Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom : Contexts and Practice for Students with Special Needs [1 ed.] 9789888052493, 9789622098725

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Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom Contexts and Practice for Students with Special Needs Edited by Shane N. Phillipson

Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom

Hong Kong University Press thanks Xu Bing for writing the Press’s name in his Square Word Calligraphy for the covers of its books. For further information, see p. iv.

Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom Contexts and Practice for Students with Special Needs

Edited by Shane N. Phillipson

Hong Kong University Press 14/F Hing Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong

© Hong Kong University Press 2007 Hardback Paperback

ISBN 978-962-209-872-5 ISBN 978-962-209-873-2

All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Secure On-line Ordering http://www.hkupress.org British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Printed and bound by Condor Production Ltd., in Hong Kong, China

Hong Kong University Press is honoured that Xu Bing, whose art explores the complex themes of language across cultures, has written the Press’s name in his Square Word Calligraphy. This signals our commitment to cross-cultural thinking and the distinctive nature of our English-language books published in China. “At first glance, Square Word Calligraphy appears to be nothing more unusual than Chinese characters, but in fact it is a new way of rendering English words in the format of a square so they resemble Chinese characters. Chinese viewers expect to be able to read Square Word Calligraphy but cannot. Western viewers, however are surprised to find they can read it. Delight erupts when meaning is unexpectedly revealed.” — Britta Erickson, The Art of Xu Bing

For our children

Contents

Foreword by Wu-Tien WU Preface

ix xiii

Section I: The Chinese Classroom

Chapter 1

The Regular Chinese Classroom Shane N. PHILLIPSON

Chapter 2

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia Suk Ching Stella CHONG

35

Chapter 3

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI

65

Chapter 4

Classroom Diversity: Towards a Whole-School Approach Chris FORLIN

95

3

Section II: Catering for Learning Diversity

Chapter 5

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments Shihui CHEN

127

Chapter 6

Specific Language Impairment and Hearing Impairment Chris R. DOWSON

157

Chapter 7

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG

205

viii Contents Chapter 8

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG

249

Chapter 9

Including Students with Intellectual Disabilities Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER

283

Chapter 10 Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Sivanes PHILLIPSON

307

Chapter 11 Including Students with Learning Disabilities Fuk Chuen HO

359

Section III: Whole-School Approaches to Learning Diversity

Chapter 12 Developing Inclusive Schools in Hong Kong Chris R. DOWSON

399

Chapter 13 A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners Betty C. ENG

431

Chapter 14 Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs Ming Tak HUE

459

Index

487

Foreword

Inclusive education most commonly refers to students coming together, bringing both their strengths and weaknesses, to build a learning community. It refers to the placement and education of students with disabilities in general education classrooms with students of the same ages who do not have disabilities, which gives them a feeling of belonging with other students, teachers, and support staff. Full inclusion involves the integration of students with disabilities at all times, regardless of the nature or severity of their disabilities. The philosophy of inclusive education is embodied in the slogan, Children that learn together play together. Inclusive education should not be seen as just a moral obligation nor slogan from the field of special education, but should be approached as work that produces solid results, and which educators as a whole should regard as their responsibility. However, because of variations in economic, cultural, and educational conditions, and in social awareness of disabilities, each country has a different background and approach to establishing special education. Therefore, instead of merely adopting philosophies and practices from Western countries for Chinese classrooms, we may need to build and put into practice unique and appropriate inclusive education models: in other words, we need to think globally and act locally in this regard. This viewpoint is expressed clearly in the present book, Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom: Contexts and Practice for Students with Special Needs. This book not only introduces global views of inclusive education, but also examines the experience of inclusion in Confucian-heritage cultures, in the hope of building a constructive and practical model of inclusion, such as the whole-school approach, for local settings. The concepts and data which appear in the book are very impressive and could serve as a useful guide in moving toward an ideal form of inclusive education in the Hong Kong SAR, and even in all Chinese societies.

x Foreword There are common grounds and visions of inclusive education in Chinese societies such as those in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Historically, there were activities and pilot implementations of model programs prior to their application throughout the region. Through cooperation with special education teachers, regular teachers began to operate inclusive education using, for example, cooperative teaching, peer teaching and counseling. In mainland China, before the 1980s, most special schools were located in large cities, and so were not widespread. However, as government policy addressed the expansion of special education and required students with a disability to enroll in regular schools, inclusive education became a necessary alternative. It began to become more common in small cities from the 1980s, with regular school teachers starting to accept students with disabilities. In 1988, the Ministry of Education introduced the term “learning in regular classes” (隨班就讀), another name for inclusive education. The main reason why mainland China began to provide special education in regular schools was that — with society and economic conditions heading toward a welfare state — it would be impossible to sustain all students with disabilities in a small number of special schools. Also, special schools were reformed to become resource centers with specialized experience and resources in special education. The Hong Kong SAR is progressively experimenting with inclusive education, with schools that begin to operate inclusive classrooms being added to a “seed project”, the results of which are used for policy making. Also, schools that implement inclusive education are trying out whole-school approaches, in which the schools respond to children’s needs rather than expecting children to fit into the system — which marks an effort to move from integration toward the goal of full inclusion. In Taiwan, the inclusion movement was formally introduced in the early 1990s. First, inclusive programs for students with physical handicaps, learning disabilities, hearing impairment, language and speech disorders, and emotional disorders were established, in addition to a long-term existing integrated program for the visually impaired. Just as in Hong Kong, inclusive education is being developed step-bystep, with experimental inclusion programs and inclusive education models being tested and then propagated. Many special classrooms have been reformed into “learning resource centers” for students with special needs, with special education teachers also serving as expert consultants and advisors in the schools. In Taiwan, students with disabilities are placed according to the type and severity of their disabilities, within an overall policy that multiple and flexible placement practices be adopted with the long-term goal of moving toward inclusive education. Not only students with disabilities but also gifted/talented students receive special education. Elementary school inclusive education involves more curriculum change, and greater use of cooperative activities, peer support and

Foreword xi

individual instruction, than middle school inclusive education. In 2000, the Taiwan government launched a special project entitled, “The 12-Year Educational Placement for Students with Disabilities”, which extended inclusive education to senior high school level. Various types of models were used to execute inclusive classroom programs, including the community-based inclusion model, the cooperative inclusion model, the reverse inclusive education model, and the affiliated inclusive program. To establish inclusive education in regular schools, the issues of providing a supportive environment, modifying curriculum and instruction, and gaining peer acceptance and parents’ participation are addressed. In general, only a few cases of students with disabilities not being accepted into the regular classroom have been reported so far. The degree of inclusion/separation in Taiwan is based mainly on the severity of the disability — though a very clear distinction is not necessarily drawn — with those with mild disabilities being included most often. The placement practices for the disabled also depend on the category of disability. For example, while a great proportion of children with intellectual disabilities (about 47%) are placed in self-contained special classes in regular schools, most of the children with visual difficulties (about 78%) are educated in regular classes with itinerant services, the majority of their hearing impaired counterparts (about 69%) attend regular classes with various special services, and almost all students with learning disabilities are served in resource room programs. The relevant statistics for 2005 revealed that, among K-12th grade students with disabilities, the majority (73,372, or 93%) were receiving special education services in regular school settings rather than special schools (24 schools with 5,846 students in total, accounting for 7% only). More specifically, the major options for placement of the disabled were regular classes with special education services (34%) and resource rooms (33%), followed by special classes in regular schools (18%), special schools (7%), itinerant programs and/or home-bound education (6%), and others (2%). Most of the gifted and talented (66%) are involved in self-contained special classes designed for them, while the pull-out program accounts for 32%, mainly for those at the elementary and junior high levels. Special education in Taiwan is moving toward the goal of inclusion, though not necessarily full inclusion. Over the past decade, a number of inclusive programs have been developed and implemented, first on an experimental basis and later as a regular schooling practice, from pre-school to elementary, junior high, and now senior high level. However, whether they are receiving a proper and true inclusive education is still open to question. The process is encountering many challenges, including the level of confidence and capability of teachers, curriculum adaptation, peer acceptance, and supporting resources. Inclusive education has a very important purpose, but its successful implementation is by no means straightforward. A number of empirical studies using

xii Foreword various methodologies (observation, interviews, surveys) have revealed both the strengths and limitations of inclusive education in many countries. In general, research has shown that certain outcomes have been achieved, but that the process still faces many problems and challenges. The effectiveness of inclusive education varies as a result of many factors, including the school level, the category of disability, the severity of the disability, and the level of inclusion. As research has illustrated, an inclusive education program can be successful in terms of the academic achievement and social adjustment of students with disabilities, as well as in teaching quality and regular peer students’ learning outcomes. However, inclusion in itself, whether selective or full, does not guarantee success: its effectiveness depends heavily on a supportive environment, including a good knowledge of inclusive education, teachers demonstrating “the 3 Cs” (caring, capability and cooperation), suitably adapted curricula and teaching strategies, peer acceptance, and parent participation. As regards teacher and peer acceptance, it is crucial that any serious disruptive behavior displayed by students with disabilities that might harm their peers’ safety and learning is dealt with promptly and effectively — which is clearly a great challenge to both teachers and school administrators. In sum, an increasing number of publications, workshops and policy papers give strong support to the concept of inclusive education. However, some organizations and individuals express reservations as to whether the ordinary classroom can provide the optimal quality of education for children with all kinds of disabilities. This issue has been debated for a considerable time, and is still ongoing. Proponents of inclusive education must take these concerns seriously and dispel them by providing examples of positive experiences which demonstrate that inclusive education can address quality issues in education. The experiences illustrated in this book is of special value in this respect.

Wu-Tien Wu Emeritus Professor of Special Education National Taiwan Normal University December 2006

Preface

This book concerns students with special needs. What makes it unique is that our focus is on students from societies that are based on the Confucian heritage. These students are found not only in classrooms in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, and Korea, but also in many classrooms around the world, including those in the West. Because international trends in inclusive education now recognize and build upon learner diversity, it is appropriate to consider culture as one important dimension of special needs. The title of the book refers to “the Chinese classroom” and, throughout the book, we refer to “the Chinese student.” These classrooms and students are, of course, found mainly in China. Although China is far from being a homogenous country, particularly since the inclusion of the Macao Special Administrative Region (SAR) and the Hong Kong SAR, the classrooms and their students all share, to a greater or lesser degree, a common heritage — a heritage that is commonly referred to as Confucian. However, a Confucian heritage is also shared by many other countries, including Japan and Korea and, to a lesser extent, Singapore. This book is written in English, but this does not imply that it is of value only when English is used in the Chinese classroom as the medium of instruction. The ideas contained are intended to be useful irrespective of the language of instruction. In writing the chapters, the authors were aware of the problems associated with “… overgeneralizing Asian learners under the Confucian aegis …” (Lee, 1996, p. 26). However, Lee also believed that the common heritage of societies such as the People’s Republic of China (China), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea and Japan — particularly in the context of their conceptions of learning and education — was sufficient justification to group them together, despite the clear differences between these societies in other areas. Hence, it is appropriate to include research findings and practices that focus on these societies, where applicable. In

xiv Preface this book, we use the term “Confucian-heritage culture” (CHC) to refer to the common attitudes toward learning and education in these societies. Inherent in the book’s title is the notion that learning diversity is contextual. Because the CHC classroom is different from the Western classroom, learning diversity must take this difference into account. Because it is unique, it may not always be possible to import Western practices directly into these classrooms. At the very least, attempts to do so will be ineffective because they fail to take into account the unique way in which these students learn, despite the well-meaning intent of teachers, administrators or government departments of education. The greater danger is that the adoption of such practices will damage the educational experience of the students as well as frustrate their teachers. A book about learning diversity in the CHC classroom needs to recognize that teaching practice must be sensitive to the social, cultural and personal contexts of students from this heritage. This is particularly important when estimates of the world’s population highlight the fact that one in four people are of Chinese origin. Although many of these people still reside in predominantly Confucian communities around the world — including mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea and Japan — it is particularly relevant that classrooms that include these students are not restricted to these societies. Indeed, the current opportunities and propensities for migration will see students from a CHC in many classrooms around the world. At the same time, it is likely that these students and their families will retain much of their cultural heritage rather than fully adopt the main culture of their host country. The reason for writing this book is to help the pre-service, beginning or experienced teacher meet the learning needs of these students, particularly when they are found in the mainstream or inclusive classroom. It is clear from the title of the book that we believe that an understanding of learning diversity is necessary before student learning can be effective. Furthermore, professional teachers are being increasingly asked to adapt their teaching approaches to student differences rather than basing their teaching on student similarities. The book’s design and content are aimed specifically at helping teachers, irrespective of their stage of development, to become knowledgeable about issues in diversity and provide specific practical help where required. A categorical approach to special needs is taken in this book in order to aid the organization of material, and because it reflects the specializations of the authors of each chapter. Also, our teaching experiences have taught us that, when learning about diversity, our students are more comfortable when the material is organized around categories. Such an approach should not, however, be taken to mean that we believe that students with special needs should be classified in this way. We are keenly interested in the development of the child, not in the treatment of a disorder.

Preface xv

It is also apparent from the contents that we include children with giftedness as part of the broad group of children with diverse learning needs. Although this group is sometimes catered for in special (accelerated and/or enriched) classes, many educational systems strongly advocate their inclusion in the regular classroom — at least for the “mild” forms of giftedness. Consequently, teachers need to be aware of their special needs and how to deal with them appropriately. This book builds on three other important books that have examined the unique nature of students from the Confucian-heritage culture, particularly the way in which they learn (Watkins & Biggs, 1996) and are taught (Watkins & Biggs, 2001). Also significant for understanding the development of the Chinese leaner is Lau (1996) — Growing Up the Chinese Way. It is a logical next step to examine the unique nature of the CHC classroom from the context of learning diversity. This book is divided into three sections. In Section I, Chapter 1 (S. N. Phillipson) discusses the nature of the Chinese classroom and the Chinese learner, and Chapter 2 (Chong) provides a broad perspective on diversity within East Asia. Chapter 3 (Cheung and Hui) outlines how inclusion is understood in the Chinese classroom, and Chapter 4 (Forlin) extends this discussion to include developments toward a whole-school approach to inclusive education in the Chinese (Confucian) society. The first section establishes that Chinese classrooms are very different from those in the West and concludes that, although learner diversity is beginning to be recognized as an important context for learning, this context needs to be understood before meeting students’ needs. Section II provides a theoretical perspective as well as practical examples outlining support for students in subjects such as mathematics, science and languages within an inclusive classroom. Chapter 5 (Chen) focuses on students with motor disorders and health impairments, and Chapter 6 (Dowson) deals with specific language and hearing impairments. Chapter 7 (S. N. Phillipson and Cheung) highlights the special needs of Chinese gifted students, Chapter 8 (Leung and Yeung) focuses on students with visual and perceptual difficulties, and Chapter 9 (PoonMcBrayer and McBrayer) provides a theoretical basis for including students with cognitive disabilities within an inclusive classroom. Chapter 10 (S. Phillipson) illustrates the special challenges for teachers when students have emotional and behavioral disorders. Lastly, Chapter 11 (Ho) deals with students with learning difficulties in reading, writing and mathematics. Of course, classroom teachers must be supported in their efforts to support students with diverse needs, particularly in the inclusive classroom. In Section III, Chapter 12 (Dowson) describes four case studies of schools beginning to develop inclusive practices which illustrate four different approaches to inclusive education in Hong Kong and provide valuable lessons for all schools wishing to develop a whole-school approach. Chapter 13 (Eng) focuses on the role of guidance and counseling in supporting Chinese students with diverse learning needs, their teachers

xvi Preface and parents. Finally, Chapter 14 (Hue) provides several theoretical (both Western and Chinese) perspectives and practical examples for the management of the inclusive classroom. This book could not have been completed without the support of a number of people and I would like to thank them individually. Prof. Tien-Wu Wu kindly consented to write the foreword. Dr. David Kwok Ching provided encouragement at the initial stages of the project, and Prof. Trevor G. Bond and Prof. Kerry Kennedy gave support during its important latter stages. The chapter authors should also be acknowledged for their efforts in supporting each other over a considerable period of time. Julie Joughin provided administrative assistance to me and the chapter authors at a time when it was most needed. Ming Tak Hue produced the Chinese calligraphy for the cover of the book and Miss Bernadette Yung Yan Lok of the Centre for Learning, Teaching and Technology at the Hong Kong Institute of Education produced the wonderful graphics for cover of this book and for Chapters 6, 8 and 10. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Sivanes and son Devan for their forbearance in the gestation and delivery of this project. The project was supported financially by a generous grant from the Hong Kong Institute of Education.

Shane N. Phillipson

References Lau, S. (Ed.). (1996). Growing up the Chinese Way: Chinese child and adolescent development. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian heritage. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 25–41). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (1996). The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (2001). Teaching the Chinese Learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Center, The University of Hong Kong.

Section I The Chinese Classroom

1 The Regular Chinese Classroom Shane N. PHILLIPSON

Jade which has not been polished is of no use. (Chinese proverb) If you work at it you can do it. (Japanese proverb)

The unique nature of the Chinese classroom is discussed in this chapter, including: • What is meant by a Confucian-heritage culture, and where it is to be found; • The approach to learning in a Confucian-heritage culture; • What it means to be a “Chinese” learner; • The motivation for learning in a Confucian-heritage culture; • The role of the English language in a Confucian-heritage culture; and • The role of parents in their children’s learning.

Introduction Schools are places where students come to learn. Behind this truism, however, lies a great deal of diversity. Each school develops a unique culture as a consequence of its importance in the wider community; and, as pointed out in Marsh (2000), the culture of a school has both an anthropological and aesthetic basis, which contribute to its unique character. For Chinese schools, the anthropological basis of a school’s culture originates from its Confucian heritage, including its specific values, rituals and ceremonies, as well as its geographical location and status within the community. Of course, the school’s location and other factors such as the socialeconomic status of the students’ families determine the relative influences of other

4 Shane N. PHILLIPSON cultures (see Figure 1.1 on p. 5). In terms of its aesthetic basis, the culture of Chinese schools is also determined by the subjects taught, the skills of the teachers and the support from the school’s immediate community. This chapter begins with a discussion of the influence of Confucian-heritage culture (CHC) on learning and then describes the role of parental expectations in this process. The components of the Chinese classroom are then explored, including the processes that occur within the classroom, the physical environment, and curriculum and pedagogical approaches, such as the use of information communication technologies and the medium of instruction. Next, the CHC approach to the nature and development of knowledge is explained, followed by its approach to learning, including the values placed on education, motivation and learning styles. The goal of this chapter is to describe the Chinese learner within the wider context of the classroom as a basis for understanding the diversity of learning within Chinese classrooms. The Chinese classroom will generally mirror the school’s culture, although there will always be some diversity between classrooms in the same school. Within the classroom, the Chinese learner will both influence and be influenced by the school’s culture. Despite school cultures changing over time (Marsh, 2000), there will be some common elements that make the Chinese school and classroom readily identifiable. For this book, the Chinese classroom is construed as having an anthropological basis in the CHC, as well as the aesthetic influences of teachers and involvement in communities that also derive predominantly from the CHC. Accordingly, for students who participate in these schools the generic term “Chinese learners” is used, despite the fact that many of these students come from countries other than China. However, many studies refer to differences between East and West, using participants from the USA and East Asia. As these studies do not refer specifically to the CHC, care must be taken when applying their findings.

Globalization and the Confucian-heritage Culture Rather than reducing cultural diversity, the increasing globalization of education has produced a growing sense of ethnic identity (Smelser, 1994, cited in Torres, 2002). In the field of special education, the movement toward the full inclusion of children with disabilities in the regular classroom is subject to the pressures of globalization. Significantly, these pressures on education in general contrast with the specific goals of inclusion. At the curriculum level, globalization encourages a competitive and outcomes-based curriculum which values high ability and skills in areas such as mathematics, languages (especially English) and science, as well as higher-order thinking processes, including comprehension, analysis and abstract thought ( Naidoo & Jamieson, 2005; Pereira dos Santos, 2001). At the level of

The Regular Chinese Classroom 5

(a) A Taiwanese city classroom

(b) A Taiwanese mountain top classroom

Figure 1.1 Diverse Chinese classrooms (courtesy of Magdalena Mo Ching Mok)

6 Shane N. PHILLIPSON economic resources, inclusive education requires support that may not necessarily have an obvious financial return, thus generating a tension with the forces of globalization that require a return on economic investment (Parmenter, 2001; Pereira dos Santos, 2001). Because globalization also affects Chinese learners — whether or not they are in countries with a CHC — the next section describes the unique nature of the Chinese classroom and provides a firm foundation for recognizing the learner diversity it contains.

The Approach to Learning in the Confucian-heritage Culture A central component of the Chinese classroom is its cultural context. In order to understand the basis of the phenomenal success of East Asian students, both studying abroad and in their country of birth, Lee (1996) outlined the view of learning within the CHC, the features of which are shared to a greater or lesser extent by societies in China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, Singapore, Korea and Japan. The source materials for Lee’s analysis were the translated works of The Great Learning, one of the four books of Confucianism. Lee identified four important themes in the attitudes toward education and learning in the CHC: (1) educability and perfectionism; (2) learning, effort, will-power and the attainment of perfectionism; (3) learning for self-realization; and (4) the role of personal reflection and enquiry in developing deep approaches to learning. In broad terms, the CHC is characterized by a high level of enthusiasm for education, in the belief that it is the key to both societal and personal development (Lee, 1996). More specifically, Confucianism maintains that all people are educable, although to different degrees because of individual differences in intelligence and propensities for study. Confucius also identified four groups of people based on the origin of knowledge as well as attitudes towards study — namely those who are born with knowledge, those who study to acquire knowledge, those who study after being beset with difficulties, and those who do not study despite having difficulties (Lee, 1996, p. 28). Human perfection, or sagehood, in the CHC is closely aligned with the acquisition of knowledge, for which an individual’s conscious and considered effort is essential. Furthermore, effort often involves experiencing and overcoming hardship (Lee, 1996, p. 32). Central to the idea of perfectibility is the emphasis on self rather than collective perfection — it is only through the efforts of the individual that knowledge can be gained. Once gained, however, the family shares in the economic and social rewards that come from these individual efforts. In drawing attention to the “paradox” of the Chinese learner, Watkins and Biggs (1996) described Western misperceptions about learning within the CHC,

The Regular Chinese Classroom 7

including alleged reliance on “low-level, rote based strategies” (p. 49). It is clear, however, that the CHC encourages a deep approach to learning (Lee, 1996), where the memorization of information merely provides a foundation for deeper kinds of thinking such as reflection and enquiry. Also considered important for the development of deep understanding is open-mindedness, and teachers who challenge rather than push students towards learning (Lee, 1996). These ideas are explored in greater depth later in this chapter.

The value of education in the Confucian-heritage culture Lee (1996) also showed that learning in the CHC was not just concerned with the development of perfection. Learning had a utilitarian purpose, allowing individuals to attain positions of influence beyond those they exercised in their families. Attaining a position in the government or civil service was one way of achieving such influence. Along the way, the individual may also acquire extrinsic rewards such as “… fame, wealth, a beautiful wife, and upward social mobility …” (p. 37). Biggs (1995a) has argued that in Hong Kong, achievement motivation is both individualistic and collective, reflecting an international as well as CHC influence on the education system. It is individualistic because of the highly competitive nature of society (and education) in Hong Kong; but at the same time, it is collective since the wider family benefits economically and through the gaining of face. The main purpose of education in ancient China was to secure a position in the Imperial government, which brought with it the promise of wealth and fame. The Chinese people, as well as other East Asians, have long held a strong belief in the utilitarian value of education, prompting one emperor in the Sung Dynasty (AD 960–1279) to proclaim that “in books one finds golden mansions and women as beautiful as jewels.” The CHC has affected many of China’s neighboring countries, especially Korea and Japan. For example, Rohlen (1983, p. 78) noted that the relentless pursuit of educational excellence by Japanese high school students “which is followed by a good job, economic security, respect, and status in a technocratic world” is no different from the earlier Chinese view. While countries such as China, Taiwan, Singapore, Korea and Japan share the CHC, it would be incorrect to assume that they are influenced equally by this heritage. For example, the influence of the West on education in Hong Kong (Hong et al., 2000) extended over many decades, producing an idiosyncratic system in which assessment is pervasive and intensive, and possibly more conducive to surface than deep learning. Also, at the tertiary level, many examiners are external to Hong Kong, which restricts the types of assessment tasks that can be used (Tang & Biggs, 1996). In addition, the long-running and continuing debate regarding the use of English as the medium of instruction in both primary and secondary schools has

8 Shane N. PHILLIPSON produced perceived inequities and, hence, pressures on the schools and education system unparalleled elsewhere (Li, Leung, & Kember, 2001; S. N. Phillipson, 2005; Tung, Lam, & Tsang, 1997). Some of these issues are examined in greater detail later in this chapter.

The Confucian-heritage culture and models of learning Li (2000) argued that attempts to understand the psychological effects on Chinese students of changes to school systems cannot be based on research conducted in Western cultures. The unique nature of learning in Chinese societies, epitomized in Chinese classrooms, makes it difficult to interpret meaningfully the findings of studies that were not conducted in the Chinese culture or classrooms. According to Li’s commentary, models of learning and achievement in the West focus on the individual, including their cognitive processes, motivations for learning, intelligence and narrow school and social environment. For example, in the USA, adult learners focus on: • externally existing and discrete bodies of knowledge such as mathematics and biology; • institutional resources such as libraries; • mental processes such as logic and critical reasoning; • learner capabilities such as intelligence; and • learning activities. In contrast, Li (2000, p. 181) maintained that Chinese models of adult learning emphasize the attainment of self-perfection through complex interactions between individuals and their wider social environment. Chinese learners are concerned with: • seeking knowledge and cultivating a passion for lifelong learning; • fostering diligence, endurance of hardship, persistence and concentration; • feeling “shame-guilt” for a lack of desire to learn; • achieving breadth and depth of knowledge, social honors and material benefits; and • making contributions to society. In Li’s view, when these two different orientations to learning are placed in a social context, learning in the CHC involves a clear relationship between the intellectual, social and moral aspects of individuals in developing their life purposes, goals of learning, attitudes and courses of actions — whereas learning in the West lacks a clear notion of purpose. For him, the Western orientation to learning is more concerned with self and the mental processes that most effectively acquire and distinguish between different types of knowledge; and, furthermore, knowledge and learning are “neutral” in value (p. 182).

The Regular Chinese Classroom 9

Li (2000) concluded that it is naïve to assume that the psychological pressure placed on Chinese students (including those from Hong Kong) because of changes to school systems is the same as for those in other cultures. Taking the argument one step further, the stresses under which Chinese students and their families are placed when they are studying in Western classrooms, or when Western pedagogies or curricula are adopted, may not necessarily be the same as for their Western peers. In societies such as China, Japan and Korea, the process of self-cultivation and self-empowerment is not only an individual pursuit but also the fulfillment of family duties and social obligations, and is more explicitly expressed by students.

The Student from the Confucian-heritage Culture A number of studies have suggested that Chinese learners are qualitatively different from their Western peers. Based on the results from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), Leung (2002) and Papanastasiou (2002) argued that the success of students from Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Korea, in comparison with similar students from Western countries, cannot be explained simply by the importance they assign to the study of mathematics, or by sheer hard work. Leung showed that their high achievement was not associated with a “… corresponding level of positive attitudes towards mathematics” (p. 105); and Papanastasiou also found that students’ attitudes towards mathematics did not always predict high achievement, and that the relationships between instructional variables and mathematics achievement were dependent on the cultural context (p. 144). Both Leung and Papanastasiou suggested that an experimental approach to research was required in order to unlock the secrets behind the success of students from these countries. To date, this research is yet to be completed. Other recent studies have provided strong evidence for differences between East and West in a number of thinking and social tasks. These include numerical tasks involving memory and speed of thinking (Hedden et al., 2002), categorization (Ji, Zhang, & Nisbett, 2004), causal reasoning (Norenzayan & Nisbett, 2000) and modes of communication (Sanchez-Burks et al., 2003), particularly among younger members of the culture (Park, Nisbett, & Hedden, 1999). At a social level, some work has shown that East Asians view behavior as involving complex interactions between the person, the object and other contextual factors — unlike Americans who see it as resulting from a person’s disposition (Norenzayan & Nisbett, 2000). In their review of a number of studies, Norenzayan and Nisbett concluded that it is more difficult for Euro-Americans to separate the person from their expressed point of view. For Asian participants, in contrast, the context of the situation dictates whether a given viewpoint is believed to be an accurate reflection of a person’s opinion. Norenzayan and Nisbett proposed that these differences reflect a

10 Shane N. PHILLIPSON fundamental difference in cognitive processes, with Asians tending to think holistically rather than analytically. Holistic cognitive processes include communication styles. In an experimental study involving adults, Sanchez-Burks et al. (2003) showed that people from East Asia (Korea, China, Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan) paid more attention to indirect information compared to those of an Euro-American origin, particularly in formal situations such as work. In another study designed to measure the relative importance of language and culture, people who used languages such as Japanese or Tagalog, compared to English speakers from the USA, paid more attention to tone than verbal content when interpreting words (Ishii, Reyes, & Kitayama, 2003). Although all the above work originated outside the classroom, there is every reason to expect that these and other differences can also be found inside it. If both Chinese students and their teachers think holistically, then more attention is given to the field within which an object is found. In physics, for example, explanations for the behavior of a projectile lie not just in the attributes of the object, but in the properties of the space in which it is traveling. The consequences of any mismatch between “analytic” explanations by Western teachers that focus only on the properties of the projectile and holistic thinking by Chinese students remain to be studied (see “Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1”). In general, however, mismatches between teaching and learning styles are recognized as important variables affecting the outcomes of learning. When the teaching and learning styles reflect fundamental differences in thinking processes, the consequences of the mismatch may be more dramatic.

How students from a Confucian-heritage culture learn Research into the learning and pedagogical approaches used by students and teachers within the CHC classroom have identified memorization as a key strategy in the development of understanding (Marton, Dall’Alba, & Kun, 1996). However, as Marton and his colleagues have pointed out, memorization does not equate to rote learning and deep understanding, as opposed to surface learning, is possible through the process of memorization. Using a number of case studies, they showed how repetition can bring about understanding over a period of time: In the process of repetition, it is not a simple repetition. Because each time I repeat, I would have some new idea of understanding, that is to say I can understand better. (p. 81)

In studying the development of learning from primary through to secondary schooling in Hong Kong using a cross-sectional (rather than longitudinal) approach,

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Watkins (1996) showed four clear stages. The first stage took place in the primary school (years 1 to 6), when the intention of learning was accurate reproduction of the content of the lessons and the learning strategy was rote memorization. At the beginning of secondary school, when the workload increased to the point where it became impossible to remember everything, students became selective in what they memorized. At this second stage, they began to exercise a degree of metacognition and the locus shifted from teacher-dependent selection of content to self-selection of what was considered important. At the third stage, the goal of learning was still the reproduction of learned material, using the combined strategies of understanding and memorization, but the students became even more metacognitive and the locus of control even more learner-centered. Assessment now consists of more flexible questions rather than simply requiring the reproduction of content. The aim of learning in the fourth stage was to both understand and achieve in the examinations, using a combined strategy of understanding and memorization, but Watkins noted that this stage was not reached by any of the students in his study. To summarize, understanding in the CHC is seen as developmental. Only through effort and seeing the relationships between fewer pieces of a problem will a complete and full understanding of the whole problem finally be possible — in contrast to the West where understanding is often seen as a “process of sudden insight” (Watkins & Biggs, 2001, p. 6). Only when the problem is fully comprehended can the complete problem be memorized. Also, memorization is often viewed as a lower or inferior form of thinking compared with analysis, synthesis (creativity) or evaluation, and consequently proportionally more time is spent in Western schools, including primary schools, on these higher forms of thinking.

Motivations for learning in the Confucian-heritage culture Student motivation is an important aspect of the CHC classroom. Because a detailed description of the various models of motivation is beyond the scope of this chapter, the reader is directed to “Further Reading’ on educational psychology at the end of the chapter. This section is limited to reviewing some of the studies that have highlighted the peculiarities of motivation in the CHC. However, as Biggs and Watkins (1996) have pointed out, the distinction between the various forms of motivation, and the widespread notion that intrinsic motivation is the only “meaningful and worthwhile” (p. 273) way to achieve deep understanding, is not applicable in the CHC. Instead, motivation is better understood as a potent amalgam of many “energizing” forces, making the intrinsic/extrinsic polarity of limited practical value.

12 Shane N. PHILLIPSON Expectancy value theory of motivation: There are several ways of understanding how and why students are motivated to learn, including making learning both important and possible. The relationship between importance and possibility has been referred to as the expectancy value theory of motivation (see Biggs, 1995a; Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). The importance, or value, of a learning task can be increased through an understanding of four different models of motivation, namely extrinsic, social, achievement and intrinsic motivation (Biggs, 1995a). As Biggs indicated, explanations of why students are motivated to learn can be based on more than one these models at the same time. Extrinsic motivation: Briefly, extrinsic motivation can be explained by the consequences of behavior. Some consequences — rewards — lead to an increase in the likelihood that the same sort of behavior will be seen in the future, while others outcomes — punishments — result in a decrease in this likelihood. The value of the learning task is then determined by the associated reward or punishment. It is often difficult for a teacher to predict whether a consequence will reward (increase a desired behavior) or punish (decrease an undesirable behavior) in any one student. Many studies have shown that, in a variety of ways, Chinese students in Hong Kong are similar to those in the West in their responses to rewards and punishments (Salili, 2001). For example, Hong Kong students consider teachers’ use of rewards as more effective in producing good behavior and improving performance than punishment. More specifically, the use of term reports and certificates was rated the most effective strategy for improved performance and behavior, unlike students from the West. Good grades, positive comments and notes sent to parents were also considered to achieve the desired effect, as was public praise. In addition, giving students roles of responsibility was considered effective for behavior-related tasks, particularly for students with low achievement. Approaches that were considered most successful in reducing poor performance included repositioning the student closest to the teacher, followed by referral to the discipline master or principal. As regards punishment, Hong Kong students believed that extra work and explicit instructions from teachers on how to make the necessary changes were the most effective strategies; and punishments related to the issuing of demerit points were considered the least effective. However, the approaches perceived by students as most successful were not those used by teachers. Surveys of teachers’ strategies have shown that they most commonly employ punishments, particularly “black marks, demerits, writing lines, standing in class, extra work” (Salili, 2001, p. 90) — but, as Salili pointed out, no definitive work has yet been carried out on the effectiveness of these strategies. Social motivation: According to Biggs (1995a), social motivation is concerned with the value placed on an activity by someone else. If a task is given a high value by someone admired or considered important, then the task is also assigned high

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value and importance. A particular form of social motivation, achievement motivation, relates to the need for “some people … to perform a task better than someone else’ (p. 88). Students who are motivated to achieve success (and gain face) are called “high-need achievers,” while those who are concerned with avoiding failure (and loss of face) are referred to as “low-need achievers.” As Biggs indicated, achievement motivation was originally concerned with the individual, but is particularly important in collective societies such as the CHC, since individuals identify strongly with their extended families, making this type of motivation “a particularly powerful motivating stimulus” (p. 89) when used effectively. Intrinsic motivation: The value of a task can also be increased through intrinsic motivation, which is concerned with the human need to develop, build competencies and understand how the world works. For Biggs (1995a), an important aspect of intrinsic motivation is curiosity, which occurs when there is an optimal mismatch between what an individual knows and what he/she senses as challenging — and he suggested that it can be encouraged in the classroom by using discrepant events and effective questioning, rather than by just providing facts. Success motivation: Several factors are significant in influencing the likelihood, or expectation, of students’ success in any given task, such as teachers’ expectations of a successful outcome, and student beliefs about their ability to carry out the task successfully (referred to as “self-efficacy”) and perceptions of the task difficulty. Important in developing self-efficacy are the possible attributions (or causes) of past successes and failures, including effort, ability, task difficulty and luck (Weiner, 1986), and whether or not these attributions are stable, controllable, or internal. Attribution theory allows the prediction of future behavior, including that of students from the CHC, on the basis of these attributions and their dimensions (Biggs, 1995a). Causes of success and failure: Research conducted in Hong Kong to determine the cultural contexts of the effects of causal attributions has shown that there are some differences in the ways teachers use praise and criticism to convey information to their students. In a series of experiments reported by Salili (2001), students’ estimates of their teachers’ perceptions of their ability and effort were based on differences in the teachers’ comments as well as whether or not they succeeded or failed in a series of difficult or easy mathematics tasks. The results showed that younger students could not distinguish between ability and effort and that, for them, praise for success reflected both high ability and greater effort. Among older Chinese students, apportioning blame for failure to a partner in a learning task was not an indicator of ability, in contrast to students from the West. For these Chinese students, the results also showed a positive correlation between ability and effort, suggesting to Salili a strong cultural influence in which ability is less important than effort in determining the source of the praise or blame.

14 Shane N. PHILLIPSON These experiments confirmed the conclusions of earlier studies that Chinese students attribute success and failure primarily to effort and learning strategies rather than ability; for them, ability is a modifiable and controllable attribute that is largely determined by effort (Salili, 1996). In noting the causal attributions for success and failure, Ho et al. (1999) found that students rated internal factors (effort, ability, interest, study skills) as more important than external ones (teacher’s help, course difficulty, English instruction, family’s help and luck) for both success and failure. When looking specifically at success, the rank order of importance of the attributions was effort, teacher’s help, study skills, interest, course difficulty, ability, English instruction, family’s help and luck; and for failure, the rank order was course difficulty, effort, interest, teacher’s help, English instruction, study skills, ability, family’s help and luck.

Goal orientations in the Confucian-heritage culture Also of relevance to the coverage of this chapter are goal orientation theories whereby students set goals and then manage their behavior toward their attainment (Salili, Chiu, & Lai, 2001). In reviewing this area, Salili, Chiu and Lai identified two themes as important in the context of the CHC, namely learning (or mastery) goal orientations and performance goals. Students who engage in learning orientations typically use deep learning strategies and are able to direct their cognitive and metacognitive skills more effectively. They are also more likely to attribute success (and failure) to effort rather than ability and have a higher sense of self-efficacy and self-esteem. Students with performance goals, however, are more concerned with egoenhancement and “… judge their ability in comparison with their classmates” (Salili, Chiu, & Lai, p. 223), using grades and approval from teachers as the basis of their comparisons; and they are also more inclined to use surface approaches to learning. Consequently, they may avoid challenging tasks in order to protect their self-worth as this is judged in relation to the achievements of others. The same study also investigated the cultural context of goal orientations, selfefficacy, test anxiety, effort and achievement in Chinese senior high school students from Hong Kong, expatriate Chinese students in Canada and European Canadian students. The results indicated that the cultural context played a significant role in both motivation and achievement. The following points paraphrase their main findings and interpretations: 1. Competition was more intense in Hong Kong schools than in Canadian schools. 2. Hong Kong students spent more time studying, but received lower grades than their Canadian counterparts. Although the levels of achievement were much higher in Hong Kong, fewer students were able to attain this standard.

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

In contrast to Canadian schools — where Chinese Canadian students spend more time studying and receive higher grades than European Canadians — examination results in Hong Kong were not linked to effort. Disturbingly, the results suggested that “those who worked harder tended to have poorer examination results’ (p. 233), especially students who were relatively low achievers. Chinese Canadian students are thought to work harder to meet the demands of a filial society as well as to fulfill the immediate expectations of their families who are supporting them financially. Hong Kong Chinese students had higher test anxiety than their Canadian counterparts, the origins of which, according to the authors, lies in the highly competitive nature of the examination system in Hong Kong, a point also made more recently in Yan and Chow (2002). Hong Kong Chinese students scored lower in estimates of self-efficacy than both groups of Canadian students, which possibly reflects a culture that values modesty and humility. Salili, Chiu and Lai also proposed that self-efficacy is linked to achievement in examinations: when students consistently receive low grades over a long period of time, as in Hong Kong, self-perceptions of their competence may also be lower. Once again, Yan and Chow’s (2002) study drew similar conclusions. All students placed a heavier emphasis on performance goals than learning goals, and more so for both groups of Chinese students. In comparing learning goals, European Canadian students were placed highest and Hong Kong students last, and it was suggested that this reflected both an education system that was preoccupied with examinations and the additional pressures arising from the use of English as the medium of instruction. For Chinese students in Hong Kong, learning and performance goals were correlated positively, suggesting that they adopted both strategies in their studies; but for both groups of Canadian students, they were correlated negatively — which indicates a teacher-centered and student-centered focus respectively in these two education systems. For all three groups, family-related goals were rated the highest of the three socially-oriented goals (the other two being teacher- and peer-orientations), and socially-oriented goals were more important for the Chinese students than the European Canadian students.

Salili, Chiu and Lai (2001) concluded that a harsh education system is particularly damaging for students with low ability or special needs and that selfefficacy is “… the single most important predictor of academic achievement.” Consequently, educations systems should focus on the development of self-efficacy as well as the motivational beliefs of students, particularly those related to effort for high-ability students and study skills. Also, family-related goals correlated

16 Shane N. PHILLIPSON highly with performance for all students, indicating that family influences remain an essential aspect of student performance in the CHC.

Concluding remarks on motivations for learning in the Confucian-heritage culture Education in the CHC principally serves a pragmatic purpose. Studies have shown that students from a CHC are motivated by a variety of factors, with intrinsic motivation per se being of little importance. It is not altogether surprising that CHC classrooms generally do not reward students who are motivated by interest alone. Interestingly, students in Hong Kong who are more intrinsically motivated have lower levels of achievement than their extrinsically motivated peers in primary and secondary schools and universities (Hong, 2001; Moneta & Siu, 2002). As discussed previously, the value of education in the CHC is not determined by the needs of the individual alone, but by the needs of the wider social and cultural group. For example, Kim’s (2002) study of Korean parents’ views on the benefits of higher education demonstrated that their major concerns for their children included giving them opportunities to experience the “joy of learning”, increasing their self-esteem, reducing their socio-economic disadvantage, and providing them with opportunities to form social networks.

The Use of English as the Medium of Instruction In some classrooms in the CHC, English is used as the medium of instruction (EMI). English-medium schools hope that, in addition to teaching the curriculum, they will improve their students’ English language proficiency. However, a range of studies have shown the difficulties facing Chinese students when studying using EMI, and two studies (Li, Leung, & Kember, 2001; Tung, Lam, & Tsang, 1997) have grouped these problems into four broad areas: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Reading: When reading texts and study materials written in English, Chinese students want clarification in Chinese from their teachers; and given a choice between reading full Chinese or English texts, they prefer to read the full Chinese text first and then refer to the English text (Tung, Lam, & Tsang, 1997). When asked about their reading skills after a course of study using EMI, more than half of the Cantonese-speaking university students reported that their reading abilities in English remained unchanged or became worse (Li, Leung, & Kember, 2001). Writing: Cantonese-speaking tertiary students have claimed that many of their previous courses of study at the secondary level did not require them to write very often, particularly in science and applied sciences. If given the chance, students at

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secondary level have reported that they would choose courses that placed less emphasis on writing skills, particularly for subjects using EMI ( Li, Leung, & Kember, 2001). Speaking: In EMI secondary schools, Chinese students have many opportunities to speak in English with their teachers. However, their preference is to use Cantonese wherever possible (Tung, Lam, & Tsang, 1997) for a variety of reasons, including difficulties in finding equivalent English words to express their ideas; that is, they often have problems with the clarification of meaning in English (Lam & Wong, 2000). Lam and Wong (2000) also found that the use of English affected relationships with other students, as peers are often perceived as lacking sympathy for those who have difficulty in expressing themselves in English, thus discouraging them from using the language in class. Listening: According to Li, Leung and Kember (2001), two-thirds of Cantonese-speaking tertiary students believed that taking classes using English improved their listening skills because of the increased exposure to the language; and of those who considered that their listening skills had deteriorated, some attributed this to the lack of opportunities to listen to English outside class while others specifically mentioned that Cantonese was used in their other classes, implying that the use of the two languages interfered with their overall listening skills. The same research also showed that there was a “psychological influence” (p. 305) that reduced students’ propensity for speaking in English to both peers and their foreign lecturers. In an interesting qualitative study, Liu (2002) observed and interviewed three Chinese graduate students who studied in prestigious American universities. These students had high scores in the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), as well as good results in examinations and assignments, but they seldom participated in class discussions. Liu found that these students responded only when they were (1) well prepared for the class and (2) familiar with and had confidence in their understanding of the issue to be discussed. Language plays a fundamental part in the cognitive processing of students. For example, Ho (2001) found that, in Hong Kong, bilingual primary students used a unique mixture of Cantonese and English to support their learning, even though the materials they were studying were solely in English. Also, studies in the Philippines have shown that teaching in the mother tongue can facilitate children’s cognitive development in mathematics (Bernardo, 2002).

The Classroom in the Chinese-heritage Culture Educators consider that the classroom environment generally reflects the pervading cultural practices. Positive classrooms are normally “culture-neutral”, as few studies

18 Shane N. PHILLIPSON mention cultural differences in their climate (Marsh, 2000). Li (2000) argued that serious problems occur when the teaching methods and content do not meet students’ expectations, or when students perceive that their teachers do not understand “… their needs and lacked competence in teaching methods and Chinese culture” (p. 63). This study concluded that it is crucial to appreciate cultural differences if teaching and learning are to be successful. By Western standards, Asian classrooms generally appear to be very harsh with few resources, large classes and relentless norm-referenced testing (Watkins & Biggs, 2001). Moreover, when Western teachers come to work in Asian countries for the first time they notice that students are more attentive and quiet in class (Kennedy, 2002). Although they seldom respond to their teachers’ questions, they are happy to sit and copy notes; and when they do answer questions, they give short replies such as “yes”, “no”, or “I don’t know”. Some Western teachers feel that this reflects the students’ poor language skills, but this is equally common among university students, who are supposed to have a higher level of English communication skills. In contrast to the West, silence in the CHC classroom is a sign of respect (Kennedy, 2002), meaning that students are listening attentively to the teachers and not distracting them from their teaching. It is also a face-saving strategy to avoid making unnecessary mistakes and thereby protect their self-esteem.

Curriculum in the Confucian-heritage classroom After examining the education systems in China, Taiwan and Japan, Stevenson, Lee and Chen (1994) concluded that the curricula of these countries were highly controlled by their governments. They are often criticized as being rigid and standardized, in a schooling system which “predominantly emphasizes the learning of basic knowledge and analytical skills” (Niu & Sternberg, 2003, p. 111). The rationale behind this control and rigidity is that each child should have an equal opportunity to be educated and gain a high-level position in society. Those who work hard can be high achievers, and the early years of schooling should ensure “fair” competition by offering the same opportunities to all. For instance, when Stevenson, Lee and Chen interviewed a Japanese former education official, he expressed pride in this system, saying that: We need to ensure that they will have the basic skills they need to compete. As long as they have these basic skills, it is up to them where to go or how much effort they want to give in order to succeed in competition. (p. 120)

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Examinations are an important aspect of the CHC, their function being to select students for places at senior high schools and universities. Countries within this culture tend to adopt an elitist approach to higher education, with only a small proportion of school-age children being able to enter colleges and universities. Since the examinations are highly competitive, parents prepare their children earnestly for them, often chiding teachers when they feel the schools do not give enough homework. In addition, parents often pay to send their children to after-school tutorial classes, or private “cramming” schools (Yan & Chow, 2002). The psychological effects of such intensely competitive examinations on students within the CHC are beginning to be understood (Yan & Chow, 2002). For example, many Hong Kong Chinese students suffer from high test anxiety and low self-efficacy; and those who have expended a great deal of effort with little return begin to believe that they are of low ability, thus reinforcing the link between attributions of effort and ability (Hong, 2001).

Pedagogical Approaches in Confucian-heritage Cultures The classroom environment is also affected by the teaching strategies adopted. As Biggs (1996) pointed out, there are pervasive misconceptions about the pedagogical approaches taken by teachers in the CHC that have continued to persist. A directive teaching approach, from a young age, is common practice in many Asian countries, and writers such as Brauchli (1994, cited in Podgorecki, 1997) have expressed concern about this style of education in the Chinese schooling system: “The problem with China’s schools is that, instead of teaching students how to think, they still teach what to think” (p. 78). Gardner’s (1989) experience provided an insight into this Chinese practice. When he and his family visited China, he found that the Chinese who interacted with their one and a half year old son in the hotel lobby were much more directive in attempting to shape the toddler’s responses than were Gardner and his wife. The role of the teacher is not to allow children to learn through trial-and-error and experience, but to direct them in the correct procedures with care and gentleness. Creativity in the Chinese culture, as Gardner found, comes after the mastery of technique and not, as is encouraged in the West, before the acquisition of knowledge. Teachers in the CHC spend a great deal of time on teaching their students and assessing their homework assignments, and parents and students follow this pattern of learning. As mentioned previously, parents in the CHC place a greater emphasis than in the West on the training of their children, and are more willing to participate in their daily activities (Leung, Lau, & Lam, 1998).

20 Shane N. PHILLIPSON

Information and communication technologies in the Confucian-heritage culture The development of information and communication technology (ICT) is having a profound effect on the scope of education. It is important, therefore, to understand the ways in which ICTs are utilized in CHC classrooms. Several recent studies have suggested that these tools have potential limitations, and that only the more motivated and independent learners are likely to benefit from this teaching mode (Weiner, 2002). Six primary schools in Hong Kong recently participated in a research project on the benefits of ICTs for their students which revealed that teachers can become a barrier to ICT-based learning. For example, during the half-year investigation, Yuen (2003) observed that teachers who were inclined to the conventional view of education and learning resisted adapting to the new role of online mentor. During the interview sessions, some teachers said that they could not allow their students to discuss issues by themselves, and that they must provide knowledge to support students’ learning. Therefore, one of the biggest advantages of ICTs — the opening up of knowledge — challenges the traditional role of the Asian teacher as it emphasizes an interactive guidance and support role rather than a directive one (Smith, Ferguson, & Caris, 2003).

Learning style preferences of students from Confucian-heritage cultures I hear and I forget; I see and I remember; I do and I understand. (Chinese proverb)

Oxford and Anderson (1995) highlighted four characteristics of Chinese learners. In their cross-cultural investigation, they found that Chinese learners: 1. Prefer classrooms where rules are emphasized and learning is inductive; 2. Adopt a concrete-sequential cognitive style (i.e. they prefer to follow the teacher to the letter and use strategies such as memorization, lists and repetition); 3. Adopt a reflective learning style (i.e. they prefer a slow, accurate, systematic approach and are less comfortable with guessing or predicting); and 4. Seldom work in groups in class but cooperate readily outside the classroom. A recent study of the learning style preferences of Asian American secondary school students in US schools showed no differences in auditory, kinesthetic or tactile learning style preferences, irrespective of their ethnic origin, length of residency in the USA, achievement level or gender (Park, 1997). The results suggested that all students used a variety of learning styles, although tactile learning

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was the least preferred, and there was a greater preference for visual learning among Asian-Americans — particularly those from China, the Philippines, and Korea, irrespective of their length of residency — compared to Anglo-Americans. Furthermore, Chinese, Korean and Anglo-American students showed little preference for group learning within the classroom, although low-achieving students of any origin preferred group learning more than those who were achieving at the high or middle levels. In terms of individual learning, the study found that Asian Americans who were born in Asia preferred individual learning more than those born in the USA and Anglo-Americans. Park (1997) concluded that the preference for visual learning is sufficiently important to warrant teaching strategies that are based on, for example, charts, maps and graphic organizers. Researchers from the West have described the East Asian style of learning as “rote learning.” While criticizing it as a shallow way of learning, they have been puzzled by the exceptional achievement of these students in international competitions and graduate schools around the world. Recently, some studies have recognized that East Asian learners are not simply using rote learning but repetitive learning (Watkins & Biggs, 2001) or deep learning (Biggs, 1995b). The difference between these learning styles is that the former does not require the learner to understand material: rote learners superficially process (or memorize) the material and reproduce it. However, repetitive or deep learning requires a thorough understanding of the material before mastering it. Oxford and Anderson (1995) proposed an interlocking process: students learn and memorize independently during the class, while teachers provide the basic concepts in the materials. This process takes a longer time, as students need to absorb and analyze what they have learned in class and, if necessary, revise the material again and again until they fully understand it. While East Asian students prefer to study individually within the classroom, they collaborate spontaneously outside it, exchanging their ideas and understandings through discussion. Only when they cannot resolve problems through textbooks and discussion with classmates will they seek a teacher’s assistance.

Parents’ Expectations within the Confucian-heritage Culture Many previous studies and accounts have described Chinese parents as authoritarian, tightly controlling their children’s academic activities. Compared to their Western counterparts, they are seen as focusing more heavily on their children’s academic results, and forcing them to work relentlessly on an excessive number of assignments and worksheets. However, this picture is more stereotypical than factual and it is important to understand the values inherent in the CHC and the behavior expected by parents as a basis for explaining this aspect of the Chinese learner’s experience.

22 Shane N. PHILLIPSON

Chinese parents’ views on diligence, intelligence and academic achievement Studies on the ways in which Chinese parents intervene in their children’s academic activities, have generally concluded that they are more heavily involved than are European and American parents (Chen, 2001; Chen & Uttal, 1988; Hong & Lee, 2003). This results from their belief that effort is very important for academic achievement and, if possible, they are more willing to invest time and energy in assisting their children in their schoolwork, give more encouragement and feedback and set a higher standard for their children (Hong & Lee, 2003; Huntsinger et al., 1997; Wan et al., 2003). In a study of 160 Australian school children from three ethnic groups, Dandy and Nettelbeck (2002a) found that Chinese and Vietnamese communities did better in mathematics, spent more time in studying and had higher educational aspirations than those from an Anglo-Celtic background. The researchers claimed that their findings were suggestive of complex socio-cultural relationships that contributed to ethnic differences in achievement. The same authors carried out a second study in which 239 Australian parents from Chinese, Vietnamese and Anglo-Celtic communities were asked to describe their educational standards for their children (Dandy & Nettelbeck, 2002b). They found that parents from Chinese and Vietnamese backgrounds had higher educational expectations and aspirations for tertiary education for their children, while parents from an Anglo-Celtic background, especially those of lower socioeconomic status, preferred their children to attend some form of vocational training. Once again, the authors suggested that there were significant cultural factors acting on the parents from the Chinese and Vietnamese communities that may influence their children’s academic achievement. Parental expectations and attitudes toward science education were examined in a cross-cultural study involving secondary school students (Chen, 2001). This research found that Chinese parents and students from China had a more positive attitude toward the value of science than their US counterparts. The attitudes of Chinese students studying in America showed evidence of cultural influences from both China and the USA. The study also revealed a significantly greater involvement by Chinese parents in their children’s homework, and a higher expectation for success and belief in their children’s abilities, compared to parents from the USA. Traditional values in the CHC maintain that diligence is the key that unlocks an individual’s potential, as expressed in Chinese proverbs such as jade which has not been polished is of no use and fierce fire reveals true gold. Instead of uncovering innate abilities, Chinese teachers focus more on encouraging their students’ selfimprovement through working hard. Furthermore, it is believed that there is always room for gradual improvement and to excel in life should not be at the expense of someone else. This belief is shared by parents from Japan where it is thought that

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effort, rather than ability, is the single most important determinant of academic achievement (Stevenson, Lee, & Chen, 1994). A recent study has, however, provided evidence for cultural variability between two Chinese classrooms in Hong Kong in parental and child achievement attributions, suggesting that it is unwise to generalize about Chinese classrooms (S. Phillipson, 2006). It was found that in a Chinese primary school in a catchment area of high socio-economic status (SES), students’ attributions for their success in both mathematics and languages were dependent on both effort and strategy. In contrast, students from a Chinese primary school in a low SES catchment area were more inclined to attribute success and failure in these two subjects, as expected, to effort alone. In addition, S. Phillipson (2006) found that students’ achievement is dependent on both the SES and the subject itself, with parental attributions of their child’s failure to effort being a significant predictor of achievement in languages but not mathematics for the high SES parents. For the low SES parents, the best predictors of achievement in languages are parents attributing their child’s failure to effort, and children attributing their failure to lack of ability and their success to effort. In terms of intelligence, Furnham, Rakow and Mak (2002) found that Western parents commonly believed that their children were significantly more intelligent than they actually were. Although, in broad terms, this view is shared by parents in Hong Kong, they did not consider their sons more intelligent than their daughters, reflecting the belief that intelligence or ability is related more to effort than to innate factors. A Chinese proverb explains that there is always a higher mountain ahead on your journey, meaning that ability increases according to the future challenges.

Ability and prayer: An additional piece of the puzzle As well as diligence, many Chinese parents also believe that prayer is important for academic success, an additional aspect of the achievement “puzzle” which is often neglected by researchers interested in understanding the Chinese learner. In describing the role of religion in the increasingly examination-oriented East Asian culture, Zeng (1996) noted that during the examination period in many East Asian countries, many of the candidates and their families visit temples and shrines, particularly those related to success in examinations — and that the number of prayers made by students and their parents at temples and shrines increased with the growing importance of examinations as “… gateway[s] to socioacademic mobility” (p. 264). Because examinations are seen as unpredictable, anonymous and beyond the control of the individual, success cannot be guaranteed. Accordingly, many students and parents resort to shrines and temples for guidance, confidence and, if required, consolation.

24 Shane N. PHILLIPSON While prayers related to examination success are commonly used, parents (usually the mother) also resort to self-inflicted “torment” (Zeng, 1996, p. 266) such as repeating rituals a hundred times, or bowing three thousand times, or praying for a hundred days (pp. 266–7). Parents in Japan also pay priests to chant on behalf of their sons or daughters, or purchase an ema, a small wooden tablet containing prayers asking for scholastic success in general or examination achievement in particular. Variations of the ema exist in Taiwan, Korea and China. When the practice began, the focus of the academic-orientated ema was the university entrance examination (Zeng, 1996). However, in modern times, it has included high school, middle school and even kindergarten entrance examinations. Although there has been no comparable study since Zeng’s work, there is no reason to suggest that the focus has changed. According to Zeng (1996), the content of the emas reflects the three major features of the modern examination systems in these cultures, namely its highly symbolic and war-like competitive nature, its intense socio-economic ramifications, and its almost superstitious manifestations. Zeng reported that the content of the prayers does not pass responsibility for success to the deity or ancestor, but asks them to increase the confidence of the candidate. Also, the candidates often resolve to work harder, practice self-control and forgo simple pleasures such as watching TV or reading comic books. The prayers are often placed in auspicious positions on the plum tree in the temple grounds, particularly in relation to the emas of rivals. Although examination results are still dependent on the diligence and ability of the students, many unpredictable events can occur before, during and after the examination, ruining the efforts of the candidates. Parents may not be able to give their children guidance in academic matters, but they can be involved by praying for their children in temples and shrines, an involvement which does not seem to exist among parents from Western cultures.

Interactions within the Chinese family It is a common perception in the West that Chinese parents engage in one-way communication with their children. The view that their children listen passively and carry out their parents’ orders comes from an overgeneralization of filial piety. Within CHCs, filial piety (hsiao) is the primary duty of all Chinese people. In simple terms, being a filial son means complete obedience to one’s parents during their lifetime and, as the parents grow older, taking the best possible care of them. In terms of academic performance, however, Chinese families tend to engage in twoway communication when discussing their expectations with their children. In this relationship, children constantly communicate and provide feedback on their parents’ expectations, and parents are expected to respond to these comments.

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On the other hand, Chinese and Japanese mothers are more critical of their children’s achievements, compared to US mothers (Stevenson, Chen, & Lee, 1993; Stevenson, Lee & Chen, 1994). In describing their children, Chinese parents used more descriptors involving aspects of conscientiousness, including carefulness, faithfulness and diligence, and they were more critical than a comparable group of Dutch parents (Zhang et al., 2002). For other descriptors related to intellect, such as intelligence, openness and interest, there was no marked difference. Zhang et al. proposed that the role of these critical comments was to provide practical directions for children about the best way to improve their academic work. Although many parents actively convey their expectations, their children may not always act according to their wishes. Japanese adolescents treated different expectations with different strategies: when an expectation was perceived as positive, they acted accordingly, but when it was perceived as negative, they either changed themselves or attempted to persuade their parents to change their expectations (Kawamura, 2002). In another study, S. Phillipson and S. N. Phillipson (2007) used a Vygotskian perspective to examine the relationship between parental expectations of success, parental beliefs about their children’s memory and involvement in their child’s school with the academic achievement of Chinese students. They found that parents’ expected scores in mathematics and languages, irrespective of their SES, were very strong predictors of achievement in each of these subjects, but not their assessment of their child’s episodic memory. However, the results of a study of one British international school in Hong Kong showed that parents’ assessment of their child’s episodic memory was a positive predictor for language achievement and that parental involvement in their children’s education (at home and school) was a negative predictor of achievement.

Children with Special Needs in the Confucian-heritage Culture This chapter has established that the classroom in the CHC is different from that in the West. In the CHC classroom, education is valued more for pragmatic reasons, not only for the individual but also for the students’ wider family group. The motivations for learning, therefore, are a complex mixture where the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation becomes meaningless. Accordingly, effort is a highly valued commodity and it is only in the face of persistent low achievement that the child’s ability will be questioned. As regards the classroom, the curriculum is much more rigid, reflecting the belief that competency must be developed before creativity can be cultivated. Students in the CHC develop a deep understanding through a process of memorization (rather than rote learning); and the pedagogy is appropriately targeted

26 Shane N. PHILLIPSON to developing knowledge and skills, rather than exploration, so the teaching is teacher-directed rather than student-centered. Parents from the CHC are highly involved in their childrens’ education, reflecting the belief that effort is highly controllable and broadly “additive”. They also have higher expectations for their children compared with parents from the West. Against this cultural backdrop, there is a growing awareness in the CHC of the needs of all children, including those with special educational needs. Many tertiary institutions in the Asian region offer teacher education awards with specialized studies on children with special needs. The Hong Kong Institute of Education, for example, offers qualifications in this area in response to government and public pressure. However, many of the technologies and practices for working with these children are imported from the West and, to date, little thought has been given to the possible negative interactions between educational technology and practices and the unique nature of the CHC. As Li (2000) warned, the school system does matter for children’s learning, but not necessarily in ways that can be predicted from studies originating from cultures outside the CHC.

Summary In this chapter, it has been argued that the approach to learning in Confucianheritage cultures (CHCs) is different from that taken elsewhere. Because students are influenced by and, in turn, influence the society around them, classrooms in the CHC differ in the way that students learn and lessons are conducted. These learner differences include a greater reliance on memorization to achieve deep understanding, motivations for learning, goal orientations and learning style preferences. An examination of the pedagogical approaches taken by teachers from the CHC concluded that there are important differences in the way teachers teach. The role of parents in the education of their children also differs in the CHC compared with parents from the West. Because of these differences, it is appropriate to look more closely at research and best practice regarding the learning of students with special educational needs.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

How would you explain the following discrepant event? A round object is dropped into a tank of water. After passing through the surface of the water, the object then returns to its original position at the surface of the water.

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2.

3.

4.

Compare the explanations from Chinese students and those from a EuroAmerican background. What similarities and differences do you find? Beare et al. (1991) described a structure for identifying the four aspects of a school’s culture, including tangible expressions and symbolism (values, philosophies, ideologies), conceptual and verbal manifestations (aims and objectives of schools, curriculum, metaphors, organizations stories/structures/ heroes), behavioral manifestations (rituals, ceremonies, ways of teaching, ways of learning, rules and regulations, psychological and social supports, parental and community support structures), and visual and material manifestations and symbols (facilities and equipment, artifacts and memorabilia, crests and mottoes, uniforms). Describe your school’s culture according to this structure. Identify those elements that are common to all schools from a Confucian-heritage culture. The 1996 study in Marton, Dall’Alba and Kun involved twenty teachereducators from China. It developed a model of learning, describing the relationship between memorization and understanding, and made the point that memorization with understanding is one of the differences between Western and Chinese ways of learning. The study also referred to the distinction between deep and surface learning (Biggs, 1996). What are the key features of the model and what is the difference between the two types of learning? Is the memorization with understanding model of learning constructivist in its approach? Use the techniques described in the study to determine the way your students learn. How are ICTs being used in your school? Are they used in an interactive way, or a moredirective fashion, reflecting the pedagogical style commonly seen in the CHC?

Glossary Attribution theory is a model of motivation that describes how students explain the reasons (or attributes) for their past successes or failures. For students from a Confucian-heritage culture, the main reasons include effort, interest in the topic, mood and ability. Other possible reasons include task difficulty and luck. Confucian-heritage culture is a culture that is heavily influenced by the teachings of Confucius (551–479 BC). Although often equated with Chinese culture, the two are not synonymous. Confucianism has influenced a number of different cultures, including Japanese and Korean. Expectancy value theory is a model of motivation that posits that students learn when they both value the task and expect success.

28 Shane N. PHILLIPSON Extrinsic motivation is a theory of motivation that explains that students learn because of the expectation of a reward. The model is based on B. F. Skinner’s theory of “operant conditioning”. Intrinsic motivation is a model of motivation that explains that students learn because of their inherent curiosity, and their need to build competency and make sense of the world. Social motivation is a model of motivation that explains that students learn because the outcomes of learning, such as high achievement, are valued by people who are important to them. Success (or achievement) motivation is a model of motivation that describes the need of some students to achieve success in a competitive situation.

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30 Shane N. PHILLIPSON Leung, F. K. S. (2002). Behind the high achievement of East Asian students. Educational Research and Evaluation, 8(1), 87–108. Leung, K., Lau, S., & Lam, W. L. (1998). Parenting styles and academic achievement: A cross-cultural study. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 44(2), 157–172. Li, J. (2000). Learning among Chinese children: Does the system matter? Commentary on “The controversy of through-road education.” Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 1(2), 179–184. Li, N., Leung, D. Y. P., & Kember, D. (2001). Medium of instruction in Hong Kong universities: The mis-match between espoused theory and theory use. Higher Education Policy, 14, 293–312. Liu, J. (2002). Negotiating silence in American classrooms: Three Chinese cases. Language and Intercultural Communication, 2(1), 37–54. Marsh, C. (2000). Handbook for beginning teachers. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia Pty Ltd. Marton, F., Dall’Alba, G., & Kun, T. L. (1996). Memorizing and understanding: The keys to the paradox? In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 69–83). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Moneta, G. B., & Siu, C. M. Y. (2002). Trait intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, academic performance, and creativity in Hong Kong college students. Journal of College Student Development, 43(5), 664–683. Naidoo, R., & Jamieson, I. (2005). Knowledge in the marketplace: The global commodification of teaching and learning in higher education. In P. Ninnes & M. Hellsten (Eds.), Internationalizing higher education: Critical explorations of pedagogy and policy (pp. 37–51). Hong Kong, China: Comparative Education Research Centre/ Springer. Niu, W., & Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Societal and school influences on student creativity: The case of China. Psychology in the Schools, 40(1), 103–114. Norenzayan, A., & Nisbett, R. E. (2000). Culture and causal cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(4), 132–135. Oxford, R., & Anderson, N. (1995). A cross-cultural view of learning style. Language Teaching, 28, 201–215. Papanastasiou, E. (2002). Factors that differentiate mathematics students in Cyprus, Hong Kong, and the USA. Educational Research and Evaluation, 8(1), 129–146. Park, C. C. (1997). Learning style preferences of Asian American (Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Vietnamese) students in secondary schools. Equity & Excellence in Education, 30 (2), 68–77. Park, C. D., Nisbett, R. E., & Hedden, T. (1999). Aging, culture, and cognition. Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences & Social Sciences, 54B(2), 75–84. Parmenter, T. R. (2001). Intellectual disabilities: Quo Vadis? In G. L. Albrecht, K. D. Seelman, & M. Bury (Eds.), Handbook of disability studies (pp. 267–296). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Pereira dos Santos, M. (2001). Special education, inclusion and globalisation: A few considerations inspired in the Brazilian case. Disability & Society, 16, 311–325.

The Regular Chinese Classroom 31 Phillipson, S. (2006). Cultural variability in parent and child achievement attributions: A study from Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 26(5), 625–642. Phillipson, S., & Phillipson, S. N. (2007). Academic expectation, belief of ability and involvement by parents as predictors of child achievement: A cross-cultural comparison. Educational Psychology, 27(3), 329–348. Phillipson, S. N. (2005). The expectations and difficulties faced by Cantonese speaking tertiary students in a teacher education award when using English as the medium of instruction. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 14(1), 47–95. Podgorecki, A. (1997). Higher faculties: A cross-national study of university culture. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. Rohlen, T. (1983). Japan’s high schools. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Salili, F. (1996). Accepting personal responsibility for learning. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 85–105). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Salili, F. (2001). Teacher-student interactions: Attributional implications and effectiveness of teachers’ evaluative feedback. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 77–98). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Center, The University of Hong Kong. Salili, F., Chiu, C. Y., & Lai, S. (2001). The influence of culture and context on students’ motivational orientation and performance. In C. Y. Chiu, & F. Salili (Eds.), Student motivation: The culture and context of learning (pp. 221–247). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R. E., Zhao, S., & Koo, J. (2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West communication styles in work and nonwork contexts. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 85(2), 363–372. Smith, G. G., Ferguson, D., & Caris, M. (2003). The web versus the classroom: Instructor experiences in discussion-based and mathematics-based disciplines. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 29(1), 29–59. Stevenson, H. W., Chen, C. S., & Lee, S. Y. (1993). Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese and American children: Ten years later. Science, 259, 53–58. Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S. Y., & Chen, C. S. (1994). Education of gifted and talented students in Mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17(2), 104–130. Tang, C., & Biggs, J. B. (1996). How Hong Kong students cope with assessment. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 159–182). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Torres, C. A. (2002). Globalization, education, and full citizenship: Solidarity versus markets? American Educational Research Journal, 39(2), 363–378. Tung, P., Lam, R., & Tsang, W. K. (1997). English as a medium of instruction in post-1997 Hong Kong: What students, teachers, and parents think. Journal of Pragmatics, 28(4), 441–459.

32 Shane N. PHILLIPSON Wan, X. S., Fei, L. C., Zhang, X. Q., Chen, J., Wei, B. G., Wang, K., et al. (2003). Factors having influence on academic achievement of middle school students. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 17(1), 45–46. Watkins, D. A. (1996). Hong Kong secondary school learners: A developmental perspective. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 107–119). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (1996). The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (2001). The paradox of the Chinese learner and beyond. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 3–23). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. Weiner, B. (1986). Human motivation. New York, NY: Rinehart & Winston. Weiner, C. (2002). A new alternative: Adolescent students study in cyberspace. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 63(1-A), 155. Yan, P. W., & Chow, J. C. S. (2002). On the pedagogy of examinations in Hong Kong. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(2), 139–149. Yuen, A. H. K. (2003). Fostering learning communities in classrooms: A case study of Hong Kong schools. Educational Media International, 40(1–2), 153–162. Zeng, K. (1996). Prayer, luck, and spiritual strength: The desecularization of entrance examination systems in East Asia. Comparative Education Review, 40(3), 264–279. Zhang, Y., Kohnstamm, G., Slotboom, A. M., Elphick, E., & Cheung, P. C. (2002). Chinese and Dutch parents’ perceptions of their children’s personality. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(2), 165–178.

Further Readings Biggs, J. B., & Watkins, D. A. (1995). Classroom learning: Educational psychology for the Asian teacher. Singapore: Prentice Hall. Chan, J. (2007). Giftedness and China’s Confucian heritage. In S. N. Phillipson & M. McCann (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 35–64), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2007). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (7th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (1996). The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (2001). Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong Kong, China: Comparative Education Research Centre.

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Useful Website Federation in Community Support (FICS) at http://www2.ied.edu.hk/fpece/fics/

Acknowledgements The comments made by Assoc. Prof. Chris Forlin, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, on an early version of this chapter are gratefully appreciated.

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Shane N. Phillipson, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

34 Shane N. PHILLIPSON

2 Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia Suk Ching Stella CHONG

Some of the critical issues related to the education of children within Asia are relevant for understanding diversity. They include: • The development of educational policy; • The tensions between assimilation, acculturation and inclusion within a global and local context; • The relationship between language diversity and proficiency, and education; • The development of a cultural identity and the creation of cultural minorities; and • The differential treatment of minority groups and power relations within the context of equality.

Introduction This chapter explores some of the key issues relating to diversity and schooling in eleven countries in Asia: the ten member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), plus the People’s Republic of China (China). ASEAN was initially formed in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, and later joined by Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma) and Vietnam. The member nations of ASEAN and China (including Hong Kong) represent diverse geographies, histories and demographics, and although they collectively form a significant world economic force, each country continues to strive for its own cultural identity.

36 Suk Ching Stella CHONG There is significant diversity in the ethnic groups within each country and between countries because of the differences in historical background, religion, cultural artifacts and language. As a result of these and other differences, ethnic tensions can occur, occasionally flaring up into violence. For example, in the Jakarta riots of May 1998, the main targets were shops and cars owned by ethnic-Chinese (Indonesian Chinese), while in Malaysia, interethnic tension also exists between the Malays and Indians and has resulted in inter-racial riots (Yap, 2001). Thus the protection of territories and cultural identities is ever stronger, despite the widespread assumption that globalization destroys the latter (Liu, 2006; Tomlinson, 2003). Through the formation of ASEAN and the establishment of a regional identity, many of these countries are in the process of establishing their own identity on the international stage. At a time when a national identity is developing, ethnic identity, particularly for marginalized groups, is also a growing force. Despite some marked differences, there are a number of issues in schooling that are common and significant for all of the countries in this region of the world. This chapter explores some of the complex issues associated with diversity and schooling in Asia — such as cultural identity, assimilation or inclusion, choice of language, preferred culture, equality and power relations — all of which contribute to the provision of quality education in Asian countries. A broad, rather than an exclusively Chinese, perspective is taken here because Chinese people are found in all of these countries and because these countries are often, erroneously, perceived to be similar, a misconception this chapter attempts to dispel.

A Closer Look at Diversity in Asia The diversity and complexity of the geographical and historical backgrounds and cultures in these eleven Asian countries are illustrated in Table 2.1. Geographically, Singapore is the smallest country with only about 660 square kilometers, while the largest is China with nearly 9.6 million square kilometers. However, the smallest population is found in Brunei, which has only about 380,000 people living in a land of 5,770 square kilometers in contrast to China’s 1.3 billion people. Historically, the ASEAN countries, except Thailand, were colonies of Western powers. For example, Brunei, Malaysia, Myanmar and Singapore were colonized by the British; Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam by the French; Indonesia by the Dutch; and the Philippines by the Spaniards and later the Americans. China remained a closed country for many centuries until the regime of Deng Xiaoping in 1978 (Chow, 2004). The British influence was largely restricted to Hong Kong island ceded by China in 1841 until 1997.

Land area (sq. km.)

5,770

181,040

1,919,440

Brunei

Cambodia

Indonesia

245.5 million

13.9 million

379,444

Population (July 2006 estimate)

Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%, Coastal Malay 7.5%, Chinese 3%, others: 23% Balinese and Bahasa Indonesian. About 300 ethnic groups who speak over 250 distinct languages.

Khmer 90%, Chinese 1%, Vietnamese 5%, others: Cham, Lao, Shan, Thai 4%

Malay 67%, Chinese 15%, Europeans 12% Indigenous 6%, others: Dyak

Ethnic groups

Bahasa Indonesia, English, Dutch and local dialects (Javanese)

Khmer, French and English

Malay, English, Chinese and Arabic

Official and other main languages

Demographic features

A comparison of the demographic features of ten ASEAN countries and China

Country

Table 2.1

Islam 88%, Buddhism 1%, Catholic 3%, Hinduism 2%, Protestantism 5%

Theravada Buddhism 95%, Hinduism, Islam

Islam 67% Buddhism 13%, Christianity 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%

Religions

Once part of the Dutch empire; proclaimed independence on August 17, 1945

Independence from France on November 9, 1953

Independence from Britain on January 1, 1984

History of colonization and foreign influence

(continued on p. 38)

$3,700

$2,200

$23,600 (2003 est.)

GDP per capita US$ (2005 estimate)

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 37

236,800

329,750

678,500

Laos

Malaysia

Myanmar (Burma)

49.9million

24.4 million

6.4 million

Burman 68%, Shans 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mons 2%, Indian 2%, others: 5% (no less than 67 indigenous racial groups with nearly 250 separate languages and dialects spoken)

Malay and other indigenous: Bumiputras (Dayaks and Orang Asli), Peranakans, 61.4%, Chinese 23.7%, Indian 7.1%, others 7.8%. About 100 languages are spoken.

Lao Loum 68%, Lao Theung 22%, Lao Soung including the Hmong (Meo) and the Yao (Mien) 9%, and ethnic Vietnamese/ Chinese 1%

Burmese

Bahasa Melayu, English, Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainan, Foochow), Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Panjabi, Thai Note: In East Malaysia there are several indigenous languages, with Iban and Kadazan the most widely spoken.

Lao, French and English

Animism 1%, Buddhism 89%, Catholicism 1%, Islam 4%, Protestantism 3%, Others: 2%

Islam, Buddhism, Daoist, Hinduism, Christianity, Sikhism, Taoism; Shamanism is practiced in East Malaysia

Buddhism 60%, Animism and others 40% (including various Christian denominations 1.5%)

Independence from Britain on January 4, 1948

Independence from Britain on August 31, 1957

Independence from France on July 19, 1949

(continued on p. 39)

$1,600

$10,400

$1,900

38 Suk Ching Stella CHONG

300,000 (7,101 islands)

692.7

514,000

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

64.6 million

4.5 million

89.5 million

Thai 75%, Chinese 14%, others: 11% (up to 20 tribes, but six principal groups: Karen, Hmong, Mien (Yao), Lisu, Lahu, Akha).

Chinese 76.8%, Malay 13.9%, Indian 7.9%, others: 1.4% (once recorded 48 races speaking 54 languages)

Tagalog 28.1%, Cebuano 13.1%, Ilocano 9%, Bisaya/Binisaya 7.6%, Hiligaynon Ilonggo 7.5%, Bikol 6%, Waray 3.4%, ), Chinese 2%, others: 23.3% (about 111 different linguistic groups)

Thai, English

Four official languages – English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil,

Two official languages – Filipino (based on Tagalog) and English

Buddhism 94.6%, Islam 4.6%, Christianity 0.7%, Hinduism and others 0.1%

Buddhism 42.5%, Islam14.9%, Taoism 8.5%, Hinduism 4%, Catholicism 4.8%, other Christians 9.8%, Other 0.7%, none 14.8%

Catholicism 80.9%, Evangelical 2.8%, Iglesia ni Kristo 2.3%, Aglipayan 2%, other Christians 4.5%, Islam 5%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.6%, none 0.1%

Never colonized

$8,300

$29,900

$5,100

(continued on p. 40)

Once a British colony; independence from Malaysia on August 9, 1965

Independence from Spain on June, 12 1898; and independence from United States on July 4, 1946

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 39

9,596,960

People’s Republic of China

1.3 billion

84.4 million

Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1% (about 55 minorities)

Kinh (Viet) 86.2%, Chinese 3%, Tay 1.9%, Thai 1.7%, Muong 1.5%, Khome 1.4%, Hoa 1.1%, Nun 1.1%, Hmong 1%, others: 1.1% (more than 50 ethnic minorities)

Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghainese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan HokkienTaiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, about 53 minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry)

Vietnamese, English (increasingly favored as a second language), some French, Chinese, and Khmer

Note: Taoist, officially atheist, Buddhist, Christian 3%–4%, Islam 1%–2%

Buddhism 9.3%, Catholicism 6.7%, Hoa Hao 1.5%, Cao Dai 1.1%, Protestantism 0.5%, Islam 0.1%, none 80.8%, others: Hinduism, Taoism Hong Kong was ceded to the British in 1841 and was returned to China, along with Kowloon and the New Territories, on July 1, 1997.

Independence from France on September 2, 1945

$6,300

$3,000

Information primarily compiled from Regional Outlook (2001/02), Rutherford (2003), Lim (2004), World Development Indicators (2006), The World Factbook (2006).

329,560

Vietnam

40 Suk Ching Stella CHONG

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 41

Culturally, each nation is inhabited by different ethnic groups, including those with a number of indigenous minority groups speaking languages that vary from a few major ones to over 250 distinct vernaculars, as in Myanmar and Indonesia (Rutherford, 2003). Of all the racial groups, the Chinese are found in each of the ten ASEAN countries, varying from 1% in Cambodia and Laos to about 77% in Singapore. Most nations have one official or national language, while the Philippines and Singapore have two and four respectively. Perhaps as a result of Western influences, the majority of the ASEAN countries have English as their main, if not official, language but four of them have adopted Chinese as their second official language. Also, various religions are practiced, the most common being Buddhism and Islam, while Christianity has some impact in almost all of the countries. Economically, Brunei and Singapore are the richest of the eleven countries, with a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of about US$23,600 and US$29, 900 respectively; while the poorest are Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam whose per capita GDP ranges from around US$1,600 to US$3,000 (The World Factbook, 2006). China’s total GDP in 2004 was about US$1.93 trillion (the second largest economy in Asia after Japan’s US$4.62 trillion, and the six largest in the world) (World Development Indicators, 2006). However, China is deeply in debt, to an estimated US$242 billion, as is Indonesia (US$131 billion) (The World Factbook, 2006). There are great political variations among the Asian countries. For example, Brunei, Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand are constitutional monarchies, while Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore are republics. China, Laos and Vietnam are communist states, and Myanmar is run by a military regime (Chow, 2004; Lim, 2004).The above contrasting geographical, historical, cultural, economic and political features are important influences on national and social cohesion, equity, and cultural and social values — issues which schools in polyglot nations must address.

Educational policy within Asia The development and implementation of educational policies that focus on producing quality human capital1 have been of increasing concern to education systems in Asia and elsewhere in the world (Hallak, 2000; Sjöholm, 2005). Education is often regarded as important for improving the person, including character and morality, and the social and economic basis of the community (Li, 2005). Education is a particularly important part of Chinese people’s thinking, as it has always been treated as a stepping stone to advancement in society. As an old Chinese proverb reflects, “in books there are golden houses and beautiful girls like jade” (書中自有黃金屋, 書中自有顏如玉) (Lee, 1996). This saying partly

42 Suk Ching Stella CHONG explains why many Chinese parents push their children to study hard: they believe that a good education will bring a better standard of living for their children, thus improving their social status and economic mobility (Louie, 2001). Economically, evidence gathered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shows that investing in education returns dividends in terms of annual growth rates. For example, studies reported in Financing Education — Investment and Returns: Analysis of the World Education Indicators have found that investing in human capital over the past two decades has accounted for half a percentage point increase in the annual growth rates of sixteen emerging countries, including China and some of the ASEAN countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand (UNESCO-UIS/OECD, 2002). Further evidence indicated that as the average time spent in school by Malaysian children increased from 3.2 to 9.3 years, the GDP per capita rose from US$2,000 in 1960 to over US$6,000 in 2000, representing an increase of 300% (OECD, 2003, p. 40). This data suggests that investing in human capital, by increasing the participation rates in secondary and tertiary education, for example, plays a significant role in a country’s economic growth. Nevertheless, education alone may not be sufficient to account for economic growth. The key question is whether the amount spent on education will make a difference to people’s lives and society at large (Pok, 2001). For example, despite the Philippines having one of the highest tertiary enrolment rates in the world, its large investment in education contrasts with its slow economic growth (Ramesh, 2000). Factors such as leadership, transparency and accountability measures for ensuring high quality education are important (Cheng, 2002). From a social perspective, an observable benefit that derives from investing in education is a slowing down of the population growth in some developing countries. Furthermore, the improved education of women is closely related to better child health, thus decreasing the burden on the country’s health care system (Hobcraft, 1993; Desai & Alva, 1998). There are both broad commonalities as well as significant variations in education policies within Asia. Almost all ASEAN countries and China have policies in place for universal primary education, but the scope of secondary education differs considerably. In Brunei and Malaysia, for example, twelve years of free education is provided by the government and about 95% of students complete their primary education. However, providing education within a country where there are vast rural and urban differences, as well as diverse indigenous and ethnic groups, is unequivocally difficult, if not impossible. In countries such as Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, where 60% to 80% of the population is active in agriculture, universal education remains a challenge, especially in tribal regions. In Cambodia, for example, 50% of the primary schools do not have a complete

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 43

range of grades (Grade 1 to Grade 6). Also, for secondary schools, the gross enrollment ratio for Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar was 26%, 46% and 38% respectively, in contrast to 62% in Indonesia, 70% in China, 73% in Vietnam, 77% in Thailand, and 84% in the Philippines (World Development Indicators, 2006). According to Lim (2004), these rates, however, are still relatively low in comparison with developed countries in the West. By and large, education is funded and administered by the government in each country. Pressures for the privatization and marketization of education in Asia are increasingly being exerted from the West in the guise of choice, diversity and improving the quality of education through competition (Apple, 2005). This development has forced schools to be more responsive to community needs in order to attract students (Ramesh, 2000). In China, for example, government-subsidized and community-managed schools are the backbone of the education system. More than 40% of the total amount spent on education comes from private sources compared to the OECD average of 12% (Chow, 2004). There are many common elements in the various government statements relating to their educational aims and objectives. Great emphasis is often placed on nurturing children morally, intellectually, physically, socially and aesthetically, as well as preparing them to be responsible and loving citizens of their country (Li, 2005); and it has been claimed that Confucian ethics are the cornerstone within most Asian communities (Munro, 2005). Also, as the eleven countries have such diverse ethnicities, and in most cases have been influenced by their colonial past, a national language (or sometimes languages) is enforced in schools with the aim of encouraging cross-ethnic interaction, social cohesion and unity (Mansoor, Meraj, & Tahir, 2004). In Singapore, for example, once ruled by the British and later merged with Malaysia until independence in 1965, the number of races is estimated at forty-eight, speaking fifty-four different languages, and the government has agreed on four national languages — Chinese, English, Malay and Tamil — instead of just one (Pakir, 2004). Also, while Indonesia is estimated to contain about three hundred ethnic groups, speaking over 250 distinct languages, the only official language is Bahasa Indonesia, although English and the colonial Dutch language are also popular (see Table 2.1).

Critical issues for schooling and diversity Since the 1970s, debate on cultural diversity and multiculturalism in education in Western countries has centered on very important issues such as anti-racist pedagogy, cultural identity, equality, the politics of education and power relations (Banks, 2001; Boler, 2004; Cummins, 1996, 2000; Farrell, 1999; Freire, 1970, 1985, 1997; Giroux, 1988, 1997, 2005; Kincheloe, 2005; Taylor, 1992). Much of the

44 Suk Ching Stella CHONG literature on education and schooling in Asia, however, is concerned with historical factual information and there is a distinct lack of critical inquiry or debate. Books that are written about Asia have rarely examined those issues despite many groups of children being excluded from education as a result of sociocultural, economic, political and physical factors. For example, gender has been an issue in some countries such as Cambodia where girls do not have easy access to secondary education: the female literacy rate in the country is estimated to be 64% compared to 85% for males (World Development Indicators, 2006). According to Chow (2004), equality is an issue in China where minority groups earn less than their Han Chinese counterparts who make up 91.9% of the total population. Even among the Han Chinese themselves, prejudices are prevalent among people living in different regions who speak different dialects and practice different social customs. For example, Chong (2004) found that children from mainland China were greatly discriminated against when they came to study in Hong Kong. Also, children in Singapore are categorized according to their academic ability as early as nine years of age, making the assessment of intellectual abilities a central issue in education. These broad cultural, socio-economic and political issues that affect education are examined more closely in the following sections.

Tensions between assimilation, acculturation and inclusion In polyglot nations, racial minorities or indigenous people are often faced with the forces of the dominant culture wanting to assimilate or acculturate them as quickly as possible into the prevailing social structure. In Myanmar, for example, where there are no less than sixty-seven indigenous groups, speaking nearly 250 separate languages and dialects, Burmese is the sole official language. As in other countries, assimilation or acculturation is often depicted there as an opportunity for upward mobility, afforded to those who are willing and able to succeed in modifying their identity by adopting the norms and values of the core culture and national language(s). The practice of relinquishing one’s personal identity and replacing it with that of the dominant culture is judged to be the basis for an individual’s future success. This is generally promulgated through the types of programs offered for changing those who are different. Although, by and large, these programs are not seen as problematic, many critical pedagogues argue that they, in fact, prevent individuals from the minority groups from understanding their world, thus rendering them powerless and silent (Boler, 2004; Darder, Batodano, & Torres, 2003; Frye, 1983; Giroux, 1988, 2005; Hooks, 1994). A product of this assimilation and acculturation process is the Chinese Peranakan (peranakan means local born or native) in Malaysia. Although they are ethnically Chinese, they have adopted Malay as a home language, their cooking and eating habits are similar to the Malays, and the women also wear the

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 45

Malay-style dress called a sarong and kebaya (Tan, 2004). These Chinese Peranakan are also called ‘Baba’, as they are not recognized by others as pure Chinese (i.e., Totok Chinese), but “half Malay.” In the mid-1970s, the ideology of inclusive schooling began to sweep across the West and is now slowly easing its way toward Asia. Moving from the “medical” model2 of changing the child to fit the system, the paradigm has shifted towards the “social” model of changing the educational system to cater for the diverse needs of children (Barton, 2001; Carlson & Levin, 2005). Underpinning the social model of inclusion is the humanistic philosophy that all people are equal and should be respected and valued, and everyone should have the basic right and opportunity to participate in all community activities (Blanck, 2005). In 1994, there was a significant international agreement in Salamanca (Spain) on the need to ensure that all countries actively promote and support inclusive education as regular schools are the most effective way of combating discriminatory attitudes, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all (UNESCO, 1994). But how prepared are countries in Southeast Asia to implement such a humanistic philosophy of inclusion? Tensions exist between assimilation, acculturation and inclusion for various political, economic, and socio-cultural reasons. For instance, under the political legacy of the Dutch colonial power, primary school children in Indonesia are categorized according to socio-economic status: Dutch children are placed in the first (classical) stream, middle-class Indonesian and Chinese children in the second stream, and the poor in the third stream. The political intent of maintaining the status quo is blatantly played out in the schooling system and helps to perpetuate unequal power relationships. This structural barrier would be difficult to overcome should the philosophy of inclusion be considered for implementation.

Language differences and language proficiency Giroux (1988, 2005) contended that mainstream schools generally uphold the ideological imperatives of the dominant traditions of the culture whose values are often reflected within a conservative middle-class framework. In school settings, the languages and cultures of minority groups are frequently ignored and othered 3 to encourage identities that support the dominant group in society (Apple, 2005). In tribal regions where there is a variety of spoken languages, such as in Indonesia and Myanmar, minority groups are generally ignored in schools. Corson (1992) noted that by actively denying the languages and cultures of their indigenous people, the dominant culture eradicates the otherness of these people. When minority groups are forced to relinquish their cultural and linguistic identity, it is a form of oppression, because it withholds from them their status as separate and unique, eventually disempowering them.

46 Suk Ching Stella CHONG There are two ways to withhold recognition, including misrecognition and nonrecognition (Taylor, 1992). Both involve questions of power, inequity, social injustice and discrimination, many of which, unfortunately, are still deeply rooted in the contemporary education system. Very often racial minority groups are seen as a serious threat to the status quo of the school, society and national unity. Historically, bilingual education has been a contentious issue in political and educational arenas, for the politics of difference and the politics of assimilation or acculturation cannot be easily reconciled: the former desires to affirm the individual’s cultural identity and uniqueness whereas the latter hopes to suppress it. Those who cannot or will not integrate into the mainstream culture will be marginalized, reduced to objects of opposition and, hence, destined for the status of a cultural minority (Erni & Chua, 2005; Li, 2004). The language proficiency of students is one of the foremost concerns of schools (Kam & Wong, 2004). Presumably, students who are competent in the dominant language of the school will perform better than those who are not. The social environment is considered significant for children’s language and cognitive development. According to the Vygotskian perspective on learning, language is the medium for thinking and constructing knowledge, and the quality of the child’s sociolinguistic environment affects the quality of his/her thinking (Vygotsky & Kozulin, 1989). In other words, socialization has an important role to play in the development of language and thought. As language allows children to develop knowledge and to socialize, a child’s own language and social environment are influential factors in school performance and social development. There is considerable debate regarding the benefits of bilingual education (Abbeduto, 2004; Noll, 2005). Based on an analysis of decades of research data, Cummins (1996) concluded that there is overwhelming evidence that bilingual education has positive rather than negative effects on children’s learning, including a greater sensitivity toward linguistic meanings and more flexibility in thought processes (see Bialystok, 1991; Cummins & Swain, 1986; Schecter & Cummins, 2003; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1984). Cummins’ study of bilingualism further demonstrated that systematic exposure to two languages at an early age has an additive function. He theorized that there is a common underlying proficiency element across languages. According to his additive bilingualism enrichment principle, adding a second language will not adversely affect the development of the child’s first language provided that the mother tongue also receives recognition and societal/school support. However, in schools where monolingualism and acculturation are a hidden political agenda of education, bicultural children may eventually lose their first language ability, especially if stimulation of the first language is low in the home environment. This loss of language is often associated with low academic achievement in the second language school and with other consequences, such as social marginalization.

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 47

Bourdieu (1976) recognized language as an individual’s cultural capital .4 It has both symbolic and cultural significance (representing one’s identity) and is instrumental in relationship development. Symbolic poverty, a term coined by Klapp (1969), results if a person is robbed of these cultural capital symbols, without which his/her life is rendered meaningless. The lack of cultural identity subjects a person to “status anxiety” (Breton, 1989), that is, fear of being defined as a second-class citizen, marginal to the dominant culture. In 1951 a UNESCO panel of experts noted that “it is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is the child’s mother tongue” (Corson, 1992). Suppressing the child’s language may constitute a form of social injustice and disguised racism. Thus, an additive form of bilingual education is suggested as the best way to preserve the minority students’ first language in school, consequently allowing them to attain a higher level of fluency and literacy in two languages (Cummins, 2000). Nevertheless, there are just as many opponents as supporters of bilingual education (e.g., Houvouras, 2001; Huddy & Sears, 1995; McQuillan & Tse, 1996). Those who oppose bilingual education argue that it hinders minority students in learning the dominant language quickly to survive academically, and it denies immigrants equal job opportunities when they do not speak the mainstream language. Their opposition, though sound, may nevertheless originate from their fear of a threat to their national and cultural identity, prejudice or defense of realistic interests (Huddy & Sears, 1995). Linguists Abrams and Strogatz (2003) have argued that unless governments and world leaders have the foresight to view the different languages (and especially the tribal languages) as the world’s invaluable linguistic heritage and attempt to preserve them, thousands of these languages will vanish with the current generation. Unfortunately, their perception is close to reality. For example, Xu (2005) documents the fact that two of the endangered tribal languages spoken by the Laomian and Laopin in Yunnan, southwestern China, are already facing decline. Apparently, the Chinese government has not dealt with such a phenomenon seriously enough as more and more studies have established that the process of language death has speeded up rather than slowed down in the country (Bradley, 2005; Tsung & Qingxia, 2005). As Reyhner (1999) indicated, in order to revitalize the indigenous languages, apart from the role of technology, there is a need for students to expand their language skills from primary to secondary discourse and for teacher training so that schools can be successful partners in the revitalization efforts.

Cultural identity and the creation of cultural minorities Being recognized as an individual is a human need that has links to identity formation. According to Taylor (1992), the creation of minorities is a result of

48 Suk Ching Stella CHONG non-recognition of the individual’s culture or characteristics, as in school settings in which the difference-blind 5 principle is upheld and monolingualism is imposed. Churchill (1996) explained that: … unilingual schooling creates a linguistically protected market of jobs for persons who speak the official language, whose role is to unify the state by imparting the national language and related culture to those who do not share them by birth. Those who do not share them become the “national minorities”, thus created within a linguistic nation-state. (p. 275)

Churchill contended that the traditional model of nation-state sovereignty is dysfunctional, as it opposes the forms of education that promote a multilingual and multicultural society. When different cultures meet, children of minorities are often put in an ambivalent position in deciding how to survive in both environments — home and school. It is important that teachers have a good understanding of the development of cultural identity so that marginalization can be minimized and global competency established. As a number of cultural identities emerge in schools, Banks (2001) proposed a typology of stages of cultural identity with the aim of providing guidelines for teaching about cultural diversity and helping students and teachers to function more effectively at increasingly higher stages of cultural identity. His ideal typology involves six stages: (1) cultural psychological captivity; (2) cultural encapsulation; (3) cultural identity clarification; (4) biculturalism; (5) multiculturalism and reflective nationalism; and (6) globalism and global competency. Each of these aspects is explored in greater detail below. Banks (2001) hypothesized that in the first stage people whose cultures differ from the mainstream may internalize negative societal beliefs about their cultural groups and experience “psychological captivity”. Being ambivalent about who they are, they may reject themselves and their cultures, resulting in low self-esteem, or may strive aggressively to assimilate into the mainstream society. However, such a self-motivated move will not necessarily be successful, for they may be denied structural assimilation due to discrimination or stigmatization, hence experiencing psychological captivity. The second stage in Banks’s (2001) typology involves cultural encapsulation or cultural exclusiveness, i.e., a stage of voluntary separation from others owing to an ethnocentric attitude. People who feel that their cultures and ascribed status are being threatened may endorse separatism unless they experience less ambivalence and conflict about their cultural identities, and fairness in societal rewards. The third stage of the typology describes the person as beginning to accept him/herself as a result of a clarified positive cultural identification and attitude toward his/her own group. Banks hypothesized that self-acceptance is a prerequisite to other-acceptance. This stage usually takes place after the person has acquired a

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 49

certain level of economic and psychological security, and has a positive experience with members of other cultural groups. In the fourth stage, when the person has a healthy sense of cultural identity and the appropriate attitudes, skills and commitment to participate in his/her own as well as another cultural group, the person may have “a strong desire to function effectively in two cultures” (Banks, 2001, p. 136). This allows the person to experience the benefits of social and economic mobility. In the fifth stage of Banks’s (2001) typology, the person has further developed reflective cultural and national identifications that allow interaction with different ethnic groups in his/her nation. At this stage, the person does not function at a superficial level in other cultures, but at a deeper level that involves understanding and appreciating the values, symbols, and traditions of several cultures, and is able to function in them at a meaningful level. Finally, at the sixth and highest stage, the person has balanced, reflective, and positive cultural, national and global identifications, and the competency to interact with different ethnic groups. Ideally, the person has internalized universal ethical values and principles and is committed to act accordingly in other parts of the world. In short, Banks (2001) proposed that personal identity is developmental in nature. Healthy global identification evolves from the stages of clear ethnic identification and positive national identification prior to a global attitude and commitment. Since recognition is a human need that is linked to identity formation, and identity is socially derived through negotiation and dialogical relations with others, effective schooling cannot ignore the linguistic capital of minority children. As Cummins (1996) explained, human relations are at the heart of schooling; the way minority children interact and negotiate identities is fundamental to academic success. Nieto (1999, 2003, 2004) sheds light on numerous practical classroom strategies which can be applied by teachers to facilitate the development of cultural identity and affirm diversity.

The Concept of Equality Many scholars (e.g., Apple, 1988, 2005; Darder, 2005; Delpit, 1995; Giroux, 1988, 2005) have argued that schools are institutions that reproduce societal inequalities, since meeting the needs of minority students often poses a serious threat to the status quo of the school and society. After forty years of studying the effectiveness of reforms aimed at improving the equality of education, Farrell (1999) concluded that there was little evidence that they were successful. He proposed that educational equality must be evaluated on four facets, equality of access, survival, output and outcome. Put simply, the success of reforms concerned with equality of education can be determined by examining whether children from a different social background:

50 Suk Ching Stella CHONG • • • •

Have an equal chance of getting into the school system or level of study; Can remain in the school system to a defined level; Will learn similar things to the same levels at a defined point of time; and Will lead a similar life at the end of schooling, such as having roughly equalstatus jobs and incomes.

In many circumstance, however, school administrators and teachers simply employ the difference-blind principle in enforcing the rule of “equality” by treating everyone the same in a culturally diverse setting (Schofield, 2005). This differenceblind principle often ignores the politics of dignity (Taylor, 1992), which is itself based on the moral right of individuals to be proffered respect. Ignoring individual differences is basically discriminatory, as its intent is to subordinate the distinctive individual identity to an assimilated dominant identity. Hence, it is justifiable on the basis of respect and dignity to give differential treatment to those who are different in order to preserve their dignity. Darnell (1983) called this differential treatment vertical equity, which means “the unequal treatment of unequals” (p. 304). He believed that a conception of educational equality that is specific for indigenous and minority groups needs to be formulated as the basis for the development of educational policy. Today, many countries have in place ordinances to address equality. For example, the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (1982) states that “all citizens of the People’s Republic of China are equal before the law. Every citizen is entitled to the rights and at the same time must perform the duties prescribed by the Constitution and the law” (Article 33). In China, there are several laws and regulations that protect the following groups, such as: the Law for Protecting Women’s Rights and Interests, Law for Protecting Disabled People, Regulations Regarding the Labour Protection of Female Staff and Workers and regulations prohibiting discrimination with respect to employment. Likewise in Singapore and Thailand, the constitutions stipulate that all people are equal before the law and entitled to equal protection. In the Constitution of Singapore (n.d.), Article 12(1) prohibits discrimination against Singapore citizens on grounds of religion, race, descent or place of birth, and in employment under public authority. In the Constitution of Thailand (n.d.), Section 15 promotes equality between men and women; and Section 80 mentions particularly provisional aid to the elderly, the indigent, the disabled or handicapped, and the underprivileged to foster a society in which all individuals are treated with dignity and respect.

Differential treatment of minority groups in Asia Despite the fact that most countries have laws to protect their citizens against inequality and discrimination, according to the World Bank (2004), people of low

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 51

economic status are especially vulnerable to adverse events outside their control. They are often treated badly by society and excluded from having a voice and holding power. A report from the Asian Development Bank (2006) on poverty statistics noted that in Cambodia, Laos, the Philippines and Vietnam, 36%, 39%, 30%, and 29% of the respective total populations were living below the national poverty line as defined in terms of minimum caloric requirements; whereas in China and Malaysia, the percentages were 5% and 8% respectively. Those who are culturally and economically disadvantaged are often treated unequally or marginalized. For example, the richest 20% of the population in Cambodia accounts for 61% of the upper secondary students and 57% of the tertiary education students respectively, while 20% of primary school students and 2% of upper secondary students are from the poorest 20% of the population. The representation in tertiary education of those who live below the poverty line is zero (Pok, 2001). This means that public expenditure on upper secondary and tertiary education disproportionately benefits the more affluent sectors of society. Also, in China, women are traditionally accorded a lower status than men, particularly as regards the passing on of the ancestral lineage; and this is evident also in the many female babies killed or made orphans under the one-child policy, resulting in a disproportionate ratio of males to females. Although the governments have tried to increase the literacy rate, in China and most of Southeast Asia the percentage of literate males is still higher than for females (The World Factbook, 2006).

Power relations Children from culturally diverse backgrounds often underachieve in schools, particularly as tracking and a meritocratic approach are commonplace in many of the school settings. One example of this is when schools track children of similar ability and the high achievers are moved ahead on the basis of their achievement or merit. In Singapore, for example, at the end of Primary 4, children are assessed on their academic performance and are then streamed on the basis of their results.6 At the secondary level in Singapore, schools are now divided into two streams. The top 50% of children who pass their Primary School Leaving Examinations (PSLE) go to the Express stream, while the rest of the students who are less well endowed academically are assigned to the Normal (Academic) or Normal (Technical) stream which has a more vocationally-oriented curriculum (Ministry of Education [MOE]-Singapore, 2004). In this educational environment, there is a clear distinction between children who have merit and those who do not. According to Darder (1991), however, this judgment is made on a scale that excludes the cultural capital of minority children. In trying to understand why many children of minority status failed to perform well in school, Cummins (1986, 2000) postulated

52 Suk Ching Stella CHONG that the most important factors were related to unequal power relations and their role in the cultural subordination of people with marginal status, deemed as the others. When children from a minority background enter a mainstream school, they may be ambivalent toward their cultural identities and, as Banks (2001) called them, culturally and psychologically “captive”. This cultural ambivalence towards the home and school culture, coupled with the attribution of an inferior status by the dominant group, may underlie students’ academic failure in school. As explained by Cummins (1996), coercive power relations are often reflected in the form of language that legitimates the inferior status of a subordinated group or individual. For instance, racial minorities have often been blamed for reducing schools’ overall academic standards due to their lack of the language skills of the dominant culture. This type of discourse has been called blaming the victim (Delpit, 1988). Very often the existing social relationships in the wider society are disregarded by liberal educators whose discourse is based on an ahistorical or apolitical view (Pinar et al., 1995). Such a view tolerates alienation and isolation as well as fostering a lack of sensitivity towards the needs and problems of minority groups. As Darder (1991) pointed out, this curtails critical thinking and constructive dialogue for the subordinated, thus victimizing the marginalized group. Whether this victimization is a result of the dominant groups’ lack of understanding and respect for the minority group, or a result of political manipulation, is often not easily recognizable by the general public (Darnell, 1983; Giroux, 1997). For example, Wong (2005) noted that, up to two years ago, South Asian children in Hong Kong were excluded from Chinese schools, thus hindering them in their future careers. As a result of not speaking and writing Chinese, unemployment for this minority group was as high as 40% in comparison with the general unemployment rate of 5.3% for the population overall. Blaming the victim, in reality, constitutes racism which can be overt or covert. It can reveal itself both explicitly and implicitly. Essed (1990) argued that racism is a combination of prejudice and discrimination linked with power, and he described three types of racism — cultural, institutional and individual. These concepts are important and deserve further elaboration and attention as they relate well to the study of racial/ethnic minorities. According to Essed (1990), cultural racism or ideological racism often involves the portrayal of negative images in the media, books, language and so forth. Examples of these include the controversy over the portrayal of the Chinese “comfort women” in the Japanese media and textbooks (Nozaki, 2005); and there are other subtle examples of racism in educational textbooks depicting colonialism as inevitable due to historical circumstances, e.g., Third World countries being blamed for their backwardness, and the Western world being praised for its leadership and “aid” to the developing countries. Although the media may not blatantly propagandize racism, racist ideas are often cloaked in the form of freedom

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 53

of speech. However, there are signs that this is changing as, in the United Kingdom for example, freedom of speech is not tolerated if it is deemed to incite religious or ethnic violence. Government agencies and other organizations responsible for legislation or maintaining policies (e.g., schools, social and welfare services) may at times limit racial/ethnic groups’ opportunities for growth and entitlements. This constitutes institutional racism which, according to Nieto (2002), refers to one group of people being directly or indirectly excluded or deprived of their rights or opportunities as a result of the normal operations of an institution. It is based on the perception that one ethnic group, class, gender, or language is superior to the others — that is, institutional racism gives inferior status to a particular racial/ethnic group which justifies oppression, thus perpetuating the differential power base of the groups. The blatant examples of the exclusion of newly-arrived children from mainland China and South Asian students from mainstream schools in Hong Kong are good illustrations of institutional racism (Chong, 2004; Wong, 2005). Although racism can be an act of an individual, Nieto (2002) maintained that this is not as harmful as when it is systemic. Finally, individual racism involves discrimination in private relationships, such as between acquaintances and neighbors. Essed (1990) distinguished between active racism and passive racism. Active racism emerges directly from the motivation to exclude or classify as inferior those perceived as a minority, and involves blatant acts of racial bigotry. Passive racism, which is more subtle, is complicity with someone else’s racism, such as laughing at racial jokes, not reacting to others’ racist comments or ignoring minority children’s culture in the curriculum. An example of individual racism can be found in a recent survey conducted by the independent Merdeka Centre for Opinion Research (Kuppusamy, 2006). Suffian, the head of the research team, found that racism runs deep in Malaysia’s multi-ethnic society. For instance, minority Chinese and Indians perceived the majority of Malays as lazy; Malays and Indians saw Chinese as greedy; and Chinese and Malays considered Indians as untrustworthy. According to Suffian, this survey gave a true picture of the deeply entrenched racism behind Malaysia’s façade of ethnic harmony (Kuppusamy, 2006). As seen above, Nieto (2002) argued that individual prejudices generally do not have the same degree of life-limiting effects as those of institutional racism, but they do limit one’s perspective on an entire group of people. Furthermore, if one internalizes the myth of the stereotyped group, one tends to overlook the structural issues such as institutional racism or lack of opportunities. As noted in Tatum’s (1997) article, Wellman (1977) defines racism as “a system of advantage based on race” (p. 3) (e.g., access to better schools, housing, and employment), because individuals are rewarded merely because of their belonging to a particular group, regardless of their merits or faults, as shown in some of the examples in this chapter. Racism is seen as a cumulative process in everyday life.

54 Suk Ching Stella CHONG It permeates everywhere in society. The extent to which people experience racism is affected by their class, gender, sexual orientation, and color. Generation after generation, racism is frequently reproduced by society in quiet and subtle ways. Tatum (1997) drew an analogy between the cycle of racism and a moving walkway at an airport, saying that it is self-perpetuating; and he argued that when people deny the existence of racism, it becomes difficult to confront the challenges and practices that it fosters.

Preparing Democratic Schooling for Diversities in Asia Education is seen by many policy makers as a key factor for success in the highly competitive global game in Southeast Asia (Hallinger, 2000). Particularly within Chinese communities, education is regarded as one of the main stepping stones to climbing the social and economic ladder. Because of the vast diversity in the historical, socio-economic, cultural and political backgrounds within and between countries, it is difficult to generalize about how each country should operate its educational system in order to provide good quality education for all students regardless of their ability/disability, gender, class, and ethnicity. However, I would argue strongly that good quality education cannot exist without putting in place democratic schooling systems which address the critical issues regarding diversity which are discussed throughout this chapter. Democratic schooling is defined as schooling that embraces the vital principles of democracy, i.e., equal opportunity for participation by all members, honoring the dignity of individual human life, freedom of expression of opinions and access to information, and the application of the principles of justice. A generalized multilevel framework has been conceptualized by Chong (2004) to examine democratic schooling (see Table 2.2 which includes some slight modifications to Chong’s framework). The premise is that, in any generalized educational settings such as primary, secondary or university levels where multicultural, diversity or equity issues are relevant, the framework may help to investigate the underlying assumptions and practices, and the mediating forces behind these issues. All of these forces are nestled within the larger political, cultural, educational, social, and economic contexts of the dominant culture. Therefore, to understand democratic schooling, one has to analyze the external forces that influence it, and to identify the elements to which it is attached. The proposed framework is not meant to be a “model”; rather, it is a structure for evaluating the meaning of democratic schooling, which gives stakeholders a starting point for critically appraising the underlying features of their institutions that enhance or constrain democratic education for a culturally, linguistically, and socio-economically diverse population.

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 55 Table 2.2

A multi-level framework for examining democratic schooling Enhance democratic schooling

Political Educational policies that:

•

• • • • •

Cultural The socializing values of society and schools that:

Educational Schools that:

• • • • • • •

Appreciate cultural diversity; Promote cultural acceptance; Celebrate pluralism; Respect indigenous culture; Value individuals’ cultural capital; Revitalize multiculturalism; Value freedom, equality, human rights and justice.

•

Emphasize educational transformation, that is, the critical approach to knowledge; Stress equal opportunity, human dignity, and fairness; Acknowledge and appreciate the indigenous knowledge, language, and cultural experiences of individuals; Practice differentiation of curriculum and assessment.

• •

•

Social Education that:

• • •

Economic Funding of policies that:

Uphold the basic democratic values of freedom, equality, human rights and justice; Raise civic knowledge, attitudes, and skills; Eliminate national, regional, racial, ethnic, gender, and cultural biases; Promote democratic discourse and reforms; Promote multicultural understanding; Endorse multi-literate and multilingual policies.

• •

Affirms self-identity; Promotes self-esteem and human relationships; Provides equal opportunities for social mobility and participation. Provide equal opportunities and resources for all students; Encourage and provide financial support for professional training for all staff.

Adapted from Chong, 2004.

Constrain democratic schooling •

•

•

•

• • •

•

• • •

• •

•

Legitimize the maintenance and continuity of the status quo of the dominant culture; Prohibit the possibilities for transformative educational changes, that is, change led by a bottom-up approach rather than a top-down approach; Emphasize centralized political structures underscored by power relations; Prohibit bilingual or multi-lingual education. Emphasize acculturation, assimilation, or integration; Promote cultural reproduction and globalized culture; Deny indigenous students’ language and culture.

Emphasize educational transmission, that is, the banking approach to knowledge; Value competitiveness and elitism; Uphold the difference-blind principle; Rely on tracking students.

Promotes social segregation and social class perpetuation; Misrecognizes the culture and identity of individuals.

Concentrate on the instrumental needs of society, that is, the provision of the labor force or human resources, at the expense of personal needs and growth.

56 Suk Ching Stella CHONG Furthermore, Cheng (2002) highlighted seven criteria that need attention for quality education to exist: the adherence to specific school objectives and standards, input of quality resources, good leadership, satisfaction of all powerful constituencies, evidence of accountability, absence of school problems, and awareness and adaptation to the changing environment. Put simply, in understanding cultural synergy (a Greek work for “working together”) and managing diversities, there are a great many implications (Harris, Moran, & Moran, 2004). This implies that schools need to capitalize on differences by involving all in joint action in adapting and learning, deriving integrated solutions, and developing members’ potential by releasing their internal energy and directing it to corporate energy. Finally, as Jacques Hallak, the UNESCO Assistant Director-General for Education, reminded us in 2000, quality education is not only about having good quality teachers and instructional materials; it is also about the quality of learners, especially in developing countries, and this means that children need to be in good health, have good nutrition and be ready to learn.

Summary This chapter addresses some of the critical issues relating to diversity and schooling in Asia, including the tensions between assimilation, acculturation and inclusion, language differences, cultural identity, equality, and power relations. Although to a greater or lesser extent, most countries have laws to protect their citizens against discrimination and injustices, numerous examples in this chapter highlight the fact that dealing with the above issues is still ongoing. It is argued that unless schools embrace the principles of democratic schooling, the critical issues outlined in this chapter concerning diversity cannot be resolved easily. Knowledge, human ingenuity, imagination and goodwill are the only resources that finally matter (UNESCO, 1993), and it is the role of education to develop them. In order to make the world a better place in which to live, the basic principles of democratic schooling need to be implemented in order to inculcate the values of a humanitarian worldview that respect every human being’s rights to dignity, equality and justice so that society’s national and local social cohesion can be addressed.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

Discuss how the global phenomenon of diversity has affected teachers’ teaching and classroom management, as well as students’ learning. What challenges or rewarding experiences have evolved?

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 57

2. 3.

4.

Most Southeast Asian countries were once colonized by the West. Discuss how colonization has influenced your country’s education in particular. Evaluate the diverse ethnic groups and cultures in your country, and discuss the obstacles that have to be overcome before inclusive education can be successfully realized. Comparing the eleven countries discussed in this chapter, speculate about how the gross domestic product per capita investment in education may affect minority students’ education. Use your own country as an illustrative example.

Notes 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

According to the economist Gary Becker (1964), human capital is similar to the physical means of production. Economists regard expenditure on education, training and medical treatment, for example, as investments in human capital. The medical model in education implies that children with special needs are regarded as “sick’ and need help; thus it is necessary to change them so that they fit into the system. Othered implies that a person or group conceptualized as intrinsically different from the majority or mainstream in whatever way is made to feel marginal or suppressed or oppressed. Cultural capital is a term coined by Pierre Bourdieu to explain the differential educational achievement of children from different social classes. Bourdieu theorizes that any advantages a person has, such as forms of knowledge, skill, education or language, may account for the inequality of performance at school. Children of the dominant class can make specific profits as a result of their dominant cultural background. The difference-blind principle implies that all human beings are taken to be free and equal, and to possess equal standing, which means that features such as gender, race, class, ethnicity and so forth ought to be treated as neutral, i.e. in a difference-blind fashion. Students will be streamed according to their academic achievement into one of three types of language streams: EM1/EM2 Streams (which have been merged on March 18 2004) are for more capable pupils. They will learn English Language and Mother Tongue, i.e., Chinese, Malay or Tamil. The second stream, EM3 Stream, is for pupils who are less capable of coping with languages and mathematics. These students will learn Foundation English Language and Mother Tongue at basic proficiency level. The third stream, ME3 Stream, is offered only if there is sufficient demand from EM3 pupils in P.5 who opt for ME3. These students will learn Mother Tongue at a higher level and only Basic English Language. The language of instruction for all subjects in the ME3 Stream will be in Mother Tongue (Ministry of Education-Singapore, 2004).

58 Suk Ching Stella CHONG

Glossary Acculturation is the modification of the culture of a group or individual as a result of contact with a different culture. Assimilation is the process whereby a minority group gradually adopts the customs and attitudes of the dominant or prevailing culture. Cultural identity is a person’s self-affiliation (or categorization by others) as a member of a cultural group. Discrimination is action based on prejudice resulting in unfair treatment of people. To discriminate socially is to make a distinction between people on the basis of class or other categories — such as race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, height and age — without regard to individual merit. Diversity implies the presence of a wide range of variations, such as the existence within a population of a variety of cultures, ethnic groups, languages, religious beliefs, gender identities, socio-economic backgrounds and opinions. Ethnic identity refers to the qualities of a group whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry. Ethnic groups are also usually united by common cultural, behavioral, linguistic or religious practices. Equality is a concept in which everyone is believed to be equal. Inclusion is the practice of educating pupils with special needs in mainstream schools. Marginalization refers to overt or covert trends within societies whereby those perceived as lacking desirable traits or deviating from the group norms tend to be excluded by wider society and ostracized as undesirables. Minority group typically refer to a socially subordinate ethnic group (understood in terms of language, nationality, religion and/or culture). Other minority groups include people with disabilities, “economic minorities” (the working poor or unemployed), “age minorities” (who are younger or older than a typical working age) and “sexual minorities” (whose sexual orientation or gender identity differs from the sociological norm). Multiculturalism is an ideology advocating that society should consist of, or at least allow and include, distinct cultural groups, with equal status. Racism is commonly defined as a belief or doctrine where inherent biological differences among the various human races determine cultural or individual achievement, with a corollary that one’s own race is superior and has the right to rule others.

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Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 61 Hallak, J. (2000). Education: Quality counts too. A better world for all: enrolment of all children in primary school by 2015 as an international development goal. In OECD Observer, No. 223, October 2000. Hallinger, P. (2000). Leading educational change in Southeast Asia: The challenge of creating learning systems. In C. Dimmock & A. Walker. Future school administration: Western and Asian perspectives. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Harris, P. R., Moran, R. T., & Moran, S. V. (2004). Managing cultural differences: Global leadership strategies for the 21st century (6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann. Hobcraft, J. (1993). Women education, child welfare and child survival: A review of the evidence. Health Transition Review, 3(2), 159–173. Hooks, B. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. New York: Routledge. Houvouras, S. K. (2001). The effects of demographic variables, ethnic prejudice, and attitudes toward immigration on opposition to bilingual education. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 23(2), 136–152. Huddy, L., & Sears, D. O. (1995). Opposition to bilingual education: Prejudice or the defense of realistic interests? Social Psychology Quarterly, 58(2), 133–143. Kam, H. W., & Wong, R. Y. L. (2004). Language policies and language education. The impact in East Asian countries in the next decade. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press. Kincheloe, J. L. (2005). Critical constructivism. New York: Peter Lang. Klapp, O. E. (1969). Collective search for identity. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Kuppusamy, B. (2006). Racism just below the skin. South China Morning Post, March 21, 2006, A09. Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs, The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong, Australia: Comparative Education Research Center and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Li, H. L. (2004). Rethinking silencing silences. In M. Boler, Democratic dialogue in education: Troubling speech, disturbing silence. New York: Peter Lang. Li, L. (2005). Education for 1.3 billion. China: Foreign Language Teaching & Research Press. Lim, C. Y. (2004). Southeast Asia: The long road ahead (2nd ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Liu, J. (2006). Fabric of life. South China Morning Post, May 15, 2006, C5. Louie, V. (2001). Parents’ aspirations and investment: The role of social class in the educational experiences of 1.5 — and second-generation Chinese American. Harvard Educational Review, 71 (3), 438–474. Mansoor, S., Meraj, S., & Tahir, A. (Eds.) (2004). Language policy planning & practice: A South Asian perspective. Pakistan: Aga Khan University and Oxford University Press. McQuillan, J., & Tse, L. (1996). Does research matter? An analysis of media opinion on bilingual education, 1984–1994. The Bilingual Research Journal, 20(1), 1–27. Ministry of Education (MOE-Singapore). (2004). Retrieved January 19, 2006, from http:// www.moe.edu.sg/. Munro, D. J. (2005). A Chinese ethics for the new century. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

62 Suk Ching Stella CHONG Nieto, S. (1999). The light in their eyes: Creating multicultural learning communities. New York: Teachers College Press. Nieto, S. (2002). Language, culture, and teaching: Critical perspectives for a new century. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Nieto, S. (2003). What keeps teachers going. New York: Teachers College Press. Nieto, S. (2004). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Noll, J. W. (Ed.). (2005). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial educational issues. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. Nozaki, Y. (2005). History, postmodern discourse, and the Japanese textbook controversy over “comfort women”. In Y. Nozaki, R. Openshaw, & A. Luke (Eds.), Struggles over difference: Curriculum, texts, and pedagogy in the Asia-Pacific. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. OECD (2003). The OECD Observer. Emerging education, No. 236, March 2003. Paris. Pakir, A. (2004). Medium-of-instruction policy in Singapore. In J. W. Tollefson & A. B. M. Tsui (Eds.), Medium of instruction policies: Which agenda? Whose agenda? London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum: An introduction to the study of historical and contemporary curriculum discourses. New York: Peter Lang. Pok, T. (2001). Educational reforms in Cambodia. Paper presented by the Deputy Prime Minister of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports at the International Forum on Education Reforms in the Asia-Pacific Region, 14–16 February, the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Ramesh, M. (2000). Welfare capitalism in Southeast Asia. Hampshire, England: International Political Economy Series. Regional outlook: Southeast Asia 2001–2002. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Reyhner, J. (1999). Some basics of indigenous language revitalization. Retrieved May 27, 2006, from http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/RIL_Contents.html. Rutherford, S. (Ed.) (2003). Southeast Asia. London: APA Publications. Schecter, S. R., & Cummins, J. (2003). Multilingual education in practice: Using diversity as a resource. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Schofield, J. W. (2005). The colorblind perspective in school: Causes and consequences. In J. A. Banks & C. A. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (pp. 265–275). US: John Wiley & Sons. Sjöholm, F. (2005). Educational reforms and challenges in Southeast Asia. In F. Sjöholm & J. Tongzon, Institutional change in Southeast Asia. London & New York: Routledge Curzon. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1984). Bilingualism or not: The education of minorities. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Tan, C. B. (2004). Chinese overseas: Comparative cultural issues. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Tatum, B. (1997). “Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?” And other conversations about race. New York: Basic Books.

Critical Issues in Diversity and Schooling within Asia 63 Taylor, C. (1992). Multiculturalism and “the politics of recognition.” Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. The world factbook. (2006). Last updated on June 13, 2006. Retrieved June 23, 2006, from http://www.cia/publications/factbook/. Tomlinson, J. (2003). Globalization and cultural identity. TGT2eC23, pp. 269–277. Retrieved May 27, 2006, from http://www.polity.co.uk/global/pdf/GTReader2eTomlinson. pdf#search=’globalization%20and%20cultural%20identity. Tsung, L., & Qingxia, D. (2005). A vanishing language: The case of Xiandao. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2005 (173), 177–186. UNESCO (1993). World Education Report 1993: Overcoming the knowledge gap: expanding educational choice searching for standards. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. UNESCO (1994). The Salamanca Statement and framework for action. Paper presented at the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality, Salamanca, Spain. UNESCO-UIS/OECD (2002). Financing education — investment and returns: Analysis of the World Education Indicators. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Wellman, D. (1977). Portraits of white racism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Wong, A. (2005). Breaking down language barriers. The Standard, A11, November 28, 2005. World Bank. (2004). Last updated 2004. Retrieved January 18, 2006, from http://www. worldbank.org/data/. World Development Indicators. (2006). Last updated on April 18, 2006. Retrieved May 19, 2006, from http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2006/contents/Section2.htm. Vygotsky, L. S. & Kozulin, A. (Eds.) (1989). Thought and language (rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Xu, S. (2005). Survey of the current situation of Laomian and Laopin in China. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2005 (173), 99–115. Yap, F. (2001). Malaysia. In P. Heenan & M. Lamontagne (Eds.), The Southeast Asia Handbook. Chicago, Ill: Fitzroy Dearborn.

Further Reading Campbell, G. A. (2002). Thailand. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books. Clayton, T. (2000). Education and the politics of language: Hegemony and pragmatism in Cambodia, 1979–1989. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong. Lamoureux, F. (2003). Indonesia: A global studies handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABCCLIO. Largo, V. (Ed.). (2002). Vietnam: Current issues and historical background. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Luo, J., Chen, A., Song, S., Guo, B., & Ouyang, R. (Eds.) (2005). China today: An encyclopedia of life in the People’s Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Milligan, A. (2004). Singapore. Portland, OR: Graphic Arts Center. Mok, K.H., & Tan, J. (2004). Globalization and marketization in education: A comparative analysis of Hong Kong and Singapore. Cheltenham [England]: Edward Elgar.

64 Suk Ching Stella CHONG Moore, W. (2005). This is Malaysia. London: New Holland. Roces, A. & G. (1999). Culture shock! Philippines. Singapore: Times Books International. Saw, M. Y. (1996). Culture shock! Myanmar. Singapore: Times Books International. Tanabe, S., & Keyes, C. F. (Eds.) (2002). Cultural crisis and social memory: Modernity and identity in Thailand and Laos. London: Routledge Curzon. Woods, L. S. (2002). Vietnam: A global studies handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Useful Websites Asia Development Bank: http://www.adb.org/Statistics/Poverty Federation in Community Support (FICS): http://www2.ied.edu.hk/fpece/fics/ Indonesia House. (2003). Reopening the May Riots & Power Struggle Retrieved January 25, 2006, from http://www.indonesia-house.org/focus/terror/092303May98_ reopening_May_riots.htm Malaysian Smart School Implementation Plan (July 18, 1997): http://www.ppk.kpm.my/ special/ssImPlan.pdf Ministry of Education (MOE-Brunei) (2004). Retrieved November 2, 2005, from http://www. moe.gov.bn/system.htm/ Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS). (1999). Retrieved January 11, 2006, from http://www.moeys.gov.kh/profile/edu_in_cambodia/policy.htm. Ministry of Education, Malaysia: http://www.moe.gov.my/tayang.php?laman=home &bhs=en&id=0&info=0 Office of the Education Council, Thailand: http://www.onec.go.th/ Republic of the Philippines, Department of Education: http://www.deped.gov.ph

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Suk Ching Stella Chong, EdD, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

3 Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI

This chapter discusses a number of important questions regarding the challenges in implementing inclusive education in Asia, including: • How is inclusive education defined in Western and Asian countries? • What are the philosophies of inclusion in Asian countries? • What are the differences between integration and inclusion? • Why is the Salamanca Statement so important for Asian countries? • Why is it difficult to implement inclusive education in Asian countries?

Introduction Although inclusive practice originated in the West at least two decades ago, various conceptions of inclusion in education continue to be adopted around the world. Inclusion has been implemented in one form or another in many countries, with its development in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States of America generally considered to be the most mature. Inclusion is both a philosophical approach to education — highlighting the need for equitable educational opportunities for all children, irrespective of disability — and an educational practice. As a philosophy, it faces many challenges, particularly from forces which stress the maintenance of high academic standards and accountability and, of course, from economic rationalism due to globalization (Kirk et al., 2006). Many studies in the West have focused on the underlying philosophy driving inclusion, and on strategies for implementing it effectively. Although this has led to a better understanding of why inclusion should be adopted, there is continuing debate about how, when and for whom it can be made most effective (Kirk et al., 2006).

66 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI While the significant outcomes of inclusion in the West have encouraged Asian parents, educators, researchers and governments to investigate whether or not it is a viable approach in their schools, inclusive education is still at the early stages of implementation in many Asian countries, such as China (including Hong Kong), Thailand, India, and Vietnam. Making an in-depth assessment of the progress made toward inclusive education in these countries presents difficulties as in some cases the amount of accessible information on practice is limited, and its philosophical basis is not always clearly articulated. This chapter begins by introducing Western conceptions of inclusive education, and then examines the challenges faced in attempting to implement inclusion in a number of Asian countries, particularly those with a Confucian-heritage culture.

From Salamanca to Asia This section discusses how Western conceptions of inclusion, as exemplified in the Salamanca Statement (1994) — which was supported by delegates from ninetytwo governments and twenty-five international organizations (Lindsay, 2003) — have been extended into Asia.

Western conceptions of inclusion Inclusive education is a developmental approach which seeks to address the learning needs of all children, youths and adults, with a specific focus on those who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion (UNESCO, 2005). In 1966, the United Nations’ Convention on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights issued a policy statement, which became an influential document in support of the basic right of people to receive an education (Mitchell, 2003). Article 13 of the statement (p. 261) declared that : • The right to education is a fundamental precondition to human development and a basis for human dignity; • Everyone, regardless of perceived learning potential, has the right to an education. This concept of human rights in education became an international trend in the 1970s, and led educators to develop the concepts of integration and, later, inclusion. This is illustrated in the principles of inclusion outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (p. 262), in which eight of the nine principles are statements of human rights:

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 67

• • • • • • • • •

The right to life, survival, and development; The right to health and medical care; The right to a home; The right to play; The right to protection from economic exploitation; The right to protection from sexual exploitation; The right to a full and decent life which promotes self-reliance and active participation in the community; The right to education; and Equal opportunity to all for compulsory primary education.

However, following these principles has been by no means straightforward, particularly when those involved were not familiar with the concepts of integration and inclusion and might not be able to distinguish between these two concepts.

The differences between integration and inclusion The growing awareness of the right to educational opportunities of children with special educational needs (SEN) was prompted by concern that the needs of these children were not being met in special schools. In the 1970s, an integration approach was adopted by countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada in an effort to have children with SEN, who were attending special schools, enrolled in mainstream schools. (In fact, the value of integration had been raised much earlier in the United Kingdom with, for example, the 1944 Education Act and the 1945 Regulations recognizing that the majority of children requiring “special educational treatment” should be in mainstream schools [Lindsay, 2003]). However, schools that integrate students with SEN are not required to make many changes to the way they operate for these children; and their willingness to adapt is often low, particularly since many of these students will graduate within two or three years. In contrast, schools that adopt the principles of inclusion take responsibility for making the necessary adjustments in the school premises, curriculum and pedagogy in order to accommodate students with SEN. A closer look at the definitions of integration and inclusion adopted by the Hong Kong government may help to illustrate the differences between them. A report by the Education Commission (1999) referred to “the integration of people with special educational needs in [the] ordinary education system, placing more emphasis on encouraging students to adapt to the learning environment” (p. 3). In the same report, inclusive education in Hong Kong was defined as:

68 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI the inclusion of children, young people and adults alike in the ordinary education system irrespective of their sex, individual differences or personal problems. Schools should make adjustments to cater for the needs of students. It involves the provision of appropriate learning environment[s] in the ordinary education system for all people including those with special educational needs (p. 3).

As these definitions make clear, in schools adopting an integrated approach, students with SEN are expected to adapt themselves to the school culture and settings in order to study there, while inclusive education places the major responsibility for adaptation on the schools. A whole-school approach to educational restructuring is required for quality inclusive education (Lipsky, 2003). Timmons (2002) also stressed that in Western countries, such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, inclusive education must be viewed in a broader setting that looks at school reform and the societal context. The growing demand for the inclusion of children with SEN has led many teachers and prominent scholars in the West to debate their vision of an inclusive school. The next section outlines some of their views.

The philosophy of inclusion among some Western educators In arguing for the need for fundamental change in the traditional system, Rawal (2002, p. 3) asserted: The urgency of action regarding the achievement of the basic education is based on the view that, as we enter the 21st Century, the denial of anyone’s right to education is fundamentally unacceptable. This urgency has become more imperative due to the impact of globalization and communication at the interface between society, economy and technology.

In the view of Flem, Moen and Gudmundsdottir (2004), the principle of inclusion is that all children and young people, irrespective of their disabilities or difficulties, are able to learn together in ordinary pre-schools, primary and secondary schools, colleges and universities with appropriate networks of support. In other words, inclusive education is about demanding that mainstream schools and associated systems meet the needs of a diverse range of students and provide differentiated and appropriate education for them. Another educator, Uditsky (1993), argued that inclusion is “a set of principles which ensures that the student with a disability is viewed as a valued and needed member of the school community in every respect” (p. 88). Inclusive education ensures that all students have the opportunity to be educated together, regardless

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 69

of their disabilities or special needs. Because this opportunity is of paramount importance, the onus is now on the school to make the necessary changes to ensure all students feel valued and needed. Although different philosophies lie behind the reasons for implementing inclusive education, most proponents agree on the point made by UNESCO (2005) that every student should have the right to optimal schooling in accordance with his or her circumstances and needs. As these needs should be met by the regular school system, it is important that the responsibilities of local schools are clarified and that school authorities ensure that they are fulfilled. Overall, the commitment to provide the best education for all children unquestionably strengthens the concepts of equal opportunity and equity in education (Ainscow, Booth, & Dyson, 2004; Forlin, 2001, 2004; Slee, 2001). From examining the views of scholars such as Uditsky (1993), Rawal (2002), and Flem, Moen, and Gudmundsdottir (2004), it is clear that the meaning of inclusive education varies for different people and countries. Voltz, Brazil, and Ford (2001) considered the concept to be intangible, elusive and often subject to divergent interpretations because of cultural differences. Also, Mitchell (2003) expressed concern that these different interpretations of inclusion may restrict its usefulness at the classroom level, with some countries defining it more loosely to encompass any form of contact between students with SEN and their peers. What then are the philosophy and core values underpinning the concept of inclusion in Asian countries? Inclusion is a complex and contested concept and its manifestations in practice are many and varied (Lindsay, 2003). If the terms “inclusion” and “inclusive schools” are to be useful, as Hegarty (2001) stated, they need a clear, specific frame of reference. Educators must take into account both conceptual and practical issues and the tensions within and between each domain in order to remove barriers and discrimination and improve outcomes. In line with Lindsay’s study (2003), Pivik, McComas and LaFamme (2002) identified other barriers to implementing inclusive education, including the physical environment (such as narrow doorways, ramps), intentional attitudinal barriers (such as isolation and bullying), unintentional attitudinal barriers (such as lack of knowledge, understanding and awareness) and physical limitations (difficulty with manual dexterity). In general, in line with the studies by Forlin (2001, 2004), Slee (2001), and Ainscow et al. (2004), the major barriers in Asia are the lack of educational equality, inexperience and the different interpretations of inclusion.

The philosophy and core values of inclusion in Asian countries Of the countries surveyed in the Asia-Pacific Region, Vietnam has been regarded as having made the most progress in implementing inclusive education policies

70 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI (Mitchell, 2003); and its example is a useful starting point for understanding the philosophy and core values of inclusion within other Asian countries. In both its Ordinance for Disabled People Law (1998) and Education Law (1998), children with disabilities were given the same rights as all other children, and the national government and provinces are required to create favorable conditions to implement these rights (Villa & Thousand, 2003). Also, in the 1995 report from the Centre for Special Education of the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam, it was stated that integrating the disabled into the community was a humane act, for which the society and community had responsibility. Vietnam’s attempts at integration have proven to be effective and suitable for modern times and it is clear that the Vietnamese government’s efforts in developing a clearly articulated vision of inclusive schooling, originating at the national level, have been successful (Mitchell, 2003). Although the world trend is toward inclusive education, the policy in Taiwan is to provide a diversity of schooling. Taiwan’s school-aged children who are in the special education system are educated in four different ways. Most of the special needs children attend the regular schools, with 80% of them studying in classes with other pupils and licensed teachers. However, there are also special classes, with relevant facilities, for mentally and physically challenged students that are taught by specialists. In addition, there are resource rooms, a combination of regular and special classes, and some students who have physical disabilities attend for more than half of the class time there (Sheng, 1999). In the report by Sheng (1999), Professor Wu Wu-tien from the Department of Special Education at National Taiwan Normal University indicated that special education has three goals: 1. To make sure that every child has the opportunity to receive education; 2. To have an individual education program with a different learning environment, a new curriculum, innovative teaching methods, and special evaluative measures; and 3. To have the least restrictive environment for students with special needs. Papua New Guinea (PNG) has also been proactive in the writing of policy for inclusive education. As Mitchell (2003) noted, the philosophy and core values of inclusion were clearly illustrated in the three key features of its 1993 National Special Education Plan, viz: 1. Wherever possible, disabled children should attend regular schools along with normal children; 2. Special education shall aim to develop the maximum potential of each child with special needs, enabling self-reliance and a full and happy life; and 3. This should be achieved as far as possible in an integrated setting in the company of a normal range of children in the community.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 71

It seems that PNG was encouraging integration rather than inclusion, but the emphasis of the National Plan on schooling with “normal children” and “in the company of a normal range of children in the community” allows further opportunities for inclusive schooling. Although the terms “integration”, “mainstreaming” and “inclusion” are used interchangeably in South Korea, it is interesting that there appears to be an understanding that students with disabilities should learn and participate with fullyable students as far as possible (Kwon, 2005). The term “integration” was first used there in the 1970s, followed by the alternate term “mainstreaming”. In the 1980s, the term “inclusion” was introduced into public discussion, but it was not until 1994 that it was mentioned in the law, which indicated that when students with disabilities attend regular classrooms or those with disabilities are taught in special schools, their studies should be based on the regular curriculum to develop academic as well as social skills. It is also instructive to try to understand the philosophy and core values of inclusive education from the perspective of teachers. Some educators from the AsiaPacific Region participated in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 1999–2000 project, known as the Promotion of Basic Education for Children with Special Needs, where they attended workshops on inclusive education. The participating countries included China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao PDR, Papua New Guinea, Thailand and Vietnam. During the workshops, the participants shared their views on inclusive education, which included the following (Mitchell, 2003, p. 244): • People belong to and work in communities, which often comprise people from different races, religions, aspirations, and levels of ability. • Children of all ages should learn and grow in environments that resemble the communities in which they will eventually live and work. • Inclusive classrooms should aim to help students and teachers become better members of a community by creating new visions for communities and schools. • Inclusive education ultimately involves the practice of good teaching and the exercise of creativity in finding new ways to respond to the diverse needs of children. • Inclusive education requires regular teachers, principals, parents and special teachers to collaborate as a team. • In inclusive education, children with typical development gain higher levels of tolerance for people with differences and learn to make the most of whomever they are working with. • Inclusive schools recognize and respond to the diversity of their populations, accommodate to children’s different styles and rates of learning, and ensure equality of education opportunity through appropriate curriculum, school organization, use of resources and partnerships with their communities.

72 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI •

It is not sufficient merely to introduce inclusive education and to trust that its intrinsic merits will ensure its success; what is required, in addition, are steps to ensure that, in practice, inclusive education means quality education for children with special needs.

Taken at face value, these views would help to facilitate change in their communities, but only if adopted by all sections of the community. When valuing children with diverse backgrounds and needs in the classroom, it is hoped that these perspectives will engender a more tolerant and positive community both in and outside the school. These statements about inclusive education embody a number of core values, including an acceptance of diversity, good teaching practices, team collaboration, equitable educational opportunities and quality education for all children in the Asian region. In broader terms, Rawal (2002) viewed the purpose of education as helping to counter the forces of “globalization”, which was defined by Held (1991) as the blurring of national boundaries and the establishing of social relationships between geographically and culturally distant locations. Its influence on the political, economic, cultural and social domains are of great concern for people around the world (Sharpe, 2003). As well as these influences, the processes of globalization also affect different aspects of education, including educational transformation, open and distance learning, the increasing importance of quality assurance in higher education, and comparative and international education (Phillipson, 2007) — all of which are areas of ongoing research effort. Phillipson (2007) also discussed the influence of globalization on the education of children with SEN, highlighting a number of key areas where its pressures conflict with the aims of inclusive education. At the level of curriculum, for example, globalization focuses on “a competitive and outcomes-based curriculum”, emphasizing mathematics, languages and science and higher-order thinking skills. Market forces determine the quality and return on investment determines its success. On the other hand, inclusive education focuses on the needs of the individual, without regard for economic return. It is this focus on individual needs that produces tensions at the philosophical level. For example, Periera dos Santos (2001) argued that globalization places a greater pressure on the need for a mutual “interdependency” between people, recognizing that at times some may be in a greater need than others; and this interdependency fosters attitudes that are based on pity and compassion — attitudes that contrast directly with the philosophical basis of special education. Furthermore, the principles of rights, equality and justice are not uniformly understood across different cultures (Barton & Armstrong, 2001), nor are the terms that are specific to the field (i.e. “inclusion”, “integration”, “mainstreaming disability”, “learning difficulty”, “handicap” and “impairment”) (Barton & Armstrong, 2001). Overall,

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 73

globalization affects everyone and the education systems around the world. As Barton and Armstrong (2001) argued, if educators aim to apply effectively the roles of education (such as implementing inclusive education and the Education for All movement) in the globalized world, it is important for all people to perceive globalization from a humanitarian perspective. The UNESCO (2005) statement outlines the right of all children to receive a high-quality education. This concept is markedly different from the prevailing ideas in the 1960s and 1970s when educators were concerned with finding reasons why children failed at school and students with SEN were considered to have individual functional disorders. Today, however, their disorders are being considered on the basis of a mismatch between cultural expectations and the students’ ability to communicate and meet those expectations, so that a more comprehensive and contextual approach has been achieved (Flem et al., 2004). Educators are no longer putting the responsibility for unsuccessful learning on the child or resources, but rather on whether we can provide opportunities for all children to receive an optimal education which, it is believed, can be achieved by adopting the inclusive philosophy. Thus, the variance between globalization and the philosophy of inclusive education may actually create pressures and challenges for mainstream schools and teachers, as well as for society at large. The following sections discuss some of the major challenges faced by regular teachers in Asian mainstream classrooms. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has played a major role in the promotion and implementation of inclusive education around the world. UNESCO’s commitment to the development of inclusive education began after the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality, conducted in Salamanca, Spain, in 1994. Besides setting the basis for and creating the aims of inclusive education, UNESCO called on governments and international agencies to promote and support it. For example, it urged all governments in the Asian region to make the principles of inclusive education a law or policy, enroll all children in regular schools (unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise), invest greater effort in early identification and intervention for people with disabilities, and develop projects and encourage the free exchange of their experiences in inclusive education. UNESCO also called upon non-government agencies (NGOs) to sponsor projects and conferences, mobilize funds, and encourage research and strengthen networking in the academic community (UNESCO, 1994). The Salamanca Conference also influenced the adoption of inclusive education in many Asian countries. Its main message, commonly referred to as the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), was that students with disabilities and learning problems should be placed in regular classes whenever possible. The Salamanca Statement on special needs education is presented in Table 3.1. The use of special schools and segregated settings for the placement of these students should be

74 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI regarded as the last resort (Westwood, 1999). Since 1994, many countries, including Asian countries, have adopted the guiding tenets of the Salamanca Statement. In fact, based on the document provided by UNESCO (1999), an important project promoting basic education for children with special needs in the Asia-Pacific Region was initiated in 1999. This project, funded by Japan and managed by UNESCO, was built upon the Salamanca principles and was intended to promote the inclusion of children with special needs in regular schools through working with the educational management systems, policy and decision makers, administrators and school systems. Eight countries participated in this project: China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao PDR, Papua New Guinea, Thailand and Vietnam. Technical support on curricula, teacher training, the management of inclusive education, and the organization of support in schools and communities were made available to these eight countries after reviewing the educational requirements for their children with special needs. With many Asian countries now adopting the tenets of the Salamanca Statement, inclusive education has gained momentum there and its development in some countries has been very positive. Soon after the publication of the Salamanca Statement, Lynch (1994) remarked that people from Asian countries were becoming more aware that the goal of universal primary education will require greater participation of children with disabilities, and educational reforms in many countries tend to improve the quality of education by encouraging participation of these students in the normal classroom. This document also reported that moves towards more inclusive primary education were taking place in all Asian countries and at all levels of economic development.

Table 3.1

• • • • •

The Salamanca Statement of the UNESCO World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality (UNESCO, 2005)

Every child has a fundamental right to education and must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain acceptable levels of learning. Every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs. Education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs. Those with special educational needs must have access to mainstream schools which should accommodate them within a child-centered pedagogy capable of meeting these needs. Mainstream schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all. Moreover, they provide an effective education for the majority (without special needs) and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 75

Toward Inclusive Education in Asia The previous sections have discussed in broad terms the movement of inclusive education from its beginnings in the West toward Asian countries. In the following sections, the developmental process of inclusive education is discussed in more detail for China, Hong Kong, India, Thailand and Vietnam — which, while showing some similarities, is different in several important ways.

Inclusive education in China In the late 1970s, the right of individuals with disabilities to be treated equitably became increasingly important in the People’s Republic of China (McCabe, 2003). Special schools were established for children with limited types of SEN, including mental retardation, visual impairments and hearing impairments. However, it was not until 1986 that the Compulsory Education Law was passed encouraging local governments to provide compulsory education to children with or without disabilities. At this time, discussion began on the integration of children with disabilities into general education classes; and in 1990, a law was passed to facilitate the development of different types of educational programs for students of SEN, including special schools, special classes, and general education for those students whose classroom performance would not be affected by their disabilities. In 1994, the State Education Commission issued the Interim Measures for Learning in Regular Classes (UNESCO, 2005). In a significant policy change, it was envisaged that, by the year 2000, regular classes with disabled students and special classes attached to regular schools would exist as “the main body” while special schools would play the role of “the backbone”. The World Bank also reported special classes for slow learners affiliated with mainstream schools and non-government organizations (NGOs), such as the Golden Key Research Centre, to provide training for rural teachers of visually impaired children as a way to encourage more disabled children to attend school (Xu, 1997). The program offered by the Golden Key Research Centre, also known as the Golden Key Program, was very valuable for visually impaired children in various western provinces, such as Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, Gansu, and elsewhere. According to Xu, this ten-year program would help pave the way for All-Acceptance Schools and strengthen the ethical consciousness of all children through activities assisting the disabled (Xu, 1997). Allowing students with disabilities into the general classrooms is therefore gaining greater acceptance in China. There are four main challenges that educators in China have to face in implementing inclusive education:

76 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI 1.

2.

3. 4.

Most Chinese parents are very concerned about the academic performance of their children, and they worry that the acceptance of students with SEN into general classrooms will affect the achievement of others. Moreover, teachers also feel that the modification of the curriculum that is appropriate for both regular students and students with SEN is actually quite complex. The class size in schools is usually very large. Teachers, who usually have limited training in special education, find it very difficult to handle students of varying abilities. The educational funding and resources are limited (Chen, 1996). The absence of political and personal freedoms are a significant barrier to promoting values of social justice in schools — values that are necessary for the successful implementation of inclusive education (Potts, 2000).

Inclusive education in Hong Kong The government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) claims that its approach aims toward integrative education, with mainstream schools being encouraged to admit children with special needs. In Hong Kong, it is now possible for special needs children to be admitted to Primary 1 in mainstream primary schools. To clarify the situation, mainstream schools are organized on a 6+3+2+2 system — that is, six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary, two years of senior secondary and two years for university preparation — although this will soon change to a 3+3+4 system (i.e. three years of junior secondary, three years of senior secondary and four years at university). This common system allows for more horizontal mixing across schools (Bray & Koo, 1999). According to the definition of the Education Manpower Bureau (EMB) (2005), children with special needs are those who need special educational support because they have learning difficulties of several kinds. The major categories of special educational needs (SEN) are: (1) hearing impairment; (2) visual impairment; (3) physical handicap; (4) mental handicap; (5) emotional and behavioral difficulties; (6) attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder; (7) autism; (8) communication difficulties; (9) specific learning difficulties; and (10) giftedness (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2002). By comparison, students with disabilities are children who have learning difficulties or disabilities which prevent or hinder them from making use of the educational facilities generally provided in schools for children of their ages. Therefore, the aims of special education in Hong Kong are to help students with SEN and/or students with disabilities to develop their full intellectual potential, and to become independent and well-adjusted members of the community (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005).

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 77

In the 1990s, the increased awareness of human rights and equal opportunities gave a significant impetus to the development of special education, with the implementation of integration becoming an important component of the Hong Kong government’s education policy. According to Poon-McBrayer’s appraisal, the government committed itself to the provision of integration, but not full inclusion, as only children with selected categories of disabilities could participate in the official integration scheme; and these children were expected to follow the standard curriculum with the least amount of support. In a recent study, Luk-Fong (2005) argued that the Hong Kong version of inclusion involves unique hybrid features, reporting one primary school in which changes were made in the areas of integration, leadership and a whole-school approach — that is, at the school, classroom and individual levels — during the implementation period. In practice, the EMB places students with SEN into existing structures, and does not require the schools to change either their environments or cultures (Wong et al., 1999). Nevertheless, the EMB has encouraged schools to use a whole-school approach to integrated education using the following guidelines (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005): (1) full participation of all school members, students and parents; (2) curriculum accommodation; (3) differentiated teaching; (4) peer support; (5) cooperative learning; and (6) assessment accommodation (see Table 3.2). Although described by the EMB as an integrated approach, it is clear that there are also elements of inclusion, if these guidelines are adequately implemented. Unfortunately, teachers in Hong Kong feel that they are not getting enough support and guidance from the government for full implementation of integration in their schools. For example, Wong, Pearson and Lo’s study (2004) highlighted the following challenges: inadequate provision of resources, facilities and knowledge bases; heavy workloads and inadequate preparation of teachers; large class sizes and low teacher to student ratios; a lack of special education training; the lack of a collaborative culture; and an unsympathetic approach by some teachers who stigmatize students with SEN. Fortunately, several higher education institutions in Hong Kong also support the integration of children with special needs into mainstream schools through the provision of professional development and teaching awards in special education. For instance, both the University of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) offer in-service programs to practicing teachers and there are several undergraduate and post-graduate awards in special and inclusive education. The government supports the attendance of teachers at some of these courses by providing financial assistance to the schools, which allows the release of these teachers from their regular responsibilities. The courses include both theoretical and practical aspects; and the in-service award at the HKIEd, in particular, focuses on the teacher as an active teacher-researcher in designing and evaluating the effectiveness of intervention programs for children with special needs.

78 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI Table 3.2

Differences between a whole-school approach and traditional forms of special education

Whole-School Approach to integrated education (Inclusion)

Traditional form of special education (Integration)

1.

Whole-school Approach — All staff share the responsibility to establish an accommodating environment to meet the needs of all students.

1.

Mainly the resource teacher takes care of students with special educational needs. The general education teachers render help when necessary.

2.

Curriculum Accommodation — Students are not expected to achieve a standard curriculum. The general education curriculum is adapted and/or expanded, when necessary, to meet special educational needs.

2.

In general, students with special educational needs have to adjust to the standard curriculum of the schools.

3.

Differentiated Teaching — Whenever necessary, instructional modifications or specialized tools and techniques are provided in the general education classroom.

3.

Students are exempted from taking a certain subject if they have difficulties.

4.

Peer Support — Systematic peer tutoring, buddy systems, circle of friends and cooperative learning are organized to encourage peer support.

4.

Peer support is organized occasionally and on voluntary basis.

5.

Co-operative Teaching — There is an emphasis on resource teachers and regular education teachers working together and supporting each other, e.g. through team teaching etc.

5.

The resource teacher supports and advises the regular education teachers.

6.

Classroom Support — When assistance from external “experts” is required to meet the unique needs of a student, the classroom support system and curriculum are modified to help not only the student in need of specialized support, but also other students in the classroom who could benefit from similar support.

6.

Specialists advise teachers on helping individual students.

7.

Assessment Accommodation — Assessment methods are adapted according to the diverse needs and abilities of students.

7.

All students’ progress is measured by the existing assessment system in schools.

Difference between “Whole School Approach to Integrated Education” and “Traditional Forms of Special Education” © (EMB, 2005). This table was reproduced with the kind permission of the Education and Manpower Bureau.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 79

Inclusive education in India In India, the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act (1995) requires the appropriate governments and local authorities to promote the integration of students with disabilities into the normal schools (Mitchell, 2003). Based on this Act, twenty-four states implemented the scheme and more than fifty thousand disabled children were enrolled in over thirteen thousand schools in 1997. The development of inclusive education policies has increased the number of disabled children included in mainstream schools. Currently, according to the Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability (2006), approximately 133,000 children with disabilities have been integrated into over twenty thousand mainstream schools under the Integrated Education of Disabled Children Scheme of the Ministry of Human Resource Development. However, there is no guarantee that the various laws and policies are actually being carried out, and there are many reasons why relevant children with SEN are excluded from inclusion education. For example, some schools state clearly that children with disabilities should not be given grace marks in tests and additional time to finish examination papers, which can be a major barrier to students with SEN. Also, an article published in India Together (2006) reported that some schools charge a high tuition fee for students with SEN in order to discourage their enrolment; and it indicated that some schools refuse to admit students with SEN, while others plead ignorance of the existence of the relevant laws. In India, educational services for children with disabilities are often provided by charitable organizations (Alur, 2001) which frequently are run voluntarily and may not have sufficient funding to support their aims. One attempt to coordinate these resources, a joint effort by UNESCO and the Indian government, was the setting up of the International Centre for Special Needs Education in New Delhi, located on the campus of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). One of its aims is to facilitate access to quality education for the AsiaPacific Region because of the large number of children with special educational needs living there, gradually extending its activities to all parts of the region. This centre has disseminated the concept of inclusive education and provided material for educational managers and administrators in schools to implement inclusive education effectively (UNESCO, 2005). Another example of the development and improvement of inclusive education is the setting up of a National Resource Centre for Inclusion India (NRCII), an Indo-Canadian joint project of the Spastics Society of India supported by the Canadian International Development Agency (Alur, 2002). It aims to change the Indian national policy towards inclusion, arguing that its development in India has more to do with ideology rather than funding: the lack of funding should not be the major reason for segregating certain children. NCRII believes that inclusive

80 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI education is an evolutionary process in which stereotypical attitudes need to be changed so that “Education for All” can be successfully achieved in India.

Inclusive education in Vietnam The first initiatives in inclusive education in Vietnam date back to 1975 when the Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act was enacted by the US Congress (Villa et al., 2003) and the first separate special school system for students with SEN was developed. After many years of experience with special education, inclusive education in Vietnam formally began around 1991 after the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was ratified. In order to fulfill this, the Law of Protection and Care for Children and the requirement for compulsory education were established, thus requiring the Center for Special Education to put great effort into implementing inclusive education throughout the country. The Center for Special Education of the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam (1995) reported that integrated education programs for disabled children existed in thirty-three provinces and cities, with sixty-six districts, 926 communes, and 1,041 elementary schools catering for 26,102 children in 11,086 integrated classes. By that time, approximately eleven thousand teachers had received training through courses on integrated education. In three provinces, 80% of the districts were implementing integrated education (Mitchell, 2003). There is, however, still a long way to go before success in inclusive education in Vietnam is fully achieved. Villa et al. (2003) have suggested a number of different strategies, including community awareness and support for children with disabilities, the development of local infrastructures for inclusive education, inclusive ageappropriate placement in proportions that reflect those in the community, improved quality of teaching and attitudes toward children with disabilities, increased family support and overall improvement of the lives of children with disabilities.

Inclusive education in Thailand In 1990, “Education for All’ was the major theme of a conference held in Thailand, which was attended by representatives from 155 countries and 160 intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations (Brink, 2001). Later, the 1992 National Education Plan stated that special education could exist in special or regular schools, and curriculum and teaching strategies should be tailored to the physical and mental conditions and capabilities of disabled students (Mitchell, 2003). Four years later, with support from the Office of the National Primary Education Commission of Thailand, 6,419 students with mental disability/hearing

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 81

impairment were catered for by 2,063 primary schools within a mainstreaming program. There were also eleven state secondary schools operating mainstreaming programs for seventy-five visually impaired students. Altogether, in 1997 this integrated program provided for approximately one-sixth of the total special education enrolments in Thailand (Mitchell, 2003).

Inclusive Education: The Best Option for Achieving Education For All in Asia While inclusive education has been developing in Asia, it is important to recognize that the figures remain low in terms of the total participation rate in inclusion. In some countries, the school enrollment rates are lower than 70%, with many disabled children receiving no schooling at all. According to a World Bank estimate (Lynch, 1994), there were approximately 130 million “forgotten” children, mostly girls, in developing countries who would never receive an education. Furthermore, only a very small percentage of children with special needs in the Asia-Pacific Region under the age of 15 had access to education services. Also, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) estimated that only one in fifty children with disabilities had access to education. Given such low participation rates, how can Asian countries strive to achieve “Education for All”? The concept of inclusive education may be a strategy for achieving that goal. According to World Bank (2000), the development of inclusive primary education is the best option for achieving education for all in the Asia-Pacific Region, and it is still believed to be one of the major goals of the Work Bank (Peters, 2003). For countries such as India and Vietnam, inclusive education helps to include the forgotten children who have never received education; and in places like Hong Kong where regulations for placing children into schools are strictly followed, inclusive education can promote justice in the strongest sense. In fact, based on the concept of inclusive education, the education of children with disabilities should take place in the regular school environment, not in segregated or isolated settings. A child may only be segregated from the non-disabled students on the basis of the goals and objectives in the child’s individual education plan. Other factors — such as administrative convenience, categorical labels or severity of disability — are not acceptable for segregated education unless it can be persuasively demonstrated that the student him/herself and other students are unable to learn with him/her in the classroom (Howe, 1997). A study by Hui et al. (2002) suggested that inclusive education brings quality improvements and benefits for all those involved, but that expenditure on it is lower than for segregated education. It is instructive to examine and compare the costs associated with segregated and inclusive education.

82 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI The World Bank (2000) warned that, for developing countries, the cost of segregated special education for all students with disabilities would be enormous, as the following three examples demonstrate: • In Hong Kong, $51,410 billion was spent on education for the year 2001–02, and special schools could receive from three to five times more than the amount for regular schools (Hui et al., 2002). • In India, the unit cost for a student with disability in segregated settings was US$33 per year, compared to the unit cost for the same student in a mainstream class of only US$6 (Lynch, 1994). • In the UK, the falling enrollment in special schools allowed the government to release funding of 30 million pounds from special schools to support mainstream schools instead within that budget year (Audit Commission, 1994). Using this funding model, education funds can be relocated for the benefit of all students, including those who wish to study in regular schools (Hui & Dowson, 2003). How effective can an educational program based on inclusion be for countries in Asia? To answer this question, it is necessary to look more closely at the concepts of inclusion from the viewpoint of Western countries where inclusive education originated.

Asian challenges facing inclusive education UNESCO (2005) expressed concern about the number of challenges faced by Asian countries when adopting inclusive practices, as disabled and special needs children frequently experience exclusion, discrimination and segregation from mainstream education and their peers, with some students still being placed in separate classes or schools. The cause of such exclusion and discrimination may originate in a lack of understanding of disabled children; and this may in turn be created by regularly segregating students from mainstream education, thus increasing the risk of yet further exclusion and discrimination. According to Hui and Dowson (2003), when Asian countries do not accept people of diversity in the first instance and limited opportunities are provided for them to interact with disabled children, this discrimination and exclusion “loop” can never be broken. Children in Asia, including those with disabilities, often have to face many other major difficulties, such as access to adequate medical care, and socioeconomic challenges. UNESCO (2005) reported that more than 90% of children with disabilities in developing countries are not attending school; approximately 500,000 children and 41 million babies per year lose some part of their vision and risk mental impairment due to child labor practices and malnutrition; inappropriately

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 83

designed curricula often lead to segregation and exclusion; teachers do not have adequate skills and relevant teaching materials; and school buildings may not be accessible to some children. Examination of the UNESCO (2005) report shows clearly the scale and complexity of the challenges faced by Asian countries, with accessibility to education being one of the most significant factors, irrespective of any disability or impairment. Other factors, such as malnutrition, armed violence, child labor, and maltreatment, are very serious problems which have yet to be solved. In terms of education, the lack of funding, inappropriate curricula, inaccessible buildings, and inadequate resources are some of the immediate difficulties faced by all children, both disabled and non-disabled. However, despite these problems, many countries in the region have initiated programs to encourage the practice of including children with special needs in mainstream schools. The next two sections examine in greater depth the philosophy of integrated and inclusive education held by some Hong Kong education stakeholders. Their perspectives review some of the major challenges in implementing inclusive education in Hong Kong and may provide guidance to other Asian countries about how to avoid the pitfalls.

The Philosophy of Principals, Teachers, and Students on Integration in Hong Kong Mainstream Schools In 1997, the Hong Kong government implemented a pilot project on integration to promote the inclusion of children with special needs into mainstream schools (Hui & Dowson, 2003). Although many schools were invited to participate, the project experienced major resistance from schools and only seven primary schools and two secondary schools finally participated in it. Each of these schools adopted a wholeschool approach to integration, following the guidelines given previously by the Education Department, in which a maximum of eight students was admitted to each school. The views held by the principals, teachers and students of these schools on the implementation of integration during the pilot project help in understanding attitudes toward integration (Hui & Dowson, 2003; Hui et al., 2002). According to Hui’s (2003) study, the nine principals of the participating schools were generally supportive of integration, as can be seen in the views shown in Table 3.3. Some principals adopted a philosophical perspective toward inclusive education, centering on issues related to human rights, equal participation and caring attitudes. Others took a humanistic perspective and were eager to build a different culture in the school, believing that this was the basis for advancement within the school, and for its teachers and students. These principals also tended to develop a firm and clear school policy in support of inclusive practice and were successful in

84 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI implementing the policy guidelines for integration. There were also principals who thought that it was important to include students with SEN for the full development of their school, regardless of academic achievement, and that a broader curriculum should be offered. Table 3.3

Four views of integrated education expressed by the principals of participating schools in Hui’s (2003, pp. 287–288) study

The philosophy in an inclusive school is that each student belongs and all are valued and have a right to learn regardless of needs or abilities. Each student has the right to be included in the full range of learning experiences, as far as practicable. Principal 1 It is necessary for all staff to have the same philosophy and to have a caring heart. The aim of the school should be on the full development of students. Students need to know that the school recognizes their effort. Principal 2 Our principles of integrated education are in line with the Christian principles of love and acceptance for all people (including the imperfect ones) without distinction. Principal 3 Education for all is the principle of our school. We deeply believe that no child is uneducable. Every child, no matter their ability, [and] background, should enjoy appropriate education, so that they will develop their potential. This is the reason why we join the project. We hope the school will be able to develop a culture of helping and loving each other, so that students can develop their potential, learning from each other, and teachers to have more initiation, for self-realization, and the quality of school promoted. Principal 4

It is also important to examine teachers’ views on the integration of children with SEN into mainstream schools (as Hong Kong adopted an integration rather than an inclusion system). The general view of teachers towards integration was a critical topic for investigation by Poon-McBrayer (1999). This study randomly selected sixty primary school teachers who had at least five years’ teaching experience with SEN students, and were working either in special schools for students with special needs or in ordinary schools to which some students with special needs had been admitted for integration. The results of this research provide an an insight into the attitudes of these teachers toward the implementation of integration. Poon-McBrayer found that over half the teachers working in either special or ordinary schools believed that children with SEN should be placed in special schools (Poon-McBrayer, 1999), confirming general support for segregated education — which helps to explain the major difficulty in recruiting schools to participate in the integration project. Most of the teachers adopted a paternalistic perspective and cited administrative/management and economic obstacles to inclusive education.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 85

The existence of the two separate and distinctively different sectors in the Hong Kong education system, special schools versus mainstream schools (Hong Kong Government, 1996), contributed greatly to sustaining this belief as it was natural for teachers in mainstream schools to consider that students with SEN were not their responsibility. Lack of understanding of students with SEN by teachers was illustrated in Poon-McBayer’s study — for example, none of the teachers involved showed awareness of what was an appropriate educational setting for students with social maladjustment and physical disabilities. Therefore, it was not surprising to find that teachers from mainstream schools, who had more limited experience of teaching SEN students, were less accepting of them when compared to teachers in special schools, again reflecting their general support for segregated education. The heavy demands placed on them in their workplaces, and the long-standing perspective that students with SEN were already adequately catered for, reduced their interest in and feeling of responsibility for such students. Experience of contact with children with disabilities can have a significant impact on one’s views on integration, as Hui and Dowson’s (2003) study revealed in relation to students. As they showed, students from some mainstream schools who made contact with disabled students developed quite supportive attitudes and behaviors. For example, they expressed very positive attitudes to integrated education and demonstrated a high acceptance of classmates with disabilities, emphasizing patience, joy, caring, friendship and the elimination of discrimination. In two cases, their interaction with students with SEN enabled them to develop their own philosophy, as show in their comments in Table 3.4. However they also showed concerns about the confidence of and pressure on teachers, and the need for more resources and close collaboration across the school community. Overall, Hong Kong, with its slow development in integration and inclusive education, is now facing a number of challenges, all of which are closely related to people’s philosophy and attitudes towards inclusive education. Table 3.4

Four views of integrated education expressed by students from participating schools in Hui’s (2003) study (pp. 293–294)

Last year our school admitted five P1 students who have slightly weak learning ability. As I am the prefect, I have to make contact with them. One of them is very naughty. However, if you can be patient to teach him, he will surely be able to live happily like an ordinary person. Student 1 I am new to the school. The first day I went to school, I saw a schoolmate who wore very tight clothing. I knew then she must be one of those who were burnt seriously in the mountain fire. However she looks very happy. I look at her just as if I am looking at an ordinary person. Everybody in the school does not discriminate against her. Actually, is there any difference between me, her and other people? Student 2 (continued on p. 86)

86 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI I see integrated education very differently now. It allows all children to study in the same school — having the same education. With this opportunity, classmates learn how to get along together, how to care for each other, how to give confidence and encouragement, so that each will feel the care of the community and friendship, and to let them know that they are one of us. I wish people accepted those people with a disability, so that they can gain confidence. I wish to give them my hand and to build a good school. I also wish that integrated education will influence their future, opening a new page for their life. Student 3 Inclusive education is the first step towards elimination of discrimination. There are many advantages, but to be successful, it is not easy. For example, the ordinary teachers teaching students with disability will be very stressed with a lot of pressure. Therefore there is the need for more resources and support so as to give more confidence to the teachers to solve the difficulties. It also needs the participation of the whole school, and the close cooperation of parents and school. Anyway, I am confident in inclusive education and I also support it. Student 4

The Challenges in Implementing Inclusive Education in Hong Kong Hong Kong is currently facing a number of obstacles in pursuing a whole-school approach. For example, Poon-McBrayer’s study (2004) argued that, to implement integration, educators in Hong Kong must reduce elitism, expand instructional flexibility, improve school cultures and teachers’ attitudes, and improve teacher training. Inclusive education will continue to be valued worldwide, but without overcoming these obstacles to a whole-school approach, full inclusion in Hong Kong will be difficult to achieve. According to Poon-McBrayer (1999), the wholeschool approach is still in its infancy in Hong Kong and there does not seem to be a time-line for its development and implementation. However, the following indepth investigation of these difficulties may allow other Asian countries to learn from Hong Kong’s experience. The government policy continues to support full participation in education and promote equal opportunities for children with SEN. However, as illustrated above, many mainstream schools are not ready to admit students with SEN, especially those with more severe disabilities — and many students and parents share this view — because of lack of understanding and prejudice against people with disabilities (Don-il Kim, 2003), and a belief that it is better for children with a disability to be educated in special schools or segregated settings. In addition, as Hui and Dowson (2003) point out, the Hong Kong government’s definition of “special education” is doing more harm than good as it suggests the potential for placing more students into segregated special education settings. Having investigated the issues involved, the government put some effort into promoting integration and introduced the Pilot Project on Integration in 1997.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 87

With the introduction of this pilot project by the Education Department, it was anticipated that more students with special needs would be included in regular schools but, unfortunately, this did not materialize. The government stated clear criteria for students who could be admitted to the integration project and this admission policy stressed the highly categorized system for the provision of special needs services. Five categories were included (Education Department, 1998, p. 2): • Mild grade mental handicap; • Hearing impairment; • Visual impairment; • Physical handicap; and • Autistic disorder with average intelligence. Up until 2005, the categories noted above continued to be the criteria for admission to the integration project; and if parents made a request for special needs resources, their children had to be identified and assessed before being admitted. Although this approach was administratively expedient, it also encouraged the “labeling” of students to qualify them for a certain type of school provision and support (Hui & Dowson, 2003). Educators are generally convinced that such labeling by category has negative implications for children and can be very destructive to their self-images and confidence. They consider it to be unjust, unacceptable and unreasonable and to limit students’ access to different types of educational support (Hui & Dowson, 2003; Mittler, 1998). Finding ways to move away from this confined category system based on an out-dated “medical” model of educational provision to a need-based and individualized education program is another major difficulty facing inclusive education in Hong Kong. In the process of developing special education, the Hong Kong government allocated financial resources for the establishment of special schools. For instance, in the school year 1998–99, about 8,800 school places were provided in sixty-two special schools, with each place, as noted earlier, costing three to five times more than for students in a regular school (Hui & Dowson, 2003). On average, regular schools admitted almost five times more students than the special schools: in 2000, for example, the average number of students in each primary and special school was 620 and 120 respectively. The resources in some primary schools continue to be very limited because of the greater number of students and larger class sizes of approximately 40 students per class. With such little financial leeway, most mainstream schools have difficulty in providing adequate support for students with SEN. Moreover, the lack of effective and adequate assessment for students with SEN, the insufficient number of trained teaching personnel, the heavy teaching load, the diversity of student needs in large classes, and negative inclusive practices are some of the many challenges to inclusive education in Hong Kong. As experienced

88 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI by many other countries round the world, the road to inclusive education is full of obstacles (Don-il Kim, 2003; Mitchell, 2003; Villa & Thousand, 2003).

Summary Educators have often admitted that working in an inclusive school environment is by no means a straightforward task (Crawford, Hui, & Heung, 2002; Villa & Thousand, 2003). There are, however, some successful examples in developing countries such as India, Thailand and Vietnam (Mitchell, 1999). A clear and supportive philosophy on inclusive education remains one of the essential elements for successful inclusion. As Mitchell’s 2003 study showed, many educators firmly believe that “the success of inclusive education depends upon it being viewed as part of a system that extends from the classroom to the broader society” (p. 244). A community must understand and accept diversity before inclusion can be successfully implemented.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Ask ten teachers in your school to differentiate between the characteristics of the whole-school approach to integrated education and the traditional form of special education? What do their answers indicate to you? (See Table 3.2 for feedback on answers.) Explore your own views of inclusion/exclusion. • Write down how you feel when you are either included or excluded from any activities, and talk with special educators or your colleagues in schools about your responses. • Discuss the following question: How would your experience with feelings of being included and excluded relate to students with disabilities in terms of their learning and behavior? Interview your school principal and some of your students and colleagues to find out their philosophy and perspectives on inclusive education? Compare and contrast their views. If you had to introduce the conception of inclusive education to teachers in your school, what would you say? In your opinion, will inclusive education mean closure of schools catering for special needs in your region? Why/why not? When is the best time to implement inclusive education in your school? What strategies would help you to implement it?

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 89

Glossary Globalization involves the blurring of national boundaries and the establishment of social relationships between geographically and culturally distant locations. Inclusion education is a developmental approach which seeks to address the learning needs of all children, youths and adults with a specific focus on those who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. Integration education is an approach adopted by countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada in the 1970s in an effort to get children with SEN, who were attending special schools, enrolled in mainstream schools. Interim measures for learning in regular classes refers to situations in which regular classes with disabled students and special classes attached to regular schools are the “main body”, while special schools play the role of “the backbone”. The Salamanca Statement, which was endorsed by delegates representing ninety-two governments and twenty-five international organizations, laid down the significant steps toward inclusion, and has had an effect on both the West and Asia.

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90 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI Don-il Kim. (2003). Teacher and parent perception of the barriers to inclusive education: Identification and comparison of the barriers between elementary and secondary schools in Korea. In L. H. Hui, C. R. Dowson, & M. Gonzales (Eds.), Inclusive education in the new millennium (pp. 200–212). Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International, Hong Kong & Macau and Education Convergence. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2002). Understanding and helping students with special educational needs: A guide to teaching. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2005). Kindergarten, primary and secondary education: Special education. Retrieved 20 June, 2006, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx? langno=1&nodeid=2365. Education Commission. (1999). Report of the education commission sub-group on special education: Background paper for focus group discussion on special education. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Education Department. (1998). Operation guide on pilot project on integration of children with special needs in ordinary schools. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Flem, A., Moen, T., & Gudmundsdottir, S. (2004). Towards inclusive schools: A study of inclusive education in practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(1), 85–98. Forlin, C. (2001). Inclusion: Identifying potential stressors for regular class teachers. Educational Research, 43(3), 235–245. Forlin, C. (2004). Promoting inclusivity in Western Australian schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 8(2), 185–202. Hegarty, S. (2001). Inclusive education: A case to answer. Journal of Moral Education, 30 (3), 243–249. Held, D. (1991). Political theory today. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Hong Kong Government. (1996). The report of the board of education sub-committee on special education. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Howe, K. R. (1997). Understanding equal educational opportunity: Social justice, democracy, and schooling. New York: Teachers College Press. Hui L. H. (2003). The rhetoric of policy and practice in Hong Kong schools. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of East Anglia; UK. Hui L. H., & Dowson, C. R. (2003). The development of inclusive education in Hong Kong SAR. In L. H. Hui, C. R. Dowson, & M. G. Moont (Eds.), Inclusive education in the new millennium (pp. 11–24). Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International–Hong Kong & Macau and Education Convergence. Hui, L. H., Sin, K. F., Kwok, C., Chan, H. K., Ho, F. C., Yip N. S. Y., Tong, C. L., & Dowson, C. R. (2002). Final report of the consultancy study on the multiplicity of handicap among students of aided special schools, practical schools and skills opportunity schools. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education. India Together (2006). Included by all, but nothing else. Retrieved June 26, 2006 from http://www.indiatogether.org/2006/jan/edu-speced.htm. Kirk, S. A., Gallagher, J. J., Anastasiow, N. J., & Coleman, M. R. (2006). Educating exceptional children. (11th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Kwon, H. (2005). Inclusion in South Korea: The current situation and future directions. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 52(1), 59–68.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 91 Lindsay, G. (2003). Inclusive education: A critical perspective. British Journal of Special Education, 30(1), 3–12. Lipsky, D. K. (2003). The coexistence of high standards and inclusion. School Administrator, 60(3), 32–35. Luk-Fong, P. Y. Y. (2005). Managing change in an integrated school — A Hong Kong hybrid experience. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 9(1), 89–103. Lynch, J. (1994). Provision for childen with special educational needs in the Asia region: World Bank technical paper 261. Washington: World Bank. McCabe, H. (2003). The beginnings of inclusion in the People’s Republic of China. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28(1), 16–22. Mitchell, D. (1999). Transfer of beliefs, knowledge and experiences between countries. In P. Retish & S. Reiter (Eds.), Adults with disabilities: International perspectives in the community (pp. 259–285). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mitchell, D. (2003). Challenges and successes in implementing inclusive education in eight developing countries in Asia and the Pacific. In L. H. Hui, C. R. Dowson, & M. Gonzales (Eds.), Inclusive education in the new millennium (pp. 238–254). Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International, Hong Kong & Macau and Education Convergence. Mittler, P. (1998). Inclusive schools, effective schools: First findings from a Hong Kong project. Hong Kong Special Education Forum, 1(2), 10–19. Pereira dos Santos, M. (2001). Special education, inclusion and globalisation: A few considerations inspired in the Brazilian case. Disability & Society, 16(311–325). Peters, S. J. (2003). Inclusive education: Achieving education for all by including those with disabilities and special educational needs. The World Bank. Phillipson, S. N. (2007). A frame-work for studying conceptions of giftedness across cultures. In S. N. Phillipson & M. McCann (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness: Socio-cultural perspectives, (pp. 1–33). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pivik, J., McComas, J., & LaFamme, M. (2002). Barriers and facilitators to inclusive education. Exceptional Children, 69(1), 97–101. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (1999). Practitioners’ views on integrating students with disabilities. Hong Kong Special Education Forum, 2(1), 69–78. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2004). To integrate or not to integrate: Systemic dilemmas in Hong Kong. Journal of Special Education, 37(4), 249–256. Potts, P. (2000). A Western perspective on inclusion in Chinese urban educational settings. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 4(4), 301–313. Rawal, N. (2002). The school years: Defining the future. Keynote speech at the International Council for Education of People with Visual Impairment. Amsterdam, July 24–August 2, 2002. Sharpe, M. E. (2003). A renewed understanding of globalization. Chinese Education and Society, 36(1), 40–47. Sheng, V. (1999, January 1). Helping ourselves. Taiwan Review, 49(1), 4. Slee, R. (2001). Driven to the Margins: Disabled students, inclusive schooling and the politics of possibility. Cambridge Journal of Education, 31(3), 385–397. Timmons, V. (2002). International perspectives on inclusion: Concluding thoughts. Exceptionality Education Canada, 12(2–3), 187–192.

92 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI Uditsky, B. (1993). From integration to inclusion: the Canadian experience. In R. Slee (Ed.), Is there a desk with my name on it? The politics of integration. London: Falmer Press. UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and framework for action on special education. Salamanca, Spain: UNESCO. UNESCO. (1999). Salamanca five years on: A review of UNESCO activities in the light of the Salamanca Statement and framework for action on special needs education. Salamanca, Spain: UNESCO. UNESCO. (2005). Education: Inclusive education. Retrieved June 26, 2006, from portal. unesco.org/education/ev.php?URL_ID=7939&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& amp. Villa R. A., & Thousand, J. S. (2003). Lessons learned from more than 20 years of research and practice in developing and sustaining inclusive education in developed and developing nations. In L. H. Hui, C. R. Dowson, & M. G. Moont (Eds.), Inclusive education in the new millennium (pp. 255–277). Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International — Hong Kong & Macau and Education Convergence. Villa, R. A., Tac, L. V., Muc, P. M., Ryan, S., Nguyen, T. M., Weill, D., & Thousand, J. S. (2003). Inclusion in Vietnam: More than a decade of implementation. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28(1), 23–32. Voltz, D. L., Brazil, N., & Ford, A. (2001). What matters most in inclusive education: A practical guide for moving forward. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(1), 23–30. Westwood, P. (1999). Moving toward inclusion in Hong Kong? Proceed with caution. A personal viewpoint. Hong Kong Special Education Forum, 2(1), 29–38. Wong, D., Pearson, V., & Lo, E. M. K. (2004). Competing philosophies in the classroom: A challenge to Hong Kong teachers. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 8(3), 261–279. Wong, D., Pearson, V., Ip, F., & Lo, E. (1999). A slippery road to equality: Hong Kong’s experience of unplanned integrated education. Disability and Society, 14(6), 771–789. World Bank (2000). Education for all 2000 assessment: Country report. Kathmandu, Nepal: EFA Assessment Committee, Ministry of Education. Xu, B. (1997). Golden key program: Common education for visually impaired children in western China. Beijing: UNESCO.

Further Reading Karten, T. J. (2005). Inclusion strategies that work!: Research-based methods for the classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Loreman, T., & Deppeler, J. (2005). Inclusive education: A practical guide to supporting diversity in the classroom. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Potts, P. (2003). Overcoming barriers to inclusive schooling: Values, policies and practices in a modern world. Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International– Hong Kong & Macau and Education Convergence.

Conceptions and Challenges within the Inclusive Asian Classroom 93

Useful Websites Hong Kong Institute of Education — Centre for Special Needs and Studies in Inclusive Education.: http://www.hkied.edu.hk/csnsie/history.html UNESCO — Education Inclusive Education: http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=11891&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html World Bank — Education and Disabilities: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ TOPICS/EXTSOCIALPROTECTION/EXTDISABILITY/0,,contentMDK: 20192455%7EmenuPK:417740%7EpagePK:148956%7EpiPK:216618%7EtheSitePK: 282699,00.html

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Dr Hoi Yan Cheung, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

94 Hoi Yan CHEUNG and Leng Han Martha HUI

4 Classroom Diversity: Towards a Whole-School Approach Chris FORLIN

This chapter discusses several issues related to whole-schooling, including: • The acceptance of people with disabilities; • Major educational reforms in the Asian-Pacific region; • Legislation and education for people with disabilities in Asia — The Confucian way; • Changing ideologies regarding special education and Asian trends; • Whole-schooling and Education for All (EFA) approaches for inclusive education; • The role of special schools; and • Guidelines for the support of diversity in mainstream schools.

Introduction The acceptance of and provision for people with disabilities in community life has changed quite dramatically since Wolfensberger’s proposal in the early 1970s of what has become known as “the normalization principle” (Forlin, 1997). In the intervening period, there have been many international conventions on the rights of people with disabilities, and most developed and developing countries have become signatories to the goals they have set. Most Western countries now have very strong policies and legislation that ensure people with disabilities are included in all aspects of social life and are not discriminated against. For example, physical access to buildings and community resources has been legislated for and is commonly accepted as non-negotiable; and equality of opportunity is promoted in all areas, with many countries taking a proactive approach to ensuring employment for people with disabilities.

96 Chris FORLIN It is only in the most recent years, however, that Asian countries have begun to take a similar approach. People with disabilities are only gradually becoming accepted and, for many, equal access and equal opportunities have not yet been enacted. For instance, physical access is often difficult; and there is very little by way of supported workplace placements or employment opportunities. Also, attitudes towards people with disabilities is not particularly supportive (Forlin, 2005a, 2006), and many find that they are still isolated and segregated from most mainstream activities. However, education in the Asian-Pacific region — including countries with a Confucian-heritage culture (CHC) — is undergoing major reforms, many of which reflect broader international trends and paradigm shifts in the way schools should operate and children be educated. A significant development in all areas has been the increased awareness of governments that they need to reconsider educational opportunities for children with special or diverse learning needs who in many instances have, hitherto, been educated in segregated facilities. In the West, educational opportunities for students with disabilities have improved immensely since the normalization principle was proposed (Forlin, 1997) with, for example, the first World Conference on Education for All in Jomtein in 1990 (Ward & Center, 1999), the development of the powerful Salamanca Statement in 1994 (Forlin, 2006), and the World Education Forum at Dakar in April 2000 (Ward & Center, 1999). The educational philosophy has gradually focused more on providing equal educational opportunities from a rights-based perspective, which in many instances has led to increased inclusive practices in regular classes. Thus, regular schools that traditionally catered for the needs of children within a “normal” intelligence range are in the West expanding their clientele to, in many instances include all children within their community, regardless of special educational need. Similar transitions are also taking place in Asia.

Legislation to Support Diversity In many countries, this move towards inclusion is supported by legislation that mandates schools to become more inclusive, thereby opening their doors to all children while providing appropriately for their needs. In the USA, for example, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997) legislated for the development of a comprehensive system of support for students with disabilities in all states and for adequate training for teachers to meet their needs (Ysseldyke, Algozzine, & Thurlow, 2000). Similarly, in the UK, the 1996 revision of the 1981 Education Act has had a considerable impact on the provision of education for students with disabilities and, together with the Code of Practice (1994, revised 2002) in England and Wales, it addressed identification and assessment issues

Classroom Diversity 97

associated with pupils with special educational needs (Department for Education and Skills, 2001). Such legislation not only ensures that there is equity of access, and that the rights of parents are supported, but also provides guidance to schools on their responsibilities towards their students. In Asia, it is clear that such international trends have started to be considered seriously by various governments (Forlin, in press). While there is no similar formal legislation for inclusion, most jurisdictions have developed policies that reflect the statements in international documents such as the highly influential Salamanca Statement (1994). In most Asian countries, there has also been some legislation which, while more generic in nature, has utilized a disability rights perspective to support inclusion (see Table 4.1). In 2006, all Asian countries — with the exception of Malaysia which had no specific legislation — had enacted or were in the process of enacting either laws or acts that covered some forms of disability discrimination. Table 4.1

Legislation for people with disabilities

Country

Legislation

Year

People’s Republic of China1

The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities

1990

Indonesia1

Act of the Republic of Indonesia , Number 4 of 1997

1997

Japan2

Disabled Persons’ Fundamental Law

1993

Republic of Korea3

Law for Welfare of Disabled Persons

1989

Laos PRD1

National Law for the Rights of People with Disabilities (initial meetings to discuss drafting this legislation, January 2006)

Malaysia1

None

Myanmar1

The Law on Rehabilitation and Employment of Persons with Disabilities

1958

Philippines1

The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons

1991

Singapore4

General regulations included in building legislation

Thailand1

Welfare and Rehabilitation of Disabled Person’s Act

1991

Vietnam1

Decree No. 55/1999/ND-CT (Ordinance on Disabled Persons)

1999

Source: 1 Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability, 2005. 2 Michailakis, 1997. 3 Korean Society of Persons with Disabilities and RI Korea, 2005. 4 Tuen, 1999.

98 Chris FORLIN Regular schools have been directed to accept students with disabilities — unless there are severe difficulties in doing so which cannot be addressed — through legislation such as: the 1996 Disability Discrimination Ordinance (DDO) in Hong Kong; the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities (National People’s Congress, 1990); the Regulations on Education for Persons with Disabilities (State Council, 1994); and the corresponding rules and regulations (2001). Although the degree to which they are implemented varies considerably, without such legislation the process of full inclusion would be likely to remain slow. As McCabe (2002, 2003) argued, the lack of specific legal protection creates a barrier to providing equal educational opportunities for all students. Also, according to Forlin (2006, p. 265), to overcome the challenges faced by trying to ensure equality of access for those with disabilities requires: … a concerted effort at all levels of society and must be acknowledged by the provision of appropriate fiscal spending to enable the desired outcomes to be achieved. Regardless of financial support it is still critical to recognize that this will only be effective if people believe in the value and merit of incorporating diversity in all schools and are prepared to commit to enabling this to happen.

Education for People with Disabilities in Asia: The Confucian Way In Confucian philosophy, people with disabilities have always been recognized and others have been encouraged to treat them with tolerance (Pang & Richey, 2006). Early writings in the Confucian text Liji (Book of Rites) included reference to many diverse groups of people when it stated: “People should respect others’ parents and treat others’ children like their own: all those who are bachelors, widows, orphans, single, handicapped and sick should be supported” (Piao, 1992, p. 35). It is clear that Confucian beliefs focus on education as the key to societal as well as personal development and its followers have embraced the attitude that all people are educable (see Chapter 1). Confucian philosophy also emphasizes benevolence and order and in the early years advocated that governors should rule by supporting the handicapped (sic) first (Pang & Richey, 2006). Piao (1991) posits that the Confucian creed of treating people with disabilities and other special needs in an honorable way was enacted at least a thousand years before similar human rights perspectives were initiated in the West. According to Piao, Garguilo and Yuan (1995), China has more people with disabilities than any other nation — an estimate of nearly 4.9% of the population, which in 1994 accounted for almost 52 million people; and by 2002, this figure had increased slightly to 5%, i.e. 60 million people (Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability, 2005a). Yet formal education for this large group did not take

Classroom Diversity 99

place until quite recently. While some special schools were opened by missionaries in the late 19th century, these catered for very small numbers and mainly for those who were blind or deaf, thus following similar developments in special schools in Western countries. Special education first began to thrive in the 1970s concomitant with social reforms and a focus on equal rights, but it was not until 1986 that the education of children with disabilities was formally acknowledged in China with the passing of the Compulsory Education Law (National People’s Congress, 1986). The prevalence of people with disabilities in Asian countries varies from an estimated 0.2% in the Republic of Korea to 8.1% in Vietnam. In many instances this variation is due to the way in which disability is defined and the categories for which data are collated. Table 4.2 (p. 100), which contains estimated data based on a variety of sources, provides an approximate idea of the number of people with disabilities in these countries. Much of the work in the past two decades in all Asian countries has been aimed at increasing opportunities for access to education not only for students with disabilities but also for the many other students, such as those living in rural communities, who had previously been unable to receive any form of education. Although the development of special schools has flourished in most systems, in order to cater for the large number of students now seeking compulsory education, and in an effort to support the normalization principle, the regular schools have increasingly been expected to accommodate these previously marginalized groups. According to the most recent UNESCO (2005b) report, “As many governments strive to expand basic education, they also face the challenge of ensuring that students stay in school long enough to acquire the knowledge they need to cope in a rapidly changing world. Assessments show that this is not happening in many countries.” To achieve universal primary education for all students is clearly a challenging goal, but it is one that all teachers should expect to be active participants in, especially as they aim to provide better support for the increasingly diverse needs of all students in their classes.

Changing Ideologies: Differing Facilities and Regular Class Options Consistent with the move towards more inclusive regular classrooms catering for the needs of students within a local community, a range of alternative education facilities and options have been developed within regular schools. In most jurisdictions in both Western and Eastern cultures there is a continuum of service provisions available, which may be selected according to the particular needs of a child. Not all of these options are, of course, offered in every system but most of them exist even if different terminology is used for them (see Figure 4.1 on p. 101). Increasingly, there is a move away from segregated and restrictive placements towards full inclusion in regular schools.

100 Chris FORLIN Table 4.2

Prevalence of disability

Country

Disability type (% of disabled population) Persons with Vision Mental disabilities impairment illness (% of total population)

Hearing Physical Mental Other impairment/ impairment impairment language disorders

5.0%

14.6%

3.8%

34.3%

14.6%

19.7%

Hong Kong2 4.0% (2000)

27.5%

17.5%

32.5%

37.5%

n/a

Indonesia3 (2000)

17.0%

6.8%

22.4%

40.3%

13.4%

n/a

Republic of 0.2% Korea4 (2005)

6.2%

n/a

7.7%

13.3%

66.7%

6.1%

Laos3 (1996)

1.1%

29.0%

42.0%

29.0%

Malaysia3 (2000)

0.5%

12.7%

n/a

16.4%

31.1%

30.8%

0.2%

Philippines1 1.2% (2000)

45.5%

7.1%

10.1%

5.9%

7.0%

24.2%

Thailand1 (2001)

1.8%

11.2%)

Included in 21.9% mental impairment

46.6%

7.4%

n/a

Vietnam3 (1999)

8.1%–2.5% (estimation max/min)

13.0% 2.6% 29.4% (estimation (estimation (estimation max.) max.) max.)

People’s Republic of China1 (2002)

0.7%

13.0%

24.8% 15.0% 22.1% (estimation (estimation (estimation max.) max.) max.)

Note: These figures are based on a range of data sets so may, therefore, not equal 100%. 1 Asia Pacific Development Centre on Disability, 2006. 2 Department of Health, 2006, p. 157. Approximately 60.6% cited more than one disability. 3 Asia Pacific Development Centre on Disability, 2006 and Brinkhoff, 1998–2006. Information collated using raw and percentage data. 4 Korea National Statistical Office, 2006. Calculated from raw data for school enrollments only.

Classroom Diversity 101

Figure 4.1 Hierarchy of educational inclusion (Forlin, 2006)

In most Asian countries there are still isolated residential institutions that provide complete support for children and adults with the most challenging support needs. For those in these institutions, access to education is not yet available, thus making these the most restrictive placements. The most segregated educational placement is the special school. This is usually physically separated from other schools and provides education for children with the greatest support needs. In some Asian countries special schools are organized by category, ranging from schools which cater specifically for students with mild intellectual disabilities through to those which focus on children with high support needs or emotional and behavioral disorders. In most Western countries, such special schools are gradually being de-categorized and expected to cater only for students with the greatest support needs. The next level of placement usually occurs in the regular school where students are educated in a separate special class or resource or remedial room; and in some schools children spend all of their time in these segregated classrooms. The next level of integration usually refers to a child being placed within a special class in a regular school, but being integrated into a mainstream class or classes for part of

102 Chris FORLIN their school day. This tends to be in subject areas such as art, physical education and social sciences. Mainstreaming is the next level toward full inclusion. In this case students are placed in the regular classroom as their main class and then withdrawn for intervention or remedial programs. The amount of time spent in each setting varies between schools and is usually determined locally. Finally, the most inclusive placement is that of inclusion or inclusive education. This is when children are placed in the regular classroom where they undertake their education and receive appropriate modification of the curricula. In inclusive settings children may still receive some intensive intervention which can occur outside the classroom, but this is to support their regular class placement and is usually of a short-term duration.

Asian Trends: Diverse Classrooms The inclusivity paradigm continues to promote the view that education for all children should, whenever possible, occur within the regular classroom (Forlin, 2004). For many Asian countries this has resulted in a distinct, though rather slow, movement towards including children with disabilities, who previously would have been educated in segregated facilities or at home, into regular classes with their same-aged peers. Inclusive education has also moved away from the more traditional focus on catering for the needs of students with disabilities to a much broader definition that considers the needs of all students and seeks to address these within a whole-school approach to diversity (Forlin, 2005a). Although the inclusion of students with specific disabilities has been slow, in recent years teachers have seen a dramatic change in the diversity of student populations within the Chinese classroom. In most Asian countries, the movement towards establishing more inclusive schools that cater for the needs of all students within a local community is gradually gaining momentum as they follow the international trend of embracing the ideology of greater inclusivity. Many government schools throughout Asia in 2007 have students who come from different cultures and ethnic groups, and vary widely in their socio-economic status, family support systems and language background; and they may include newly-arrived immigrants, as well as students who have been physically or sexually abused, have behavior disorders, autism or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD), or mild hearing or visual impairments. On the other hand, the number of students with specific disabilities is likely to be low. Table 4.3 (see p. 103), which provides an indication of the population per country by ethnic grouping, demonstrates the enormous cultural diversity to be found in Asian countries. While the initial focus of the normalization movement, certainly from an international perspective, was on including children with disabilities, this has

Classroom Diversity 103 Table 4.3

Population by ethnic groups Country

People’s Republic of China1

Major ethnic group

Other ethnic groups

91.9% Han Chinese

8.1% ethnic minority groups

94.9% Chinese

2.1% Filipino 1.8% Other Asian ethnic groups 1.2% Other ethnic groups

Indonesia1

45% Javanese

14% Sundanese 7.5% Madurese; 7.5% Coastal Malays 26% Other ethnic groups

Japan3

99% Japanese

1% Other ethnic groups including Korean, Chinese, Brazilian, Filipino.

Republic of Korea4

99% Korean

1% Other ethnic groups, primarily Chinese

68% Lao Loum

22% Lao Theung 9% Lao Soung 1% Ethnic Vietnamese/Chinese

Malaysia1

50.4% Malay

23.7% Chinese 11% Indigenous people 7% Indian 7.8% Other ethnic groups

Myanmar1

68% Burman

9% Shan 7% Karen 16% consists of Rakhine, Chinese, Indian, Mon and other ethnic groups

Philippines1

28.1% Tagalog

13.1% Cebuano 9% Llocano 7.6% Bisaya/Binisaya; 7.5% Hiligaynon Ilonggo; 6% Bikol; 3.4% Waray 25.3% Other ethnic groups

Singapore5

75.6% Chinese

13.6% Malay 8.7% Indian 2.1% Other ethnic groups

Thailand1

75% Thai

14% Chinese 11% Other ethnic groups

Vietnam1

86.2% Kinh

1.9% Tay 1.7% Thai; 1.5% Muong; 1.4% Khome; 1.1% Hoa; 1.1% Nun; 1% Hmong 4.1% Other ethnic groups

Hong Kong

Laos

2

1

Source: 1 Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability, 2005b. 2 Department of Health, 2006, p. 8. Statistics collated from this data. 3 Central Intelligence Agency, 2006. 4 Korea National Statistical Office, 2005a. 5 Statistics Singapore, 2006

104 Chris FORLIN become much broader in its interpretation and there is now a stronger emphasis on the need for both the restructuring of schools and social change to accommodate all forms of diversity. The restructuring of education systems away from a segregated dual structure, catering separately for students with and without disabilities, has been occurring internationally. This development requires consideration to be given to many issues, as it challenges schools to accommodate the needs of any potentially marginalized groups of students, not just those with a disability. In Asia this has led to different approaches such as utilizing a wholeschooling approach or an Education for All (EFA) model. To accommodate diversity is to ensure genuine equity and respect for all persons. According to the UNESCO (2005b, p. 224) focus on “Education For All”, this involves the following: Some attributes of a high-quality learning process have achieved independent status as part of the definition of education quality. Most centrally, these can be summarized as the need for education systems to be equitable, inclusive and relevant to local circumstances. Where the access to or the process of education is characterized by gender inequality, or by discrimination against particular groups on ethnic or cultural grounds, the rights of individuals and groups are ignored. Thus, education systems that lack a strong, clear respect for human rights cannot be said to be of high quality. By the same token, any shift towards equity is an improvement in quality.

The whole schooling approach A whole schooling approach (WSA) to catering for classroom diversity involves much more than simply allowing children from different backgrounds to attend the same school. According to the Whole Schooling Consortium (2005), an international organization dedicated to the promotion of whole schooling: Whole Schools create cultures and utilize practices that aim to help children learn the tools and skills of genuine democracy; create a sense of belonging, care, and community; include all students in learning well together; support learning through the efforts of peers, colleagues, and specialists in the classroom; develop genuine partnerships between educators, parents, and the community; and engage children through authentic, multi-level instruction — connecting learning to the real world and drawing on the gifts, voices, experiences, and cultures of all at the ‘just right’ level of each child. (p. 3)

There are six key principles of the WSA that together aim to provide a vision of how schools can become more diverse and cater for the varying needs of their student populations. According to Peterson (2005), these principles are: 1. Empower citizens for democracy. If we are serious about helping children become empowered citizens in a democracy, schools must involve children

Classroom Diversity 105

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

in sharing power and decision-making in the daily life of the classroom. Further, democracy must be an integral part of the culture of a school among adults — collaboration among staff in partnership with parents and the community. Include all in learning together. For a democracy to function, by definition, all children must be there. For students to learn well, to be prepared to function in a diverse society, they must be exposed to people with diverse characteristics. Students learn at deeper levels when they are part of heterogeneous classrooms. Thus, we seek schools in which all children learn together across culture, ethnicity, language, ability, gender, and age, where separate pull-out programs and ability grouping in the classroom are used seldom if at all. Provide authentic, multi-level instruction. For schooling to work, for children to learn, instruction cannot be monolithic and traditional one size fits all. Rather, we expect students to function at a range of ability levels, each being supported and encouraged to move to their next level of competence, yet without ability grouping or segregation. In such schools teachers design instruction for diverse learners that engages them in active learning in meaningful, real-world activities at multiple levels of ability, providing scaffolds and adaptations as needed. Build community. Effective schools that serve truly diverse students in authentic and democratic learning must work together to build a community and provide mutual support within the classroom and school. When students engage in behaviors that are challenging, staffs understand that these are expressions of underlying needs of students and seek to help students find positive ways to meet their needs. Staffs make commitments to caring for and supporting such students in their school. Support learning. Support in learning is needed by teachers and children alike. Schools use specialized school and community resources … to strengthen the general education classroom. Support personnel collaborate with the general education instructor to include children with special needs in classroom activities and to design effective instruction for all students. They avoid ability grouping or teaching children at the back or side of the room. All struggle to provide proactive supports to meet needs of students with behavioral challenges. Partner with parents and community. Finally, educators cannot and should not seek to build such a school alone. In a Whole School, educators build genuine collaboration within the school and with families and the community; engage the school in strengthening the community; and provide guidance to engage students, parents, teachers, and others in decision-making and direction of learning & school activities.

106 Chris FORLIN The WSA has been adopted in various ways in different Asian countries. In Hong Kong, for example, the government has moved towards what it calls a wholeschool integrated approach. Following the Equal Opportunities and Full Participation White Paper on rehabilitation (May 1995), and the two-year pilot integration project from 1997 to 1999 (see Chapter 3), schools were encouraged to adopt a whole-school approach to integration (Lian, 2004). Seven primary and two secondary schools admitted five to eight students each and the trial was externally evaluated. The final outcome was the continued promotion of a wholeschool approach to integration (Poon-McBrayer, 2005). Table 4.4 (see p. 107) indicates the increasing number of schools adopting this approach since its development in 1997. In 2004–05 the whole-school integrated approach in Hong Kong was offered to students with mild grade intellectual disability, hearing or visual impairment, physical disability or autistic spectrum disorder (with average intelligence). In the 2005–2006 academic year, 115 schools were adopting this approach, including 78 primary and 37 secondary schools. For every five students admitted, the school was allocated one resource teacher and one learning support assistant was provided when the number of students was eight. The school also received a one-off payment of $50,000 for equipment and furniture and $925 per student per year for program and activity expenses. In addition, each school received induction workshops, tenhour school-based staff training and access to a thirty-hour introductory course on integrated education. More recently Hong Kong has adopted a new funding model that provides funding by employing a “$ on head” system that enables schools to receive between $10,000 and $20,000 per student with a capped figure per school of $450,000. Schools are then able to make decisions as to how the money will be spent. According to the Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB) (2005b), the aims of integrated education are to: 1. Fully develop the potential of students with a disability in mainstream schools; 2. Develop a caring school culture and enhance the acceptance of students with special educational needs by school members and parents; 3. Empower school personnel to support students with special educational needs; and 4. Strengthen the cooperation between parents and teachers. (pp. 4.1–4.4) The EMB has also outlined the main differences perceived between a wholeschool approach to integration and a traditional form of special education (see Chapter 3, Table 3.2). The focus is clearly on all staff sharing the responsibility for accommodating the needs of all students. The approach suggested also includes using the strategies of curriculum accommodation, differentiated teaching, peer support, co-operative learning, and classroom support and assessment accommodation.

Classroom Diversity 107 Table 4.4 School Year

Schools adopting a whole-school approach to integration in Hong Kong No. of Primary Schools

No. of Secondary Schools

Total No.

1997–98

—

1998–99

7

2

9

1999–00

16

5

21

2000–01

31

9

40

2001–02

45

21

66

2002–03

80

36

116

2003–04

80

37

117

2004–05

80

37

117

2005–06

78

37

115#

Note: # Some schools merged or changed to whole-day operation in the 2005–06 school year. Source: Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005b, p. 6.1.

The Education for All approach The World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000 was the first and most important event in education in the new century as regards improving access to education for all children, regardless of their needs. The 1,100 international participants at the Forum adopted the Dakar Framework for Action, thus reaffirming their commitment ten years earlier at Jomtien to achieving Education for All (EFA) by the year 2015 (UNESCO, 2005a). At Dakar, each country including the East Asian countries of China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea (republic) and Korea DPR, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam presented comprehensive reports on their progress towards Education For All .1 The specific goals set at Dakar (2000), endorsed by the participating Asian countries, included: (i) Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children; (ii) Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality; (iii) Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes;

108 Chris FORLIN (iv) Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults; (v) Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality; and (vi) Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. (UNESCO, 2005a, p. 7) All programs in the Asian region are spearheaded by the Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, UNESCO Bangkok, which coordinates responses towards the regional achievement of the goals of EFA. The Asian EFA site “provides EFA-related history, data and resources from across the region allowing users to draw on regional expertise to aid in research, sound policy making and implementation of educational programming towards the attainment of quality education for all (UNESCO Bangkok, n.d., p. 1).

Involving the teacher in catering for diversity For teachers to engage fully in an inclusive approach to catering for diversity is not easy. While many of them are generally supportive of the ideology of inclusive education, they tend to raise many concerns about their ability to implement it effectively (Forlin, 1998, 2001). Based on the recent findings in Yuen, Westwood and Wong (2005), it would seem that there is a long way to go before appropriate inclusive settings can be expected in Hong Kong, for example, as they argue that: … it is unwise at this time to expect mainstream primary teachers in Hong Kong to be able to meet these special needs fully, particularly when class sizes are large (35+ students) and teachers appear to lack the necessary expertise or motivation for implementing appropriate in-class remedial interventions. (p. 74)

This is a major issue in most Asian countries as many schools tend to have very large class sizes. According to 2002 statistics, large classes in junior secondary schools in China were on the increase with a total of 1,165,100 classes in junior secondary schools. Of these classes, 322,100 or 27.65% consisted of large classes with between fifty-six and sixty-five students per class, and 272,400 or 23.38%

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had extremely large classes with greater than sixty-five students per class2 (Report of Education Statistics, 2003). With such large classes, catering for the individual and diverse needs of all students is extremely challenging. In these instances, including students with disabilities further increases the complexities of a progressively more difficult and demanding job and requires thoughtful and considered examination if teachers are to be competent, confident managers and able to provide a worthwhile educational experience for all students (Loreman, Deppeler, & Harvey, 2005). Large class sizes clearly restrict the time teachers can spend with individual students which is particularly frustrating when trying to help those with intellectual disabilities who require a comparatively higher level of instructional time (Arbeiter & Hartley, 2002). Conversely, though, they provide a wealth of “helping hands” to organize effective peer support groups. Teachers involved in including students with disabilities in their classrooms also raise other concerns which can be generally grouped into three main clusters: administration, classroom-based and personal (Forlin, Hattie, & Douglas, 1996). The major classroom-based issues that cause most concern for teachers include managing difficult behavior, a lack of appropriate resources and support, inadequate funding and large class sizes (Arbeiter & Hartley, 2002; Jenkins, 2002; Talmor, Reiter, & Feigin, 2005; Ward & Center, 1999). Students with an intellectual disability are cited as being more difficult to support than students with other types of disabilities (Alghazo & Gaad, 2004), due, in part, to their exhibiting frequently challenging behaviors. Coping with challenging behavior is complex for teachers as difficulties can arise for a variety of reasons, including wasted learning time, the safety of other students, personal humiliation and lack of respect, helplessness and lack of support. It is generally agreed that the successful implementation of inclusive education needs to be resourced appropriately (Forlin, 2005b; Jenkins, 2002). With limited budgets, particularly for some Chinese classrooms, distributing resources equitably becomes a real challenge. In trying to cater for the diverse needs of their students in regular classrooms, teachers can, therefore, encounter problems and feel frustrated when attempting to access appropriate funding for the support and resources they need (Jenkins, 2002). Many would argue, however, that regardless of the difficult situations some teachers find themselves in, they are pivotal to the success of an inclusive model of education (e.g. Forlin, 2004, 2005b), and that to date the preparation of teachers for working in inclusive classrooms has been less than satisfactory (Loreman, Deppeler, & Harvey, 2005). While legislation may stipulate that teachers must ensure that students’ needs are met and that they make progress, there is no similar legislation that addresses the training needs of teachers to prepare them for this role.

110 Chris FORLIN Investigations of the strategies used by primary teachers to accommodate students with different abilities in, for example, Hong Kong have generally reported that teachers make relatively few adaptations, relying mainly on class peers to provide assistance (Chan et al., 2002; Pearson, Lo, Chui and Wong, 2003). Clearly, if teachers are to be able to accommodate increasingly diverse student populations and, especially, cater for the unique challenges faced in Chinese classrooms, then they need a great deal of support and a much greater emphasis should be placed on pre- and in-service training. As teaching continues to become increasingly more demanding, with new reforms launched, expectations multiplying and workloads increasing, teachers are most concerned about classroom issues related to a lack of support (Forlin, 2001, 2004, 2005a, 2005b). Support to enable teachers to cater for the needs of students with different learning abilities is essential if Asian countries are going to be able to fully embrace an inclusive approach (Forlin, 2005a). With the current school structure and limited funding in most Asian countries, what individual regular schools can achieve is fairly restricted, but nevertheless much can still be accomplished if teachers are prepared to become innovative and try new approaches. This is particularly relevant when considering the approach adopted by UNESCO when it states: “As with all aspects of development, a balance should be struck between ensuring the relevance of education to the socio-cultural realities of learners, to their aspirations, and to the well-being of the nation” (UNESCO, 2005b, p. 32). It is clear that there are major challenges in attempting to cater for the increased number of diverse regular classrooms in Asia, such as the following key issues that seem most pertinent to the Chinese classroom: • Examination-oriented curricula • School banding systems • Large class sizes • A top-down approach to decision making • Didactic pedagogies • Autocratic leadership • Teachers having little input to decision making • Lack of appropriate training or up-skilling • Trying to move too fast • Insufficient time for collaborative planning and reflection • Lack of strategic long-term planning. Some of these issues are unique to the local context. However, many of the solutions have already been found in other countries, and some consideration of how they have been handled elsewhere provides a good starting point for moving forward in the Asian region.

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Role of Special Schools In most Asian countries, as in their Western counterparts, regular schools can access various support services such as the Peripatetic Advisory Services and Supportive Remedial Services in Hong Kong, thus enabling the schools to include more effectively students with specific disabilities, such as hearing or vision impairments. In addition, specialized and separate special schools continue to flourish, particularly in the Asian countries that cater for students with more profound support needs for hearing or visual impairment, physical disability, intellectual disability and behavioral/emotional difficulties. These special schools mostly operate with smaller class sizes ranging from eight to twenty students, and have access to trained teachers and other support staff as determined by the government (see Table 4.5). Table 4.5

No. of students and special schools in various Asian countries No. of Special Schools

No. of students

Males

Females

People’s Republic of China (2004)1

1,560

371,813

241,591

130,222

Hong Kong (2004–05)2

66

8,403

n/a

n/a

Japan (2004)3

999

98,796

63,230

35,566

Republic of Korea (2005)4

142

23,566

n/a

n/a

Malaysia (2005)5

8

n/a

n/a

n/a

Philippines (2004–05)6

605

79,118

n/a

n/a

Singapore (2004)7

21

4515

2800

1715

Thailand (2000)8

17

4131

n/a

n/a

Note: These figures are based on a range of data sets. 1 Educational Statistics Yearbook of China, 2004, p. 174. 2 Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006. 3 Statistics Bureau, 2006. 4 Korea National Statistical Office, 2005b. 5 Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2005. Special education at pre-school, primary and secondary levels is provided in mainstream schools. Special education schools are provided in Technical and Vocational Education only. 6 Department of Education of the Philippines, 2006. 7 Ministry of Education Singapore, 2005. 8 Roeder, 2001. Figures collated from a sample of special schools by region. n/a Not available.

112 Chris FORLIN In Hong Kong in 2006, there were sixty-two special schools, down from sixtysix in 2004–05 because of the merger and closure of some schools. In mainland China, the number of special schools is increasing yearly: according to the Educational Statistics Yearbook of China (2004), there were 1,531 and 1,540 Special Education schools in 2002 and 2003, while in 2004 there were 1,560. Of students with disabilities, 65% were enrolled in regular classes and 68.29% of those involved in special education received their education in regular classes and the specially affiliated classes in regular schools (Report of Education Statistics, 2003). In attempting to consider how regular schools can cater better for the diverse needs of their students in Asian countries, consideration is increasingly being given to the role of the special school in this transition. The use of special schools as resource centers for helping regular class teachers to support students with special educational needs has been promoted for a long time in some jurisdictions — for example, in the recommendation in the May 1996 Report of the Sub-committee on Special Education in Hong Kong (Education Department, 1996) — in response to educational concerns about special education. In 2003, special schools in Hong Kong were invited by the EMB to register as resource schools for regular schools within their districts. The first group of fifteen special schools acting as resource schools began in the 2003–04 school year; and in 2004–05, a total of nineteen special schools opted to do so. It was suggested that a small number of teachers from a special school could support the teaching of students with special needs in one to three local regular schools. The kind of support to be offered was to be determined directly with the individual mainstream schools. The case study of one special school (see p. 113) outlines the response to this initiative. The development of a more collaborative approach that utilizes the expertise available in special schools is clearly an important step forward in Asian systems where many special schools still exist. In this regard, government agencies are beginning to review existing practices and facilities more closely to maximize their effectiveness. The issue of support in the context of the current reform agenda in Hong Kong, for example, has recently been examined in a major study on the effectiveness of special schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005a). This study set out to address the following questions: • Are special schools appropriately resourced? • How well do they manage their resources in order to foster student learning and development? • How successful are the schools in achieving learning outcomes for their students? • How might their resources be used more effectively? (p. ii). While the review considered that special schools will continue to have an important role within Hong Kong’s future educational development, it concluded that:

Classroom Diversity 113

Resource school case study This special school in Hong Kong opted to act as a resource school by providing three teachers for two days each per week to work with three primary schools in their locale. The special school was funded by the EMB and the teachers were supported by an educational psychologist. The teachers worked in pairs, spending approximately one day per week in each of the primary schools. Initially the staff from the special school met with senior teachers and class teachers and sometimes with the student guidance personnel at each primary school, where they collaboratively determined the type of support to be offered. The models of support negotiated in each school varied greatly, e.g. • At primary school A, support was provided directly to the seven students who were receiving their education in a resource class. Intervention by the support teachers was mainly for Chinese language difficulties and support was provided on a small-group model. • At primary school B, an interest group was initiated on Saturday mornings. This involved the presentation of an intervention program in Chinese language for six to eight students. Teachers and parents were able to observe and learn the strategies, sometimes volunteering as assistants to the group of children with language learning difficulties. • At primary school C, a more traditional structured remedial program was offered to students with learning difficulties in a withdrawal program. In this school, support was provided on a case-by-case basis, with the special school teachers meeting and discussing individual cases with the class teacher, the remedial teacher and student guidance counselor. The teachers from the three primary schools were, on the whole, appreciative of the contributions made by the support team from the special school. Having worked with the support team, many of the teachers showed their willingness to apply the strategies they had been shown with their students. One major issue, though, was the difficulty of finding sufficient time for collaborative planning, preparation and reviewing of the process, due to the teachers’ tight teaching schedules. In some instances there was a tendency to rely on the teachers from the special schools to take responsibility for the individual programs for the identified students as the regular class teachers were unfamiliar with many of the techniques introduced in the programs. While some schools supported a more collaborative role and some employed a co-teaching approach (see Chapter 12), the majority of interventions by the special school staff occurred in a separate resource room. While there was some evidence of a move towards the up-skilling of the more involved teachers, this did not happen for all regular class teachers. In general, there was more evidence of up-skilling of the student guidance personnel and the parents of the target students than the teachers.

114 Chris FORLIN Special schools are experiencing considerable uncertainty and change, particularly in terms of curriculum reform and a more varied and challenging student intake. They lack a sense of direction and their role within the educational community needs to be redefined. (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005a, p. vi)

The implications of the above report are likely to be very pertinent as consideration continues to be given to how special schools can also support regular schools in catering better for diversity. Within the report’s main findings it is suggested that special schools should “develop wider roles in relation to developments for responding to student diversity within mainstream schools” (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005a, p. iii); and it is also suggested that: “… there will be significant changes in their roles, particularly in their partnership with mainstream schools as the process of inclusion develops” (p. iii). More specifically, it was envisaged that it was essential to redefine their role to become: … strong and sustainable special schools, interacting openly and productively with mainstream schools in a way that breaks down existing barriers, and opens up dialogue and professional interchange at a leadership and staff level, as well as providing greater fluidity in student placements. (p. 24)

The central conclusion of the EMB report was the perceived need to establish a sense of direction for special schools and, within this, to develop a strategic plan for maximizing the use of both human and material resources. The proposed framework is illustrated in Figure 4.2 below.

Management Arrangement

Curriculum Development

Sense of Direction

Prefessional Development

Organisational Structure

Figure 4.2 A framework for the development of special schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005a, p. 27)

Classroom Diversity 115

The report suggested that four other factors also need to be considered once the sense of direction is established, viz. the interconnected issues of management arrangement, professional development, organizational structure, and curriculum development; and that, taken together, they can help special schools to develop new ways of operating that will enable them to use their resources better to foster the learning and development of students with special needs. Also, the report considered that, while existing special schools in Hong Kong were well-resourced, mainstream schools still seemed to be struggling in catering for students with diverse educational needs. Another major concern expressed by Hong Kong parents of children with a learning difficulty or disability has been the problem of identifying the support available and how to access it. In 2006, the Hong Kong Institute of Education launched the Federation in Community Support (FICS) website that provides an extensive listing of all support agencies in Hong Kong together with a summary of the support they provide and contact details (see Figure 4.3). According to a parent of two children with special educational needs, many parents can become extremely frustrated when trying to access support for their children. Mrs Henrietta Sui said: When my children were young and there was little support around, I had to undergo a non-stop process of searching for the appropriate services. The lack of information left me so desperate that I once even tried to talk to another parent, a total stranger I bumped into at the supermarket. The time I spent looking for relevant information and resources far exceeded the time I spent taking care of my children … This website is extremely useful. Parents like me — we do not need to exhaust ourselves on such unnecessary worry and stress anymore. (Joy of Learning, 2006, p. 24)

The issue of the need to enhance the skills of teachers to cater for more diverse classroom populations has also been considered by various governments. For example, in Hong Kong over the past couple of years, the EMB has made at least one day of school-based training available to every inclusive school, with many being able to receive a thirty-hour training program designed specifically for mainstream teachers working in inclusive schools. Much of this training has been implemented by the Centre for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (CSNSIE) at the Hong Kong Institute of Education (http://www.ied.edu.hk/csnsie/). The CSNSIE provides a range of support services for schools in three main areas: (a) school-based training, (b) school-based consultancy services, and (c) individual consultation services, with the target groups being teachers, student support teams, principals, students and parents. The Centre has also been involved in six to ten hours of school-based training for a hundred schools during the past three years.

116 Chris FORLIN

Figure 4.3 Federation in Community Support website. Retrieved November 1, 2006 from http://www2.ied.edu.hk/fpece/fics/

Universities are also addressing this need by developing professional development and post-graduate courses which focus specifically on catering for diversity. While there is still a long way to go, there is clear evidence that Asian governments are embracing the need to provide better training and skills development for their teachers to meet the changing regular school populations.

Conclusion It is quite apparent that student populations in Asian classrooms are changing and, if governments continue to follow international trends, this movement will persist. The challenges for teachers in Chinese classrooms will also reflect many of the international concerns, although they will, by the very nature of their culture, be different in many respects. In addition to the general concerns most regular class teachers have about accommodating the needs of students with diverse abilities, there are the extra difficulties of large class sizes and an inflexible focus on an examination-oriented system, which in many instances is paralleled by a school system that limits access on the basis of academic achievement. Furthermore, it is clear that classrooms with increasing diversity represent a considerable challenge to teachers, particularly when the diversity is not reflected in their community. One of the major philosophical arguments proposed to support the inclusion movement is that when all children are educated in the regular school

Classroom Diversity 117

system, this will mirror better what is happening in society. However, there is still not strong support in Asian society for the inclusion of adults with disabilities or those who present as different. While physical adaptations such as ramps, guidemarks and braille are visible in newer buildings, this does little to change the attitudes of the community towards people with disabilities or make them more accepted. While teachers clearly have a duty to be proactive in developing a more inclusive society by ensuring that educational reform establishes a less exclusive agenda, governments must also work in parallel to provide equal status in the community to people with disabilities and other special needs such as cultural or ethnic differences. However, while educational reform in Asia toward more inclusive school communities should be seen as the foundation for community reform and for promoting cultural and attitudinal changes, it cannot be held fully accountable for the whole of society. In the twentieth-first century, teachers in the Chinese classroom will have to accept that, as in the West, they will experience increasingly more diverse student populations and that — even within the extenuating constraints of inflexible assessment, large classes, and selective schools — they will need to be accountable for ensuring better and more equal educational opportunities for all the children in their classes. In addition, educationalists must work collaboratively with governments to embrace the needs of all for diversity if the outcome is to be the development of a fully inclusive society that truly accepts, acknowledges and caters for diversity, in line with the CHC philosophy.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2.

3.

Using a digital camera, record your journey as you leave your home or school and travel to a particular place (e.g. a market). Pretend that you are in a wheelchair (or blind or deaf) so that you cannot access stairs or open doors (or read or hear). Record visually how you are able to progress and what physical access problems you encounter. Access the Federation in Community Support website and select one support agency that is easy for you to visit (if you are not in Hong Kong, check the Asian links for your country). Arrange to visit the agency and find out exactly what it provides, the children or adults it supports, and what its major challenges are. Select a developing Asian country and a particular need, such as hearing impairment, and undertake research to find out what support is provided for children with this need and what educational opportunities are available for them. Compare this to the support and opportunities available in your own country or district.

118 Chris FORLIN 4.

Eleven major challenges were highlighted on p. 110 for catering for diversity in Asian countries. Select one of these and find out how some Western countries have met this challenge and reflect on the usefulness of the methods they have employed for your own local community.

Notes 1. 2.

See the UNESCO website for all reports at http://www2.unesco.org/wef/countryreports/ region_eastasia.html. A typographical error occurs in the original source. It states that “3,221,000 large classes (56-65 students perclass), accounting for 27.65% in all classes”, whereas 27.65% of the total of all classes is 322,100 classes.

Glossary Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) is a neurologically-based behavioral disorder that results in children exhibiting inattentive and/or impulsive behaviors. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders identifies three subtypes of AD/HD. These include (1) a predominantly inattentive type; (2) a predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type; and (3) a combined inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive. Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive developmental disorder that results in children exhibiting severe impairments in social interaction and communication. It is often characterized by repetitive, stereotyped behaviors, interests and activities. ASD includes children with Asperger syndrome, Rett’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder: not otherwise specified (PDD_NOS). Disability Discrimination Ordinance is a Hong Kong law making it illegal to discriminate on the basis of a person’s disability. Education For All (EFA) implies the implementation of educational programs geared towards the attainment of quality education for all children in the same school. A whole-school approach (WSA) involves a school community catering for the needs of all children. The six key principles of WSA together aim to provide a vision of how schools can become more diverse and cater for the varying needs of their student populations.

References Alghazo, E. M., & Gaad, E. E. N. (2004). General education teachers in the United Arab Emirates and their acceptance of the inclusion of students with disabilities. British Journal of Special Education, 31(2), 94–99.

Classroom Diversity 119 Arbeiter, S., & Hartley, S. (2002). Teachers’ and pupils’ experiences of integrated education in Uganda. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 49(1), 62– 78. Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability. (2005a). General Fact Sheet. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.apcdproject.org/countryprofile/china/general.html. Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability. (2005b). General Fact Sheet. Retrieved June 23, 2006, from http://www.apcdproject.org/countryprofile/index.html. Brinkhoff, T. (1998–2006). City Population. Retrieved June 23, 2006, from http://www. citypopulation.de. Central Intelligence Agency. (2006). The world factbook. Retrieved June 27, 2006, from http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html. Chan, C. W. M., Chang, R. M. L., Westwood P., & Yuen, M. (2002). Teaching adaptively: How easy is it in practice? A perspective from Hong Kong. Asia-Pacific Educational Researcher, 11(1), 27–58. Department for Education and Skills. (2001). Special educational needs code of practice. London: DFES Publications. Department of Education of the Philippines. (2006). Bureau of Elementary Education: Special Education Division (SPED). Retrieved June 28, 2006, from http://www.deped.gov.ph/ quicklinks/quicklinks2.asp?id=34. Department of Health. (2006). Hong Kong Population Health Profile Series. Retrieved June 28, 2006 from http://www.info.gov.hk/dh/diseases/phps/main.htm. Education Department (1996, May). Report of the Sub-committee on Special Education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2005a). A study of the effectiveness of special schools. Hong Kong SAR: Government Logistics Department. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2005b). Whole-school approach to integrated education. (Updated September 10, 2005). Retrieved April 26, 2006, from http://www.emb.gov. hk/index.aspx?nodeID=185&langno=1. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2006). Press releases and publications: Figures and statistics. Retrieved June 28, 2006 from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx? nodeID=92&langno=1. Educational Statistics Yearbook of China. (2004). Department of Development & Planning, Ministry of Education, The People’s Republic of China. Federation in Community Support. (2006). http://www2.ied.edu.hk/fpece/fics/. Forlin, C. (1997). Inclusive education in Australia. Special Education Perspectives, 6, 21–26. Forlin, C. (1998). Teachers’ personal concerns about including children with a disability in regular classrooms. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 10(1), 87–110. Forlin, C. (2001). Inclusion: Identifying potential stressors for regular class teachers. Educational Research, 43(3), 235–245. Forlin, C. (2004). Promoting Inclusivity in Western Australian Schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education 8, 183–200. Forlin, C. (2005a). Implementing an outcomes-focussed approach to learning: Implications for inclusive education. CASE, 1(2), 3–6. Forlin, C. (2005b). Editorial: Moving onwards and upwards: inclusive education in secondary schools. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 29(2), 87–92.

120 Chris FORLIN Forlin, C. (2006). Inclusive education in Australia ten years after Salamanca. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(3), 265–277. Forlin, C. (in press). Inclusive educational practices: A way forward for Hong Kong. Chinese Education and Society. Forlin, C., Hattie, J., & Douglas, G. (1996). Inclusion: Is it stressful for teachers? Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 21, 199–217. Jenkins, H. J. (2002). A continuum-based approach to inclusive policy and practice in regular schools. Special Education Perspectives, 11(2), 56–71. Joy of learning (2006). Connected online. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Education. Korea National Statistical Office. (2005a). Population. Retrieved June 23, 2006, from http://www.nso.go.kr/eng/searchable/kosis-list.html. Korea National Statistical Office. (2005b). Summarization of special schools. Retrieved June 23, 2006, from http://www.nso.go.kr/eng/searchable/kosis-list.html. Korean Society of Persons with Disabilities and RI Korea. (2005) Korean NGO Report. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from http://www.worldenable.net/convention2005/papekoreai. htm. Lian, M-G. J. (2004). Inclusive education: Theory and practice. Hong Kong Special Education Forum 7(1), 57–74. Loreman, T., Deppeler, J. M., & Harvey, D. H. P. (2005). Inclusive education: A practical guide to supporting diversity in the classroom. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. McCabe, H. (2002). Children with autism in the People’s Republic of China: Parents’ perspectives of early educational experiences. Unpublished manuscript, Indiana University. McCabe, H. (2003). The beginnings of inclusion in the People’s Republic of China. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28(1), 16–22. Michailakis, D. (1997). Government action on disability policy: A global survey, part II — government replies as country profiles Japan. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from http://www. independentliving.org/standardrules/UN_Answers/Japan.html. Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2005). Special education schools. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.moe.gov.my/tayang.php?laman=sek_khas&bhs=en. Ministry of Education Singapore. (2005). Education statistics digest 2004. Retrieved June 26, 2006, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/esd/ESD%202004.pdf. National People’s Congress (1986). Compulsory education law of the People’s Republic of China. Beijing, China: Law Publishers. National People’s Congress (1990). Law of the People’s Republic of China on the protection of persons with disabilities. Beijing, China: Law Publishers. Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21(1), 77–86. Pearson, V., Lo, E., Chui, E., & Wong, D. (2003). A heart to learn and care? Teachers’ responses toward special needs children in mainstream schools in Hong Kong. Disability & Society, 18(4), 489–508. Peterson, M. (2005). The six principles of whole schooling. Retrieved June 24, 2006, from http://www.wholeschooling.net/. Piao, Y. (1991).Teshu jiaoyu gailun. [Introduction to special education]. Beijing, China: Huaxia.

Classroom Diversity 121 Piao, Y. (1992). Teshu jiaoyu gailun [Introduction to special education]. Beijing, China: Huaxia. Piao, Y., Garguilo, R. M., & Yuan, X. (1995). Special education in the People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Special Education, 10(1), 52–65. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2005). Full inclusion for children with severe learning difficulties: Ideology and reality. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 8, 19–26. Report of Education Statistics (2003). Volume 1 No. 26. Department of Planning Ministry of Education Feb. 27. Retrieved June 20, 2006, from http://202.205.177.12/english/ planning_s.htm. Roeder, E. W. (2001). Status of Educational Resources and Facilities for the Physically and Intellectually Disabled in Thailand. Retrieved June 28, 2006, from http://www.hawaii. edu/cseas/pubs/papers/roeder/start.html. State Council (1994). Regulations on education for persons with disabilities. Beijing, China: Law Publishers. Statistics Bureau. 2006. Schools for the blind, the deaf and the otherwise handicapped (1970– 2004). Retrieved June 26, 2006, from http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/zuzhou/ y2208000.xls. Statistics Singapore. (2006). General household survey 2005 statistical release 1: Sociodemographic and economic characteristics. 14 June 2006. Retrieved June 26, 2006, from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/keystats/annual/ghs/r1/chap2.pdf. Talmor, R., Reiter, S., & Feigin, N. (2005). Factors relating to regular education teacher burnout in inclusive education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 20(2), 215–229. Tuen, J. T-h. (1999). Effects of the economic crisis on the placement of people with disabilities in Singapore. Asia and Pacific Journal on Disability, 2 (1). Retrieved July 11, 2006 from http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/asia/resource/z00ap/004/z00ap00409.htmhttp:/ /www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/asia/resource/z00ap/004/z00ap00409.htm. UNESCO (2005a). Education for All. Retrieved June 21, 2006, from http://www.unesco.org/ education/efa/. UNESCO (2005b). Education for all global monitoring report 2005: The quality imperative. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. UNESCO Bangkok. (n.d.). EFA News. Retrieved June 20, 2006, from http://www.unescobkk. org/index.php?id=19/docs/SEAsia_EFA_Progress_Report.pdf. Ward, J. & Center, Y. (1999). Success and failure in inclusion: Some representative case histories. Special Education Perspective, 8(1), 16–31. Whole Schooling Consortium. (2005). Retrieved June 24, 2006, from http://www. wholeschooling.net/. Yuen, M., Westwood P., & Wong, G. (2005). Meeting the needs of students with specific learning difficulties in the mainstream education system: Data from primary school teachers in Hong Kong. The International Journal of Special Education, 20(1), 67–76. Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozzine, B., & Thurlow, M. L. (2000). Critical issues in special education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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Further Reading Beattie, J., Jordan, L., Algozzine, B. (2006). Making inclusion work: Effective practices for all teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Friend, M., & Bursuck, W. D. (2006). Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers. Boston, MS and Hong Kong: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Hui, M. L. H., Dowson, C. R., & Moont, G. M. (Eds.) (2003). Inclusive Education in the New Millennium. Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International. Jorgensen, C. M., Schuh, M. C., & Nisbet, J. (2006). The Inclusion Facilitator’s Guide. Baltimore, MA: Paul H. Brookes. Lewis, R. B., & Doorlag, D. H. (2006). Teaching special students in general education classrooms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall. Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2005). Inclusive education: A practical guide to supporting diversity in the classroom. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2002). Meeting special needs in mainstream classrooms. Hong Kong: Longman. Poon-McBrayer, K. F., & Lian, M. J. (2002). Special needs education: Children with exceptionalities. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Rief, S. F. (2003). The ADHD book of lists: A practical guide for helping children and teens with attention deficit disorders. Salend, S. J. (2005). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and reflective practices for all students. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall. Salvia, J., Ysseldyke, J. E. & Bolt, S. (2007). Assessment in special and inclusive education. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Toppin, K., & Malone, S. (2005). The Routledge Falmer reader in inclusive education. London: Routledge. Wood, J. (2006). Teaching students in inclusive settings: Adapting and accommodating instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Useful Websites Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability: http://www.apcdproject.org/countryprofile/ index.html Centre for Global Integrated Education: http://www.cgie.org/ Centre for Special Needs & Inclusive Education, Hong Kong: http://www.ied.edu.hk/csnsie/ Department of Health, Hong Kong: http://www.info.gov.hk/dh/diseases/phps/main.htm Education and Manpower Bureau, Hong Kong: http://www.emb.gov.hk/ Enabling Education Network (EENET): http://www.eenet.org.uk/ Federation In Community Support, Hong Kong: http://www2.ied.edu.hk/fpece/fics/ Index for inclusion: Developing learning and participation in schools: http://inclusion.uwe. ac.uk/csie/indexlaunch.htm Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China: http://202.205.177.12/english/ index.htm

Classroom Diversity 123 UNESCO Education for all: international coordination: http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ Whole Schooling Consortium: http://www.wholeschooling.net/

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to: Assoc. Prof. Chris Forlin, PhD., Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

124 Chris FORLIN

Section II Catering for Learning Diversity

5 Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments Shihui CHEN

Children with motor disabilities and health impairments have unique needs. Meeting these needs in the Chinese classroom requires: • A re-visioning of diversity and adopting a new perspective of cohesion; • Understanding the nature of physical disabilities and health impairments; • Describing the unique needs of these children in the Chinese classroom; • Investigating the challenges both teachers and children face in the Chinese classroom; and • Identifying the strategies, modification techniques, and assistive technologies used for accommodating the needs of these children in the classroom.

Introduction Children with physical disabilities or health impairments are part of the broad group of children with special educational needs. Various physical disabilities and health conditions present challenges to children and their teachers in the classroom, and to the children’s parents. Some of these children may also have cognitive disabilities, constituting a small but nevertheless important group with multiple disabilities; but in this chapter the primary focus is on the child with either a physical (or motor disability) or health impairment, rather than the associated cognitive disabilities discussed in other chapters. As it is possible that in any one class there will be children with different types of physical disability or health impairment, many school teachers have to recognize

128 Shihui CHEN and meet the needs of such children. Children’s interactions with their social and physical environments are known to be important universally for the development of social, language and cognitive competencies in students from both the West (McInerney & Swisher, 1995) and Confucian-heritage cultures (CHC) (S. N. Phillipson, this volume; Watkins & Biggs, 1996). When such interactions are inhibited because of difficulties in mobility or health problems, the development of these competencies is at risk. This chapter focuses on CHC definitions and societal attitudes toward the education of these children, together with some of the classroom strategies, modifications and assistive technologies that can be used to support them in the inclusive classroom. The chapter also describes the contribution of cohesion theory toward understanding the role of student diversity in learning, and how motor disabilities can cause emotional, behavioral, and academic challenges to children in a diverse environment.

Re-envisioning Diversity and Cohesion Theory The acceptance of students with disabilities into regular settings by peers and parents of students without disabilities is very important, and re-envisioning diversity and individual differences may help people without disability view inclusion from a positive angle. A population can be diverse in a wide range of aspects: cultural, ethnic, religious, and/or racial background (Billingsley, 2003; Macebo, 2000). Traditionally, diversity within a group has often been viewed as a negative trait, something to be undermined and rejected. However, the prevailing viewpoint has now shifted considerably (Chen, Jin, & Lau, 2006; Crawford & Bray, 1994), with cultural prejudices being replaced by greater acceptance of diversity, thus turning these differences into potentially positive learning sources and environments. Used in a constructive way, individual differences among students can increase variety in their knowledge base — though variations in knowledge of subject matter, learning style, maturity, experience, time management, motivation, attitudes, and cultural background can create new demands in fulfilling educational expectations effectively. Diaz, Moll and Mehan (1986) argued that students’ diverse social, linguistic, and academic backgrounds can be viewed as powerful resources for improving both their school performance and the process of schooling. Furthermore, when the movement for inclusion has finally been accepted in Asian societies, the concept of “diversity” will be far broader than the differences caused by culture, race, religion, language, and knowledge (Yoshinaga-itano, 2003). Therefore, practicing the pedagogy of inclusion to meet student diversity becomes an ethical responsibility for teachers.

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As Goodlad (1990) pointed out, although greater diversity in the student body can produce conflicts in communication between students and teachers, it can also be an opportunity to appreciate the possibilities for learning from each other. Therefore, diversity in student populations (traditionally not found in schools in Hong Kong, China and other Asian countries) has led to the exploration of new classroom teaching and learning strategies. Teacher education programs have the responsibility and mandate to help future teachers break the bonds of their backgrounds and encourage them to view diversity as a positive feature that can contribute to the development of new knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Seen in this light, diversity becomes an agent of innovation for classroom teaching and learning.

Traditional cohesion theory In sporting competitions, the term team cohesion has been defined as a dynamic process reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of objectives and/or for the satisfaction of members’ affective needs (Carron, Brawley, & Widmeyer, 1998; Weinberg & Gould, 1999). Cohesion is related to many factors. For example, a cohesive team has well-defined roles and common goals, a positive team identity, a good working relationship, shared responsibility, respect, positive energy, trust, a willingness to cooperate, good communication and effective collaboration. From a traditional perspective, group cohesion is achieved when members share the same interests and goals; exhibit a willingness to learn, mutual trust and support; communicate openly; and operate in a democratic fashion. However, this view of group cohesion is commonly related to sports teams — relatively small groups of individuals who are alike in skills, abilities, and intentions and, normally, share a common will to win. Diversity is not welcome in such groups, as it may disturb unity and uniformity, characteristics instrumental in success. Given its characteristics, this traditional sports-related view of group cohesion does not appear to be transferable to the context of the classroom because of class size and student diversity. A new perspective on cohesion, one which not only allows diversity but requires it to achieve a common goal, needs to be formulated.

A novel perspective on cohesion theory For sports teams, cohesion has long been associated with performance, and the stronger the unity within the group, the greater the probability of achieving the common goal of winning the game. In a typical classroom, however, where diversity

130 Shihui CHEN is increasingly becoming the norm, the common goal is of a different nature — namely for each student to gain understanding of content and increase knowledge. By virtue of its diversity, the classroom offers a wealth of experiences and viewpoints that can play a critical role in helping students reach that educational goal. Teaching strategies that capitalize on diversity can not only enhance each individual’s understanding of issues but also promote other values and attitudes such as respect for others’ points of view and awareness of cultural pluralism. Effective teaching strategies turn the traditional cohesion theory into a new one in which heterogeneity or diversity is critical for learning. Diversity is necessary for new ideas, perceptions, meanings, and interpretations and, if handled properly, exchanges within a heterogeneous group can promote greater understanding. The increasingly heterogeneous groups in school classrooms include students with motor disorders. The following section presents an overview of motor disorder and the needs of children with this disability.

Definitions of Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments In the Americans with Disabilities Act Restoration Act of 2006 (Introduced in House, Section 3), a physical impairment means “any physiological disorder or condition, cosmetic disfigurement, or anatomical loss affecting one or more of the following body systems: neurological; musculoskeletal; special sense organs; respiratory, including speech organs; cardiovascular; reproductive; digestive; genitourinary; hemic and lymphatic; skin and endocrine” (US Department of Labor, n.d.). Auxter, Pyfer and Huettig (2005) further classified physical disabilities into three categories, as follows (p. 471): • Neurological impairments: “chronic debilitating conditions that result from impairments of the central nervous system”; • Orthopedic impairments: “deformities, diseases, and injuries of the bones and joints”; and • Traumatic conditions: “an acquired injury to the body caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial physical functional disability or impairment in muscles, ligaments, tendons, or the nervous system, that adversely affects a child’s physical performance”. Examples of these three categories are shown in Table 5.1. Health impairments are defined as having limited strength, vitality, or alertness due to chronic or acute health problems such as a heart condition, rheumatic fever, asthma, hemophilia, and leukemia, epilepsy, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, kidney disorder, and disorders in the endocrine system, which adversely affect educational

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 131 Table 5.1

Physical disabilities and health impairments

Disability type

Categories

Physical disabilities

Neurological impairments

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, Parkinson’s disease, poliomyelitis and post-polio syndrome, spina bifida

Orthopedic disabilities

arthritis, arthrogryposis, congenital hip dislocation, coax plana, Osgood-Schlatter condition, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteomyelitis, spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis

Traumatic injuries

traumatic head injuries, spinal cord injuries, amputations

Health impairments

Examples

overweight/obesity syndrome, cholesterol problems, diabetes continuum, cardiovascular problems (heart attack, stroke, congestive heart disease), hypertension, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, cystic fibrosis, bronchitis and emphysema, hemophilia, sickle-cell disease (anemia), anemia, menstrual problems, cancer, kidney and urinary tract disorders, epilepsy, environmental disorders, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, blood-borne hepatitis

Sources: Auxter, Pyfer, & Huettig (2005); Sherrill (2004)

performance (Knoblauch & Sorenson, 1998). Sherrill (2004) also categorized health impairments according to the US Department of Education diagnostic category (see Table 5.1). According to the law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled Persons enacted in 1990, for example, disabled persons refers to those with visual, hearing, speech or physical disabilities, mental retardation, mental disorder, multiple disabilities and/or other disabilities. Physical disabilities refer to “loss of upper or lower limbs due to trauma, disease or congenital factors, anamorphosis or dysfunction of upper or lower limbs, trunk and spinal cord due to trauma, disease or congenital factors” (Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability, 2003, Section 3.1). The definition of physical disabilities in China is more narrow than in Western countries. It seems to refer to disabling conditions on the upper and lower limbs and trunk that are caused by congenital and traumatic factors (persons with disabilities), but other impairment and health conditions (persons with special needs) that directly or indirectly affect children’s education are not taken into consideration. Also a wide range of physical disabilities such as muscular dystrophy, spinal cord

132 Shihui CHEN injury, spina bifida, multiple sclerosis and cerebral palsy, and other health conditions such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, respiratory and cardiac diseases (asthma and stroke), and obesity have not been included. These conditions can impair a person’s strength, speed, endurance and coordination, and affect mobility and proper hand functioning. Also, cerebral palsy often involves sensory and speech dysfunction, and obesity limits the ability of students to get in and out of classrooms, thus directly or indirectly influencing their education.

The Needs of Students with Physical Disabilities There are various types of physically disabling conditions or motor disorders, and each is associated with diverse motor capabilities. As seen in Table 5.1, Auxter, Pyfer and Huettig (2005) and Sherrill (2004) classified physical disabilities into three main categories — neurological impairments, orthopedic (musculoskeletal) disabilities, and traumatic injuries — each of which results in a particular (similar or different) physically disabling condition, therefore creating a range of mobility situations in a classroom. Although the integration of students with physical disabilities into the mainstream classroom has become common practice in recent years, students with physical disabilities are often perceived by teachers and other students as having inferior intellectual abilities. Some teachers equate physical disabilities with learning difficulties, but many special education professionals who work with students with physical disabilities argue that these students are capable of learning just as well as their peers. Such professionals challenge teachers to evaluate the differences between students with physically disabling conditions and other students in terms of classroom learning, and assess how much more assistance they need from teachers and peers for cognitive learning tasks. Research indicates that, regardless of the type of physical disability, the classroom teacher will have to deal with only one condition — mobility limitation (Auxter, Pyfer, & Huettig, 2005) — as the difference in classroom learning for these students is minimal. Students with motor disabilities do have unique needs due to mobility limitations. However, they can easily overcome these difficulties and benefit greatly from a diverse learning environment if teachers take these limitations into account and provide the necessary assistance to accommodate their special needs (e.g., by providing wheelchair users with large spaces). Also, some adjustments have to be made for these students for certain classroom activities or assignments and special testing formats. The most important point to bear in mind is that children with a physical disability are simply normal children, except for a motor disorder.

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 133

Types of Physical Disabilities and Ways of Accommodating Them Cerebral palsy Characteristics Cerebral palsy (CP) is a condition caused by damage to the brain, usually occurring before, during or shortly after birth (Auxter, Pyfer, & Huettig, 2005). The injury results in disorders of posture or movement, and is characterized by an inability to fully control motor function, persistence of primitive reflexes, spasms, involuntary muscle contractions, and seizures. Speech, hand function, and mobility might also be affected. Accommodating students with CP The adaptations necessary will depend on the degree of impairment. Early intervention can train and minimize primitive reflex control, and later rehabilitation can include the use of drugs, and teaching conscious relaxation techniques to assist proper functioning. Also, bracing the hand/arm or stabilizing the trunk can aid in joint function and locomotion; and assistive technology can be modified for different functional limitations. In school subjects such as in mathematics and languages, a communication board can be used to help students answer questions and communicate with their peers. Also, head-sets can help students with CP to type, and use of the mouth can help them to print pictures and do some art work.

Muscular dystrophy Characteristics Muscular dystrophy is a sex-linked or X-linked (Duchenne type) genetic disorder characterized by weakness, fatigue, and atrophy of the muscles of the body which produces degeneration of voluntary muscles of the trunk and lower extremities. Duchenne or progressive muscular dystrophy is the most prevalent type among children aged between three and thirteen years, and is more common among males than females. Early signs of the disorder include difficulty in running, climbing stairs, and rising from a sitting position. Manipulation of materials in class may be difficult as a result of posture changes due to progressive muscle weakness, and walking, if possible, is slow and appears uncoordinated.

134 Shihui CHEN Accommodating students with muscular dystrophy Children with muscular dystrophy have a tendency to tire quickly, lose fine manual dexterity, and lack motivation because of their limitations. Subjects such as mathematics and languages are little affected, but doing calculations, writing answers for mathematics exercises, and carrying out art projects requires hand function and fine motor skills. Teachers should be aware that, as such students may tire more easily, they need assistive technology for controlling hand function (e.g., a pencil holder), body position stabilization for good posture, and more space for a mobile wheelchair to move around. For mathematics calculations, using a computer may help them to complete homework more easily. As the disease progresses, children with muscular dystrophy become progressively weaker, and eventually they need to rely on a wheelchair for locomotion. Appropriate exercises are very helpful in retaining some functions for living and study.

Seizure disorder Characteristics Epilepsy is an abnormal excessive discharge of cerebral neurons that results in sudden brief attacks of altered consciousness, motor activity, or inappropriate behavior. There is evidence that seizure disorder results from imbalances in the electrical activity of the brain, and may involve brain injuries and tumors. Students with seizure disorders are sometimes misperceived as having a mental illness, but their behaviors are normal, and they can participate in regular classroom activities with others. Managing students with seizure disorder Seizures may affect a child’s learning. For example, if a child has the type of seizure characterized by a brief period of fixed staring, he or she may miss parts of what the teacher is saying. It is important that the teacher notes these episodes carefully and ensures that he/she repeats the content. The primary measures taken for treating seizure disorder are controlling them through medication, leading a normal lifestyle, and taking moderate exercise. Classroom activities such as dance and other social activities should be encouraged. It is important that teachers are aware of the child’s condition and the possible side-effects of medication, such as drowsiness that causes lack of attention during class activities. Teachers should also know the procedures for managing a seizure in case it occurs in school. In the event of a grand mal seizure, ask someone to call medical service staff, clear nearby objects, lay the person on the floor, tilt the head to the side, loosen tight clothing, do not put

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 135

anything between the teeth, try not to restrain bodily movement, and let the seizure run its course, and finally cover the person with a blanket and let him/her rest. Children with epilepsy must also deal with the psychological and social aspects of the condition. After recovery, those who have had a seizure attack do not know what happened and teachers should educate classmates not to display any negative attitudes toward these students.

Asthma Characteristics Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease with a wide range of causes. It involves airway obstruction and inflammation, and increased airway responsiveness, and its symptoms range from wheezing and a dry cough to increased coughing, a tight chest, and difficulty in breathing. These conditions result from the body’s reaction to allergens, such as animal dander, mold spores, house dust mites, and nonallergenic stimuli such as cold air or exercise. Accommodating students with asthma Students with asthma can participate in regular school activities and programs. However, teachers need to be aware of their conditions, limitations, and anxieties to minimize the factors which trigger it. At school, students should be responsible for taking their medicine on time to reduce the incidence of asthma, but teachers should also teach them how to breathe properly and help them learn conscious relaxation. It is very valuable for teachers to have an understanding of children’s different asthma conditions so that they can take appropriate action in the classroom

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) Characteristics HIV/AIDS is caused by retroviruses that are transmitted via body fluids, primarily blood, which destroy the body’s immune system. The characteristics of HIV infection include severe weight loss, chronic diarrhea, non-productive coughing, fever, and chronic fatigue — a condition which leaves the person vulnerable to infections and cancers. The HIV/AIDS virus is not transmitted through casual social contacts. Because the manifestations of HIV/AIDS are varied, the modifications to the usual classroom routines will depend on the particular infection or disease the individual develops.

136 Shihui CHEN Accommodating students with HIV/AIDS Those with HIV/AIDS, and their parents, may be afraid to reveal the condition because of people’s misunderstanding and possible discrimination, so it is important to keep information about the students confidential. If an issue arises, teachers must treat it fairly and non-judgmentally. Students with HIV/AIDS should be observed closely; and the teacher should follow appropriate procedures to minimize the risk to other students in cases where there is an open wound. Students with HIV/AIDS should be allowed to participate as fully as possible in academic work at school. While extra time for rest during classroom activities may be needed to avoid fatigue, creating a friendly, understanding atmosphere and social environment is very important. Although there are many health-related disabling conditions that may influence students’ academic performance, there are only two types that teachers may face in their classrooms: physical disorder (a function disorder, e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and spinal cord injury) and a health condition (a disorder related to body conditioning, e.g., heart disease, asthma, HIV/AIDs, diabetes, cardiac disorder, cystic fibrosis, leukemia and other childhood cancer, kidney disorder, hemophilia, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis). Accommodating these different physically disabling conditions should focus on providing the appropriate assistive devices such as hooks, canes, and/or crutches which are used to aid hand or leg functions. For example, leg braces enable ambulation and wheelchairs provide locomotion for students with mobility disabilities. For those whose disabling conditions involve impairments in speech, vision, and hand function, assistive technology can help them in writing, typing, reading and listening (e.g., using computer-controlled electrical stimulation that controls the movement of paralyzed muscles) and ensure precise movement of small or large muscle groups. For health-related disabilities, assistive technology and psycho-social support are the most important factors when students study in an inclusive setting. As they do not have any physical function disorder, factors such as peers’ attitudes, the level of physical energy, and intrinsic motivation are most important. Giving extra time and more encouragement, and providing a comfortable chair, are all good ways of accommodating students’ special needs.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments in Chinese Society A review of government laws, regulations and other published materials indicates that, in the past decades, China, Hong Kong and Taiwan followed Western trends closely in establishing policies on the education of students with disabilities (Table 5.1). For example, the inclusion movement has affected many children with disabilities who have been transferred from special schools to regular schools

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 137

(Block, 1994; Crawford & Bray, 1994, Forlin, 1997, Sherrill, 2004). The education system of any particular country is generally related to its cultural background and economic circumstances, and therefore a comparative analysis of educational approaches across countries must take these differences into consideration.

Special Education in China Laws and regulations In China, the government has paid great attention to special education, with a number of laws and regulations established to ensure the right of people with disabilities to receive education. The Compulsory Education Law (1986), the Protection of Disabled Persons Law (1990), and the Regulations for Disabled Persons’ Education (1994) state the guidelines and principles for schools (Table 5.2). Under the Protection of Disabled Persons’ Law, the rights and interests of people with disabilities were enhanced; and in 2004, an amendment to the law further improved the legal guarantees for the implementation of human rights for individuals with disabilities. After years of effort, China has developed a compulsory education system which integrates children with disabilities into ordinary schools. Table 5.2 shows that laws and regulations to improve human rights and education in the United States, Hong Kong SAR, and China are similar in focusing on three major aspects: (1) equal opportunities and services for people with disabilities; (2) accommodations for disabling conditions to ensure equal opportunities; and (3) acceptance, integration, and inclusion of students with disabilities in regular settings. However, in terms of the implementation of these laws, different approaches have been adopted in these countries, as shown in the next section.

Provision There are more than 60 million individuals with disabilities in China, accounting for about 5% of the population. By 2005, there were 1,662 special education schools for total 703,409 students who are blind, deaf, and intellectual disabilities. A total 80% of students with blind, deaf and intellectual disabilities were enrolled in these school. In addition to the 1,662 special education schools around the country, there were 1,044 special vocational training institutes for people with disabilities, and 2.59 million individuals with disabilities were enrolled in the vocational schools. There were in total 16,000 students that had been accepted by different levels of colleges.

138 Shihui CHEN Table 5.2

Comparison between special education laws in the United States, Hong Kong, and China

United States

Hong Kong

China

1973: Rehabilitation Act — section 50

1970s: Aimed at integration of children into the mainstream

1986: Compulsory Education Law

1975: Education for All Children with Handicap Act

1995: White Paper on rehabilitation

1990: Protection of Disabled Persons

1980s: Regular Education Initiative (RIE)

1996-97: Regulations on non- discrimination

1994: Regulations for Disabled Persons’ Education

1990s: ADA/IDEA: Individual Education for Disability Act

Two-year pilot project to integrate five type of disabilities

Sources: HK (EMB) and Chinese government documents; Auster, Pyfer, & Huettig (2005). http://www.dredf.org/international/china.html.

Approaches The research on special education in China suggests that, in the past, students with disabilities were viewed as fundamentally different from their peers without disabilities. Consequently, many specialized schools, centers and program facilities were developed for students with disabilities, and these students were grouped according to their disabilities and taught by specially trained teachers. The current general direction in implementing compulsory education for children with disabilities, building on the Tenth Five-Year Plan for the Disabled (2001–05), is that special education schools are the backbone of the system, while there are also special education classes “attached to” regular schools, and students with disabilities who “participate in” regular class settings as part of the main body of the school. However, most students with disabilities are not yet ready for inclusion. When integrating students with disabilities into regular school settings, the major model is to attach special classes to regular schools, a practice which is far better than having students segregated into special schools. In terms of students attending regular classes, more work needs to be done in order to move toward full inclusion. Separated special education schools for specific disabilities still play a major role in catering for children with special needs in China.

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 139

Educational Challenges Teacher preparation and attitudes toward children with special needs While the number of integrated schools and classes continues to increase in China, as in other countries, the rapid growth of special education programs has created problems because of a shortage of qualified teachers and other professionals (see Chen, Jin, & Lau, 2006 and Table 5.3). Table 5.3

Basic statistics on specialists in special schools in China in 2000

Schools

1,539 (in 2000)

Graduates

43,400

Enrollment

Total students with disabilities

Teachers*

Full-time teacherstudent ratio

52,900

377,600

43,700*

1:11.8

* Of which the number of full-time teachers is 32,000. Source: Qian Zhiliang, Shichuan Education Net (2004)

Although the percentage of trained teachers in China has been rising since 1990, together with the number of special education teachers with college degrees, there is still a shortage of well-trained professionals to teach children with special needs in both special and inclusive schools (Table 5.3). By 2000, the total number of such school-age children enrolled in China was 390,611, consisting of those with visual impairment (41,260), hearing impairment (72,309), intellectual disabilities (126,262), physical disabilities (83,237), emotional disorders (20,962), and multiple disabilities (46,581). In that year, the ratio of full-time teachers to students was 1:11.8. Several studies from Western countries have indicated that, with only one or two undergraduate courses as preparation for inclusion, many mainstream educators perceive themselves as being inadequately prepared for including children with disabilities in their classrooms (Zhang et al., 2000). Statistics produced by Chen, Jin and Lau (2006) showed teachers’ attitudes to mainstreaming and inclusion (Table 5.4). In an online discussion with a group of pre- and in-service teachers, many pre-service teachers expressed a lack of confidence in their preparation for teaching physical education to children with disabilities. Also, in a cross-cultural survey comparing the attitudes toward inclusion of US and Korean parents of children without disabilities, Kim (2002) found that US parents’ attitudes were more positive than those of Korean parents. Finally, in another survey on attitudes to inclusion conducted in Hong Kong by Education Forum (2004), the results indicated that only 13% of teachers and 16% of parents of students with disabilities agreed that

140 Shihui CHEN such students should be educated in regular schools; and only about 6% of principals were willing to participate in inclusion projects and accept students with disabilities into their schools. The major concern was the quality of education for both children with or without disabilities, and some of teachers and parents did not believe that children with disabilities would benefit from studying in regular schools. In addition, the attitudes of pre- and in-service teachers to teaching students with disabilities were mixed, with both positive attitudes and genuine concerns expressed. Table 5.4 presents the reasons they gave for their willingness or otherwise to include students with disabilities in regular school settings for physical education. Table 5.4

Reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with integration and inclusion

Reasons for disagreeing with integration/ inclusion in regular physical education lessons

Reasons for agreeing with integration/ inclusion in regular physical education lessons

• Don’t know how to teach different levels at the same time without affecting others

• Equalization

• Special schools are better because staff are trained.

• The right to be educated

• Behavior problems affect other students.

• Build up their confidence

• No support services provided; no extra money and facilities

• Explore their potential

• Lack of experience; no training

• Learn basic skills to become independent

• Not ready yet, maybe later

• Learn how to work with others

• Too much extra time for one student

• Become a responsible citizen and contribute to society

• Hong Kong is a different context.

• Cultivate public awareness of the rights of people with disabilities

Source: Chen, Jin, & Lau (2006).

Integration or inclusion is much more than just a placement which simply brings a student with special needs into a mainstream educational setting. All teachers must work together to accommodate the special needs of these students, so that they use their abilities to minimize their limitations, and at same time maximize their potential. Teacher training remains a major challenge to the future provision of special education in China, and teachers in mainstream schools must prepare themselves with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to meet the special needs of students with physical disabilities in their classrooms.

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 141

Teaching students with health and motor disabilities in regular schools requires serious preparation. Teachers must be adequately trained and possess the knowledge and abilities required to meet students’ unique needs, including (1) understanding disabilities; (2) selecting appropriate teaching strategies; (3) modifying regular activities to meet special needs; and (4) having a positive attitude toward inclusion. Table 5.5 suggests methods for developing teachers’ knowledge base and skills. Table 5.5

Required knowledge and abilities for special education teachers Knowledge and abilities

Special educators’ knowledge structure

Methods and learning activities

Understanding disabilities

• • • • • •

Field-based assignments (school observation and reflection) Paralympics Competition Volunteer Group surveys/presentations Debate Reading assignments Participation in discussion

Selection of appropriate teaching strategies

• Writing an individualized education plan (IEP) and practice teaching • Public school teaching observation (schools for the blind, those with mental retardation etc.) • Participation in discussion

Modification techniques

• Modifying a game for selected disabilities (problem-solving strategy) • Modifying activities for different disabilities

Attitude toward inclusion

• Debate • Participation in discussion

Preparing students without disabilities for inclusion To avoid affecting students with disabilities physically or emotionally, the learning environment — including the attitudes of parents of children with/without disability, peers’ attitudes, teachers’ knowledge, and support services and actions — must be well prepared before integrating them into the regular school setting. Teachers should help students without disabilities understand those who have special needs and what their rights are, and help them learn and live together. With such preparation, students with disabilities will have more opportunities to learn social skills in a natural and motivating environment and more varied stimulation from their peers, and will participate in a variety of school activities with age-appropriate role models. Where necessary, services and support should be given to assist them

142 Shihui CHEN in their learning. Without well-organized support services (e.g., teaching assistants, equipment adaptations), students with disabilities, including physical disabilities, will not benefit from these educational environments (Zigmond & Baker, 1995).

Classroom Challenges for Children with Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments The problems facing children from a Chinese-heritage culture who have physical disabilities or health impairments can be broadly divided into three interrelated areas, namely behavioral, emotional and academic. Each of these is discussed below with reference to the research literature.

Educating children with physical disabilities Chen, Jin and Lau (2006) conducted a cross-cultural research study to investigate teachers’ preferences for teaching children with different type of disabilities. The results showed that a higher percentage of teachers from China (including Hong Kong) felt more comfortable teaching students with physical disabilities, learning disabilities, hearing impairment, and physical disabilities (Table 5.6) when compared with Taiwan. The findings indicated that physical disability presents fewer difficulties in classroom teaching and learning, as long as the teacher has made suitable modifications for the children’s special needs. Table 5.6

Preferences of teachers (%) for teaching students with different type of disabilities Hearing impaired

Visually impaired

Learning disability

Physical disability

Taiwan

73.6

57.4

72.2

79.2

MC & HK

85.4

73.3

91.4

82.6

Source: Adapted from Chen, Lin & Lau (2006).

Although many children with different physical and health-related disabilities may function normally at the cognitive level and do well in classroom learning, behavioral, emotional and academic factors related to their motor disorder can cause difficulties in the classroom. Teachers need to ensure that the child’s needs in these respects have been taken into account, and their self-images and confidence levels are positive.

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 143

Behavioral challenges Students with physical disabilities are fully aware of the fact that they are physically different from their peers, and their perceptions of their disabilities and self-images are very important. If they cannot adjust to a new classroom environment, their behaviors may be negative and defensive. They may find it difficult to get along with their peers as their classmates may discriminate against them because of their physical appearance by teasing, insulting, and excluding them from participating in games or group activities — and this can result in a lack of motivation to learn and take part in such activities. According to Auxter, Pyfer and Huettig (2005), students with physical disabilities may attempt tasks that are impossible and even put themselves in dangerous situations to try to demonstrate their abilities and competencies; and they may also refuse supportive medical treatments and actively challenge decisions made by their parents and teachers. Adolescents with a physical disability may have accumulated unexpressed anger about their situation and may act this out physically or verbally towards teachers and peers, including displays of verbal or physical abuse. Teachers need to try to ensure that these children have a positive attitude and self-image by emphasizing their strengths and minimizing their weaknesses. A consistent approach with positive support often leads to more productive behaviors. Once these children replace negative feelings with realistic goals and objectives, and build up a positive attitude, they are more likely to act differently, and face behavioral challenges in a productive way (Sherrill, 2004; Villa & Thousand, 2003). As noted before, out of the 83,237 children in China with physical disabilities, only a small percentage of them (at mild and moderate levels) have been included in regular classrooms. As school conditions, the levels of professional training for teachers, and financial support (e.g., environmental accessibility, assistive technologies) range widely, teaching this group of children has always been demanding. To encourage such children to participate as much as they can in activities with peers without disabilities, teachers must take each student’s physical condition into account, making modifications to their approach and providing the necessary assistance to accommodate their special needs. Teachers should help students with a physical disability establish an individualized education plan (IEP), set appropriate goals, and make an action plan to achieve their goals. Some of the difficulties can be overcome with the necessary adaptations to their teaching strategies and the use of appropriate assistive technologies (e.g., calculators or computers with special keys). Simple modifications can create more opportunities for these students to participate with peers in enjoyable activities in various subjects, and thus complete tasks independently or with the help of their peers, particularly in their areas of strength. The chance to participate equally will help students with physical disabilities to build up their self-esteem, confidence and independence and

144 Shihui CHEN discover that they can live a healthier and more satisfying life. In a Confucianheritage culture, inadequate preparation often makes teachers feel that students with physical disabilities will have serious difficulties in overcoming the barriers they face. Villa & Thousand (2003) assert that, during their pre-service education, teachers are not instructed in the skills they will need to educate a diverse student body, and many teachers do not know what assistive technologies are available for them to accommodate students’ special needs. Emotional challenges Students with physical disabilities who are integrated into the regular classroom setting confront difficulties in adjusting emotionally to the new environment. In a new diverse environment, these children experience greater anxiety and defensiveness, and feel more sensitive to their peers’ attitudes when they interact in the classroom. The comments and attitudes of their classmates influence these students’ views of self, and frequent comparison of themselves with more “able” peers can make them frustrated, depressed and unmotivated, feeling that they are unable to complete tasks effectively or achieve a high standard of efficiency and quality. When interacting with their classmates or doing group activities, these students might not feel accepted or respected by others; and they may think and act defensively, believing that their peers should not feel sorry for them or assist them if they do so only out of sympathy (SSTA Research Report #91-05, Penninx et al., 2000). In order to assist students with physical disabilities to be fully included into the regular setting and benefit from it, teachers need to select appropriate strategies, and implement them consistently. They have to prepare the environment, and peers need to understand these students’ disabilities and special needs: they must not treat them as “disabled”, but rather see them as class members who learn differently. For successful adjustment to the new environment, students with physical disabilities must have confidence in their abilities and be motivated, and must learn to view their disabilities as only one small part of themselves rather than their whole self. They also need to establish realistic goals and try their best to reach them. As mentioned earlier, such students may be involved in conflicts or become physically aggressive because of their physical difficulties and emotional frustrations, so it is important that teachers adopt positive attitudes, interact well with these students, and provide them with as much assistance and support as they can. The major barriers to accommodating the special needs of children with mobility disorder in Chinese society are a lack of facilities and accessibility (space, accessible classroom and hallways). However, many teachers use these limitations as an excuse to refuse to teach students with disabilities (Villa & Thousand, 2003). Teachers working in inclusive settings in the Chinese context need to have positive

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 145

attitudes towards, and sufficient knowledge about students with physical disabilities so that they can accommodate their special needs which, if unattended to, can limit their physical and/or academic ability, and directly affect their self-esteem, selfconcepts, and confidence (Chen, Jin, & Lau, 2006; Waston, 2005). Teachers must help these students use their strengths and abilities to achieve their personal goals, and at same time make suitable adjustments for their disabilities. Academic challenges Many students with physical disabilities recognize that there are particular tasks which are difficult or impossible for them to accomplish without appropriate assistance, and that this may pose difficulties for them in certain areas of academic work. However, with the encouragement of supportive teachers, they may come to view these disadvantages not so much as a disability, but as a different way of completing tasks. Whatever the type of disability, there is always a way to accommodate it. For example, for a paraplegic student’s major problem in mobility limitation, using a wheelchair in an accessible environment can eliminate most difficulties. Also, students who are hearing impaired or have a visual impairment might view themselves as second language learners (much like many students studying abroad when language is a problem). With the assistance of sign language, visual aids (e.g., a larger word size), and various assistive technologies, these students are not very different from any others. It is more important for teachers and others involved in supporting students with disabilities to know that a physical impairment or body disabling condition is not the only factor influencing learning in the classroom. Physical impairment is just one small aspect of the whole learning process, and can be overcome with some adjustments and assistance if teachers focus on the abilities of individuals rather than their disabilities. A physically disabling condition may have nothing to do with cognitive capability. Perhaps at least some of the anxiety students with motor disorder experience is transmitted to them by teachers who do not know what their students can or cannot do. In the Chinese context, especially in China, students’ academic performance is the most important criterion on which teachers and schools are evaluated, and there is strong competition for the limited resources. Students with motor disorders need to compete equally with their peers for the resources and opportunities, and so teachers should utilize any available assistance (e.g., a peer buddy system), and arrange convenient places for them (near to the teacher or door) so that immediate support can be provided when needed. Once again it is important to remember that, while students with physical disabilities are at a disadvantage in movement mobility, this does not necessarily affect their ability to learn. These students can be successful in many school subjects if teachers provide opportunities and at the same time accommodate their special needs.

146 Shihui CHEN

Classroom Strategies within Specific Subjects This section outlines several classroom strategies which can create a positive learning environment for all students within the Chinese classroom.

Preparing a healthy and diverse learning environment It is generally accepted that a positive learning environment, whether in a school or the community, is more desirable and effective for making a long-term impact on students’ learning. Although physically disabling conditions have an effect on normal growth and development in the physical, cognitive, and psychological domains, and may affect children’s academic achievement, these conditions may be less influential than those which arise from a negative classroom environment. The classroom environment is fashioned by the teacher, the students, and the physical parameters of the facility — but it is safe to argue that the teacher’s background, knowledge, values, and attitudes are likely to be the most influential determinant of the classroom learning climate. In the Chinese context, many teachers, students, and parents are unfamiliar with the concept of a diverse and inclusive learning environment, and they often perceive a physical disability as having a negative effect on cognitive development, even though some physical disabilities have no direct relationship with intellectual functioning. Parents may also believe that the academic achievement of their children will be adversely affected if they interact and study with children who have lower levels of attainment, which may help to explain why advanced classes with high academic standards have been established for Asian students, especially within China (including Hong Kong). Many studies have pointed out the trend in education toward diversity, and the importance of a diverse environment for learning (e.g., Billingsley, 2003; Macebo, 2000). Teachers not only need to plan innovative teaching strategies and a learning environment that stimulates and challenges students at all levels, but also educate students and their parents to appreciate the value of diversity in the school. A well-prepared environment can minimize the negative effects of both a disabling condition and environmental factors. In addition, a well-planned classroom offers more opportunities for all students, regardless of background, knowledge, skills, or special needs. As noted above, the classroom teacher is probably the most important agent in changing students’ attitudes toward disability. It is the teacher who can prepare a healthy environment to allow children to be successful in a diverse classroom; and it is also the teacher who can help classmates change their attitudes to and perceptions of students with special needs, so that they learn to

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 147

understand and respect one another, and collaborate and work together. This is especially true for students with disability in an inclusive setting, and the most effective way of handling this issue is to adopt a whole-class approach to providing additional assistance to students with motor disorder needs. Creating a healthy and friendly learning environment is far more important in its impact on students than some specific assistive techniques. One of the many approaches to creating a healthy and diverse learning environment is the adoption of a multi-age classroom. According to Rasmussen (2005), more and more schools should be implementing multi-age programs as early intervention practices to benefit their students’ education. Nye (1993) suggested that, although multi-age classrooms are commonly established at the pre-school and primary levels, they are also appropriate at the higher grade levels for gifted students and those with special needs in inclusive settings. In a multi-age classroom, gifted children are challenged to achieve their full potential as they are not limited by a grade-level curriculum; and children with special needs typically find that their individual differences are accepted and their contributions are recognized in this context (Nye, 1993; Rasmussen, 2005).

Using assistive technologies, including information technology Another classroom strategy is the use of physical and technological devices designed to compensate for a disability. For individuals with motor disability, assistive technologies are devices used to aid them to overcome their problems with functional mobility. For example, devices for lower limbs include canes, walkers, crutches, wheelchairs, and adapted tricycles and bicycles; and for upper limbs, mobility devices such as feeders, cable-controlled hook braces, shoulder suspension devices, and back braces can be used (see Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Some mobility assistive devices for people with motor disabilities

Also, assistive technology for studying includes adaptive switches, alternative and expanded keyboards, and alternative/augmentation communication (AAC) devices and techniques (see Figure 5.2).

148 Shihui CHEN

Figure 5.2 Some computer assistive devices for people with motor disabilities

A larger screen monitor, a mouse with multiple switches, a keyless and onscreen keyboard, and large print or full featured keyboards with keys four times bigger than the traditional keyboard are designed for individuals with visual impairments, paraplegia, cerebral palsy and other physical disabilities. The keyboards have several layouts with either multi-colored or white keys, and students can take advantage of these devices to become visually acquainted with the letter arrangement on a standard keyboard. Such commonly used devices play a very important role in helping these students overcome their movement difficulties and improve their level of functioning so that they can enjoy working independently. It is important for teachers to know about the functions of specific devices, to enable them to understand how, and how far, they can assist children to overcome their mobility problems and so meet their unique needs. Teachers with training in special education are more able to carry out an analysis of the motor skills that are possible with these devices so that appropriate academic activities can be more readily selected and successfully presented. Information technology is another essential element in a restructured innovative teaching and learning system, as it empowers teachers and students to cope with the changing school environment (Boyer & Baptiste, 1996; Means & Olson, 1995). There is evidence suggesting that strategies which utilize peer discussion and group collaborative work are the best way to facilitate effective learning skills (Garside, 1996; Lemke, 2000). An interactive environment, such as the Discussion Board in Blackboard or WebCT, provides opportunities for individuals to share their views and expertise, and learn from their peers’ diversity of opinions. This is even more significant when assistive technology and information technology are applied in a diverse classroom to facilitate communication and interaction among students with different backgrounds and abilities. Frequent interactions between students and the teacher, supported by assistive and information technology, can accommodate students’ special needs, balance individual differences, and allow all students, regardless of background, experiences and abilities, to value their expertise and strengths. Information technology and communication tools such as Web-CT or Blackboard can be used effectively by students with physical and mobility disabilities to communicate with one another and share information (Figure 5.3).

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 149

Class lecture notes can also be disseminated through Web-CT or Blackboard for those whose mobility disorder restricts access to information from libraries, or note taking in a class (and, indeed, such online access to notes actually benefits all students studying a subject, not just those with special needs). Kraus (1998) investigated the teaching of mathematics to students with physical disabilities using the World Wide Web. The project created online lessons and activities to improve students’ proficiency, and inspire and motivate them to pursue aeronautics-related careers. There are many similar programs in China to assist students with various disabilities to learn effectively in mathematics and language subjects (M/SET 99 Sessions, 1999; The Open University of Hong Kong, 2006). Alternative communication devices for individuals who are blind or have visual impairments, and learning disabilities such as dyslexia, include Speaking Language Master, Road Runner, and Type-and-Talk which speak as you type or scan. Headphones along with an AC adaptor and Speaking Language Master, a large print reference card, and instructions in print and on cassette are very effective devices for supporting students with paraplegia and cerebral palsy to overcome barriers, and fulfil their learning needs.

Figure 5.3 Communication assistive devices for people with motor disabilities

Providing individualized instruction for health and physical disabilities within specific subjects Physical disability includes a wide range of disabling conditions and health-related disorders (e.g., arthritis), so it is difficult to generalize about how best to accommodate them. As mentioned previously, although physical disability places limitations on the mobility of an individual, it may not affect other aspects of development such as cognitive growth; and one must bear in mind that physical disability does not necessarily imply that special treatment is required for the person concerned. Children with motor disabilities do not generally disturb the classroom routine as much as those with behavioral difficulties. Accessibility or mobility seems to be the only barrier to their integration into the regular classroom, though regrettably some of them are sometimes treated as having an intellectual disability by their

150 Shihui CHEN teachers. Nevertheless, the limitations on their participation in certain academic activities and on their socializing with children without disability require special attention. These limitations can be overcome through effective teaching strategies and assistive technologies, and one of primary responsibilities of teachers is to identify students’ special needs, and to eliminate or modify physical barriers (e.g. by identifying and removing barriers such as narrow spaces between student desks). In an effort to educate a diverse population studying mathematics, languages, art, and information technology, and to assess their achievements, a number of teachers have designed alternative teaching strategies to meet their students’ special needs. A physical disability, cerebral palsy (CP), is used below as an illustration of the modifications teachers have made for this particular disabling condition — and the teaching approaches and strategies they employed offer some useful guidance for general teachers when working with students with cerebral palsy in a diverse classroom. Co-teaching Co-teaching, which involves two or more teachers providing instruction to students in the same classroom or teaching area, can be an effective teaching strategy for a multi-ability or multi-age classroom. This approach allows teachers to plan and implement class activities using a common curriculum. A co-teaching team in a diverse classroom can include a general teacher and a special teacher who exchange their expertise and knowledge, and bring together their respective strengths to provide comparable learning experiences for all students. The needs of students with motor disabilities (particularly CP) can be addressed using this approach (e.g., by “hands-on” activities for an art project, or a mathematics problem related to the hand functions of the CP student). Students can be divided into several groups and rotated through a series of activities, such as carrying out assignments at different levels for various subjects, with guidance from different teachers. For mathematics and languages, the content levels can be the same as for peers, with modifications made based on students’ physically disabling conditions. For example, students with CP can do mathematics calculations using a computer keyboard; a head-set can be utilized for engaging with the computer keys if hand function is impaired; and a communication device can be used to ask or answer questions if language is impaired. Parallel-teaching Parallel-teaching, using the co-teaching approach, works very effectively in physical education settings for students with various physical disabilities. For instance, students of varied ability line up to serve or receive a volleyball, and one teacher

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 151

instructs while the other observes and assists students with special needs; and this approach can be easily transferred to the art classroom to teach activities that require “hands-on” experience. Other possible examples include solving a mathematics question for a slow learner, assisting a child with cerebral palsy in completing an art project, assisting reading and writing for a student with visual impairment (larger size words and colored objects), encouraging a child amputee to write with his/ her mouth or an assistive device (a keyboard), or giving a wheelchair user access to more space and assistance. Peer-teaching Peer-teaching, such as the use of classroom buddies, can also be effective in the diverse classroom. Teachers can use a peer buddy to assist a student with a health or physical disability in classroom teaching — for example by getting pencils and books and moving other objects out of the way.

Modifying the physical aspects of the classroom Students with mobility limitations may face difficult conditions related to their disabilities in the classroom. These disabilities may also affect their body performance, hand coordination, and strength for performing proper motor functions (e.g., using their hands). These students (e.g., students in a wheelchair) may have difficulty in completing simple tasks such as getting to their seats, or moving in or out of the classroom, as well as performing class activities, doing assignments, or completing examinations. In the Chinese school setting, the classroom is not always properly modified, and accessibility is a major concern for students with a wheelchair, braces, crutches, and canes. The teacher must make special seating arrangements (for example, not placing them at the back of the classroom) to give these students easy physical access without interrupting others (e.g. by making the aisles wide enough for a wheelchair). Other limitations might include a table being too high to reach or there being insufficient under-table knee clearance. Also, students with cerebral palsy often have hand-function limitations, and these students may have difficulty in taking notes during classes or writing assignments or examinations, and these limitations must be taken into consideration by the teacher who has students with physical limitations in his/her classroom. This may involve, for example: (1) helping a child with motor disabilities find a position that allows maximum movement, or ensuring the student can sit in a wheelchair with a comfortable posture; (2) placing the student on the floor or on a cushion and rearranging materials or equipment so that activities or projects are completed on the floor within their view; (3) modifying the tables or chairs to fit the wheelchair,

152 Shihui CHEN and making arrangements for an assistant or peer to help the student complete lecture-related activities; (4) providing someone to take notes or using a tape recorder for language learning; (5) providing book-holders for reading; and (6) taking into consideration fine mobility impairment when asking students to draw for an art project.

Summary In the Chinese context, changes in the education structure, together with the increasingly diverse student population, make the educational system both more exciting and more complex. Diversity in the student population (traditionally not found in China, Hong Kong and other Asian countries) has led to exploring new classroom teaching and learning strategies. Therefore, practicing the pedagogy of inclusion to meet student diversity becomes an ethical responsibility of teachers. Teacher education programs in China and other Confucian-heritage countries should help and encourage future teachers to view diversity and inclusion as a positive feature that can contribute to the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Re-envisioned in this way, diversity can promote innovation in teaching and learning. Physically disabling conditions affect the use of the body as a result of deficiencies of the nerves, muscles, bones, and/or joints. Although there are many different types of disabilities, in terms of learning in the classroom these disabling conditions result in similar limitations defined as “motor disorders” (Auxter, Pyfer, & Huettig, 2005). In a diverse environment, students with a motor disorder can receive greater stimulation, explore more learning experiences, and observe a greater variety of learning styles than is possible in a homogenous classroom. One of the advantages of a diverse classroom environment is that it allows students with different backgrounds, experiences, and abilities to share and value each individual’s opinion, expertise, and strengths, and learn from one another. Clearly, teachers working in a diverse environment have the responsibility to make adjustments to accommodate the needs of their students, including those with mobility disabilities, in addition to managing the learning environment so that it challenges every student in the classroom. It is imperative for these teachers to have a positive attitude toward diversity, and the knowledge required to plan for, and work effectively with, students with special needs. This will be only be possible if teachers understand the abilities and potential of students with physical disabilities, and are able and willing to explore what these students can do in different school subjects. Such dedicated educators will make a significant difference to the lives of all students, especially those with a physical disability.

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Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What special challenges do students with physical disorder present to classroom learning? What is the value of diversity in the environment for students with physical disorder? What are the special needs of students with physical disorder in the classroom? How can teachers accommodate these students’ special needs? What assistive technology and information technology is used in your school for students with physical disabilities?

Glossary An Assistive technology device is any item used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of an individual with disabilities (IDEA, Sec. 300.5). Grand mal is a major form of epilepsy which is characterized by loss of consciousness and convulsions. An inclusion environment is a form of education that offers tasks that are equally accessible, interesting, meaningful, and engaging to all individuals — which requires attention to physical psychosocial, and temporal environments and specially designed goals, objectives, and interventions. Individual differences refer to person-environment interactions that cause persons to be perceived as having unique needs that require special services or unique strengths that deserve recognition. An individual education program is a written plan of the instructional services to be provided for students with or suspected of having a disability. Motor ability refers to the general traits or capacities of an individual that underlie the performance of a variety of movement skills. These traits are assumed not to be easily modified by practice or experience and to be relatively stable across an individual’s lifetime (Burton & Miller, 1998, p. 367).

References Americans with Disabilities Act Restoration Act of 2006 (Introduced in House, Section 3). 109th Congress, 2nd Session, H R 6258. Retrieved December 5, 2006, from http://www. dredf.org/laws/H.R_6258.shtml. Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability, (2003). China Profile. Retrieved June 24, 2006, from http://www.apcdproject.org/countryprofile/china/situation.html. Auxter, D., Pyfer, J., & Huettig, C. (2005). Principles and methods of adapted physical education and recreation (10th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

154 Shihui CHEN Billingsley, R. (2003). Fostering diversity in the classroom: Teaching by discussion. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from www.colorado.edu/ftep/support/diversity/div02.html. Block, M. E. (1994). A teacher’s guide to including students with disabilities in regular physical education. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing. Boyer, J. B., & Baptiste, H. P. (1996). Transforming the curriculum for multicultural understandings: A practitioner’s handbook. San Francisco: Caddo Gap Press. Carron, A. V., Brawley, L. R. & Widmeyer.W. N. (1998). The measurement of cohesiveness in sport groups. Morgantown, WY: Fitness Information Technology. Chen, S. H., Jin, M., & Lau, K. O. (2006). Preservice and inservice teachers’ attitudes toward teaching students with disabilities in regular physical education settings in Hong Kong and mainland China. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sports (supplement), 77(1), A–91. Chen, S. H., Zhang, J., & Jin, M. (2006). Development and approaches of educating students with disabilities in mainland China and Hong Kong. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (supplement), 77(1), 91. Crawford, N., & Bray, M. (1994). Special education in Hong Kong. In M. Winzer & K. Mazurek (Eds.), Comparative studies in special education. Washington: Gallaudet University Press. Diaz, S., Moll, C., & Mehan, H. (1986). Sociocultural resources in instructions: A contextspecific approach. In B.E.O. California State Department (Ed.), Beyond language: Social and cultural factors in schooling language minority students (pp. 187–230). Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center. Forlin, C. (1997). Inclusive education in Australia. Special Education Perspectives, 6, 21–26. Garside, C. (1996). Look who’s talking: A comparison of lecture and group discussion teaching strategies in developing critical thinking skills. Communication Education, 45 (3), 212–227. Goodlad, J. (1990). The occupation of teaching in schools. In J. Goodlad, & K. Serotnik (Eds.), The moral dimension of teaching (pp. 3–34). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kim, J. T. (2002). The attitudes of parents of children without disabilities on sport socialization of students with disabilities: Cross cultural comparison between Korean parents and American parents. The 7th International Symposium of Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise. Hong Kong. Knoblauch, B., & Sorenson, B. (1998). IDEA’s definition of disabilities, ERIC Digest E560. Retrieved July 5, 2006, from http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-4/ideas.htm. Kraus, L. E. (1998). Teaching mathematics to students with physical disabilities using WWW: The planmath program. Retrieved July 6, 2006, from http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/ Us_Eu/conf/csun_99/session0006.html. Law of the People’s Republic of China on the protection of disabled persons. Retrieved June 15, 2006, from http://www.dredf.org/international/china.html. Lemke, C. (n.d.). enGauge® 21st century skills framework. Retrieved July 9, 2006, from http://www.ncrel.org/engauge/skills/skills.htm. Macebo, S. (2000). Diversity and distrust: Civic education in a multicultural democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. McInerney, D., & Swisher (1995). Exploring Navajo motivation in school settings. Journal of American Indian Education, 34(3), 28–51.

Including Children with Motor Disabilities and Health Impairments 155 Means, B. & Olsen, K. (1995). Technology’s role within constructivist classrooms. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. M/SET 99 Sessions. (1999). Technological solutions for teaching mathematics to students with physical disabilities. http://www.aace.org/conf/mset/99/contact1.htm. Nye, B. (1993). Questions and answers about multiage grouping. Educational Research Service (ERS) Spectrum, 38–45. http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/interlinea/ multiage_classrooms.htm. Penninx, B. W. J. H., Guralnik, J. M., Bandeen-Roche, K., Kasper, J. D., Simonsick, E. M., Ferrucci, L., Fried, L. P., et al. (2000). The protective effect of emotional vitality on adverse health outcomes in disabled older women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 48(11), 1359–1366. Rasmussen, M (2005). Mixed-age groups in after-school and out-of-school time programs. Retrieved June 15, 2006, from http://agbiopubs.sdstate.edu/articles/ExEx15013.pdf. Sherrill, C. (2004). Adapted physical activity, recreation and sport: Crossdisciplinary and lifespan (6th ed.). Dubuque, IA: WCB/McGraw Hill. SSTA Research Report (#91-05). Section II: knowing about disabilities. Retrieved June 2, 2006, from http://www.ssta.sk.ca/research/students/91-05b.htm. The Open University of Hong Kong. (2006). Mathematical methods. http://www.ouhk.edu. hk/WCM/?FUELAP_TEMPLATENAME=tcGenericPage&ITEMID=CC_COURSE_ INFO_911060&BODY=tcGenericPage. US Department of Labor. (n.d.). Employment standards administration office of federal contract compliance programs. http://www.dol.gov/esa/. Villa, R. A., & Thousand, J. S. (2003). Lessons learned from more than 20 years of research and practice in developing and sustaining inclusive education in developed and developing nations. In M. L. H. Hui, C. R. Dowson, & M. G. Moont (Eds.), Inclusive education in the new millennium (pp. 255–276). Hong Kong & Macau: Education Convergence and The Association for Childhood Education International. Waston, S. (2005). Physical handicapped students. Retrieved July 16, 2006, from http:// specialed.about.com/od/physicaldisabilities/a/physical.htm. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (1996). The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Yoshinaga-itano (2003). Diversity, individual differences, students with disabilities: Optimizing the learning environment. Retrieved June 10, 2006, from www.colorado. edu/ftep/diversity/div13.html. Zhang, J., Kelly, L., Berkey, D., Berkey, D., & Chen, S. (2000). Using a prevalence-based model to estimate the need for adapted physical education teachers. A paper presented at the 2000 Annual Meeting of National Consortium for Physical Education and Recreation for Individuals with Disabilities, Washington D.C. Zigmond, N., & Baker, J. M. (1995). Concluding comments: Current and future practices in inclusive schooling. Journal of Special Education, http://www.findarticles.com/p/ articles/mi_hb4367/is_199506. 錢志亮 四川桝育網──中國特殊兒童桝育的現狀報告桝育評議會, 2004. 融合桝育問 卷調查網要（二） 。Retrieved July 19, 2006, from http://www.cosn.net/htm/class/ teaching/2004-06-03-10426.htm.

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Further reading Auxter, D., Pyfer, J. & Huettig, C. (2005). Principles and methods of adapted physical education and recreation (10th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Bigge, J. (1991). Teaching individuals with physical and multiple disabilities. New York, NY: Macmillan. Block, M. E. (2002). A teacher’s guide to including students with disabilities in general physical education (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Heller, K. W. (2000). Meeting physical and health needs of children with disabilities. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomas Learning. Kasser, S. L. (1995). Inclusive games: Movement fun for everyone! Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Sherrill, C. (2004). Adapted physical activity, recreation and sport: Crossdisciplinary and lifespan (6th ed.). Dubuque, IA: WCB/McGraw Hill.

Useful Websites Adapted Sports Programs: www.aaasp.org Epilepsy Foundation: http://www.epilepsyfoundation.org/epilepsyusa/ NAASO, The Obesity Society: www.obesity.org National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped: http://www.lcweb.loc. gov/nls/

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Dr Shihui Chen, Department of Creative Arts and Physical Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territorities, Hong Kong.

6 Specific Language Impairment and Hearing Impairment Chris R. DOWSON

In this chapter the nature of specific language impairment and hearing impairment in Chinese students is discussed, specifically focusing on: • The nature of specific language impairment and its causes; • Ways of classifying and measuring specific language impairment; • The nature of hearing impairment — its definition, classification and measurement; • Some important issues in deaf education; • Curriculum considerations for hearing impaired students; • General classroom principles for supporting students with specific language; and • Language and communication for students with severe and profound disabilities.

Introduction Without effective communication and competency in a language system we cannot operate fully in the world as interactive human beings. Communication and language helps define who we are and how we are viewed by others. It follows that those who have difficulties with communication and language may be marginalized in society and unable to realize their full potential. Very few specific language impairments have their origins solely within the student as internal or organic factors such as neurological disorders. Most difficulties occur because of non-organic or external factors such as poor teaching, lack of motivation and language-scarce environments.

158 Chris R. DOWSON Specific language impairment may be associated with other disabilities such as intellectual disability or difficulties in relating to and communicating with others. There may also be specific problems contributing to the disorder such as difficulty in recalling language, or inability to respond appropriately within the social context. The focus of this chapter is specific language impairment as the primary problem. Other chapters in this book outline the specific language impairment associated with other disabilities.

Defining Specific Language Impairment Specific language impairment refers to problems with the four modes of language — listening, speaking reading and writing i.e. receiving or expressing written, verbal, or printed information. It also includes non-verbal communication modes such as body language, in which there may be, for example, a mismatch between body and verbal language resulting in confusion for the language receiver (Knapp & Hall, 1997). Communication problems also occur when it is difficult to extract meaning from written text, or when we fail to express ourselves clearly in spoken or written form. In simple terms, language is a system of symbols used in a shared code with shared meaning and, as a system, it has grammatical rules. Language disorders affect the system we use to communicate with or to understand others. When two people share the same language and yet are not able to communicate, what is probably missing is shared understanding. The altered communication abilities of students with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) are one such example (see Chapter 10). These students may express themselves in grammatically correct language, yet the receiver is unable to attach any contextual meaning to their expression. Language is basically made up of three elements: form, content and use (Owens, 2004). Form refers to the grammatical rules, morphology (structure of words), syntax (putting words in the correct order) and unique sounds (the phonology) used in a particular language. Content refers to vocabulary and understanding of the meaning of words, and use (or function) to the ways language is used to obtain information — for example, the purposes it is used for, or the way it is used in social situations (pragmatics). A competent language user needs to be fully able in all three of these elements. A user could, for instance, have weaknesses in an aspect of form, such as grammar, and an aspect of content, such as limited vocabulary, but be able to use language in a variety of ways. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) similarly defines a language disorder as “impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written and/ or other symbol systems. This disorder may involve: (1) the form of the language (phonology, morphology, and syntax); (2) the content of language (semantics) and/

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or the function of language in communication (pragmatics) in any combination” (Ad hoc Committee on Service Delivery in the Schools, 1993, p. 40). In the literature a distinction is sometimes made between delayed and deviant language. Delayed language means that the user is exhibiting expressive and/or receptive language that is typical of a younger user, such as the use of telegraphic speech (a developmental speech stage in which two-year-olds typically say only the important meaningful words) by a child older than thirty months, or substitution of /k/ by /t/, i.e. /tat/ for cat (/k/ is normally part of a child’s repertoire attained in the later stages of sound acquisition). Deviant language refers to peculiar structures or word orders in sentences, phonology or speech sound systems, usage or semantics (meaning) that cannot be classified as typical developmental stages of users. One such example would be the use of irregular syntax or word order instead of the regular syntactic form where a person says “hit Harry Mary” (Verb Subject Object — VSO) instead of the correct “Harry hit Mary” (Subject Verb Object — SVO). Other examples of deviant language would be the use of one consonant sound for all initial consonants (“Gan gai go goo ga goilet” instead of “Can I go to the toilet?”), and echolalia where the child simply “echoes” or repeats everything a speaker says, rather than responding in a meaningful way. Normal speech development in both Chinese and English is virtually the same. As a general guide, by one year of age children are using single words, and understanding simple comments in context. By two years, it is expected that children are using two-word utterances to express their needs or comment on things in their environment and understand contextual speech and beyond. By three years, they are talking in phrases, and amazingly, by four years have absorbed a full language system, with the ability to understand quite complex explanations. They are able to use language effectively in a variety of situations. Speech disorders in Cantonese group as articulation disorder, delay, consistent use of unusual (non-developmental) rules and inconsistent errors, in the same way as the disordered speech of children acquiring English (Dodd, 1993). However, because of the differences between English and Chinese — for example, different intonation on the same word will change the meaning in Chinese but not in English — it is much more necessary to use the correct tone for words in Chinese. There are also differences in aspects such as the range of noun token types and grammatical markers used by Cantonesespeaking children with specific language impairments (Stokes & Fletcher, 2000). On the other hand, mean length of utterance and lexical diversity can be used as a marker of specific language impairment with both English-speaking and Cantonesespeaking children (Klee et al., 2004). In other words, the length of their spoken sentences and the size of vocabulary are good indications of how children are progressing in speech and language development.

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Causes of Specific Language Impairment The possible causes of specific language impairments include physiological, neural, cognitive, emotional or environmental factors, or a combination of these. The main neural and physiological cause of verbal specific language impairment is hearing impairment, or deafness. When it is difficult to hear (or receive language) accurately, it is unlikely that a fully adequate verbal communication or language system will develop without some form of assistance. Examples of physiological problems associated with verbal production are abnormalities in the speech articulators which consist of the teeth, palate, tongue, jaw and lips. Although articulator abnormalities appear to pose serious communication difficulties, they rarely do. It is possible to speak reasonably intelligibly with half a tongue, or a cleft palate, a partial jawbone, no teeth, or abnormalities of the lips. Other voice disorders include hoarseness, inappropriate rate of speech or loudness and loudness range, incorrect breath control or intonation, and inappropriate pitch of voice. Some articulation disorders are neural in origin. Students may be dysarthric, meaning that the normal neural controls necessary to manage the speech organs for speech production are not functioning correctly. These students may have severe delays in producing the correct sounds in words or sound blends. In the process of speech sound production the more complex sounds or blends are mastered last, but students with dysarthria may be unable to master, for example, triple sound blends such as /str/ as in string. On the other hand, dyspraxia is a condition where the speaker experiences problems with the forward motor planning or organization necessary for speech production. Cognitive causes place the emphasis on problems in language processing and thinking, affecting either production or understanding. Disorders of language at this level are often referred to as aphasic problems and they can be further classified as receptive (disorders in processing language for understanding) or as expressive (disorders in producing language so that it is intelligible to others), or a combination of these two types. In producing speech, there may be fluency problems. In such cases, the flow of speech is disrupted and the result may be stuttering, stammering, blocking, or clustering of spoken words. Although breaks in fluency often begin at the pre-school level, many children go through a stammering stage during part of normal language attainment because the dual processes of cognitive and speech production are not synchronized. Chinese students with stutters can most likely be identified and treated with methods used for English speakers with stutters (Gelvoria & Ryan, 1998). Sometimes there is a family history of stammering, or the behavior has been positively reinforced by the primary caregiver. In some cases, students have not been given a chance to “turn-take” during conversations, and failed attempts to

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“break into” conversations have led to the development of stammering. General anxiety can also play a part in a loss of fluency. Therapeutic approaches include slower, smooth speech, role playing, simple language and relaxation. One technique involves training parents to give feedback to children about their speech (Onslow, Packman, & Harrison, 2003). Specific language impairments which have an abnormal organic or neurological basis are rare and care must be taken not to ascribe all language disorders to inherent neurological deficits. Although some language disorders may be the result of delays or deficits in neurological development, it is more likely that the causes are environmental or non-organic. This would include causes such as a lack of stimulation, limited opportunities to speak, read or write, interference from exposure to a second language, or the inability of teachers to build the confidence necessary for risk-taking in trying to communicate or use language. Although the causes of language disorders can be attributed to problems with auditory or cognitive processing, it may not be beneficial to these students to focus too much on what the causes are; it is more facilitative to focus on their language enhancement needs. In order to establish the needs of Chinese students for communication/language enhancement, it is important to study samples of their language output and analyze them in terms of the major elements of content, form and use. In a simplistic form, this may be achieved by listening to what students say to check their understanding, or by studying their written language. More advanced forms of assessment such as language sampling are discussed in the next section.

Methods Used in the Study of Children with Specific Language Impairments There are a variety of methods used to study and assess children with specific language impaired.

Standardized tests For the detection of specific language impairments, there are standardized tests which have been developed for use in Chinese-speaking countries, for example the Reynell Developmental Language Scale (RDLS) (Reynell & Huntley, Cantonese version, 1987). Such tests have often been designed for use with children when their language development is optimal, which is generally agreed to be from a few months of age to middle school level, although some tests have been designed to assess specific language impairment through to adulthood.

162 Chris R. DOWSON These tests are not often used to determine the needs of students with specific language impairment. Instead, they are designed to indicate the chronological stage of communication and/or language ability at which the student is operating (Owens, 1999). Once children enter school, the assessment of their progress in language normally relies on the teacher’s vigilance. This may lead to a very simplistic analysis of the student’s language progress and needs, where descriptions such as, “The student is very poor at language”, labels such as “lazy” or “slow”, or comments such as “needs to work harder” are often made without any real attempt to find out what the student’s needs for language enhancement are.

Magnetic resonance imaging Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one way to test for neurological deficiencies that might be responsible for language and communication difficulties. In MRI, the blood flow associated with neural activity at various regions in the brain can be measured when, for example, the person is involved in a linguistic activity. Such testing easily leads to a diagnostic label, but fails to offer any advice on how to enhance the language and communication needs of the person.

Sampling A more direct and better indication of the language and communication needs of students can be ascertained by observing and interacting with them in authentic situations, termed language sampling. Listening comprehension, verbal production, and reading and writing needs can all be ascertained by sampling, and looking at the various aspects of language contained in the form, content and use model (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). Good language sampling takes time and attention to detail and the use of video recordings is a useful technique for analyzing a student’s language (Silliman & James, 1997). An analysis of the data from sampling is shown in the next section, to help in the design of appropriate objectives and strategies. In theory, at least fifty representative utterances are considered the minimum number needed to achieve a representative sample of a student’s capabilities. For example, if a student gives only single-word utterances and it is known that he/she can talk in at least two-word sentences, the sample is not representative. Good rapport is essential and several sessions may be necessary, allowing the student time to become accustomed to the process. It is usual to video the sessions with a fixed tripod camera. It is important to think about who, when, how, and what of the sampling process. It can be useful to team up with a fellow teacher or support person to take

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the sample. The more situations the sample is taken in, the more representative it will be; and the more natural, comfortable and informal the setting and conversation, the better the sample. Prompting should be minimal; the sample is a representation of the student’s verbal language, not of the sample-taker’s. However, samples of what language teachers and others use in communication with students can be revealing. Familiar settings are usually best, although some students are stimulated by new environments. It is important to prepare environments and verbal stimulation activities ahead of time. Bad samples come from closed, unreal questions such as “What color is your shirt?”: Answer — “red”. It is better to say, “Tell me about this.” Generally, questions hinder more than help to elicit language. The use of “encouragers” (e.g. ‘uh-ha’, ‘hmm’, smiling, nodding, etc.) is important as it keeps the communication flow going. For students with severe or profound disabilities, the activities will need to be adapted to reflect the way they normally express themselves. For example, the expressive language of some students consists of crying to express disapproval, smiling, frowning, moving toward, or moving away, and familiarity with this language is essential to interpret it. In such circumstances it may also be necessary to seek the help of caregivers or teaching assistants. Alternatively, using only pencil and paper it may be possible to monitor the expressive language of a student throughout his/her regular environment for one whole or two half days, later cross-checking with other people involved with the student to ensure the accuracy of the sample. It is the responsibility of the tester to create an environment using methods such as play, activities, puppets, and food that will encourage the best possible performance by the student to elicit the best possible sample. The best sample comes when the student leads communication, particularly in topic choice and conversation. No instructions should be given or corrections made. Much can be learned about a student’s language needs by informal sampling. Teachers simply need to listen carefully to students’ verbal production, and also check their listening comprehension through verbal questioning. For written work, faults can be readily detected by doing a simple analysis of text types (usage) and assessing examples of their writing. Reading comprehension can be checked through assessment processes such as re-telling of the reading text, but a fuller and more formal analysis can be done. When any students appear to be having difficulties in their first language, their language production can be sampled and analyzed. For bilingual students experiencing difficulties with a second language such as English, a sample will give invaluable guidance as to their language needs. The whole point of any analysis, whether it is of a first or second language, is to determine what the language needs and priorities of students are, and to target these in language enhancement activities. Three examples of spoken and written English sampling and analysis of partial transcripts for content, form and use (in this case, a Chinese student using English as a second language), are given below.

164 Chris R. DOWSON Example 1: Partial analysis of form and content Activity: Checking the ability to re-tell a story A set of picture cards provides a sequential story narrative about a boy flying a kite that becomes caught in a tree and is recovered by a man with a ladder. The picture cards are shown in their sequence and then removed. The student is requested to re-tell the story. Response by student “The boy the kite flyin’ an’ the kite in the tree an’ the cry boy an’ the man come — the ladder an’ climb the tree an’ kite an’ give boy.” [The boy was flying a kite and it got caught in a tree. The boy cried. A man came with a ladder and climbed up the tree. He got the kite down and gave it to the boy.]

Partial analysis of the sample response to Example 1: • The first error in this verbal sample is indicated by run-on sentences through the overuse of an’. • Errors of incorrect syntax are indicated by reverse word order of a verb (V) and noun object (O), and noun subject (S), as in kite flying, and cry boy instead flying a kite (VO) and the boy cried (SV). • Grammatical errors of verb past tense forms are indicated — “cry” for “cried”, “come” for “came”, “climb” for “climbed”, and “give” for “gave”. • There are omissions of sentence subjects (the pronouns he and it). • The use of determiners (a and the) is inconsistent and there is a missing preposition (with). • Content errors are insufficient vocabulary; for example, the verbs caught and got are needed.

Example 2: Partial analysis of use Activity: Checking the ability to converse by asking the student what happened on the weekend Response by student Umm … Number one We go – I – an’ my fren’ Tim playing basket an’ watchin’ telewision an’ Number two Went Pau Pau in We go on brother car the – go fas’ – an’ Number three On Sunday – go to da place – barbeque an’ walk me fall over dirt – knee sore – ret stuff.

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[I went to play basketball with my friend, Tim, and then we watched television. Then we went to Pau Pau’s house in my brother’s car. He drove very fast. On Sunday we went to the park for a barbeque. I fell over in some dirt and hurt my knee, and it was covered in blood.]

Partial analysis of the sample response to Example 2: • The main error of use is the numbering of verbal sentences in a conversation. • There is redundancy in the use of “We go – I and my friend.” • There are phonological errors – fren for friend, telewision for television, fas for fast and da for the, and ret for red. • Form errors of verb tense occur – playing for played, watchin’ for watched, go for went. • There is a possessive case error (brother’s). • There is a preposition problem – on for in. • Lack of vocabulary occurs, for example park, blood, bleeding, hurt.

Example 3: Partial analysis of form, content and use in a small written regular sample Activity: Written narrative of student using the topic The Lost Girl Written passage by student One day a girls name Gabby run a way. Father angry very wented to polisman. Ploce lok her found MTR girl sorey cry go home The Mumme happy. Not run away [The Lost Girl] [One day a girl named Gabby ran away. Her father was very angry, and went to the police. The police looked for her and found her in an MTR station. The girl was sorry that she had run away, and she cried. She went home. Her mother was very happy to see her when she came home. It is not a good idea to run away.]

Partial analysis of the written sample for Example 3: • A story should have a title. • The structure for a narrative (text type) is basically correct. • There are form errors of word order – Father angry very – Father (was) very angry {S(V)AvAd} and tense errors (run for ran, cry for cried, wented for went, go for went, lok for looked).

166 Chris R. DOWSON • • • • •

Omissions occur – was, went. There are spelling errors – police, policeman, looked, sorry and mummy. There is omission of the pronoun she and substitution of the for her. There is a lack of vocabulary – mother. The phrase not run away needs expanding to a full sentence form – It is not a good idea to run away.

Although it important to ensure that the tester is accurately reporting the student’s responses, it is clear that it can be difficult to interpret what the student is saying or writing. It should also be noted that there may be different interpretations of what testers consider to be “correct” usage. The strength of language sampling is that it allows the teacher to set very valid and individualized objectives that target the language and/or communication difficulties each student has. However, the teacher will invariably find that a number of students are making the same errors, and these can be focused on in group teaching.

Hearing Impairment Hearing plays a major role in normal communication and any impairment in hearing can affect our ability to interact with other people. It is likely that students who are hearing impaired will have marked language and communication disorders in a number of areas. The impact of hearing impairment on students will depend on how severe it is, the age of its onset, how much support was provided in early intervention, and the effectiveness of any technological devices such as hearing aids, radio hearing aids or cochlear implants. In general, regardless of the method of communication adopted, the more communication and language development activities that are carried out with deaf students, the more likely it is that they will maximize their communication potential. Students with hearing impairment who do well in school tend to have experiences that include extensive parent involvement, good communication within the family, early exposure and intensive experience with reading and writing, an enjoyment of reading, high parental expectations, and positive self-images (Toscano, McGee, & Lepoutre, 2002). Teachers who work with deaf students need to check the level of comprehension of students frequently, and to understand the problems students with hearing impairment have in understanding language where words have multiple or idiomatic meanings and where abstract concepts exist which require detailed understanding of language terms which cannot be shown visually. In China, hearing parents will initially seek a medical solution, and then when unsuccessful, will look for rehabilitation with an expectation that the child will learn

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to speak. Some parents want minimal involvement in the education of their child, whilst others become involved. Essentially parents needed to be educated about how to support the deaf child both in home and in school (Callaway, 2000). In schools, both regular and those for deaf students, there is still a tendency to see the education of deaf students as a process of achieving normality — for example, signed-supported Chinese is seen as superior to Chinese sign language except, as expected, by deaf teachers of the deaf (Callaway, 2000).

Conductive hearing loss Conductive hearing loss may involve the ear canal, the eardrum or the mechanical part of the ear, commonly referred to as the ossicular chain (see Figure 6.1 on p. 168). This chain consists of three small bones that transmit the sound vibrations of speech and other sound sources across the middle ear space to the inner ear. Conductive hearing losses are generally temporary and of a mild to moderate nature. Blockage of the outer ear by overproduction of ear wax is an example of a conductive hearing loss. Another common type of conductive loss is otitis media effusion which is a build-up of liquid in the middle ear cavity. The usual process by which this occurs is that the eustachian tube, important in the equalization of air pressure, becomes blocked because of an upper respiratory tract infection such as the common cold. Consequently, the air in the middle ear cleft is absorbed by its mucous membrane lining, creating a vacuum resulting in reduced hearing acuity. This can then lead to liquid being drawn from the lining. Although this liquid is initially water-like, it can become thicker until it reaches the consistency of glue, hence the term glue ear, and at this stage there is a marked hearing loss. If this condition does not respond to medication, it is necessary to surgically insert grommets in the eardrums to dry out the middle ear cleft. There are also other types of conductive hearing loss, including otosclerosis (seizing up of the ossicular chain), and wax build-up in the outer ear (Dowson, 1987). Strategies for the teacher will be discussed later in this chapter, but essentially, educational management involves moving the student near to the teacher, and making sure attention has been gained prior to communicating.

Sensori-neural hearing loss The cochlea, which is part of the inner ear, contains about 30,000 hair cells which detect the frequency and amplitude of sounds and transmit sound as electric impulses along the VIIIth nerve to the brain (see Figure 6.1). Any damage to the

168 Chris R. DOWSON

Figure 6.1 The ossicular chain within the human ear

hair cells or VIIIth nerve results in sensori-neural hearing loss. There are several causes of sensori-neural hearing loss. For example, pre-natal causes include rubella or other infection during pregnancy, low birth weight, hyperbilirubinaemia (jaundice) and familial (hereditary) deafness. Meningitis is a common cause of deafness post-natally in children and recently, in China in particular, there has been an alarming increase of sensori-neural hearing loss in children from the wrongful administration of ototoxic drugs, such as Streptomycin, for relatively minor ailments (Zhang, Zhao, & Yu, 1997). Head trauma has also been identified as a significant cause of conductive and high frequency hearing loss in young Chinese in urban settings (Kaewboonchoo et al., 1998). Sensori-neural hearing loss (or nerve deafness) is a far more serious condition than conductive hearing loss because it is irreversible, although its effects range from mild to profound. Severe or profound losses may or may not be helped by hearing aids (sound amplifiers), or in appropriate cases, cochlear implants. Hearing aids are of most use to those who have more residual hearing and not in situations of profound deafness because the hair cells necessary for detecting speech sounds may simply not be there. The overwhelming effect of sensori-neural hearing loss is the loss of communication with others, and the severe restrictions on language development that can result.

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Factors Relating to Hearing Impairment A number of factors relating to hearing impairment can help determine the level of speech and hearing possible and the treatments that may assist the person with hearing impairments to function successfully in society.

Age of onset An important distinction for hearing impairment is whether the hearing loss is preor peri-natal, as opposed to post-lingual. Young children who become deaf after the establishment of a language have a large and very distinct linguistic advantage over those born deaf. The advantage is that post-lingually deaf students have a well established psycholinguistic structure, and if they are able to learn how to process speech through hearing aids and/or lip-reading they will, all things being equal, develop better speech and language.

Degree of hearing loss Hearing loss can affect two ears (bilateral) or one ear (unilateral). Those with good hearing in one ear invariably develop normal speech and language, although they will experience difficulties listening where there is ambient noise, and will have problems locating what part of the room the teacher is speaking from. Hearing loss can be classified as slight, mild, moderate, moderately severe, severe and profound, based on an audiogram, where the hearing of an individual is compared with the average hearing threshold of people (see Figure 6.2 on p. 170). Decibels (dB) are the unit of measurement for the amplitude of sound. The decibel scale is logarithmic and a sound of 90 dB, for example, has several thousand times more energy than a sound of 30 dB. The baseline for average normal hearing is given a value of 0 decibels, representing the loudness of a sound just heard. The other consideration on an audiogram is the frequency of sound. For human speech, sounds between 250 cycles /second (250 Hz) for vowels and 4000 cycles /second (4000Hz) for high consonants, need to be clearly heard. Terms such as hard of hearing and partial hearing are used to describe persons who are likely to benefit from the use of hearing aids in contrast to those who are deaf. Such terms are not useful in considering who can use certain parts of the speech message for the purpose of speech discrimination or detection. An accurate description of precisely what speech information a student can detect or discriminate is much more valuable in designing the best educational strategies, and making the best possible use of residual hearing through hearing aids (Austin & Crocker,

170 Chris R. DOWSON -10 0

Normal hearing

10 Intensity in decibets

20

Typical normal hearing

Mild hearing loss

30 40 50

Moderate hearing loss

Sidniticant conductive hearing loss

60 70

Severe hearing loss

80 90 100

Profound hearing loss

110

Profound hearing loss

120

250 Note:

500 1000 2000 Frequency in Hertz

4000

8000

Left ear Right ear

Figure 6.2 An audiogram showing typical hearing thresholds in three individuals with normal, moderate and profound hearing loss

2004). As a generalization, those with profound hearing loss have the greatest difficulty processing speech, and may only be able to detect or discriminate the non-segmental parts of speech such as loudness and temporal cues.

Lip-reading Lip-reading is a learned skill, although people with normal hearing are able to engage in it naturally under poor listening conditions. The three important factors in using lip-reading are: 1. The contextual clue — Lip-readers need to know very early in the communication setting what the topic of conversation is. This means that teachers should write the lesson topic and main points on the whiteboard prior to beginning a lesson. 2. Confidence level — Lip-readers need to be confident that they can and will lip-read even under adverse conditions, and will assertively seek out meaning when they cannot understand. Teachers need to be encouraging and tolerate students’ requests for repetition. 3. Frequent monitoring — Lip-readers’ understanding needs to be constantly checked during conversation exchange.

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The optimal conditions for lip-reading in classrooms include: • Good supplementation of lip-reading through appropriate hearing aids and use of body language. • An ideal distance of between one and three meters from the teacher, with teacher and student at a similar height so that the student does not have to gaze up too much at the teacher. • Good lighting, with light on the teacher’s face and no light behind the teacher, who should not stand in front of windows. • Reduced movement of the head and body, and eye contact, though direct faceto-face communication is not necessary at all times. • Plain clothing near the face and the reduction of distractions such as long dangly earrings and ornate frames on glasses. • A normal speech rate and the ability to “clump” words into small phrases with small pauses in between them, though speech is delivered in whole sentences. • A “clear” lip pattern — one that is neither over-exaggerated in lip movement, nor has no, or very little, lip movement. Students who are profoundly deaf are often those who have the most difficulty with lip-reading, as their psycholinguistic language base may be smaller than those with more hearing. Those with more hearing then, generally have absorbed more language and therefore have a larger internalized language base to choose from as they necessarily engage in the guessing game that is lip-reading. Not every word can be easily read from the lips, and students often “bounce” from key word to key word when lip-reading a sequence, and may miss little or difficult to lip-read words that can significantly change meaning. More important than these types of environmental factors is the level of confidence hearing impaired students have in their ability to understand, and their own language fluency and vocabulary range. Hearing impaired Chinese students in oral method settings learn lip-reading in the same way as other hearing impaired students, by experiencing lip-reading patterns in settings which contain strong contextual clues.

Detecting hearing loss In the case of hearing impairment, early identification is essential, particularly prior to and during the crucial stages of language development. Many countries have developed screening programs at the peri-natal stage (ages 0 to 12 months). Such testing takes the form of measuring the electrical response of the brain through electrodes attached to the skull. As this process can be expensive and timeconsuming, some countries have developed at-risk registers, including premature

172 Chris R. DOWSON birth or hereditary factors, and babies deemed as at-risk are screened. In a similar way, oto-acoustic emission audiometry can be used to detect whether the hair cells in the cochlea have responded to sound. This is a less expensive test as it just requires a probe microphone to be inserted into the ear canal to record the reaction of the sound detection mechanism of the ear to sound (Graham & Martin, 2001). In some Asian countries, screening for hearing impairment is inadequate, or not carried out. There is no comprehensive screening for hearing loss in China, with parental concern about a lack of response to sound being invariably the first indicator (Callaway, 2000).

Behavioral tests At a later developmental stage and when the infant can sit unsupported, subjective tests such as a distraction test or conditioned oriented response testing can be used by audiologists to assess hearing. By age three years, performance testing leading to an audiogram can be conducted. The pure tone audiogram is the most commonly used test result for establishing hearing levels. Responses to sound levels are measured across the speech frequencies and compared to normal hearing (Graham & Martin, 2001). Responses to speech and/or speech sounds can also be measured, and these measurements are extremely useful in determining more precisely what is heard in relation to normal speech, either unaided or through hearing aids.

Tympanometry From about six months onwards, impedance testing can also be used to check the status of the middle ear, and this is a useful way to detect otitis media effusion and other conductive difficulties (Onukso, 2004). At the same time, it is theoretically possible to check the presence of the stapedial reflex, an indicator of normal hearing. In this test, the ear’s reflexive reaction to a loud sound can be measured, and its existence at normal levels usually indicates normal hearing — though it is possible to have a hearing loss and still produce normal reflexes. Naturally, assessment of hearing should go hand in hand with medical and/or therapeutic measures when hearing loss is detected, although this is not always the case.

Assistive Hearing Devices The main three devices for assisting listening likely to be encountered in the classroom are: hearing aids, cochlear implants and radio hearing aids. A hearing

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aid is an amplifier which uses a microphone to pick up sound, make it louder, and then pass it through a speaker and ear mould into the student’s ear. Students with the most usable hearing get the most benefit from using hearing aids. Cochlear implants are electrode arrays that are surgically inserted into the neural part of the ear. The implant receives a pattern of signals that represent speech through a speech processor and this directly stimulates the neural detection part of the inner ear. Although both hearing aids and cochlear implants can be connected up to radio hearing aids, it is more common to find only microphones connected to them. A radio hearing aid is an FM radio transmitter with a personal microphone that passes the teacher’s voice to a radio receiver, which is connected to the hearing aids or cochlear implant. This device aims to overcome the problems of interference from reverberation, background noise and air gap distance from the teacher’s mouth to the personal environmental microphones on the hearing aids or cochlear implant.

Using hearing aids Students with hearing aids need support and rehabilitation in order to learn to interpret the information in the speech sound range (Flexer, 1994). In the classroom, the hearing capability of students who are wearing hearing aids needs to be constantly monitored to ensure that the hearing aids are functioning correctly. The most practical way to do this is for the teacher to be aware of the levels of speech information students are normally able to understand through hearing aids, and then test the hearing aids by giving each student an individual listening hearing aid check test that is more challenging, that is, with test content at a slightly higher linguistic level. For example, if a student is able to hear and understand known phrases through hearing aids, the hearing aid check test should use less familiar phrases as the content, to see if the student is able to demonstrate understanding, or to quiz the teacher about the less familiar phrases used.

Effectiveness of hearing aids The effectiveness of hearing aids is dependent mainly on the age at which they are fitted, the appropriateness of the hearing aids in relation to the hearing loss, the quality of use that is made of the hearing aids, the size of the hearing loss and some physiological factors between the ear and the brain that are not measurable. Paradoxically, the larger the hearing loss, the less beneficial a hearing aid may be. Generally speaking, those with measurable hearing across the speech frequencies (250Hz to 4KHz) will get the most benefit. Often, those with profound hearing loss may only be able to detect very low frequency sound which is of limited value,

174 Chris R. DOWSON although it must be stressed that it is invariably of some value, especially when considered in combination with augmentative information such as lip-read patterns. In fact the low frequency information detected through hearing aids may only tell about the loudness, intonation and time elements of speech. Hearing aids can make formant transitions available to Chinese hearing impaired students, in a way similar to that for English hearing impaired students (Khouw & Ciocca, 2006). (Formant transitions are the sounds produced when speech moves from consonants to vowels or vowels to consonants.) This means that even if hearing impaired listeners are unable to hear some consonants, they may, unlike regular listeners, identify consonants by their transitions. Chinese parents vary in their attitudes to hearing aids, but they are mostly negative in the initial stages. When support is given, and realistic expectations made, they are more positive about their use.

Cochlear implants Cochlear implants have become increasingly popular, although the micro-surgery and technology required are expensive. Typically, a tiny cable is inserted into the cochlea so that each of at least twenty electrodes stimulates different hair cell areas corresponding to different speech sound frequencies. The student wears a microphone and microprocessor placed near the ear, converting speech into twentythree channels and transmitting the signals through the skin on the scalp to the implant. In Figure 6.3 (on p. 175) the cochlear implant is shown connected to a radio hearing aid, so as to avoid problems of background noise and distance. However, cochlear implants may simply rely for input on an environment microphone located near the user’s ear and connected to the speech processor. A person with normal hearing will have up to thirty thousand hair cells in the cochlea to detect all frequencies, whereas the cochlear implant user is reliant on twenty plus stimulation zones to mimic the normal hearing process. Sometimes it is not possible to array the electrodes of the implant fully along the hair cell zones, meaning that less than twenty zones may be stimulated. Once fitted, the user will undergo a process of mapping whereby the strengths and combinations of signals will be adjusted, to allow the best possible signal representation of speech sounds according to each individual’s implant situation (Cochlea Implant Clinic, 2004). After each mapping, the user needs to learn and adjust so as to discriminate the sounds represented by the new code. In Chinese, tone is an important part of intelligibility, and it has been found that by maximizing this component of the cochlear implant speech processor, there are considerable improvements in tone perception (Luo & Fu, 2004).

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Figure 6.3 Diagrammatic representation of the use of a cochlear implant to reduce hearing loss

Effectiveness of cochlear implants In spite of the apparent limitation of about twenty stimulation zones (as opposed to the hearing persons thirty thousand hairs), virtually all implant users seem to benefit from cochlear implants (Summerfield & Marshall, 1995). The range of benefit runs from extra cueing with the gross audible features of speech such as temporal information and intonation to improve lip-reading, through to almost normal hearing for speech. At this level the user is able to hear speech correctly through the telephone with no need for visual cues and is able to communicate and develop speech and language through hearing alone in a manner similar to normally hearing people. Apart from obvious features such as good placement of the electrode array in the cochlea, other factors that determine a higher level of speech discrimination include the psycholinguistic structure and language base already embedded in the user’s brain (for example, a full auditory language prior to deafness), the amount of auditory nerve stimulation that has taken place through pre-implant wearing of conventional aids, the level of therapeutic and family support following implantation, the level of acceptance and belief in the device by the user and family, and the level of collaboration achieved in the school system. Overall, cochlear implants, especially when mapped to detect Chinese tones, are beneficial to deaf Chinese students (Wei et al., 2000).

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Effects of distance and background noise and radio hearing aids Cochlear implants and hearing aids are both prone to decreased performance because of poor input created by two sets of adverse environmental conditions. These are the amount of background noise and reverberation in the classroom, and the distance of the hearing aid or speech processor from the speech source, which is usually the mouth of the teacher or parent. To overcome these problems, a radio hearing aid can be incorporated into the personal hearing aid or cochlear implant speech processor (Knight & Swanwick, 1999) (see Figure 6.3). The radio hearing aid is simply an FM radio transmitter worn by the teacher, and a radio receiver worn by the student attached to the hearing aid or cochlear implant. Where a radio hearing aid is not being used, it is imperative that the hearing aid or cochlear implant user is located near the teacher to ensure that the teacher’s voice is the dominant input.

Deaf Culture and Methodology Since the 1970s, “deaf people” around the world have increasingly rejected the medical deficit definition of hearing loss, and have established their own cultural definition of deafness. In this cultural definition, deaf people do not see themselves as “sick” and needing to be “cured”, but as people with their own language, customs and traditions (Padden & Humphries, 1988) — a notion which raises problems, as 90% of deaf children have hearing parents. Also, many deaf people consider cochlear implants to be unnecessary, invasive and a violation of human rights. Deaf parents are more comfortable with their progeny who are deaf, and are liable to have problems with expectations if they have hearing children. Hearing parents, on the other hand, are invariably unfamiliar with deaf children and require a great deal of support and guidance. In China, deaf culture is not seen as strong, although it has been described as a type of “ethnic minority” (Callaway, 2000). This is an apt description and deaf culture is bound to grow. As with many countries, it has its roots in the schools for the deaf.

Issues of methodology in the education of children with hearing impairment The methods for the education of deaf or hearing impaired students have been a source of controversy for hundreds of years (Hunt & Marshall, 2005). Although an exploration of this debate and the methods used are beyond the scope of this book, the main point of contention is the use of manual methods (such as sign language) as opposed to methods that focus on the development of residual hearing

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such as a unisensory method (using the one sense of hearing), or oral method (using lip-reading with hearing aids), approach. The range of methods is best viewed as a continuum, ranging from manual methods to unisensory methods with combined methods falling in between, as illustrated in Figure 6.4.

Methods Manual

Combined

Oral

Unisensory

Aural plus lip-reading

Acoupedic

Examples American sign language

Total communication

Chinese sign language

Signed exact English

Auditory/aural

Sign-supported Chinese

Figure 6.4 Continuum of methods used with hearing impaired students

Within the range of manual methods, sign languages are peculiar to particular countries so that American sign language is very different from Chinese sign language. Sign languages used by the deaf community have their own grammar and syntax rules which are quite different from those in spoken language. Sign languages follow other general language characteristics such as geographical dialect differences, changes over time, and borrowing from other languages. Hearing impaired Chinese students who learn sign language used in sign-supported Chinese may do it quite formally, from lists, and imitation of the teacher followed by an explanation of the meaning (Callaway, 2000). A more efficacious way would involve students being exposed to signs, in language contexts, which contain environmental clues. Gestures made by students could be seized on and shaped into correct signs, which are constantly modeled and repeated by caregivers and, at a later age, peers, and deaf Chinese adults would have much to offer. Combined methods, such as total communication, use signs, finger-spelling (manual alphabet), lip-reading, hearing aids, speech, reading, writing, and drawing. Sign-supported Chinese uses simple signs, but they accompany regular spoken Chinese, as does total communication which follows the syntax and grammar of the spoken language used in each country. The oral method relies on the use of hearing aids together with lip-reading, as well as teaching students to speak. Finally, unisensory methods such as the acoupedic approach focus on developing the residual hearing of the student by de-emphasizing visual elements such as lipreading.

178 Chris R. DOWSON Each method has its strong advocates who claim their method is “best” for deaf or hearing impaired students, and each method has positive and negative features. However, history shows that no one method is suitable for all deaf students. China is no different from other countries in following this pattern, and a “bilingual experimental class” was introduced at Nanjing Deaf School in 1995 (Callaway, 2000). There are many variables to consider when choosing the method that should be used with deaf students, including: (1) whether the parents are deaf or hearing; (2) the child’s ability to use his/her residual hearing; (3) whether a cochlear implant is a possibility; (4) the type of school the child will attend; and (5) the support available. What is important is that parents should have a choice and that, whatever method is selected, the teacher should preferably have experience and, with the parents, develop skills in using that method. This means that rather than focus on the method, the more over-riding principles of good language and communication skills development should be followed and parents need to begin enthusiastic communication at an early age. As discussed elsewhere in this chapter, elements such as high usage, functionality and engagement with the student are important if language acquisition is to be maximized. Regardless of the method chosen, the option of changing the method should always be available. In China, the majority of schools for the deaf rely primarily on sign-supported Chinese (Callaway, 2000). This can be classified as a combined method, because the signs follow spoken Chinese order. In fact government policy is one of rehabilitation through an oral/aural approach (Piao, 1987). This was further reinforced by a Five-Year Plan for Disabled People (1988–93) aimed at hearing and speech training for pre-schoolers. The Ninth Five-Year Plan (1996–2000) continued in this vein, with a focus on parent involvement (Callaway, 2000). In Hong Kong, the Education and Manpower Bureau’s Curriculum Development Institute has produced A Guide to Curriculum for Hearing Impaired Children (Curriculum Development Council, 1996) and Integrated Education: Helping Students with Hearing Impairment (Education Department, 2001). The outcome of deaf education should be a person who is well adjusted psychologically, and is comfortable and able to communicate both in the dominant hearing world, and within deaf culture. This may mean that the deaf person is at least bicultural and bilingual. It is important that the languages are separate in the person’s mind, as the syntax and grammar, particularly in sign language, are unique, and students who are aware of the differences seem to become more capable in both manual and verbal languages. In China, this may also mean more than communicating in just one oral language and one sign language, but also being able to cope with those using a combined system — that is Chinese signs in Chinese spoken language order. Non-manual methods are the most difficult to teach, and as such some educators consider it easier to add sign language after attaining the highest possible efficiency in oral language. Others make the claim that sign

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language is the first language of the deaf and should be taught first. The most important consideration is that deaf students are comfortable in both hearing and deaf cultures.

Curriculum Considerations for Hearing Impaired Students Hearing impaired students who do not have other disabilities are normally expected to follow regular school curricula with an obvious focus on developing language and concepts, and this is also the case in China, with some emphasis on practical skills (Callaway, 1986). Depending on the methodology adopted, there may also be an emphasis on developing speech. In preparing for future vocations, in some areas of China hearing impaired students have been restricted to traditional trades such as carpentry, sewing and manual labor. One useful development is that families will often take the deaf school leaver into family-operated businesses (Callaway, 2000). It is to be hoped that a more enlightened perspective will emerge from some situations, to encompass the view that hearing impaired people can do almost anything. In teaching the regular school curricula there are some considerations that need to be taken into account, such as those given below.

Mathematics Subjects such as mathematics and science contain large numbers of language terms and abstract concepts. In mathematics, once students have an understanding of basic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, they will benefit from learning these processes to an automatic level and from gaining the ability to use them in a range of settings, particularly problem solving. Problemsolving skills, which are an important aspect of mathematics, pose a challenge in language and abstract understanding which can be met if the teacher is able to help students to bridge the gap between the concrete and the abstract (Miller & Mercer, 1993). To illustrate the language and abstract difficulty, consider a straightforward problem at a simple sequential level. “Mary had four apples. She gave two to Bill. How many does she have?” Now compare this with the non-sequential problem: “Mary has two apples; yesterday she gave two to Bill. How many did she originally have?” Not surprisingly, problems couched in the style of the second example are difficult for second language learners and students with specific language impairment. However, with practice and teaching through understanding, deaf students can master abstract concepts and linguistic terms. It is important that hearing impaired students do well in functional mathematics as it is closely allied to daily living.

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Science In science, hearing impaired students can be taught more easily to understand concepts such as cause and effect, and classification when teachers are able to show them visually. An advance organizer on the whiteboard that outlines what is to be covered in the lesson is useful (Lenz et al., 1993), and concept diagrams that visually display links and information will raise the level of understanding (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996). Care needs to be taken when a constructivist approach is adopted in science, as the basic assumptions made by hearing impaired students about the world may be quite faulty and lead to further errors in understanding. The teacher may find there is a case for direct instruction, or more “guided” discovery. Certainly a “hands on” approach is more appropriate, as hearing impaired students are far more likely to learn from a well organized visit to a science center, or by having the chance to manipulate science materials.

Music Music and art are important for hearing impaired students. Nearly all such students can detect music if it has a high rhythmic base content, particularly when the music tends towards the lower pitched vibro-tactile level. Percussion and wind instruments are especially useful in this situation and vibrations in singing can be detected on the throat. Although these students may not be able to detect the aesthetic qualities of musical works by the classical composers, they are able to follow music visually through a conductor or where the rhythm can be shown in visual form, and can often cope when they are players themselves, especially when playing wind or percussion instruments. Students with ability may be able to perform in school groups (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004); and there may be some other benefits if students are learning speech, as rhythm, intonation, pitch and loudness are important features of speech.

Art Art development for students with hearing impairment is very important, as it may provide them with a future leisure activity or an alternative vocation, although the expectation is that hearing impaired students are able to follow nearly all the same career paths as hearing students. It is useful for hearing impaired students to be thoroughly taught an art process, for example screen printing, so that they are able to see the sequence of activities involved. They should work with a wide variety of materials, including computer art (Lancioni & Boelens, 1996). Given

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opportunities for experimentation, hearing impaired students are similar to hearing students and are able to show great creativity and imagination. With younger students, an art activity gives an opportunity to use a language experience approach so that, for example, vivid and colorful adjectives and action verbs, such as sky blue and squeeze, can be taught meaningfully. Hearing impaired students may need to be taught specifically about safety, protection of surfaces and clothing, and cleaning up.

Physical education Physical education (PE) can be highly motivating for hearing impaired students and it is an ideal time to use action, interactional language and rule-making in a meaningful way. It is also important to help develop sportsmanship (how to lose gracefully after trying your very best, and how to congratulate both sides after winning). If the PE curriculum also incorporates movement, then physical memory for language can be utilized. This is particularly useful for deaf students who have additional disabilities. Students can make some basic characters or letters (for example, “tree”, “man”, or “house”) with their body shapes. They can also move in set sequences, such as the sequence in a language story or set of sequences in instructions, such as Jump in the triangle, the circle, the square, and stop in the rectangle. Action language such as over, fast, and through occurs in PE lessons and in games such as tunnel ball. Accordingly, action language would include phrases such as Roll the ball through everybody’s legs or in basketball coaching Pass the ball, Dribble the ball, Shoot for goal. PE is a venue through which language of this nature can be illustrated and experienced in a direct, personal and relevant way. By becoming competent in sports, hearing impaired students are given a lifelong opportunity for leisure and socialization through team membership, and an activity that will encourage a healthy lifestyle. As well as the chance to take part in regular sporting events, there are national bodies in many countries that run events for people with disabilities. When hearing impaired students are in inclusive classes, little adaptation is required. Two useful techniques are to establish visual routines where, for example, the PE teacher raises an arm when he/she wants to stop an activity and bring attention to him/herself. In this situation, the students will quickly see the need to stop. The second technique is to position students with hearing impairment near the teacher, thus helping the teacher to check that their instructions are understood and, if required, physically demonstrate or cue the behavior (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004). Special care needs to be taken when students have cochlear implants, as a blow to the head could dislodge the implant from the cochlea. Students with implants

182 Chris R. DOWSON may need to withdraw from activities where this is a risk, or wear safety equipment. Hearing aids can often be worn during PE activities but, again, where there is a risk of, for example, a ball striking the ear, the hearing aids should be removed as the ear mould part of the hearing aid may be driven into the ear canal and cause injury.

General Classroom Principles for Supporting Chinese Students with Specific Language Impairment This section deals initially with general support principles and strategies for Chinese students with specific language impairment. The general principles on communication and language enhancement discussed in this section apply equally to all students in the regular classroom, but they are particularly important for those who have specific language impairment.

Classroom practices In the classroom, many of the practices that are advocated to support students with specific language impairment are also useful for other students who may have different problems such as maintaining attention, or communication difficulties such as turn-taking. Such students can benefit from practices such as being seated near the teacher, and having their names called to gain attention prior to receiving task instructions. The same is true for a multi-sensory approach in which auditory information is backed up by visual presentation such as drawing and writing on the whiteboard, and touch or movement. All students learn language well through active learning, that is doing things, and by using listening, speaking, reading and writing to develop the language for carrying out activities. It should be remembered, though, that writing words or instructions for students must be used sensitively, and understanding must be checked. Reading and writing are higher up the learning hierarchy than spoken language use, so if students do not know the verbal form of language, it is highly unlikely that they will recognize and understand it in written form. The written word, for example on a whiteboard, can act as a reference point for students.

The importance of using language The most important principle is usage, with students actively listening, speaking, reading and writing in class. Such classrooms provide experiences that are stimulating, thereby motivating students to use language in all its modalities. Cazden

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(1986) pointed out that students, even in inclusive classrooms, are often passive recipients and lack opportunities for interaction with significant others, which includes other children, and those with language learning difficulties have little chance to develop language normally. Chinese students need opportunities to use language in many different ways and any activity that promotes interaction will be helpful. The best classroom atmosphere to encourage language use is one characterized by warmth, acceptance and positive reinforcement for trying. The functionality of communication and language is a motivating factor for students’ development. If there is no reason to communicate or develop language skills, students will not be motivated; and some students with apparent specific language impairment may have simply given up on developing their communication and language because they can see no point to it. Students need to see that communication and language are totally functional and can be used to, for example, obtain things and change their environment. For a classic introduction to the pragmatic functions of language, readers are referred to the work of Halliday (1975).

A natural approach Chinese students with specific language impairment need to be in a safe teaching environment. Here, they are able to take risks in expressing themselves without fear of rebuttal or embarrassment, and effort is reinforced even when answers are not strictly correct. At this stage, quantity is more important than quality, since the production of small amounts of pristine expressive language will not develop usage and risk-taking. Clearly there should be plentiful expansion of the students’ expressed language by the teachers or caregivers so as to model the correct version, and extension of students’ expressive language through the addition of extra language. This approach allows for challenge but is not overwhelming, thus helping the student to grasp meaning successfully. Typical expansion and extension with a two- to three-year-old who is using telegraphic speech is illustrated below, and this modeling technique is a powerful language enhancer for students with specific language impairment who may only express primitive utterances. Child: Cat! — Tree! (Pointing at a cat up a tree) Teacher or caregiver: Yes, the cat is up the tree. (Expansion) Teacher or caregiver: It was probably chased by a dog! (Extension) This approach to presenting language is called the natural approach or motherese because it is similar to the way that children learn from others, principally

184 Chris R. DOWSON (but not always) the mother (Sachs, 2001). This approach centers on language that arises in the context of regular daily activities so that the student is constantly surrounded by experiences, language and feedback. A structured approach In contrast, some students may need a more structured approach. The degree of severity of communication or language disorder dictates the amount of structure that should be used to build up communication. Structured does not necessarily mean formal, pre-set, theoretical or teacher-centered, although traditionally structured refers to focusing on reinforced repetition and imitation (Connell & Stone, 1992). The main point is that the language should be highly functional and personal to the user. There are many examples of this principle being ignored — for example, teaching learners who can barely communicate their needs the names of farm animals. As well as being a form of detrimental noun loading, it wastes the learner’s time. Noun loading occurs when teachers or caregivers focus on “teaching” the names of objects without exposing them to different types of words such as determiners, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Whilst there may be good functional reasons for teaching a student the noun “ball’, what is needed is the use of the word in a variety of contexts. It is not just “ball”, it is “a ball” or “the ball”, or better still “It’s a beautiful, big, red and yellow striped ball. You can throw it, bounce it and roll it.”; and “Can you catch it? Can you quickly throw it to me?” What is required is a degree of prioritization, whereby the individual’s need for greetings and conversation, the language of emotions, expression of needs, and views are much more important. Furthermore, there may also be key requests or expressions of feelings such as “I want ...” and “I’m feeling cross ...” that are more urgently needed. A structured approach is often applied to those students who do not find learning communication and language easy. The teacher plans to ensure that there is plentiful repetition, and that new language is introduced in a controlled way; for example, in the course of repetition only one element or word is changed at a time. Fine-grained, precise and frequent assessment must accompany such an approach, as it is vital that students succeed, and that taught language is firmly established and maintained before the introduction of new language. The language must be structured around the students’ needs and interests.

The language experience approach The language experience approach (LEA) allows students to grasp what they are learning more fully, as well as creating opportunities to utilize background

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understanding in developing communication and language. Also known as the activity approach, the LEA is a classroom strategy that stresses the importance of doing something by way of a genuine activity, such as a class visit or project, and consequently using this experience as content for developing the four modes of communication and language (Cramer, 2005). This approach presents students with authentic and personal experiences and allows them to listen to, speak, read and write about them. All these factors support the learning of students with specific language impairment. The language experience approach is particularly relevant to the development of reading, because prior knowledge is an important part of the reading process. In mainstream language learning, it is more commonly known as “task-based learning” and is a major strategy in second language learning. Students who have language and communication disorders need enrichment through learning experiences and strong support to enable them to develop an internalized language structure. This is an essential prerequisite to the reading process. The language experience approach is a very good method of enrichment in that the skills of listening, verbal language, reading and writing are based on genuine activities or experiences. Students who have a sound, established verbal language structure will be more able to absorb the additional skills of reading and writing. A philosophy that encourages parents, pre-schools and school new entrant classes to solidify, expand and develop fluency in language sets the stage for troublefree development in reading and writing, and can be proactive in preventing the development of later language and communication disorders. This developmental step is often referred to as the “emergent literacy stage”, and frequently typifies the level that students with specific language impairment have plateaued at, although it is actually an early literacy development stage that all children pass through. As well as verbal and listening activities that are based in the home, beginning school and further afield, there is ample evidence that children who are often read to acquire the skills of reading more easily.

Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement is acknowledged to be the most effective method that teachers have at their disposal for increasing desirable behaviors, including the development of language and communication (Flora, 2004). However, it needs to be used correctly if Chinese students are expected to increasingly engage in communication and language growth activities. This includes identifying what individual students find reinforcing, and what communication and language learning behaviors are targeted. Social reinforcement such as verbal praise should be used wherever it can be shown that it is effective. However, encouraging the beginning of desired communication and language enhancement may require the initial use

186 Chris R. DOWSON of desired concrete or tangible reinforcers, for example erasers and novelties. It is important to note that the strength of a reinforcer is very dependent on the student’s level of desire for the reinforcer — some students may not see an eraser as a desired object. In Asian countries such as China and Hong Kong, there has been a reluctance to fully exploit the power of positive reinforcement to increase desired behaviors, and instead there is a tendency to rely on punishment to decrease undesired behavior (Biggs & Watkins, 2001). In language, desired behaviors include the skills of “correctly speaking or writing.” Traditionally teachers may rely on their expectations and use the pointing out of errors as a way of trying to achieve this. However, poor speakers and writers simply finish up being reminded of their poor performance, and consequently may accept that they are indeed “poor speakers and writers.” They may become increasingly reluctant to take the risk of failing by speaking and writing; and this is disastrous because the only way to improve speaking and writing is to carry out more speaking and writing. Teachers may need to experience how positive reinforcement can lead to improvements in communication and language achievement before they include it in their teaching repertoire.

Humanistic classrooms Chinese students are mostly driven by social motivation (Biggs & Watkins, 2001). It has been shown that if students have regard for the teacher, or think the teacher has a good opinion of them, they are far more likely to learn from that teacher (Sharp, 1985). It is desirable then that teachers have a warm yet firm relationship with students who have communication and/or language learning difficulties. This will involve revealing some personal details to students, though not necessarily of a deeply personal nature; it could be a wall chart with photos and a simple description of the teacher’s pets, family, and interests. Similarly, it is imperative that the teacher shows an interest in and awareness of the students’ home, activities and preferences. Such actions lead to a more humanistic classroom where students are recognized and valued for their individual nature and achievements.

Teacher support and consolidation In student learning, particularly in language, teacher support and consolidation is all- important. A useful model is supplied by Vygotsky (1978) who developed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and this is helpful for illustrating the role of support and consolidation. The ZPD distinguishes between a student’s current performance in a language, and his/her potential to learn more challenging

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language with assistance. When such learning takes place, the student undergoes a dynamic cognitive change (Chaiklin, 2003), in this case in language growth. The potential language in the ZPD refers to communication and language levels that are slightly beyond the student’s current level, yet easy enough to attain with support. If levels of language which are far beyond the student’s current performance are used, the student will fail to learn language and, worse, be demotivated. Language enhancement (i.e. dynamic cognitive change) occurs when teachers revisit previously introduced language topics with more advanced language based on the former topic. In addition, language previously introduced should be consolidated as, in this way, the student’s language growth can be viewed as spiraling up and around an expanding cone. An example of a topic that is re-visited might be “transport”, in which the content of instruction might initially be based on the types of transport available. After a period of time, the topic comes up again, and language might be expanded to include how cars work, as well as consolidation of all previous language, and then further work on fuel energy sources.

Language textbooks and schemes Whilst the focus on reinforced personal language will meet the student’s needs best, language textbooks and language schemes are frequently used in Chinese schools as a guide to what should be taught. Language schemes are syllabi and curricula that prescribe what and when certain things should be taught. However, they tend to neglect important aspects of communication and language such as usage, personalization, authenticity, relevance and functionality. On the other hand, textbooks and language schemes give the teacher an easy path to follow, a structured approach, a controlled vocabulary, and a “safe” approach to aspects such as grammar. For students with specific language impairment, textbooks and schemes are best seen as a source of ideas, which a teacher can use to capture interest. For example, a textbook might give a way of teaching the past tense of verb forms, but the teacher could use verbs that are currently known and of interest to the students as a beginning point, rather than the verbs supplied in the textbook. When using textbooks it is important that teachers adapt the content so that it matches better the needs and interests of each class. Unfortunately, teachers seldom exploit this requirement. Although students with specific language impairment need as much of the regular curriculum as possible, teachers have to consider what the essential elements or objects of learning in the curriculum are, and how they can be made available to students, particularly those experiencing learning difficulties. This will require a creative and sensitive teacher who knows how to judge the level of each student, how to adjust communication and expectations, and how to motivate students to use language.

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The teaching of reading Since the early 1970s, there has been considerable debate on the relative merits of the whole language approach and phonic approach to teaching English. Because of its structured nature and apparent simplicity, the phonic approach has a lot of appeal to teachers who have had to learn their first language through contextualizing and memorizing characters. In contrast, the use of context and whole units of language to learn meaning is a major part of the whole language approach (WLA) to reading. Because of its focus on teaching reading to get meaning, this approach is very suitable for students who have marked delays in learning how to read. Once students have learned to read through WLA, phonic skills, particularly sounding initial consonants and consonant blends, can give them important word- attack skills, which when combined with contextual clues, allow them to recognize and understand new words. The key concept understanding for meaning is based on the idea that reading must promote both the overt and the inferential meaning from the text (Miller, 2002). When students are taught using phonics, they often are able to say the words, but they have no idea of what they mean, and can only answer questions about the text if the answer is part of the text. The WLA emphasizes the importance of obtaining meaning from reading and focuses more on using the context of words to get that meaning, as well as closely integrating all the modes of language. The use of a theme to connect subjects, as discussed above in relation to an integrated curriculum, is another example of a strategy advocated in the WLA. Integration of the four modes of communication and language — listening, speaking, reading and writing — represents a method that will enhance the learning of students experiencing communication and language difficulties, and will minimize learning problems that occur when the modes are isolated from each other. To enhance learning, students should listen to topics that are related to their verbal activities, and what they read and write about should also be directly linked to these verbal activities. In this way, the four modes of communication reinforce each other (Heller, 1999). Methods such as process writing and story mapping, which are discussed later in the chapter, represent other ways to integrate the four modes. As well as mode integration, an integrated subject curriculum will enhance and reinforce learning for all students (Hart, Burts, & Charlesworth, 1997), but particularly for students with specific language impairment. Subject integration is most easily achieved at the primary level where a thematic approach to a topic, such as transport or food, can readily be applied across the curriculum subjects (see Figure 6.5). For a theme based on transport, students can play and sing songs about vehicles, create bar graphs on the types of vehicles passing the school, and research the development of various types of transportation during music,

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Chinese Journey to the West mathematics Bar graphs

English Narration – a journey

Transport science Simple motion

music Bus song art Wheel mosaic

Figure 6.5 Integrated subjects based on the theme Transport

mathematics and social studies classes respectively. By integrating language across subjects through a theme, repetition and reinforcement take place naturally. At the secondary level, integration is more difficult because of the focus of each teacher on his/her subject. Partial integration can be achieved when, for example, language teachers produce a play, and then work with an art teacher to produce props, and a home economics teacher helps to produce the costumes.

The assessment of reading It is essential that assessment in reading focuses on finding out whether students, particularly those with language and communication disorders or hearing loss, are able to extract meaning from text. Naturally, fluency in reading is desirable, but fluency does not necessarily indicate understanding. This is particularly so when students move beyond the mere understanding of the facts in a reading text, and need to understand abstract concepts, and inferential comprehension (Stanovich, 2000). Students are often able to recall facts such as the names of the main characters and the story sequence, but are not able to pick up inferred meaning, such as the moral of a tale, or a full understanding of the author’s meaning and intent. Good examples of the important inferential meaning are illustrated by classic literature such as Chinese folk lore and Aesop’s Fables. Understanding the inferential meaning is a basic requirement for comprehension, although there should also be allowance for readers to describe their own interpretations of the stories.

190 Chris R. DOWSON Seeking the inferred meaning of a reading text may be developed by reading exercises such as the one below: Toby bought a ticket. He went inside. Other people were sitting down in rows. Toby sat down. It was dark. He was eating popcorn and watching. Where was Toby? Other ways of developing inferential comprehension are to encourage students to create multiple endings to stories through key questions such as: “What do you think will happen next?” Also, empathy, an important element in understanding text, can be developed by key questions such as: “How do you think the author/ story character felt, or thought?” One of the best ways of assessing reading comprehension, including discovering inferential meaning, is to use re-tell (Hoyt, 1998). In this process, the teacher asks the student to describe details of what has just been read. In the case of a story, this would initially include information about the main characters, and the sequence of the story. The teacher might then begin to ask probing questions about the intentions of the characters and what the story or author is trying to say to the reader.

The teaching of writing In teaching writing to students with writing difficulties, process writing has much to offer (Graves 1983). It begins with a discussion period known as pre-writing. This is an important integration of verbal and written language, as well as a time to think, collect and share ideas. At the pre-writing stage, it is useful if a writing plan is made. A good way of completing a writing plan is to use story mapping (see Figure 6.6). Story mapping represents the components of the story and their sequence, aiding the comprehension and the writing of the story (Trabasso & Bouchard, 2002). In the next step, drafting, students have the chance to put their rough ideas on paper and develop a writing plan. At this stage, correct spelling and use of grammar are not important. In the next stage, sharing, conferencing and editing takes place; students discuss their writing with others and confer individually or in small groups with the teacher. The teacher does not tell students what the correct language should be, but rather encourages them to self-edit and reflect on the correctness of their own work, giving them the necessary skills to edit it. Wall dictionaries are useful here, because they help develop students’ ability to retrieve the required vocabulary for themselves. Other techniques such as peer editing are also useful.

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Home, tired

Fell in the water

Exciting

“At the beach”

Sandcastles

Went by bus

Saw fish

Figure 6.6 An example of story mapping

In the last stage, the final version of the student’s work is published in the most “book-like” manner the teacher can produce and is then celebrated as an achievement. The work can then be displayed for others to read, thus integrating the skills of reading with writing.

The assessment of writing In the Chinese classroom, students with language and communication difficulties may not learn how to write well if there is a preoccupation with the product of writing, in particular elements such as neatness, correct grammar, spelling, and syntax. In fact, there may be scant attention paid to other important aspects of writing which arise during the process, including concerns about content, creativity, the audience and the book-like quality of the final product. A focus on the product of writing limits the appeal of the task as well as its potential to enhance language. Writing assessment is about measuring students’ different abilities (Isaacson, 2005), but it is not just about assessing the final written product; the process of writing should also be assessed, and this should include: • the use of a range of text types; • the maintenance of skills; • the relevance of the writing to the topic ; • the “look” of the writing (Does it have an impact on the reader?); • the organization of the writing; and • the development of self-editing skills.

192 Chris R. DOWSON The assessment of these aspects will benefit the students’ writing. The last item, development of self-editing, is a major objective if students are to become confident and competent writers, and it addresses the traditional concerns of grammar and spelling as well as the other aspects listed. Teachers wanting to assess the grammar, vocabulary and text type use of students can use the content, form and use model described earlier in the chapter to examine samples of students’ written work. Of key importance is the type of feedback and how it is given to students. Despite the teacher’s best intentions, students can quickly accumulate a record of repeated failure when their exercise book is full of writing exercises marked with a red pen with the common admonition to “try harder”.

Semantic mapping Within the classroom, there are many techniques available to the teacher for developing reading. Sight vocabulary, for example, can be enhanced by individual flash card sets. The word is written large on one side, and the word in a sentence is written on the other. The student may “earn” the flashcard by saying the sentence on the back of the card. Another way of establishing concepts, setting vocabulary, and linking meaning, is to use a type of connected brainstorming, which is generally known as semantic mapping (Foil & Alber, 2002) (see Figure 6.7 below). The beginning reader will obtain new meanings for familiar words as well as new words, and see the relationships between all the words.

Too many people

Pushing and shoving

Full up

“Crowded”

Buses and trains

Crammed full

Hot and bothered

Figure 6.7 An example of semantic mapping

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Simply relating new vocabulary to vocabulary structures already known is another technique, such as The girl climbed (clambered) up the steep, slippery hill. The teacher must be alert to reinforcing the use of new vocabulary when it emerges from the learner and must remember all those new words that have been taught or have occurred through working with students. Repeatedly embedding the words in a variety of contexts will firmly establish them as part of the student’s vocabulary. It is a good idea to simply devote a small section of the whiteboard to recording new words as they arise.

Learning additional languages In many Chinese schools, English is taught as an additional language, or it may be referred to English as a Second Language (ESL). All the aspects, issues and principles on specific language impairment discussed in this chapter also apply to learning additional languages. Research findings have suggested that children are perfectly capable of becoming bilingual, and will attain the highest competency levels in both languages when there is careful presentation and modeling of both languages. However, research has also suggested that under less than perfect conditions, it may be better in the beginning to establish a first, usually native, language firmly. This does not mean that students with specific language impairment in their first language should be deprived of the opportunity to learn a second language; rather it is the case for presentation or teaching of the second language at a later stage, as is done in many Chinese school systems. As a general rule, the later an additional language is developed, the more likely it is that students may benefit from a more grammatical, rather than a natural, approach to the teaching of language. However, as Owens (1996) pointed out, success in a second language is more dependent on attitude, identity and need when learning begins at an older age. In terms of learning a second language, all students will benefit from immersion in an environment in which the additional language is very dominant. This is because there may be no choice but to use the additional language to function in that environment. This is highly motivating, since nothing helps language learning more than actually using it. All students who are learning two or more languages will mix the language codes, where they use alternate single words or small phrases from each of the languages. Mixing occurs during the developmental stage of the language. Problems will arise if students remain frozen at this level of language development, or indeed are constantly presented with a mixed code model. In a second language, it is extremely difficult to differentiate between students with language and communication disorders, and students simply having difficulty learning a second language. Any evidence of language or communication disorders in the first language would, of course, sound a warning that similar problems may occur in

194 Chris R. DOWSON learning the second language. In fact, there may be little point in seeking a diagnostic label, as supportive ways that enhance language growth in the primary language as well as the second language will also help those who may have language or communication disorders, even though they may be undiagnosed. Where there are large delays in the acquisition of the second language, then enhancement will involve analysis of needs based on the form-content-use model discussed earlier in the chapter, with the suggested strategies and considerations. Code mixing, however, must be clearly differentiated from code switching. In discussing ESL teaching of Chinese students, it is apparent that code switching can be used as a legitimate method for language development. In code switching, a teacher may briefly switch to the first language of the students if it is an effective way to explain language or language principles in the additional language, or to show similarities or differences between the languages. The teacher then switches back to using the additional language. Where students are faced with learning concepts such as those found in mathematics, understanding may be more quickly achieved in the first language. However, for a second language — if the student has sufficient vocabulary to understand the concepts in that language — then obviously progress in learning will be accelerated if it is the second language that is being used. Much of the debate about correct language modeling takes place in countries where second language learning is an integral part of the education system. In terms of the classroom, students are seldom confronted by the same teacher modeling a second language year after year; and so, provided students get some good modeling in the course of their school life, exact modeling of the correct language forms may not be as important to students as other factors, such as being given opportunities and encouragement to take risks in trying out and using language in a non-threatening environment.

The Language and Communication of Students with Severe and Profound Disabilities Various methods for enhancing communication for students with severe and profound disabilities are discussed in the following section.

Alternative and augmentative communication (ACC) Where verbal communication fails to develop, as may occur in the case of students with severe/profound/multiple disabilities, then alternative or augmentative communication (ACC) must be facilitated as soon as the need is indicated.

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Alternative communication involves the communicators opting for a stand-alone and different form of communication; whilst augmentative communication means that a mode of communication such as spoken language may be augmented or supplemented by another form communication, for example key signing. There are various alternative/augmentative systems, including the use of picture cards, communication boards or computer assistive devices; and in Hong Kong, booklets are available with further information on devices and techniques (Lian, 2004). An important point in considering ACC is how gesture, sign language and key-signing systems might be used. As a rule of thumb, the best system is the one that gives the student the most easily facilitated system for everyday use. For example, in key signing, which is easily learned by communicators, verbal language is accompanied by signing of the key words and structure. For instance, in the question: Do you want a drink?, the words you, drink and the question form of the sentence must be signed. In these situations, it is best to adopt the sign language used in the student’s community, as it usually has a high iconic value; that is, the sign looks like what it represents. Additionally in this case, the body language used to indicate a question (raised eyebrows and head-tilt) is commonly employed by people engaged in conversation. However, there is nothing wrong with using the idiosyncratic personal signs or gestures that may have developed naturally through need between the student and others. It would be quite inappropriate to suggest a vocabulary list that could be used by all students, as the vocabulary will of course be based on each individual’s needs and circumstances. The more severe the communication or language disorder, or if additional disabilities are present, the more important it is to teach language that is usable and authentic, as opposed to theoretical and isolated from the students’ daily lives. It must be personalized to the extent that teachers are fully aware of their students’ backgrounds, and are able to collaborate fully with parents and caregivers in establishing each student’s functional communication needs and capabilities. Setting objectives is an important consideration and these can be established through observing students in the various sub-environments in which they operate during their daily routine. For example, what communication and language does a student need in the environments encountered in getting to school? The needs would include greetings, farewells and requests for assistance. In terms of capability, there would be little point in focusing on verbalizing a farewell, if it seems unlikely that the student will ever speak, and an objective of waving “good-bye” may be more reachable. The involvement of parents and para-professionals, such as speech-language therapists, psychologists and teacher assistants, in planning and conducting activities is central to the design of relevant programs. Meeting the needs may also involve a different form of input. Where students do not progress well with normal input, it may be necessary to consider input that is closer to their individual levels. For

196 Chris R. DOWSON example, if a student is only able to produce single words and is not making good progress, rather than keeping up an input based on natural and normal speech, an input based on telegraphic two-word utterances could be tried. For example, a verbal input of, “Want drink?” is used rather than “Do you want a drink?”

Students with less severe disabilities and additional languages In situations where students have less severe disabilities, there is no reason to avoid the introduction of a second or additional language(s). Such students may have difficulties with their first language, but should be given a chance to learn how to communicate and use other languages commensurate with their ability. Cloud (1994) has suggested that, for students with disabilities who are learning a second language, allowances need to be made for the disability and principles of second language learning need to be taken into account. Teachers will also need to be sensitive to cultural diversity among students. The objectives for additional language learning for this group will probably begin at a highly functional level, such as greetings, requests and simple conversation. A second objective in additional or extra languages will be to tie functional language to future vocational possibilities — for example, basic skills in another language which might make a person more employable.

Using computers for communication and language learning In situations where computers may be useful for facilitating communication, it is important to take into account a number of factors, including how the student interacts with the computer and the type of feedback that the computer provides. For instance, touch screens may be useful for students with movement difficulties. The way students understand the computer’s feedback needs to be assessed by those who work with them; and a trial period of several weeks may be necessary to establish the degree to which a technology aid enhances the communication and quality of a student’s life. Computers often provide positive reinforcement for desired behaviors, either through some form of screen and sound responses, or because access to the computer itself is a reinforcement for desired communication and other behaviors. There is an extensive range of software available on language learning activities. In selecting computers and software for communication and language enhancement, factors such as the following should be considered: 1. The rationale for how each student’s language and communication will benefit from the computer, and whether he/she will get enjoyment from its use.

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2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

How the student connects to the computer; for example, devices such as touch screens may be useful for students with movement difficulties. The type of feedback that the computer provides and whether the student can understand it. The degree to which the computer functions as a positive reinforcer for desired behaviors, for example through some form of on-screen and sound response to an action, or simply as a reinforcement for desired communication and other behaviors. Whether the programs enable students to work independently on occasions. The degree of benefit when teacher, student and computer work together (teachers are more often able to give precise feedback).

Current and Future Trends An important development and future trend in communication and language is an increased awareness of the role of usage and rich language environments; and teachers and others will be encouraged to elicit as much language as possible from students, both through informal and more structured approaches, and to ensure, for example, that teaching environments are “print rich”. As the benefits of a positive and active learning approach are seen, teachers will use such an approach more, and the way that their expectations, adaptation of materials and integration of learning contribute to students’ learning will also see these aspects more readily adopted. There is a current tendency to separate regular language teaching from extra support given by outside agencies, and in the future there will be increased realization of the need for full collaboration in such situations. In the future, there will also be more awareness of the need to consider the use of alternative/augmentative communication systems when students are unable to understand verbal language and/or are unable to express themselves orally. This will be particularly the case with deaf students who do not develop good oral skills, and deaf communities will advocate more recognition of their native sign languages. On the other hand, there will be increasing recognition that students who have received cochlear implants need a more intensive focus on auditory and oral skills. In aspects such as assessing reading, there will be increasing awareness of the importance of ascertaining whether or not students have comprehended the text, particularly any inferential meaning, and techniques such as re-telling will be adopted more extensively. In assessing and developing students’ writing, teachers working with Chinese learners are becoming concerned with more than the correctness of grammar and neatness, and in the future will consider writing elements such as: the use of different text types; maintenance and relevance of the

198 Chris R. DOWSON writing; and the impact of the writing on the audience. There should be increased adoption of techniques such as process writing. Although current approaches favor a strong phonics input in teaching reading, in the future the influence of the whole language approach may re-emerge as it is more likely to ensure that students who are learning to read are focused on getting the meaning from text. Techniques such the language experience approach and semantic mapping will continue to improve standards in reading; and the production of something students can be proud of will be seen more frequently, as will more minor techniques such as the use of story mapping which helps students to sequence their ideas for writing.

Summary Communication and language are essential items for individuals so that they may operate as members of society. However, there is a range of organic and non-organic causes of specific language impairment (although most causes of disorders are nonorganic) that can hinder the development of essential communication and language skills. A useful way of classifying language and communication problems is to examine language production by way of content, form and use analysis. Most language and communication disabilities (apart from hearing impairment) are a product of the environment, and little may be gained from labeling the difficulty or disability. Language and/or communication difficulties are best addressed by modifying the teaching environment and using or adjusting techniques to meet students’ needs. A major cause of communication and language learning problems is sensori-neural hearing impairment. Hearing impairment may affect all aspects of communication and language growth. The scale of the effect depends on factors such as the extent of the hearing loss and parental support. Hearing impaired students can do well if they receive help through, for example, frequent communication opportunities and good technology support. It is important for teachers to understand the problems that hearing impaired students have with elements of language — such as multiple meanings, metaphorical language and its abstract level — and they must check comprehension frequently. They must also be aware of the need to place hearing impaired students in optimal positions in the classroom for lip-reading and good auditory input. There are several ways to support Chinese students with communication and language difficulties that apply to a wide range of students with difficulties, such as analyzing the needs of the students and teaching to meet those needs. Other more specific ideas can be equally supportive to students with a range of difficulties, such as locating the student near the teacher, and getting the student’s attention prior to talking.

Specific Language Impairment and Hearing Impairment 199

The wide variety of techniques discussed in this chapter can help teachers support students with communication and/or language disorders or hearing impairment and provide an environment in which their ability to communicate with society can be enhanced.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2. 3.

4.

One way of trying to find out the language needs of students with specific language impairment or any language difficulty is to take a language sample, and then analyze it. More informally, teachers might simply listen to the verbal language or look at the written language of a student, and judge what the needs are. If you did such an informal assessment, what components of language might you look at? Why is use of language important? What can a teacher do to help with language in the classroom for (a) students with conductive hearing losses and (b) students wearing hearing aids? Among other things, students with hearing impairment and students with specific language impairment often seem to have difficulty in understanding (1) abstract language concepts, (2) multiple meanings of words, and (3) metaphoric language. In what ways might you help students to overcome each of these difficulties? Under general classroom principles for supporting Chinese students with specific language impairment, some approaches and aspects such as the humanistic classroom and positive reinforcement are discussed. If you were a classroom teacher, what approaches and aspects might best match with your personal philosophy?

Glossary Assistive listening devices are technological aids that help hearing impaired students receive auditory information. The most common is the personal hearing aid which is worn on or in the ear and simply amplifies speech. Radio hearing aids are radio transmitters worn by the teacher which transmit the teacher’s voice by radio signal to the students’ hearing aids via a radio receiver worn by the student. A cochlear implant is a cable device which is surgically implanted into a student’s cochlea. The implant receives a signal from a speech processor and microphone worn by the student. Conductive hearing loss is a mild to moderate, usually temporary, hearing loss that is caused by a problem(s) with the physical transmission mode or space in the middle to outer ear zone. Sensori-neural hearing loss is permanent hearing loss of any size that is the result of a problem with the cochlea or nerve part of the ear. The greater the hearing loss, the less likely it is that a hearing aid will help the user understand speech.

200 Chris R. DOWSON Specific language impairment is an impairment that gives rise to problems with any one or more of the four modes of language — listening, speaking reading and writing, i.e. receiving or expressing written, verbal, or printed information.

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Specific Language Impairment and Hearing Impairment 201 Education Department, (2001) Integrated education: Helping students with hearing impairment . Hong Kong: Printing Department. Flexer, C. (1994). Facilitating hearing and listening in young children. San Diego, CA: Singular. Flora, S. (2004). The power of reinforcement. New York: State University of New York Press. Foil, C., & Alber S. (2002). Fun and effective ways to build your students vocabulary. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 131–139. Gelvoria, M. T., & Ryan, B. P. (1998). Topography of stuttering and speaking rate in young Mandarin-speaking Chinese children who stutter. Paper given at the First Asia-Pacific Conference on Speech, Language and Hearing, October 1–3, 1998, University of Hong Kong. Graham, J., & Martin, M. (2001). Ballantyne’s deafness (6th ed). London: Whurr. Graves, D. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books. Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Explorations in the function of language. London: Edward Arnold. Hart, C., Burts, D., & Charlesworth, R. (1997). Integrated curriculum and developmentally appropriate practice. New York: State University of New York. Heller, M. (1999). Reading-writing connections: From theory to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hoyt, L. (1998). Revisit, reflect, retell strategies for improving reading comprehension. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hunt, N., & Marshall, K. (2005). Exceptional children and youth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Isaacson, S., (1996). Simple ways to assess the writing skills of students with learning disabilities. Retrieved July 4, 2006, from http://www/ldonline.org/article/6208? theme=print. Kaewboonchoo, O., Morioka, I., Miyashita, K., Takeda, S., Wang, Y., & Li, S. (1998). Hearing impairment among young Chinese in an urban area. Public Health, May 112(3), 143– 146. Khouw, E., & Ciocca, V. (2006). An acoustic and perceptual study of final stops produced by profoundly hearing impaired adolescents. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(1), 172–186. Klee, T., Stokes, S. F. Wong, A., Fletcher, P., & Gavin, W. (2004). Utterance length and lexical diversity in Cantonese-speaking children with and without specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47(6), 1396–1410. Knapp, M., & Hall, J. (1997). Nonverbal communication in human interaction. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Knight, P., & Swanwick, R. (1999). The care and education of a deaf child. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Lancioni, G., & Boelens, H. (1996). Teaching students with mental retardation and other disabilities to make simple drawings through a computer system and special cards. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83, 401–402. Lenz, B., Marrs, R., Schumaker, J., & Deshler, J. (1993). The content enhancement series: The lesson organizer routine. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises. Lian, M. G. J. (2004). Alternative and augmentative communication: New opportunities for persons with speech and language disabilities. Hong Kong: INSTEP, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.

202 Chris R. DOWSON Luo, X., & Fu, Q-J. (2004). Enhancing Chinese tone recognition by manipulating amplitude envelope: Implications for cochlear implants. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 116(6), 3659–3667. Mastropieri, M. A. & Scruggs, T. E. (2004). The inclusive classroom strategies for effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Miller, D. (2002). Reading with meaning: Teaching comprehension in the primary grades. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Miller, S. P. & Mercer, C. D. (1993). Using data to learn about concrete-semiconcrete-abstract instruction for students with math disabilities. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 8, 169–174. Onslow, M., Packman, A., & Harrison, E. (2003). The Lidcombe Program of Early Stuttering Intervention: A clinician’s guide. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Onukso, E. (2004). Tympanometry. American Family Physician, 70(9), 1713–1721. Owens, R. E. (1996). Language development. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Owens, R. E. (1999). Language disorders: A functional approach to assessment and intervention. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Owens, R. E. (2004). Language disorders: A functional approach to assessment and intervention (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Padden, C., & Humphries, T. (1988). Deaf in America: Voices from a culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Piao, Y. (1987). China, People’s Republic of. In J. V. Van Cleve (Ed.), Gallaudet encyclopaedia of deaf people and deafness. New York: Mc Graw-Hill. Reynell, J., & Huntley, M. (1987). Reynell Developmental Language Scales: Cantonese version. Windsor, England: NFER-Nelson. Sachs, J. (2001). Communication development in infancy. In J. Berko Gleason (Ed.), The development of language. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Sharp, P. (1985). Behaviour modification in the secondary school: A survey of student’s attitudes to rewards and praise. Behavioural approaches with children, 9, 109–112. Silliman, E., & James, S. (1997). Assessing children with language disorders. In D. Bernstein & E. Tiegerman (Eds.), Language and communication disorders in children (4th ed.) (pp. 197–271). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Stanovich, K. E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: Guilford Press. Stokes, S. F., & Fletcher, P. (2000). Lexical diversity and productivity in Cantonese-speaking children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 35(4), 527–541. Summerfield, A., & Marshall, D. (1995). Cochlea implants in the UK 1990–1994. London: HMSO Books. Toscano, R. M., McGee, B., & Lepoutre, D. (2002). Success with academic English: Reflections of deaf college students. American Annals of the Deaf, 147(1), 5–23. Trabasso, T., & Bouchard, E. (2002). Teaching readers how to comprehend text strategically. In C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based practices (pp. 176–200). New York: Guilford Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.

Specific Language Impairment and Hearing Impairment 203 Wei, W., Wong, R., Yau, H., Au, K., Wong, Y., Ho, W., Tsang, A., Kung, P., & Chung, E. (2000). Chinese tonal language rehabilitation following cochlear implant in children. Aca Oto-Laryngologica, 120(2), 218–221. Zhang S., Zhao C., & Yu, L. (1997). Analysis of sensorineural hearing loss in 77 children (in Chinese). Lin Chuang Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi, 11(6), 252–254.

Further Reading Callaway, A. (2000). Deaf children in China. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Hegde, M. N. & Maul, C. A. (2006). Language disorders in children: An evidenced-based approach to assessment and treatment. Hong Kong: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Hunt, N., & Marshall, K. (2005). Exceptional children and youth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2004). The inclusive classroom strategies for effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Toscano, R. M., McGee, B., & Lepoutre, D. (2002). Success with academic English: Reflections of deaf college students. American Annals of the Deaf, 147(1), 5–23.

Useful Websites Centre for Advancement in Special Education, the University of Hong Kong: http://www. hku.hk/case/home.htm Centre for Special Needs and Studies in Inclusive Education, the Hong Kong Institute of Education: http://www.ied.edu.hk/csnsie Gallaudet University, USA: http://www.gallaudet.edu/ Literacy Connections: http://www.literacyconnections.com/Cramer.html

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Chris R. Dowson, Education Consultant, F/2, House 156, Nam Wai, Sai Kung, New Territorities, Hong Kong.

204 Chris R. DOWSON

7 Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG

This chapter highlights some of the important differences between Western conceptions of giftedness and those from Confucian-heritage cultures, as well as differences between countries and regions of the Confucian-heritage culture. Some important topics covered include: • Conceptions and identification of giftedness; • The affective needs of gifted students; • The classroom challenges of teachers of gifted students; • The underachievement of gifted students; • Evaluating the success of programs for gifted students; • The moral development of gifted students; • Classroom strategies for gifted students; and • An overview of specific academic subjects (Languages, Mathematics, Information Technology and Arts).

Introduction The focus of this chapter is gifted education in several countries and regions with a Confucian-heritage culture (CHC), namely China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and South Korea. With the growing awareness of the specific educational needs of gifted students in these countries, Western conceptions of giftedness commonly provide the theoretical basis for the education of gifted students. There is a growing understanding, however, that the conception of giftedness and gifted education must be specific to the culture concerned if it is to be implemented successfully (Borland

206 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG & Wright, 2000). Countries with a CHC and those in the West differ not only in terms of the conceptions of giftedness, but in the philosophical basis and implementation of education, thus making it necessary to describe a CHC perspective on gifted education. However, it is also true that there are important differences between CHC countries, which sometimes make it difficult to generalize.

Conceptions of Giftedness in the Confucian-heritage Cultures Although a number of different models of giftedness have been developed in the West, including high IQ, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993), the wisdom, intelligence, creativity, synthesized (WICS) model of giftedness (Sternberg, 2003, 2005) and Renzulli’s three-ring model (Renzulli & Reis, 2000) (see Davis & Rimm, 2004a), most have not been tested for their appropriateness in different cultures. One way to examine models of giftedness in other cultures is to study implicit understandings by asking people what they think and by observing their behavior (Sternberg, 1987; Zhang & Hui, 2002). These implicit theories develop as personal explanations for how the world is organized and are, therefore, determined by experience, language and culture. Two recent studies concluded that a “triangular” model more closely matched mainland Chinese pre-service teachers’ understanding of giftedness, in contrast to a “pentagonal” model described by a similar group of teachers from Hong Kong and the US (Zhang & Hui, 2002; Zhang & Sternberg, 1998). Of the five “points” of the pentagon, excellence, productivity and value were considered by the mainland Chinese pre-service teachers as both necessary and jointly sufficient for giftedness in both boys and girls, but that rarity and demonstrability were not (Zhang & Sternberg, 1998, p. 150). In contrast, pre-service teachers from both Hong Kong and the US considered that rarity is an important aspect of giftedness, for both genders. Also, demonstrability was rated as important by US pre-service teachers, but only for girls. The pentagonal model of giftedness was based on an attempt to find common features in conceptions of giftedness across all cultures (Zhang & Hui, 2002) and the five “points” may not be universal as claimed by Zhang and Hui. A third study to determine cultural differences in conceptions of giftedness by Stone (2002) also relied on research from the West Although this research showed that the conceptions were different across the cultures, it was not able to describe directly the conception from each culture. Another approach that directly examined conceptions from a number of cultures, including the Chinese, Japanese, Malay and Philippine cultures, showed that there is a great deal of variability in how giftedness is understood (Phillipson & McCann, 2007).

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Giftedness in China There are other strong indications that Chinese conceptions of giftedness differ from those in the West. Chinese university students from Guangzhou, Beijing, Hong Kong and Taipei believed that creativity was important to high achievement in politics and science subjects rather than art or music, in contrast to students from the West (Rudowicz & Yue, 2000; Yue & Rudowicz, 2002). Also, the Chinese students from the four locations differed in terms of their implicit understanding of the nature of creativity. Chan (2007) has argued that Confucianism has both encouraged and inhibited the cognitive (knowing) and conative (feeling) development in China. He explained that, in Confucianism, there are virtues and taboos that have strongly directed and confined the behaviors of the Chinese people, including the expression of giftedness. For example, collectivism has discouraged the independent exercise of judgment because decisions need to be reinforced by the group. Likewise, social harmony discourages the asking of questions and debating of ideas. The Confucian attitude toward females is that they are subordinate to males as well as less intelligent and creative. The taboo against aggression is taken to the extreme, rendering intellectual debate and disagreement, fundamental to intellectual development, very difficult. Chan also believed that the ideographic script helped to develop visual/spatial skills, attention to detail, sensitivity to surface patterns and memory. Also, the Chinese propensity to seek a mean (or middle) position and to avoid placing other people in embarrassing situations makes it difficult to challenge the ideas of other people. For Chan (2007), the Chinese preoccupation with face has both a positive and negative side. Chinese people are very concerned with academic achievement because it brings face to the family. Hence, they will actively seek out excellent schools for their children, believing that it brings prestige to the family. On the other hand, human relationships are very important in the daily lives of the Chinese. For a gifted person, it is important to have a good working relationship with ordinary thinkers because their cooperation is essential to the development of the skills and knowledge in the gifted person. In traditional China, there were thought to be three forms of giftedness in children, namely tian cai or in-born ability, ren cai or acquired ability and yong cai or average ability, and the purpose of education, according to Confucius, was to ensure that children at ren cai level reached their potential (Chan, 2000a). Furthermore, giftedness could reveal itself in many varied domains such as leadership, music and in the mastery of ceremonies, and the gifted individual showed exceptional cognitive ability such as memory, reasoning and perceptual sensitivity (p. 89). Confucius believed that education should reflect the category of cai to which the children belonged, with the main purpose of education being to nurture ren cai and prevent children being downgraded to yong cai.

208 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG At least a thousand years ago, the Chinese believed that giftedness could be seen in many domains, including music, archery, horsemanship, the rites and ceremonies of private and public life, writing and mathematics. It is not surprising that, in modern times, the government of the People’s Republic of China continues to uphold these traditional perspectives. In Beijing, the Children’s Palace provides talent programs which focus on more than fifty subjects. Besides the fields of mathematics, creative writing, sports or arts which are commonly regarded as the major areas within the gifted program, other subjects such as martial arts, chess and poetry are also included (Shi & Li, 2004). The Cooperative Research Group of Supernormal Children of China (CRGSCC) is currently undertaking many studies on giftedness and gifted students. The major aims of the research are to: (1) identify and distinguish extraordinary children who are gifted intellectually and educate them in order to promote and accelerate the proper development of their potential; (2) explore the factors which accelerate the development of intelligence in such children and analyze the process of formation in order to improve the education of all children and thus raise the level of mental development of future generations; and (3) accumulate material for exploring theoretical problems concerning children’s development by building on the findings from the first two aims, including the relationship between intelligence and personality, and the function of nature and nurture in the growth of children (Shi & Zha, 2000, p. 757).

Hong Kong and three “tiers” of giftedness Gifted education in Hong Kong is the primary responsibility of the Fung Hon Chu Gifted Education Centre (FHCGEC), an organization responsible to the government’s Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB). The FHCGEC assumed a greater role in gifted education in Hong Kong following a number of studies throughout the 1990s that examined the local provision of gifted education. The report of the sub-committee on special education (Education Department, 2000) concluded that the purpose of gifted education should be to “allow students to realize their potential” and be for “equal opportunity, not elitism” (p. 138). A three-tier model of gifted education was proposed, based on different levels of giftedness (Education Department, 2000). The model is based on a broad definition of giftedness that includes elements of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993) and the Marland definition (Davis & Rimm, 2004b) of giftedness in order to avoid a focus on the “academically gifted” (p. 1). The three-tier model recognizes that children have different abilities that can be identified through the use of outstanding school results, normed attainment tests, teacher and parent observation checklists and intelligence tests. Although the model recognizes children have

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different levels of ability and/or potential, the term “gifted” is restricted to students who are at the third tier. At the first tier, defined as the top 10% of students in schools based on school tests results, children are to be provided with extension and enrichment activities in all of the key learning areas, including training in higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, creativity and social-personal competence. Significantly, this training should be provided to all students within the regular classroom. To meet the specific learning needs of very capable students at this level, the FHCGEC also recommends the grouping of students within the regular classroom in order to provide enrichment and extension activities that are appropriate to their specific learning needs. At second tier, defined in terms of “superior intelligence”, “excellent performance in specific areas such as creativity and leadership”, or “academic achievement in the top 2–4%”, children are provided with “systematic training” in specific subject areas. Pull-out programs of a “generic” nature as well as programs that are specific in focus (including studies in mathematics or art) can be provided to homogenous groups of students. Again, the school provides these services to their students. At the third tier, which is restricted to the top 0.1% of the student population as defined by tests of achievement and/or tests of intelligence, students are given individualized programs that may include options for acceleration, access to early entry to university, and mentorships and attachment to business corporations. In contrast to students in the first two tiers, these “exceptionally gifted” students require resources outside those of the regular school. Although the Hong Kong government is committed to providing gifted education, the identification of gifted students is highly dependent on their being able to demonstrate capability, particularly at the first and second tiers. There is a growing awareness that many children in Hong Kong, including those capable of high achievement, are in danger of underachieving (Chan, 1999; Lau & Chan, 2001; Phillipson & Tse, in press). Because achievement continues to be attributed to effort rather than ability (Ho et al., 1999; Shek & Chan, 1999; Hong, 2001), the relationship between different levels of ability and achievement will remain difficult to establish.

Giftedness in Taiwan Although Taiwan shares the same cultural heritage as China, its distinction between “gifted” and “talented” is quite different. Students who have a high IQ and high overall academic performance are called “intellectually gifted”, while those who have acquired specific talents in academic subjects such as mathematics and science,

210 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG aesthetics or athletics are called “talented” (Wu, Cho, & Munandar, 2000). Overall, the aims of gifted education in Taiwan are to: (1) discover gifted students and nurture them to be outstandingly talented persons; (2) develop methods and measurements for recognizing gifted students; (3) design an appropriate curriculum, teaching materials and methods for gifted students in primary and secondary schools; and (4) establish teaching patterns for primary and secondary gifted students.

Being gifted in Japan At first glance, Japan appears to be behind its Asian neighbors in terms of gifted education. The Japanese people believe that all children have similar potential and hold a strongly egalitarian view of education, where everyone should have equal opportunities to advance in society (Cooper, 1999; Stevenson, Lee, & Chen, 1994; Matsumura, 2007). Thus, the concept of giftedness is rejected by parents and educators because of its elitist overtones. Despite this, a number of educators argue for the need to develop gifted programs at a national level (Matsumura, 2007). The Japanese believe that diligence, not innate ability, is the sole criterion that determines success and failure at schoolwork (Wu, Cho, & Munandar, 2000). Stone (2002) found that Japanese students have a limited understanding of giftedness, with the concept of “gifted” being merely equated to “highly creative” (Stone, 2002), but Matsumura (2007). has criticized this study as being methodologically unsound since the term “gifted” was inaccurately translated in the Japanese version of the questionnaire The development of gifted education in Japan is still at an early stage and support for gifted students is limited. Wu, Cho and Munander (2000) concluded that gifted education will continue to be the responsibility of the parents and private enterprise rather than the government. Matsumura (2007) also noted that, although gifted education has no official status, it does have a “virtual” presence, adhering to many of the general principles of an effective program for gifted students, allowing children to progress according to their abilities and interests.

Giftedness in South Korea Being similar in outlook to Japan, South Korea is an example of a society that demonstrates the relationship between cultural norms and the development of gifted education. As a collectivist society, Korean culture once held a negative view of gifted students, believing that outstanding ability in any individual was potentially dangerous to society (Hwang, Song, & Song, 2004). This view, however, has been

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largely overcome in modern South Korea and the government is eager to push the development of gifted education in order to match the country’s development, especially for its computer and electronics industries. The South Korean government places a heavy emphasis on the importance of gifted education, and a “Gifted Education Law” was passed in 1999 (and became effective in 2002) to ensure the proper development of facilities and institutions to promote this practice. Special schools for the gifted, special classes and gifted education centers have been established. Besides the education law, the government also proposed a “five-year gifted education development plan” to run from 2003 to 2007. Based on this plan, it has proposed that gifted education programs and subject areas within them should be expanded, and that the characteristics of educational institutes should be diversified so that different groups of gifted students can benefit from various kinds of special programs (Cho, 2004).

The Recognition and Identification of Giftedness The identification of gifted students is heavily affected by how the education authority defines the term “giftedness”. For a long period, many Asian countries depended on “rarity” definitions of giftedness using scores on psychometric (or “IQ”) tests of intelligence such as adapted versions of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), or the Raven Progressive Matrices tests. Thus, the selection of potentially gifted students was based on IQ tests, along with school results and teachers’ nominations. Only recently have some countries started using creativity tests, and parent and peer nominations as additional criteria.

Identification of giftedness in China With a long history of recognizing the value of knowledge and the importance of nurturing individuals of exceptional ability, the government of the People’s Republic of China has developed a comprehensive system for selecting gifted students. In 1978, it started to develop a national framework for gifted education, and scientific studies were conducted to develop gifted education. Based on these studies and the experience of foreign countries, five major principles were adopted for recognizing the gifted (Shi & Zha, 2000; Shi & Li, 2004), viz: 1. Identification is a dynamic investigation. Because gifted students are viewed as developing individuals, age, social status, education and culture are taken into account when assessing their giftedness. 2. Identification should include multi-criteria and multi-methods.

212 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG 3. 4. 5.

Personality traits, as well as high intelligence, are considered as criteria of giftedness. Quantitative and qualitative responses are recorded and analyzed. In establishing the intelligence of children, not only the product but also the process are to be assessed. This principle has been used to try to differentiate students who are merely good “test-takers” from those who are genuinely gifted and underachieving.

Based on these principles, students must also go through a number of different procedures before they are formally recognized as “gifted”. For example, they must be nominated by their parents or their giftedness has to have been reported in the media. They must also be examined by professional researchers and take a standardized intelligence or cognitive ability test. Researchers must also construct personality profiles from evidence given by their parents. After all these procedures have been followed, those identified as gifted continue to be observed to ensure they realize their potential (Shi & Zha, 2000).

Intellectual, academic and creative giftedness in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, gifted students can be of three types — intellectually gifted, academically gifted and creatively gifted — and tests are chosen that are appropriate for each type. The following tests are used: the Hong Kong Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) for the intellectually gifted, the Hong Kong Attainment Tests for English, Chinese, and mathematics for the academically gifted, the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) and the Wallach-Kogan Tests (WKT) for the creatively gifted (Chan, 2000a, 2000b). Although recognized for their objectivity, single-criterion selection procedures are sometimes criticized for not being sufficiently comprehensive. Identification by informal and less objective measures, such as nominations by teachers, parents, peers or students themselves are alternative methods that can also be used to help identify gifted students in Hong Kong (Chan, 2000a, 2000b). Although their opinions are important in the selection process, the nomination of gifted students by parents and teachers may only be able to identify the high achieving but not necessarily “gifted” students because high ability and effort often seem to be confused (Chan, 2003a, 2003b). In other words, nominations tend to identify students whose characteristics are more related to motivation and leadership, but less to creativity. In another study, teachers tended to choose students for university enrichment programs who, despite being bright at school, were comparatively less confident compared with their peers (Chan et al., 2000). Some time is still required

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before teachers accept these multiple-criteria selection methods and are able to use them effectively.

Intellectually gifted and talented in Taiwan Taiwan’s criteria for identifying gifted students are very strict. Here, giftedness is split into two parts, with the first referring to the intellectually gifted and the second to the talented (Zhonghua min guo te shu jiao yu xue hui, 1997). For identifying the intellectually gifted student, both objective and subjective methods are used. Students must pass through an initial screening by their schools, which usually involves group intelligence tests, measures of their daily performance and teachers’ observations; and in order to validate their selection, different group and individual standardized tests are used. After taking all the tests, the final selection is based on the students’ IQ test scores and grade point averages from school. In broad terms, however, Taiwan still relies heavily on standardized intelligence tests because of the questionable objectivity of parents’ and teachers’ observations, and the requirement for an objective and equitable method for identifying gifted students (Fan, 2002). On the other hand, the identification of talented students in the areas of art and music is facilitated by evaluating their performance as well as their scores on aptitude tests. Special awards earned at international contests are also used as an important source of evidence for being talented.

Recognition of giftedness in Japan Japanese culture tends to avoid judging students as being gifted; indeed standing out as a highly talented student is discouraged in the Japanese educational system (Cooper, 1999; Stevenson, Lee, & Chen, 1994). On the website of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) there is no information about the recognition and selection of gifted students in Japan. Nevertheless, the Japanese government allows students who perform exceptionally well in mathematics and physics to gain early admission to college (Cooper, 1999; Wu, Cho, & Munandar, 2000) because: (1) it is easier to identify giftedness in mathematics and physics at an early age; (2) these subjects need to be taught in a school setting; and (3) acceleration is proven to be useful in nurturing gifted students in these subjects. However, the colleges that accept these students do not tend to be the high-status universities, so this practice is not highly regarded. It is much more important to have attended the high-status colleges and universities than it is to have completed a course at an earlier age (Matsumura, 2007).

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Identification of giftedness in South Korea For younger children in South Korea, giftedness is based on a Korean version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. For high school students, creative problem-solving ability and school achievement also count in the selection of students for gifted programs (Wu, Cho, & Munandar, 2000; Kwak, 2003; Shaughnessy, 2003). Some government officials, however, are worried that parents may misunderstand the purpose of gifted education by thinking that they are elite classes. Some parents have responded to the increasing interest in gifted education by giving their children extensive and intensive private tutoring in order to enroll them in gifted courses (Shaughnessy, 2003). In recent times, the identification of gifted students in these countries has primarily relied on the use of psychometric (IQ) tests of intelligence. However, there appears to be a growing awareness of alternate models of intelligence (and giftedness) such as Gardner’s (1993) theory of multiple intelligences (MI), and the use of creativity tests to include students from a broader perspective. The reason for the lack of interest in MI theory in the CHC is open to speculation. For example, it could be related to a general awareness of the lack of empirical evidence for MI theory, and hence the absence of a standardized identification tool for each of the eight intelligences. More likely, however, is that there is greater interest in the more traditional forms of intelligence (e.g. logicalmathematical and verbal-linguistic) rather than the “obscure” intrapersonal or naturalistic intelligences. Other models of giftedness, such as Renzulli’s three-ring model, which emphasizes the relationship between intelligence, creativity and effort and the WICS model do not appear to have any impact in these countries. In the three-ring model, the third element (effort) would not make much sense to the Chinese people since intelligence and effort are not normally recognized as separate concepts.

The Affective Needs of Gifted Students Although the intellectual needs of gifted students are well recognized, there is a growing awareness that these students also have affective (social-emotional) needs (Colangelo & Assouline, 2000). One view holds that, together with their advanced cognitive functioning, gifted students are generally well adjusted to their environment; but another perspective, supported by researchers such as Silverman (1994, 1997), is that gifted students have unique needs that are not easily understood by other people.

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When gifted students, consciously or unconsciously, know that they are somehow different from their peers, they are actually more likely to suffer from emotional and social problems. Studies in Hong Kong (e.g. Chan, 2003a, 2003b) have found that gifted students both in the East and the West tend to have a number of socio-emotional problems in common. The following sections describe some of the studies relating to the affective development and needs of gifted students.

Asynchronous development The Columbus Group’s (1991) definition of giftedness focused on the emotional aspects of intelligence, when it stated that: Giftedness is asynchronous development in which advanced cognitive abilities and heightened intensity combine to create inner experiences that are qualitatively different from the norm. This asynchrony increases with higher intellectual capacity. The uniqueness of the gifted renders them particularly vulnerable and requires modifications in parenting, teaching and counseling in order for them to develop optimally. (p. 1)

Gardner’s (1993) definition of intelligence, referring specifically to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, also reflects a shift from a totally “intellectual” view to one that considers the social and emotional aspects to be equally important. In Lipman’s three C view of giftedness (Figure 7.1), the affective or emotional side of intelligence is given equal prominence. Furthermore, the overexcitabilities theory proposed by Piechowski/Dabrowski describes an intensity and depth of emotion in the gifted that is not normally seen in their peers.

Figure 7.1 The three C view of giftedness Critical component • • • •

applicable criterial self-correcting contextual

Creative component • • • •

inventive inquisitive experimental holistic

Caring component • • • •

affective active appreciative normative

Note: Lipman’s (1994) construction of the three C view of giftedness provides a link between moral, affective traits and intelligence (including complex thinking)

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Are gifted students emotionally stable? The presumption that gifted students are emotionally stable and have the necessary motivation to realize their potential may not always be true. If giftedness has an emotional as well as cognitive aspect and these are independent of each other, then the level of emotional depth and intensity may not match the cognitive level — a mismatch referred to as asynchrony. The idea that giftedness in young children is transitory may arise from the changes in their emotional development rather than from the instability of intelligence. These changes are particularly apparent in the first six years of life, and might therefore account for the modest cross-age predictive ability of standardized IQ tests. In addition, the level of disparity between emotional depth and intensity and intellectual ability may also differ at different times, giving rise to some quite specific problems related to the child’s age. This is an area that has not been explored in any detail, particularly within countries that share a Confucian heritage.

Social asynchrony This lack of synchrony between the physical, intellectual and emotional aspects of a person may continue into the social domain as well. Silverman (1993, 1994, 1997) believed that social asynchrony helps to explain why gifted students “... not only think differently from their peers, they also feel differently” (p. 3). Social asynchrony creates greater inner tension that “... is mirrored in external adjustment difficulties because the child feels different, out of place — out of sync — with others” (p. 4). Hollingworth (1931, cited in Silverman, 1993, p. 7) believed that the gifted are vulnerable, and stressed the importance of resolving the problems that might arise when one has: ... the intelligence of an adult and the emotions of a child combined in a childish body … It follows that (after babyhood) the younger the child, the greater the difficulties, and the adjustment becomes easier with every additional year of age. The years between four and nine are probably the most likely to be beset with the problems mentioned.

The years between four and nine correspond to important stages in the personal, cognitive, physical and moral development of children (Berk, 2006; Kaplan, 2000; Santrock, 2007; Tilstone & Layton, 2004). If these areas develop relatively independently of each other, then there is the potential for a mismatch should one or more of the stages be more advanced than the others.

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Overexcitabilities The research of Dabrowski and Piechowski has led to a theory that posits the existence of overexcitabilities as being a powerful basis of giftedness. They refer to a more than normally expected abundance of physical, sensual, creative, intellectual, and emotional energy. Piechowski (1991, cited in Delisle, 1992, p. 2) believed that the gifted have a different type of emotional sensitivity, stating that: One of the basic characteristics of the gifted is their intensity and an expanded field of their subjective experience. The intensity, in particular, must be understood as a qualitatively different characteristic. It is not a matter of degree but a different quality of experiencing: vivid, absorbing, penetrating, encompassing, complex, commanding- a way of being quiveringly alive.

Piechowski (1991, cited in Colangelo & Davis, 1991, p. 25) emphasized the nature of this energy, as follows: ... it is often recognised that gifted people are energetic, enthusiastic, intensely absorbed in their pursuits, endowed with vivid imagination, sensuality, moral sensitivity and emotional vulnerability ... these characteristics are found across different talents, in writers, composers, dancers, actors, scientists, inventors, civic and spiritual leaders. Often, they are as strong in adulthood as in childhood ... They are experiencing in a higher key.

A recent study concerned with the overexcitabilities in gifted students in Taiwan highlighted both the growing interest in this aspect of giftedness as well the benefits that come from an understanding of it (Chang, 2002). Together with reporting instances of surplus energy and a keen interest in moral thinking, these students also described intense feelings related to nervousness, the lack of distinction between the real and imaginative world, and emotions associated with being intensely nervous and of “killing” another person. With their advanced cognitive abilities, gifted students can see the complexities of the world and do not feel what their peers can feel. They may risk rejection or misunderstanding when they share these ideas, and create situations where they are more emotionally isolated from their surroundings. Furthermore, they sometimes feel a deep concern for the social, moral, and political dilemmas facing other people around the world and a compulsion to try to help them. Proper guidance and counseling may be an important strategy to help them cope with this affective aspect of their giftedness.

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Perfectionism Educators and researchers in the West have often highlighted the tendency of gifted students towards perfectionism in their school work. The demands they place on themselves to perform well may create many emotional problems, such as high levels of stress, excessive self-criticism, unfinished projects and avoidance of healthy risk-taking behaviors. Kerr (1991, p. 141) described it as: ... [a] complex [set] of characteristics and behaviours including compulsiveness with regard to work habits, overconcern for details, unrealistically high standards for self and others, indiscriminate acquiescence to external evaluation, and rigid routines. Although the commonsense notion of the causes of perfectionism tends to lay the blame for the perfectionist child squarely on “pushy”, exacting parents, clinical experience shows this conclusion to be unwarranted. Many perfectionistic gifted students are the products of relaxed, easy going parents with realistic expectations ... It seems possible that certain children are simply born with the combination of temperaments that create a need for an orderly environment, or conversely, an aversion to chaos.

Robinson (1997) has discussed both the positive and negative aspects of perfectionism, highlighting the possibility that high standards may bring depression, shame and procrastination as well as positive benefits such as energy, high selfesteem, and self-efficacy. These aspects of the affective side of giftedness are also attracting increasing attention in the research literature not only in the West but also in countries within the CHC (Chang & Kuo, 2004; Kim et al., 2004; Moon, Montgomery, & Miller, 2004; Zhang, 2004).

The effect of “labeling” Bearing in mind the collectivist nature of Hong Kong society, one of the issues of most concern in relation to gifted education is the effect of labeling a student as “gifted”. Although labeling has a positive side, it also appears to pose a threat to both the stability of the social structure and to the students’ self-concepts. In collectivist societies such as those in the Confucian-heritage cultures, conformity to cultural norms and a responsibility to the wider community are very important. As noted earlier, researchers have found that mainland Chinese pre-service teachers do not use “rarity” as a condition for defining giftedness, possibly because being unique among peers is still discouraged in the Chinese culture (Zhang & Hui, 2002; Zhang & Sternberg, 1998). In Hong Kong, gifted students are most concerned about social acceptance and their relationships with their friends in defining their self-

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concepts (Chan, 2002, 2003a, 2003b). They avoid being labeled “gifted”, and do not want to tell their classmates of their participation in gifted programs, because they fear that this will lead to social rejection (Chan, 2002). The Education and Manpower Bureau of Hong Kong recognizes this as a problem and suggests that the term be restricted to only a small proportion (0.1%) of students. Although the three-tier model recognizes the different abilities of gifted students, most are referred to euphemistically as “high-ability” or “high-achieving” students.

The special needs of gifted students in China Psychologists and educators in China are very concerned about the personality traits of gifted students. They believe that, besides performing outstandingly well in specific areas, gifted students should also demonstrate good personality traits so that they can go on to become good citizens as well as successful people who contribute to society. Researchers at CRGSCC have carried out many investigations on gifted students’ personality traits. According to a study of gifted students in China (李皓金瑜, 2004), the emotional impact on the personalities of gifted high school students is significant: The results from this study indicated that gifted students had significantly higher emotional quotient (EQ) scores for the following characteristics compared with their counterparts: active, adventure-oriented, courageous, creative, disciplined, enthusiastic, persistent, responsible and stable. On the other hand, the gifted students with significantly higher emotional quotients had lower scores on nervousness and worry than those with lower emotional quotients. China’s one-child policy has been of increasing concern to its teachers (Deutsch, 2006; Romanowski, 2006). Studies that focus on the personalities of graduating university seniors have shown that only-children are as likely as those with siblings to plan on helping their parents and to reside in the same city. Also, these only-children feel a greater responsibility for the future happiness of their parents (Deutsch, 2006). However, only 10% of China’s high school students are likely to go to university. When a broader cross-section of only-children was surveyed, the sense of responsibility toward their parents was found to be positively related to family income. Also, respondents were less willing to care for parents when they sensed a potential conflict between their obligations toward them and their careers. China’s teachers fear for the future of traditional Chinese society under the ‘one-child policy’ as they view these children as being badly behaved, indulged and poorly disciplined by their parents. These changes are all the more stressful for teachers because the perceived changes in parents and their children are not

220 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG matched by changes in the examination-focused education system (Romanowski, 2006). A study of the relationship between giftedness and China’s one-child-onefamily policy is yet to be carried out.

The special needs of the gifted in Hong Kong Gifted education in Hong Kong has always been seen as a means to help develop gifted students to their fullest potential in their specific areas of talent. However, gifted students are just like other students in needing their own time and space to develop and extend their individual objectives (陳維 , 1999). Developing one’s objectives in life is essential because when students can achieve the objectives they set for themselves, they are able to recognize and understand their weaknesses; and when gifted students can meet their individual objectives by overcoming their weaknesses, personal satisfaction and confidence levels will undoubtedly be higher than achieving objectives set by teachers and educators. In Hong Kong, gifted students are often overprotected by their families and schools (Chan, 2001, 2002). Opportunities for these students to think, select and initiate their individual objectives can help them to understand more about their own preferences and styles. When they have a more thorough understanding of themselves, programs to develop their potential and self-actualization can then be more effective and efficient.

The intellectual development of gifted students in Taiwan Gifted education in Taiwan varies between districts, and one of the features of these gifted programs is that the students can participate in designing gifted educational plans which fit their needs. However, there is a focus on their intellectual development and the Taiwanese government seldom addresses their emotional needs. Several studies in Taiwan have shown that there is a need to include courses in affective education in the general curriculum in order to help decrease the emotional and social problems of gifted students (王淑棻, 2004). Gifted students usually demonstrate different methods of learning and are psychologically different from average students, and because of such distinctions, they may experience problems when adapting to life at school. Social interaction, self-concepts and development can be affected (王淑棻, 2004). In addition, Campbell and Wu (1998) found that gifted students are more vulnerable to bullying in elementary schools. When some gifted students skipped classes to move to a higher level, they appeared to be less mature and smaller in stature than others in the same class, especially boys. Campbell and Wu also found that the vigorous

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competition for grades in gifted classes may create social problems for those who are consistently at the bottom of such classes.

The special needs of gifted students in South Korea and Japan South Korean schools focus primarily on cognitive development and training in science subjects (Choi et al., 2004). Although gifted students may have better social and emotional adjustment compared with their peers, they still suffer from specific problems such as asynchronous development and perfectionism which they share with other gifted students around the world. South Korean research into the needs of gifted students has concluded that there must be more counseling programs targeted at their social and emotional needs, especially after several gifted students committed suicide (Shaughnessy, 2003). Since gifted education in Japan is still in its infancy, there has been no research there into the specific needs of gifted students.

Challenges in Classrooms from the Confucian-heritage Cultures The classroom challenges facing gifted education are surprisingly similar across many countries. A cross-cultural study completed by Campbell and Wu (1998) found that the problems faced by teachers in America and Taiwan are almost identical. The following section is concerned with the specific issues facing different Asian countries.

Classroom challenges facing gifted education in China Parents in China, driven by misconceptions about gifted education, desperately hope their children are “supernormal”. Some profit by making educational institutes respond to such desires and continuously exaggerate the effects of special schooling (Ning, 2004) — an interesting phenomenon shared by other East Asian countries. By focusing too much on the development of intelligence and having blind faith in gifted education, parents frequently ignore both the pressure that their children are under and their social skills, which are very important for their overall future development . According to a newspaper article entitled “Giving them a gift” from the Beijing Review (Lu, 2005), several problems continue to be prominent after many years of running gifted education in China. First, the concept and definition of giftedness is unclear. Most of the time, gifted education only includes students of supernormal

222 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG intelligence, and those with above average intelligence are often ignored by the education system. Second, similar to many other regions in Asia, there is a lack of qualified teachers and suitable resources that must be dealt with in order to improve the quality of gifted education. Also, objectives and evaluation standards for every stage of gifted education are unclear. Finally, like all other students, gifted students enter society after they complete their studies, and need to be socially competent — so the cultivation of social skills should be an important aspect of gifted education.

Classroom challenges facing gifted education in Hong Kong Gifted students tend to face a series of universal problems such as strong feelings and involvement, perfectionism and unchallenging homework (Chan, 2003a). In Hong Kong, the major challenge for gifted education is that there is no universal school policy for gifted education (Chow, Chow, & Ku-Yu, 2002). This may be partly because of the Education and Manpower Bureau’s (EMB) policy of “banding” secondary schools according to the academic ability of their students, implying a de facto streaming process that perfectly allocates students into their respective ability groups. Nevertheless, the EMB, through the Fung Hon Chu Gifted Education Centre (FHCGEC), has been active in its support for the development of gifted education in Hong Kong. Recently, 13 primary and 16 secondary schools have participated in the Collaborative Research & Development (“Seed”) Project for 2004–06. These schools are active in developing school-based programs for gifted students as well as acting as resource centers for other schools. For 2004–05, the focus on curriculum development for the “Seed” project includes Chinese, English, mathematics, science and affective education. The FHCGEC also provides support measures for exceptionally gifted students through leadership, mathematics and science enhancement programs. Despite these measures, the Hong Kong government has been criticized for the way it supports gifted students in a number of areas. For example, it has been argued that not all of the needs of these students are being met because: (1) too much responsibility is placed on teachers for dealing with the problems of gifted students; (2) there is a lack of local gifted schools and programs to which parents can send their gifted children; and (3) the nature of support is limited (陳維 , 1999). A lack of resources and knowledge about gifted students in Hong Kong are major barriers to the education of gifted students. As is common in schools in the CHC, teachers in Hong Kong have often linked being “gifted” with “performance” (Chow et al., 2002). This view not only renders gifted underachievers more disadvantaged, but also stimulates the unreasonably high expectation parents have of their gifted children (Chan, 2001). The examination-focused learning environment of Hong Kong not only discourages schools and educators from

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designing and tailoring special programs, but also discourages society from moving away from the traditional view of giftedness.

Classroom challenges facing gifted education in Taiwan, Japan and South Korea A unique classroom challenge in Taiwan comes from parents. The overemphasis on examinations in Taiwan makes some parents believe that enrichment programs in schools are “outside the syllabus” and not related to university entrance examinations and, as a result, they place pressure on schools and on the gifted programs they teach (Wu, 2000). As mentioned earlier, including courses on affective education in the gifted education curriculum is viewed as necessary. However, parents have questioned their effectiveness in the same way they question the value of enrichment programs. Although difficult to measure, the success of courses concerned with affective education needs to be evaluated over a longer time-frame. These problems aside, gifted education has proven to be challenging work for teachers worldwide. For example, in interviewing some Taiwanese teachers, Campbell and Wu (1998) found that they felt it was more demanding to teach gifted students than their average peers. Not only had these teachers needed to do more preparation, but they also had to develop skills in listening and flexible teaching to deal with the high level of curiosity of gifted students. Teachers also expressed concern that they did not have sufficient skills and training to handle gifted students. The most difficult challenge facing gifted education in Japan is a lack of awareness of the need for gifted education. Although some Japanese government officials have started to take note of students’ individual differences and introduce special policies, the majority of educators and parents think that the government should not intentionally provide any programs for those who are doing sufficiently well in school (Matsumura, 2007; Wu, Cho, & Munandar, 2000). It is thought that parents should be responsible for providing special programs for their gifted children. Regardless of their abilities, Japanese students have to follow a standard school curriculum to prepare for university entrance examinations. Although some enrichment programs exist in public schools to expand students’ horizons, they are not designed for gifted and talented students. However, Matsumura (2007) argued that these enrichment classes are de facto gifted education programs. The South Korean government has recognized that the main classroom challenge facing the country is how to assist minority gifted groups. Gifted students who also have learning disabilities, female gifted students, and the gifted among the socio-economically disadvantaged have more difficulty in utilizing their abilities fully, and more assistance needs to be given to these groups of students (Cho, 2004).

224 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG A recent study in Lee, Cramond and Lee (2004) also found that, although the government promotes gifted education enthusiastically, teachers in South Korea still hold a biased view of gifted students. This research also showed that teachers did not favor students who were academically brilliant but were not interested in sport or working hard, and that teachers usually held this image of girls. This noncomprehensive, gender-biased view of gifted students seriously hinders an inclusive approach to gifted education.

Underachieving Gifted Students in the Confucian-heritage Cultures Not all gifted students achieve their potential, and these children are known as “underachieving gifted students”. The intellectual characteristics of such students from the West and from an Asian (Hong Kong) culture are shown in Table 7.1. Their behavioral patterns have also been identified and are outlined in Table 7.2, which indicates clearly that there are differences between the two cultures. Table 7.1

Intellectual characteristics of underachieving gifted students Western conceptions

• Poor test performance • Achieving at or below grade-level expectations in one or all of the basic skill areas • Superior comprehension and retention when interested • Vast gap between quality of written and oral work • Has a wide range of interests and special expertise in an area of research • Exceptionally large repertoire of factual knowledge • Highly imaginative or creative • Avoids new activities to prevent imperfect performance: evidences perfectionism, selfcriticism • Shows initiative in pursuing self-selected projects • Tends to set unrealistic self-expectations: goals too high or too low • Dislikes practice work or drill for memorization and mastery • Easily distracted: unable to focus attention and concentrate on tasks Adapted from Chow, Chow, & Ku-Yu, 2002.

Asian conceptions • Significant discrepancy between quality of oral and written work. • Poor daily school work. • Superior ability to understand concepts. • Dedication to self-selected assignments at home • Avoidance of trying new activities. • Has a wide range of interests. • Resistance to complying with teachers’ instructions. • Short attention span in classroom learning. • Setting unrealistic goals.

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 225 Table 7.2

Behavioral characteristics of underachieving gifted students Western conceptions

The aggressively hostile gifted underachievers: • Exhibit low self-esteem • Refuse to comply with rules or requests • Can be disruptive or reject set tasks • Are likely to exploit freedom and may alienate peers through aggression, derogatory attitude, excessive fighting, or argument Withdrawn gifted underachievers: • Exhibit low self-esteem • Avoid significant interaction with peers or teachers • Daydream or create fantasy worlds • Work alone if given the choice • Cannot defend their actions when confronted

Asian conceptions • • • • • •

Dislikes drill and memorization Persistent dissatisfaction with accomplishments. Low self-esteem Aggressive behavior Has a wide range of interests Resistance to complying with teachers’ instructions • Difficulty in peer relations • Poor attitude toward school • Has external locus of control

Adapted from Chow, Chow, & Ku-Yu, 2002.

Reasons for the underachievement of gifted students in both Western and Chinese classrooms The reasons for underachievement, which are important for teachers of gifted students, include the following possibilities (adapted from Chow, Chow, & KuYu, 2002): 1. Underachieving gifted students did not gain genuine respect from teachers and were continually neglected when compared with high achievers. 2. No differentiated provisions were made for their learning needs since they began school. 3. The highly competitive social climate made teachers and parents more concerned with their high academic results rather than their learning attitude and socio-emotional needs. 4. Teachers and parents used extrinsic rewards to motivate students in contrast to their expectations. 5. The school curriculum and school policy were too inflexible and rigid to make room for differentiated curricula, formal and informal. 6. The high stress related to whole-school evaluation meant that schools were focused on the development of the whole school, resulting in head teachers paying less attention to students who were underachieving.

226 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG 7. 8.

A culture of achievement and ostracism for poor achievement meant that underachievers were more vulnerable. Teaching and learning was teacher-centered, and an unrewarding and unchallenging curriculum increased the distinction between achieving and underachieving students.

Teachers’ perceptions of gifted education Teachers play an important part in the development of gifted students in Asian classrooms. Some of the common perceptions of relatively inexperienced teachers about gifted students include the following (adapted from Chow, Chow, & Ku-Yu, 2002): 1. They recognized that students could have multiple intelligences, but assumed gifted students were sufficiently independent to study outside school. 2. They also believed that IQ tests were the best way to identify gifted students. 3. They were proud of these students, but anxious about their ability to teach them. 4. They placed high importance on classroom management and discipline, minimizing the chance to recognize underachievement. 5. They appreciated effort more than ability. 6. They expected total compliance to their guidance and model for learning. 7. They viewed parents as helpers rather than partners and would not take seriously information provided by parents about their children. 8. They viewed underachievement as a problem for the remedial teacher. 9. They adopted a deficit model of nurturing students rather than trying to find ways to tap the full potential of all students. 10. They were too busy to organize extra curricular activities for individual students. 11. In many cases, they adopted a didactic teacher-centered strategy where students were not allowed to make their own choices for their learning.

Avoiding underachievement in the academically gifted child There are two related ways to avoid underachievement in the gifted child. The first involves a process of identification. The intellectual, affective and behavioral characteristics of the gifted child can be used to help identify gifted students. Then, once the gifted children have been identified, it is important to implement school and classroom strategies that meet their intellectual, affective and behavioral needs.

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 227

Classroom Provision for Gifted Students Each of the Asian countries covered in this chapter should have special classroom strategies that are appropriate for their gifted students based upon culture, policies and resources. Interestingly, some countries rely only on a school-based approach to training their gifted students while some regions apply a variety of methods in meeting these students’ different needs. It is difficult to conclude whether a schoolbased approach or other forms of gifted training are better, since it really depends on the nature of the training and practices within a particular region.

Classroom strategies in China There are several kinds of gifted education in China, including earlier enrollment and grade-skipping, special schools, special activities within/outside the campus, special classes, vocational or weekend programs and individual instruction (Shi & Li, 2004; Shi & Zha, 2000). The nature of some of the gifted education activities mentioned above is easy to understand from their names, such as early enrollment and special schools. One of the best known special activities outside school is the Olympic school of mathematics, of which there are around eighteen. These schools are often affiliated to universities and prepare gifted teenage students to excel in the areas of mathematics, physics and chemistry. These gifted students are involved in their regular school curriculum as well as these special classes for about ten hours a week. Besides the programs that develop intellectual giftedness, psychologists and educators have developed special classes. These classes, also known as gifted experimental classes, have been run in many primary and secondary schools, with universities participating in the running of special classes for gifted adolescents. They differ from standard classes in their teaching methods, materials and scope. For example, these experimental classes are based on students’ intelligence and special talents; schooling time is shorter than in normal schooling; and the emphasis is on developing areas such as good analytical and problem-solving skills. In addition, they also teach personal development and techniques for self-education and self-actualization.

Classroom strategies in Hong Kong According to the EMB, classroom strategies for gifted education in Hong Kong should be divided into three levels, reflecting the three-tier model of gifted

228 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG education. The first level, a school-based approach, is designed to meet the special needs of gifted students with enrichment and extension of the regular curriculum across all subjects in regular classrooms. Very often, primary schools will choose to apply a school-based approach since primary school teachers should be able to handle gifted students at this level. Higher-order thinking skills are also introduced into the regular curriculum. The second level involves conducting a pull-out program outside the classroom for both general training (e.g. leadership, creativity) and specific subject training. The third level, off-site support from professionals and tertiary institutions, provides resources and develops techniques to further address the needs of gifted students. In addition to the three levels above, the nature of these programs is such that they are divided into generic (enrichment program) and specialized (subject-/domain-focused) strategies.

Classroom strategies in Taiwan, Japan and South Korea According to a study of the gifted education curriculum and teaching in Taiwan (Zhonghua min guo te shu jiao yu xue hui, 1997), the curriculum can be divided into two areas: acceleration and enrichment. Enrichment can then be divided further to deepen and broaden students’ knowledge. In fact, most schools in Taiwan have decided to apply enrichment methods for their gifted students. In enrichment programs, activities such as field trips and workshops are arranged to help students explore and develop their areas of interest (馮漢柱教育基金, 1999). The Taiwanese take a two-fold approach to gifted programs, namely the special class approach and the pull-out program (Wu, 2000). In the special class approach, gifted and talented students are grouped in one classroom and taught an enriched curriculum; for the pull-out program, gifted and talented students remain in their regular classes but are permitted access to a special resource classroom where materials and guidance are provided for them. Acceleration is the major method used in the gifted program in Japan. At senior high school, intellectually gifted students can finish the three-year program in two years and enter university (Cooper, 1999). Some urban schools in Japan have started to allocate students to different classes by tracking their performance; however, Japanese educators object to this because they consider it to be “elitist” (Stevenson, Lee, & Chen, 1994). Classroom strategies in South Korea differ from the other four regions in Asia, as they emphasize a more school-based approach. The main methods used in South Korean classrooms are acceleration, and in-school and after-school enrichment programs.

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Evaluating the Success of Programs for Gifted Students Fundamental to the education of gifted students is the evaluation of the effectiveness of the programs. Since 1979, gifted education in China has received very positive feedback. According to Shi and Zha (2000), support for the successful implementation of different gifted programs can be illustrated in several ways. First of all, gifted students are able to complete their primary and secondary schooling in shorter periods of time, based on early enrollment and experimental gifted classes, and this allows them to enter key universities after achieving high scores in entrance examinations. Also, gifted students who are enrolled in different kinds of gifted education programs show an increase in their “intelligence” and learning progress. Besides academic success, these gifted students are also more creative and are as healthy as their average peers. As a result of the diversity of gifted education programs in China, gifted students with different potentials are being fruitfully developed and their needs met as a variety of opportunities are available to them to extend their already outstanding performance. For example, since 1978 more than eight hundred students have enrolled in twenty-one gifted classes at the University of Science and Technology of China, while 73.7% of them have enrolled in domestic/overseas graduate schools and more than two hundred have obtained PhD degrees (Shi & Zha, 2000).

Evaluating the success of programs in Hong Kong Gifted education in Hong Kong is closely monitored by the EMB and it has continuously reviewed and updated programs and information on gifted education in order to meet the needs of gifted students. For example, services provided by the EMB include curriculum development and support and psychological services. In addition, various institutions, such as the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the Hong Kong Institute of Education, the Fung Hon Chu Gifted Education Centre and the Hong Kong Association of Parents and Gifted Students, have come together to provide support for gifted education. As well as carrying out research into gifted education and gifted students, these institutions have contributed by providing programs for gifted students and their teachers and supporting the EMB in developing gifted education in Hong Kong. Currently, there are no government schools exclusively for gifted students in Hong Kong. The reason is that the government has given mainstream schools the responsibility for developing gifted students through school-based gifted programs. Although there are a number of focus schools for gifted education that provide a model for other schools to follow, the needs of gifted students should be met

230 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG primarily in their own schools. The success of this approach in meeting the needs of gifted students in Hong Kong is yet to be determined.

Evaluating the success of programs in Taiwan and South Korea The initiation of gifted education in Taiwan dates back two decades (Zhonghua min guo te shu jiao yu xue hui, 1997). Over the past twenty years, gifted education has been extended from primary level to junior secondary level and then to senior secondary level. Teaching modes for gifted education have been continually restructured to match their appropriateness to students. Moreover, areas of gifted education have come to include not only students who are outstanding in general ability and academic ability, but also those who are outstanding in special abilities (such as aesthetic or athletic domains). The gifted and talented program in Taiwan is formally evaluated by the Ministry of Education — though, for some reason, the results are not shared with teachers (Miranda & Verna, 1998). Also, some researchers have conducted evaluation on a smaller scale. For example, Hsieh (2002) studied the Independent Study Program (ISP), one of the programs offered in Taiwan, for its effectiveness. The results showed that the enrichment triad model was the most favored of the theories adopted and that overall the program generated quite positive feedback from both teachers and students. Since the initiation of its “five-year gifted education development plan”, the South Korean government has recognized the importance of gifted education and the need to meet the special needs of gifted students. Though the development is still in its primary stage, South Korea has accelerated the development of gifted education. At this point, it is difficult to determine whether or not it is meeting its aims. Significantly, however, South Korea is beginning to reflect on its programs (Lu, 2005), especially after hosting the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness in Daejeon in 2004.

The Moral Development of Gifted Students Tannenbaum (2000) believed that giftedness is the ultimate instrument for good and for evil. Accordingly, he argued strongly that training in morality should be an essential component of any program for gifted students. Rather than taking a particular view of morality, Tannenbaum argued that students need to be guided to develop an individual sense of morality through an exploration of self and a study of a “rogue’s gallery” of great minds as well as societies’ most enlightened thinkers (Tannenbaum, 2000 p. 462). He also recognized the enormous responsibility educators have in influencing gifted students to exercise their gifts for the benefit of humankind.

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Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning Morality is generally concerned with the development of a sense of right and wrong. Based on research conducted over twenty years, Kohlberg (1984) identified three main levels of moral reasoning, each with two stages. Using a range of hypothetical moral dilemmas, his technique was to ask children to give their advice about what the person who was caught in the dilemma should do. An outline of a moral dilemma of the type used by Kohlberg follows: Judy desperately wants to go to a concert and asks her mother for permission. Her mother initially says yes, on the condition that Judy saves her money to buy the ticket. Judy saves enough money to buy the ticket but then Judy’s mother changes her mind and forbids Judy from going to the concert. Judy goes to the concert anyway, after saying to her mother that she is visiting a friend. Judy’s older sister Louise knows what Judy has done and wonders whether to tell their mother. What should Louise do? Kohlberg identified the following six distinct stages in the development of moral reasoning. 1. Pre-conventional Stage 1 Punishment and obedience orientation Stage 2 Individualism and purpose 2. Conventional Stage 3 Interpersonal norms Stage 4 Social systems morality 3. Post-conventional Stage 5 Community rights versus individual rights. Stage 6 Universal ethical principles The six stages can be described as both discrete and sequential, although Kohlberg subsequently believed that Stages 5 and 6 could be combined. They are discrete because they describe very different types of moral reasoning, and sequential because an individual must pass fully through the preceding level before moving to the next. Kohlberg also believed that these stages did not vary between different cultures; and, furthermore, he emphasized the cognitive nature of the development of moral reasoning, rather than viewing it as a process of socialization. If moral reasoning is taking place at the pre-conventional stage, then the typical responses center on what would happen to Louise or Judy as a consequence of making that choice, including; Louise must tell mother because it is not right that Judy told a lie. Louise must not tell a lie because Judy will get into trouble. Louise will feel guilty because she is keeping Judy’s lie.

232 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG If moral reasoning is taking place at the conventional stage, typical responses center on how the individual will be judged by others, such as: Louise should tell because her mother will not trust Judy (or Louise) again. Louise should tell because a good daughter will not want to lie to her mother. Finally, moral reasoning at the post-conventional stage focuses on justice, fairness and the sanctity of human life. Typical responses include: Louise should tell because it is wrong to live a lie. Louise should not tell because the mother will feel hurt and we must not intentionally hurt others.

Criticisms of and extensions to Kohlberg’s model The hypothetical dilemmas posed by Kohlberg have been criticized as being far too dependent on social conventions rather than moral issues (Woolfolk, 2001), and for adopting a model that is far too simplistic since young children are capable of understanding the distinction between moral issues and current social traditions (Nucci, 1987). Furthermore, the theory fails to acknowledge the importance of “caring” thinking in both males and females. A “caring” curriculum, emphasizing the need for students to care about themselves, others and their environment, has been developed for a number of subjects, including mathematics, science, English and arts (Noddings, 1992); and for gifted students, a critical, caring and creative thinking curriculum, based on Lipman’s (1994) Caring Thinking, has been developed (Brunt, 1996).

Gifted students and moral thinking Problems involving moral issues are often very appealing (Pagnin & Andreani, 2000) for gifted students. Irrespective of their abilities, Kohlberg recommended that teachers offer students opportunities for thinking at one level above their current stage. Since moral education must be commensurate with the “moral reasoning” potential of the child, it is important that teachers are able to determine the “moral reasoning” stage of their students. A successful educational program for gifted students was based on a number of activities, including: (1) a discussion of ethical dilemmas; (2) an analysis of intentions, comparing one’s own sets of values and personality traits with those portrayed in simulated ethical dilemmas; (3) the role playing of ethical dilemmas; (4) identification and discussion of different real life dilemmas; (5) the expression of personal values, life goals, significant personal

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events and the emotions they elicited; and (6) strategies for social behaviors and moral disengagement exercises (adapted from Pagnin and Andreani, 2000). Tannenbaum (2000) outlined the essential elements of a curriculum for the moral development of gifted students, describing aspects that were similar to those of Pagnin and Andreani (2000). They included courses in self-knowledge, namely: (1) pride in specific accomplishments; (2) personal identity; (3) choice of heroes; (4) deepest commitments; (5) learning that life is a challenge (including courses in conflict resolution, surviving and benefiting from frustration, experience and overcoming temporary failure, delay of gratification, risk-taking); (6) alienation and changes in identity (including language, knowledge, creativity and values, introduction to general semantics, and medical ethics); and (7) a study of the rogue’s gallery of great minds (such as the lives of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Pablo Picasso).

An Overview of Specific Academic Subjects There are three broad ways to differentiate the regular curriculum in order to make it suitable for gifted students (Table 7.3). The first involves going faster (accelerating) through the curriculum. The other two pathways are termed enrichment and extension. The differences between these two pathways are outlined in the following diagram, although it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. In general, however, Piirto (1999) recommended that an appropriate curriculum for gifted students must adhere to five curriculum precepts (Table 7.4, see p. 234).

Table 7.3

Common forms of curriculum differentiation in gifted education

Acceleration – go faster Acceleration activities add greater depth to curriculum content. They add new areas of knowledge and are suitable for a limited number of children. Enrichment activities – go broader Enrichment activities add greater breadth to curriculum content. They add new areas of knowledge, such as excursions, electives and co-curricular activities Enrichment is considered suitable for all children Extension activities – go deeper Extension activities add greater depth to curriculum content. They add new thinking skills and strategies such as problem solving, critical thinking, creative thinking and higher-order thinking skills. Extension is considered to be suitable for most children Adapted from Department for Education and Children’s Services (1996). Understanding Giftedness: A guide to policy implementation. Adelaide: Department for Education and Children’s Services.

234 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG Table 7.4

Piirto’s five curriculum precepts

Precept One — The curriculum is based on the learning characteristics of the gifted. These characteristics include abilities to: • learn at a faster pace; • formulate abstract thoughts; • think productively, critically, creatively and analytically; and • rapidly increase store of facts and processes. Precept Two — The curriculum should possess academic rigor. Piirto makes the point that in order to improve standards of academic rigor, the teacher is required to possess the necessary qualifications, either academic or empirical. Precept Three — The curriculum should be interdisciplinary. Piirto’s third precept requires that enrichment material be chosen to emphasize the interconnectedness of the particular topics in each subject. Precept Four — The curriculum should have orientation. The fourth precept contains six orientations, including: a Personal relevance The basis of this orientation is that if gifted students are able to clearly identify areas of personal relevance, then this will motivate them to be successful in their learning. b Technological approach to curriculum Curriculum is a “technical, scientific, sequential set of steps of mastery of behavioral objectives through technology and contracts ...” (Eisner, 1985, cited in Piirto, 1994, p. 389). c Curriculum as academic rationalization Piirto maintains that the curriculum should foster intellectual growth through the use of traditional subject areas. d Curriculum as social adaptations and reconstruction In this view, curriculum is a means to reshape society. e Curriculum as development of cognitive processes Gifted students should be encouraged to develop higher-order thinking and creative thinking skills at a level appropriate to their abilities. f Curriculum as producing insight Piirto recommends the development of a greater understanding through activities such as field trips and presentations of visiting experts. Precept Five — A balanced, integrated and articulated curriculum This precept is based on the work of Van Tassel-Baska (1992; cited in Piirto, 1994) where approximately one third of the college year is devoted to each of the areas of content, process/product, and epistemological development. Adapted from Piirto, J. (1999). Talented Children and Adults: Their Development and Education (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall/Merrill.

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 235

Enrichment activities add greater breadth to the curriculum content and introduce students to topics not normally covered in the curriculum. These activities are suitable for all students and should be part of both acceleration and extension. When providing enrichment, the aim is to broaden interests, and target processes and skill development. When enriching the curriculum, the activities should: • focus on open-ended tasks; • allow for student choice; • include skill development; • accommodate preferred learning styles; • allow for in-depth study in areas of student interest; • develop metacognitive awareness such as reflection, thinking, explaining strategies; • Make links between subject areas (such as art in mathematics and mathematics in art); • Focus on higher-order thinking processes (i.e. analysis, synthesis and evaluation); and • Be based on a model of curriculum differentiation. Extension describes a range of activities that add greater depth to the regular curriculum content. It is suitable for most students and includes activities such as interest centers, individualized learning programs, camps and the use of mentors. Competitions such as Tournament of Minds, Future Problem Solving Program, and the Mathematical Olympiad allow for individual or whole-class extension, and extending children’s thinking can be achieved through creative thinking, critical thinking, and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). A simple yet effective way to differentiate the curriculum is to integrate Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and Bloom’s taxonomy of thinking (Table 7.5). In this taxonomy, types of thinking are arranged in order, usually in the form of a pyramid, ranging from simple thinking at the base of the pyramid to more complex types of thinking. At the simplest level is simple recall of knowledge (knowledge), and at the apex is the most complex type of thinking, evaluation of information (evaluation). The upper three types of thinking are sometimes referred to as higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). The basic idea is that different types of questions stimulate different types of thinking, and teachers are able to control the complexity of the thinking processes by asking the correct types of questions. For gifted students, it is more appropriate to ask more complex types of questions, and more often. The examples on p. 232 illustrate the link between the different types of questions and different kinds of thinking. Consider some well-known nursery rhymes, stories and movies, and a biology lesson.

Write a formulae …

Make a mind map …

Find songs about …

Act like a …

Read to class …

List self facts …

Logical/math

Visual/spatial

Musical intelligence

Bodily kinesthetic

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Describe personal feelings …

Discuss in group …

Move to the beat …

Name the music …

Make a collage …

Explain …

Summarize …

Comprehension

Explain feelings …

Tell a joke …

Play a sport …

Play an instrument …

Draw a cartoon …

Draw to scale …

Write an article

Application

How are you the same and different to others?

Research a biography …

Play charades …

Why do sounds have this effect?

Draw a Venn diagram …

Categorize …

Review a book …

Analysis

Evaluation

Prove …

Make a personal logo …

Plan a strategy to persuade another person to ...

Create a dance …

Write a song …

Set personal goals and evaluate success

Evaluate as a group

Evaluate movements …

Review acting …

Make a board game … Evalaute a creation …

Make up a code …

Make up a language … Review a book …

Synthesis

Adapted from: 1 McGrath, H. & Noble, T. (1995). Seven ways at once, Book 1. Melbourne: Longman. 2 Brown, D. Wearne, W., & Withers, R. (1996). How to care for the environment. In S. Bailey, B. A. Knight, B. O’Keefe, & D. Brown (Eds.) Blooming into themes with multiple intelligences. Cheltenham: Hawker Brownlow Education. 3 Anderssen, R. (1994). Unit: Where panthers prowl. TalentEd, 46, 30–1.

Make a list …

Knowledge

Type of thinking

Integrating Bloom’s taxonomy with multiple intelligences

Verbal/ling

MI

Table 7.5

236 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 237

1. 2.

Knowledge (or simple recall). “Who frightened Miss Muffet?” Comprehension tasks test understanding. “Who is the main character in the book Lord of the Rings?” 3. Apply recall and understanding in new situations. Design a poster that illustrates the story in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. 4. Analysis — looking at relationships between parts and the whole. “What are the differences and similarities between mammals and birds?” 5.. Synthesis — using acquired knowledge and combining it into new forms. “Change one physical characteristic of a cat. What other changes could result from this one change?” 6. Evaluation — thinking which involves making judgments and then justifying them. “Was Goldilocks good or bad?” “Why?” With the seven multiple intelligences, the six types of thinking are combined to form a matrix of forty-two cells. Within each cell are different types of questions that require different types of intelligence. The subsections below introduce some of the interesting and effective ways of teaching gifted students the following important academic subjects in countries within the Asian region: languages, mathematics, information and communication technology (ICT), and arts.

Gifted education in languages In Hong Kong, every student must learn Chinese literature from primary school up to Form 7, and a study has shown that gifted students’ creativity can be enhanced through reading and writing Chinese literature (楊熾均、劉鳳鷥, 2001). This research involved several procedures for gifted students. The first step was to set learning objectives for students. In order to enhance students’ creativity, teachers had to decide which areas (sensitivity, fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration) to emphasize. The second step was to choose appropriate pieces of Chinese literature. The Chinese literature selected for gifted students had to be deep, enriching and able to inspire students’ creativity. Next, a decision had to be made on reading and writing activities. It was important for teachers to design reading activities first and then writing activities, since the function of the reading activities was to inspire gifted students when it came to their writing activities. The fourth step was to initiate reading and nurture creativity, and the last one was to initiate writing and elaborate creativity. The method that was used in the Hong Kong study of Chinese literature in gifted education can actually be applied successfully in places such as China and Taiwan — and also for English literature. For example, in Taiwan, the main focus

238 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG of gifted education in Chinese literature is also to enhance the creativity, sensitivity and interest of gifted students (Zhonghua min guo te shu jiao yu xue hui, 1997). Since such students in this academic area should have a large range of vocabulary and spend a great deal of time reading books, it is very important for teachers to design appropriate reading and writing activities for them in order to inspire their creativity.

Gifted education in mathematics An example of a gifted program in mathematics in China was jointly conducted on primary school students aged six to eight by the University of Science and Technology, Beijing, and the high school attached to the People’s University of China (Lui & Lui, 1997). The program, which covered both enrichment and extension strategies, involved eight aspects that were believed to be significant for gifted mathematics students. They were as follows: (1) begin with a visual-spatial representation of number; (2) stress the relationship between geometric shape and number; (3) involve the active teaching of mathematical operations; (4) stimulate the imagination; (5) apply the discovery method to derive mathematical relationships; (6) find universal regularity using the induction method of reasoning; (7) search for models of reasoning; and (8) introduce modern methods, such as algebra, to solve problems. These eight aspects were based on traditional Chinese methods for the systematic development of problem-solving skills. In Taiwan, a number of acceleration strategies are used, including early entry, grade skipping, curriculum compacting, early graduation and the telescoping of grades (Tsai & Lin, 1996; Wu, 2000). The function of curriculum compacting is to eliminate materials that have already been mastered by the student in the regular curriculum and to use the available time for enrichment and extension. The method allowed gifted students to spend less time in their regular mathematics class but more time completing enrichment activities.

Gifted education and the development of skills in information and communication technology The development of ICT skills in gifted primary and secondary students has not received wide attention. Nevertheless, there are a number of examples from tertiary education that can be adapted for use in primary and secondary classes, although some require the use of specific software programs. It is also possible to draw from examples from mathematics and the arts. Virtual reality technology was used by university students to design a new toy (Yuen, 2004), which was then verified for its feasibility using a virtual prototype.

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According to Yuen, the designer of the program, the students showed a high level of creativity in their designs and confidence in their abilities. Such programs can be scaled down for primary and secondary students with some of the commonly available software programs, but using a curriculum framework such as Renzulli’s enrichment triad model (Davis & Rimm, 2004) where students are first introduced to the use of software as a design tool by professionals in the field as a general (Type 1) enrichment activity. Students then learn specific skills involved in the use of software in design, as well as general research (Type 2) skills (e.g., What toys are available, and how are toys marketed and evaluated?). The last (Type 3) activity requires students to design their own toys and then present them to an appropriate audience of, for example, toy manufacturers. The key aspects of this project are the use of three different activities that are interdependent and the requirement to produce something that is innovative and presented to a real-world audience. This activity can be used in the inclusive classroom and does not require the prior identification of IT-gifted students; and although the activities are common to all students, the outcomes allow for considerable variability in the final products. A second example relates to the specific identification of IT-gifted secondary students (Lee, Kim, & Kim, 2004). Once identified, these students progress through a university- designed IT course, and during the vacation periods attend lectures and camps which are also run by the university. Similar courses are offered by the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.

Gifted education in the arts In Taiwan, particular attention is paid to students with special talents. As mentioned earlier, the definition of giftedness there includes the aspect of special talents, such as fine arts, music and dance, and there are specific courses in schools for students with these talents (張蓓莉、廖永, 1995). In fine arts, there are courses on, for instance, sketching, drawing (water color and traditional Chinese painting), design and calligraphy; and music courses include music theory, music appreciation, chorus and instrumental ensemble. Finally, special talent students who specialize in dance can take courses in areas such as body movement training, Chinese national dance, folk dance, ballet, modern dance and dance appreciation. There are about fifteen primary and secondary schools in Taiwan where pilot dancing courses are offered to gifted students (唐璽惠, 2004). Talented students have to study basic subjects such as Chinese language, English, mathematics and civic education, like other regular students; however, classes such as physical education, group activities and homework supervision are replaced by dancing courses. The courses reflect enrichment activities, covering knowledge and skills not normally taught in the regular curriculum.

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Summary Although the countries studied in this chapter are proximal to each other, each has its own way of recognizing giftedness. Before gifted education can be successfully implemented in the CHC, each country must have a clear understanding of what it means by “being gifted”. As a sign of maturity, many of these countries are moving away from an emphasis on examinations and academic grades and toward the arts as a way of encouraging gifted students. Serious consideration must now be given to the moral and affective development of gifted students, following the suggestions outlined by Tannenbaum (2000). It seems that China and Taiwan have the longest history and experience in the area of gifted education while Hong Kong has established a foundation in which curriculum now needs to be developed. In South Korea, gifted education has been promoted since the introduction of the gifted education law and the “five-year gifted education development plan.” An important aspect of the education of gifted students is a critical evaluation of the effectiveness of programs, and such evaluation should be an integral part of program development, rather than an afterthought.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2.

3.

Chan’s (2004) research on the multiple intelligences (MI) profiles of gifted students showed that logical-mathematical intelligence received the highest ratings, whereas bodily-kinesthetic and naturalistic intelligences received the lowest ratings. The study asked parents, teachers and peers to rate the MI of students already identified as having IQs higher than 130. Gifted students rated themselves lowest on verbal-linguistic intelligence and highest on interpersonal and musical intelligence. Overall, gifted students produced a profile that was more even and less differentiated compared to ratings by parents, teachers and peers. What are the implications of the above findings for identifying gifted students in your class on the basis of self-checklists? Read the article describing the four cases of academically gifted senior high school students with overexcitabilities traits in Taiwan (Chang, 2002). List the traits of overexcitabilities for these students. Which traits would prove to be problematic for a teacher? How would teachers normally react to these behaviors? How could teachers deal appropriately with overexcitabilities in the classroom? It has been claimed that the top 13% of students already know 75% of the year’s work. Examine two mathematics textbooks from the standard curriculum, one for Primary 5 and the other for Primary 6, and estimate the

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4.

amount of overlap in the content. What are the possible educational, motivational and behavioral implications for a gifted student studying mathematics in Primary 5 and 6? Using Renzulli’s enrichment triad model (Davis & Rimm, 2004a), design an ICT activity suitable for gifted students that would run over one term of the school year. What are the specific tasks in each of the three activities? How would you ensure the course is suitable for gifted students? How would you evaluate the success of the program? How would you assess the student outcomes?

Glossary Ability grouping is educational provision that groups children according to their ability, allowing for a differentiated curriculum. Acceleration is a type of curriculum differentiation that allows students to progress through a regular curriculum in a shorter period of time. Asynchronous development is a model of giftedness which focuses on the emotional development of gifted students, emphasizing the possible mismatch between intellectual and emotional development. A differentiated curriculum is a regular curriculum that is adapted to suit the ability of the student. Overexcitabilities refer to an excess of physical, sensual, creative and intellectual energies in a gifted person, and are central to one model of giftedness. Perfectionism reflects the tendency of some gifted students to place excessive demands on themselves, sometimes to the detriment of their emotional health. Underachievment refers to the mismatch between gifted students’ academic potential and their achievement.

References Berk, L. E. (2006). Child development. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Borland, J. H., & Wright, L. (2000). Identifying and educating poor and under-represented gifted students. In R. F. Subotnik (Ed.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (pp. 587–594). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Brunt, J. (1996). Caring thinking: The new intelligence. The Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 5(1), 21–25. Campbell, J. R., & Wu, R. (1998). Gifted programs from a Chinese perspective. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 13–17, San Diego, CA. Chan, D. W. (1999). Reversing underachievement: Can we tap unfulfilled talents in Hong Kong? Educational Research Journal, 14(2), 177–190.

242 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG Chan, D. W. (2000a). Identifying gifted and talented students in Hong Kong. Roeper Review, 22(2), 88–93. Chan, D. W. (2000b). Exploring identification procedures of gifted students by teacher ratings: Parent ratings and student self-reports in Hong Kong. High Ability Studies, 11(1), 69–82. Chan, D. W. (2001). Global and specific self-concepts of gifted adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 24(4), 344–364. Chan, D. W. (2002). Perceptions of giftedness and self-concepts among junior secondary students in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(4), 243–252. Chan, D. W. (2003a). Adjustment problems and multiple intelligences among gifted students in Hong Kong: The development of the revised Student Adjustment Problems Inventory. High Ability Studies, 14(1), 41–54. Chan, D. W. (2003b). Dimensions of emotional intelligence and their relationships with social coping among gifted adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32 (6), 409–418. Chan, D. W. (2004). Multiple intelligences of Chinese gifted students in Hong Kong: Perspectives from students, parents, teachers, and peers. Roeper Review, 27(1), 18–24. Chan, D. W., Cheung, P. C., Chan, A. S. K., Leung, W. W. M., & Leung, K. W. (2000). Evaluating the Chinese University summer gifted program for junior secondary students in Hong Kong. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 11(3), 136–143. Chan, J. (2007). Giftedness and China’s Confucian heritage. In S. N. Phillipson & M. McCann, M. (Eds.). Conceptions of giftedness: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 35–64). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Chang, H. J. (2002). Four cases of academically gifted senior high school students with overexcitabilities in Taiwan. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 7th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, August 12–16, Bangkok, Thailand. Chang, Y. P., & Kuo, C. C. (2004). Overexcitabilities and emotional developmental levels of mathematical-logic gifted students in senior high schools in Northern Taiwan, ROC. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Cho, S. (2004). Korean national policy on gifted and talented education. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Choi, H. P., Choi, K. A., Han, S., Koh, S. K., Kim, M., Rhyu, S., et al. (2004). The development of the temperament and self concepts among gifted children in Korea. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Chow, A. P. Y., Chow, P. C. W., & Ku-Yu, H. S. Y. (2002). Tapping the potentials of the gifted in inclusive education: implications to school improvement in Hong Kong. Paper presented at the 7th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, August 12–16, Bangkok, Thailand. Colangelo, N., & Assouline, S. G. (2000). Counseling gifted students. In K. Heller, F. J. Monks, R. J. Sternberg, & R. F. Subotnik (Eds.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (2nd ed., pp. 595–607). New York: Elsevier Science Ltd. Colangelo, N., & Davis, G. A. (1991). Handbook of gifted education. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Columbus Group. (1991). Unpublished transcript of the meeting of the Columbus Group — July. Unpublished manuscript, Columbus, OH.

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 243 Cooper, E. (1999). A reflection: the Japanese approach to gifted and talented students. Gifted Child Today Magazine, 22(2), 18–21. Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (2004). Education of the gifted and talented (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Delisle, J. (1992). Guiding the social and emotional development of gifted youth: A practical guide for educators and counselors. New York: Longman. Deutsch, F. M. (2006). Filial piety, patrilineality, and China’s one-child policy. Journal of Family Issues, 27(3), 366–389. Department for Children’s Services (1996). Understanding giftedness: A guide to policy implementation. Adelaide: Department for Education and Children’s Services. Education Department. (2000). Development of gifted education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Fan, C. F. (2002). A study on using different models for identifying preschool gifted children — The experience of a public kindergarten in Taipei, Taiwan. Paper presented at the 7th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, August 12–16, Bangkok, Thailand. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Ho, T. F., Salili, F., Biggs, J. B., & Hau, K. T. (1999). The relationship among causal attributions, learning strategies, and level of achievement: A Hong Kong Chinese study. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 19, 44–58. Hong, Y.-Y. (2001). Chinese students’ and teachers inferences of effort and ability. In Y.-Y. Hong (Ed.), Student motivation: The culture and context of learning (pp. 105–120). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Hsieh, J. C. (2002). Evaluating the independent study program of the gifted education in Taiwan: A study of elementary school gifted class. Paper presented at the 7th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, August 12–16, Bangkok, Thailand. Hwang, D. J., Song, S. R., & Song, Y. M. (2004). A study on recognition of Korean society about talent. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Kaplan, P. S. (2000). A child’s odyssey: Child and adolescent development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. Kerr, B. (1991). Handbook for counseling the gifted. Reston, VA: American Counseling Association. Kim, H.-W., Yoon, C.-H., Yoon, Y.-H., & Kim, H.-C. (2004). Cognitive and affective characteristics of gifted elementary students in Korea. Paper presented at the 8th AsiaPacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. Kwak, K. (2003). South Korea. In J. Georgas, L. G. Weiss, F. J. R. van de Vijver, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), Culture and children’s intelligence: Cross-cultural analysis of the WISC-III (pp. 227–240). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Lau, K. L., & Chan, D. W. (2001). Identification of underachievers in Hong Kong: Do different methods select different underachievers? Educational Studies, 27(2), 187–200. Lee, J. Y., Kim, J., & Kim, K. (2004). Cultivating IT-gifted youth in Korea. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Lee, S. Y., Cramond, B., & Lee, J. (2004). Korean teachers’ attitudes toward academic brilliance. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48(1), 42–53.

244 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG Lipman, M. (1994). Caring thinking. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference of Thinking, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, July. Lu, P. (2005). Giving them a gift? Beijing Review, 48 (21). May. http://www.bjreview-cn/ EN/en-2005/05-21-e/china-l.htm. Lui, L., & Lui, P. (1997). Practice and theoretical exploration on supernormal education of mathematics to gifted and talented children from 6–8. Paper presented at the Maximizing Potential: Lengthening and strengthening our stride. Proceedings of the 11th World Conference for Gifted and Talented Children, Hong Kong. Matsumura, N. (2007). Giftedness in the Japanese culture. In S. N. Phillipson & M. McCann (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness: Socio-cultural perspectives (pp. 349–376). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Miranda, K., & Verna, M. A. (1998). Gifted elementary programs in Taiwan, ROC and the United States: a comparison. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 13–17, San Diego, CA. Moon, J. H., Montgomery, D., & Miller, J. (2004). Profiles of overexcitabilities for Korean College students clusters by indicators of multiple intelligences. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Ning, C. (2004). Education for the giftedness in kindergarten. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Noddings, N. (1992). Teaching themes of care. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 675–679. Nucci, L. (1987). Synthesis of research on moral development. Educational Leadership, 44 (5), 86–92. Pagnin, A., & Andreani, O. (2000). New trends in research on moral development and gifted. In R. F. Subotnik (Ed.), International Handbook of Giftedness and Talent (pp. 467– 484). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Phillipson, S. N., & McCann, M. (Eds.) (2007). Conceptions of giftedness: Sociocultural perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Phillipson, S. N., & Tse, Ka-on Andy. (in press). Discovering patterns of achievement in Hong Kong students: An application of the Rasch measurement model. High Ability Studies. Piirto, J. (1999). Talented children and adults: Their development and education (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall/Merrill. Renzulli, J. S., & Reis, S. M. (2000). The schoolwide enrichment model. In R. F. Subotnik (Ed.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (pp. 367–382). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Robinson, N. M. (1997). Cooperative learning for talented students: Emergent issues and implications. In N. Colangelo, & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (2nd ed. pp. 243–252). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Romanowski, M. H. (2006). A changing nation: Issues facing Chinese teachers. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 42(2), 76–81. Rudowicz, E., & Yue, X.-D. (2000). Concepts of creativity: Similarities and differences among mainland, Hong Kong and Taiwanese Chinese. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 34 (3), 175–192. Santrock, J. W. (2007). Child development. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Shaughnessy, M. F. (2003). Developments in gifted education in Korea: a reflective conversation with Seokhee Cho. Gifted Education International, 17(1), 73–77.

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 245 Shek, D. T. L., & Chan, L. K. (1999). Hong Kong Chinese parents’ perceptions of the ideal child. The Journal of Psychology, 133(3), 291–302. Shi, J., & Li, C. (2004). Recent development in research on and education of supernormal children in Mainland China. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Shi, J., & Zha, Z. (2000). Psychological research on and education of gifted and talented children in China. In K. Heller, F. J. Monks, R. J. Sternberg, & R. F. Subotnik (Eds.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (2nd ed., pp. 757–764). New York: Elsevier Science Ltd. Silverman, L. K. (1993). Techniques for preventive counseling. In L. K. Silverman (Ed.), Counseling for the gifted and talented (pp. 81–109). Denver, CO: Love. Silverman, L. K. (1994). The moral sensitivity of gifted children and the evolution of society. Roeper Review, 17(2), 110–116. Silverman, L. K. (1997). The construct of asynchronous development. Peabody Journal of Education, 72(3&4), 36–58. Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Implicit theories: An alternative to modelling cognition and its development. In R. Kail (Ed.), Formal methods in developmental psychology (pp. 155– 192). New York: Springer-Verlag. Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity, synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (2005). The WICS model of giftedness. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2nd ed., pp. 327–342). New York: Cambridge University Press. Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S.-Y., & Chen, C. (1994). Education of gifted and talented students in Mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17(2), 104–130. Stone, K. M. (2002). A cross-cultural comparison of the perceived traits of gifted behavior. Gifted and Talented International, 17(2), 61–75. Tannenbaum, A. J. (2000). Giftedness: The ultimate instrument for good and evil. In K. A. Heller, F. J. Mönks, R. J. Sternberg & R. F. Subotnik (Eds.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (2nd ed., pp. 447–465). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Tilstone, C., & Layton, L. (2004). Child development and teaching pupils with special educational needs. New York: Routledge Falmer. Tsai, D. M., & Lin, L. H. (2006). Impacts of grade compacting on gifted students in Kaohsiung. In Kuo, C. C. et al (Eds.) Meeting unique needs of the gifted (pp. 205–211). Proceedings of the 9th Asia-Pacific Conference on giftedness, Taipei, Taiwan, July 1–August 4. Woolfolk, A. (2001). Educational psychology (8th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Wu, W. T. (2000). Talent identification and development in Taiwan. Roeper Review, 22(2), 131–134. Wu, W. T., Cho, S., & Munandar, U. (2000). Programs and practices for identifying and nurturing giftedness and talent in Asia (outside the Mainland China). In K. Heller, F. J. Mönks, R. J. Sternberg, & R. F. Subotnik (Eds.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (2nd ed., pp. 765–777). New York: Elsevier Science Ltd.

246 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG Yue, X.-D., & Rudowicz, E. (2002). Perception of the most creative Chinese by undergraduates in Beijing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Taipei. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 36(2), 88–104. Yuen, D.-w. D. (2004). Using virtual reality technology to enhance the creativity of engineering students. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Zhang, L. F., & Hui, S. K. F. (2002). From pentagon to triangle: A cross-cultural investigation of an implicit theory of giftedness. Roeper Review, 25(2), 78–82. Zhang, L. F., & Sternberg, R. J. (1998). The pentagonal implicit theory of giftedness revisited: A cross-validation in Hong Kong. Roeper Review, 22(2), 149–153. Zhang, R. (2004). E.Q. education for gifted and talented children. Paper presented at the 8th Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness, July 26–30, Daejeon, Korea. Zhonghua min guo te shu jiao yu xue hui. (1997). Zi you jiao yu de ge xin yu zhan wang: kai fa qian neng pei yu ren cai. Taipei: Xin li chu ban she you xian gong si. 王淑棻，2004。〈資優教育課程的迷思與建議〉。《特教園丁》，20(2), 13–18. 李皓金瑜 (2004)。〈資優中學生情緒智力技能水平的差異對個性的影響〉。《中國 特殊教育》，2(44), 72–75. 唐璽惠 (2004)。《舞蹈資優教育的現況與展望》。高雄：復文圖書出版社。 陳維 (1999)。《資優學生的教育及才能發展：資優教育對香港教育改革的啟示》。 香港：香港中文大學教育學院，香港教育研究所。 楊熾均、劉鳳鷥 (2001)。〈淺論如何透過兒童文學作品的閱讀與寫作堤高資優兒童 的創造力〉。《兒童文學研討會》，頁1–16. 張蓓莉、廖永 (1995)：《台灣地區特殊教育暨殘障福利機構簡介》。台灣：國立台灣 師大特教中心。 馮漢柱教育基金 (1999)。《1999年台灣資優教育交流會報告》。台灣：馮漢柱教育 基金。

Further Reading Textbooks Clark, B. (2002). Growing up gifted: Developing the potential of children at home and at school. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (2004). Education of the gifted and talented (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Gross, M. U. M (Ed.) (2001). Gifted students in primary schools: Differentiating the curriculum. Sydney: University of NSW. Hui, K. P. E. (1995). Giftedness and creativity. In J. Biggs & D. Watkins (Eds.), Classroom learning: Educational psychology for the Asian teachers. Singapore: Prentice Hall. Piirto, J. (1999). Talented children and adults: Their development and education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Phillipson, S. N., & McCann, M. (Eds.) (2007). Conceptions of giftedness: Sociocultural perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Giftedness within the Confucian-heritage Cultures 247

Journals Gifted Child Quarterly Gifted Education International Journal for the Education of the Gifted Our Gifted students Roeper Review TalentEd The Gifted Child Today The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

Useful Websites A Glossary of Gifted Education: http://members.aol.com/svennord/ed/GiftedGlossary.htm Hoagies’ Gifted Education Page: http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/ NSW Assn for Gifted & Talented Children Inc.: http://www.nswagtc.org.au/ The Future Problem Solving Programme (Hong Kong): http://fpsp.org.au/HongKong.html 校本資優課程教師培訓教材套: http://cd.ed.gov.hk/sen/Gifted/resources/ttp/ 資優教育資源網站: home.educities.edu.tw/ylk/bookmark_gt.htm

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Shane N. Phillipson, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

248 Shane N. PHILLIPSON and Hoi Yan CHEUNG

8 Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG

In this chapter, the following topics are discussed: • The definition of visual impairment, its main causes among children, and pertinent factors that affect their learning; • The diversity amongst visually impaired students because of the diverse nature and different degrees of severity of particular impairments; • The various challenges that visually impaired students have to face in the classroom, such as medium of learning, and other restrictive conditions posed by the environment; • Common classroom strategies for adaptation of study skills, teaching materials, presentation methods, assignments and assessments; and • Practical suggestions for the teaching of languages, social studies, science, mathematics, information technology, visual arts, music, physical education and home economics.

Introduction Visual impairment poses significant obstacles to a child’s learning because learning is normally dependent on visual information. In order to be able to assist a visually impaired student in the classroom, teachers have to understand the nature of visual impairments and the various effects they have on the child. This chapter explains how visual impairment is defined, and the causes and effects of various visual impairments, and then describes relevant strategies for teachers to work effectively with blind or low vision students in the classroom.

250 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG

Definitions of Visual Impairment Visual impairment is defined by two main factors, namely visual acuity and visual field. Visual acuity denotes how clearly a person sees. The degree of visual impairment is determined using a vision test and the results are typically represented as a ratio. A ratio of 6/60, for example, means that the person can see an object at a distance of six meters compared to a normally sighted person who can see the same object at sixty meters. Visual field is the extent of the area that can be seen. While the eye is focused on a central point straight ahead, the visual field of a person with normal sight is about 150 degrees. A person with a visual field of less than 20 degrees is considered legally blind, irrespective of the visual acuity. The World Health Organization (2004) defines visual impairment in the following way: • A person with low vision has a visual acuity between 6/18 and 3/60. • A person who is blind has a visual acuity less than 3/60 or a visual field of less than 20 degrees. In Hong Kong, visual impairment is of two broad types: blindness and low vision, where blindness refers to the absence of any visual function, meaning that the person has a complete absence of light perception. Low vision is categorized into three subgroups: (1) severe low vision (visual acuity of 6/120 or worse, or a contracted visual field of less than 20 degrees); (2) moderate low vision (visual acuity of 6/60 to better than 6/120); and (3) mild low vision (visual acuity of 6/18 to better than 6/60) (Hong Kong Government, 1999).

Anatomy of the Human Eye The human eye is composed of a number of distinct segments, reflecting their different functions. It is a sphere with a diameter of about 2.4 cm (Saladin, 2004, pp. 612–5). The outer layer forms the wall of the eyeball and includes the sclera and the cornea. The cornea is transparent and its function is to refract and admit light, while the sclera, consisting of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves, helps to support the shape of the eye. The middle layer consists of the choroids, a deeply pigmented layer of tissue, the ciliary body and the iris. The ciliary body supports and adjusts the lens and secretes a fluid, and the iris adjusts the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting its diameter. The inner layer consists of the retina, supporting the photoreceptive cells, and the optic nerve.

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties 251

Within the eyeball there is a transparent jelly called the vitreous body, and the structure within it is the hyaloid canal. The macula and fovea produce detailed images because of the relatively high density of photoreceptor cells. The blind spot, a region without photoreceptor cells, is found where the optic nerve is attached to the eyeball.

Figure 8.1 The human visual system

Causes of Visual Impairments Visually impaired students are not a homogeneous group of people. Different visual conditions may involve totally different needs and requirements. Teachers should know the cause of visual impairment and conditions of vision of each individual student to have a better understanding of the educational implications in each case. Table 8.1 (p. 253) shows some common causes of visual impairments among children in Hong Kong, and teachers can also refer to Mason (1999, p. 10) and Poon-McBrayer and Lian (2002, pp. 178–88) for the educational implications of common visual conditions. The proportions of students with visual impairments caused by these conditions in Hong Kong and mainland China are not known.

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Effects of Visual Impairments Teachers need to be aware that different visual impairments pose different problems for the affected children. The typical conditions of various impairments are described in Table 8.2 (p. 253) and there are pictorial examples of two of these conditions in Figure 8.2 (p. 254).

Other Effects of Visual Impairments There are a number of other factors that affect the visual functioning of students. A brief outline of each is given below.

Sensitivity to illumination and glare Most students with low vision experience problems with illumination. Different eye defects may result in the requirement for high, medium or low levels of illumination. For example, students with high myopia, glaucoma, macular problems or optic atrophy may require additional lighting for visual tasks. In contrast, students with albinism, aniridia (absence of iris) or retinitis pigmentosa may need decreased lighting due to photophobia. Teachers need to pay particular attention to those with cataracts, because the need will depend on whether the cataract is at the centre or the periphery of the lens. Almost all students with visual impairments, whether or not increased or decreased lighting is required, are intolerant to glare. For instance, they are often troubled by glare from overhead lights or reflections from windows. Color perception Most students with low vision have deficiencies in color perception, reducing the effectiveness of certain color combinations. For instance, a student with red-green deficiency will not be able to discern the red apple amongst the green leaves in a picture book. To those who are completely color blind, all colors will appear in different hues of grey. Contrast sensitivity The contrast of the colors of objects in relation to the background may also affect the visual accessibility. For example, low vision students will find dark print on a

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties 253 Table 8.1

The most common causes of visual impairments among children in Hong Kong

Condition

Cause

Cataract

Opacification of the lens.

Cerebral disease/cortical visual impairment

Impaired vision due to a defective functioning of the visual pathways and/or brain lobes dealing with vision.

Glaucoma

Damage to vision because of elevated inner ocular pressure.

Nystagmus

Involuntary, rapid side-to-side movement of the eyeball.

Optic atrophy

Deterioration of the optic nerve.

Optic hyperplasia

Abnormalities in the formation and development of the eye in the fetus.

Retinal detachment

Portions of the retina detached from the supporting structure.

Retinopathy of prematurity

Pathological retinal defects caused by the high level of oxygen administered to premature babies.

Table 8.2

Visual impairments and their conditions

Visual impairments

Conditions

Albinism

Decreased visual acuity, nystagmus, photophobia, high refractive error, astigmatism.

Cataract

Decreased visual acuity, blurred vision, nystagmus, photophobia, squint.

Glaucoma

Photophobia, buphthalmos (enlarged eyeball), decreased visual acuity, constricted visual field.

Macula degeneration

Dense central scotoma (affecting central vision), photophobia.

Retinal detachment

Seeing flashing lights, sharp pain in eye, visual field loss, color defects, decreased visual acuity.

Retinitis pigmentosa

Night blindness, loss of peripheral field (tunnel vision), photophobia.

Retinopathy of prematurity

Decreased visual acuity, scarring on retina and retinal detachment, field loss.

Source: Adapted from Jose, 1983, p. 8.

254 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG

Normal vision

Cataract

Macular Degeneration

Glaucoma

Corneal pathology

Diabetic retinopathy

Figure 8.2 Examples of normal vision and impaired vision

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties 255

white/yellow background much easier to read than red/brown print on a pink/orange background. All students with visual impairments will need good contrast to enhance their visual performance. Depth perception Many students with visual impairments do not have equal vision in each eye. Often there is a big difference in visual acuity in the two eyes and sometimes the students may only be able to see effectively with one eye, resulting in poor depth perception. Poor contrast sensitivity also affects depth perception. Visual fatigue Owing to their poor visual acuity, small visual field and sensitivity to light, students with visual impairments will get tired easily when attending to visual tasks. This is particularly apparent in students with nystagmus.

Specific Needs of Students with Cortical Visual Impairment In recent years, the conditions and needs of students with cortical visual impairment (CVI) have been of increasing interest to researchers (Dutton, 2002; Groenveld, Jan, & Leader, 1990; Hyvarinen, 2004; Morse, 1999). Although these students often have an intact visual system, there is brain damage in the cortex or other areas. Usually these children are diagnosed by either ophthalmologists or pediatric neurologists, or both. The behavioral characteristics of students with CVI include: • responding better to objects of a single bright color, especially red or yellow; • seeing objects better when they are moving; • taking a long time to adapt to novelty; • taking a long time to respond visually; • having difficulty seeing when materials are complex or crowded; • tending to look away when reaching; and • being easily distracted by environmental stimulation such as noise.

Other Factors Influencing Students with Visual Impairments Visual impairments inevitably have a pervasive influence on the development of the person as a whole, and environmental factors also contribute to the unique development of each visually impaired person. A few of the main factors involved are described in the following four sections.

256 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG Onset of visual impairment: The needs of students who have congenital visual impairments are quite different from those with adventitious visual impairments. Those who become blind after five years of age will have enough visual memories to help them acquire and form concepts; and their spatial orientation and mobility will also be better than that of the congenitally blind (Best, 1992). Children who are congenitally blind are prone to develop stereotypic mannerisms and are less able to conform to conventional social behaviour. Attitude and support from the family: Positive attitudes and support from the family and/or significant others are essential in the development of students with visual impairments. If the parents and other family members are supportive and have appropriate expectations, a child will feel secure and enjoy a positive selfimage, which are vital for his/her total development. Personal traits: Teachers have to appreciate that each student has unique personal traits. Some students are more optimistic and others more pessimistic; some are outgoing and others more reserved; and some can adjust better to their visual disabilities than others. Many societies are beginning to incorporate counseling as an important resource for supporting children with disabilities (see Chapter 13). Additional impairments: Visual impairments are sometimes associated with additional impairments such as mental retardation or physical disabilities, complicating the children’s needs, with their problems often being multiplied, not just additional.

Classroom Challenges for Students with Visual Impairments Up to this point in the chapter, it is clear that the needs and problems of students with visual impairments are quite different from the needs of other students. Thus, the challenges they face in an inclusive classroom are also unique. The effects of visual impairment influence all areas of development. Learning without vision is not an easy task: the quantity and quality of the information will be reduced, and both students and teachers will have to work harder in order to interpret information (Best, 1992). Teachers should bear in mind that visual impairments will have significant effects on students’ learning processes as well as learning outcomes. Arter et al (1999) reminded teachers that: Pupils with a visual impairment may have complex needs and it is the role of the teacher to ensure that they have full access to the curriculum, allowing them to achieve their full potential … each pupil will face individual challenges when accessing the curriculum, and even those pupils with the same eye condition may present varying symptoms which require different approaches. (p. 3)

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Medium of learning One effect of vision loss is the inability to use ordinary print. Braille is the main medium of learning for students with visual impairments. In Britain, less than 5% of children with visual impairments need to use braille (Arter et al., 1999), but Chinese students with visual impairments will find it more difficult than their Western counterparts to use ordinary print materials because of the complexity of Chinese characters. In Hong Kong, students who are blind or have severe low vision learn both English and Chinese braille; and those with moderate low vision learn Chinese braille and English print. Those with mild low vision do not need to use braille as they can read print with an appropriate print size or with the help of low vision aids. There are different braille systems for different languages and subjects. In Hong Kong, visually impaired students have to learn three systems, including Cantonese braille, Putonghua braille and English braille (see Figure 8.3); and they also have to learn mathematics braille notation and music braille notation. It is even more challenging for Hong Kong students who are visually impaired than for their peers in other Chinese-speaking regions because students in other regions universally use Putonghua braille as the medium of instruction. Students with low vision may have difficulties in searching, scanning, and organizing visual information. Those using braille read by touch: they have to read word by word while tracking and discerning braille symbols by using their fingertips, and are not able to scan and skim information as do sighted students. When using braille or low vision aids, students often read more slowly. Even with excellent training and practice, the average speed of braille readers is eighty

Figure 8.3 Examples of Cantonese and English braille texts.

258 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG to a hundred words per minute (Best, 1992). According to Backman and Inde (1979), the rate of reading English print for people with low vision ranged from forty to 120 words per minute compared to a hundred to four hundred words for normally sighted people. Between 1997 and 2002, the Ebenezer School in Hong Kong conducted a research project on the Chinese reading speed of children with low vision. The results showed that the average Chinese reading speed of low vision junior secondary students is from 120 to 162 words per minute compared with 190 to 235 words for those with normal sight (Yeung & Yiu, 2003). The Chinese braille reading speed of junior secondary students in Ebenezer is around a hundred to two hundred words per minute (Yeung, 2005). Students with low vision have difficulties in reading because various visual impairments may cause print to appear hazy, blurred or distorted; and sometimes segments or words may be missing. All these factors lead to slow reading and fatigue. The effect of poor vision is especially apparent when reading Chinese print as Chinese characters are more complex than the English alphabet and many of them look similar. A difference in the position of a stroke or dot may make a great difference to both the meaning and pronunciation of a word. Therefore, it is particularly difficult for students in a Chinese classroom where Chinese is the main learning medium.

Assistive technologies and special aids Students with low vision may need to use magnifiers and telescopes for near and distance viewing respectively. There are simple visual aids (including spectacles, stand or hand-held magnifiers with or without illumination, binocular or monocular telescopes) as well as more complicated electronic aids such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) (see Figure 8.4 on p. 259). There are also screen magnifying software programs for the computer, some of them accompanied by speech output. For braille readers, the most basic aid is the braille typing machine called a brailler. There are electronic braille display devices for reading texts shown on the computer screen, which usually consist of a row of special ‘soft cells’ with six or eight pins made of metal or nylon. There are also various synthetic speech output devices to read out the texts. Optical character recognition (OCR) systems provide people who are visually impaired with the capacity to scan printed text and then have it spoken in synthetic speech or saved to a computer file. Sometimes blind students will use a handy braille notetaker that has a braille keyboard and display. This electronic organizer is similar to the notebook of the sighted. There are also braille translation software programmes that can produce braille output from a text file. This software then sends its output to a braille embosser which is connected to a computer like a printer.

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Figure 8.4 A student with low vision using a CCTV to read (photo by authors)

Special schools for the visually impaired in Hong Kong are well equipped with these facilities to cater for their students’ needs. In these schools, it is economically viable to install the special aids and assistive technologies because they can be shared by all the students and fully utilized. In mainstream schools, however, it may be difficult to install equipment that is both expensive and bulky in the classroom, particularly when there is only one student. A student with low vision may have a desk crowded with a reading stand, a CCTV, a computer, and a cassette recorder; and students may find it stressful if this has to happen in a congested primary classroom. Extra problems occur for secondary students who move from classroom to classroom for special subjects such as geography and science as they cannot carry all the necessary equipment around the school campus. In the future, a reduction in the physical size of the equipment may overcome many of these problems.

Environmental aspects According to Best (1992), students with visual impairments learn most effectively when three environmental aspects are considered, especially in a “large bustling and visually demanding area such as the classroom” (Best, 1992, p. 52), viz. the visual environment, the sound environment and the tactile environment:

260 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG The visual environment includes the lighting and décor of the classroom and school. For instance, doors can be painted in bright colors in contrast to the walls; color codes can be used to indicate different storage cupboards; and the nosings of stairs can also be painted in contrasting colors to help students with poor depth perception. The sound environment is important because students with visual impairments rely greatly on listening in order to learn and to navigate the classroom environment, since “without effective vision to act as a focus of attention, the child has to concentrate on a person or an activity mainly through listening” (Best, 1992, p. 59). On the other hand, braille users may need to use a tape recorder or a brailler for note taking, and they may need an area in which other people will not disturb them. Students who are blind need adequate tactile clues to help them with orientation and mobility, and so the tactile environment is also significant. Braille or tactile labels can be added to doors, cupboards and banisters of stairs, and tactile floor maps or room directions can be put at entrance halls or near lifts. Arter (1999) and Best (1992) have suggested that students with visual impairments may have to be seated near the wall where electrical sockets are available for desk lamps and other special equipment. They may also need to sit at a place that is glare-free, be able to get access to blackboard writing and demonstration work and sit where they can hear the teachers clearly. They also need extra space for storage of equipment and bulky braille books and care needs to be taken that their position does not obstruct other students. All three environmental adaptations can be made relatively easily in a special school for students with visual impairments, but are more difficult to achieve in a mainstream school where all other students are visually oriented, including those with other disabilities such as hearing impairments or physical handicaps. It is especially difficult in Hong Kong because the classrooms are small in size relative to the number of students and the school environments are often noisy due to the sound of traffic. Furthermore, it may not be financially viable to construct all the classrooms according to the needs of a small number of individuals.

Social aspects Students with visual impairments can have problems in social skills because of the absence of visual cues when using facial expressions, gestures, hand movements and other forms of body language (Best, 1992; Poon-McBrayer & Lian, 2002). Congenital visually impaired students may exhibit stereotypic behavior such as waving their hands in front of their faces, eye-poking, or rocking the body, which will make them less acceptable to their peers. These students may therefore need

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to be reminded that it is important to maintain good grooming and appropriate personal etiquette when interacting with others in a social situation.

Special curriculum Another unique need of students with visual impairments is the provision of a special curriculum which includes orientation and mobility, low vision training, braille learning and command of assistive technologies (Best, 1992). Barraga and Erin (2001) listed communication, orientation and mobility, social interaction skills, independent living skills, recreation and leisure skills, visual efficiency skills and career-vocational preparation as a disability-specific core curriculum that should be included in the educational and developmental goals for the visually impaired. The Education Department (now Education and Manpower Bureau) in Hong Kong also highlighted the special curriculum including tactile and pre-braille training, and orientation and mobility training, as well as low vision training for students with visual impairment in the Guide to the Curriculum for Visually Impaired Children (Curriculum Development Council, 1996). In a special school, these aspects are often incorporated into the main curriculum or taken as additional curriculum areas provided by specialist teachers of each discipline. While students are studying in a mainstream school, with an already tight timetable and pressing teaching schedule, it may be very demanding for the school administration and the class teachers to implement these training programs fully. Resource teachers based in special schools arrange training for the teachers involved as far as is feasible. Orientation and mobility: Perhaps one of the most difficult aspects of being visually impaired is being unable to get about to places freely and independently. However, with appropriate training in orientation and mobility (O & M), they will be able to enjoy, to a significant extent, the freedom of independent mobility in the community. O & M is a systematic training program designed to enable a visually impaired person to achieve safe, efficient and graceful movement from place to place. Orientation refers to the process of utilizing the remaining senses to gather auditory, tactual, olfactory, and kinesthetic cues in the surroundings to establish one’s position in an environment; and mobility is related to the actual movement through the environment, possibly with the use of a cane, a sighted guide, a guide dog, or other technological mobility devices. Low vision training: Since the 1960s, extensive research in Europe, the United States and elsewhere, has found that with appropriate sequential visual stimulation activities, children with low vision can develop their limited visual ability to the highest potential (Barraga & Morris, 1980). It is suggested that there should be an individual low vision training program for students with low vision, no matter how

262 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG little residual vision they may have. In the schools for visually impaired students in Hong Kong, there are well established low vision training programs. If students in the mainstream are receiving resource teachers’ services, the resource teachers will design the individual program for them. Besides the clinical reports provided by eye specialists, the teacher has to assess the child’s functional vision because the ability to use one’s residual vision is not necessarily directly related to visual acuity. The result of the assessment will help the teacher identify which skills need to be trained and an individual training program can then be planned. The training programs are often comprised of activities that enhance the control of eye movements, basic visual perception and reading and writing skills. Control of eye movements includes fixation, shift of gaze, tracking and scanning; and visual perception is the ability to discriminate and identify objects, pictures and figures, for example, and to accurately perceive what is being seen. Training in reading and writing aims to develop effective skills to increase reading speed and writing legibility which are often handicaps of low vision students, and as part of the program they learn to use various optical and non-optical aids. Braille training: Braille text is based on a cell of six raised dots that can be arranged into different patterns to form the alphabet and signs. It is important for students to develop tactile skills to become efficient touch readers (McCall, 1999). These skills include light finger touch, line-tracking skills and tactual perception. At the same time, students need to develop flexibility, dexterity and strength in their wrists and hands for typing with the brailler (see Figure 8.5).

(a) A Perkins brailler

( b) An embosser

Figure 8.5 Typing with a Perkins brailler (a) and an embosser (b)

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When learning Chinese braille, students must learn to discriminate the sound and tone of different characters because Chinese is a tonal language. Students with visual impairment in the mainstream schools will need some individual teaching by specialist teachers if they are to learn braille but classroom teachers can help them develop touch skills through activities such as working with plasticine or clay, sorting and exploration. Specialist teachers are responsible for teaching Cantonese (a Chinese dialect) braille.

Attitudes of significant others The growth and development of children are to a great extent dependent on the environment and the significant others around them. In the case of a visually impaired student who is integrated into a mainstream school, the attitude of the teachers, parents, peers, and the visually impaired student him/herself make a difference to the success or failure of the process. Attitudes of teachers: It is commonly acknowledged that in mainstream schools, a positive attitude among teachers is essential for the successful inclusion of students with special educational needs, including those in the Chinese classroom (Deng, Poon-McBrayer and Farnsworth, 2001; Gelzheiser & Meyers, 1996; Lian, 2002; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996; Yuen & Westwood, 2001). Yuen and Westwood (2001) found that teachers in Hong Kong secondary schools generally agree that “all students have the right to be educated in regular classrooms” (p. 78). However, these teachers were also uncertain about the feasibility of the practice and felt anxious about the practicality of including students with the full range of abilities and disabilities in the same classroom; and they displayed negative attitudes toward integrating students with visual impairments when these students were unable to read regular standard printed materials. Lian (2002) also found that the percentage of teachers in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the United States who supported inclusion for students with a visual disability was comparatively lower than for students with other disabilities. Another concern for teachers is a perceived lack of the support, training and resources necessary for the implementation of an inclusive program. Scruggs and Mastropieri (1996) reported in their meta-analysis that less than one-third of teachers in the surveys believed they had sufficient skills, training, resources or time for effective inclusion. Lian (2002) also found that when teachers were asked to work in an inclusive classroom, most felt they lacked adequate training, time and support from administrators. If teachers feel that they lack the skills, resources and support to cater for students with visual impairments in their classes, both they and their students will suffer, even if they have a positive attitude toward inclusion. The teachers in these

264 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG studies felt that it was the responsibility of the policy makers to provide training, resources and support to teachers in mainstream schools if inclusive education is to be a success. Placing students with visual impairment in mainstream classrooms does not automatically guarantee success. The ultimate criterion is whether students are learning, and mainstreaming without adequate and competent support will inevitably lead to frustration for both the teachers and their students. Attitudes of parents: Parents’ attitudes influence their children’s selfexpectations and achievement of educational goals. At one extreme, some parents have too high expectations of their visually impaired children. Chinese parents in particular often believe that hard work can make up for handicaps, and they may put undue pressure on their children and attribute failure to their not making enough effort. At the other extreme, some parents have very low or no expectations, which deters the students from maximizing their potential. Mehr and Freid (1975) warned that if families are too solicitous of their children’s welfare by being overprotective and restricting the development of their sense of independence, the children’s feelings of helplessness may intensify. Attitudes of peers: The attitudes of sighted peers toward children with visual impairments vary. Some may be understanding and willing to accept students with disabilities into their circle, displaying behaviors that are both helpful and sympathetic. However, others may show negative attitudes by discriminating, teasing, bullying or isolating them. Attitudes of the students with visual impairments: Students with visual impairments who transfer from a relatively self-contained residential school to the more challenging social situation of a mainstream school require self-assurance and willingness to face the comparatively much more unpredictable environment. Those with a strong sense of empowerment and self-advocacy may be able to adjust better during the initial phase of transfer. Counseling may support the student as well as their classmates in the adjustment process.

Classroom Strategies There have been a number of attempts to identify effective teaching strategies related to visual impairments (Best, 1992; McCall, 1999; Poon-McBrayer & Lian, 2002). Teachers have to present learning materials and worksheets using appropriate letter size and print contrast for their students with low vision, and braille copies have to be prepared for those with severe vision loss. The provision of enlarged or tactile illustrations and diagrams can be a significant challenge for both the teacher and the visually impaired students. Also, any information that is written on a blackboard needs to be supplemented by spoken information. Teachers need to find ways to

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provide ample first-hand experiences for students with visual impairments, both inside and outside the classroom.

Teaching materials Teachers of students with visual impairments need to prepare teaching materials according to the unique needs of each individual student. They have to bear in mind that students with different eye defects and vision conditions will have different requirements for their learning materials. Reading materials with good contrast and appropriate font size to suit their individual needs would be most helpful to visually impaired readers, but these materials also require considerable effort and time to develop. It should be noted also that not all those with low vision benefit from large print: it will be welcomed by those with central vision loss but not those with tunnel vision. In addition, some students may prefer double-line spacing but others may not; and, teachers should appreciate that typed materials are always preferred to hand-written ones. When preparing study materials for visually impaired students, the teacher is encouraged to consider the following points: 1. When preparing enlarged illustrations or charts, use bold outline and good color contrast. Arditi (2005) lists three guidelines for visual effectiveness for low vision students. The first is to exaggerate lightness differences between foreground and background colors. For example, red and green seem to contrast sharply to the normal sighted, but this will not be effective for the visually impaired if they are of similar lightness. Second, choose dark colors with hues in the range of red and blue against light colors from yellow to green – for example, dark violet against light blue is a good contrast. Third, do not use hues from adjacent parts of the hue circle for contrast (e.g. red on orange) as this will not be effective. 2. Since pictures cannot be shown in braille, and need to be transformed into tactile illustrations, charts and tables will also require modification when transcribed into braille format. Low vision students may find the pictures in ordinary print textbooks too crowded or messy for them to discern the details. When dealing with illustrations in the teaching materials, teachers have to explain the content of pictures verbally if they are essential for understanding the context. They also need to guide the students through the framework of the charts and tables so that they have a clear concept of the data presented. These tactile study materials usually can be provided by the resource teachers and the Centralized Braille Production Centre operated by the Hong Kong Society for the Blind or Ebenezer School.

266 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG 3.

4.

5.

Real objects, toys or models can often be substituted for pictures, especially in the lower primary school levels. While working with students with visual impairments, teachers may find it very helpful to have a collection of different materials at hand. There should be ample display items such as two- or threedimensional plaques, tactual wall hangings, or other objects to encourage exploration, and these should be placed at touch and eye level. Braille or print copies should be prepared for students if lengthy notes are to be put on the blackboard. Regular classroom teachers and resource teachers can cooperate in providing this assistance to students. Recorded books or notes would be helpful if braille versions are not available. Nolan (1996, cited in Barraga & Erin, 2001, p. 124) compared braille reading with listening and found that listening to recorded materials required only about one-third of the time required for tactual reading of the same material, and that no loss in comprehension was experienced. However, it should also be noted that too much dependence on recorded materials may in the long run render a child a poor speller.

Presentation To make their lessons effective and productive, teachers need to observe a few basic principles when teaching a class which includes visually impaired students. To start with, the lessons should be well planned and organized. According to Barraga and Erin (2001), “… it appears that children without vision, or with very little vision, cannot fully develop many concepts unless carefully planned teaching strategies counterbalance the perceptive privation” (p. 85). A highly structured lesson will help students organize information and reduce the potential for confusion. Also, addressing students by name before asking them questions will help focus their attention. There is no need to avoid terms such as see or blind since the child will need to interact with all people in a generally sighted society. Teachers should identify potentially difficult concepts, and resource teachers or mainstream teachers can arrange extra sessions before or after the lesson to go over these concepts with visually impaired students. Furthermore, teachers should provide accurate descriptions and use appropriate vocabulary, and always describe to the students what is happening around them. Students with visual impairments should also be allowed to have a close view of any demonstrations or teaching aids. Involving these students in as many activities as possible will facilitate their access to first-hand experiences. Teachers should use a clear, audible, varied and pleasant voice in their presentations. Without vision to help them stay alert, students are prone to drift away during lessons if the teacher’s voice is monotonous. At the same time, tone and pitch should be relaxed to avoid agitation.

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Adaptation of assignments and assessment In giving assignments, examinations and tests, teachers should take note of the specific needs of the visually impaired students that require special consideration and particular arrangements. Because of the visually impaired students’ slow reading speed, teachers should allow enough extra time for them to finish their work. Additional time should also be allowed during examinations. However, Best (1992) warned that teachers should be careful not to “slip into an undemanding and over-protecting routine” (p. 75). Teachers should help students to settle down to work quickly and avoid asking unnecessary questions. The commonly accepted standard of classroom behavior should generally be expected from students with visual impairments. Avoid unnecessary copying and frequently interrupt tasks with short rest periods in order to prevent fatigue. Besides visual fatigue caused by poor vision, being forced to read print at a close distance may create bad posture that leads to body fatigue. Reading and writing braille are also demanding on the fingers and hands. When preparing examination or test papers, teachers might have to replace pictures with text descriptions. It should be noted that the descriptions should be clear and detailed enough for the students to understand the pictures but not give hints about the answers. Finally, allow oral presentations or have somebody write the answers for students with visual impairments, if necessary.

Helping students acquire generic skills The dictum for educating students with visual impairments is to help them help themselves. Teachers should help students acquire generic skills such as critical thinking, communication and collaboration skills, the use of information technology, and study skills, to meet the challenges of future life and become independent and contributing members of society. Critical thinking: Without vision, the quantity and quality of the information received will be reduced (Best, 1992) and sometimes the information available will not be sufficient to make clear what is happening in the surroundings. For example, with the many things taking place in a busy classroom, students with visual impairments may find it hard to interpret or follow the lesson, which will inhibit learning. Teachers should help students develop critical thinking skills so that they can make judgments about situations and decide on actions to take. Also students need to have “critical listening skills to summarize information and identify the most important points” (Barraga & Erin, 2001, p. 123). Communication and collaboration: The visually impaired are deficient in communication skills. As Poon-McBrayer and Lian (2002) related, “a person’s

268 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG inability to develop [a non-verbal communication system] through acquiring visual cues seriously affects interpersonal interactions” (p. 180). It is vital to help students with visual impairments master communication skills for social competency and collaborative learning with both the sighted and those with visual impairment. Collaboration and communication are interrelated: learning through collaboration can facilitate communication skills and good communication skills can enhance collaboration. Information technology: The development of skills in information technology (IT) enables students with visual impairments to gain access to new information. The revolutionary development of technology “has provided opportunities for students with visual impairment to readily access information far more rapidly than in the past” (Barraga & Erin, 2001, p. 138). Nowadays, they can have access to electronic books and information through the internet. There are also devices that allow the visually impaired to scan reading materials into the computer to be read through voice synthesizers or by braille displays. For years, the very limited production of braille books has been a barrier to the academic achievement of such students, especially when they entered higher education. However, IT helps to lessen dependence on the production of braille books and allows students with visual impairments to widen the scope of their knowledge significantly. A computer is also an effective tool for the visually impaired to communicate with the sighted. With assistive technologies, they can input materials into the computer and produce either print or braille copies, or both. Competence in IT greatly helps visually impaired students who study in mainstream schools to “be integrated with sighted peers and achieve success in the classroom” (Barraga & Erin, 2001, p. 127). Study skills, problem solving and self-management: These skills are important to students with visual impairments as they have to plan how to access information from different sources. They need to know how to scan for key information from the bulky braille books or from the Web and how to organize their notes so that they can find what is needed efficiently. They also have to manage their time more effectively in order to compensate for their slower reading and working speed.

Safety precautions A school that admits students with visual impairments is committed to providing a safe environment for these students. As Arter (1999, p. 19) stated: a careful audit of the school environment by a fully qualified teacher of the visually impaired is recommended, to establish where simple improvements may be made, and where dangers exist, so that steps may be taken to minimize or eliminate these.

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There are also measures that the school community should be aware of to make the school environment safe for the visually impaired student, including the following: • Doors and windows should not be half-open, and passageways should be kept clear of obstacles. • The classroom settings should not be changed constantly. Any changes made should be made known to students with visual impairment and, if necessary, orientation to the new setting should be given. • All equipment and tools should be kept in an orderly fashion in their correct places and labeled clearly. Sharp tools should be kept in a safe place, and students with visual impairments should be taught to handle them carefully. • Sockets should have an on-off switch and should be kept off until the plug is inserted. • Physical guidance should be given for some dangerous tasks until students are confident with independent manipulation. Do not rush the students in work tasks or in mobility as this can be very frustrating or even frightening, and can sometimes lead to dangerous situations.

Subject Focus As far as possible, as with their sighted peers, visually impaired students should be allowed to take subjects in accordance with their ability and interests. Inevitably, when vision is absent or impaired, there are bound to be difficulties in the learning process related to the curriculum, subject content, teaching materials and methodology. Nevertheless, with professionalism and creativity, teachers can always find solutions and adaptive methods.

Languages In general, visually impaired students learn languages in the same way as their sighted peers, that is by listening, speaking, reading and writing. The primary difference is in their use of the reading material – braille or large print. The main problems that are likely to be encountered by these students during the acquisition of a language are outlined in the next section. Chinese braille is a phonetic system that uses braille signs to represent Chinese characters pronounced in the respective dialects. Characters with the same sound in a dialect will have the same braille symbols. Without an adequate context, a braille user reading Chinese braille will often find it difficult to determine the

270 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG denotation of some braille signs. Teachers need to guide students to develop their awareness to discern the meaning of particular words from the context. Without vision, students lack incidental learning opportunities and cannot easily relate what they hear from the environment to what is actually happening. This will present obstacles to their language development. Teachers and family members play a particularly important role in, for instance, making use of daily activities to enrich the students’ experience by always being ready to describe and explain what is happening around them. Teachers can also create situational learning activities to consolidate the students’ understanding and use of language. Essays written by students with visual impairment are often short and lack originality. They are particularly weak in writing descriptive essays because their vocabulary, especially abstract descriptive words, is limited. They tend to copy terms or descriptions that they have heard other people say or have read from books, without really understanding the meaning. Teachers should give ample examples and make sure the students have a thorough understanding of the meaning of the words they use in their essays. It is important that teachers help students develop critical thinking and creativity through first-hand learning experiences so that they can write more original essays by describing their own experiences and expressing their own feelings and opinions. For example, many students with deficit vision have the experience of failing to get off at their destination bus-stops or losing their way while traveling. Teachers can discuss this issue with them, ask them to talk about their feelings and allow them to suggest possible solutions. It is also necessary to expand their vocabulary and expression through extensive reading and listening. It is comparatively difficult for visually impaired students to do extensive reading. Students with low vision find reading for a long time very tiring and braille readers may be hindered by limited braille reading materials. It would be helpful for students to have recorded books or have volunteers or buddies read to them. In Hong Kong, braille and recorded books are available from the Hong Kong Society for the Blind, schools for the visually impaired and other agencies for and of the visually impaired. Without vision, it is very difficult for students to learn vocabulary with abstract meaning, especially when learning in a second language. Teachers should use concrete examples and multi-sensory presentations in their teaching. They should also create situational learning activities and provide ample first-hand learning experiences to the students. Sometimes teachers might have to give a Chinese explanation for certain English words even though this practice is not generally encouraged. Students with visual impairments have to acquire information mainly through listening, so it is important for language teachers to help them develop their listening skills. These students should “develop critical listening skills, learn note-taking skills, and develop the ability to summarize information and identify the most important points” (Barraga & Erin, 2001, p. 124).

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While teaching verse speaking or speech delivery, for example, teachers need to teach students the proper facial expressions and gestures because they cannot learn that by observation and imitation. Teachers can provide physical guides to the students with gestures, whereas facial expressions are often verbally explained and described to them.

Social studies, science and mathematics Social studies, science and mathematics all encompass abstract ideas that involve space, distance, visual features, or large or small objects that might not be understandable to a child who learns through touch (Barraga & Erin, 2001, p. 128). Teachers should consider using various real objects, tactile models and diagrams to enable students to understand these concepts. Precise and clear verbal description is also important. Many professionally produced tactile or audible teaching materials can be purchased from agencies for the visually impaired. However, teachers can easily make economical teaching aids such as raised illustrations by using recycled materials like foam boards and carton egg containers. Students with visual impairments, especially braille readers, will need a number of assistive aids in learning social studies, science and mathematics. There are raised maps, compasses and scales with braille or sound output, rulers with raised dots, and voiced calculators, for example (see Figures 8.6 and 8.7 on p. 272). Teachers should make sure that the students have the necessary aids and can use them effectively. These special aids are available from agencies such as the Hong Kong Society for the Blind and overseas agencies for visually impaired persons. Students should have learned to use these aids in the special school before integrating; and if they have not, special sessions need to be provided by resource teachers to teach them how to use them. Braille code for science and mathematics is another separate system of braille notation and is much more complicated than the original print versions. Without a consolidated mastery of these codes, students will not be able to do assignments accurately. It will be helpful if classroom teachers also have some knowledge of these braille codes. If required, assistance can be sought from resource teachers who are proficient in scientific and mathematical braille notations. The most difficult areas in social studies, science and mathematics are those that involve diagrams and charts, and students with visually impairments often have problems in understanding these items. Tactile representations of graphics should be modified and simplified by just giving the most crucial information. Sometimes diagrams and charts might have to be cut into parts, with each part enlarged. An extremely difficult task for tactile reading is to make a raised-line drawing to represent a three-dimensional drawing. Students with visual impairment will find

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Figure 8.6 Tools for mathematics and science

Figure 8.7 A raised map with braille illustration

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that drawing diagrams and charts using an adapted ruler and a compass is by no means easy, and teachers should make allowance for their imperfect or imprecise outcomes.

Information technology Students with low vision will need a screen enlarger to help them see better. This can be in the form of a software program or sometimes a larger monitor or an addon magnifying screen will be helpful. Visually impaired students need to have their own computers because it is difficult for them to share a computer screen with their normal sighted or visually impaired peers. Braille readers will need a braille display device or voice output facilities. There are several voice synthesizing programs in English, which are well developed and user-friendly. However, there are not many in Chinese and they are still in the initial experimental stage. This is a substantial challenge for students with visual impairment in a Chinese classroom. Even with assistive technologies, students with visual impairment still need help in searching and browsing information from the World Wide Web. They may also have problems in using the mouse-click because they are not able to maneuver its position to the icons on the screen and therefore prefer to use the command key method.

Visual arts Students without normal sight can be creative in the visual arts because they are able to use the haptic sense for creating and admiring art work. “The term haptic refers to those sensations received through the organs of touch, through tension and movement of muscles, bones, and tendons” (Lisenco, 1971, p. 21). Students with visual impairment often use mixed media to create art work, with the personal satisfaction gained from the activity and process being more important than the product. They should also be taught to evaluate the products of their work and that of others as part of their development of art appreciation. Upon completing an art product, the students can tell classmates what it is and how it has been done, and they can also share how they rate their art work and why, and then classmates can also give feedback with their opinions. The teacher can guide them through the process and help them learn and use terms commonly employed in art appreciation such as “well-balanced in form”, or “good use of color contrast.”

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Music It is a common myth that people with visual impairments are all talented in music: “In fact a given visually impaired child may show just as much or as little musical promise as any other” (Ockelford, 2006, p. 2). However, Ockelford also noted that the development of the musical abilities of children who are blind since birth, or at an early age, is in some exceptional cases substantially different from normal. Some of them demonstrate astonishing abilities such as “ease of transposition of keys”: that is, being able to play a piece starting on any note. There are others who can play a piece of music after hearing it just once, although this is rare. In general, being required by nature to use their listening skills to compensate for visual loss, visually impaired persons tend to do well in music. Also, as music can be enjoyed without sight, many visually impaired people do take it up as a pastime or even a career. As students need to read braille musical notations with their fingers, they cannot read the scores and play at the same time, and thus they always have to memorize the music while playing. When learning musical instruments, physical guiding is helpful at the beginning stages.

Physical education When teaching physical education (PE), teachers should check the students’ medical condition and seek advice from the family’s medical practitioner to ensure that the child’s condition does not preclude them from participating in intensive or contact sports. Generally, students at particular risk include those with a tendency for retinal detachment, high myopia and glaucoma. Also, those with albinism should be protected from ultra-violet light when engaging in outdoor activities. Swimming is one of the best sports for most students with visual impairment while ball games that need rapid visual-motor coordination are difficult for them. With some modifications in methods or rules of games, students with visual impairment can enjoy most activities during PE lessons. Montagnino (2001) has many practical suggestions for PE teachers who are teaching visually impaired students, so there is no need to exempt them from PE lessons. For example, the teacher can help them by limiting the playing space such as having a smaller football field instead of a full-size one, and there are footballs which emit audible beeping constantly to help in locating them. With running in races, the blind student can be guided by a sighted peer, and the teacher can also help by arranging escorts for the blind or low vision students. At times when students cannot participate in some activities, it is better to engage them in an alternative activity, rather than asking them to study in the library.

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Home economics Skills and practices gained from studying home economics are part of the daily living skills that are essential for the development of independence. At school, students with visual impairment should be included in home economics lessons so that they can learn to organize and take control of their own lives. With systematic training, a totally blind person is able to prepare a good meal for himself/herself, take care of household chores, and organize and identify his/her personal belongings and all sorts of household items. As far as possible, teachers should emphasize the teaching and learning of transferable skills. For example, when cleaning a table after dinner, a blind person has to wipe the entire surface of the table each time as he/she does not see where the dirt is. Blind students are therefore taught to carry out the wiping in a systematic manner, dividing the table into sections, and wiping in consistent motions section by section to ensure that the complete surface of the table is covered. After mastering this principle and skills, the students should attempt to transfer and generalize the method to other household cleaning chores, such as cleaning large window panes, and even mopping or vacuum cleaning the whole floor of a large room.

One School’s History of Integrating Students with Visual Impairment in Hong Kong Long before the Education and Manpower Bureau launched the pilot project on integration in 1997, the Ebenezer School in Hong Kong had been promoting and supporting integrated education for almost thirty years (Ebenezer School, 1997). In 1970, two boys with visual impairments were integrated into a mainstream school through liaison between the two schools; and since then, more students have been encouraged to study in mainstream schools after they have finished lower secondary education at Ebenezer School. The value of this practice was recognized by the Education Department in 1979 when a subsidy for the program began to be provided. In recent years, some students may even choose to integrate earlier. These students, as well as the teachers in the mainstream schools, are supported by resource teachers and other professionals based in Ebenezer School. In the 2005– 06 school year, seventy-five visually impaired students studying in fifty-eight mainstream secondary schools, primary schools as well as in other special schools received resource support services from the Resource Support Programme of Ebenezer School. Experience shows that students with visual impairments often face a number of challenges in a mainstream classroom, and so providing professional and timely resource support services is essential to enable them to be included successfully in mainstream education settings.

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Summary This chapter defines visual impairment, explains its main causes among children, and discusses pertinent personal and environmental factors that affect their learning. It is important to note that visually impaired students are not a homogeneous group: they differ significantly from one another due to the diverse nature and degrees of severity of particular visual impairments. Other major factors affecting the growth and learning of these students include: the time of onset of the visual impairment, the attitudes and support from the family, their personal traits, and whether they have additional disabilities. It is also essential for mainstream classroom teachers to note that most legally blind persons can read print with appropriate magnification devices. In recent years, cortical visual impairment (CVI) has become of particular concern to ophthalmologists, pediatric neurologists and special educators as the learning needs and behavioral characteristics of children with CVI are found to be significantly different from those with ocular visual impairments. In the classroom, visually impaired students face various challenges such as the availability of the specific medium of learning (braille or magnified reading materials), and other restrictive conditions posed by the environment associated with visual impairments. The availability of, and proper arrangements for, rehabilitative training related to visual impairments (namely, orientation and mobility, low vision training, braille, etc.) are also crucial for the growth and development of the children. As regards classroom strategies, teachers of students with visual impairments need to prepare teaching materials according to the distinctive needs of individual students, who will have different requirements due to their different eye defects and vision conditions. Adaptations in presentation methods, assignments and assessments are also required. To allow students with visual impairments to learn effectively, practical suggestions for teachers of particular school subjects including languages, social studies, science, mathematics, information technology, visual arts, music, physical education and home economics are presented.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2.

List the needs of students with (a) albinism (b) glaucoma and (c) macular degeneration in a mainstream classroom. As a class teacher, what can you do to help them? How can a totally blind student take part in a cookery lesson? What modifications to the learning environment and teaching would be necessary?

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties 277

3.

What alternative activity can be arranged for a blind/low vision student in a physical education lesson when everyone else is practicing basketball or badminton?

Glossary Albinism is a hereditary condition characterized by a lack of pigment in the eyes, skin, or hair. The irises of the eyes may be white or pinkish. People with albinism are sensitive to bright light and glare and commonly have other vision problems. The aqueous is the thin, watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and the iris (anterior chamber). The braille system is a method that is widely used by blind people to read and write. It was devised in 1821 by a French blind person named Louis Braille. Each braille character or “cell” is made up of six dots arranged in a rectangle containing two columns of three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions to form sixty-four combinations to represent different letters or symbols. A brailler is a simple machine used to write braille. It is a “typewriter” with keys corresponding to each of the six dots of the braille code. By simultaneously pressing different combinations of the six keys, users can create any of the characters in the braille code. In addition to these six keys, it has a space key, a backspace key, and a line space key. Like a manual typewriter, it has two side knobs to advance paper through the machine and a carriage return lever above the keys. Cataracts are a condition in which the lens of the eye, which is normally clear, becomes cloudy or opaque. The choroid lies between the retina and sclera. It is composed of layers of blood vessels that nourish the back of the eye. The cornea is the transparent, dome-shaped window covering the front of the eye. It is a powerful refracting surface, providing two-thirds of the eye’s focusing power. Corneal opacity is a condition where the cornea, the clear curved surface that covers the front of the eye, becomes cloudy or opaque due to certain diseases or disorders. Cortical visual impairment is caused by damage to the cortex, the part of the brain related to vision. Although the eye is normal, the brain cannot properly process the information it receives. Glaucoma is a disease caused by the high pressure of the fluid inside the eye. If the condition is not diagnosed and treated, the increased pressure can damage the optic nerve, resulting in a loss of peripheral vision and may eventually lead to total blindness. The iris is the colored part of the eye. It controls light levels entering the eye similar to the aperture of a camera. The round opening in the center of the iris is called “the pupil”. Legal blindness refers to a level of visual impairment defined by law to determine eligibility for services. In Hong Kong, it applies to central visual acuity of 6/120 or less in the better eye with the best possible correction, or a visual field of 20 degrees or less. The lens is a crystalline substance located just behind the iris. Its purpose is to focus light onto the retina.

278 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG Low vision is a level of vision loss that may be severe enough to impede a person’s ability to carry out everyday activities, but still allows some functionally useful sight. The macula is located roughly in the center of the retina, temporal to the optic nerve. It is a small and highly sensitive part of the retina responsible for detailed central vision. The fovea is the very center of the macula. The macula allows us to appreciate detail and perform tasks that require central vision such reading. Macular degeneration is a disease that causes dysfunction of the macula, the area in the middle of the retina that makes possible the sharp central vision. Optic nerve atrophy refers to the degeneration of the optic nerve, which carries visual information from the eye to the brain. Orientation and mobility refers to two terms. Orientation means using one’s senses to judge where one is in space and where one wants to go. Mobility is one’s ability to carry out a plan to get from one point to another skilfully, effectively, gracefully and independently. The retina is a multi-layered sensory tissue approximately 0.5 mm thick that lines the back of the eye. It contains millions of photoreceptors that capture light rays and convert them into electrical impulses. These impulses travel along the optic nerve to the brain where they are turned into images. Retinitis pigmentosa is an inherited disease that causes degeneration of the retina, resulting in decreased night vision, a gradual loss of peripheral vision, and sometimes, loss of central vision. The degeneration progresses over time and can lead to total blindness. Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a condition associated with premature birth, in which the growth of normal blood vessels in the retina stops, and abnormal blood vessels develop. As a result, the infant has an increased risk of detachment of the retina. The sclera is commonly known as “the white of the eye.” It is the tough, opaque tissue that serves as the eye’s protective outer coat. Six tiny muscles connect to it around the eye and control the eye’s movements. The optic nerve is attached to the sclera at the very back of the eye. The scotoma is a gap or blind spot in the field of vision that may result from damage to the retina. Visual acuity refers to the clarity or clearness of one’s vision, a measure of how well a person sees. Visual field is the entire area that can be seen when the eye is focused on a central point, including that which is seen with peripheral vision. The normal human visual field in each eye extends to approximately 35 degrees nasally (toward the nose, or inward), to 90 degrees temporally (away from the nose, or outwards), and approximately 50 degrees above and below the horizontal meridian. The vitreous is a thick, transparent substance that fills the center of the eye. It is composed mainly of water and gives the eye form and shape.

References Arditi, A. (2005). Effective color contrast designing for people with partial sight and color deficiencies. Retrieved June 19, 2006, from http://www.lighthouse.org/color_contrast.htm

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties 279 Arter, C. (1999). Environmental issues. In C. Arter, H. L. Mason, S. McCall, M. McLinden, & J. Stone (Eds.), Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings (pp. 19– 28). London: David Fulton Publishers. Arter, C., Mason, H. L., McCall, S., McLinden, M., & Stone J. (Eds.) (1999). Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings. London: David Fulton Publishers. Backman, O., & Inde, K. (1979). Low vision training. Malmo, Sweden: Liberhermods. Barraga, N. C., & Morris, J. E. (1980). Program to develop efficiency in visual functioning. Source book on low vision. Louisville, KY: American Printing House for the Blind, Inc. Barraga, N. C., & Erin, J. N. (2001). Visual impairments and learning. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Best, A. B. (1992). Teaching children with visual impairments. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Curriculum Development Council. (1996). Guide to curriculum for visually impaired children. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Deng, M., Poon-McBrayer, K. F., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China, Remedial and Special Education, 22(5), 288–298. Dutton, G. N. (2002). Visual problems in children with damage to the brain. Visual Impairment Research, 4(2), 113–121. Ebenezer School. (1997). Ebenezer 100 anniversary book. Hong Kong: The Ebenezer School for the Visually Impaired. Gelzheiser L. M., & Meyers, J. (1996). Classroom teachers’ view of pull-in programs. Exceptionality, 6(2), 81–98. Groenveld, M., Jan, J. E., & Leader. P. (1990). Observations on the habilitation of children with cortical visual impairment. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 84, 11–15. Hong Kong Government. (1999). Hong Kong rehabilitation programme plan (1998–99 to 2002–03). Hong Kong: Rehabilitation Division, Health and Welfare Bureau. Hyvarinen, L. (2004). Web cast series on cortical visual impairment. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.ksar.usu.educ/leacvi. Jose, R. T. (1983). Understanding low vision. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Lian, M-G. J. (2002). Teacher’s perceptions regarding inclusive education in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the United States. Paper presented at the Research Seminar of the Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, July 8, 2002. Lisenco, Y. (1971). Art not by eye. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Mason, H. L. (1999). Understanding the causes of visual impairment and the assessment of vision. In C. Arter, H. L. Mason, S. McCall, M. McLinden, & J. Stone (Eds.), Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings (pp. 7–17). London: David Fulton Publishers. McCall, S. (1999). Accessing the curriculum. In C. Arter, H. L. Mason, S. McCall, M. McLinden, & J. Stone (Eds.), Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings (pp. 29–40). London: David Fulton Publishers. Mehr, E. B., & Freid, A. N. (1975). Low vision care. New York: Professional Press Books. Montagnino, A. (2001). Physical education and recreation for blind and visually impaired students. Future Reflections. Winter 2001. Retrieved March 15, 2005, from http://www. nfb.org/fr/fr6/frw0113.htm. Morse, M. T. (1999). Cortical visual impairment: Some words of caution. RE:view, 31(1), Spring 1999, Retrieved November 15, 2004, from ProQuest Education Complete, p. 21–26.

280 Simon LEUNG and Phoebe YEUNG Ockelford, A. (2006). Music and visually impaired children. Retrieved June 21, 2006, from Royal National Institute of the Blind (1995–2006) website: http://www.rnib.org.uk/ xpedio/groups/public/documents/visugate/public_musicvi.hcsp#P10_964. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. & Lian, M-G. J. (2002). Special needs education: Children with exceptionalities. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Saladin, K. S. (2004). Anatomy & physiology: The unity of form and function (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1996). Teacher perceptions of mainstreaming/inclusion, 1958–1995: A research synthesis. Exceptional Children, 63(1), 59–74. World Health Organization. (2004). Magnitude and causes of visual impairment. Fact Sheet No. 282. Retrieved May 30, 2006, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/ fs282/en/. Yeung, P. (2005). Report on reading speed of visually impaired students in Ebenezer School, from 2001–2005. Unpublished material. Yeung, P., & Yiu, Y. W. (2003). Brief report on the Chinese reading speed of low vision students. Ebenezer News, Vol. No. 20, August. Yuen, M., & Westwood, P. (2001). Integrating students with special needs in Hong Kong secondary schools: Teachers’ attitudes and their possible relationship to guidance training. International Journal of Special Education, 16(2), 69–84.

Further Reading Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings: Arter, C., Mason, H. L., McCall, S., McLinden, M., & Stone J. (Eds.). (1999). Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings. London: David Fulton Publishers. Guide to curriculum for visually impaired children: Curriculum Development Council (1996) Guide to curriculum for visually impaired children. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Special needs education: Poon-McBrayer, K. F. & Lian, M-G. J. (2002). Special needs education: Children with exceptionalities. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Teaching children with visual impairments: Best, A. B. (1992). Teaching children with visual impairments. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Visual impairments and learning: Barraga, N. C., & Erin, J. N. (2001). Visual impairments and learning. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Useful Websites American Printing House for the Blind: http://www.aph.org Beijing School for the Blind: http://mrxx.bjedu.gov.cn

Students with Visual and Perceptual Difficulties 281 Ebenezer School and Home for the Visually Impaired: http://www.ebenezer.org.hk/ Enabling Technologies: http://www.brailler.com Hong Kong Blind Union: http://www.hkbu.org.hk Hong Kong Society for the Blind: http://www.hksb.org.hk National Federation of the Blind: http://www.nfb.org ORBIS: http://www.orbis.org.hk Perkins School for the Blind: http://www.perkins.org Retina Hong Kong: http://www/retina.org.hk Royal National Institute of the Blind: http://www.rnib.org.uk The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Optometry Clinic: http://www.polyu.edu.hk/so/clinic. htm The Humanware Group: http://www.humanware.com

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Dr Simon Leung and Ms Phoebe Yeung, Ebenezer School and Home for the Visually Impaired, 131 Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong.

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9 Including Students with Intellectual Disabilities Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER

This chapter examines the needs of students with intellectual disabilities (ID) as well as the related classroom support strategies within the context of the Confucian heritage. There is a particular focus on: • Confucian perspectives on education and disabilities; • The juxtaposition of Western and Confucian educational ideologies and the education of students with ID; • The terminology and definitions of ID; • The causes and learning characteristics of students with ID; • The education of students with ID; and • General and specific strategies classroom teachers can implement when supporting students with ID.

Introduction To align with the rest of this book, this chapter has a Confucian focus. It starts by reviewing Confucius’ fundamental perspectives on education and disabilities, and their influence in China and other Chinese societies. It then describes the general basics of the field in terms of definitions, causes, and learning characteristics. Next, the development of educational provision for children with intellectual disabilities in Hong Kong is examined. Lastly, the chapter discusses the education of these students alongside the education reform in Hong Kong, and the influence of Confucian ideas in Hong Kong’s educational future. The field of intellectual disabilities is one of the oldest in special education. Though not formally identified, individuals with behaviors characteristic of mental

284 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER deficiency have probably been recognized and treated differently since prehistoric times. The terms referring to the difficulties of these individuals have changed more frequently than those for their counterparts with other disabilities. They have been described in the past as, for example: lunatics, idiots, retards, or as suffering from mental retardation, mental handicap, intellectual disability, developmental delay, mental impairment, intellectual impairment, and cognitive disability. In North America, the common terms are developmental disability and mental retardation, while in the United Kingdom learning disabilities or learning difficulty (St George’s University of London, 2006) are most frequently used. In Hong Kong, “mental handicap” is still commonly used among professionals and school personnel but the official term has changed to intellectual disabilities in the latest government publication (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006a). Around the globe, the diversity of this field is apparent with the simultaneous and interchangeable use of mental retardation, mental handicap, and intellectual disability. For the purpose of consistency, the term intellectual disabilities — which is increasingly recognized throughout the world (St George’s, University of London, 2006) — is adopted throughout this chapter.

Confucius’ Fundamental Perspectives on Education and Disabilities Confucianism has been and still is a colossal, interconnected system of philosophies, practices, and ways of life that shapes the lives of countless people in East Asia and now the world. The Confucian philosophy created worldviews and profoundly shared cultural orientations that are still very visible today in China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam (Berthrong & Berthrong, 2006). The historical significance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius and his followers (Britannica Online, 2006). Confucian philosophers teach that education is the means to curtail any tendency to stray from ethical behavior. Jin and Dan (2004) reported that goodness and benevolence were mentioned 175 times in The Analects. As such, the ultimate goal of education is to cultivate the moral person as a whole (Jin & Dan, 2004). Confucian education was meant to be a tool to instill not only ethics and morality but also social harmony. Confucius stressed the education of leaders and rulers because he thought they would become more ethical and humane, and more skilled in governance, through education. Likewise, citizens in a Confucian society are encouraged to respect and obey these educated and moral leaders because they are doing their best to develop an ethical, humane and just society. Social harmony would lead to a more prosperous and stable state, with a reduction in poverty and deprivation. Over time, the ethics and political ideas of Confucianism have formed

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the basis of the traditional curriculum and served as a powerful mechanism for implementing the ethical and social norms of Chinese society. When Confucius’ ideas were applied to Chinese education, they became the means to an end characterized by a series of examinations by which any young man, regardless of social position, could gain entry to and rise to the top of the Imperial Chinese Civil Service. Education became a balancing force against feudalism and despotism and offered a route to achieve greater equality and prosperity among people of all social classes. However, an imperfect implementation of his ideas created pedagogical practices based upon memorization; and the extensive examination system eventually turned Chinese education into a system for sorting and tracking elites. Education was marginalized for the first time in Chinese history during the reign of the first Communist leader, Mao Zedong. However, the economic reforms — known as the Open Door Policy — launched by Deng Xiao-ping, the Communist leader after Mao’s death in the 1980s, gave a new impetus to education in China. With the need to acquire knowledge to survive the ever-changing global economy, parents became obsessed with securing the best education for their only child under the one-child policy. As a British colony, Hong Kong experienced different political, economic, and social developments from China in the last century. Nevertheless, the Confucian culture and the challenges resulting from economic globalization have led Hong Kong parents to place a similar heavy emphasis on securing a bright future for their children by seeking the best education for them. Despite the current education reforms that emphasize unlimited opportunities for education in Hong Kong, schools still want to recruit elite students and parents still wish to send their children to schools with the best performance in public examinations. Likewise, Singapore has an elite system that tracks students of various abilities and streams them into abilityclassified educational settings. The shadow of Confucian ideas on education and associated examination systems can still be seen vividly in many Chinesedominated societies.

Implications of Confucian Views on the education of students with disabilities In Confucius’ writings, the issue of individuals with disabilities is perhaps most directly addressed in Liji (Book of Rites) in which he pointed out that “people should respect others’ parents, and treat others’ children like their own; all those who are bachelors, widows, orphans, single, handicapped and sick should be supported” (cited in Piao, 1992, p. 35). Some rulers did strive to practice the political principle of benevolent governing by supporting the handicapped (ten zhe wei zhen, xian zheng can ji) and citizens pursued the virtues of respecting the elderly, being kind

286 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER to children, supporting the weak, and helping the handicapped (zunlao, ciyou, furuo, zhucan) (Cao, 1988; Ye & Piao, 1995). Some scholars (e.g., Piao, 1991) have argued that individuals with disabilities were treated better in ancient China than in the West because of the Confucian ideology, but such individuals still had the lowest social status in the feudal pyramid of roles that dominated Imperial China for two thousand years (Deng, Poon-McBrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001). While the origins of special education in China can be traced back to about the time of Confucius (e.g., Deng, Poon-McBrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001), there is little evidence of any systematic effort to provide education for children with disabilities until the late 19th century, following China’s defeat in the Opium Wars (Deng, Poon-McBrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001). During this period, Christian missionaries established Western-style universities throughout China, and some of them began the earliest efforts to care for and educate the blind and the deaf (Epstein, 1988; Piao, 1996; Yang & Wang, 1994; Yu & Zhang, 1994). The first known class for children with intellectual disabilities was established in 1958 at Beijing Number Two School for the Deaf, but it was closed in 1971 during the Cultural Revolution of 1966–76 (Ye & Piao, 1995). In 1959, the first school for students with intellectual disabilities was established in Dalian, Liaoning, after Chinese officials had observed special schools in Russia. However, this school was forced to close four years later because of the shortage of equipment, teaching staff, and financial support (Deng, Poon-McBrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001). Special schools for children with intellectual disabilities only made a comeback when China began to re-open to the outside world.

Interpretation of Confucian Ideas for Inclusive Education One of the Confucian proverbs most commonly applied to the education of students with disabilities is “Teaching students of all abilities” (yao jiao wu lei). Unfortunately, this important Confucian view on education has frequently been neglected in implementing Confucian values in the Chinese classroom and, paradoxically, created an elite system seemingly at odds with this perspective. Also, this famous quotation has been misinterpreted by some as a call for full inclusion and has been used to lobby for the related policies and practices. What the proverb actually stresses is the need for educators to develop strategies to teach students of all abilities and respect for individual differences which gave birth to and is still the essence of special education. While these strategies may create an environment which facilitates learning for all in the general education classrooms, it does not exclude the use of specialists from various professions and the need for specific groupings and contexts that can be more conducive to the learning of students with unique needs. Therefore, the Confucian proverb and the related strategies do not

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confine students with various abilities and disabilities to learning the same curriculum at the same time in the same setting. It is probably most important to note that Confucian teaching highlights the development of an inclusive attitude among educators and discourages the rejection of students with disabilities from the outset — a reality we are still facing today. Educators need to understand the students’ unique needs and find ways to optimize their learning in the general education setting.

Contemporary blending of the Confucian and Western ideologies The education systems of Confucian-dominated societies have been strongly influenced by Western philosophies in the last two centuries through trade, invasion, scholarly exchange, or Christian missionary work. The European powers began to exert their cultural influence from the mid-19th century, primarily through colonization and trade networks in Asian countries and regions such as Hong Kong (Cheng, 2004). Caring for individuals with disabilities and establishing special education facilities have undeniably been the work of Christian missionaries in China (Deng, Poon-McBrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001) and other Asian societies such as Korea (Kwon, 2004), Thailand (Suvannus, 1981), Vietnam (Villa et al., 2003), Hong Kong (Poon-McBrayer, 2004; Yung, 1997), Japan (Narita, 1992), and Taiwan (Kang, Lovett, & Haring, 2002). This blending of Confucian and Western ideologies has created education policies, systems, and services that resemble those of the West in these Confucian societies. Despite the Confucian saying “teaching students of all abilities”, contemporary inclusive policies and practices for the education of students with disabilities are generally attributed to the influence of civil rights movements which addressed discrimination by race/ethnicity, gender, and disability for over half a century in the West. These movements have resulted in legislation, policies, and practices that center on individual rights to an education — which is generally free and appropriate. The Confucian ideology of social harmony among all and sympathy for individuals with disabilities resurfaced alongside this Western influence. For example, the education of children with disabilities became a matter of civil rights following the passage of the Compulsory Education Law in the People’s Republic of China in 1986. Schools were required to accept children with special needs whose enrollment has since come under scrutiny during official district inspections (Liang, 1993). However, while the concept of “rights” has been imported and adopted, it is not as widely demanded as in the West: some people may not even be aware of such rights or, if they are, they may still not take any legal action against the government. The emphasis on social harmony is still widely publicized and

288 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER considered important in the Confucian societies. There is no known litigation initiated by parents against the government even when their children with disabilities are still without formal schooling in rural China. Meanwhile, there is generally a strong public sympathy toward individuals with disabilities. Lastly, “quality of life” is another Western concept that has moved east and become a sensitive issue in China today. It is now part of the essential framework in curriculum development, service and delivery models, and rehabilitation practices for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Xu et al., 2005) in both China and Hong Kong.

Contemporary Basic Issues in the Field Having examined the Confucian influence on Chinese societies in the development of education for children with intellectual disabilities, we now turn to the basic issues in the field, focusing on the common definitions, causes, and learning characteristics recognized in various countries.

Common definitions Defining intellectual disabilities appears to be less controversial than naming them. While various countries use different wordings, the core understanding is practically identical. Hong Kong has no official definition for intellectual disabilities but includes them with other disabilities in Section 2 of CAP 487 Disability Discrimination Ordinance (Hong Kong Department of Justice, 2006) — with a “disability” being defined as a situation in which “one has total or partial loss of mental functions.” However, in practice, the identification criteria and educational provisions resemble those in the United States and the United Kingdom, and the definitions widely adopted in these countries are used below as examples. Definition used in the United States The official term in the United States, and the one most widely adopted by professionals, is still mental retardation. While various definitions were introduced in the last century, the American Association on Mental Retardation’s (AAMR) definition is most often used and accepted. The AAMR, founded in 1876, is an international multidisciplinary association of professionals which has had the responsibility for defining mental retardation since 1921 and has updated it ten times. The 10th edition of Mental Retardation: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports (2002) discusses the definition and classification system in

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great detail; presents the latest thinking about mental retardation; includes important tools and strategies to determine if an individual has mental retardation; and provides detailed information about developing a personal plan of individualized supports. The AAMR’s official definition of mental retardation is as follows: Mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. A complete and accurate understanding of mental retardation involves realizing that mental retardation refers to a particular state of functioning that begins in childhood, has many dimensions, and is affected positively by individualized supports. As a model of functioning, it includes the contexts and environment within which the person functions and interacts and requires a multidimensional and ecological approach that reflects the interaction of the individual with the environment, and the outcomes of that interaction with regards to independence, relationships, societal contributions, participation in school and community, and personal well being.

In addition, five assumptions are essential to its application: 1. Limitations in present functioning must be considered within the context of community environments typical of the individual’s peers and culture. 2. Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity as well as differences in communication, sensory, motor, and behavioral factors. 3. Within an individual, limitations often coexist with strengths. 4. An important purpose of describing limitations is to develop a profile of needed supports. 5. With appropriate personalized supports over a sustained period, the life functioning of the person with mental retardation will generally improve. Definition used in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom (UK) has a definition that results in similar practices of identification and assessment to those in the United States. The UK approach is considered briefly here because when it was a British colony, Hong Kong adopted the UK terms and practices for classifying the various degrees of severity of intellectual disabilities. The UK government has recently changed its official term to “intellectual disabilities”. The White Paper Valuing People: A New Strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century published in 2000 defines intellectual disabilities as follows (St. George’s University of London, 2006): • A significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information, to learn new skills (impaired intelligence); with

290 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER •

A reduced ability to cope independently (impaired social functioning); which started before adulthood, with a lasting effect on development.

Causes of Intellectual Disability While there may be differences in the wording of definitions in various countries, there is a consensus on the causes. Physicians have identified the four most common sources of intellectual disabilities as: genetic conditions; maternal behaviors; pregnancy and birth; and health conditions. These factors interact during the life of an individual and/or across generations from parent to child. The most common genetic conditions causing intellectual disabilities are Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and phenylketonuria (PKU); while maternal behaviors refer to harmful behaviors such as maternal substance abuse, including alcohol and drug addiction. Problems during pregnancy relate to abnormal development inside the mother, for example in the way the baby’s cells divide as it grows; and intellectual disabilities in the baby may also result from a woman getting an infection such as rubella during pregnancy. As for problems at birth, one example is the baby’s not getting enough oxygen. Health problems that can cause intellectual disabilities include diseases such as whooping cough, measles, and meningitis, as well as extreme malnutrition because of an inadequate diet, not getting enough medical care, or being exposed to poisons such as lead or mercury. Lastly, factors present in one generation can influence the outcomes of the next generation, and by understanding intergenerational causes, appropriate supports can be provided to prevent and reverse the effects of risk factors Intellectual disability is not a disease that one can catch from others or a type of mental illness, like depression. There is no cure — but most children with intellectual disabilities can learn to do many things. It just takes them more time and effort than for other children.

Learning Characteristics Most students classified as having intellectual disabilities are not described by clearly identifiable syndromes. Furthermore, some of them are not diagnosed until well into their pre-school or early elementary school years. Early identification of pointer characteristics that predispose children to mental impairment allows for environmental intervention to reduce or prevent eventual developmental delay. According to the above definitions, three IQ criteria are commonly used to formally identify an individual as having intellectual disabilities.

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1 2 3

Sub-average intellectual ability (IQ score of 70 or lower) Problems in adaptive functioning Manifested before the age of 18.

The AAMR identifies four groups of students in terms of IQ range and such ranges are widely adopted, sometimes with slight modifications, in different countries: • Those with mild intellectual disabilities have an IQ in the range 51 to 70 and are in many ways quite similar to their peers who are not impaired. • Those who have moderate impairments have an IQ in the range 36 to 50 and are more obviously developmentally delayed. These students can learn to take care of their personal needs and perform “hands-on” vocational tasks. • Those with severe intellectual disabilities have an IQ in the range 21 to 35 and are more dependent on others for basic needs but can still learn basic selfcare and contribute partially to self-support under supervision. • Those who have profound intellectual disabilities have IQ below 20 and may be largely dependent on others for their care.

Educating Children with Intellectual Disabilities in Hong Kong The development of education for students with intellectual disabilities in Hong Kong reflects the influence of its colonial legacy, Chinese heritage, and the adoption of the models and ideas of the West, from both the British and American traditions. In the five stages of development of special education in Hong Kong identified by Yung (1997), the field of intellectual disabilities began to be included in the education system at the 3rd stage — the “Transition from a medical and welfare orientation to an educational orientation (1960–69)” — when the Hilliard Report (Education Department, 1962, cited in Yung, 1997) provided fundamental guidelines on how mental deficiency should be dealt with in the education system. During this period, the Social Welfare Department was responsible for the operation of training centers for individuals with mental deficiency, which later became special schools for children with intellectual disabilities. The provision of services for these children was the joint responsibility of the social welfare and education systems for a prolonged period, with the Social Welfare Department being responsible for the boarding section and the Education Department the school section. Meanwhile, charitable funds played a significant role in financing various needs. Services for children with intellectual disabilities expanded from institutional care to the right to a free education when six-year compulsory education was implemented in 1971 and was subsequently extended to nine years in 1978.

292 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER The blending of the Confucian legacy and the Western idea of a right to an education is most apparent at this juncture. The general public’s attitude toward children with intellectual disabilities is still one of sympathy — a Confucian legacy — for the most part, while advocacy groups involving parents and professionals who continue to demand services and support within the premises of human rights and equity is from the West. However, it is foreseeable that the Western premises will further dominate decision making and social culture over time.

Current service provision Traditionally and historically, students with intellectual disabilities have been educated and cared for in separate facilities, with three types of special schools for these students in accordance with their levels of mental functioning as indicated by IQ scores —namely, mild, moderate, and severe. A number of the special schools for children with severe intellectual disabilities have incorporated a boarding section to minimize difficulties arising from daily traveling of students and their families. A higher percentage of the academic curriculum is followed in schools for children with mild or mild-to-moderate intellectual disabilities, while functional curricula are emphasized in those for children with severe intellectual disabilities. Though the philosophy of integrated education appeared in government documents in the 1960s (Yung, 1997), the wave of inclusion finally reached Hong Kong with the launching of a pilot scheme for integrated education in 1997. At present, the majority of students with intellectual disabilities are still placed in fortyone special schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006b) but students with mild intellectual disabilities are eligible, through educational integration, for a place in ordinary schools. Despite all the good intentions, however, public reaction is hardly positive. According to a survey jointly conducted by the Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association and the Special Education Society of Hong Kong in 2005, some of the same concerns about the negative results of integrated education have persisted after almost a decade of implementation. The factors contributing to the lack of success of integration include: teachers finding it difficult to cope with many types of special needs (The Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association and Special Education Society of Hong Kong, 2006; Tong, 2006); inadequate training for teachers (“Integration”, South China Morning Post 2006, April 22); insufficient funding (“Alternative treatment”, South China Morning Post 2006, April 25; Cheung, 2006); and lack of acceptance by peers and teachers (Heron, 2006). In May and June 2006, 80% of the 1,500 school principals and teachers who attended workshops run by the Education and Manpower Bureau said that schools should admit only two types of special needs students instead of four (Tong, 2006).

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Implementation of educational support Apart from routine education provisions, it is important to note that Hong Kong is moving toward full adoption of the concept of supports, an innovative aspect of the 1992 AAMR manual that remained critical in the 2002 system. The AAMR defines supports as the resources and individual strategies necessary to promote the development, education, interests, and personal well-being of a person with intellectual disabilities (American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002). Sources of supports include parents, friends, teachers, psychologists, doctors, and appropriate persons or agencies. This concept has revolutionized the way habilitation and education services are provided to persons with intellectual disabilities. Instead of forcing individuals into existing models of service, professionals are expected to evaluate their specific needs and to recommend strategies, services and supports that will optimize individual functioning. Change in individual needs and circumstances over time is also recognized. The AAMR (2005) promotes the inclusion of at least nine key areas to support an individual’s needs: human development, teaching and education, home living, community living, employment, health and safety, behavior, social protection and advocacy. The strong advocacy for individualized supports stems from the possibility of improving personal functioning, promoting self-determination and societal inclusion, and enhancing the personal well-being of persons with intellectual disabilities. Focusing on supports as the way to improve education, employment, recreation, and living environments is an important part of person-centered approaches for people with intellectual disabilities (American Association on Mental Retardation, 2005). Traces of the general support strategies for children with intellectual disabilities in various aspects of classroom learning can be found in Hong Kong schools. They are summarized in the following order: general support strategies in all settings, support strategies in inclusive settings, and teacher presentation (Eberly College of Arts & Science of West Virginia University, 2005).

Support Strategies General support strategies in all settings In any learning environment, the first rule of thumb for all teachers is to never assess students’ capabilities solely on the basis of their IQ or other standardized test scores, especially at the limits of the IQ definition. The teacher should record the behavior

294 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER that differs from the “norm” and may indicate the need for referral for counseling and/or psychological intervention including drug therapy, if necessary. The teacher should also keep up-to-date records on these students’ accomplishments in therapy and encourage them to try their best and seek help. When it appears that a student needs help, the teacher should take the initiative to offer it — but should also accept a “No thank you” graciously. It is advisable to develop a protocol to facilitate students to seek help for anticipated needs. As one would with any other student, the teacher should speak directly to these students. While being aware that a student with intellectual disabilities may frequently be treated with therapeutic medications that affect performance and speed, an effective teacher should also maintain high but realistic expectations to encourage full realization of social and educational potential.

Support strategies in inclusive settings Typically, only students with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities are integrated into the general classrooms where they may benefit from the curriculum and social interactions with their non-disabled peers. In an inclusive setting, the teacher should prepare for experience in a learning environment where students of all backgrounds and abilities can learn and socialize together. Non-disabled peers should be encouraged to accept students with intellectual disabilities; and, whenever possible, the teacher should get to know the non-disabled students, and engage with them. The teacher should also be aware that the way in which he or she interacts with disabled students will serve as a model for others’ interactions with them. At times, interactions occur without the involvement of a teacher, and so it may sometimes be necessary for him/her to “back off” and let things take their course. Some activities are more conducive to bringing students together than others, and teachers should promote such opportunities, even if it means revising plans for teaching skills to allow for spontaneous interaction and play.

General instructional strategies Many of the general instructional and support strategies are applicable to various classroom settings, to students with and without disabilities, and to the teaching and learning of all subjects, depending on the specific tasks students are expected to accomplish. In considering appropriate strategies to facilitate effective teaching and learning, some fundamental ideas should be kept in mind in teaching any subject to students with intellectual disabilities, such as:

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• • • • •

using concrete materials to illustrate concepts; using both “appealing: and “standard” print, as well as electronic texts, to accommodate various learning preferences or styles; providing alternative activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty by these students but can produce the same or similar learning outcomes; giving students opportunities to practice skills in different environments, as this is essential for the transfer of skills. providing prompt and consistent feedback, with active listening.

Also Poon-McBrayer & Lian (2002) advocated the use of common strategies such as task analysis, shaping, grouping, and verbal and physical prompts that are popular among teachers and have proved to be effective in working with these students.

Examples of strategies for teaching some subjects This chapter does not attempt to give a comprehensive coverage of strategies for teaching and learning specific skills for different subjects. Instead, a few examples of strategies that can promote the learning of language, mathematics/science, and arts/physical education in inclusive classrooms are provided to facilitate thinking about how to work with these students. Language (Chinese and English) Functional words and reading for social and survival purposes are emphasized in special schools for students with intellectual disabilities; for example, words such as “toilets”, “danger”, “exit”, and “fire alarm” should be learned and mastered (Poon-McBrayer & Lian, 2002), and reading and writing addresses, simple correspondence, and application forms are among the significant functional reading and writing skills. Because of the bilingual requirements for Hong Kong schools, children learn Chinese and English simultaneously. Students with mild intellectual disabilities in the inclusive setting are expected to follow the curriculum for both languages. For those with developmental disabilities such as intellectual disabilities and learning disabilities, language is abstract and difficult to grasp. To keep up with the standard curriculum, students with mild intellectual disabilities require a great deal of support and additional practice. One of the key strategies strongly encouraged in integrated classrooms in Hong Kong is peer tutoring, which was one of the first approaches to be experimented on when the pilot scheme for integration was first launched in 1997.

296 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER Peer tutoring, in which the tutors may come from the same or a higher grade, is very commonly used among teachers as a way of accommodating students with intellectual disabilities. When selecting tutors, one should recruit students who are motivated, want to help others and show compassion, can devote adequate time to meeting with the teacher coach to develop good teaching techniques, show patience, and give meaningful suggestions, praise and encouragement. Peer tutors need training as it is detrimental to both the tutor and the tutee if they cannot teach the material adequately, motivate the students and maintain discipline. The teacher/coach may want to videotape a successful tutoring situation for prospective tutors to view, explain the value of waiting for reluctant learners to respond and how to “give hints” without actually providing answers, and teach tutors how to follow a lesson plan the teacher prepares for the tutoring session. Eventually, some tutors may learn to write these plans themselves with minimum guidance from the teacher/coach (Madewell, 2001). Implemented with careful planning and training, peer tutoring has proved to be beneficial to both the tutor and the tutee. Mathematics and science Mathematics is a major academic subject required for all grades and science is highly valued in secondary schools and beyond in Hong Kong. The skill level to be taught to students with intellectual disabilities in these two subjects depends on the students’ levels of functioning, which determine the special schools they will attend. For example, those with severe intellectual disabilities tend to learn basic number concepts and counting for daily needs while those with moderate intellectual disabilities focus on functional mathematics for a semi-independent life. Those with mild intellectual disabilities in special schools may have a mixed curriculum of academic and functional mathematics, but if they are placed in the integrated schools, they are expected to follow the standard curriculum as closely as possible. The instructional strategies highlighted for these two subjects are targeted at this group. A comparison of the effects of using worked examples and cognitive strategy instruction in solving mathematical problems among students with mild intellectual disabilities was carried out in Hong Kong (Chung & Tam, 2005). Using worked examples is effective in demonstrating the steps in problem solving with all subjects. Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) has been found to be valuable for a variety of learners with or without disabilities. This approach may be thought of as learning strategy in which mnemonic devices are used to help students understand an academic task, and the components necessary to complete it. These mnemonic devices usually take the form of acronyms that the student has to memorize and apply. Some strategies consist of a set of self-instructional steps that the learner may apply in completing a task, and others may involve a method suggested by

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the teacher. There are eight steps for special education teachers to follow in order to implement learning strategies successfully with their students (Falitz, 2006): 1. Pre-test and commitment. 2. The teacher describes the new strategy to the student. 3. The teacher models the strategy step-by-step and students are encouraged to ask questions while the strategy is being discussed. 4. Students learn to verbally rehearse the strategy. 5. Students apply the strategy by practicing with controlled materials. The teacher works with the student, providing informative feedback. A record should be kept indicating how well the students grasp the learning strategy. 6. Students practice on grade-appropriate materials, applying the strategy to relatively easy situations first and slowly increasing to more grade-appropriate ones. The prompts and cues used in previous steps start to be reduced in this step. 7. Students commit themselves to generalizing the strategy and must see that the new strategy can be applied to other educational activities. 8. Generalization and maintenance: This step is broken down even further into three separate phases. In the first phase, students become aware of when the new skill may be applied; in the second, they get actual practice in doing assignments involving applying the new strategy; and in the last phase, they should be reminded to use the particular strategy they have been taught. The teacher should also check the work students have produced. Teachers need to follow some guidelines for cognitive strategy instruction to be most effective. First, they should test students to see if they possess the skills necessary to apply a specific learning strategy and teach the prerequisite skills if they do not. This will allow students to follow a straight and uninterrupted path between the initial introduction and description of the strategy and its actual application (Ellis, 1991). Second, teachers should teach learning strategies intensively. This means exposing the students to the strategy daily and providing many opportunities for them to apply it. The last guideline is for teachers to require students to gain mastery of a given strategy. After students have done so, the instructional focus should shift to increasing the speed and fluidity of using the strategy. Physical education and arts Students with intellectual disabilities participate in various forms of physical education and arts, depending on their functioning and mobility levels. For example, physical education may focus on the training of limb movements and coordination as well as balance and rhythmic movements, while arts subjects emphasize

298 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER creativity, emotional expression, and relaxation for students with severe intellectual disabilities. In addition, music is beneficial to students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities in significant ways such as reducing aggressive behaviors, increasing attention span and on-task behaviors, developing auditory skills, and enhancing the ability to follow directions (Davidson & Edwards, 1998). Music is quite widely used to facilitate skill acquisition and increase motivation in both arts subjects (Riddoch & Waugh, 2003) and physical education. In general, teachers seem to be more willing to integrate students with intellectual disabilities in non-academic subjects, such as physical education and art, than in academic subjects. Recognition that complete individualization is not a practical or even desirable solution to meeting the diverse needs of students within one classroom has led many advocates of inclusion to promote cooperative learning as the choice of pedagogy for various subjects. Heterogeneous cooperative grouping can be a very effective instructional strategy for art projects and various activities in physical education classes. The basic principles of this strategy for facilitating effective implementation in the classroom are outlined below. Johnson and Johnson (1994) defined cooperation as working together to accomplish shared goals. Cooperative learning involves organizing students into small groups in which they work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It should be structured in such a way that cooperative work results in participants striving for mutual benefit, gaining from each other’s efforts, recognizing that all group members share a common fate, knowing that one’s performance is mutually affected by oneself and one’s peers, and feeling proud and jointly celebrating when a group member is recognized for achievement. Cooperation has five essential components: positive interdependence, face-toface promotive interaction, individual and group accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, and group processing (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993). The first component, positive interdependence, can be achieved when the goals and tasks are designed in ways that make group members believe that they “sink or swim” together. The second element, face-to-face promotive interaction, includes building into group tasks directions and procedures for the following activities: orally explaining how to solve problems, teaching one’s knowledge to others, checking for understanding, discussing concepts being learned, and connecting present with past learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). The third component, individual and group accountability, has two levels with the group being accountable for achieving its goals and each member for contributing his or her share of the work. The fourth element, the interpersonal and small group skills, should be taught to students so that they are more likely to engage simultaneously in tasks (learning academic subject matter) and teamwork (functioning effectively as a group). Lastly, group members should discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships, and be able to describe member actions

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that are helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about the behaviors to continue or change. Structuring those basic elements into group learning situations helps to ensure joint efforts and enables well-ordered implementation of cooperative learning for long-term success.

Future Education for Children with Intellectual Disabilities in Hong Kong As Hong Kong is at the crossroad of the East and West, the premises of equality, normalization, and full integration as fundamental rights are bound to gain further momentum in future education and social policies. The theme of lifelong learning for all within the very significant education reforms launched in 2000 (Education Commission, 2000) will bring unprecedented learning opportunities both for children with and without disabilities. The new framework provides many more routes for learning and personal development. Accompanying the education reforms, major changes in the education of children with intellectual disabilities are expected in the near future. The extension of educational provision to students with intellectual disabilities is already confirmed. Like their counterparts in the ordinary schools, these students will be provided with three years of senior secondary education in addition to the nineyear basic education in the new academic structure for special schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006a). Students with disabilities in other special schools are expected to adopt the same curricular objectives and to be assessed on the same criteria, with special accommodations, as those for ordinary schools. As for students with intellectual disabilities, the curriculum will be adapted to meet their specific needs. It is apparent that education for students with disabilities is moving toward a right to equal opportunities and appropriate education. The influence of the West in this process is undeniable. To legitimize the process and the final product, the Education and Manpower Bureau (2006a) has involved local and overseas experts in the field of intellectual disabilities to develop the senior secondary curriculum framework and the related learning outcomes for these students. These tasks will be implemented in three phases. Phase One will trial-run the broad curriculum framework for core subjects in the school year 2006–07; then in Phase Two the same will be done for elective subjects in the second term of the 2006–07 school year. Finally, Phase Three will involve refining the curriculum framework for the core and elective subjects and other learning experiences, leading to the production of the Curriculum and Assessment Guides for the new senior secondary curriculum for students with

300 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER intellectual disabilities in the 2007–08 and 2008–09 school years. This document is intended to inform schools and parents of the requirements and expectations of the students upon completing the six-year secondary education, identify and specify learning goals and contents, and develop practicable assessment procedures. Acculturation to Western values in Chinese societies has been going on for at least a century. In recent years, information technology has allowed the transmission of ideas instantaneously; and economic globalization is affecting educational policies and allows businesses that affect cultures and behaviors to be established in all corners of the world. Nevertheless, Confucian ideas will still play a key role in the design of curriculum such as the emphasis on moral education (Cheng, 2004) and a unified curriculum even for students with disabilities, at least in the case of Hong Kong (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006a). Confucian ideologies will continue to shadow policies and behaviors in Chinese societies.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

Interview social workers or professionals in special schools and discuss the details of the various types of services and current pedagogies to assist children there to achieve as independent a life as possible. Work in small groups to design publicity materials to promote the understanding of these children’s educational and service needs. Hold a debate on current and future policies and practices for serving the needs of the adults with intellectual disabilities in Hong Kong. Use the results as the basis for proposing policies and practices to legislators and other policy makers for the benefit of people with ID. Discuss in small groups the current integration effort for school-aged children with intellectual disabilities and propose further improvements for integrating them into ordinary schools. In small groups of four to six, break down into steps common tasks that people with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities need to perform in daily life and share your views with the class.

Glossary Adaptive behavior includes the range of conceptual, social, and practical skills that people have learned so they can function in their everyday lives. Significant limitations in adaptive behavior impact a person’s daily life and affect the ability to respond to particular situations or to the environment (AAMR, 2005). Civil rights are the rights belonging to individuals by virtue of their citizenship.

Including Students with Intellectual Disabilities 301 Direct instruction is based on Zig Engelmann’s theory that children can learn at an accelerated rate if educators deliver instruction that is clear, are able to predict likely misinterpretations and therefore reduce confusion, and assist in forming generalizations. It is a highly structured, intensive teaching program that aims to prepare the educator fully in such a way that all children learn to have 100% mastery of the subject (Association for Direct Instruction, 2003). Intelligence can refer to a general mental capability. It involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience (AAMR, 2005). Shaping is a technique to move toward a target behavior by reinforcement of successive approximations to it. Supports are the resources and individual strategies necessary to promote the development, education, interests, and personal well-being of a person with mental retardation. Supports can be provided by a parent, friend, teacher, psychologist, doctor or by any appropriate person or agency (AAMR, 2005). Task analysis is a technique by which a task is broken down into simple steps in a logical sequence

References American Association on Mental Retardation. (2002). Classification in mental retardation (10th ed.). Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. American Association on Mental Retardation. (2005). Fact sheet: Frequently asked questions about mental retardation. Retrieved November 21, 2006 from http://www.aamr.org/ Policies/faq_mental_retardation.shtml. Association for Direct Instruction. (2003). What is direct instruction? Retrieved December 8, 2006 from http://www.adihome.org/. Berthrong, J., & Berthrong, E. (2006). Confucianism: A short introduction. Retrieved October 21, 2006 from www.oneworld-publications.com/books/texts/. Cao, J. M. (1988). Review of the history of special education in China (in Chinese). Te Shu Jiao Yu, 4, 44–46. Cheng, R. H. M. (2004). Moral education in Hong Kong: Confucian-parental, Christianreligious and liberal-civic influences. Journal of Moral Education, 33(4), 533–551. Chung, K. K. H., & Tam, Y. H. (2005). Effects of cognitive-based instruction on mathematical problem solving by learners with mild intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 30(4), 207–216. Cheung, P. (2006). Integrated education funding rise overdue. South China Morning Post, June 3, p. 4. Davidson, D., & Edwards, J. (1998). A role of music therapy in special education. Brisbane: Carfax. Deng, M., Poon-McBrayer, K. F., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22(5), 288–298.

302 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER Does integrating special needs students into mainstream schools work? (2006). South China Morning Post, April 22, p. 2. Eberly College of Arts and Science of West Virginia University. (2005). Inclusion in Science education for students with disabilities: Strategies for teaching students with intellectual disabilities. Retrieved November 18, 2006, from http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/intel. html#sect1. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2006a). Action for the future: Career-oriented studies and the new senior secondary academic structure for special schools. Hong Kong: Government Logistics Department. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2006b). Education system: Special education. Retrieved October 21, 2006, from http://www.emb.gov.hk. Education Commission. (2000). Learning for life; Learning through life: Reform proposals for the education system in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Education Department. (1962). Hilliard Report: Basic guidelines in dealing with mental deficiency. Cited in K. K. Yung (1997), Special education in Hong Kong: Is history repeating itself? Hong Kong Special Education Forum, 1(1), 1–19. Ellis, E. S., Deshler, D. D., Lenz, B. K., Schumaker, J. B., & Clark, F. L. (1991). An instructional model for teaching learning strategies. Focus on Exceptional Children, 23 (6) 1–24. Encyclopædia Britannica. (2006). Confucius. Retrieved November 19, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition: http://www.britannicaschool.eb.com/ eb/article-9109630. Epstein, I. (1988). Special education provisions in the People’s Republic of China. Comparative Education, 24, 365–375. Falitz, C. (2006). Publishing web for students’ final papers: Direct instruction vs cognitive strategy instruction. Retrieved December 28, 2006, from http://ematusov.soe.udel.edu/ final.paper.pub/_pwfsfp/0000014d.htm. Heron, L. (2006). 730 extra teachers to boost special education package of measures aims to revive faltering integrated school policy. South China Morning Post, April 22, p. 1. Hong Kong Department of Justice. (2006). Laws of Hong Kong: Civil rights. Chapter 487 Disability Discrimination Ordinance, Section 2: Interpretation. Retrieved November 12, 2006, from http://www.legislation.gov.hk/eng/index.htm. Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association & Special Education Society of Hong Kong. (2006). Research report on progress of integrated education in Hong Kong primary schools. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association & Special Education Society of Hong Kong. Jin, S., & Dan, J. W. (2004). The contemporary development of philosophy of education in mainland China and Taiwan. Comparative Education, 40(4), 571–581. Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. (1994). An overview of cooperative learning. Retrieved January 2, 2007, from http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl.html. Kang, Y. S., Lovett, D., & Haring, K. (2002). Culture and special education in Taiwan. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(5), 12–15. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1993). Cooperation in the Classroom (6th ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Including Students with Intellectual Disabilities 303 Kwon, H. S. (2005). Inclusion in South Korea: The current situation and future directions. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 52(1), 59–68. Liang, B. Y. (1993). Legislation of special education (in Chinese). Xiandai Te Shu Jiao Yu, 1, 6–8. Madewell, B. J. (2001). Diagnosis ADD ADHD: Now what? Retrieved December 19, 2006, from http://www.addchoices.com/peer_tutoring.htm. Narita, S. (1992). Japanese special education today: Issues and implications. Japan: National Institute of Special Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 351832). Piao, Y. X. (1991). Introduction to special education (in Chinese). Beijing, China: Huaxia Press. Piao, Y. (1992). Characteristics of and attitudes toward disability in ancient China (in Chinese). Xiandai Te Shu Jiao Yu, 1, 34–35. Piao, Y. X. (1996). Dictionary of special education (in Chinese). Beijing, China: Huaxia Press. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2004). To integrate or not to integrate: Systemic dilemmas in Hong Kong. Journal of Special Education, 37(4), 249–256. Poon-McBrayer, K. F., & Lian, M.G.J. (2002). Special needs education: Children with exceptionalities. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Riddoch, J. V., & Waugh, R. F. (2003). Teaching students with severe intellectual disabilities non-representational art using a new pictorial and musical program. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 28(2), 145–162. Should the Hospital Authority be more open to alternative treatment? (2006). South China Morning Post, April 25, p. 2. St. George’s University of London. (2006). Learning about intellectual disabilities and health: What is intellectual disability? Retrieved October 21, 2006, from http://www. intellectualdisability.info/home/what_is.htm. Suvannus, S. (1981). Special education in Thailand. B. C. Journal of Special Education, 5 (2), 158–163. Tong, N. (2006). Bureau rebuffs appeal to limit entry of special needs students. South China Morning Post, July 21, p. 1. Villa, R. A., Tac, L.V., Muc, P. M., Ryan, S., Thuy, N. T. M., Weill, C., & Thousand, J. S. (2003). Inclusion in Viet Nam: More than a decade of implementation. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28(1), 23–32. Xu, J., Wang, M., Xiang, Y., & Hu, X. (2005). Quality of life for people with intellectual disabilities in China: A cross-culture perspectives study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(10), 745–749. Yang, H. L., & Wang, H. B. (1994). Special education in China. The Journal of Special Education, 28, 93–105. Ye, L. Y., & Piao, Y. X. (1995). Te shujiaoyu xue [The study of special education]. Fujian Education Press. Yu, L., & Zhang, D. (1994). Shi lun zhangjian te shu jiaoyu sixiang tixi zhong de zhiye jiaoyu guan [An analysis of Zhang Jian’s vocational education ideology in developing special education]. Xiandai Te Shu Jiao Yu, 2, 9–11. Yung, K. K. (1997). Special education in Hong Kong: Is history repeating itself? Hong Kong Special Education Forum, 1(1), 1–19.

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Further Reading The Arc. (1993). The Arc’s Family Book for parents of children with mental retardation. Silver Spring, MD: The Arc. The Arc. (1998). Developmental checklist. Silver Spring, MD: The Arc. Bambara, L., & Knoster, T. (1998). Designing positive behavior support plans. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Demchak, M.A., & Bossert, K. (1996). Assessing problem behaviors. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Kennedy, C., & Horn, E. (2004). Including students with severe disabilities. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. McDonnell, J. J., Hardman, M. L., & McDonnell, A. P. (2003). Introduction to persons with moderate and severe disabilities: Educational and social issues (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Nehring, W. M. (1999). A History of nursing in the field of mental retardation and developmental disabilities. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Reid, D. H., & Parsons, M. (2003). The positive behavior support training curriculum (Supervisor’s edition). Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Schalock, R. L., & Luckasson, R. (2005). Clinical judgment. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Sitlington, P. L., & Clark, G. M. (2006). Transition education and services for students with disabilities (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Switzky, H. N., & Greenspan, S. (Eds.) (2006). What is mental retardation? Ideas for an evolving disability in the 21st century. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Taylor, R. L., Brady, M., & Richards, S. B. (2005). Mental retardation: Historical perspectives, current practices, and future directions. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Trach, J. S., & Shelden, D.L. (1999). Natural supports: A foundation for employment. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Ulman, J.G. (2005). Making technology work for learners with special needs: Practical skills for Teachers. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Useful Websites American Association on Mental Retardation: www.aamr.org Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps: www.tash.org Association for Persons with Special Needs (Singapore): www.apsn.org.sg/ Children Are Us: www.careus.org.tw Division on Developmental Disabilities (Council for Exceptional Children): www.dddcec.org Hong Chi Association: www.hongchi.org.hk Hong Kong Sports Association for the Mentally Handicapped: www.hksam.org.hk Lai Yiu Adult Training Centre: www.socialwork.com.hk/swtheroy.htm

Including Students with Intellectual Disabilities 305 Parent Association for Persons with Intellectual Disabilities: www.papmh.org.tw Social Welfare Department: www.info.gov.hk/swd The Arc of the United States: www.thearc.org

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Dr Kim Poon-McBrayer, Hong Kong Council for Academic Accreditation, 10/F Cambridge House, Taikoo Place, 979 King’s Road, Quarry Bay, Hong Kong.

306 Kim Fong POON-MCBRAYER and Philip MCBRAYER

10 Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Sivanes PHILLIPSON

Perspectives of Chinese students with emotional and behavioral disorders, and the challenges associated with teaching them are discussed in this chapter, including answers to the following questions: • What are emotional and behavioral disorders? • What is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? • What is autistic spectrum disorder? • What is the Chinese context of emotional and behavioral disorders? • What challenges do you face in the classroom? • What strategies are there to overcome these challenges? • What strategies are available to teach particular academic subjects?

Introduction Emotional disturbance (ED) was mentioned as one of the twelve varieties of education disabilities in the USA’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 1990 (IDEA). The IDEA, formerly known as Education for All Handicapped Children (1975), and amended in 2004, advocated the need for students with ED to have equal access to education (US Department of Education, 2004). This line of advocacy has been adopted by many countries around the world including those with a Confucian-heritage culture such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan and Korea. In these countries, the term “emotional and behavioral disorder” (EBD) is commonly employed instead of ED (Poon-McBrayer & Lian, 2002) and will be used in this chapter.

308 Sivanes PHILLIPSON This chapter focuses on understanding and teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders in a Chinese classroom. While the existing educational frameworks in many countries are based on those of the West, in the Chinese classroom teaching and learning are approached from the Confucian-heritage philosophy and culture. The Chinese Confucian-heritage (CHC) is a coin with two faces. On one face, its cultural values of promoting education for all, which includes basic knowledge and moral values, are seen as positive and valuable attributes for students’ high achievement (Tsui, 2005; Wang, 2004; Wu, 1996). On the other face of the coin, the Chinese culture has sanctions that elevate guilt and shame in its people for not belonging to the collective norm (Belford & Hwang, 2003; Kang, Lovett, & Haring, 2002; Lau & Takeuchi, 2001). This latter side of the Chinese culture presents difficulties for students with EBD because they do not fit easily within the boundaries of accepted behavior and, as a result, are either misunderstood, ignored or hidden. In this chapter, the term “Chinese classrooms” refers to school classrooms within the CHC. Although it is recognized that there is still a great deal of variability between classrooms, the cultural influences remain very similar. In Hong Kong, for example, students with EBD are not easily detected and, as a result, are usually found in mainstream classrooms by default, not by deliberate inclusion. Teachers’ and schools’ lack of ability in recognizing and identifying the characteristics of EBD, and parents’ refusal to admit to the possibility of EBD are amongst the reasons for this situation (Pearson et al., 2003). Consequently, teachers find themselves illequipped to deal with such students, especially when the students are chronically disadvantaged by their emotional and behavioral disorders. Recent educational reform in Hong Kong has seen a shift in the educational paradigm, with deliberate inclusion or integration of students into mainstream classes being actively engineered (Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau, 2002; Hong Kong Education Commission, 2004). Two publications worthy of mention that have been prepared to assist special education teachers in Hong Kong are the Guide to Curriculum for Maladjusted Children (Curriculum Development Council, 1998) and Integrated Education: Helping students with autistic disorders (Education Department, 2001). This chapter is divided into four main sections. The first section describes in broad terms the scope of special education in the area of EBD in CHC countries and the theoretical basis of EBD from an educational psychology perspective, with a specific focus on autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In the second section, classroom perspectives are described from three overlapping angles: emotional, behavioral and academic challenges. The third section addresses these areas by offering some practical strategies, which include both conventionally-used methods and progressive use of information technology. The last section then provides instructional bases for

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teaching a number of important key learning subjects in the Confucian-heritage classroom. Descriptions of Chinese students who suffer from specific forms of EBD are given in order to illustrate the demands facing the teacher. Two main cases, students CW and BB, are used to elaborate important points made throughout this chapter.

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders CW CW is ten years old and has been in Ms Chin’s class for two months. One day during recess, CW was playing chase with his classmates. Suddenly, he went out of control. He chased and hit anyone who was in his way. He then tried to get into the staff room. Frightened that he might cause damage, the teachers quickly locked all the doors. He hit and kicked the doors hard and was shouting for about half an hour. No one could approach him at that time. Two senior teachers and a social worker approached him when he finally calmed down after an hour. BB BB is seventeen years old. BB dislikes any sorts of variation in lessons or class and school events. He sometimes becomes aggressive, shouts and throws things such as books and chairs. CW and BB are examples of students who display characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Defining EBD, however, is difficult because of the different conceptual explanations for its causes and effects (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003). In the literature, culture and context are said to determine some of the differences in the conceptual explanations, and so the exercise of defining EBD requires an understanding of both the affected children and the culture and context in which they live (Kirk et al., 2006). Most literature in the area of special education cites definitions from the USA’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 1990 (IDEA) or its National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition1 as a background to theoretical discussion. Here, however, the focus will be on working definitions that can be found in research and literature from Confucian-heritage countries. Chinese research is generally based on six categories of EBD derived from the Chinese Version of the Teacher’s Report Form (TRF-CV) (Liu et al., 2000) and the Chinese Version of the Child Behavior Checklist, as reported in a number of

310 Sivanes PHILLIPSON studies conducted in Taiwan (Kuo et al., 2004; Yang, Chen, & Sung, 2001; Yang et al., 2000). The tools used in these studies were translated from the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991a) and the Teacher’s Report Form (Achenbach, 1991b). The six categories can be discussed in terms of their externality and internality (Table 10.1). Table 10.1 Description of six categories of emotional and behavioral disorders Locus External

Internal

Behavior

Characteristics

Aggressive and delinquent

includes defiance, disobedience, fighting, violence and disruptive behavior

Attention problems

includes poor schoolwork, lying and cheating, untidiness and lack of concentration

Social problems

includes attention-seeking behavior, high sensitivity to feelings of hurt, jealousy and anxiety, and being easily frustrated

Withdrawn and depressed

includes withdrawal, fear of making mistakes, speech problems and a confused state of mind

Somatic complaints

includes complaints of body aches and headaches, twitches, picking and hoarding, and rashes. This category is found to be significantly higher in older children (Liu et al., 2000)

Thought problems

includes truancy, whining, sulking and sleeping in class

Sources: Kuo, et al. (2004); Yang, Chen, & Soong (2001); Yang et al. (2000)

Context of emotional and behavioral disorders All of the categories described in Table 10.1 appear to violate the essence and traditions of the Chinese culture since Confucianism encourages filial obedience and the upholding of moral standards in society (Belford & Hwang, 2003; Draguns, 1996; Lau & Takeuchi, 2001). Any show of aggression, disobedience, and temperamental emotions externally is not acceptable and is usually seen as a moral, psychological and developmental defect by teachers, peers and family (Chen et al., 2002; Xu et al., 2004). In Hong Kong, children who displayed emotional and behavioral problems were labeled as “maladjusted children” (Education and Manpower Bureau, 1996), thus reflecting the view of children who do not fit into in their community. More recently, however, these children have been recognized

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as students who are enrolled in Schools for Social Development in order to avoid the adverse effects of labeling. It is also crucial to analyze the causes and related confounding factors surrounding a child suffering from emotional and behavioral disorders. The causes can vary from genetically- to environmentally-induced factors, specifically the culture and context of the child’s upbringing. Some children are born with a tendency towards severe anxiety that may lead to depression and mood swings that regress into aggression toward him/herself and others, and even suicidal thoughts and actions. Also, behavioral disorders have been attributed to certain brain abnormalities or dysfunction. Kirk et al. (2006) suggested that while some children do have biological or genetic tendencies for emotional and behavioral problems, the confounding influence of children’s interaction with their environment — namely family, peers, school teachers and staff — needs to be understood. Support for the view that the parents of Chinese children with emotional and behavioral problems, and their peers and school teachers, are probably the people who influence their psychological and developmental stage for better or worse can be found in several studies (Chen et al., 2002; Pearson et al., 2003; Pun, Ma, & Kelly, 2004; Xu et al., 2004). A history of emotional and physical abuse in a child’s immediate surroundings may also be a major confounding factor. In traditional Chinese culture, emotional and behavioral problems are viewed as shameful and inappropriate in the context of a group that is formed on the basis of filial relationships. Parents who adhere to these values often ignore, hide or shun children with emotional and behavioral problems. However, research has suggested that urbanization and practical education have altered the way people view and treat children with emotional and behavioral problems (Guo, 2005; Huang et al., 2003; Kang, Lovett, & Haring et al., 2002; Pun, Ma, & Kelly, 2004). For the purposes of this chapter, EBD in the Chinese classroom is defined as special needs that arise from emotions and behaviors that incapacitate a child’s ability to participate in his or her developmental and learning environment. These emotions and behaviors include, but are not limited to, aggressive behavior, attention problems, social problems, withdrawal, somatic complaints, and thought problems. With this definition in mind, we now examine closely two known chronic varieties of EBD which are connected to developmental disorders in the West (Kirk et al., 2006) and are also found in Confucian-heritage countries: attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). It must be noted, however, that special education legislation in most Confucian-heritage countries (e.g. Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China) did not include EBD or its specific forms as disabilities that warrant educational support until the mid- to late 1990s. Most of the research and support before this time was concentrated in the medical and mental health sectors of these countries.

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Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder CW (continued) CW is the third child from a family of five, including a single mother. He has two older sisters (13 and 11 years old) and a younger brother (5 years old). CW’s mother works full- time as a cashier in a local supermarket. His father left the family after some gambling problems when CW was five years old. CW’s mother feels that he is also “naughty” at home and she says that she has no time to deal with CW’s disruptive behavior because of her work and the need to care for her other children. CW can never sit still even when he is having dinner with his family. His table and eating manners are deplorable. He is constantly scolded for not paying attention to his mother’s or even his teacher’s instructions. The more he is scolded, the more defiant he seems to become. Sometimes, he gets moody and refuses to cooperate or talk in any way. CW’s eldest sister, who looks after her siblings when her mother is working, tries to make sure he does his homework but sometimes he gives up after a few attempts as he can’t sit down and complete it. CW shows symptoms and characteristics of a child suffering from attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A review of the research conducted in the CHC has suggested that there is higher incidence of ADHD amongst children in these countries than in Western countries (Chang et al., 2004; Huang et al., 2003). This suggestion is attributed to the emphasis in Chinese culture on the importance of morally confined behaviors and academic achievement (Huang et al., 2003; Leung, 1996). It is believed that in this culture, the continuum of moral standards and conformity of behavior leans toward the higher end of the Western culture’s scale of measures for ADHD — which explains the higher prevalence of ADHD cases in the CHC. However, as in findings from the West, more Chinese boys than girls seem to suffer from ADHD (Chang et al., 2004). What is ADHD? Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined by the American Psychiatric Association (2000) as a developmental disorder which causes children to have levels of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity that impair their lives; and this definition has been used widely by Chinese researchers in the area. ADHD is found to be associated with differences in dopamine receptor function, which interferes with the passage of behavior control messages in the brain. Successful treatments using stimulants (the implications of which will be discussed later in this chapter) indicate the plausibility of this finding. Furman (2005) asserted that ADHD is not easily diagnosable because it “is a collection of

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 313

symptoms, namely, inattention, impulsivity, and overactivity that overlaps with other major and minor mental health conditions” (p. 999). Furman also stressed that the causes of ADHD cannot be ascertained from genetic factors alone but rather is a comorbodity condition that is more environmentally intertwined, such as by exposure to environmental toxins, low birth weight and parents’ smoking. Nevertheless, a review of family studies conducted over the past few decades has highlighted that ADHD is a heritable disorder (Levy, Hay, & Bennett, 2006). It is therefore important, for the sake of both the children and their families, that proper and comprehensive procedures are in place and followed up in all areas of the children’s lives, especially in the educational and health context. CW (continued) CW can never sit on his seat for a whole lesson. He likes wandering around the classroom even when Ms Chin is teaching. He cannot concentrate on any given task. His behavior is disordered and haphazard, worsened by his loud talking. When Ms Chin instructs her whole class on a task or activity, CW never listens. She usually has to pull him aside to instruct him on an individual basis. Even this does not guarantee that CW will carry out his task. Students with ADHD who, like CW, have a poor attention span and cannot concentrate on a task for the same length of time as their unaffected peers. They are easily distracted and very fidgety, and they fail to finish tasks properly. They usually make a good start on tasks with few mistakes, only to deteriorate as the task progresses, resulting in many careless errors and failure to complete them. This lack of concentration is further complicated by their tendency to be hyperactive, which is shown in their propensity to wander around the class. They also tend to be disorganized and forgetful of immediate and recent events and activities. They are known to be able to follow only short instructions, not a sequence of instructions. In addition, students with ADHD tend to be impulsive, both verbally and physically. They have an innate lack of self-control that gets them into trouble with their teachers and peers, and this contributes to their predisposition to be noisy, boisterous and loud (Selikowitz, 2004). Within the Chinese culture, parents of children who display symptoms of ADHD tend to ignore the possibility that their children have a problem for fear of non-conformity to cultural norms. Some parents, on the other hand, are quick in attributing their children’s academic failure to ADHD. Therefore, it is fundamentally important to the well-being of the affected children to have a proper diagnosis, which should begin with an investigation of the antecedents of the symptoms that constitute ADHD. It has been repeatedly suggested that biological factors alone do not play a major role in ADHD; rather it is the interaction of biological factors

314 Sivanes PHILLIPSON with the environment and culture that may contribute to the seemingly higher prevalence of ADHD within Chinese countries (Brookes et al., 2006; Cheuk, Li, & Wong, 2006). ADHD and symptoms treatment: CW’s teacher, Ms Chin, suspected that he had attention deficiency and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and persuaded CW’s mother to allow a proper diagnosis by a child psychologist, and CW was eventually diagnosed with ADHD. Ms Chin’s knowledge from her teacher education helped her recognize some of CW’s characteristics as symptoms of ADHD. In Chinese countries, teachers in the past tended to be more conservative in their referral of students with suspected ADHD (Yang & Schaller, 1997), and but this has changed progressively as they have learned more about EBD, and ADHD specifically (Yang, Schaller, & Parker, 2000). The symptoms displayed by CW — inattention, hyperactivity, fidgeting, defiance, loud talking, distractedness and moodiness — are amongst the many associated with ADHD. Affected children have also been reported to have higher rates of poor peer relationships (Chang et al., 2004). If not treated successfully, these symptoms can persist into adulthood, eventually evolving into what seems like lack of confidence and anti-social behaviors (Lim & Quah, 2004). The symptoms must be persistent and consistent enough to cause concern: occasional conduct disorders or mood swings cannot be interpreted conclusively as ADHDassociated symptoms (Chang et al., 2004). Also, a growing number of children suffer from a comorbid form of ADHD which includes learning difficulties and communication disorders such as impaired visual perception and hearing impairment (Kirk et al., 2006). A number of treatments are available for children with ADHD, ranging from medication (Western drugs and Chinese traditional herbal medicine) and acupuncture to intervention and behavior therapy which, in Chinese countries, includes training in social skills and filial piety. Drugs such as methylphenidate (popularly known as ritalin) are claimed to be effective in treating the symptoms of ADHD (not ADHD itself) by improving children’s ability to pay attention and reduce their hyperactivity (Yang et al., 2004). CW (continued) As Ms Chin suspected, CW tested above average in an IQ test. But her concern with CW is how to manage his behavior, especially his attention span and hyperactivity in the classroom. As part of his treatment, CW is prescribed a generic form of methylphenidate. He, however, dislikes taking it and he tells his sister that he feels like a “dummy” when he does; he feels that he can’t think or react the way he usually does. However his teachers, including Ms Chin, find him easier to handle as he becomes quiet and docile in the class.

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Ritalin has side-effects, such as hampered thinking processes caused by drowsiness, headaches, weight loss and irritability. In the West there is a significant movement against using ritalin or any other form of drug to treat children with ADHD, as it is suggested that long-term and improper use of drugs is dangerous (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2006). Practitioners in Chinese traditional medicine have argued that herbal medicine treatment works better with fewer sideeffects than ritalin (Chen, Chen & Wang, 2002; Chen, Huang & Zhao, 2001). Other research by these practitioners has suggested that a combination of herbal remedies and ritalin can be more effective than when they are prescribed individually (Ding, Yu & Chen, 2002). A growing number of educational researchers in Hong Kong, China and Taiwan have focused on behavioral and social skills training as a source of intervention and therapy to treat behavioral and emotional problems faced by those suffering from ADHD (Chang et al., 2004). Parents are also targeted for training programs designed to help them manage children with ADHD (Huang et al., 2003). Practical steps and strategies that teachers and schools can take to accommodate ADHD children’s needs are discussed in a later section of this chapter.

Autistic spectrum disorder BB (continued) BB has an innocent disposition and his IQ is about average. He has a very good memory and is able to recognize and remember many single words. He can write or copy passages. His verbal ability is basic and simple. However, BB doesn’t cope well with changes. For example, every day he takes the same bus to and from school and insists on sitting on the same seat in the bus. Once, when his seat was taken by a girl, he pulled her out and took the seat where he rocked himself and said repeatedly that he was called BB. He also likes touching and stroking his female teacher’s face and hair. Several years ago, BB was diagnosed as having high functioning autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). He is part of a growing number of children known to have ASD, which affects their specific motor ability and their social and communicative ability (Kirk et al., 2006). Autism is suspected to be an inherited condition which is more common in boys than girls (Kirk et al., 2006) In the CHC, research on autism or autism-related issues also tends to show the condition in more boys than girls (Chan et al., 2005; Chang et al., 2003; Shek et al. 2005). Because of a growing awareness of the disorder, the number of people identified as having ASD in CHC countries has been rising, with at least 500,000

316 Sivanes PHILLIPSON new cases reported in China alone (Li, 2002), and up to 10% of Hong Kong families have members with ASD (Shek et al., 2005). As with ADHD, this increased awareness of ASD stems from the need to overcome the difficulties it poses for academic achievement, which is considered of fundamental importance in the Chinese culture — though, relative to population size, its prevalence in Chinese countries seems to be lower than in the West (Clark & Zhou, 2005). Hong Kong and Taiwan, for example, have begun to recognize autistic spectrum disorder as one of the types of emotional behavioral disorder in their special education initiatives, especially in the movement toward a whole-school approach and integration. What is autism? The term autism was coined as early as 1916 by Eugen Bleuler, a Swiss psychiatrist who used it to describe the enclosure of one’s self from the outside world, and the term originates from the Greek word autos meaning “self” (Frith, 2003, p. 5). Leo Kanner (1943) then labeled ASD as an early infantile autism on the basis of a study of eleven children. These children were described as being very frequently alone, obsessed with the preservation of sameness, repetitive in speech and action, and with a high ability in rote memory. Whilst Kanner’s early suppositions indicated that ASD was a childhood disorder, Frith (2003) stressed that it is a developmental disorder that begins in early childhood and continues through the entire life. It has been postulated that dysfunctions in parts of the central nervous system that affect language, cognitive and intellectual development, or brain abnormality, may be the cause of ASD. At the same time as Kanner’s work, Hans Asperger, an Austrian physician, described the children in his research as having autistic psychopathy (cited in Wing, 2005, p. 584). His case studies seemed to show similar behavioral and communicative characteristics to those mentioned by Kanner but with wider-ranging diagnostic criteria which included poor and high intellectual abilities. Asperger’s definition of autism was subsequently adapted by Wing in 1976 as the Asperger syndrome which she later defined as applying to “children and adults who have autistic features, but who talk grammatically and who are not socially aloof” (Wing, 1981, p. 124). The classification of the various types of ASD has always been problematic (Wing, 2005). At present it is classified as a pervasive developmental disorder by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV-Text Revised (DSM-IV-TR) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), which includes pervasive developmental disorders not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) and the Asperger syndrome that consists of symptoms synonymous with high functioning autism (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003). In China, the third edition of the Chinese Category of Mental Disease (Chinese Medical Association-Mental Health Division, 2001) adapted from the DSM-IV-TR, is used to diagnose ASD. Other inventories are also being used in ASD research (Clark & Zhou, 2005). For example, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT23) was modified for use in research with Chinese Hong Kong children (Wong et

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al., 2004) and was found to be cost-effective and reliable enough for the local context. Also, when determining language profiles amongst Chinese children with ASD, it was found that a test of expressive language is far more sensitive than a test of comprehension (Chan et al., 2005), since Chinese language is processed in different parts of the brain from English language (Cheung, Chan, & Cheung, 2003; Tan et al., 2000). Is Asperger syndrome the same as ASD? The common perception is that Asperger syndrome falls within the wide range of the autistic spectrum of disorder (Wing, 2005). However, this issue continues to be debated. For example, a study in Japan of 231 pre-school children found that Asperger syndrome cannot be equated to high functioning autism because children with Asperger syndrome had a higher level of verbal comprehension than high-functioning autistic children (Iwanaga, Kawasaki, & Tsuchido, 2000). Asperger syndrome is differentiated on the basis of severe impairment of social functioning (Clark & Zhou, 2005). High-functioning and low-functioning autism are usually differentiated on the basis of the intellectual ability of those affected: a person with high intellectual ability is described as having high-functioning autism, while low-functioning autism describes a person with low intellectual ability (Wing & Gould, 1979). Following Wing’s (1998) views, Mayes and Calhoun (2003) suggested that it is logical and beneficial for the affected children to classify autism as a single spectrum disorder, ranging from mild to extreme in severity, rather than to classify it into subtypes as proposed by the DSM-IV-TR. Wing (2005) has recently stated that autism is a spectrum of disorders that “is best understood in the context of the full range of developmental disorders right up to the borderline normality” (p. 599) which includes a triad of impairments: in social interaction, communication and imagination connected to repetitive motion of activities (see Figure 10.1).

Figure 10.1

Wing’s (1981, 1998, 2005) triad of impairments to describe autism

318 Sivanes PHILLIPSON It is important to mention at this point that ASD in children can be further complicated by the presence of other disorders and impairments such as learning difficulties, ADHD, mental retardation, visual impairments, hearing impairments, specific motor control and personality disorders (schizoid). In adults, other neuropsychiatric conditions can also occur such as catatonia,2 obsessive compulsive disorder, and specific eating disorders (anorexia) (Wing, 2005). Wing also presented findings, supported by her own and others’ research, which showed the severity of impairment in ASD to be negatively correlated with IQ. Wing (2005) argued for flexibility in interpreting the impairments classified within the ASD spectrum. The triad of impairments provides teachers and parents with some knowledge which can help them to understand the behavioral and cognitive patterns of autism in students. Other researchers (Wing, 2005; Frith, 2003) have asked educators and parents to view ASD and the associated impairments as a social challenge rather than a social deficit to give students with ASD a better standing in education settings, and the same can also be argued for children with ADHD. Autism and symptoms intervention: Clark and Zhou (2005) reported that autism was unknown in China until 1995. Sadly, people became aware of autism when local Chinese newspapers reported that a college student aged twenty-one fed the bears in the Beijing Zoo with a cocktail of caustic soda and sulfuric acid on the pretext of testing the bears’ intelligence. It is not known whether the student was actually autistic, but his actions were taken to be those of autistic naivety. Despite teachers and parents in a CHC country such as China having very little knowledge of autism, they are likely to have seen its symptoms and, as elsewhere, would have encountered difficulties in handling their autistic children due to their lack of knowledge and expert support (Clark & Zhou, 2005). Unlike ADHD symptoms, autistic symptoms are not easily treatable with drugs or similar treatments. In Chinese countries, a number of the methods that have been found to be effective in improving social and oral communication have also been used to treat ASD symptoms, including traditional treatments such as acupuncture, herbal medicine and massage. Traditional Chinese medicine attributes the cause of ASD to an imbalance of Yin and Yang (physical energy) (Clark & Zhou, 2005) and treatment targets this imbalance. More specifically, individuals with ASD are believed to have an imbalance between the energetic functions of the heart, spleen and kidneys — organs which are associated with the sensory organs — and so Chinese treatments are targeted at improving the balance of Yin and Yang in the functioning of these organs (Majebe, 2002). Teachers are more concerned with behavioral interventions in the classroom that might be helpful when faced with children and adolescents with ASD and ADHD. In countries such as China, Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan and Singapore, the

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governments are increasingly putting in place support mechanisms, both school and externally-based organizations, to help students with EBD adapt to the school environment and steer them toward achievement. In Hong Kong, as part of the general education reform, EBD is recognized as one of the many types of special educational needs (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2002). The next section discusses some of the common problems and challenges that teachers face in teaching Chinese students with ADHD and ASD in a mainstream classroom.

Challenges in the Chinese Classroom CW (continued) From his first day at school, Ms Chin found CW intolerably loud, defiant and disruptive. He runs around the class all the time and Ms Chin has difficulty controlling him. He rarely finishes any set tasks in the classroom. He also performed poorly in the previous year’s school tests. He does not seem to have any friends either; he is constantly teased by his classmates and other children in the school.

BB (continued) BB dislikes any sorts of variation in lessons or class and school events. When this happens, he becomes aggressive, shouts and throws things like books and chairs. For example, there was a time when the English reading lesson was moved to the library. BB was silent for a while but suddenly he ran out of the library which was on the fourth floor and threw a chair down on to the playground. Luckily, no one was hurt that day. The behaviors exhibited by CW and BB are quite common among students with EBD, and pose tremendous challenges to teachers and students within a mainstream classroom. Although they are discussed in distinct sections on the emotional, behavioral and academic, aspects, in practice these problems tend to overlap.

Emotional challenges In their exploration of emotions among Chinese people, Russell and Yik (1996) defined emotion as “a process consisting of a sequence of components” and argued that emotion “is the pattern among the components rather than a component in and

320 Sivanes PHILLIPSON of itself” (p. 166). Components of emotions such as anger, sadness, happiness and excitement are known to be universal, but the patterns and processes of mediation of these components are suppressed or expressed in moderation in the Chinese culture. Students with EBD tend to have a more apparent display of emotions and thus have numerous emotional challenges that impact upon their well-being in the classroom. The term “well-being” in the previous sentence refers not only to students’ mental health but also their classroom performance. Those who suffer from internally derived emotions tend to have low self-concepts and motivation to achieve (Poon-McBrayer, 2002). The external and internal characteristics that define EBD were shown in Table 10.1. The internally based characteristics that are important in this context are withdrawal and depression, somatic complaints and thought problems. Internally derived emotions are not known explicitly to be disruptive in the classroom and at home, but raise concerns for both teachers and parents due to the associated low self-concepts and motivation (Kirk et al., 2006; Lim & Quah, 2004). Students who are withdrawn tend not to respond to their teachers’ efforts or to other stimulation in the classroom. They can be unpredictable and dangerous to themselves and, on rare occasions, to others. Teachers who have to deal with such students find them hard to talk with and are likely to need the help of counselors to communicate with them. Their peers tend to either reject them or ignore them, and they also tend to become easy prey for bullies. TT TT is a student who has been diagnosed as having ADHD. He is situated in another class in Ms Chin’s school. TT can be boisterous and loud and most times gives excuses for not doing his work. He tends to boast about his ability to do things and puts down his friends for their work in class. TT’s teacher believes, however, that he suffers from low self-esteem because on most occasions he gives up easily when faced with a hard task. His excuse is either that he is “stupid” or needs to see the nurse because he has a stomach ache or headache. Students like TT hide their low self-esteem and possible inferiority complex behind thought problems such as whining, truancy, and somatic complaints. These kinds of displays are annoying and trying for teachers because it is difficult to know when the student is actually telling the truth. When class sizes are large, as is usual in Chinese-heritage cultures, it is an especially difficult problem. In these instances, teachers tend to take the complaints at face value and go on with their teaching

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tasks for the day — this is how TT’s teacher reacts to his emotional displays. Peers, on the other hand, begin to reject students like TT because they are bully-like in their boisterous and unrestrained behavior. (Wong, 2002). Within the triad of impairments, students with ASD tend to have three forms of emotional (or behavioral) characteristics, viz. aloofness, passiveness and oddness (Frith, 2003; Wing, 2005). The first two of these are not tolerated well within the Chinese culture as they violate the Chinese perception of acceptable demonstration of emotions. SM Another student in Ms Chin’s class suffers from low-functioning autism. This student, SM, does not respond to her attempts to communicate with him. Eye contact is avoided and he does not like being touched at all. SM tends to use limited gestures or words to obtain the things he wants. Sometimes he stares at the old scratches on his table for hours. Ms Chin is not sure what to think of SM. SM’s mother reported that once their pet cat had been run over by a car in front of SM. To his mother’s horror, he picked up the dead cat, took it home and placed it on the sofa where it usually slept and started playing with his play station game. SM seemed totally insensitive to the fact that their cat was dead and its carcass was bloody and messy! Aloofness can be mistaken for defiance and rudeness. Children with ASD who are aloof tend to be known as being in a “glass cage” where they are untouchable and unresponsive to any forms of emotional display from other people, including those they love (Frith, 2003, p. 62). They also tend to have a hollow and pensive expression in their eyes and faces when they look at others. Neither the teacher nor peers can entirely ignore the presence of such students, but it is difficult to communicate with and understand them. Usually teachers and peers tend to adopt a “leave him alone” approach, as does Ms Chin and the other students in her class. BB (continued) BB can be rather friendly and chatty. Sometimes he only says “Hello” to teachers passing by but sometimes when he sees some of the women teachers, he likes to touch and stroke their hair or faces, and they let him do it for fear of triggering any violent behavior. The school principal, however, is wary of BB touching any women teachers or students as he is seventeen years old.

322 Sivanes PHILLIPSON Handling odd behavior can also be very demanding for Chinese teachers and students as it is viewed as very unbecoming in the Chinese culture. They can feel rather annoyed, threatened or violated if a boy or girl with ASD displays odd behavior. For example, BB is known to attach himself, to the point of obsession, to any female teacher or student who shows interest and kindness to him. He chats with the person incessantly and refuses to move on. BB’s class teacher has known him for a few years but still finds it emotionally draining when she has to let BB touch her face and hair. The girls in the class tend to stay away from him as they fear that he might follow them around. A passive emotional display, on the other hand, is quite prevalent within a culture that encourages piety. In the Chinese classroom, students are expected to be restrained, disciplined and passively attentive during lessons (Cheng, 1998). Thus, passive students with ASD can fit into the Chinese classroom well. However, passivity in students with ASD is quite problematic for younger children, especially as they tend to be trusting of strangers. Any break in routine can also result in sobbing bouts and temper tantrums which can be quite violent. There is also the problem of identifying passivity in Chinese students with ASD; since they are generally required to be passive in their emotional and behavioral displays, this type of ASD may not be identified until much later, if at all. BB (continued) BB’s parents are divorced. He is the only child of the marriage but his mother has trouble in accepting BB for who he is — she does not even allow him to call her “Mom”. The school has difficulty in contacting his mother about her son; and, on the other hand, she often blames the school for allegedly providing insufficient care for him. Two issues are evident from the above description. First, BB obviously lacks love and support from his mother, which is emotionally hurtful for both BB and people who know him. Whilst most parents try to be loving, understanding and supportive, raising children with EBD, especially those with ADHD and ASD, can be both emotionally and physically demanding. Kirk et al. (2006) stated that the difficulty of raising such children increases the likelihood of family breakdown. While some children are oblivious to the effects they have on their parents and family, others are very aware of the tension that is ever present in the home and sometimes in the classroom. This kind of awareness leads to depression, anxiety and possible dysthymia.3 Students who experience depression and dysthymia are almost always found to be sleeping and disinterested in the class. The second issue that arises from BB’s story is the partnership between schools and the families of these children. Dealing with parents of students with EBD can

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be particularly difficult for teachers and principals as, without support and encouragement from parents, a teacher’s task in handling students with EBD becomes much more physically and emotionally exhausting.

Behavioral challenges BB (continued) There was an incident where BB’s behavior frightened his teacher and classmates. It was a free period and the students in his class were very talkative and noisy. BB suddenly shouted and threw about eleven desks against the blackboard. His classmates were shocked; some of them started crying, whilst others ran to the back of the class. BB didn’t hurt anyone physically but his sudden action scared everyone. That class is very quiet now! BB knows he did something wrong. BB’s behavior is quite characteristic of students’ with ASD, because of impairments in their skills of communication, socialization and imagination. Such students have an inflexibility that causes them to react in an extreme manner to things which have happened in the classroom. Their lack of understanding of the nature of their social environment and rigidity in interpreting words spoken to them and around them also causes them to misapprehend the dynamics of their environment. They tend to communicate in different (sometimes dramatic) ways using gestures and actions rather than words. This unpredictability in behavior poses a major challenge to teachers and other students. Students with EBD, particularly individuals with ADHD, usually present other kinds of behavioral problems such as defiance, delinquency and aggression (see external displays of behavior in Table 10.1). Teachers and the other students may feel emotionally threatened by their unpredictable and violent behavior. Some such students may repeatedly cheat, lie, steal and carry out other attention-seeking behaviors which are less onerous. Students who are hyperactive tend to wander around the class, fidget, call out and put up their hands demanding immediate attention. These behaviors are disruptive and interfere with teachers’ teaching and other students’ learning time, and can cause other difficulties for their peers who are sometimes subjected to attempts to control and bully. Students with EBD can also play truant, thus causing problems for both parents and schools. Some parents deny that the problem lies with the child, and instead blame the school for its lack of control of the students. As well as coping with the behavior of these children, principals and teachers sometimes have to deal with their parents becoming abusive at times.

324 Sivanes PHILLIPSON

Academic challenges Teachers usually find that students with EBD tend to have numerous learning difficulties that impinge on their academic achievement. The most common problem is poor concentration, usually found in students with ADHD, which some researchers believe to be associated with impairment of executive functioning. Broadly, executive functioning refers to “the ability to self-monitor, stay focused in the face of interference, think flexibly, and organize oneself” (Furman, 2005, p. 995). A related problem amongst Chinese students who have EBD in general and ADHD specifically is a poorer working memory.4 Teachers such as Ms Chin have found that students who have a poor working memory have problems in understanding a task or text, and in following instructions that require organizational and logical thinking. Deficits in working memory also result in an inability to express oneself in both oral and written work. Students with ADHD are usually clumsy in motor coordination and thus have difficulty with their handwriting, particularly with Chinese characters as they are quite complex, demanding both good memory skills and fine motor skills. Students with EBD commonly have problems with language subjects due to the difficulties they encounter in linguistic and verbal ability. There is a general perception of language delay and deviance among these students with ADHD and ASD, and the former are sometimes found to also have learning difficulties which compounds their problems. These students, particularly those with low-functioning autism, are inclined to have communication impairments that cause them problems in their articulation and fluency of language production. This impairment may range from difficulty in articulating spontaneous speech to producing grammatically correct sentence structures (Schoenbrodt, Kumin, & Sloan, 1997). Language deficits displayed by students with EBD in general pose difficulties for the students themselves in learning in the classroom and understanding their teachers. Students with ADHD are sometimes found to have auditory problems, impairing their understanding of classroom tasks, activities and instructions (Yang, Schaller, & Parker, 2000). Most students with high-functioning autism, especially those with Asperger syndrome, also experience difficulty in understanding the actual meaning of spoken words. They tend to interpret sentences literally due to impairment in their imagination as defined by Wing and Gould (1979). For example, a teacher said to a student with ASD who was sitting in the front row of the class, “Can you pass these papers down the row?” The student answered, “Yes, I can”, but he didn’t pass them on at all as he had interpreted the teacher’s utterance literally as asking whether he could do something rather than asking him to actually carry out the task.

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Students with ASD sometimes display a condition called echolalia where they echo or mimic words spoken by other people in a meaningless way. If teachers are unable to cope with this phenomenon, it can be a deterrent to language development. In addition, high-functioning autism students or those with Asperger syndrome are generally inclined to have better verbal ability but this sometimes includes idiosyncratic expressions combined with odd interpretations and uses of language such as echolalia, and difficulty with pronouns such as “I” and “you”. Related to students’ learning difficulties is the issue of self-esteem and lack of motivation in the classroom (Chan, 1998). Chan stressed that students with learning difficulties have low self-esteem and self-concepts, and Chinese teachers have found that such students tend to give up easily on tasks set for them. However, Chan added that the teachers in his research underestimated the competence of students with perceived learning difficulties, which could affect their responses in some ways and may very well be a cause of their students’ low self-esteem. Hence, it is important for teachers to have a thorough knowledge and understanding of their students’ learning difficulties and other EBD-associated symptoms and behaviors. Chinese students with EBD also fear failure because of the embarrassment it may bring to themselves and their families. In order to minimize or avoid possible failures and embarrassment, they behave in a distracting and disruptive manner which only increases their problems. These students also tend to find activities and class lessons less interesting, most probably because of the overbearing and arrogant attitudes they display in order to cover up an inferiority complex. Some of them can be gifted and genuinely find the tasks unchallenging, and teachers are sometimes unable to distinguish between their giftedness and their egocentric displays of arrogance as students with EBD tend to be conventionally “naughty.”

Classroom Strategies Teachers are naturally very interested in classroom strategies which can help them overcome EBD-related problems within the classroom. Classroom management strategies to meet the challenges of diversity in a Chinese classroom are discussed in detail in Chapter 14 of this book; and Chapter 13 suggests social narratives and journaling as ways for teachers to manage students with EBD. However, it must be noted that conventional behavior management practices that involve strict control, punishment, confinement and exclusion have limited success with students with EBD compared with positive and proactive steps (Mathur, Quinn, & Rutherford, 1996). The following discussion focuses on classroom strategies for specific

326 Sivanes PHILLIPSON demands that arise from including and teaching Chinese students with EBD, particularly those with ADHD and ASD, in the mainstream classroom. Teachers need to adapt their teaching and classroom management techniques in order to tackle the potentially difficult problems posed by students with EBD which can affect their academic attainment. Wang (1998) stated that effective classroom management, instructions and learning strategies are vital to promoting student learning, including that of students with special needs. It is therefore extremely important for teachers to have a pedagogical framework that will not only allow them to control and manage challenging students but also understand their own capacities and fears in confronting and handling students with EBD. A framework introduced by O’Brien (2005) in the UK to help teachers adapt can be modified for Chinese classrooms in which students with EBD are present. This framework is called being-with and O’Brien describes how it “relates to teacher adaptation to the EBD context and offers insight into an ontological focus upon ‘being’ (existence and experience), rather than ‘doing’ (observable practice and competencies)” (p. 172). O’Brien characterized teaching in an EBD context as riskier than in normal classes due to the volatile, hostile and aggressive nature of EBD. As most Chinese classes are known to have integrated students with EBD, this may mean an even higher risk for the mainstream teachers. As seen earlier, some of the unpredictable behaviors displayed by CW and BB caused both teachers and students to feel threatened and frightened; and such fears may contribute to the further alienation of these students, particularly when there is a lack of understanding of EBD and its specific forms, ADHD and ASD. The main advantage of the being with approach for the Chinese classroom is that it assumes that teachers will see themselves as being within the EBD context together with their students, and not in opposition to them (Figure 10.2). Fundamentally, this means that teachers should begin by understanding the nature of EBD and by recognizing their fears and feelings associated with dealing with such students. This approach is consistent with the CHC, and so allows teachers to both teach and manage a class that includes Chinese students with EBD. Figure 10.2 is a visual sketch of the emotional factors and adaptation process that are involved in a classroom with students with EBD. This adaptation process requires teachers to look at their inner selves and work towards being themselves in the classroom and prepares them to be aware of their own emotional barriers and body language in order to cope better with the demands presented by students with EBD. With appropriate support from colleagues and other sources, teachers then establish a relationship with these students on the basis of a sincere and genuine intention of wanting to find out about their difficulties. The being with approach also requires the learner to become involved with teachers’ efforts to identify the areas in which their help is required. In this way both the teacher and the learner modify their respective behaviors in accordance with the needs of the learning environment.

Being with your students.

Note: Adapted from O’Brien, T. (2005, Figure 13.1: “Being-with”, p. 172). This figure was adapted and reproduced with the kind permission of the Open University Press/McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

Figure 10.2

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328 Sivanes PHILLIPSON Furthermore, teachers need not be afraid to seek the forms of support available to them; and if there are none in their immediate school environment, they should be proactive in looking for professional support with the blessing of their schools. When teachers are themselves and are prepared to take action to tackle the problems associated with EBD, they are in a better position to identify and put in place strategies that help them manage and teach all students since less time is spent on managing classroom behaviors and more on productive learning and teaching. One of the first aspects of the required classroom strategies is assessment of students’ impairments and abilities. While a formal assessment and diagnosis by a clinical or an educational psychologist is appropriate, teachers’ informal assessments through everyday observation of students are equally crucial to the formulation of classroom strategies and teaching and learning processes. There are several preventative measures that teachers, in collaboration with the school and other students, can take in order to prevent undesirable and unpredictable behavior. Collaboration with parents and other family members of students with EBD is also vital for ensuring success in prevention and intervention measures. Interventions are usually encouraged from the earliest signs of maladjusted emotional and behavioral displays. Teachers can also consider using assistive technologies in order to help them with emotional and behavioral modification. Such an approach is especially useful for students with ASD.

General preventative strategies Since prevention is better than cure, teachers must take precautionary measures to ensure that students with EBD, especially those with ADHD and ASD, will not have unnecessary opportunities for unwanted behaviors and emotional displays. The following paragraphs provide a list of general steps that can be taken to minimize any disruptive behavior and these are then supplemented by equally important ones for students with ADHD and ASD. General preventative steps for students with EBD can include action in the following areas: •

Student seating arrangements: The way in which seats are arranged is important to enable teachers to tackle students with EBD. Conventionally, “naughty” students were usually placed in isolation at the back or in the corner of the classroom, but this tends to aggravate students’ behavior and reduce teachers’ ability to cope with it. Students with EBD should almost always be placed in the front, near the teacher, if the classroom has the traditional teachercentered layout found in most Chinese classrooms. This will enable teachers to monitor any change of behavior and will also avoid the students with EBD being distracted by other students as their backs will be facing them. If the

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•

classroom is laid out in a group or student-centered format, then these students should be placed at the edge of the group seating, nearest to the teacher’s position in the class and in the center away from the windows and doors. Such a placement will help ensure that they are not easily distracted by noise or activities outside the class. For secondary classrooms, all teachers must be made aware of the importance of the physical placement of students with EBD and coordinate a consistent placement system for these students with other teachers. Simple positive rules should be introduced in the classroom from the beginning of the school year to increase students’ motivation and participation in class work. These rules can be printed on a large poster which should be placed where students can be constantly reminded of them. Introduce and implement only key rules that you consider to be vital for creating a positive learning environment in the classroom; too many rules will only confuse and complicate matters. For example, the rules could include the following: 1. Put your hand up when you want to say something (rather than No calling out or shouting). 2. Sit down and listen while the teacher is talking or teaching (rather than No walking around or talking). 3. Use polite words such as “excuse me”, “please” and “thank you” (rather than No rude and demanding words). 4. Keep your desk and work area tidy (rather than Do not mess up). 5. Respect and be nice to your friends and neighbors (rather than Do not be mean to others). 6. Take care of everything in the classroom (rather than Do not trash anything in the classroom). 7. Tell the teacher or your buddy if you feel angry or sad (rather than Do not show your anger).

These and other rules need to be taught to students at an early age before they develop bad habits which can be disruptive in the classroom. Rules can be also taught in creative ways such as enacting a role play or playing a game that incorporates the rules you want the students to learn. This can be done at all school levels but you have to match the level of the teaching method, such as role playing and games, with the students’ ability level. Avoiding excessive use of negative expressions such as “no” and “don’t” will increase positive teacher-student relationships and create a better classroom climate. •

The behavioral consequences must be clearly stated to all students. Teachers must be clear in their own minds about which behaviors lead to the prescribed consequences. Repeated failure to follow rules and behave accordingly, rather than one-off misbehaviors, warrant more serious consequences.

330 Sivanes PHILLIPSON •

Potentially dangerous tools and utensils such as knives and scissors must not be left in the open in the class, to avoid students with EBD using them for unintentional (or intentional) harmful purposes during one of their uncontrolled episodes. Teachers can keep these tools locked in a cabinet and take them out when needed, or use other types of utensils that are less harmful.

Preventative steps for students with ADHD CW (continued) This is how Ms Chin manages CW in the classroom. She keeps a constant eye on him by seating him in the first row, near her own desk. CW has a little card on his desk to remind of the things he needs to do each day. Any instructions given are broken down into smaller parts and expressed in simple sentences, and CW is asked to carry out each set of instructions one at a time. Ms Chin monitors his work most times but, if she can’t, she pairs him up with another student who reminds him of the tasks he has to complete. The other students usually understand CW as a result of the efforts Ms Chin and other teachers have made to explain and educate them about CW and students like him. Ms Chin always repeats her instructions and gives him task after task, to keep him busy in order to avoid his being bored. The tasks range from helping out with arranging books for her to interactive computer activities, and she sometimes allows him to make different types of handicrafts he likes — though in this case CW is given plastic scissors which he dislikes intensely and complains about. In addition to incorporating some of the general steps for students with EBD (e.g. the seating arrangement and use of plastic scissors), Ms Chin has included two other methods that are important for students with ADHD: visual reminders and separated and sequential instructions. •

Visual reminders were the first method Ms Chin used. As mentioned before, ADHD students have problems with attention and impulsivity, so they need constant reminding about keeping on task and not wandering or running around the class. Involve all students in creating the chart, starting with working out the things they need to do each day, and perhaps even allowing them to add their own examples of reminders. Remember to keep such a chart simple, clear and concise. Always begin the day by telling the students to look at the chart and to remind themselves about what they are supposed to do. In that way, the students are preoccupied with tasks set for them and get into a routine that helps them feel more settled.

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 331

•

Separated and sequential instructions should be conveyed to students with ADHD. Due to their poor attention span and listening skills, these students need structured, clear, short instructions for each task since multi-level tasks only confuse them or lose their attention. When instructions are being given, maintain eye contact to ensure they are listening. While you are teaching, you have to constantly catch their attention, or draw their attention to you, perhaps with a smile and a wink (especially for younger students) to encourage further concentration on what you are teaching. For older students, a tap on the desk or other appropriate gestures can be important for maintaining their attention.

Preventative steps for students with ASD Students with ASD need specialist support that takes into account the severity of their autism and the type of impairments they display. However, most students with ASD commonly have difficulty with changes in routine, maintaining eye contact and literal interpretation of their environment. BB (continued) BB dislikes any sort of change in his routines. If there is a school excursion or even a public holiday, he usually reacts badly by, for example, shouting or screaming at the morning assembly or during class lessons. He may tear pages from his books or throw books and even chairs or desks in the classroom. Therefore, the teacher who is in charge of BB should tell him about any forthcoming school event or any other change in his routine a week beforehand. If told often about such a change, BB will remember it well and remain calm when it takes place. The steps taken for BB are typical of what can be done for students with ASD in order to minimize any aggressive behavior resulting from anything which deviates from the normal practice. •

Constant familiarization must be adopted for all students with ASD to enable them to adjust to the environment. For example, they must be made familiar with the different entrances to the school or classroom and be introduced to different support buddies, to help avoid sudden and unpredictable emotional and behavioral reactions. Being familiar with their environment and any cues for proper behavior can be helpful in overcoming ASD students’ peculiar behaviors that culminate, for example, in odd noises and shouting when they enter a class.

332 Sivanes PHILLIPSON •

•

Visual cues and signs are important for students with ASD. From the first day, visual instructional cues in the form of reminder cards or charts must be introduced to students. They can be as simple as a “Stop and listen” card. This step is necessary because verbal instructions may be interpreted literally by these students. Teachers should also avoid verbal instructions that contain questions like “Can you” or “Shall I” as this will only result in a verbal answer of “yes” or “no” without the expected actions. Teachers also have to adopt step-by-step prompting methods whereby gestures accompany verbal instructions. For example, if you want a student to stand next to you, you would say, “Stand next to me” and point and signal the position you want the student to stand in and then repeat the verbal instruction. An individual work area is important for students with ASD as they work better by themselves or with only one buddy. Therefore, it is always advisable to avoid group work for them. If the need arises for group work in the class, students with ASD should be given a separate work area for their individual work. This will avoid unnecessary anxiety and aggravation on the student’s part, and also any disruption for those students who enjoy group work.

General interventions Besides the above preventative measures, teachers should use a variety of forms of intervention that are appropriate for the classroom and school context. General intervention methods for students with EBD include positive reinforcement, clear expectations, tactical ignoring, behavior contracts, time-out, buddy pairing, individual education plans and modeling. •

Positive reinforcement is more effective than negative reinforcement (Mathur et al., 1996). Teachers tend to more notice negative behaviours than good ones and to control negative behavior with negative reinforcement. This is more so in the Chinese culture where positive behavior is not usually recognized and commended, but negative behavior attracts punishment. In the Chinese culture, it is believed that conditioning that comes from discipline and scolding are better motivators of learning achievement (Lee, 1996). Praise and reward are not seen as part of the Chinese cultural need to motivate learning. However, research has shown that incentives in the form of praise and rewards that recognize and acknowledge students’ good behavior are effective in promoting effective classroom learning and a positive classroom climate (Infantino & Little, 2005). For example, a student who finishes homework on time gets praise (e.g. “Well done” or “Good work”); and a thumbs-up sign or occasional relevant praise where appropriate tends to increase the motivation of students, including those with EBD who are constantly attention-seeking.

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 333

•

•

•

You may also design a reward system (similar to a token reinforcement system) where students who complete their tasks properly and on time get “time off” during a class to work on other projects without disrupting their classmates. A reward system can also include a points system which works retrospectively. Both praise and reward must be used reasonably and sparingly to suit the situation, remembering that rewards can be devalued if used inappropriately. For students with ADHD and ASD, teachers can encourage their personal interests such as building space ships, making sculptures and other keen interests during free-time rewards. Clear expectations must be communicated by teachers to students for tasks and activities. This also applies to classroom and school rules. If teachers do not communicate their expectations lucidly and succinctly, student cannot be blamed for not behaving accordingly. Tactical ignoring and tolerating is necessary in situations where defiant and attention- seeking behaviors occur. When teachers have a full understanding of their students, as professionals, they should have discretion to ignore and tolerate the less harmful and disruptive behaviors as long as this does not compromise the effectiveness of their teaching. This approach is dependent on being with and is necessary to maintain the mental and physical health of the teacher, and it also teaches students that only positive behaviors receive his/her attention. Behavior contracts, token reinforcement and meaningful rewards are ways to make certain that classroom rules are adhered to by students, especially students with mild to moderate EBD (as well as those who recurrently fail to observe the rules that keep the classroom peaceful). A basic contract should contain all the rules that students should follow. The token reinforcement system, which is positive in nature, begins with students being given a full complement of tokens which they retain only if they adhere to contracted rules in the classroom. This kind of token system can be incorporated into the contract where students get rewards for keeping the highest number of tokens. Meaningful rewards should also be considered for students with EBD who try hard to keep their tokens. This contract is then signed by all students at the beginning of the term, each starting with, say, thirty tokens for six rules. In this case, each rule carries five tokens which will be taken away, one by one, if students fail to follow the rules. To begin with, the full complement of tokens provides students with positive motivation to keep them rather than to earn them. If you find it difficult to adopt a full token system, you can work the other way round, where the accumulation of tokens results in positive reinforcements and rewards. Teachers should determine which system works best for their own class.

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•

•

Sometimes behavior contracts can be extended to the home environment in order to maintain a consistency in reinforcement for positive behavior. On these occasions, parents are included as parties to the contract whereby they have to keep note of their children’s behavior at home — but this is not very easy to implement, especially if parents are uncooperative. A sample of a simple contract and token chart is attached in Appendix A, and it can be adapted to suit your own classroom preferences and dynamics. Meaningful rewards make both students and teachers happy. Rewards such as chocolate, sweets and candies, usually suitable for primary school children, can be referred to as short-spell rewards, meaning that the effects disappear within minutes (if not seconds!) — whereas meaningful rewards can have effects which have a longer effect on students’ behavior. Depending on the school policy and your own preferences, the rewards can range from twenty minutes of free time (to play computer games or read a favorite book) or becoming a teacher assistant for a day to modified homework requirements. Teachers should note, however, that whatever methods are adopted to motivate students with EBD, they must be implemented consistently and equitably in order to avoid any bias and prejudice. Time-out can be useful for all students and is especially effective with students who have mild to moderate EBD and ADHD. Time-out involves removing a student from a classroom (in the case of secondary school students) or asking a student to face a corner in the classroom (in the case of primary school students). Students are asked to reflect on their behavior and think about better ways of behaving. Usually the time-out period is short, after which the teacher talks with the student about his/her behavior and gives him/her the opportunity to participate in the class in a proper manner. In such cases, do not expect an apology but talk in a friendly and positive manner about how the student can make the learning environment better. This method is very effective with students who want to be involved in classroom interactions and activities because they find that the isolation imposed by time-out acts as a punishment. The time-out method works most times because the punishment, which is in the form of withdrawal of reinforcement, is then followed by positive reinforcement. Time-out also avoids embarrassing students by open scolding because, like other students, Chinese students prefer not to be scolded in front of their peers. Buddy pairing is one of the most effective ways teachers can monitor and provide support for students with EBD. Peer support has often been found to be useful for these students, especially for teaching and learning, and the promotion and training of social skills. However, the teacher must choose buddies who are responsible and well aware of the behaviors of students with EBD because they have the responsibility to act as mentors, supervisors and

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 335

•

•

friends of these students. As this task can be both daunting and tiresome, buddy pairs should be changed. The ideal time for rotation is dependent on teachers’ professional judgment and the severity of EBD. Some teachers assign buddies on a weekly basis and some only for a few days, depending on whether the student is suffering from ADHD and the frequency and level of inattentiveness and hyperactivity. An individual education plan (IEP) is based on a proper evaluation of a student with severe to chronic EBD that impinges upon his/her learning ability. This plan can be created by the class teacher or, more usually, by a team of teachers with the support of an educational psychologist or school counselor/ psychologist. If your school does not have such support, then expert support from external bodies will help in formulating an educational plan for students who display severe symptoms of EBD. Such a plan, however, usually needs support from special needs support assistants who work on a one-to-one basis with students to complete the designated tasks within the class. Pull-out support is encouraged when working in the class is not possible, especially if the student is easily distracted. Modeling through professionalism is important in the classroom especially in the EBD context. As a teacher, you are expected to display morally and ethically correct behavior that your students can imitate and follow. Therefore it is important that you decide from the beginning of your career on who you are and the principles you stand for. Once you have done so, you should maintain these principles and carry them out in line with the spirit of your classroom teaching. You should portray a professional self where you are a firm but caring and committed teacher who is consistent in instructions and behavior toward students of all backgrounds and abilities. Responses to student misbehavior in the classroom which are conveyed in a calm and controlled manner will be more effective than uncontrolled, impulsive responses.

Interventions for students with EBD who are aggressive When students are aggressive, teachers can use, for example, a cooling-off period, physical restraint, total removal, a task completion schedule and medication, as follows: • A cooling-off period is a time when teachers have to defer behavioral consequences until later. Trying to discipline, isolate or even remove a student who is aggressive and defiant can be difficult. When such students have calmed down or are not so defiant, you can then remove them from the classroom and talk with them about their behavior and the associated consequences. • Physical restraint is a useful method for younger students with EBD. If a student keeps running around, the teacher can hold the student down for a count

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•

•

•

of twenty (longer if the teacher thinks it necessary) and then in a soft voice tell him/her to calm down. Total removal is necessary when a student becomes aggressive and violent, with the allocation of an empty room being ideal for this kind of situation. Students with severe EBD or ADHD tend to have frenzied or violent outbursts that necessitate total isolation in a room until they calm down or professional help can be sought. Often, students who get into these frenzied states start to hurt themselves, so it is imperative to get relevant professional and medical help quickly. A task completion schedule is encouraged for students with ADHD as such an approach will help to avoid possible disruptive behaviors resulting from periods of inactivity through a lack of organized tasks. If students know they have a number of scheduled tasks to complete, along with incentives in the form of rewards to indulge in their favorite activities or games, they should be focused enough to keep out of trouble. Medication may be an option for students with ADHD but this is something that the school has to negotiate with the parents. Also, it must be understood that although some students respond to medication, others do not.

Interventions for students with ASD Interventions for students with ASD include a structured environment of routines and schedules and a highly organized and structured work system. •

•

A structured environment of routines and schedules is also of great benefit to students with ASD because such an environment reduces anxiety-driven behavioral problems, especially for upper primary and secondary school students. While routines can be established quickly, a schedule — usually in a visual format such as a personalized timetable with details of time, place, subject, teacher and activities — is vital for students with ASD who are trying to cope with classroom changes. Each week’s schedule should be provided and communicated clearly to these students so that surprises can be avoided. A highly organized and structured work system is needed for students with ASD as they struggle to complete class assignments which require planning, choosing, integrating and organizing skills. Executive functioning deficits are said to be the cause of the difficulties faced by these students, and therefore, an organized system that is both visual and structured is highly recommended. For younger students and those with low-functioning autism, a box or basket system for organizing their tasks is one way to help them, whereas older students or those with high-functioning autism (even those with Asperger syndrome) can benefit from detailed written instructions.

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 337

•

Assistive technologies including information and communication technology: Teachers can use assistive technologies as resources for remedial interventions for students with EBD, in particular those with ADHD and ASD. These students need visual cues and prompting for many of their classroom activities, and this can be achieved with visual cards and timetables. Pictures that are suitable for their age and development need to be designed in order to make students follow a schedule. A visual timetable consisting of simple picture cues can be useful for these students and a sample for a younger student is shown Appendix B.

Another very useful technology tool is the visual assistive sheet for emotional and behavioral interventions. These sheets help to address emotional conditions that work as antecedents to many behavioral problems in the classroom. Many students with EBD are unable to communicate their feelings explicitly, and their pent-up feelings are then expressed in various behaviors that range from excited hyperactivity and clumsiness to defiance, aggression and violence. One form of a visual assistive sheet is attached in Appendix C (in both English and Chinese versions), and teachers can use this daily in the classroom to assist them in helping students with EBD identify and recognize their emotions. These sheets encourage students to write down their emotions just as they would in a journal. Another form of visual assistive technology is visuals of faces or bodies, known as avatars. These avatars (of a male and a female) that display different emotions can be used to train students with ASD to recognize emotions in others that they lack because of their impairment in imagination and socialization. These visuals of faces can be used for younger students as well as older ones who have not already benefited from this training. Teachers usually know whether a student has an affinity towards a male or a female figure through everyday interactions, and they can use the appropriate gender to condition the students to recognize various emotions. Note, however, that this is a difficult task where patience and perseverance are often required. Research has also found that avatars representing students’ faces, simulated through a collaborative virtual environment (CVE), are effective with students with ASD as they are inclined towards computer-based learning (Moore et al., 2005). CVE is especially helpful to students with ASD for building a social network through interacting with other users. Special computer software and information technology (IT) expertise are needed in order to create this interactive virtual environment for students at school. A number of Internet links are provided in this chapter for you to look at how emotion training can play a useful role in helping students with EBD in general, and ADHD and ASD specifically. If your school lacks access to special IT resources, you might want to use the hard copies of faces provided in this chapter as a starting point. The faces can be photocopied onto A4 paper which can then be pasted onto cardboard, so that they can be used as real-

338 Sivanes PHILLIPSON life face-size flash cards to train students (especially those with ASD) to recognize emotions. If the emotions displayed in the faces are successfully recognized, you can start using the “How I am feeling this week chart” to encourage students with ASD to express their feelings.

Subject Focus The educational needs of students with EBD can be satisfied by adapting the existing curriculum to suit them and their learning styles. Such a differentiated curriculum, which includes various methods of delivery and foci of learning and teaching, will help students with EBD to perform better in academic subjects. A differentiated curriculum for these students can take the form of an IEP that comprises personalized tasks and activities tailored to the students’ ability and capacity to complete them. Along with the IEP, teachers should also utilize the support of trained and more capable peers who guide the students not only to achieve set academic goals but also to adapt socially to their learning environment. If this responsibility is properly negotiated with the chosen peers, their parents and students with EBD themselves, this approach will inevitably lighten the burden of teachers overall. Peers involved in this type of program should be recognized and rewarded for their hard work and contributions to producing a healthy learning environment in the classroom and school in general. In addition, teachers should strive to make the general subject delivery as interesting as possible as this will benefit not just students with EBD but all students in the class. The following sections look at how mathematics, languages, information and communication technology (ICT) and art can be taught using a differentiated approach to cater for students with EBD and, in particular, the different educational needs of students with ADHD and ASD.

Mathematics Three important steps must be followed in order to teach mathematics to students with EBD. Teachers must pre-assess or screen students for their ability in mathematics using an age-appropriate (preferably standardized) mathematics test. Most CHCs are strong in this subject and tend to have a number of validated mathematics screening tests. A second assessment must be given to selected students who show poor performance in the screening test, to provide an indication of the measurement error caused by students’ low motivational level, distractions, sleep

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 339

deprivation or other stresses or frustrations they might have experienced. Once these two screening processes are completed, teachers can identify areas of weakness that students with EBD display; and they can then address these weaknesses through individual interventions for students who cannot work in groups, especially those with ADHD and ASD, and provide group- and peer-supported work for other students. Individual work in mathematics can be done through generating a list of mathematical concepts that the students need to work on as a result of the earlier screening (Noell & Gansle, 2002). The list can be added to mathematical problems the student likes to do in order to encourage self-monitoring and self-awareness of responsibility to complete mathematical tasks. This means that the onus is placed on the students to finish the tasks given to them, with some guidance and encouragement. Teachers, and perhaps an expert peer, should model and scaffold the mathematical problems using visual prompts for younger students and also older ones who need such an approach. Detailed written instructions (preferably with visual cues) should be prepared for older children. In teaching mathematics to students with EBD, a number of approaches can be taken to ensure that it is an enjoyable and beneficial experience for both teacher and students. As mathematics is usually taught in a rote learning manner in the Chinese classroom, sometimes students are off-task because of boredom arising from repetitive and highly structured lessons. This approach may not be suitable for students with EBD, whether younger or older, who have poor working memory, low self-esteem or are unable to pay attention. Mathematics teachers are becoming increasingly aware of the value of contextual and play approaches to teaching mathematics, which not only tend to give meaning to the learning and teaching of the subject but also provide a ‘fun’ aspect. Students, especially those with ASD, need a more play-centered and contextual approach to the subject where practice takes place through dramatization of mathematical problems and quizzes followed by problem solving (Hewitt, 2005). Visual objects and scenarios connected to real-life situations can be used to help them dramatize or sketch out mathematical problems. Some mathematical concepts need to be modified to suit students’ interests as some students with EBD, especially those with ASD, struggle to relate to them. For example, the use of decimals is problematic for many students as they cannot imagine the applicability of such a concept to real life. These unconventional approaches can be used to address wholeclass needs and support individual student needs in the subject, but teachers must always monitor their students’ progress and alter their approach to teaching the subject where necessary.

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Languages (including English as a second language) Chinese students with EBD face compound difficulties in language learning as they have to learn simplified or traditional Chinese characters or orthographic symbols in order to read and write in Mandarin and other Chinese dialects such as Cantonese (widely used in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia). Traditionally, the characters are taught through a rote memorization method that involves the major use of the executive function and working memory, functions that are suggested to be lacking in students with ADHD and ASD. A further difficulty is faced by these students when they have to learn a second or foreign language which involves the use of a different writing system and grammatical rules. As with mathematics, a step-by-step scaffolding and visual approach is encouraged for teaching languages to students with EBD. For Chinese languages, visual pictures similar to the orthographic representations should be used in conjunction with the sounds of the characters. However, teachers should take the basic three plus one step scaffolding and visual approach which combines sequential and simultaneous representations of characters (auditory and visual), and preferably follow this up with more reminder steps. These steps, shown in Figure 10.3 (p. 341), involve teachers in scaffolding and guiding students with EBD to learn the subject matter with the support of peer mentors or buddies. For teaching English as a second language, teachers should take two initial measures: first work on students’ phonological awareness and then improve their word recognition. In the former, teachers can carry out four activities on the sounding of simple phonemes: blend them; segment the sounds; reading; and then spelling. Reading and spelling should be focused on once teachers have also worked on word recognition. This can be done by building a vocabulary bank which can be developed into short phrases and sentences, and the vocabulary can be grouped into easily related categories such as animals or things, or sound categories such as rhyming words. Teachers can introduce the words from the vocabulary bank to the students using the three plus one step scaffolding and visual approach, and then expand the vocabulary use as students become more proficient in using the words for related tasks set. This type of approach is suitable for both younger students and older ones who are weak in the subject. Students with ADHD and ASD may need flash cards with words and pictures to remind them of the words, phrases and sentences they use. This can take the form of puzzles where they connect the pictures with the words, and the words with each other, to form sentences. Teachers can proceed to promote language comprehension by encouraging students to read short stories and re-tell them. If they are unable to re-tell the stories, you can encourage them to draw the sequence of the story and guide them to write

Figure 10.3

Three plus one step scaffolding and visual approach for learners with EBD

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 341

342 Sivanes PHILLIPSON simple sentences below each drawing to describe the drawing and the story. Stories with a moral or underlying message are helpful for students with ASD. As these students commonly produce literal interpretations of their reading, teachers’ explanations may help them recognize some elements of socialization that they usually miss. Older students tend to do better with this approach. A structured and scaffolded method is also needed to teach writing to students with EBD. Creative writing in both Chinese and English can be done through negotiating the content, planning and organizing it, and then writing drafts; and teachers can help with the writing style and conventions with each draft the student produces. Again, as in teaching mathematics, a contextual approach will be most interesting for students, whether it is dramatization and role play, or media-based or computer-generated simulations of stories and themes to which students can relate.

Information and communication technology Information and communication technology (ICT) is an important tool for the classroom teacher. Students with EBD, especially those with ADHD and ASD, can be easily taught using interactive and educational tools found in ICT. Even language teaching, including word processing in Chinese and English, can be part of the curriculum for these students. As many students with EBD have low self-esteem and a fear of failure when in a competitive academic environment, ICT provides a non-threatening context where they can work at a pace that suits their own learning ability. Students with ASD find working with others particularly difficult and ICT gives them the space and privacy to work at tasks they like. However, to reduce the risk of isolation, ICT should be used by the teacher as a positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior in the classroom. There is a wide variety of educational software packages that teachers and schools can purchase for all students, many of which provide feedback in the form of graphics and sound which are very useful for students with EBD to practice language skills such as vocabulary naming, spelling and comprehension. Students with ADHD who have poor motor skills find word processing less frustrating and more interesting, and word-processing software can also help to a certain extent with difficult words and sentence grammar. The most fascinating opportunity for students with EBD is the ability to create multimedia portfolios that consist of text (stories that they write), graphics, photos, sounds, video clips, clipart, animation and other materials that they can work on using their creativity and idiosyncratic preferences. Desktop publishing software also allows for a further display of multi-level creativity and talent by students with

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 343

EBD. Greeting cards, posters or leaflets can be produced by them, especially by older students. Younger and weaker students can work on simpler versions of greeting cards that also help them express their emotions and feelings. Students with EBD who are more advanced in ICT should be allowed to create their own websites where they can write and compose their own stories, personal sites and even a class website where students and teachers can collaborate. Software such as Dreamweaver, Adobe Photoshop and Flash Buttons need to be available for such purposes, and teachers may be surprised by how creative and talented their students can be in producing websites. Students with EBD also benefit greatly from using drawing tools on the computer which allows them to explore their feelings by drawing unlimited types and numbers of patterns using different colors that can be found in the software. Music programs that allow students to compose their own music are also highly useful and therapeutic tools in ICT. Some programs teach basic music theory and concepts, and methods to compose music, and others allow students to play around with sounds to produce their own songs and music. This software includes Super Duper Music Looper, Adobe Audition and Music Box.

Art education All forms of art education are important for students with EBD. Art is one way in which students can express their different emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger and frustration. Students with EBD, especially those with ASD, are known to be able to produce wonderful art work that functions to support and reflect their inner emotions. Paints, crayons and charcoal are the traditional means of art expression. However, there is increasing interest in visual arts which give a three-dimensional aspect to art that students sometimes find hard to achieve through normal painting or drawing. Visual arts can take the form of hand-worked sculptures that require a step-by-step process of designing and making objects such as masks. A photograph of a face is the first step in this process, with students then finding materials they can use to form the masks. The whole process can be very rewarding but it is messy, and especially students with ADHD must be guided to tidy up the mess associated with sculpting and painting activities. Teachers sometimes find it much easier to handle computer-assisted graphics and animation and this can also form part of the artistic gamut of students with EBD.

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Summary Chinese students with EBD, whether they suffer from ADHD or ASD, are part of the diversity that teachers encounter in an inclusive classroom. Teachers need to understand the scope of the difficulties and frustrations that these students face in class. The initial goal should be to learn about the theoretical aspects of EBD, as it has been found that teachers who lack commitment to a theoretical philosophy risk burnout from the stresses they face in teaching such students (Jennett, Harris, & Mesibov, 2003) This chapter provides the theoretical groundwork, and teachers should continue to build on their knowledge of this area by working on their strengths and limitations as professionals. They should offer scaffolding, visual cues and prompts which over time should be gradually decreased in order to promote student autonomy where they are aware of their learning and take responsibility for it. While students with EBD have a multitude of dysfunctions that interfere with their learning, the goal of a teacher of these students should be to allow them to adapt to the learning environment and develop a sense of awareness and motivation to work towards learning the academic subjects.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

If you have students with EBD in your classroom, how do you classify them? List the behaviors/symptoms of categories from your understanding of the aspects discussed in this chapter. How would understanding the context of EBD help you as a teacher of students with EBD? Outline the important general strategies that you might use in teaching students with EBD in your class. What is the difference between ADHD and ASD? List the common strategies that you can use in dealing with behavioral problems posed by students with ADHD and ASD. Design a student contract for one of your students with EBD to suit your classroom teaching. What sort of challenges can you see in your own classrooms which are related to the context of EBD? Divide them into two groups: (a) the ones you can easily solve and (b) those which you think are far too complex for you to handle. Build up your coping and problem-solving skills to meet the challenges you have listed using the being with framework.

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 345

Appendix A A sample of a simple behavior contract and token chart CW has been awarded 30 stars* for a great start in Term 1 of the school year 2005–06. CW agrees to follow the set rules in the classroom and knows that, if he fails to do so, he will lose the stars he has been awarded. For every rule that CW fails to follow, he will lose 0.5 stars; and for each week in which he loses less than two stars, he will get the week’s designated reward, or Ms Chin’s classroom assistant for one day.

Token chart I have to:

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Listen and follow.

Be polite and respect others.

Complete all work and tasks.

Talk and share quietly.

Put up hand up with soft call of “excuse me”. Others

The teacher places a cross in the appropriate cell if CW fails to adhere to any of the listed rules. Each rule carries 0.5 stars that will be deducted if there is a cross in any of the cells for each day. * “Stars” are a form of token, but you can use other types of tokens, e.g. smilies, coins, thumbs-up.

346 Sivanes PHILLIPSON

Appendix B Sample of a visual timetable Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Register

Register

Register

Register

Register

Reading Buddy Listening and Reading Reading Buddy Listening and Reading

Assembly

Snack

Snack

Snack

Snack

Snack

ICT

Music Time

ICT

Music Time

ICT

Maths Fun

Maths Fun

Maths Fun

Maths Fun

Maths Fun

Lunch

Lunch

Lunch

Lunch

Lunch

Art Time

Art Time

Art Time

Art Time

Art Time

Tidy and Pack

Tidy and Pack

Tidy and Pack

Tidy and Pack

Tidy and Pack

Go to Bus

Go to Bus

Go to Bus

Go to Bus

Go to Bus

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 347

Appendix C

My Feelings Chart for the Week (English and Chinese Versions) My Feelings Chart for the Week (Female)

My Feelings

Happy

Very happy and excited

Sad

Angry

Frightened

Annoyed

Embarrassed

Depressed

Why am I feeling this way?

Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri

348 Sivanes PHILLIPSON 一星期的感覺圖表 (女性) 我的感覺

高興

高興和興奮

傷心

憤怒

驚慌

惱怒

尷尬

憂鬱

為何我會有這種的感?

星期一 星期二 星期三 星期四 星期五

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 349 My Feelings Chart for the Week (Male) My Feelings

Happy

Very happy and excited

Sad

Angry

Frightened

Annoyed

Embarrassed

Depressed

Why am I feeling this way?

Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri

350 Sivanes PHILLIPSON 一星期的感覺圖表 (男性) 我的感覺

高興

高興和興奮

傷心

憤怒

驚慌

惱怒

尷尬

憂鬱

為何我會有這種的感?

星期一 星期二 星期三 星期四 星期五

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 351

Appendix D Visual Avatars for Emotion Training

Happy

Annoyed

Happy

Annoyed

Excited

Angry

Excited

Angry

Sad

Depressed

Embarrassed

Frightened

Sad

Depressed

Embarrassed

Frightened

352 Sivanes PHILLIPSON

Notes 1.

2. 3.

4.

For details of these definitions, visit the USA’s Education Department website on IDEA resources at http://www.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html, or the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders at http://www.ccbd.net/index.cfm? categoryID=D64021AF-C09F-1D6F-F90947BA31AC031E. A condition which results from a combined effect of muteness, involuntary movement and stereotyped postures. Dysthymia is a condition short of depression which is characterized by irritability, moodiness and a high level of frustration. Children with dysthymia constantly feel down and dissatisfied with anything they do or encounter. Working memory is defined by Baddeley (1996) as “system or systems involved in the temporary storage of information in the performance of such cognitive skills as reasoning, learning, and comprehension” (p.1).

Glossary Avatars are commonly used in information and communication technology as virtual faces or bodies. The word avatar is derived from the Sanskrit word avata¯ra which means the incarnation or descent of the Hindu God, Vishnu, to the mortal realm for specific Godly interventions. Prevalence, a commonly found word in the area of EBD, indicates a high level of incidence or sufferers of disorders. Reinforcements are based on a behaviorist approach to learning and motivation, where a stimulus can be presented or removed for desired behavioral outcomes. The provision of the stimulus forms the basis of the reinforcement or corroboration of desired behaviors. Scaffolding is a Vygotskian term that describes a teacher’s efforts to support a child’s learning by providing hints and questions that reflect the student’s zone of proximal development.

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Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 355 Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural concept for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 25–41). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Leung, J.-P. (1996). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Chinese children. In S. Lau (Ed.), Growing up the Chinese way (pp. 201–235). Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Levy, F., Hay, D. A., & Bennett, K. S. (2006). Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A current review and future prospects. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53(1), 5–20. Li, H. (2002). China has 400,000 to 500,000 children suffering from autism. Retrieved March 31, 2006, from http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200204/26/print20020426_94782.html. Lim, L., & Quah, M. M. (2004). Educating learners with diverse abilities. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Education (Asia). Liu, X., Kurita, H., Guo, C., Tachimori, H., Ze, J., & Okawa, M. (2000). Behavioral and emotional problems in Chinese children: Teacher reports for ages 6 to 11. Journal of Child Psychology Psychiatry, 41(2), 253–260. Majebe, M. C. (2002). Chinese medicine for autism: Dr M. Cissy Majebe explores an Eastern approach to help disabled children. New Life Journal, August–September. Mathur, S. R., Quinn, M. M., & Rutherford, R. B. J. (1996). Teacher-mediated behaviour management strategies for children with emotional/behavioural disorders. Virginia, US: The Council for Children with Behaviour Disorders. Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2003). Relationship between Asperger Syndrome and highfunctioning Autism. In M. Prior (Ed.), Learning and behavior problems in Asperger Syndrome (pp. 15–34). New York: The Guilford Press. Moore, D., Cheng, Y., McGrath, P., & Powell, N. J. (2005). Collaborative virtual environment technology for people with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(4), 231–243. National Institute of Drug Abuse, U S (2006). NIDA infoFacts: Methylphenidate (Ritalin). Retrieved April 10, 2006, from http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/Ritalin.html. Noell, G. H., & Gansle, K. A. (2002). Mathematics: Screening, assessment and intervention. In K. L. Lane, F. M. Gresham, & T. E. Shaughnessy (Eds.), Interventions for children with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (pp. 125–143). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. O’Brien, T. (2005). Social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. In A. Lewis, & B. Norwich (Eds.), Special teaching for special children? (pp. 166–179). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Pearson, V., Lo, E., Chui, E., & Wong, D. (2003). A heart to learn and care? Teachers’ responses toward special needs children in mainstream schools in Hong Kong. Disability and Society, 18(4), 489–508. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2002). Meeting special needs in mainstream classrooms. Hong Kong: Longman. Poon-McBrayer, K. F., & Lian, J. M.-G. (2002). Special needs education: Children with exceptionalities. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.

356 Sivanes PHILLIPSON Pun, S. H., Ma, J. L. C., & Kelly, L. C. C. (2004). In search of perfect motherhood for imperfect childhood — experiences of 22 Chinese mothers. Child and Family Social Work, 9, 285–293. Russell, J. A., & Yik, M. S. M. (1996). Emotion among the Chinese. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 166–188). Hong Kong: The Oxford University Press. Schoenbrodt, L., Kumin, L., & Sloan, J. M. (1997). Learning disabilities existing concomitantly with communication disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(3), 264–281. Selikowitz, M. (2004). ADHD: The facts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shek, D. T. L., Tsang, S. K. M., Lam, L. L., Tang, F. L. Y., & Cheung, P. M. P. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Psycho-educational ProfileRevised (CPEP-R). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(1), 37–44. Tan, L. H., Spinks, J. A., Gao, J., Liu, H., Perfetti, C. A., Xiong, J., et al. (2000). Brain activation in the processing of Chinese characters and words: A functional MRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 10(16–27). Tsui, M. (2005). Family income, home environment, parenting, and mathematics achievement of children in China and the United States. Education and Urban Society, 37(3), 336– 355. US Dept. of Education. IDEA 2004 resources. Retrieved March 31, 2006, from http://www. ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html. Wang, D. B. (2004). Family background factors and mathematics success: A comparison of Chinese and US students. International Journal of Educational Research, 41(1), 40–54. Wang, M. C. (1998). Serving students with special needs: What works and what does not. In D. W. Chan (Ed.), Helping students with learning difficulties (pp. 161–175). Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Wing, L. (1981). Asperger syndrome: A clinical account. Psychological Medicine, 11, 115–129. Wing, L. (1998). The history of Asperger syndrome. In E. Schopler, G. B. Mesibov, & L. J. Kunce (Eds.), Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism? (pp. 11–28). New York: Plenum Press. Wing, L. (2005). Problems of categorical classification systems. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders: Diagnosis, development, neurobiology and behavior (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 583– 605). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Wing, L., & Gould, J. (1979). Severe impairments of social interaction and associated abnormalities in children: Epidemiology and classification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9, 11–29. Wong, D. K. P. (2002). Struggling in the mainstream: The case of Hong Kong. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 49(1), 79–94. Wong, V., Hui, S. L.-H., Lee, W.-C., Leung, J. L.-S., Ho, P. P.-K., Lau, C. W.-L., et al. (2004). A modified screening tool for autism (Checklist for Autism in Toddlers [CHAT23]) for Chinese children. Pediatrics, 114(2), 166–176. Wu, D. Y. H. (1996). Chinese childhood socialization. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 143–154). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., Schwartz, D., & Chang, L. (2004). Social networks and aggressive behaviour in Chinese children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(5), 401–410.

Understanding and Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 357 Yang, H.-J., Chen, W.-J., & Soong, W.-T. (2001). Rates and patterns of comorbidity of adolescent behavioral syndromes as reported by parents and teachers in a Taiwanese non-referred sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(9), 1045–1052. Yang, H.-J., Soong, W.-T., Chiang, C.-N., & Chen, W.-J. (2000). Competence and behavioral/ emotional problems among Taiwanese adolescents as reported by parents and teachers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(2), 232–239. Yang, K. N., & Schaller, J. (1997). Teacher ratings of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and decision for referral for services in Taiwan. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 6(2), 249–261. Yang, K. N., Schaller, J., & Parker, R. (2000). Factor structures of Taiwanese teachers’ ratings of ADHD: A comparison with U.S studies. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(1), 72–82. Yang, P.-C., Chung, L.-C., Chen, C.-S., & Chen, C.-C. (2004). Rapid improvement in academic grades following methylphenidate treatment in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 58, 37–41.

Further Reading Cheminais, R. (2000). Special educational needs for newly qualified and student teachers: A practical guide. London: David Fulton Publishers Ltd. Hewitt, S. (2005). Specialist support approaches to Autism Spectrum Disorder students in mainstream settings. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Lane, K. L., Gresham, F. M., & Shaughnessy T. E. (Eds.) (2002). Interventions for children with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Leung, J.-P., & Wu, K.-I. (1997). Teaching receptive naming of Chinese characters to children with autism by incorporating echolalia. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(1), 59–68. Lewis, R., & Doorlag, D. H. (2006). Teaching special students in general education classrooms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Useful Websites ARC(S) is a non-profit organization in Singapore started by volunteers and dedicated to serving children and adults with ASD so as to help them lead meaningful lives in society. http://www.autism.org.sg/public_html/html/index.html The Boy’s & Girl’s Club Association (BGCA) is a Hong Kong non-governmental organization founded in 1936 that works towards helping and nurturing the whole development of children as family members and citizens. http://www.bgca.org.hk/bgca/html/tchi/home.asp The China Autism Website, which was opened on May 15, 2004, is sponsored by the China Autism Research Office and the related government departments. Its aim is to research and provide support services for people with ASD and their families. The Chinese version of this website is more useful. http://www.cautism.com/english/

358 Sivanes PHILLIPSON The Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD), the official division of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), is committed to promoting and facilitating the education and general welfare of children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders. http://www.ccbd.net/ The following link in the Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau website has twenty useful hyperlinks to different websites that provide information and assistance for children and adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders. http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx? langno=1&nodeid=2571 Founded by Ms Tian, who is an academic and mother of a child with ASD, this website details the ethos and efforts of a non-governmental organization, Stars and Rain, which educates and supports ASD children and their families. http://www.guduzh.org.cn/english/ index.htm The Federation in Community Support (FICS) project is a central hub for locating support services and programs for students with special educational needs The FICS website provides a comprehensive link to all service providers, to relevant government and non-government agencies, educational services, parent groups and other support groups. It is an invaluable resource for parents, teachers, and all those interested in supporting children with diverse needs in Hong Kong. http://www2.ied.edu.hk/fpece/fics/ PBS is an American site, which is supported in part by Earthlink, which aims at educating parents, affected parties and the general public on ADHD medication for children. http:// www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/medicating/

Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the people who made this chapter possible. Firstly, I would like to thank two very exceptional teachers (who chose to remain anonymous) for sharing their experiences and stories of CW, BB and the other students affected by EBD, as described in this chapter. I also wish to extend my deepest gratitude to Dr Michael James Keppell, Miss Bernadette Yung Yan Lok and Mr Charles Wong Chi Chuen of the Centre for Learning, Teaching and Technology at the Hong Kong Institute of Education for their invaluable contributions; Bernadette for wonderful graphic designs of the emotion avatars; Charles for excellent photography; and Mike for facilitating and supporting the endeavor. My gratitude also goes to my students, Michelle Sit Tin Kiu and Mike Cheung Ka Ho, for volunteering their faces to be part of this chapter.

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to: Sivanes Phillipson, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

11 Including Students with Learning Disabilities Fuk Chuen HO

In this chapter, the learning difficulties of Chinese students in regular classroom contexts are discussed, including: • Issues concerning the definition of learning disabilities; • Assessment approaches and specific strategies for supporting students with learning disabilities to acquire reading skills; and • Assessment approaches and specific strategies for supporting students with learning disabilities to acquire mathematics skills.

Defining Learning Disabilities in Western and Chinese Classrooms The first time that the term “learning disability” (LD) appeared in print was in Kirk’s (1962) article in Educating Exceptional Children where it was defined as: a retardation, disorder, or delayed development in one or more of the processes of speech, reading, writing, arithmetic, or other school subject resulting from a psychological handicap caused by a possible cerebral dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbances. It is not the result of mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural and instructional factors. (Kirk, 1962, p. 263)

Bateman (1965), his former student, stated that children who have learning disorders are those who manifest an educationally significant discrepancy between their estimated potential and actual level of performance related to basic disorders

360 Fuk Chuen HO in the learning process. For LD, this has been tied to the notion of IQ-achievement discrepancy. The formulation of the definition of LD by the National Joint Committee on LD (NJCLD) was based on Kirk’s work, with its 1988 version (p. 1), which was restated in 1998, reading as follows: LD is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant disabilities in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or, mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction and may occur across the life span. Problems of selfregulatory behaviors, social perception and social interaction may exist with LD. Although LD may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions or influences.

The key components in this definition are: (1) intellectual functioning within the normal range; (2) a discrepancy between the assumed potential and actual achievement; (3) the inference that LDs are not primarily caused by other disabilities; (4) difficulty in learning one or more academic areas; and (5) a presumption of central nervous system dysfunction (Gargiulo, 2006). The above definition was used as a guideline for Federal Regulations for special education for students with LD in the United States (Hallahan & Mock, 2003). The US Department of Education (2002) estimates that about 5.7% of the population of students aged six to seventeen years is learning disabled. Those with learning disabilities constitute the largest category (about 49.9%) of individuals receiving special education services. The discrepancy between potential and achievement can be calculated by determining a reading expectancy age (REA) and comparing it to current reading achievement (Jennings, Caldwell, & Lerner, 2006, p. 31). Table 11.1 shows how to identify the reading expectancy grade levels by using IQ score and chronological age. An intelligence test, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and a standardized reading test are used to measure potential and current reading achievement respectively. Intelligence tests provide information about students’ aptitude for learning and their specific cognitive characteristics, with the frequently used tests being: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th edition (Williams, Weiss, & Rolfhus, 2003); the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th edition (Roid, 2003); and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd edition (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004). These formal intelligence tests should be administered by registered psychologists. A common reading achievement test is Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (Williams, 2001).

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 361 Table 11.1

Reading expectancy grade levels IQ Score

6-0 6-3 6-6 6-9 7-0 7-3 7-6 7-9 8-0 8-3 8-6 8-9 9-0 9-3 9-6 9-9 10-0 10-3 10-6 10-9 11-0 11-3 11-6 11-9 12-0 12-3 12-6 12-9 13-0 13-3 13-6 13-9 14-0 14-3 14-6 14-9 15-0

70

75

80

85

90

95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8

_ _ _ _ _ _ 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.1 7.3

_ _ _ _ _ 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8

_ _ _ _ 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.7 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.1 8.3

_ _ _ 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.9 8.1 8.3 8.6 8.8

_ _ 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.7 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.9 7.1 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.1 8.3 8.6 8.8 9.1 9.3

_ 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.6 2.8 3.1 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.3 3.6 3.9 3.6 3.8 4.1 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.0 4.4 4.7 4.3 4.6 4.9 4.6 4.9 5.2 4.8 5.1 5.5 5.0 5.4 5.7 5.3 5.6 6.0 5.6 5.9 6.3 5.8 6.2 6.5 6.0 6.4 6.8 6.3 6.7 7.1 6.6 7.0 7.3 6.8 7.2 7.6 7.0 7.4 7.9 7.3 7.7 8.1 7.6 8.0 8.4 7.8 8.2 8.7 8.0 8.5 8.9 8.3 8.8 9.2 8.6 9.0 9.5 8.8 9.3 9.7 9.0 9.5 10.0 9.3 9.8 10.3 9.6 10.0 10.5 9.8 10.3 10.8

1.4 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.8 6.1 6.4 6.6 6.9 7.2 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.3 8.6 8.8 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.9 10.2 10.5 10.8 11.0 11.3

1.6 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.4 6.7 7.0 7.3 7.6 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.7 9.0 9.2 9.5 9.8 10.1 10.4 10.7 11.0 11.2 11.5 11.8

1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.6 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.0 7.3 7.6 7.9 8.2 8.5 8.8 9.1 9.4 9.7 10.0 10.2 10.6 10.8 11.1 11.4 11.7 12.0 12.3

2.0 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.1 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.3 8.6 8.9 9.2 9.5 9.8 10.1 10.4 10.7 11.0 11.3 11.6 11.9 12.2 12.8 12.8

2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.4 4.7 5.1 5.3 5.6 5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.1 7.4 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.7 9.0 9.3 9.6 9.9 10.2 10.5 10.8 11.1 11.4 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.7 13.0 13.3

2.4 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.6 4.9 5.3 5.6 5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.7 9.0 9.4 9.7 10.0 10.3 10.6 11.0 11.3 11.5 11.9 12.2 12.5 12.8 13.2 13.5 13.8

2.6 2.9 3.2 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.6 4.9 5.2 5.5 5.8 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.8 9.1 9.4 9.8 10.1 10.4 10.7 11.0 11.4 11.7 12.0 12.4 12.7 13.0 13.3 13.6 14.0 14.3

The table gives reading expectancy grade level. If the intelligence score or chronological age falls between two values, use the closest one. For students over fifteen years of age, use the 15.0 chronological age value. From Jennings, Joyce N. et al. Reading Problems: Assessment and Teaching Strategies, 5e. Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2006 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

362 Fuk Chuen HO Some researchers have concerns about using intelligence tests to measure the discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement as a means of determining a learning disability (e.g., Fletcher et al., 2004). Common questions raised include: • How useful is the IQ score in measuring an individual’s intelligence? • Do children who are poor readers have similar characteristics, whether they have a high or a low IQ score? • Are IQ scores good predictors of reading achievement? Stanovich (2005) also argued that reliance on discrepancy definitions in the LD field is an example of pseudo-scientific practice. He provided evidence that the following propositions are not supported by research consensus: • The pattern of information-processing skills that underlies the reading deficits of low-IQ poor readers is different from the information-processing skills underlying the reading deficits of high-IQ poor readers. • The neuroanatomical differences that underlie the cognitive deficits of these two groups are different. • Low- and high-IQ poor readers require different treatments to remediate their reading problems. • There is a differential etiology in the two groups based on different heritability of the component deficits. In short, Stanovich (2005) suggested that there is no support for differentiating poor readers on the basis of IQ. The primary subcomponent of reading that is problematic for children with severe reading problems is word recognition. Based on these concerns, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA, 2004) permits schools to use a response-tointervention method to determine eligibility for learning disabilities services. When deciding whether a child has a learning disability, schools can provide intervention to the suspected target child to determine if he/she responds to instruction using scientific, research-based instructional materials (Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). In the pre-referral stage of the response-to-intervention approach, students who are thought to be at risk of academic failure are taught using materials of the kind noted above. If they respond well, they are not considered to have a learning disability; and those who do not respond positively to this instruction or do not learn adequately are given more intensive teaching in several trials, as a result of which they can be considered for an evaluation for learning disabilities (Fletcher et al., 2004; Foreman 2005; Fuchs et al., 2003; Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). Scientific research-based instruction for reading applies rigorous, systematic, and objective research procedures to obtain valid knowledge relevant to reading (No Child Left Behind Act, 2001). This includes research that:

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• • •

•

employs systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment; involves rigorous data analyses that are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions drawn; relies on measurements or observational methods that provide valid results across evaluations and observers, and across multiple measurements and observations; has been accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts through a comparably rigorous, objective, and scientific review.

In Hong Kong, children with low academic achievement in any two or three of the basic subjects (Chinese, English and mathematics) are considered to have learning disabilities. In general, these children have an educational attainment two or more years lower than their peers. This target group of students is eligible for admission to the Intensive Remedial Teaching Program for Children with Learning Difficulties (IRTP); and there were 580 IRTP in 357 ordinary schools in the 2006– 07 school year (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006a). To be eligible for this scheme, children should either score: (1) 69 or below in the standard score in at least two of the basic subjects (Chinese, English and mathematics) in the Hong Kong Attainment Tests or (2) 70 to 84 in the standard score in at least two of these basic subjects in the same tests and fail to achieve two-thirds of the pass marks in two or all basic subjects. In September 2005, the number of children with learning disabilities was 27,765 (Ip, 2006). The Hong Kong Attainment Tests are standardized tests which aim to assess the standard levels of students in the three basic subjects and screen students for remediation or enhancement programs. Three individual attainment tests in Chinese, English and mathematics have been designed for students in each grade level from Primary 1 to Secondary 3. Also, since May 2006, the Learning Achievement Measurement Kit has been developed by the Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB) to evaluate the performance of primary school children with special needs in these subjects. It is hoped that the identification of children with special needs for remedial services can now be conducted more efficiently and effectively. A discrepancy model is used for the identification of learning disabilities. To be deemed eligible for remedial services, children have to fall behind their predicted level of performance and have a lower performance in two or three of the basic subjects. Since 2003 the EMB has implemented a pilot scheme on a whole-school approach to catering for diversity — with a new funding model, which allows participating schools greater autonomy and flexibility in resource deployment. Schools are advised to adopt the policies of early identification, early intervention,

364 Fuk Chuen HO whole-school approach and home-school cooperation. A major feature of this scheme is the setting up of a Student Support Team (SST), which has to coordinate the teaching staff and parents, and devise and provide systematic and appropriate school-based support services to students. In the 2005 academic year, 336 primary and secondary schools adopted this approach to cater for children with special needs (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006b), and 292 schools participated in the pilot scheme in 2006–07. It is expected that in the future this new funding mode will replace other forms of special education or remedial programs. The SST will support all individuals who require different types of special needs education. In mainland China, special education services were already provided for 54.1%, 72.9% and 81.9% of school-age children with visual impairments, hearing impairments and intellectual disability respectively in 2000 (Chen, 2004, p. 25). However, Chen did not provide any statistics for other categories of special needs, and the data on children with learning disabilities in China are not available. Chen (2004) used the special education information in the United States (US Department of Education, 1996) to illustrate the proportions of different categories of special needs. However, as most evaluative and screening instruments are available only in large cities in China (Pang & Richey, 2006), it is likely that some children with learning disabilities have not been detected in many parts of the country. Since the establishment of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities (National People’s Congress, 1990) and 1994 Regulations on Education for persons with Disabilities (State Council, 1994), different types of educational programs for children with disabilities have been encouraged, including special schools, special classes, and mainstreamed classes (Pang & Richey, 2006). Suiban jiudu (China’s “inclusion”) has recently been a major option for supporting children with any kinds of special needs by placing them in regular classes in their neighborhood schools. The introduction of suiban jiudu was at first considered to be a solution to the problem of educating children with special needs in remote or rural areas where special schools or special classes were not available. However, as no specialists or general personnel are available for suiban jiudu, Pang and Richey (2006) pointed out that the most pressing need for the effective implementation of special education in China is the training of qualified special education teachers. A related concern is the procedure for identification and diagnosis of these students, and Pang and Richey also recommended that the assessment and identification procedures should be clearly and officially defined and that teachers should be trained to conduct assessment using appropriate instruments. In general, children with learning disabilities receive their education through the suiban jiudu approach. Since disabilities in the subject areas of reading and mathematics influence all areas of school achievement, and are often experienced by students with learning disabilities, these two areas are the focus of discussion in the rest of this chapter.

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 365

However, no attempt is made to analyze the possible social and cultural factors related to learning disabilities.

Assessment Strategies for Children with Learning Disabilities in Reading At least 80% of students with learning disabilities encounter problems in reading (Lyon & Moats, 1997). It is problematic to ascertain the precise number of children in Hong Kong schools who have a learning disability in reading, but for the primary school population it is estimated that about 10% have reading difficulty. Among these cases, there are 14% with severe literacy problems, 22% with moderate problems, and 64% with relatively mild problems (C. Ho, 2003). As this is the largest area of learning difficulty in the community, it is important that children with reading problems should be identified early and be provided with appropriate intervention. In some cases, individuals with learning disabilities who encounter specific difficulties in reading are labeled dyslexic, or said to suffer from dyslexia, but this chapter focuses on the general group of children with learning disabilities, some of whom may not be confirmed as cases of dyslexia. The following section deals first with assessment and, later, intervention.

Assessment approaches Assessment refers to the gathering of relevant information to help an individual make decisions (Taylor, 2006), and the use of appropriate assessment procedures can enhance the teaching process. The assessment of children with learning disabilities involves the collection of information that is relevant for making decisions about appropriate goals and objectives, teaching strategies, and program placement. In the field of special education, the use of standardized tests of intelligence, personality and achievement was strongly emphasized in the early years (especially the 1960s). However, because of the discriminatory effects of the labeling practices arising from standardized testing, educators now use informal measures, particularly curriculum-based assessment. These informal tests, such as the informal reading inventories, miscue analysis, and cloze tests allow teachers to make educational decisions. From a teacher’s point of view, assessment for children with learning disabilities has several purposes, namely to: (1) determine current levels of performance; (2) document student progress; and (3) direct changes in the instructional program. In this chapter, the assessment section, therefore, focuses on informal tests for documenting eligibility for adaptations of the general education curriculum as well as for planning and monitoring the effectiveness of instructional programs.

366 Fuk Chuen HO The code-emphasis approach is used as the key guideline for discussing the assessment and instructional strategies for children with disabilities in learning to read. In code-emphasis instruction, decoding skills are taught first and instruction in comprehension follows (Mercer & Mercer, 2001). Research indicates that this approach is effective for teaching decoding (Moats, 1998), particularly for students with learning disabilities (Carnine, Silbert, & Kame’enui, 1997). The general strategies for assessing the skills in decoding and comprehension are described in the following sections. Informal assessment measures in decoding The teacher can readily detect the student’s general reading level, word-recognition abilities, and types of errors by observing as the student reads aloud. Some common assessment measures of decoding are: • The Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Behaviour Checklist (for Primary School Pupils): Ho et al. (2000) developed this checklist for teachers to identify as early as possible the learning difficulties of primary children aged seven to ten. The suspected cases are referred to educational psychologists or other specialists for further assessment. The checklist consists of two major parts: (1) language, and (2) cognitive abilities and others. Part 1 includes checklist items for reading, spelling and writing; and Part 2 covers the performance of children in classroom routines, mathematics, speech, memory, attention, sequence, fine and gross motor skills, perception and direction, emotion and social adaptation. • Informal reading inventory: This procedure requires the teacher to select approximately one hundred words from a series of graded reading materials, which can be used to determine three reading levels: • Independent reading level: the student is able to recognize about 95% of the words and answer about 90% of the comprehension questions correctly. • Instructional reading level: the student is able to recognize about 90% of the words inthe selection, with a comprehension score of about 70%. • Frustration reading level: The student is able to recognize fewer than 90% of the words and has a comprehension score of less than 70%. • Miscue analysis of oral reading: Miscue analysis is a psycholinguistic approach to assessing oral reading. Miscues are the deviations from printed text that the reader makes while reading orally and may represent a positive effort to preserve comprehension (Richek et al., 2002). An example of the analysis of miscues is attached in Appendix 1. • Error analysis: Several types of errors can occur when students read connected text. Most systems of error analysis include at least four classes of errors:

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 367

additions, substitutions, omissions and reversals. An alternate method takes into account the quality of the errors that readers make. For example, the substitution of hold for fight in “fight back the tears” is semantically correct and does not alter the meaning. Burke (1973) suggests that the student’s miscues and the original text be compared in three ways: for graphic similarity, sound similarity and grammatical function. F. Ho (2003) studied the errors of Primary 3 and Secondary 1 students with learning disabilities in their reading performance, categorizing the errors as semantic, visual or phonological, examples of which are noted below: • Semantic errors: reading 風 (sound: fung1; meaning: wind) for 吹 (sound: tsey1; meaning: blow). Here the student mixed up characters in the same category of vocabulary, which is related to weather. The pronunciation of the characters is based on Cantonese, a major dialect in the southern part of China, which has nine tones for each character. The figure represents the designated tone of the character. • Visual errors: reading 汗 (sound: hon6; meaning: sweat) for 汁 (sound: zep7; meaning: juice). In this case, the student confused the graphic appearance of these two characters. • Phonological errors: reading 零 (sound: ling4; meaning: zero) for 明 (sound: ming4; meaning: bright). Here, the student mixed up characters with the same rhyme. .

The results showed that the major kinds of errors that children made are phonological errors in older students and visual errors in younger students. Informal assessment measures in comprehension •

•

The cloze procedure: The cloze procedure (Jongsma, 1971) is an informal technique for determining whether the reading material is within a student’s instructional reading level. To use the cloze procedure, the teacher selects a passage of approximately 250 words. Except for the first and last sentences of the passage, every fifth word in the rest of the passage is deleted and replaced with a blank. This technique is also useful for assessing comprehension skills. The teacher forces the student to rely on contextual clues within the passage to derive meaning. Comprehension questions: One way of doing this is to ask students questions which assess comprehension after they have finished reading a passage. They can also be asked to re-tell a story they have read or summarize the major points of a passage. Several kinds of questions can be used to assess students’ comprehension of the passage, for example,

368 Fuk Chuen HO •

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To evaluate literal comprehension, the student can be asked to: (1) state the main idea of the passage; (2) propose a title; (3) recall details from the passage; (4) remember a series of events or ideas; and (5) explain the meaning of words introduced in the selected reading. • To evaluate inferential comprehension, the student can be asked to: (1) draw conclusions; (2) make predictions; (3) evaluate ideas or actions; (4) suggest alternative endings for a narrative, and so forth. Error analysis technique: Samples of students’ responses are collected, and the errors are categorized. The categorization system is based on the various types of comprehension questions: main idea, fact, sequence, vocabulary, inference, conclusion, etc. The problems can be identified once the number of errors in each category is totaled.

Instructional Strategies for Children with Learning Disabilities in Reading In an alphabetic writing system Dyslexia in reading appears to be related to phonological processing deficits, which are particularly evident in measures of phonological awareness (Wolf & Bowers, 1999), which is one’s explicit awareness of the phonological structure of the words in one’s language. The ability to decompose words into their phonemic elements is mainly required for discovering correspondence between graphemes and phonemes. Examples of phonological awareness include segmentation of words and pronounceable non-words into phonemic segments, phoneme blending, phoneme deletion and phoneme substitution (Torgensen, Wagner & Rashotte, 1994). Interventions that include instruction in an alphabetic code-based approach to reading words showed strong effects in children with difficulty in reading (Foorman et al., 1998; Torgesen et al., 1999). It is suggested that the first priority in beginning reading instruction is the development of phonological awareness (National Reading Panel, 2000). Children with learning disabilities usually require systematic, explicit phonics instruction in the elements of the alphabet code. Research shows that children who learn the sound-symbol system of English read better than children who have not mastered this skill (National Reading Panel, 2000). There are several different types of phonics instructional approaches (National Reading Panel, 2000), viz. • Synthetic phonics: Teaching students explicitly to convert letters into sounds (or phonemes) and then blend the sounds to form recognizable words, e.g., breaking “fish” into sounds: /f/, /I/, /s/, and then blending the sounds into the

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 369

•

•

•

•

word. In English, there are approximately forty phonemes — the smallest distinctive sound units in a language (Nicholson, 2006). Analytic phonics: Teaching students to analyze letter-sound relations by separating and articulating all the sounds of a word, in correct order; for example, by asking “What are the sounds in fish”? Analogy phonics: Recognition of the fact that a word is identical to another word except for the portion preceding the stressed vowel — for example, by asking “Does fish rhyme with dish?” Embedded phonics: Teaching students phonics skills by embedding phonics instruction in text reading. This is a more implicit approach that relies to some extent on incidental learning. Instruction in phonics skills is incidental and is taught during the reading of a text. Phonics through spelling: Teaching students to segment words into phonemes and to select letters for those phonemes. Students are instructed to spell words phonemically.

It can be seen that researchers in Western countries emphasize the analysis of phonological components within the words in reading and spelling as a means of designing instructional programs for learners with reading disabilities. Blending of syllables and phonemes, extraction of rime and onset patterns from words, and identification of the common sound patterns within the words are the usual strategies for teaching children with learning disabilities to read and spell in English. Learning to spell successfully requires recognizing common letter sequences and seeing words within words. Scott (2000) recommended that “using parts of words already known to help with new words”, “looking for known words inside the word” or “thinking of words that have the same letter-sound patterns” could be useful strategies to assist children with learning disabilities to spell words correctly. An example of using known words inside the word is to teach the word “capacity”, separating into “cap”, “pac” and “city”. Studies have shown that the learning of common sound patterns in reading leads to increases in spelling ability and vice versa. In Hong Kong, in 2002, the Psychological Services Unit of the EMB began a pilot project on training English language teachers to use phonological skills for teaching their students, with teachers from ten primary schools invited to participate in workshops. As an assignment, participants had to try out phonics instruction with their children with reading problems, and the teachers’ responses were positive. It was observed that these children benefited from phonics instruction by acquiring the phonological skills and trying to apply them in their reading and spelling activities. Children with reading problems usually improve when provided with the appropriate kind of teaching. It is considered that a de-emphasis on the teaching

370 Fuk Chuen HO of phonics has been the fundamental problem in teacher training generally in past years. Many children are failing to acquire written language because they have not been able to learn in a structured way. If they are taught appropriately, in many cases their disabilities would be substantially reduced, leaving far fewer children struggling in the learning process.

In the Chinese writing system For the Chinese language, Shu and Anderson (1997) demonstrated that third and fifth graders were sensitive to the meanings of semantic radicals; they could select from one of four unfamiliar characters the one that best completed a word or a phrase. This skill, which is called radical awareness (Li et al., 2002), indicates sensitivity to the morphemic structure of Chinese characters, an important aspect of morphological awareness. Morphological awareness is defined as “children’s conscious awareness of the morphemic structure of words and their ability to reflect on and manipulate that structure.” The disabilities of Chinese readers may not relate to insensitivity in analyzing the phonological components of words. Tan et al. (2005) argued that the role of phonological awareness in Chinese reading is minor. More importantly, the Chinese character is composed of strokes and components in a square configuration, which make the visual processing nonlinear and more complex. Their findings show that it is important to encourage children to recognize the internal structure of characters: familiarity with the pattern of strokes and components through writing assists children in learning to read. The graphic structure of the Chinese character is, in fact, very complicated and difficult to learn. The Chinese writing system consists of eight basic strokes, but the number of strokes in one character ranges from one to more than twenty. The compositionality of Chinese can be summarized in at least twelve different ways (see Tse, 2002). The most common presentations are organized in patterns of “AB” (i.e., left and right) or “ A B ” (i.e., top and bottom) (Tai, 2001). In the “AB” pattern, the component “A” is usually the semantic radical, which dictates the meaning, whereas in the component “B”, it is the phonetic radical, which gives hints for sound. For example,「洋」(meaning: ocean; sound: joeng4) is a character with the pattern of “AB”. The component “ ” means “water” and「洋」sounds “joeng4”. In the case of「花」(meaning: flower; sound: fa1) , the upper part「++」meaning “grass” is the semantic radical and the lower part「化」sounding “fa3” is the phonetic radical. Each character consists of a semantic radical and this part gives the clue for meaning. As Cantonese is the major dialect in Hong Kong, it is used as the base for the pronunciations shown in the present study. Phonetic radicals also exist in some Chinese characters and they provide clues for pronunciation.

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About 85% of Chinese characters are phonograms (Perfetti & Tan, 1999). Due to the fact that the graphic structure of Chinese characters is so complex, children with learning disabilities often face problems in recognizing the internal composition of Chinese characters. In Chinese, the principles of Word Identification in Word Family「集中識字 法」, which emphasize the recognition of common features within characters, are consistent with those of the phonological analytic approach in the English language. “Word Identification in Word Family” is a structured and systematic kind of instruction for primary school children in which Chinese characters are grouped under the same category of phonological, orthographic or semantic features for teaching. This method, which has been developed since the late 1950s, was first used in an experimental school in the northeast of China and was widely adopted in other parts of China in the 1960s, and over the years it has been the dominant approach for teaching vocabulary in China. The original idea involved children being trained to recognize a sufficient number of characters before reading a text (Cheung, 1995; Tse, 2002). It is estimated that recognition of 2,500 characters is required for reading a newspaper or a magazine (Cheng, 1982). If the characters are learned one by one, the pace of recognition of a sufficient vocabulary for daily use would be too slow. The “Word Identification in Word Family” approach not only provides an efficient and effective way for children with learning disabilities to acquire a good quantity of vocabulary, but also gives phonological, orthographic and semantic hints for the recognition of characters in a family. For example, characters with the semantic radical「衣」(meaning: clothes) — such as「襪」(meaning: socks; sound: mut9),「褲」(Meaning: trousers; sound: fu1),「衫」(meaning: shirt; sound: sam1),「袖」(meaning: cuff; sound: zau6), 「裙」(meaning: skirt; sound: kwen4) — can be introduced to children as a list of characters for intensive training. Another list of characters with a new semantic radical may later be taught after they have tackled the previous task. Characters can also be grouped based on the pronunciations. For instance, characters with the phonetic radical「青」(meaning: green; sound: tsing1) such as「清」(meaning: clear; sound tsing1),「晴」(meaning: sunny; sound: tsing4),「精」(meaning: spirit; sound: zing1);「請」(meaning: please; sound: tsing2) can be used for teaching children with particular difficulty in reading. Leong (1999) argues that the analysis of Chinese characters is more or less similar to the analysis of English words at the morphemic level. The segmented components of Chinese characters may, therefore, consist of phonological, orthographic and/ or semantic elements. 「衣」in the former word list can provide both visual and semantic clues to readers; and「青」in the latter gives children hints phonologically and visually. In teaching Chinese students with learning disabilities to read and spell, Ho, Wong and Chan (1999) and Li and Chen (1999) suggested that the recognition of the nature of graphic units is important for reading and spelling the Chinese

372 Fuk Chuen HO characters. Leong, Cheng and Lam (2000) found that training in the recognition of the functions of semantic and phonetic radicals improved the performance of children with dyslexia in learning to read and spell Chinese characters. Also, Chan and Nunes (1998) and Shu and Anderson (1999) maintain that by the 3rd and 4th grades, most children have already understood the composition of Chinese characters: They are able to make use of the functions of phonetic and semantic radicals for predicting the meaning and sound of characters. Considering the need to understand the specific graphic features of Chinese language, a structured program for awareness of the phonetic as well as the semantic components of the characters is important for students to learn to read and write in Chinese language.

Principles for teaching decoding There is evidence to show that intervention strategies for teaching reading and spelling skills to children with reading disabilities should be both multi-sensory and phonic (Carnine et al., 1997; Pressley, 1998). Multi-sensory methods are interactive and utilize all the available senses simultaneously. The elements of all the modalities (i.e., visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile) are incorporated into the teaching of children with dyslexia. In addition, Fawcett and Nicolson (2001) found that children with dyslexia have an automatization deficit, and it is believed that these children require extra time for automaticity development in any skill. A remediation measure for this deficit is the use of the over-learning approach which provides a good opportunity for such children to utilize a range of materials and techniques to repeat what they learn. Townend (2000) suggested that one of the major principles for teaching children with dyslexia is a structured program — that is, the progression should be in small steps and the links between these steps should be logical and explicit. In short, a specialist program for children with dyslexia should be multi-sensory, structured and phonically-based and provide for overlearning and automaticity. In most cases, the adoption of these principles is useful for designing teaching programs for children with reading disabilities in the Chinese writing system. The only concern is the application of the principle of using the phonic method for teaching Chinese children with reading disabilities, as their major deficit in the logographic writing system is from that in the alphabetic system. Castles and Coltheart (1993) suggested that, based on the dual-route model of reading, readers may use either the lexical (in which words are recognized as wholes) or sub-lexical (where words are recognized through grapheme-phoneme correspondence) procedures. Ho (2004) tried to identify different subtypes of reading disabilities in the Chinese writing system. Based on the above dual-route model of reading, Ho also found that similar patterns of reading difficulty existed in Chinese children with

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 373

dyslexia. Surface dyslexia results from impairment of the lexical procedure with an intact phonological route to reading; while phonological dyslexia stems from a highly selective deficit in the grapheme-phoneme transformation mechanism. It has been found that there are more students with surface than phonological dyslexia, the implication being that using the visual route to reading is important to Chinese readers as a deficit its use may cause difficulty for them. As noted earlier, schools in China have practiced the “Word Recognition in Word Family Method” for teaching children to read since the late 1950s. Reading programs for children with reading disabilities should follow a carefully developed structure which involves the breaking down of the written language into its component parts. This imposes an organization and predictability upon literacy which is very necessary for children with reading disabilities (Peer, 1994). As a student moves through the program, the steps taken at each stage are necessarily small, so that there is never a very large amount of new material. This analysis of tasks into small steps avoids overloading the students’ working memory. Working only with those sounds and rules already covered gives students confidence that the materials are within their capabilities.

Teaching reading comprehension skills to children with learning disabilities Most students with learning disabilities have learned the basics of word recognition. However, many of them continue to have difficulty with reading comprehension tasks. They need to learn strategies that will help them become fluent readers who understand the reading materials (Richek et al., 2002). In the USA, the National Reading Panel (NRP) (2000) views comprehension as an active process that requires an intentional and thoughtful interaction between the reader and the text. Reading comprehension depends on the reader’s experience, knowledge of language, and recognition of syntactic structure, as well as on the redundancy of the printed passages (Richek, et al., 2002). The National Reading Panel recognized seven strategies for assisting readers to improve their reading comprehension, including: • comprehension monitoring, where students learn how to be aware of their understanding of the material; • cooperative learning, where students learn reading strategies together; • the use of graphic and semantic organizers (including story maps), where student readers make graphic representations of the material to assist their comprehension; • question answering, where student readers answer questions posed by the teacher and receive immediate feedback;

374 Fuk Chuen HO • •

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question generation, where student readers ask themselves questions about various aspects of the story; story structure, where students are taught how to use the structure of the story as a means of helping them recall story content in order to answer questions about what they have read; and summarizing, where student readers are taught to integrate ideas and generalize using information from the text.

It can be seen that the comprehension strategies (e.g., summarization, questioning), graphic organizers (e.g., mind maps) and cooperative learning are considered to be important for improving reading comprehension. Ho (1993) compared the effectiveness of cooperative learning and direct instruction in teaching comprehension strategies to a class of Primary 4 students in Hong Kong. The comprehension strategies used in this study related to four cognitive activities, i.e., summarization, questioning, clarification and prediction; and three different types of expository passages (with collective, comparative and problem-solving structures) were used as the stimulus materials. The results showed that students performed significantly better with the cooperative learning approach than the other two approaches when reading passages with comparative structure and problemsolving structure. On the other hand, they benefited more from direct instruction in the passage with a collective structure. These findings imply that teachers should take variables such as teaching methods and text structure into consideration when teaching comprehension strategies to their students. Chapter 4 of the Chinese Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Primary 6) (Curriculum Development Institute, 2004) also suggested that monitoring comprehension strategies is a concern in the reading domain. Teaching comprehension strategies is a trend in teaching reading in Hong Kong primary schools. As noted earlier, many students with learning disabilities have difficulty with reading comprehension tasks, so they need to learn strategies that will enable them to read fluently with understanding (Richek et al., 2002).

Approaches for teaching reading comprehension Before, during, and after reading A number of reading comprehension methods also emphasize the teaching of comprehension strategies in the following way: • Before reading a story, teachers should motivate and interest children in the selected reading, activate background information, and have them predict what the story will be about;

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During reading, the teacher should direct the students’ attention to the difficult or subtle dimensions of the story, anticipate difficult words and ideas, and talk about problems and solutions; and After reading, comprehension strategies can include having the readers summarize the story, talk about what they liked and what they wished had been different in the story, create graphic organizers, and talk about the characters in the story (Richek, et al., 2002).

The Before Create During End method (BCDE) A BCDE reading program includes comprehension activities before, during and after reading, but the emphasis is put on students’ self-questioning during the process of reading. BCDE is especially useful for reading expository text. Using this strategy, the student can see the overall objectives and plan for presentation of the material and the continuity between sections of text. The details of each stage are as follows: • Before reading: Students are asked to: (1) survey the material to be read; (2) always look over those pages that will be read before the actual start of reading; (3) think of the relationship of this chapter to previous chapters when reading a textbook, read the title, side-headings, paragraph headings, pictures, graphics, bold-face words, and study questions; and (4) skim the paragraphs to get some idea of what might be in the section, make predictions about the characters and the actions that will take place when reading a story, look back at the previous section and predict what will happen in this section. • Creating questions while reading the material: Students have to: (1) create questions about the material based on the title, side-headings, paragraph headings, pictures, and graphics — and write these on the front of note cards for textbooks; and (2) make predictions about the characters and actions, and write questions based on the predictions for stories. • During reading of the materials: Students are asked to: (1) answer the questions that were written on the cards; (2) keep the questions in mind while reading the material; and (3) write the answers on the backs of the cards. • End of reading: Students are asked to: (1) look over all the questions and try again for unanswered questions after finishing reading; (2) give a summary of the main ideas; (3) identify the relationship of present and previous reading materials; and (4) predict how the material will be related to that in the next section.

376 Fuk Chuen HO The RAP-Q strategy In this approach, students (1) read a paragraph or a section of the material and find out the main ideas; (2) put the main ideas in their own words; and (3) formulate questions about the reading. This is based on the RAP, developed by Schumaker, Denton, and Deshler (1984). The difference in this strategy is the use of note cards to record questions. The continuity between the paragraphs as well as the overall main ideas in the reading material can thus be understood by referring to the note cards when required. This approach may not be appropriate for long passages because the student with learning disabilities may not be able to acquire the overall ideas in reading passages with too many paragraphs. The Know-What-Learn (K-W-L) method The K-W-L is a technique for reading and studying textbooks for any subject area (Ogle, 1986). It involves students in the following activities: • What do I already know? Students think of and state all the knowledge they have on a subject. A group of students can pool their knowledge. • What do I want to find out? Each student thinks of and writes on a sheet of paper what he or she wants to (or expects to) learn from the reading. Students can then compare their answers to this question. • What have I learned? Students read the lesson silently and write what they have learned from the reading. Answers to this question can be shared by the group. Directed reading and thinking In this activity, which promotes the processes of thinking, predicting, and confirming while reading, a sentence or a short passage is first read by a group of students. The teacher then encourages the students to predict, by guessing and establishing hypotheses about what will happen next. Finally, the students read the next short section to confirm or reject their predictions and also to develop a new prediction for the next part of the story. The emphasis is on teaching thinking, and students learn to examine, hypothesize, find proof, suspend judgment, and make decisions (Richek et al., 2002). The methods outlined above were mainly designed for children in Western countries, but it is feasible to apply them in the Chinese classroom. Comprehension strategies such as summarization, prediction, clarification and questioning can be used in teaching reading in any language.

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 377

Assessment Strategies for Children with Learning Disabilities in Mathematics In the USA, about 26% of students with learning disabilities receive direct assistance for difficulties in studying mathematics. Research indicates that 6% to 7% of the general population has a specific arithmetic difficulty (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001). Such information is still not available in official documents in Hong Kong (e.g., Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006a) or the relevant literature in mainland China (e.g., Chen, 2004), and overall the identification and treatment of mathematics disabilities have received much less attention than problems associated with reading disabilities (Badian, 1999). As mentioned before, students in the IRTP in Hong Kong usually encounter learning difficulties in two or three basic subjects (i.e., Chinese, English and mathematics), which indicates that a proportion of students in this remedial scheme are weak in mathematics. In the late 1980s, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1989) in the USA called for reform in teaching the subject. The NCTM proposed five general mathematics goals for all students: (1) that they learn to value mathematics; (2) that they become confident in their ability to do mathematics; (3) that they become mathematical problem solvers; (4) that they learn to communicate mathematically; and (5) that they learn to reason mathematically (p. 5). The Hong Kong Mathematics Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Primary 6) (Curriculum Development Institute, 2000) aims to: (1) stimulate the interest of children in the learning of mathematics; (2) develop their understanding and acquisition of basic mathematical concepts and computational skills; (3) develop their creativity, and ability to think, communicate and solve problems; (4) develop their number sense and spatial sense, and their ability to appreciate patterns and structures of number and shapes; and (5) enhance their lifelong learning abilities through basic mathematical knowledge. It can be seen that the goals and aims of mathematics instruction in these two places are similar in their emphasis on appreciating and valuing the learning of mathematics. More importantly, in addition to computation, they highlight the significance of problem solving and reasoning in the subject. In this section, these two issues — computation and problem solving — in learning are emphasized. The distinction between computation and problem solving in mathematics is analogous to that between decoding and comprehension in reading. Just as comprehension relies on decoding, mathematical problem solving relies on arithmetic computation. The typical evaluation of computational skills involves using pen-and-paper tasks in which the student is presented with written problems that require addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division of whole numbers, fractions, or decimals.

378 Fuk Chuen HO To solve such problems, the student must read and understand numerals and symbols, and then has to select and correctly apply the appropriate algorithm for solving the problem. Mathematical problem solving is often assessed by means of story problems. For example, the following problem requires the student to read or listen to the story, identify the problem and the pertinent data for its solution, select the appropriate operation, and perform the computation correctly. Wong had six oranges. She gave two oranges to Chan. How many oranges did Wong have left?

A number of studies of students with disabilities in mathematics show two quite distinct mathematical learning styles: the grasshopper style and the inchworm style (Kay & Yeo, 2003). Grasshoppers are intuitive thinkers who are able to visualize questions. They tend to approach questions in a top-down or whole-topart way, thinking about the problems first and mechanical computation later. They usually have visual-spatial cognitive strengths and are often inventive. On the other hand, inchworm learners are generally step-by-step thinkers who proceed in a bottom-up and linear fashion. They try to remember the rules or recipes that apply in each area of mathematics and think of basic computation first and problem solving later Kay and Yeo (2003) have shown that many students with learning disabilities are inchworms and that there are smaller numbers of grasshoppers. Students with learning disabilities often use ineffective strategies for solving word problems (Fleischner, Nuzum, & Marzola, 1987). Studies have also indicated that they rely primarily on checking and computing strategies and tend not to use higher-order, problem representation strategies such as paraphrasing, visualizing and hypothesizing (Hutchinson, 1993). In addition, Wilson and Swanson (2001) found that difficulties in mathematics are correlated with problems in working memory. Students with learning disabilities are able to hold less information and fewer steps in their working memory than ordinary children. They struggle to follow new calculation procedures and have poor sequencing skills; and they frequently find it hard to remember counting sequences, count slowly, lose their place in counting processes, get stuck in counting tracks, and have difficulties with all forms of counting backwards. Students need strategies to visualize the problem, to know what is being asked, and to decide on methods for solving the problem. Research shows that students with learning disabilities often use no strategies or select an inappropriate one. Research has established the following findings about students with learning difficulties (Cawley, 2002; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2002; Owen & Fuchs, 2002; Parmar, Cawley, & Frazita, 1996):

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 379

•

• •

•

They perform at significantly lower levels than students without learning disabilities on all problem types. The former experience considerable difficulty with problem representation or identifying relevant information, along with difficulties in reading, computation, or identifying operations. They have difficulty in committing arithmetic facts to long-term memory and retrieving those facts once they have been stored. Some children who can easily retrieve facts have difficulty in inhibiting irrelevant facts. For example, when trying to answer 2+3, the child may think of 4 because the number 4 follows 2 and 3. They frequently do not use strategies for problem solving that will lead to success.

Informal measures of computational and problem-solving skills Informal tests can be devised by teachers to assess students’ mathematics skills (Bryant & Rivera, 1997). The assessment of mathematics achievement is common practice today in both general and special education, with the most frequently used assessment approaches being informal inventories, error analysis, diagnostic teaching and clinical mathematics interviews, criterion-referenced tests, questionnaires and interviews, and portfolio assessment. Several of these approaches are discussed below. Informal inventories: Informal inventories survey a variety of skills to determine where a student’s strengths and weaknesses lie. The inventories contains problems that require the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (see Table 11.2 on p. 380). Teachers can design their own inventories to assess whatever skill areas are of interest. For example, if the teacher wishes to know about a student’s understanding of place value concepts, he/she could devise a set of questions to probe this area. The teacher might include activities such as the following: “The number 56 is the same as 5 tens and 6 ones. Tell how many tens and ones make up these numbers”; and, if he/she is interested in students’ ability to tell time, he/she could prepare a set of drawings of clock faces, each showing a different time, with one set assessing telling time to the hour (e.g., 4:00), another to the half hour (e.g., 7:30), and so forth. Error analysis: The first step in conducting an error analysis is to gather a sample of students’ work (e.g. recent class work), and an informal mathematics inventory could be used (see Table 11.2). Ashlock (2002) has identified some common error patterns in arithmetic computation which include the following:

380 Fuk Chuen HO •

•

•

Addition example: the example shows that the student added the 1s column and the 10s column independently without carrying the place value in the sum. 63 + 28 811 Subtraction example: The students subtracted the smaller number from the larger number in each column. 83 – 57 34 Multiplication example: The student added the carried digit before instead of after multiplying. 74 x 4 326

Table 11.2 An example of an informal inventory to test a student’s strengths and weaknesses in Mathematics. Addition 3 +5

8 +0

25 + 71

5+7=

3+=12

+7=15

879 + 48

648 745 + 286

233 + 45

20 + 49

15 + 7

77 + 29

546 - 222

6762 - 4859

59 x 34

25 x 79

Subtraction 7 -5

25 - 9

78 - 23

5-2=

7-=4

-3 =5

72 - 49

Multiplication 5 x3

6 x7

24 x 2

6x3=

7x=56

x5=20

86 x7

Division 2√10

4√16

8√125

12÷4=

24÷=6

÷9=6

11√121

12√108

5 2 +7

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 381

•

Division example: The student divided correctly but wrote down the answer from right to left. 51 5√75 7 5 5

Salvia and Hughes (1990) identified five types of errors: (1) a lack of prerequisite skills; (2) wrong operation (e.g., adding instead of subtracting in the following: 15 – 3 =18); (3) an obvious computation error (e.g., recalling the product of 6 x 9 as 5); (4) a defective algorithm (e.g., in the subtraction problem 24–18, beginning by subtracting 4 from 8, using the algorithm “subtract the smaller number from the larger; and when trying to apply the correct operation, making errors in the necessary steps); and (5) random responses. Regarding the common errors made by students with learning disabilities, Miller and Milam (1987) found that poor memory for basic multiplication and addition facts was the most common multiplication error and omitting the remainder the most common division error. Also, Cawley et al. (1996) reported that students with learning disabilities tend to use incorrect strategies when solving problems, making more algorithm than computation errors. Clinical interviews: Clinical interviews can also provide information about how students solve story problems. The solution involves several steps, and interviews are the best means for studying a student’s skill in selecting and carrying out the appropriate procedures. According to Goodstein (1981), students must follow a four-step process in solving story problems: • Identification of the required arithmetic operation • Identification of the relevant set(s) of information • Appropriate and accurate display of the computation (this step is often unnecessary for simple computations and would be replaced by “accurate entry of the computational factors’ if a calculator was to be used). • Accurate performance of the indicated computation. (This step would automatically follow successful completion of steps 1–3, if a calculator is used.) The teacher can learn about students’ problem-solving skills by incorporating diagnostic probes into the clinical mathematics interview. To do this, the student is given several story problems to solve and is instructed to “think aloud” throughout the entire process. When a problem area becomes apparent, the teacher intervenes and provides a cue or an alternative strategy for accomplishing the task.

382 Fuk Chuen HO

Instructional Strategies for Children with Learning Disabilities in Mathematics Basic computational skills Many problems in arithmetic are due to deficiencies in basic computational skills. Students should be taught the basic skills of mathematics computation that they lack, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, decimals, and percentages. Addition: This skill can be thought of as part plus part equals whole. A teacher should plan three instructional stages (Miller, Butler & Lee, 1998) to teach addition. In the concrete instruction stage, the student manipulates real objects in learning skills, and in the semiconcrete-level stage, a graphic representation is substituted for actual objects. In the following example, squares represent objects in an illustration from a worksheet: +  = 5. At the abstract level of instruction numerals finally replace the graphic symbols. Begin by using concrete objects, then use cards with sets that represent numbers, and finally use the number sentence with the number alone: 3 + 2 =  . From this, students can also learn that 2 + 3 = ;  + 2 = 5 and 3 +  = 5. For the addition to the sums between 10 and 20, it is easier to start with doubles, such as 6 + 6 = 12, and then ask what 7 + 6 equals. Another way is to “make a 10.” For example, in 8 + 5, the student takes 3 off the 5, and adds 2 to the 8 to make 10. Now the students can see that 10 + the remaining 3 = 13. Subtraction: A student places a set of objects on the desk and then takes away certain objects. How many are left? 7 – 4 = . Then use cards with sets on them. Find 7 by using a card with a set of 3 and a card with a set of 4. Tell the students that when the cards are put together the number is 7. Ask the students what is left when the set of 4 is taken away. Regrouping is an important concept in subtraction. Students can also find 7 by using a card with a set of 2 and a card with a set of 5. Multiplication: One way to explain multiplication is the multiplication sentence. How much are 3 sets of 2? Using sets of objects, the students can find the total either by counting objects or by adding equal addends. The concept of reversals can also be introduced. The sentence 3 x 5 =  does not change in the form of 5 x 3 = . In the equal addend approach, ask the students to show that: 3 x 5 = 5 + 5 + 5, or 15 Division: Basic division facts come from knowledge of multiplication facts. There are a

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 383

number of ways to approach division. Sets can be used 6/3 = . Draw a set of 6 and enclose three equal sets. Therefore the missing factor is 2. In general, to learn computational skills, students with difficulties in arithmetic require considerable experience with concrete and manipulative materials before moving to the abstract and symbolic level of numbers. Objects and materials that can be physically taken apart and put back together help the students to observe visually the relationship of the fractional parts of the whole. The teaching suggestions in the Hong Kong Mathematics Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Primary 6) (Curriculum Development Institute, 2000) show that, with the introduction of calculators, it is no longer necessary for teachers to spend too much time on computational techniques. The use of small numbers is encouraged in the design of examples and exercises. On the other hand, training in mental arithmetic, numerical estimation and quick methods should be strengthened. For example, what is the best way to find 3x1000? What is the fastest way to find 20 + 20 + 20 + 20? Both of these problems can be computed mentally and this surely takes less time than using pen-and-paper computation or keying figures into calculators. Students should also be encouraged to observe and explain the results obtained.

Teaching skills in problem solving to children with learning disabilities Problem solving refers to the kind of thinking needed to solve mathematics word problems. It is identified as the top priority for the mathematics curriculum by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000) which called for more emphasis on problem solving at all levels. Mathematics is rapidly assuming a larger part in the curricula for both general and special education. The Hong Kong Mathematics Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Primary 6) (Curriculum Development Institute, 2000) also suggested that students should be allowed to use calculators, so that they can concentrate on learning the skills of problem solving. Students should be trained to tackle problems with alternative strategies for solving them. Yin and Jitendra (1999) suggested that teachers should use techniques to help students with problem representation and solution. Problem representation involves the translation and interpretation of the ideas and information in a word problem. In addition, spoken or written problems can be represented by using objects, threedimensional models, pictures, diagrams, or charts (NCTM, 2000). Students can be asked to paraphrase the problems in their own words, or to form a mental image (Salend, 2001). Gallagher-Landi (2001) has also presented a four-step strategy for teaching problem representation skills in which students should be encouraged to explore

384 Fuk Chuen HO the problem, hypothesize solutions, and predict outcomes. The four-step problem representation strategy and corresponding skills are: (1) paraphrase: students are asked to underline the important information and/or put the problem in their own words; (2) visualize: students have to make a drawing or diagram; (3) hypothesize: students are asked to decide how many steps are required and which operation(s) is needed, and/or write the equation; and/or (4) estimate: students are asked to estimate the solution. Problem solving refers to the selection and application of appropriate mathematical operations to solve the problem (Yin & Jitendra, 1999). An example is to look for key words that stand for different operations, e.g. “Altogether” for addition and “more” for subtraction. Other general strategies for teaching problem solving and applications to students with learning disabilities include the following: • Word story problems: It is important to use word story problems that are of interest to the students and within their experience. • Reading aloud problems: This strategy is especially important for students with reading problems. • Simplifying: Students can be asked to substitute smaller and easier numbers for problems with larger or more complex ones. • Deciding on a process: Students must decide which computational process should be used to solve the problem. They should be alerted to key words such as total or in all, which suggest addition, and is left or remains, which suggest subtraction. • Estimating answers: Have the students practice estimating what a reasonable answer might be. • Practice and generalization: After students have thought through and worked out one type of problem, the teacher can give similar problems with different numbers. Deshler et al. (2001) suggested the use of prompt cards to assist students in problem solving. Students were given five prompt cards to help them focus on the following steps for solving problems: • Read: What is the question? • Re-read: What is the necessary information? • Think about … • Putting together = add • Taking apart = subtract • Do I need all the information? • Is it a two-step problem? • Solve: Write the equation; and • Check: Recalculate, label, and compare.

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 385

The goal is to help students with problems in mathematics acquire strategies for meeting the challenges of the subject and take control of their own mathematics learning. The students need specific instruction in developing independence in learning mathematics and in monitoring their thinking about mathematics.

Trends in the Field of Learning Disabilities The field of learning disabilities has been described by some researchers as chaotic (e.g., Siegel, 1999). Lyon et al. (2001) referred to current practices for determining whether students should be identified as learning disabled as a “wait to fail” model — that is, students have to experience significant academic frustration to be considered as having learning disabilities. It is more useful to provide precise features that identify students as having the disorder in the core academic areas. A simple direct assessment of the extent of a student’s underachievement in these areas should be used to replace the ability-achievement discrepancy criteria. This would solve the problem of identifying young children as it would eliminate the need to wait for a discrepancy to emerge. Meltzer (1994) suggested the use of domain-specific labels, such as reading difficulty, mathematics difficulty, or language difficulty would be preferable. Assessment goals should explore how and why a child learns in a particular way. Sternberg and Grigorenko (2001) shared Meltzer’s view that educators should identify children in need of assistance by level of achievement only. Identification of interventions to be used should be based on actual learning disabilities, not on labels. Students need instruction tailored to their learning disabilities, and adaptations in the curriculum, teaching methods and classroom environment should be aimed at helping them strengthen their learning competence. The response-to-intervention (RTI) process is a multi-tiered approach to providing services and interventions to children with learning disabilities at different levels of support. As noted earlier, children who do not respond positively to this instruction are given more intensive teaching in scientific trials, and are not considered to have a learning disability if they respond well to the interventions with research-based instructional materials (Fuchs et al., 2003). In general, a threetier approach is adopted. Tier 1 provides high-quality instructing and behavioral supports in general education classrooms; Tier 2 involves more specialized instruction in a smaller group; and Tier 3 offers more individualized intervention. Tier 1 is designed to provide for the majority of children’s instructional needs and consists of three elements: (1) a research-based core program; (2) benchmark testing of students to determine instructional needs; and (3) ongoing professional development. Tier 2 intervention is for those children whose response to Tier 1

386 Fuk Chuen HO instruction is unsatisfactory; and Tier 3 intervention is intensive, strategic, and supplemental and is extended beyond the time allocated for Tiers 1 and 2 (Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). It can be seen that there is a shift in the identification of children with learning disabilities from diagnosis to intervention. The degree of seriousness determines the levels of support the children require.

Summary In Hong Kong, the remedial services for children with learning disabilities are implemented in the form of a whole-school approach to catering for diversity. To identify children for remedial services, teachers of Primary 1 students (aged six to seven) are required to fill in an observation checklist in December, and the suspected cases receive remedial support in the second semester of their first year of primary education. In comparison with the previous practice where children with learning disabilities were eligible for remedial services only after they were identified as lagging two years behind in achievement in at least two basic subjects, the current practice of early identification and intervention is of greater benefit to this group of children. In learning to read, it is important to use an analytic method to teach decoding to students with learning disabilities. For alphabetic languages, the emphasis should be placed on the analysis of the sound structure within words and for logographic languages it should be put on graphic structure. Students should be taught reading strategies such as questioning, prediction, clarification and summarization to enhance their skills in comprehension monitoring. In mathematics, students with learning disabilities often use no strategies or select inappropriate ones. Paraphrasing, visualizing, hypothesizing and estimating are important strategies in problem solving in mathematics. Students should also be taught strategies to help them visualize problems, know what is being asked, and decide on methods for solving them.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

Describe the reading comprehension problems of students with learning disabilities. How would you use the graphic organizer to assist a group of students with learning disabilities to comprehend a text about the Bat?

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 387

The Reading Passage 蝙蝠 蝙蝠的形狀有點像老鼠，身體多數棕黑色。前肢有五指，拇指短而 有爪，其餘四指的指骨細長，指上有薄膜和後肢相連，看來好像有一對 翼。後肢較短，五趾都有漖爪。 蝙蝠眼小，視力弱，但耳極發達，聽覺敏銳。蝙蝠在飛行時能發出 高頻率的短聲波，遇到鄰近的東西就會反射回來，由牠的官能收集，從 而覺察周圍的環境。蝙蝠喜白天躲在山洞，樹穴或荒屋况，黃昏才出來 活動。 蝙蝠大部份以捕蟲充饑，其中亦有食果實者，更有吸血蝙蝠，常襲 擊在睡眠的家畜，吸血或咬肉而去。 2.

Errors in Chinese character writing can be categorized into three different types (i.e., semantic, phonological and/or orthographic). Identify the kind of error in each of the incorrect written characters below? 染：誤作丸（ 的錯誤） 任：誤作王（ 的錯誤） 烹飪：誤作烹任（ 的錯誤） 熔爐：誤作溶爐（ 的錯誤） 婦孺：誤作婦儒（ 的錯誤） 撒：誤作澈或徹（ 的錯誤） 衫：誤作 （ 的錯誤） 刪：誤作姍、柵、跚（ 的錯誤） 繕：誤作膳（ 的錯誤） 贍：誤作瞻（ 的錯誤） 赦：誤作欠（ 的錯誤） 腎：誤作貝（ 的錯誤） 舐：誤作氐（ 的錯誤） 勢：誤作九（ 的錯誤） 侍：誤作持（ 的錯誤） 攤：誤作癱（ 的錯誤） 挺：誤作鋌（ 的錯誤） 唯：誤作惟（ 的錯誤）

3. 4.

Do you think calculators should be used in mathematics instruction? If so, discuss how they can be used. What is the trend in the educational placement of children with learning disabilities in Hong Kong? Do you agree or disagree with this trend? Why?

388 Fuk Chuen HO

Appendix 1 Miscue analysis An example of scoring the errors of a student in reading the following passage.

The battle on the beach Once upon a time there were three sailors (A) called Jim, Tom and Fred. They built a (O) boat and sailed east. But one day a typhoon (R) hit the boat. The sea became very rough (A) and the boat sank. The three men started swimming. After some time the sea became calm and Fred saw an island (A). The sailor swam to the island (A). At last they were safe. The men looked for food. Jim found bananas (R). Tom caught some fish. Fred looked for food, but he did not find anything. Then they all built a hut. One day Tom went fishing and he found (S) a bottle. He took it back to the hut. “This is a beautiful bottle,” said Jim, and he stroked (R) it. There was a flash and a magician (A) came out of the bottle. The magician said, “You can have one wish.” Then he pointed to Tom and said, “What is your wish?” Tom said, “I want to go home.” The magician (A) waved his arms and there was a bang and a cloud of smoke. Jim and Fred and the magician (A) were on the beach. Tom was not there. He was at home. The magician (A) pointed to Jim and said, “ What is your wish?” Jim said, “I want to go home too.” The magician (A) waved his arms and there was a bang and a cloud (O) of smoke. Jim was not there. He was at home. Then the magician pointed at (O) Fred and said, “What is you wish?” Fred thought (O) for a minute (A), then he said, “My friends are not here. I will be very lonely (O) on this island. Please bring them back. The magician laughed and said. “OK, you can have your wish.” (291 words)

Counting criteria in miscue analysis Major miscue (affects comprehension) Substitutions Omissions Additions Reversals Repetitions Aid by examiner

1 error 1 error 1 error 1 error ––– 1 error

Minor miscue (does not affect comprehension) 1/2 error 1/2 error 1/2 error 1/2 error 1/2 error (2 or more words) –––

Scoring system: “O” for omission; “R” for repetition: “I” for insertion; “A” for examiner aid; “S” for substitution; “D” for addition; “V” for reversal; and “C” for corrected

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 389

Performance of the student Major miscue (affects comprehension) Substitutions Omissions Additions Reversals Repetitions Aid by examiner

Minor miscue (does not affect comprehension)

1 error 5 errors

––– 10 errors

1.5 error

The student made 17.5 errors in a passage of 291 words. The student was able to recognize 94% of the passage. He should be in the instructional level.

Glossary Assessment of children with learning difficulties involves the collection of information that is relevant for making decisions regarding appropriate goals and objectives, teaching strategies, and program placement. Discrepancy refers to an educationally significant difference between children’s estimated potential and actual level of performance related to basic disorders in the learning process. A multi-sensory method is interactive and utilizes all available senses simultaneously. The elements of all the modalities — visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile — are incorporated into the teaching of children with dyslexia. Phonological awareness is one’s explicit awareness of the phonological structure of the words in one’s language. Problem solving refers to the selection and application of appropriate mathematical operations to solve the problem

References Ashlock, R. (2002). Error patterns in computation (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: MerrillPrentice-Hall. Badian, N. A. (1999). Reading disability defined as discrepancy between listening and reading comprehension. A longitudinal study of stability, gender differences, and prevalence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 138–148. Bateman, B. (1965). An educational view of a diagnostic approach to learning disorders. In J. Hellmuth (Ed.), Learning disorders. Seattle, WA: Special Child Publications. Bryant B. R., & Rivera, D. P. (1997). Educational assessment of mathematics skills and abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 57–68.

390 Fuk Chuen HO Burke, C. (1973). Preparing elementary teachers to teach reading. In K. S. Goodman (Ed.), Miscue analysis: Application to reading instruction. Urbana: ERIC Clearhouse on Reading & Communication Skills. Carnine, D., Silbert, J., & Kame’enui, E. J. (1997). Direct instruction reading. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149– 180. Cawley, J. F. (2002). Mathematics interventions and students with high incidence disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 2–6. Cawley, J. F. Parmer, R., Yan, W., & Miller, J. (1996). Arithmetic computation abilities of students with learning disabilities: Implications for instruction. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 11, 230–237. Chan, L., & Nunes, T. (1998). Children’s understanding of the formal and functional characteristics of written Chinese. Applied Psycholinguists, 19, 115–131. Chen, Y. Y. (2004). Introduction of special education in China. Beijing: Educational Science Publishers. (in Chinese) Cheng, C. M. (1982). Analysis of present day Mandarin. Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 10, 282–358. Cheung, Y. T. (1995). Handbook for teaching experiments: Identifying characters in families, reading a lot and spacing out practice. (in Chinese) Curriculum Development Institute (2000). Mathematics curriculum guide (primary 1 to primary 6). Hong Kong: Printing Department. Curriculum Development Institute (2004). Chinese curriculum guide (primary 1 to primary 6). Hong Kong: Government Logistics Department. Deshler, D. D., Schumaker, J. B., Lenz, B. K., Bulgren, J. A., Hock, M. F., Knight, J., & Ehren, B. J. (2001). Ensuring content-area learning by secondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16, 96–108. Education and Manpower Bureau (2006a). Fact sheet on special education. Hong Kong: Hong Kong: Government Logistics Department. Education and Manpower Bureau (2006b). Fact sheet on whole-school approach to cater for diversity. Hong Kong: Government Logistics Department. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Public Law 110, 107th Cong. 2nd sess. Fawcett, A. & Nicolson, R. I. (2001). Dyslexia: The role of the cerebellum. In A. Fawcett (Ed.), Dyslexia: Theory and good practice. London: Whurr. Fleischner, J. E., Nuzum, M., & Marzola, E. S. (1987). Devising an instructional approach to teach arithmetic problem-solving skills to students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 214–217. Fletcher, J., Coulter, W., Reschly, D., & Vaughn, S. (2004). Alternative approaches to the definition and identification of learning disabilities: Some questions and answers. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 304–331. Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Shatschneider, C. & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37–55. Foreman, P. (2005). Inclusion in Action. (3rd ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Thomson. Fuchs, L. & Fuchs, D. (2001). Principles for the prevention and intervention of mathematics difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16, 85–95.

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 391 Fuchs, L., & Fuchs, D. (2002). Mathematical problem-solving profiles of students wit mathematics disabilities with and without comorbid reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 563–573. Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P. L., & Young, C. L. (2003). Responsiveness-to-intervention: Definitions, evidence, and implications for the learning disabilities construct. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18, 157–171. Gallagher-Landi, M. (2001). Helping students with learning disabilities make sense of word problems. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 13–80. Gargiulo, R. M. (2006). Special education in contemporary society: An introductory to exceptionality (2nd ed.). Australia: Thomson. Goodstein, H. A. (1981). Are the errors we see true errors? Error analysis in verbal problem solving. Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities, 1, 31–45. Hallahan, D. P., & Mock, D. R. (2003). A brief history of the field of learning disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities. New York: The Guildford Press. Ho, C. S. H. (October, 2003). Identification and assessment of children with specific learning difficulties in Hong Kong: Main research findings. Paper presented in the seminar on From research to educational practice: What have we learned about specific learning difficulties. Hong Kong Psychological Society and Psychology Department, University of Hong Kong. Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, S. H. (2000). The Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Behaviour Checklist (for primary school pupils). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong and Education and Manpower Bureau. Ho, C. S. H., Wong, W. L., & Chan, W. S. (1999). The use of orthographic analogies in learning to read Chinese. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 393–403. Ho, F. C. (1993). Reading processes and implications for the design of a reading program for Hong Kong primary students. Unpublished master’s thesis, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Ho, F. C. (2003). Dyslexia: Awareness and teaching. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education. (in Chinese) Ho, F. C. (2004). Reading patterns of children with learning difficulties in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Special Education Forum, 7, 34–46. Hutchinson, N. L. (1993). Effects of cognitive strategy instruction on algebra problem solving of adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 34–63. Ip, B. (2006). Special education policy development and direction of Hong Kong. Keynote presented at the UK SEN Conference, 10–11 July 2006. Retrieved November 20, 2006, from EMB website: http://emb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_2555/uksemshow_4. ppt. Jennings, J. H., Caldwell, J., & Lerner, J. W. (2006). Reading problems: Assessment and teaching strategies (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Jongsma, E. (1971). The cloze procedure as teaching technique. Newark, NJ: International Reading Association. Kaufman, A.S., & Kaufman, N.L. (2004). Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (2nd ed.). Circle Pine, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc. Kay, J., & Yeo, D. (2003), Dyslexia and maths. London: David Fulton. Kirk, S. A. (1962). Educating exceptional children. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

392 Fuk Chuen HO Leong, C. K. (1999). What can we learn from dyslexia in Chinese? In I. Lundberg, F. I. Tonnessen, & I. Austad (Eds.), Dyslexia: Advances in theory and practice. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Leong, C. K., Cheng, P. W., & Lam, C. C. C. (2000). Exploring reading-spelling connection as locus of dyslexia in Chinese. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 239–259. Li, H., & Chen, H. C. (1999). Radical processing in Chinese character recognition: Evidence from lexical decision. Psychologia, 42, 188–208. Li, W., Anderson, R. C., Nagy, W. E., & Zhang, H. (2002). Facets of metalinguistic awareness that contribute to Chinese literacy. In W. Li., J. Gaffney, & J. L. Packard (Eds.), Chinese children’s reading acquisition: Theoretical and pedagogical issues. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic. Lyon, G. R., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Torgensen, J. K., Wood, F. B., Schulte, A., & Olson, R.(2001). Rethinking learning disabilities. In C. E. Finn, Jr., J. Rotherham, & C. R. Hokanson, Jr. (Eds.). Rethinking special education for a new century. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation and Progressive Policy Institute. Lyon, G. R., & Moats, L. C. (1997). Critical conceptual and methodological considerations in reading intervention research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 578–588. Meltzer, L. J. (1994). Assessment of learning disabilities: The challenge of evaluating cognitive strategies and processes underlying learning. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues. Baltimore: Paul H Brookes Publishing Co. Mercer, C. D. & Mercer, A. R. (2001). Teaching students with learning problems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Miller, S., Butler, F., & Lee, K. (1998). Validated practices for teaching mathematics to students with learning disabilities: A review of the literature. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31, 1–24. Miller, J., & Milam, C. (1987). Multiplication and division errors committed by learning disabled students. Learning Disabilities Research, 2, 119–122. Moats, L. C. (1998). Teaching decoding. American Educator, 22, 42–65. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Joint Committee on LD (1988). Letter to NJCLD member organizations. Washington, DC: Author. National People’s Congress (1990). Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled Persons. Beijing: Legal System publishers. National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved on May 20, 2006, from http://nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/ smallbook.htm. Nicholson, T. (2006). How to avoid reading failure: Teach phonemic awareness. In A. McKeough, L. Phillips, V. Timmons, & J. Lupart (Eds.), Understanding literacy development: A global view. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Ogle, D. M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading Teacher, 39, 564–570.

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 393 Owen, R. L., & Fuchs, L. (2002). Mathematical problem-solving strategy instruction for thirdgrade students with learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 268– 278. Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21, 77–86. Parmar, R. S., Cawley, J. F., & Frazita, R. R. (1996). Word problem-solving by students with and without mild disabilities. Exceptional Children, 62, 415–429. Peer, L. (1994). Dyslexia: The training and awareness of teachers. Reading: British Dyslexia Association. Perfetti, C. A., & Tan, L. H. (1999). The constituency model of Chinese word identification. In J. Wang, A. W. Inhoff, & H. C. Chen (Eds.), Reading Chinese script: A cognitive analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Pressley, M. (1998). Reading instruction that works. New York: Guildford Press. Richek, M. A., Caldwell, J. S., Jenning, J. H. & Lerner J. W. (2002). Reading problems: Assessment and teaching strategies (4th ed.). Boston MA: Allyn and Bacon. Roid, G. H. (2003). The Stanford-Binet intelligence scales (5th ed.). Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing. Salend, S. J. (2001). Effective mainstreaming. New York: Macmillan. Salvia, J., & Hughes, C. (1990). Curriculum-based assessment: Testing what is taught. New York: Macmillan. Schumaker, J. B., Denton, P. H., & Deshler, D. D. (1984). The paraphrasing strategy. Lawrence, KS: The University of Kansas. Scott, C. M. (2000). Principles and methods of spelling instruction: Application for poor spellers. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 21–35. Shu, H., & Anderson, R. C. (1997). Role of radical awareness in the character and word acquisition of Chinese children. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 78–89. Shu, H., & Anderson, R. C. (1999). Learning to read Chinese: The development of metalinguistic awareness. In J. Wang, A. W. Inhoff, & H. C. Chen (Eds.), Reading Chinese script: A cognitive analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Siegel, L. S. (1999). Issues in the definition and diagnosis of learning disabilities: A perspective on Guckenberger v. Boston University. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 304–319. Stanovich, K.E. (2005). The future of a mistake: Will discrepancy measurement continue to make the learning disabilities field a pseudoscience? Learning Disability Quarterly, 28, 103–106. State Council (1994). The outline of the 9th Five Year National Development Plan for the Disabled (1996–2000). Beijing: Huaxia Press. Sternberg, R., & Grigorenko, E. (2001). Learning disabilities, schooling and society. Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 335–338. Tai, Y. C. (2001). Word identification in mainland China. In S. K. Tse (Ed.). Effective teaching and learning of Chinese characters. Hong Kong: Green Field. (in Chinese) Tan, L. H., Spinks, J. A., Eden, G. F., Perfetti, C. A., & Siok, W. T. (2005). Reading depends on writing, in Chinese. PNAS, 102, 8781–8785. Taylor, R. L. (2006). Assessment of exceptional students: Educational and psychological procedures (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

394 Fuk Chuen HO Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., & Rashotte, C. (1994). Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 276–286. Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., Rashotte, C., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Conwa, T., & Garvin, C. (1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities. Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593. Townend, J. (2000). Phonological awareness and other foundation skills of literacy. In J. Townend, & M. Turner (eds.), Dyslexia in practice: A guide for teachers. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Tse, S. K. (Ed.) (2002). Effective teaching and learning of Chinese characters. Hong Kong: Green Field. (in Chinese) US Department of Education. (1996). Eighteenth annual report to Congress on the implementation of IDEA. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. US Department of Education (2002). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities (Twenty-fourth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Act). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. U S Department of Education. (2004). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Vaughn, S., & Fuchs, L. (2003). Refining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: The promise and potential problems. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18, 137–146. Williams, P. E., Weiss, L. G., & Rolfhus, E. L. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed.). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation, A Harcourt Assessment Group. Williams, K.T. (2001). Group reading assessment and diagnostic evaluation. Circle Pine, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc. Wilson K. M., & Swanson H. L. (2001). Are mathematics disabilities due to a domain-general or a domain-specific working memory deficit? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 237–248. Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438. Yin, P. X., & Jitendra, A. K. (1999). The effects of instruction in solving mathematical word problems for students with learning problems: A meta-analysis. Journal of Special Education, 32, 207–225.

Useful Websites The British Dyslexia Association: http://www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk The Hong Kong Association for Specific Learning Disabilities: http://www.asld.org.hk The International Dyslexia Association: http://www.interdys.org The Learning Disabilities Association of Canada: http://www.ldac-taac.ca The Learning Disability Association of America: http://www.Idanatl.org

Including Students with Learning Disabilities 395

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Fuk Chuen Ho, PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

396 Fuk Chuen HO

Section III Whole-School Approaches to Learning Diversity

12 Developing Inclusive Schools in Hong Kong Chris R. DOWSON

This chapter describes the experiences of four Hong Kong schools which underwent integration. Good practices, classroom strategies and the roles of stakeholders are described and the chapter concludes with current and future trends. A number of recommendations are made, centering on: • The role of government; • The success of a whole-school approach; • Modes of teaching; • The need for professional education for teachers and support staff; and • The role of social interactions and supportive family involvement.

Introduction This chapter reports case studies of four Hong Kong schools progressing toward inclusion; see Dowson et al (2003). The study was an important affirmation of the positive effects on schools that undertake a move toward inclusion, as they increasingly achieve quality education for all students. The findings gave strong support for the implementation of inclusion in Hong Kong schools. At the time of the study, schools taking up inclusion were referred to as “integrating” schools and the results helped to define good practice, problem areas and, most important, how the problems may be overcome. Schools were able to get extra funding by enrolling students with disabilities, although some had a history of accepting these students as part of their philosophy.

400 Chris R. DOWSON Invitation letters were sent to all integrated schools (forty-four in number) and three primary schools and one secondary school were selected to give a range of government and government-aided schools. At the time of selection, most integrated schools were in the primary sector. The four schools chosen expressed a willingness to be part of the study. In addition, integrated schools were chosen so as to encompass, as far as possible, a representative range of students with disabilities. The features of the four schools involved in the study are shown in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1

Summary of the four case schools

School School A School B School C School D

School features Primary Primary Primary Secondary

Government Government Government-aided Government-aided

Morning school Morning school Whole-day school Whole-day school

The four schools were examined to help understand how co-teaching/ cooperative teaching enabled students with and without disabilities to learn together and how they interacted in inclusive school settings. It also investigated the involvement of their families in inclusive settings. Another major consideration was how the whole-school approach was applied to and facilitated inclusion in schools. Finally, the schools were studied to determine the educational needs of school personnel working in an inclusive setting. The experiences described by these schools can serve as models for the development of inclusion through the whole-school approach, in schools with other Confucian-heritage cultures (CHC) such as China, Singapore and elsewhere. This chapter describes the scope of the study, significant elements of inclusion which emerged from it, the implementation of the whole-school approach, the educational needs of teachers, good practices for implementing inclusion and the conclusions and recommendations of the study.

The Scope of the Study The three primary schools and one secondary school involved in the study included students with a range of disabilities, including hearing impairment, autism with average intelligence, mild grade intellectual disability and physical handicap (see Table 12.2).

Developing Inclusive Schools in Hong Kong 401 Table 12.2

Students with disabilities at the case study schools

Schools

Types of disabilities Autism with average intelligence (AUT)

Hearing impairment (HI)

Mild grade intellectual disability (ID)

Physical disability (PH)

Visual impairment (VI)

School A

3

–

6

1

–

School B

–

3

2

–

_

School C

8

–

8

–

–

School D

3

2

–

–

–

The research team studied the school background and implementation of inclusive education (i.e., the preparation stage, emergent stage and initial concerns) for one year. In analyzing the four schools, a framework based on research questions about co-teaching, student interaction, family involvement, and the role of a wholeschool approach was used, allowing for the emergence of areas that were relevant to the research questions. The schools differed in terms of background and in the way that inclusion was implemented. There were some themes that were common and some unique to the schools, reflecting their different backgrounds. It was interesting to find that the processes of implementation were markedly different for each of the schools. In one case, a “top-down” approach was taken where the staff were simply informed that inclusion would be taking place. Another school took what might be termed a “bottom-up” approach, in which the whole school staff took a year to reach consensus about the change to an inclusive school, involving many consultations and meetings prior to the implementation. Between these two extremes, there were varying degrees of consultation and consensus. Some schools took an emergent approach, allowing inclusion to establish itself as it went along, and dealing with difficulties as they arose. Overall, the findings indicated that each school pursued inclusion according to its management style, culture and beliefs.

Significant Elements in the Inclusive Process This section describes the significant elements of inclusion examined in the study. These emerged during the formulation of the research questions used to guide the direction taken in the research, in particular the data gathering.

402 Chris R. DOWSON

The role of co-teaching in inclusion According to Cook and Friend (1995), co-teaching occurs when two or more teachers, one a general educator and the other a special service provider, share physical space in order to actively instruct a blended group of students, including students with disabilities. It is a kind of professional partnership. When general or special educators participate in co-teaching practices, at least five different modes are adopted, as shown in Table 12.3. Table 12.3

Different modes of co-teaching

One teach, one assist

Both teachers are present, but one — often the general education teacher — takes the lead. The other teacher observes or “drifts” around the room assisting students.

Station teaching

Teachers divide the content to be delivered, and each takes responsibility for part of it. Some students may also work independently. Eventually all students participate in all “stations.”

Parallel teaching

Teachers jointly plan instruction, but each delivers it to half of the class group.

Alternative teaching

One teacher works with a small group of students to pre-teach, re-teach, supplement, or enrich while the other teacher instructs the large group.

Team teaching

Both teachers share the instruction of students. They may take turns in leading a discussion; demonstrating concepts or learning strategies, and modeling appropriate question-asking or conflict behavior.

Co-teaching was one of the significant elements in facilitating inclusion. In the schools that engaged in co-teaching, there were benefits in learning for the whole class. During co-teaching, all students received greater attention from both teachers and disciplinary problems declined. With the support of the resource teacher as co-teacher, and the consequent use of curriculum differentiation and multimedia presentations, the learning of all students was enhanced. Co-teaching proved to be particularly helpful for students with intellectual disability and a short attention span; and it supported students with hearing impairment who needed more help with language and intensive consolidation work. The co-teaching approach was essential for students with disabilities particularly in dictation, composition and mathematics lessons, as many could not work at the same speed as the rest of the class and needed the teachers’ personal guidance. Students enjoyed the lively learning atmosphere that came with the additional support when there were two teachers in the classroom. Co-teaching led to more

Developing Inclusive Schools in Hong Kong 403

participation by all students in group activities and this helped meet the learning needs of students as well as increasing peer interaction. Undoubtedly, all students enjoyed more individualized teaching and remedial support. Co-teaching enhanced the learning of students with disabilities to a greater extent, particularly in the basic skills of reading and writing. It also increased their confidence in social interaction and independent learning. Although it was difficult to start co-teaching, with a high commitment from both partners, there was evidence of positive feedback in schools practicing this approach. The “one-teaching, one-assisting” approach worked well, with growing mutual acceptance by both teachers. Feedback from teachers on coteaching was very positive and most of them found it useful for conducting activities, as it provided students with more individualized teaching and remedial support, sustained their attention, and helped them remain on task. There were some doubts about the effectiveness of co-teaching and hesitations in the process of collaboration. However, in the period of adjustment during the introduction of co-teaching in one school, the relationship between subject teachers and resource teacher improved as they had to work together more closely, which demonstrated that a good partnership in the co-teaching process was perceived as the essential success factor. Good understanding and communication between the partners strengthened and built a harmonious relationship of cooperation. It was of some concern that there was limited understanding of co-teaching among some teachers. Cooperation was needed as some subject teachers felt uncomfortable with having a resource teacher in the classroom, whom they felt did not have sufficient subject knowledge. The difficulties in co-teaching were expressed in terms of its restricted use, limited knowledge of the various co-teaching modes, limited choice of partners with relevant subject expertise, different working styles, dissimilar personalities, insufficient physical space, and a lack of planning time. Teachers, however, reported that once they began co-teaching, they enjoyed the working relationship. There was variation in the degree of acceptance and understanding of co-teaching by teachers in schools. More time and communication to build a common understanding was needed as co-teaching links with many aspects of inclusion. This is important as co-teaching includes optional involvement, shared goals, parity, shared responsibility for decision making, shared accountability for outcomes and shared resources. These lead to the emergence of critical elements such as trust, respect, and a sense of community (Friend & Cook, 1996), which are also critical elements of inclusion. The extent of co-teaching in the schools was relatively limited as only 12% of the teachers (sixteen out of 133) took part. Most schools started co-teaching on a small scale and the implementation was usually restricted to resource teachers and some regular class teachers, particularly those teaching the basic subjects in classes containing students with disabilities. More cases of co-teaching were

404 Chris R. DOWSON reported in the three primary schools. For example, in one school, this approach was conducted for fourteen periods for each of the two inclusion classes in the three basic subjects, English, Chinese, and mathematics. An examination of the timetables and class placement of students with disabilities showed wide dispersal, in that not all students were in the same forms or classes, hence they were unlikely to get classroom support from the resource teacher in all lessons. At the management level, schools need to adopt effective strategies for timetabling arrangements for co-teaching. For example, the required strategies included providing learning support in the basic subjects and sending assistance for behavior management and support in some subjects such as physical education and art. Co-teaching was not popular in the secondary school. The resource teacher explained that teaching in secondary schools is subject-based and so she was unable to offer teaching beyond her individual expertise. In addition, she had a regular teaching load in mathematics. However, she attended some science, art and physical education lessons with included students and was able to meet their individual needs, rather than co-teach with the subject teachers. During non-teaching periods, the resource teacher’s major duties were individual counseling, behavior intervention or other liaison work. In summary, the five major difficulties in implementing co-teaching in the secondary school were: (1) lack of teacher knowledge about co-teaching; (2) the needs or effectiveness of co-teaching not being recognized; (3) the greater time taken for planning and evaluation in co-teaching; (4) a feeling of uneasiness in co-teaching with another non-subject teacher in the room; and (5) the belief that in-class support should mainly be behavior management. In the secondary school setting, there were five specific areas of support, including: (1) individual counseling and behavior intervention by the resource teacher; (2) peer support in learning by classmates; (3) intensive remedial help after school and at lunchtime by the resource teacher; (4) communication with colleagues on instructional strategies; and (5) communication between resource teachers and parents on homework and classroom performance. Co-teaching, then, was not the only strategy for providing learning support. It was suggested, however, that schools without co-teaching should begin small-scale trials as well as seek alternative strategies in terms of care, support, remedial help, instructional strategies and parental involvement.

Family involvement Parents, particularly mothers, are the key family members with the most involvement with students and schools, though at times other family members, such as grandparents, may drop off and pick up students at school. During interviews

Developing Inclusive Schools in Hong Kong 405

with parents at schools, it was encouraging to see some fathers also participating in meetings. Families, particularly the parents of students without disabilities, had common worries and concerns at the initial period of the implementation of inclusion. Their concerns included: (1) turning the school into a special school; (2) fear of challenging behaviors; 3) the ability of teachers to teach students with disabilities; and (4) the lowering of the academic standard of the whole school. It was found that sharing the concerns and fears of both parents and teachers in the initial stage was necessary for preparing the ground for the implementation of inclusion and it was crucial for the ongoing success of the process. Inclusion was appreciated by the parents of students with disabilities, and they were very happy with the progress of their children. They were particularly thankful to teachers and resource teachers who had demonstrated commitment to their children. All parents and teachers thought that effective communication between the schools and the parents was essential for student learning and the successful implementation of the whole-school inclusion policy. Parents were perceived as a useful resource in the schools. The degree and type of parent involvement through communication varied from formal one-to-one interviews, regular group meetings and Parent-Teacher Association meetings, to less formal means such as telephone contact, student handbooks, short notes, and informal contact during student sendoff and pick-up times. It was felt that a joint effort by the resource teacher, teachers and parents in discussing the academic, behavioral and social development of students was indispensable for student progress. A significant finding was that some principals of schools felt that the increased parental involvement in schools, arising from the implementation of inclusion, had led to a change in the school culture. The degree of parent participation in school activities varied from school to school. One school reported a high degree of involvement in all kinds of school activities, with parents acting as volunteers in various roles. Another school allowed parents to enter the classroom in the initial period of implementation, and this was found to be a very effective way of supporting teachers. However, there was a concern that inclusion into the class might not be facilitated if students became solely dependent on parental assistance. It may be better if parents who volunteer to help, after an initial period with their own child, work with other students or teachers. One school allowed parents into the classroom during lunchtime to sit with their children and help with eating. Each school needed to strike a balance between parents’ support for their children (in the classroom and in school) and student independence. Parents of students without disabilities in the four schools accepted the policy of inclusion after it had been running for some time. Most parents thought their children had learned to be more tolerant and helpful to other children: one parent said:

406 Chris R. DOWSON I think it is very important to teach our children to be considerate. It is a good chance for them to learn how to take care of others. If all people can take care of others, the world will become better. Thus, I think the first thing to do is to teach our children to be considerate and to know how lucky they are.

However, some parents would like to see enough resources provided in inclusive classes so that the academic attainment of their children would not be affected. In one school there was dissension between parents at the end of the first year about the amount of attention students with disabilities were getting. This pointed to the need for sharing concerns and arriving at a consensus among all parents. It also indicated that care ought to be taken by teachers to develop a sense of equity by providing support and some individual attention to all students. Some parents needed further guidance in skills and techniques for handling their children at home. Two schools reported that parents tended to be at two extremes, either with an over-expectation of excellence in academic performance, or a fear of pushing their children too hard. Parents need training in how to support their children in parallel with the school program, and to build up realistic expectations of their children’s progress.

Social interaction In most schools, all students required a few months for socialization and interaction both inside and outside classrooms. In the initial stages, there were reports of minimal conversation between students and even some disruption caused by particular behavior patterns of students with disabilities. However, other students soon learned how to accept and become friends with students with disabilities and also developed the skills needed to communicate with them. Changes in peer attitude, in terms of understanding, acceptance and support, were observed and reported. Some schools had organized programs to promote student interaction. The notable ones were the Good Heart Ambassador Scheme, the Love and Care Scheme and the Buddy System. For the Good Heart Ambassador Scheme and Love and Care Scheme, the school’s resource teacher and student guidance officer were responsible for providing training to a selected group of senior students to prepare them to help those in need. In one school, there was an activity time assigned every Thursday for the ambassadors to play together with students with disabilities. Also, ambassadors would make use of the time before and after school every day to develop friendships with them. These efforts were much appreciated by the students with disabilities. Another school organized the Buddy System, in which the “buddy” would sit next to the students with disabilities to provide support when necessary. These

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schemes were found to be effective in helping students understand more about those with disabilities and inclusion, and in promoting interaction. Some teachers remarked that such schemes were the most effective way to facilitate inclusion. Teachers in general were of the view that they needed to be vigilant to ensure relationships between students continued to grow beyond tolerance, acceptance and patronizing toward an atmosphere of equity and collegiality. Teacher modeling of appropriate behavior and proactive organization of classroom activities were ways that help to achieve this. In general, good interaction among students was observed and reported by many teachers. However, some observation reports described minimal interaction, possibly due to the age and communication modes of students and the style of teaching. Interaction was something that had to be constantly supported. Based on practical experience, many teachers suggested that peer support was very important in helping disabled students in inclusive classrooms; and these peers indicated that they enjoyed going to school and studying and playing with students without disabilities. Parents also reported that their children would share their food, and make telephone calls. Many teachers noted that interaction patterns varied with students with different disabilities both inside and outside class time. Some students with disabilities had a high level of participation in class activities and interacted with others actively, but some were not very popular among their peers because of behavior problems, not because of their disabilities. There was a tendency for teachers to group students of lower abilities with more able students for activities. Some schools reported cases of teasing of students with disabilities. Teachers were able to respond quickly and resolve these situations appropriately through discussion with students and activities to promote understanding. Identification and guidance may be necessary for students with negative attitudes toward disability. Many teachers reported a warm and caring atmosphere emanating from the classroom showing acceptance and support for students with disabilities, and this was a valuable outcome of inclusion.

Whole-school Approach In Hong Kong, integrated education is achieved through the whole-school approach (WSA). Under the leadership of the school head, the school establishes a school integration policy, creates an inclusive environment and mobilizes school personnel to support students with special educational needs (Education Department, 2001). However, a WSA to integration involves more than this: it must include all personnel who come into contact with students, staff, or parents in the course of their work, including librarians, clerks, teacher assistants, social workers and student guidance officers. Features of a WSA have been identified in various projects for school

408 Chris R. DOWSON effectiveness as well as for initiating practices of inclusive education (Ainscow et al., 1994). These include issues of leadership, involvement, collaborative planning, coordination, equity, reflection and staff development. In addition, a WSA school has been characterized as having a collective response to educational change in which “responsibility is shared; advice is available; resources are commonly held; lines of responsibility are clearly outlined, and systematic procedures are in place for monitoring and recording pupils’ progress” (Gross, 1995). However, the WSA to promoting integration is not simply a matter of the school having a collaborative culture. Rather, as depicted by Dyson and Millward (1997), it requires specific structures and a system established to facilitate cooperation among all teachers in areas of in-class support teaching, professional consultancy, shared expertise and participatory decision-making processes. The level of WSA identified in integrated schools is an important indicator of progress in integration, and the ways in which WSA can be developed also leads to better facilitation of integration. In the study described in this chapter, the principal was the key person in the promotion and implementation of the WSA. The school principals in the schools studied all had different styles of leadership with different levels of control, ranging from direct management, to a more flat participatory management style. However each had some similar effective leadership characteristics. These included a belief in the benefits of inclusion, effective communication skills with staff and parents, and a willingness to deal with barriers and problems that arose during the adoption of inclusive education — features which were most evident in schools which achieved the highest levels of inclusion. Other elements that are important for the implementation of the WSA leading to inclusion are discussed below.

The development of a school policy on inclusion All inclusive schools were encouraged to develop policies on inclusive education, although no documents were found that were exclusively about a school’s inclusive educational policy. However, some schools did have unwritten policies on inclusion, such as a maximizing inclusion policy toward all students. In fact, what actually happens in a school is more important than a formal document. As Lorenz (2002) noted, policy will only influence practice if all those involved have ownership of the process. In one school, teachers reported that they were involved in decision making within their areas of responsibility and the principal was very open and willing to incorporate their suggestions about inclusion and other matters. As a result, the atmosphere of inclusion was very strong in that school and most of the teachers accepted not being informed of the wider decisions made on inclusion and not taking part in every decision about it. Schools adopted different approaches and processes to deal with the behavior and education of students.

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Involving teachers in the whole-school approach Each school principal encouraged teacher collaboration in various ways. In one case, the approach enabled all teachers to have an equal opportunity to participate in inclusive classes. This school adopted a policy whereby the teachers of classes with students with disabilities changed each year so that every teacher would have a chance to teach an inclusive class. In another school, senior staff were assigned leadership roles for a small team. The school did not just assign the resource teacher to be responsible for inclusive education, but gave responsibilities to a team consisting of the principal, one senior teacher with Assistant Mistress/Master rank, one teacher, the resource teacher and two teaching assistants. In addition, all teachers shared the responsibility of supporting students. For example, a student needing more self-control would be sent out of the classroom so that class teaching could be continued. A classmate of this student would accompany him or her to the staffroom, and teachers on their rest period would then take the student to a specific area to calm down. As well as teacher involvement, an all stakeholders support inclusion approach was implemented in another school. The school’s management committee, the head teacher, the teaching staff, the student guidance officer, students and parents were all involved as a team to render support and involve all students through participation. Although teachers in regular classrooms often believed that the responsibility to teach students with disabilities should be shouldered by the specialist teacher, many of them were involved in helping and inclusion became part of the school routine. In one school, a laissez-faire approach was adopted: as some teachers were not yet ready and willing to take up the inclusive program, the school appointed those willing to take up the post of resource teacher or form teachers of classes containing students with disabilities.

Involving fellow students Among the various measures taken to implement the WSA in schools, the development of systematic peer support programs appeared to reach a high level across each school. As mentioned earlier, schools organized different kinds of programs, such as the Good Heart Ambassador Scheme, the Love and Care Scheme and the Buddy System to promote interaction. As these programs were positively received by nearly all who were involved, there were calls for more training or briefing, not just for the “buddy” and student ambassadors, but for all students. However, one social worker expressed a contrary view that students with disabilities should not be included in large schools that contain students with complex backgrounds and social difficulties, as problems of bullying and teasing were more

410 Chris R. DOWSON likely to arise, or they might be ignored by students with good academic achievement. As it is essential for students with disabilities to grow, both mentally and physically, supportive classmates should be considered more important than classmates with good academic achievement, or those with complex social problems of their own, and this is a consideration when students with disabilities are placed. Unfortunately, the reality is that often schools which contain students with complex difficulties are the ones that may take students with disabilities.

Involving student guidance officers, social workers and teaching assistants Most of the school guidance officers and social workers in the schools worked on a part-time basis, providing a counseling and guidance service to students who had motivational or behavioral problems and also working with the parents of the students. Where students with disabilities were involved as part of their caseload, they worked closely with the resource teacher so as to maintain consistent teaching and behavioral approaches with such students. School guidance officers and social workers conducted some training for students on how to act as student ambassadors or Big-Brother, Big-Sister, and in two schools they organized some workshops for the parents. Many teaching assistants participated in co-teaching and additional tutoring sessions for students. They had very good communication with the resource teacher and class teachers, knew what was happening in classes, and also often managed the behavior of students in inclusive classrooms. Teaching assistants were able to offer a high level of support because they had the most direct and frequent contact with individual students.

Involving parents Most parents of students with disabilities had very good relationships with schools, especially with the resource teachers. Communication was conducted mainly through telephone contacts, students’ handbooks and short conversations during student send-off and pick-up times. Parents were perceived as a useful resource, giving information on the abilities and characteristics of their children and ways of teaching them. Two schools formed Individual Education Plan Committees (IEPCs) and invited parents to participate in the whole process of discussion. As noted before, one school invited parents of students to sit in the classroom to assist their children at the early stage of inclusion, and another allowed parents to sit by their children during lunchtime. In a third school, parents worked as volunteers in

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various kinds of school activities. All parties reported that parental involvement was helpful to all students. In schools that were achieving higher levels of inclusion, it was notable that all school staff, including office school staff, cafeteria staff and school maintenance staff, were included under the WSA, and were aware of students who needed support, and what the school was trying to achieve with inclusion.

The role of individual education plans A whole-school approach involves the development of individual education plans (IEPs). As mentioned above, two schools had formalized IEP Committees, which developed some written IEP forms. The IEP Committees consisted of a resource teacher, subject teacher, parents, an educational psychologist, and a student guidance officer or social worker. It was important that IEP Committees met regularly, at least once every semester, to discuss progress. Lorenz (2002) has suggested the following topics for discussion, which could be used as the basis for review: • Communication, mobility and coordination; • Literacy and numeracy; • Curriculum access; • Social skills; • Age-appropriate behavior; • Independence; and • Participation in school life. The main elements of each IEP, such as long-term objectives, short-term objectives, strategies, a time-line for review, and the persons responsible for monitoring progress, should be set according to individual and school needs.

Adapting the curriculum, teaching approach and assessment There was little evidence of a general policy of adaptation and delivery of the curriculum to students with disabilities in the schools studied. To facilitate the students’ learning, however, teachers attempted to implement some differentiation and adaptation of teaching methods and materials by, for example, slowing down the pace of teaching, giving more opportunities for these students to participate, and tailoring teaching materials. All schools provided some kind of additional tutoring sessions for these students. Some special arrangements for students, such as decreasing the amount of homework or assigning a school clerk to read questions to the students during examinations, were common in one school.

412 Chris R. DOWSON Many teachers were concerned that the demands of adaptation and delivery of the curriculum increased as students were promoted to higher forms. On the other hand, some parents insisted that their children have the same curriculum, teacher materials and assessment as other children — a principle which follows the Chinese saying, “Treat them the same to be fair.” Parents with this belief seemed to see the aim of inclusion as trying to include students into society, and they therefore wanted their children to be like all other students, including their levels of academic achievement. Teachers, however, had a different philosophy, believing that students’ needs and abilities should be addressed. Curriculum adaptation requires full parental participation and understanding of its nature, and what it is trying to achieve. In settings like this, teachers continued to work with parents and to demonstrate how adaptations helped their children and were based on the regular curriculum. Overall, the teachers met with considerable success in convincing the parents, though in some cases parents still wanted their children to receive exactly the same curriculum. The most success in persuading parents of the need for adaptation was achieved where parents were welcomed into classrooms to see what was happening.

The Professional Development Needs of Teachers All four schools identified the importance of getting the appropriate in-service training for their teaching staff, including teaching assistants and the principal. Enskilling all teachers in ways of supporting their students was aimed at developing a shared understanding about managing the needs of all students and countering the effect of putting students with a small group of specialist teachers. More important, this would avoid the feeling of some teachers of being “kept in the dark” about the identity of students with disabilities. It was considered crucial that the Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau collaborate with tertiary institutes to provide school-based support services to benefit the whole school and, in particular, increase the effectiveness of teaching and learning for all students. This section addresses the needs that teachers expressed to support the inclusion of students with disabilities.

The development of specific teaching skills Most teachers wished to have more professional support to enable them to master pedagogical skills for teaching in mixed-ability classrooms. For example, coteaching was practiced in three of the four schools studied; yet where schools tried it in an intuitive way, it did not necessarily yield the best results. Some schools

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reported this type of “try-out experience” less positively than others. For example, some teachers were unsure about using co-operative learning given the limitations of teaching time and the wide range of individual differences within classes. There was, therefore, a need to provide all teachers with more substantial and systematic purpose-designed workshops and seminars on a wide range of teaching strategies.

The development of skills in curriculum differentiation Curriculum differentiation and adaptation, so as to deliver the curriculum to all, was seen as essential to make classroom teaching more meaningful and inclusion effective. However, it was also one of the biggest challenges for all schools. Nearly all teachers shared a concern for maintaining existing academic standards for all students. However, given the tight timetable and curriculum syllabus, very few attempted to tailor the curriculum to the diverse needs of the students and, of those who did, their strategy was to reduce the quantity of curriculum materials. However, other teachers felt the result would be a lowering of teachers’ expectations of students and, consequently, a reduction in learning and teaching effectiveness. Teachers indicated that schools would like the Education and Manpower Bureau and tertiary institutes, such as the Hong Kong Institute of Education, to offer inservice and pre-service teacher education on curriculum differentiation and the delivery of the curriculum to all students. Teacher education on general principles of curriculum differentiation and delivery should aim to help teachers identify the essential features of curriculum items in order to facilitate the learning of these features into manageable steps. In addition, a balance of content knowledge, cognition and life skills appropriate to the needs of each individual should be taught. Another important principle is to provide a self-challenging, rather than a competitive, curriculum. Once learned, these principles can then be applied to the key learning areas.

Addressing assessment issues When catering for individual needs and bridging the gap between students, choosing the appropriate assessment tools and approaches were considered key factors. According to past practice, teachers either prepared the same assessment papers and syllabi for students or tailored much simpler ones for them. Sometimes, extra time was given to students during examinations. Again, all these measures were based on personal judgment rather than being informed by any theories and/or good practice. This not only caused variation in the quality of learning, but also raised the issue of teacher professionalism being at risk. In other words, more professional guidelines

414 Chris R. DOWSON for tailoring assessment are needed, to rule out the problem of subjective judgment. Hong Kong schooling is known to be oriented toward examinations. While this is common in the CHC, it is also one of the biggest hurdles to inclusion. Setting the right goals for the right students at the right pace is always the key to quality education, so training in the skills of assessment differentiation was seen as very important.

Classroom management skills Although all of the schools had gained good “hands-on” experience in managing the students’ needs and some expressed confidence in handling students, many teachers were uncertain about their classroom management skills. For example, one school wanted to have more knowledge of specific techniques for managing students with autism, and another reported the need for more teacher education on general behavioral management. All schools felt they were too reliant on themselves in handling problems, and needed more teacher education through the study of actual cases which highlighted effective and feasible behavioral management techniques. Such a case study approach is fundamental, reflecting the daily experiences of teachers in their teaching and management. A theoretical or philosophical approach to this aspect of teaching was felt to be less effective, and would reduce the likelihood of success. The further encouragement of regular inter-school exchanges and sharing sessions among inclusive schools was suggested as another way to master classroom-based knowledge and skills. All schools pointed out the need to improve teachers’ skills in the routine management of students and one school highlighted the need for training in crisis management, as teachers felt they had to be able to respond to unpredictable problems or circumstances. It was seen as imperative that they were equipped with the knowledge and skills to handle the learning challenges posed by students.

Collaboration with parents All schools acknowledged the increasing role of parents in resourcing school-based inclusion. In the beginning stages of the project, some Parent-Teacher Association meetings were well organized. Initially, however, many teachers shared concerns about how to cooperate with parents, as they had received very little education in this area. Owing to the diverse backgrounds and needs of parents and students, it was a real challenge for teachers to work with parents by involving them in school activities. More seminars and case studies on collaborating with parents were felt to be important.

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Training for resource teachers As well as education for classroom teachers, schools also expressed a need for purpose-designed courses for both serving and prospective resource teachers. More than 85% of all teachers did not have a special education background, and they expected the resource teacher to be competent and experienced in assisting them in handling students. In addition, it was common practice for resource teachers to shape the curriculum, collaborate with the parents of students and manage behavior problems. In fact, resource teachers were not only required to perform these duties, but also needed to work closely with colleagues in some of these tasks carried out by teaching assistants. All of this made the resource teacher’s role very demanding, requiring excellent communication and collaboration skills. All schools felt that there was a strong need for courses that prepare resource teachers and teaching assistants so that they can fulfill their roles more effectively. In summary, to enhance personal competence in managing inclusion, teachers proposed a “hands-on”, practice-oriented authentic case study approach to continuing teacher education. Further suggestions were for seminars, workshops and interschool experience-sharing on issues such as discipline, emotion management, working with parents, (particularly reluctant ones), and other professionals such as educational psychologists and social workers. Block release rather than continuing education was the preferred mode for the resource teachers, teaching assistants and classroom teachers, to allow them an opportunity for substantial professional development in managing the needs of the students.

Good Practices An examination of the approaches taken by the schools toward inclusive education revealed a number of good practices that might enhance or facilitate the inclusion process at the whole school, management and classroom level. In many cases these good practices are specific to the context of a particular school. They are presented as a source of ideas that might prove helpful to other schools beginning, or currently involved in, the inclusion process.

School level A preparation period prior to beginning inclusion represents a proactive way of dealing with potential problems. The principal in one school began discussing inclusion more than a year before its implementation. Frequent meetings and forums on inclusion before implementation meant that all stakeholders came to an

416 Chris R. DOWSON agreement on the concept of inclusion prior to its being put into practice. Time was given to addressing problems and finding solutions so that all school personnel could achieve a common understanding. One school held four meetings for all teachers and two for parents, while another held more than ten meetings for teachers and eight meetings for parents before beginning the inclusion process. Schools saw regular meetings for sharing and consultation as vital, and they believed more structured meetings and consultations on a regular basis prevented the development of any problems. Effective communication meant that solutions could be found in a shorter time. Two schools did not get initial agreement from all teachers on joining the inclusion scheme and, in these schools, teachers who had taught inclusive classes led the way. With increasing knowledge about, and understanding of, students with disabilities and greater exposure through teaching or helping such students, plus informal discussion among staff, there was a gradual change in attitudes toward inclusion. One school made inclusion one of its key areas for teaching and learning development; and others organized a series of seminars on inclusion for teachers. All teachers were encouraged to participate and this was good for building understanding and acceptance of students. Another way to support inclusion was to adopt a team approach, with a typical team consisting of staff from the top management, middle management and classroom levels. By doing this, inclusion was not just an issue of how to teach students, but something that linked many areas such as school policy, staff allocation, resource allocation, the design of school activities, staff education, students and parent involvement. Work in all these areas could not be completed by just one or two people; a team was needed and it was typically made up of the principal, one senior teacher, one teacher, one resource teacher and teaching assistants. It would also involve all teachers and others in sharing the responsibility for supporting students. Where possible, a team approach should involve students, and as has been seen, this happened in some schools through the use of Buddy Systems, Love and Care Schemes or a Student Ambassador Scheme.

The development of school policies In schools, a commitment by the principal, other school leaders and staff to inclusive education through the development of a collaborative school mission statement, objectives and school values was essential. A typical mission statement might be: Under the principle of equal opportunities, students with and without disabilities can study together at regular schools and participate in all sorts of school activities.

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Objectives might include: Promote the development of academic achievement, social skills and communication skills of students with and without disabilities; appoint students as Inclusion Ambassadors for the purpose of increasing contact among students; ensure all people are treated equally as part of a fair community; and ensure students learn how to respect and help each other.

One school had a policy statement about avoiding segregation and supporting inclusion through treating students with and without disabilities equally, yet with an understanding of any unique conditions or needs they may have. Another school policy considered rotating class teachers of inclusive classes annually so that every teacher had a chance to teach these classes. This policy increased the number of teachers who had direct contact with students with disabilities and promoted teachers’ acceptance of such students. The placement policy of putting a few students with disabilities in the same class might first be adopted for administrative convenience and better resource utilization, and it was reported that it helped students with disabilities to adjust at an early stage. However, there was a concern based on the results of other studies of inclusive settings that inclusion is better achieved when there are only one or two students in each regular class, as this helps to deter students with disabilities from seeking only each other’s company. A school policy on timetable arrangements facilitated the opportunities for a resource teacher and inclusion team members to offer immediate in-class support or time-out withdrawal of students during the day, whenever necessary. For one school it was useful to have a clear definition of the job allocation between the resource teacher and subject teacher, and to detail the student placement process so as to give clear guidance to all stakeholders. Arrangements related to inclusion were stated in a handbook for all teachers, parents and other interested parties; and a number of teachers commented that the handbook was a useful tool for telling how inclusion had been initiated, and continued to take place at their school. Formal or informal meetings about issues, concerns and ways to address challenges were valued by most school staff. An annual evaluation of inclusion was considered essential. Two schools reviewed their progress against their inclusion objectives at the end of the school year and then set follow-up objectives for next year. Through such a process, all staff understood what had happened and what the targets for inclusion were to be for the following year. Discussing students and inclusion informally and openly in the staff room was a powerful mechanism for sharing good ideas and increasing the confidence of staff who had less experience. The creation of good channels of communication and a support network for staff was seen as an important aspect of inclusion for teachers which, when maintained, can help avoid feelings of isolation and allow staff to vent their feelings about difficulties with inclusion.

418 Chris R. DOWSON Inclusion could be initiated in a “top-down” manner. For example, a former principal of one school decided to make the school inclusive without discussion with teachers. Two other schools adopted a more “bottom-up” approach. They developed an earlier and higher level of commitment to and consensus on inclusion through involvement in the decision making, collaboration and communication. Some indicators of forming a culture of acceptance and support among students and staff were reported, including an open attitude, a willingness to make changes and a mutual sharing of experiences, teaching methods and other learning resources among school staff. One school policy that acted as a powerful encouragement to inclusion was support for students with disabilities to take part in extra-curricular activities, such as religious activities, singing competitions and sport. One principal mentioned that the school always took the needs of students into consideration and made some adjustments to the programs to ensure they could participate in various school activities. Informal inclusion of this type was seen as very important, as it was invariably conducted in a stress-free and enjoyable atmosphere. A number of good practices which contribute to the success of classroom level inclusion are outlined in the following section.

Classroom level Co-teaching As mentioned earlier, co-teaching was found to be effective in promoting the full participation of all students as teachers felt they could secure more support in adopting a range of instructional strategies. One teaching and one assisting was the most common approach adopted. For co-teaching to succeed, good communication and mutual understanding between the partners were crucial. Strong leadership and support for the approach from management, structured time for planning for co-teaching, and team building were also key factors. Special attention to timetable arrangements to ensure that the resources of teachers could be fully utilized was important for effective and efficient teaching. Teaching methods Schools found a range of teaching methods to be useful in inclusive classrooms, for example using multi-sensory approaches stressing vision, hearing, and physical touch or activity, and offering more opportunities for participation. Teachers of inclusive classes were encouraged to teach in an interactive way with more consideration given to the pace of the lessons and more tolerance, which benefited

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students with and without disabilities. Special seating arrangements in which students were seated with a buddy and/or near the teacher were helpful for increasing the inclusion and learning of students with disabilities. The use of positive reinforcement promoted learning and socialization and encouraged desirable behaviors. Peer support The four schools were successful in finding ways to solicit peer support for inclusion. More structured efforts included the design of a Buddy System, a Love and Care Scheme or a Student Ambassador Scheme. These schemes helped students to show care and support for others. Changes in peer attitude and peer support as a result of these schemes were identified by teachers and parents. Learning support and individual education plans All schools arranged special sessions of remedial teaching for students before or after school. Such individual training was very useful in promoting the academic progress of students. Students in the case schools all studied the same curriculum. Instead of formal curriculum tailoring for students, two schools organised an IEP Committee to set IEPs for each student. Elements such as self-help and social skills, which are missing from regular curricula, could be included in IEPs, so that the different learning needs of students were addressed.

Roles of Stakeholders Roles of different sections of the school community The four schools clearly demonstrated the roles played by difference sections of the school community in promoting inclusive education. In selecting a resource teacher, all schools found an experienced teacher with a background in special education to be the most suitable. In the three primary schools, the main teaching tasks of the resource teacher were co-teaching and additional tutoring sessions for students. In addition, their jobs included coordinating, and liaising with and advising fellow teachers, parents and external agencies. There were many occasions when they had to offer immediate counseling and behavior intervention for students. All of the resource teachers found parents to be helpful. They welcomed the chance to meet with parents, to obtain more information about students and discuss ways of helping them. Resource teachers considered the support of school leaders as well as a certain amount of autonomy as essential for fulfilling their roles.

420 Chris R. DOWSON Roles of principals For all schools, the leadership of principals was a crucial component in the implementation and facilitation of inclusion, including ways of inspiring and encouraging staff, believing in inclusion, having effective two-way communication and consultation with staff and parents, dealing with barriers and problems, supporting staff, leading by example and, as far as possible, engaging in joint decision making. Most of these elements are part of the WSA. Roles of teachers In a model that uses the WSA as a way of enhancing inclusion, it is important for all teachers to share the responsibilities of meeting the needs of students with disabilities. In the four schools, teachers gradually developed a common understanding about inclusion through internal and external training programs, staff meetings, discussion with resource teachers, other teachers, educational psychologists, and parents. Teachers became more confident, tolerant and patient towards students, and more capable in mixed-ability teaching. More useful teaching methods were explored to enhance learning for all students, including, for example: a more measured pace of teaching; the redesigning of teaching materials; increased use of visual support through using overhead projectors and liquid crystal displays; the preparation of alternative sets of worksheets for students with different needs; and the use of more positive reinforcement. Some teachers were very dedicated to helping students and explored different ways to find solutions to problems by themselves. Roles of teaching assistants Teaching assistants were frequently the most directly involved with individual students. Where their communication with the resource teacher and class teacher was thorough and they were particularly aware of what teachers were doing in class, their contribution to inclusion was highly effective. They were often in a position of maintaining discipline in inclusive classrooms and also took part in co-teaching and additional tutoring sessions. Roles of guidance teachers and social workers School guidance teachers and social workers usually worked on a part-time basis, although some social workers were full-time. Their main role consisted of providing guidance and counseling to students on a case-by-case basis in areas such as motivation and behavior. When students were in their caseloads, there was a need

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to liaise closely with resource teachers and visiting professionals to ensure consistency in interventions. Role of the education department The Education and Manpower Bureau of the Hong Kong SAR offered two-day school-based courses for teachers working in inclusive settings. Some teachers commented that these were useful, but should be more practically orientated. The Bureau also published some resource materials such as videos and practical guides for teaching students and they operate a website called the Special Education Resource Centre (http://emb.gov.hk/serc). More recently, professional development courses at an initial and advanced level have been developed with the Hong Kong Institute of Education to help teachers and resource teachers support included students (http://www.ied.edu.hk/acadprog/prof/prog/pds.htm#001/2). Role of the wider community One school collaborated in a project entitled ‘I can do it as well’ with the University of Hong Kong’s Department of Social Work and Social Administration. One instructor and ten social work students came to the school every Friday for group sessions with students with disabilities and poor self-care and social skills. The goals of the project were to improve their abilities and skills in these areas so as to facilitate their inclusion into the school environment. Parents were also encouraged to attend. Good networking and close contact with different bodies, schools, institutes and universities involved in inclusion were found to be useful. By garnering support from outside agencies, schools were able to call on expert counsel when needed, and this added to the motivation of staff by showing that there was an interest from external organizations regarding inclusion. Roles of parents As has been discussed previously, all schools recognized the importance of involvement of parents in inclusion. Their involvement through Parent-Teacher Associations, Individual Education Plan Committees and social events were other ways used to encourage home-school contact. Of course, parents were always involved in the writing of individual IEPs, and this allowed them to get a better perspective on the aims of the school. The partnership between school staff and family was crucial for the effectiveness and maintenance of any learning that had taken place both inside and outside the classroom.

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Summary The study described in this chapter reported on several aspects that are key in any situation where schools are moving towards integration, or inclusion. In particular, it examined co-teaching, interaction between all students, the involvement of families, the development of a whole-school-approach and ways to meet the educational needs of teachers in regular classrooms who are working with included disabled students. The study also raised a call for continued commitment from schools and the Education and Manpower Bureau to supporting and implementing inclusion policy, as there was still a lack of understanding and concern about resources in the community and in schools for inclusive education. It was considered important, too, that parents of children with disabilities in Hong Kong should have a choice about where they send their children. Whether that choice is a special education service/facility, or a local school, quality education should remain the prime consideration.

Current and Future Trends The current situation has been described in the above study and the following recommendations represent the trends that should take place in Hong Kong schools in the future. Recommendation That in line with the Education Commission’s Blueprint for the 21st Century, the Hong Kong Government through agents such as the Education and Manpower Bureau should vigorously continue its progressive and enlightened support for the policy of Inclusive education in Hong Kong schools. The research team recorded many examples of exemplary practices in each of the four schools for overcoming the challenges of providing inclusive education. The implementation of inclusive education in the schools was progressing well for the benefit of all. It was apparent that when schools are successful in implementing inclusive education, students with and without disabilities receive a quality education. Based on the experiences of the four schools, a number of recommendations were made and prioritized to enable a logical and rational progression towards inclusion. It is important to note, however, that the recommendations are interdependent and need to be implemented simultaneously. In doing so, the unique nature of each individual school also needs to be considered.

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The role of the government education departments Teachers expressed concern about low levels of support in schools from professionals such as educational psychologists and special education services, and insufficient in-service teacher education on inclusion. Schools were also concerned about the situation with student matching, follow-up, and allocation of student numbers — for example, having fewer than five students with disabilities made a school ineligible for funding support. Also, there was no extra staffing when there were more than eight students with disabilities in a school. Recommendations That the Education and Manpower Bureau make more Educational Psychologists available to teachers in Inclusive education schools, initiate more collaboration between special schools and inclusive schools, and provide more in-service courses on inclusion. That the Education and Manpower Bureau arrange more follow- up on students, re-assess the matching process, and re-examine the student allocation/ funding system.

Whole-school approach The whole-school approach (WSA) continues to represent the best way to implement and support the inclusion process. As such, inclusive schools and their management systems could look at their level of WSA and consider raising it through a set of indicators. The Hong Kong Institute of Education has recently launched school-based programs on the whole- school approach. Recommendation That the following aspects of WSA were examined and aspiration to WSA was clearly written into schools’ policies with a view to raising the level of WSA in the school: Effective leadership, not only by the principal but spread throughout the school; involvement of staff, students, parents and community in school policies and decisions; a commitment to collaborative planning; effective coordination strategies; attention to the potential benefits of equity; and a policy for staff development. School leaders must take every opportunity to promote inclusion and equip staff with favorable attitudes towards students, parent involvement, and inclusion. Recommendation That institutions that run professional development programs for principals

424 Chris R. DOWSON and principal designates incorporate discussions on management in inclusive schools. Schools’ missions, objectives, and priorities needed to be developed and/or explicated constantly so that all school members were aware and part of the commitment of the school toward inclusion in aspects such as equal opportunity and a caring and accepting environment. Recommendation That the whole staff of schools develop a mission statement, set of objectives and priorities for inclusion. Early preparation proved to be a successful strategy. Frequent meetings and forums on inclusion prior to implementation meant that all stakeholders came to an agreement on the concept of inclusion by the date of implementation. Recommendation That preparation for implementation of inclusion should begin well before instigation, with frequent meetings and forums with stakeholders and that schools should prepare a handbook with information about inclusion for teachers and parents, and ensure that any orientation program for new teachers addressed inclusion fully. Good channels of communication through open discussion and regular meetings targeting inclusion go hand-in-hand with a good whole-school approach. Recommendation That schools should conduct regular sharing meeting[s] to share strategies for working with students. Furthermore schools should have a management team to facilitate the implementation of inclusion and address issues such as preparation time for teachers to conduct joint planning, and timetable scrutiny to ensure that personnel such as resource teachers are able to support teachers with students in their class. Schools should develop individual education plans (IEPs), for all students who needed them, as part of a whole-school approach. Recommendation That schools set up a group to establish an IEP procedure and format, and this group prepares and supports IEP writing teams. Schools should also have a transition plan to support students with disabilities when changes are made from class to class, or from school to school and should produce a format for a transition plan for use when students change classes or schools.

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Exposure to students with disabilities helps teachers get to know them and learn support techniques, and this can be achieved by giving teachers opportunities to have such students in their classes. Recommendation That schools consider rotating classroom teachers around classes from year to year so that each teacher gains experience in having students with disabilities in the regular class.

Teacher education Inclusion has become a trend for all schools in Hong Kong, so all teachers should be ready for teaching all students in inclusive settings. In addition the trend toward inclusion called for further research and more development of inclusive education in Hong Kong. Recommendation That providers of programs for in-service and pre-service teacher education re-examine their existing expertise and ensure that all teacher programs prepare current and future teachers for working in an inclusive setting and that further research on the development of inclusion policy and the improvement of practices in inclusive classrooms was conducted, for example case studies of students passing through inclusive settings from kindergarten to tertiary level education. There was a clear need for teacher education on practical issues in the inclusive classroom. Schools could develop school-based workshops and programs in collaboration with teacher education institutes that were designed to meet teachers’ practical everyday needs in individual school settings. Recommendation That schools develop school-based workshops, small courses and longer programs with teacher education institutions that are designed to meet the practical needs of teachers working with all students. The content of the courses should be based on the actual needs of the teachers. Some examples of specific content items which emerged in this study were: working with parents; co-teaching; cooperative learning; curriculum adaptation; managing challenging behaviors; crisis management; understanding disabilities; interactive and supportive teaching; and teaching beyond the textbook.

426 Chris R. DOWSON Recommendation That resource teachers and members of the inclusion team take priority in attending courses that enhance their skills to manage students and work with teachers in enhancing the learning of students.

Social interaction Schools needed to be encouraged to implement, maintain or expand proactive socialization plans such as the Student Ambassador, Big Brother, Big Sister, Love and Care scheme and Buddy System, as these were successful in encouraging interaction. Teachers needed to prepare all students for inclusion by educating them on equity and care for others. Students with negative attitudes, for example those engaging in activities such as teasing, needed extra support through guidance and counseling. Recommendation That schools instigate and maintain well-prepared social interaction schemes to help the inclusion of students into regular schools. Encouragement of students to take part in informal socialization through extra-curricular activities should be noted as a significant action. That schools ensure provision is made for the active involvement of students in extra-curricular activities and other informal activities.

Family involvement Family/parent involvement in the inclusion process and sharing with teachers and school staff strengthened the education process for students through a consistency of approach to students, and a sense of security and support for the parents. Consultation through addressing genuine concerns with families was also important for fostering acceptance of inclusion. Recommendation That schools maintain focus on family involvement through early consultation and maximize every opportunity to engage them in the inclusion process and in particular class and school activities. Parents and family members had much to offer to schools in supporting the teaching of all students. Every effort needed to be made, and every opportunity taken, to involve them in supportive roles and collaboration in the classroom. This should be part of an integrating school’s mission, and school management groups

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needed to prepare teachers through in-service programs that discuss how to use parents as a resource in the classroom. Recommendation That school mission statements, objectives and values are written to emphasize family involvement, and in-service training addresses ways of involving families with the school. In addition schools need to support parents and family members by guiding and counseling them on appropriate practices with students in the home. This can be achieved through short, practical programs involving school personnel, psychologists and school guidance/social workers. Recommendation That in conjunction with other agencies, schools conduct short courses on practices that help parents support their children in the home, and support learning in the school.

Co-teaching Co-teaching offered excellent classroom support to students, particularly in primary schools. All students enjoyed more individualized teaching and support. It also increased the confidence of students in social interaction and independent learning. The preparation of teachers for co-teaching was a particular concern, especially at secondary level. Good interpersonal skills are the foundational element for coteaching and partners should exhibit a wide range of skills in co-teaching. Recommendation That all teachers should be equipped through teacher education with the necessary knowledge and skills for co-teaching in schools. Additionally it was felt that schools needed to carry out co-teaching with careful planning and effective strategies, for example, identifying partners for co-teaching, and timetabling to allow for co-teaching. Schools needed to arrange some assistance for students if co-teaching was not feasible for all lessons. Recommendation That resource teachers should look carefully at their roles in co-teaching and should not just use one mode of co-teaching at all stages of teaching.

Resource teachers Inclusion involved a wide range of school activities, such as management, teaching and school-family relationships. The resource teachers had either assistant master/ mistress rank or were senior teachers.

428 Chris R. DOWSON Recommendation That given the responsibilities and duties of the position, resource teachers should hold a higher rank. Resource teachers need to be involved in regular teaching so as to have credibility and collegiality with regular teachers and all students. Although their focus is on supporting students in the regular classroom, they need to support all students in the regular classroom during co-teaching. Resource teachers should have a key task in preparing and conducting within-school teacher development on inclusion, as subject teachers are often expected to be more competent and experienced in handling students, yet few have any background in special education. Recommendation That specific teacher education programs should be offered to all serving and prospective resource teachers, and resource teachers should share teaching roles, not just assist the subject teachers during co-teaching and that school leaders and management should work with resource teachers to define clearly the roles and activities that resource teachers should engage in. Additionally, the Education and Manpower Bureau need to provide funding for extra personnel, such as resource teachers (and where appropriate), teaching assistants to enhance inclusion and ensure that learning was maximized for all in academic and non-academic subject areas.

Points for discussion and Learning Activities 1.

2.

3.

4.

Have a look at the chart on ways of co-teaching (Table 12.3), in particular team-teaching. Write down the personal attributes and considerations you think would be important if you had to co-teach with another person in a classroom. Parent and family involvement are definitely important if inclusion is to work well. One of the key things for a teacher to be able to do is to actively listen to people such as parents. Write a personal reflection on your ability to actively listen to others. One aspect of the study discussed in this chapter was the needs of teachers. Imagine you are a teacher who has been told that you are going to have a student in your class with “some learning difficulties”. What do you think you would like to know? Social interaction is important for all students. List some ways in which a teacher might be able to encourage social interaction among all students?

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Glossary Co-teaching occurs when two teachers share physical space in order to actively instruct a group of students so that one teacher can support students with learning difficulties during the lesson. Individual education plans (IEPs) are often written by IEP Committees (which might consist of a resource teacher, subject teacher, parents, an educational psychologist, and a student guidance officer or social worker), who meet regularly, at least once every semester, to discuss the progress of individual students. IEPs describe the long-term objectives, short-term objectives, strategies, time-line for review, and the people responsible for monitoring students’ progress. They should be set according to individual and school needs. A whole-school approach occurs when the school, under the leadership of the school head, establishes school policies that are fully understood and implemented in the same way by all school personnel and stakeholders to support students equally. Other components include collaborative planning, coordination, equity, reflection and staff development.

References Ainscow, M., Hopkins, D., Southworth, G., & West, M. (1994). Creating the conditions for school improvement. London: David Fulton. Cook, L., & Friend, M. (1995). ‘Co-teaching guidelines for creating effective practices’. Focus on Exceptional Children, 20(3), 1–2. Dowson, C., Heung, W. K., Ho, F. C., Hui, K. F., Law, S. Y., Luk, F. Y. Y., Sin, K. F., Yip, N. S. Y., & Yeun Y. M. (2003). Case studies of four integrated schools in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: The Support Group on Integrated Education, and the Centre for Special Needs and Studies in Inclusive Education. Dyson, A., & Millward, A. (1997). The reform of special education or the transformation of mainstream schools? In S. J. Pijl, C. J. W. Meijer, & S. Hegarty (Eds.), Inclusive education: A global agenda (pp. 51–67). London & New York: Routledge. Education Department (2001) Integration of students with special needs in ordinary schools Internet. http://www.ed.gov.hk/eng/service.asp?sid=18&cid=117. Friend, M., & Cook, L. (1996). Interactions: Collaboration skills for school professionals (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. Gross, J. (1995). Special educational needs in the primary school: A practical guide. Buckingham: UK: Open University Press. Lorenz, S. (2002). First steps in inclusion: A handbook for parents, teachers, governors, and LEAs. London: David Fulton Publishers.

Further Reading Ainscow, M., Dyson, A., & Booth, T. (2006). Improving schools, developing inclusion. London and New York: Routledge.

430 Chris R. DOWSON Beattie, J., Jordan, L., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Making inclusion work: Effective practices for all. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Hui, L., Dowson C. R., & Moont, M. G. (2003) (Eds). Inclusive education in the new millennium. Hong Kong: Association for Childhood Education International–Hong Kong & Macau and Education Convergence. Villa, R., & Thousand, J. (2005) (Eds.) Creating an inclusive school. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 特殊學習需要與融合况育中心 ( 2 0 0 3 ) 。《邁向優質融合况育：個案研究報告》。香 港：香港况育學院特殊學習需要與融合况育中心。

Useful Websites Centre for Advancement in Special Education, the University of Hong Kong: http://www. hku.hk/case/home.htm Centre for Special Needs and Studies in Inclusive Education, the Hong Kong Institute of Education: http://www.ied.edu.hk/csnsie/ Enabling Education Network, University of Manchester: http://www.eenet.org.uk/ University of Northern Iowa, USA: http://www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/

Acknowledgements The author and editor acknowledge the kindness of the Support Group on Integrated Education in allowing material from the original report to be used for this chapter. Their diligence in obtaining a significant Quality Education Fund (QEF) grant to fund the original study is also acknowledged. The funding supplied by the Quality Education Fund (QEF) of the Hong Kong Government that enabled the original case studies of four integrated in Hong Kong is gratefully acknowledged.

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Chris R. Dowson, Education Consultant, F/2, House 156, Nam Wai, Sai Kung, New Territories, Hong Kong.

13 A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners Betty C. ENG

In this chapter, a Chinese perspective of guidance and counseling for diverse learners is described, including: • Counseling in traditional Chinese society; • Relating Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC) in China, Hong Kong and other Asian Societies; • The counseling profession in Hong Kong; • A whole-person and whole-school approach to counseling; • Narrative Inquiry for Guidance and Counseling; • Counseling style preference among Asians; • The importance of culture in counseling diverse learners; and • Selected strategies for counseling diverse learners.

Introduction This chapter presents a Chinese perspective on guidance and counseling that attends to the emotional, personal and social needs of learners with diverse learning needs through a whole-person and whole-school approach. Framed by the historical and cultural evolution of guidance and counseling in traditional Chinese and Confucianheritage culture (CHC) in the People’s Republic of China and Hong Kong, it discusses Western and Eastern counseling models that are also highly relevant to other Chinese societies such as Singapore and Taiwan. The experiences of cultural crossing of a newly-arrived immigrant from mainland China to Hong Kong are used to highlight the tensions and challenges

432 Betty C. ENG faced in the process of understanding and working with diversity in the classroom. Also, discussion of the growing interest in a non-directive guidance and counseling approach in a traditionally directive society points to the dilemmas and struggles of a society in transition that is emerging from colonization, and is moving toward a democratic system under a “One Country, Two Systems” policy. In exploring the implications for guidance and counseling to meet the diverse needs of learners, the chapter suggests a cross-cultural perspective that cultivates an inclusive classroom in a fluid and expanding global world community. Informed by the experiences of teachers and learners, a cross-cultural understanding is presented through the research methodology of narrative inquiry. A theoretical framework for the implementation of guidance and counseling in the Confucian-heritage culture is also proposed, together with some practical suggestions.

Counseling in Traditional Chinese Society Knowledge and wisdom are gained through the experience of our elders.

This statement is a common expression in traditional Chinese society that reflects a Confucian ideology or a Confucian-heritage culture (CHC). It suggests that the accumulated experience one gains with age makes one knowledgeable and wise, and assigns a valued and revered position of authority to the elderly that transcends socio-economic status. An understanding of traditional Confucian beliefs provides a helpful backdrop to understanding a Chinese perspective on guidance and counseling. Imperial China established Confucianism, or the religion of the learned, as the official ideology of China in the period 551–479 BC and it continues to influence Chinese societies around the world today. It is widely recognized that Confucianism has had an enduring and profound effect on Chinese culture. The elders who were respected and revered were generally those within an extended family or village in traditional Chinese society. “The Old Man” is how Lang (1946) in her classic study of the Chinese family and society characterizes the importance of age. Lang wrote: The very fact of age evoked reverence. Confucius and his disciples made a special point of this reverence. Respect and devotion were due to parents all their lives, but the feelings of children toward aged parents were especially stressed. Indeed, a respectful attitude was demanded toward all old people, even those who did not belong to one’s own family. Teachers, for instance, were venerated not only for their learning but for their age. By preserving and developing the institution of ancestor worship, Confucius still further strengthened the position of the old man. This rule of the old made a young man of Confucian China a rather weak and insignificant figure. (pp. 10–11)

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Though women were viewed in Confucian culture as inferior and subordinated to men by nature, they acquired a measure of authority with age. For instance, Confucian teachings held the belief that while old mothers are valued, they are not as highly valued as old fathers since what a son owes his mother is love and not respect. However, the general prevailing belief in Chinese society is that elders are looked to for such important decisions as the selection of partners for a marriage, how members would be educated and the determination of future roles and careers. As such, elders can be viewed as the original and indigenous counselors in the traditional Chinese society who provided personal and social guidance and counseling. Traditional Chinese society was also highly structured and prescribed. “I just did!” is how one woman in her late eighties describes her life in a traditional Chinese village when interviewed about her life choices (Eng, 2005a). Social conditions did not allow for choices, but simply a “just did” response to instructions or directions given to her by her elders who included her father, mother, older brother, and in-laws. Her role and future were determined for her at birth and at every stage of her life. She became a daughter, a wife, mother, mother-in-law and grandmother, if fate, good health and longevity allowed. Questions of identity, choice of careers and decision-making dilemmas — issues that are common in Western societies and where democratic beliefs prevail — were highly unlikely to occur in traditional Chinese societies. Roles, careers and futures were clearly defined and prescribed with a lack of ambiguity or freedom to choose. However, this does not suggest that there was an absence of individual and personal tensions or dilemmas in this society. Researchers have documented cases of suicide, rape and domestic violence that indicate some of the conflicts, emotional traumas and psychological crises that require counseling. However, often, such conflicts were subsumed, unspoken, enveloped in secrecy, and dominated by a highly structured and defined Chinese society that dictated the actions and futures of its people. For some, death by suicide seemed a better alternative. In discussing the dominance of kinship ties as stated by Mencius, a follower and recognized principal interpreter of Confucianism, Yang (1959, p. 7) wrote: The Five Cardinal Relations, centering upon kinship ties, formed the core of social and moral training for the individual almost from the beginning of his consciousness of social existence until he became so conditioned to it that his standard of satisfaction and deprivation was based upon it, and the complex and extensive web of kinship ties created a feeling of a closed universe from which there seemed to be no escape, except perhaps death. The large number of suicides resulting from the strain of family relations among women … is a reflection of this situation. Here, for the unfortunate few, social pressure from the family institution appeared weightier than life itself, and the pain of death was considered lighter than the torture of living

434 Betty C. ENG in a society which provided little outlet and security for a deviant from the traditional ideal of the family institution.

The social, economic and political conditions must necessarily be considered in any context. Leung (2002), an educator with extensive research on counseling in Hong Kong, has pointed out the restrictive nature of the Hong Kong education system that affects the freedom to choose and the need to compromise. In discussing the career choice process in the United States and Hong Kong, Leung (p. 242) stated: … it has been recognized that the freedom to choose is restricted by many social, economic, and political realities that are often beyond the control of the individual (e.g., Hotchkiss & Borow, 1996). In both the United States and Hong Kong, individuals have to struggle between the desire to choose freely and the need to compromise. Within this convergence also lies a major point of divergence. In the United States, career choices and changes are often viewed as a part of the normal developmental process … In Hong Kong, individuals have also enjoyed freedom to choose occupations. However, there are a host of social and environmental barriers preventing individuals from changing their educational and career choices, including choice of academic track, university major, and career. … Hence, career counselors have to face more restrictions (that are somewhat unchangeable) than their counterparts in the United States, as they try to help clients who are dissatisfied with their educational and career realities.

“One Country, Two Systems” An important feature of Hong Kong is that it operates within the context of “One Country, Two Systems.” Hong Kong was a British colony for over 150 years until 1997 when it was returned to the sovereignty of the People’s Republic of China (China); and it now functions as a Special Administrative Region (SAR) under a “One Country, Two Systems” policy. This means that while Hong Kong is now a part of China, it continues to operate under a political, social and economic system that is distinct and separate from mainland China. Heightened by the events of this historical and dramatic handover, the people of Hong Kong were presented with questions that challenged their identity, culture, and sense of belonging that have implications for guidance and counseling. This challenge was commonly represented in the question: “Are you a Chinese or a Hongkonger?” Simply put, one had to identify with the Chinese of China or the identity associated with a postcolonial and international Hong Kong. Implied in the question was a challenge to choose not only an identity but also an alliance and affiliation.

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The British colonial rule in Hong Kong was compelled to become increasingly democratic in its practices during the years prior to the handover with the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Question of Hong Kong (Hong Kong Government Information Centre, 2006) in 1984. Some have taken the view that such efforts by the British were introduced to set the stage for resistance against the government of China. During this period, political reforms that called for a representative government, voting rights, and guidelines for civic education in schools were introduced. According to Postiglione and Lee (1995), educators were encouraged to promote a “democratization” of their classrooms. This democratization process provided opportunities to recognize the voices of the learners and teachers as stakeholders in discussions about the school curriculum, which often raised issues such as “What is Chinese?”, “What is Chinese culture?”, “Who is it that I wish to become?”, and “Who or what determines who I am to become?” Such questions and concerns are highly relevant issues for guidance and counseling.

Confucian beliefs in other Chinese and Asian societies It seems apparent that there would be dangers and limitations in applying the Confucian beliefs that flourished in Imperial China to the Chinese of today in the settings of Hong Kong and other Chinese Asian societies. Even in China, Confucianism has had a controversial history, being alternately revered, deified, vilified and rehabilitated over the millennia. For example, the teachings of Confucius, particularly as they relate to women, were declared oppressive and antiproletariat during China’s Cultural Revolution. Every context is unique and there must be caution in generalizing from one setting to others. The discussion in this chapter is framed by the historical and social evolution of guidance and counseling in traditional Chinese society and Hong Kong. As such, it provides experiences particular to the context and times in these settings, though it can be critically extended and adapted to Chinese in such countries as Singapore and Taiwan, with due consideration of the contexts in those countries. Some researchers (Freedman, 1970) have observed that the study of Taiwan and Hong Kong have been dismissed as not being about “real” Chinese since Taiwan was under Japanese rule for half a century and Hong Kong was a British colony for over 150 years. Of course, the impact of foreign domination needs to be acknowledged and understood, but it is still possible to discern what is genuinely Chinese by accounting for the impact of foreign presence. Others (Eng, 2005a; He, 2003) have taken the view that there is a “multiplicity” of ways of being genuinely Chinese since cultures and identities are so complex, fluid, and in a constant state

436 Betty C. ENG of flux in order to engage in a global community. Diversity of culture and identity is discussed later in this chapter in the case of an immigrant student from China as an example with implications for guidance and counseling.

Evolution of counseling as a profession in Hong Kong Against a backdrop of Confucianism, the discussion moves forward in time to examine the evolution of guidance and counseling in Hong Kong education as an experience that has implications for other Chinese societies such as mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. In Hong Kong, the concept of pastoral care frames the evolution of guidance and counseling as a profession. Hui (1998), an educational psychologist and educator, wrote: Pastoral care is a uniquely British concept, referring to the structures within schools which cater to the non-academic needs of students. The term is not common in other cultures. Instead, the term “guidance” is used to refer to programs which facilitate students’ educational, vocational and personalsocial development (Young, 1994) … . In Hong Kong, the term “guidance” is used to refer to all guidance, counseling and pastoral services in schools.

Hong Kong guidance services have developed as a response to initiatives taken by the Education Commission and the then Education Department. While the ultimate goal of guidance is educational and developmental, the immediate need for it stemmed from an increase in student behavior problems, disaffection in learning and adjustment difficulties (Hong Kong Education Department, 1986, p. 435). Counseling had its beginnings in the dramatic social changes in Hong Kong in the 1960s that resulted in riots and paralleled the social unrest of the Cultural Revolution in China (Leung, 1988). The British colonial government could no longer ignore the many critical issues at that time, such as juvenile delinquency, suicide, substance abuse, teenage pregnancies, gangs, divorce and the disintegration of the family. In 1969, according to Leung (1988), counseling services were first provided by the Federation of Youth Groups, a social service agency. These services were offered on an experimental basis by staff who were trained in the United States. Guidance and counseling services have been available in secondary schools since the 1950s (Luk-Fong & Brennan, 2004). As in many other countries, they evolved from careers guidance (Leung, 2002) and have emphasized a casework approach, influenced by the discipline of social work. In 1986, the Hong Kong government policy document, Guidance Work in Secondary Schools, was issued by the Education Department as a response to addressing the personal and social needs of its students.

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Counseling in Hong Kong remains a developing and promising professional field. A growing number of courses, diplomas and graduate-level degrees in the area have been offered from the mid-1980s. The need for counseling certainly exists but counseling, as characterized by Leung (1999), is a discipline with a tenuous professional identity. There are few professional counseling organizations in Hong Kong, and all have limited membership. The availability of professional counseling work is limited to schools, non-governmental organizations and the private sector. Certification and licensure of counseling professionals is not yet available, and the criteria for determining what constitutes counseling training is still a topic of intense debate. More importantly, there is the need to develop a theoretical framework that is culturally relevant and responsive to the Chinese community since the major counseling theories have been established in Western countries. However, there are promising advances in creating theoretical frames appropriate for Chinese societies. For example, Yang (1999) documents the development of indigenous or indigenized Chinese psychology that is an effort to create theories that integrate American and Chinese individualistic and collectivist orientations.

Guidance and Counseling in the Hong Kong Classroom: A Whole-person and Whole-school Approach In recent years, Hong Kong has experienced many education reforms that have changed the educational landscape dramatically. The reforms which advocate educating the whole-person and implementing a whole-school approach have had a significant influence on the position and direction of guidance and counseling in schools. Recognizing the need to address the whole-person for all-round development, the Education Commission (2002), an advisory body to the Hong Kong government, stated: To meet the needs of society in the 21st Century, the Education Commission in 1998 embarked on a two-year comprehensive review of the overall education system in Hong Kong. … Students are the focal point of the entire reform. By creating space for schools, teachers and students, the reform is implemented to enable every student to attain all-round development in the moral, intellectual, physical, social and aesthetic domains according to his/ her own attributes so that he/she will be capable of lifelong learning. It is also hoped that each student will develop the ability for critical and exploratory thinking; be innovative and adaptable to changes; be filled with self-confidence and a team spirit; be willing to put forward effort towards the prosperity, progress, freedom and democracy of society; and contribute to the future well-being of the nation and the world at large. (p. 3)

438 Betty C. ENG To appreciate the extent of change resulting from the adoption of a wholeperson approach to education in Hong Kong, it is helpful to understand the conditions that led to this reform. Historically, Hong Kong has viewed the primary role of education as being the transmission of information in what Sweeting (1990) described as an examination-driven curriculum with rote learning and memorization as the main approaches to teaching and learning. At the very beginning stages of children’s education, their placement and advancement to the next grade are determined by the results of examinations taken at the end of each school year. Also, secondary schools are ranked on a variety of factors including the examination results of their students and the number of graduating students’ admissions to the still limited places in Hong Kong’s universities. Whether a student is placed in a Band 11 school, the most prestigious category, or pursues a mathematics or science program that increases the likelihood of future university admission, or is given the opportunity to enroll in a desirable school that uses English as the medium of instruction are all dictated by the results of examinations. However, the recent more progressive shifts in educational policy provide a timely opportunity for developing personal narratives of experience of learning and teaching and suggest new directions for guidance and counseling through a wholeperson approach (Eng, 2005b). Hong Kong’s Curriculum Development Council (CDC), a governmental body that guides and establishes curricular goals, advocates a learning to learn approach that engages learners’ critical thinking and reflection (2001, 2002). The CDC has introduced a reorganized personal, social and humanities education curriculum that promotes self-directed inquiry. This reform focuses on nurturing the whole-person, intellectually, personally, and socially, in a learning culture that is seen as lifelong. With this significant change in orientation in the Hong Kong curriculum, it would seem that guidance and counseling in schools will play a much more critical role — and this applies not only to the school guidance and counseling teams but also the classroom teachers, principals and parents. A whole-school approach to guidance in Hong Kong was recommended by the Education Commission in 1990 “to create a positive, inviting and caring school environment where students can have whole-person development and where their problems are responded to in a constructive manner” (p. 1), according to the Careers and Guidance Services Section of the former Education Department (1996). Schools that have practiced an effective whole-school approach are characterized by a collaborative effort among teachers, students and management, and a developmental guidance program. Hui (1998, p. 435) stated that, with the implementation of a whole-school approach to guidance: … guidance has come to be considered as a way of fostering behavior and facilitating students in personal, social and school adjustment (Hong Kong Education Commission, 1990). During the last ten years, guidance services have accordingly evolved from a remedial, ‘casework’ approach to a more

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 439 preventive and developmental approach … Hui & Lo’s (1997) study has shown the feasibility of integrating developmental guidance programmes into the whole-school curriculum. Guidance as a responsibility of all teachers is now affirmed, and a school’s provision of guidance services is suggested as an indicator of quality education (Education Commission, 1997).

Difficulties may still arise in implementing the reform proposal for a wholeperson and whole-school approach which presents opportunities for personal and social development. For example, Morris and Scott (2003) observed that there may be problems in the relationship between policy makers and implementers of education reforms in Hong Kong — but they argue that, despite this, the groundwork for putting these recent educational changes into practice has been established.

Narrative Inquiry for Guidance and Counseling: Dewey and Confucius John Dewey (1938) argued that to study education and life is to study experience. He recognized the importance of developing a philosophy of experience in education and held that thinking is inquiry, inquiry is life and life is education. Dewey had a firm belief that experience, education and life are necessarily intertwined and considered educating a child centered on the development of his or her experiences. In his view, to understand why teachers do what they do involves understanding their experience. Dewey encouraged a respect for teachers’ sources of experience and urged them to recognize experience as a means and goal in education. However, while he believed that all genuine education comes about through experience, he also cautioned that not all experiences are educative, and one needs to be discriminating about their quality. Experience can be mis-educative if, for instance, it prevents the growth of further experience: “An experience may be such as to engender callousness; it may produce lack of sensitivity and responsiveness. Then the possibilities of having richer experiences in the future are restricted” (Dewey, 1938, pp. 25–26). Confucian values and beliefs complement this exploration and understanding of experience through self-reflection, self-examination and self-cultivation in a relational and other-oriented kind of thinking (Hall & Ames, 1987; Lee, 1996). Confucianism seeks to attain harmony within oneself in relation to others, particularly the family and society. This relational thinking has been linked to a woman’s way of knowing but is unlike the Western emphasis on realizing individual potential or satisfaction.

440 Betty C. ENG Drawing on Dewey’s thinking, Connelly and Clandinin (1990) argued that experience is best represented and understood through narratives or stories where understanding our own personal narratives may be a metaphor for understanding the curriculum and our students. It is therefore important for teachers to read their own narratives or their own curriculum to gain an understanding of their students’ curriculum. Narrative as a process of reflection to make meaning of the classroom experience is based on the thinking of Crites (1971), Alter (1993), Connelly and Clandinin (1988), and Clandinin and Connelly (2000). Carter (1993) asserted that, as we tell our experiences, we express them through stories, and “storying” our personal and professional experience is a mode of knowing that creates teacher knowledge. Narratives of experience can illuminate our understanding of our students and of the classroom. The work of such educators such as Connelly, Clandinin and Hunt provide support for a whole-school and whole-person perspective. For Connelly and Clandinin (1988), teachers are central in shaping and planning the curriculum and have an essential voice in their own personal knowledge of the classroom. Hunt (1987) considered that understanding oneself is vital as it is the beginning of becoming and being an effective teacher. Hunt (1992) proposed an “inside-out approach to begin with our inner feelings and beliefs” (p. 3) rather than starting with formal theories of education. As teachers, we need to understand where we came from, where we are in the present and how the past and the present shape our future. When we understand ourselves, we then become better facilitators of our students’ journey to self-understanding by attending to their emotional, personal and social needs for whole-person development. The narratives that are explored here take place in the Hong Kong milieu but have resonance for the international and global community. They are contextualized and focused on the local and specific but also contribute to understanding the larger puzzle of identity, culture and sense of belonging in a diverse and multicultural world. Narrative inquiry presents an invitation to counselors, educators and policy makers to consider and reflect on the cross-cultural lives and diverse learning needs of our students, and to develop culturally relevant guidance and counseling and culturally responsive classrooms. He and Phillion (2001) described narrative inquiry as an approach that offers possibilities for a “fluid and experiential way of understanding.” They viewed the qualities of narrative as a way of thinking that is fluid rather than fixed, as being in the “midst of lives” or research, and as living in the daily realities of participants. The process of making meaning of stories of experience is developed in a relational knowing. Stories, as Bateson (1994, p. 11) described in Peripheral Visions, have more than one meaning:

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 441 It is important not to reduce understanding to some narrow focus, sacrificing multiplicity to what might be called the rhetoric of merely. … Openness to peripheral vision depends on rejecting such reductionism and rejecting with it the belief that questions of meaning have unitary answers. (p. 11)

These narrative qualities provide a way of understanding that challenges the terms used in conventional research that is grounded primarily in theory: narrative inquiry is grounded in experience, not theory and the formal set of terms that confine it. Clandinin and Connelly (2000, p. 39) described formalists in this way: Formalists say that the facts of the case, the experience one claims to have, or the data collected by empiricist researchers have little bearing on their claims. Persons, they argue, can never see themselves as they are since they are always something else, specifically, they are whatever social structure, ideology, theory or framework is at work in the inquiry.

What is significant about the research described in He and Phillion (2001) is that it was highly personal, providing the reader with an insight into the lives of their participants and the classroom by capturing the feelings and thoughts about daily occurrences and “taken for granted” kinds of experiences. Moreover, the researchers themselves held an integral place in the process as they frankly and generously expressed their insights, revelations, hopes, doubts and fears throughout their research journeys. Their studies provide readers with visions of how research could be and how personal narratives have become a recognized and formidable body of academic scholarship. Narrative inquiry as a research method provides a coherent theoretical framework and the scholarly space to express and make meaning of experiences for guidance and counseling.

Narratives of cross-cultural experiences: Suki’s story Narratives for guidance and counseling are an indigenous form of expression in Chinese and other Asian cultures. Talking stories or the tradition of oral history is how values, beliefs and customs have been transmitted through the generations. Coles (1989), a psychiatrist, turned to the call of stories to understand and treat his patients. Rather than relying on a medical model or theories, his relationship with his patients evolved from listening to their stories as they described their symptoms and conditions. The more recent scholarly discourse of framing guidance and counseling within narratives connects with the established cultural practice of Asian societies in which story-telling is an integral part. Examples of this discourse are the work of McLeod (1997) and White and Epston (1990) who proposed narratives as a significant alternative and departure for therapy. McLeod adopted a

442 Betty C. ENG social constructionist view of the world and placed the person engaged in storymaking and story-consuming as the focal point in the conceptual framework. McLeod (1997, p. x) wrote: … all therapies are narrative therapies. Whatever you are doing, or think you are doing, as therapist or client can be understood in terms of telling and retelling stories. Yet there is no “narrative therapy”, there is no one way of doing this. … The importance of listening to stories, rather than employing listening skills in general, or listening to or for other types of communication, is that the story represents the basic means by which people organize and communicate the meaning of events and experiences. … It is my belief that adopting a narrative perspective on therapy leads inevitably in the direction of a number of significant implications. Taking a narrative approach requires doing some re-thinking about the nature of truth, the concept of the person, the relationship between therapist and client, the knowledge base of psychotherapy.

The story of Suki,2 an immigrant from China and a student preparing to become a teacher, is one such story that tells of a cross-cultural experience that has implications for guidance and counseling. In this narrative, the emotional, personal and social needs of Suki’s adjustment to Hong Kong’s culture and classroom become apparent as she shares her story. Suki tells of her own personal experiences growing up in China and her separations from family members as a result of immigration restrictions and economic considerations. Written here in a conversational form, Suki tells her story that is based on personal journals and interviews (Eng, 2005a):

Suki: I was born in Guangdong Province in China and came to Hong Kong at the age of fifteen in 1990. My first language is Cantonese, and this is what is spoken at home. But I learned Putonghua in school in China since it is a compulsory subject in primary school. Betty: So you know three languages, Cantonese, Putonghua, and English. That is quite an accomplishment! Suki: Well, it was easy to learn Cantonese and Putonghua while I was young in China. I did not learn English until I came to Hong Kong, and that was extremely difficult. Betty: I understand you were separated from your parents and your older brother. Can you tell me about this? (continued on p. 443)

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 443

Suki: Yes, this is a very bad memory for me. My father was working in Hong Kong when I was born. He worked in a button-making factory for over twenty years in Hong Kong. He would visit the family in China about three or four times a year so I did not really grow up knowing him. Then, when I was ten years of age, my mother joined my father to work in Hong Kong in a sewing factory packing the clothes in preparation for shipment. The wages were so much higher in Hong Kong than China that they could not refuse the opportunity even though it meant further separating the family. My parents sent us money to support us. My brother and I were not allowed to join them because of immigration restrictions in China. While my brother attended school in the city, I was forced to live with a distant relative in the countryside. My relatives took good care of me but I missed my mother very much. My mother would come from Hong Kong to visit me when she could, and each time she left, I would cry huge tears for days afterwards. Betty: When did you come to Hong Kong? Suki: I was finally able to come to Hong Kong when I was fifteen years old. My brother chose to stay behind in China since he then had a good job, was married and had a child. Betty: Can you recall your first experience at school in Hong Kong? Suki: Oh! I hid in the toilet and cried on my first and second days at school during the break. I was frightened by the new environment, and I felt no one supported me. Everyone and everything was strange to me. But I knew I could only cry for 5 minutes before I had to compose myself and return to class. Betty: Can you tell me more about what you found so strange and frightening? Suki: Everything was strange and frightening! I was very shy and found it difficult to meet new people. I was afraid that my previous academic studies in China would not prepare me for my studies in Hong Kong. I thought I would not be as good as my classmates and that I would fall behind in my studies. English was especially difficult. In China, I had only learned the basic letters of the alphabet while my classmates in Hong Kong were much more capable in English than me. There were (continued on p. 444)

444 Betty C. ENG also subjects about the government and policy making that I had never had in China. I was afraid I would not fit in and would fail! Betty: How long did it take you to adjust? Suki: About half a year. By then I had made a few friends who helped me. There was also a kind teacher, Miss Lee, who was my class mistress. She asked another classmate to help me with my homework. Betty: Were your parents concerned about you? Suki: They did not know. I didn’t tell them because I wanted to be brave in front of them. I did not want to disappoint them or lose face. Betty: I see. What did you find meaningful from this experience, and what did you discover about yourself, especially as it relates to your future work as a teacher? Suki: From these experiences, I learned that I could adapt to a new environment. I learned to be resourceful and independent and was successful in finally catching up with my classmates! Also, I think I can have a better understanding of the experiences of the new immigrant children from China in our schools in Hong Kong. I can empathize with their need for adjustment and support. I think they may also feel strange and frightened as I did. As a teacher, I should give them special attention and care. Betty: Yes, it sounds like this was a very significant experience for you. In your case, you have been raised and educated in both China and Hong Kong. Many of my students are faced with the question of their identity and ask themselves if they are a Chinese or a Hong Konger. What are you views on this? Suki: I am becoming a Hong Kong person. Betty: After all these years since your arrival to Hong Kong in 1990, you are still becoming a Hong Kong person? Suki: Yes, still becoming. I cannot deny that I am a Chinese person because I am Chinese but have experienced my adulthood in Hong Kong. My (continued on p. 445)

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 445

classmates often remind me that I am not a local Hong Kong person when they point out my accent when I speak Cantonese sometimes. How can I ever be a complete Hong Kong person? But I have very strong Chinese values and beliefs like filial piety. I also have Western thinking and I believe that women can have high achievements in a career but when she gets married, she should help her husband and care for her children too. Betty: I see, this is an interesting blend of values. Tell me, where do you feel at home? Suki: I feel that home is within myself. I achieve a state of home when I feel a sense of calm and serenity within myself.

Suki’s last statement about where she considers home is revealing and deeply profound. A home that is contained within oneself is one that will always be a constant and genuine. No matter where we are situated, we can locate that space called home within ourselves. “Still becoming,” Suki states, which is a journey that can be facilitated with guidance and counseling. Suki’s identity is in a state of becoming. She is not just a Chinese or a Hong Konger. For her, there is no need to be forced to choose only one identity or one over the other as if an identity were static and a neatly compartmentalized entity. Suki’s narrative tells us there are plural, fluid and improvised identities and cultures (Eng, 2006). Miss Lee, one of Suki’s teachers, seems to have possessed the awareness and sensitivity to recognize Suki’s need and assigned her a classmate to assist her. Suki’s fears of failure and rejection, and feelings of academic incompetence, particularly in the English language, are common among newly-arrived immigrants from China — and also among students who might view themselves as different for other reasons. That she would keep her fears a secret from her parents to avoid disappointing them or losing face is also a frequent experience. Suki’s belief in filial piety, not disappointing her parents by appearing brave and maintaining a sense of duty to her future husband and family are beliefs that are grounded in Confucianism and CHC. From whom and how, then, do such students who enter our classrooms obtain support? Do we attend to their emotional, personal and social needs and acknowledge and welcome the diversity of identities and culture they bring to our classrooms? Suki’s narrative raises concerns relevant for guidance and counseling that challenge educators.

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Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learning Needs in Chinese Classrooms Suki’s experience as a newly-arrived immigrant from China to Hong Kong highlights issues related to cultural differences, as well as academic and emotional needs that may occur for all students. A recognition and understanding of the diverse learning needs of our students and how classroom teachers can respond to these needs from a guidance and counseling perspective is discussed in this section. The Hong Kong government’s Education and Manpower Bureau views the classroom teachers in regular and special schools as the “front-line” counselors. This role has become particularly important with the introduction of a whole-school approach and whole-person development, as teachers are no longer confined to educating students in academic subjects, but also to nurturing their personal, emotional and social development. While not trained as professional counselors, teachers are expected to have a fundamental understanding or working knowledge of counseling theories and basic counseling skills and strategies, along with appropriate counseling attitudes. This appears to be a rather ambitious, demanding and formidable role for teachers given their ever-increasing workload. The following discussion suggests strategies for guidance and counseling for the classroom teacher confronted with this challenging role. It focuses on a guidance and counseling response to students who have diverse needs. Some of these needs are interrelated and involve overlapping concerns where guidance and counseling strategies and interventions can be applied, for example in cases of physical impairment, emotional or behavioral disorders, and giftedness. Many of the strategies and interventions suggested as effective practices for students with diverse learning needs are likely to benefit all learners. Also, although this section is concerned with the Chinese classroom, there are many points of commonality with classrooms around the world.

Non-directive guidance and counseling for a directive Asian tradition In broad terms, counseling styles can be viewed as directive or non-directive. Nondirective counseling is based on the work of Carl Rogers (1951) — the “father of counseling” in the USA — who developed it as a challenge to the directive approach that dominated therapy at the time. Rogers’ non-directive counseling is clientcentered, with clients defining their counseling issues and being central participants in the counseling process. Instead of looking to the counselor as the authority who will provide answers, the client is seen as capable of developing self-understanding and resolving his/her own problems without direct intervention by the counselor.

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 447

The role of the counselor is primarily to reflect and clarify the expressions communicated by the client — a major departure from the counselor who gives advice and presents solutions. In the context of the CHC, where people in countries such as China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan have a tradition of viewing elders, teachers and counselors as a source of authority, it is not surprising that a directive counseling style is preferred. The Asian preference for a directive counseling style has been shown in many studies — for example, in research on Hong Kong international students (Exum & Lau, 1988) and Cantonese-speaking students (Waxer, 1989) and in a study that included Japanese, Chinese, and Korean students (Kim, 1992). Somewhat contrary to these findings, D’Rozario and Romano’s (2000) work on US and Singaporean college students’ perceptions of counselor effectiveness suggested that various factors may influence an individual’s preference for a directive or non-directive counseling style. Their findings indicated that the counseling experience is influenced by, for example, the stage of counseling, counseling expectations, the presenting issues or problems to be explored, and acculturation or adaptation to the dominate culture. Given such complexities, D’Rozario and Romano concluded that it is best not to assume that “Singaporean, and perhaps other Asian student groups, are most comfortable with and desire a more directive counseling approach” (p. 62). However, like the Chinese, Singaporeans come from a highly structured and hierarchical society where one also finds a “just did” response to instructions and advice from others such as elders, parents and teachers. Hong Kong’s recent emphasis on the importance of learning to learn — rather than “spoon-feeding”, recitation, memorization and an examination-driven curriculum — suggests a move towards a more non-directive approach in guidance and counseling. This would involve a significant shift by placing the student/person at the center of the process. As noted above, in a non-directive approach, the student defines the issues, needs or problems and is actively engaged throughout in the resolution or interventions and strategies. In this way, the non-directive approach provides an opportunity to empower students, with their thoughts and feelings being respected and integral to the counseling process. In the Asian context, this also requires a shift in the role of counselors who become facilitators and guides, and not the sole source of authority or wisdom. Moreover, in post-colonial Hong Kong, where there is movement towards a more democratic society, a more liberal and freer way of thinking that embraces a non-directive approach to guidance and counseling seems likely. Certainly, classroom teachers in Hong Kong are showing an increased interest in the thinking of Carl Rogers (1951) and his client- or person-centered therapy. However, as expected in any transition from one way of thinking to another, there can be tensions, barriers and conflicts.

448 Betty C. ENG

Competing counseling beliefs and practices As much as I yearn for and believe in a person-centered approach to counseling where students are active rather than passive participants in the counseling process, I am disappointed and frustrated to find myself incapable of practicing it in my school. This is because my school demands a very authoritarian role for the counselor. Because of this, I do not believe I can ever become a good counselor. This statement was made by a Chinese student who is an experienced classroom teacher and is studying a master’s level counseling program in Hong Kong. Her comment speaks to the difficulties she faces in her school which demands a highly directive approach emphasizing teacher control. The teacher is still expected to be the primary source of authority, with students participating as passive learners; and on a daily basis, she is expected to punish or reward students by assigning grades for homework and examinations. There is little time for student reflection and personal and social development. As a result, this teacher and future counselor tends to dominate the counseling process by giving answers and solutions rather than enabling students to explore and define the reasons and resolutions for their own counseling. Also, the socialization process that this teacher experienced when growing up also expected answers and solutions from those in positions of authority, and this has become embedded in her way of thinking and shapes her classroom pedagogy. Thus, it is not surprising for this student of counseling to experience tensions while striving to be a person-centered or non-directive counselor in such a highly hierarchical and directive context as Hong Kong. What, then, are the theoretical implications of the tensions between a nondirective and directive approach for guidance and counseling for students with diverse needs? A full awareness and acknowledgement of this dilemma is needed. By getting in touch with one’s feelings about this issue, one experiences a heightened sense of “wakefulness” as to how it might affect the counseling process. However, in guidance and counseling for students who have physical impairments, behavioral problems, learning difficulties and giftedness, teachers and counselors may feel pressure to utilize a directive approach, providing quick and easy solutions; and this orientation will be more likely to lead to a case approach that responds to the immediacy of presenting problems rather than a developmental one that engages in an evolving journey of self-exploration, understanding and personal development.

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Cross-cultural counseling for countries with a Confucian-heritage culture Chinese communities which have experienced colonization and continue to have a diverse multinational society may consider a cross-cultural approach to counseling. Hong Kong Chinese can be said to possess plural identities and cultures — which some have referred to as a “hybrid self” (Luk-Fong & Brennan, 2004) — resulting from the “East meets West” context in which they live. Leung (2002), focusing on career counseling, proposed collaboration between Hong Kong and the United States in conducting cross-cultural research to “determine aspects of theories that are universal and aspects that are specific to a particular culture or group of cultures” (p. 244). In this sense, globalization can enhance localization. A cross-cultural approach can increase our understanding of the diverse needs of the Chinese learner and help in working toward the creation of culturally relevant counseling theories and practices.

Strategies for Counseling Students with Diverse Learning Needs Some strategies for counseling students with diverse needs are suggested below. Consideration should be given to adapting them to the needs of the students involved, the counseling process and the specific cultural context.

Journaling Writing a journal can be conducive to effective counseling. This is particularly so for students with diverse needs who find it difficult to express themselves to others for fear of rejection because of their differences. For those who are conditioned to view writing as an academic subject, as is the case for many Chinese students in Hong Kong, the opportunity to write freely and frankly without fear of punitive assessment is a new experience. Assurance that this is not a “graded” assignment, that writing errors are not penalized, and that there will be supportive feedback from a counselor is important. Encourage writing journals as records of events as well as reflections on the meaning or significance of students’ experiences. Journal writings can be kept confidential or shared at counseling sessions as determined by the student and the counseling process. Journaling can take the form of drawings, poetry, songs, collages, photographs or other means of expression that convey the feelings and thoughts of the student. With the students’ consent, publishing selected writings from their journals to share with others can be a validating act for the writers and an enriching experience for readers.

450 Betty C. ENG

Language of feelings Often, particularly in a CHC, feelings are not commonly expressed or welcomed. Self-discipline and a face-saving attitude often inhibit deep and full expression of emotions among Chinese students. Enabling students to express their feelings is often the first step in counseling, and when feeling words are used, it may be helpful to encourage further elaboration for a more in-depth exploration. In Chinese, emotions are often expressed through the use of metaphors or stories. “I felt like a typhoon has blown me apart when I received my negative exam results” is an example of how metaphors can provide a colorful and powerful way to explore feelings. Role playing and the use of dolls for younger students can also facilitate the exploration of feelings and develop the associated vocabulary.

Serial testimony This activity, which was originally developed for workshops exploring controversial topics such as racism and sex discrimination, can be adapted for the purpose of counseling. It involves students sitting in a circle and describing important or significant experiences in their lives. Some choose to share an account of a happy event, while others describe fear of failure, and experience of discrimination and acts of violence. Each person is given ten minutes to talk about the experience while others in the circle actively listen. No comments or judgments are given after the completion of each testimony and the process continues until all have told their stories. After everyone has testified, responses are then shared. For students with diverse needs, this can be a powerful experience as the activity provides them with the opportunity to share difficult or challenging experiences in a safe and protected environment that is free of judgment or blame.

Individual counseling Counseling sessions with students on an individual basis are helpful, particularly to establish the reasons and purposes for counseling. Sensitivity and caution are needed to avoid embarrassment or create negative attention by signaling or labeling the student invited for individual counseling. The counselor needs to be aware that in Asian cultures, shame and loss of face are possible consequences and, while this applies to all students, it is particularly important in counseling students with special needs.

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Group counseling The group process can also be a supportive counseling approach for students with diverse learning needs. Meeting with others who share the same or similar difficulties or concerns can lessen their feeling of isolation, enhance a sense of belonging and provide a chance to view their own condition in relation to that of others. For the Chinese learner who feels more comfortable and safer as a member of a group and in sharing a collective perspective for supporting others, group counseling can be an empowering experience. Sharing lunch together as part of the group counseling process can provide a safe and comfortable setting.

Family counseling In most cases, students with educational or special needs affect their families. The parents, siblings and other members of the family are commonly integral participants in the counseling process. For example, Chinese parents of gifted children in Hong Kong have formed their own group to share their expectations and concerns for their children and to advocate support services from the government. The dynamics of the group process has been both a therapeutic and empowering experience. However, the Confucian tradition has sometimes prevented parents from communicating with schools as this can be seen as a challenge to the authority of teachers. Parents may lack understanding of their children’s educational needs and may feel a sense of shame and guilt about their children’s perceived disabilities. In such situations, home visits may be appropriate or regular counselorinitiated communication with the family may be helpful.

Peer counseling Peer support can also be an effective way of providing counseling and can be helpful for students with diverse needs, particularly those with physical or medical conditions. Peers are sometimes viewed as more supportive and less threatening than adults. Peer counselors, in turn, receive an opportunity to be caregivers and leaders. However, a well-organized peer training program must first be established and it should be monitored closely to ensure its effectiveness.

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Eye contact Eye contact can have various effects and meanings that vary across cultures. Some Asian cultures may view direct eye contact as a sign of disrespect, particularly by learners to those in a position of authority, such as a teacher, counselor, or parent. Deference to authority as indicated by an indirect gaze is often valued in Asian society, so one should not assume that a lack of direct eye contact means disrespect, shyness, deception or even depression.

Concluding Remarks Recognition of the role and importance of cultural diversity in counseling has its roots in the civil rights movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s, which challenged the established power structure to recognize the place of ethnic minorities, particularly black Americans. For the first time, this movement forced educators and counselors to understand, educate and counsel an increasing number of non-white and non-traditional students who were entering universities that had been predominantly or exclusively white. Within this movement, Asians, including Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and Filipinos, were often viewed as “model minorities” who worked hard and succeeded as students and professionals. It was often assumed that they, as model minorities, were well adjusted and did not require counseling. However, this concept was challenged and “debunked” by educators such as Sue and Kirk (1975), Takaki (1996), Sandhu (1999) and Yeh and Hwang (1999) who argued that the model minority view has been detrimental to the interests of Asians by preventing them from receiving social programs designed to meet their emotional and academic needs. For instance, Sandhu (1997, pp. 1, 21–22) commented as follows: The myth of Asians as a model minority, based on the success image of a few elite individuals, has a very negative and debilitating effect on the general population of Asian Americans. Several severe mental health concerns and psychological afflictions, such as threats to cultural identity, powerlessness, feelings of marginality, loneliness, hostility, and perceived alienation and discrimination remain unredressed and hidden under the veneer of the model minority myth.

Learning from the experience in the USA and applying it to the context of Hong Kong and Asian countries provides a helpful perspective on the diverse needs of the Chinese learner in our classrooms. To understand Chinese from a CHC, it is imperative that counselors are receptive to questioning their own beliefs and attitudes that might contain myths and misconceptions. The experience of guidance

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and counseling in Hong Kong as a CHC society can inform us about Chinese society in other countries. With its Confucian tradition and multinational community, Hong Kong is a complex and diverse society; and while the discussion in this chapter has been contextualized for the Hong Kong setting, it has implications and raises possibilities for consideration in countries worldwide.

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

6.

7. 8.

How would you describe or define the role of a counselor? What kinds of qualities or characteristics do you seek in a counselor? Being friendly, trustworthy, warm and possessing a sense of humor are some qualities that are described by students as desirable qualities for a counselor. With these qualities in mind, how do you perceive yourself as a counselor? What does the word “diversity” mean to you? Describe an experience with diversity. Do you identify yourself as a member of a particular culture? If so, describe the culture and your beliefs and feelings about it. What aspects of your culture are you most and least comfortable in accepting? Have you experienced labeling or discrimination? If so, describe the experience and reflect on your feelings. What did you learn or discover about yourself or about others? As a classroom teacher, identify the various types of needs among your students. What are the needs, who are the students and how do you respond to their needs? How are their needs represented in the curriculum? Describe and explain any obstacles that prevent you from responding to the needs of the diverse learners in your class, and suggest ways of removing these barriers. Write a personal story that involves an experience of working with students with diverse needs. Describe the experience and reflect on your feelings about it. Imagine an “ideal” student and classroom. Describe what the student and classroom look like and explain why you consider them to be ideal.

Notes 1.

2.

Schools in Hong Kong are ranked by a Banding of 1, 2 or 3, with 1 as the highest rank and 3 at the lowest. The criteria for determining ranking include the school’s medium of language instruction, with English preferred, the results of examination scores and university acceptance rates. Suki is a pseudonym for a student selected for the purpose of the narrative. The original conversation was translated from Cantonese to English by the author.

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Glossary Counseling is a process of exploring and engaging in personal development and emotional issues with a professionally trained counselor. In directive counseling, the counselor is viewed as the primary source of authority and power in defining the counseling process and intervention. Narratives are an expression of experiences that provide opportunities for self-exploration and understanding. In non-directive counseling, the client is seen as central to the counseling process and engages in defining the counseling issues and interventions. In this process, the role of the counselor is to reflect and clarify the client’s expressions. A whole-person approach addresses the moral, intellectual, physical, social and aesthetic domains of the learner. A whole-school approach to the education of a student involves collaboration among teachers, learners and management in schools.

References Alter, G. (1993). Empowerment through narrative: Considerations for teaching, learning and life. Thresholds in Education, 19, 3–5. Bateson, M. C. (1994). Peripheral visions, learning along the way. New York: Harper Collins. beliefs. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 26(3), 435–449. Carter, K. (1993). The place of story in the study of teaching and teacher education. Educational Researcher, 22(1), 5–12, 18. Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Coles, R. (1989). The call of stories. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners. Toronto, Ontario: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Press. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2–14. Crites, S. (1971). The narrative quality of experience. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 39(3), 291–311. Curriculum Development Council. (2001). Learning to learn: The way forward in curriculum development. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Curriculum Development Council. (2002). Basic education curriculum guide: Building on strengths. Hong Kong: Printing Department. D’Rozario, V., & Romano, J. L. (2000). Perceptions of counsellor effectiveness: A study of two country groups. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 13(1), 51–64. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Simon & Schuster. Education Commission (1990). Education Commission Report No. 4. Hong Kong: Government Printer.

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 455 Education Commission (2002). Progress report on the education reform: Learning for life, learning through life. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Education Department (1986). Guidance work in secondary schools: A suggested guide for principals and teachers. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Eng, B. (2005a). Exploring teacher knowledge through personal narratives: Experiences of identity, culture, and sense of belonging. Unpublished doctoral thesis, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto. Eng, B. (2005b). Hong Kong’s shifting classroom narrative. In Chamness Miller, P. (Ed.), Narratives from the classroom (pp. 89–107). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Eng, B. (2006). Narratives of cultural crossings: Discoveries and possibilities. Curriculum Inquiry. 36(3), 327–341. Exum, H. A., & Lau, E.Y. (1988). Counselling style preference of Chinese college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16(2), 84–93. Freedman, M. (Ed.) (1970). Family and kinship in Chinese society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Hall, D., & Ames, R. (1987). Thinking through Confucius. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross-cultural lives and identities in the multicultural landscape. Greenwich, CN: Information Age Publishing. He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (2001). Trapped in-between: A narrative exploration of race gender, and class. Journal of Race, Gender & Class, 8(1), 47–56. Hong Kong Government Information Centre. (2006). Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Question of Hong Kong. Retrieved June 26, 2006, from www.info.gov.hk/trans/jd/jd2.htm. Hui, E. K. P. (1998). Guidance in Hong Kong schools: Students’ and teachers’ beliefs. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 26(3), 435–448. Hunt, D. E. (1987). Beginning with ourselves. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Hunt, D. E. (1992). The renewal of personal energy. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Press. Kim, S. Y. (1992). Expectations about counseling among international students from East Asian countries and a comparison of directive and nondirective counseling strategies on their perceptions of counselor effectiveness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA. Lang, O. (1946). Chinese family and society. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influence (pp. 25–41). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd. Leung, S. A. (1999). The development of counselling in Hong Kong: Searching for professional identity. Asian Journal of Counselling, 6(2), 77–95. Leung, S. A. (2002). Career counseling in Hong Kong: Meeting the social challenges. The Career Development Quarterly, 50(3), 237–245.

456 Betty C. ENG Leung, T. T. (1988). History of counseling services in Hong Kong. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, UMI Dissertation Services. Luk-Fong, Y. Y. P., & Brennan, M. (2004). In search of a guidance curriculum for Hong Kong schools. Journal of Educational Enquiry, 5(1), 55–83. McLeod, J. (1997). Narrative and psychotherapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Morris, P., & Scott, I. (2003). Educational reform and policy implementation in Hong Kong. Journal of Educational Policy, 18(1), 71–84. Postiglione, G. A., & Lee, W. O. (Eds.). (1995). Social change and educational development. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press. Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Sandhu, D.S. (1997). Psychocultural profiles of Asian and Pacific Islander Americans: Implications for counseling and psychotherapy. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 25(1), 7–22. Sue, D. W., & Kirk, B. (1975). Asian Americans: Use of counseling and psychiatric services on a college campus. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22, 84–86. Sweeting, A. (1990). Education in Hong Kong pre-1841 to 1941: Fact and opinion. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Takaki, R. (1996). The mytho of the “model minority.” In R. C. Monk (Ed.), Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial issues in race and ethnicity (2nd ed.). Guildford, CT: Dushkin. Waxer, P. H. (1989). Cantonese versus Canadian evaluation of directive and non-directive therapy. Canadian Journal of Counselling/Revue Canadienne de Counselling, 23, 263– 272. White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. New York: Norton. Yang, C. K. (1959). Chinese Communist society: The family and the village. Cambridge, MA: The M.I.T. Press. Yang, K. S. (1999). Towards an indigenous Chinese psychology: A selective review of methodological, theoretical, and empirical accomplishments. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 41(2), 181–211. Yeh, C., & Hwang, M.Y. (1999). The sociocultural context of Asian American ethnic identity and self: Implications for counseling. In D. S. Sandhu (Ed.), Asian and Pacific Islander Americans: Issues and concerns for counseling and psychotherapy (pp. 59–69). Commack, NY: Nova Science.

Further Reading Bond, M. H. (Ed.). (1996). Chinese psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Harper, F. D., & McFadden, J. (Eds.). (2003). Culture and counseling: New approaches. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Leung, F. T. L. (1996). Toward an integrative model for cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 5, 189–209. McFadden, J. (Ed.). (1999). Transcultural counseling (2nd ed.) Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

A Chinese Perspective on Guidance and Counseling for Diverse Learners 457 Phillion, J., He, M.F., & Connelly, F.M. (Eds.). (2005). Narrative & experience in multicultural education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.

Useful Websites American Counseling Association: http://www.counseling.org Asian Journal of Counselling: http://www1.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/en/ajc Australian Counselling Association: http://www.theaca.net.au British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy: http://www.bac.co.uk Canadian Counseling Association: http://www.ccacc.ca/ccacc.htm International Association for Counseling: http://www.iac-irtac.org International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling: http://www.wkap.nl/prod/j/01650653 Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development: http://www.counseling.org/journals/ guidelines/jmcd.html

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Dr Betty C. Eng, Department of Applied Social Studies, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong.

458 Betty C. ENG

14 Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs Ming Tak HUE

This chapter offers a broad view of classroom management and stresses its positive functions in managing the diversity of students’ learning needs. It also makes particular reference to managing the inclusive classroom and, although it focuses on the Hong Kong classroom, the content is broadly applicable to the “Chinese” classroom. More specifically, this chapter: • Defines the term “classroom management” and identifies its purposes; • Acknowledges the diversity of students’ learning needs; • Develops the four aspects of classroom management, namely physical, cognitive, social and affective; • Introduces three approaches to classroom management, including assertive discipline, social discipline and teacher effectiveness training; and • Explains how the three schools of classical Chinese philosophy (Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism) can be adopted for the management of a diverse classroom and students’ behavior

Introduction At a time when the inclusive classroom is being actively promoted in many countries in Asia, teachers and parents frequently ask how a diverse classroom can be managed effectively. To ensure they create and maintain an effective classroom, teachers have to develop an intellectual framework for thinking not only about how to teach but also about ways of catering for the diverse learning needs of individual students.

460 Ming Tak HUE Clearly, teachers are responsible for teaching effectively and making learning meaningful for their students. However, on becoming teachers, they soon realize that teaching is not just about learning how to teach and understanding student learning, but also about recognizing the many types of interactions in the classroom that can interfere with both teaching and learning. In particular, they have to be aware of the different learning needs and requirements of a diverse range of students, particularly within the inclusive classroom — indeed, the concept of the inclusive classroom is based on the idea that classroom activities should be adapted to meet students’ needs. It is crucial, therefore, for teachers to develop skills in effective classroom management within the inclusive classroom in order to minimize the possibility of disturbances which have an adverse effect on teaching and learning. Even when a teacher has the necessary teaching skills and the students are highly motivated, the diversity within the classroom can be overwhelming, causing both teachers and students to become frustrated. How a teacher manages diversity within the classroom has an important influence on whether most of the time is spent in supporting classroom inclusion or dealing with management and discipline problems.

Definition of “Classroom Management” Classroom management refers to teachers’ actions which lead to the creation of a positive learning environment in which the diversity of students’ needs is recognized, positive interpersonal interaction is promoted, and effective learning is facilitated. It aims to enhance the cognitive, personal and social growth of students and, more specifically, develop their self-motivation, self-understanding, self-control, selfevaluation and self-management. Although there is no agreed definition of effective classroom management, it is generally seen as having three distinct but related purposes. • Firstly, it is a necessary condition for an inclusive, supportive, respectful learning environment. Many Hong Kong teachers have pointed out that good order in the classroom is a prerequisite for effective teaching and learning, while bad behavior disrupts these processes. Research on these topics has endorsed the view that discipline is a crucial dimension of classroom management as a means to create the necessary conditions for effective learning and the achievement of other educational goals (Lewis, 1997; Rogers, 1997, 2000; Watkins, 1999). • Secondly, it is proactive and developmental in nature. While there is a widespread view that classroom management, particularly when it refers to discipline and punishment, is linked to reactive control and sterile practices, classroom discipline has a proactive function in enhancing students’ academic,

Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs 461

•

personal and social growth. It has enormous potential for increasing students’ motivation, learning and self-esteem. As Gillborn, Nixon and Ruddick (1993) point out, positive practices of discipline can raise students’ sense of control over their classroom behavior and sense of achievement. Thirdly, it is not an end in itself but a means to an end — achieving successful learning. Similarly, punishment and discipline are the means through which the wider aims of schooling, such as inclusion, can be achieved while students are socialized into the moral, ethical and social values necessary for them to become good citizens in both the local society and beyond.

The Diverse Learning Needs of Students Each class is unique, even if the students are in the same year in the same school, because the teacher, the student composition and their learning needs are all different. For example, each classroom has its own climate, particular forms of collaboration between students and teachers, and particular circumstances which motivate teachers to develop appropriate approaches to classroom management. With this in mind, it is important for teachers to recognize the individual differences among their students. They should be acknowledged and managed by teachers because the effectiveness of classroom management depends largely on how they interrelate with individual students and understand their particular requirements. The diversity of students’ learning needs can be examined in terms of academic performance, classroom behavior, self-concepts, life experiences, gender and family background. Take academic performance as an example. Some students may experience difficulties with memory, attention, writing, reading, idea generation and text organization — and these difficulties sometimes appear as failure to recall words, letters and their pronunciation; a low reading rate; a short time-span of concentration; and poor listening and reading comprehension ability. Other categories of the diversity suggested by Cangelosi (2000) are summarized below. Students differ in their: • Learning motivation (e.g., their enthusiasm for learning particular subjects); • Self-confidence in their academic and social abilities (e.g., in maintaining relationships with others, problem solving and analyzing subject content); • Perception of the meaningfulness of being in the classroom; • Attitude toward their school (e.g., how they make sense of the organizational culture of the school and how they interact with authority figures, particularly those who intervene in what they prefer to do); • Understanding of themselves as learners (e.g., in their language ability, their capacity for mastering learning skills, and their advance knowledge for making sense of new learning);

462 Ming Tak HUE • •

Social, cultural and family backgrounds (e.g., their peer relationships, family size, and parents’ professions); and Special educational needs (e.g., mental retardation, hearing impairments, visual impairments, emotional disturbances, autism, and specific learning disabilities.

Unlike the categories suggested by Cangelosi (2000), diversity can be classified into five types: intellectual, communicative, social-emotional and behavioral, perceptual, and motor (see Table 14.1). If the learning needs of students cannot be fulfilled and properly managed, this is very likely to hinder their ability to master learning tasks and work with others; and this may eventually lead to various forms of behavioral and social-emotional problems (Mercer, 1997; Salend, 2001). Table 14.1

Five types of diversity

The intellectual difference refers to the level of students’ academic ability. The communicative difference relates to the students’ ability in using language to express feelings, thoughts and emotions to themselves and others. The social-emotional and behavioral difference refers to the students’ ability for self-control, selfresponsibility and self-management. The perceptual difference focuses on the students’ capabilities in hearing and seeing. The motor difference refers to the motor skills of students.

Four Aspects of Classroom Management Diversity in a class is reflected not only in the varied learning needs of students, but also in the complexity of the setting itself. In the classroom, many of the learning activities are carried out and teachers interact with the teaching materials and the students simultaneously, while students mainly interact with each other; and apart from teaching and learning, many social and affective interactions take place. Due to this complexity, there is no single model of classroom management or discipline which can cover adequately the great variety of situations and problems teachers encounter. To help in understanding this context, a framework for analyzing the four aspects of classroom management — physical, instructional, social and affective — together with some examples, is shown in Table 14.2. The next section gives a more detailed description of these four aspects, which must be balanced for effective classroom management, making reference to the diverse needs of children.

Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs 463 Table 14.2

Four aspects of classroom management

Classroom management aspects

Examples

Managing the physical aspect refers to …

the classroom layout, teaching aids, display of notices, blackboard, cleanliness of the classroom, storage and maintenance of resources.

Managing the instructional aspect refers to …

lesson plans, choices of teaching strategies, stimulating students’ learning motivation, and assessment practices.

Managing the social aspect refers to …

groupings, working patterns, interpersonal relationships, peer collaboration, classroom rules, toilet procedures.

Managing the affective aspect refers to…

removal of communication blockages, positive feedback, active listening, promotion of students’ self esteem, fulfilling the needs of individual students.

From Biggs & Watkins, 1995; Rogers 1997; Watkins & Wagner, 2000.

Management of the physical aspect The physical aspect refers to the setting of the classroom and the arrangement of its resources and facilities. For example, it may include the arrangement of furniture, air flow from windows, movement flow around the room, and the condition of furniture and lighting. All these have the potential to affect the occurrence of inappropriate and disruptive behavior, as well as the ability of the teacher to deal with these types of behavior when they happen. To ensure that the physical aspect of the classroom is well planned, managed and maintained, teachers have to pay attention to its design and look for ways to improve conditions in relation to the specific needs of the students. For example, they have to think carefully about a seating plan, especially for classes where some students have special educational needs. According to Hue (2005a), Hong Kong teachers give some consideration to seating arrangements. When a new school term starts, they identity the arrangement which is most conducive to their mode of teaching, and they regard it as an ongoing process of planning and evaluation throughout the academic year. However, before conducting group activities, students have to become familiar with the specific arrangement of the group seating if it differs from the regular seating arrangement, and later return the seating to its usual classroom position. When arranging seating, students’ needs have to be taken into account. Teachers should keep themselves informed about the feelings and views on this matter of both the students and their parents, and changes should be made whenever

464 Ming Tak HUE necessary. For example, students with hearing or vision problems should sit where they can see the blackboard and hear what teachers say. Also, slow achievers and students who are socially rejected should be placed in supportive and friendly groups. Furthermore, to maintain a well-managed physical setting in the classroom, passages must be kept open with no furniture, such as chairs and desks, obstructing them. Also, the teacher’s desk should be placed where there is the best possible view of the whole classroom.

Managing the instructional aspect The instructional aspect relates to how teaching and learning are conducted in the classroom, and how students are motivated to learn through the teaching and assessment strategies teachers adopt. This aspect focuses more on the cognitive processes of memorizing, thinking, and reasoning, and how all these activities — including, for example, lesson planning and catering for individual differences — lead to effective learning. To manage the instructional aspect of the classroom successfully, teachers have to establish a working routine and familiarize all students with it, so that the flow of teaching and learning is smooth and well ordered. In the educational reforms being implemented in Hong Kong, teachers are recommended to develop constructivist strategies to promote student-centered learning. The constructivist perspective provides teachers with some insights into how the diverse learning needs of students can be fulfilled; and, by following its principles, they can facilitate students’ learning by adopting an active learning approach, aimed at encouraging student autonomy and initiative in learning and promoting intrinsic motivation. When designing a lesson, teachers have to make the learning task interactive and at an optimum level of difficulty. Also, the lesson plans and teaching strategies adopted have to be constantly reviewed and evaluated in relation to students’ needs and responses. In practice, it is beneficial for students’ learning if teachers give them opportunities to: transfer what they have learned to other contexts and subjects; make new meaning from it; speak out and elaborate how they make sense of the learning content; use their higher-order thinking skills; have sufficient time to think; and utilize both long-term and short-term memory.

Managing the social aspect The social aspect refers to social activities and interpersonal issues arising in the classroom, for example the teacher’s expectations of students, interpersonal interactions and peer relationships (Biggs & Watkins, 1995). The current educational

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reforms in Hong Kong advocate making students the center of learning. The strategies teachers can use for this purpose include discussion, demonstration, practical work, group work, project learning and cooperative learning. If we examine the conceptual basis for these suggested learning activities, it can be seen that learning is conducted through various kinds of social activities in which students are expected to relate to others when engaged in learning. The types of social behaviors that concern most classroom teachers include being off-task, unruliness, bullying, violence and disruption (Boys’ & Girls’ Clubs Association [BGCA], 2000; Education Convergence 1998, 2002; Wong, 2003; Wong & Chiu, 2002). Such behavior is regarded as socially, morally and educationally unacceptable. Teachers appear to feel that desirable social values need to be enforced before students can learn successfully in the classroom, and manage properly their relationships with each other, the school authorities and teachers. Apart from teacher-student relationships, various researchers have suggested that student’s relationships with each other directly influence their motivation to learn, achievement, educational aspirations, socialization and growth as whole persons (Cowie & Rudduck, 1988; Fry & Fry, 1997; Topping & Ehly, 1998). When students experience difficulties in relating to each other, for example feeling rejected and isolated, they may become tense and simply unable to learn (Greenhalgh, 1994; Rogers, 1983). Also, Gipps (1995) suggested other possible negative aspects of the social environment, such as when students: • are discouraged from helping each other; • feel discouraged because of poor academic attainment; • are encouraged to cover up their misunderstandings; • develop tense relationships with each other; and • are divided into groups of high and low achievers. Given these considerations, teachers have a primary role in helping students develop their social skills and interact well with others. Teachers can demonstrate, explain and practice the skills, and train students to apply them by doing role plays. Finally, feedback can be provided to promote the use of these skills in everyday settings. Some basic social skills suggested by Brandes and Ginnis, (1994) are noted below: • Being active listeners in order to establish trusting relationships with others; • Respecting others’ privacy and confidentiality; • Showing care and concern to others; • Having a deep sense of trust and confidence in students’ ability to understand their own problems and find solutions to them; • Respecting others’ opinions and accepting their true feelings • Showing empathy to others; and • Showing eagerness and willingness to help those in need.

466 Ming Tak HUE

Managing the affective aspect The affective aspect is concerned with the emotion that underlies a person’s behavior. Research has suggested that there is a close connection between emotional growth and learning (Greenhalgh, 1994; Rogers, 1983). This relationship can be described as “confluent” (Brandes & Ginnis, 1994, p. 17) since it depicts the connection between the affective and the cognitive aspects of classroom life. In other words, how individuals feel affects how they learn: feeling and learning are interrelated when one engages in learning. One of the most influential educators in this area was Carl Rogers (1961, 1983) who claimed that learning takes place when it helps individual students maintain and enhance their personal and social growth. Teachers can help students achieve personal and social growth, and hence learning, when they establish a helping relationship with their students — a relationship which Rogers (1961, pp. 39–40) described as one in which “at least one of the parties has the interest of promoting the growth, development, maturity, improved functioning, improved coping with life, of the other.” Such a relationship can be promoted through the interpersonal qualities of genuineness, acceptance, and empathy. By displaying these qualities, teachers are more able to help students alleviate behavior problems, and thus facilitate their learning. These key interpersonal qualities can be explained as follows: • Being genuine: The teacher must be a real person in his/her communication with students: there is no pretence, and there is transparency in the relationship. As Rogers (1983, p. 153) stated: when the facilitator [the teacher] is a real person, being what she is, entering into a relationship with the learner without presenting a front or façade, she is much more likely to be effective. This means that the feelings that she is experiencing are available to her, available to her awareness, that she is able to live these feelings, be them, and be able to communicate them if appropriate.

•

Prizing, acceptance and trust: The teacher must show positive, caring and non-judgmental attitudes toward students. This is unconditional. In the words of Rogers (1983, p. 156), it involves ways of: prizing her feelings, her opinions, her person. It is caring for the learner, but nonpossessive caring. It is an acceptance of this other individual as a separate person who has worth in her own right. It is a basic trust — a belief that this other person is somehow fundamentally trustworthy.

•

Being empathetic: The teacher must show an ability to understand the inner world of students by “standing in their shoes” and “viewing the world through their eyes”, and to express this understanding to them as they perceive it. As Rogers (1983, p. 157) explained:

Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs 467 When the teacher has the ability to understand the student’s reactions from the inside, has a sensitive awareness of the way the process of education and learning seems to the student, then again the likelihood of significant learning is increased.

Many teachers who have worked with difficult students for a long time agree that when students have emotional problems or show intense feelings, such as those caused by poor academic performance and family difficulties, it is almost impossible for them to concentrate well and learn effectively in the classroom. Only when their emotional needs are fulfilled can these students begin to learn and see the meaningfulness of education. For this to happen, their teachers need to spend more time talking to them to learn more about their inner thoughts and personal lives. This also makes it easier for teachers to help students extend their view of classroom learning from being purely the pursuit of high academic achievement to wider aspects of life.

Various Approaches to Classroom Management Having highlighted the diversity of students’ learning needs and the four aspects of classroom management, this section provides some practical approaches to the managing the classroom. The following discussion is based on Lewis’ (1997) classification, in which various approaches to classroom management were put into three categories: teacher-orientation, student-orientation and group-orientation. Three influential approaches to these categories are presented below, namely assertive discipline (Canter, 1993, 1994; Canter & Canter, 1976), social discipline (Dreikurs & Cassel, 1974; Dreikurs & Grey, 1993; Dreikurs, Grundwald & Pepper, 1998) and teacher effectiveness training (Gordon, 1987, 1989; Gordon & Burch, 2003). Although these studies adopt different perspectives on what happens in the classroom and recommend different professional practices, their ultimate goal is to help teachers manage a diverse classroom positively and deal with classroom behavior and students’ diverse needs in an efficient and healthy manner. The three categories — teacher-orientation, student-orientation and grouporientation are described briefly in the following section.

Three categories of approaches to classroom management •

Teacher-orientation: In this category, the teacher is the leader, the controller and the manager, as it is assumed that, in the main, students are unable to make rational decisions in their best interests. The teacher therefore has the

468 Ming Tak HUE

•

•

responsibility and the authority to decide what is best for students, and carries out his/her role by asserting both clear expectations of behavior and the consequences of unacceptable behavior. When these roles are not performed well, students may fail to behave well. According to this model, student misbehavior is attributed to teachers’ inability to play out their leadership role in the classroom. Group-orientation: In this case, teachers and students are viewed as holding a more or less equal position. Students are allowed to exercise their power of control while they are supervised and managed by teachers. Students’ misbehavior is regarded as a result of a lack of social recognition and respect from classmates; and misbehavior is seen as generally being driven by the misguided goals of attention-seeking, power-seeking, revenge and helplessness. When such behavior takes place, the teacher and students have to work together democratically to devise rules and set consequences for classroom behavior. The teacher also has to pay attention to the social setting of the classroom, helping students boost their social recognition and increase their self-esteem (Dreikurs & Cassel, 1974; Dreikurs & Grey, 1993). Student-orientation: Here, students are the primary focus of the classroom. They experience high levels of self-control, with teachers exercising minimum control over their behavior. From this perspective, students have the potential to improve their behavior when they experience personal growth and their selfesteem is enhanced. The approach focuses on what teachers and students think and feel about each other’s behavior in order to promote positive studentteacher relationships. Teachers try to improve classroom behavior by using influencing skills so that students decide on their own behavior and take responsibility for it, which is seen as a win-win approach for conflict resolution and behavior management.

Three modes of classroom management According to Lewis (1997), the three orientations of the teacher, the group and the student can also be regarded as the modes of control, management and influence respectively. Based upon the work of Lewis, the features of the three modes are elaborated and presented in Table 14.3. The mode of control focuses more on how students should behave, whereas the mode of management pays more attention to collaboration between the teacher and students in deciding how the classroom should be managed. Lastly, the mode of influence lets the students decide how they should behave. In Table 14.3, it can be seen that mode of control, in which the teacher has maximum control over students’ behavior, lies at one of the extremes. It adopts

Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs 469

behaviorist strategies for keeping classroom discipline. At the other extreme is the mode of influence where students have the power to decide on their own behavior. In this case, teachers can influence students’ achievement of self-control by using humanistic strategies. Finally, in the middle of this continuum lies the mode of management in which a democratic ethos is advocated. Here, all classroom participants (both students and teachers) work together to set rules and decide on consequences for classroom behaviors, and are responsible for their own behavior. In this scenario, interactionist strategies are often adopted for improving classroom behavior. Table 14.3 shows examples of the three approaches and modes. Table 14.3 Categories of classroom management Mode of changing students’ behavior

Features and examples of the three approaches to classroom management Teacher-orientation

Group-orientation

Student-orientation

Control

Management

Influence

Classroom dynamics

Teachers are the center of the classroom and hold a senior position. They are in control whereas students are being controlled.

Teachers and students hold a more or less equal position. Students are allowed to exercise their power of control while being supervised/ managed by teachers.

Students are the centre of the classroom. They exercise high levels of self-control whereas teachers keep a minimum level of control on students’ behavior.

Rationale underlying the strategies used

Behaviorism

Democracy

Humanism

Example of approaches

Canter’s assertive discipline

Dreikurs’ social discipline

Gordon’s teacher effectiveness training

Teacher and students decide how they should behave. They work democratically together to devise rules and set consequences for classroom behavior.

Teachers improve classroom behavior by using influencing skills. Students are provided with room for deciding on their own behavior and taking responsibility for it.

Basic principle Teachers are the leaders in the classroom. They decide how students should behave. Rewards and punishments are used to control and manipulate students’ behavior. Adapted from Lewis, 1997, p. 48.

470 Ming Tak HUE

Specific Strategies for Classroom Management A teacher-orientation: Assertive discipline Assertive discipline is a teacher-oriented approach in which teachers have the responsibility to decide what is best for their students (Canter & Canter 1976, 2002; Lewis, 1997) and the right to expect students to maintain a good standard of discipline in the classroom so that effective instruction can take place and the diverse needs of students can be met. Teachers therefore have the right to be assertive in maintaining standards and responding to student misbehavior. Canter & Canter (1976, p. 2) identified the three important teacher rights in this approach, as follows: 1.

2.

3.

The right to establish a classroom structure and routine that provides the optimal learning environment in light of your (the teacher’s) own strengths and weaknesses; The right to determine and request appropriate behavior from the students which meets your (the teacher’s) needs and encourages the positive social and educational development of the child; and The right to ask for help and assistance from parents, the principal, etc., when you need assistance with a child.

Teachers who adopt this approach are able to recognize and exercise their rights, particularly when teaching is interrupted by students’ inappropriate behavior. In this sense, assertiveness is a way of leading to an orderly learning environment. It should be noted, however, that being assertive does not mean that strong commands, harsh rules and coercion are used excessively. Instead, these teachers communicate their expectations and the consequences of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors in a clear, calm and consistent manner. In brief, according to Lewis (1997), this can be implemented by using the following procedures: 1. Identify the behaviors which are acceptable and unacceptable in the classroom and develop rules to stop unacceptable behaviors and encourage acceptable ones; 2. Develop sets of consequences for both acceptable and unacceptable behaviors; 3. Explain the rationale for these rules as well as the consequences and benefits of appropriate behaviors; and 4. Constantly practice, model and reinforce these rules in the classroom.

A group-orientation: Social discipline Social discipline, suggested by Dreikurs, Grundwald, & Pepper (1998), is a grouporiented approach. It presumes that all human behaviors are purposefully directed towards achieving social recognition and respect. Misbehavior, then, is a result of

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using the wrong means for gaining social acceptance. As noted before, when students are unable to obtain recognition and a sense of belonging in class, they turn to the misguided goals of attention-seeking, power-seeking, revenge and helplessness. Before helping these students, it is necessary for teachers to understand what has gone wrong and what unsuitable goals they have established. Table 14.4 shows examples of students’ misbehavior and teachers’ feelings aroused in the course of dealing with it. The four inappropriate goals are explained further below. Table 14.4 Examples of student’s misbehavior and teacher’s feelings in relation to the four misguided goals Misguided goals

Attention-getting

Some • Constantly indicators repeating the of same misbehavior misbehavior after being stopped by the teacher • Clowning • Acting foolishly or bashfully • Showing off • Always asking questions Teacher’s feelings

Power-seeking

• Resistant to changing misbehavior. • Increasing the frequency of the performance of the behavior • Stubborn • Argumentative • Challenging • Bossy

Revenge

Helplessness

• Hurting others • Refusing to have • Being unable to a try gain attention and • Isolated from power from others group and wants • Bullying to be alone • Physically and • Being a loser verbally abusive • Being violent

• Being annoyed or • Feeling provoked • Feeling hurt or • Feeling angry insulted. irritated • Feeling threatened • Feeling sorry for or defeated those who are humiliated or bullied.

• Feeling powerless. • Feeling helpless to help the students

Attention-seeking: Students gain attention from teachers using the wrong methods. They either seek attention actively by making a noise, asking questions, disturbing others, or acting as clowns or do so passively by not following classroom rules (Johns, MacNaughton & Marabinus, 1989). Power-seeking: Students with power-seeking goals feel inferior because they have a false perception of their ability, or fail to achieve recognition from their social group. Their sense of being recognized and accepted is enhanced by acting bossily, opposing school rules or performing any other behavior which challenges authority in the classroom, or elsewhere in the school. They want is to be in control and to force others to comply.

472 Ming Tak HUE Revenge: Students who fail to gain attention and power in the classroom tend to feel hurt and rejected. When their need for social recognition accelerates, they in turn seek compensation or defend themselves by taking revenge. The fulfillment of their needs may be achieved by, for example, physically or verbally hurting others. Helplessness: Helplessness is the result of failure to seek power and revenge. These students are overwhelmed by their feelings of incompetence and worthlessness. They are likely to give way to complete despair and easily tend to give up trying to regain a sense of belonging. Mostly, they feel an excessive sense of hopelessness. To help misbehaving students change, the teacher can lead them to understand the inappropriateness of their goals — a process through which their skills in selfdiscipline can be enhanced and they learn how to take responsibility for their behavior. The following four-step procedure may be followed by the teacher: 1. Intervene promptly Action should be taken quickly to stop students’ misbehavior. The teacher should avoid reinforcing wrong behaviors by giving them attention, being involved in a power struggle, retaliating or agreeing with the students’ feelings of inadequacy. Otherwise, misguided behaviors may be reinforced and become difficult to change. Some appropriate responses to students’ goals are given in Table 14.5. Table 14.5 Appropriate responses to students’ misguided goals Student behavior

Appropriate responses by teacher

Attention-getting • • • •

Do not pay attention to wrong deeds/behaviors and attention- seeking actions. Describe the problematic behavior and make no judgment. Arrange a time when the student can get full attention and approval from the class. Take all chances to offer positive recognition to the student.

Power-seeking

• • • •

Do not argue with the student. Avoid forcefully changing the student. Offer choices and alternatives for misbehavior. Offer ways for the student to feel important by assigning tasks or positions.

Revenge

• • • •

Avoid retaliating and fighting back. Do not make sarcastic or insulting comments. Ask the student to do something helpful and special for you. Show support.

Helplessness

• Avoid giving the student a negative message that nothing can be done. • Offer genuine support by allowing the student to experience success. • Believe that the student can do something well or contribute to the class.

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2.

3.

4.

Identify the students’ misguided goals Teachers should clarify the goals underlying the students’ misbehavior. Suggestions for ways of doing so are listed in Table 14.5. Disclose the goals of the misbehavior Students are encouraged to explore the goals underlying their behavior. The teacher may start the conversation with more open questions, rather than making judgments about what a student has done, and then with the student explore the causes of the particular behavior. Explore alternative behavior After the misbehavior has been identified, teachers can facilitate students’ thinking about alternative ways of behaving. The students should be empowered to make their own rational choices and have the right to determine the behavior which will satisfy their needs.

A student-orientation: Teacher effectiveness training Teacher effectiveness training, as proposed by Gordon (1987), is a student-oriented approach. Adopting the Rogerian counseling method, it suggests that students can decide and deal with their own behavior. From this perspective, it is not good practice for teachers to give very many instructions to students and constantly make decisions for them. Instead, teachers have to establish a good working relationship with students, grounded upon trust, goodwill and genuine communication. Some key principles of Gordon’s model are summarized below: • Exerting a positive influence over students, using non-controlling methods, rather than controlling behavior involving strong commands, sarcasm or coercion; • Helping students recognize their own feelings; • Leading students to think about the effects of their own behavior on others, and to realize their responsibility for changing that behavior to solve problems; • Using helping skills, such as recognizing others’ feelings and active listening, to influence students’ behavior; • Building up positive teacher-student relationships with trust and goodwill; • Acknowledging that good student-teacher relationships and communication are the keys to participative decision making in classroom management; and • Adopting a no-loser conflict resolution approach to behavior management, where both teacher and students are winners. In practice, teachers may implement this model by using the following fourstep procedure: 1. Let the student understand the problem Teachers should give students liberty to resolve problems by themselves.

474 Ming Tak HUE

2.

3.

4.

Before developing any strategies for improving behavior, students have to reflectively review their problems. As they do so, power should not be exercised directly upon them, either through verbal or non-verbal communication (Gordon, 1987, 1989). Use the skill of active listening and give constructive feedback Teachers should try to understand students’ accounts of their inappropriate behavior and their suggested resolutions to deal with the problems; and constructive feedback can be given to support the students in making a change. Look for ways of solving the problem Teachers and students should work together to find a solution which is acceptable to both parties. All those involved should disclose their thoughts and feelings explicitly. Implement and evaluate the solution Teachers should guide students to examine the appropriateness and feasibility of the proposed solutions before implementing them in the classroom. If necessary, there can be constant monitoring and evaluation (Gordon, 1989; Lewis, 1997).

In summary, the three models acknowledge that students who exhibit inappropriate behaviors are always driven by some subconscious and misguided goals. Their misbehavior is an indication that their basic needs have not yet been fulfilled. They feel unsafe, helpless and insecure because of a lack of recognition by classmates or the social group to which they belong. Therefore, teachers should do whatever they can to enhance the self-esteem of these students and avoid discouraging and disempowering them. More importantly, the three models acknowledge that education should be geared towards students’ needs and abilities and offer opportunities for them to experience success and recognition for what they do well.

Adopting Chinese Classic Philosophies for Managing a Diverse Classroom The three approaches to the management of diverse classrooms outlined above were basically developed from Western classroom experiences, and their rationales are based broadly on the culture of Western societies. It is, therefore, necessary to understand how the Chinese culture influences the ways teachers think about the management of diverse students’ needs. Some recent research has suggested that teachers’ practice and behavior in the classroom reflects the influence of the wider culture, and especially the teacher’s culture and the location of the school (Hue, 2001, 2005a, 2005b).

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It is interesting to note that, when talking about their classrooms, many Hong Kong teachers tend to make sense of their management strategies by referring to the three schools of classical Chinese philosphy — Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism (Hue 2001; 2005a; 2005b). These philosophies are also used as ‘golden’ guides to how students should be cultivated as educated citizens in terms of their moral, social, emotional and personal selves, and how their behavior should be managed. The relationships between the three schools of philosophy and classroom management are indicated in Table 14.6. Table 14.6 Relevance of the three schools of classical Chinese philosophy to classroom management Some key philosophical ideas Confucianism • Highlight the ethos of humanism. • Develop harmonized interpersonal relationships. • Develop individuals as moral and responsible members of groups and society.

Relevance to classroom management • Everyone is changeable. • Show students the loving heart of ren. • Show students genuineness, empathy and caring. • Promote students’ humaneness • Teach students how to behave properly according to norms and rituals. • Socialize students to be the perfect gentleman.

Taoism

• Link oneself to nature. • Respect the uniqueness of each person. • Reach real efficiency by adopting • Act according to individual students’ the principles of the natural world. capabilities and desires. • Adopt the principle of ‘action through inaction’. • Teachers and students have supplementary relations. • Release the potential of the students and keep it flowing like a river. • Avoid imposing explicit intentions and a strong will on students. • Avoid harsh rules, rewards and punishment to make effective classroom management possible.

Legalism

• Consolidate one’s leading status with power and authority. • Establish clear codes of behavior standards and systems of control. • Emphasize legitimacy, power and charisma. • Use the strategies of Fa, Shu, and Shi.

Adapted from Hue 2004; 2005a.

• Establish and enforce classroom rules. • Build a reward and punishment system. • Manipulate students’ impressions of teachers and their behavior. • Make a distinct division between the roles of teacher and student.

476 Ming Tak HUE The key principle of ‘teaching all diverse students’ (有教無類), commonly adopted by teachers, is rooted in Confucianism. Also, on occasions, when something goes wrong in the classroom, some teachers may apply the Taoist principle of ‘dealing with changing things using the strategy of doing nothing” (yi bu bian yin wan bian, 以不變應萬變)’. Another common principle, which can be traced to the philosophy of Legalism, is ‘harsh rules should be enforced during chaotic and unsettled times’ (zi luan shi yong zhong dian,治亂世用重典). The key thoughts of these three schools and their implications for the management of a diverse classroom are described in the following section.

The Confucian approach to classroom management Confucius (孔夫子) (551–479 BC), the founder of the philosophical school of Confucianism, is addressed as ‘The First Teacher’ (先師), ‘The Sage’ (至聖), and ‘The Former Teacher who Reached Sainthood’ (至聖先師). His teaching emphasized personal morality, correctness of social behavior, harmony of interpersonal relationships, justice and sincerity. In broad terms, the humanistic values of Confucianism are designed to promote harmony in society. Confucianism is grounded upon the three concepts of Li (禮), Yi (義) and Ren (仁). Briefly, Li (禮) is a form of social norm, providing guidelines on social behavior which commit a person to building the ideal society. Yì (義) literally means “righteousness”, and individuals are encouraged not to pursue their own personal interests, but do what is right for others and act morally as expected by the society. Ren (仁) can be translated as “human heartedness”, and is based upon empathy and the understanding of others, rather than carrying out divinely ordained rules. Confucianism still serves as a paramount and highly respected reference for the social behaviors of teachers and students and how their roles should be carried out (Hue, 2005a, 2005b). Some Confucian beliefs governing teachers’ classroom behavior have been identified as follows. • Being socialized as the “perfect gentlemen” (君子): It is crucial for teachers to help students understand the Way, or the principles of life, so that they can be socialized as “the perfect gentlemen.” They do so by showing humaneness to others, playing their social role according to the traditional value of li, and being loyal to the social groups to which they belong. • Showing students the loving heart of ren: Ren is the way to promote the whole-person growth of students. The interpersonal relationships between teachers and students, or among students, should be grounded upon the basic principles of ren. In practice, teachers have to show their students that they care because this is regarded as a key quality of interpersonal relationships.

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•

•

When teachers carry out the role of ren, they manage students humanely and take care of them, and in return expect to be strictly obeyed. Giving priority to promoting students’ humaneness in the classroom: Teachers have to acknowledge students’ individual differences, and accordingly promote their personal development through all aspects of teaching and learning. In many circumstances, this is more important than the academic achievement of students. Teachers, therefore, should ensure that students’ personal and social growth is promoted. Recognizing that everyone is capable of change: Teachers should take a positive view of human nature, believing that people are basically good and the individual differences between students are positive. They acknowledge that the diversity of students in the classroom should be managed in an effective and efficient manner. No student should be thought of as a hopeless case. If something goes wrong in the classroom, the teacher should concentrate on the students’ potential and develop appropriate strategies to help them change their behavior.

Taoist approach to classroom management Taoism was founded by Lao Tze (老子) (400 BC), and one of the most outstanding representatives of this school of philosophy was Zhuangzi (莊子) (400 BC). A key principle of Taoism is wu-wei (無為), which literally means ‘action through inaction’. It is regarded as the Tao (道), the Way, nature or principle, for accomplishing things. This does not mean that one should simply do nothing, but that one should avoid doing something with explicit intentions and a strong will. One should proactively follow the principles of Nature to reach real efficiency by acting according to one’s capabilities and desires because actions taken in accordance with the Tao (Nature) are easier and more productive than actively attempting to counter the Tao. Taoism places emphasis upon spontaneity and teaches that appropriate ways of acting are followed in the natural world. As teachers and students belong to this natural world, the classroom should be a context in which the natural potential of students is released and kept flowing like a running river, rather than being bound by artificial institutional restrictions. In essence, teachers should appreciate the lives of students and respect each individual’s capabilities, rather than leading them to desire a life that is always beyond their reach and dictated by the demands of institutions or other external forces. To a large extent, Taoism offers a cultural foundation for inclusive education in Chinese society. In many Hong Kong schools, the teachings of Taoism are frequently adopted by teachers in the following ways.

478 Ming Tak HUE •

•

•

•

•

Action through inaction: There is an order to everything in nature. If a teacher takes measures to manage student behaviors, the balance of order or the principles of nature may be upset, and this is particularly so if these measures are unnecessary or inappropriate. Doing something through inaction means that action should be taken in accordance with the natural order or principles of nature. Acting in this way will be effective in resolving the issues or problems teachers have to deal with, but measures which are not consistent with the natural order may make the difficulties more complex and harder to resolve. Acknowledging the diversity of students: Each student has unique potential and abilities. It is like the sun rising in the East and setting in the West and the river running from high land to low land. Even if students are regarded as ‘useless’ (wu yong,無用) from one perspective, they are always considered as astonishingly ‘useful’ (da yong, 大用) from nature’s point of view. With this understanding in mind, the individual differences of students should be respected and valued. Teachers have crucial roles in releasing students’ potential, allowing them to develop naturally. Relativity in the classroom: Whatever happens in the classroom should be understood in a relative sense. For instance, good and bad behavior, orderly and disorderly classrooms, and being in control and out of control can be understood from many perspectives. Superficially, these situations are different, but in fact they are the same things being viewed from two sides. From this viewpoint, nothing can be understood in an absolute sense, except the Tao itself, and everything in the classroom can make sense in dynamic ways. The complementarity of teachers and students: In a relative sense, the roles of the teacher and student are complementary. An effective classroom requires both teachers and students to function effectively, and in carrying out their complementary roles one should not dominate the other. In this process, students should see their teachers as friends and peers, not as powerful authority figures to whose demands they must submit, a situation which can lead them to dislike, even despise, their teachers. Replacing the ‘hard’ with the ‘soft’: Teachers recognize that practices and behaviors which carry some natural features of “softness” are more effective than those with artificial features of “hardness”, since Taoist philosophy proposes “using softness to control hardness” (yi you ji gang, 以柔濟剛). This principle can be applied to managing the behavior of students with emotional disorders. The use of severe punishments and harsh rules for such students, in an effort to defend a teacher’s authority, often produces more rebellious behavior and so is ineffective in improving the classroom situation. However, being “soft” does not mean being “weak”: it is like water which is soft when it is still, but which can cut through a valley when it runs. In adopting “soft”

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strategies when dealing with students’ disruptive behavior, teachers should avoid direct instructions and strong discipline, and attempt to stay emotionally very calm to ensure that they can communicate effectively by using such skills as active listening and empathy.

Legalist approach to classroom management Legalism was one of the three main philosophical schools at the end of the Zhou Dynasty (256 BC), with its major representatives being Han Feizi (韓非子)(233 BC) and Li Si (李斯) (280 BC). As modern observers of Chinese politics and society have argued (Qian, 1979, 1992; Sun, 1992; Wei, 1972, 2000), Legalist ideas have merged with mainstream Confucianism and still play a role in Chinese society. Legalists believe that a ruler wields absolute power and authority, with his subjects considered as inferiors. Within this power relationship, there is not much room for morality and humanity, and to maintain it the ruler ensures that he is in control of his subjects by using the three strategies of Fa (法), Shu (術) and Shi (勢). Fa literally means “the law” or “the standard of behavior.” The code of behavior must be written clearly and made public. All people under the ruler are equal before the law; and to all those who obey the laws, rewards are given, while those who break them are punished severely. This ensures that every action taken is make explicit and is predictable. Shu refers to “method and control.” Special methods and “secrets” are employed by a ruler to make sure that no one takes control away from him. Finally, Shi refers to “legitimacy, power and charisma.” The ruler holds power not as a person but through his position and the image of leadership he projects; and to maintain this, he manipulates the behavior of his subjects and their impression of his leadership through impression management and by distancing himself from them. The school of Legalism provides teachers with many ideas about how they should interpret their role and manage the classroom (Hue, 2005a). From this perspective, teachers associate their roles with rulers with their students being regarded as subjects, and consequently students’ behavior and conduct should be controlled. To do this, teachers use their Fa, Shu, and Shi by establishing and maintaining order and rules, giving commands, constructing a system of punishments and rewards, and using the skills of impression management, as elaborated below. • Building up the classroom rules of Fa: Teachers set rules and establish clear expectations, limits and consequences, and insist on acceptable behavior from students. Students are told about what is expected of them and why. The teachers’ expectations concerning standards of behavior and classroom procedures are clearly and specifically defined.

480 Ming Tak HUE •

•

•

Using the managerial skills of Shu: One of the managerial strategies of teachers who adopt the Legalist approach is the frequent use of commands as a method of control: students are told what to do and how to behave. In most cases, teachers issue their orders without forcing students to obey, while students submit as a way of respecting their teachers’ leadership and recognizing their authority. Establishing a system of Shu: The Shu is similar to a behaviorist approach, utilizing the motivational power of rewards and punishments. Rewards cause desired behaviors to increase in frequency and undesirable behaviors to decrease in frequency. In contrast, punishment discourages undesirable behavior, and the removal of punishment serves to strengthen behavior and increase its tendency to be repeated. It is assumed that these consequences influence student behavior in relation to the established behavioral principles of Fa. Facilitating the impression management of Shi: Impression management is a strategy for manipulating students’ impressions of teachers and their behavior. It is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to influence, maintain and enhance students’ perceptions of teachers as leaders and authority figures, so that classroom activities can function effectively. To ensure this, behavior which is directed against, or may harm, the image of teachers is stopped and, in some cases, punishment administered.

These three schools of Chinese philosophy offer a considerable number of ideas for teacher strategies for managing diverse classrooms. They also serve as basic references for the social and moral behavior of classroom participants and how the diverse needs of students can be fulfilled. Consciously or unconsciously, teachers and students inherit some of these teachings and incorporate them into their personal systems for classroom management, just as many schools in Hong Kong and elsewhere regularly import ideas, theories and practices from the West.

Summary This chapter aims to help teachers take a broad and positive view of classroom management and how the diverse needs of students can be met. The emphasis is on a proactive approach to the development of management strategies in order to promote the academic, social and emotional growth of students. Lewis’s (1997) categories of classroom management: teacher-orientation, student-orientation and group-orientation are discussed; and three influential approaches to classroom management are given as examples, namely assertive discipline, social discipline and teacher effectiveness training. They offer ideas and

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practical strategies for effective classroom management, aimed generally at promoting students’ whole-person growth and, in particular, helping them develop their ability in self-management, self-control and self-evaluation. To assist teachers’ understanding of how Chinese culture influences their way of managing the diversity of student needs and the classroom, the influence of the classic Chinese philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism in Hong Kong classrooms are described. Consciously or unconsciously, Chinese teachers and students incorporate these philosophies into their personal systems of classroom management. While Hong Kong society has been strongly affected by many Western influences, Confucianism in particular still serves as a basic reference for the social and moral behavior of classroom participants,

Points for Discussion and Learning Activities 1.

Making sense of classroom management Answering the following questions may help you understand better your perceptions of the key concepts of classroom management. • When you enter a classroom, how can you tell if it is managed effectively? What are some of the signs of well-managed and mismanaged classrooms? • What should a teacher do (and not do) to manage a classroom in an effective manner? • To what extent is your understanding of good behavior and good discipline the same as students’ understandings?

2.

Designing your classroom seating plan Prepare a floor plan for a classroom which you have observed or for which you are responsible. Try out various designs by arranging different seating and furniture patterns. When doing this, consider the needs of five students who have different learning difficulties, and the needs of one student who has low level autism. Take into account three aspects of classroom management — learning, social and affective. Then examine the advantages and drawbacks of your designs in terms of direct teaching, group work, project work and various other activities.

3.

A boy who liked singing Study the case below and then answer the questions. A boy, Ming Shing, was in class 3D in a secondary school. He was used to singing in a low voice from time to time in the course of lessons when he felt like it. In one English lesson, he began singing as usual while one

482 Ming Tak HUE or two of his classmates were laughing at him. The English teacher, Miss Lee, reacted quickly and assertively asked him to stop. He simply ignored her and kept doing it. She felt a bit insulted. Most of his classmates apparently were used to his singing and simply ignored it and said nothing to him. One student shouted at him and in an annoyed tone asked him to shut up. After the lesson, Miss Lee talked to Ming Shing’s form tutor, and learned that the boy had been identified as having some behavioral problems. • Why did Ming Shing sing in the lesson? What were his learning needs? • How could Miss Lee have managed this behavior in the classroom? • If you were Miss Lee, how would you help Ming Shing improve his behavior? • What should Miss Lee say to the students who laughed and shouted at Ming Shing in the classroom? How could Miss Lee manage their behavior? • How would your answers change if you learned that Ming Shing had a mild mental disability? 4.

Managing the classroom behavior of a student, Kwok-King Study the case below, and then identify the needs of Kwok-King and whether they were fulfilled by the teacher, Miss Hung. If not, suggest ways to improve the situation, using the three approaches to classroom management introduced previously. In a Chinese language lesson, the teacher, Miss Hung, copied the answers to a listening exercise onto the blackboard and discussed them with the class. While most of students engaged in the learning task, Miss Hung noticed that Kwok-King wasn’t paying attention to her teaching and was occasionally out of his seat borrowing stationery from other classmates. When Miss Hung got close to him, she found that Kwok-King had not written the notes she had put on the blackboard. After this, Miss Hung constantly urged him to do the learning task as instructed. Kwok-King gradually got annoyed, and then listlessly picked up a worksheet and attempted to show it to Miss Hung. The gesture was intended to send Miss Hung the message that he had already done the task, but Miss Hung found that it was not his work. In fact, he had taken the work he showed her from another student, Hui Ting, who sat next to him. Miss Hung felt this behavior showed lack of respect and was deeply irritated by it, and so she scolded Kwok-King. Kwok-King talked back repeatedly and shouted loudly, “You need not be so harsh. I really don’t want to have you as my teacher.”

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5.

Chinese approaches to classroom management Refer to the three Chinese approaches to classroom management in this chapter, and discuss the following questions. • To what extent can you link your classroom management strategies to the three schools of Chinese philosophy? • Can you identify classroom situations where these schools of philosophy can be adopted for improving student behavior or fulfilling their needs? What skills would be needed to do this? • The three schools of thought contain contradictions. When more than one is applied in managing a classroom, how can a teacher ensure that they are blended together without causing conflict?

Glossary Assertive discipline is a teacher-oriented approach to behavior management which suggests that teachers have the responsibility to decide what is best for students and so have a right to be assertive in maintaining standards and responding to student misbehavior. Classroom management refers to a set of teacher behaviors through which the teacher is able to create a positive learning environment, promote positive interpersonal interaction, and facilitate effective learning. It includes four aspects: physical, instructional, social and affective. Confucianism is a broad term describing a Chinese philosophy founded by Confucius (551– 479 BC). He is addressed as ‘The First Teacher’ and ‘The Sage’, and his teaching emphasized personal morality, correctness of social behavior, harmony of interpersonal relationships, justice and sincerity. Legalism is a broad term describing a Chinese philosophy founded by Han Feizi (233 BC) and Li Si (280 BC ). It explains the existence of power relationships and their maintenance, involving three strategies, i.e. Fa (the law or the standard of behavior), Shu (method and control) and Shi (legitimacy, power, and charisma). Social discipline is a group-oriented approach to behavior management which presumes that all human behaviors are purposefully directed towards achieving social recognition and respect, and sees misbehavior as a result of using the wrong means for gaining social acceptance. Taoism is a broad term describing a Chinese philosophy founded by Lao Tze (400 BC) and Zhuangzi (400 BC). Its basic principle is wu-wei which literally means “action through inaction”, which is regarded as the Tao, the Way of accomplishing things. Taoism also places emphasis on spontaneity and the relativism of human ways of life. Teacher-effective training is a student-orientated approach to behavior management which suggests that students can decide on and deal with their own behavior. To help them make changes, the teacher has to establish a good relationship with students, grounded upon trust, goodwill, and genuine communication.

484 Ming Tak HUE

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Classroom Management for Children with Diverse Learning Needs 485 Hue, M. T. (2005a). Preliminary findings: The social construction of classroom discipline in Hong Kong secondary schools. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education. Hue, M. T. (2005b). The Influences of Chinese culture on teacher-student interaction in the classrooms of Hong Kong Secondary Schools: Curriculum perspectives, Australian Curriculum Studies Association, 25(3): 37–43. Johns, F. A., MacNaughton, R. H., & Marabinus, N. G. (1989). School discipline guidebook: Theory into practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Lewis, R. (1997). The discipline dilemma: Control, management, influence (2nd ed.). Camberwell, Victoria: ACER. Mercer, C. D. (1997). Students with learning disabilities (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Qian, M. (1979) Chinese culture and Chinese racial characteristics: A historical perspective. Hong Kong. The Chinese University of Hong Kong (in Chinese). Qian, M. (1992) The history of Chinese thoughts. Taiwan: Tai Wan Xue Sheng Shu Ju (in Chinese). Rogers, C. R. (1961). On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C. R. (1983). Freedom to learn for the 80s. New York: Charles E. Merrill. Rogers, B. (1997). The language of discipline: A practical approach to effective classroom management. Plymouth: Northcote House. Rogers, B. (2000). Classroom behaviour: A practical guide to effective teaching, behaviour management and colleague support. London: Books Education. Salend, S. J. (2001). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and reflective practices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Sun, L. K. (1992) The structure of Chinese culture. Hong Kong: Ji Yan Zhe (in Chinese). Topping, K., & Ehly, S. (Eds.). (1998). Peer-assisted learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Watkins, C. (1999). Managing classroom behaviour: From research to diagnosis. London: Institute of Education, University of London, in association with Association of Teachers and Lecturers. Watkins, C., & Wagner, P. (2000). Improving school behaviour. London: Paul Chapman/ Sage. Wei, Z. T. (1972) Critical approach to the Chinese cultures. Taiwan: Shui Nu Publisher (in Chinese). Wei, Z. T. (2000) The transformation of traditional Chinese thoughts. Taiwan: Hong Ye Wen Huan Shi Ye Limited Company (in Chinese). Wong, D. S. W. (2003). School bullying and responding tactics: A life education approach studies. Hong Kong. Li Koo Publishing Co. Ltd (in Chinese). Wong, D. S. W., & Chiu, K. S. (2002). Helping pupils away from bullying. Hong Kong: Centre for Restoration of Human Relationships (in Chinese).

Further Reading Bond, M. H. (Ed.). (1987). The psychology of the Chinese people (2nd ed.). Hong Kong: Oxford University.

486 Ming Tak HUE Iverson, A. M., & Froyen, L. A. (2003). Building competence in classroom management and discipline (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Jones, F. H. (1997). Discipline alternatives. Did not! Did too! Learning, 24(6), 24–26. Kohn, A. (1996). Beyond discipline: From compliance to community. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Tauber, R. T. (1999). Classroom management: Sound theory and effective practice (3rd ed.). Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. Watkins D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.). (1996). The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre and The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd.

Useful Websites Chinese Literature classics: http://www.chinapage.com/classic1.html Diversity: Raising achievement: http://www.behaviour4learning.ac.uk/browse.aspx?taggingType=1&categoryId=14219 Positive discipline: http://www.athealth.com/Consumer/issues/discipline.html; and http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/positive.htm Teacher’s vision: current research and techniques to enhance classroom atmosphere: http://www.teachervision.fen.com/page/5776.html

Correspondence regarding this chapter should be sent to Ming Tak Hue, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong.

Index

Abbeduto, L., 46, 58 Ability and effort, 13, 212 Abrams, D. M., 47, 58 Academic performance, 24, 51, 76, 136, 145, 209, 406, 461, 467 Acculturation, 35, 44–45, 46, 55, 56, 58, 300, 447 Achenbach, T. M., 310, 352 Adaptive functioning, 291 Ad Hoc Committee on Service Delivery in the Schools, American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 159, 200 Affective needs, 129, 205, 214 Aggression, 207, 225, 310–311, 323, 337 Ainscow, M., 69, 89, 408, 429 Albinism, 252, 253, 274, 276, 277 Alber, S., 192, 201 Alghazo, E. M., 109, 118 Algozzine, B., 96, 121 Aloofness, 321 Alter, G., 440, 454 Alur, M., 79, 89 Alva, S., 42, 60 American Association on Mental Retardation, 293, 301 American Psychiatric Association, 312, 316, 352 Americans with Disabilities Act Restoration Act of 2006, 130, 153

Ames, R., 439, 455 Anastasiow, N. J., 65, 90, 309, 311, 314, 315, 320, 322, 354 Anderson, N., 20, 21, 30 Anderson, R. C., 370, 392, 370, 372, 393 Andreani, O., 232, 233, 244 Aniridia, 252 Apple, M., 49, 58, 43, 45, 59 Approach to Teaching, 188, 399 Arbeiter, S., 109, 119 Arditi, A., 265, 278 Armstrong, F., 72, 73, 89 Arter, C., 256, 257, 260, 268, 279 Ashlock, R., 379, 389 Asian Development Bank, 51, 59 Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability, 79, 89, 97, 98, 103, 119, 131, 153 Asperger syndrome, 118, 316–317, 324–325, 326 Assessment issues, 96, 413 Assimilation, 35, 36, 44–45, 46, 48, 55, 56, 58 Assistive listening devices, 199 Assistive technologies, 127, 128, 143–144, 145, 147, 150, 258–259, 261, 268, 273, 328, 337 Association for Direct Instruction, 301, 301 Assouline, S. G., 214, 242 Asynchronous development, 215, 221, 241, Attitude and parent, 22, 139, 141, 174, 264

488 Index and teacher, 84, 86, 129, 139, 140, 146, 174, 263 Au, K., 175, 203 Audit Commission, 82, 89 Austin, S., 169, 200 Autistic Spectrum Disorders, 308, 311 Auxter, D., 130, 131, 132, 133, 143, 152, 153 Avatars, 337, 351, 352, 358 Background noise, 173, 174, 176 Backman, O., 258, 279 Baddeley, A. D., 352, 352 Badian, N. A., 377, 389 Baker, J. M., 142, 155 Bandeen-Roche, K., 144, 155 Banks, J., 43, 48, 49, 52, 59 Baptiste, H. P., 148, 154 Barraga, N. C., 261, 266, 267, 268, 270, 271, 279 Barton, L., 45, 59, 72, 73, 89 Bateman, B., 359, 389 Bateson, M. C., 440, 454 Batodano, M., 44, 60 Beare, H., 27, 28 Becker, G. S., 57, 59 Behavioral tests, 172 Behavioral therapy, 314–315 Being with, 326, 327, 333, 344 Belford, O., 308, 310, 353 Benet-Martinez, V., 7, 29 Bennett, K. S., 313, 355 Berk, L. E., 216, 241 Berkey, D., 139, 155 Bernardo, A. B. I., 17, 28 Berthrong, E., 284, 301 Berthrong, J., 284, 301 Best, A. B., 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 264, 267, 279 Bialystok, E., 46, 59 Biggs, J. B., xv, xvi, 7, 11, 12, 13, 19, 27, 28, 14, 29, 7, 31, 6, 11, 18, 21, 32, 128, 155, 186, 200, 209, 243 Biggs, J., 463, 464, 484 Bilingual education, 46–47 Billingsley, R., 128, 146, 154 Blanck, P., 45, 59

Blind, 99, 117, 137, 141, 149, 221, 249, 250, 251, 252, 256, 257, 258, 260, 265, 266, 270, 271, 274, 275, 276–277, 278, 286 Block, M. E., 137, 154 Bloom, L., 162, 200 Boelens, H., 180, 201 Boler, M., 43, 44, 59 Booth, T., 69, 89 Borland, J. H., 205, 241 Bouchard, E., 190, 202 Bourdieu, P., 47, 59 Bowers, P. G., 368, 394 Boyer, J. B., 148, 154 Boys’ & Girls’ Clubs Association, 465, 484 Bradley, D., 47, 59 Braille, 117, 257–258, 260, 261–263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269–270, 271–272, 273, 274, 276, 277 Brailler, 258, 260, 262, 277 Brandes, D., 465, 466, 484 Brawley, L. R., 129, 154 Bray, M., 76, 89, 128, 137, 154 Brazil, N., 69, 92 Brennan, M., 436, 449, 456 Breton, R., 47, 59 Brink, B., 80, 89 Brinkhoff, T., 100, 119 Brookes, K. J., 314, 353 Brunei, 35, 36–37, 41, 42 Brunt, J., 232, 241 Bryant, B. R., 379, 389 Buddy pairing, 332, 334 system, 145, 406, 409, 419, 426 Bulgren, J. A., 384, 390 Burch, N., 467, 484 Burke, C., 367, 390 Burts, D., 188, 201 Butler, F., 382, 392 Caldwell, B. J., 27, 28 Caldwell, J., 360, 391 Caldwell, J. S., 366, 373, 374, 375, 376, 393 Calhoun, S. L., 316, 317, 355 Callaway, A., 167, 172, 176, 177, 178, 179, 200

Index 489 Cambodia, 35, 36–37, 41, 42–43, 44, 51 Campbell, J. R., 220, 221, 223, 241 Cangelosi, J. S., 461, 462, 484 Canter, L., 467, 470, 484 Canter, M., 467, 470, 484 Cao, J. M., 286, 301 Caris, M., 20, 31 Carlson, J. S., 45, 59 Carnine, D., 366, 372, 390 Carron, A. V., 129, 154 Carter, K., 440, 454 Cassel, P., 467, 468, 484 Castles, A., 372, 390 Cataracts, 252, 253, 254, 277 Cawley, J. F., 378, 381, 390, 393 Cazden, C., 182, 200 Center, Y., 96, 109, 121 Central Intelligence Agency, 103, 119 Chaiklin, S., 187, 200 Chan, A. S. K., 212, 242 Chan, A. S., 317, 353 Chan, A., 315, 317, 353 Chan, C. W. M., 110, 119 Chan, D. W., 209, 241, 207, 212, 215, 217, 219, 220, 222, 240, 242, 209, 243, 325, 353 Chan, D., 366, 391 Chan, H. K., 81, 82, 83, 90 Chan, J., 207, 242 Chan, L. K., 209, 245 Chan, L., 372, 390 Chan, W. S., 371, 391 Chang, C.-C., 312, 314, 315, 353 Chang, H. J., 217, 240, 242 Chang, H.-L., 315, 353 Chang, L., 310, 311, 356 Chang, R. M. L., 110, 119 Chang, Y. P., 218, 242 Chao, C.-C., 312, 314, 315, 353, 311, 312, 315, 354 Charlesworth, R., 188, 201 Chen, C. S., 22, 28, 18, 23, 25, 31, 314, 357 Chen, C., 210, 213, 228, 245 Chen, C.-C., 314, 357 Chen, C.-Y., 315, 353 Chen, H. C., 371, 392

Chen, H., 22, 28, 310, 311, 353 Chen, J., 22, 32, 315, 353 Chen, S., 139, 155 Chen, S. H., 128, 139, 140, 142, 145, 154 Chen, S.-F., 315, 353 Chen, W.-J., 310, 357 Chen, X., 310, 311, 353 Chen, Y.-H., 315, 353 Chen, Y. Y., 76, 89, 315, 353, 364, 377, 390 Cheng, C. M., 371, 390 Cheng, K. M., 322, 353 Cheng, P. W., 372, 392 Cheng, R. H. M., 287, 300, 301 Cheng, Y., 337, 355 Cheng, Y. C., 42, 59 Cheuk, D. K. L., 314, 353 Cheung, J., 315, 317, 353 Cheung, M., 317, 353 Cheung, M.-C., 315, 317, 353 Cheung, P., 292, 301 Cheung, P. C., 25, 32, 212, 242 Cheung, P. M. P., 315, 316, 356 Cheung, R., 315, 317, 353 Cheung, R. W., 317, 353 Cheung, Y. T., 371, 390 Chiang, C.-N., 310, 357 China, x, xiii, xiv, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 35, 36–37, 40–41, 42–43, 44, 47, 50, 51, 53, 66, 71, 75, 97–99, 107, 108, 111–112, 129, 131, 136, 137–138, 139–140, 142, 145, 146, 149, 152, 166, 168, 172, 176, 178, 179, 186, 205, 207–208, 209, 211, 219, 221, 227, 229, 237, 238, 240, 251, 283, 284–285, 286, 287–288, 292, 307, 311, 315–316, 318, 364, 367, 371, 373, 377, 400, 431, 432, 434–436, 442–445, 446, 447 Chinese context, 144, 145, 146, 152, 316 culture, 8, 18, 19, 27, 218, 284, 308, 310–311, 312–313, 316, 320–322, 332, 432, 435, 474, 481 family, 24, 432 philosophy, 459, 475, 480, 483 Chinese Medical Association-Mental Health Division, 316, 353

490 Index Ching, W. D., 22, 29 Chiu, C. Y., 7, 29, 14, 15, 31 Chiu, K. S., 465, 485 Cho, S., 211, 223, 242, 210, 213, 214, 223, 245 Choi, H. P., 221, 242 Choi, I., 9, 10, 31 Choi, K. A., 221, 242 Chong, S., 44, 53, 54, 55, 59 Chow, A. P. Y., 222, 224, 225, 226, 242 Chow, G. C., 36, 41, 43, 44, 59 Chow, J. C. S., 15, 19, 32 Chow, P. C. W, 222, 224, 225, 226, 242 Chua, S. K., 46, 60 Chui, E., 110, 120, 308, 311, 355 Chung, E., 175, 203 Chung, K. K. H., 296, 301 Chung, L.-C., 314, 357 Churchill, S., 48, 59 Ciocca, V., 174, 201 Clandinin, D. J., 440, 441, 454 Clark, E., 316, 317, 318, 353 Clark, F. L., 297, 302 Classroom behavior, 367, 328, 461, 467, 468, 469, 476, 482 challenges, 142, 205, 221, 222, 223, 256, 319 management, 56, 226, 325–326, 414, 459, 460–461, 462–463, 467, 468, 469, 470, 473, 475, 476, 477, 479–483 strategies, 49, 128, 146, 205, 226, 227, 228, 249, 264, 276, 325, 328, 399 Closed-circuit television, 258 Cloud, N., 196, 200 Cochlea implants, 174 Cochlea Implant Clinic, 174, 200 Cognitive disability, 284 strategy instruction, 296–297, 302 Colangelo, N., 214, 217, 242 Coleman, M. R., 65, 90, 309, 311, 314, 315, 320, 322, 354 Coles, R., 441, 454 Colonization, 37, 57, 287, 432, 449 Color blind, 252 Coltheart, M., 372, 390

Columbus Group, 215, 242 Communication alternative, 147, 149, 194, 195, 197 augmentative, 194, 195, 197 Community acceptance, 95, 71, 72, 80, 88 Comorbid, 314, Comprehension, 4, 158, 162–163, 166, 189–190, 198, 224, 236, 237, 266, 317, 340, 342, 352, 366, 367–368, 373–375, 376, 377, 386, 388, 389, 461 Comprehension Strategies, 374–375, 376 Computation, 377–379, 381, 382, 383 Confucian-heritage Culture (CHC), ix, xiv–xv, 3, 4, 6–7, 8, 9, 10–11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 66, 96, 117, 128, 205, 206, 214, 218, 221, 222, 240, 307, 308, 312, 315, 318, 326, 400, 414, 431, 432, 445, 447, 449, 450, 452, 453 and children with special needs, 25, 26 and classroom, xiv–xv, 10, 11, 18, 25 and goal orientation, 14 and models of learning, 8 and motivation, 3, 4, 7, 11, 16, 25, 26 and Western ideologies, 287 Confucianism, 6, 27, 207, 284, 310, 432, 433, 435, 436, 439, 445, 449, 475–476, 479, 481, 483 Confucius, 6, 27, 207, 283, 284–286, 432, 435, 439, 476, 483 Connell, P., 184, 200 Connelly, F. M., 440, 441, 454 Constitution of Singapore, 50, 59 Constitution of Thailand, 50, 59 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, 50, 59 Continuum of service provision, 99 Contrast sensitivity, 252, 255 Conwa, T., 368, 394 Cook, L., 402, 403, 429 Cooper, E., 210, 213, 228, 243 Cooperative learning, 77–78, 298–299, 373–374, 425, 465 Corson, D., 45, 47, 60 Cortical visual impairment, 255, 276, 277 Coulter, W., 362, 390

Index 491 Counseling and CHC, 431, 432, 449 and Hong Kong, 431, 433, 435, 436–437, 453 directive, 447, 454 nondirective, 446–447, 454 Cowie, H., 465, 484 Cramer, R., 185, 200 Cramond, B., 224, 243 Crawford, N., 88, 89, 128, 137, 154 Creativity, 11, 19, 25, 71, 181, 191, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 214, 228, 233, 237–238, 239, 269, 270, 298, 342, 377 Crites, S., 440, 454 Crocker, S., 169, 200 Cultural capital, 47, 51, 55, 57 Cultural identity, 35–36, 43, 46–49, 56 Cultural norms, 210, 218, 313 Cummins, J., 43, 46, 47, 49, 51, 52, 60, 46, 62 Curran, S., 314, 353 Curriculum adaptation, xi, 412, 425 differentiation, 233, 235, 241, 402, 413 Curriculum Development Council, 178, 200, 261, 279, 308, 353, 438, 454 Curriculum Development Institute, 374, 377, 383, 390 D’Rozario, V., 447, 454 Dall’Alba, G., 10, 30 Dan, J. W., 284, 302 Dandy, J., 22, 28 Darder, A., 44, 50, 51, 52, 60 Darnell, F., 50, 52, 60 Davidson, D., 298, 301 Davis, G. A., 217, 242, 206, 208, 239, 241, 243 Deaf culture, 176, 178–179 Deaf methodology, 176 Decoding, 366, 372, 377, 386 Deep approaches to learning, 6 Defiance, 310, 314, 321, 323, 337 Delisle, J., 217, 243 Delpit, L., 52, 60 Democratic schooling, 54–55, 56 Deng, M., 263, 279, 286, 287, 301

Denton, P. H., 376, 393 Department for Education and Children’s Services, 233, 243 Department for Education and Skills, 97, 119 Department of Education of the Philippines, 111, 119 Department of Health, 100, 103, 119 Deppeler, J. M., 109, 120 Depth perception, 255, 260 Desai, S., 42, 60 Deshler, D. D., 180, 200, 297, 302, 384, 390, 376, 393 Deshler, J., 180, 201 Deutsch, F. M., 219, 243 Developmental delay, 284, 290 Dewey, J., 439, 454 Diaz, S., 128, 154 Difference blind principle, 50, 57 Ding, G.-A., 315, 353 Discipline assertive, 470 Discipline social, 459, 470, 480 Discrepancy model, 363 Discrimination, 46, 48, 50, 52–53, 56, 58, 69, 82, 85–86, 97–98, 104, 118, 136, 138, 169, 175, 287, 288, 450, 452, 453 Disorder attention deficit hyperactivity, 102, 118, 307, 308, 311, 312 conduct, 314 emotional, x, 139, 478 Diverse learning needs, xv, 96, 431, 440, 446, 449, 451, 459, 461, 464 Dodd, B., 159, 200 Don-il Kim, 86, 88, 90 Douglas, G., 109, 120 Down syndrome, 290 Dowson, C. R., 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 90, 167, 200, 399, 429 Draguns, J. G., 310, 354 Dreikurs, R., 467, 468, 470, 484 Dual route model of reading, 372 Dutton, G. N., 255, 279 Dyson, A., 69, 89, 408, 429 Ebenezer School, 275, 279

492 Index Eberly College of Arts and Science of West Virginia University, 293, 302 Echolalia, 159, 325 Eden, G. F., 370, 393 Education and Manpower Bureau, 76, 77, 78, 90, 106, 107, 111, 112, 114, 119, 284, 292, 299, 300, 302, 308, 310, 319, 354, 363, 364, 377, 390 Education Commission, 67, 90, 299, 302, 308, 354, 438, 454, 437, 455 Education Convergence, 465, 484 Education Department, 87, 90, 112, 119, 178, 201, 208, 243, 291, 302, 308, 354, 407, 429, 436, 455 Education for all, 45, 54, 69, 72–74, 80, 81–82, 84, 95, 96, 99, 102, 104, 107–108, 118, 138, 307–308, 399 Educational Statistics Yearbook of China, 111, 112, 119 Educational support, 76, 87, 293, 311 Edwards, J., 298, 301 Eggen, P., 12, 28 Ehly, S., 465, 485 Ehren, B. J., 384, 390 Electronic braille display devices, 258 Ellis, E. S., 297, 302 Ellis, E., 180, 200 Elphick, E., 25, 32 Empathy, 190, 465, 466, 475, 476, 479 Encyclopædia Britannica, 284, 302 Eng, B., 433, 435, 438, 442, 445, 455 English as medium of instruction (EMI), 16–17 Enrichment, 46, 185, 209, 212, 223, 228, 230, 233–235, 238, 239, 241 Epstein, I., 286, 302 Epston, D., 441, 456 Equality, 35, 36, 43–44, 49–50, 55, 56, 69, 71– 72, 95, 98, 108, 285, 299 Erni, J. N., 46, 60, 261, 266, 267, 268, 270, 271, 279 Errors phonological, 165, 367 semantic, 367 visual, 367 Essed, P., 52, 53, 60

Evaluation, 11, 209, 218, 222, 225, 229, 230, 235– 237, 240, 335, 360, 362, 377, 404, 417, 463, 474, 481 Executive functions, 324, 336, 340 Extension, 183, 209, 228, 232, 233, 235, 238, 299 Exum, H. A., 447, 455 Fa, 475, 479–480, 483 Falitz, C., 297, 302 Family background, 461 Fan, C. F., 213, 243 Farnsworth, E., 263, 279, 286, 287, 301 Farrell, J., 43, 49, 60 Farver, J. A. M., 310, 311, 356 Fawcett, A., 372, 390 Federation in Community Support, 115, 116, 117, 119 Fei, L. C., 22, 32 Feigin, N., 109, 121 Ferguson, D., 20, 31 Ferrucci, L., 144, 155 Fleischner, J. E., 378, 390 Flem, A., 68, 69, 73, 90 Fletcher, J., 362, 390 Fletcher, J. M., 368, 390, 385, 392 Fletcher, P., 159, 201, 159, 202 Flexer, C., 173, 201 Flora, S., 185, 201 Foil, C., 192, 201 Foorman, B. R., 368, 390 Ford, A., 69, 92 Foreman, P., 362, 390 Forlin, C., 69, 90, 95, 96, 102, 108, 109, 110, 119, 96, 97, 98, 101, 109, 120, 137, 154 Fragile X syndrome, 290 Francis, D. J., 368, 390 Frazita, R. R., 378, 393 Freedman, M., 435, 455 Freid, A. N., 264, 279 Freire, P., 43, 60 Fried, L. P., 144, 155 Friend, M., 402, 403, 429 Frith, U., 316, 318, 321, 354 Fry, C. P., 465, 484 Fry, D. P., 465, 484

Index 493 Frye, M., 44, 60 Fu, Q-J., 174, 202 Fuchs, D., 377, 390, 362, 378, 385 , 391 Fuchs, L., 377, 390, 378, 391, 378, 393, 362, 386, 394 Functioning, High, 315–317, 324–325, 336 Functioning, Low, 317, 321, 324, 336 Furman, L., 312, 313, 324, 354 Furnham, A., 23, 29 Gaad, E. E. N., 109, 118 Gallagher, J. J., 65, 90, 309, 311, 314, 315, 320, 322, 354 Gallagher-Landi, M., 383, 391 Gansle, K. A., 339, 355 Gao, J., 317, 356 Gardner, H., 19, 29, 206, 208, 214, 215, 243 Garguilo, R. M., 98, 12, 360, 391 Garside, C., 137, 148, 154 Garvin, C., 368, 394 Gavin, W., 159, 201 Gelvoria, M. T., 160, 201 Gelzheiser, L. M., 263, 279 Gender, 20, 44, 53–55, 57, 58, 104, 105, 108, 224, 287, 337, 461 Generalization and maintenance, 297 Genuineness, 466, 475 Giftedness, xv, 76, 205–206, 207–208, 209, 210, 211–212, 213, 214, 215–216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 223, 227, 230, 239, 240, 241, 325, 446, 448 Gillborn, D., 461, 484 Ginnis, P., 465, 466, 484 Gipps, C., 465, 484 Giroux, H., 43, 44, 45, 49, 52, 60 Glare, 252, 260, 277 Glaucoma, 252, 253–254, 274, 276, 277 Globalization, 4, 6, 36, 65, 68, 72–73, 89, 285, 300, 449 Good Heart Ambassador Scheme, 406, 409 Goodlad, J., 129, 154 Goodstein, H. A., 381, 391 Gordon, T., 467, 473, 474, 484 Gould, D., 129, 155 Gould, J., 317, 324, 356

Government involvement/role, 423 Graham, J., 172, 201 Graves, D., 190, 201 Greenhalgh, P., 465, 466, 484 Grey, L., 467, 468, 484 Grigorenko, E., 385, 393 Groenveld, M., 255, 279 Grundwald, B., 467, 470, 484 Gudmundsdottir, S., 68, 69, 73, 90 Guidance and counseling, xv, 217, 420, 426, 431– 433, 434–436, 437–438, 439–440, 441–442, 445, 446, 447, 448 Guindalini, C., 314, 353 Guo, C., 309, 310, 355 Guo, Y., 311, 354 Guralnik, J. M., 144, 155 Hall, D., 439, 455 Hall, J., 158, 201 Hallahan, D. P., 309, 354, 360, 391 Hallak, J., 41, 61 Halliday, M. A. K., 183, 201 Hallinger, P., 54, 61 Han, S., 221, 242 Haring, K., 287, 302, 308, 311, 354 Harris, P. R., 56, 61 Harris, S. L., 344, 354 Harrison, E., 161, 202 Hart, C., 188, 201 Hartley, S., 109, 119 Harvey, D. H. P., 109, 120 Hattie, J., 109, 120 Hau, K. T., 14, 29, 209, 243 Hay, D. A., 313, 355 He, M. F., 435, 440, 441, 455 Hearing aids, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172–174, 176, 177, 182, 199, 200 Hearing loss, conductive, 167, 168, 170, 199 detecting, 171 sensorineural, Hedden, T., 9, 29, 9, 30 Hegarty, S., 69, 90 Held, D., 72, 90 Heller, M., 188, 201

494 Index Helplessness, 109, 264, 468, 471, 472 Heron, L., 292, 302 Heung, V., 88, 89 Heung, W. K., 399, 429 Hewitt, S., 339, 354 Hierarchy of educational inclusion, 101 High myopia, 252, 274 Ho, C. S. H., 365, 366, 371, 391 Ho, F. C., 81, 82, 83, 90, 367, 372, 374, 391, 399, 429 Ho, P. P.-K., 316, 356 Ho, T. F., 14, 29, 209, 243 Ho, W., 175, 203 Ho, W. K., 17, 29 Hobcraft, J., 42, 61 Hock, M. F., 384, 390 Holubec, E. J., 298, 302 Hong Kong Attainment Tests, 212, 363 Hong Kong Department of Justice, 288, 302 Hong Kong Government, 85, 90, 250, 279 Hong Kong Government Information Centre, 435, 455 Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association & Special Education Society of Hong Kong, 292, 302 Hong, E., 22, 29 Hong, Y. Y., 7, 16, 19, 29, 209, 243 Hooks, B., 44, 61 Hopkins, D., 408, 429 Houvouras, S. K., 47, 61 Howe, K. R., 81, 90 Hoyt, L., 190, 201 Hsieh, J. C., 230, 243 Hu, X., 288, 303 Huang, B., 315, 353 Huang, C.-I., 315, 353 Huang, H.-L., 311, 312, 315, 354 Huddy, L., 47, 61 Hue, M. T., 474, 475, 484, 463, 474, 475, 476, 479, 485 Huettig, C., 130, 131, 132, 133, 143, 152, 153 Hughes, C., 381, 393 Hui, E. K. P., 436, 438, 455 Hui, K. F., 399, 429 Hui, L. H., 88, 89, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90

Hui, S. K. F., 206, 218, 246 Hui, S. L.-H., 316, 356 Human capital, 41–42, 57 Humaneness, 475, 476, 477 Humphries, T., 176, 202 Hunt, D. E., 440, 455 Hunt, N., 176, 201 Huntley, M., 161, 202 Huntsinger, C. S., 22, 29 Hutchinson, N. L., 378, 391 Hwang, D. J., 210, 243 Hwang, K.-K., 308, 310, 353 Hwang, M.Y., 452, 456 Hwang, Y.-S., 315, 353 Hyvarinen, L., 255, 279 Identity, 4, 35–36, 43, 44, 45–49, 50, 55, 56, 58, 129, 193, 233, 412, 433, 434, 436, 437, 440, 444–445, 452, 463 Illumination, 252, 258 Impression management, 479–780 Inappropriate behaviors, 470, 474 Inde, K., 258, 279 India Together, 79, 90 Individual difference, 6, 50, 68, 128, 147, 148, 153, 223, 286, 413, 461, 464, 477, 478 Individual Education Plans (IEPs), 81, 141, 143, 332, 335, 338, 410, 411, 419, 421, 424, 429 Indonesia, 35–37, 41, 42–43, 45, 97, 100, 103, 107 Infantino, J., 332, 354 Involvement parental, 25, 166–167, 178, 195, 404–405, 411, 416, 421, 423, 426 student, 423, 426, 454 Integration, ix–x, 55, 65, 66–67, 70–72, 75, 77–78, 79, 83–85, 86–87, 89, 101, 106–107, 132, 137, 138, 140, 149, 188–189, 190, 197, 275, 292, 295, 299, 300, 308, 316, 399, 407–408, 422 Intellectual Disabilities, xi, 101, 109, 137, 139, 283–284, 286, 288, 289, 290–292, 293, 294, 295–296, 297–298, 299–300 Interpersonal interactions, 268, 464 Intervention, 73, 77, 102, 108, 113, 133, 147, 153, 166, 290, 294, 314–315, 318, 328, 332, 335,

Index 495 336, 337, 339, 352, 362–363, 365, 368, 372, 385–386, 404, 419, 421, 446–447, 454 Ip, B., 363, 391 Ip, F., 77, 92 IQ, 206, 209, 211, 213, 214, 216, 226, 290–291, 292, 293, 314, 315, 318, 360–362 Isaacson, S., 191, 201 Ishii, K., 10, 29 Iwanaga, R., 317, 354 James, S., 162, 202 Jamieson, I., 4, 30 Jan, J. E., 255, 279 Jenkins, H. J., 109, 120 Jennett, H. K., 344, 354 Jennings, J. H., 360, 391, 366, 373, 374, 375, 376, 393 Ji, L. J., 9, 29 Jiao, S., 9, 29 Jin, M., 128, 139, 140, 142, 145, 154 Jin, S., 284, 302 Jing, Q., 9, 29 Jitendra, A. K., 383, 384, 394 Johns, F. A., 471, 485 Johnson, D. W., 298, 302 Johnson, R. T., 298, 302 Jongsma, E., 367, 391 Jose, P. E., 22, 29 Jose, R. T., 253, 279 Joy of learning, 115, 120 Juang, Y.-Y., 315, 353 Kaewboonchoo, O., 168, 201 Kam, H. W., 46, 61 Kame’enui, E. J., 366, 372, 390 Kang, Y. S., 287, 302, 308, 311, 354 Kanner, L., 316, 354 Kaplan, P. S., 216, 243 Kasper, J. D., 144, 155 Kauchak, D., 12, 28 Kauffman, J. M., 309, 354 Kaufman, A. S., 360, 391 Kaufman, N. L., 360, 391 Kawamura, T., 25, 29 Kawasaki, C., 317, 354

Kay, J., 378, 391 Kelly, L., 139, 155 Kelly, L. C. C., 311, 356 Kember, D., 8, 16, 17, 30 Kennedy, P., 18, 29 Kerr, B., 218, 243 Khouw, E., 174, 201 Kim, D., 16, 29 Kim, H.-C., 218, 243 Kim, H.-W., 218, 243 Kim, J. T., 139, 154 Kim, J., 239, 243 Kim, K., 239, 243 Kim, M., 221, 242 Kim, S. Y., 447, 455 Kincheloe, J. L., 43, 61 Kirk, B., 452, 456 Kirk, S. A., 65, 90, 309, 311, 314, 315, 320, 322, 354, 359, 391 Kitayama, S., 10, 29 Klapp, O. E., 47, 61 Klee, T., 159, 201 Knapp, M., 158, 201 Knight, J., 314, 353, 384, 390 Knight, P., 176, 201 Knoblauch, B., 131, 154 Koh, S. K., 221, 242 Kohlberg, L., 231, 243 Kohnstamm, G., 25, 32 Koo, J., 9, 10, 31 Koo, R., 76, 89 Korea National Statistical Office, 100, 103, 111, 120 Korean Society of Persons with Disabilities and RI Korea, 97, 120 Kozulin, A., 46, 63 Kraus, L. E., 149, 154 Kumin, L., 324, 356 Kun, T. L., 10, 30 Kung, P., 175, 203 Kuo, C. C., 218, 242 Kuo, P.-H., 310, 354 Kuppusamy, B., 53, 61 Kurita, H., 309, 310, 355 Ku-Yu, H. S. Y., 222, 224, 225, 226, 242

496 Index Kwak, K., 214, 243 Kwok, C., 81, 82, 83, 90 Kwon, H., 71, 90 Kwon, H. S., 287, 303 Labeling, 89, 198, 218, 311, 365, 450, 453 LaFamme, M., 69, 91 Lahey, M., 162, 200 Lai, S., 14, 15, 31 Lam, C. C. C., 372, 392 Lam, L. L., 315, 316, 356 Lam, R., 8, 16, 17, 31 Lam, W., 17, 29 Lam, W. L., 19, 30 Lancioni, G., 180, 201 Lang, O., 432, 455 Language experience approach, 181, 184–185, 198 Lao Tze, 477, 483 Laos, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42–43, 51, 97, 100, 103 Lau, A., 308, 310, 354 Lau, C. W.-L., 316, 356 Lau, E. Y., 447, 455 Lau, K. L., 209, 243 Lau, K. O., 128, 139, 140, 142, 145, 154 Lau, S., xv, xvi, 19, 30 Law, S. Y., 399, 429 Layton, L., 216, 245 Leader, P., 255, 279 Learning difficulties, xv, 76, 113, 132, 183, 186, 187, 314, 318, 324–325, 359, 363, 366, 377– 378, 389, 428, 429, 448, 481 styles, 4, 10, 20–21, 26, 128, 152, 235, 338, 378 Lee, F., 9, 10, 31 Lee, J., 224, 243 Lee, J. Y., 239, 243 Lee, K., 382, 392 Lee, K. H., 22, 29 Lee, S. H., 366, 391 Lee, S. Y., 18, 23, 25, 31, 224, 243, 210, 213, 228, 245 Lee, W. O., xiii, xvi, 6, 7, 29, 41, 61, 332, 355, 439, 455, 435, 456

Lee, W.-C., 316, 356 Legalism, 459, 475–476, 479, 481, 483 Legislation, 53, 95, 96–98, 109, 287, 311 Lemke, C., 148, 154 Lenz, B., 180, 200, 180, 201 Lenz, B. K., 297, 302, 384, 390 Leong, C. K., 371, 372, 392 Lepoutre, D., 166, 202 Lerner, J. W., 360, 391, 366, 373, 374, 375, 376, 393 Leung, D. Y. P., 8, 16, 17, 30 Leung, F. K. S., 9, 30 Leung, J. L.-S., 316, 356 Leung, J.-P., 312, 355 Leung, K., 19, 30 Leung, K. W., 212, 242 Leung, S. A., 434, 436, 437, 449, 455 Leung, T. T., 436, 456 Leung, W. W. M., 212, 242, 315, 317, 353 Levin, J. R., 45, 59 Levy, F., 313, 355 Lewis, R., 460, 467, 468, 469, 470, 474, 480, 485 Li, C., 208, 211, 227, 245 Li, H., 316, 355, 371, 392 Li, H. L., 46, 61 Li, J., 8, 9, 18, 26, 30 Li, L., 41, 43, 61 Li, N., 8, 16, 17, 30 Li, S., 168, 201 Li, S. Y. H., 314, 353 Li Si, 483, 479 Li, W., 370, 392 Lian, J. M.-G., 307, 355 Lian, M.-G. J., 106, 120, 195, 201, 251, 263, 267, 279, 260, 264, 251, 267, 280, 295, 303 Liang, B. Y., 287, 303 Liaw, F. R., 22, 29 Life experience, 461 Lim, C. Y., 40, 41, 43, 61 Lim, L., 314, 320, 355 Lin, C. C. H., 310, 354 Lin, L. H., 238, 245 Lindamood, P., 368, 394 Lindsay, G., 66, 67, 69, 91 Lip reading, 169, 170–171, 175, 177, 198

Index 497 Lipman, M., 215, 232, 244 Lipsky, D. K., 68, 91 Lisenco, Y., 273, 279 Little, E., 332, 354 Liu, H., 317, 356 Liu, J., 17, 30, 36, 61 Liu, M., 310, 311, 353 Liu, X., 309, 310, 355 Lo, E., 77, 92, 110, 120, 308, 311, 355 Lo, E. M. K., 77, 92 Loreman, T., 109, 120 Louie, V., 42, 61 Love and Care Scheme, 406, 409, 416, 419, 426 Lovett, D., 287, 302, 308, 311, 354 Lu, P., 221, 230, 244 Lui, L., 238, 244 Lui, P., 238, 244 Luk, F. Y. Y., 399, 429 Luk-Fong, P. Y. Y., 77, 91 Luk-Fong, Y. Y. P., 436, 449, 456 Luo, X., 174, 202 Low vision, 249, 250, 252, 257–259, 261–262, 264, 265, 270, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278 training in, 261–262, 276 Lynch, 74, 81, 82, 91 Lyon, G. R., 365, 385, 392 M/SET 99 Sessions, 149, 155 Ma, J. L. C., 311, 356 Macebo, S., 128, 146, 154 MacNaughton, R. H., 471, 485 Macular degeneration, 254, 276, 278 Madewell, B. J., 296, 303 Mainstreaming, 71–72, 81, 102, 139, 264 Majebe, M. C., 318, 355 Mak, T., 23, 29 Malaysia, 35, 36, 38–39, 41, 42–43, 44, 51, 53, 97, 100, 103, 107, 111, 340 Mansoor, S., 43, 61 Mapping semantic, 192, 198 story, 188, 190–191, 198, 373 Marabinus, N. G., 471, 485 Marrs, R., 180, 201 Marsh, C., 3, 4, 18, 30

Marshall, D., 175, 202 Marshall, K., 176, 201 Martin, M., 172, 201 Marton, F., 10, 30 Marzola, E. S., 378, 390 Mason, H. L., 251, 256, 257, 279 Mastropieri, M. A., 180, 181, 202, 263, 280 Mathur, S. R., 325, 332, 355 Matsumura, N., 210, 213, 223, 244 Mayes, S. D., 316, 317, 355 McCabe, H., 75, 91, 98, 120 McCall, S., 256, 257, 262, 264, 279 McCann, M., 206, 244 McComas, J., 69, 91 McGee, B., 166, 202 McGrath, P., 337, 355 McInerney, D., 128, 154 McLeod, J., 441, 442, 456 McLinden, M., 256, 257, 279 McQuillan, J., 47, 61 Means, B., 148, 155 Mehan, H., 128, 154 Mehr, E. B., 264, 279 Mehta, P., 368, 390 Meltzer, L. J., 385, 392 Memorization, 7, 10–11, 20, 25, 26, 27, 224, 225, 285, 340, 438, 447 Mental handicap, 76, 87, 284 Mental retardation, 75, 131, 141, 256, 284, 288– 289, 293, 301, 318, 359–360, 462 Meraj, S., 43, 61 Mercer, A. R., 366, 392 Mercer, C. D., 179, 202, 366, 392, 462, 485 Mesibov, G. B., 344, 354 Meyers, J., 263, 279 Michailakis, D., 97, 120 Milam, C., 381, 392 Mill, J., 314, 353 Miller, D., 188, 202 Miller, J., 218, 244, 381, 390, 381, 392 Miller, S. P., 179, 202, 382, 392 Millikan, R. H., 27, 28 Millward, A., 408, 429 Ministry of Education (MOE-Singapore), 51, 57, 61

498 Index Ministry of Education Malaysia, 111, 120 Ministry of Education Singapore, 111, 120 Miranda, K., 230, 244 Mitchell, D., 66, 69, 70, 71, 79, 80, 81, 88, 91 Mittler, P., 87, 91 Miyashita, K., 168, 201 Mnemonic devices, 296 Moats, L. C., 365, 366, 392 Mock, D., 362, 385, 391 Mock, D. R., 360, 391 Mode of control, 468–469 Mode of influence, 468, 469 Mode of management, 468, 469 Moen, T., 68, 69, 73, 90 Moll, C., 128, 154 Moneta, G. B., 16, 30 Montagnino, A., 274, 279 Montgomery, D., 218, 244 Moon, J. H., 218, 244 Moore, D., 337, 355 Moral development, 205, 216, 230, 233 Morality, 41, 230, 231, 284, 476, 479, 483 Moran, R. T., 56, 61 Moran, S. V., 56, 61 Morgan, P. L., 362, 385, 391 Morioka, I., 168, 201 Morris, J. E., 261, 279 Morris, M. W., 7, 29 Morris, P., 439, 456 Morse, M. T., 255, 279 Motivation, extrinsic, 12, 25, 28 intrinsic, 11–13, 16, 28, 136, 464 social, 12, 13, 28, 186 success, 13 Muc, P. M., 80, 92, 287, 303 Multiple intelligences, 206, 208, 214, 226, 235– 237, 240 Munandar, U., 210, 213, 214, 223, 245 Munro, D. J., 43, 61 Myanmar, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42–43, 44, 45, 97, 103, 107 Nagy, W. E., 370, 392 Naidoo, R., 4, 30

Narita, S., 287, 303 Narratives, 325, 438, 440–441, 454 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 377, 383, 392 National Institute of Drug Abuse, U.S., 315, 355 National Joint Committee on LD, 360, 392 National People’s Congress, 98, 99, 120, 364, 392 National Reading Panel, 368, 373, 392 Nettelbeck, T., 22, 28 New immigrant children, 444 Nguyen, T. M., 80, 92 Nicholson, T., 369, 392 Nicolson, R. I., 372, 390 Nieto, S., 49, 53, 62 Ning, C., 221, 244 Nisbett, R. E., 9, 29, 9, 30, 9, 10, 31 Niu, W., 18, 30 Nixon, J., 461, 484 Noddings, N., 232, 244 Noell, G. H., 339, 355 Noll, J. W., 46, 62 Norenzayan, A., 9, 30 Nozaki, Y., 52, 62 Nucci, L., 232, 244 Nunes, T., 372, 390 Nuzum, M., 378, 390 Nye, B., 147, 155 Nystagmus, 253, 255 O’Brien, T., 326, 327, 355 Ockelford, A., 274, 280 Oddness, 321 OECD, 42, 62 Ogle, D. M., 376, 392 Okawa, M., 309, 310, 355 Olsen, K., 148, 155 Olson, R., 385, 392 Onslow, M., 161, 202 Onukso, E., 172, 202 Optic atrophy, 252, 253 Orientation and mobility, 256, 260, 261, 276, 278 group, 467, 468, 469, 470, 480 student, 467, 468, 469, 473, 480 teacher, 467, 469, 470, 480

Index 499 Overexcitabilities, 215, 217, 240, 241 Owen, R. L., 378, 393 Owens, R. E., 158, 162, 193, 202 Oxford, R., 20, 21, 30 Packman, A., 161, 202 Padden, C., 176, 202 Pagnin, A., 232, 233, 244 Pakir, A., 43, 62 Pang, Y., 98, 120, 364, 393 Papanastasiou, E., 9, 30 Parental expectations, 4, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28 Parental involvement, 404, 405, 411 Park, C. C., 20, 21, 30 Park, C. D., 9, 30 Park, D. C., 9, 29 Parker, R., 314, 324, 357 Parmar, R. S., 378, 393 Parmenter, T. R., 6, 30 Parmer, R., 381, 390 Passive, 24, 53, 183, 321–322, 448, 471 Pearson, V., 77, 92, 110, 120, 308, 311, 355 Pedagogical approaches, 4, 10, 19, 26 Peer, L., 373, 393 Peer relationships, 462, 464 tutoring, 295, 296, 303 Penninx, B. W. J. H., 144, 155 Pepper, F., 467, 470, 484 Pereira dos Santos, M., 4, 6, 30, 72, 91 Perfect Gentlemen, 476 Perfectionism, 6, 218, 221, 222, 224, 241 Perfetti, C. A., 317, 356, 370, 371, 393 Peters, S. J., 81, 91 Peterson, M., 104, 120 Phenylketonuria (PKU), 290 Phillion, J., 440, 441, 455 Philippines, 17, 21, 35, 36, 39, 41, 42–43, 51, 97, 100, 103, 107, 111 Phillipson, S., 23, 25, 31 Phillipson, S. N., 8, 25, 31, 72, 91, 206, 209, 244 Physical disabilities, 70, 85, 106, 111, 127, 130– 131, 132, 133, 136, 139, 140, 142, 143–145, 146, 148, 149–150, 151, 152, 153, 256

Piao, Y. X., 286, 303, 286, 303 Piao, Y., 98, 120, 98, 121, 178, 202, 285, 303 Piirto, J., 233, 234, 244 Pinar, W. F., 52, 62 Pivik, J., 69, 91 Podgorecki, A., 19, 31 Pok, T., 42, 51, 62 Poon-McBrayer, K. F., 84, 86, 91, 106, 121, 260, 264, 251, 263, 267, 279, 280, 286, 287, 301, 295, 303, 307, 320, 355 Positive interdependence, 298 Positive reinforcement, 183, 185–186, 196, 199, 332, 333–334, 342, 419, 420 Postiglione, G. A., 435, 456 Potts, P., 76, 91 Powell, N. J., 337, 355 Power relations, 35, 36, 43, 45, 51–52, 56, 479, 483 Pressley, M., 372, 393 Problem representation, 378–379, 383, 384 solving, 141, 179, 214, 227, 233, 235, 238, 268, 296, 339, 344, 374, 377–379, 381, 383–384, 386, 389, 461 Pun, S. H., 311, 356 Pyfer, J., 130, 131, 132, 133, 143, 152, 153 Qian, M., 479, 485 Qingxia, D., 47, 63 Quah, M. M., 314, 320, 355 Quinn, M. M., 325, 332, 355 Racism, 47, 52–54, 58, 226, 450 Radical phonetic, 370–372 semantic, 370–372 Rakow, T., 23, 29 Ramesh, M., 42, 43, 62 Rashotte, C., 368, 394 Rasmussen, M., 147, 155 Rawal, N., 68, 69, 72, 91 Recorded books, 266, 270 Reis, S. M., 206, 244 Reiter, S., 109, 121 Relativity, 478

500 Index Ren, 475, 476–477 Ren cai, 207 Renzulli, J. S., 206, 244 Report of Education Statistics, 109, 112, 121 Reschly, D., 362, 390 Resource schools, 112, 113 teacher, 78, 106, 261–262, 265–266, 271, 275, 402–404, 405, 406, 409, 410, 411, 415, 416, 417, 419, 420, 421, 424, 426, 427– 428, 429 Retinal detachment, 253, 274 Retinitis pigmentosa, 252, 253, 278 Revenge, 468, 471, 472 Reyes, J. A., 10, 29 Reyhner, J., 47, 62 Reynell, J., 161, 202 Reynolds, W. M., 52, 62 Rhyu, S., 221, 242 Richek, M. A., 366, 373, 374, 375, 376, 393 Richey, D., 98, 120, 364, 393 Riddoch, J. V., 298, 303 Rimm, S. B., 206, 208, 239, 241, 243 Rivera, D. P., 379, 389 Robinson, N. M., 218, 244 Roeder, E. W., 111, 121 Rogers, B., 460, 463, 485 Rogers, C. R., 446, 447, 456, 465, 466, 485 Rohlen, T., 7, 31 Roid, G. H., 360, 393 Role of principal & teachers, 19, 20, 256, 420, 446, 475, 478 Rolfhus, E. L., 360, 394 Romano, J. L., 447, 454 Romanowski, M. H., 219, 220, 244 Rose, E., 368, 394 Rote learning, 10, 21, 25, 339, 438 Rudduck, J., 461, 465, 484 Rudowicz, E., 207, 244, 246 Russell, J. A., 319, 356 Rutherford, R. B. J., 325, 332, 355 Rutherford, S., 40, 41, 62 Ryan, B. P., 160, 201 Ryan, S., 80, 92, 287, 303

Sachs, J., 184, 202 Saladin, K. S., 250, 280 Salend, S. J., 383, 393, 462, 485 Salili, F., 14, 29, 12, 13, 14, 15, 31, 209, 243 Salvia, J., 381, 393 Sanchez-Burks, J., 9, 10, 31 Sandhu, D. S., 452, 456 Santrock, J. W., 216, 244 Schaller, J., 314, 324, 357 Schecter, S. R., 46, 62 Schoenbrodt, L., 324, 356 Schofield, J. W., 50, 62 School policy, 83, 222, 225, 334, 408, 416, 417– 418 Schulte, A., 385, 392 Schumaker, J., 180, 201 Schumaker, J. B., 297, 302, 384, 390, 376, 393 Schwartz, D., 310, 311, 356 Scott, C. M., 369, 393 Scott, I., 439, 456 Scruggs, T. E., 180, 181, 202, 263, 280 Sears, D. O., 47, 61 Seating arrangement, 151, 328, 330, 419, 463 Seeking attention, 310, 323–333, 468, 471–472 power, 468, 471–472 Selfconcept, 145 Selikowitz, M., 313, 356 Severe language and/or hearing disabilities, 160, 168, 184, 195, 201 Sharp, P., 186, 202 Sharpe, M. E., 72, 91 Shatschneider, C., 368, 390 Shaughnessy, M. F., 214, 221, 244 Shaywitz, B. A., 385, 392 Shaywitz, S. E., 385, 392 Shek, D. T. L., 209, 245, 315, 316, 356 Shen, W. W., 312, 314, 315, 353 Sheng, V., 70, 91 Sherrill, C., 131, 132, 137, 143, 155 Shi, J., 208, 211, 212, 227, 229, 245 Shu, H., 370, 372, 393 Siegel, L. S., 385, 393 Silbert, J., 366, 372, 390 Silliman, E., 162, 202

Index 501 Singapore, xiii, xiv, 6, 7, 9–10, 35, 36, 39, 41, 43, 44, 50, 51, 57, 97, 103, 111, 285, 307, 318, 340, 400, 431, 435, 436, 447 Silverman, L. K., 214, 216, 245 Simonsick, E. M., 144, 155 Sin, K. F., 81, 82, 83, 90, 399, 429 Siok, W. T., 370, 393 Siu, C. M. Y., 16, 30 Sjöholm, F. 62 Skills, generic, 267 transferable, 275 Skutnabb-Kangas, T., 46, 62 Slattery, P., 52, 62 Slee, R., 69, 91 Sloan, J. M., 324, 356 Slotboom, A. M., 25, 32 Smith, G. G., 20, 31 Social aspect, 135, 260, 463, 464 behaviors, 233, 314, 465, 476, 483 discipline, 459, 467, 469, 470, 480, 483 interaction, 118, 220, 261, 294, 317, 360, 403, 406, 426, 427, 428 Song, S. R., 210, 243 Song, Y. M., 210, 243 Soong, W.-T., 310, 354, 310, 357 Sorenson, B., 131, 154 Southworth, G., 408, 429 Special education, 67–68, 70, 72, 74, 76–82, 86–92 schools, x–xi, 67, 71, 73, 75, 80, 82, 84–85, 86–87, 89, 95, 99, 101, 111–115, 136, 138, 139–140, 211, 221, 227, 259, 260, 261, 271, 275, 286, 291, 292, 295, 296, 299, 300, 364, 405, 423, 446 Specific language impairment, 157–159, 160–162, 179, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188, 193, 198, 199 Spinks, J. A., 317, 356, 370, 393 SSTA Research Report, 144, 155 St. George’s University of London, 289, 303 Stanovich, K. E., 189, 202, 362, 393 State Council, 98, 121, 364, 393 Statistics Bureau 2006 Schools for the blind, the deaf and the otherwise handicapped, 111, 121

Statistics Singapore, 103, 121 Stereotypic mannerisms, 256 Sternberg, R. J., 18, 30, 206, 218, 245, 206, 218, 246 Sternberg, R., 385, 393 Stevenson, H. W., 18, 23, 25, 31, 210, 213, 228, 245 Stokes, S. F., 159, 201, 159, 202 Stone, C., 184, 200 Stone, J., 256, 257, 279 Stone, K. M., 206, 210, 245 Strogatz, S. H., 47, 58 Student centered learning, 464 support team, 115, 364 Style grasshopper, 378 inchworm, 378 Subaverage intellectual ability, 291 Sue, D. W., 452, 456 Summerfield, A., 175, 202 Sun, L. K., 479, 485 Support strategies, 283, 293, 294 Suvannus, S., 287, 303 Swain, M., 46, 51, 60 Swanson, H. L., 378, 394 Swanwick, R., 176, 201 Sweeting, A., 438, 456 Swisher, 128, 154 Tac, L. V., 80, 92, 287, 303 Tachimori, H., 309, 310, 355 Tahir, A., 43, 61 Taiwan, x–xii, xiii, 5, 6, 7, 10, 18, 24, 40, 70, 136, 142, 205, 209–210, 213, 217, 220, 221, 223, 228, 230, 237, 238, 239, 240, 263, 284, 287, 307, 310, 311, 315, 316, 318, 431, 435, 436, 447 Tai, Y. C., 370, 393 Takaki, R., 452, 456 Takeda, S., 168, 201 Takeuchi, D., 308, 310, 354 Talmor, R., 109, 121 Tam, Y. H., 296, 301 Tan, C. B., 45, 62

502 Index Tan, L. H., 317, 356, 370, 371, 393 Tang, C., 7, 31 Tang, F. L. Y., 315, 316, 356 Tannenbaum, A. J., 230, 233, 240, 245 Tao, 477–478, 483 Taoism, 38–40, 459, 475, 477, 481, 483 Tatum, B., 53, 54, 62 Taubman, P. M., 52, 62 Taylor, C., 43, 46, 47, 50, 63 Taylor, R. L., 365, 393 Teacher attitudes, 84, 86, 129, 139, 140, 146, 174, 263 education, 26, 129, 152, 413, 414, 415, 423, 425, 427–428 effectiveness training, 459, 467, 469, 473, 480 orientation, 467, 469, 470, 480 support and perceptions, 13, 78, 186, 226 Teaching approaches, xiv, 19, 113, 150, 402, 411 cooperative and co-teaching, x, 113, 150, 399, 400, 401, 402–404, 410, 418, 419, 420, 422, 425, 427, 428, 429 parallel, 150, 402 skills and teacher education, 26, 129, 152, 413, 414, 415, 423, 425, 427–428 Thailand, 35, 36, 39, 41, 42–43, 50, 66, 71, 74, 75, 80–81, 88, 97, 100, 103, 107, 111, 287 The Open University of Hong Kong, 149, 155 Thousand, J. S., 70, 80, 88, 92, 143, 144, 155, 287, 303 Three plus one step, 340–341 Thurlow, M. L., 96, 121 Thuy, N. T. M., 287, 303 Tian cai, 207 Tilstone, C., 216, 245 Timmons, V., 68, 91 Tomlinson, J., 36, 63 Tong, C. L., 81, 82, 83, 90 Tong, N., 292, 303 Topping, K., 465, 485 Torgesen, J., 368, 394 Torgensen, J. K., 385, 392 Torres, C. A., 4, 31 Torres, R. D., 44, 60 Toscano, R. M., 166, 202

Townend, J., 372, 394 Trabasso, T., 190, 202 Triad of impairments, 317–318, 321 Tsai, D. M., 238, 245 Tsang, A., 175, 203 Tsang, S. K. M., 315, 316, 356 Tsang, S. M., 366, 391 Tsang, W. K., 8, 16, 17, 31 Tse, Ka-on Andy, 209, 244 Tse, L., 47, 61 Tse, S. K., 370, 371, 394 Tsou, K.-S., 312, 314, 315, 353 Tsuchido, R., 317, 354 Tsui, M., 308, 356 Tsung, L., 47, 63 Tu, C.-C., 311, 312, 315, 354 Tuen, J. T-h., 97, 121 Tung, P., 8, 16, 17, 31 Tunnel vision, 253, 265 Tympanometry, 172 U.S. Department of Education, 360, 364, 394 U.S. Dept. of Education, 307, 356 Uditsky, B., 68, 69, 92 Underachievement, 225, 226, 385 UNESCO, 45, 56, 63, 66, 69, 71, 73, 74, 75, 79, 82, 83, 92, 99, 104, 107, 108, 110, 121 UNESCO Bangkok, 108, 121 UNESCO-UIS/OECD, 42, 63 U.S. Department of Labor, 130, 155 Uttal, D. H., 22, 28 Vaughn, S., 362, 390, 362, 386, 394 Verna, M. A., 230, 244 Vietnam, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 51, 63, 64, 97, 99, 100, 103, 107 Villa, R. A., 70, 80, 88, 92, 143, 144, 155, 287, 303 Visual acuity, 250, 253, 255, 262, 277, 278 cues, 175, 260, 268, 332, 337, 339, 344 errors, 367 field, 250, 253, 255, 277, 278 impairment, 75, 76, 87, 102, 106, 111, 139, 145, 148–149, 151, 249, 250, 251, 252,

Index 503 253, 255–256, 257–258, 259–260, 261, 263–266, 267–269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 318, 364, 462 motor coordination, 274 Voice synthesizers, 268 Voltz, D. L., 69, 92 Vygotsky, L. S., 46, 63, 186, 202 Wagner, P., 463, 485 Wagner, R., 368, 394 Wan, X. S., 22, 32 Wang, D. B., 308, 356 Wang, H. B., 286, 303 Wang, K., 22, 32 Wang, L., 310, 311, 353 Wang, M. C., 326, 356 Wang, M., 288, 303 Wang, W.-T., 315, 353 Wang, X.-M., 315, 353 Wang, Y., 168, 201 Ward, J., 96, 109, 121 Waston, S., 145, 155 Watkins, C., 460, 463, 485 Watkins, D. A., xv, xvi, 11, 28, 6, 11, 18, 21, 32, 128, 155, 186, 200 Watkins, D., 463, 464, 484 Waugh, R. F., 298, 303 Waxer, P. H., 447, 456 Wei, B. G., 22, 32 Wei, W., 175, 203 Wei, Z. T., 479, 485 Weill, C., 287, 303 Weill, D., 80, 92 Weinberg, R. S., 129, 155 Weiner, B., 13, 32 Weiner, C., 20, 32 Weiss, L. G., 360, 394 Wellman, D., 53, 63 West, M., 408, 429 Westwood, P., 74, 92, 110, 119, 108, 121, 263, 280 White, M., 441, 456 Whole person, 431, 437–438, 440, 446, 454, 465, 476, 481

school, ix–x, xv, 68, 77–78, 86, 88, 95, 102, 104–107, 118, 225, 316, 363–364, 386, 399, 400, 401, 405, 407, 409, 411, 412, 415, 422, 423–424, 429, 431, 437–438, 439, 440, 446, 454 school approach, ix–x, xv, 68, 77–78, 86, 88, 95, 102, 106–107, 118, 316, 363–364, 386, 399, 400, 407, 409, 411, 422, 423–424, 429, 431, 437–439, 446, 454 schooling, 95, 104 Whole school approach, language, natural, 183, 193 language, structured, 184, 185, 187, 197 Whole Schooling Consortium, 104, 121 Widmeyer, W. N., 129, 154 Williams, K. T., 360, 394 Williams, P. E., 360, 394 Wilson, K. M., 378, 394 Wing, L., 316, 317, 318, 321, 324, 356 Wolf, M., 368, 394 Wong, A., 52, 53, 63, 159, 201 Wong, C.-C., 312, 314, 315, 353 Wong, D, 77, 92, 110, 120, 308, 311, 355 Wong, D. K. P., 321, 356 Wong, D. S. W., 465, 485 Wong, G, 108, 121 Wong, J., 17, 29 Wong, R., 175, 203 Wong, R. Y. L., 46, 61 Wong, V., 314, 353, 316, 356 Wong, W. L., 371, 391 Wong, Y., 175, 203 Wood, F. B., 385, 392 Woolfolk, A., 232, 245 Word identification in word family, 371 World Bank, 50, 63, 81, 82, 92 World Development Indicators, 41, 43, 44, 63 World Health Organization, 250, 280 Wright, L., 206, 241 Wu, D. Y. H., 308, 356 Wu, R., 220, 221, 223, 241 Wu, W. T., 210, 213, 214, 223, 228, 238, 245 Xiang, Y., 288, 303 Xiong, J., 317, 356

504 Index Xu, B., 75, 92 Xu, J., 288, 303 Xu, S., 47, 63 Xu, X., 314, 353 Xu, Y., 310, 311, 356 Yan, P. W., 15, 19, 32 Yan, W., 381, 390 Yang, C. K., 433, 456 Yang, H.-J., 310, 354, 310, 357 Yang, H. L., 286, 303 Yang, K. N., 314, 324, 357 Yang, K. S., 437, 456 Yang, P.-C., 311, 312, 315, 354, 314, 357 Yap, F., 36, 63 Yau, H., 175, 203 Ye, L. Y., 286, 303 Yeh, C., 452, 456 Yeo, D., 378, 391 Yeun Y. M., 399, 429 Yeung, P., 258, 280 Yik, M. S. M., 319, 356 Yin, P. X., 383, 384, 394 Yip, N. S. Y, 81, 82, 83, 90, 399, 429 Yiu, Y. W., 258, 280 Yong cai, 207 Yoon, C.-H., 218, 243 Yoon, Y.-H., 218, 243 Yoshinaga-itano, 128, 155 Young, C. L., 362, 385, 391 Ysseldyke, J. E., 96, 121 Yu, G.-H., 315, 353 Yu, L., 168, 203, 286, 303 Yuan, X., 98, 121 Yue, X.-D., 207, 245, 207, 246 Yuen, A. H. K., 20, 32 Yuen, D.-W. D., 238, 246 Yuen, M., 110, 119, 108, 121, 263, 280 Yung, K. K., 287, 291, 292, 303 Ze, J., 309, 310, 355 Zeng, K., 23, 24, 32 Zha, Z., 208, 211, 212, 227, 229, 245 Zhang, D., 286, 303 Zhang, H., 370, 392

Zhang, J., 128, 139, 140, 142, 145, 154, 139, 155 Zhang, L. F., 206, 218, 246 Zhang, R., 218, 246 Zhang, S., 168, 203 Zhang, X. Q., 22, 32 Zhang, Y., 25, 32 Zhang, Z., 9, 29 Zhao, C., 168, 203 Zhao, S., 9, 10, 31 Zhao, X., 315, 353 Zhonghua min guo te shu jiao yu xue hui., 213, 228, 230, 238, 246 Zhou, Z., 316, 317, 318, 353 Zigmond, N., 142, 155 王淑棻, 220, 246 李皓金瑜, 219, 246 唐璽惠, 239, 246 張蓓莉, 239, 246 陳維鄂, 220, 222, 246 馮漢柱教育基金, 228, 246 楊熾均, 237, 246 廖永, 239, 246 劉鳳鷥, 237, 246 錢志亮, 155