c hrono log ica l s uccess ion was e s tabl ished . 28 These d iscover ies c over ing a l ong p er iod o f t ime , f ro m t he 4 th t o t he 6 th c en tury , t oge ther w i th t he t hree p hases o f t he b as i l ica , a l l t hese l a ter t han t he c ons truct ion o f t he f or t ,l ead u s t o p resume t ha t i n t he f i f th s tra tum t here s hou ld b e more o ccupa t ion l eve ls , a t l eas t f our t o J us t in ian o r J us t in I a nd S o f ia .

One o f t he s ec t ions c on f ir ms t h is : o n t he n or th-wes t s ide o f s ec-

t or B a c o mp le te s tra t igraphy h as b een o bserved , r ang ing i n d a te f ro m t he 2 nd t o t he 6 th c en tur ies w i th s ix l eve ls ( P l . V I ) . L . I

-l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he 2 nd c en tury A .D.

L . I -l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he f irs t h a l f o f t he 3 rd c en tury;

e x tens ive

d es truct ion d ue t o t he G o th ic a t tacks . L .I I -l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he 3 rd c en tury , w i th . ex tensive r econs truc t ion a nd a v io len t d es truct ion . L .I V -l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he 4 th c en tury A .D ., t he p er iod o f max im = d eve lop men t , t he f or t 's r econstruct ion , e nded b y ad estruct ion ( perhaps b y t he H uns ). L . V

-l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he 5 th c en tury A .D .; c on trac t ing .

t he o ccupa t ion i s

L .V I -l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he 6 th c en tury A .D ., J us t in ian ic p er iod .

2 9

T he l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he f irs t h a l f o f t he 3 rd c en tury r evea ls e x tens ive d es truct ion . T he s ame s i tua t ion i s me t w i th a t S acidava , where L .V I I I i n e xcava t ion I H s hows t he mos t b urn ing . I n t he s econd h a l f o f t he 3 rd c en tury , ar econs truct ion t ook p lace i nb o th f or ts .

T he 4 th c en tury was a t ime o f c on-

s truc t ion e nded b y d es truc t ion ( a t S acidava , L .V I i n e xcava t ion I ) .

T he mos t

impor tan t g a in f ro m t he e xcava t ions made i n t h is s ec tor o f D inoge t ia , f ro m as tra t igraph ica l p o in t o f v iew , i s t he f ind ing o f al eve l d a t ing f ro m t he 5 th c en tury A .D .

2 8

I ti s wor th emphas is ing t he e x is tence o f as tra t igraph ica l s uccess ion s im i lar t o t ha t a t S ac idava :

t wo l eve ls i n t he 4 th c en tury ;

more l eve ls i n

t he 5 th c en tury a nd e xac t ly t hree l eve ls i n t he 6 th c en tury A . D. On t he o ther h and , t he e v idence o u ts ide t he f or ts o f f ive o r s ix b urn ings i n t he 5 th - 6 th c en tur ies ( d i f feren t f ro m t he s i tua t ion i ns ide t he f or t ) c an b e e xp la ined b y s o me a t tacks h av ing a f fec ted o n ly t he a reas u npro tec ted b y wa l ls , w i thou t h aving p ene tra ted i ns ide . One o f t he mos t i mpor tan t o bserva t ions made r epea ted ly d ur ing t he e xcava t ions i n t he f or t , was t he p resence o f at h ick a nd v ery w idespread b urned s tra tu m .

T he ma jor i ty o f t he h ouses i n t he f or t were d es troyed i n

t h is v io len t c on f lagra t ion , wh ich o n t he b as is o f many d a table o b jects d isc overed i n t h is s tra tum , t oge ther w i th t he i n for ma t ion g iven i n t he l i terary s ources , c an b e d a ted w i th c er ta in ty t o t he midd le o f t he 6 th c en tury . 3° A l l t he b u i ld ings l i e a t ad ep th o f a bout 2 .20 m , s o met i mes e ven a t 2 .50 o r 2 .70 m , b eing e as i ly r ecogn ized b y t he mass ive d epos i t o f b urned d ebr is 1 .50 m t h ick , c on ta in ing , b es ides t he r e ma ins o f h ouse wa l ls , n umerous a r te facts whose t ypo log ica l a na lys is h as y ie lded i mpor tan t e luc ida t ion o f t he s tra t igraphy a nd c hrono logy o f D inoget ia : f i red a nd u n f ired b r icks , t i les , n a i ls , d ol ia , amphorae , l a mps , v ar ious p o t tery a nd c o ins . c over t he s tree ts .

T he h ouse r u ins

T he h ouses were o f v ar ious s izes b u t were g enera l ly

n o t v ery l arge , s o me h av ing 1 o r 2r oo ms , o r w i th s torage-roo ms ( 4-5 d o l ia ). The ma jor i ty o f wa l ls were 0 .70 m t h ick , b u i l t t o ah e igh t o f 1 .50 m , f ro m i rregu lar b locks o f s ch is t o r g ran i te , b onded w i th c lay. t he wa l ls were o f t h ick , mou lded , u n f ired b r icks .3 1

T he u pper p ar ts o f

Excava t ions i n r oo ms 1 a nd 2 a t D inoge t ia l ed t o i n teres t ing o bserva t ions c oncern ing t he mode o f c ons truc t ion o f t he h ouses i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he 6 th c en tury.

H ere , b es ides u n f ired b r icks , t here were a lso d iscovered p ieces

o f wa l l-p las ter b acked w i th c lay , h av ing o n o ne s ide , c arbon ized i mpress ions o f p ieces o f r eed , a nd o n t he o ther s ide a t h in a nd smoo th s ur face o f l ime . S o me e v idence a s t o t he c ons truc t ion o f r oofs was a lso f ound . p robably made o f b eams c overed w i th i mbr ices a nd t egu lae .

They were

3 2

I n a l most a l l s ectors i t was n o ted t ha t a f ter t he d estruct ion b y f i re i n t he m idd le o f t he 6 th c en tury , t he o ld h ouses wh ich h ad n o t b een d estroyed , were d is man t led a nd t he ma ter ia ls

s o o bta ined w ere u sed t o b ui l t o ther , more

p r im i t ive , h ouses . F ur ther more , i n r oo m n o . 1 1, a bove t he b urn t l ayer , o ther sma l l h ouses w ere b ui lt , s o me wa l ls b eing t he o ld o nes r e-used . We c an o bserve t wo s tages i n t h is r econstruc t ion .

3 3

Th is l eads t o av ery im-

p or tan t c onc lusion , t ha t a t D inoge t ia i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 6 th c en tury t here a re p erhaps more p hases, t ha t i s a t l east t wo o ccupa t ion l eve ls p ost J ust in ian . O ther o bserva t ions p rove t ha t t he d is man t ling f o l low ing t he b urn ing was n o t g enera l , s o me wa l ls f ro m t he f irst h a lf o f t he 6 th c en tury b e ing s trong e nough a nd maybe t a l l e nough t o c on t inue i n u se . T he l a ter e xcava t ions ( 1958 ) l ed t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t here were t hree c ons truc t ion p hases i n t he b urn t l eve l , t ha t i s t o s ay t hree l eve ls a t D inoge t ia d a t ing f ro m t he 6 th c en tury u p t o 5 59 .3 4

2 9

C onclus ive e v idence f or o ur t heory a bou t t he a dd i t iona l l eve ls i n t he l a te R o man s tra tum i s g iven b y t he s tra t igraphy r evea led i n t he e x tra- mura l e xcav a t ions a t D inoget ia i n 1 958 , i n e xcava t ion 5 w here t he f o l lowing l eve ls were f ound , f ro m t he s ur face d own :3 5 _ Three l ayers o f i n tense b urn ing , c ons is t ing o f y e l low-orange a shes , 0 .30 m t h ick , w i th a l o t o f c harcoa l a t t he b o t to m , s epara ted b y g rey-brown e ar th ( t he s o c a l led 'f l oor l eve ls ' ) , T hese l eve ls c o me f ro m b urn ing o f w ooden h ouses a nd d a te f ro m t he 6 th c en tury . - Burned l eve ls , e ar l ier a nd l ess marked wh ich may d a te f ro m t he 5 th c en tury. - L eve l w i th wa l ls , d a t ing f ro m t he l a te 4 th - 5 th c en tur ies . - L eve l w i th g ood b r ick p ave men ts , d a t ing f r om t he f irs t h a l f o f t he 4 th c en tury. T he r e ma ins s how t he c harac ter a nd e vo lu t ion o f t he e x tra- mura l h ouses. T hough i n t he f our th c en tury t he b u i ld ings were w el l c ons truc ted w i th b r ick f l oors , t hey h ad f a l len i n to d ecay b y t he e nd o f t he c en tury o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury , when h ouses w i th wa l ls b onded w i th c lay a re b u i l t , a nd l a ter o n , i n t he 6 th c en tury , t he e x tra- mura l h ouses were o n ly wooden h u ts . T he f ac t t ha t i n t he 6 th c en tury t he e x tra- mura l a rea o f D inoge t ia was o ccup ied , h ouses a nd o vens h av ing b een d iscovered t here ,

3 6

f or ms a c on tr i-

b u t ion t o t he t opography o f t he f or t i f ied s e t t le men ts o n t he l imes i n t he 6 th c en tury. S tra t igraph ic a na lys is r evea ls t he f o l low ing p ic ture o f D inoge t ia .

N o t

l ong a f ter i t s e rect ion a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury , a t t he e nd o f

•

t he 4 th o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury , t he f or t was d es troyed , p erhaps b y G o ths .

A t t he e nd o f t he 5 th c en tury , i n t he r e ign o f Anas tas iu 's , t he f or t

was r ebu i l t , t he mos t i mpor tan t e v idence f or t h is p er iod b e ing d iscovered i n t he b as i l ica . R econs truct ion b egan u nder Anas tas ius , a nd was c arr ied o n e x tens ive ly u nder J us tin ian .

I n t h is p er iod t he ma jor i ty o f t he e ar l ier wa l ls

were c o mp le te ly d e mo l ished , s o me t i mes d own t o t he b ed-rock , t hus d es troy ing a l l 4 th-cen tury r e ma ins .

N ew h ouses a nd o ther e d i f ices were b u i l t .

c ourse , s o me b u i ld ings o r wa l ls were r epa ired a nd r e-used ;

O f

many s tructures

o f t he 4 th - 5 th c en tur ies were r e ta ined i n s uccess ive r econs truct ions u n t i l t he 6 th c en tury when t hey were b urned .

3 7

T he b ronze c o ins o f t he 4 th - 5 th c en tury f ound a t t he b ase o f t he b urned l eve l , v ery p robably r e ma ined i n c ircu la t ion u n t i l t he 6 th c en tury. c o ins o f J us t in ian c ease 7 -8 y ears b e fore t he e nd o f h is r e ign .

The

C o ins r e-

a ppear n o t e ar l ier t han t he r e ign o f J us t in ' Ind ( 5 66) , t he s er ies t hen c on t inu ing w i thou t i n terrup t ion t o Maur ice T iber ius ( 59 1/9 2 ) . I n z ones A a nd C , f or e xamp le , n o c o ins o f t he Emperors f o l low ing J us t in ian ( Jus t in I , T iber ius C onstan t ine a nd Maur ice T iber ius ) were f ound i nt he b urned l eve l d a ting f ro m t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he 6 th c en tury , b u t o n ly a bove i ti n t he l eve ls c on ta in ing wa l ls b onded w i th b lack e ar th .3 8 T he l i terary s ources , a f ter s ix y ears o f s i lence , men t ion a ma jor i nvas ion o f K utr igur i l ed b y Z abergan ,

t o who m were a dded g roups o f B u lgars 3 0

a nd S lays , a nd i n March 5 59 D inoge t ia , s i tua ted o n t he i nvaders ' r oute , was s acked a nd s e t o n f i re .

Above t he r uins d a t ing f ro m 5 59 s o me modest b ui ldings

were b ui lt i n s o me a reas , e spec ia l ly i n t he n or thern h a lf o ft he f or t where t he g round was h igher .

T hese were o f ar udi men tary c onstruc t ion w i th wa l ls

b onded w i th b lack e ar th a nd o u ts ide t he f or t wooden h u ts were c onstruc ted . Th is l eve l d a tes f ro m t he l as t t hree d ecades o f t he 6 th c en tury .

TROESM IS The a nc ien t T roes m is was s i tua ted a t I g l i ta , a s i s s hown b y s o me i nscr ip t ions d iscovered a s e ar ly a s i n 1 860 .

I g l i ta-Troes m is i s t herefore

as tar t ing p o in t f or t he i den t i f ica t ion o f o ther f or ts i n t he N or th- Wes t Dobru ja , e spec ia l ly o n t he b as is o f c a lcu la t ing a nd i n terpre t ing t he d is tances r ecorded i n t he a nc ien t i t inerar ies . The e x tens ive a rchaeo log ica l s i te o f T roes m is , w i th i t s t wo f or ts a nd t he s urround ing u rban a rea , was t he f irs t s i te i n D obru ja t o b e i nves t iga ted b y e xcava tors ( 1865 ). i nscr ip t ions .

3 9

U n for tuna te ly t he ir s o le p urpose was t he d iscovery o f

C onsequen t ly t hese e xcava t ions y ie lded n o i n for ma t ion o n

s tra t igraphy o r c hrono logy.

N ever the less t he g enera l h is tor ica l d a ta e s tab-

l i shed b y G r . T oci lescu r e ma ins v a l id t oday , t hough w i th s o me mod i f ica t ions i n d e ta i l . The e ar l ies t p lan o f t he p la teau o f I g l i ta , ap lan u nknown u n t i l r ecen t ly , was made i n 1 864 b y E ngelhard t .

T he f irs t e xcava t ions , l ed b y G . B o iss i re

a nd A . Baudry i n 1 865 , p roduced t he f irs t p lans a nd r ecords .

Baudry d rew

al oca t ion p lan o f t he e as t f or t a nd a n a xono me tr ic r econs truct ion i n p ersp ec t ive . 40 O f t hese , t he l oca t ion p lan r e mains t he o n ly r ea l -p lan o f t he e xcav a t ions a t Troes m is c arr ied o u t a t t ha t t ime , a nd t he r econs truct ion d rawing o f t he e as t f or t , a l though i t was b ased o n ly o n a rch i tectura l f an tasy f or t hree q uar ters o f t he a rea o f t he f or t , h ad a nd s t i l l h as a w ide c urrency i n t he l i tera ture . 41

Ag ood e xa mp le i s t he t h ird ( sou thern ) b as i l ica , c rea ted h ypo-

t he t ica l ly f ro m e le men ts wh ich i n r ea l i ty d o n o t e x is t . A t t he e nd o f t he l as t c en tury , G r . T oci lescu e xcava ted a t Troes m is , b u t t he r esu l ts were n o t r ecorded .

F ur thermore , t h is R o man ian a rchaeo lo-

g is t r epub l ished t he p lans o f A . Baudry w i thou t a ny c orrec t ions . 42

L a ter ,

i n 1 902 , t he o ld d a ta was e x tended w i th s o me o bserva t ions b y P . P o Ion ic i n 1 898 , who c oncen tra ted e spec ia l ly o n t he o u t l ine p lan o f t he e n t ire p la teau w i th t he l i nes o f t he r a mpar ts a nd d i tches , t he ma jor i ty b e ing n ew a nd h i ther to u npubl ished i n for ma t ion . 43 Therefore o f a l l t he t opograph ica l d a ta f ro m t he 1 9 th c en tury , t he o n ly g ood p lan t o b e f o l lowed a nd c hecked o n t he g round i s t ha t d a t ing f ro m 1 865 o f B audry . THE EASTERN FORT

( P l . V I I-VI I I )

The f or t i s a pprox i ma te ly r ec tangu lar , t he n or thern s ide b e ing s o mewha t a t a n a ng le , a nd w i th d ev ia t ions i n t he o ther wa l ls i n t he g round .

c aused b y i rregu lar i t ies

T h is g ives t he f or t a n a l mos t t rapezo ida l s hape , w i th t he l ong

e as t a nd wes t s ides ( a pprox i ma te ly 1 50 m ) b e ing p ara l le l , t he n or th s ide ( 150 m ) 3 1

s tra igh t a nd t he s ou th s ide f o l lowing t he b ank o f t he Danube . T he t h ickness o f t he wa l ls i s u p t o 3m . A t t he n or th-wes tern a nd n or th-eas tern c orners t here a re h orseshoe-shaped t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts , w i th max imu m d iame ters o f a pprox i ma te ly 1 2 m . T he n or th s ide , t he o n ly p er fect ly s tra igh t o ne , i s a lso t he mos t s y mme tr ica l i n t er ms o f t he p lacing a nd f or ms o f t he t owers .

I n i ts m idd le t here

i s al arge r ectangu lar t ower , ac haracter is t ic f ea ture o f s o me f or t i f ica t ions i n S cyth ia M inor . i ti s 1 3 m d eep .

T he f ron t o f t h is mass ive t ower i s a bou t 5 0 m w ide a nd A t e qua l d is tances o n e i ther s ide o f t h is t here i s aU -shaped

t ower w i th a r ounded f ron t , ( w id th , 1 0 m ;

d ep th , 1 1 m) .

On t he e as t a nd

wes t s ides , t here a re o ther U -shaped t owers a t i n terva ls o f a bou t 1 5 m. 44 On t he wes t s ide , s o mewha t t o t he n or th o f t he m idd le t here i s t he e n trance g a te i n to t he f or t , 3m w ide , f lanked a t ad is tance o f 6m b y t wo U -shaped t owers . I n t he p lan w e n o t ice i n t he n or th-eastern p ar t a n a rea o f p ub lic b u i ld ings , among t he m t wo b as i l icas w i th t he ir a pses f ac ing e as twards .

I n

t he s ou th-wes tern a rea a nd a long t he wes tern wa l l , t here a re t he p lans o f s o me sma l l r oo ms , u n i form i n s ize a nd r egu lar ly s paced , w i th a r ow o f p i l lars , t he r e ma ins o f m i l i tary b arracks . THE WESTERN FORT We k now v ery l i t t le a bou t t h is f or t .

N o s tra t igraph ic o bserva t ions h ave

b een made a nd a s t o t he p lan w e o n ly k now t ha t t wo o f t he t owers w ere r ect angu lar . A l though t he e x is t ing d a ta o bl iges u s t o p lace b o th f or ts i n t he l a te Ro man p er iod , t hey a re s ubs tan t ia l ly d i f feren t f ro m o ne a no ther i n t er ms o f t heir p lans .

F irs t ly t he p lans o f t he t owers l ead u s t o p resu me t ha t t he t wo f or ts

were n o t b u i l t a t t he s a me t ime .

The e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t t he e ast f or t was

t he h eadquar ters o f t he L eg io I H ercu l ia , n ew ly c rea ted a nd b rough t t o S cy th ia f ro m i t s f or ma t ion b y D ioc le t ian wh ich may p erm i t u s t o d a te i ts c ons truct ion t o t he T e tarchy . l a ter . 45

I n t h is c ase , i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he wes t f or t was b u i l t

A er ia l p ho tography a nd v er i f ica t ion o n t he g round

h ave made i tp oss ib le

t o e luc ida te t he p rob le m o f t he d i tches a nd e ar thworks wh ich p ro tect t he n or the as tern a ccess t o t he wes t f or t . " o ld p lan ( P l . I X ).

These f ea tures were a lso r ecorded o n t he

T hey c ons is t o f t hree p ara l le l l i nes o f d efence ( d i tches

a nd b anks ) , s tar t ing f ro m t he b ank o f t he Danube a nd e nd ing a t ab rook f lowing n ear t he n or th-wes tern c orner o f t he wes t f or t .

T he f irs t t wo e nc lose o n ly

t he wes t f or t a nd d o n ot r each t he e as t o ne , wh i le t he t h ird f or ti f ica t ion a pproaches t he n or th-wes tern c orner o f t he e as t f or t .

Th is may i nd ica te

t ha t t he e as t f or t was o u ts ide t he c o mp le men tary d efens ive s ys te m ;

more

p robab ly i ts hows t ha t t he c iv i l ian u rban s e t t le men t o u ts ide t he d e fens ive wa l ls e vo lved a round t he wes t f or t , a t l eas t i n t he l as t s tages . The t h ird e ar thwork, e nc los ing t he l arges t a rea , may a lso b e t he e ar l ies t , d a t ing f ro m t he e ar ly R o man p er iod , when t here e x is ted s u i tab le c ond i t ions f or t he d eve lop men t o f s uch a n e x tra- mura l u rban s e t t le men t a round t he h eadquar ters o f t he L eg io V Macedon ica .

3 2

A er ia l p ho tographs h ave a lso e s tabl ished t he s ys te m o f r oads c onverg ing o n t he midd le o f t he n or th s ide o f t he wes t f or t , where t he p r inc ipa l g a te o f t h is f or t s hou ld b e l oca ted .

The f ac t t ha t t he r oads a re d irec ted t owards t he

wes t f or t may b e a no ther a rgumen t f or a l a ter d a te f or t he c ons truc t ion a nd o pera t ion o f t h is f or t ( P l. I X ) . The d i f ferences b e tween t he t wo f or ts c an b e e xp la ined b y t he ir d i f feren t d a tes o f c ons truct ion , a nd a lso b y t he ir d i f feren t r o les a nd d efensii ve f unct i ons . I ft he e as t f or t , w i th i t s n ear-rectangu lar p lan , t h ick wa l ls, n u merous a nd c lose-se t t owers , t hose o n t he o u ter wa l ls b e ing U -shaped a nd t hose a t t he c orners b e ing h orseshoe-shaped , w i th a r ectangular p hrourion o n t he midd le p r inc ipa l s ide o f t he f or t a nd w i th a r egu lar u rban p lan , r epresen ts a s ty le o f m i li tary a rch i tecture , t he r u les o f wh ich were f i na lized b e tween t he T e tarchy a nd t he r e ign o f V a len t in ian , t hen t he wes t f or t a ppears a s ac iv i l ian u rban p recinc t . We b e l ieve t ha t t he e as t f or t was b u i l t b y t he L eg io I H ercu l ia a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury , a nd t ha t t he wes t f or t was a dded a t t he e nd o f t ha t c en tury a s af or t i f ied u rban s e t t le men t .

A f ter t he i nvas ion o f t he Huns ,

t he s i tua t ion i s r ad ica l ly c hanged , Troes m is n o l onger b e ing t he h eadquar ters o f al eg ion , b u t h av ing a n or ma l g arr ison l i ke t he o ther f or ts . I n t he 6 th c en tury , t he r o les o f c iv i l ians a nd f ron t ier g uards a re n o l onger s epara ted , a nd t hey a re p robably c on f ined t o t he wes t f or t , a s i s s hown b y t he r oad s ys te m a nd t he e vo lu t ion o f t he d e fens ive e ar thworks .

Th is w i thdrawa l i n to

sma l l f or t i f ica t ions , o r t he c ons truc t ion o f n ew f or ti f ica t ions o f r educed s ize , i s s o me t i mes c haracter is t ic o f t he 6 th c en tury o n t he S cyth ian l imes ( e .g . C ars ium , N ov iodunu m ) .

BEROE ( P ia tra F recäe i ) Al arge b u i ld ing h as b een i nves t iga ted , f orming a c losed c o mp lex ( be longi ng t o t he t h ird l eve l ) , d a ted w i th c er ta in ty t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he 6 th c ent ury , a nd p robably t o t he y ears 5 80-590 o f J us t in I a nd S o f ia , 5 75/76.

o r t o t he s ucceed ing d ecade b y c o ins

I ti s i mpor tan t t o n o te t ha t t h is , t he l as t

R o man l eve l , wh ich i s i so la ted f ro m t he med ieva l d epos i ts b y as ter i le l eve l , was d es troyed i n av io len t f ire .

T hus , t he f or t i f ica t ions a t B eroe were c o m-

p le te ly d es troyed a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury. 4 7 T he o n ly o ther e xcava t ions h ave t aken p lace i n t he c e me tery , w i th i mp or tan t r esu l ts f or t he e n t ire R o man p er iod , b u t e spec ia l ly f or t he e ar ly p ar t .4 8 T he s e t t le men t was u n for tuna te ly e xp lored o n ly i n p ar t , r evea l ing b u i ld ings wh ich were o ccup ied i n t he 6 th c en tury a nd wh ich h ad t he g enera l c hara c ter o f b arracks , N o i n for ma t ion was o b ta ined a s t o t he p lan o f t he f or t i f ic a t ions . 49

3 3

CARS IU M ( H irsova ) ( P l . XLV/2 ) We h ave o n ly f ew p ieces o f i n forma t ion o n t he t opography a nd s tra t igraphy o f t he f or t o f C arsiu m , a l though e xcava t ions t ook p lace t here i n 1 938 .5 0 I ts ee ms t ha t t he R o man-Byzan t ine f or t h ad a s ub-rec tangu lar p lan w i th t h ick wa l ls , wh ich f o l lowed t he c on for ma t ion o f t he g round .5 1 T he f or t h ad n o t owers , a ccord ing t o t he o ld p lans , b u t we t h ink t ha t t h is w i l l n o t b e c onf ir med b y f u ture e xcava t ions .

CAP IDAVA ( P l . X ) T he f or t o f C apidava was b u i l t o n ar ocky p la teau , o n t he b ank o f t he Danube 5 2 The wa l ls e nc lose a r ectangular a rea s urrounded b y ad eep n a tura l d i tch wh ich was mod if ied o n t he n or th-western a nd n or th-eastern s ides b y t he b ui ld ers o ft he f or t , l eaving o n ly a n arrow n eck o f l and a t t he e astern c orner f or t he a ccess r oad . T he s ou th-wes tern s ide h as f a l len d own t he Danube b ank i n t he c ourse o f t he c en tur ies . A t C apidava t oo , t he p lan o f t he f or t was d e ter m ined a nd f avoured b y t he n a tura l f or ma t ion o f t he g round . D espi te t he a pparen t r egu lar i ty o f p lan , o n ly t he n or th-eas tern s ide i s s y m me tr ica l , wh i le t he n or th-wes tern a nd s ou th-eas tern s ides h ave o n ly o ne t ower e ach a nd t hese d i f fer i n p lan , f unc t ion a nd d i mens ions .

Fur ther more

we d o n o t k now h ow t he v an ished s ec t ions o f t he f or t wa l ls were c ons tructed . I n t he midd le o f t he n or th-eas tern s ide s tands a mass ive r ec tangu lar t ower ( no . 4 ) , f lanked b y t wo U -shaped t owers a t e xac t ly e qua l d is tances , a nd a t t he c orners b y t wo t owers o f h orseshoe s hape .

Th is s ide r em inds u s

i m med ia te ly o f t he n or th s ide o f t he e as t f or t a t T roes m is , wh ich a lso f aced t owards t he e nc losed g round . The N or th- Wes t s ide :

Wa l l A .

Th is wa l l s urv ives f or 1 1.65 m o f i t s l eng th , t he r es t h av ing f a l len d own . I ti s 3 .50 m t h ick , t he f ounda t ion b eing p laced d irectly o n t he r ock . n a l s oc le measures 0 .40 m a nd t he e x terna l o ne o n ly 0 .30 m .

The i n ter-

We s hou ld

b ear i n mind t he d iscovery a t t he b ase o f t h is wa l l o f a n o lder wa l l , v ery p robab ly d a t ing f ro m t he 2 nd c en tury f or t , o ver wh ich was s uper i mposed t he r econs tructed f or t o f t he s econd h a l f o f t he 3 rd c en tury . i s i rregu lar ly made o f c ae men ta .

T he emp lecton

T he e x terna l f ace c ons is ts o f h or izon ta l

l ayers o f sma l l s tone b locks , r ough ly r ec tangu lar , a nd r ough ly s haped . T ower n o . 1 . A mass ive , r ectangu lar t ower , measur ing 1 8 .60 m i n w id th , t he t h ickn ess o f i t s s ides v ar ies .

T he f ron t wa l l i s 2 .15 m t h ick .

i s 2 .50 m t h ick , a nd t he l a tera l s ide 2 .30 m.

T he i nner s ide

On t he s ou th-wes tern s ide ,

f ac ing t he Danube a nd s o more s h ielded f ro m a t tack , t here was a n e n trance

3 4

1 .40 m w ide , wh ich i n al a ter p hase was b locked b y a wa l l o f s tone a nd e ar th ( probably 6 th c en tury ) .

T he e n trance was o r ig ina l ly c losed b y ad oor o pen ing

i nwards , s ecured b y aw ooden b ar ( t races s urv ive o f t he s lo t o f t he l a tera l wa l ls ) , t he u pper p ar t b e ing c losed b y ab r ick a rch o f wh ich f ive c ourses r ema ined i n s i tu .

T he t hresho ld s hows t wo s tages o f c ons truct ion b e fore t he

f ina l b lock ing .

T hese t wo s tages a re c on f ir med b y t he t ower wa l ls , wh ich

s how e v idence o f r econs truct ion a t t he ir f ounda t ions a nd i n t he emp lecton , a nd b y t he f act t ha t an ew wa l l p asses o u ts ide t he o ld f ounda t ions , e spec ia l ly t he f ron t s ide , t o g ive s ounder f ounda t ions .

5 3

I n t he midd le o f t h is t ower

t here a re t wo mass ive p i l lars e ach measur ing 2 .45 x 1 .68 m wh ich s uppor ted t he f l oor a bove . T he e x terna l f ace o f t ower n o . 1i s made o f b locks o f d i f feren t h eigh ts , among wh ich t here were many r eused b locks . I ti s n o tewor thy t ha t t he l a tera l wa l ls o f t he t ower a re n o t b onded i n to t he f or t wa l l ;

wh ich p roves t ha t f ro m a c er ta in h e igh t , t he t ower was n o t

a n i n tegra l p ar t o f t he f or t wa l l .

P robab ly t h is was s o t ha t i n t he e ven tua l i ty

o f av iolen t c o l lapse o f t he t ower , t he ma in f or t wa l l wou ld n o t b e o ver thrown •t oo .

The s ame s i tua t ion c an b e s een i n t he t owers a t S ac idava . T ower n o . 2i s l oca ted a t t he n or th c orner o f t he f or t .

The wa l l t urns

e as t a nd f or ms t he i ns ide o f t h is h orseshoe-shaped t ower .

T h is i s f or med

b y t wo s hor t wa l ls wh ich a re p erpend icu lar o n t he t wo a d jacen t f or t wa l ls , t he e nds o f wh ich a re c onnec ted b y as em ic ircu lar l eng th o f wa l l wh ich f or ms t he f ron t o f t he t ower .

T he e as t wa l l i s 5 .80 m l ong a nd 2 .55 t h ick ;

o n t he wes t i s 6 .80 m l ong a nd 2 .77 m t h ick . 2 .77 m t h ick .

t ha t

T he f or t wa l l i s a t t h is p o in t

I ns ide t ower 2 , a t ah e igh t o f 2m , i s ab r ick c ourse .

t wo s tages o f c ons truc t ion c an a lso b e s een h ere . T he n or th-eas t s ide 5 5

T he

5 4

i s a t r igh t a ng les t o t he n or th-wes t s ide .

Because

t he g round s lopes u pwards t owards t he e as t , t he f ounda t ions o f t he wa l ls a re b u i l t i n s teps .

T he n or th-eas t f or t wa l l ( Wa l l C ) i s 2 2 .94 m l ong .

T ower

n o . 3i s U -shaped , f or m ing a n e longa ted r ec tang le w i th a r ounded f ron t , e x tend ing 9 .15 m .fro m t he f or t wa l l . b locks .

Wa l l Di s 2 3 .42 m l ong , b u i l t o f sma l l

T ower n o . 4 , p laced i n t he midd le o f t he s ide , i s r ec tangu lar w i th

t he f ron t wa l l 1 7.80 m w ide a nd t he l a tera l o nes 1 1.70 m w ide a nd 2 .77 m t h ick . T he o u ter f ace i s b u i l t f ro m r eused p ieces. l ong .

C ur ta in-wa l l Ei s 2 2 .15 m

Tower n o . 5h as t he s ame s hape a nd d i mens ions a s t ower n o . 3 .

C ur ta in-wa l l Fi s 2 0 .90 m l ong , a nd t he o u ter f ace i s made o f l arger s tones . T ower n o , 6 , i n t he e as t c orner , i s h orseshoe-shaped a nd r ese mb les t ower n o . 2 :

The s tra igh t s ides a re 6 m l ong , t he s em i-circu lar f ron t i s 2 5 .70 m

a nd h as a d iame ter o f 8 .30 m.

T he f or t wa l l i s 3 .47 m t h ick h ere .

T he

t ower i s f aced w i th b locks a nd h as t wo s oc les a t t he b ase . The s outh-east s ide f or ms a r igh t a ng le w i th t he n or th-east o ne .

Wa l l

Gis 3 .47 m t h ick a nd 3 8 .30 m l ong . T ower n o . 7p ro tected t he e n trance i n to t he f or tress . I ti s r ectangu lar a nd i n terrup ts t he f or t wa l l, e x tend ing b o th i ns ide a nd o utside t he f or t . 1 3 .25 m d eep .

The f ron t s ide measures 1 0 m a nd t he t ower i s

The t ower wa l ls a re 2 .50 m t h ick .

3 5

T h is t ower c lear ly s hows t wo s tages o f c onstruct ion:

t he f i rst o ne ,

when t he t ower i s sma l ler a nd t he s econd when t he f ron t wa l l i s moved o u twards a nd made t h icker .

T races h ave b een f ound i n t h is t ower o f as tructure

d a t ing f ro m t he f irs t p hase o f t he e ar ly R o man f or t , c ons is t ing o f t he r e mnan ts o f a sma l l i n terna l t ower wh ich f lanked t he g a te i n t he 2 nd c en tury.

5 6

i s o n ly s tra t igraph ic e v idence f or t h is p er iod e lsewhere i n t he f or t .

There Wa l l I T ,

4 2 .80 m l ong , i s a l igned s o me 0 .70 m o u ts ide t he l i ne o f wa l l G , t he o u ter f ace f or m ing ab u t t j o in t w i th t ower n o . 7 , s how ing t ha t t hey were n o t b u i l t s i mu l taneous ly. I n i t s f acing , i n t he v is ib le i rregu lar i ty o f t he s tones , we c an s ee c ons truc t ion d a t ing f ro m t he 4 th p er iod . T he e x tre m i ty o f t he wa l l n eares t t he Danube d oes n o t c on t inue i n a s tra igh t l i ne , t er m ina t ing i n ab u i ld ing c ons is t ing o f t hree i rregu lar l eng ths o f wa l l ( 3 .00 , 8 .20 a nd 5 m l ong r espect ive ly ) r ese mb l ing a t ower . Fro m t h is s tructure , a no ther wa l l r uns t o t he s ou th , o f wh ich a l eng th o f 1 2 m s urv ives .

We h ave t herefore t wo p hases o f r econs truct ion , t he i rregu lar ly

s haped t ower p robab ly r epresen t ing t he s ou th c orner t ower o f t he l a te f or t ( phase 4 ) , a nd t he t h ick wa l l r unn ing s ou thwards s erv ing t o d efend , p erhaps i n t he t h ird p hase o f d e fence , t he t her mae a nd af ew e x tra- mura l h ouses o n t he Danube b ank , a s was t he c ase a t D obre ta a nd S ucidava .

I n f ac t , we

h ave n o p roo f t ha t t he p lan o f l a te R o man C ap idava was s quare , n or e ven t ha t t h is was t he c ase a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury , b ecause i t wou ld h ave b een i mposs ible t o h ave s uch a l arge a rea o n t he b ank o f t he D anube w i thou t d e fences .

I n t he p resen t a u thor 's o p in ion , d e fence-wa l ls p robab ly

r an u p t o t he s teep b ank o f t he Danube . THE LAST FORT I n t he s outh c orner o f t he f or t , c o mpr is in g w i th in r ough ly s quare l im i ts a n a rea l ess t han a q uar ter o ft ha t o ft he e ar l ier f or t , t here was a f or t i f ica t ion w i th s ides 5 0 m l ong , r epresen t ing t he l ast p hase i n t he l a te Ro man l i fe o f Cap idava . T he d e fens ive wa l l o f t h is f or t i s q u i te p r im i t ive a nd weak , b e ing b u i l t u pon t he f ounda t ions o f t he o ld wa l ls a nd o n t he d ebr is s tra tu m , a l l i nd ica t ions o f i mprov isa t ion . wa l ls .

Ab er m 4 .30 m w ide a nd a d efens ive d i tch r an r ound t hese

T he d i mens ions o f t he f or ti f ica t ion s how t ha t i ta cco m moda ted o n ly

a sma l l b ody o f s o ld iers . Procop ius d oes n o t men t ion C apidava , wh ich l eads G r . F lorescu t o b e l ieve t ha t t he c ons truct ion o f t h is f or t p re-da tes t he r e ign o f J us t in ian , a nd p erhaps t o h ave t aken p lace u nder Anas tas ius .

5 7

T he p resen t a u thor f inds

i td i f f icu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t s uch a r ud i men tary f or t i f ica t ion w i thou t t owers c ou ld h ave b een b u i l t i n t he t ime o f Anas tas ius o r J us t in ian , e specia l ly a t s uch a n impor tan t p o in t o n t he Danube .

C o mpar ison w i th o ther f or tresses , wh ich a re

sma l l b u t s trong , d oes n o t s uppor t t he h ypo thes is .

One h as o n ly t o t h ink o f

t he i mpor tan t works wh ich d a te f ro m t he Anas tas ius-Jus t in ian p er iod s uch a s t he r econs truc t ion wh ich t ook p lace a t S acidava , I b ida ( t he s econd f or t ) , U l metum , H is tr ia , I a trus a nd s o o n ,

5 8

t o r ea l ise t ha t af or t l ike C ap idava ,

w i th a n a rea o f a bou t 1h a , w i th o ld wa l ls a nd s trong t owers wh ich w ere e ven r e-used i n med ieva l t imes , s i tua ted o n a n impor tan t f ord o f t he D anube , wou ld n o t h ave b een o ver looked o r l e f t u n-recons truc ted a t t ha t t ime .

3 6

Bu t

i f P rocop ius d oes n o t men t ion C apidava among t he f or ts r ebu i l t b y J us t in ian , we h ave t o t h ink o f al a ter t ime , a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 7 th c en tury .

T he o n ly p laus ib le t ime a f ter t ha t o f J us t in ian ( a f ter 5 59 ) ,

i s t he r e ign o f M . T iber ius .

U n for tuna te ly , med ieva l h u ts h ave d es troyed

t he l a tes t l evels a nd w i th t he m t he p oss ibi l i ty o f d a ted s tra t igraphy. T he c ons truc t ion a nd t opography a t C ap idava r evea l f our p er iods . I .

5 9

The c as trum d a t ing f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd c en tury whose f or m

a nd s i ze a re u nknown a nd wh ich l as ts u n t i l t he s econd h a lf o f t he 3 rd c en tury. I .

Af irs t r econs truc t ion o f t he f or t , i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he 3 rd c en-

t ury , s urviv ing u n t i l t he s econd h a l f o f t he 4 th c en tury .

I n t h is r econs truct ion

we n o te t he u se o f ar ud i men tary o pus q uadra tum , a c tua l ly a f acing made o f s ub-rectangu lar s tones , r ough ly c u t a nd p laced i n a pprox i ma te ly h or izon ta l l ayers .

Th is t echn ique i s v is ible i n t owers n os. 3 a nd 5 , a nd wa l ls F a nd G .

Cae men ta u sed i n t he emp lec ton h as a c er ta in h o mogene i ty ( on ly a s t o t ype , n o t a s t o f or m o r s izes ) , a nd t he mor tar i s o f ah igh q ua l i ty , f ine ly m ixed w i th f ragmen ts o f b r ick . T h is , w i th t he f or t i f ica t ion t ypo logy , c on f ir ms t he d a t ing o f t he e rect ion o f t he f or t t o t he e nd o f t he 3 rd a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury , u nder t he T e trarchy. I I .

The s econd r econs truct ion , d a t ing f ro m t he s econd h a l f o f t he 4 th

c en tury , l as ted u n t i l t he 5 th c en tury.

T he o u ter f ace ( espec ia lly i n t he f or t

wa l l 4 ) r ese mb les t ha t o f t he f irs t r econs truct ion , b u t h ere a nd t here t here a re u neven a nd r ough a reas o f c ae men ta , a nd t he mor tar i s n o l onger o f t he s a me q ua l i ty , b eing d arker w i th more f ragmen ts o f b r ick . b locks o r e ven d ebr is a re u sed a s c ae men ta .

S o me t i mes , r eused

T he n eg l igence s een i n t h is

p hase r esu l ts f ro m t he f ac t t ha t t he b u i ld ing o f t he t owers was l e f t t o t he l as t . F or a t er m inus p os t q ue m , we r eca l l t he f ragmen t o f a n i nscr ip t ion f ro m t he t ime o f C ons tan t ine If ro m t he s econd r econs truc t ion o f t he f ac ing , a nd t he c o in o f C ons tan t ius I ( A .D. 3 37) d iscovered i n t he mor tar o f t he n or the as t wa l l. I V .

The 6 th c en tury f or t .

A l l t he c ons truct ion ma ter ia ls were t aken

f ro m t he o ld wa l ls , a nd t he mor tar i s p orous , f r iab le a nd made w i th d ir ty s and . Ar ecen t a na lys is60 b ased o n t he s ys te m o f c ons truct ion c on f ir ms t he g enera l p er iods : I , T he T e trarchy ; I , Va lens ; I I , 6 th c en tury. A lso t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd p er iods o f G r . F lorescu e ach s how t wo t ypes o f masonry , wh ich may i nd ica te t wo p hases e ach f or t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c en tury a nd f or t he 4 th - 5 th c en tur ies . O ne o f t he s ect ions f ro m t he n or th-eas tern s ide o f t he f or t c lear ly r evea ls f our l ayers o f d ebr is o u ts ide , b u t c lose b y , t he f or t wa l l .

T he u pper mos t

l ayer , 2 .50 m t h ick , b e longs t o t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod . was 3 m t h ick .

T he s econd l ayer

T he l owes t l ayer , 2m t h ick , i s i n f ac t d iv ided i n to t wo b y a

r ubb le l ayer , v ery w e l l b ea ten d own a nd 0 .10 m t h ick , u nder wh ich l i e t he r ema ins o f t he f irs t p er iod o f t he f or t , 0 .70 m t h ick .

6 1

We c an c on f ir m t ha t

t he u pper l ayers o f t h is s tra t igraphy h ave b een v eri f ied o ver t he who le l eng th o f t he i ns ide o f t he f or t wa l l .

On ly o n t he s ou th-eas tern s ide , a long t he wa l l

r unn ing f ro m t he Danube ( wa l l H ) d id t here a ppear a no ther d ebr is l ayer , b et ween t he f irs t a nd t he s econd l ayers , wh ich i s e xp l icable s ince we a re h ere i n f ron t o f t he 6 th c en tury f or t . 3 7

T he s tra t igraphy o bserved i n ae x tra- mura l s ec t ion p erpend icu lar t o t he f or t-wa l l , wh ich c u ts t hrough a d i tch a nd b ank s ys te m whose e vo lu t ion c onf ir ms t he f our ma in s tages o f R o man C ap idava . 62 I n t h is s ec t ion t he f o l low ing s tages were v isib le . N ear wa l l Ha ppears a b er m 1 .50 m w ide ( i n i t ia l ly i t was p robably u p t o 2m w ide b ecause i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th s tage t he f or t wa l l was d isp laced o u twards a t t he s a me t ime a s i t s r econs truct i ons ) , a f ter wh ich b eg ins t he d e fens ive d i tch 2 m d eep , w i th a h or izon ta l b o t to m 2 m w ide , a nd a s carp t owards t he b er m 3 .60 m l ong . s carp i s v er t ica l a nd i s 2m h igh . 4m o n t here i s a no ther d i tch . made h ere .

T he c oun ter-

T hen f o l lows a d e fens ive r ampar t , t hen

I n t he s econd p er iod impor tan t c hanges were

T he b ank was p ushed i n to t he d i tch o f t he r econs truc ted wa l l ,

a nd t he s econd d i tch was f i l led i n a nd c hanged i n to ab ank . The l as t p er iods s how a l mos t t he s ame f or m a s t he s econd p er iods , b u t w i th s uccess ive r a is ing o f t he g round l eve l , t he l a tes t d i tch ( 4 th p er iod ) n ow p ene tra t ing i ns ide t he f or t o ver t he r e ma ins o f t he n earby t ower ( no . 7 ) , e nc los ing t he l a ter f or t . T he s tra t igraphy i s t he s a me i n t he s ect ions o bserved i n t owers n os . 1 , 2a nd 4 .

6 3

A t C apidava , a lso i n s ec t ion A n ear t he f or t wa l l , t here was o bserved t he f o l low ing s tra t igraph ic s uccess ion : 3 rd c en tur ies ;

af i rs t l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he 2 nd -

as econd d a ting f ro m t he 4 th c en tury a nd a t h ird f ro m t he 5 th

-6 th c en tur ies mixed w i th e ar ly med ieva l ma ter ia l . t hey d id n o t f ind a s ing le f l oor o f ad we l l ing .

The a u thors n o te t ha t

There a re s o me t races t ha t

make u s t h ink t ha t i n s ec t ion A a t C apidava we c an d is t ingu ish more l eve ls 6 4 ( P l . X IV/2 ) . P ius .

T hus t he f irs t l eve l i s d a ted b y c oins o f Hadr ian a nd An ton inus

Two wa l ls were f ound i n t he s econd l evel , ( a nd L I ) made o f s tone

a nd mor tar , a nd d is man t led i n t he m idd le l eve l a nd l ong b e fore t he d a te o f t he t h ird l eve l .

A t t he s a me l eve l a t wh ich wa l ls c a nd d were d isman t led ,

i s f ound t he s tone a nd e ar th wa l l b , whose f ounda t ions a re i n terrup ted e xac t ly when t he t h ird l eve l b e ings .

I n a dd i t ion , ac o in o f C ons tan t ius I ( 3 37-361 )

was f ound o n wa l l ca nd n ear wa l l b ac oin o f J u l ian T he A pos ta te ( 3 61-363 ) . T he t wo wa l ls c a nd d , wh ich b y t he ir s tyle o f c ons truct ion a nd t he ir d a te o f d es truct ion a re c on te mporary , a nd wa l l bw i th i t s d i f feren t c ons truc t ion a nd b u i l t a t ad i f feren t d a te , b e longs t o as econd l eve l a nd i s o f t he s econd p er iod . Ano ther d iscovery i s i n teres t ing : ag rave d a ted b y ac o in o f L ic in ius ( 3083 24 ) , wh ich d is turbs t he e ar l ier l eve l b u t i s i t sel f d is turb ed b y wa l ls c a nd d . Th is l eads u s t o s ugges t t he f o l low ing s tra t igraph ic s equence: l eve l , 2 nd c en tury A .D.;

1 ) T he f irs t

2 ) T he s econd p er iod ( t he g rave ) , t he e nd o f t he

3 rd c en tury o r t he b eg inning o f t he 4 th c en tury ; 3 ) t he s econd l eve l , w i th wa l ls c a nd c l , t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c entury ; 4 ) t he t h ird l eve l , w ith wa l l b , t he e nd o f t he 4 th c en tury a nd t he b eginn ing o f t he 5 th c entury ; 5 ) t he f our th l eve l , g enera l ly l a te R o man , 5 th-6th c en tury ( P l . X IV/2 ) . T hese d a t ings f or t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c en tury a nd f or t he 4 th c en tury c an b e c lose ly r e la ted t o t he s tra t igraphy a t S ac idava . A s h as b een s ta ted , t he i n tra- mura l s tra t igraphy a nd t ha t o f t he wa l ls o f C ap idava a re n o t k nown , e xcep t i n t er ms o f t he g enera l s equence f or s uch s i tes i n D obru ja , b eing d i f feren t f ro m t he e x tra- mura l s tra t igraphy , t he l as t r ese mbl ing t ha t o f o th er s i tes i n t he p rov ince .

3 8

T he s a me a t t i tude

o f d oub t , c ons ider ing t ha t t he o n ly c hrono log ica l

a rgumen t i s b ased o n t he mor tar c o mpos i t ion a nd t he s ys te m o f c ons truct ion , h as a lso b een e xpressed b y G r . T oci lescu . T he d iscovery o f t he C ons tan t in ian i nscr ip t ion i n t he d ebr is o f t ower n o . 1i s n o t f ir m e v idence f or t he d a t ing o f t he t h ird p er iod , a nd t he c o in o f C ons tan t ius I c an b e c ons idered a t er m inus f or t h is p ar t icu lar c ons truct ion , t hough i ti s n o t c er ta in whe ther t h is r econs truct ion was g enera l . AX IOPOL IS T he n a me A x iopo l is i s f irs t e ncoun tered i n P to le my 65

a f ter wh ich i ti s

men t ioned i n many s ources . S i tua ted o n ah igh p la teau o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he Danube 3 km s ou th o f C ernavoda , i n f ron t o f H inog i s land , t he f or t o f Ax iopo l is , w i th i t s r ich h is tory a nd t he g rea t a t tract ion o f i t s r u ins , h as n o t b een s ys te m t ica l ly i nves t iga ted . T he t opograph ica l a nd c hrono log ica l r eferences t o i ta re f rag men tary , c on trad ic tory a nd h ave n o t b een v er i f ied o n t he g round . P . P oIon ic c arr ied o u t a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions h ere i n 1 898-1899. I n t he l a te R o man p er iod A x iopol is h ad t wo e nc los ing wa l ls .

6 6

A ccord ing t o

s o me d a ta , t he f i rs t wa l ls d a te f ro m t he e nd o f t he 3 rd a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tur ies , a nd t he s econd wa l l was a dded t o t he n or th i n t he 6 th c en tury. ( P l . X I ). T he f irs t e nc losure wa l l i s a n i rregu lar p olygon , a dap ted t o t he n a tura l c on tours , w i th wa l ls 3 .50 m t h ick b u i l t o f o pus c ae men t ic iu m a nd f aced w i th p ara l le l ipiped ic b locks a nd a lso w i th n u merous r e-used s tones f ro m e ar l ier R o man monumen ts .

A t t he e x tre m i t ies t here a re t wo g a tes , s y m me tr ica l ly

p lace a t t he e nds o f a n a x ia l s tree t ,f lanked b y t owers . I ns ide t he f irs t f or t t here were a lso f ound s o me p ubl ic e d i f ices l in ing t he p r inc ipa l s tree t , w i th c o lumned p or t icos , among wh ich were a t hree-nave b as i l ica w i th a s em ic ircu lar a pse . T he s econd l o t o f wa l ls f or m a t rapezo ida l e nclosure a nd were p robably b u i l t i n t he 6 th c en tury .

T hey m igh t p rove t o b e t he c iv i l ian s e t t le men t o f

t h is p er iod a nd i t may b e t ha t t he e n t ire p la teau , t owards t he n or th , was o ccup ied . T he s econd f or t h ad t he s a me t h ick wa l ls , b u i l t i n t he s a me t echn ique a s t he f irs t o ne . Two g a tes a nd a r ec tangu lar t ower a re v is ible o n t he p lan. We h ave n o e v idence a s t o t he c hrono logy o f t he t wo f or ts , b u t we c an a f f ir m , t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he ir p lans , s hapes , t he t echn ique o f c ons truct ion a nd t he t h ickness o f t he wa l ls o f t he t owers , a nd t he p lans o f t he i n tra- mura l a reas , t ha t b o th b e long t o t he l a te R o man p er iod .

T he d a te when t hey were

c ons tructed a nd r econs tructed , whe ther t he s econd f or t c an b e c ons idered a s a n e x tens ion o f t he f irs t o ne o r v ice v ersa , o r whe ther o ne o f t he m was a lready a bandoned when t he o ther was b u i l t , a re a s y e t u nso lved p roble ms .

3 9

L IBIDA ( IB IDA ) I n t he n or th o f t he D obru ja , a t S lava Rusa , t here i s o ne o f t he l arges t R o man f or t i f ica t ions a long t he L ower Danube , c over ing a n a rea o f a bou t 2 4 h a .

I th as n o t y e t b een p roper ly i nves t iga ted a rchaeo log ica l ly , a l though i t s

l oca t ion a nd s ize h ave b een k nown f or s o me t ime a nd V . Parvan l oca ted h ere t he f or t o f I b ida 6 7

men t ioned i n P rocop ius ' l i s t ,

6 8

an a me wh ich i n f act was

v ery p robably L ibida ( or L ibid ina ) . 69 T he o n ly t opograph ica l r econs truct ions a re b ased o n a er ia l p ho tographs , o n t he b as is o f wh ich t he f irs t p lan was made o f t he f or tress a t S lava Rusa . 70 ( P I . X I I ) . T he f or t if ica t ion was s i tua ted o n t he p la in , t he l oca t ion b e ing o f n o mi l i tary i mpor tance e xcep t f or i t s p osi t ion i n t he c entre o f t he n or thern Dobru ja o n t he p r incipa l n or th-sou th r oad . I ta lso r epresen ts t he s econd f or t i f ied l i ne o f t he l imes , a nd p ro tects t he i n ter ior o f t he p rov ince . a re t wo f or ts d a t ing f ro m d i f feren t p er iods . wa l ls o f t he t wo f or ts mee t .

I n f ac t t here

T h is i s s hown b y t he way t he

A t t he e as tern c orner o f t he sma l ler f or t ( I ) ,

t he s ou th-eas tern wa l l o f t he l arger f or t ( I ) a rr ives , i f we e x trapo la te i t o n t he p lan , a t t he n or th s ide o f t he c orner t ower i n t he n or thern c orner o f t he sma l l f or tress ( I ) .

T he wes tern wa l l o f t he l arger f or tress j o ins t he

f ron t o f ar ec tangu lar t ower . I ti s o bv ious t ha t t he sma l ler f or tress ( I ) was b u i l t b efore t he l arger o ne , e nc los ing t he h i l l w i th wa l ls , b u t t he p os i t ion o f t he s ou th-wes tern c orner o f t he f irs t f or t a nd t he s i tua t ion o f t he t wo a foremen t ioned t owers s ee ms t o i nd ica te t ha t t he s ou th a nd wes t s ides o f t he e ar l ier f or t ( I ) a lso p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n t he s econd f or t ( I). The f i rs t f or t ( D .

Th is i s sma l ler t han f or t I , b ut t h is i s u sua l i n t he

l a te R o man f or t if ica t ions o n t he S cy th ian l imes .

I t s i rregu lar t r iangu lar

s hape

T he n or th-wes tern a nd

i s d ic ta ted b y t he c on tours o f t he g round .

n or th-eas tern s ides a re more d if f icu lt t o r es tore , e xcep t f or t he r ec tangu lar t ower a t t he n or thern c orner . p erhaps c ircu lar .

O n t he s ou th-western s ide t here was a t ower ,

T he s outh-eas tern s ide i s c lear e nough w i th a c ircu lar

t ower a t t he c orner a nd w i th t hree U -shaped t owers a nd a r ectangu lar t ower i n t he midd le o f t he s ide . The c hanges o f d irec t ion a nd f rag men tary n a ture o f t he wa l l , most o bv ious o n t he s outh-eas tern s ide , c lear ly i ndica te more p hases o f r econs truc t ion o f t he f or t . F or t I . s hape .

T h is o ccup ies a l arge a rea a nd i th as a r ough ly t rapezo ida l

I n f act t he s ides a re i rregu lar a nd b roken , a l though t he g round d oes

n o t j us t i fy t hese i rregu lar i t ies .

C lear ly , o n ly e xcava t ions w i l l e xp la in t hese

ma t ters s a t is factor i ly. A t t he c orners t here were t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts .

On t he n or th s ide

t here i s a n e n trance g a te , f lanked b y t wo U -shaped t owers , t hen a t i rregu lar i n terva ls t here a re t wo more U -shaped t owers a nd a l arge r ec tangu lar t ower . On t he wes t s ide , r ectangu lar t owers a t e qua l d is tances a l terna te w i th U s haped t owers . T he e as t s ide h as a n e n trance g a te w i th t wo U -shaped t owers , t hen a no ther t hree U -shaped t owers a nd t wo more r ec tangu lar t owers . The s ou th s ide h as a r ec tangu lar c en tra l t ower , f l anked b y t wo U -shaped t owers .

4 0

T he l ack o f a ny r esearch o r a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions d epr ives u s o f i n forma t ion o n t he c hrono logy a nd c ons truct ion o f t he f or ts .

I ti s h owever

o bv ious t ha t b o th f or t i f ica t ions mus t b e a ss igned t o t he l a te R o man p er iod ( 4 th -6 th c en tur ies ) a nd t ha t t he f or t Ii s e ar l ier t han f or t I .

We t en ta t ive ly

p os tu la te t ha t t he l arger f or t ( I ) , t o j udge f ro m i t s p lan , d i mens ions a nd t echn ique s hou ld b e long t o t he 4 th c en tury , p erhaps t o t he r e ign o f C ons tan t ine Ia nd h is s uccessors , w h i le t he sma l ler f or t ( I ) , t ak ing i n to a ccoun t i t s e ar l ier c ons truct ion o n ah i l l , i t s l ess r egu lar s hape , i t s sma l ler s ize a nd t he f act t ha t f or ts were n o t b u i l t i n t he 5 th c en tury , may b e d a ted t o D ioc le t ian 's r eign , t ha t i s t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c en tury. An a dd i t iona l p iece o f e v idence i s g iven b y t he s im i lar i ty o f t he s ou the as tern s ide o f f or t I to t he f or ts a t T roes m is a nd C ap idava . UL METU M U l metu rn f or t i s s i tua ted o n ap ro mon tory b ounded b y t wo s teep g u l l ies t o t he n or th-eas t o f P an te l i mon d e S us v i l lage . ( PL . X I I I ). I n f or m i ti s as quare w i th t he s ou th c orner c u t o f f o bl ique ly , r esu l t ing i n ap en tagon .

One c orner f aces n or th , a no ther e as t ;

t hese c orners t er m ina te

t wo a l mos t e qua l s tra igh t s ides t ha t j o in e ach o ther a t ar igh t a ng le a t t he n or thern c orner t ower .

T he n or th-eas tern a nd s ou th-eas tern s ides a re p ro-

t ec ted b y d eep g u l l ies . A l l t he e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t U l me tum was t o ta l ly r ebu i l t u s ing d ebr is a nd t he r e ma ins o f e ar l ier monumen ts .7 1 I n g enera l i ti s s een t o b e r oughly a nd h urr ied ly b ui lt , f aced w i th s tones o r r e-used ma teria ls p laced a t r ando m . A lso , e spec ia l ly o n t he n ör th-wes tern a nd n or th-eas tern s ides i ti s e v iden t ly a sy m metr ica l i n a manner n o t j us t i f ied b y t he c on for ma t ion o f t he g round . A l l t h is i nd ica tes a f or t p lan a nd c ons truct ion o f t he l a te R o man p er iod .

7 2

Wi th s o me sma l l v ar ia t ion , t he wa l ls o f U l me tum a re 2 .60 m t h ick , w i th f ounda t ions 2 .80-3 .20 m w ide .

On t he s teep ly s lop ing s ou thern s ide ,

t he f ounda t ions a re 1 .85-2 .50 m d eep , b u t o n t he p la teau ( t he n or th-wes tern s ide ) where t he g round i s s tab le , t he f ounda t ions a re s ha l lower . T he f ound a t ions o f t he wa l l a re c ons truc ted f ro m i rregu lar b locks o f s tone b onded w i th mor tar a s c ae men ta .

There i s as oc le a t g round l eve l a nd t he wa l l i s s e t b ack

0 .20-0 .40 m , w i th a n o u ter f acing o f b ig b locks . i s o n ly i n o pus i ncer tum , b u t i s we l l b u i l t .

T he i nner f ace o f t he wa l l

The . d ispos i t ion o f t he o u ter

f ac ing-s tones i s d i f feren t a t S ac idava , T ropaeum a nd C ap idava :

t he u pper

p ar ts o f t he wa l ls a re b u i l t o f sma l l b locks , a nd o n ly a t t he b ase o r a t t he e n trances were b ig o r v ery b ig b locks , many o f t he m r e-used .

7 3

Wa l l I , r unn ing f ro m t he e as tern c orner t ower t o t he n or th-eas tern r ec tangu lar t ower , i s 6 2 .82 m i n l eng th . Wa l l Ii s a bou t t he s a me l eng th ( 6 2 .22 m) , s o t he n or th-eas tern s ide measures 1 35 m , t oge ther w i th t he r ec tangu lar t ower . T he p resence o f o n ly o ne t ower i n t he midd le o f t h is s ide c an b e e xp la ined b y t he e x is tence o f t he s teep g u l ly wh ich n a tura l ly r e in forces t he d e fences o f t he f or t o n t ha t s ide .

T h is p ar t o f t he wa l ls was r ough ly c on-

s tructed .

4 1

T he n or th-wes tern s ide i s n o t q u i te s tra igh t , w i th a g a te d efended b y t wo h orseshoe-shaped t owers o n t he n or thern p ar t a nd a mass ive r ec tangu lar t ower a t t he s ou th . g a te a nd t ower .

Th is s ide i s 1 35 .50 m i n l eng th o vera l l , i nc lud ing t he

T he f i rs t wa l l i s 2 7 m i n l eng th , t he s econd 1 5 .21 m a nd

t he t h ird 4 1 m. T he g a te w i th t he t ower i s 2 6.50 m w ide a nd t he l arger r ect angu lar t ower i s 2 0 m w ide . • T he f irs t wa l l o n t he s ou th-wes tern s ide , b e tween t he c orner t ower a nd t he s ou th-wes t g a te , i s 1 7.50 m l ong a nd i s we l l b u i l t , w i th a n o u ter f ace o f r egu lar c ourses o f s tones , c ons truc ted a t t he b ase o f t wo c ourses o f b locks o f t wo h e igh ts i n a n a t te mp t t o c orrec t t he s lope a nd t o s o make t he u pper c ourses h or izon ta l .

-

T he s econd wa l l r uns i n t hree s ec t ions a nd i s 2 2 .15 m i n l eng th . The s oc le f o l lows a c urved l i ne b u t t he o uter f ace c ons ists o f t hree s tra igh t s ec t ions . B ecause o f t he c onf igura t ion o f t he g round , t he wa l l h as massive f ounda t ions , w i th a s tepped s oc le l eve l led o f f b y t he u pper c ourses o f masonry . T he t h ird wa l l , o n t he s ou thern s ide , c hanges d irec t ion i n t he m idd le ; a t t he e as tern e nd i th as a s tepped s oc le , d ue t o t he s lope o f t he g round .

A n

e n trance i n to t he f or t was made i n t h is wa l l , w i th a s i l l 2 .50 m w ide , l a ter n arrowed b y as tone a nd c lay wa l l .7 4 T he f our th wa l l , t urn ing t owards t he e as t , h as a n arrow e n trance 2 .42 m w ide .

Two o ther n arrow e n trances were

f ound o n t he n or th-eas tern s ide , g iv ing i n a dd i t ion t o t he t wo l arge g a tes , f our p os terns a t U l me tum .

7 5

U l me tum c i tadel h as 1 3 t owers :

t hree h orseshoe-shaped c orner t owers ;

f our U -shaped t owers a t t he t wo ma in g a tes ;

a nd s ix r ec tangu lar t owers o n

t he wa l ls . T he N or th c orner t ower i s t he b igges t ( 15 .60 m i n d ia meter ) b ecause i th as a more i mpor tan t d efens ive r o le , e specia l ly f or t he d efence o f t he n or the as tern wa l l .

T he s ou th-wes t c orner t ower i s o n ly 1 2 m i n d iame ter .

A t U l me tum , Tropaeum a nd L ib ida ( nor th-wes tern c orner-tower ) t he t owers h ave a t rue h orseshoe-shape , f or m ing a smoo th c urve . T he r ectangu lar t ower o n t he n or th-eas t s ide measures 6 .70 m , o n t he wes t s ide , 7 .22 m o n t he e as t s ide , a nd i s 1 0 .51 m w ide . T he

r ec tangu lar t ower o n t he s ou th s ide , n ear t he s ou th-wes tern g a te

( wes t s ide , 7 .10 m ;

e as t s ide , 7 .80 m ;

f ron t , 9m ) h as a n i rregu lar s hape .

T he r ectangu lar t ower o n t he n or th-wes tern s ide i s e xcep t iona l ly l arge , 2 0 m ; s ou th a nd n or th s ides , 1 3 m . I ti s ap hrour ion , o r a s V . P arvan h as s a id , ar ea l c as te l lum c iv i tas .

7 6

S uch mass ive t owers a re c haracter is t ic o f m i l i tary a rchi tec ture o f t he l a te R o man p er iod , a nd a re p laced i n c o mbina t ion w i th U -shaped t owers o n t he mos t e xposed s ide , g enera l ly t he s ide wh ich f aces t he n eares t a ccess , o r t owards t he l and i n t he c ase o f s i tes o n t he D anube b anks .

They a re e n-

c oun tered a t Troes m is , L ib ida , U l me tu m , Tropaeu m , I a trus , S ac idava , C ap idava e tc .7 7 The s ou thern r ec tangu lar t ower i s t he l arges t o n t ha t s ide . T he f ron t i s 1 3 .15 m w ide , a nd t he s ides measure 1 0 .90 m . The s lope d ic ta tes t ha t 4 2

t he b ase o f t he t ower s hou ld b e b u i l t i n s teps .

T here a re t wo more r ec tan-

g u lar t owers ( 13.50 x 7 .33 x 7 .80 m a nd 1 2 .20 x 8 .70 x 9 .0 m ). T he f ron t o f t he n or th-wes tern g a te measures 6 .70 m i n w id th a nd t he o pen ing o f t he g a te i t se l f i s 3 .75 m i v ide .

I tn arrows t owards t he n or thern

s ide , a nd t hen i s t o ta l ly b locked:7 8 T he s ou thern t ower h as a d iame ter o f 9 .75 m a nd t he n or thern o ne 9 .66 m.

I ns ide t he f or t , t he e n trance i s n arrowed b y t wo p i l lars .

T he n or th-wes tern g a te h ad n o p or tcu l lis , b ut was a f o lding g a te w i th t wo w ings wh ich c losed w i th o ne h inge .

7 9

T he s ou thern g a te , f ro m i t s p os i t ion a nd d i mens ions , was t he ma in g a te ( P l . X IV/1 ) .

T he s ame c onc lus ion i s i nd ica ted b y t he f act t ha t t he n or th-

wes tern e n trance was b u i l t l a ter t han t he n or th-eas tern o ne .

T he s ou th-

wes tern g a te h as a f ron t 7 .40 m w ide a nd a n o pen ing 3 .60 m w ide .

T he d ep th

o f t he g a te i s 4 .20 m w i th s hor t wa l ls e x tend ing t owards t he i n ter ior , r es e mbl ing p i l lars o r b u t tresses .

T he g a te c ou ld b e c losed f ro m t he i n ter ior

( i t was a f o lding g a te ) a nd o n t he e x ter ior i th ad a p or tcu l l is .

A t al a te p er iod ,

t he s outh-wes tern g a te was n arrowed b y 1 .10 m w i th a wa l l b u i lt o f s tones a nd mortar .

There w as n o g roove i nd ica t ive o f ap or tcu l lis .

I n c o mpar ison

w i th t he n or th-wes tern g a te , t he s outh-wes tern g a te was more c arefu l ly c onst ruc ted . T he wes t t ower o f t he s ou th-wes tern g a te i s 1 0 .50 m i n d ia me ter , a nd t he e as t o ne 1 0 m i n d iame ter a nd 7 .80 m d eep . I ns ide , t he who le wa l l

o f t he c i tade l i s i n o pus i ncer tum , e xcep t t ha t t he

l arge g a tes a nd t he p recinc t wa l l was made o f c ourses o f b r icks a l terna t ing w i th c ourses o f s tone .

B r ick was e spec ia l ly u sed i n t he e x ter ior o f t he p re-

c inc t wa l l , n ow f a l len d own . N ear t he modes t d we l l ings wh ich l i ne t he p recinc t wa l l i ns ide t he s ou thwes tern p ar t o f t he c i tade l , al arge b u i ld ing was d iscovered w i th many r oo ms a nd a n a pse f acing t owards t he n or th .

I ti s n o t ab as i l ica ;

p er iods o f c are fu l c ons truc t ion h ave b een n o ted .

a t l eas t t wo

8 0

V . Parvan 's o bserva t ions o f U l me tum c i tade ls , c oncerned e spec ia l ly w i th t he d efens ive wa l ls a nd t owers , a l l c on f ir m t ha t t here w ere t hree p hases i n t he l i fe o f t he f or t

i n t he s ix th c en tury o n t he b as is o f s tra t igraphy a nd

s ty les o f c ons truct ion . T he e xcava tors f ound , a t t he s oc le l eve l o f t he p rec inc t wa l l " around t he c i tade l" t hree b urned l eve ls , t hus i ndica t ing t ha t ,t he c i tade l was b urned t hree t imes b efore i t was a bandoned .

V . Parvan a ssoc ia tes t hese d isas ters w i th

t he Avars w i thout f ur ther e xp lana t ion . 8 1 As ec t ion t aken i ns ide t he s ou thern t ower o f t he s ou th-wes tern g a te o f fers t he f o l low ing s tra t igraph ic s uccess ion f ro m s oc le l eve l u p : 7 cm mor tar w i th s and , a t s oc le l eve l a nd t herefore t he l eve l o f c ons truc t ion;

t hen 7 5 cm c lay ,

s tones , c harcoa l a nd b ones ; 2 0 cm d ebris , w i th c ha lk b locks ; 4 cm c harcoa l , a shes a nd b urn t e ar th ; 1 7 cm d ebr is , c lay a nd f ragments o f b r icks ; 4 cm a shes a nd c harcoa l; 4 0 cm t i les a nd c harcoa l; 4 0 cm t i les .

8 2

C lose

e xam i na t ion o f t h is s equence r evea ls a t l eas t t wo i fn ot t hree l eve ls w i th e v id ence o f d es truc t ion b y f i re . 4 3

Dur ing t he e xcava t ions a t U l me tum t he e xcava tors were s urpr ised a t many f ea tures wh ich t oday a re r ead i ly u nders tood , f or e xa mp le t he r ud i ment ary n a ture o f t he d we l l ings o f t he t h ird p er iod b u i l t o f s tones iand c lay. Today i ti s we l l-known i n a l l t he f or ts o f Dobru ja a nd t he Lower Danube t ha t d we l l ings w i th wa l ls o f s tones a nd c lay , s ome o f t he m v ery modes t , a re c haracter is t ic o f t he p er iod o f Anas tas ius a nd J us t in ian , when o n ly a f ew p ub l ic e d i f ices s uch a s b as i l icas w ere o f s uper ior c ons truct ion .

H owever ,

t he r ea l isa t ion i n 1 914 t ha t t here w ere t hree p er iods o f o ccupa t ion a t U l me tu m i n t he s ix th c en tury i s c onf ir ma t ion o f t he r esu lts o f t he e xcava t ions i n S ac idava , T ropaeu m , T om is , H is tr ia a nd s o o n .

E ven t oday , s o me r epor ts a nd a r t ic les

men t ion o n ly o ne R o mano-Byzan t ine l ayer ( 4 th-6th ) o r , a t b es t , al ayer d a t ing f ro m t he f our th c en tury a nd a no ther f ro m t he f i f th-six th c en tur ies .

TROPAEU M TRA IAN I T he .f or t o f T ropaeum T ra ian i was b u i l t t o t he n or th-wes t o f Ada mc l is i v i l lage , i n t he U r luia v a l ley , c over ing a f l a t a rea o f 9h a . Th is f or t was r ec onstruc ted i n A .D . 3 16 .

8 5

T he T races o f E ar ly F or t i f ica t ions, R ecen t e xcava t ions h ave l ed t o t he d iscovery o f t he f i rs t e v idence o f e ar ly R o man f or t i f ica t ion i n t he v icin i ty o f t he e as tern g a te .

Dur ing t he s econd c en tury a n e as tern p rec inc t wa l l was

b u i l t o n t he s ame l i ne a s t he wa l l o f t he l a te p er iod .

E v idence f or t ha t wa l l ,

l a ter i nc luded i n t he wa l l o f t he p er iod o f L ic in ius-Cons tan tine I , c o .ns is ts o f t races o f ab er m 2 m w ide a nd o f ad i tch 1 .60 m d eep a nd 6 .50 m w ide . T hese f ea tures w ere , o f c ourse , a ssoc ia ted w i th t he wa l l o f ac on te mporary f or t .

I t was e s tab l ished t ha t e ar ly wa l ls were i nu se d ur ing t he t wo s tra t i-

g raph ic p er iods N .I I a nd N .I I I ( t he s econd c en tury A .D .).

An i n ter ior t ower

g a te ( TA ) o n l eve l N .I II was b u i l t a nd t h is was l a ter d is man t led d ur ing c ons truct ion o f t he e as t g a te i n C ons tan t in ian t imes . x 9m o n af ounda t ion 3 .50 m w ide .

The t ower measures 6 .30

T he t ower was b u i l t o f l imes tone w i thou t

a n emp lec ton c ore , o f wh ich o n ly o ne c ourse r e ma ined n ear t he f or t wa l l . T he r es t o f t ower A was c overed b y t he f our th c en tury l eve l . T ropaeum Tra ian i h as a n i rregu lar t rapezo ida l f or m .

The c on tours o f t he

s i te d e term ined t he p lan o f t he f or t i f ica t ions , t he l i nes a nd c hanges o f d irect ion o f t he wa l ls a nd t he s hapes , d i mens ions a nd f requency o f t he t owers .

T he

mos t n umerous a nd c loses t s e t t owers were b u i l t o n mos t o f t he n or thern s ide a nd o n t he n or thern h a l f o f t he western s ide .

On t hose s ides , t he p la teau p er m i ts

t he wa l ls t o b e n ear ly s tra igh t a nd t o mee t a t ar igh t a ng le i n t he n or th-wes t c orner .

Fur thermore , a t t he midd le o f t he w eakes t p o in t o f t he wa l l t here

was b u i l t al arge r ec tangu lar t ower o r p hrourion , c harac ter is t ic o f f or t if icat i ons o f t he C ons tan t in ian p er iod i n S cyth ia . ( P l . XV ). V . P arvan a lso emphas ized t ha t t he i rregu lar p lan o f Tropaeu m was " de ter m ined b y t he c onf igura t ion o f t he g round" i n a ccordance w i th t he C onst an t in ian p rac t ice , a nd c o mpared t he s i te w i th D eutz f or t o n t he G er man l imes , a s h e l a ter c o mpared U l me tu m w i th T roes m is a nd E vreux . T he who le f or t i s a bou t 1 ,200 m l ong .

8 6

T he w idth o f t he f or t a nd U -shaped

t ower-wa l ls i s 2 .60 m , t ha t o f t he r ec tangu lar t ower i s 3 m, a nd t ha t o f t he g a teway wa l ls b etween 3 a nd 4 .15 m . 4 4

O n t he n or th s ide t here a re s ix t owers , o n t he wes t s ide s even t owers ( two o f t he m p laced n ear t he wes t g a te ) , o n t he s ou th-wes t s ide f ive t owers , a nd o n t he e as t s ide o n ly f our t owers ( two o f t he m p laced n ear t he e as t g a te ). B etween t he r ec tangu lar t ower a nd c orner t ower n o . 9 , a ddi t iona l wa l ls w i th b ut tresses were d iscovered o u tside t he f or t , p robab ly f or r einforce men t o n t he s lop ing g round .

The n or thern h a l f o f t he wes t wa l l , f ro m t he wes t

g a te t o t he h orseshoe-shaped t ower a t t he n or th-wes t c orner , was s tud ied a nd i n terpreted i n t he c ourse o f G r . T oci lescu a nd V . Parvan is e xcava t ions . 8 7 T ower n o . 9 , i n t he n or th-wes t c orner o f t he f or tress ,is b u i l t o n ab ase f ormed o f al eve l led s ec t ion o f t he f or t wa l l , •t he c urve 1 4 .20 m i n d ia me ter . 1 .42 m w ide .

I ti s h orseshoe-shaped w i th

T he e n trance t o t he t ower i s a n o pen ing

T ower n o . 1 0 i s 1 0 .44 m d eep , a nd t he w id th i s 9 .64 m.

T owers n o . 1 1 a nd 1 3 h ave a bou t t he s a me d i mens ions ( 2 .55 x 1 2 .18 a nd 1 2 .06 x 1 1.70 m ) .

T ower n o . 1 2 p laced i n t he m idd le o f t he wes t wa l l o f t he

f or t , i s t he o n ly l arge r ectangu lar t ower

( phrour ion ) , w i th a f ron t o f 2 4 .85 m ,

s ides o f 8m a nd 3 m t h ick , w iden ing t o 4 .40 m t owards t he f or t wa l l ( P l . XV ) . T he l eng ths o f wa l l b e tween t he t owers a re r ough ly e qua l , b eing b etween 1 6.50 a nd 2 1 m l ong .

T he i n terva ls a re l onger o n t he s ou th-wes t s ide , b e ing

b e tween 2 5 .50 a nd 6 0 m ( i n f our c ases o ver 4 0 m ) , a s i s j us ti f ied b y t he s teeper g u l ly o n t ha t s ide . T he f ive t owers b etween t he n or th a nd s ou th g a tes a re b e tween 8 .50 a nd 9 .50 m d eep a nd v ary i n w id th b e tween 9 a nd 9 .75 m . T he e as t g a te h as a n o pen ing 2 .60 m w ide f lanked b y t wo U -shaped t owers ( T .1 a nd T .22 )

1 4 m d eep a nd 1 2 m w ide ( P l . XV I ).

T .22 was n o t o f o ne

b u i ld w i th t he f ounda t ions o f t he f or t wa l l , wh ich means t ha t t hey were n o t b u i l t s i mu l taneous ly.

T ower T .22 was b u i l t f ro m l eve l I V A .

I t may h ave

b een a g a te w i th a p or tcu l l is .

T he wes t g a te ( PL . XV I ) i s f lanked b y t wo

U -shaped t owers ( 1 4 a nd 1 5 ).

T hey a re 1 2.20 m d eep a nd 1 1 min d ia me ter ,

The w idth o f t he wa l l was 2 .80 m . were 2 m w ide .

The e n trances i n to t he t owers f ro m t he f or t

V . P arvan c ons iders t ha t t he t owers o f t he wes tern g a te

w ou ld h ave h ad , b es ides a g round f l oor , t wo more f l oors . o pen ing 4 .40 m w ide .

T he g a te h ad a n

Hav ing n o g roove f or a p or tcu l l is b u t o n ly s ocke ts i n

t he l a ter ia l wa l ls a nd t races v is ible o n t he p ave men t o f t he a c t ion o f t he g a te a ndtraces o f t he b o l t i n t he midd le o f t he t hresho ld , t he g a te was c losed w i th f o lding d oors .8 8

T he wes tern g a teway was f aced w i th r e-used s tones .

V . Parvan t hough t t ha t a ccess

was o ver a d i tch b y means o f as uspens ion-

b r idge , b ecause t he s i l l o f r e-used s tones was v ery h igh , a nd t he d ra in u nder i t was 1 .20 m d eep .

8 9

R ecen t e xcava t ions d o n o t s uppor t t h is h ypo thes is .

T he s ou th g a te d oes n o t c o mpare i n s ca le o r f orm w i th t he t wo ma in e as t a nd wes t g a tes , a nd i tl acks l a tera l t owers .

I ns tead , t h is g a te , wh ich i s

o n ly 4 m w ide , i s f lanked b y t wo t ransverse wa l ls o n t he f or t wa l l , 3 .30 m w ide a nd 7 .60 m l ong . c ons truct ion .

Mou lded s tones a nd i nscr ip t ions were r e-used i n t heir

T he e n trance i s n o t h or izon ta l , b u t s lopes s teep ly w i th h igh

s teps mak ing i ti naccess ible f or c ar ts .

Parvan b e l ieved , u n l ike T oci lescu ,

i n t he e x is tance o f as uspens ion-br idge , b u t r ecen t i nves t iga t ions p rove t he a bsence o f ad e fens ive d i tch . 4 5

I n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut b e tween 1 970-1974 , ap er iod o f t he f or t wa l l was n o ted w h ich p reda ted t he b u i ld ing o f t he f or t i n A .D. 3 16 . T h is p hase o f t he f or t wa l l a t Tropaeu m s urv ived o n ly a s af ounda t ion .

9 0

On

t he s outhwest s ide t he f ounda t ions o f s ix t owers w ere d iscovered , i n terest ing f or t he ir s ty le o f c onstruct ion . I ti s c lear t ha t i n t h is p er iod , e x terna l U-shaped t owers were much r arer t han i n t he s t ructure d a t ing f ro m A .D. 3 16 .

I n t he L icin ius-Cons tan tine I

p er iod t he n ew f or t wa l ls w ere c onstructed o n t he e ar l ier f ounda t ions o n ly i n t he c ase o f t he f or t wa l ls.

The n ew t owers w ere b ui l t o n n ew f ounda t ions a nd

were l arger a nd c loser t oge ther t han h ad b een t he c ase i n t he e ar l ier f or t . The s a me s i tua t ion a pp l ies r egard ing t he d efensive s yste m a nd t he t wo s uccessive b ui lding p er iods a t T ropaeu m , wh ich a re t he s a me a s t hose wh ich we f i nd i n D obru ja a t a n a s y e t u n iden t if ied f or t o ft he N or th S cy th ian l i mes , k nown o n ly f ro m t he a nc ien t l i terary s ources .

9 1

I n f act , T ropaeu m was n o t b u i l t u p e n t ire ly a new i n t he t i me o f C onstan t ine I , w hen a p hase o f c onstruct ion a lready b egun was c on t inued . t o d a te p rec ise ly when t h is f i rs t b egan .

I ti s d iff icu l t

Ad a te i s g iven b y ac o in o f t he D ioc le-

t i an ic p er iod , A .D . 2 88-289 , f ound i n s and i n t he f ounda t ion-trench o f o ne o f t he t owers .

Taking i n to a ccount t he c harac ter is t ic f ea tures o f t he f i rst f or-

t i f ica t ion p lan ( i rregu lar wa l ls made l eve l t o t he g round, t he w idth o f t he wa l ls , o uts ide U -shaped t owers ) w e c anno t p ropose t oo e ar ly a d a te , p erhaps A .D . 2 84-288, a t t he e ar lies t i n t he r e ign o f A ure l ian . Dur ing e ar ly e xcava t ions o f "t he marb le b asi lica" f our p hases were n oted :

I . C ons tan t ius I , a bout A .D. 3 50 ;

I .

The p er iod a f ter t he Go th ic

a t tacks i n Va lens ' r e ign , a bout t he p er iod o f Arcad ius ( 395-408 ) ;

I I .

J us-

t in ians ' sr e ign ( 527-565 ) , when i t was r ebui lt a s a n e p iscopa l b as i l ica , a b ap t istery b e ing a dded ;

I V.

Af i na l r ebui ld ing a nd d ecora t ion , l ef t u nf in ished ,

t ak ing p lace i n t he r e ign o f Maur ice T iber ius , a bou t A .D . 5 90 .

9 2

I n t he o p in ion o f t he p resen t a uthor , D ioc le t ian b egan t he work o f e x tens ion o f t he n ew f or t , c ons truc t ion t ha t was i n terrup ted b y t he i nvas ions o f A .D . 2 95 , a f ter wh ich t he work w ou ld h ave b een r esu med w i th s ome modif ic a t ions o f t he i n i t ia l p lan , e spec ia l ly i n t he i ncreased n u mber o f t owers , a l esson l earned f ro m t he e xper ience o f t he a t tacks o f 2 95 .

I t was s carce ly

f i n ished i n t he r e ign o f C ons tan tine I . A s r egards t he s tra t igraphy r evea led b y t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut b et ween 1 968-1975 , t he r ecen t ly p ub l ished monograph i nc luded o n ly o ne s ect ion ( S IIa , i n s ector D ) , w i th a f ew i sola ted d a tab le f i nds , w h i le i gnor ing ( surp r ising ly ) , t he r ich , c lear a nd i n terest ing s tra t igraphy r evea led i n o ther a reas ( D a nd e spec ia l ly C ) a t Tropaeu m .

We c onsider

t ha t , w i thou t a

s yn thesis a nd c orrela t ion o f a l l d a tes a nd o bserva t ions, n o h ypo thesis i n t he a bove b ook s hould b e t aken i n to a ccoun t . The l eve ls f ro m S IIa s hou ld b e a s f o l lows:

( P l . XVI I )

L . I. Dacian l ayer , p re-Ro man L .I .

T he l ayer o ft he f i rst p er iod o f f or t c onstruct ion , w i th b er m a nd d i tch , d a t ing f ro m t he s econd c en tury A .D . u p t o A .D . i n tense f i re a nd i nvasion o f t he C ostaboci .

4 6

1 70 ;

L .I I .

E nd o f t he s econd c en tury t o t he t h ird c en tury ; d efences ( t ower A ) ;

L .I V A .

r ebu i ld ing o f t he

i n tense f i re ;

Al ong p er iod; t he n ew l a te wa l ls a re b ui lt f ro m t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury ( Aure l ian-D ioc le t ian-Cons tan t ine ) t o t he e nd o f t he f our th c entury ( ? )

L .I V B .

T he f i rst h a lf o f t he f i f th c en tury ;

t he r ebui ld ing o f t he f or t

wa l ls. L . V.

T he p er iod f ro m A nastasius t o J ust in ian .

L . VI A .

J ust in I - Maurice T iber ius ;

f i re ( t he i nvas ion o f 5 86-587) .

L . VI B .

T he l ast l eve l ; u p t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s even th c en tury.

I nt he y ears 1 971 a nd 1 972 w e c arr ied o u t e xcava t ions i n t he i n tra- mura l z one C o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he f or tress , w i th impor tan t r esu l ts a s r eg ards t he s tra t igraphy a nd t own-p lann ing o ft he l a te Ro man p er iod .

9 3

( Pl . XV I I I ) .

S ect ion C 19 P erpend icu lar t o t he f or t wa l l. Sma l l s quares 1 6-20 A bout 1 m d eep , u nder a t h ick d eposi t o f d ebr is c on ta in ing u n f ired b r ick , t i les , b ricks a nd s herds , w as f ound a s ol id l eve l o f c lay w i th b r ick p aving o n wh ich t here was a l ayer o f a shes a nd c harcoa l , e vidence o f af i re t ha t d estroyed t he d we l ling .

The w a l ls o f t h is r oo m w ere o f r egular c u t s tones , b onded

w i th c lay .

Th is f i rst l eve l was c a lled L . I .

ma ter ia ls

d a te l eve l I to t he s ixth -c en tury , t h is b e ing t he l as t g enera l u rban

l eve l i n z one C a t T ropaeu m .

P o t tery , l a mps , c o ins a nd b u i lding

Th is l eve l i s e ncoun tered i n a l l s ec t ions c ut i n

z one C , wh ich h ave t he s a me c o mpos i t ion o f d epos i ts a nd a rchaeo log ica l mat er ia l .

O n t he wes tern s ide , n ear t he t ransverse wa l l A , t here was a n a rea

o f 6s q . m where t here was n o L . I .

I n t ha t a rea , we f ound f our r a ised f l oors

h ea ted b y h ypocaus ts , w i th a s toke-p i t t o t he n or th i n s i tu . S ection C .23 ( P l . XVI I I ) Sma l l s quares 1 2-17 H ere we f ound o ne o f t he most i n terest ing s tra t igraph ic i l lustra t ions o f t he l ast p hases o f t own l i fe i n z one C .

T he e xcava ted a rea l i es t o t he e ast

o f w a l l X a nd w est o f w a l l Y , b oth o f wh ich b e long t o t he g enera l l eve l L . I . U nder t he t opsoi l ( 0 .65-0 .75 m ) was a c lay l ayer L . id isturbed b y r emova l o f s tones, wh ich c on t inued o ver wa l l Y wh ich h ad p rev ious ly b een d isman t led .

On t ha t l eve l ( L .I i ) t here w ere r ud i men tary wa l ls a a nd b o f s tone

a nd e ar th , w i thout f ounda t ions, p laced d irect ly on L . I . s ur face a nd h as t races o f s tone p aving .

T h is l eve l h as a h ard

Th is l eve l p asses o ver wa l l Y .

L . Ii s w e l l r epresen ted o n t he w estern s ide o f wa l l Y , a s ad eposi t o f t rodden c lay w i th s ol id t races o f b urn ing . I n f ron t o f wa l ls a a nd b , i s wa l l c , f a ir ly n ea t ly c onstructed b ut w i thout f ounda t ions, p laced d irect ly o n as econd l eve l L .1 2 .

4 7

Traces o f f l oor ing u nder wa l l bi nd ica te a b locked e n trance . These o bserva t ions i nd ica te a c onc lusion o f p ar t icu lar i n terest :

t he

e x istence o f t hree s tages o f r ebui ld ing a nd mod i f ica t ion , l a ter t han t he g enera l l eve l I : T he f i rst s tage = L .

' 2

T he s econd s tage = L .

+p ave men t +w a l l c . I

+ wa l l a + wa l l c

wh ich c on t inues a t l east o n ac er ta in p or t ion . The t h ird s tage =b lock ing o f e n trance w i th wa l l b . .

We o bserve t he e x is tence , i n t he s ix th c en tury , o f t wo u rban z ones.

One

l i es t o t he e ast , t owards t he c en tre o f t he t own , w i th l arge p r iva te b ui ld ings w i th many r oo ms, s ol id wa l ls w i th d eep f ounda t ions, p ave men ts a nd h ypocausts. T he s econd z one i s n ear t he e dge o f t he t own , t owards t he west , a nd i s c hara cter ized b y modest dwe l l ings , w i th s l igh t wa l ls. t he wa l ls i n t he t wo a reas s hou ld b e n o ted .

The d if feren t a l ign men t o f

Therefore i n z one C a t Tropaeu m ( sect ions C 19 , 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 3 a nd 2 4 ) o ur e xcava t ions r evea led o ne g enera l l eve l ( L . I ) , c on t inuous a nd u rban i n n ature , wh ich a ppeared a t ad ep th o f 0 .60-0 . 7 0m . We c an d a te t h is l eve l b y 1 4 c o ins o f J ust in I - S oph ia , d a t ing f ro m t he y ears b e tween 57 1-5 7 2 a nd 5 82-583, wh ich were f ound i n i t .

B e low t h is l eve l , b enea th t he p ave men t o f t he r oo m

w i th a h ypocaust , w e f ound a c oin o f J ust in ian , 5 43-565. The l i fe o f t ha t l eve l was i n terrup ted b y af i re , wh ich was more marked i n c er ta in z ones.

I t may b e a sser ted t ha t a f ter t h is d estruct ion , l i fe o f a

g enera l ly u rban c haracter s topped a nd was n ot r estored i n i t s p rev ious f or m i n t h is a rea . t i ons .

T he e ar l ier wa l ls w ere n o t r ebui l t a f terwards , w i th s o me e xcep-

I ti s most i mpor tan t a nd s ign if ican t t ha t i n c er ta in z ones , w e f ound a

l a ter l eve l t han L .I , t hough o f ap oorer c haracter , wh ich p assed i n many c ases a bove t he r u ins o f t he o ld wa l ls o f p er iod L . I . We f i nd o ld wa l ls o f p er iod L . Ir e-used , p robab ly w i th n ew s upers truc tures b u i lt o n t he m , a nd r e-use o f o ld f ounda t ions . I n C 23 t he s tra t igraph ic s equence was c lear .

H ere t here was t he s a me

d eposi t L .I , t he d ebr is o f al arge dwe l l ing d estroyed b y f i re.

E xact ly o ver

t he d estroyed e astern wa l l , p assed a n ew s o l id c lay l eve l o n wh ich w ere b ui l t t wo wa l ls o f s tones a nd c lay w i thout f ounda t ions . T he s ty le a nd c harac ter o f t hese wa l ls , a s w e l l a s t he s uccession o f l eve ls o n wh ich t hese wa l ls s tand , p rove t he e x istence o f t hree s tages, l a ter t han t he l ast g enera l u rban l eve l o ft he t own .

Al eve l ( L . T O a nd t wo b ui ld ing p hases l a ter t han L .I , w ere f ound

i n t he western e nd o f s ec t ion C 23.

The r e la t ive c hronology o f t h is s uccession

o f l eve ls i s c lear , b ut a bso lu te d a t ing i s more d if f icu lt .

The l a tes t c oins f ro m

L . Iw ere i ssued i n 57 2-5 7 3 , a nd t hey c ould we l l h ave c ircu la ted f or a l ong t i me , s o we c anno t b e s ure when L .I e nded .

I ti s p ossib le t ha t i te nded i n

58 6 -58 7 , a s ar esu lt o f t he i nvas ions o f t ha t t ime .

Th is v iew was h e ld b y

V . P arvan , o n t he b asis o f ac oin o f 58 6 , a nd o n t he i n for ma tion o f fered b y Theophy lactus S i moca t ta ,9 4 B ut T oci lescu i n h is manuscr ip ts n oted t ha t t he i nhab i tan ts o f Tropaeu m a bandoned t heir t own p eaceful ly , f or h e h ad n oted a f ina l o ccupa t ion l eve l w i thout t races o fv io len t d est r uct ion .9 5

4 8

R ecen t d iscover ies o f c oins, e specia l ly o ne d a t ing f ro m 5 90-591 , s how t ha t T ropaeu m c on t inued t o b e o ccup ied a f ter t he d isaster o f 5 86-587 , u n t i l a bou t 6 02 .

9 6

A s we h ave t r ied t o s how , i n z ones C a nd D t he e xcava t ions

s how c on t inu i ty o f l a te R o man l i fe , t hough r educed i n s ca le a nd q ua l i ty . a ga in emphasize t he a bsence o f a ny t races o f f i re i n l ayer

We

L .I . The d efens ive

wa l ls were s t i l l i n u se i n t he l ast p er iod , a f ter 5 87 , t hough t he l i fe h ad d ec lined o ver a l arger a rea o f t he t own . I ti s p ossib le t ha t l i fe f l our ished o n ly i n t he c en tre o f t he t own , a round t he b asi l icas a nd t he e astern g a te , t he o ther i n tramura l a reas b e ing l arge ly u noccup ied . I mpor tan t o bserva t ions r e la t ing t o t he e nd o f t he s ix th c en tury a nd b eg inn ing o f t he s even th c en tury w ere made i n s ector A ( T22 ) , n ear t he e astern g a te .

Here

t here

w ere

t hree b ui ld ings ( E .I , E .I , E .I I ) .

"These b ui ld ings

f unc t ioned i n t he f if th a nd s ix th c en tur ies , i n t wo s uccessive p er iods , t he l a ter h av ing t wo d if feren t p hases" .97 T he f ire a nd d estruct ion o f t he f i rst l eve l t ook p lace i n 5 86-587 a s a r esu l t o f t he A var i nvas ions.

Af ter t ha t e ven t , t he f ea tures o f t he s ucceed ing

l ayers a nd s tructures i nd ica te t he c on t inui ty o f l a te R o man l i fe , e ven i n u rban f orm s s im i lar t o t hose f ound i n t he e ar l ier l ayer , w i th s o me mod if ica t ions . A f ter 5 86-587 , i n s ec tor D t wo o ccupa t ion o ur o bserva t ions i n s ec tor C .

l eve ls were n oted , wh ich c onf ir ms

O bserva t ions made i n T 22 c on f ir m t he v iew

t ha t t he d efensive wa l l w as r ebui l t a nd r e ma ined i n u se , t hough p r im it ive i n a spec t , un t i l t he l ast s tage o ft he o ccupa t ion o f t he f or tress. I ti s p lausib le t o c onclude t ha t t he l a test l eve ls a t Tropaeu m l i e a bove t hose o f 6 02 , a nd t ha t t he a bandon men t t ook p lace g radua l ly a nd was mot iva ted n o t b y a war , b ut t he n ew p ol i t ica l a nd e cono m ic c ond i t ions c aused b y t he weaken ing a nd e ven tua l c essa t ion o f I mper ial a uthor i ty .

4 9

B .

SACIDAVA

( P l . XDC -XXX I ) T he s i te i s s i tua ted b e tween t he v i l lages o f R asova a nd D unären i , o n a h igh h i l l o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he Danube , a t t he l oca l i ty k nown a s Musa i t , where t he r e ma ins o f wa l ls were f or mer ly v is ib le , a nd c hance f i nds o f i nscr ip t ions h ave b een made . A rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions w ere i n i t ia ted f or s evera l r easons .

T he f irst

was t he i den t if ica t ion f ro m t he l i terary s ources a nd i nscr ip t ions o f t he Musa i t f or t a s t he a nc ien t S ac idava .

A no ther was t he n ecess ity o f a cquiring a b et ter

k now ledge o f t he Danub ian l imes i n t he Dobru jan a rea .

F ina l ly , t he c ondi t ions

a t Musa i t-Sac idava f or s ys te ma t ic a rchaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ions were u n like t hose o n t he o ther R o man s i tes o n t he l imes , S ac idava was n ot d isturbed a f ter t he s even th c en tury b y l a ter s e t t le men t o r b ur ia ls , n or was i td a maged b y a gr icu ltura l a c t iv i t ies . The n a me o f S acidava i s k nown t o u s f ro m t he a nc ien t l i terary s ources. Thus i n t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m S acidava i s men t ioned a s as e t t le men t i n wh ich C uneus e q uitu m s cutar ioru m was s ta t ioned ( t he s outhern most c ava lry u n i t i n t he p rov ince o f S cy th ia ) , s i tua ted b e tween C uneus e qu i tu m S o lens ium a t C ap idava t o t he n or th a nd C uneus e qui tu m S tab les ianoru m a t S uc idava t o t he s outh , t h is b e ing t he n or thern mos t u n i t o n t he l imes , b u t i n Moes ia S ecunda .

9 8

I n t h is s ource we a lso f i nd t he i ndica t ions o f t he l oca t ion o f S ac idava b e tween C ap idava t o t he n or th a nd S uc idava t o t he s ou th . men t ioned u nder t he n a me o f S kedeba .

I n P rocop ius t h is f or t i s

9 9

Gr . F lorescu t r ied t o l oca te S acidava a t Topa lu ,

1 00

n or th o f C ap idava ,

ah ypo thesis a ccep ted a t t he t ime b y s o me a rchaeo log ists. I n 1 958 a t o mbstone was d iscovered a t Musa i t ;

1 01

i n d iscussing t h is i nscr ip-

t ion , t he a uthor p u t f orward f or t he f irst t ime t he h ypo thes is o f t he l oca t ion o f S acidava a t Musa i t .

1 02

T he i nscr ip t ion r eferred t o t he f our th c en tury

e xarchus P roc l inus ,

The h ypothesis was t hen a ccep ted b y I . Barnea .

1 03

I n 1 964 a m i lestone a t Rasova w i th a c o mp lete ly p reserved i nscrip t ion was d iscovered .

1 04

I t was e rected i n t he r eign o f t he Emperor Dec ius ( 2 49-251)

a nd i ti s b o th impor tan t a nd i n for ma t ive .

I ti nd ica tes t he d istance a s 4 000

p aces f ro m S ac idava , e xact ly t he 7 km t ha t s epara tes t he a nc ien t s i te o f Rasova-F lav iana f ro m Musa i t-Sacidava .

The d iscovery o f t he Decian m i le-

s tone f i na l ly r eso lves t he l oca t ion o f S acidava .

Archaeo log ica l e xcava t ions w ere s tar ted o n t he h i l l a t Musa i t i n 1 969 . A l though n ot e x tensive , t he e xcava t ions a t S acidava h ave p roduced v ery impor tan t r esu l ts . 1 05 A l though f or t he ma jor i ty o f s cholars t he l oca t ion

o f S acidava h as b een

e stab l ished , s o me works s t i l l u se o bso le te i n for ma t ion ( so me t aken f ro m J . We iss , o thers f ro m P . P o Ion ic ) .

Thus , t he Musa i t f or tress i s s o me t i mes 5 0

p laced e i ther s outh o ft he v i l lage o f D unaren i , o r o n t he t err i tory o f Rasova , o r i ti s e ven a sser ted t ha t t here a re t wo s uper i mposed R o man f or ts , o f wh ich t he e xac t d i mensions a re e ven g iven :

1 50 x 8 0 m a nd 7 0 x4 0 m r espect ive ly ,

f or ts t ha t a re s i tua ted a t Musa i t , s outh ( 1 o f D unaren i.

1 06

P ub lished a rchaeolog ica l i nvest iga t ions a nd e xcava t ions d eny t he e x ist ence o f t wo s uper i mposed R o man f or ts ; w i th s evera l p er iods o f d evelop men t .

t here i s af or t o f t he S cy th ian l imes

T he e ar l iest o ccupa t ion l eve ls a t S acidava a re t hose d a t ing f ro m t he 2 nd c en tury .

L ife wen t o n , c en tury b y c en tury , u p t o t he f i rst h a lf o ft he 7 th

c en tury , w i th r epea ted d estruct ions a nd r ebui ld ings, s o me g enera l f or t he who le f or tress, o thers o n ly i n c er ta in a reas. O n t he western s ide o f t he d efences we n o ted p hases o fb ui ld ing d a t ing f ro m t he 2 nd c en tury . t he s a me c en tury .

A lso t he g rea t b ui ld ing i n t he t h ird t rench d a tes f ro m

The i nscr ip t ions c o mp le te t he e v idence

o f t he f or t i n t he 2 nd c en tury .

f or t he b ui ld ing

Thus , t he t o mbstone o f Marcus Va ler ius,

v eteran o f c ohors I G a l loru m li° 7

s ee med t o s how t ha t b e tween t he y ears 9 9 a nd

1 12 t h is u n i t b egan t he c ons truc t ion o f t he R o man f or t o f S ac idava . was e rec ted b y c ohors IC i licu m , a ccording t o i nscr ip t ions .

1 08

B ut S ac idava

Ano ther t o mb-

s tone d iscovered i n t he c ourse o f t he r ecen t e xcava t ions was e rec ted i n me mory o f C a ius Ve tur ius Verus , as o ldier i n a c t ive s erv ice i n l eg io V Macedon ica Th is i nscr ip t ion s ugges ts t he e x tens ion o f t he s ec tor o f l imes S cy th iae g uarded b y t he l eg io V Macedon ica s outhward b y 3 5-40 km i ncorpora ting S ac idava , t oo . 1 09 Ano ther f unerary i nscr ip t ion r ecen t ly d iscovered a t S ac idava a t tes ts ab urgar ius f or t he f i rs t t ime o n t he S cy th ian l imes , au n i t o fb urgar i i i n t he s econd c en tury , a nd v ery p robab ly i n t he t h ird c en tury t oo . 1 10 I n t he f our th c en tury t he f or tress was e x tended c ons truct ion o f n ew d efences.

a t t he s a me t ime a s t he

The l i terary a nd e p igraph ic s ources a lso a t test

t he s ta t ion ing i n S acidava i n t he 4 th c en tury o f s o me mi l i tary u n i ts.

Two

f unerary i nscr ip t ions men t ion d e tach men ts o f l eg io I H ercu lea a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury .

T he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m i nd ica tes t he p resence a t t he

e nd o ft he 4 th a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he f if th c en tury o f ac uneus e qu i tu m s cut ar ioru m . 1 11

A t p resen t t wo s ides o f t he d efences a re c o mp le te ly k nown , t he s outhern a nd w es tern o nes.

T hese s ides w ere a lso t he most s trong ly f or t if ied b ecause

o f t he e asy a ccess t o t he m , t he o ther s ides b e ing e f f icien t ly d efended b y d eep g ul l ies .

Towers A , B , C , Fa nd G were f ound o n t he s outh s ide ;

west s ide , t owers D a nd E ;

o n t he

a nd o n t he e ast s ide , t he ma in g a te a nd p ar t o f

t he c ur ta in-wa l l a t i t s n or theastern e x tre m i ty . We h ave l abe l led t he t owers a nd wa l ls w i th l et ters i n t he o rder o f t he ir d iscovery , b u t h ere w e p resen t t he f or t if ica t ions i n t opograph ica l o rder . T he Eastern G a te ( p l .X IX , XX I ) O n t he e as t s ide we u ncovered t he ma in e as t g a te o f t he f ort . t ure a nd t ypo logy o f t he e ast g a te a re o fp ar t icu lar i n teres t . 5 1

The s truc-

T he g a te c onsisted o f t wo n ear ly s quare e x terna l t owers. f o l low t he c on tours o f t he h i l l. 4 .30 m ; m .

T he wa l ls h ere

T he t owers a re n o t l arge : t ower 1 , 3 . 7 5 x

t ower 2 , 3 .60 x 3 .60 m .

T he t h ickness o f t he wa l ls was 0 .70-0 .80

T he t owers a re made o f s tone a nd mor tar w i th o uter f aces o f l arge r egu-

l ar b locks o n t he s ides t ha t f ace t he e n trance i n to t he f or tress.

T he i nner

wa l l o f t ower 1i s much t h icker ( 1 .60 m ) . The s tra t igraphy o f t he s urroundings e nab les t he t wo t owers t o b e d a ted t o t he f our th c en tury . F ro m t he o uter c orner o f e ach t ower t here r uns a p erpend icu lar wa l l 4 .40 m l ong , 1 .70 m t h ick , a nd 2 .50 m w ide a t t he f ron t .

Each h as a n i n-

t erna l s ec t ion ( 1 .50 x 1 .10 m ) , i n f act a n ew t ower ( n . 3 ) t ha t e nc losed t he e ntry , f or m ing a v ery s trong s ys te m t ha t c rea tes a s pace u sua l ly c a l led "zw inger"

. I t was b ui l t o f l arge b locks o f s tone , a nd r epresen ts a l a ter

p hase t han t he t wo s quare t owers d a t ing f ro m t he s ix th c en tury .

I n t he s pace

b e tween t he t wo t owers , t he a ccess r oad , wh ich s lopes o utwards, i s p aved w i th s labs a nd b ig s tones a nd a t t he e n trance g rooves made b y t he w hee ls o f c ar ts a re c lear ly v is ib le . s ewer

U nder t he s tone p avemen t was d iscovered a

made o fb ig s quare b r icks .

2 .7 0 m w ide .

The t wo e n trances o f t he e ast g a te a re

T he g a te e nc losed a n a rea o f 1 02 s q . m .

The s quare t owers w ere b ui l t o f med iu m-sized s tones, i n o pus c ae ment i c iu m

w i th av ery s trong o uter f ace o f l arge s labs .

The s tra t igraphy c lear ly p oin ts t o af irst p hase when t he e n trance was d efended b y o n ly t wo e x ter ior s quare t owers, a s tage t ha t d a tes f ro m t he 4 th c en tury .

Th is l eve l i s s i tua ted d irect ly a bove t he s ter i le s ub-so i l .

A s econd

s tage i s r epresen ted b y t he c o mp lex w i th t he t hree t ower s a nd t he t wo e n trances, men t ioned a bove .

O f c ourse , t here a re s igns o f i n ter med ia te s tages o f r epa ir .

Unhapp i ly t owers 1a nd 2 , a nd t he ir c orrespond ing l eve ls o utside t he wa l ls , were d estroyed i n modern t i mes, o n ly o ne o r t wo c ourses o f s tones f ro m t he f ounda t ions r e ma in ing , a nd s o me t i mes o n ly a l ayer o f mor tar b ear ing t he c lear t races o f s tones . The s tra t igraphy i nside t he f or t c lear ly s hows t hree l eve ls d a t ing f ro m t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies.

The d a t ing o f t he t wo ma in s tages o f t he

e ast g a te i s a ssisted b y ab ronze c o in o f 5 18-522 ( J ust in men t i n t he g a teway . Tower G d efended t he s outh-eastern c orner .

I) , f ound o n t he p ave-

I ti s ar ectangular e x terna l

t ower , w i th t he f ron t measur ing 8 .65 m , t he e as t s ide 5 .40 m a nd t he s outhe ast 5 m ;f . o l low ing t he modern d e mo l i t ion , o n ly t hree c ourses o f masonry h ave s urv ived a t t he b ase o f t he f ron t wa l l.

The l arge o r v ery l arge b locks

w ere l a id s ide b y s ide , g iv ing a n e specia l ly s trong f acing .

Most o ft he b locks

a re a rch i tectura l f rag men ts o r i nscr ip t ions, r eused f or t he g enera l r ebui ld ing o f t he f or tress a tt he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury . I n t he s outhwest c orner o f t ower G t here was a l arge a l tar w i th a n i nscr ipt i on o n t he r everse s ide , b ut i th ad b een r e-worked a nd o n ly a f ew l e t ters s urv ived ,

Beh ind t he t ower , t he f or t wa l l h as b een d oub led b y as trong n ew wa l l ,

f or m ing a s upp le men tary b u lwark .

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T ower F i s r ec tangu lar , t he f ron t measur ing 1 0 m , t he e ast s ide 6 m, a nd t he wes t s ide 6 .25 i n . s urv ive .

O n ly t hree c ourses o f t he b ase o f t he f ron t wa l l

I ti s made o fv ery l arge b locks l a id e ndways o n t hus a ch iev ing a

v ery s trong f ac ing .

I n t h is t ower , t oo, n u merous a rch i tectura l f rag men ts

a nd i nscrip t ions f ro m t he e ar ly R o man e poch were r eused .

I n t he w est c or-

n er a n a l tar was r e-used , b ut t he i nscr ip t ion i n t he e x ter ior f ace h as b een s ys te ma t ica l ly r e-worked a nd o n ly a f ew l e t ters c an n ow b e d ist inguished . We n o te t ha t o ld a rch i tec tura l monu men ts w ere u sed , a nd were c areful ly a nd j ud ic iously a rranged .

I n side , t he t h ickness o f t he wa l l was d oub led .

T ower B i s a monu men ta l t ower t ha t s urv ives i n tact t o ah e igh t o f o ver 4m . I ti s r ec tangu lar , t he f ron t s ide l eng th i s 9 .13 m, t he e as t s ide measures 4 .65 m a nd t he wes t o ne 5 .32 m .

Many s tones were r e-used i n t he t ower .

S ix c ourses o f masonry s urv ive f ro m t he f ron t f ace a nd t he s even th a nd a nd e igh th c ourses l e f t c lear t races i n t he c e men t .

L arge , h eavy b locks l a id

o ne a bove a nother w ere u sed i n b ui ld ing t he b ase a nd t he f acing c ourses a t t he b ase o f t he wa l ls.

A lso a t t he b ases o f t he c orners v ery l arge b locks

were u sed , s e t a l terna te ly c rossw ise t o o ne a nother . P l . XX IV , XXV . Most o f t he b locks i n t he f ron t f ace o f t h is t ower c onsist o f r e-used a rch i tectura l f rag men ts a nd i nscr ip t ions d at ing f ro m t he e ar ly R o man p er iod . Thus i n t he u pper c ourse o f masonry t here i s ab lock f ro m a n o ld monu men t , wh ich i n t he e x terna l f ace s t i ll p reserves t he f our f i na l l e t ters o f aL a t in i nscr ip t ion ( HENS ) .

I ti s t he o n ly e x terna l ly v isib le i nscr ip t ion a t S acidava

t ha t w as n ot r e-worked .

A lso i n t he f ron t f ace a t o mbstone was p laced w i th

i t s f ace o utwards, w i th t he i nscr ip t ion e n t ire ly r e moved , wh i le t he u pper r eg is ters t ha t c on ta in o n ly d ecora t ion a nd s y mbols w i thout l e t ter ing i n tac t .

a re

An a l tar was a lso p laced l y ing o n i t s s ide , b ut w i th t he i nscr ibed

f ace o utward , o n t he e astern c orner o f t he f ron t f ace .

The i nscr ip t ion h as

b een c ut away b efore t he b lock was r e-used . ( P l . XXD C ) S o me l arge a l tars were a lso s e t a t t he b ase o f t he t ower c orners , a marb le o ne b eing r e markab le f or i t s f ine c arv ing a nd f i n ish .

The i nscr ip t ion i s o n o ne o f t he i nner f aces.

a l tar i s n oted i n t he o uter w est f ace .

Another

I n t he u pper p ar t o f t he t ower m issing

c ourses o f s tones ( n os . 7a nd 8 ) a re p reserved a s impressions i n t he c e men t w i th , i n r everse , t he c lear impress ions o f s o me i nscr ip t ions.

The s tudy o f t he

l et ters s how t ha t t here w ere t o mbstones among t he s tones r e moved i n t he s u mmer o f 1 976 f ro m t ower B .

S o me o ther s labs i n t he f ron t f ace a re i nscr ip-

t i ons , b ut w i th t he ir f aces i nwards i n t he r ubb le c ore o f t he wa l l. T he b ase o f t ower B was b ui lt e n t ire ly o f l arge a rch i tec tura l f rag men ts , i ngen ious ly p laced t o f i t t he d es ired p lan . A s a who le , t ower B i s o ne o f t he s trongest , most i n terest ing a nd b est c ons tructed t owers a t S acidava . T he s ty le o f c ons truc t ion a nd r e la t ionsh ip o f t ower B w i th t he p rec inc t wa l l i s i den t ica l w i th t ha t e ncoun tered i n t ower A .

A t t he b ack o f t ower B ,

t he w a l l was d oubled b y a wa l l 2m t h ick , f or m ing ap la tfor m , a s was t he c ase w i th t he o ther t owers a t S ac idava . I n terna l t ower n o.2 .

I n t he m idd le o f c ur ta in wa l l B ( b etween t owers A

a nd B ) o n t he s outhern d efences, w e n ote a n u nusua l method o f r estor ing t he

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wa l l .

I t was b roken f or a l eng th o f c . 2 .50 m , i n t he s ix th c en tury , t o i nser t

ar ectangu lar t ower measur ing 2 .50 x 2 .0 r n , w i th s tone a nd mor tar w a l ls 0 .70 m t h ick ( T2 , P l .

X IX

) . When t his i n terna l t ower was b ui l t , t he f or t

wa l l was r estored , a nd a l i t t le p ostern g a te was c losed b y b lock ing . T ower A i s a lso r ectangular , t he f ron t measur ing 1 0 .21 m, t he e ast s ide 6 .85 m a nd t he w est s ide 5 .51 m . s urv ived o n t he f ron t f ace.

Three c ourses o f l arge s labs a nd b locks

Many r e-used s tones w ere f ound h ere , t oo,

a l tars i n t he b ase a nd t o mbstones i n t he o ther f aces. P l . XX I I I . T ower A h as wa l ls 2 m t h ick .

A f ter a s er ies o f a l tera t ions t he f or t wa l l

w as d oub led w i th a nother w a l l 2m t h ick b eh ind t h is t ower .

The i nner wa l l

( h , t ha t was a dded l a ter ) c an b e r e la ted a nd i n terpreted b y t he s tra t igraphy i n t he s ect ion I( sq . 8 -9 ) .

A s c an r ead i ly b e s een i n P l. XXV II I/1 , wa l l hs ee ms

t o h ave b een i n u se i n a l l t he l eve ls i n s ec t ion I , s q . 8 -9 , t ha t i s t he l eve ls d a t ing f ro m t he s ix th c en tury .

A s t o t he d a te o f c ons truc t ion o f wa l l h , we

n o te t ha t l eve l I V ( da t ing f ro m t he b eg inning o f t he f our th c en tury ) i n s q . 1 0-11 d oes n o t r each u p t o t he wa l l:

i ti s t he o ldes t l eve l i n t h is z one .

O n t he o ther

h and i n t he wes tern p rof i le o f s ec t ion I , b e tween L I I a nd L IV , we n o te a h ard , c o mpressed y e l low c lay l eve l t ha t s ee ms t o b e as ix th-cen tury p i t d ug f ro m t he f i rs t l eve l ( l eve l I ) , v ery p robab ly f or a r epa ir o f t he wa l l-base .

I n a ny

c ase , wa l l hf unc t ioned i n t he s ix th c en tury ( t he l eve ls i n s quares 8 -9 ) e ven i fi n t he f i na l s tage o f t he o ccupa t ion o f t he f ortress we c anno t p rove t ha t t he f or t wa l ls s t i l l s erved a d efens ive p urpose .

We c an o n ly s uppose t ha t s o me

p or t ions t ha t s t i l l s tand t o c ons iderab le h e igh ts w ere u sed b y t he l as t i nhab it an ts o f t he f or t . The s econd p rec in t wa l l ( y ) t oge ther w i th e x terna l t ower A , f or m s a nother c o mp lex a nd a no ther s tage o f c onstruct ion.

We h ave n oted , f irst ly , t ha t t he

l a tera l wa l ls o f t ower A ( Zi a nd Z3)a re n ot b onded i n to w al l y , s o Z 1 a nd Z 3 h ave t he ir ‘ends c arefu l ly b u i lt w i th smoo th v er t ica l f aces . o f e v idence i s o f fered b y t he t h ickness o f wa l l y .

Ano ther p iece

Wh i le o uts ide t he t ower , t o

b oth e as t a nd wes t , wa l l ye x tends 4 0 cm b eyond t he c orners o f wa l ls z1 a nd z3 ,i n o rder t o g ive a s tronger j oin t , i nside t he t ower i ti s n arrower a nd i t s e x terna l f ace f o l lows t he l i ne o f o ne o f t he f aces o f t he e nds o f wa l ls z i a nd z3 . ( P l . XXV I I I/1 . ) The e ssen t ia l c onc lusion r eached a f ter a c arefu l c onsidera t ion o ft he c onstruct iona l d e ta i ls a bove , i s t ha t t he s o-ca l led wa l ls o f t he t ower , a l though t hey a re c on t inuous w i th t he p recinc t wa l l y( t he w a l l t ha t f or ms t he f our th s ide ) , were b u i l t e ar l ier t han y , t hough o n ly s l igh t ly s o .

I n t h is way w e c an

e xp la in t he c areful ly w orked f aces o f t he e nds o f zi a nd z3 . We n ow c onsider t ha t i n t ower A t here a re t wo c onstruct iona l c o mp lexes, c orrespond ing t o t wo p er iods.

One c onsists o f t he d efensive t ower A w i th

t he p recinct wa l l ya nd t he o ther o f t he d ouble wa l l h . t wo s tages ( o f c ourse , v ery c lose i n t i me ) :

The t ower i t se l f h as

f i rst t he wa l ls o f t he t ower were

b ui lt ( Zi Z 2 Z 3 ) a nd t hen t he wa l l yt ha t c loses o f ft he t ower t owards t he i ns ide o f t he f or tress . wa l l ya nd t ower A .

We a lso c onsider t he d oub le w a l l ( h ) t o b e l a ter t han Tak ing i n to c onsidera t ion t he l evels f ound i n t he s outhern

a rea o f t he f or t , t he t wo s tages c an b e d a ted b etween t he 4 th a nd 6 th c ent ur ies. 12 I ti s c er ta in t ha t i n t he f i rst s tage ( i n t he 4 th c en tury o n t he b asis o f a l l t he

5 4

s tra t igraph ic a nd e p igraph ica l e v idence ) t ower A a nd wa l l y were b ui lt a s p ar t o ft he g enera l r econs truc t ion o f t he e n t ire f or t .

Af ter s trong a t tacks a nd p er-

h aps d estruc t ion i n t he 6 th c en tury , t he o ld f or t wa l l was s treng thened b y t he c ons truc t ion o f a 2m t h ick wa l l i ns ide i t .

1 13

T herefore , we c an s ee h ere au n ique s equence o f r econstruct ion , n o t s een a t t he o ther f or ts. The i n i t ia l d efensive wa ll e rected i n t he 4 th c en tury , s treng thened w i th q uadr i la tera l t owers , was d estroyed v ery p robab ly i n t he m idd le o r i nt he s econd h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury , a nd was t hen r ebui l tu nder t he Emperor Anastasius ( 491-518 ) . I n t he s econd h a lf o ft he 6 th c en tury , a n ew r ebui ld ing o ft he p recinct wa l l was u nder taken , b ut i n as pecia l way , b y t he e rect ion o f a dd i t iona l d efence wa l ls 2 m t h ick , b u i l t i n t he s a me t echn ique a nd j o ined immed ia te ly o n to t he o r ig ina l wa l ls. The s ect ion c lear ly s hows t ha t t he f ounda t ion t rench was d ug f rom l eve l I , a nd t herefore t owards t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury . B u t t ak ing i n to c ons idera t ion t ha t i n t he p rof i le S I t he t rench d oes n o t e x tend d own t oL . I I a nd t ha t t he wa l l hi s a t ad eeper l eve l , c on t inu ing i n t he o ther s tra tu m a nd i n t he s teri le s o i l w i thou t a ny f ur ther s igns o f t he t rench , we b e l ieve t ha t af ounda t ion t rench was d ug i n p er iod l eve l If or ar econstruc t ion o f t he p recinc t wa l l h . F ur ther more , t he t rench c u ts a p art o f t he o r ig ina l wa l l ( y ) , e xac t ly a t t he s ame l eve l a nd o n t he b read th o f t he f ounda t ion p i t . Th is a lso c on tr ibutes t o o ur u nders tanding o f t he c hrono log ica l r e la t ion b e tween t he t wo wa l ls : wa l l hi s l a ter t han wa l l y . T he s ect ion o bta ined i nside t ower A s howed t he f o llow ing s tra t igraph ic s uccession , c onc lusive e v idence f or t he c hronology o f t he t ower a nd f or t wa l ls i n t h is s outhern a rea o f S ac idava .

F ro m t he l owest l eve l u p , t he f i rst

f l oor l eve l l i es o n t he s ter i le s o i l a nd f o llows a l i ne t ha t r ises i n s teps t owards t he i n terior ( t o t he n or th ) n ear t he wa l l ( y ). g round , a nd i tr epresen ts a s tep .

Th is i s d ue t o t he s lope o f t he

On t h is f l oor l eve l d a ted t o t he 4 th c en tury

b y t he p ot tery a nd a c oin o f C onstan t ine , t here were d eposi ted s uccessive ly t wo s tra ta s lop ing t owards t he e x ter ior s ide o f t he t ower . O utside t ower A t he s tra t igraphy i s a s f o l lows:

Under t wo t h ick l ayers

o f d ebr is w i th b ig s tones , l i es a t h in mor tar l ayer , t hen a t h ick l ayer o f g rey e ar th c on ta in ing v ar ious ma ter ia ls.

Two o ther l eve ls f o llow , w i th s igns o f

b urn ing , a sh a nd mor tar , b elong ing t o t he 6 th c en tury , t hen a t h ick g rey l ayer c on ta in ing ma ter ia l d a t ing f ro m t he 4 th-5th c en tur ies. L eve l w i th t he e x terna l s oc le o f t he t ower wa l ls , t here i s t he f l oor l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he t ime o f i t s e rec t ion a nd o pera t ion , c onsist ing o f h ard y e l low c lay , o ver wh ich h ave b een s uccessive ly d eposi ted t wo l ayers o f mor tar m ixed w i th a sh a nd c lear t races o fb urn ing .

T h is l eve l i s d a ted i n t he 4 th c en tury b y t he p ot tery a nd t wo c o ins.

The l eve l i s a lso marked b y af l agstone p ave men t e x tend ing f ro m t he s outhern c orner o f t ower A . T he west s ide c f t ower A h as a p ar t o f i t s f ace c onstructed i n o pus i ncert urn a nd a p ar t made o fb ig b locks .b. I I t s urv ives t o ah e igh t o f 2 .20 m u p f ro m t he s oc le f ounda t ions , w i th a p ar t n ear t he c ur ta in wa l l 3m h igh . O n ly t he s outhern e nd , t ha t f or ms a c orner w i th t he f ron t s ide , w as b ui l t o f l arge b locks ( two f ounda t ion b locks l a id h or izon tal ly measured 1 .50 x 0 .30 a nd 1 .70 x 0 .30 m r espect ive ly ) . A bove t he f ounda t ions, t he m idd le

5 5

c ourse , c orresponding t o t ha t o n t he f ron t , c ons is ts o n ly o f ab ig q uadri la tera l b lock , p laced l eng thw ise a nd measur ing 1 .80 x 0 .90 m . F rom t he u pper c ourse t here s urv ived o n ly t wo b locks ( 0 .50 x 0 .30 m a nd 0 .40 x 0 .40 m ) . T hus , t he c orner o f t he t ower i s we l l b u i lt . T he r es t o f t he f ace i sb u i lt o f mediu m s ized l imestone a nd s ch is t b locks , measur ing b e tween 0 .20 a nd 0 .60 m , i n o pus i ncertu m . T he c ons truc t ion o f t hese wa l ls s hows a l ack o fu n ifor m i ty o f e xecut ion , a nd t aken w i th t he v ar ious ma ter ia ls u sed i ti mp l ies t hree c ons truc t ive s tages , o r o ne c ons truc t ive s tage a nd t wo s tages o f r epa ir . T he t ower e xh ib i ts a p or t ion n ear t he f or t wa l l , 1m l ong , a midd le s ec t ion ( 1 .10 m) t owards t he f ron t a nd a s ec t ion f rom t he c orner o f t he t ower made o fb ig b locks . T he f ac ing o ft he b locks c overed h a lf o f t he s urface i fn o t t he who le s ide , i n i t ia l ly , f or t he who le l eng th o f t he s oc le .

A f ter t he f ac ing was d estroyed, r econstruc-

t ion was c arr ied o ut u s ing s tones , a l most a l l o f t hem g reen s ch ist , s e t e ndways o n , b onded w i th g rey mor tar i n o pus , i ncer tu m .

T he r ubb le c ore i s made

n or ma l ly o fo pus c ae men t ic iu m . T he i ns ide f aces o f t he t ower a re c arefu l ly worked a nd a re made o f mediu m s ized b locks o f s ch is t ( 0 .40 m i n l eng th ) , u sua l ly p laced e ndways o n , t hus j o ining t hem t o t he r ubb le c ore .

D esp i te t he a pparen t d isorder o ft h is

o pus i ncer tu m , t he s tones o f t he i ns ide f ace s how c arefu l c ons truc t ion i n s uperposed c ourses , e ven i ft hey a re u nequa l . T he i n ter ior s oc le i s 1 .20 m h igher t han t he e x ter ior o ne . I t s s tepw ise c ons truc t ion may s how t ha t t he f ounda t ions o f t he t ower were a lso b ui l t i n s teps , f o l low ing t he s lope o f t he g round . T ower C d efends t he s outhwest c orner o f t he f ort , a nd i s r ectangu lar . The f ron t i s 8 .60 m w ide , t he e as t s ide measures 4 .80 m a nd t he w es t s ide 5 .35 m .

T he f ron t f ace s urv ives f or f i ve c ourses a bove t he s oc le .

T he s oc le

a nd f our c ourse were b u i lt o f l arge , t h ick s labs , l a id o ne a bove t he o ther . The t h ird l ayer i s b u i l t o f v ery b ig s labs , l a id o n e dge , a l terna t ing r egu lar ly w i th t ransverse s labs embedded i n c emen t . T h is t ower i s v ery c are fu l ly f aced , r eca l ling G reek p ara l le ls . T he masonry , o f s tone a nd mor tar , i s k eyed i n to t ha t o ft he f or t wa l l o n t he wes t s ide o n ly .

H ere t he f or t wa l l c hanges i t s

d irec t ion t owards t he n or th i n al arge c urve .

I ti s a lso t o b e n o ted t ha t t ower

Ci s n o t p laced i n t he midd le o f t he s em ic ircu lar b u t l i es s omewha t t owards t he e as t . B eh ind t he t ower , i ns ide t he f or t , t he w a l l h as b een t h ickened , t he r esu lt b e ing a s trong p la tfor m o r b ast ion measur ing 4 .50 x 8 .50 m, o n to wh ich a r ec tangu lar r oo m h as b een j o ined w i th s ta irs l eading u p t o t he t ower ( P l . XXV I , XXV I I I , 2 ) . A l though t h is d efensive s ec tor was more e ndangered b y i t s p os i t ion a t t he c orner o f t he f or t , t he t ower i s n o t e spec ia l ly l arge n or h as i t ar ounded f ron t , l i ke t hose o f t he o ther R omano-Byzant ine f or ts .

I t s s treng th l i es i n

i t s s i tua t ion o n t he c urve o f t he f or t wa l l a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he mass ive b ast ion o r p la tfor m b u i l t i ns ide . I t s h e igh t mus t b e p resumed t o h ave b een t he s a me a s t ha t o f t he t ower s o t he d efenders c ou ld wa tch a nd move i n a ny d irec t ion . T ower D i s s i tua ted o n t he wes tern s ide , wh ich i s p erhaps t he mos t v u lnerab le p o in t . I ti s t he s tronges t , b es t p reserved a nd mos t monumenta l t ower a t S ac idava .

( P l . XXV I I . )

5 6

I ti s a lso r ectangular . T he f ron t i s 1 4 m w ide a nd t he o ther s ides b oth measure 5 m . The f ace i s p reserved t o ah e igh t o f 6 .50 m , a nd t ogether w i th t he n ibb le c ore i tr eaches 8 m i n h e igh t . T he f irst p o in tto make i s t ha t t he f ace o f t h is t ower i s b ui l t e n t ire ly f ro m v ery l arge b locks o f s tone , l a id o ne a bove a nother i n r egular c ourses, r em in iscen t o f o ther massive t owers i n t he Greek t radi t ion . . B esides t he o f f se t , i t se lf v ery i ngen ious ly b u i l t , t here c an b e s een e igh t o ther c ourses o f s tones . T he f ron t wa l l , t oge ther w i th t he c ae men ta , i s 2 .40 m t h ick .

T he f ounda t ions o f t he c orners o f t he t ower h ave b een b ui lt o f v ery

l arge b locks . H ere a lso o ld monu men ts h ave b een u sed , e spec ia l ly a l tars i n t he f ac ing , b ut a lso a rch i tec tura l f ragmen ts ,e spec ia l ly i n t he s oc le f oundat i ons . T he b locks l i e d irec t ly o ne u pon t he o ther .

The n arrow s paces b etween

t he s tones were c areful ly g rou ted o n t he s urface w i th f i ne p laster . I ti s a lso i n terest ing t ha t t o p roduce p erfect j o in ts b etween t he b ig b locks o f s tone , s o me o f t he m h ave b een c ut s pecia l ly i n s teps, a t echn ique t ha t a ga in r e ma inds u so ft he Greek t rad i t ion . T he o uter f acing s hows u s c lear ly h ow t he t ower was c onstructed a nd t he a rrange men t o f c ourses. The f ounda t ions were b ui l t a t t he c orners a nd i n t he m idd le , t hen t he f acing made o fv ery l arge b locks, u p t o ah eigh t o f 6m t hen t he u pper p ar t w as f aced w ith sma l l b locks, t he c orners b e ing made o f l arge s tones. T ower E i s r ectangu lar a nd 1 0 .26 m w ide .

Two c ourses o f l arge b locks

s urv ive o f t he f ron t f acing , among wh ich a re a l tars a nd r e-used i nscr ip t ions. I ti s v ery i n terest ing t ha t a n e n trance g a teway was o pened i n t he f ron t s ide o ft h is t ower , f or m ing t he Western g a te o f t he f or t .

Th is g a te was 2 .90

m w ide . The d oor-si l l was b u il t o ft wo b ig b locks, wh ich were massive r eu sed t o mbstones. We may a lso n ote t he p ara l le l g rooves, worn b y t he whee ls o f c ar ts. The g a te f unc t ioned i n t he 4 th c en tury , a nd a f ter t he 5 th c en tury i nvas ions i t was b locked b y ac are less ly b ui l t wa l l o fb locks o fv ar ious s izes. T he western g a te i s s i tua ted a t t he e nd o f t he v ia p r inc ipa lis , wh ich s tar ts a t t he e astern g a te . Ap r incipa l g a teway i n to a f or t , made i n t he f ron t s ide o f ad efensive t ower a nd n o t f l anked b y o ther t owers, r e ma ins a nu nusua l f ea ture . C ur ta in-wa l l Fi s 1 9 m l ong , a nd i s p reserved t o ah eigh t o f a bout 3m . I ti s c ur ious t ha t t he e n t ire

o uts ide f ace was p lastered w i th a t h ick l ayer o f

f i ne mortar , c areful ly smoothed . C ur ta in-wa l l Bi s 1 8 . 7 5 m l ong .

I t was n ea t ly b ui l t o f sma ll b locks l i ke

t he o ther c ur ta in-wa l ls, i n a n o pus q uadra tu m a rrange men t .

A t l east t wo

r epa irs c an b e s een a nd t here i s an arrow e n trance g a te f or p edes tr ians . T here a re many s igns o f d estruct ion a nd r epa ir . t o ah e igh t o f 0 .45-1.25 m .

The f acing i s p reserved

Ah igher c ore ( 1 . 8 0 m ) b e longs t o t he r econstruc-

t i on s tage o f t he f or t w a l ls a nd t he i n terna l t ower T 2 a lso d a tes f ro m t h is p er iod . 5 7

I n t hree a reas e specia l ly t here i s an otab le r egular i ty i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he f acing o f t h is s ect ion o f wa l l , wh ich i s d ist inct ly d if feren t f ro m t he f ac ing o f c ur ta in-wa l l A . I n t he f i rst , ( western ) s ect ion which i s 4m l ong , t he f ace i s made o f l arge r egu lar b locks ( 0 .60 x 0 .25 m ) , c areful ly s uperposed , g iv ing t he imp ression o f o pus q uadra tu m .

I n t he s econd a rea , al ength o f 3m , t he f acing

i s v ery much d a maged o pus i ncer tu m , c orrespond ing t o t he r epa irs o n t he i n terna l t ower ( T2 ) .

The t h ird a rea o f c ur ta in-wa l l B , 6m l ong a nd p reserved

t o ah e igh t o f 0 .80 m ,was f aced w i th o pus i ncer tu m .

H owever , w e may n o te

i n t he f i rst p ar t ar egu lar c ourse o f l i t t le b locks ( t hree sma l ler o nes o f 0 .35 x0 .30 m ) a nd t wo b ig s labs s et l eng thways a nd measur ing 0 .8 0 x0 .25 a nd 1 .10 x 0 .25 m r espect ive ly w i th a b r ick c ourse a bove .

The t wo b ig s labs

s uggest t he s i l l o f a n e ar l ier e n trance , b locked i n t he l ast s tage. The l ast a rea , 4m l ong , n ear t ower B , h as a f acing o f a l most r egu lar b locks o f d ense g rey l imestone ( 0 .60 x 0 .25 m ) .

The b locks were p laced

i n r ows, f or m ing o pus q uadratu m . I n t h is a rea , t he o utside f ace was c overed w i th a f i ne l ime a nd s and p las ter 1 cm t h ick , a nd a g eo me tr ic d ecora t ion was a pp l ied wh i le i t was we t .

I tc ons is ts o f h or izon ta l s tr ips 2 0 cm h igh , s epara-

t ed b y d oub le p ara l le l l i nes 3 cm a part .

I n t he p ane ls s o f or med a re t races

o f ad oub le s p ira l ( S-shaped ) d es ign , a rranged s o t ha t a l terna te r ows o f s p ira ls f ace i n o ppos i te d irec t ions . I ft he p laster ing o f t he f or t wa l ls c an b e e xp la ined ,1 14

t he d ecora t ion o f

t h is o utside f ace i s most u nusua l . C ur ta in wa l l Ai s 1 8 .60 m l ong a nd i ti s c are less ly b ui lt o f sma l l a nd med iu m-sized b locks t o g ive o pus q uadra tu m . I n t he s ou thwest c orner , i n t he f ron t o f t ower C , a t t he b ack o f t he t ower , t he f or t wa l l f o l lows a c urve , more p ronounced t owards t he western c orner , a nd t hen c on t inues i n as tra igh t l i ne t owards t he n or th . I tr uns f ro m t ower A a t t he e astern e nd t o t ower C a t t he west .

I t

s urv ives t o ah e igh t o f 0 .50-0 , 7 5 m , wh ich r epresen ts t he modern , p ree xcava t ion , g round s urface .

I n t he m idd le i ti s more t han 1 .50 m h igh .

I ti s b ui l t o f c e men ted o pus i ncer tu m a nd t he f ace i s made o f i rregu lar l i mes tone b locks a l l o f med iu m s ize, b ut t he f acing s tones h ave f aces c oncea led w i th in t he wa l l ( t he s tones a re 0 .20 m t o 0 .40 m l ong ) .

The g aps b e tween

t he s tones a re f a ir ly l arge a nd a re f i l led w i th wh i te mor tar mixed w i th a l ot o f c oarse ly p ounded b r icks, a nd i s v ery f r iab le.

The mor tar of ten c overs

p ar t o f t he f aces o f t he s tone , wh ich i nd ica te a t l east a p ar t ia l p las ter ing h ere , a s ap rotect ion a ga inst t he w ea ther . I n s p i te o f t he i rregulari t ies, t he m idd le s ec t ion o f wa l l s ee ms t o s ugg est t he i n ten t ion o f p roducing more r egular s tonework . C ur ta in wa l l C . e n t ire ly d if feren t .

The s yste m o f c onstruc t ion o f t he w estern wa l l i s A bove t he f ounda t ions, f ro m t he a ncien t g round s urface ,

t he o u ter f ace f i rst f or ms a s eries o f 3 -5 s uccessive s teps b ack a nd o n ly b eh ind a l l t hese i s t he t rue f ace o f t he wa l l . s een i n wa l l Do n t he s a me w estern s ide .

5 8

Th is t echn ique c an a lso b e

T o r eturn t o wa l l C , w e n o t ice t ha t t h is i s l onger ( 26 . 8 0 m ) a nd i s d iv ided i n to t hree s ect ions, f o l low ing t he f ounda t ions . I n s ect ion I ( i nside t he f or t ) , wa l l C was f ound a t t he w estern e nd o f t he s ect ion , a t ad ep th o f o n ly 1 .18 m .

I th ad b een d es troyed d own t o t h is d ep th .

We h ave s o me s tra t igraph ic i nfor ma t ion .

The wa ll h as a s oc le a t t he

f ounda t ion l eve l , s i tua ted u nder t he f i rs t l eve l f ro m t he g round s urface , a l eve l t ha t r uns u p t o t he r egu lar f ace o f t he wa l l , o ver i t s s oc le . o ther t wo l a ter l eve ls r an u p t o t he wa l l .

A lso , t he

S o t he b ase o f t he p rec inc t

wa l l s een i n S ec t ion I was b u i lt i n t he 2 nd c entury .

T his i s t he o n ly

a ccep tab le h ypo thesis o n p resent k now ledge . S hor t l eng ths o f c ur ta in-wa l ls D a nd E h ave b een u ncovered . a ppeared i n S ec t ion I I .

Wa l l E

The wa l l was 2 m h igh , r obbed o n i t s o utside w i th

o n ly a sma l l p ar t o f t he f acing r e ma in ing .

I nside t he c onstruc t ion i nd ica tes

t wo s tages . The f i rst s tage i s i nd ica ted b y t he 0 .40 m w ide o f fse t b ase , c are lessly b u i lt o f i rregu lar s tones . I n t he s outh p rof i le l eve l V I I I ( 2nd-3rd c en tur ies) p asses o ver t h is s oc le , b ut i n t he n or th p rof i le o f t he s ec t ion , t h is l eve l s tops i n f ron t o f t he s oc le .

We t herefore d a te t he f i rs t s tage o f t he wa l l i n t h is a rea

t o t he 2 nd c en tury , c on te mporary w i th L . D C . The f irs t s tage o f t he wa l l , w i th t he i nside f ace smoo ther a nd more r eg u lar , i s 1 .50 m h igh .

I n p rof i le , t he o n ly l eve l r unn ing u nd isturbed u p t o

t he wa l l i s L . VI I I ( 2nd-3rd c en tur ies) , t he n ex t l evels b eing i n terrup ted b y t he mor tar-f i l led p i t o r b y t he s crap ing a nd l eve ll ing wh ich t ook p lace i n L .I V ( 5 th c en tury ) . L .I V r epresen ts a p er iod o f c onstruc t ion , s hown b o th b y t he c lear ing o ft he e ar l ier l eve ls a nd t he p roduct ion o f n ew h or izon ta l s ur face , a nd a lso b y t he p i t f i l led w i th mor tar n ear t he wa l l which c uts t hrough t he e ar l ier l eve ls, s o t ha t t he most p lausible d a t in g f or t he s econd r estora t ion o f t he wa l l ( i n s ec t ion I I ) i s t he 4 th c en tury . The s econd s tage o f t he wa l l i s a lso t he b est c onstructed , b ui l t f ro m r egu lar s uperposed c ourses o fb locks . I n s ec t ion I I , t h is s tage b e longs t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he 6 th c en tury . I n S ec t ion I I , t he d efensive wa l l i s s ever ly d a maged i n t he s outhern p ar t . T he b reach was r epa ired , a nd t he e ndangered s ect ion was c onso l ida ted b y t he c ons truct ion o f as econd o uter d efensive wa l l p laced u p a ga inst t he o utside f ace o f t he o r ig ina l wa l l .

Th is d oub le w a l l i s 1 0 m l ong a nd 1 .2 5 m t h ick ,

a nd i s c are less ly a nd h urried ly b u i lt w i th f r iab le mortar . S o h ere t oo we mee t w i th a n i ngen ious n ew me thod o f r epa ir ing a nd f or t ify ing t he wa l ls, i mposed b y t he c ond i t ions o f t he mo men t a nd i n r esponse t o

al oca l p roble m . *

*

*

S o me o f t he c onstruc t ions u sed i n t he e rect ion o f t he n ew , l a te R o man wa l ls a t S acidava , a re i n terest ing a nd n ove l , w i thout p ara l le ls s o f ar f ro m

5 9

o ther a reas o f t he Emp ire, a nd p robably r epresen t ing t he a dap ta t ion o f a g enera l a rch i tectura l p lan t o t he l oca l r esources a nd c ond i t ions. T hese o bserva t ions, c orrela ted w i th t he s tra t igraph ic a nd t opograph ic e v idence , a l low u s t o r econstruc t t he g enera l p lan a nd t he a rch i tectura l a i ms o ft he n ew f or t a nd t he p ract ica l way i n wh ich t hese e nds w ere a ch ieved , b o th i n t he i n i t ia l s tage o f c onstruct ion a nd i n l a ter r econstruc t ion . Af i rst c haracter ist ic o f t he l a te R o man f or t o f S acidava , w h ich g ives i t i t s o r ig ina l a rch i tectura l a spect , n ew i n t ha t p er iod a nd i n s outheastern E urope , i s t he f or t if ica t ion o f t he who le f or t wa l l w i th r ectangu lar t owers. N one o f t hese t owers , n o t e ven t hose a t t he c orners , h as a r ounded f ron t , a lt hough r ounded t owers a re a c harac ter ist ic f ea ture o f t he l a te R o man p er iod . T he mode l was o f c ourse o f fered b y G reek f or tresses , p r imar i ly H is tria , t og e ther w i th l oca l i deas a nd r esources . F or e xamp le , t he c ons truc t iona l me thod , u sing mass ive " cyc lopean" b locks , u sed f or t he t owers , was i n f luenced b y t he a va i lab i l i ty o f aq uan t i ty o f v ery l arge b locks . T h is a vo ided t he d anger o f c o l lapse a t t he f ron ts o r c orners . A no ther e xp lana t ion may b e t he r egu lar s pac ing o f t he t owers , e .g . t he S . s ide , o f 1 25 m , i s f ort if ied w i th 5b ig a nd s trong t owers , t he l eng ths o f c ur ta in-wa l l b e ing u nder 1 8-19 m .

The mass ive

c harac ter o f t he t owers j us t if ies t he l eng th o f t he f ron ta l s ides . A no ther f ea ture o f t he t owers i s t he mass ive c harac ter o f t he f ounda t ions ) v ery l arge b locks b e ing p laced e ndways o n , l a id v ery c arefu l ly a nd u sed u p t o h igher l eve ls a t t he c orners, mak ing t he t owers e x traord inar i ly s trong . I n a l l t he t owers a t S ac idava w e f i nd a n impressive p roport ion o f r e-used monu men ta l a rch i tectura l s tones a nd i nscr ip t ions o f e ar ly R o man d a te . When i nscr ibed s labs a re r e-used , c are h as b een t aken t o a vo id p lac ing t he i nscr ibed f ace o n t he o utside . I n most c ases where t h is w as u navo idab le , t he i nscr ip t ion h as b een r e moved .

A l l t he i nscr ip t ions p laced w i th t he ir f aces t owards t he

i ns ide o ft he wa l l a re u nda maged . We may s uppose s uch e xcep t ions o r c are lessness w ere s t i l l t o lera ted a t t he t ime w hen t he t owers w ere b ui l t . O n ly l a ter , w hen C hr ist ian i ty c ea sed t o t o lera te t he p agan i nscr ip t ions o n t he a l tars a nd e ar ly R o man t o mbstones , w ere t hey d efaced .

On ly t he s ing le i nscr ip t ion .. HENS , t he e nd o f aw ord

w i th n o p agan s ign if icance , r e ma ins u n touched . T here a re s ome t owers w i th n o e x terna l i nscr ip t ion ( A , Ca nd D ) , a nd t hese may b e d a ted b y t he ir p lans .

A l l t he t owers a t S ac idava were c onso l i-

d a ted i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 6 th c entury b y ad oub le wa l l b ui l t b ehind e ach t ower , t hus f or ming mass ive p la tfor ms o r b as t ions f or a r t i l lery . T he mos t mass ive b ast ion i s s i tua ted b eh ind t ower c i n t he s ou thwes t c orner , t h is b e ing t he most v u lnerab le a rea .

S ch is t h as b een u sed o n ly f or t he t owers ,

a nd e spec ia l ly f or t he ir i ns ide f aces .

T h is i s p robab ly d e libera te , t o make

t he t owers s tronger . S o f ar t he e n trances i n to t he t owers f ro m i n side t he f or t h ave n o t b een f ound . H owever , i n o ne c ase w hen t he wa l ls o ft he t owers h ave b een d oubled i n t h ickness , s tone s ta irs w ere u sed t o a scend t o t he p la tfor m , a nd i n o ther c ases a ccess was p robably b y w ooden s ta irs. *

*

*

6 0

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We n ow t urn o ur a t ten t ion t o t he p r inc ipa l g a tes o f t he f or t .

On t he s outhern

s ide t here was o n ly o ne n arrow g a te f or p edestr ians, wh ich was l a ter b locked . T he p r inc ipa l g a te , f lanked b y t wo s quare t owers a nd w i th mass ive a dd i t iona l f or t if ica t ions, was f ound i n 1 972-74 , o n t he e astern s ide . D ur ing t hese e xcava t ions, w e d iscovered a s econd p r inc ipa l g a te a t t he w es tern e nd o ft he v ia p r inc ipa l is wh ich r an a cross f ro m t he e astern g a te . Th is g a te was o f a n u nusua l d esign , b e ing t he r esponse o f t he b ui lders t o a l oca l c onstruc t iona l p rob le m . B ecause o f t he r egu lar s pacing o ft he t owers o n t he western s ide , wh ich was r endered n ecessary b y t he r eady a ccessibi l i ty a nd h ence v u lnerabi li ty o it h is s ide o f t he f or t , t ower E c ise ly a t t he western e nd o f t he v ia p r inc ipa l is. e ar l ier t own p lan a nd c ou ld n o t b e a l tered .

h ad t o b e p laced p re-

The l a t ter f or med p ar t o f t he

An e n trance g a te was t herefore

made i n t he m idd le o f t he f ron t o f t ower E , w i thout t he a dd i t ion o f f l ank ing t owers s uch a s w e e ncoun ter t hroughout t he Emp ire. A no ther p o in t wh ich h ad b een n oted p reviously a nd wh ich was c on f ir med i n 1 972-74 o ver t he who le f or t i s t he p ronounced d if ference b etween t he s ize a nd s treng th o f t he t owers o n t he o ne h and a nd o f t he c ur ta in-wa l l w i th s ha l low f ounda t ions (f ro m 0 .30 1 .00 m , r are ly t he l a t ter ) a nd f aced i n d egenera te o pus q uadra tu m t echn ique, a s i s e ncoun tered i n o ther f or ts o n t he l imes. Th is e xp la ins why a t tacks s ucceeded i n mak ing b reaches i n t he c ur ta in-wa l ls a nd n o t a t t he t owers, t he l a t ter r e ma in ing i n tact u n t i l t he 1 9 th c en tury . One p oss ible e xp lana t ion i s t ha t t he c ur tain-wa l ls may r epresen t af ina l r estora t ion a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 7 th c en tury , a f ter o ther r epa irs a nd r eb u i ld ings.

I n t h is way w e c ou ld c onnect t he d ecora t ion o f t he wa l ls o f Do mus

Ia nd t he p laster ing a nd d ecora t ion o f t he o utside f aces o f c ur ta in-wa l ls B a nd F . T he c ur ta in-wa l ls w ere b ui l t u sing a n o pus c ae men t ic iu m i ncer tu m t echn ique , a nd t he wa l ls o f t he t owers i n o pus c ae men t ic iu m b ut w i th t he o utside f ace made o f l arge o r v ery l arge b locks, t he f acing a nd t he c ore b e ing b onded b y t he a l terna t ion o f t he d irect ion i n wh ich t he f acing s tones w ere l a id . T here a re a lso s o me i n terest ing s tructura l f ea tures i n t he c ur ta in wa l ls. C ur ta in-wa l l Ch as i t s b ase i n 3 -5 s teps, t o p reven t t he f ounda t ions f ro m s l ipp ing d own t he s teep s lope . C ur ta in-wa l l F was c arefu lly p lastered , a l l o ver .

Th is i s p robab ly a

l oca l i nnova t ion , p ro tec t ing t he wa l l f ro m p ene tra t ion b y r a in-wa ter .

A l ter-

n a t ive ly , t h is may r epresen t t he d esire o f t he b ui lder t o a ch ieve a n a t tract ive e f fect .

The n e ighbour ing c ur ta in-wa l l , B , i s p lastered a l l o ver i t s o uter

f a ce , a nd i s d ecora ted w i th i nc ised s p ira l d esign .

The s a me d ecora ted p laster

i s f ound o n t he i nside wa l ls o f a4 th-6th c en tury h ouse ( Do mus I ) . B e tween t owers A a nd B , o n t he s outhern s ide ( cur ta in-wa l l B ) , af ter t he b lock ing o f t he p edestr ian g a te , al i t t le s quare i n terna l t ower ( T2 ) was b u i l t , i n o rder t o s treng then t he d efences . On t he western s ide , t he b reach i n wa l l E was r epa ired a nd a t t he s a me t ime t he wa l l ' st h ickness was d oub led b y t he a dd it ion o f a nother wa l l , 1 .50 m t h ick , a dded o utside t h is t i me .

6 1

T rac ing t he l a tes t d efens ive wa l l a t S ac idava , a s f ar a s i th as b een d isc overed , we c an b road ly r econs truc t t he p lan o f t he f ort if ica t ions i n t he 4 th6 th c en tur ies .

We c an s ay t ha t t he f or t if ied a rea i n t he l a te R o man p er iod

c overed a bou t 4h a ( P l .X IX a nd XX ) . The a bsence o f o ccupa t ion l eve ls e ar l ier t han t he 4 th ( or a t l east t he l a te 3 rd ) c en tury i n t he s outhern , e astern a nd s ou theastern p ar ts o f t he f or t i nd ica te t ha t t he 2 nd-3rd c en tury f or t c overed a sma l ler a rea t han i t s 4 th-6th c en tury s uccessor . The l ines o f t he l a te wa l ls d o n o t f o l low a p reconceived f or t p lan b ut a re d e ter m ined b y t he n a tura l s lopes o f t he h i l l , t he wa l ls b e ing p laced o n t he h ighest p o in ts.

H ere we h ave a f or tress p lan a dap ted t o t he g round

c ond i t ions . I n c onc lusion , w e w i l l a t te mp t t o make a n a xono metr ic r econst i tu ion o f t he f or t . E xper i men ts w ere c arr ied o ut many y ears a go i n r estor ing t he s hape a nd t he h e igh t o f d efensive wa l ls a nd t owers f or t he e astern S cyth ian f or t o f Troes m is .

We t rea t t he r esul ts w i th r eserve .

d one a t U l metu m ,1

1 6

S im i lar work h as b een

15

a nd more r ecen t ly a t H istr ia .

I n O l ten ia s o me d a ta

1 17

h ave b een c a lcu la ted f or Drobe ta , S laven i a nd S uc idava .

1 18

F or a more a ccura te r econstruct ion we must s tar t f ro m t he e s tab l ished d a ta :

t he p lans, t he s urviv ing r e ma ins, t h ickness o f wa l ls, c onstruct ion

t echn iques , a nd s o o n , a nd f ro m o ur k now ledge o ft he e vo lut ion o f f or t i f ica t ions i n t he R o man p er iod .

A t H istr ia , t he e ar ly R o man f or t ( 2nd-3rd c en tury )

s ee m s t o h ave h ad wa l ls r ising 5 .50-6 m f ro m t he c on te mporary g round l eve l a s marked b y t he s oc le , a nd 1 .80 m t h ick .

A t Drobeta , t he wa l ls i n t he 2 nd

c en tury w ere a bout 4 .50 m h igh a nd 0 .80 m t h ick .

The t owers measur ing

2 .80 x 2 .70 m were o f c ourse h igher t han t he c ur ta in-wa l ls, p robab ly a bout 5 .50-6 m . A t S laven i , t he 1 .50 m t hick wa l ls r ose t o ah eigh t o f s o me 5 m , a nd t he t owers t o 6m o r 6 .50 m . Therefore t here i s a n a gree men t b e tween t h ickness o f t he wa l ls , t he s urface d i mensions o f t he t ower s a nd t heir h e igh t . The l a te wa l ls a t H istr ia a re t h icker ( 4-5 m ) a nd h igher , t ower G a t ta in ing a bout 8 -9 m a bove t he c on te mporary g round s urface .

1 19

C ur ta in-wa l l I , o n

t he s outhern s ide , w i thout t owers a nd e asy t o d efend b ecause i tf aced o u t t o t he s ea , was a bout 7 .50 m h igh .1 2° The s a me i s f ound a t Drobeta , w here i n t he 4 th c entury t he wa l ls a re 2 m t h ick a nd t he e x terna l t owers a re l arge ( 7 x 8m ) a nd t he wa l ls a re h igh . A t S acidava , t ak ing i n to c onsidera t ion t he g enera l e vo lut ion o f l a te R o man d efences a nd t he e stab l ished d a ta ( wa l ls 2 m t h ick ; b ast ion-p la tfor ms i n f ron t o f wa l ls 4 m t h ick ;

l arge t owers measur ing 5 x 1 0 m ;

t he d e ta i ls o f t he

e as tern g a te ) w e c an e st i ma te t ha t t he wa l ls were i n g enera l a bout 6 m h igh , b eing p robably h igher o n t he s outhern a nd e astern s ides a nd l ower o n t he n ort hern h a lf o f t he e astern s ide a nd o n t he n or thern s ide , t hese l ast s ides b o th b e ing d if f icu l t o f a ccess. The t owers, e specia l ly t he e astern g a te a nd t hose i n t he c en tres o f t he s outhern a nd western s ides, r ose t o a t l east 8 -10 m a nd p ossib ly a s h igh a s 1 2 m .

6 2

S acidava was s urrounded b y ab ig c iv i l ian s e t t le men t c over ing more t han 5t imes t he a rea o ft he f or t , f ro m wh ich i t was s epara ted b y ad eep d i tch wh ich r an r ound t he s ou thern s ide a nd h a lf t he w estern s ide o f t he f or t . A er ia l s urvey ing h as r evea led t he p lan o f t he c iv i l ian s et t le men t a nd i t s e vo lut ion , a nd t he a ccess r oads. The v er if ica t ion o f t hese r esu lts o f a er ia l p ho tography i s s o f ar c on f ined t o s urface e xa m ina t ion , a nd n o e xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied o ut . O ur d a ta a nd o bserva t ions o fb ui ld ing t echn iques w ith t he p lans a nd s ec t ions , a l low u s t o

a t te mp t ar econstruct ion o f t he g en-

e ra l p lan . F irst ly t he r estora t ion a nd e x tension o f t he l a te R o man f or t c onsisten t ly f ol lowed t he g round c on tours s o t ha t t he d efensive wa l l e xact ly f o l lows t he l i ne o f t he h igh g round , a bove t he n a tura l s lopes a nd c l if fs. T he d efens ive t owers, s tronger a nd more n u merous where t he a ccess was e as ier , a re o ut o f t he l i ne o f t he wa l ls . B ecause t he s lope i s a l mos t e verywhere q ui te s teep , p robably a r t if ica l ly made a t s o me p o in ts, t he t owers h ave v ery d eep i n ter ior f ounda t ions s ince t he g round l eve l i nside t he f or t i ss o me 3 -4 m h igher t han t ha t o u tside . T he g round l eve l d oes n o t d escend o n ly a s o ne g oes o u ts ide t he wa l ls , b ut a l so f a l ls a long t he w a l ls f ro m west t o e ast o n t he s outhern s ide a nd f ro m s outh t o n or th o n t he w estern s ide.

The g rea test a dap ta t ion a nd max i mu m

u se i s made o fn a tura l c on tours, a s i s b est d e monstra ted b y t he d if feren t s truc tures o ft he f aces o ft he t owers, a nd e ven w i th in t he s a me t ower i n c ases w here b ig s tones w ere u sed o n ly f or t he v ulnerable s ide, a nd f or t he r est sma l l a nd med iu m s ized s tones h ave b een emp loyed . T he a uthor h as n o ted i n t ower A , wha t h as n ow b een c on f ir med a s a g enera l r ule a t S acidava , d i f feren t s tages a nd i n as pec if ic s equence . F irst , t he l im i ts were d e ter m ined , t he t rad it iona l a gger , w i th t he v ia s agular is, b y means o f d eepen ing t he d i tch o utside a nd s o met i mes b y a dding e ar th o n t he t op . T hen t he f ounda t ions were d ug a nd t he t owers w ere r a ised . F ina l ly , o r a t l east when t wo n eighbour ing t owers were c o mp le ted , t he c ur tain wa l ls were b ui lt a nd a dded t o t he t owers. S t ra t if ied c o ins, f or e xa mp le c o ins o f Va lens f ro m t he f oo t ings, a s w e l l a s t he f act t ha t o n ly t owers B , Fa nd G h ave i nscr ip t ions f acing o utwards, l ead u s t o p ropose a s aw ork ing h ypothesis

t ha t t he n ew wa l ls a t S ac idava

were s tar ted w i th t he s outh s ide, b eg inn ing f ro m t he s outheast c orner , t hen c on t inu ing w i th t owers A , C , D , Ea nd s o o nu n t i l t he c ircu i t was c o mp le ted . Th is p er iod would c over t he y ears f ro m D ioc le t ian t o C onstan t ius I , w i th t he r eserva t ion t ha t t he e ar ly wa l ls c ould h ave b een r epa ired q uick ly a f ter t he i nvasion o f 2 95 ,t hus p er m i t t ing s yste ma t ic e rect ion o f t he n ew wa lls, w ith a n ew d efensive c oncep t ion a nd u sing n ew t echn ique. We n ow make s o me c o mpar isons w i th o ther l imes f orts f ro m t he Dobru ja. D inoget ia h as a p lan w i th n u merous r ound t owers a t i n terva ls o f a bout 2 0 m .

The s ize o ft he f a cing s tones a nd t he h e igh t t o wh ich t he wa l ls a re

p reserved a re i n fer ior t o S acidava . C ap idava c o mb ines , a ccord ing t o t he f ash ion o f t he t ime , r ound a nd r ectangu lar t owers; i th as t wo t owers w i th l arger f ron ts t han t hose a t 6 3

S acidava ( T .1, 1 8 .60 m ;

T .4 , 1 7 .80 m ) b u t a lso h as l onger s ect ions o f

c ur ta in wa l l t o d efend ( d , 2 3 m; b , 2 5 m; g , 3 8 m ) . The f aces o f t he t owers a re b ui lt o f l arge b locks o n ly a t t he b ase , f or t he r es t sma l l s ize b locks b e ing u sed .

The h e igh t t o wh ich t hey a re p reserved i s i nfer ior t o t ha t o f t owers B a nd

D a t S ac idava .

The g a te o f t ower 1 i s more monu men ta l .

Tropaeu m Tra ian i ( Ada mc lisi ) I n r espect o f t he s izes o f t he f acing s tones, a nd t he h e igh t t o wh ich t hey s urv ive , t he wa l ls o f A da mc l isi f or t a re i n fer ior t o t hose o f S acidava . H istr ia :

I n c onstruct ion t echn ique , i n t he s ize a nd s ty le o f f ac ing o f t he

s tones, e ven i n t he h e igh t t o wh ich t he wa l ls a re p reserved , the d efences o f H istr ia r ese mb le t hose o f S acidava . The w id ths t d t owers a re a lso s i mi lar ( Tower D , 9 .40 m ; T ower E , 1 2 .58 m ; Tower G , 1 5 .33 m ). H owever , t he c ur ta in wa l l s ec t ions a t H is tr ia a re l onger , f rom 2 2 m f or wa l l ct o 3 2 m f or wa l ls E a nd P .

The f ac ing b locks o f t he t owers a t S ac idava a re h igher a nd

more mass ive a nd t he h e igh t t o wh ich t owers B a nd D a re p reserved a t S ac idava i s g rea ter t han a t H is tr ia ( Tower R f ron t , 2 .30 m; T ower G , 2 .66 m; b as t ion F , 3 .80 m ) . B u t t he a na log ies b e tween H istr ia a nd S ac idava a re more impor tan t a nd s ign if ican t f ro m t he a rch i tec tura l a nd c ons t ruct iona l p oin ts o fv iew . A t H istr ia , i n t he l arger t ower G , t he c ur ta in wa l l i s t h icker b y 1m , mak ing a5 m d eep p la tfor m .

The c orners o f s o me t owers were b ui l t i n t he s a me

way ( T , F , G , b .G ) .

A t H istr ia , b u t a t r are a nd i rregu lar d istances , s o me

s labs a re p laced o n e dge w i th t he ir l eng th embedded i n c e men t . t he c onstruc t ion i s p er fect ly r egu lar .

A t S acidava

The massive f ounda t ions o ft he t owers

a t S ac idava a re p ara l le led a t H istr ia i n t he p r inc ipa l g a te t ower s .

A lso

a t H istr ia , s o me b locks h ave b een s pec ia l ly c ut i n s teps i n o rder t o i n ter lock w i th t he b locks o f t he c ourse b e low .

And f ina l ly , a t H istr ia a lso s o me

i nscr ip t ions h ave b een r eused i n t he d efens ive wa l l , b ut l ess f requen t ly t han a t S acidava . Therefore o ur o bserva t ions, a na log ies a nd p re l im inary i n terpre ta t ions g uide u s t o an ew c onclus ion c oncern ing S acidava .

There a re many

e le-

men ts o f Greek t rad i t ion p resen t , f or e xa mp le e xc lusive ly r ectangular t owers ( un ique o n t he l imes a nd i nside i t , e xcep t t he Greek s ea c oast ) ;

mass ive q uo ins;

a l terna te c ourses o f s tone l a id f la t a nd o n e dge ;

mass ive f ounda t ions o ft he t owers ; c e men t ;

t owns a long t he

t he massive f ac ing b locks r em in iscen t o f "c ycop lean" masonry , t he

r egu lar ly p laced s labs s et c rossw ise i n

b locks c ut i n s teps i n o rder t o f i t p er fect ly o n t he c ourse b e low ;

t he d oubl ing o ft he c ur ta in wa l l b eh ind t he t owers ; t he s p ira l d ecora t ion o f t he t ower wa l ls a nd a lso o ft he o utside f aces o f t he c ur ta in wa l ls .

A l l

t hese f ea tures make u s t h ink o f a n a rch i tect impor ted f ro m t he o r ien ta l Greek wor ld a nd c u l ture . The S tra t igraphy We w i ll s e lect o n ly t he most s ign if ican t a nd c learest d a ta f ro m a f ew s ec t ions .

6 4

A rea I P l . XXX . T he f irst l eve l ( L .I l ) i s n o t c on t inuous , b u t o ccurs o n ly i n s quares 1 21 5. A .

I n t he f i rst s ect ion s quares 1 8-15 t he s tra t igraphy i s a s f o llows:

- Ap i t-dwe l l ing was d ug

i n

t he s ter i le y e l low ish c lay .

Th is was i n

f act a t i mberfra med s ur face dwel l ing w i th a s unken f l oor c on ta in ing t wo d eposi ts , LV I a nd LV , wh ich s howed n o s igns o fb urn ing . - The a bandon men t o f t h is b ui ld ing was n o t a ssoc ia ted w i th a ny v io len t e ven ts.

I t was s uperseded b y af l oor l eve l ( L I V ) wh ich i n s quare 1 9

e x tenddd o ver s ter i le s o i l a nd i n s quares 1 8-16 o ver t he p i t-dwe l ling a nd i n s quare 1 5 o ver a l ayer o f c lay .

Above L IV f o l lows a l ayer

wh ich s ee ms t o r epresen t ac o mp le te l eve l ling o f t he s i te . - The n ex t l eve l , LH I , i s c on t inuous u p t o t he r e ta ining wa l l ( square 1 5 ) . - F ina l ly , t he t wo l ast l eve ls , LIa nd L I . B .

I n s quares 1 5-10 , f i rst c o mes a d ebr is l ayer c on ta in ing many s tones,

t he t h ickness v ary ing f ro m 1m i n s quare 1 0 t o 0 .25 m i n s quare 1 5 . L evel L Ia lso a ppeared i n s quare 1 2 a nd 1 3 , i n t he f or m o f ac lay f l oor s urrounded b y ac ircle o fb ig s tones.

Ap er iod L Is tone wa l l b onded w i th

c lay , w i th i rregu lar s tones measur ing 7 2-75 cm w id th , was f ound i n s quare 9 .

I tw as p ar t o f ap er iod L Ih ouse , d estroyed i n LI . LI i s a we l l-def i ned l eve l o f y e l low ish c lay a nd l i es a bout 2 0 cm-75 cm

b e low L I . U nder L I t here i s a2 0-65 cm t h ick l ayer o f s ter i le c lay w i thout a ny a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins, u nder wh ich t here i s at h ick l ayer o f b urn t r ed e ar th mixed w i th g rea t q uan ti t ies o ft i les a nd b r icks b ut o n ly a f ew s tones, many s herds , a nd a t t he b ase o f t he l ayer , d irect ly o n l eve l MI T , c lay w e igh ts , s tone q uerns, b urned w ooden b ea ms a nd a l ayer o f a shes a nd c harcoa l .

The

b urned ma ter ia l a nd a shes l ay o n a wel l-bea ten s o l id y e l low c lay f l oor , wh ich e xh ib i ted s l igh t i rregu lar i t ies a nd sma l l h o l lows p roduced b y f a ll ing s tones a nd b ea ms .

Two r ound s tone b ases ( d iame ter 3 0 cm ) , v ery p robab ly f or c o l-

umns o r i n terior p i l lars o f t he h ouse , were f ound s unk i n to t he L I I f l oor . Th is p er iod L I I dwe l ling s tood o n ah or izon ta l t errace ( i n o ur s ec t ion b etween s quares 9 -15 ) a nd was d ef ined b y wa l ls o n t he n orthern a nd s ou thern s ides . T he s outhern wa l l was 7 0 cm w ide . I t was d estroyed a t t he s a me t i me a s t he d eposi t ion o f t he L I c lay , wh ich p asses o ver o n t he s uper ior f ace o f t he d is man t led wa l l .

There i s o n ly 1 -2 cm c lay , o f a n e xcep t iona l h ardness .

The

n or thern wa l l o f t he L I dwe l ling i s n o t o n ly t he l im i t o f t he h ouse b ut i s a lso t he l im i t o f t he t errace i n t he s quares 1 5-19 .

Th is wa l l was a lso d estroyed

d uring t he l eve l ling a nd c ons truc t ion o f t he n ex t p er iod L We t herefore h ave 3 l eve ls i n t h is a rea .

L eve l I I i s r epresen ted b y a

h ouse t ha t was d es troyed b y f i re . A f ter t h is f o l lows a r econs truc t ion s hown b y t he l evel l ing a nd l ay ing o f an ew , t h ick c lay f l oor . C . S quares 8a nd 9 . Under t he t opso i l t here i s at h ick l ayer o f d ebr is, c on ta in ing many l arge s tones l y ing o f af a ir ly f la t l eve l o f r ough y e l low c lay 6 5

( L I ) .

I ts ee ms t ha t d ur ing t he t i me when t h is c lay f l oor was i nu se a t

l east p ar t o f t he f or t wa l l a s w e l l a s t he s tone a nd e ar th wa ll i n s quare 9 r e ma ined i nu se .

Under L I , t here i s al ayer o fc lay o f t h ickness v ary ing

b e tween 1 0 a nd 3 0 cm w i th a f ew s tones a nd s herds . l eve l o f r ough c lay , b u t s lop ing ( L 1 2 ) .

Then f ol lows a nother

A si s c lear ly s een i n t he s ect ion ,

t he s tone a nd e ar th wa ll was e rected o n L I2 j ust p ene tra t ing i n to t he e ar l ier l ayers.

The wa ll b elonged t o a sma l l dwe l l ing w i th a c läy f l oor t ha t s hows

h ow p er iods o fu se L I2 a nd L II , w ith s uccessive c lay f l oors, f ea tures t ha t a re n o t p resen t o utside t he sma l l n or thern wa l l .

N ear t he f or t w a l l t he t wo

l eve ls a re a lso marked b y at hin l ayer o f a shes a nd c harcoa l . Under t hese t wo f irst l ayers t here i s al ayer a pprox i ma te ly 4 5 cm t h ic ! : o f g rey ish-ye l low c lay t ha t f or ms t he L I g round s urface . The n ex t l eve l p asses o ver t he wa l l o ft he b urned dwe ll ing a nd c on t inues a bove t he y e llow c lay t ha t c overs t he dwel l ing , a nd t herefore r epresen ts l eve l L I I .

I ti s o n t h is r e la t ionsh ip t ha t we b ased t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he

h igher l eve ls i n t h is a rea . Benea th t h is L I I l eve l t here i s ad ark-brown l ayer a nd t he s ter i le y e l low n a tura l e ar th i n to wh ich t he wa l l o ft he b urned b u i ld ing p enetra tes . A s c an b e s een i n t he s ec t ion ( P la te XXX ) , w e v ery p robab ly h ave h ere af ree s pace b y t he d efensive wa l ls wh ich l asted f ro m t he e nd o f t he t h ird a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he f our th c en tury u p t o t he s econd h a lf o ft he s ix th c ent ury ( LI I ) .

Th is would e xp la in t he a bsence o f t he r e ma ins o f dwe l l ings n ear

t he wa l l a s w e l l a s t he e x tre me h ardness o f t he s ur face o f t he v ia s agular ia . We h ave l a mps a s we l l a s c o ins t o d a te t hese l eve ls .

A s er ies o f c oins

e x tending f ro m J us tin I -Sof ia ( 5 73-75 ) t o Maur ice T iber ius ( 599-600 )

h as

b een f ound o n l eve l L I I , wh ich t hus d a tes f ro m t he p er iod o f r econs truc t ion f o l low ing t he d estruc t ion wh ich o ccurred a t t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f J ustin ian . Th is p er iod o f r econstruct ion was a lso e ncoun tered o n t he s outhern p ar t o f t he f or t wa ll d a t ing f ro m t he s econd h a lf o ft he s ix th c en tury , a nd i ft he l a tes t c o in , o ne o f Maur ice T iber ius ( 599-600 ) ,is t aken i n to a ccoun t , t hen t he v io len t e nd o f l eve l L I I must b e r e la ted t o t he u nrest a round t he y ears 6 02-603, a nd n o t t o t he e ven ts i n 5 86-587 . Therefore L I , t he l as t p er iod o f o ccupa t ion a t S ac idava , c an n o l onger b e p laced a f ter 5 87 , b ut must b e d a ted af ter 6 02-603 a nd u p t o a bout 6 14 . I n s quare 1 2 , t he l arge LII dwe ll ing , wh ich h ad b een b urned , p roduced ac o in o f J ust in ian ( 5 40-541) wh ich c on f ir ms t he d a t ing o f t h is l eve l t o t he s ix th c en tury . Three c o ins were f ound o n LV i n t he h ut-dwe l l ing ( squares 1 6-18 ) s truck b e tween 3 30-337 , 3 35-341 , a nd 3 65-375 r espec t ive ly . t o t he f our th c en tury .

They d a te t h is h ouse

A t a ny r a te t he dwe l l ing was b ui l t af ter t he l eve l o f

y e l low c lay i n s quare 1 5, c orrespond ing t o L IV ( VI I ) i n s quares 1 0-11 ;

t h is

i s c on f ir med b y t he p o t tery . I tt herefore f o l lows t ha t L IV ( VI I ) ( squares 1 61 8 ) d a tes f ro m t he f if th c en tury , s ince t ha t a bove i tt here i s L II I , d a t ing f ro m t he b eg inn ing a nd m idd le o f t he s ix th c entury . A s r egards t he s ix th c en tury l eve ls, L I I I d a tes f ro m t he f irst h a lf o f t he s ix th c en tury , a nd c er ta in ly f ro m J ust in ian ic t imes , wh i le L I I d a ted f ro m t he

6 6

s econd h a lf o f t he s ix th c en tury , u p t o t he y ears 6 00-602 , c onsequen t ly L I e x tended f ro m t he b eginn ing o ft he s even th c en tury u p t o a bout 6 14 .

I ti s a n

impor tan t d iscovery t ha t , b esides t he t hree u rban o ccupa t ion l eve ls , t here a re t wo l eve ls o f g ood y e llow c lay f l oor ing ( L I2 a nd L II ) w i th t hin l ayers o f a shes a nd c harcoa l.

These l eve ls , wh ich l i ke L I a re f ound f ro m t i me t o t i me

i n t he r est o f t he s ec t ion , c erta in ly r epresen t t he l ast p hase i n t he l i fe o f t he f or t o f S acidava .

They must b e d a ted t o t he s even th c entury A .D .

Area I The s econd a rea , 3 6 m l ong a nd 2 m w ide r an p erpend icular ly t o t he western s ide o f t he f ort .

I t was d iv ided i n to 1 8 s quares.

H ere t oo t he t hree

s ixth cen tury l eve ls L I , LI a nd L 11 1 were f ound . I n L I I I , i n s quares 1 a nd 1 2 , t here a ppeared a wa l l o f s tones b onded w i th e ar th , a pprox i ma te ly 3 m l ong a nd 3 0-40 cm w ide , o f s em ic ircu lar s hape a nd f acing t he e ast .

The wa l l was b ui l t o n L I I I , was i nu se i n t h is p er iod ,

a nd was d estroyed a nd r ep laced b y l eve l L I I . S quares 1 2-16.

I n t h is a rea o f s ector I , t he f our th l eve l i s r epresen ted

b y at h ick l ayer o f y e llow c lay f or m ing a f l oor wh ich , i n s quare 1 4 , e x tends a cross a l ayer o f c o mpac t mor tar . L IV i s a lso marked b y ap ave men t o f l arge s tone s labs, c overed i n t urn w i th a t h in l ayer o f c lean y e llow c lay .

The

l ayer o f c o mpac t mor tar t ha t d iappears u nder t he p ave men t , al ayer t ha t marks a p er iod o f c onstruct ion , a nd t he l ayer o f f ire-redden ing u nder t he l ens o f c lay , a re s i tua ted o n t he f if th l eve l .

Then t here f o l lows a l ayer o f

o ccupa t ion d eposi ts o r made g round , a nd a no ther l ayer o f c o mpact mor tar t ha t f or ms a n ew l eve l , LVI .

Under a t h ick g rey-b lack l ayer i n LVI I ,

s teep ly s lop ing a nd marked b y f a llen t i les , s tones, p o tsherds, b urn ing a nd b r ick p av ing .

The p rev ious l ayer a lso e x tends i n as lope ( LVI I I ) t ha t v isibly

r ises a s i tn ears t he p rec inct wa l l .

There f o l lows a g rey l ayer ( LD C ) t he

l eve l o f wh ich i s n ear ly t he s a me a s t ha t o f t he p reced ing o ne ( LVI I I ) , LD ( n ear t he f or t wa l l r epresen ts t he f i rst o ccupa t ion l eve l .

N ear t he f or t wa ll

l eve l I X was c overed w i th a l ayer o f f i re-reddened ma ter ia l .

The l ast l eve l ,

LX , i s d ark y e l low w i th g rey f l ecks, a nd i s a lso e ncoun tered i n s quares 1 3-15. The p lan a nd s ec t ion o fl eve ls ( V II I , D C a nd X ) a nd o f t he ' s teri le ' y e l low e ar th ( wh ich d oes a c tua l ly c on ta in s o me i mpuri t ies ) , i ndica te a n e ssen t ia l a nd c hara cter ist ic e le men t o f t he e ar ly Ro man f or t .

The e ar th r a mpar t t ha t s urrounded

t he R o man f or t whi le i tw as u nder c onstruct ion a nd wh ich was l a ter r ep laced b y t he d efensive wa l ls, i s c a l led a n a gger .

Th is a gger was a lso d iscovered

i n A I I , wh ich e nab les u s t o r econstruct t he western s ide o ft he e ar ly R o man S acidava .

T he d a t ing i nd ica ted b y t he p ot tery i s c on f ir med b y t he c o ins.

L eve l L I I p roduced t wo c oins o f J ust in I-Soph ia , o ne s tr uck i n 5 73-574 a nd t he o ther i n 5 74-575 . c o ins.

L eve ls I I , I V a nd V i n s ector I d id n o t c on ta in a ny

They were d a ted b y t he p o t tery a nd b y r eference t o o ther l ayers w i th

c oins o r b y c o mpar ison w i th S ector I . C onstan t ius I ,

LVI p roduced a s tra t if ied c o in o f

m in ted a t S ir m iu m b etween 3 51-354 .

LVI I p roduced t wo

w e l l-stra t if ied c oins o f C onstan t ine I . Taken i n c on junct ion w i th t he p o t tery , t he c o ins d a te l eve l V I t o t he s econd h a lf o ft he f our th c en tury , a nd l eve l V I I t o t he f irst h a lf a nd t owards t he m idd le o ft he f our th c en tury . Th is l eads t o t he c onclusion , impor tan t f or t he

6 7

s tra t igraphy o f t he f or t o n t he l imes, t ha t l eve ls I V a nd V a re t o b e p laced b e tween t he s econd h a lf o f t he f our th c en tury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he s ix th c en tury , t ha t i s LW a nd V b e long i n t he f if th c en tury . LV I I I was c lear ly d a ted b y ac oin o f t he min t o f H erac lea t ha t i s t he r e ign o f D ioc le t ian .

o f 2 96-298 ,

Therefore l eve l LV I I I i n s ec t ion I c an b e

d a ted t o t he e nd o f t he t h ird a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he f our th c en tury . L eve l L lX c on ta ined a c o in o f 2 11-217 , s o i t may d a te f ro m t he t h ird c entury, t hough t he p rev ious l eve l , LX , c an b e d a ted t o t he s econd c en tury . There i s e v idence o f ma jor c on f lagra t ions i n l eve l L I I I , p robab ly i n t he midd le o ft he s ix th c en tury , a nd i n l eve l LVI ,( the e nd o ft he f our th c en tury ) . The b urn in g was more i n tense i n t he a rea o ft he f or t wa l ls . I n s quares 8 -10 , i n tense b urn ing was n o ted 'in t he f our th a nd e spec ia l ly t he f if th l eve ls, t ha t i s i n a bout t he m idd le o f t he f if th c en tury . I ts hould b e n o ted t ha t t he m idd le l eve ls, L IV-LVI a re much t h inner t han t he o thers, a nd c on ta in much e vidence o f r ebui ld ing a nd r econstruct ion . Area I I

P l . XXX I .

Area I I was l a id o ut p ara l le l t o a rea I a nd p erpend icular t o t he western s ide o ft he f or t , w i th t he a im o f c rossing t he p rec inc t wa l l . G enera l ly s peak ing , t he s tra t igraphy i n t h is a rea r ese mb les t ha t i n t he o ther t wo a reas d iscussed a bove , b ut t here a re d i f ferences i n t he l ower a nd m idd le l ayers. L eve l L I I I s ee ms t o h ave b een r epresen ted i nt he a rea n ear t he w este r n wa ll o ft he c i tade l , b y as crap ing a nd l eve l ling o ft he s urface , t hus r e moving t he l ower a nd e ar lier l ayers

( L IV , V , V I a nd V I I ) , l eve ls t ha t r ose s teep ly

t o t he w est a s t hey a pproached t he wa l l o f t he f or t . LW c onsisted o f af l oor o f y e llow c lay , w i th i n tense b urn ing , a nd i ti s d a ted t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury ( a c oin d a ted t o 4 23-425 was f ound i n t he b urned l eve l ) .

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t b e tween l eve ls LW a nd L i l l ( s ix th

c en tury ) t here a re t wo more l eve ls w i th o bv ious t races o f f i re a bove y e l lowg rey c lay .

These t wo l eve ls, L IVa a nd L IVb , c an t herefore b e d a ted t o t he

s econd h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury . L eve l V i s al eve l o f d ir ty y e l low -grey c lay , o n wh ich t here i s at h in d eposi t o f r ed b urned c lay mixed w i th c harcoa l a nd a shes. L eve l V I i s marked b y ac lear ly-def ined d epos i t o f c o mpac t mor tar . U nder t he g rey ish l ayer , i n terrup ted i n t he s lope t owards t he p rec inc t wa l l , an ew l eve l a ppears ( V I I ) , marked b y ad epos i t o f c o mpac t mor tar , a shes a nd c harc oa l .

O n t h is l eve l LV I I ac o in o f C laudius I was f ound ( 2 68-270 ) , wh ich wou ld

d a te LV I I i n a rea I I t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury , a f ter t he v io lent f i re ( LV I I I ) i n t he midd le o f t he t h ird c en tury a nd b efore t he t ime o f D ioc le t ian , where t h is l eve l t oo was b urned a nd d es troyed . T he d ir ty y e l low c lay o f t he s lop ing l eve l V I I f l oor , c overs a l ayer o f i n tense ly f i re-reddened e ar th m ixed w i th t i les , b r icks, s tones a nd c harcoa l a nd , a t t he b o t to m , p o t tery .

The b urned l ayer i sv ery t h ick n ear t he wa l l

f or a d istance o f a pprox i ma te ly 4 m .

I tt hen b eco mes t h inner a nd c on tinues

a s al ayer o f y e l low-brown e ar th , w i th p a tches o f r ed a nd g rey , t ha t i s a l most 6 8

h or izon ta l a t t he e astern e nd o f t he e xcava t ion .

I n t he a rea n ear t he wa l l

s evera l s uccessive d eposi ts c an b e s een i n t h is b urned l ayer .

A t t he b ase

i s at h ick b urned l ayer w i th t i les , many b r icks, a shes a nd c harcoa l , o ver wh ich t here a re t hree o ther s uccessive s tages o f d estruct ion . L eve l V I I I , o n wh ich t he b urned b ui lding c ol lapsed , i s an ear ly h or izon ta l d ir ty g reen ish-ye l low c lay f l oor . I n s o me p laces i tr uns u p t o t he i n terna l s oc le o f t he d efens ive w a l l o r p asses o ver i t . A t t he e astern e nd o f a rea I I , a t ad ep th o f 2 .8 5 m , t here a ppeared a s o lid wa l l , 0 .80 m t h ick , b ui l t o f s tones b onded w i th mor tar .

I t was t he

c orner o f s o me b ui ld ing wh ich was c er ta in ly i n u se i n t he p rev ious l eve ls, LVI I a nd V I I I , t ha t d a te f ro m t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies . Area I V ( B ) T h is was a n a rea r unn ing p erpendicu lar ly t o t he s ou thern f or t wa l l .

I n-

s ide t he wa l l o n ly o ne l eve l o f s even th c en tury d a te was f ound , t ha t i s al eve l l a ter t han t hose o f t he s ix th t o s even th c en tur ies . f ire .

L eve ls

There were n o s igns o f

L I , Ia nd I nwere r epresen ted b y v ery h ard f l oors , i n tense ly

b urned a nd c overed i n t h ick l ayers o f a shes a nd c harcoa l .

E l i

i s e x tre me ly

h ard . Area V Th is a lso r uns p erpend icu lar ly u p t o t he s ou thern f or t wa l l . L eve l L I h ere s hows s truc tura l f ea tures s im i lar t o t hose f ound i n t he o ther a reas, a nd t wo o ther l eve ls

i m med ia te ly . o ver i t , L I2 a nd L I I ( f ro m

t he b o t to m u pwards ) . O n ly l eve l L I o f t hese s hows s igns o fb urn ing . L eve l 1 2 w as a lso c on ta ined b y a wa l l w i thout f ounda tions , t ha t was r e moved when t he f o l low ing l eve l ( IV ) was e s tab lished .

L eve l Ii s p aved w i th r ec tangu lar b r icks

o ver a n a rea o f a pprox i ma te ly 5 s q . m .

Th is b e ing t he f loor o f ah ouse , s ur-

r ounded o n t wo s ides b y wa l ls o f s tone a nd e arth w i th n o f ounda ti ons .

O n ly

t wo c ourses o f s tones a re p reserved f ro m t hese wa l ls . Area V I I ( Do mus I ) Th is a rea i s s i tua ted i n t he s outheastern c orner o f t he f or t . I n a rea V I I , l eve l V was r eached o ver a n arrow a rea .

The l eve ls a re

marked b y c lay f l oors , s tructures a nd p aving , b urned l ayers, a nd a shes. The f if th l eve l a lso c on ta ined a h oard o f 1 5 c oins, d a ted a s f o l lows : 3 41-346;

f our f ro m 3 48-361 ;

e igh t o f Va lens, 3 64-375;

c o in o f Gra t ian , d a t ing f ro m 3 83.

t wo f ro m

a nd t he l a test a

Th is l eads t o t he s o mewha t s urpr is ing

c onc lusion t ha t l eve l Vd a tes f ro m t he s econd h a lf o ft he f our th c en tury , a p hase t ha t e nded v io len t ly w i th d estruct ion b y f ire , b ut t ha t c on trary t o o ur e ar lier s upposi t ion , t h is d id n o t t ake p lace a t t he e nd o f Va lens '

r e ign , w i th

t he G o th ic i nvasions t ha t c u lm ina ted i n t he d isastrous d efea t a t A dr ianop le i n 3 78 , b ut l a ter o n t owards t he e nd o ft he c en tury u nder Theodosius I , p rob ably b e tween 3 83 a nd 3 92 . '

Another impor tan t r esu lt o f t h is f ind i s t he d a t ing o f t he f o l low ing l eve l

( IV ) t o t he f if th c en tury .

6 9

I n A rea V I I I , o n t he western s ide o f t he f or t , t he u pper l ayers h ave b een d estroyed b y modern e xcava t ions. T he f i rst s urviving l eve l, l eve l I I , s hows t races o f a n i n tense f i re , w i th f a l len wa l ls a bove c lay f l oors i n wh ich s o me l arge j ars were embedded . I n o ne o ft hese was a c oin o f J ust in ian , d a t ing l eve l I I t o t he f irst h a lf o f t he s ix th c en tury . L eve l Vc onsisted o f t h ick d eposi ts , wa l ls a nd g enera l s igns o f f i re . The c o ins were o f C onstan tius I ( two c o ins , 3 51-361 ) a nd Gra t ian ( 378-383) . L eve l V I was r epresen ted b y at h ick d eposi t a bove a v ery t h ick f l oor o f c lean y e l low c lay , e spec ia l ly t ipped h ere t o l eve l u p t he s i te . t here was a p av ing o f l imestone s labs .

Above t h is

Th is l eve l b ears o bvious t races o f

b urn ing a nd i s d a ted t o t he e nd o f t he t h ird a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury b y t he c o ins f ound i n t he e ar th a nd a sh l ayer a bove i t :

ac oin o ft he

T e trarchy ( 296-298 ) a nd a c o in o f C onstan t ine I ( 313 ) . The s a me l eve l a lso p roduced i n w e l l-stra t i f ied c on tex ts t wo e arrings a nd a c o mb , a l l t yp ica l ly f our th c en tury . L eve l V I I , t he d eepest l eve l t ha t wa s e xcava ted , c onsists o f ap ave men t o f s tone s labs a nd s hows t races o f b urn ing .

Two c o ins o f A ure lian ( 270-276 ) ,

i n c on junct ion w i th t he c o ins o f 2 96-98 f ro m t he s ucceed ing l eve l ( l eve l V I ) , i nd ica te

ad a te i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury f or l ayer V I I .

I n s quare F , o n t he s outhern f or t wa l l, t he s tra t igraphy c on f ir ms t ha t e stab l ished i n t he o ther a reas w i th s o me v ar ia t ions. The l a test l eve ls , a reas.

I

a nd 1 2 , p resen t t he s a me p ic ture a s i n t he o ther

On l eve l 1 2 , a wa l l a d jo in ing t he f or t wa l l i nd ica tes t he r ebui ld ing

o f a n o lder wa l l d a t ing f ro m l eve l I , a nd t herefore t he r ebui lding o f a n o ld h ouse . t i le .

I n l eve l 1 2 t h is wa l l a d joined a p aved f l oor o fb r icks a nd p ieces o f On t h is f l oor w e f ound a t yp ica l s even th c ent ury b uck le .

L eve l Ii s marked b y a wa l l w i th s ha l low f ounda t ions ( 18 cm d eep ) a nd b y t wo o ther wa l ls w i thout f ounda t ions .

A n i n tense f i re d es troyed t h is o ccupa-

t i on l eve l , l eav ing many r e mnan ts o f b urn t b ea ms . q uan t i ty o f u nf ired b r ick .

A lso t here i s ag rea t

The d a ting o f t h is l eve l i s e s tab lished b y ad iscovery

o f e xcep t iona l i mpor tance , ac oin o f t he Emperor H erac lius , s truck i n t he y ear 6 13 .

T h is d iscovery c onf ir ms o ur e ar l ier s uggest ions b ased o n t he e x-

c ava t ions o f 1 969-1970 i n a rea 1 .1 21 L eve l Ic on ta ins p or t ions o fb r ick p ave men t , g rave l o r f loors o f c lean y e l low c lay .

The w e l l-stra t if ied c oins a re o f J ust in I ( 586-87 , 5 94-95 a nd

5 96-97 ) , wh ich d a tes l eve l It o t he s econd h a lf o ft he s ix th c en tury . L eve l I I i s r epresen ted b y at h ick f l oor ( 0 .20 m ) o f we l l-bea ten y e llow c lay , a nd b y ap ave men t o f t i les a nd b r icks.

O f ag rea t impor tance a re t wo

f rag men ts o f b r ick , d iscovered i n t he b urned l ayer n ear t he f ort wa l l a nd b ear ing t he s tamp o f t he Emperor A nas tas ius I , t hus c onf ir ming o ur e ar lier h ypo thes is o f ap er iod o f c ons truc t ion i n t he r e ign o f A nastas ius .

B esides

t hese b ricks , t h is l eve l p roduced c o ins o f J us tin ian o f 5 41-42 a nd 5 42-43 . Th is p er iod o f S ac idava 's h is tory , i n t he r e igns o f A nastasius , J us t in Ia nd J us t in ian , was i n terrup ted b y af i re a nd d es truc t ion . 7 0

L eve l I V a ctua lly c o mpr ises t wo l eve ls ( IV1 a nd I V2 ) , d is t ingu ished b y t h in a nd d iscon t inuous f l oors o f y e l low c lay c overed w i th a l ayer o fb urned ma ter ia l. L ayer I V2 c on ta ined , i n t he a shes, a c o in o f Arcad ius ( 395-408 ) a nd o ne o f Theodosius I ( 408-450 ) , b u t u nhapp i ly we c anno t b e more s pecif ic a bout t he d a tes a t wh ich t hey were s t ruck .

A t a ny r a te , l eve l W2 c er ta in ly d a tes f ro m

b e tween t he e nd o f t he f our th a nd t he m idd le o ft he f if th c en tury .

The n ex t

l eve l , I V, c overs t he p er iod f ro m T heodosius I t o Anästasius. U nder t he s ix th l eve l we f ound s ter i le e ar th i n wh ich a p i t h ad b een d ug f ro m l eve l V I , w i th many c o ins , o ne o f C onstan t ine I , a nd a n ' on ion-head ' f i bula was a lso o f f our th c en tury d a te .

•

THE S TRATIGRAPHY T he c orre la t ion o f t he o bserva t ions f ro m a l l a reas p roduces t he f o l low ing g enera l s che me f or S ac idava :

1 2

b e tween 6 14/5-640 ? H erac lius, t o 6 14 .

I I I

J ustin I t o Maur ice T iber ius ( 602 ) A nastasius a nd J ust in ian , t o t he i nvasions o f 5 50-562 ( destruc t ion b y f i re )

Ni

f ro m Theodosius I t o Ana t asius ( broad ly s peak ing , t he s econd h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury )

I 12

A rcad ius-Theodosius I ( broad ly t he f i rst h a lf o ft he f if th c en tury t o 4 50 )

V V I

C onstan t ' Lus I a nd Gra t ian ( f ire i n 3 85/386 ) t he e nd o ft he t h ird c en tury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury ( par t ia l d estruct ion b y f i re b e tween 3 15-332 )

V I I

b e tween 2 68-295

V I I

t he t h ird c en tury , f i re b e tween 2 51-267

I X

( f ire )

t he s econd c en tury ( no f ires, l oca l ised r ebui ld ing ) .

C orre la t ion o ft he s tra t igraphy w i th t ha t o f o ther s i tes T he l eve ls a t S acidava c orrespond t o t hose o n o ther s i tes, t hough s o met imes t here a re d iscrepancies o f af ew y ears: 1 2 I I

H istr ia , Tropaeu m H istr ia , A rgamu m , Tropaeu m , U l me tu m . D inoget ia , H istr ia , Tropaeu m ( f ire i n 5 87 ) , Arga mu m , B eroe , U l metu m , I a trus, S uc idava .

I I

D inoget ia , H istr ia , Arga mu m , Tropaeu m , ( a lso I t o 5 87 ) , U l metu m , S ucidava ( co mpr ises I a lso ) , I a trus, ( t o 5 30-536 ) .

I V1

H istr ia , T om is , S ucidava , I a trus .

W2

D inoge t ia , H istr ia , To m is, Arga mu m , S uc idava ( 408 o r 4 47 ? ) , I a trus ( 423 ) , C ap idava ( ?) , Tropaeu m ( ?) , H isar .

V

D inoge t ia , H istr ia , To m is , Argamu m ( 378 ) , Tropaeu m ( 378 ) , Cap idava ( 378 ) , S uc idava , I a trus, H isar .

V I

D inoget ia ( c o mpr ises V a lso ) , H istr ia ( co mpr ises V a lso ? ) , T om is ,A rgamu m , Tropaeu m ( V a lso ) , S ucidava , I a tr u .s.

7 1

V I I

H istr ia , To m is, Tropaeu m , S ucidava , I a trus ( ?)

V I I I I X

D inoge t ia , H istr ia , T om is, Arga mu m . D inoge t ia , H istr ia ( f ire , 1 70 ) , T om is , Argamu m , Tropaeu m .

Br ief H istor ica l S che me The e ar liest o ccupa t ion l eve ls a t S acidava a re t hose o ft he s econd c en tury . O ccupa t ion was c on t inuous d own t o t he s even th c en tury , w i th p er iods o f d est ruc t ion a nd r epea ted r ebui ld ings, s o me o ft he m g enera l f or t he who le f or t a nd o thers a pp ly ing o n ly t o c er ta in r eg ions o f i t . The c onstruct ion o f t he Ro man f or t a t S ac idava i n t he s econd c en tury s ee ms t o b e i n c o mp le te a gree men t w i th t he s i tua t ion i n Dobru ja a tt ha t t i me . T he s econd c en tury , a nd e spec ia l ly t he r e ign o fT ra jan , i s u nan i mous ly c ons idered t o h ave b een t he t ime when t he Dobru jan l imes were c ons truc ted, b y r ebui lding a nd b y f ounding n ew f or ts o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he l ower D anube . E x tensive f i re a nd d isastrous d estruc t ion i s n o ted i n l eve l I I , i nt he t h ird c en tury .

The s outhern s ide o f t he f or t s hows n o t races o f t h is e ven t ,

wh ich l eads u s t o c onc lude t ha t t he d estruc t ion d id n o t a f fec t t he who le f or t b ut o n ly c er ta in r eg ions , a nd t ha t t he wes tern p rec inc t wa l l was h ard ly t es ted b y a t tack .

As a h ypo thes is , we may a ssoc ia te t h is d es truc t ion w i th t he i nvas ion

o f R o man Dobru ja i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he t h ird c entury b y t he G o ths a l lied w i th t he C arp i ( f ree Dac ians t r ibes o f Mo ldav ia ) .

T hese a t tacks l e f t t he ir

marks i n b o th c iv i lian s e t t le ments a nd f or ts , a nd a re r ecorded i n t he l i terary a nd e p igraph ic s ources . We a re i nc l ined t o d a te t he d es truc t ion o f S ac idava ( f ire , l eve l V II I ) t o t he m idd le o r t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he t h ird c en tury ( 251-267 ) , b ecause r ebui ld ing t akes p lace i n l eve l VI I , a f ter 2 68 , a s i s s hown b y t he c o ins ( C laud ius I i n a rea I I a nd t wo c o ins o f A ure lian 2 70/271 i n a rea V I I I ) . L eve l V I I r epresen ts t he p er iod o f r ebui ld ing a f ter t he Goth ic i nvasion ( be tween 2 98 a nd a t t he e ar liest 2 71 ) , t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he c oins o f 2 96-298 f ound i n l eve l V I .

The n ew f ire t ha t a f fected t he f or t ( t he f i re i n l eve l V I I )

must b e d a ted t o 2 94-295 .

Th is y ear s ee ms t o b e p roved b oth b y t he c oins

i n l eve ls V I a nd V I I f ro m a reas I I a nd VI I I , s quare F a nd b y t he monetary c ircu la t ion , wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een i n terrup ted b etween 2 70 a nd 2 96, a nd a lso b y t he f ac t t ha t ag enera l r ebui ld ing a nd t he e n large men t o ft he f or t u nder D ioc le t ian c ou ld o n ly h ave o ccurred a f ter a n e x tensive d estruct ion o ft he f or t .

The s ources a nd t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f ro m o ther s i tes

p o in t t o 2 95, when a n ew G o th ic i nvasion t ook p lace . Af ter t he i nvasion o f 2 95, S acidava was t o ta l ly r ebui l t a long n ew l ines, ( l eve l V I I ) .

The d estruc t ion o f 2 95 s ee ms t o h ave b een p ar t icular ly g rave,

t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he modest c haracter o f t he b eg inn ing o ft he r ebu i ld ing p hase a s r ef lec ted i n t he p i t-dwe l l ing i n a rea I . I n t he f our th c en tury t he e ar ly wa l l i n s quare 3 i n a rea I I was d e mo lished ( l ayer I V ) .

Ar ebu i lding o f t he wa l ls t ook p lace o n t he wes tern s ide ( area I I ) .

We a lso n o te t ha t a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he f our th c en tury t he s tandard o f t he o ccupa t ion r ose , p revious ly u noccup ied a reas ( area I )w ere b u i l t u pon . 7 2

The o bserva t ions made a t S ac idava c on f ir m t he d a ta f or t he f our th c en tury f or t he who le o f Dobru ja a nd p ar t icu lar ly f or t he Danubian l imes .

The g en-

e ra l r eorgan iza t ion o f t he l imes a nd o ft he p rov ince i n t he D ioc le t ianC onstan t ine Ip er iod i s w e l l-known . I t may b e men t ioned t ha t i n S acidava w e n o te t races o f l oca l ised b urn ing i n t he midd le a nd a t t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury t oo , b ut n o t a s ag enera l f ea ture o f t he s i te. The d eve lop men t wh ich t ook p lace i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he f our th c entury ( D ioc let ian-Constan tine I ) was i n ter rup ted b y an ew f i re ( de monstra ted i n s quare F a nd a rea ' V I I I ) , v ery p robab ly d ue t o an ew G o th ic . o r a t l eas t b arb ar ian , a t tack ( 315-316 , o r 3 23 , o r 3 31-332 ) . Af ter t h is p ar t ia l d estruct ion , l i fe r esu med a s i s s hown b y l eve l V , wh ich c o mpr ises t he p er iod f ro m C onstan t ius I t o Gra t ian , t he c oins o f t he l a t ter emperor ( 383 i n a rea 1 V a nd 3 78/2 .83 a n a rea V I I I ) p roving t ha t t he c on f lagra t ion t ook p lace a f ter t he r e ign o f G ra t ian , p erhaps u nder Theodosius I , when t here were G o th ic a t tacks i n 3 84-385 a nd 3 85-386 . As we h ave men t ioned a bove , t he f if th c entury p roves t o b e at ime o f r ep ea ted r ebu i ldings , d emons tra ted b y t he f our th a nd f i f th l eve ls . Nowhere i n f if th-cen tury Dobru ja d oes t he s tra t igraphy s o c lear ly a nd c onv incing ly r evea l t h is a s a t S acidava . Two ma in l eve ls a re f ound i n t he f if th c en tury : o ne p er iod r an f ro m T heodosius I to Theodosius I ( 402-450 ) ( co ins o f Arcad ius a nd Theodosius I i n s quare F a nd a rea I I ) , a nd a s econd p er iod , w i th s uccessive l eve l l ing o f f w i th c lay a nd t herefore r ebu i ld ings, a nd t hen l ayers o f d epos i ts a nd b urn ing , wh ich c an g enera l ly b e s hown t o d a te b e tween t he r eigns o f Theodosius I a nd Anastasius. The f if th-cen tury l eve ls ( IV a nd V ) h ave i n c er ta in a reas, e spec ia l ly l eve l I V f ro m a rea I I , t h ick l ayers o f b urn t ma ter ia l a nd a shes, i nd ica t ions o f at i me o f t rouble a t t he e nd o ft he f if th c en tury a t S ac idava .

A t t h is t i me

D obru ja s uf fered f ro m t he i ncursions o f t he H uns a nd a lso o f G er man ic t r ibes. The p ic ture o f l i fe i n t he f or t i s c lear f or t he s ix th c en tury .

I ti ncluded

t hree s tages wh ich a pp l ied t o t he who le a rea o ft he s et t le men t , i l lustra ted b y l eve ls I , Ia nd I I . The b eg inn ing o f t he s ix th c en tury i s c haracter ized b y e f for ts a t r ec onstruct ion .

The g enera l r ev iva l r ef lected i n t he t h ird l eve l a t S acidava ,

s hows i n t he r ebui ld ing wh ich t ook p lace o n t he l imes, f ro m t he r e ign o f A nastasius ( 4 91-518 ) . I n t he p resen t s ta te o f o ur k now ledge , we b e l ieve t ha t t he d eve lop men t r ef lected b y t he t h ird l eve l, a s w e ll a s t he r ebui ld ing o f t he f or t wa l ls b egan a t S acidava i n t he r eign o f Anastasius a nd c arr ied o nu p t o t he r eign o f J us tin ian . The b r icks w i th t he s ta mp o f Anastasius a nd t he c oins o f J ust in ian f ix t he d a te o ft he t h ird l eve l .

7 3

Th is p er iod e nds v io len t ly w i th a d estruct ive f i re , t he c auses o f wh ich must b e s ough t i n t he b arbar ian

r a ids o f 5 50-551 , 5 59 a nd 5 62 .

The s econd l eve l a t S ac idava i s d a ted b y c o ins wh ich f or m a s er ies e x tending f ro m J ust in I a nd S of ia t o Maur ice T iber ius ( 599/600 ) . T hus t he v io len t e nd o f t he s econd l eve l mus t b e r e la ted t o t he e ven ts o f t he y ears 6 006 02 .

The e ven ts f ro m 5 86-587 d id n o t c ause v is ib le d am ,age a t S ac idava . L eve l I , t he l ast g enera l p er iod a t S acidava , must b e p laced i n t he f irst

h a lf o f t he s even th c en tury ( t he c o in o f H erac lius, 6 13 ) . F ina l ly , we emphasise a ga in t he impor tance o f t he d iscovery a t S acidava o f t wo l eve ls ( I 1 a nd 1 2 ) a nd o f s o me r ough ly c ircu lar s tone s tructures a nd f l oors d a t ing f ro m t he s even th c en tury , wh ich p rove t ha t l i fe c on t inued i n t he f or t , b ut o n ly i n c er ta in i so la ted a reas . T hese , t oge ther w i th t he e n t ire r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls f ound i n t he t wo s ix th-cen tury l eve ls , p rove t he c ont inu i ty o f l a te R o man l i fe a nd c iv i lisa t ion . The f act t ha t t he l ast c on tinuous a nd g enera l l evel ( l eve l I )d a tes f ro m t he r e ign o f H erac lius, a s i s s hown b y t he c oin o f 6 13 f ro m l eve l Ia nd b y t he c oins o f Maur ice T iber ius ( 596/597 a nd 5 99/600 ) f ro m t he p reced ing l eve l I , i nd ica tes t ha t t he l a te R o man o ccupa t ion c on t inued a t as qua lid a nd s em ir ura l l eve l u n t i l a bout t he m idd le o ft he s even th c en tury , i n c on junct ion w i th t he p ar t ia l c essa t ion o f t he d efensive f unc t ion o ft he f or t wa l ls.

The l ast l eve ls

s how n o t races o fb urn ing i nd ica t ing a modest l i fe b ut r e la t ive ly p eaceful o ccupa t ion .

T he f i na l a bandon men t o f t he f or t t ook p lace p eaceful ly a s ap ar t

o f t he g enera l e nd o f t he a ncien t wor ld o n t he L ower Danube .

7 4

C .

CO MPARATIVE NOTES H E STRIA T he e xcava t ions t ha t h ave b een c arr ied o ut o ver many y ears a nd i n d if fer-

e n t a reas o f H is tr ia ( P l . XXXIV ) h ave y ie lded a g rea t d ea l o f i nfor ma t ion o n t he R o man p er iod , f ro m wh ich we h ave t r ied t o e x tract t he e ssen t ia l s tra t igrap h ic a nd c hrono log ica l i n for ma t ion f or t h is c o mpara t ive a na lysis . n o t a l l t he e xcava t ion c onv incing ;

Unhapp i ly

r epor ts a nd a r t ic les a re o f e qua l c lar i ty o r e qua l ly

s o me t i mes i ti s q u i te d i ff icul t t o u nderstand t he e xac t s i tua t ion ,

s o t ha t t he p resen t a uthor h as s o me t i mes t aken t he l i ber ty o f mak ing p ers ona l i n terpre ta t ions. I n t he f i rst v olu me o f t he H istr ia monographs t hree r e la t ive ly ma jor c hrono log ica l p er iods 1 22

w ere e stab l ished :

-t he f i rst p er iod , e ar ly R o man p er iod u p t o t he t h ird c en tury A .D .; -t he s econd p er iod , t he f our th t o s ix th c en tur ies , w i th a f i rs t p hase ( f our th-f if th c en tur ies ) a nd a s econd p hase ( f if th-s ix th c entur ies ) ; -t he t h ird p er iod , t he s ix th-seven th c en tur ies. The s a me c hrono logy a pp lies i n t he g rea t e ast-west s ec t ion , i n s ec tor I V .

1 23

a nd

1 24

The s tra t igraphy i n t he s outhwest a rea a ppears t o b e more p recise . B e tween t he f our th a nd t he s ix th c en tur ies t here were t hree ma in p hases: I , t he f our th t o t he e nd o f t he f if th c en tury ;

I , t he s ix th c en tury u p t o C .

5 80 ; I I , t he l a te s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies .

The f i nding o f t wo h u ts wh ich

p os t-da ted t he t h ird p hase was a d iscovery o f i mpor tance .

1 25

A t H istr ia , i n t he s ector o f t he H e llen ist ic wa l l s i tua ted n ear t he t h ird e ar th r a mpar t , as ect ion l ead t o t he c onclusion t ha t t here were t hree o ccup a t ion l ayers w i th f i ve l eve ls, a l l b elong ing t o t he R o man p er iod ( f irst t o 26 s ix th c en tury ) . 1 T he f i rst l ayer , w i th t wo o ccupa t ion l eve ls , was d a ted t o t he p er iod b e tween t he f i rst a nd t he t h ird c en tur ies .

The s econd l ayer ,

w i th o n ly o ne l eve l , w as d a ted t o t he p er iod f ro m t he s econd h a lf o ft he t h ird c en tury t o t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury .

The t h ird a nd l ast l ayer w i th t wo

o ccupa t ion l eve ls d a ted f ro m f if th a nd s ix th c en tur ies. The s econd l ayer , d a ted b e tween t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury a nd t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury was s a id t o c ons ist o f o n ly o ne p hase .

I n t he

p resen t wr i ter ' so p in ion , h owever , t he r epor t o f t he s urvey c arr ied o ut i n t he 1 953 e xcava t ions

i nd ica tes t he e x istence o f t wo p hases.

The f i rst c on-

s is ts o f dwe l l ings wh ich c an b e d a ted t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th c en tury ;

t he c oin s er ies e x tends f ro m Ga ll ienus

t o C onstan t ine I . The g roup o f g raves, a s i s c lear , r epresen t a nother p hase l a ter t han t he o ccupa t ion l eve l .

Th is p hase i s d a ted b y ac o in o f Va len t in ian

f ro m o ne o f t he g raves t o t he s econd h a lf o ft he f our th c en tury .

E ven t he

s ect ion c lear ly p o in ts t o a t l east t wo l eve ls i n t he s econd o ccupa t ion l ayer . 7 5

The t h ird l ayer h as t wo o ccupa t ion l eve ls , t he l a ter o ne b eing d a ted b y c o ins o f J ust in I a nd S oph ia . Thus would c orrespond t o L .Ia t S acidava , o r L .I I i n t he c en tra l s ector a t H istr ia . A s t o t he s tra t igraphy o f t he l a te R o man p er iod , t he e xcava t ion o f t he b ui ld ings o f fers s o me e v idence.

I n 1 954 t hese a uthors r eached t he g enera l

c onc lusion t ha t t he b ui ld ings were t o b e d a ted b e tween t he e nd o f t he f if th a nd t he e nd o ft he s ix th c en tury . l a ter .

1 27

The s a me g enera l c onc lusion a lso ma in ta ined

A t p o in ts D .5 a nd D .6 a f irst p hase o f t he b ui ld ings w i th t her mae

i s s t i l l d a ted t o t he f irst h a lf o ft he s ix th c en tury , s ince a c oin o f t he s econd h a lf o ft he s a me c en tury was d iscovered i n t he d ebr is o ft he t her mae .

1 28

Therefore a t l east t wo p hases a re i den t if ied i n t he s ix th c en tury . F ur thermore , i n t he s a me s ector i t was n o t iced t ha t a f ter t he d estruct ion a t t he e nd o f t he s ix th c en tury o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he s even th , l i fe s tar ts a ga in o n a modest s ca le . 1 29 Th is c onclusion i s v ery impor tan t b oth s tra t igraph ica l ly , s ince w e c an i den t ify t hree l eve ls i n t he l ast p er iod , a nd f or t he f i na l p hase i n t he o ccupa t ion o f H istr ia .

F ur ther more , i ti s i n a gree men t w i th t he o bser-

v a t ions made i n t he t e mp le a rea , i n t he ' i ndustr ia l ' a rea a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he c en tra l s ector , a s we l l a s S acidava . The d iscovery o ft wo s l igh t s tone s tructures , a pprox i ma tely c ircular i n s hape ( "r otundas" ) , i n t he f i rst l eve l i s e spec ia l ly i n terest ing .

These unu-

s ua l s trucutres h ad r ough ly c ircu lar wa l ls made o f s tone a nd e ar th , a nd were e rected o n t he d ebr is o f e ar l ier b ui ld ings i 1 30 I n t he ma in g a te a rea , al eve l w i th t wo p hases was n oted .

The f i rst

p hase d a ted f ro m t he f our th c en tury t o t he m idd le o f t he f if th c en tury , a nd t he l a ter p hase was d a ted t o t he f if th a nd s ix th c en tur ies a nd was c haracter ised a s ap er iod o f c onstruct ion . 1 31 F ur ther e xcava t ions u ncovered s o me r oo m s d a ted b e tween 4 80-580 , t he p er iod t ha t h as t hree p hases .

Af i na l l eve l was a lso f ound , d a ted a f ter 6 02 ,

a nd c haracter ised b y p oor b ui ld ings.

1 32

Therefore b e tween t he e nd o f t he

f if th c en tury a nd t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s even th c en tury H istr ia d isp lays f our o ccupa t ion l eve ls i n t he a rea o f t he main g a te , w h ich c lear ly r ese mb les t he s tra t igraphy o f t he c en tra l a rea a t S acidava . The t e mp le a rea .

E spec ia l ly i n terest ing i st he d iscovery o f ah ut w i th

ac lay f l oor measur ing 4 x 4 m , wh ich p ost-da tes t he l ast s ix th-cen tury l eve l ( Maur ice T iber ius ) , a nd wh ich b e longs t o t he d iscon t inuous l eve l wh ich d a tes f ro m t he b eg inn ing o ft he s even th c ent ury .

1 33

The s tra t igraphy o ft he a rea

h as b een most c onv incing ly r e in terpre ted , b ut o n ly u p t o t he f our th c en tury , b y A l . S uceveanu.

1 34

I n c ol la t ing t h is d a ta we a re c o mpe l led t o r e-eva lute t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s tra t igraphy o f s ectorT , s ect ion V , a s f o l lows ' ( P l . XXXV , 1 ). :t he d ark b rown l eve l w i th H e l len ist ic-Ro man p ot tery d a tes f ro m t he f i rst c en tury A . D. ; t he l i gh t b rown l eve l w i th e ar ly p ot tery i s d a ted t o t he s econd c en tury A .D .;

t he s ucceed ing l eve l d a tes f ro m t he e nd o ft he s econd c en tury a nd t he

f i rst h a lf o ft he t h ird c en tury A .D ., u p t o t he g rea t G oth ic i nvasions; t h is t he s tree t was b u i l t w i th i t s f i rst l eve l o fg reen s ch ist,

af ter

ap hase t ha t

l asts u p t o t he f our th c en tury when a n ew r estora t ion t akes p lace w i th a n o ys ter s he l l l eve l .

Another l eve l t hen f o l lows ( where t he e xcava t ions s topped i n 7 6

1 954 ) which c an b e d a ted t o t he e nd o f t he f our th a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he f if th c en tury.

F ro m t h is l eve lu p t o t he t opso i l t here f ol low t hree more l eve ls,

t he l ast o f wh ich i s d a ted b y c o ins o f Maur ice T iber ius. o ur o p in ion :

Th is means , i n

1 35

al eve l d a t ing f ro m t he f if th c en tury , al eve l d a t ing f ro m t he

f i rs t h a lf o f t he s ix th c en tury a nd a l eve l d a t ing f ro m t he e nd o ft he s ix th a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he s even th c en tur ies. A t H istr ia t he e xcava t ions i n t he ER s ector ( t he h ea ted b ui ld ing )1 36 t hose i n t he c en tra l s ector ( i n wh ich w e p ersona l ly p art ic ipa ted ) ,

1 37

a nd

i n wh ich

as pec ia l a t ten t ion was g iven t o s tra t igraph ica l p rob le ms , r esul ted i n import an t a nd p recise r esul ts f or t he s econd t o f our th c en tur ies i n t he ER s ector a nd f or t he f our th t o s ix th c en tur ies i n t he c en tra l s ector .

When c o mb ined ,

t he d a ta f ro m t he t wo s ectors o f fers a g enera l s tra t igraph ic p ic ture o f R o man H is tr ia , wh ich c an e ven tua l ly b e c hecked i n t he o ther a reas t oo . I n t he ER s ector , t he e x tramura l h ea ted b u ild ing , t he s tra t igraphy i s a s f o l lows ( P l . XXXV ,2 ) : I V :

The e ar l iest l eve l ( L . I V ) , i n wh ich t he b ui ld ing was e rected , d a tes f ro m t he s econd c en tury ,

Ac oin o f Hadr ian ( 133-138 ) g ives a

t er m inus p ost q ue m f or t he c onstruct ion o f t he t her mae a nd a c o in o f 1 39-161 a t tests t he ir s t i l l b e ing i n u se i n An ton ine t imes. They were d estroyed i n 1 70. I I :

The n ex t l eve l ( L .I I ) i s d a ted b y c o ins o f 1 78-182 t o 2 44 .

I te nded

w i th i n tense b urn ing a nd t he b ui ld ing wen t o u t o fu se . I :

The n ex t l eve l d a ted f ro m t he t h ird c en tury , a nd c on ta ined c o ins o f 2 60-268 t o 2 70-275 .

I :

The l a test l eve l :

Destruc t ion p robab ly t ook p lace i n 2 95.

r estora t ion i n D ioc le t ian ic t imes.

T h is l asts

t o a pprox i ma te ly t he m idd le o f t he f our th c en tury , t he l a test c o in b e ing d a ted t o 3 37-340 . F or l a te Ro man p er iod

h e f our th t o s even th c en tur ies ) , i n terest ing r esul ts

w ere o bta ined i n t he c en tra l s ector o f H istr ia , i n t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut i n t he y ears 1 969-1971 .

( P l .

XXXV I-XXXV I I I ) .

The f irst l eve l , L .I , i s s i tua ted im med ia te ly u nder t he t opso i l a nd i s r epresen ted e i ther b y al eve ll ing o f t he d ebr is o f t he p reced ing l eve l , L .I , o r b y i t s own d ebr is.

The impor tan t p rob le m i s t he s porad ic c haracter o f

t he l ast l eve l , a nd t herefore o f H istr ia ' sc haracter i n t he f i na l p er iod o f i t s o ccupa t ion . We c an t herefore a ssert t ha t t he f l oors were n o l onger o f t he s a me s tandard a s t hose o f t he p rev ious l evels, b e ing mere ly r a mmed e ar th , a nd w i th r egard t o t he dwe l l ings i ti s o bv ious t ha t most w ere e ar l ier o nes r e-used . We c a ll a t ten t ion t o t he f act t ha t t h is d a t ing o n ly r efers t o t he t ime a t wh ich t he b ui ld ings w ere e rected , a nd d oes n o ttake i n to a ccoun t t he l eve ls t ha t w ere a dded l a ter , t ha t i s t o s ay i ti gnores t he l eng th o f t i me f or wh ich t he s tructures s urv ived . I n t wo p laces t here were n o ted wha t a ppeared t o b e t he r e ma ins o f c ircu lar b u i ldings o f t he k ind k nown a t H is tr ia , b e long ing t o t he l a tes t l eve l .

T he b ui ld-

i ngs a ppeared i n s ec t ion A , s quares 3 8-40 , a nd i n s ec t ion B , s quares 2 5-26 . Wi th in t he m were p la in c lay f l oors , wh ich i ndica tes t ha t t hey were dwe l lings . 7 7

I nv iew o ft he s porad ic c haracter o f t he o ccupa t ion , t he q ua l i ty o f t he f l oors a nd t he a pparen t i gnorance o ft he o r ig ina l s tree t p lan , we c an c onclude t ha t t he dwe l l ings o ft h is p er iod r ef lect t he f i na l s tage o fu rban d ecay a t H istr ia .

We c anno t d e ter m ine t o wha t d egree t he f i na l a bandon men t was d ue

t o a t tacks , n o t races o fb urn ing h av ing y e t b een o bserved . The d a t ing o f t h is l eve l i s s t i ll u ncer ta in . A l l t ha t c an b e s a id i s t ha t t he f i rst l eve l ( L . I )a s w e l l a s t he s econd ( L .I ) p ost-da te t he y ear 5 92/593 , t he d a te o f t he l a test c o in i n L .I I . I ti s c erta in o n ly t ha t t he o ccupa t ion o f H istr ia c on t inued i n to t he s even th c en tury . The s econd l eve l ( L .I ) s hows r ese mb lances t o t he f i rst o ne i n s evera l r espects . a rea .

A s c an b e s een f ro m t he s ect ions , i ti s f ound o ver a l mos t a ll t he

T h is l eve l a lso makes u se o f mc s to f t he p rev iously men t ioned wa l ls .

I n most c ases t he f l oors a re mere ly o f r a m med e ar th . C lay f l oors a ppear i n s ect ion A , s quares 7 -8 , 2 2-27 a nd 3 6-37 i n t he n or thern s ect ion , a nd i n t he s outhern o ne i n s quares 1 9-20 , 2 7-34 a nd 4 1-44 , . t ' hough i ts t i l l c anno t b e d e ter m ined p recisely w ha t b ui ld ings were e rected . A tt h is t ime , i ti s c lear t ha t t he r e-use o ft he e ar l ier wa l ls d oes n o t n ecessar i ly imp ly t ha t t hey r e ta ined t he ir o r ig ina l f unct ions . The d a t ing o ft h is l eve l , f or w h ich t he p o t tery , c ons ist ing e n t ire ly o f R o mano-Byzan t ine t ypes , i s o fn o u se , i s i nd ica ted b y t he l a test c o in i n t he p reced ing l eve l L .I I , n a me ly 5 92/593 .

T h is e stab lishes i t s e x is tance i n

t he f i rs t d ecades o ft he s even th c en tury . A s t o t he e nd o ft h is p er iod o f o ccupa t ion , t here was n o v io lent d es truc t ion , j udg ing f ro m t he l ack o f b urn ing . I n t he t h ird l eve l t he a spec t o f at own i s f u l ly r ecogn isab le . We a re n o t d ea l ing w i th a r enewa l o f H is tr ian u rban l i fe , b ut w i th a c on t inua t ion o f t he a ct iv i ty o f p er iod L .I V .

A s t o t he s tree t p lan , s evera l p r iva te h ouses mere ly c on tinue

t he ir e x is tence w i th t he i nser t ion o fn ew f l oors , a nd i n o ther c ases b y a dd f ig n ew w a l ls . The c o ins i ndica te t ha t t h is l eve l b egan i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he s ix th c en tury , c er ta in ly b y 5 65/566 , i fn o t b y 5 6 1/56 2 , a nd c ont inued t o p os t5 9 2/59 3 , t ha t i s u p t o t he e x tre me e nd o f t he s ame c en tury o r j us t a f terwards . Th is p er iod was s udden ly t er mina ted b y af i re . L eve l L .I V was d irect ly c onnected w i th t h is l eve l , o f wh ich i tw as a d irect c on t inua t ion . The f our th l eve l t herefore h as a p art icu lar impor tance a s i t r epresen ts a c ruc ia l p er iod i n t he l i fe o f t he f or tress. N o b ui ld ing o f t he im med ia te ly p reced ing l eve l ( L .V ) c on t inued i nu se i n p er iod L .I V . I n t he western p ar t o ft he t own , where t he c en tre o ft he t own h ad l a in i n t he e ar ly R o man p eriod , t here a ppear a s er ies o fp r iva te b u i ldings w i th wa l ls o f s ha le b onded w i th e ar th w i th a n a ppearance a nd o r ien ta t iön t ha t i ndica te t ha t t hey r epresen t an ew p er iod a nd t opography a nd u rban isa t ion o ft he f or tress. On t he o ther h and , as er ies o fg rea t p ub l ic b ui ld ings p oin t t o as h if t e as twards o f t he t own c en tre . T he f our th l evel i s t herefore c haracter ised b y e x tensive s tone c onstruc t ion a nd a r enewa l o fu rban l i fe . T he d a te c an b e f i xed b e tween t he b eg inn ing o f t he s ix th c entury , o r more p rec ise ly 5 27 , a nd t he m idd le o f t ha t c entury , t he l a tes t c o in b e ing d a ted t o 5 43-544 .

I n a ny c ase , t he b eginn ing

o f t he f our th l eve l mus t d a te f ro m t he e nd o f t he f i f th c en tury , t ha t i s t o s ay f ro m t he r e ign o f A nas tas ius , b earing i n mind t ha t t he work o f r es tora t ion a nd r econs truc t ion b y t h is emperor i n H istr ia i s a lso a t tes ted b y b ricks s ta mped w i th h is n a me , b y a n i nscr ip t ion , a nd b y c o ins f rom t he ma in g a te a rea . T he 7 8

r ar i ty o f c oins o f t h is emperor s hou ld n ot s urpr ise u s , t h is b e ing a g enera l f ea ture i n t he D anub ian p rov inces a nd o ne e xp la ined p laus ib ly e nough b y t he n um is ma t is ts .

The l eve l was v io len t ly d es troyed , s igns o fb urn ing b e ing

i den t if ied t hroughou t t he who le e xcava t ions . T he f i f th l eve l was f ound o ver t he e n t ire a rea e xcava ted .

S o me b ui ld ings

o f av ery i nfer ior q ua l i ty w ere i den t if ied a nd s o me c lay l eve ls, g enera lly r a ther u neven , a l l a t tes t ing a l ow l eve l o f c u l ture .

I t must b e emphasised

t ha t d esp i te t he p r im i t ive s tandards o f c onstruct ions i n t h is l eve l , c lay f l oors were e ncoun tered a l mos t a l l o ver t he a rea , i nd ica t ing o rgan isa t ion a nd p res u mab ly t he p reserva t ion o f ap lanned c haracter o f t he f or tress i n t h is l ess p rosperous p er iod .

U p t o n ow w e h ave n o t f ound a ny c o ins t o d a te t h is l eve l .

S ince i tc anno t b e l a ter t han t he b eg inn ing o ft he s ix th c en tury o r e ar l ier t han t he s econd h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury ( a s s hown b y t he l a test c o ins i n L .V I ) , we p lace i ti n t he s econd h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury .

Th is l eve l i s f i rm ly i den t if ied

f or t he f irst t ime a t H is tr ia . T he a spect o ft he f or t a ppears l i t t le c hanged i n t he p er iod r epresen ted b y t he s ix th l eve l .

The s a me p oor b ui ld ings w ere i den t if ied o ver t he who le

a rea o ft he e xcava t ion .

The f i ve c o ins t ha t w ere f ound i n t h is l ayer p o in t

t o ap er iod t ha t e x tends f ro m t he f our th q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury t o t he m idd le o f t he f if th c en tury ( more p recise ly b e tween 3 83/395 a nd 4 20/450 ) , a p er iod s carce ly k nown u p t o n ow a t H istr ia . F ina l ly , t he d eepes t l evel ( L . VI I ) i s f i rm ly d a ted t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he f our th c en tury .

I ti s c er ta in t ha t , u n l ike t he l eve ls a bove i t , t h is o ne r ep-

r esen ts a p er iod o f p rosper i ty a nd c onstruct ion . We c ons ider t he t ab le b e low a s t he most r e l iab le s equence f or t he g ene ra l s tra t igraphy o f R o man H istr ia , a nd w e u se i ta s as tandard f or c o mpar is on w i th S ac idava : L . I( VI .4 ) , t he s even th c en tury ;

s l igh ter d epos i ts ;

r ough ly c ircu lar

b ui ld ings a re t o b e n o ted , r ese mb l ing t hose a t S ac idava .

N o t races

o f b urn ing . L . H ( VI .3 ) , t he b eg inn ing o f t he s even th c en tury ; L .I I ( VI .2 ) , b e tween 5 65/566 a nd 5 92/593 ;

d estroyed b y f i re .

L .I V ( VI . 1 ) , t he A nastasius-Justin ian p er iod ; s truct ion ;

n o b urn ing .

ap er iod o f g rea t c on-

e nded b y b urn ing ( t he l a test c o in d a t ing f ro m 5 43/544 ) .

L .V , t he s econd h a lf o f t he f if th c en tury ;

r a ther p oor s tandard o f l i fe ;

d estroyed b y f i re . L . VI , b e tween 3 93 a nd 4 50 . L . VI I , t he e nd o ft he t h ird c en tury a nd t he f i rst h a lf o ft he f our th c ent ury ; b ui ld ings o f i nfer ior c onstruct ion ( co in d a t ing f ro m 2 95-324 ) . L .V I I I , t he s econd h a lf o ft he t h ird c en tury ;

d estroyed b y f ire i n 2 95.

L .I X , t he e nd o ft he s econd a nd t he f i rst h a l f o ft he t h ird c en tury ; e nded b y af i re ( t he G o th ic-Carp ic i nvasions b e tween 2 48 a nd 2 67 ) . L .X , t he s econd c entury ;

e nded b y af i re ( t he i nvasion o f t he C ostoboc i

i n 1 70 . 7 9

Th is b r ief d escr ip t ion o f t he s tra t igraphy a nd c hrono logy o f H istr ia s hows o n t he o ne h and t he c on trad ictory a nd c onfusing c haracter o f t he d eposi ts i n c er ta in a reas , a nd o n t he o ther t he g radua l c lar if ica t ion o f t hese p rob le ms . Em . C ondurach i i n 1 954 n o ted t ha t t here w ere t wo p hases i n t he s econd l eve l r epresen t ing ( a ) t he d eposi ts f ro m t he b eg inn ing o ft he f our th t o t he m idd le o f t he f if th c en tur ies , a nd ( b )

d eposi ts d a t ing f ro m t he s econd h a l f o f t he

f if th t o t he m idd le o ft he s ix th c en tury .

1 38

Th is i s n ow ' c onf ir med a nd i s

p rec ise ly i l lustra ted i n t he c en tra l s ector b y L . VI I a nd L .VI ( = p hase ( a ) ) , a nd L .V a nd L .IV ( = p hase ( b ) ) . 6 10 ,

1 39

L eve l I , w i th t hree p hases, t he l a test af ter

a lso r epresen t ar e markab le s uggest ion, b r i ll ian t ly c on f ir med b y

t he s ubsequen t e xcava t ions i n t he c en tra l s ector (L .I I , L .I a nd L .I ) . a lso r ecogn ise t he a ch ieve men t o f A .

Pe tre ,

1"

We

who c orre la ted t he d a tab le

a na lys is o f s i te s tra t igraphy w i th ma jor h istor ica l e ven ts ( A .D . 4 91 Anastasius ;

t he d estruct ions o f 5 87 , a nd 6 02 a nd 6 41 ) ,

a nd who a lso f irst

d e mons tra ted c on t inui ty o f o ccupa t ion d own t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s even th c en tury a t H istr ia a nd Dobru ja , l a ter f u l ly c onf ir med b y t he e xcava t ions i n t he c en tra l p ar t o f H istr ia a nd e spec ia l ly a t S ac idava . I ATRUS The f or t a t I a trus was b ui lt o n ap la teau a t t he p o in t where t he r iver I a trus f l ows i n to t he Danube .

I t s wa l ls f o l low av ery i rregular c ourse ,

f or m ing a g ood e xa mp le o f t he a dap ta t ion o f t he l a te R o man f or t p lans t o t he g round c on f igura t ion . 1 41 ( P l . 3 00 CD C ) . The n or th a nd west s ides h ave c o l lapsed .

T he f irst s outhwes tern s ect ion

r uns s tra igh t f or a pprox i ma te ly 6 0 m a nd t hen t urns w estwards, w i th a r ound t ower a t t he c orner , a nd c on t inues i n as tra igh t l i ne f or 1 50 m , a f ter wh ich i tt urns a ga in , w i th a h orseshoe-shaped t ower a t t he c orner , t owards t he n or th .

A f ter a bout 3 5 m i tr eaches t he g a teway t hen t hree more s ec t ions o f

a pprox i ma te ly 7 0 m e ach l ead u p t o t he n ortheas tern c orner , where t here i s a no ther h orseshore-shaped t ower .

A t t h is c orner t he s outheastern s ide

mee ts t he n or theastern o ne a t ar igh t a ngle , t he l a t ter s t i l l s urviv ing f or a l eng th o f a bout 5 0 m u p t o ag u l ly . The n or theast a nd s outhwest wa l ls , i nsofar a s t hey h ave s urv ived , h ave n o t owers .

On t he o ther s ides t he t owers a re p laced a pprox i ma te ly e quid is-

t an tly a t a bout 1 5 m i n terva ls. c orners t here a re r ound t owers.

A t t he n orthwes t , s outheast a nd s outhwest I n t he m idd le o ft he s outhern s ide , t he

l ongest o ne , t here i s al arge r ec tangu lar t ower , w i th a 3 0 m w ide f ront a nd t he s ides 9 m l ong .

The g a teway i s i ngen iously p laced i n t he s outheastern s ide ,

i n t he r ecess f or med b y t wo b en t wa l ls .

I tc ons ists o f a n o pen ing 2 .50 m w ide

p ro tected o n t he i n ter ior o f t he f or t b y a sma l l t ower . The l arge g a teway , w i th n o t owers, i s a ccoun ted f or b y i t s e xce l len t p osi t ion , w e l l p ro tected b y t he t owers o n t he wa l ls o n e i ther s ide , o ne a t ad istance o f 1 3 m a nd t he o ther a t 2 0 m , wh ich p ro ject we l l b eyond t he l ine o ft he e n trance . The t opograph ica l a na logy w i th Tropaeu m T ra ian i ( many sma l l U -shaped t owers a nd a l arge r ectangu lar t ower o n t he f ron t s ide ) , l ed t o I a trus b e ing d a ted , a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he e xcava t ions, t o t he r e igns o f C onstan t ine Ia nd h is s uccessors.

1 42

8 0

The tower system at Iatrus generally reflects the situation at the time. 143 Beginning with the third period (C) of the history of Iatrus (fifth century A.D.) , the structures are characterised by poverty and decay. The old morumental buildin�s were replaced by one-roamed dwellings, with walls of stones, bricks and tiles bonded with clay. Above 1 -1.50 rn from ground level, the walls were made of unfired brick and sometimes even of wood. In the first half of the sixth century, besides a majority of very modest dwellings, there were also some monumental buildings in use. The fort or stronghold of Iatrus has its beginnings in the Diocletian­ Constantine period. Although the Peutinger Table mentions this fort, 144 the excavations have not revealed evidence of structures dating from before the 4th century, but have only produced slight indications of occupation in the 2nd-3rd centuries. 145 Earlier excavation reports established two major periods represented by four levels in the late Roman era. 146 Period A comprises the time from the founding of the fort to the end of the 4th century (Theodosius I, 379-395). Period B spans the 5th and 6th centuries, with an interruption in the occupa­ tion in the 5th century. This interruption is also proved by the coin series. 147 There is an uninterrupted series from the 4th century to the first quarter of the 5th century, then an interruption followed by another continuous series from the end of the 5th century to the end of the 6th. It is also revealed by a ma ssive stratum of burning and debris. 148 The earliest level, level VI, is not very precisely dated, but derives from about the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century, not being connected with the structures. Level V, 0. 50 m thick, dates from the first half of the 4th century, to about 324. Level IV, 0.50 m thick, is dated up to the year 4 20. This level has two phases, that is to say it comprises two sub­ levels, the first connected with the construction of the walls in the reigns of Constantine and Valens, the second connected with the erection of a basilica (basilica I) in the southweste rn part of the fortress. Level III, 0. 70 m thick, lies above a level of burning and has been dated to the period from the end of the 5th century to about 530. During the excavations the existence of two phases has been clearly seen in this level, IIIA and IIIB. Level II, O. 60 m thick is dated between 536 and the end of the 6th century, when the erection of the second basilica took place, above the ruins of the first one. Level I is early medieval. The final level, I, has destroyed and m odified the strati­ graphy of the late Roman levels dating from the end of the 6th century, indeed only two sixth century levels have been found at Iatrus. The depth of level II (0. 60 m) leads us to believe, taken with the disturbance caused by the early medieval huts, in the existence of several phases in this level II, comparable to those at Sacidava, Ulmetum, Tropaeum, Histria and other sites. Accord­ ing to this stratigraphy, the late Roman occupation of Iatrus included, with an interruption in the middle of the 5th century, the following occupation levels: L. VI-end of the 3rd century; L. V-first half of the 4th century; L. IV B­ end of the 4th century; L. IV A-the first half of the 5th century; L. III B, the second half of the 5th century; L. III A-the first half of the 6th century; L.II­ the second half of the 6th century.

81

As yn thesis o ft he s tra t igraph ic , n um is ma t ic a nd p o t tery e v idence , w i th t he s tructura l e vidence a nd w i th t he l i terary s ources, i nd ica tes a s i mp ler c hrono log ica l s che me ,

1 49

o f f our p er iods ( A-D ) , b u t w i thout e xc lud ing t he

p oss ib i l i ty o f s ub-d iv isions o ft hese p er iods . P er iod A d a tes f ro m t he f irst h a lf o ft he 4 th c en tury ( D ioc le t ian ) w hen t he f or t was b ui l t . A •cour t w i th a p er isty le i n t he n or thwest p ar t o ft he f or t d a tes f ro m t h is t ime . r oad f l anked b y ac o lonnade r uns t o t he e as t g a te .

F ro m i t a

P er iod B d a tes f ro m t he b e-

g inn ing o ft he s econd h a l f o ft he 4 th c en tury , a nd i n t h is p er iod , p erhaps u nder Va len t in ian ( 364-375 ) , s o me o f t he o ld i n tra-mura l s tructures were d e l ibera te ly a nd s yste ma t ica l ly d is man t led d own t o t he f ounda t ions , a nd t he ma ter ia ls w ere u sed t o e rect n ew b ui ld ings : b u i ld ings w i th n aves i nt he s outhwest a rea o ft he f or t , a nd m i li tary b u i ld ings n ear t he s outhwes t wa l l. Two more r oo ms w ere a dded t o t he b ui ld ing w i th a p er isty le , a n a pse a nd a s tore .

D ur ing t h is p er iod t he s tree ts w ere n arrow .

P er iod B was o f as hor t

d ura t ion , u p t o t he r eign o f Va lens ( 376 A .D.) w hen I a trus was d es troyed b y t he G o ths . H owever , t he o ccupa t ion l ayer i s r i ch , wh ich i nd ica tes a l arge p opula t ion . P er iod C s tar ts i n a bout t he f i rst d ecade o f t he 5 th c en tury , i f n o t af ew y ears e ar l ier , when a b as i l ica i s b ui l t ( I ) , wh ich c aused s o me c hanges i n t he b ui ld ings i nt he a rea . A l though t h is p er iod i s o f as hor t d ura t ion , t he o ccupa t ion l ayer i s t h ick a nd r ich . P er iod C e nds a t a bout 4 23 , t he l ast c o in o f H onor ius d a t ing f ro m 4 22 1i n av io len t c onf lagra t ion a t tr ibutab le t o t he H unn ish i nvas ion . The b urned l eve l c on ta ins v ery f ew a nd u n iden t if iab le c oins. The a pprox i ma te 1 00 y ears t ha t f o llow a re h ard ly r epresen ted , t he t races o f o ccupa t ion b e ing v ery s l igh t ly a nd i ndef in i te . H owever , i n o ur o p in ion , t hese t races s how t ha t l i fe was n o t t o ta l ly i n terrup ted , b it o n ly t ha t t he f unct ion o f t he s i te a s am i l i tary a nd c iv i l h eadquar ters h ad c eased .

P er iod D , i n t he

6 th c en tury , i s ap er iod o f r ev iva l , p roved b y t he c onstruct ion o fb as i lica I . The b ui ld ing w i th a n a pse i s r econstructed , b eing e n larged t o t he n or th b y a s tone a nd e ar th wa l l . H owever , e xcep t f or t h is b asi l ica ( I I ) , t he r es t o f t he h ouses a nd t races o f o ccupa t ion a re r a ther p oor a nd c o ins a re r are . The r econstruct ion o ft he f or tress i s a lso men t ioned b y Procop ius.

1 5

0

The d ef in i t ive e nd o ft he f or t c an b e d a ted s hor t ly a f ter t he y ear 6 00 , t o t he A var i nvas ion , a nd t he l ast l i terary r eferences a ff ir m t ha t P e trus, t he Emperor Maur ice T iber ius ' b ro ther a nd t he C o m mander o f t he R o man a r my , i n h is e xped i t ion o f 5 86 a rr ived a t t he "p o l is" o f I a trus. P er iod A w ould c o mpr ise S tra tu m V ; C , s tra tu m I V A ;

1 51

p er iod B , s tra tu m I V B ; p er iod

p er iod D , s tra tu m I I A , I I Ba nd I .

The l ack o f c o mp le te

c oncordance b e tween t he s tra t if ica t ion o f t he o ccupa t ion l eve ls a nd t he f our p er iods A -D , i s e xp la ined b y t he f act t ha t t he f our p er iods were n o t d ef ined c hrono log ica l ly i n t er ms o f s tr ic t s tra t igraph ic o bserva t ions, b ut o n t he b asis o ft he s uccession o ft he a rch i tectu .ra l a nd c onstr uc t iona l p hases, t o w h ich l i terary a nd n um is ma t ic e v idence h as t hen b een a dded . A t I a trus, t he p r inc ipa l c on trad ict ion a ppears i n s tra tu m D , w i th l eve ls I I B , I I Aa nd I , l eve l IBb eing p laced i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury . Af ter 4 23 h owever , t here a re many s igns o f o ccupa t ion .

8 2

S UCIDAVA A f ter Aure l ian ' se vacua t ion o f Dacia , t he most impor tan t a nd p owerfu l b r idgehead n or th o f t he Danube was S ucidava .

( P I : XL ) .

T he s i te f or t he f or t was s e lected o n ap la teau , i so la ted b y an a tura l p recip ice i n wh ich was c ut a d efensive d i tch .

The f ort o f S ucidava h as a

r ough ly t r iangu lar s hape , a l though t he s outh s ide h as f a l len , e roded b y t he Danube .

The i rregu lar i ty o f t he s hape o ft he f ort was d irect ly d e ter m ined

b y t he c on for ma t ion o ft he g round . The n or th a nd e ast s ides a re b o th 1 61 m l ong a nd t he wes t s ide i s 1 35 m l ong. T he p recinc t wa l l i s 1 .60 m t h ick . t ypes h ave b een p reserved . s o me t rapezoida l ( B a nd D ) .

E igh t d efensive t owers ( A-H ) o f t wo

S o me a re r ectangu lar ( A , C , E , Fa nd G ) a nd The l eng ths o f t he i n tervening s ec t ions o f wa l l

v ary b e tween 2 1 .45 a nd 3 4.10 m . A na lysis o f t he c ons truc t iona l s yste m o ft he wa l ls a nd t owers i nd ica tes t he e x istence o f f our ma jor s tages o f c onstruct ion o r r econstruct ion .

1 5 2

The f i rs t s tage ( Aure l ian ) i nc ludes t he e x ter ior p r inc ipa l wa l l , w i th 5 t owers ( A , C , E , G a nd J ) e rec ted a t t he p r inc ipa l c orners o f t he f or tress o n ly , a t c ons iderab le d istances ( 5 0-70

m ) f ro m o ne a no ther .

I n t he f i rst s tage t he

s uppor t ing c o lu mns o ft he b arracks j oined t o t he p recinc t wa l ls w ere a lso b ui l t .

The s econä s tage c onsists o f t he d oub l ing o f t he c ur ta in-wa l l ' st h ickness ,

b y b u i ld ing a s econd wa l l i nside i t , 1 .8 0 m w ide , a f i rregular c onstruct ion a nd w i th l ess a nd p oorer q ua li ty mor tar . c onnec t ions w i th t he t owers .

Th is s econd wa l l h as n o s tructura l

The t h ird s tage i s c haracter ised b y t he e rect ion

o f n ew e x terna l t owers ( A , B , D , F , H a nd J ) , c ut ting t he f i rst wa l l a nd a dded t o t he s econd . T owers A a nd E w ere r e-erected o ver t he o ld f ounda t ions, a nd t ower J h as t oday e n t ire ly d isappeared .

I n t he f our th s tage s o me i n terna l t owers

( B-H ) w ere e rected , j oined t o t he s econd p recin t wa l l. T ower A

s i tua ted i n t he s ou theas tern c orner, i s t he b igges t i n t he f ort .

I tf or ms a s eg ment o f ac irc le s e t u pon t he t wo s ides o f at r iang le , a nd p enet ra tes i ns ide t he f or t ( 2 1 .6 0m l ong a nd 1 7 .60 m w ide ) . t ower i s as quare p i l lar t o s uppor t a n u pper f l oor . c urved f ron t was 3 .20-3 .50 m t h ick . d isappeared ;

I n t he c en tre o f t he

The f ounda t ion o f t he

The g rea test p ar t o ft he t ower h as t oday

t he r e ma inder b elongs t o t he t h ird s tage a nd was r econstructed

, i n t he f our th s tage , n o t races o f t he f i rst s tage b e ing i den ti f ied . 1 53 T ower B e x terna l , i s r ectangular , measur ing 1 1 .5 m a cross t he f ron t a nd w i th 4 .20 m s ides. 1 54 T ower C

e x terna l , i st rapezoida l , a nd p robably h ad a 1 0 m w ide f ron t .

T ower D h as a r ec tangu lar s hape w i th a 8 m w ide f ront a nd i s 3 .7 0m d eep .

T he t h ickness o f t he f ron t s ide i s 3 .2 0 m , a nd t he o ther s ides a re 2 .40

m t h ick . m d eep . s ides :

I ns ide , t he f ron t wa l l c on ta ins a l a tera l n iche 2 .30 m w ide a nd 0 .8 0 Tower E i s t rapezo ida l a nd h as s harp ly a ng led c orners a nd u nequa l

s outh s ide , 4 .70 m; f ron t s ide , 1 0 .40 m; n or th s ide , 6 .30 m .

The

wa l l i s t h icker t han t he r es t o f t he p rec inc t wa l l ( 2 . 1 0 m) a nd h as a s oc le o n

8 3

both the in side and ou tsid e faces of 0. 25 m depth. 155 Tower F is rectangular and measures 6. 8 4 x 5. 90 m. On the east side is a narrow op ening, 1. 05 m wide. 156 Tower G is also rectangular, bu t of larger dimensions (1 O. 50 x 5 m). Tower H is also rectangu lar, and measures 7. 75 x 6. 25 m. On the sou theastern side, a narrow gate, only 0. 90 m wide, allows access to or from the fort. 15 7 In the second stage (JuEtinian) inte rnal towers were erected behind the external towers, in order to dou ble the defensive strength of the fort. For e xample, the tower B, interior re ctangular (and also the exte rnal one, me asuring 7.30 x 5.50 m). It is very cu rious that this internal tower is not connecte d to the pre cinct wall, its sides ending at a distance of 0.50 m from the ste ps leading into the 1ower and 2. 30 m from the fort wall. The tower has an entrance on the internal side, so that these openings cannot be en­ trances. The interior tower C is trapezoidal, with its side s continuing the line of the external tower. The north side measu res 3.10 m, the east 6. 50 m, and the south 3. 80 m. We notice that only in the external sides with e xits, have there been e recte d central partition walls, parallel to the precinct wall of the fort, in order to restrict and to hinder acce ss by any e nemy who might pene trate into these narrow gate s. Towers G and H do not have inte rnal towers, but have an entirely diffe r­ ent su pplementary fortification system. 158 Thu s, tower G is closed by a blocking wall, the u su al internal tower being replaced here by a wall 1. 35 m thick and 5. 50 m long, with the ends bu tting onto the curtain-wall, forming a barri er pierced by a gate only 0. 50 m wide. Behind tower H, at a distance of 1. 75 m, a parallel wall was erected, equal in length to the tower wall (8 . 50 m), bu t 3. 50 m thick. We notice, the refore, the great ine quality of the dimensions of the towe rs and their diffe rent systems of su ppleme ntary fortification, extra care being accorded to those with small exit gates. W e must also reme mber that the two trapezoidal towers are not prope rly connected to the fort wall, represen­ ting later re construction of the initial stage of the fort construction, ove r older towers whose shape is not known. The inside towers are bu ilt separately, without a connection with the fort wall, the masonry and e ven their shape indicating a late date ; and it has been proved stratigraphically that the internal tower A was e rected ove r a debris stratum dating from the 4th century. Further in front of them the trac es of stone pillars have bee n discovere d, which no longer had a role in the second stage. Behind the precincts-wall is a second wall 1.50 m thick, but this time bonded with clay. This second wall represents a late stage, but was bu ilt a little e arlier than the internal towers, and certainly after their erection. This wall was designed to increase the area of the upper platform of the de fensive wall. In the 6th ce ntury exte nsive . rebu ilding took place especially at the east corner of the fort. A very strong wall was added from tower H to the east, 3-4.50 m thick and 35 m long. The external towers I and J, and the internal quadrilateral towe r K were added later. 84

T ower 1 i s p o lygona l i n s hape , measuring 4 .40 m a t t he b ase a nd w i th f our e x ter ior f aces ( 1 .55 x 2 .75 x 2 .25 x 1 .10 m ) . Th is t ower i s u nusua l , h av ing h owever a na log ies , a lso i n t he 6 th c en tury , a t Ha jducka V oden ica . T ower J i s i n f a ct a massive b as t ion-p la tfor m o n t he o utside o ft he western c orner o f t he f or t ( 3 .35 x 5 .00 x 5 .80 x 3 .20 m ) .

I n t he s a me a rea , b ut o n t he i nside ,

as quare t ower was e rec ted ( K measur ing 6 .40 x 7 .90 x 5 .0 m . O n t he p la teau o n wh ich l i es t he f or t o f S ucidava ,

R o man r e ma ins e ar lier

t han t he e rect ion o f t he f or t if ica t ion h ave b een f ound , b u t t hey b e long t o t he c iv i l ian o ccupa t ion o f t he 2 nd-3rd c en tur ies, wh ich a lso e x tended a cross t he p la teau .

T he f or t if ica t ion was b ui l t d ur ing t he r e ign o f t he Emperor

1 59

A ure l ian a nd s o me r econstruct ion t ook p lace d ur ing t he r eign o f C onstan t ine t he G rea t .

1 60

Af ter t hese p er iods o f i n i t ia l c onstruc t ion a nd d eve lop men t , i n t he 4 th6 th c en tur ies , S ucidava h ad s uf fered t hree b ig f i res , t he f i rst t wo b e ing d a ted i n t he f i rst h a lf o ft he 5 th c en tury a nd t he t h ird t o t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury . The f i rst d estruc t ion o f t he f or t t ook p lace i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury ( 410 ? ) a nd t he s econd p robab ly d a tes f ro m t he i nvasion o f A t t i la ( 4 42-447 ) . E ven i ft he e xact d a tes o f t hese d estruct ions a re n o t k nown , i ti s c er ta in t ha t S uc idava was d estroyed d ur ing t he r e ign o f Theodosius i f

( 408-450 ) , af ter

wh ich t here i s ab reak i n o ccupa t ion u n t i l t he t i me o f J ustin I .1 61 S tra t igraph ic a nd n um is ma t ic e vidence s how t ha t t he f or tress was r econs truc ted o n ly i n t he J us tin I -Just in ian p er iod , t he g enera l r econstruct ion o f t he D anubian l imes b e ing c o mp le ted a bout 5 43.

1 62

S ucidava was t o ta l ly d es-

t royed b y f ire b e tween 5 98 a nd 6 00, d ur ing t he r e ign o f t he Emperor Maur ice T iber ius, when a n u mber •of Danub ian f or tresses a nd t owns f e l l t o t he AvarS lays .

1 63

T he s tra t igraphy i n s ect ion C ( 1936 ) , c on f ir med i n o ther s ect ions , was a s f o l lows. 1 64 I . A s tra tu m d a t ing f ro m t he 4 th c en tury , a bout 0 .60 m t h ick . I .

An a sh a nd c harcoa l s tra tu m 0 .10-0 .20 m t h ick , p roof o f av iolen t c onf lagra t ion , c orrespond ing t o t he H unn ic i nvasion o f 4 47 .

I I .

A 1m t h ick s tra tu m , w i th t races o f r a ther p oor o ccupa t ion ( hear ths , wooden h uts , p r im i t ive p ot tery ) c orrespond ing t o ap er iod o f d ecline e x tend ing f ro m t he e nd o f t he 5 th c en tury t o t he b eginn ing o f t he 6 th .

W.

A s tra tu m 0 .40 m t h ick , d a t ing f ro m t he 6 th c en tury ( Just in ian t o Maur ice T iber ius) .

V .

S tra tu m w i th i n tense b urn ing , 0 .10 m t h ick ( t he Avar-S lav i nvasion o f t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury ) .

V I .

Debr is .

8 5

NOVAE Th is was a s trong f or t o n t he Danube , w i th a l ong h istory e x tend ing f ro m t he i st t o t he 7 th c en tury .

1 65

Two ma jor s tages a re d ist inguishab le i n t he p lan o f t he f or t :

N ovae I ,

ar ectangular f or t c over ing 2 0 h a ., h as t he c lass ica l R o man f or t p lan .

N ovae

I was a l a te e x tension o f t he f or t w i th a n a rea o f a bout 1 0 h a ., e x tend ing t o t he e ast . N ovae i s r ectangular w i th t he l ong a x is d irected n or th-south , p erpend ic u lar t o t he Danube .

The o r ig ins o f t h is f or tress a re s t i l l n ot c lear .

There

a re t races o f a wa l l 1 .50 m t h ick , w ith r ounded c orners a nd r ec tangu lar i n terna l t owers . Af ter t he G o th ic i nvasion o f 2 50 , N ovae Iw as r econstructed , a dd ing a no ther 1m t h ick wa l l t o t he o r ig ina l n or th wa l l , w i th e x terna l r ectangu lar t owers . 1 66 O ur o p in ion i s t ha t t he e x terna l U-shaped t owers w ere a dded l a ter o n , p erhaps i n t he C onstan t in ian p er iod .

I n t he f irst h a lf o ft he 4 th c en tury t he t owers o f

t he western g a te were c o mp le te ly r ebu i l t . A bove t he r e ma ins o ft he e x terna l s quare t owers t here were b ui l t t wo l arge n ew r ec tangu lar t owers ( 1 2 x 6m ) , e ach w i th t wo r oo ms . Three s tructura l s tages c an b e s een i n t he s outh g a te .

The f i rst , w i th

t wo s quare e x terna l t owers ( 5 x5m ) , d a tes f ro m t he 3 rd c entury .

I n t he

s econd s tage , p robab ly a r ebu i ld ing a f ter t he G o th ic a t tack o f 2 50 , t he o utside wa l ls o f t he t owers w ere d oub led .

T he t h ird s tage i s r epresen ted b y l arge

U-shaped t owers, i ncorpora t ing a lso t he r e ma in ing wa l ls o f t he o ld t owers . F ro m t he d es ign a nd c ons truc t iona l t echn ique , t h is t h ird s tage b e longs t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 4 th c en tury . We c an a ssu me t ha t N ovae I was a lso e rected i n t he 4 th c en tury .

I t s

wa l ls w i th r ectangu lar t owers were p robably d estroyed i n 3 76-378 i n t he G oth ic i nvasion , af ter wh ich a s econd wa ll was e rected , j o ined t o t he f irst o ne .

N o n ew t owers were b u i l t , t he o ld t owers b e ing r eused .

A f ter t he

Hunn ish i nvasion o f 4 47 , t he f or t was r ebui lt u nder J ustin ian . Un for tuna te ly we c an f i nd n o p recise d a t ing o r s tra t igraphy i n t he e xcav a t ion r epor ts o r i n g enera l w orks o n t he s i te . OESCUS Th is f or t if ied t own i s b e t ter k nown f ro m a t opograph ica l p oin t o fv iew . 1 67 I n i t ia l ly O escus Ih ad a n i rregular p en tagona l s hape , o ccupy ing a bou t 2 0 h a . Probab ly a f ter t he r eturn o f t he V th L eg ion Macedon ica t o Dacia i n 2 71, t he f or t was e x tended b y a bout 1 0 h a . t owards t he e ast ( Oescus I ) . t h is l a ter wa l l i s w el l d ef ined .

i n t he s outheastern c orner t he w a ll f or ms a n o btuse a ng le . c orner t here i s ar ound t ower .

I n f act , o n ly

The n or th a nd e ast s ides a re s tra igh t , a nd The o ther t owers h ave

I n t he n or theastern

r ound f ron ts a nd

f lank t he t wo g a tes o n t he n or th a nd e ast s ides a pprox i ma te ly e quid istan t ly . T en t owers h ave b een d iscovered t o d a te o n t he n or thern a nd e astern s ides. I n c onnect ion w i th t he c onstruct ive s tages »f ro m O escus, a ma jor Go th ic d estruc t ion i n 3 76-378 i s p recise ly d ocu men ted a t t he t e mp le o f F or tuna . 8 6

Q uadr iburg ia As pecia l c a tegory o f f or t if ica t ion i s r epresen ted b y q uadr iburgia , c haracter ized b y as quare o r r ectangular p lan , b ut sma l l i n s ize , w i th e xt erna l t owers a t t he c orners ( rare ly a long t he s ides) , s quare s haped o r e x tre me ly r are ly r ound , w i thout many i n tra- mura l s tructures, w i th a s ing le g a te , a nd w i th wa l ls l ess t han 2m t h ick a nd b ui l t g enera l ly i n ( ) p as m ix tu r n , w i th 4 -5 b r ick c ourses . T hese a re s pecif ic t o t he o ut ly ing a reas o f t he l a te Emp ire , a nd many o ft he m h ave b een e xcava ted .

I th as b een p roved t ha t we h ave h ere f or ts

s pec if ic t o t he p er iod o ft he Te trarchy ,

1 68

u sua l ly e rected i n p laces where

f or mer ly t here were n o f or t if ica t ions, i n o rder t o f i l l t he g aps .

Their c on-

s truc t ion t ook p lace t oge ther w ith t he r ebui ld ing o f t he o ld f or ts.

Q uadr iburg ia

a re w e l l r epresen ted o n t he Dacia R ipens is l imes a nd i n Moes ia S uper ior , b u t a re e x tre me ly r are o n t he L ower Danube . a t T ra ian , M ircea V oda a nd N ova C erna . N ova C erna ( P l .

E xa mp les a re t he f or t if ica t ions

1 69

XL IV/1 )

T h is f or t i s s i tua ted o n t he Danube n ear Durostoru m .

A t t he e nd o f t he

3 rd c en tury a f or t was e rected h ere , r ectangu lar i n s hape ( 90 x 8 5 m ) , w i th e x terna l q uadr i la tera l t owers.

1"

Those a t t he c orners h ave a r ho mboida l

s hape f or med b y t he c orner o f t he f or t wa l l. I nside , t here i s a no ther s quare f or t if ica t ion o f sma l ler d i mensions ( b ur gus) , w i th r ho mb ic t owers a t t he c orners a nd a r ectangular t ower o n t he m idd le o f t he s outhern s ide . a ng led f ron ts

I n f act , t hese r ho mbic t owers

w i th s harp ly

h ave s o me d efensive a dvan tage . I t s ee ms v ery s trange t ha t

t he a u thors h ave d a ted b o th f or t if ica t ions t o t he s a me p er iod , f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he 3 rd c entury t o t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 6 th c en tury . Drobe ta ( P l .

XL I )

T he R o man f or t if ica t ion o f Drobe ta h as a s pecia l p lace among t he o ther f or ts o f t he M idd le a nd L ower Danube , b o th f or i t s r egular p lan a nd f or i t s i n terna l a rch i tecture a nd t own p lann ing . T he f i rst e xcava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut b y C . B o l liae , f o l lowed b y G . B o iss iere i n 1 865, b y G r . T oci lescu a nd h is c o l labora tors i n 1 896-1899 , a nd A l . Barcaci la .

T he e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut b y Gr . F lorescu y ie lded

v ery impor tan t c hrono log ica l e vidence .

1 71

Many s tages h ave b een e stab l ished :

n otably s tage I I ( end o f 3 rd c en tury ) ,

s tage I V ( 4 th c en tury ) a nd s tage V ( end o f 5 th a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 6 th c en tury ) . T he f or t if ica t ion h as a r ectangular p lan , measur ing 1 37 .5 x 1 23 m , w i th t he l ong a x is d irected n or th-south .

The l a te f or t if ica t ion ( s tage

e rec ted o ver t he e ar ly f or t a nd c o incides w i th i t s p lan .

was

I n s tage I I , l arger

e x terna l t owers were b ui l t i n f ron t o f t he i n terna l t owers, a nd t he f or t wa l ls w ere made t h icker a nd h igher .

A t t he c orners, t he e x terna l t owers h ave a n

u nusua l f an s hape , w i th s em i-circu lar f ron ts a nd o b l ique s ides. n or th g a te i s r ep laced b y al arge e x terna l r ectangu lar t ower .

8 7

The o r ig iral

Two more

sma ll e x terna l t owers were b ui l t o n t he n or th s ide a nd t he s ide g a tes were ma in ta ined , b ut a lso p assed t hrough e x terna l r ectangular t owers.

Two more

sma l l , e x terna l r ectangu lar t owers w ere a dded o n t he n or th s ide .

T he

s outhern g a te r e ma ins t he p r inc ipa l o ne , f l anked i n t h is p hase b y t wo l arge , U-shaped e x terna l t owers, a dded t o t he o ld i n terna l t owers. I n s tages I V a nd V , t he i n terna l t owers u nderwen t s o me mod i f ica t ions , a s y e t u nspecif ied . P i l lars w ere e rected a round t he p rec inc t w a l ls , p laced e qu idis tan t ly o ne r ow o n t he s outh s ide a nd t hree r ows o n t he n or th s ide ( t he s ide most e xposed t o a t tack a nd t he most h eavi ly f or t if ied o ne ) . ap la tfor m wh ich e x tended a round t he wa l ls .

T hese p i l lars s uppor ted

The o r ig ina l p lan o f D obre ta ( s tages I I-V ) may b e e xp la ined b y t he a dap ta t ion o ft he d efensive p r incip les o f t he l a te p er iod ( Aure lian , D ioc let ianC onstan t ine ) , t o t he e le men ts o f t he o ld

c lass ica l ' f or t .

The i n ter ior i s s y m metr ica l ly d iv ided b y t wo s tree ts wh ich i n tersect a t r igh t a ng les, w i th p i l lared p or t icoes.

A long t he s tree ts a re a l igned 8 4

r oo ms, e qua l i n s ize , e ach o ne w i th a n e n trance o n to t he s treet .

T he r es t

o ft he s pace r e ma ins f ree , p robab ly t o a l low move men t o f t he t roops a nd c ava lry . A s r egards t he t own p lan o f Dobre ta , s o me a na log ies may b e f ound i n t he p a lace o f D ioc le t ian a t S p l i t , a t An t ioch , P a l myra , L uxor a nd a t I a trus , t hough e xac t p ara l le ls a re n o t k nown . Castra Mar t is ( P l .

XL I I I )

S i tua ted i n Dac ia R ipensis, 3 2 km s outhwest o f B onon ia a nd o n t he Danube , t he f or t if ica t ion o f C astra Mar t is d efended i n d ep th a n i mpor tan t c en tre o f c o mmun ica t ion i n t h is s ec t ion o f t he l imes. The f or t i s b u i lt i n t wo p ar ts:

a monu men ta l q uadr iburg iu m a nd a

c as te l lu m s i tua ted t o t he s ou thwes t , t ha t o ccup ies a n a rea o f 7 0 h a a nd was l a ter b ui l t c on fron ted b y t he q uadr iburg iu m . 1 72 The q uadr iburg iu m h as a s quare p lan , w ith 4 0 m s ides a nd w i th f our r ound t owers a t t he c orners. The wa l ls a re 2 .25 m t h ick .

I t was a ccessible o n ly o n t he s outh s ide , where

t he e n trance was p laced . Th is was i n i t ia l ly 3 m w ide , w i th a p or tcu l l is, b ut was l a ter r educed t o 1 .70 m a s ad oub le d oor . L a ter o n , t he s outh s ide was d oub led b y t he a dd i t ion o f a wa l l u n i t ing t he t wo l a tera l t ower s , t hus f or m ing t wo b ig r oo m s f or t he g uard . The t owers a re r ound a nd e x terna l , a nd e qua l i n d i mensions ( 1 2 .50 m i n d ia me ter ) .

The s outheast t ower h ad t hree f l oors, b ui l t o f wood .

The wa l ls w ere c onstr icted i n o pus

Mi X 11 . 11 / 1,

w i th t hree b r ick c ourses

a nd s tones measur ing 0 .95-1.15 m , c arefu l ly f aced . The c as te l lu m , i mpinged u pon t he wes t s ide b y t he q uadr iburg iu m , h as a n i rregu lar s hape , w i th 5 s ides p laced a ccord ing t o t he g round c on f igura tion , w i th 5 r ound t owers a t t he c orners a nd a lso a t t he m idd le o f t he s ou th a nd west s ides , wh ich a re t he l ongest s ides .

The wa lls a re 3 .0 m t h ick .

The

e n trance g a te h as n o t y e t b een d iscovered , n or h as t he c o m mun ica t ing g a te b e tween t he t wo f or t if ica t ions . 8 8

S a ldu m ( P l . XL I I I ) . S i tua ted o n t he b ank o ft he Danube , b e tween N ovae a nd B os man , S a ldu m h as a r ectangular p lan 4 3.50 x 3 1 .20 m ,

1 73

w i th t owers a t t he c orners .

T he wa l ls a re f aced w i th s quare s tones , s o me times w i th b r ick c ourses . Two o ft he e x terna l t owers , t hose a t t he n or thwest a nd s outheast c orners, a re c ircu lar , 3 .70-4 .10 m i n d ia me ter . d if feren t .

The n or theast t ower i s e n t ire ly

I ti s r ec tangu lar a t t he e astern e nd w i th a 1 2 m a x is, e nd ing i n a

s em ic ircular a pse .

T he t ower a t t he s outhwest c orner i s h orseshoe-shaped .

Bos man ( Ad S crofulas ) ( P l .

XLV , 2 )

T he g round c on for ma t ion l ed t o t he e rect ion o f af or t , w i th a n u nusua l p lan , B os man b eing t he s econd k nown f or t w i th a t r iangu lar p lan . s ides a re a l most e qua l i n l eng th ( 47 x 4 9 m ) . o f t he b ank o ft he Danube . i s ac ircular t ower . 1 74

The t hree

The e ast s ide f o l lows t he c urve

The wa l ls a re 2 .20 m t h ick .

A t e ach c orner t here

B os man h as b een i den t if ied w i th A d S crofu las, a nd h as b een d a ted b e tween t he 3 rd a nd t he 6 th c en tur ies, w i thout c loser s pecif ica t ion . Bo l 'e t in T h is f or t was b ui l t i n t he i st c en tury a nd a bandoned i n t he 2 nd c en tury . I t was t hen r estored f o l low ing A ure l ian ' sw i thdrawa l f ro m Dacia a nd t he r enewa l o f t he Danubian f ron t ier .

H owever , t he r econstruc t ion was c arr ied

o ut o n a pprox i ma te ly t he s a me l i ne a s t ha t o f t he e ar ly wa l ls.

O ccupa t ion

c on t inued u n t i l a bout t he 5 th c en tury , when t he f or t was d estroyed a nd b urned . An ew r econstruct ion t ook p lace u nder J ust in ian . 1 75 T he wa l ls a nd t he t owers s how c lear ly t he c onstruct iona l p eriods o f t he f or ts .

The s outh s ide r e ta ined o ld e ar ly R o man wa l ls w i th r epa irs a nd a dd i-

t ions .

The n or th s ide c onsisted o ft he n ew A ure l ian ic wa l ls, w i th s o me l a ter

mod if ica t ions .

Under A ure l ian , t he f or t a t B o l je t in r e ta ined i t s s outh wal l

a nd p ar ts o f t he e ast a nd t he w est wa l ls f ro m s tage I ( a t l east a s r egards t he l ower p ar ts o f t he wa l ls ) r ec tangu lar i n terna l t owers b eing e rec ted a t t he r ounded c orners , a nd t herefore o n t he e ar ly R o man p lan .

The n or th wa l l a nd

p ar ts o f t he e as t a nd wes t wa l ls were r econs truc ted f ro m t he f ounda t ions , w i th r igh t-ang led c orners a nd w i th r ec tangular i n terna l t owers a t t he c orners . I nt he t h ird s tage ( a ccord ing t o -the a uthors, i n t he 6 th c en tury , u nder J ust in ian ) , e x ter ior t owers w ere e rected o n t he wa l ls, wh ich were h orseshoes haped a t t he s quare c orners o f t he n or th wa l l a nd U-shaped a t t he r ounded c orners o f t he s outh wa l l , a nd o n t he m idd le o f t he t wo l ong s ides a n e x ter ior r ectangu lar t ower was a dded , e nclosing a t t he s a me t i me t he t wo g a tes. wa l l w as b ui l t b lock ing u p t he g a teway i n t he w est wa l l .

A

The e n trance i n t he

e ast w a l l s t i l l f unct ioned a s as ing le g a te , f or t if ied w i th a n i n terna l t ower , w i th t wo e n trances. I ti s c lear t ha t t he c hrono logy o f B o l je t in h as b een e stab l ished o n ly a pprox i ma te ly , e ven i ft he t hree ma jor s tages a re c orrect .

I n a ny c ase ,

b etween t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c en tury ( reign o f A ure lian ) a nd t he 5 th c en tury ( t he H un i nvasion ) more s tages h ave b een d ist inguished , a t l east f or t he

8 9

D ioc le t ian-Constan t ine p er iod , b ecause w e b e l ieve t ha t d ur ing t he r e igns o f t hese t wo Emperors mod if ica t ions were made t o t he f or t .

B ol je t in c ould n o t

h ave b een a n e xcep t ion t o t he r estora t ion o f t he l imes a nd c ould n o t h ave r ema ined u nt i l t he 5 th c en tury w i thou t e x terna l t owers a nd w i thout a ny k ind o f t owers a t i t s t wo g a tes .

A lso , i n s tage I ( t he e nd o f t he 3 rd t o t he 5 th c en-

t ur ies ) t he t own p lan o f t he f or tress i s d isorgan ised;

i tc annot d a te f ro m t he

4 th c en tury , b u t much more p robab ly d a tes f ro m t he e nd o f t he 6 th c entury . The p lan i n s tage I I ( da ted t o t he 6 th c en tury ) w i th h orseshoe-shaped t owers a t t he c orners a nd r ectangular t owers o n t he c ur ta in wa l ls a nd a t t he g a te , h as , l ike t he p lan o f t he i n ter ior , a na log ies i n t he D ioc le t ian-Constan t ine p er iod .

Th is d oes n o t a t a l l e xc lude t he p ossibi l i ty t ha t t he f or tress f unct ioned ,

w i th t he s a me p lan ( and r econstruct ions ) , u nder J ust in ian . Ha jducka v oden ica ( P l .

XL IV/2)

F or t if ica t ion b e long ing t o t he 4 th-6th c en tur ies w i th a r ec tangu lar p lan , 7 0 x5 0 m s ides. T he s ou thwes t s ide , d irec ted t owards t he l and , i s t he s tronges t , e quipped w i th t wo c ircu lar e x terna l t owers a t t he c orners a nd a n e x terna l p o lygona l t ower w i th f our f aces o u ts ide .

Two more t ower-bast ions a re s i tua ted a t t he

wes t e nds , t owards t he Danube , r igh t o n t he b ank , a lso c ircu lar b u t sma l ler . The p rec inc t wa l ls , d oub led o n t he n or th s ide , a re 3 .20 m t h ick . b ig c ireu lar t owers a re 1 0 m i n d ia me ter . t hree b ut tresses . d ep th .

The

The e as t t ower i s e qu ipped w i th

The midd le p o lygona l t ower h as a 7 m f ront a nd 7 .50 m

The s ide t owards t he Danube i s b roken .

A l though t he a uthors s uppose t he e rec t ion o f t h is f or t t o h ave t aken p lace i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 4 th c en tury , t he p ub lished p lan b e longs e n t ire ly t o t he 6 th c entury .

1 76

I ft he f or tress o r ig ina l ly h ad a s quare s hape , w i th e xterna l

t owers a t t he c orners , a t al a ter s tage t wo p ara l le l wa l ls r un f rom t he t wo c ircu lar wes t t owers , w i th e nds o n t he Danube b ank a nd c ircu lar b as t ions .

1 77

A lso i n t he s econd s tage , t he s ou theas t c ircu lar t owers b eco me t h icker a nd h ave b ut tresses , a nd t he p en tagona l t ower w i th a p o in ted f ront i s a dded . F ro m a t opograph ica l p o in t o f v iew , t he p lan o f t h is f or tress i s u nusua l i n t he a ddi t ion o f t he s ides t owards t he Danube b ank , a nd i n t he c omb ina t ion o f c ircu lar t owers a nd t he c ircu lar b as t ions .

9 0

CHAPTER I REFERENCES AND NOTES 1 .

E . Des jardins , V oyage a rcheo log ique e t g eograph ique d ans l a r eg ion d u B as-Danube ,

Revue Archeo log ique , 1 7, 1 868,

D ID , 2 , p . 4 26 a nd Ma ter ia le , 4 , 1 957, 3 , 1 971 , p p . 3 49-350; 2 .

P .

P .

2 64;

c f . I . Barnea ,

1 55; I . Barnea , RISEE , 9 ,

Em . P opescu , Dac ia , NS , 1 3 , 1 969 , p p . 4 03-415 .

P . Po Ionic , mss ., 5 132 , f . 1 000 , a rch ive Gr . T oc i lescu , BARSR ;

i de m ,

N a tura , 7 , 1 935 , p . 2 4 ; A l . S . S tefan , BMI , 4 2 , 1 , 1 953 , p . 5 , f i g . 2 -3 . 3 . Ma teria le , 4 , 1 957, p . 1 56 . 4 . 5 .

A l . S . S tefan , BMI , 4 2 , 1 , 1 973 , p p . 3 -14 . S CIV , 5 , 1 -2 , 1 954 , p p . 1 75-182; Ma ter ia le , 4 , 1 957, p p . 1 55-174 ; Ma teria le , 5 , 1 959 , p p . 4 61-473;

S CIV , 4 , 1 964 , p . 5 62;

I . Barnea ,

D inoget ia e t N ov iodunu m , d eux v i l les b yzantines d u Bas Danube , R SEE , 9 , 3 , 1 971 , p p . 3 49-350 . 6 .

I b id . ,p . 3 50;

S CIV , 3 , 1 965 , p . 5 98 .

7 .

S CIV , 4 , 1 968, p . 6 88 .

8 .

I . Barnea , Peuce , 6 , 1 977 , p p . 1 05-106 .

9 . Ma teria le , 5 , 1 959 , p p . 4 61-473 . 1 0 . 1 1

Ma teria le , 4 , 1 957, p . 1 62 . T here a re , d ue t o t he l ack o f s tra t igraph ic e v idence , s o me c ontradict ions a nd d isagree ments , e spec ia l ly f or t he 2 nd-3rd c en tur ies .

C f . A l . S uceveanu ,

Dac ia , NS , 1 3 , 1 969 , p p . 3 58-359 a nd A l . S . S tefan , 2 2 .c i t . ,p . 4 . 1 2 .

A l . S . S tefan , 2 E . c i t . ,p p . 4 -14 .

1 3 .

B ut w ith s evera l e xcept ions :

To mis ( C . S corpan , RRH , 1 5 , 1 , 1 976, p p .

•1 0 ) , a nd a lso I b ida , O escus , N ovae a nd C astra Mart is . 1 4 .

G h . S tefan , Dac ia , 7 -8, 1 937-40 , p . 4 01; p p . 3 43-344;

I . Barnea , RISEE , 3 , 1 971 ,

i de m , Actes , p . 2 1 .

1 5 .

I . Barnea , l oc . c i t . a nd S CIV , 1 -2 , 1 953 , p p . 2 58-269 .

1 6.

Dac ia , 7 -8, 1 937-40 , p . 4 01 .

1 7 .

I . Barnea , D inoge t ia , Meridiane , B uc ., 1 961, p . 1 6, f ig . 4 ; 1 0 , 1 966, p . 2 38, f i g . 1 .

1 8.

Dac ia , 7 -8, 1 937-40 , p p . 4 01-405 .

1 9 .

S CIV , 3 , 1 952 , p p . 4 09-410 .

2 0 .

I b id ., p p . 3 92-394 .

9 1

i de m , Dac ia ,

2 1 .

S CIV , 1 -2 , 1 953 , p p . 2 55-257; I . B arnea , R1SEE , 3 , 1 971 , p . 3 44 .

2 2 .

I . B arnea , S CIV , 2 , 1 969 , p p . 2 45-265; i de m , e SEE , 3 , 1 971 , p p . 3 443 46 .

2 3 .

I . B arnea , Dac ia , 1 0 , 1 966, p p . 2 37-239 , 2 57-258 .

2 4 .

S C IV , 1 , 1 951 , p . 3 9 .

2 5 .

S CIV , 1 , 1 951 , p . 3 3 .

2 6 .

S CIV , 3 , 1 952 , p p . 3 92-394 ; I . B arnea , RISEE , 3 , 1 971 , p p . 3 44 ,346.

2 7 .

S CIV , 1 -2 , 1 953 , p . 2 57 .

2 8 .

I b id ., p . 2 59 .

2 9 .

S CIV , 1 -2 , 1 954 , p p . 1 62-164 , f i g . 3 .

3 0 .

I . B arnea , L 'incendie d e l a c i te d e D inoge t ia a u V Ie s f ec le , D ac ia , NS , 1 0 , 1 966, p p . 2 37-259 .

3 1 .

I b id ., p p . 2 38-239 .

3 2 .

I b id ., p p . 2 39-240 .

3 3 .

I b id ., p . 2 55 .

3 4 .

Ma ter ia le , 6 , 1 959 , p . 6 36 .

P laus ib ly t here a re t hree l eve ls i n t he 6 th

c en tury . 3 5 .

Ma ter ia le , 7 , 1 961 , p p . 5 93-94 .

3 6 .

Ma ter ia le , 7 , 1 961 , p . 5 86; Ma ter ia le , 8 , 1 962 , p p . 6 76-684 .

3 7 .

I . Barnea , Dac ia , 1 0 , 1 968, p . 2 57, a nd IeSEE , 3 , 1 971 , p p . 3 43-348 .

3 8 .

I de m , Dac ia , 1 0 , p . 2 58 .

3 9 .

L . L en ier , R evue Archeo log ique , 1 0 , 1 864 , p . 3 91; G . Boissf ere , Arch ives d es Missions S c ien t if ique e t L i t tera ires . C ho ix d e r appor ts e t i ns truc t ions , Ie s er ie , t . I V, 1 867, p p . 1 81-221 . E . Des jardins , R evue Archeo log ique , 1 7, 1 868 , p l . I X , X .

G r . Toc i lescu , Monu mente ,

p . 6 8 , n ote 1 1 . 4 0 .

G . B oissf ere , l oc . c i t .

4 1 .

G r . Toc i lescu , Monu men te , I g l iV ( Troes m is ) ;

V . P ärvan , C e ta tea

I T Imetu m , I , p . 5 16, f i g . 1 4 ; D ID , 2 , 1 968 , p . 5 17 , f i g . 2 3 a nd 2 4 . 4 2 .

G r . T oc i lescu , R IAF , 1 , 1 882 , p l . 1 0 .

4 3 .

Arch ive Toc i lescu-Po lon ic , a t BARSR .

4 4 .

Id o n o t b e lieve t ha t t he p rec inc t wa l l , 1 00 m l ong , h as n o t owers a t a f ortress l ike T roes m is .

I n f ac t , o n B audry 's r econs truct ion p lan , an ew

r ec tangu lar t ower a ppears . 4 5 .

I n a ny c ase , b o th f ortresses b e long t o al a ter p er iod , b eg inn ing i n t he 4 th c en tury , a s i s s hown b y t he e ar lier s tones r e-used i n t he p rec inc t wa l ls .

9 2

4 6 .

A l . S . S tefan , BMI

4 7 .

I n for ma t ion f ro m A l . B arnea ; i de m , S CIV , 2 , 1 975 , p . 2 09 , n o te 4 .

4 8.

A . P etre , Ma ter iale , 8 , 1 971 , p . 5 65 .

4 9 .

4 0 , 4 , 1 971 , p p . 4 3-52 .

I de m , Ac tes , p p . 9 8-99 .

Em . C ondurach i , S tudien , p . 1 72; D . Vn .ceanu , A l . Barnea , S C IV , 2 6 , 2 , 1 975 , p . 2 09 .

5 0 .

V . B ri tu lescu , BCMI

3 3 , 1 940 , p p . 3 -25;

BCMI , 3 6 , 1 943 , p . 1 80 ;

S C IV , 5 , 1 954 , p . 6 01; A . A r icescu , P on t ica , 4 , 1 971 , p . 3 51 . 5 1 .

Em . C ondurach i , S tudien , p . 1 70 , f ig . 5a nd 6 .

5 2 .

D ac ia , 3 -4 , 1 927-32 , p . 4 83; Dac ia , 5 -6, 1 935-36, p . 3 51; Dac ia , 7 -8 , 1 937-40 , p . 3 45; Dac ia , 1 1-12 , 1 945-47 , p . 2 09; C ap idava , I , B uc ., 1 958 .

5 3 .

I b id ., p p . 3 6-37 .

5 4 .

I b id ., p . 4 3 .

5 5 .

I b id . ,p p . 4 5-50 .

5 6 .

I b id ., p p . 5 8-59 .

5 7 .

I b id ., p . 7 2 .

5 8 .

F ur ther more , h ow c an t here h ave b een o n ly a sma l l a nd r udi men tary f or t i n t he t ime o f Anas tas ius a nd J us t inian , i ft here was , i n t he n or thern c orner o f t he l arge f or tress , ag rea t 5 th-6th c entury b asi lica?

5 9 .

G r . F lorescu , 2 2..c i t . ,p p . 6 2-66, 7 2 .

6 0 .

R . F lorescu , Da te n o i c u p r iv ire l a c rono log ia C ap idave i r o mane P ont ica

8 , 1 975 , p p . 3 61-373 .

6 1 .

C apidava , I , p p . 2 6-27 .

6 2 .

I b id ., p . 2 8, f ig . 2 .

6 3 .

I b id ., p . 3 8, 4 5 , 4 7 .

6 4 .

Ma teria le , 7 , 1 961 , p p . 5 73-579 , p l . I .

6 5 .

P to le my , G eograph ia , I I , 8 , 3a nd 1 .

6 6 .

P . P o lon ic , N a tura , 2 4 , 7 , 1 935 , p p . 2 0-21 .

The p lans o f Ax iopo lis

h ave a lso b een p ub l ished b y C . S chuchardt , D ie s ogenan ten T ra janswä l le i n d er D obrudscha , i n Abhand lungen d er p reussischen Akade m ie d er W issenschaf ten , P h i l . h is t . K lasse , 1 2 , B er lin , 1 918, p p . 5 6-59 .

S ee

a lso I . B arnea , S CIV , 1 1 , 1 , 1 960 , p p . 6 9-80 . 6 7 .

V . Pärvan , U l me tu m , I , p . 5 78 , n ote 3 .

6 8 .

P rocop ius , De a ed if ic i is , I V , 7 .

6 9 .

A . Ar isescu , DMI

7 0 .

A l . S . S tefan , Ac tes , p . 1 05 , p l . 2 1 , 2 2; i de m , RM M , 4 6, 1 , 1 977,

4 0 , 3 , 1 971 , p p . 5 8-60 .

p p . 3 -22 . 9 3

7 1 .

V . Pärvan , U l metu m , I , p . 5 06 .

7 2 .

I bid ., p . 5 07 .

7 3 .

V . Pärvan , 2 p . c i t . ,p p . 5 05 , 5 09 , 5 13-514 .

7 4 .

V . Pärvan , U l metu m , I , p . 2 46.

7 5 .

I b id ., p . 2 57 .

7 6 .

I n t he p resen t s ta te o fk now ledge , t he a f f ir ma t ion o f V . Pärvan s ee ms e xaggera ted .

7 7 .

These g rea t t owers , b es ides t he ir we l l-known u se a s s torehouses , were a lso , i n o ur o pinion , u sed b y l ookout g uards ,

o n t he most v u lnerab le

s ides o f t he f ortresses . 7 8 .

U l metu m , I , p . 5 22 .

7 9 .

U l me tu m , I ,p . 2 91 .

8 0 .

I b id ., p . 2 96 .

8 1 .

V . Pärvan , U l metu m , I , p p . 5 97-598 .

8 2 .

V . Pärvan , U l metu m , I , p p . 2 82.283 , f ig . 3 7 .

8 3 .

I de m , U l me tu m , I l , p . 2 70 , f ig . 2 .

8 4 .

I de m , U l metu m .

8 5 .

C IL , I I , 1 3734 = I LS , 8 938 .

8 6.

V . Pärvan , C e ta tea T ropaeu m , p . 1 68.

8 7 .

V . Pärvan , 9 2 . c i t .

8 8.

V . Pärvan , _ 9 _ 2 . c i t . ,p p . 1 70-171 .

8 9 .

V . Pärvan , _ o _ p . c it . ,p . 1 68 .

9 0 .

Gh . Papuc , P ont ica , 7 , 1 974 , p p . 3 25-336 .

9 1 .

The m ist ios , X , 1 33-140 ( =Fontes , 2 , p . 6 3 ) .

9 2 .

V . Pärvan , C eta tea T ropaeu m , p . 1 81 .

9 3 .

D ID , 2 , p . 3 84 .

C . S corpan , P ont ica , 5 , 1 972 , p p . 3 49-358;

i de m , P ont ica , 7 , 1 974 , p p .

3 39-362 . 9 4 .

V . Pärvan , C e ta tea Tropaeu m , p p . 1 90-191 .

9 5 .

Mss . 5 139 , p . 1 70 , Acad . RSR .

9 6 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , Dac ia , N S , 1 2 , 1 968, p p . 4 09-411 .

9 7 .

I oana B ogdan C ä tän ic iu , Mon ica Märg ineanu-Cf rsto iu , RM M , 2 , 1 975 , p p . 5 9-62 ( p . 6 0 ) .

9 8 .

N ot . D ign . O r ., XXXD C , XK , ( =Fontes , 2 , p p . 2 09-210 ) .

9 9 .

P rocop ius , De a edif ic i is , I V , 1 1, 2 0 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 4 72-473) .

1 00 .

Dac ia , NS , 1 , 1 957 , p . 2 37 .

9 4

1 01 .

D ID , 2 , p . 2 74 a nd t he map .

1 02 .

N . Gos tar , S tudii C lasice , 5 , 1 963, p . 3 06.

1 03 .

I . Darnea , D ID , 2 ,

1 04 .

Rev . Muz . ,4 , 1 969 , p . 3 49 .

1 05 .

The e xcava t ions d irec ted b y C . S corpan d uring t en y ears ( 1969-1970 ) . S ee :

P .

3 73 .

I de m , Ac tes , p . 1 8 .

P on t ica , 5 , 1 972 , p p . 3 01-328 a nd p p . 3 49-372;

p p . 2 67-331;

P on t ica , 8 , 1 975 , p p . 2 63-314 ;

2 29-249; Dac ia , 2 1 , 1 977, p p . 2 69-297;

P ont ica , 6 , 1 973 ,

P ont ica , 1 0 , 1 977, p p .

Ac tes ..., p p . 1 09-116;

E p igraph ica , T ravaux d edi e s V I I C ongres d 'epigraph ie , D ue ., 1 977, p p . 2 03-221; a lso : The X I I I n terna t iona l C ongress o f R o man F ront ier S tudies , 1 979 , B r i t ish Archaeo log ica l Reports , I n terna t iona l S eries N o . 7 1, 1 980 , p . 7 87 . 1 06 .

Em . P opescu , I nscr ip W le g recest i s i l a t ine d in s eco le le d escoper i te i n R o män ia , B ucure t i , 1 976, p . 1 96.

1 07 .

C ohors (I I?) Ga l loru m ( A . Aricescu , P ont ica , 7 , 1 974 , p . 2 61 a nd Ar ma ta i n Dobrogea r o man , Bucures t i , 1 977, p . 6 6) . o n ly a h ypo thes is .

But t h is was

C ertain ly , t he b u i lding o f S ac idava was t he work o f

Cohors IC i licu m ( c f . t he i nscript ions d iscovered r ecent ly a t S acidava b y t he p resent a u thor , 1 979 , s ee Appendix , i n t h is work ) . 1 08 .

A s ta mped b rick Ac tes ..., p p . 1 13 , P l . 2 7 .

Then , i n 1 979 , t he p resen t

a uthor d iscovered a no ther t hree i nscrip t ions r eferr ing t o C ohors I C i licu m ( two d a ting f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd c entury a nd o ne f ro m t he midd le o f t he 3 rd c entury ) .

These s how t ha t C ohors I C i licu m h ad

i ts h eadquarters a t S ac idava ( Musa i t ) —see Appendix . 1 09 .

The l eg io V l ‘ i lacedon ica ( C . S corpan , E pigraph ica , 1 977 B uc . -,p p . 2 032 07, n o . 1 ) .

1 10 .

Ab urgar ius , a t S ac idava ( C . S corpan , Ep igraph ica , p p . 2 13-215 ) .

A lso ,

i n t he 1 979 e xcava t ions , Id iscovered s evera l b r icks s ta mped w ith I za . X I C l(audia ) , L eg . II ta( lica ) , L eg . X I C l(audia ) Tra(ns ) m(arisca ) . 1 11 .

C uneus e qui tu m S cutarioru m ( Not . D ign ., O r ., XXXD C , XL ) .

A lso , a

t o mbs tone o f e xarchus P roc linus ( 4 th c entury ) a nd a no ther i nscript ion o f Va ler ius O nes i ma , c enturio o fl eg io I Hercu lia ( N . Gostar , l oc . c i t . ) . 1 12 . 1 13 .

C . S corpan , P on t ica , 6 , 1 973 , p p . 2 71-278, f i g . 5 . The s a me t echn ique a s a l l t he o ther t owers a t S ac idava; a lso c urtain wa l ls D ( i nterna l t ower n o . 2 ) , E ( t he d oub le wa l l, e x ter ior ) .

1 14 .

S ac idava , c urta in wa l l A .

1 15 .

D ID , I , 1 968, p . 5 17; A l . S . S tefan , EMI

1 16 .

V . Pärvan , U l me tu m , I , p . 2 66, f i g . 2 0 .

1 17 .

H is tr ia , c f . Gr .

F lorescu , l oc . c i t . 4 , 1 971 , p . 4 4 .

Gr . F lorescu , S CIV , 3 -4 , 1 953, p . 5 98, f ig . 1 ;

i de m , H istr ia , 1 , 1 954 ,

p p . 8 4 a nd 9 2 . 1 18 .

D . Tudor , O lten ia r o manä 3 , 1 968, p p . 2 77-287 . r o man , Buc ., 1 976, p p . 1 41-142 a nd 1 44-156. f igs . 5 . 6 . 2 3 . 9 5

I de m .

Arheo log ia

I de m . S uc idava , 1 974 ,

1 19 .

H istria , 1 , p . 8 4 .

1 20 .

I bid . ,p . 9 2 .

1 21 .

C . S corpan , Pont ica , 5 , 1 972 , p . 3 58 a nd P on t ica , 6 , 1 973 , p . 2 77,

1 22 .

H istria , I , 1 954 , p p . 1 06-115 .

1 23 .

I de m , p . 1 65 .

1 24 .

I de m , p p . 1 21-122 .

1 25 .

H istr ia , 1 , p p . 3 20-321 .

1 26 .

S CIV , 5 , 1 -2 , 1 954 , p p . 7 6-78, f ig . 4 .

1 27 .

S CIV , 6 , 3 -4 , 1 955 , p p . 5 36-538;

Ma ter ia le , 7 , 1 961 , p p . 2 34-236;

8 ,

1 962 , p . 3 97 . 1 28 .

Ma ter ia le , 7 , p . 2 38 .

1 29 .

C f . H istr ia , 1 , p . 3 24 :

1 30 .

Ma ter ia le , 5 , p . 2 89 , f i g . 1 ; Ma ter ia le , 7 , p p . 2 39-240 , f i g . 1 2 .

1 31 .

H istria , 1 , p . 9 8 .

1 32 .

Ma ter ia le , 8 , 1 962 , p p . 3 94-396 .

1 33 .

I b id .,

1 34 .

O p . c i t . ,p . 3 45 .

1 35 .

S CIV , 6 , 3 -4 , 1 955 , p p . 5 29-530 .

1 36 .

A l . S uceveanu , 2E . c i t .

1 37 .

A l . S uceveanu , C . S corpan , P on t ica , 4 , 1 971 , p p . 1 55-170 ;

al ast l eve l 5 80-610 A .D .

I n r oo ms b , h , t wo c oins o f H erac l ius ( Mater ia le , 7 , 1 961 , p . 2 53) .

G h . P oenaru-

B ordea , P ont ica , 4 , 1 971, p p . 3 19-338 . 1 38 .

Em .

C ondurach i , H is tr ia , 1 , 1 954;

Em . C ondurach i , H istr ia h l ' epoque

d u Bas-E mp ire d 'apres l es d ernf eres f oui l les a rcheo logiques , Dac ia , N S , 1 , 1 , 1 957, p p . 2 45-563 , e spec ia l ly p . 2 56 . 1 39 .

I b id ., p . 2 56 .

1 40 .

A . P e tre , Dac ia , NS , 7 , 1 963 , p p . 3 18-334 .

1 41 .

T . I vanov , K lio , 4 7, 1 966, p p . 1 55-170 ; p p . 2 51-303;

B . B öt tger , K lio , 4 8, 1 967 ,

K . Wach te l , Ac tes , p p . 1 37-142 .

1 42 .

T . I vanov , S tudien , p . 1 58 .

1 43 .

D . Mi tova-DZ 'onova , Archeo log ia , 1 0 , 3 , S of ia 1 968, p . 1 3 .

1 44 .

Tabu la P eut ingeriana , 8 , 2( =Fon tes , I , p . 7 39) .

1 45 .

K ilo , 4 7, 1 966, p p . 3 57-362 .

1 46 .

K lio , c i t ., p p . 1 55-160 .

1 47 .

S tudien , p . 1 57 . 9 6

1 48 .

K . Wach te l , 2 1 2 .c i t ., p p . 1 38-140 .

1 49 .

K . Wach te l , 22 . c i t . ;B . B öt tger , Ac tes , p p . 1 31-136 .

1 50 .

De a edif ic iis , 4 , 7 .

1 51 .

Theophy lact S i moca t ta , H is t ., 7 , 2( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 5 43-544) .

1 52 .

D . T udor , a. c i t . ,p p . 8 2-83 .

1 53 .

I b id ., p . 8 3 .

1 54 .

D . Tudor , Dac ia , 1 1-12 , 1 945-47 , p p . 1 47, 1 55 .

1 55 .

I bid ., p . 1 47 .

1 56 .

I bid ., p p . 1 50-151 .

1 57 .

D . T udor , S uc idava , 1 974 , p . 8 7 .

1 58 .

D . T udor , Dac ia , 1 1-12 , p p . 1 51-152 .

1 59 .

D . T udor , S uc idava , 1 974 ,

1 60 .

I bid ., p p . 9 5-96 .

1 61 .

I bid ., p p . 9 4 , 9 6-98;

p . 9 4 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , V . Barbu , Dac ia , NS , 1 4 ,

1 970 , p p . 2 51-295 . 1 62 .

D . Tudor , 9 2 . c i t . ,p p . 1 28-129 .

1 63 .

I bid ., p p . 1 32-133 .

1 64 .

D . T udor , Dac ia , 5 -6, 1 935-36, p p . 4 21-422 , f ig . 2 0 .

1 65 .

I zvest i ia ( Sof ia ) , 2 6, 1 963, p . 1 33; 4 3-61;

2 9 , 1 966, p . 9 9;

( Warszawa ) , 1 2 , 1 961 , p . 7 5; 1 964 , p . 2 17;

2 8, 1 965 , p p .

3 2 , 1 970 , p . 5 5;

1 3 , 1 962 , p . 6 5;

1 6 , 1 966, p . 1 49;

1 8, 1 967, p . 1 35 ;

2 7 , 1 964 , p . 2 17;

3 0 , 1 967, p . 7 5;

Archeo log ia

1 4 , 1 963 , p . 1 51;

1 7 , 1 967, p . 1 43;

1 5 ,

1 8, 1 967,p . 1 43;

La to mus , 4 , 3 0 , 1 971, p . 1 154 .

1 66 .

T . I vanov , Actes , p p . 6 5-67 .

1 67 .

A . F rova , I zvest i ia ( Sof ia ) , 1 7, 1 950 , p p . 3 4-58;

i de m , The C ongress

o f R o man F ront ier S tudies , 1 949 , D urha m , 1 952 , p p . 2 3-30;

T . I vanov ,

Ac tes , p p . 5 9 J -64 . 1 68 .

M. G ichon , S tud ien , p . 1 89 , f i g . 5 , 1 0 , 1 1; q uadr iburg ia i n P a lest ine , Tr ipo li tan ia , R hae t ia , L ib ia , Maure tan ia , Dac ia ; d es Abbandlandes , Wien , 1 958, p . 1 7, f ig . 1 1;

A . Tuu lse , B urgen

H . vP e trikov i ts, JRS ,

6 1, 1 971 , p p . 1 86-189; M . G ichon , 22 . c i t . ,p . 1 89; I . A tanasova--Georg ieva , Ac tes , p . 1 70 ;

N . G udea , Ac tes , p p . 1 78-179 .

1 69 .

A l . S . S tefan , Ac tes , p . 1 08;

T . I vanov , Ac tes , p p . 6 8-69 .

1 70 .

Archeo log ia ( Sof ia ) , 1 1 , 3 , 1 969 , p . 3 1;

1 2 , 1 , 1 970 , p . 2 6;

Ac tes , p p . 6 8-69 . 1 71 .

D . T udor , O lten ia r o mang . 2 ,P .

2 28 a nd p p . 3 56-358 .

1 72 .

I ordanka A tanassova-Georg ieva , i n Ac tes , p p . 1 67-172 .

9 7

T . I vanov ,

1 73 .

P . P e trov ic , S tare c u lture , p . 9 5;

1 74 .

V . K ondiC , S tare c u lture , p . 9 9;

1 75 .

V . K ondi c , 2 2 .c i t . ,p . 4 6 . I de m , A c tes , p . 4 6.

N . P e trov ic , L . Z otov ic , S tare c ul ture , p p . 1 05-106; c i t ., p . 4 1 .

1 76 .

E .

ü er kov , S tare c u lture , p p . 1 43-144 .

1 77 .

V . K ondi c , 9 2 . c i t . ,p p . 4 8-49 , f i g . 4 .

9 8

V . Kond ic ,

CHAPTER I I CONCLUS IONS

A .

TOPOGRAPH ICAL PROBLEMS I N THE LO WER DANUBE REGION .

THE

EVOLUT ION OF FORT IFICAT IONS AND CONSTRUCTION METHODS A s was s ta ted a t t he b eg inning o f c hap ter I , i n t he L ower Danube r eg ion we l ack d a ta f or t he e ar ly R o man f or t if ica t ions , s o o ur c onc lus ions r efer o n ly t o t he p er iod f ro m t he e nd o ft he 3 rd c en tury . I n t he R o man Emp ire a p rocess o f r enova t ion a nd c hange t akes p lace a t t he e nd o ft he 3 rd a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c enturies , ap rocess w i th i t s o rig ins i n t he r e ign o f t he Emperor A ure lian , b u t c om ing t o f ru i t ion i n t wo ma jor s tages , o ne i n t he r e igns o f D ioc le t ian a nd C ons tant ine Ia nd t he o ther i n t he t ime o f A nas tas ius a nd J ust in ian . These t wo s tages s tamp t he d efens ive s ys te m o f t he l imes a nd e spec ia l ly t he f or ts t hemse lves w i th t he f ea tures c hara c ter is t ic o f t he l a te R o man p er iod . I n f ac t , t he r eorgan iza t ion o f t he a r my a nd o f t he f or t if ica t ions i s t he k ey p heno menon c on ta ining i n i tt he s eeds o f a l l t he o ther t ransfor ma t ions—the r enunc ia t ion o f a n o f fens ive p o licy i n f avour o f ad efens ive o ne , t he p o l icy o f ma in ta in ing t err i tor ies w i th in t he ir e x is t ing b oundar ies a nd i n terna l r efor ms , wh ich r equ ired t he m i li tary r eorgan iza t ion o f t he emp ire i n to a s ta t ic d efensive s ys te m o n t he l imes , r e inforced b y a mob i le a rmy .

I n t h is p er iod t he l imes

i s o rganised t o f or m a d efens ive mi l itary c o mp lex w i th a mob i le s tra teg ic r eserve . I n a ccordance w i th t he n ew r equirements a nd t he ir n ew r o le , t he s truc tures a nd f ort if ica t ion s ys tems h ad t o c hange . The ir e vo lu t ion a nd d ev e lop men t o n a n i mproved p lan , i n te l ligen t ly c once ived , f l ex ib le a nd p ragma t ic , s ee ms a n a tura l p heno menon , c o mp le te ly j ust if ied h is tor ica l ly a nd . f or ming o ne o f t he r easons f or t he s urv iva l o f t he Emp ire a long t he L ower Danube f or a bou t a no ther t hree c en turies , d esp i te t he f ac t t ha t t he c ondi t ions were t he mos t u nfavourab le a nd d if f icu l t i n t he ir e n t ire e x is tence . T h is e vo lut ion f rom o f fens ive t o d efens ive was e xp la ined a nd d emonstra ted w i th c oncre te e xa mp les b y my p redecessors s uch a s V . P ärvan a nd b y c on te mp orar ies s uch a s H . S chönberger , H . v on P e tr ikov i ts , G . F orn i , E . C ondurach i a nd D . T udor .

1

A f ter a s tudy o ft he t opography a nd s tra t igraphy o f ag rea t n u mber o f f or t if ica t ions , we h ave a rr ived a t c onc lus ions c oncern ing t he l a te R oman p hase o f t he t ypo logy o f t he f or tresses . We c an d iscuss t hree ma jor t ypes o f mi l i tary f or t if ica t ion o n t he L ower Danube l imes :

9 9

I . T he e ar ly R o man c amps o f r ec tangu lar s hape , a dap ted w i th more o r l ess modif ica t ion , t o mee t t he n ew d efens ive r equire men ts .

T h is t ype c an b e

s een o n ly v ery r are ly , t he o n ly c lear e xamp les b e ing D robe ta ( 1 s t c entury ) a c lass ica l c amp r ebui lt a ccording t o t he n ew s ty le i n t he l a te p eriod , B o l je t in , a nd v ery p robab ly V e lik i G radac a nd N ovae ( üezava ) . I .

N ew ly b u i l t f or t if ica t ions o f t he l a te R oman p eriod , t he p lans o f wh ich

a re c harac ter ised b y a dapta t ion t o t he c ondi t ion a nd s truc ture o f t he g round . The ma jor i ty o f t he 4 th-6th c entury f or tresses b e long t o t h is g enera l t ype , wh ich e xp la ins t he g rea t v ar ie ty o f f or ms a nd v ar iants . Many o f t hese a re c aused b y t he n u merous r es tora t ions wh ich t ook p lace i n t he 5 th-6th c entur ies . I I . F or t if ica t ions c harac ter is t ic o f t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury , t he Te trarch ic p er iod . T hese q uadr iburg ia h ave a r ec tangu lar p lan , a nd a re o f sma l l d i mens ions , w i th f our t owers a t t he c orners . I .

I n t he l a te R o man p er iod i mpor tan t c hanges w ere made i n t he f ew e ar lier

f or ts wh ich r e ma ined i n u se , t hough t he b as ic e lemen ts o f t he o r ig ina l p lans were r e ta ined , a nd a c er ta in s y m me try a nd r egu lar i ty s urv ive . F irs t t he wa l ls a re i ncreased i n t h ickness u p t o a s much a s 3m a nd a re made h igher ( 7m ) .

S trong e x terna l t owers a re a dded t o t he wa l ls , w i th p la tforms f or

b a l lis tae . T he g a tes a re f l anked b y e x terna l t owers , u sua l ly w i th r ounded f ron ts . T he n u mber o fg a tes i s r educed t o o ne . O u ts ide , d efens ive b anks a nd d i tches a re c ons truc ted . I mportant c hanges t ake p lace t o t he i n terna l o rgan iza t ion a nd t own p lans . I f ac er ta in s y mme try i s ma in ta ined a t D robe ta , ad isorder ly a rrange men t i s t yp ica l o ft he r es t , t he i n tra- mura l b u i ldings b e ing d e termined b y t he p rec inc t wa l ls a nd t he s tree ts n o l onger d irec ted a ccording t o t he g a tes , b u t r unn ing c lose t o t he wa l ls a nd t owers . I .

L a te R o man f or t if ica t ions

We c an d is t inguish i n t h is p er iod t wo ma jor g roups : a ) mi l i tary f or t if icat i ons : f or tresses o r b urg i o n t he l imes , b ase a nd s upp ly c amps , f or t if ica t ions a long t he l i nes o f c o m mun ica t ion , a nd b ) c iv i l f or t if ica t ion : f or t if ied h ouses , p laces o f r efuge .

f or t if ied t owns ,

We w i l l c ons ider o n ly t he mi li tary f or t if i-

c a t ions o n t he l imes , t hough r eferring when n ecessary t o t he o ther c a tegor ies . A l l t he l a te R o man f or t if ica t ions , b oth m i l i tary a nd c iv i l , h ave ag enera l c harac ter is t ic f ea ture :

t hey a re more d efens ive t han a t a ny p rev ious p er iod ,

w i th s tronger a nd h igher wa l ls a nd t owers . A t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury n o t o n ly t he a c tua l f ront ier i s f or t if ied w i th f or tresses , s trong-po in ts o r b urghs c lose ly a nd r egu lar ly s paced , b u t a lso t he i n ter iors o ft he p rov inces

a re f or t if ied .

The more i mportan t s e t t lemen ts

a nd t hose s i tua ted n ear t he l i nes o f c o mmunica t ions o r s i tua ted o n t he a ccess r ou tes o f t he e ne my a cqu ire d efences .

The c o mmun ica t ion r ou tes a re a lso

mu l t ip l ied a nd e x tended i n a n a t te mp t t o c oun ter t he e x tre me mob i li ty o f t he b arbar ians . T he d efens ive a pproach l eads t o t he e rec t ion o f f ort if ica t ions o n h i l ls a nd p ro mon tor ies .

T he ir g eograph ica l a nd n a tura l t opography mus t b e v ery

f avourab le f or a n e f f ic ien t d efence .

Maximu m u se o f t he a dvan tages o f t he 1 00

g round makes t he o ld p lan o f t he e ar ly R o man c a mp i nappropr ia te a nd l eads t o ag rea t v ar ie ty o fp lans a ccording t o t he n a ture o f t he g round . The s quare o r r ec tangu lar p lan b ecomes t rapezo ida l , i rregu lar ly p o lygona l , o va l , c ircu lar , r ho mb ic a nd e ven t r iangu lar . G enera l ly s peaking , we may r egard t he c ircu lar a nd o va l p lans a s a ppeari ng i n t he C ons tan t in ian p er iod , wh i le t he t rapezo ida l o r p o lygona l p lan i s n ot o n ly c o m moner b u t o lder , d a t ing f ro m t he Te trarchy .

2

The i rregu lar p lans c onfer a c erta in o rig ina li ty a nd g rea t v ar ie ty o n l a te R oman f or t if ica t ions , a s d o t he s hapes o f g a tes a nd t owers , t oge ther w i th t he ir p lac ing .

The e ar l ier s quare o r r ec tangu lar t owers s e t i n to t he wa lls

c on t inue i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 3 rd c entury , b u t t hey a re g enera l ly r ep laced b y f u l ly e x terna l r ec tangu lar t owers . t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts .

Mos t c harac ter ist ic a re t he U -shaped

R ound t owers , k nown s ince t he P r inc ipa te , r e-

a ppeared i n mi l i tary c ons truc t ion a nd were d eve loped w i th modif ica t ions a nd i nnova t ions .

S em i-c ircu lar e x terna l t owers a ppear i n f ort if ica t ions f ro m t he

s econd h a lf o f t he 3 rd c en tury .

The r ounding o f t he c orners o f t he e ar ly

R o man c amp c an a lso b e s een a s ab eg inn ing o f t h is t endency .

R ound t owers

a re a dop ted b y mi li tary a rch i tec ts b y t he t ime o f t he T e trarchy a nd b eco me w idespread i n t he r e ign o f C ons tant ine t he G rea t .

T he c o mb ina t ion o f r ec t-

a ngu lar a nd r ound t owers i s c harac ter ist ic , b ut t hese a re e x terna l ,w i th v ery r are e xcep t ions . I n ad e ta i led a na lys is o f t he 4 th-5 th c entury l a te R o man f ort if ica t ions i n n or th-western E urope , H . v on P e tr ikov its c o mes t o t he c onc lusion t ha t d if fere n t d efens ive me thods h ave b een u sed s i mu l taneous ly i n t he s a me a rea , s o t ha t t he t endency t o c lass ify c hrono log ica l ly l a te R o man f or t if ica t ions o n t he b as is o f t he ir t ypo logy i s wrong ,

3

a n o p in ion w i th wh ich we a re i n c o mp le te

a gree men t , a s we w i l l d e mons tra te b y a pp ly ing s o me t r ia ls o f t ypo log ica l c lass if ica t ion t o t he L ower Danube a rea . T ype I IA .

Q uadr iburg ia .

S uch f or t if ica t ions a re c haracter is t ic o f t he

T e trarch ic p er iod , b e ing e rec ted i n t he p laces where t here were n o e ar lier f or t if ica t ions , e spec ia l ly i n D ac ia R ipensis a nd Moes ia S uper ior . M . G ichon , e xam in ing t he q uadr iburg ia f ro m K asr G ehain i je I ( Pa les t ine ) , B en ia b e l R esheb ( Tr ipo li tan ia ) , Aquas H ercu lis ( L ibya ) , Z ana ( Maur i tan ia ) , I rgenhausen ( Rhae t ia ) a nd Pg ine i , c onc ludes t ha t t hey d a te f ro m t he Te trarchy , b ut i ti s i n teres ting t ha t h e d iscovers t ypo log ica l a n teceden ts f or t hese q uadr ib urg ia l ong b efore t he R o man p er iod i n P a les t ine , t he more c onv inc ing e xamp les b e ing t he c i tade ls o f K ing S au l a t G ibea a nd o f K ing S o lo mon a t Kadesh B arnea .

4

B u t h ow a re we t o e xp la in t he w ide d is tr ibu t ion o f t h is t ype o f f ort if ica t ion , e ven i n t he T etrarch ic p er iod , i n d if feren t a reas ( Nor th A fr ica , A rab ia , S yr ia , E urope ) ,

I n o ur o pin ion , t he f i rs t e xp lana t ion l i es i n t he u t i li ty a nd f unc t iona l i ty

o ft h ese c i tade ls , wh ich a re e asy t o b u i ld , a re o f sma l l d i mens ions a nd s o r er equ ire r educed g arr isons , a re p laced c lose t oge ther , b u t a re s trong a nd r es is ten t t o a t tack a nd a re e asy t o d efend . The t ype i s r ev ived i n t he Te trarch ic p er iod b ecause a t t ha t t ime g rea t i nnova t ions i n d efens ive p o licy a nd s tra tegy o f t he l imes t ake p lace , t oge ther w i th a n i ncreas ing k now ledge o f a nc ien t o r ien ta l f or t if ica t ions .

D ioc le t ian k new t he a dvan tages o f t hese sma l l f orts

a nd h e u nderstood t he n ecess i ty o f emp loy ing t he m i n c er ta in f ron t ier a reas ,

1 01

where t hey s ee med t o o f fer a q uick a nd l as t ing s o lu t ion a nd where i n t he p rev ious p er iod t here h ad b een f ew a nd weakened f or t if ica t ions .

A lso , i n

Dac ia R ipens is a nd Moes ia S uper ior , A ure l ian 's w i thdrawa l f rom Dac ia f orced r adica l c hanges i n t he l imes . T ype I I h as , we b e l ieve , av ar ian t ( II B ) , t he c i tade l o f r educed s ize

a nd

t riangu lar , w i th t hree r ound t owers a t t he c orners . We k now o f t wo s uch f or ts , a t O s trovu l B anu lu i a nd B os man , where t he a dap ta t ion t o t he g round c onfor ma t ion i s a pparen t , l eading t o t he a l tera t ion o f t he r egu lar r ec tangu lar p lan i n to a t r iangu lar o ne .

I tc an o nce a ga in b e s een h ow f l ex ib le , a dap tab le

a nd i ngen ious were t he mi li tary a rch i tec ts who b ui lt t he f or t if ica t ions o f t he Te trarch ic p er iod i n t he 4 th c en tury .

C ons idera t ion o ft he f or tress p lans , o f t he p lans o f t he p rec inc t wa l ls a nd o f t he d efens ive t owers l eads u s t o t he c onc lusion t ha t i n t he g rea t ma jor i ty o f c ases , we h ave i n t he l a te R o man p er iod o n t he L ower Danube l imes , f or tr esses o f i rregu lar s hape , t he p lans o f wh ich a re d e ter mined b y t he n a ture o f t he t erra in .

E ven t he a rea w i thin t he f or tress i s v ar iab le , b e ing d e term ined

b y t he t erra in .

The r ec tangu lar p lan i s s t i l l r e ta ined , b ut i s s tructura l ly

mod if ied d ur ing t he r econs truc t ion o f s o me e ar l ier f or ts . I n t er ms o f t he ir i mpor tance , t he f or t if ica t ions f a l l i n to t wo c a tegor ies : l eg ionary f or ts ( Nov iodunu m , T roes m is-Eas t , D urostoru m , N ovae ) , a nd f or tresses wh ich w ere t he h eadquar ters o f a ux i l iary t roops ( a c lassif ica t ion v a l id o n ly f or t he 4 th-5 th c entur ies ) . I n t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies e very f or tress s he ltered a g arr ison . The f or tresses c ou ld b e c lass if ied i n t erms o f t he ir s ize , wh ich w ou ld a lso a ssu me a c er ta in s ize o fg arr ison a nd t herefore a lso a g rada t ion o f s tra teg ic impor tance .

T h is wou ld y ie ld t hree c a tegor ies :

a ) l arge f ortresses

( L ib ida , N ov iodunu m , T ropaeu m , N ovae ) b ) mediu m-s ized f or tresses ( Troes m is , S ac idava , J a trus ) ; Ha jdu L , V oden ica ) .

a nd c ) sma l l f or tresses ( D inoge t ia , B o l je t in ,

At ypo log ica l c lass if ica t ion i s a lso n ecessary f or t owers ( P l . XLV I I I ) . ma in c a tegor ies c an b e n o ted f ro m t he b eg inn ing : f ron ts , a nd I ) r ec tangu lar t owers .

Two

I )t owers w i th r ounded

I . T owers w i th r ounded f ron ts a re o f many t ypes : I a )

The ' h orseshoe-shaped t owers , w i th a f ron t wh ich i s a n a rc o f a

c irc le s uppor ted b y t wo s tra igh t s ec t ions , u sua l ly p erpendicu lar t o t he p rec inc t wa l ls .

T he c orner t owers a t T roesm is-Eas t , C ap idava , ( L ) lb ida , U l me tu m

a re o ft h is t ype . P es ta .

Av ar ian t i s t he c orner t ower a t t he l a te R o man f or t a t

l b ) R ound t owers o f h orse-shoe s hape , n arrow ing a t t he b ase ( U l me tu m , a t t wo c orners; T ropaeu m , t he n or th-wes tern t ower; I a trus , t he t hree c orner t owers; a nd D ine ia ) .

1 02

I c )

Towers w i th r ounded f ron ts a nd s tra igh t p ara l le l s ides ,the s o-ca l led

U -shaped t owers .

These a re v ery c o m mon ( Tropaeu m, (L ) ib ida , U l metu m

e tc ) . I d ) f or t w a l l I e )

S em i-c ircu lar t owers , f or m ing a n a rc o f ac irc le , t he b ase b e ing t he ( NOv iodunu m , B oppard) . C ircu lar o r r ound t owers ( I b ida , C ezava-Novae , B osn ian , C astra

Mar t is a nd U l me tu m , t he wes tern c orner ) . T here a re a lso s o me v ar ian ts , i n ter media te b e tween I a , l b a nd I c ( Bo l jet in , D inoget ia , t he n orth-eas tern c orner ) .

U n ique v ar ian ts a re f ound a t

S uc idava ( t ower A ) , R avna , D robe ta , I n terc isa a nd S a ldu m . I .

R ec tangu lar t owers may b e c lass if ied a s f o l lows :

H a )

R ec tangu lar t owers ( Tropaeu m , U l me tu m , C ap idava , L ib ida , S ac idava ) .

I l b )

S quare t owers ( i n s o me q uadr iburg ia ) .

H e )

Rho mb ic t owers ( Nova C erna , A ltr ip ) .

I d )

Trapedo iza l t owers ( Suc idava ) . Very r are ly , p o lygona l t owers ( S uc idava , H . V oden ica ) .

T here a re a g rea t v ar ie ty o f f or ms f or t ype I f or t if ica t ions , d epending o n t he ir f unc t ion a nd s i tua t ion . T ype Ha .

We h ave o n ly o ne e xamp le o f al a te R o man f or tress o n t he

L ower Danube l imes w i th e xc lus ive ly r ec tangu lar t owers :

S ac idava , 4 th-6th

c en tury . R ec tangu lar t owers a re a c harac ter is t ic f ea ture o f t he f or t if ied t o wns o f t he wes tern B lack S ea c oas t , H is tr ia a nd C a l la t is ( i n t he 6 th c entury To m is h ad a U -shaped t ower ) . T ype I l b .

The ma jor i ty o f f ort if ica t ions o f r ec tangu lar t owers a l terna t ing

w i th t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts . T ype Ic .

S o me f or tresses h ave o n ly t owers w i th r ounded f ronts ( U-

s haped a nd h orse-shoe s haped ) . T ype I d .

O n t he L ower Danube l imes we d o n o t f i nd f or t if ica t ions w i th

c ircu lar t owers , e xcep t C as tra Marts ( s i tua ted o n t he c onven t iona l l im i t o f t he L ower a nd Midd le D anube , a nd n o t o n t he l imes b ut o n a n i n terna l c o mmun ica t ion r oad ) ,

F or tresses a nd b urg i w i th c ircu lar t owers a re c harac ter-

i s t ic o f t he M idd le a nd U pper Danube . T he mos t n u merous g roup o f f or t if ica t ions a re t hose o f `Type I l b , t owers w i th r ounded f ron ts ( U-shaped o r h orse-shoe s haped) a l terna t ing w i th r ec ta ngu lar t owers : T roes m is-Eas t .

T he ma jor i ty o f t he t owers a re U -shaped ( I c ) , w i th

h orse-shoe s haped t owers ( t ype I a ) a t t he c orners .

There i s ab ig r ec tangu lar

t ower ( phrour ion ) o n t he midd le o f t he p r inc ipa l s ide a nd a n i so la ted s quare t ower ( probab ly a l a te r estora t ion ) o n t he e as tern s ide ( I lb ) . C ap idava .

H orse-shoe s haped t owers ( t ype I a ) a t t he c orners , U -shaped

t owers ( I c ) o n t he p r inc ipa l s ide t oge ther w i th a b ig r ec tangu lar t ower ,a nd 1 03

o n t he o ther s ides o n ly r ec tangu lar t owers ( Ha ) .

I n f ac t t he p r inc ipa l s ides o f

C ap idava a nd T roes m is-eas t a re i den t ica l , b e ing t he o n ly s uch s im i lar e xamp les o n t he L ower Danube , a nd r a ising s pec ia l c hrono log ica l p rob le ms ( see b e low ) . ( L )ib ida .

B o th f or tresses h ave t owers w i th r ounded f ronts ( t ype I a a t t he

c orners a nd I c o n t he c ur ta in-wa l ls ) a nd r ec tang u lar t owers o f t ype H a .

E x-

t re me ly i n teres t ing i s ac ircu lar t ower ( t ype I a ) i n t he f or t if ica t ion , t he o n ly i so la ted t ower i n D obru ja . U l me tu m .

R ec tangu lar t owers , e xcep t t he t hree c orners w i th h orse-shoe

s haped t owers ( t ype I a ) a nd U -shaped t owers a t t he t wo g a tes ( I lc ) . T ropaeu m T ra ian i .

O n ly U -shaped t owers ( t ype I c ) , , e xcep t f or o ne h orse-

s hoe s haped t ower ( phrour ion ) o n t he wes tern s ide . I a trus .

H orse-shoe s haped t owers ( t ype l b ) , w i th wa l ls f or m ing a smooth ,

c on t inuous c urve w i th n o s tra igh t s ec t ions , a t t he t hree p rinc ipa l c orners , f or t he r es t U -shaped t owers ( I c ) a nd a l arge r ec tangu lar t ower N ovae I .

( phrour ion ) .

U -shaped t owers , a nd a lso r ec tangu lar o nes a t t he w es tern

g a te . V e l ik i G radac .

U -shaped t owers ( I c ) a t t he c orners , t he r es t r ectangu lar

( t hese a re i n f ac t t he o ld t owers f ro m t he p er iod , r ebui lt ) . B ore t in .

H orse-shoe s haped t owers ( t ype I a ) a t t he c orners , r ectangu lar

t owers a long t he s ides . R avna .

R ec tangu lar t owers , e xcep t f or o ne U -shaped t ower ( I c ) , a nd o ne

o f a n u nusua l s hape a nd f unc t ion . T ype Hc . F or t if ica t ions w i th e xc lusive ly r ounded f ron t t owers o f U o r h orse-shoe s hape a re r are . N ov iodunu m .

I n t he l as t p hase o ft he f or tress , o n t he n or thern s ide o n ly

t here were U -shaped t owers ( I c ) . D ino c re t ia .

The o ther s ides a re n o t k nown .

A t t he c orners t here were h orseshoe-shaped t owers o f t ype

I a , t he r est b eing U -shaped t owers ( I c ) a nd a t ype l b t ower . O escus I .

H orseshoe-shaped t owers ( l b ) .

We may a dd t he He t ype o f f or t if ica t ion a t T ropaeu m a nd I a trus , t ha t h ave o n ly r ounded f ron ts a nd o n ly o ne b ig . r ec tangu lar t ower ( phrour ion ) . Type ID .

F or tresses w i th c ircular t owers ( I d a nd I e ) a re c harac teris t ic

o f t he Midd le a nd U pper Danube ( Novae-Cezava , B os man , C as tra Mart is , J ov ia )5 o r , i n t he wes t , o ft he G er man l imes a t D eutz , I cor ig iu m .

6

S uc idava a nd Drobe ta h ave a s pec ia l p lace i n t h is a t te mpted c lass if ica t ion . S uc idava h as r ec tangu lar t owers a l terna t ing w i th t rapezo ida l o nes ( l id ) a nd h as c orner t owers w i th s em i-c ircu lar f ronts a nd s tra igh t s ides , a nd a lso a p o lygona l t ower ( t ype I I ) . T aking i n to c ons idera t ion t ha t s e mi-c ircu lar t owers a re l a ter , we r egard S uc idava a s av ar ian t o f t ype HA .

Drobe ta h as

r ec tangu lar a nd U -shaped t owers ( t herefore t ype HD ) , b u t a t t he c orners i t h as r ounded-front t owers o f as pec ia l t ype made f ro m a l arge a rc o f ac irc le

1 04

w i th s tra igh t s ides s e t a t a n a ng le t o o ne a no ther ( f an-shaped h orseshoe t owers ) .

A na log ies f or t h is t ype o f t ower a nd a lso f or t he p lan o f t he f or tress

a s a who le c an b e f ound a t I n terc isa .

O ne s pec ia l

f ea ture o f t he l imes f or t if ica t ions o f t h is p er iod i s i mpor tan t

f or i t s e f fec t o n t he t own p lans a nd t he ir t ypo logy .

I n o ur o p in ion t h is s uppor ts

t he v iew t ha t l oca l c ond i t ions a nd l oca l i n i t ia t ive were a l l-i mportant , r a ther t han a rch i tec ture . T h is i s t he a pp l ica t ion o f v ar ious s ys te ms o f d oub ling a nd r edoub ling o f a l l o r p ar t o f t he p rec inc t wa l ls a nd o f r efort if ica t ion o f t he t owers a nd g a tes w i th a ddi t iona l wa l ls , p la tfor ms , s econdary i n terna l t owers a nd s o o n .

We c an g ive many e xa mp les i n t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies a nd p erhaps

e ven f ro m t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury :

S ac idava , S uc idava , N ovae , B o l je t in ,

A ugus ta T ra iana , H issar a nd D ine ia ( t he mos t i ngen ious b e ing S ac idava ) . S o me f or tresses h ave massive p i l lars o r b u t tresses , u sua l ly q uadr i la tera l i n s ec t ion i n r ows a long t he i nsides o f t he p recinc t wa l ls . These p i l lars s upp or ted a wooden p la tform r ound t he t op o f t he wa l ls . o f t he o r ig ina l s tructure o r l a ter a dd it ions . N ova C erna , C as tra Mar t is .

T hey may h ave b een p art

They a re f ound a t D robe ta , S a ldu m ,

A t t h is l ast q uadr iburg iu m t here a re s uch p i l lars

f or a f l oor o n t wo s ides a nd b u t tresses o n o ne s ide , w i th s ta irs a nd e nc irc l ing r oadway .

I n o ther c ases , t he p i l lars b e long t o s o me mi li tary b ui lding , s uch a s

b arracks f or s o ldiers .

A n e xamp le i s S uc idava , where a r oad r ound t he o r i-

g ina l p rec inc ts was r ep laced b y as econd r ound r oad w ith a s econd , d oub le p rec inc t wa l l , s o t ha t t he p i l lars mus t b e a ss igned t o b u i ld ings . Ac lass if ica t ion h as b een p u t f orward f or t he t ypes o f f or tresses i n S cy th ia ,

7

ac lass if ica t ion w i th wh ich we c anno t a gree b ecause t he t ypo log ica l

d iv ision a lready men t ioned was e xaggera ted a nd we h ave , a s h as b een s a id , t he a dap ta t ion a nd e vo lu t ion o f t he o lder t ypes o f R o man f or t if ica t ion t o mee t n ew c ondi t ions . R . F lorescu t h inks t ha t h e c an d e tec t d if ferences b etween t he t hree d ef ens ive l imes ( t he Danub ian l imes , t he c en tra l l imes a nd t he wes tern P on t ic l i t tora l ) i n t er ms o f t he t ype o f f or t if ica t ion . t o h im , t he f o l low ing t ypes a ppear :

A long t he Danube , a ccording

a ) t he Danub ian t ype , w i th a n a l terna t ion

o f q uadri la tera l a nd r ound t owers ( e .g . D robe ta , C ap idava , T roes m is- Wes t ) ; b ) t he q uadr iburg iu m t ype ( Gornea , P ene i ) ; c ) t he Thrac ian t ype , p o lygona l , w i th U -shaped a nd c ircu lar t owers a nd w i th t he q uadr i la tera l p hrour ion ( D inog et ia , T roes m is-Eas t , A x iopo lis , I a trus , N ovae ) . We mus t make t he f o l low ing c orrec t ions :

a ) We c anno t s peak o f a

" Danub ian" t ype o f t he e ar ly c lass ica l R o man c a mp , b ecause t h is i s ag enera l t ype t ha t c an b e s een t hroughou t t he Emp ire ; b ) F ro m t h is s o-ca l led " Danub ian" t ype w e e xc lude C ap idava a nd e spec ia l ly T roes m is- West ; b urg ia t ype i s n ot a s urv iva l;

c ) t he q uadr i-

i ti s o n t he c on trary c harac ter is t ic o ft he

Te trarch ic p er iod; d ) Q uadr iburg ia a re n o t o n ly c harac ter is t ic o ft he Danub ian l imes , b u t o f o ther a reas s uch a s P a les t ine , S yr ia a nd N or th A fr ica , a lso R hae t ia , a s we l l a s i nside t he Dobru ja ( Mircea V odg a nd T ra ian ) ; 1 05

e ) we d o

n of u nders tand why t he " po lygona l" t ype i s a lso " Thrac ian" , s ince n o t as ing le c onnec t ion o f T hrac ian o r ig in o f t hese l a te R o man f or tresses c an b e p ointed o ut . O n t he c on trary , t he o rig in o f t he i rregu lar p o lygona l p lan i s t o b e f ound i n t he e vo lu t ionary p rocess , i n t he a dap ta t ion o ft he t yp ica l R o man c amp t o l oca l c ond i t ions .

I f we r ea l ly wan t t o f i nd a n a rea where t he t ype o r ig ina ted ,

we s hou ld s eek i ti n t he M idd le E as t , where t h is k ind o f f or t if ica t ion o r igina ted a s at own d efence a nd whence , l i ke t he q uadr iburg ia a nd . s ome a spec ts o f c iv i l ian t own-p lann ing , i ts pread a s an ew f ash ion a cross t he Emp ire u nder t he T e trarchy . We must n o t f orge t t he i rregu lar p o lygona l p lan i s u n iversa l i n a l l t he p rov inces o ft he l a te Emp ire .

Where d id R . F lorescu f i nd p hrour ia

a t D inoge t ia , A x iopo l is o r N ovae? F or t he i n terna l l imes ,F lorescu c ons iders t he e xc lus ive u se o f t he p o lyg ona l t ype , o ver look ing t he q uadr iburg ia o fT ra ian , M ircea

V oa . a nd C astra

Mar t is . F ur ther more , i f we mee t a l l t he f or ms o f f or t if ica t ion b o th o n t he Danub ian a nd t he i n ter ior l imes , wha t c an t he t ypo log ica l d if ference b e b etween t he t wo d efens ive l imes? S o me v ar ian ts o fp o lygona l t ype a re e ncoun tered :

a ) s quare w ith a c u t-

o f f c orner a nd w i thout ap hrour ion ;b ) a n i rregu lar p en tagon w i th a r igh t a ng le : c ) t r iangu lar o r r ec tangu lar w i th a c onvex s ide , w i th a p hrour ion a nd a s ing le g a te ( I a trus , T roes m is-Eas t a nd D inoge t ia a re f a lse e xamp les , t r iang les o r r ec tang les b e ing o u t o f t he q uest ion ) . I t may b e p oin ted o u t t ha t many o ther v ar ian ts s uch a s r ec tang les w i th a r ounded c orner ( Novae , O escus ) c an b e f ound .

We r epea t t ha t a l l t hese

" var ian ts" d o n o t r epresen t r ea l c a tegor ies a nd a re n o t s epara te t ypes , b ut o n ly r epresen t l oca l s o lu t ions t o l oca l t opograph ic p rob lems .

S uch ' var ian ts '

i nc lude t r iangu lar , o va l , c ircu lar a nd p erfec t ly t rapezoida l p lans , wh ich d o n o t s uppor t F lorescu 's h ypo thes is .

Tha t a uthor c on tradic ts h i mse lf , f or af ter

a t tes t ing t ha t a l l t hree l i nes o fd efence f orm o ne s ing le s ys te m f or t he S cy th ian l imes , h e a f f ir ms i n r e la t ion t o t he s econdary p rec inc ts o n t he s outhern s ide a s as epara te f or t if ica t ion , t ha t T ropaeu m d id n o t h ave a l im i tane i g arr ison , b ut o ne o f c om ita tenses .

The a na logy w i th N icopo l is a d I s tru m migh t h ave

b een s ign if ican t , i fa t T ropaeu m o ne c ou ld n o t p rove t ha t i ti s n o t a ma t ter o f as tra igh tforward f or t if ica t ion , b ut o f t he d efence o f ar eservo ir . I ti s v ery d if f icu l t t o s e lec t s pec if ic f ea tures c harac ter ist ic o f t he S cy th ian l imes o r f or t he L ower D anube , f ro m t he t opograph ica l a nd t own-p lann ing p oin t o f v iew . G enera l ly s peaking , we c an s ay t ha t i n S cy th ia a nd o n t he Danube u p t o B onon ia-Drobe ta , l arge f or t if ica t ions p reva i l w i th v ery f ew b urg i a nd t owers ( Tra ian , Murcea V odä . a nd , l a ter , t he t ower n ear S e i men i? ) .

A

s econd c harac ter ist ic i s s hown b y t he p lans , wh ich a re a lways t rapezo ida l o r i rregu lar p o lygons , a dap ted t o t he g round w i th o rig ina l a nd i ngen ious c o mb inat i ons o f d i f feren t e le men ts o f f or t if ica t ion ( t owers , g a tes , d oub le c ur ta inwa l ls , p la tfor ms ) .

We emphas ise t ha t T roes m is E ast a nd C ap idava , wh ich

s ee m t o b e e xcep t ions , h ave i n f ac t as ing le s tra igh t a nd s ym me tr ica l s ide , wh ich i s t he f ron t o ft he f or tress , t he o ther s ides b e ing i rregu lar ly c onstruc ted i n w i th t he n a ture o ft he g round .

These ma in s i des o f T roesm is E as t a nd

C ap idava b ring a n o te o f o r igina l i ty t o t he L ower Danube l imes , a nd we w i l l r e turn t o t hem .

A no ther c harac ter ist ic n o te i s s truck b y t he b ig r ec tangu lar

t owers ( phrour ia l a t T roes m is , T ropaeu m , I a trus ( a l l 4 th-cen tury ', a nd f ro m 1 06

U l me tu m ( 6 th c en tury ) . We c an a dd t o t hese i ndiv idua list ic e lemen ts , f ea tures a t S ac idava , S uc idava a nd D robe ta ( t he l as t t wo b e ing n ear t he l im i t o f t he L ower Danube a rea ) . O n t he r es t o ft he D anub ian

l imes a nd t he Rh ine

t ions w h ich f o l low t he t radi t iona l r ec tangu lar p lans .

t here a re many f or t if icaA lso ,

b urg i a re v ery

o f ten e ncountered ,espec ia l ly q uadr iburg ia b u t a lso t r iangu lar f or ms , a s we l l a s t owers . T owers w i th r ounded f ron ts a re a c o mmon f ea ture o f t he d efences .8 I n o rder t o a rr ive a t more s ecure c onc lusions , we n eed much more f i rm c hrono log ica l e v idence f or t he c ons truc t iona l s tages , a t l eas t s o t ha t we c an d is t inguish t he p lans o ft he f or tresses d a t ing f rom t he f i rs t ma jor p er iod o f t he 3 rd c entury t o t he 5 th c entur ies , f ro m t he s econd , t ha t d a t ing f rom t he e nd o ft he 5 th t o t he m idd le o ft he 6 th c entury . A l though t here i s al ack o fp rec ise d a ta , we c an i n t he c ases o f s o me f ort resses d ist ingu ish t hese t wo ma jo r s tages i n t he g enera l p lans . We w i l l a t temp t t o g ive s o me e xa mp les f or wh ich r easonab ly s ure d a ta i s a va i lab le . S ac idava h ad r ec tangu lar t owers i n t he 4 th c en tury .

I n t he 6 th c entury t he t owers were

s t i l l r ec tangu lar , b e ing g iven d oub le p la tforms i ns ide , b lock ing s o me g a teways , a dding t he f or t if ica t ion a t t he e as tern g a te a nd p robab ly e x tending t he c iv i l s et t le men t o ut t o t he s econd e ar thwork .

T ropaeu m T ra ian i , a s t he r ecen t

e xcava t ions h ave s hown , v ery p robab ly h ad U -shaped t owers i n t he D ioc le t ianic p er iod , a s i th ad l a ter , b u t sma l ler a nd more w ide ly s paced .

I n t he

r eign o f C ons tan t in ethe wa l ls were t h icker , w i th v ery n u merous U -shaped t owers , af ea ture t ha t s ee ms t o h ave p ers isted i n t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 6 th c entury .. As we w i l l s how , t he n or thern p ar t o f t he western p rec inc ts , w ith i t s s pec ia l t ypo logy r ese mb ling t ha t o f t he f ronts o f T roes m is E as t a nd C ap idava , may r evea l t he e x is tence o f a n e ar l ier s tage d a t ing f ro m t he f i rs t y ears o ft he r eorgan iza t ion o ft he S cy th ian l imes .

A t S uc idava , t he e vo lut ion

was s im i lar a s r egards t he s treng thening o f t he f or t if ica t ions .

I n t he f i rs t

s tage ( Aure l ian ) t he o r ig ina l o uter wa l l was e rec ted w i th f i ve e x terna l t owers o fu nknown f or m a t t he p r inc ipa l c orners . I n t he s econd s tage ( Constan t ine I )t he wa l l was r e inforced b y as econd wa l l e rec ted n ear t he f i rs t a nd f our n ew i n ter media te e x terna l t owers . V ery p robab ly t he e x terna l t rapezo ida l t owers A , Ca nd E were a dded a t t he s a me t ime . I n t he J us t in ian ic p er iod t he i n terna l t owers were b ui lt t oge ther w i th n ew wa l ls a nd t owers i n t he e as tern c orner o ft he f or t . D robe ta s hows a n a typ ica l e vo lu t ion , t he i n terna l t owers t ha t d oub led t he o uts ide o nes b e ing r e moved i n t he l ast ma jor c onstruc t iona l s tage ( 5 th-6th c entur ies ) . A t C ap idava , a l though t he p lan r e ma ined t he s ame , n ew b ui ldings a ppeared i n t he 4 th c en tury t owards t he Danube , p robab ly s urrounded b y as upp lementary p rec inc t wa l l , t hen i n t he 6 th c en tury ( i n o ur o p in ion n ot i n t he Anas tas iusJ us t in ian ic p er iod b ut l a ter ) we c an s ee a c on trac t ion t o a sma l l , weak lyf or t if ied b urgus . D inoget ia r e ta ined t he s ame wa l ls f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tury t o t he r e ign o f C onstan t ine , a l though w e n o te e x tens ions s uch a s t he e x tramura l t her mae . They w ere d es troyed a nd a bandoned a t t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury o r t he b eg inn ing o ft he 5 th .

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A t T roes m is a nd N ov iodunu m b o th t he f or tresses a nd t he c iv i l ian s e t t lemen ts c on trac ted ( Troes m is was v ery p robab ly r educed t o t he wes tern f or tr ess o n ly a nd N ov iodunu m c on trac ted b y b ui lding a n ew p rec inc tw a l l .

I n t he

6 th c en tury t he t wo c en tres were n o l onger l eg ionary f or ts , b u t w ere t he s trong ly f or t if ied h eadquar ters o fl im i tane i g arr isons . A t ( L )Ib ida , a s w e t r ied t o d emons tra te a bove , t he sma l l f or t i f ica t ion ( I ) i s e ar l ier , a nd t he c onfor ma t ion o f t he s ou th-eas tern s ide , wh ich was c aref u l ly o rdered a nd s y m me trica l , i den t ica l w i th t he s a me s ides a t T roes m is E as t a nd C ap idava .

I t must t herefore b e c on temporary w i th Troesm is E as t

a nd t hus d a te f ro m t he a rr iva l o f l eg ion I H ercu l ia u nder t he Te trarchy , a nd w i th C ap idava . A s ad efens ive s ys te m , C as tra Mar t is o f fers au s f u l l a na logy t o t he p roc ess o f e x tens ion s een a t ( L )Ib ida .

F ur ther more , t he l arge f or tress ( I I ) a t

( L )Ib ida d oes n o t r ese mb le t ha t a t T ropaeu m t ypo log ica l ly ,b ut i n t he a lternat i on a nd p os i t ion ing o f t he r ound a nd r ec tangu lar t owers i ti s more l i ke t ha t a t U l metu m , af or tress e rec ted i n i t s p resen t f orm u nder J ust in ian . A x iopo l is , a ccording t o t he p lan d rawn b y P . P o Ion ic , s hows a n e x tens ion o ft he f or t if ied a rea . G rea t e xpans ion c an b e s een a t O escus a nd N ovae t oo , w i thou t s pec ify ing t he p er iod when t he p rocess t ook p lace ( u nder C ons tan t ine o r J us t in ian ) .

B o th

e x tens ive f or t if ica t ions f unc t ioned i n t he 6 th c en tury . E xpans ion a lso t ook p lace a t H a jdu &a V oden ica , C as tra Mar t is , a nd N ova C erna. O n t he western s hore o ft he B lack S ea , T om is i s ag ood e xamp le o f e xpans ion i n t he l a te R o man p er iod .

A t C a l la t is we c anno t a f f irm a ny th ing w i th c er ta in ty i n t he

p resen t s tage o f r esearch , a nd t he c on trac t ion a nd d ec line o f H is tr ia c o mpared t o i t s d eve lop men t i n t he 2 nd-3rd c entur ies i s e xp la ined b y t he s i l t ing-up o f t he g u lf a nd t he c u t t ing o f f o fn av iga t ion . T owards t he s ou th , e xa mp les o f d eve lopmen t i n t he J us t in ian ic p er iod c an b e mu lt ip lied : N icopo l is a d I s trum , H issar , a nd s o o n . Therefore we s ee , d uring t he l a te R o man p er iod a long t he L ower Danub ian l imes , ma in ly e xpans ion a nd d eve lop men t o f t he e x ist ing e ar ly f our th-century f or t if ica t ions o r t he ir ma in ta inence , i n c on tras t t o t he r are c ases o f c on trac t ion .

We w i l l n ow a t temp t t o t race t he d eve lopmen t o f u rban isa t ion i n t he l imes f or t if ica t ions f ro m t he 3 rd-ear ly 4 th c entur ies t o t he 6 th c en tury : I . The i n i t ia l c ons truc t iona l s tage a f undamen t is , t ha t i s t he r econstruct i on o ft he o ld R o man c amps a ccording t o a n e n t ire ly n ew c oncep t ion a nd p lan . I . As tage o fg rea t d eve lop men t u nder C ons tan t ine t he Grea t a nd h is s uccessors , wh ich c an b e e xe mp l if ied n o t o n ly b y s o me c ases o f e x tens ion o f t he f or t if ied a reas ( Cas tra Mar t is , O escus I , L ib ida ) b u t mos t s pec ia l ly b y r e inforc ing t he f or t if ica t ions w i th in t he o r igina l p lan ( D inoge t ia , C ap idava ) .

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I I . S tands t i l l a nd i n terrup t ions o f o ccupa t ion o r a bandon men t o f t he f or t if ica t ions r esu lted f ro m t he G o th ic a nd H unn ic i nvas ions o f t he 5 th c en tury . I V .

The e poch s tar t ing w i th t he r e ign o f Anas tas ius r eaches i t s c l i max

u nder J us t in ian ( rough ly t he f i rs t h a lf o ft he 6 th c en tury ) a nd i s c harac ter ised a s s hown a bove , b y an ew g rea t d eve lop ment o f t he Danub ian l imes f or t if icat ions , c harac ter ised b y t he g enera l r ebui lding o f a l l t he f or tresses a ccording t o t he o ld p lan o f t he p rec inc t wa l ls , b u t w i th d if feren t t own-p lann ing i ns ide , b y e x tensions ( Sac idava , A x iopo l is , N ovae ) o r b y t he e rec t ion o f an ew f ortress ( t he u n ique e xa mp le o f U l me tu m ) . V .

I n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 6 th c en tury we o bserve e i ther t he ma in ta inence

o ft he f or mer d efended a reas o r t he ir c on trac t ion ( Cap idava , T roes m is , N ov iod unum ) .

Therefore w e b e l ieve t ha t J us t in ia n 's r e ign i s ap er iod o f ma inta ining

a nd s o met i mes e x tending t he f or t if ied a reas a nd o ft he e rec t ion o f n ew f or tr esses . The e xp lana t ion mus t b e s ough t i n t he c hanges i n p opu la t ion a t t he e nd o ft he 5 th c en tury a nd i n t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 6 th c entury , t oge ther w i th t he s udden e cono m ic c hanges u nder A nas tas ius . T here was a n i ncreasing p opu lat ion i n a nd a round t hese f or t if ied c en tres . We mus t n o t n eg lec t t he r epea ted s et t lemen t o fb arbar ian f edera tes o n t he l imes , a t c en tres i n wh ich t here were b ased n ot o n ly c onven t iona l mi li tary u n i ts b u t a lso a p opu la t ion o f l im i tane i , f ron t iereg uard-far mers w i th t he ir f a mi l ies , t he ir n u mbers i ncreasing c on t inu ous ly i n s p i te o f a l l v ic iss i tudes .

O n ly t owards t he midd le o f t he 7 th c entury

d id t he d e ter iora t ing s i tua t ion o n t he I mper ia l b oundar ies c ause a r educ t ion i n t he p opula t ion a nd t he g radua l a bandon men t o f t he f or tresses .

T he s o-ca l led mi l i tary f or tresses

c anno t b e d if feren t ia ted f ro m t he f ort-

i f ied s e t t le men ts i n t he l a te p er iod i n t er ms o f t he d efens ive d e ta i ls o f t he ir wa l ls o r b y t he ir i n ter ior p lans . Th is i s b ecause t he l im i tane i s ys tem a nd i t s p erpe tua t ion e ven tua l ly l ed t o t he d isappearance o ft he d if ferences b e tween t he c iv i l p opu la t ion a nd t ha t w i th mi l i tary o b l iga t ions .

Th is u n ifor m i ty i s v is ib le

e spec ia l ly o n t he l imes a nd i n t he s econd l i ne o fd efence , a s ar esu lt o f mi l it ary o b liga t ions b e ing u n ifor m ly d is tr ibuted a nd p erhaps b ecause t he who le a rea was a p r iv i leged t err i tory , w i th f i sca l i m mun t ies b e ing o f fered t o a l l t he i nhab i tan ts i n d irec t r e la t ion t o t he ir mi l i tary o b liga t ions . I n t he l a te p er iod , t he i n terna l o rgan iza t ion o f t he f or tresses a nd t he ir t own-p lanning i s c harac ter ist ic . Genera l ly s peaking , t he s ame i n terna l a rr ange ments a re me t w i th b o th i n t he mi li tary f or tresses a nd i n t he f ort if ied c iv i lian s e t t le men ts ,espec ia l ly i n t he 5 th-6th c en tur ies . N o o rder o r s ymme try i s o bserved , t he s tree ts a re n u merous , n arrow a nd w inding , a nd t he b ui ld ings a re u sua l ly sma l l w i th i rregu lar r oo ms a nd f requent r es tora t ions . The C hris t ian b as i lica , t he o n ly i mpos ing b ui ldings , a re s i tua ted i n d if ferent p ar ts , a ccording t o c ircu ms tances . We h ave n o t e nough d a ta a nd p lans f or t he s tudy o f t he i n ter ior a rrangemen ts o f t he f or tresses , b ecause o ft he l ack o f e xcava t ions . I n c ases where w e h ave s o me d a ta , i t s b reakdown i n to p er iods i s d if f icu lt . B e t ter-appo in ted

1 09

s truc tures h ave b een d iscovered i n t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut a t D inoge t ia , T roes m is E as t , T ropaeu m , I a trus a nd D robe ta . T he i n ter ior p lan o f D inoge t ia i s s ign if icant a nd g enera l ly s peak ing c hara c ter is t ic f or t he l imes . When t he f or t was i n i t ia l ly c ons truc ted u nder t he T e trarchy , i th ad a n o rdered i n terna l p lan ,

Th is w as d emons tra ted b y t he

f orm a nd p lacing o f t he p r inc ip ia a nd t he p rae tor iu m .

The 4 th c en tury b ui ld-

i ngs r espec t t he o r ig ina l s tree t l i nes , a s i s e v iden t i n t he o rdering o f t hese b ui ldings f ront ing o n t he s tree ts a nd t he o f f ic ia l b u i ldings a nd s o me b ig b ui ldi ngs s uch a s t he d o mus i n t he n or th-eas tern q uar ter , wh ich a dapt t he ir p lans t o t he a lready e x is t ing t opography .

The i ncreas ing p opu la t ion i n t he 4 th c en-

t ury l eads t o t he c ons truc t ion o fn ew e x tra- mura l b ui ldings ( t her mae ) . O n ly t he C hr is t ian b asi lica , w i th i t s s pec ia l i mpor tance , i s awarded a n i n ter ior s i te , b ut i n t h is c ase , t oo , t he p osi t ion a nd s hape o f t he c hurch i s a dap ted f orc ib ly t o t he e x is t ing s truc tures . A t D inoge t ia we f i nd a t l eas t f i ve ma jor p hases i n t he t own p lan ; p rinc ip ia a nd p rae tor iu m ; b ) t he 4 th c entury b u i ldings ; t her mae; d ) t he b asi lica ;

a ) t he

c ) t he d omus a nd

e ) 6 th c en tury b u i ldings , w i th t he o rdered p lan i n

t he 4 th c entury a nd t he 6 th c entury p lan d isorder s tage . T roes m is E as t h as a s pec ia l i n ter ior t opography . Th is f ortress , a lthough i th as a C hr is t ian b as i lica a nd l arge c iv i lian b ui ld ings , a t t he s ame t ime h as a n i n terna l o rgan isa t ion o f ad ist inc t ly m i li tary c harac ter , a s i s s hown b y t he s quare b u i lding o n t he s ou th-wes tern s ide w i th many r ooms o f e qua l s ize ( t he s o-ca l led ' ce l lu lar ' c ons truc t ion ) . The s a me c e l lu lar c ons truc t ion c an b e s een i n t he n or thern h a lf o f t he wes tern s ide , a long t he n or thern s ide a nd a long t he s outhern s ide w here t here i s al ong b as i l ica , w i th a r ow o f r ooms . I n B audry 's p lan we n o t ice t en s uch l ong , c e l lu lar b arracks ( s tr igae a nd c ontubern ia ) . F ur ther more , o uts ide t he wa l ls , o n t he s ou thern s i de i n t he a rea b e tween t he wa l l a nd t he b ank o f t he Danube , we f i nd t wo more s uch b ui ldings ( t hough we may r e ma in c au t ious a s t o t he a u then t ic ity o f t he r econst ruc t ion p lan o f B audry-Bo issf ere ) .

We mus t a lso c ons ider t he o rdered , s ym-

me tr ica l a rrange men t o f t hese l ong h uts o f e qua l s ize . The e x is tence o f l arge o pen s paces , b o th i ns ide t he l arge s ou th-wes tern s quare , a nd b etween t he h u ts , r unning l eng thw ise b etween t he m a nd b e tween t he h uts a nd t he p rec inc t wa l l t o t he wes t a nd n or th , i s a lso t o b e n o ted . We may a t te mp t t o s epara te t he f or tress p lan i n to t wo p er iods .

I n o rder

t o o b ta in a h ypo the t ica l p lan o f t he f ortress i n i t s f i rs t p hase i n t he r e ign o f D ioc le t ian when l eg io I H ercu l ia was b ased h ere , we b e l ieve i tt o b e n ecess ary t o e xc lude f i rs t o f a l l t he b asi lica a nd s ome p r iva te b u i ldings o f i rregu lar s hape , b u t n o t a l l t he b ui ldings w i th a pses . O n t he r esu l t ing p lan we n o t ice t he d iv is ion o ft he i n ter ior o ft he f ortress i n to t wo p arts b y t he p rinc ipa l e as t-wes t s tree t , l eading , i n o ur o p in ion , t o t he p rinc ip ia b e low ) .

( see

I n b o th s ec tors , t he b arracks a re d isposed a round t he ma in s quare ,

w i th a w ide s pace i n t he midd le .

The a ps ida l b u i lding s i tua ted i n t he s outh-

e as tern s ec tor , i n f ront o ft he l arge s quare , c ou ld v ery we l l h ave b e longed t o t he c o m mandan t ( p rae tor iu m ) , i f we c ons ider t he l oca t ion o f t he e d if ice i n t he most c lear ly m i l i tary a rea , a nd a lso t he p orch w i th c o lonnades t ha t c an b e s een o n t hree s ides o f t he s quare , i n f ron t o f t he p rae tor iu m e n trance . 10

In the north-eastern sector, at the eastern end of the principal street, a large building, with an apse and 'cells' round the sides and a colonnade by the entrance, appears to be the basis of many analogies, the principium, with the characteristic features of the late imperial period. Thus on the basis of probabilities we have reconstructed the plan of a military fortress of the early Tetrarchic period. If aerial photography con­ firms the major features indicated by Baudry and excavations confirm the plan and chronology proposed by us, we would then have, for the first time, the plan of a military fortress, a legionary headquarters, dating from the time of Diocletian on the Lower Danube. In the second phase, probably at the end of the 4th century and the begin­ ning of the 5th, two Christian basilicas, one of which lay above the old prin­ cipia, were built, and new edifices were erected in the open area of the northern square and beside the precinct wall. It is also noteworthy that all the buildings, in both the early and the late periods, are aligned to a rectangular plan of great regularity, in a way not found anywhere else at this time on the limes or in the Balkan provinces. This regular rectangular town plan is very different from that of the other towns and fortresses, far surpassing that of Tropaeum or Hi stria. We may add to this the absence of oblique cross walls, of asymmetric restora­ tions, of a basilica or superposed edifices, in short the lack of features characteristic of 6th century town planning (compare IBmetum, Noviodunum, Dinogetia, Tropaeum, Iatrus etc.). These observations indicate two possib­ ilities: a) the internal town plan remained unchanged down to the 6th century, a situation without supporting data or analogies, or b) the eastern fortress at Troesmis functioned as a legionary fort in the 4th and 5th centuries until the ruinous Gothic and Hunnic invasions, after which it was abandoned, the centre being moved in the 6th century to the western fortress, which has a system of walls characteristic of the 6th century. This hypothesis is supported, as the author has shown, by the fact that the latest earthworks do not surround Troesmis-East, and by the alignment of the main extramural roads. A military structure, with praetorium, principia and barrack-blocks is found at Drobeta also, both in the late 3rd and early 4th century phase and in the 5th century phase, when it contained a special structure which we shall return to in the section on principia. The absence of civilian or religious build­ ings may be explained by the special situation of Drobeta as a bridge-head north of the Danube, where the garrisons were probably changed, with the permanent headquarters south of the Danube·.. At Troesmis East the military structures are replaced by civilian and religious ones, though recognizing the presence of limitanei. At Drobeta, on the· other hand, the character of the site is pure military, this fortification being an exception to the generality of fortified sites on the Lower Danube limes.

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T o a rr ive a t ab e t ter u nders tanding o f 4 th c entury a rch i tec ture , we w i l l c ons ider a s pec if ic t ype o f c en tra l b ui lding o r r a ther a rch i tectura l e nse mb le c a l led t he p r inc ip ia , wh ich mus t n o t b e c onfused w i th a no ther impor tant c en tra l b u i lding o f R o man f or ts , t he h eadquar ters b ui lding o r p rae toriu m . S o me r esearches i ndica te t ha t t he c en tra l s truc ture o ft he l eg ionary f or ts o r o f o ther f or t if ica t ions i s t he p r inc ip ia n o t , a s was l ong b e lieved , t he p raet or iu m .

I n s o me c ases , i n t he l a te p er iod , we h ave a s ing le a rch i tec tura l

c o mp lex s i tua ted b e tween t he p rinc ipa l g a te a nd t he e nd o f t he v ia p rae toria , c o mposed o ft he f oru m , t e mp le , c o lonnades a nd o ther s truc tures t oge ther f or ming t he p rinc ip ia .

9

The e ssen t ia l p ar t o f t h is m i li tary f oru m i s t he

s ace l lu m , al arge h a l l w i th a n a pse , f l anked o n e i ther s ide b y s ha l low r oo ms w i th t he f unc t ion o f s cho lae a nd r eposi tory f or t he a rch ives .

1 0

The t er m

p rinc ip ia i s a lso e x tended i n t he l a te R o man p er iod t o i nc lude t he w ho le monumen ta l e nsemb le o f t he a d min is tra t ive b ui ldings a nd t he r e l igious a rea f or t he imper ia l c u lt . T he r esearches a nd i n terpre ta t ions o f R . F e l l man o n t he p rinc ip ia a t P a l myra a nd V indon issa r e la te t o s o me l a te R o man c amps i n E ng land , b ut s pec ia l ly f or D robe ta i n P hase I I ( 5 th c en tury ) . G enera l ly s peak ing i n l a te f or t if ica t ions , t he a rrange men t o f t he i n ter ior f eatures f o l lows d if ferent p lans , b ut u sua l ly t he p r inc ip ia o ccup ies a c en tra l a rea a s i td id i n e ar l ier p er iods . Th is f ac t a pp lies n o t o n ly t o o ld f or t if ica t ions b u t a lso t o t he n ew ly e rec ted o nes i n t he T e trarch ic p er iod . F if th-century D robe ta b e longs t o as pec ia l t ype , r are ly e ncoun tered , f ound a t P almyra , P ortus A durn i a nd C ardif f , 1 1 w here t he t wo p r inc ipa l s treets c ross a t r igh t a ng les i n t he midd le o f t he f or t . I n t h is monumen ta l a rch i tec ture , w i th s tree ts w i th c o lonnades a nd a t e trapy lon a t t he c rossroads , we c an s ee c iv i l ian a nd u rban a rch i tectura l i nf luences f rom t he O r ien t a nd N orth A fr ica . I n t hese f or t if ica t ions , t he p r inc ip ia t ha t f ormed a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o ft he f or tresses o ft he T e trarchy a nd o f t he 4 th c entury , o ccup ies a c en tra l p lace .

There a re s o me e xamp les b ut t hese o ccur i n ad if feren t t ype

o f i n terna l p lan s uch a s t ha t f ound a t L uxor , D ura E uropos a nd P a l myra . A lso , a t I a trus , t he v ia p rinc ipa l is s tar t ing f rom t he e as t g a te , f l anked b y c o lonnades , l eads t o a monu men ta l e dif ice , w i th a pse a nd p orch , 1 2 t hough t b y R . F e l l mann t o b e t he p r inc ip ia .

1 3

We b e l ieve t ha t w e c an r ecogn ize p rinc ip ia b o th i nt he e ar ly f or t a t D robe ta , a nd a t S li .ven i , where t he c lass ica l p lan was f o l lowed . T o r eturn t o S cy th ia , we t h ink we c an f i nd s uch a monu men ta l c omp lex i n t he p lan o ft he f i rs t p er iod f or t a t Troesmis E as t . T he v ia p r inc ipa lis s tar ts a t t he wes t g a te w i th c o lonnades , a nd e nds a t t he e ast s ide i n a monu menta l s truc ture , w i th a c en tra l a pse a nd l a tera l r oo ms , r ese mb ling t he p lans o f many p rinc ip ia ( Pa l myra , V indon issa , L impne , L ambaes is , C orbr idge e tc . ) . We c an a lso s ee i n B audry 's p lan a nother ma in s tree t , c rossing t he f or tress f ro m n or th t o s outh , s tar t ing f ro m a g a te o n t he s outhern s ide a nd r unning a cross t o t he b ig p hrour ion . T he t wo s tree ts c ross e ach o ther a t r igh t a ng les . A nother monu men ta l c omp lex i s l oca ted i n t he s outh-eas tern a rea , i n f ron t o f t he p rinc ipa l mi l i tary s quare .

I tc onsis ts o f al arge c en tra l b ui lding ,

w i th c o lonnaded p ort icoes a nd a n a pse , s urrounded b y v ar ious b u i ldings t ha t

12

c ou ld b e p ar ts o f ab ig p a lace . I ti s d if f icu l t t o d ec ipher B audry 's p lan a t t h is p o in t . T here , t wo l a tera l c o lonnades a nd a s truc ture , p oss ib ly a n a l tar , i n t he midd le o f t he c en tra l s quare . I ti s d if f icu lt t o d is t ingu ish b e tween t he d iferen t f unc t ions o f t hese t wo c omp lexes , s ince t he ir d a t ing i s u ncer ta in , b ut i ts eems p laus ib le t o s ugges t t ha t t he t wo l arge s truc tures r epresen t t he a d minis tra t ive a nd r e l ig ious c en tres , a nd t he h eadquar ters o f al eg ion a nd o f t he s urrounding t err i tory r espec t ive ly . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t i n t he f i rs t s tage , t he s ou th-eas tern a rea w i th t he c en tra l b ui lding w i th a n a pse , t he c o lonnades a round t he s quare a nd t he a l tar , r epres en ted t he p rae tor ia a nd p erhaps t he c om mandan t 's q uar ters , wh i le t he b ui ldi ng w i th a n a pse i n t he n or th-eas tern q uar ter , a t t he e nd o ft he v ia p r inc ipa lis , was t he p rinc ip ia .

L a ter , af ter t he T e trarchy , i n t he s econd p hase , t he r e-

s tora t ions a nd n ew c ons truc t ions ( espec ia l ly t he b as i l ica ) t ook o ver t he p r inc ip ia . T he who le c en tra l a d min istra t ive-re lig ious c en tre , wh ich r ep laced t he p rinc ip ia , c o mpress ing o n ly i n t he s ou th-eas tern a rea ( wh ich , f rom a t own-p lann ing p oin t o f v iew , r e ma ins u nchanged ) . E ven i fB audry 's p lan c on ta ins f anc ifu l e le men ts , a nd t he f u ture may r ev ea l an u mber o f s urpr ises , t here mus t b e ap r inc ip ia i n af or tress l i ke T roes m is E as t , wh ich was a l eg ionary h eadquar ters a nd t he mi l itary ,ad min ist ra t ive a nd r e l ig ious c en tre o f aw ide a rea .

Though i t may b e d if f icu lt t o c lass ify t he s i tes a rch i tec tura l ly , n everthel ess c erta in c onc lus ions c an b e d rawn .

We may a t te mpt a c lassif ica t ion ,

a l though t he e xerc ise i s r isky i n o ur o p in ion i n v iew o f t he p auc ity o f s tra t ig raph ic e v idence . A t af ew f or tresses we f i nd a s pec ia l a nd c harac teris t ic f eature .

I n t hese

f or ts t he f ron t s ide , t ha t f ac ing i n t he d irec t ion o fp robab le a t tack i s i n c onsequence t he mos t v u lnerab le .

E xamp les _ a re t he n or th s ide o f T roes m is

E as t a nd t he n or th-eas t s ide o f C ap idava .

We n ot ice r ese mb lances i n t he

s outheeas t s ides o f L ib ida Ia nd I , t he s ou th s ide o f I a trus , a nd t he n or thern p ar t o f t he s tra igh t w es t s ide o f T ropaeu m . T he f ron t s ides a re p reserved a t T roes m is E ast a nd C ap idava ; t ha t a t L ib ida h av ing b een much modif ied d ur ing l a ter r ebui ldings , a nd t hose a t I a trus a nd T ropaeu m r epresen t v ar ian ts o ft he o r igina l t ype . P l . xLv i . We c an n ow e xam ine t he ways i n wh ich t hese p rec inc ts a t T roesm is E as t a nd C ap idava a re o r ig ina l . A s h as b een s hown a bove , i ti s i n t he ir f ronts , wh ich a re a lways s tra igh t , a nd wh ich a re t he o n ly o ne o f t he s ides wh ich a re s tra igh t .

T here i s a lso t he r egu lar a l terna t ion o f r ec tangu lar a nd U -shaped

t owers i n as y m me tr ica l f acade , i n t he c en tre o f wh ich i s al arge r ec tangu lar p hrour ion , f l anked b y U -shaped t owers a nd w i th h orse-shoe s haped t owers a t t he c orners . ( t ype I a ) .

The t owers a re s e t a t e qua l d istances f ro m o ne

a no ther .

1 13

The a rrange men ts a re i den t ica l a t T roesm is E ast a nd C ap idava , a nd a re s o mewha t modif ied a t t he o ther t hree f ortresses . A t I a trus , t he s im i lar i ty o f t he s ou th s ide i s o bv ious , e xcept t ha t o n e i ther s ide o f t he p hrour ion t here a re t wo U -shaped t owers ,a nd a t t he c orners h orses hoe-shaped t owers ( t ype l b ) . A t T ropaeu m , t he n or th h a lf o f t he wes t s ide i s s tra igh t , w ith a r ec tangu lar p hrour ion i n t he midd le o f t he s ide , b u t w i th t wo U -shaped t owers ( I c ) o n e i ther s ide a nd o n ly o ne h orseshoe-shaped t ower ( l b ) i n t he n or thwes t c orner . A t t he s outhern e nd , where t he g a te i s , t he t owers a re U -shaped a nd n o t h orseshoe-shaped . We mus t b ear i n mind t ha t a t T ropaeu m T ra ian i , t here was a p hase o f c ons truc t ion f or t he wes t p rec inc t wa l l , e ar l ier t han t he C onstan t in ian e poch . We c an i n fer ap er iod u nder t he T etrarchy , when t he f ron t o f t he f or tress h ad af or m s im i lar t o t hose a t T roes m is E ast a nd C ap idava .

The f or tress was

r es tored a nd p robab ly e x tended t owards t he s ou th , f or we o bserve t ha t i n t he c en tra l p ar t o f t he s outh-wes tern a rea n o l a te 3 rd a nd e ar ly 4 th c entury l eve ls were f ound .

T he wes t s ide r e ma ined u nchanged e xcep t i n t he s ou thern p ar t ,

where t he w est g a te was a dded . O n t h is b as is , a nd b ear ing i n mind t he s tra t ig raphy o ft he c en tra l a rea we c an p ostu la te a f i rs t p hase a t t he b eginn ing o f t he Te trarchy ( 2 84-295 ) o r e ar lier , u nder A ure lian o r P robus .

I n t he s econd

p hase t he f or t was e x tended s ou thwards a t t he e nd o f t he T e trarchy o r a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he r e ign o f L ic in ius a nd C ons tan t ine . T o t h is s econd s tage b e long t he t owers wh ich were a bandoned u nco mp le ted . The t h ird s tage , u nder C onstan t ine -I , was a c tua l ly s tar ted b ut n o t c omp le ted b y 3 16 . A t ( L lIb ida , t he l arge f or tress ( I I )h as a s outh-eas tern s ide wh ich r es e mb les t he f ron ts o f T roes m is E as t a nd C ap idava , wh ich w ou ld a lso s upport i t s d a t ing t o t he 4 th c entury . Moreover , h a lf o f t he e astern s ide i s i den t ica l w i th t he f ron t ( south-eas tern ) s ide . T he sma l ler f or tress ( I ) a t ( L )Ib ida h as t he s ou th-eas tern s ide v is ib ly s im i lar t o t hose a t C ap idava a nd T roes m is E ast , b u t w i th s o me mod if ica t ions d ue t o l a ter r es tora t ions wh ich made t h is f ront o f f or tress In o t s tra igh t a t t he n or thern e nd . I n s p i te o f t hese d ev ia t ions f rom t he i n i t ia l s tra igh t l i ne , t he a na log ies i n f or m , l oca t ion a nd s pac ing o f t he t owers c anno t b e d en ied . T he p lan o f t he s outh-eas tern s ide f or ms a no ther a rgu men t i n f avour o f d a t ing t he f or t t o t he T e trarchy a nd t o t he e ar ly 4 th c entury . We w i l l n o t d iscuss h ere t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he t wo f or t if ica t ions : p erhaps t he sma l ler f or tress ( I ) was b ui lt u nder t he T e trarchy a nd t he l arger o ne ( I ) u nder C onstan t ine Ia nd h is s uccessors . Among t he o ther f or tresses a long t he L ower D anube , ap recinc t wa l l w i th ap hrour ion c an b e s een o n t he n or th-wes tern s ide o f U l metu m . Th is w a l l i s f a ir ly s tra igh t w i th h orseshoe-shaped t owers ( l b a nd I e ) a t t he c orners , ab ig r ec tangu lar t ower n o t e xac t ly i n t he midd le o f t h is s ide a nd w i th t wo U -shaped t owers ( I c ) d isp laced b y t he g a te a nd b o th p laced t o t he r igh t o f t he p hrour ion . I ti s t he o n ly f or tress w i th a p hrour ion ( excep t t hose a lready d iscussed ) , e rec ted i n t he 6 th c en tury a nd t he t ypo logy o f i t s w a l ls d oes n o t r ef lec t as urv iva l o f 4 th c en tury mi l i tary a rch itec ture .

14

S tar t ing f rom T roesm is E as t , wh ich may h ave b een b ui l t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he T e trarchy , when t he l eg io I H ercu l ia was s ta t ioned t here , we c ons ider t ha t t he a na log ies o ft he f ront s ide w i th t hose a t C ap idava , I a trus , T ropaeu m a nd L ib ida c onf ir m t he c ons truc t ion o ft hese f or t if ica t ions a t t he p er iod .

Th is

i s c onf ir med b y t he s tra t igraphy . We t herefore h ave ap ic ture o f t he mi l itary a rch i tec ture a nd t opography o f t he f ourth-century f or t if ica t ions a nd o f t he d efens ive s tra tegy u sed o n t he L ower Danube l imes .

T hese d efens ive c oncept ions c ont inue t o h ave f orce

u nti l t he g rea t p er iod o f r econstruc t ion u nder A nas tas ius a nd J us t in ian .

I n a l l t hese f ort if ied s e t t le men ts t here i s e v idence o f ap rocess o f u rbani sa t ion , b o th i n t he i nscr ip t ions a nd i n t he t opography o f t he i n ter iors o f t he f orts a s r evea led b y a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions .

F rom t h is t opograph ica l

p oin t o f v iew , we n o t ice d if ferences i n t he d egree o f u rban d eve lop men t b e tween o ne f or tress a nd a no ther , a nd f rom o ne a rea t o a no ther , d if ferences wh ich a re mos t e v iden t o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he D anube a nd i n t he u rban c en tres i n t he i n ter ior o f t he D obru ja . T he f i rs t c ri ter ion w e c an t ake i n to c ons idera t ion i s t ha t o f t he a rea c overed b y as e t t le men t , a nd o ft he c harac ter , s hape a nd d i mens ions o f t he o ccup ied a rea .

Thus we may r emark o n t he Danube t he g rea t u rban a reas a t T roes m is

( wi th t wo f or tresses a nd a n e x tens ive e x tramura l u rban a rea , d efended b y e ar th r a mpar ts ) , N ov iodunu m ( al arge f or tress w i th a n u rban a rea e nc losed b y e ar th b anks a nd d i tches ) , S uc idava-Ce le i ( c i tade l a nd f or t if ied wa l led t own d own t o t he 5 th c entury ) , S ac idava ( f or tress a nd c iv i l ian s et t le men t w i th e ar th r a mpar ts ) , a nd O escus a nd N ovae .

As we wou ld e xpec t , u rban d eve lop ment

r eached a h igher l eve l i n t he f or ts i n t he i n ter ior , b ecause o f t he g rea ter s ecur i ty a nd more f avourab le e cono m ic c ond i t ions .

T he b igges t u rban c en tre

o n t he e n t ire L ower D anube i s ( L )Ib ida , w i th i t s l arge a rea o f 2 4 h a d efended b y s tone f or t if ica t ions a nd a s trong f or tress o n an e ighbouring h i l l , wh ich t oge ther f or m a s ing le u n i t . T hen f o l low T ropaeu m T ra ian i , A br i ttus a nd N icopo lis a d I s tru m . T he s econd c r i ter ion we c an u se i s t he t opography o f t he i n ter ior o f t he f or tress , f or t h is we h ave o n ly d a ta f or T roes m is E as t ( i f B audry 's p lan i s t o b e b e l ieved) , T ropaeu m a nd D inoge t ia . We d o n o t h ave a ny i n for ma t ion a t a l l r egard ing t he mos t e x tens ive u rban a rea , ( L )Ib ida . T ropaeu m T ra ian i , j udg ing f ro m t he o rgan isa t ion o ft he i n ter ior w i th i t s o ff ic ia l a nd p riva te d is tr ic ts , i t s s tree t s ys tem ( t he c o lonnaded v ia p rinc ipa l is ) t he g rea t n u mber o f t he C hr is t ian b as i licas , b ig p r iva te b ui ldings w i th p roper h ea t ing s yste ms , e tc ., h as a c iv i l ian a nd u rban c harac ter wh ich i s more p ron ounced t han i t s mi li tary a nd a dm in istra t ive f eatures .

I n c on tras t , t he l a t ter

a re more e v iden t a t T roes m is E as t . ( L )Ib ida i s a n e xcep t ion , w i th i t s b ig u rban a nd c iv i lian a dm in istra t ive a rea i n t he r iver v a l ley , ad efens ive mi l i tary c en tre i n t he c i tade l o n t he a d jacen t h i l l . The f ort if ica t ions u n i fy i n to a s ing le who le t he c iv i l ian a nd mi l i tary c harac ters , 15

wh ich r e ma in s epara te b ut r e ma in mutua l ly i n terdependen t . A s t o t he o ther sma l l o r midd le-s ized f ortresses o n t he l imes , t he o rgani sa t ion o f D inoge t ia , w i th i t s o f f ic ia l b u i ld ings , b ig p riva te h ouses a nd a reas o f modes t dwe l lings , s eems t o b e c harac ter is t ic .

T he e ar th r a mpar ts a nd d i tches , r epresent ing amp le f or t if ica t ions f or t he d efence o f e x tens ive u rban a reas a t N ov iodunu m , T roes m is a nd S ac idava , d o n ot r epresen t al oca l s o lut ion t o t he d efens ive p rob le ms o f S cy th ia i n t he 4 th t o 7 th c en tur ies . T hey a re a g enera l p heno menon , s een f or e xamp le i n B r i ta in, 1 4 a nd w ere u sed f rom t he 2 nd t o t he 6 th c en tur ies o n t he S cy th ian l imes . T hese e arth -works d e mons tra te t ha t o n t he s o-ca l led f ront ier t here was av i ta l f orce o fu rban d eve lop men t i n t he l a te R oman p er iod . They s how t ha t t he t owns c ou ld n o t b e r es tr ic ted w i thin t he n arrow l im i ts o f t he s tone-wa l led f or tresses , b ut e x tended o u ts ide , d efended b y e ar th r a mpar ts a nd d eep d i tches , a nd p erhaps a lso b y w ooden p a l isades . A s we l l a s a t T roes m is , N ov iodunu m a nd S ac idava , t he s a me p rocess , p erhaps more i n tens ive ly a nd d urab ly , t ook p lace a t ( L )Ib ida .

H ere t he u rban

a rea e x tending f ro m n ear t he mi li tary f or t if ica t ion , b y i t s s heer s ize a nd p opu la t ion c aused f rom t he 4 th c entury o n t he e rec t ion o f v ery s trong s tone wa l ls w i th t owers , t he s ame a s t hose o f t he c i tade l a nd u nif ied w i th t he m i n to as ing le d efens ive who le . T he e ar th-works a lso c onf ir m o ur g enera l k now ledge o ft he d if f icult n a ture o f t he t imes , wh ich d id n o t p er m i t t he c onstruc t ion o f l arge p rec inc t wa l ls a round t he n ew ly d eve loped u rban a reas . We mus t n o t f orge t t hose l a te b ui ldings , d a ting f rom t he 4 th a nd t he 6 th c en tur ies , e rec ted n ear b u t o uts ide t he p rec inc t wa l ls o f T ropaeu m , n ear t he e as tern a nd t he s outhern o nes ,

o r

t hose d iscovered b y T oc i lescu o u tside t he wes tern s ide o f t he f ort . The e x tramura l t her mae a t D inoge t ia r ef lec t t he s ame p rocess . H owever , i n af ew . c ases

t he n ew ly o ccup ied a reas were s urrounded w i th s trong s tone w a lls , a s a t ( L )Ib ida .

16

B

THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE ROMAN FORTS .

THE BARBAR IAN I NVAS IONS AND THE MAIN PER IODS I N THE H ISTORY OF THE LO WER DANUBE A lthough t he g enera l f ea tures s een a t S ac idava a re n o t a lways d iscern ib le i n t he o ther f or t if ica t ions , o r a re n o t f ound i n t he s a me s uccess ion o r c hronol og ica l f ra mework , n ever the less e very l eve l a t S ac idava c an b e p ara l le led i n t wo o r t hree f or tresses . T hus , L .D (

a t S ac idava h as i t s p ara l le ls a t D inoge t ia , C apidava , H istr ia ,

T om is a nd A rga mu m ;

L . V I I I a t D inoge t ia , H is tr ia , T om is a nd A rgamu m;

L . V I I a t D inoge t ia , H is tr ia , T om is , S uc idava a nd T ropaeu m ; H is tr ia , T om is , Argamu m a nd T ropaeu m;

L .V I a t D inoge t ia ,

L . Va t T om is a nd Arga mu m;

L .I V2 a t D inoge t ia , H is tr ia , T om is , A rgamu m , T ropaeu m a nd S uc idava ; L . I V a t H is tr ia , T om is a nd S uc idava ;

L .I I a t D inoge t ia , H istr ia , Arga mu m ,

U l metu m , T ropaeu m , S uc idava a nd I a trus; L .11 a t D inoge t ia , H is tr ia , Argamu m , U l metu m a nd I a trus ; L . Ia t H is tr ia , Arga mu m , U l me tu m a nd T ropae um ;

L .12 a t H istr ia a nd T ropaeu m ( see t he s ynops is , T ab le I ) . The most c o mp le te a nd c losest p ara l le ls a re o f fered b y H istr ia , D inoget ia

( wh ich h as b een much more e x tens ive ly e xcava ted) , T om is a nd I a trus .

S uc i-

d ava ( Ce le i ) g enera l ly e xh ib i ts a l most t he s a me l eve ls , b ut w i th a s l igh t c hrono log ica l d ifference o f s o me 1 0 o r 2 0 y ears .

Th is i s e xp l icable i n t er ms

o ft he g eograph ica l a rea a nd t he e ven ts t ha t o ccurred t here .

The l a te R o man p er iod s tarts w i th D ioc le t ian , t ha t i s a f ter t he g rea t c r is is o f t he 3 rd c entury , e spec ia l ly c harac ter ised b y t he b arbar ian a t tacks a nd i nvasions i n t he midd le o f t ha t c entury . We w i l l t herefore b r ief ly d iscuss t he e ven ts t ha t t ook p lace a nd t he way t hese a re r ef lec ted i n t he s tra t igraphy o f t he L ower D anube f or ts . The l i terary s ources c on ta in a wea lth o f i nfor ma t ion a bout t he Go th ic a tt acks i n t he 3 rd c entury .

The f i rs t i nvas ion t ook p lace i n 2 38,

e xc idiu m H istr iae p robab ly t ook p lace n o t t hen b ut l a ter .

1 5

b u t t he

There f o l lowed t he

i nvas ion o f 2 42 wh ich d id n o t a f fec t t he l imes i n S cy th ia M i nor . 1 6

A nother ,

p robab ly C arp ic , a t tack a lso a f fec ted D obru ja , i n 2 46 . 1 7 F or Dobru ja , i n f ac t , t he b eg inn ing o f t he g rea t b arbar ian i nvas ions i s i n 2 48 , when a c oa li t ion o fb arbar ians i nvaded a nd p i l laged Dobru ja a nd Moes ia , e ventua l ly b es ieg ing Marc ianopo l is .

1 8

B e tween 2 49 a nd 2 51 , ag rea t i nvas ion l ed b y t he Go th ic K ing K n iva c rossed t he Danube i n t wo c o lu mns .

O ne wen t t hrough Dobru ja a long t he s ea c oast , wh i le

t he s econd a nd s tronger o ne p assed t o t he wes t , a t tack ing N ovae , t hen N icop o l is a d I s tru m , P h i l ippopo l is a nd A ugusta T ra iana . P h i lippopo lis was t aken a nd s acked .

A s t he G o ths r e turned t here t ook p lace t he b a t t le o f A br i t tus ( near

R azgrad) , where t he Emperor Dec ius d ied i n 2 51 .

1 9

The n ew Emperor

G a l lus was f orced t o a l low t he b arbar ians t o c ross t he r iver .

H owever , i n

t he t ime o f D ec ius h oards were n o t b ur ied i n D obru ja b u t o n ly i n t he midd le o f Moesia I nfer ior .

1 17

I n t he y ear 2 53 a n ew i nvas ion r avaged t hese r eg ions u p t o t he s ea .

2°

A t

t h is t ime t here t ook p lace t he b ur ia ls o f h oards i n D obru ja , wh ich l eads s o me a rchaeo log is ts t o b e l ieve t ha t t he d estruc t ion o f H is tr ia o ccurred t hen . An ew a t tack o ccurred i n t he y ear 2 58 .

2 1

Two c o lu mns s wep t t hrough , o ne

b y s ea a nd t he o ther a long t he wes t c oas t o f t he B lack S ea .

The

f or tresses o f

H is tr ia , T om is a nd C a l la t is were b ypassed , b ut i ns tead t he t owns o f B i thynia were r avaged .

2 2

Z os i mus s ays t ha t t he b arbar ians s a i led s outhwards , l eav ing

o n t he ir r igh t h and H istr ia a nd T om is , t h is b e ing f or s o me h is torians e v idence t ha t i n 2 58 H istr ia s t i l l e x isted a nd h ad n o t y e t b een d estroyed .

We b e l ieve i t

t o a rgue t he o ppos i te , t ha t H is tr ia d id n ot a t trac t t he ir a t ten t ion i n 2 59 b ecause i th ad r ecen t ly b een d es troyed , a nd t ha t t he men t ion o f i t s n a me b y t he a nc ien t s ource d oes n o t n ecessar i ly mean t ha t H is tr ia s urv ived a s a n u nconquered f or tress a s l a te a s 2 58 , b u t o n ly t ha t i t was a l and mark o n t he i nvaders ' r oute . H is tr ia , e ven d es troyed , c ou ld h ave b een a v ery n o tab le l and mark .

Th is may

mean t ha t i n 2 58-59 , C a l la t is , D ionysopo lis , O dessos , Mese mbria a nd Apo l lon ia n o l onger e x isted .

T he c o lu mn d escending t hrough S cy th ia Minor was d efea ted

b y t he Emperor A ure l ian . O ther i nvas ions i n 2 63 , 2 64 a nd 2 66, were d irec ted b y s ea t owards As ia Minor , w i thout t ouch ing S cy th ia Minor . I n 2 67 t here t ook p lace a n ew a nd v io len t i nvas ion f ro m t he s ea , t ha t o f t he G o ths a nd H eru li .

They e n tered t he mou th o ft he Danube a nd c aused e x-

t ens ive d amage i n t he n or th o f D obru ja .

2 3

t ruc t ion o f H is tr ia ( exc idiu m H is triae ) ,

2 4

S o me c ons ider t ha t t he t o ta l d est ook p lace a t t h is t ime , b u t i ti s

more c er ta in t ha t A egyssus , N ov iodunu m a nd maybe e ven D inoge t ia w ere s acked a nd b urned .

Ah oard was b ur ied n ear N ov iodu mu m i n 2 67 ( c f . C . P reda ,

G . S im ion , P euce I , 1 37) .

Af ter t ha t t he f or tresses a long t he c oas ts o f Asia

Minor , t he A egean S ea , a nd e ven i n c on t inen ta l G reece were a t tacked . A mass ive i nvas ion , a lso b y s ea , t hough we c anno t e xc lude a nother c o lu mn o n l and , t ook p lace i n 2 69 .

I t was a g rea t migra t ion o f G o ths , Heru li , Gep id i ,

Bas tarn i a nd S ar ma t i ( nu mber ing 3 20 , 0 00 men a ccord ing t o Z os i mus ) .

2 5

Th is

t ime T om is was a t tacked a nd s e t o n f i re , b u t i tr es is ted a nd t he i nvaders t hen t urned t owards Marc ianopo l is , B yzant iu m , C yz icus a nd s o o n , w i thou t c onqueri ng a s ing le t own . H av ing e nu mera ted a l l t he a t tacks a nd i nvas ions b etween 2 38 a nd 2 69 , a s f ar a s t hey a re men t ioned i n t he l i terary s ources , we a t o nce s ee t ha t many o f t he m d id n ot h ave a s t he ir t arget t he f or tresses a nd t owns o f Dobru ja , b ut p assed b y t he m o n t he s ea a nd s o me t i mes o n l and t oo . E ven when t he a t tacks were d irec ted a ga ins t f ort if ied c en tres i n S cy th ia M inor o r Moesia S uper ior , t hey d id n o t a lways s ucceed i n c onquer ing o r d es troy ing t he m , many t owns s uccessfu l ly r es is t ing t he b arbar ian o ns laugh t .

T h is was t he c ase w i th

Marc ianopo l is i n t he y ear 2 48 , N ovae i n 2 49-251 , a nd To m is i n 2 59 .

Though

t he r ura l s e t t le men ts were a t t he i nvader 's mercy , e ven t he g rea tes t a t tacks c ou ld n o t a lways s ucceed i n t ak ing a we l l-for t if ied a nd d efended f ortress . O n ly t he f or tresses o f G reece , c augh t u nprepared , were e as i ly o verrun a nd s acked . T o c onc lude , o f t he i nvas ions t ha t c rossed D obru ja i n t he 3 rd c en tury , w e b e l ieve t ha t o n ly t hose o f 2 48, 2 49-251 , 2 53 a nd 2 67 n eed t o b e t aken i n to 18

c ons idera t ion .

These a re t he g rea t b arbarian waves wh ich l ef t t he ir t races ,

b urn ing a nd d es truc t ion , i n t he f or t if ica t ions o f S cy th ia M inor i n t he midd le o f t he 3 rd c entury .

T he s tra t igraph ica l e v idence a nd t ha t o f n um is ma t ics a nd

e pigraphy , c an h e lp u s t o e s tab lish t he e x ten t a nd s er iousness o f t he d amage c aused t o e ach f or tress b y t hese a t tacks , a l though s o me s i tes were v ery p roba b ly s truck i n t urn b y a l l f our o r f i ve i ncurs ions .

2 6

O f c ourse , t he f or tresses

wh ich were s e t o n f i re , e ven i fn o t o verrun a nd d es troyed , s uf fered d if feren t d egrees o f d es truc t ion ( Marc ianopo lis i n 2 48 , N ovae i n 2 49-251 , N ov iodunu m a nd D inoge t ia i n 2 67 , T om is i n 2 69 , S ac idava a nd H is tr ia i n 2 51-253 , e tc . ) . I ti s impor tan t t o c orre la te t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd l i terary e v idence w i th t ha t o fn um is ma t ics , t he c ircu la t ion o f c o inage a nd t he d istr ibu t ion o f h oards s erv ing t o c lar ify a spec ts o ft he g enera l h istor ica l p ic ture . A c omprehens ive a ccoun t o f t he c ircu la t ion o f c o inage i n R oman D obru ja h as y e t t o b e u nder taken , s o w e w i l l u se t he e v idence f ro m v ar ious f or tresses . Ah oard b uried i n 2 46 a t C an l ia l ed t o t he v iew t ha t t he a t tacks o f t he C arpi a ga ins t Dac ia i n t he t ime o f P h i l ip t he Arab ian e x tended a lso a gains t S cy th ia Minor , H istr ia s uf fer ing t oo .

2 7

B ut we c anno t c oncur w i th t h is v iew , b ased

a s i ti s o n as ing le h oard f ro m n ear t he s ou thern l imes o f D obru ja wh ich i s n o t s uppor ted b y t he s tra t igraphy o r c oin f i nds f ro m t hese l eve ls o f t he S cy th ian l imes f or tresses . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t al oca l a t tack , a n i so la ted i ncursion , may h ave c rossed t he Danube , t hough o n ly f or a s hor t d is tance , s ou th o f S uc idava ( I zvoare le ) . A s we s aw a t S ac idava , t here i s a n i n terrup t ion i n t he c oin s er ies b e tween 2 51-267, a nd a t H is tr ia b e tween 2 51-253 . H oards were b ur ied a t t h is t ime a t C amena , n ear H istria ( t he l a tes t c oin d a t ing f ro m 2 53 ) , a t S aragea ( 253 ) , 2 8 at C a l la t is ( hoards d a t ing f ro m 2 58) ,

2 9

a t N ov iodunu m a nd a t S u luc-Tu lcea ( 2 67 ) .

T hese c oin f i nds c onf ir m t he g rav i ty o f t he e ven ts i n 2 51-253

3 0

f or S cy th ia

Minor i n g enera l , b u t e spec ia l ly f or t he c en tra l a nd s outhern p ar ts o f t he p rov ince , b o th o n t he c oas t a nd a long t he Danube . A t t he s ame t ime t hey c onf i rm t he i nvas ions o f 2 58 ( a f fec t ing a lso t he s ou th-eas tern p ar t o f D obru ja ) a nd 2 67 ( ravag ing t he n or th o f D obru ja ) .

D iscuss ions o f t he e vents o f t he midd le

o f t he 3 rd c entury h ave b een c arr ied o n f or a l ong t ime a nd t he s ub jec t i s s t i l l c on trovers ia l , e spec ia l ly c oncern ing t he e xc idiu m H is tr iae .

3 1

These b arbar ian a t tacks a nd t he r esu lt ing d es truc t ion a re r evea led b y a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut a t S ac idava , H istr ia , D inoge t ia , T om is a nd l ess p robab ly C ap idava ( see t he r espec t ive s ec t ions a bove ) . B ut a t C apidava we h ave n o c lear e v idence o fb urn ing o r d estruc t ion o f t he f ortress i n t he 3 rd c en tury .

A t T om is , t he t races o fb urn ing i n t he midd le o f t he 3 rd c en tury a re

s l igh t a nd i n s o me a reas n on-ex is tan t , b u t t hey a re v ery c lear i n t he n ex t l eve l , t ha t d a ting f ro m t he e nd o ft he c entury . T he d a ta t herefore i nd ica tes t ha t a t tacks c ame i n s uccess ive waves , a nd a l though we c anno t e xac t ly s pec ify t he y ear o r y ears i n wh ich t hese e ven ts t ook p lace a t as pec if ic f or tress , b e tween 2 51 a nd 2 67 t he who le o f R o man Dobru ja a nd t he e n t ire L ower Danube l imes were d evas ta ted .

Wi th in t h is

p er iod , t he y ears 2 51-253 s tand o ut a s t he mos t d if f icu l t f or t he l oca l p opu lat i on a nd f or R o man c iv i l isa t ion i n S cy th ia Minor . I ti s c er ta in ly t he c ase t ha t o ther b arbar ian i ncurs ions l acked t he p ower t o d es troy a nd s ack t he f or t if ica t ions , b u t were a b le o n ly t o r avage t he 19

u nfor t if ied r ura l s e t t le men ts .

Th is d oes e xc lude t here b eing a ny s im i lar ity

b etween t he s tra t igraphy o f t he u nfort if ied r ura l s e t t le men ts a nd t ha t o f t he f or t if ied s et t le men ts , e spec ia l ly t he f or tress w i th mi li tary g arrisons o n t he l imes .

Th is c onc lus ion i s s uppor ted b y t he s tra t igraphy o f t he e x tra -mura l

s e t t le men ts o u ts ide t he f or tresses , wh ich d if fers p r i mar i ly i n t he n u mber o f b urnings ( e .g . a t C ap idava , U l me tu m , D inoge t ia , C a l la t is ) f ro m t he i n tramura l s tra t igraphy .

Af ter t he b arbar ian a t tacks i n t he midd le o ft he 3 rd c en tury , l i fe was r es tored i n s e t t le men ts a nd f or t if ica t ions a nd i n t he p rov ince g enera l ly , a s i s r ef lec ted b y t he s tra t igraphy ( L . V I I

a t S ac idava , L . V II I a t H istr ia ,

LI V a t

To m is ) a nd b y t he c oin s er ies , wh ich r eco m mences u nder t he Emperor C laud ius I a nd c on t inues u nder A ure lian a nd P robus .

R estora t ions o f t he

3 2

f or t if ica t ions u nder A ure l ian a re p roved o n t he L ower Danube , f irs t ly a t S uc idava ,33 b u t a lso i n S cy th ia Minor , a t H is tr ia ( u nder A ure l ian , b u t e spec ia l ly u nder P robus ) a nd p robab ly a t T om is a nd C a l la t is .

3 4

A t S ac idava , t he c o ins s e t t he l im i ts o f t he p er iod t o 2 68 a nd 2 95 a nd a t H is tr ia b e tween A ure l ian a nd 2 95 .

The e nd o f t h is p er iod i s marked b y o ther

i nvas ions o n t he L ower Danube , b e tween 2 80-295 ( Bas tarn i , Carp i , S ar ma t i , G o ths ) , b ut t he v ic tory o f D ioc le t ian a nd Ga ler ius i n 2 95 e s tab lished p eace i n t h is a rea .

3 5

Al o t o f i nscr ipt ions r efer t o t he R o man v ic tory a nd t he b eginning

o f t he r es tora t ion ,

3 6

a t tacks i n 2 95 .

The v io len t e ven ts o f 2 95 a re r ef lec ted i n t he s tra t igraphy

3 7

a nd s o many a u thors s e t t he c u lm ina t ion o f t he b arbar ian

a t S ac idava , D inoge t ia , H is tr ia , B eroe , C ap idava , To m is , T ropeu m T ra ian i , H isar a nd I a trus . T here i s as pec tacu lar e xpans ion i n c o in c ircu la t ion i n 2 95-296 .

A t H istr ia

t he c o ins o ft hese y ears r epresen t 4 3% o ft he t o ta l f or t he p eriod 2 84-306 . 3 8 The y ear 2 95 i s a lso c onf ir med b y h oards ( Cons ta r4a a nd P ia tra F rec 4e iB eroe ) .

3 9

I n t he y ear 2 95 ( D ioc let ian ) , t he r es tora t ion a nd g enera l work o f c ons truct ion s tar ted o n t he L ower Danube , t he mos t c onv inc ing s tra t igraph ic e v idence b eing L . V I I a t S ac idava , L . V I I a t H is tr ia , L .I I a t T om is .

We c an a lso g ive

many e xa mp les o f f or t if ica t ions n ew ly b ui l t ( D inoge t ia , I s trus ) o r c omp lete ly r ebui l t ( Sac idava a nd t he q uadr iburg ia )under D ioc le t ian. A s r egards t he n um is ma t ic e v idence f ro m t he l eve ls o ft he p er iod ,

t he

e nd c o mes i n 3 13 a t S ac idava ( t he f i rs t c oin o n t he n ex t l eve l d a ting f ro m 3 51 ) , i n 3 24 f or H istr ia ( t he f i rs t c oin o n t he n ex t l eve l d a t ing f ro m 3 78) ,

4 0

i n 3 24

a t I a trus , a nd a t T om is t he e nd o f t he p er iod i s p robab ly c on te mporary w i th t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f C ons tan t ine I . A t H is tr ia i n a rea ER ,

t he l as t l eve l

( IV ) i s s hown b y t he c oins t o h ave c on t inued u nt i l 3 37-340 , when t he a rea was a bandoned a nd b eca me a c e me tery .

4 1

1 20

We c an a dd t o t h is e v idence o f

s tra t if ied c oin-f inds t ha t o f v ar ious h oards , whose b ur ia l h as n o c onnec t ion w ith t he e ven ts o f 2 95 o r 3 76-378, b ut w i th t hose o f t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 4 th c en tury .

4 2

C orre la t ing a l l t he a bove d a ta w i th t he i nfor ma t ion a va i lab le f ro m t he l i terary s ources , we c onc lude t ha t an ew p er iod o f c onfus ion b rough t a bout b y b arbarian i ncurs ions o ccurred b e tween 3 15 a nd 3 32 . I nvas ions o f G oths a nd C arp i s outh o f t he D anube o ccurred i n 3 15-316 , i n 3 23-324 a nd i n 3 31-332 , b ut t here i s l i t t le r e l iab le i nfor ma t ion a s t o t he t err i tory i nvaded , i tb eing p robab le t ha t t he i nvas ion o f 3 31-332 a lso a f fec ted S cy th ia .

4 3

I n t he p laces a t tacked i n 3 15-332 , r es tora t ion s tar ted i m med ia te ly , e veryd ay l i fe c on t inu ing u p t o t he e nd o f t he 4 th c en tury , when n ew

i nvas ions a re

men t ioned i n t he l i terary s ources a nd a re c onf ir med b y s tra t igraphy a nd n um is ma t ic e v idence . The Go ths r enewed t he ir i ncurs ions s ou thwards o n t he L ower Danube , s tar t ing i n 3 64 . 44 The s i tua t ion d e ter iora ted i n S ep te mber 3 65 when t he u surper P rocop ius p roc la i med h i mse lf Emperor , c la im ing C onstan t inop le a nd t he d iocese o f Thrac ia a nd a sking h e lp f ro m t he G o ths , who s en t h im a b ig a r my .

4 5

B ut P rocop ius was d efea ted a nd k i l led b y t he Emperor V a lens

i n May 3 66, who t hen u n leashed t err ib le r epr isa ls a ga ins t t he l oca l p opu la t ion whom h e .s uspec ted o f h av ing s uppor ted P rocop ius , e spec ia l ly i n Thrac ia where t he u surper h ad s tar ted h is r ebe l l ion .4 6 Then , b etween 3 67 a nd 3 69 , Va lens o rgan ised t hree b ig e xpedi t ions a ga inst t he G oths , p ush ing n or th o f t he Danube a nd p ass ing w i th h is a r my , i n h is t h ird c a mpa ign , t hrough N ov iodunu m .

4 7

These a c t ions t ook p lace n or th o f t he Danube

u nder Va lens a nd c o inc ided w i th a g rea t a c t iv ity i n r econs truc t ing a nd s treng the n ing t he l imes o n t he L ower Danube .

4 8

B ut i n 3 76 t he g rea t V is igo th ic i nvas ion

s tar ted s outh o f t he Danube , when t hey r avaged S cy th ia Minor a nd Thrac ia f rom 3 77 .

4 9

Ag rea t b a t t le was f ough t a t S a l ices i n t he n or th-eas t o f Dobru ja ,

b u t l a ter , i n t he b a t t le a t A dr ianop le i n Augus t 3 78 , t he R o mans were d isast rous ly d efea ted a nd t he Emperor was k i l led . " N ew a t tacks were l aunched i n 3 84-385 a nd 3 85-386 , when t he f or tress o f H a l myris was s acked .5 1 A t S ac idava , a s i s p roved b y t he s tra t igraphy a nd t he c o ins o f t he V th l eve l , l i fe c ont inued w i thout i n terrup t ion f ro m t he t ime o f C onstan t ius I t o 3 83-386 . I n D o mus I ( p .

8 5

a bove ) , t he V th l eve l c on ta ined a s we l l a s l a mps a nd p ot tery ,

ah oard o f 1 5 c o ins :

2c o ins d a t ing f ro m 3 41-346 , f our f ro m 3 48-361 , e igh t

f rom t he r e ign o f V a lens ( 3 64-375 ) , a nd t he l a tes t min ted af ter 3 78, i n t he r e ign o f G ra t ian i n 3 83 .

I n S .V I I I , l eve l V , t he l a tes t c o in d a ted f ro m 3 78-383 ,

l eve l Vb e longs t o t he s econd h a lf o ft he 4 th c entury , ap er iod wh ich e nded v io len t ly i n a n i n tense c onf lagra t ion .

T h is e ven t d id n o t h owever t ake p lace

a t t he e nd o f Va lens ' r e ign , b u t r a ther l a ter a t t he e nd o ft he c entury u nder Theodosius I , when t he d is turbed n a ture o f t he t ime i s r ef lec ted i n t he h oards .

5 2

A t H istr ia , i n t he c en tra l s ec tor , t h is p er iod i s n o t c lear i n t he s ense t ha t l eve l WI f i n ishes w i th c o ins o f 3 24 , wh i le t he n ex t l eve l ( V I ) s tar ts w i th c o ins o f 3 83-395 , a nd i n s ec tor ER t he l as t l eve l f i nishes w i th a c o in o f C on tant ius I ( 3 37-340 ) .

5 3

The who le p er iod f ro m C ons tan t ius I t o Theodos ius Ii s c harac-

t er ised a t H istr ia , a s e lsewhere , b y t he r educed n umbers o f c o ins i n c ircu la t ion . 1 21

5 4

F or e xa mp le o n ly o ne c o in o f t he u surper P rocop ius ( 3 65-366) h as b een f ound a t H is tr ia . 5 5 I n t he p resen t s ta te o f k now ledge , we b e l ieve t ha t we c anno t b e s ure t ha t H istr ia was a t tacked o r d es troyed u nder V a lens , a l though t he f ortress d id n o t e scape t he u pheava ls o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 4 th c entury .

A t t he s ame t ime

we n o te a r educed n u mber o f c oins i n c ircu la t ion b e tween 3 76 a nd 3 78 , af ac t t ha t c an b e e xp la ined b y t he p recar ious g enera l s i tua t ion O f D obru ja w i thou t n ecessar i ly p ostu la t ing a G o th ic a t tack .

H owever , t he c ircu la t ion o f c oins

b eco mes r es tr ic ted b e tween 3 79 a nd 3 86, when t he p rec inc t wa l l o f H is tr ia s ee ms t o h ave b een r ebui lt , o r a t l eas t r epa ired , a f ter t he y ear 3 83 , a s i s s hown b y t wo c o ins i ssued i n t ha t y ear a nd d iscovered i n t he emp lec ton o f a b as t ion o f t he ma in g a te .

5 6

I n t h is c ase , t he e ar lies t c oin f ro m t he V I th l eve l f ro m t he c en tra l s ec tor ( a c o in o f Theodos ius I , 3 83-395 ) , i s p roof o f ar econs truc t ion s tar ted u nder Theodos ius I . Th is r econs truc t ion was r endered n ecessary b y t he d es truc t ion , p erhaps o n ly p art ia l , c aused b y t he e ven ts o f 3 77-378 , o r t hose o f 3 83 , o r p oss ib ly e ven t hose o f 3 64-366 ( t he c oin o f P rocop ius may b e s ign if icant h ere ) . S er ious d isturbances u nder Theodos ius Ia re c onf ir med b y t wo h oards , o ne f ro m Medg idia ( l a test c o in d a t ing f ro m 3 83 ) , a nd t he o ther f ro m S trunga ( see n o te 5 2 ) . Thus t he y ear 3 83 ( Sac idava , Do mus; H istr ia , c en tra l a rea ; H is tr ia , t he p rec inc t wa l l; t he h oards f ro m Medg id ia a nd S trunga ) mus t b e r egarded a s at urn ing p o in t , at ime o f s udden c hange , a nd a t l eas t f or s o me f or tresses a s t he f i na l' mo men t o f o ne p er iod a nd t he b eg inning o f a nother .

I fw e a t te mp t

t o b ring a l l t hese d a tes t oge ther , we a rr ive a t t he f o l low ing c hrono log ica l l and marks a s a work ing h ypo thes is : To m is-377-383 ;

P h i lippopo l is -366;

S ac idava-383; Medg idia -383;

A rga mu m -364-378; H isar -378;

H istria-378-383;

C apidava -377-383;

S trunga ( near A l t inu m ) -383;

I a trus-376;

Tropaeu m -378?; D inoge t ia a nd Ha l myr is -386 . We c an t hus d ef ine , a s a working h ypo thes is , t hree l arge a reas e ach w ith i t s c hrono logy :

a ) t he Moes io-Thrac ian a rea b e tween 3 66 a nd 3 78 ( Ph i lippo-

p o lis , H isar , I a trus , S uc idava ); b ) t he s ou thern h a lf o f S cy th ia , e spec ia l ly t he s outhwes tern q uar ter , a round t he y ear 3 83 ( Sac idava , Medg idia , Tropaeu m , S trunga n ear A l t inu m , C ap idava , a nd a lso H istr ia a nd To m is ) ;

c ) t he n orthern

a rea o f S cy th ia , i n 3 86 ( Ha l myr is , D inoge t ia ) . T ak ing i n to c onsidera t ion t he l ack o f s tra t igraph ic d a ta a nd t he a c t ions o f V a lens , i ts ee ms t ha t N ov iodunu m d id n o t s uf fer d es truc t ion u n t i l t he r e ign o f Theodos ius I .

U nfortuna te ly we

must c onc lude t ha t t he e ven ts o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 4 th c entury ( 3 64-386 ) a re n o t y e t c lear wh i le a f f ir m ing o ur o p in ion t ha t t here were more barbar ian i ncurs ions i n to S cy th ia , t he e xac t d a tes o f wh ich w e d o n o t k now , n or d o we k now t he p rec ise e f fec ts o n e ach f or tress .

1 22

T he p er iod b eginn ing w i th t he s udden c hange s tar ted b y Theodos ius I , l as ts u nt i l t he H unn ic i nvas ion .

The d a te o ft he H unn ic d es truc t ion i n a ny

o ne f or tress i s d if f icu l t t o d e ter mine , b ut t wo a reas c an b e i so la ted i n t he p resen t s tage o f d iscover ies . There i s a n a rea o n t he Danube , t o t he west , where t he H unn ic a t tacks o ccurred e ar l ier

( Suc idava a nd I a trus ) , a nd t here

i s t he L ower Danube a rea , t ha t i s t o s ay S cy th ia , where t he d isas ter o ccurred s o mewha t l a ter ( Sac idava , C ap idava , H istria , To m is a nd A rga mu m ) . Av ery i mpor tan t r esu l t o f t he r ecen t e xcava t ions i s t he p roof b y s tra t ig raphy a nd c oin f i nds o f c on t inui ty o f o ccupa t ion i n t he 5 th c en tury , i n s p i te o f t he m isfortunes a nd i n terrup t ions p roduced b y t he H uns . I ff ro m a n e cono m ic a nd t own-p lann ing p o in t o f v iew o ne c an c lear ly s ee a marked d eter iora t ion , l i fe c arries o n a t a modest l eve l a nd n o g ap i s o bserved i n t he s tra t igraphy . A f ter o ne o r more f i res a nd d es truc t ions , t he l eve ls a re r es tored i n av ery s hor t t ime w i th t he s ame e thn ic f ea tures a nd u s ing t he s ame t echn iques a s i n t he e ar lier r es tora t ions . T he l i tera ture , t oge ther w i th o ther s ources o f i nfor ma t ion , p roves t ha t i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he s econd q uarter o f t ha t c entury , t he mos t d es truc t ive i nvas ions o f t he H uns t ook p lace i n Thrac ia a nd S cy th ia . 5 7 T heodos ius I b ough t p eace w i th a v ery l arge t r ibute , b ut , i n 4 34 , a f ter o ne i ncurs ion af ter a no ther , t he H uns i nvaded t he t err i tory a s f ar a s C ons tant inop le , t hus o b ta ining h igher p aymen ts .

Dobru ja s uf fered c ons tan t

a nd l oot ing , a s i s s hown b y t he a c t ion o f Theodos ius

a t tacks

a nd t he " Scy th ian"

b ishop o f To m is a nd S cy th ia i n ofer ing t he H uns p laca tory g if ts .

5 8

We a lso

f i nd t ha t i n 4 34 t he f or tress o f Karsos i n Thrace ( Cars iu m ) was h e ld b y t he H uns .

5 9

N ew i nvas ions f o l lowed , a nd i n 4 49 a n ew t rea ty was c onc luded b e tween A t t i la a nd Theodos ius I , a nd t he H uns a greed t o l eave t he S outh Danub ian t err i tories , t he ir a t ten t ion a nd g reed n ow b eing d irec ted t o t he west .

The

E as tern Emp ire c on t inued t o p ay t r ibu te u nt i l t he t ime o f t he Emperor Marc ian ( 450-457) who r evoked t hese o b liga t ions , a f ter wh ich h e d efea ted a n a r my s en t b y A t t i la .

The l a t ter , l eading t he ma in b ody o f t he a r my westwards , was

e ven tua l ly s topped i n t he b a t t le o f t he C a ta laun ian P la in ( 451 ) .

Af ter t he

d ea th o f A t t i la i n 4 53 , t he H unn ic p ower g radua l ly d i min ished , ap ar t o f t he m r ema ining i n P annon ia a nd o thers l eav ing f or t he n or th c oast o f t he B lack S ea , a nd a p ar t b e ing s e t t led i n t he Emp ire b y Marc ian a s f oedera t i .

Th is was t he

c ase w ith H arnac , t he s on o f A t t i la , who l ed a g roup o f H uns who s e t t led i n t he n or th-eas tern p ar t o f D obru ja " in e x tre ma Minoris S cy th iae" . H unn ic

6 0

H owever ,

i nvas ions s t i l l c a me f ro m t he n or th o f t he Danube , o ne i n t he r e ign o f

L eo I( 457-474 ) , a nd i n o ne o f t he b a t t les i n t he d iocese o f Thrace , Deng iz ik , a no ther s on o f A t t i la , d ied .

6 1

A f ter t he d ec line a nd d isin tegra t ion o f t he H unn ic p ower , an ew d anger a ppeared o n t he f ron t iers o f t he Emp ire , t h is t ime f ro m Ger man ic p eop les . Many V isigo ths ( Go th i minores ) r e ma ined i n Moesia I nfer ior , a round t he t own o f N icopo l is a d I s tru m .

6 2

An e ar lier t rea ty c onc luded b y Marc ian w i th t he

O s trogoths , was n o t r espec ted b y L eo wars .

Ia nd t h is b ecame t he c ause o f n ew

Be tween 4 71 a nd 4 88 n ew a t tacks b y t he O s trogoths t ook p lace , Theo-

d or ic h av ing f or a wh i le h is r esidence a t N ovae . 1 23

6 3

A t t he s a me t ime , i n 4 80 ,

o n t he L ower Danube f ron t ier , t he B u lgar ian t r ibes a ppeared , c a l led i n to t he Emp ire b y Z eno ( 4 76-491) i n o rder t o f i gh t t he G oths . T he l i terary s ources c lear ly r evea l t he d is turbed p ic ture , w i th many a t tacks , i nvas ions a nd b arbar ian move men ts i n t he e n t ire d iocese o f T hrace a nd i n t he p rov ince o f S cy th ia .

The most v io len t Hunn ic i nvas ions a nd t he

Go th ic i ncurs ions a re c oncen tra ted b e tween 4 34 a nd 4 49 a nd t hey a re f o l lowed b y t he G o th ic-Bu lgar ian i nvas ions b e tween 4 71-488 .

I n t hese t wo e ven ts we

b e l ieve we c an s ee t he o r igins o f t he t wo g rea t c onf lagra t ions a nd t wo main p er iods o f d estruc t ion i n t he 5 th c entury f or wh ich t he e xcava t ions i n t he f or tresses h ave p rov ided e v idence .

T he s tra t igraphy a nd t he n um isma t ic

e v idence c onf ir m t hese t wo p hases o f g rea t c onfus ion a nd d es truc t ion b y f ire o f t he o ccupa t ion l eve ls . The e xcava t ions a t S ac idava d e mons tra ted t he e x istence o f t wo ma in l eve ls i n t he 5 th c en tury .

The f i rs t o ne b e longed t o t he p er iod o f T heodosius

Id own t o t he midd le o f t he c en tury , when t he b ig H unn ic i nvas ion a rr ived . The s econd l eve l r evea led b ui ldings a nd c lay f l oors o f a n i nfer ior q ua l i ty . 6 4 A t H is tr ia n o c o in was f ound t o d a te t h is l eve l s ure ly , a l though c oins o f Marc ianus , 4 50-457 , wou ld n a tura l ly b e long t o t he V th l eve l , b ut t he f ac t t ha t i tc anno t b e l a ter t han t he b eg inning o f t he 6 th c en tury , a nd a lso n o t b efore t he midd le o f t he 5 th c entury ( according t o t he l a tes t c oins f ro m L .V I ) , c on f ines i t s d a t ing t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury .

L eve l Vi s h eavi ly b urned .

L eve l V I h as t he s a me b ui ldings o f a modes t c harac ter , s o met i mes w i th s tone p ave men ts .

T he c oins , d a t ing f ro m 3 83-395 a nd 4 20-450 , f i x t he d a te o f l eve l

V I t o t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury .

L eve l W was a lso h eav i ly b urned .

Therefore a t H is tr ia , i n t he c en tra l s ec tor , h eavy c onf lagra t ions a re r ecorded i n t he midd le o f t he 5 th c entury ( 450 ) a nd a ga in a t t he e nd o ft he c en tury , p roba b ly t owards t he e nd o f Z eno 's r e ign . N o t many y ears a go b ronze c oins f ro m t h is p er iod were u nknown i n Dobru ja , b u t t he r ecen t d iscovery o f i ssues o f Marc ianus a nd L eo 65

s hows

more a nd more c lear ly t ha t t he i dea o f ah ia tus i n t he o ccupa t ion i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he c en tury i s a r t if ic ia l . t hese h oards p ub l ished .

Th is i s ar eason f or h oping t o s ee

The f i rs t o f t hese was d iscovered o n t he b ig mosa ic

a t T om is , a nd t he s econd c a me f ro m S ara iu .

The g rea t q uan t i ty o f c o ins o f

t he 5 th c entury d iscovered a t I zvoare le ( a t P i r joa ia , t he a nc ien t S uc idava ) , w i th a c o in s er ies c on tinuing w i thou t i n terrup t ion d own t o A nastas ius , p roves b eyond d oub t ac on t inu i ty o f o ccupa t ion i n t he 5 th c entury , a t l eas t i n s o me f or tresses o n t he l imes . 6 6 The e xcava t ions a t Do lo j man a lso c onf ir m t he o bserva t ions made a t S ac idava i n c onnec t ion w i th t he g enera l l eve ls .

We n o t ice t ha t u nder t he 6 th

c en tury b as i lica ( d iscovered b y P . N icorescu ) t here was a no ther e ar l ier b as i lica wh ich was d a ted w i th c er ta inty t o t he 5 th c en tury .

6 7

A t D inoge t ia ,

a s f ar b ack a s 1 953 , al eve l b e longing t o t he 5 th c en tury was r ecorded .

6 8

A t T ropaeu m s o me c oin f i nds i n " area C " , i n o ur e xcava t ions , were v ery i n teres ting : o ne o f 3 88-402 , o ne o f 3 95-408 a nd o ne o f Theodosius I ( 4024 50 ) .

A t T ropaeu m , 5 th-century l eve ls were d iscovered i n t he a rea n ear

t he E as tern Ga te .

6 9

We may a dd t he d iscover ies made i n t he e xcava t ions

c arr ied o u t i n 1 971 i n C onstan0 . , where t wo l eve ls b e long ing t o t he 5 th c entury were r evea led .

O n t he l ower l eve l , t he l as t c o ins d a ted f ro m 3 92 a nd 4 02 ,

1 24

wh ich d a tes t he s econd l eve l ( f ro m t op t o b ot to m ) t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c entury , s o t ha t t he f i rs t ( t op mos t ) l eve l may c on t inue i n to t he 5 th c en tury . O f c ourse , t he d iscover ies made a t S ac idava , I zvoare le , D inoge t ia , Do lo jman , H is tria a nd T om is , mus t n o t b e g enera l ised a nd a pp l ied t o t he who le l i mes , o r t o t he e n t ire D obru ja .

I t may we l l b e t ha t , i n s o me p laces , f uture

e xcava t ions w i l l r evea l a n i n terrup t ion o f ag rea ter o r l esser d ura t ion a t tr ibut ab le t o t he c a tastroph ic d es truc t ion c aused b y t he H unnic i nvas ions . T he c o in s er ies , n o tab ly t hose f ro m l eve l I V2 a t S ac idava a nd V a t H is tr ia , p lace t he H unn ic d es truc t ion t owards t he midd le o f t he 5 th c entury , a nd t heref ore w i th in t he l im i ts men t ioned a bove ( 434-449 ) .

There i s n o c o in e v idence

f or t he d a te o f t he s econd d es truc t ion e xcep t f or a b ur ied h oard f ro m Mircea Vodi , d a t ing f ro m t he r e ign o f t he Emperor L eo a nd p robab ly t owards t he e nd o f t he r e ign , b e tween 4 71 a nd 4 74 , i fn o t a f ter 4 74 .

7 0

I t was a t t he e nd o f t he

s econd a nd l as t 5 th-cen tury l eve l t ha t t he s econd d istruc t ion a nd b urn ing t ook p lace .

A t t he e nd o f t he 5 th c entury , e ven a s b e tween o ne f or tress a nd a no ther ,

o ne c an d e tec t s o me sma l l d if ferences b e tween 4 71 a nd 4 88 .

The f ac t t ha t t h is

l eve l a nd t he n ex t 5 th-century p er iod , wh ich s tar ts w i th t he r e ign o f Anas tas ius a nd c on t inues , a s i s p roved t he c ase e lsewhere , t hrough t he r e igns o f J us t in I a nd J us t in ian , was e s tab l ished b y t he d iscovery o fb ricks w i th t he s ta mp o f t h is Emperor a t

S ac idava ( i n L .I l , , D inoge t ia a nd H is tr ia , where a n i nscr ip-

t ion o n ac era m ic p laque was d iscovered .

7 1

A t l eas t i n t hese f or t if ica t ions

t he r es tora t ion o f t he p rec inc t wa l ls af ter t he d es truc t ion o f t he 5 th c entury was s tar ted a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he r e ign o f Anas tas ius .

I t mus t a lso b e r e-

membered t ha t t he p er iod o f r econs truc t ion s tar ted i n t he r e ign o f A nastasius a t T om is » , T ropaeu m , C a l la t is a nd s o o n .

The f ac t t ha t t he c oins o f t h is

Emperor a re r arer a nd s o me t i mes a re a bsen t f ro m t he r espec t ive l eve ls i s e xp la ined b y n um is ma t is ts a s ag enera l p heno menon a nd n o t a s o ne s pec ia l t o S cy th ia Minor . F or t he wes tern s ec tor o ft he L ower Danube l imes , t he d a ta i s s o mewha t d if feren t .

A t S uc idava , f i ve h oards c on ta ining c oins o f 4 08-423 l ead t o t he

c onc lus ion t ha t t he c rush ing a t tack o f t he H uns t ook p lace a t t h is t ime , e i ther i n 4 08-409 o r i n 4 24-427 , b e ing d e l ivered b y t he H uns l ed b y U ldis .

7 2

Aga ins t

t h is o p in ion , D . T udor o pposes t he a rgu men t t ha t t he i nvas ion o f U ldis s wept t hrough , s ou th o f t he Danube , a t C as tra Mar t is , s o t ha t S uc idava was i ns tead d es troyed i n t he c ourse o f A t t i la 's a t tack i n 4 47 .

7 3

T he e xcava tors a t I a trus h ave c o me t o t he c onc lus ion , b ased o n t he ir e xcava t ions a nd c o in f i nds , t ha t t he g rea t H unn ic d isas ter o ccurred i n t he y ears 4 23-424 .

7 4

S o a s we s a id a bove , i n t ha t p ar t o f t he l imes s i tua ted b etween P o/t i le d e F ier ( I ron G a tes ) a nd D obru ja , t he d es truc t ion o f t he f or tresses ( Cas tra Marts , S uc idava a nd I a trus ) t ook p lace e ar l ier t han i n t he S cy th ian s ec tor .

I n c ons idering t he f i na l p hase o f R o man h is tory o n t he L ower Danube , we f i rs t emphas ize t he v a lue o f t he o bserva t ions made i n r ecen t y ears a t 1 25

H is tr ia , S ac idava , T ropaeu m , A rganu m a nd I a trus .

T hese h ave p roved t he

e x is tence o f t hree 6 th-cen tury l eve ls , wh ich c o mp le te ly c on f ir ms t he o bservat ions a nd c onc lus ions o f V . Pärvan a t U l metu m . T he f i rs t p er iod o f t he 6 th c en tury s tar ts , a s we h ave s a id , w i th t he r e ign o f A nastasius ( 4 91-518) , e x tending t hrough t he r e igns o f J us t in Ia nd J us tin ian , d own t o t he midd le o f t he c en tury . T he B u lgar ian i ncurs ions i n to T hrac ia i n 4 93 , 4 99 a nd 5 02 d id n o t l eave a rchaeo log ica l t races i n Dobru ja , t he D anube c ross ing p robab ly b e ing made s o mewhere i n t he wes t o f t he I nfer ior Danube l imes .

7 5

D uring V i ta l ian 's r evo lt , f ro m 5 13 t o 5 18 , f i gh t ing t ook p lace i n t he s outh o f t he B a lkan p en insu la , a t Ga l iacra a nd e spec ia l ly a t C ons tan tinop le .7 6 S cy th ia , o f wh ich V i ta lian was p robab ly a n a t ive , d id n o t s uf fer , p erhaps b ec ause t he t owns a nd f or tresses h ere d eser ted h is c o lours o r k ept a b enevo len t n eu tra l i ty .

I ti s a lso p oss ib le t ha t t he t roops o f V i ta lian ( f oedera t i ) h ad s o me

i nf luence , o r were e ven q uar tered i n s o me o f t he l imes f or t if ica t ions . We a lso h ave n o l i terary o r a rchaeo log ica l i n for ma t ion o n t he A n tzi i nvas ion ( S lav t r ibes ) t ha t t ook p lace u nder J ust in Ii n 5 17 , t hese b arbar ians b e ing d ef ea ted b y Ger manus .

7 7

T he a t tacks c ont inued u nder J us t in ian , i n 5 28 , 5 29 a nd 5 33 ( Bu lgarians , H uns , S lav in i , An tz i ) .

A ma jor i nvas ion , when t he B u lgar ians a t tacked t he

Ro man f or t if ica t ions f or t he f i rs t t ime , t ook p lace i n 5 40 t hrough Thrace a nd Macedon ia , r igh t u p t o t he o utsk ir ts o f C ons tan t inop le .

7 8

Y e t t he f or t if ica t ions

o f D obru ja r e ma ined u n touched , t he p assage o f t he Danube p robab ly b eing made t o t he wes t , s ince a t I a trus we n o te a d es truc t ion a nd b urn ing a f ter 5 30 . I n 5 44 , t he An tz i a t tacked Thrace a nd t he B u lgar ians I l lyr ia .

7 9

We s ee

f ro m t he l i terary s ources t ha t t he b arbar ian a t tacks o f t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 6 th c en tury d id n ot h ave S cy th ia a s t he ir o b jec t ive , t he ir u sua l d irec t ion o f i nvas ion b e ing Thrace , I l lyr ia a nd s outh t owards C ons tan t inop le .

T he Danube was

c rossed wes t o f D uros toru m . O ur h ypo thesis t akes i n to c onsidera t ion t he ma in b ody o f t he b arbar ian t roops a nd t he ma in d irec t ions o f t he ir a t tacks . I ncurs ions a nd p i l lages s t i l l t ook p lace i n t he D obru ja , b u t t hese were n o t s o d es truc t ive , t he v ic t ims b e ing t he r ura l p opu la t ion . The wors t i nvas ion o f S cy th ia Minor was i n 5 59 a nd was l ed b y Z abergan , l eader o f t he K utr igur i ( ab ranch o f t he H uns ) a l l ied w i th t he B u lgar ians a nd S lays . They h ad c rossed t he Danube i n S cy th ia Minor a nd Moes ia , a dvanc ing i nto T hrace , Macedon ia a nd G reece . "

G enera l B e lisar ius d efea ted t he m

u nder t he wa l ls o f C ons tan t inop le , t he b arbar ians n ever the less c on t inuing t o p i l lage t he p en insu la u n t i l A ugust 5 59 , when t hey d emanded p eace . Al as t i nvas ion o f t he H uns a nd B u lgar ians o f s hor t d ura t ion , t ook p lace i n 5 62 , a nd we h ave n o i ndica t ion a s t o t he d a mage s uf fered b y t he S cy th ian l imes , e xcep t ah oard f ro m T opa lu b ur ied i n 5 62-563 .

8 1

The i nvasion o f 5 59 s ucceeded i n d es troy ing a nd b urn ing s o me f or t if ica t ions i n D obru ja . A t D inoge t ia , t he ma jor l ayer o f b urning d a t ing f ro m t he midd le o f o f t he 6 th c en tury i s t he r esu l t o f t he a t tack o f 5 59 , b ecause t he l a tes t c o ins d a te f ro m t he y ears 5 57-558, n o c oins o f J us t in ian ment ioned a f ter t h is d a te b eing d iscovered .

8 2

A t S ac idava , t he v io len t b urn ing o f t he I Ird l eve l t ook

1 26

p lace b e tween 5 50 a nd 5 62 , t he l as t c o ins i n L .I I d a t ing f ro m 5 50 , a nd t he e ar l ies t o ne f ro m L .Id a t ing f ro m 5 62 . A t T ropaeu m , a rea C , t he l eve l i s i n terrup ted a t t he e nd o fJ us t in ian 's r e ign , b efore 5 71-572 ( see t he c hap ter o n S tra t igraphy ) . A t H istr ia , L .I V was h eav i ly b urned a nd t he l a tes t c oins d a ted f ro m 5 435 44 a nd L . I I b egins w i th c oins o f 5 65-566 .

We s hou ld a lso ment ion h ere t he

h oard f ro m S a tu- Nou , d epos i ted i n t he r e ign o fJ us t in ian .8 3 A no ther d anger n ow a pproached t he L ower Danube ; t he Avars ,l ed b y Ba ian , who i n 5 61-562 d e manded l and i n S cy th ia Minor , b u t d ue t o t he d ip lo macy a nd mi l i tary manoeuvres o f J us t inus " quaes tor J ust in iani t he Avars d id n o t c ross t he l imes i n to S cy th ia .

e xerc itus" o n t he Danube ,

8 4

The n ex t p er iod i n t he 6 th c en tury i n Dobru ja l as ts t hrough t he r eigns o f J us t in I ( 5 65-578) , T iber ius I C ons tan t ine ( 5 78-582 ) a nd Maur ice T iber ius ( 5 82-602 ) .

I n t h is t ime t he L ower Danub ian l imes were more a nd more h eav i ly

a ssa i led . I n 5 66 t he Avars c rossed t he S cy th ian Danube i n aq u ick r a id , w i thout r ep ercuss ions f or D obru ja .

A f ter 5 67 t hey r e mained mas ters o f Pannon ia ,

f rom whence t hey o rgan ised i ncurs ions i n to Thrace i n 5 70 a nd 5 73 .

I n 5 73 t he

.

Avars t ook t he r ou te S ing idunu m-Novae-Durostoru m , f ro m whence t hey a ga in c rossed t he Danube a ga ins t t he S lays .

8 5

A f ter t ak ing t he c i ty o f S ir m iu m i n 5 82 ,

where B a ian f i xed h is r es idence , t hey made a t tacks o n t he o ther p rov inces n e ighbour ing t he Danube .

8 6

H owever , t hese b arbar ian i ncurs ions were n ot s o

t hrea ten ing f or t he D obru jan l imes f or t if ica t ions , t he g rea t q uan t i t ies o f c o ins o f J us t in I f or ming p roof o f ap eacefu l a nd q u ie t p er iod . I n 5 80-584 , a mass ive b ody o f S lays c rossed t he Danube mov ing s ou thwards , where t hey p i l laged f or f our y ears , s e t t l ing t e mporar i ly i n t he Imper ia l t err i tory , w i thou t a f fec t ing S cy th ia Minor .

8 7

I n t h is s econd p ar t o f t he c en tury t he i nvas ion w i th t he worst r epercussions a s i s c lear ly p roved t o h ave b een t he c ase i n t he D obru ja t oo , was t ha t o f 5 865 87 b y t he Avars a nd S lays .

A ccording t o Theophy lactus S i mocat ta , S cy th ia

a nd Moes ia S ecunda s uf fered mos t , where t he Avars t ook many c i t ies :

Ra t iar ia ,

B onon ia , D oros to los , Z a ldappa , P anassa , Marc ianopo lis a nd T ropaeu m .

8 8

A s e xcava t ions a nd t he n um is ma t ic a nd s tra t igraph ic e v idence h ave s hown f ro m t he t ime o f V . P ärvan u p t o t he p resen t d ay , t he f or tress o f Tropaeu m s uf fered a d isas ter i n 5 87-588 , a nd v ery p robab ly t he f or tress a t D urostoru mS uc idava ( I zvoare le ) was a lso t aken , o ne o f t he l a test c o ins f ound h ere d a t ing f rom 5 84-585 .

8 9

B u t o n t he wes tern B lack S ea c oas t , n or th o f Dobru ja a nd

o n t he S cy th ian l imes , t he d isas ter o f 5 86-587 i s n o t d e tec tab le , l i fe c on tinuing w i thou t i n terrup t ion u n t i l t he e nd o f Maur ice 's r e ign . I n H is tr ia , c en tra l s ec tor , L . I I c on t inues w i thou t i n terrup t ion a t l east t hroughou t t he p er iod 5 65-566 t o 5 92-593 .

The s tages o fd ec line a t H is tr ia

h ave b een d iscussed many t imes , b ut t he a ccu mu la t ion o f d a ta i nd ica tes 1 27

i ncreas ing ly c lear ly t ha t H is tr ia was n o t d es troyed i n 5 86 .

Many c lear a rgu-

men ts o b lige u s t o p ro long t he d ura t ion o f L . I I , t ha t i s t he f i rs t l eve l o ft he 6 th c en tury , a f ter 5 86 . Among t hese a rgu men ts w e n o t ice t he h oard o f c oins f ro m t he Te mp le s ec tor d a ting f ro m b e tween J us t in I a nd Maur ice ( 600-601) . The h oard ( i nven tory N o . 4 58/1954 ) d iscovered u nder a l a te wa l l , i n L . I , e nded i n 5 88-89 .

The c o ins f ro m a c hanne l o f t he t hermae , i n L .I , e nd w i th o ne

f ro m 5 91-592 .

The s tra t igraph ic a nd n um is ma t ic e v idence f ro m t he I Ird

9 0

e ar th r a mpar t a lso c lear ly d a tes f ro m af ter 5 85-587 .

9 1

. S ac idava

t oo was n o t

a f fec ted b y t h is i nvas ion , t he l a test c oin f ro m L . Id a ting f ro m 5 99-600 .

A t

D inoge t ia t he l eve l i m media te ly a f ter t he f i re o f 5 59 l as ted a t l eas t u n t i l 5 92 . T he s ame d a te s ee ms t o b e c onf irmed a t A rga mu m , U l me tu m a nd Beroe .

9 2

A t

T om is , t he l a tes t c oins o f Maur ice d a te f ro m 5 92-593 w i th o ne f ro m 6 01-602 . A t I a trus , t h is s tage l as ts f ro m 5 36 t o 6 00-602 . i ssues o f Maur ice d a te f ro m 5 96-597 .

9 4

9 3

A t S uc idava-Ce le i t he l a tes t

There h ave b een c ases when s tar t ing

f ro m a s ing le d iscovery o r t he r esu l ts o b ta ined a t as ing le s i te , c onc lus ions h ave b een d rawn wh ich h ave t hen b een r egarded a s g enera l ly a pp l icab le a nd u n iversa l ly t rue , e ven a t t he c os t o f i gnor ing s o me i nconven ien t a rgu men ts , o r s e lec t ing a r t if ic ia l ly f ro m t he b ody o f f ac ts a nd p roofs a va i lab le a t a g iven mo men t .

The a rchaeo log ica l r ea l i ty d oes n o t p er m i t s uch g enera l iza-

9 5

t ions a nd , we t h ink , t he d a ta a nd t he a rgu men ts r equire a n o pen- m inded a pproach a nd i n terpre ta t ion . I n f ac t , Th . S i moca t ta r efers t o t he p assage o f t he Avar-S lav

i nvaders

i n 5 86-587 o n t he r igh t b ank o f t he Danube , f ro m R a t iar ia t o D urostoru m , Za ldapa , Marc ianopo l is a nd T ropaeu m , t he l as t a lso b eing t he l as t c i ty t aken b y t he b arbar ians .

Th is c lear l i terary i nfor ma t ion ,

s tra t igraph ic a nd n um is ma t ic

9 6

c orre la ted w i th t he

d a ta f or t he S cy th ian l imes , a t t he n or th a nd

a long t he Dobru jan B lack S ea c oas t ( areas n o t a f fec ted b y t he a t tack ) , s how t ha t t he g rea t i nvas ion o f 5 86-587 r avaged t he s ou th-wes tern a nd s ou thern Dobru ja .9 7 Tropaeu m was d estroyed i n as ing le a t tack . The r ura l a reas s outh o f Dobru ja h ad a lso b een p i l laged , o f c ourse . The l a test man ifes ta t ions o f I mper ia l a u thor i ty o n t he Danub ian f ron t ier a re d ue t o t he Emperor Maur ice T iber ius , who a f ter t he c onc lusion o f p eace w i th t he P ersians i n 5 91 , b egan a l ong war w i th t he Avars a nd S c lav in i , b et ween 5 92 a nd 6 02 .

9 8

A s we f i nd f ro m t he d escr ip t ions o f mi li tary a c t ions g iven b y S i moca t ta 9 9 a nd Theophanes ,

1 00

t h is war was g enera l ly f avourab le t o t he R o mans , h av ing

a n o f fens ive c harac ter , w i th many o f t he b a t t les f ough t n orth o f t he Danube . Af i rs t a c t ion i n t he moun ta in c a mpa ign , i n 5 92 , p assed t hrough D oros to lon , a nd was l ed b y t he g enera l P r iscus , a man o f g rea t a bi l i ty , a ga ins t A rdagas t , t he c h ief o f t he S c lav in i , a f ter a n a gree men t h ad b een r eached b y t he R o man g enera l w i th t he Avars .

The s econd c ampa ign a ga ins t t he S c lav in i t ook p lace

i n 5 93 , a nd was a lso l ed b y P r iscus . I n 5 96 , t he a r my , c o m manded n ow b y t he Emperor 's b ro ther P etrus , p assed t hrough Z a ldapa , t hen I s trus , N ovae a nd Ase mos .

I tt hen c rossed t he Danube a ga ins t P iragas t .

was o b liged t o r eturn .

F ina l ly P e trus

Th is c a mpa ign l ed t o t he b ur ia l o f t he h oard a t

S ocar ic iu ( l a tes t c oin d a t ing f ro m 5 94-595 ) , o n t he l ef t b ank o f t he Danube n ear O strov .

1 01

Then P r iscus o nce a ga in l ed t he R o man a r my , s topp ing

f i rs t a t N ovae ‚then f i gh t ing w i th t he Avars o f B a ian , n ear S ing idunu m . Avars b urned T o mea , i n t he v ic in i ty o f R e mesiana , t o whose h e lp c ame 1 28

The

P riscus ( 599 ) . The h oard f rom Mov i len i , h idden i n 5 99 , may r ef lec t t hese e ven ts .1 02 I n 6 00 a p eace was c onc luded w i th t he Avars i n e xchange f or l arge p aymen ts , b ut i n 6 01 a n ew R o man e xpedi t ion s tar ted a ga ins t t he m i n t he a rea o f S ing idunu m-V im inac ium a nd a rrived o n t he f ar s ide o f t he T isa . I n 6 01 , P etrus w as a ppoin ted a s s tra tegos o f T hrace i n t he p lace o f P riscus . Af ter as er ies o f s uccesses , t he o rder o f t he Emperor t o t he a r my t o r ema in n orth o f t he D anube , d ur ing t he w in ter , c aused ag rea t r evo lt o f t he t roops i n 6 02 , who p roc la i med t he c en tur ion P hocas Emperor .

T h is r evo l t e x tended t o

C ons tan t inop le . We may n o te t ha t d ur ing t h is war t he f or tresses o n t he l imes ( Durosto lon , N ovae , I a trus , A se mos , S ing idunu m ) were i n t he p er manen t p ossess ion o f t he R o mans , a nd t ha t t he b a t t les a nd e xped i t ions t ook p lace e spec ia l ly t o t he n or th o f t he D anube a nd wes t o f Thrace , o uts ide D obru ja . T h is g enera l p icture o f fered t o u s a y a na lys is o f t he l i terary s ources , i s c onf ir med b y s tra t igraphy a nd c o in f i nds .

Where t he c o ins o f t he p er iod J ust in I - Maurice c on t inue u nt i l

5 92-593 o r 5 99-600 , t he f or t if ica t ions r e ma ined u n touched b y t he war , o r a t l eas t u nconquered , u n t i l 6 02 . T he b urn ing d a t ing f ro m t he e nd o f t h is p er iod ( or l eve l ) c an b e r e la ted t o t he e ven ts o f t he y ear 6 02 , when t he D anube f ron t ier r e ma ined u ndefended f or a wh i le d uring t he r evo lt o f P hocas . T he s i tua t ion i s a lso r ef lected i n t he h oards b uried a t H is tr ia l °3

a nd i n B u lgar ia .

1 04

A f ter t h is d isas ter , R o man l i fe r es tar ted i n a l mos t a l l t he f or tresses . A no ther g enera l l eve l was r ecorded a t S ac idava , w i th c oins o f H erac l ius ( 613 ) . I te nded w i th a f i re , a f ter wh ich f o l lowed t wo o ther l eve ls , d ist inc t b ut p oorer a nd w i th n o t races o fb urning . A s was s hown i n t he s ec t ion o n S ac idava 's s tra t igraphy , t he t wo p ostH erac l ian l eve ls h ave a g enera l ly modes t a spec t , b ut a l l t he s ame t he h ouses s t i l l h ad g ood b ea ten c lay f l oors a nd s tone wa l ls c rude ly b onded w i th c lay . Ano ther o bserva t ion t o w h ich we must p ay a t ten t ion i s t ha t l eve ls L . 1 2 a nd L .I l w ere f ound i n s evera l d if feren t a reas o f t he f ortress , wh ich a ga in p roves t he c on t inui ty o f R o mano-Byzan t ine l i fe t hroughout t he f or tresses , e ven i ft he p opu la t ion i s l ess d ense .

A t H is tr ia , i n t he c en tra l p art , o ccupa t ion c ont inued

w ith t wo more l eve ls , wh ich were n o t b urned . T ropaeu m , a f ter t he f i re a nd d es truc t ion o f 5 86-587 , c on t inued w i th t wo more l eve ls , c on ta ining c ons truc t ions wh ich s howed n o t races o f f i re . The f i rs t l eve l af ter 5 87 c ou ld n o t h ave e nded e ar l ier t han 6 02 , s o t he n ex t a nd l as t l eve l mus t h ave l as ted a t l east u n t i l t he t ime o f H erac l ius . 6 15 .

U l me tu m a lso c ont inues a f ter 6 02 a nd l asts u n t i l a t l east

A l though many o pin ions h ave b een e xpressed i n t he l i tera ture , a nd a l though many n ew d iscover ies h ave e nr iched o ur k now ledge o fl a te R o man c ont inu i ty i n D obru ja a nd o n t he L ower Danube l imes , t he v ery i n teres t ing q ues t ion o f t he d a t ing o f t he l ast R o man , r ecogn isab ly u rban l eve ls r e mains u nanswered .

1 29

O ur u nderstanding o f t he c harac ter a nd c hrono logy o f t hese l a test l eve ls a nd c onsequen t ly o f t he e nd o f R o man a u thori ty o n t he I nfer ior Danubian l imes , i s s t i l l a ma tter f or d eba te . B e tween 6 02-610 , u nder P hocas , d isrup t ions were c aused b y t he S lays , who p assed t hrough i n waves t o s e t t le i n t he Emp ire .

U nder H erac l ius ( 610-

6 41 ) , when a t tacks b y Avars a nd S lays t ook p lace i n 6 19 a nd 6 26, t here was a ga in s er ious d isturbance , b u t i ti s d if f icu lt t o s pec ify e xac t ly h ow t he l imes o f t he L ower D anube a nd Dobru ja was a f fec ted . 1 05 The sw if t r eturn o f I mper ia l a uthor i ty o n t he L ower Danube l imes a f ter 6 02 c an b e d e mons tra ted b y t he mone tary c ircu la t ion . C o ins o f P hocas were f ound a t H is tr ia , C a l la t is , T om is ( 10 c o ins ) , N ov iodunnu m a nd Lazu ( 605-606) . A lso c o ins o f H erac lius were d iscovered a t T om is ( 7 c oins ) , a t H is tr ia ( da t ing f ro m 6 13-614 ) , C a l la t is ( 628-629 a nd 6 30-631 ) , D uros toru m , Axiopo l is , N ov iod unu m a nd e ven a t U l me tu m ( 6 14-615 ) .

C oins o f H erac l ius a nd H erac l ius

C onstan t ine ( 612-631 ) were f ound a t S inoe .

1 06

We must a dd h ere t he l ead

s ea l w i th t he p or tra i t o f H erac lius t he e lder f ro m T om is , t he l ead s ea ls o f v ar ious 7 th-century B yzan t ine d ign i tar ies d iscovered a t Duros toru m ,

1 07

a

6 th-7th c entury l ead s ea l f ro m N 9 'v iodunu m , a nd t he i nscr ip t ion o f t he 6 th-7th c en tury 1 08

f ro m L azu , t he l a tes t L a tin i nscr ipt ion f ro m Dobru ja .

The a na lys is b y A . P e tre o f t he d a ta a nd o bserva t ions f ro m t he o ld e xcavat i ons made i n t he b us iness a rea , t e mp le a rea , Do mus , t her mae , a nd t he e x tramura l a rea a t H is tria , p roduced c lear a rgu men ts i n f avour o f d a t ing t he Ind l eve l a t H is tria a s l a te a s 6 00-602 , a nd c er ta in ly l a ter t han 5 86-587 .

The

1 09

I st l eve l c on tinued af ter 6 02 , a nd was i den t if ied a l l o ver H is tr ia . 1 10 A l l t he o bserva t ions i ndica te t he u rban c harac ter o ft he l as t H is tr ian l eve l , a s s hown b y t he r e ma ins o f h ouses a nd o ft he s tree ts s t i l l i n u se a f ter 6 02 .111

Impor tan t r epa irs were n o ted t o t he p rec inc t wa l l c orrespond ing t o

t h is L .I , t o t owers D a nd E , t o t he s ta irs , a nd s o o n .F ur ther more , t he t h ird e ar then r a mpar t o u ts ide t he p rec inc t wa l l , c ons truc ted a f ter 6 02 , was e rec ted o ver a l eve l ( I I ) d a ted b y c o ins o f P hocas .

1 12

These o bserva t ions i ndica te t he

s urv iva l o f t he u rban , p erhaps e ven f or t if ied , c harac ter o f H istria u n t i l 6 41 .

1 13

Th is i s g enera l ly c onf ir med b y t he s tra t igraphy o bserved i n t he r ecen t e xcavat ions i n t he c en tra l s ec tor . I n f ac t , a l l t hese o bserva t ions f ro m t he e ar lier e xcava t ions , r econsidered i n t he l i gh t o f t he r ecen t e xcava t ions a t t he Ma in G a te , c en tra l s ec tor ,

a nd

t her mae , c onf ir m a nd c o mp le te t he h ypothes is s ta ted i n 1 957 b y Em . C ondura ch i

1 14

t ha t H istria

was c on tinuous ly o ccup ied i n t he 7 th c entury .

I n t he

f i rs t 1 0 y ears t he *o ccupa t ion was u rban i n c harac ter , l a ter i t was l ess o rgani sed . I n H istr ia , t he ma jor i ty o f t he c oins o f P hocas a nd H erac lius w ere we l l s tra t if ied . The n u mber a nd t he d is tr ibut ion o f t he c o ins o f P hocas o ver t he e n t ire a rea o f t he Ro man f or tress g ives u s ap ic ture o f l i fe t here a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 7 th c en tury .

1 15

T he c o ins o f H erac l ius p rove t he c ont inu i ty o f o ccupa t ion i n t he f i rst d ecades o f t he 7 th c entury , a nd t hey d oub t less c ircu la ted f or s o me y ears a f ter t hey were minted .

The p resence a t S inoe 1 16

1 30

o f ac oin o f Herac lius

( 613-614 ) i s av a luab le i nd ica t ion o f c on t inui ty , a nd o f t he c onnex ions b e tween H is tr ia a nd i t s s urroundings a t t he b eg inning o f t he 7 th c en tury . T he f ina l d a te o f t he f i na l o ccupa t ion o f H is tr ia i s t herefore e i ther t he f irs t q uarter o f t he 6 th c en tury , o r more p robab ly a t t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f Herac l ius .

C on t inui ty i n t he 7 th c en tury i s a lso d e monstra ted b y t he c e me-

t ery a t P ia tra F rec 4e i ( Beroe ) .

1 17

O n t he b as is o f ac o in o f 5 86 a nd Theoph i lac tus S i moca t ta 's wr i t ings , V . P ärvan b e l ieved t ha t t he o ccupa t ion o f t he f ortress o f Tropaeu m e nded a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury . o log is ts .

1 18

Th is o pin ion i s s hared b y p resent-day a rchae-

R ecen t c oin f i nds a nd e spec ia l ly a c o in o f 4 90-591 l ed Gh . P oenaru

B ordea t o t h ink , we b e l ieve w ith g ood r eason , t ha t t he o ccupa t ion a t Tropaeu m c on t inued a f ter t he d isas ter o f 5 86-587 , v ery p robab ly u n t i l 6 02 .

1 1M 9.

S ämpe tru h as t r ied t o a pp ly t he d a te o f 5 86-587 t o t he e n t ire D obru ja , a f ter wh ich h e c ons iders a l l t he s i tes t o h ave u ndergone u rban r econstruc t ion l ast ing u n t i l 6 14 .

I n 6 14 , u rban l i fe i n T ropaeu m 1 2°

a s we l l a s i n t he o ther t owns o f

Dobru ja , c ame t o a n e nd . A t H istr ia , c en tra l a rea , t he l a tes t l eve ls p ro long t he t erm ina l d a te a f ter 6 02 , a nd i ndeed a f ter 6 14 t o 6 40 , a nd maybe e ven l a ter . A t U l me tu m , t here a re t hree b urned l eve ls .

T he l ower l eve l i s s hown b y

ac o in d a ting f ro m t he s econd y ear o f Maur ice 's r e ign t o h ave b een d es troyed i n 5 86 .

T here a re t hen t wo more l eve ls w i th b urn ing , e x tending t he l i fe o f t he

f or tress a f ter 6 14 .

We may a lso a dd t he o bserva t ion o f V . P ärvan o n t he c losing

o f t he n or thwes tern g a teway , as ure s ign o f t he R o mano-Byzan t ine c harac ter o f t he f or tress . 1 21 A t U l me tu m , t he l as t c o in b e longs t o t he r eign o f H erac lius ( 614-615 ) . 1 22 C o ins o f 6 28-629 a nd 6 30-631 were f ound a t C a l la t is . i s k nown f ro m T om is .

A c o in o f 6 29-630

I ti s a lso i n teres t ing t o n ote t he d iscovery made o n t he

B lack S ea c oas t , where b es ides g o ld c o ins t here were b ronze c oins o f C ons tans I a nd C onstan t ine I v 1 23 A n impor tan t p rob le m , b u t o ne d if f icu lt t o s o lve , i s t ha t o f t he d ura t ion o f t he f or t if ied R o man l imes i n t he 7 th c en tury .

A t S ac idava , t he d efens ive wa l ls

s urv ived u n t i l t he e nd o ft he I s t l eve l , t herefore u nder H erac l ius .

H istr ia

r e ta ined i t s s tone f or t if ica t ions , a dd ing a lso a l arge e ar th r a mpar t .

The f or-

t i f ica t ions p robab ly s urv ived where c o ins o f H erac l ius h ave b een f ound : S ac idava , H istr ia , C a l la t is , D urostoru m , Ax iopo lis a nd U l metu m .

a t

The l a te

f or t if ica t ion , t he s o-ca l led ' cast le ', a t C ap idava , i s a rch i tec tura l ly c harac teri s t ic o f t he e nd o f t he 6 th c en tury , o r r a ther af ter t he a t tacks o f 6 00-602 . The n or th o f D obru ja s ee med t o p resen t as pec ia l s i tua t ion .

A t D inoge t ia

t he l a tes t c o ins d a te f rom 5 92 a nd a t N ov iodunu m t he l a tes t i ssues a re t hose o f P hocas .

However , t he l a tes t l eve ls a re d isturbed o r d estroyed b y medieva l

a nd modern a c t iv i t ies , s o t ha t we o n ly s ugges t a s ah ypo thes is t he p ossib i li ty t ha t t he n or thern S cy th ian l imes were a bandoned e ar l ier t han t he r est o f t he p rov ince .

1 24

The s e t t le men t o f t he S lays , c om ing i n many s epara te waves i n to t he t err i tory o f t he Emp ire , i n t he f or m o f s o me g roups r eferred t o i n t he s ources a s s c lav ini , i s n o t e v idence f or t he a bandon men t o f t he l imes .

The S lays

s e t t led f ur ther t o t he s outh ( Thrace , Macedon ia , P e loponnesus ) , a nd a re n o t 1 31

e ncoun tered o n t he L ower Danub ian l imes , n e ither i n f or tresses , n or i n r ura l s e t t le men ts .

There i s n ot a s ing le t race o f t he S lays i n t he 7 th o r 8 th c entur ies .

The o ld R o man f or t if ica t ions were r e-used o nce a gain i n t he e ar ly medieva l p er iod . There i s much e v idence t ha t t he f or t if ica t ions o n t he l i mes w ere g radua l ly d eser ted , w i th a p rogress ive d i minu t ion o f t he i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion w i th n o a t tacks f ro m o uts ide a nd n o f i res , a s ar esu lt o f t he weaken ing a nd e ventua l c essa t ion o f R o man a uthor i ty o n t he Danube , a nd t he e cono m ic c hanges b rough t a bou t b y an ew s oc ia l s ys te m . R ecen t e xcava t ions p rove t ha t , a long t he e n t ire L ower Danub ian l imes a nd i n D obru ja , a f ter t he s upposed d isappearance o f t he f or t if ied l imes a t t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f Herac l ius , t he R o mano-Byzan t ine l i fe o f t he l oca l p opu la t ion c on tinued i n i t s t radi t iona l f or ms d own t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he 7 th c en tury . We may a lso r e me mber t he v iews o f N . I orga o n R o mano-Byzan tine s urv iva l d own t o 6 80 .

1 25

We may h ope t ha t t he a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions a nd c o in f inds i n t he f u ture w i l l b r ing more s o l id e v idence a bout t he e nd o f t he t owns a nd f or t if icat ions a long t he L ower D anub ian l imes a nd a bout t he c hrono logy o f t he p rocess o f d ec line u n t i l t he f i na l d isappearance o f l a te R o man c u lture . H ypo the t ica l R outes o f s o me B arbar ian I nvas ions Ana lysing a nd c orre la t ing t he d a ta we h ave , wh ich i s o f ten s can ty , we may t ry t o r econs truc t t he r ou tes t aken b y s o me o f t he b arbar ian i ncurs ions o n t he L ower Danube ( P l . XLV I I-LV I I ) . I n C hap ter I we q uo ted mi les tones a s p roofs o f t he r oad r econs truc t ions . S o me o f t hese r econs truc t ions may h ave b een u nder taken f o l low ing t he d est ruc t ions c aused b y t he b arbar ian a t tacks , o r t hey may b e e xp la ined b y t he i ndependen t a c t ions o f t he Emperors . S o me i nscr ip t ions may b e c onnec ted w i th a t tacks o r i nvas ions , b ut t hose c on ta ining c er ta in r eferences t o s uch e ven ts a re v ery r are .

There a re t wo

i nscribed f unera l monu men ts d iscovered a t A damc lis i , wh ich c lear ly r efer t o t he i nvas ion b y t he C os toboc i i n 1 70 . r efers t o t he i nvas ion o f 2 83 , 2 95 .

1 27

1 26

A t D urostoru m a n i nscr ip t ion

a nd a nother p robab ly r efers t o t he w ar o f

There i s a lso t he f ounda t ion i nscr ip t ion o f T rans mar isca .

1 28

The f i rs t i nvas ion t ook p lace i n 1 70 when a m igra t ion o f t he C os toboc i b y s ea a nd l and s tar ted .

A l lied w i th t he B as tarn i a nd S ar ma t i , t hey c rossed t he

Danube n ear D inoge t ia a nd maybe n ear N ov iodunu m t oo , c ont inuing t hrough t he c en tre o f D obru ja a s f ar a s T ropaeu m , wh ich i ta ppears t hey t ook a nd s acked .

They t hen a t tacked H is tr ia , where t he c onsequen t d es truc t ion i s

d e tec tab le , 1 29 b efore p roceeding s outhwards t hrough Thrac ia a nd Macedon ia . The i nvaders d id n o t a t tack t he f or tresses o n t he l imes w i th t he p oss ib le e xc ep t ion o f D inoge t ia . S ac idava d oes n o t p resen t s igns o fb urn ing o r d es truc t ion i n t he 2 nd c en tury .

1 32

T he i nvas ions o f t he midd le o f t he 3 rd c entury s tar ted i n t he y ear 2 38 , b ut n o t a l l t he a t tacks p assed t hrough S cy th ia Minor .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t i n

2 46 s o me i ncursions o f t he C arp i i n s earch o f l oot may h ave s truck a l im i ted a rea i n t he s ou thwes tern p ar t o f D obru ja , b u t t hey d id n o t a f fec t a ny o f t he f or t if ica t ions .

I n 2 48 a s trong b arbarian c oa l i t ion l ed b y t he G o ths i nvaded

a nd p lundered S cy th ia Minor a nd Moes ia , p enetra t ing a s f ar a s Marc ianopo lis wh ich t hey b es ieged

We h ave n o e v idence t ha t t he f or tresses s uf fered a ny

d amage , b ut t he r ura l a reas were d evas ta ted .

I n 2 49 , t he g rea t i nvasion l ed

b y t he Goth K n iva s tar ted a nd l asted u n t i l 2 51 .

The weaker o ft he a t tack ing

f orces c rossed s ou thwards a long t he c oas t o f t he Dobru ja .

I t s p rinc ipa l b lows

were d irec ted a t N ovae , N icopo l is , P h i lippopo l is ( wh ich was t aken ) , Abr itus , Romu la a nd S laven i .

H oards a re k nown o n ly f ro m Moes ia , p rov ing t ha t

S cy th ia Minor was o n ly s l igh t ly a f fec ted , w i th p erhaps t he o n ly r ura l s e t t lemen ts a long t he c oas t s uf fering .

An ew , s udden a nd v io lent i ncurs ion t ook

p lace i n 2 53, , when v ar ious h oards w ere b ur ied i n D obru ja .

The s ack ing o f

H is tr ia p robab ly t ook p lace a t t h is t ime . I n 2 58, t he i nvaders p assed a long t he wes tern c oast o f t he B lack S ea , a nd p robab ly s topped u nder t he wa l ls o f C a l la t is ,where t here a re e x tramura l h oards . The a t tacks o f 2 67 r avaged t he n or th o f Dobru ja :

D inoge t ia , N ov iodunu m a nd

Aegysus s uf fered s er ious d a mage , a nd a c on te mporary h oard i s k nown f ro m N ov iodunu m .

An ew i nvas ion i n 2 69 p robab ly s topped o n ly a t T om is , wh ich

was s e t o n f i re b u t was n ot t aken , a nd t hen c on t inued s ou thwards . I ts ee ms t ha t t he i nvas ion o f 2 95 c aused h avoc a nd b urning i n Dobru ja , n o t o n ly i n t he r ura l s i tes , b ut a lso a t S ac idava , B eroe , T ropaeu m , H is tr ia , T om is , a nd e lsewhere ( hoards f ro m P . F rec 4e i a nd C ons ta r4a ) . T he Goth ic a nd C arp ic a t tacks b etween 3 15 a nd 3 32 a re n o t s o w e l l k nown f rom t he l i terary s ources , b u t t hey mus t h ave a f fec ted S cy th ia .

T he mos t

v io len t a ttack was t ha t o f 3 31-332 , wh ich l ef t t races a t S ac idava , T om is , Arganu m , I a trus a nd p erhaps a t S uc idava t oo . T he i nvasions a nd c onfus ion o f t he y ears 3 64-378 c aused g rea t d es truc t ion i n D obru ja , among wh ich we n o te t he b urn ing a t T om is , Arganu m , T ropaeu m , I a trus a nd p erhaps H is tr ia .

B ut C ap idava , S uc idava , a nd p erhaps H istr ia a nd

To m is , were b urned i n 3 84-385 ( hoards f ro m Medg idia a nd S trunga ) a nd t he n or th o f t he p rov ince ( D inoge t ia , H a l myr is ) was p i l laged i n 3 85-386 .

We c an

t herefore i den t ify t hree t imes o f d es truc t ion i n t hree a reas . T he p ic ture o f t he H unn ic i nvas ions o f t he midd le o f t he 5 th c entury a re more d if f icu lt t o r econs truc t i n d e ta i l . p lace b etween 4 34 a nd 4 49.

The most c oncen tra ted a t tacks t ook

The s tra t igraphy a nd c o in f i nds i nd ica te t ha t t he

d es truc t ion o f S ac idava , H istr ia , D inoge t ia a nd T om is t ook p lace i n 4 50 , a nd o n t he western s ec tor o f t he l imes t he d es truc t ion t ook p lace e ar l ier ( Suc idava 4 22-447 ( ? ) a nd I a trus 4 23 ) .

O f c ourse p i l lag ing i ncursions t ook p lace t hrough-

o ut t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury a nd c on tinued i n t he s econd h a lf .

The

s econd h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury a lso s aw v io lent a t tacks b y t he G oths a l lied w i th B u lgar ians b e tween 4 71 a nd 4 88.

( Sac idava , H istr ia , T om is , a ic idava , A rga-

n um , I a trus , a nd a h oard o f 4 71-474 f ro m Mircea-Voda-) . T he B u lgar ian i ncurs ions o f 4 93 54 99 a nd 5 02 c rossed t he Danube i n to wes tern S cy th ia .

The a t tacks o f 5 28 , 5 29 a nd 5 33 c aused d a mage o n ly i n 1 33

r ura l a reas .

O n ly i n 5 40 d id t he B u lgar ians a t tack t he R o man f or t if ica t ions ,

n o t i n S cy th ia b ut f ur ther s ou th ( Thrace , Macedon ia , C onstan tinop le ) , t he Danube c ross ing b e ing made t o t he w es t

( I a trus w as b urned a f ter 5 30 ) .

Be-

t ween 5 44 a nd 5 51 t he a t tacks were a lso d irec ted t owards Thrace a nd I l lyria . B u t i n 5 59 t he K utr igur i l ed b y Z abergan c rossed t he Danube i n to S cy th ia , p robab ly n ear D inoge t ia , a nd p i l laged t he p rov ince b efore mov ing s ou thwards . D inoge t ia , N ov iodunu m ( hoard ) , S ac idava , H istr ia a nd p erhaps a lso T ropaeu m were s acked . A nother a t tack c ame i n 5 62 , t o j udge b y ah oard f ro m T opa lu . T he Avar i ncurs ions b e tween 5 66 a nd 5 82 d id n ot a f fec t S cy th ia .

B ut i n

5 86-587 t he b ig Avar-S lav i nvas ion r avaged t he s ou th-wes tern p ar t o f D obru ja ( Tropaeu m , Duros toru m a nd S uc idava-Izvoare le ) a s we l l a s o ther r ura l a reas t o t he s outh .

Ab a t t le w i th t he Avars l ed b y Ba ian t ook p lace n ear T omis .

The R o man c ampa igns b etween 5 92 a nd 6 02 were c arr ied o ut t o t he wes t o f S cy th ia a nd n or th o f t he Danube . I n 6 02 t he f ron t ier was l ef t u ndefended b y P hocas , wh ich f aci li ta ted t he S lav i nvas ion o f D obru ja . S ac idava , H istr ia , D inoge t ia , N ov iodunu m , Arga mu m , Tropaeu m a nd I a trus ( hoards f ro m I s tr ia ) were a l l a t tacked .

The Ma jor P er iods i n t he H is tory o f D obru ja The h is tory c f S cy th ia Minor , i n t he c on tex t o ft he d eve lop men t o f t he R o man Emp ire i n g enera l , h as t radi t iona l ly b een d iv ided i n to t wo ma in p eriods : t he E ar ly R o man , a nd t he L a te , o r R o mano-Byzan t ine , p er iod .

B u t t hese

t wo impor tant p er iods , i n o ur o p in ion , f or m i nadequa te d escript ion a nd d o n o t e nt ire ly a nd e xac t ly r ef lec t t he d eve lop men t o r e vo lut ion o f R o man c iv i lisa t ion b etween t he L ower Danube a nd t he B lack S ea .

A t t h is s tage i n o ur k now ledge

i ti s n ecessary t o p ropose f ur ther s ub-div isions o f t he t wo ma in p er iods , a nd t hese s ub-div is ions may t he mse lves b e d iv ided f ur ther .

We w i l l r e ta in f or

t he t ime b e ing t he c onven t iona l d iv is ion b e tween t he E ar ly a nd La te P er iods i n t he r e ign o f D ioc le t ian . The E ar ly R o man P er iod c an b e d iv ided a s f o l lows : A .

F ro m t he a nnexa t ion o f D obru ja t o t he Emp ire , i n t he i s t c entury A . D . d own t o t he midd le o f t he 3 rd c entury .

Th is i s at ime o f g enera l p rosper i ty

a nd i ncreasing d eve lop men t . B .

The t ime o f c r is is wh ich s tar ted a bou t t he m idd le o f t he 3 rd c en tury , d et er m ined t he f ea tures o f t he s econd s tage wh ich l as ted u nt i l t he r e ign o f D ioc le t ian . T he L a te R o man P er iod c an b e d iv ided a s f o l lows :

A .

The t ime f ro m D ioc le t ian t o C ons tan t ius I a nd J u lian ( 2 85 t o 3 63 ) , who r adica l ly r efor med t he Emp ire .

1 34

B .

T he p eriod f ro m Va lens t o Theodos ius I ( 3 64-450 ) , marked b y e f forts t o ma inta in a nd r estore t he Emp ire .

C .

Ap er iod o f g enera l p rosper i ty , f ro m A nas tas ius t o J us t in I , ( 491-578) .

D .

Ap er iod o f r es is tance , f ro m Maur ice T iber ius t o H erac l ius ( 5 82-641 ) . T hese b road c hrono log ica l s ub-div is ions c an b e f ur ther d iv ided i n to

t h ir teen p er iods wh ich s um u p t he h istory o f R o man D obru ja a nd o f t he R o man l i mes o n t he L ower Danube . F irst P er iod :

B eg ins w i th t he a nnexa t ion o f Dobru ja t o t he Emp ire a nd

w i th t he i ntroduc t ion o f t he f i rs t a ux i lia i n to t he t err i tory , i n o rder t o d efend i ts b oundaries . I tl as ts u n t i l t he t ime o f T ra jan , t he r ea l f ounder o f t he Ro man l imes o n t he L ower D anube .

We h ave n o e v idence f or t h is p er iod

f ro m o ur e xcava t ions s ince t he c a mps o f t he f orces i n troduced b y V espasian h ave g o t t o b e l oca ted .

We h ave t he s tra t igraphy o f t he t owns o f t he western

B lack S ea c oas t , b ut i ti s n o t v ery c lear a nd i n t h is p er iod e spec ia l ly i td oes n ot r ef lec t t he s i tua t ion i n Dobru ja . S econd P er iod :

Th is c overs t he r e igns o f T ra jan , H adr ian a nd Marcus

Aure l ius ( 161-180 ) , p robab ly b eing i n terrup ted i n 1 70 b y t he i nvas ion o f t he C os toboc i ;

t he b urn ing a nd d es truc t ion c an b e v erif ied o n ly o n t he c oas t .

t his p er iod, t he l imes was f i rs t c rea ted .

I n

O n t he l imes i t se lf t he p er iod i s

l ess w e l l k nown , af ac t e xp lained b y t he i nadequa te e xcava t ions c arr ied i n t he d eepes t l eve ls o f t he l imes s i tes . T he Th ird P er iod :

F ro m t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c entury t o t he midd le o f t he

3 rd c entury ; b e tween 2 49 a nd 2 67 t he g enera l c r is is r eached i t s c l i max i n Dobru ja w ith t he C arp ic-Go th ic i nvas ions . T he F our th P er iod :

Th is c o mpr ises t he p er iod o f r econstruc t ion i n t he

s econd h a lf o f t he 3 rd c en tury , s tar t ing a f ter t he C arp ic-Go th ic i nvas ions a nd c on t inu ing d own t o t he i nvas ion o f 2 95 ( t he b eginning o ft he r e ign o f D ioc let ian ) . Th is p er iod c an v ary f ro m o ne a rea t o a no ther; mos t o ft he work o f r econst ruc t ion was s tar ted u nder Ga ler ius , A ure l ian o r P robus . T he F if th P er iod :

T h is marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he L a te R o man P er iod .

A t t h is t ime t he work o f r es tora t ion was i n i t ia ted b y D ioc le t ian af ter t he i nv as ion o f 2 95 .

I tl as ted u n t i l t he b arbar ian a t tacks o f 3 13 t o 3 32 .

T he S ix th P er iod :

T h is c ont inues f ro m t he p receding p eriod , w i th a l l t he

d isturbances men t ioned a bove , u n ti l 3 78-385 , t ha t i s t o s ay e i ther u n t i l Va lens ' wars , o r i n s o me f or tresses u n t i l t he a t tacks i n t he r e ign o f Theodos ius I . These d if ferences c an b e e xp la ined i n t er ms o f t he a reas a f fec ted b y t he r outes t aken b y t he i nvading b arbar ians . T he S even th P er iod :

Th is i s t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he 5 th c en tury , a nd was n o t

r ecogn ised a s ad is t inc t p er iod u n t i l r ecen t ly .

I tl as t f ro m t he e nd o f t he 4 th

c en tury t o t he t ime o f Theodos ius I , t ha t i s t o a bout 4 50 , when t he H unn ic i nvas ion t ook p lace .

T h is e ven t o ccurred e ar lier i n t he wes tern p ar t o f t he

Lower Danub ian l imes . T he E igh th P er iod : Th is r ef lec ts t he d ark y ears a f ter t he H unn ic i nvas ions , f rom 4 50 t o 4 91 , t roub led b y f requen t a t tacks a nd e nding b etween 4 71 a nd 4 88 .

1 35

The N in th P er iod s tar ts i n t he y ear 4 91 a nd l as ts u n t i l t he e nd o f t he r e ign J us t in ian , when t he K utrigur i l ed b y Z abergan d es troyed a nd s e t o n f i re many o f t he f or tresses o n t he L ower D anube ( 559 ) . The T en th P er iod c o mpr ises t he y ears a f ter t he i nvas ion o f 5 59 , f ro m J ust in I u n t i l t he e nd o f Maur ice T iber ius ' r e ign i n 6 02 .

I n v ery f ew c ases

o n s i tes i n t he s ou th ( south o f D obru ja ) d es truct ion t ook p lace i n 5 86-587 ( Tropaeu m ) . The E leven th P er iod :

T he p er iod o f P hocas a nd H erac l ius , f rom 6 02 t o

6 15 o r p erhaps e ven 6 41 . The Twe lf th P er iod :

E i ther t he l as t y ears o f t he r e ign o f Herac l ius o r

l a ter . The Th irteen th P er iod :

T h is o n ly c ons is ts o f modest s truc tures f ound o n ly

o n s o me s i tes , b u t t he c on t inu i ty o f t he R o mano-Byzan t ine p opu la t ion f ro m t he midd le o f t he 7 th c en tury d own t o 6 80 i s c erta in .

1 36

CHAPTER I I REFERENCES AND NOTES

1 .

S ee n ote 1 1 C hap ter Ia nd V . Pärvan , C e ta tea Tropaeu m , p . 2 , n o te 7 , p . 1 70;

i de m , U l metu m , I , p p . 5 15,595 .

2 .

H . v . P etrikov i ts , JRS , 6 1, 1 971, p . 1 96 .

3 .

I b id . ,p . 2 03 .

4 .

M . G ichon , S tudien , p . 1 89 .

I de m , E xcava t ions a t Mezad To mar-"Ta mara"

1 973-75 , P re li minary R eport , S aa lburg-Jahrbuch , 3 3, 1 976, p p . 8 , 8 0-94 . 5 .

S . S oproni , Ac tes , p p . 1 82-183 , f i gs . 2a nd 3 .

6 .

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7 .

R .

8 .

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9 .

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, p . 1 82 , f i g . 1 7, p . 1 94 , f ig . 2 6/4 .

F loreseu , BMI , 3 , 1 972 , p p . 2 3 ,24 . H . v . P e tr ikov i ts ,

,p assi m .

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t a ire d u Bas-E mpire , Me langes d 'h istoire a nc ienne e t d 'archeo logie — P .

C o l lar t , C ah iers d 'archeo log ie R o mande , 5 , L ausanne , 1 976 , p p . 1 73-

1 91 . 1 0 .

I b id . ,p . 1 78 .

1 1.

R . G .

C o l lingwood , I an R ich mond , The Archaeo logy o f Ro man B ritain ,

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K . Wach te l , Actes , p . 1 39 , f i g . 1 .

1 3 .

R . F e l l mann , 2 n. .

1 4 .

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1 5 .

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1 6.

S HA , GordianuF

1 7 .

, p . 1 84 a nd f i g . 1 3 . A H is tory o f R o man B ri tain .

I I , 2 6, 4 ;

3 4 , 4 .

R . Vu lpe , D ID , 2 , p . 2 40 , B . Mi trea , i n P ont ica , 8 , 1 975 , p p . 1 25-175 .

1 8 .

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1 9 .

I ordanes , _ 9 2 . c i t . ,1 00-103 ( =Fontes , 2 , p . 4 23) ;

Aure l ius V ictor ,

C aesares , 2 9; Am m . Marce l linus , XXX I , 1 5 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 1 41); D exippus , FHG , 1 6 .

R . V u lpe , D ID , 2 , p p . 2 44-249 .

2 0 .

Z osi mos , I , 2 6-28 ( I , 2 6, F ontes, 1 , p . 3 03) .

2 1 .

C a mena ( near H istria ) a nd S aragea , ( 253 e .n .) . 3 , 1 973 , p p . 6 8-69 . 1 37

C f . H . N ubar , H istria ,

2 2 .

Z os i mos , I , 3 4 , 2 ;

I , 3 5 , 2( =Fon tes , 2 ,

2 3 .

Trebe l l ius P o l lio , SHA , Ga l lien i , 1 3 , 6 .

2 4 .

R . V u lpe , D ID , 2 , p p . 2 58-259 .

2 5 .

Z osi mos , I , 4 2 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 3 05-306) .

2 6 .

E .g . C a lla t is , p robab le a t 2 49 , 2 58-59 , 2 65-66 A .D .

P .

3 05 ) .

S HA , C laudius , 6 , 1 . ( c f . Gh . P oenaru-

B ordea , S CN , 5 , 1 971 , p . 1 07) . 2 7 .

B . Mi trea ,

2 8 .

H . N ubar , 2 E . c i t . ,p . 6 8, n ote 2 46 .

2 9 .

2 2 . c i t . ,p p . 1 47-148.

C . P reda , P euce , 2 , 1 971, p p . 1 74-175 .

Ad if feren to p inion a t Gh .

P oenaru-Bordea , a pud B . Mi trea ( SCN , 5 , 1 971, p . 1 07) . 3 0 .

C . P reda , l oc . c i t ., p p . 1 73-174 .

3 1 .

V . P ärvan , C eta tea Tropaeu m , B uc ., 1 912 , p . 4 4; p . 1 05;

S . L a mbr ino , R evue d es e tudes l a tines , 1 1, 1 933, p p . 4 57-463;

Em . C ondurach i , H istria , 1 , p p . 5 7-58; 4 64-480 ;

i de m , H is tr ia , VI I ,

Em . Dor g iu , S t .

D . M . P ipp idi , Con tr ibut i i2,

C l ., 6 , 1 964 , p p . 2 47-259;

2 , p p . 2 30-268; i de m , S t . C l , 1 1, 1 969 , p p . 1 57-172; Dac ia , NS , 1 3 , 1 969; p p . 3 47-48; p p . 9 1-113;

R . V u lpe , DID , A l .

S ucevenu,

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , SCN , 5 , 1 971,

H . N ubar , 2 2 . c i t . ,p p . 6 8-69; A l . S uceveanu , V iata

e cono m ic äi n Dobrogea r o man , B uc ., 1 977 , p p . 2 8-29 . 3 2 .

H . N ubar , 2 2 .c i t . ,p . 6 9;

3 3 .

D . T udor , S uc idava , 1 974 , p p . 9 5-96 .

3 4 .

A l . S uceveanu , 2 2 . c i t .

A l . S uceveanu , 2 2..c i t . ,p . 2 9 .

p . 3 64 ;

V . B arbu , T o mis , e d . A lba tros , 1 972 ,

p . 5 9 ( Coins Aure lian a nd Tac i tus i n t he p rec inc t wa l l) . 3 5 .

A ure l ius V ic tor , C aesares , 3 9 , 4 3 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 2 5 ) .

E useb ius, V I I I ,

1 7 , 3( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 1 1) . 3 6 .

C IL , I I , 6 151;

3 7 .

Gh . S tefan , Dac ia , I , 1 957, p p . 2 25-227; 3 74-376;

I . I . R ussu , A ISC , 2 , 1 933-35 , 1 936 , p p . 2 10-212 .

A l . S uceveanu , 9 2 . c i t . ,p . 3 64;

I . B arnea , D ID , 2 , 1 968, p p . H . N ubar , 2 E

H . N ubar ,

. c i t . ,p .

7 1.

3 8 .

Gh . B ordea , P on t ica , 4 , 1 971 , p . 3 22;

c i t ., p . 7 1 .

3 9 .

I nfor ma t ion R . O che§eanu;

4 0 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , 2 p..c i t . ,p . 3 23 .

4 1 .

A l . S uceveanu , 2 p . c i t . ,p . 3 40 .

4 2 .

Mäc in , Ada mc lis i , F i n ti na Mare , 6 Mart ie , c f . Gh . P oenaru-Bordea ,

A . P e tre , Ma ter ia le , 8 , 1 962 , p . 5 68 .

22 . c i t . ,p . 3 23 a nd n o te 2 2 . 4 3 .

E xcerp ta Va lesiana , 2 1, 2 7, 3 1 , 3 2;

Z osi mos , I , 2 1 ( =Fontes , 2 , p . 3 07) .

4 4 .

Am m . Marce l linus , XXV I I , 4 , 6 ; XX I I , 7 , 7 .

4 5 .

I de m , XXV I , 1 0 , 4 .

4 6 .

Am m . Marce l linus , ) 0 (V I , 1 0 , 4( =Fontes , 2 , p . 1 19) .

( =Fontes , 2 , p p . 1 21-122 .)

Z os i mos , I V , 7( =Fontes , 2 , p . 3 09) .

1 38

4 7 .

I de m , XXV I I , 5 ;

Z osi mos , I V , 1 0 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 3 10 ) .

C odex Theo-

d osianus , X , 1 6, 2 . 4 8.

I . Barnea , D ID , 2 , p p . 3 95-396 .

4 9 .

Am m . Marce l linus , XXX I , 4 -6 ( =Fontes , 2 , p p . 1 29-131) .

5 0 .

I de m , XXI , 7 -13;

5 1 .

I . Barnea , 9 2 .c i t . ,p . 4 05 .

5 2 .

0 . I l iescu , SCN , 2 , 1 958, p . 4 53 , n o . 1 0 , h oard f ro m S trunga , n ear O ltina .

I ordanes , Ge t ica , XXV I .

R . O che§eanu , A . D um itra§cu , Pont ica , 5 , 1 972 , p . 5 37,

h oard f ro m Medg idia . 5 3 .

A l . S uceveanu , C . S corpan , P ont ica , 4 , 1 971 , p . 1 68; Gh . P oenaruB ordea , P ont ica , 4 , p p . 3 22-323; A l . S uceveanu , Dac ia , NS , 1 3 , p . 3 40 .

5 4 .

H .

Nubar ,

c i t ., p p . 7 4-75 .

5 5 .

I b id ., p p . 7 5-76 .

5 6.

I b id ., p . 7 7 .

5 7 .

I . Barnea , 92 . c i t . ,p p . 4 06-409 .

5 8 .

S ozo menos , V I I , 2 6 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 2 29 ) .

5 9 .

P riscus , 1( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 2 49 ) .

6 0 .

I ordanes , Ge t ica , 2 66 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 4 31) .

6 1 .

P riscus , 2 0 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 2 97 , n ote 2 2 ) .

Marce l linus C o mes , a . 4 69

( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 3 61-362 ) . 6 2 .

I ordanes , Get ica , 2 67 ( =Fontes , 2 , 4 31) .

6 3 .

I . Barnea , 22 . c i t . ,p . 4 09 .

6 4 .

S ee t he c hapters o n s tra t igraphy —Sac idava a nd H istr ia .

6 5 .

Gh .

Poenaru-Bordea , P on t ica , 4 , 1 971, p p . 3 25-326;

1 971 , p . 5 2; 6 6 .

V .

6 7 . M .

i de m , BMI , 3 ,

H . N ubar , 2 2 . c i t . ,p . 7 4 .

C u lica , Pontica , 5 , 1 972 ,p . 2 37 . C o ja , 2 2 . c i t . , BMI , 3 , 1 972 , p . 3 8 .

6 8 .

S CIV , 1 -2 , 1 954 , p . 1 62 , f i g . 3 .

6 9 .

I nfor m . A l Barnea .

7 0 .

C . Mois i l , BSNR , 1 0 , n r . 1 9 , 1 913 , p . 2 1 ( Apud Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , 2 p . c it ., p . 5 2 , n ote 1 8) .

7 1 .

V .

Pärvan , H istr ia , I V , p . 7 01;

I de m , Dac ia , 2 , 1 925 , p . 2 48;

P opescu , S t . C l ., 8 , 1 966 , p p . 1 97-206;

Em .

I . Barnea , Dac ia , N S , 4 , 1 960 ,

p . 3 65 . 7 2 .

Gh . Poenaru-Bordea , V . Barbu , Dac ia , NS , 1 4 , p p . 2 51-295 .

7 3 .

S ozo menos , I X " , 5 , 1( =Fontes , 2 , p p . 2 29-231); D . Tudor , S uc idava , 1 974 , p . 9 7 .

1 39

7 4 .

I nfor m . B . B öt tger .

7 5 .

Marce l linus C o mes , a . 4 93 , a . 4 99 ( =Fontes , 2 , p . 3 6) . C hronograph ia , a . 5 02 ( =Fontes , 2 , p . 5 97) .

Theophanes ,

P . L er ner le , I nvas ions e t

migra t ions d ans l es B a lkans d epuis l e f i n d e l 'epoque r o ma ine j usqu 'au V I I I-e s f ec le , Revue h istorique , t o me 2 11, 1 954 , p . 2 83 . 7 6 .

I . B arnea , DID , 2 , p p . 4 12-414 .

7 7 .

P rocop ius , De b e l lo _ g o th ic° , I I , 4 0 , 5 .

7 8 .

I b id ., I I , 1 4 .

7 9 .

I b id .

8 0 .

Aga th ias , H istoriae , V , 1 1-25 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 4 79-481) ;

Theophanes ,

a . 5 59 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 6 01) ; Menander P ro tec tor , F rag men te , 3( =Fontes , 2 , p . 5 09) . 8 1 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , P on t ica , 4 , p . 3 27, n ote 4 0 .

8 2 .

I . B arnea , Dac ia , N S , 1 0 , 1 966, p . 2 37 .

8 3 .

C . Mois i l , BSNR , 1 1 , n o . 2 1 , 1 914 , p . 5 5 .

8 4 .

Menander P ro tec tor , F rag mente , 4 , 9( =Fontes , 2 , p . 5 11);

Aga th ias ,

I V , 2 2 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p . 4 77) . 8 5 .

Menander , 2 8, 3 3 , 4 7 , 4 8 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 5 15-518) .

8 6 .

I . Barnea , DID , 2 , p p . 4 31-432 .

8 7.

J ohn.o f E phesus , a pud , I . B arnea ,

8 8 .

Theoph i lactus S i moca t ta , I , 8( =Fontes , 2 , p . 5 35 ) .

8 9 .

B . Mitrea , S C IV , 2 , 1 966, p . 4 26 , n r . 6 1 .

9 0 .

A . P etre , Dac ia , N S , 7 , 1 963 , p p . 3 20-321 .

9 1 .

I b id ., p p . 3 22 ,325;

c i t ., p . 4 32 .

G h . P oenaru-Bordea , BMI , 3 , 1 971 , p . 5 6;

SCIVA ,

2 ,1976, p p . 2 26-227 . 9 2 .

A l l a rgu ments i n I . B arnea , Dac ia , N S , 1 0 , 1 966, p p . 2 37-260 .

9 3 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , BMI , c i t ., p p . 5 5-56;

9 4 .

D . T udor , S uc idava , 1 974 , p . 1 32 .

9 5 .

F or i ns tance M. S ä mpe tru , S CIV , 2 , 1 971, p . 2 17 .

9 6.

Th . S i moca t ta , I , 8( =Fontes , 2 . p . 5 35 ) .

9 7 .

C f . I . B arnea , D ID , 2 , p . 4 33 .

9 8 .

I . Barnea , D ID , 2 , p p . 4 35-438 .

9 9 .

S i moca t ta , V I , 3 , 6 , 7 ;

V I I , 1 , 7 , 1 3;

s crv ,

c i t , p . 2 27 .

V I II , 1 , ( =Fontes , 2 , p p . 5 41-

5 47) . 1 00 .

Theophanes C onfessor , a . 5 92 1 ., 6 02 ( =Fon tes , 2 , p p . 6 05-716) .

1 01 .

I . D i mian , S CN , 2 , 1 958, p . 4 15 .

1 40

1 02 .

I . D im ian , S CN , 1 , 1 957,

1 03 .

A . Petre , l oc . c i t .

1 04 .

J . J urukova , B yzant inobu lgar ica , 3 , 1 969 , p p . 2 62-263 .

1 05 .

I . Barnea , 2 2 . c i t . ,p p . 4 39-441 .

1 06 .

I b id ., p p . 4 43-445 .

1 07 .

I . Barnea , S CIV , 2 , 1 962 , p . 2 79 a nd f o l low ing .

1 08 .

Em .

P .

1 94 .

Gh . P oenaru-Bordea , EMI

c i t ., p p . 5 6-57 .

P opescu , S t . C l ., 7 , 1 965 , p . 2 53 ( = Ide m , I nscr ipg i le d in s ec . I V-

X I II d escoperi te f r i R o mänia , B uc ., 1 976) .

I . B arnea , DID , 2 , p p . 4 43 ,

4 63-464 . 1 09 .

A . Pe tre ,

1 10 .

I b id . ,p p . 3 24-325 .

1 11 .

I b id . ,p . 3 31 .

1 12 .

I b id ., p . 3 25 .

1 13 .

I b id . ,p . 3 34 .

1 14 .

Em .

1 15 .

H . N ubar , S CN , 3 , 1 960 , p . 1 90 .

1 16 .

I b id . ,p . 1 91 .

1 17 .

A . Pe tre , 2 E . c i t . ,p p . 3 46-347 .

1 18 .

V . Pärvan , C e ta tea Tropaeu m , p p . 1 10-191 .

1 19 .

Dac ia , N S , 1 2 , 1 968, p p . 4 09-411 .

1 20 .

2 2 . c it . ,p . 2 17 e t s eq .

1 21 .

U l metu m , 2 , p p . 4 2-50 .

1 22 .

B . Mi trea , S CIV , 2 , 1 966, p . 4 26, n r . 6 0 .

1 23 .

G h .

1 24 .

A l . Popea , P euce , 4 , 1 975 , p . 1 91 .

1 25 .

N . I orga , H isto ire d es R ou ma ins e t d e l a R o man i te o r ien ta le , 2 , Buc .,

2.

c i t ., p p . 3 20-321 .

C ondurach i , Dac ia , N S , 1 , 1 957, p p . ,2 49-562 .

P oenaru-Bordea , BMI , 3 , 1 971 , p p . 5 6-57 .

1 937, p . 3 65 , n o te 1 , p . 3 76 . 1 26 .

V . Pärvan , C e ta tea Tropaeu m , p . 4 8; p . 1 92;

Em . P opescu , S t .

C l . 5 , 1 964 ,

R . V u lpe , D ID , 1 ,p . 1 59 .

1 27 .

R . Vu lpe , 2 2 . c i t .

p . 2 32 .

1 28 .

I . Barnea , D ID , 2 , p . 3 75 .

1 29 .

A l . S uceveanu , V i ga e cono m ici . i n Dobrogea r o man , B uc ., 1 977, p p . 2 6-27 ( w i th b ib liography ) ,

1 41

Phocas-Herac lius ,

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