Leading Learning for ELL Students: Strategies for Success 9781138205284, 9781138205291, 9781315466019, 9781315465982

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Leading Learning for ELL Students

Grounded in current research and award-winning practice, this important book provides a blueprint for school leaders to successfully implement programs and policies for creating an equitable learning environment for English Language Learners (ELLs). Full of accessible examples, strategies, checklists and solutions, this book covers topics such as elementary and secondary home visitation, family literacy programs, first-generation college attendance, family–school partnerships, second-language instruction, culturally responsive teaching and professional development. The guidance provided in Leading Learning for ELL Students can be put into practice immediately, and will help leaders at all levels address the changing landscape of their student populations to ensure the success of all students. Catherine Beck is Assistant Superintendent of Student Learning in Summit School District, Colorado and Adjunct Professor at Concordia University and the American College of Education, USA. Heidi Pace is a former Superintendent and teaches in the Education Department at Concordia University and Colorado College, USA.

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Ten Steps for Genuine Leadership in Schools David M. Fultz The Power of Conversation: Transforming Principals into Great Leaders Barbara Kohm First Aid for Teacher Burnout: How You Can Find Peace and Success Jenny G. Rankin What Successful Principals Do! 199 Tips for Principals, 2nd Edition Franzy Fleck The Revitalized Tutoring Center: A Guide to Transforming School Culture Jeremy Koselak and Brad Lyall 7 Ways to Transform the Lives of Wounded Students Joe Hendershott School Leadership through the Seasons: A Guide to Staying Focused and Getting Results All Year Ann T. Mausbach and Kimberly Morrison Distributed Leadership in Schools: A Practical Guide for Learning and Improvement John A. DeFlaminis, Mustafa Abdul-Jabbar, and Eric Yoak Strategies for Developing and Supporting School Leaders: Stepping Stones to Great Leadership Karen L. Sanzo The Leader’s Guide to Working with Underperforming Teachers: Overcoming Marginal Teaching and Getting Results Sally Zepeda Five Critical Leadership Practices: The Secret to High-Performing Schools Ruth C. Ash and Pat H. Hodge

Leading Learning for ELL Students Strategies for Success

Catherine Beck and Heidi Pace

First published 2017 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Taylor & Francis The right of Catherine Beck and Heidi Pace to be identified as the authors of this part of the work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Beck, Catherine, author. | Pace, Heidi, author. Title: Leading learning for ELL students : strategies for success / by Catherine Beck and Heidi Pace. Description: New York : Routledge, 2017. Identifiers: LCCN 2016038693 | ISBN 9781138205284 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138205291 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315466019 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315465982 (mobipocket) Subjects: LCSH: English language—Study and teaching—United States— Foreign speakers. | Culturally relevant pedagogy—United States. | Educational leadership—United States. | Community and school— United States. Classification: LCC PE1128.A2 B329 2017 | DDC 428.0071/073—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016038693 ISBN: 978-1-138-20528-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-20529-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-46601-9 (ebk) Typeset in Optima by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

Meet the Authors Acknowledgments eResources Preface

vi vii viii ix

1.

Successful Strategies for Immigrant Students

1

2.

The Three-Legged Stool: Balancing the Roles of the School, the Students and the Parents

18

3.

High-Impact Professional Development

37

4.

Culturally Proficient Pedagogy

57

5.

Leveling the Playing Field

77

6.

Preparing for Life after High School

93

7.

Diversity vs. Inclusion

113

Index

125

v

Meet the Authors

Catherine Beck currently serves as the assistant superintendent in a rural resort school district in Colorado. She hosts a weekly Twitter Chat for her district, #ssdedu, highlighting all things academic, often with an ELL twist. Catherine holds a doctorate in instructional leadership. She teaches in the doctoral programs at Concordia University online and the American College of Education. Catherine is also a co-author of Easy and Effective Professional Development, also published by Routledge. Heidi Pace has just recently retired from her position of superintendent in a rural resort school district in Colorado. Her career in K–12 education spans 33 years. Under her leadership, the district moved from the 50th percentile to the 9th percentile in achievement. The district was awarded the honor of being Accredited with Distinction. Heidi will be teaching in the Education Department at Colorado College and also for Concordia University online. Heidi holds a doctorate in leadership and policy development.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the hard work and dedication of the ­numerous teachers, staff members and leaders that we have been privileged to work with over the years. They inspire us every day to continue the work that makes a difference for all students.

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eResources

There are eResources for this book that can be downloaded, printed, used to copy/ paste text and/or manipulated to suit your individualized use. You can access these downloads by visiting the book product page on our website: www.routledge. com/products/9781138205284. Then click on the tab that reads “eResources” and select the file(s) you need. The file(s) will download directly to your computer. Tool ● eResource A: Twitter Chat Directions ● eResource B: Peer Observation Follow-Up Reflection ● eResource C: District-Wide Peer Observation Process ● eResource D: Personal Inventory of Background and Cultural Heritage ● eResource E: Audit of Teachers’, Schools’ and Districts’ Practices and Procedures ● eResource F: School and District Audit ● eResource G: Sample Self-Assessment Tool Questions ● eResource H: Unity Retreat ● eResource I: Mentor/Advisor Program Release ● eResource J: Parent Survey ● eResource K: Student Survey ● eResource L: Fact Sheet: Supporting Dual-Language Learners in Early Learning Settings

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Preface

Introduction Given the rapidly changing demographics in today’s public schools, educators are challenged now more than ever to find ways to reach and help students succeed academically. These shifting demographics have created increasingly diverse classrooms, requiring educators to serve a growing number of English Language Learners (ELLs). In addition to students in our schools speaking languages across the globe, these ELLs are oftentimes also immigrants, students of poverty and students of varying ethnic backgrounds representing a wide expanse of cultures. This shift presents unprecedented challenges for our teachers in educational systems who demand internationally competitive results with fewer resources. Predominately white, homogenous English-speaking classrooms that were in the majority are now, in many school districts across the nation, the minority. The monumental task of meeting the diverse needs of today’s ELLs can be accomplished through a layered approach. These layers include ensuring that educators: have a strong understanding of second-language learners; can implement impactful instructional strategies; engage both the students and their families; and, create strong support systems, structures and programs to help students navigate the complicated road toward postsecondary academic options.

Purpose of This Book This book serves as a blueprint for district and school leaders to address the challenges of creating an equitable learning environment for ELLs.

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Examples of scalable successful programs and practices are shared and can be adjusted to the needs and resources of schools and districts in various settings. Each chapter contains checklists with specific applications for district and school leaders. Our aim in writing this book is to share what has worked for us and to provide you with the necessary background information needed to implement these ideas in your local setting.

School District Results Lessons learned and examples are taken from a Colorado rural district that overhauled its approach to working with ELLs, with impressive results. This district experienced a major demographic shift in a short period of time. In particular, there was an influx of ELLs and students of poverty. At the same time, the district grew an average of 100 students per year for five consecutive years. The program and structure changes described in this book aided in the district moving its state academic ranking from the 50th percentile to the 9th percentile. The district has been recognized for this work in a variety of ways. Our pre-collegiate program (for first-generation college-bound students) was recognized as an exemplary model for all schools to emulate and resulted in the district being named one of 30 Districts of Distinction in the nation, as awarded by District Administration Magazine, July 2015. This program has graduated 100 percent of its seniors and has enrolled 100 percent of the graduates in a two- or four-year college for six consecutive years. The district also earned the ELPA (English Language Proficiency Act) Award in 2015 and 2016, given to the top-ten school districts in the state with the highest performing ELL students. The dual-language school in this district has won both state and national awards for their exemplary work with ELL students. We have received recognition for our ELL home visit program and shared this program at the local, state and national levels. The district also received the state’s highest accreditation rating after several years of implementing the practices we outline in the chapters that follow. Other outcomes for ELLs associated with the work in our district include increased graduation rates, decreased dropout rates, decreased college remediation rates, increased scholarship applications and corresponding dollars awarded and increased teacher knowledge of ELLs and effectiveness in working with these students. Through implementing the strategies

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and programs outlined in this book, our district has greatly improved the equity and access for ELL students and their overall student achievement.

Chapter Overview In Chapter 1, “Successful Strategies for Immigrant Students,” we highlight four strategies to improve learning for ELL students. These strategies include: (1) establishing newcomer classes; (2) providing a welcome center; (3) conducting family outreach; and (4) planning extended learning opportunities. Chapter 2, “The Three-Legged Stool: Balancing the Roles of the School, the Students and the Parents” highlights the essential role parents play in their children’s education. Often the parents of our ELLs feel disenfranchised and they may not understand how to best engage and interact within our educational system. Practices, including home visits, family literacy programs and technology, are discussed as ways for schools and families to partner for the educational success of their children. Chapter 3, “High-Impact Professional Development,” identifies high-quality, job-embedded, twenty-first-century professional development that will impact teacher effectiveness in accelerating language acquisition for students. Chapter 4, “Culturally Proficient Pedagogy,” includes the importance of individuals’ stories to developing a classroom and school culture that is representative of all learners. This process includes an examination of educators’ cultures; integrating culturally responsive teaching practices into the classroom; conducting a series of equity audits to determine whether there are embedded systemic biases; and ongoing training of staff and students. Chapter 5, “Leveling the Playing Field,” describes how schools can fill the gaps for many of our ELLs who may also be students of poverty and who, more often than not, enter school woefully behind. Through thoughtful interventions, schools can provide the enriching opportunities that many other students take for granted. In Chapter 6, “Preparing for Life after High School,” we discuss how school leaders can increase ELLs opportunities for success, including high school graduation and college enrollment, by implementing five practical steps: (1) Start early: a high school diploma begins in kindergarten; (2) Develop a culture of college; (3) Keep expectations high; (4) Establish a first-generation pre-collegiate program; and (5) Engage the family. Chapter 7, “Diversity vs. Inclusion,” talks about the difference in

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these terms and the policies, procedures and practices that will ensure ELL students meet or exceed the expectations of their English-speaking peers.

How to Use This Book Reading books, in and of themselves, will not impact a system. Working through the book and taking actions within the local context is what will bring about change. To that end, we recommend that district and school leaders use this book with their staffs as a book study. Take time to answer the questions posed, conduct the audits and inventories, participate in the professional development, write the narratives, collect the data and review each checklist. Each chapter can be studied and used independently, enabling readers to begin with the topic of greatest interest or need.

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Immigrant children attend schools that are not just racially and ethnically segregated but also linguistically isolated. (Morse, 2005, p. 2)

Mario’s Story I come from El Salvador. I lived there with my grandmother. My father went to the United States when I was born. My mother left when I was a baby. Although I talked on the phone to my parents sometimes, my grandmother is the only real family I have known. El Salvador is not safe. You have to pay money for protection. We were robbed and lost almost everything. A threatening note was left on our door one day. My parents and my grandmother decided I had to come to the U.S. and live with my parents. I did not want to leave my friends and my grandmother. I traveled fifty-seven days to get here. I mostly walked and got some rides. I was helped by Coyotes, people that you pay to get you from El Salvador to the United States. I crossed from Mexico to Texas by swimming across the river. Once on land, I was picked up by border patrol. I was fourteen years old. I have a court date coming up. A judge will decide whether to deport me or let me stay in the U.S. Mario told us his story as he sat around the table with seven other high school ELLs including Assane, Amadou, Babacar, Oumar, Alejandra, Carlos and Jorge. Assane, Amadou, Babacar and Oumar are from Senegal. They did not know each other prior to coming to our small Colorado community. They each described the difficulty of being a Muslim and practicing

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Islam in a largely Christian community. They are here legally. Alejandra, like Mario, is from El Salvador. Also, like Mario, she has an upcoming court date to determine her fate. She lives with her sisters. Her mom is still in El Salvador. Carlos is from Guatemala. Jorge is from Chile. They told me about the difficulty of learning a new language, integrating into an American school and being different from the kids who grew up in the United States. This group of seven students represents just one of the ELL classes in one high school in our small rural mountain school district in Colorado. Their stories, and ones like these, are becoming more of the norm in classrooms across the U.S. Increasingly, communities with historically few immigrant families are now seeing an influx of students enrolling from various parts of the world. Unlike immigrants from other eras, “today’s immigrants arrive from widely diverse source countries, and are increasingly likely to resettle in nontraditional states and in rural communities, areas that often have the least experience and/or infrastructure to help students learn English and adapt to their new schools and neighborhoods” (Morse, 2005, p. 1). Sometimes the ELLs are the immigrants, both legal and illegal, with or without a parent, and other times it is the parents who immigrated and then had their children in America. According to a January 2015 report from the Pew Research Center, the number of immigrants has held steady since 2012 at 11.2 million. With regard to school-age youth, the report states that “children with at least one unauthorized immigrant parent made up 6.9% of students enrolled in kindergarten through 12th grade.” While the majority of these students were born in the U.S. (5.5 percent), according to the report, 1.4 percent of the students were also illegal immigrants. The Pew Research Center, in another report, further projects that, “Among children, the share who are immigrants or who have an immigrant parent will rise to 34% in 2050 from 23% in 2005” (Passel & Cohn, 2008). Undocumented children have had the right to attend public school since 1982, when the U.S. Supreme Court made their ruling in Plyler vs. Doe (457 U.S. 202). Yet these students often have difficulty receiving an education that is equitable to their English-speaking peers. In addition to the obvious barrier of language, students immigrating from other countries have logistical barriers to obtaining a diploma. In our school district, for example, we have a number of immigrant families with children who received little formal schooling in their native countries, due to various circumstances. These students may enter the American school system at 17

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Strategies for Immigrant Students

or 18 years old. Without intensive intervention, demonstrating proficiency in alternative ways or having the option of waiving requirements, these students will age out (i.e., turn 21) before they can earn enough credits to graduate. To avoid this scenario, based on personal testimony, families sometimes claim a student is younger than he/she really is in order to stay in school long enough to earn a diploma. Regardless of these scenarios, it is our job to provide these students with the best possible education as long as they are in our schools. Districts and schools can help to facilitate their transition to a new country and school by implementing programs in four areas: (1) establishing newcomer classes; (2) providing a welcome center; (3) conducting family outreach; and (4) planning extended learning opportunities.

Newcomer Classes Newcomers are typically defined as students who have been in the U.S. less than a year, and who demonstrate limited English proficiency. This definition can be used as a guideline for schools and districts to determine who enrolls in the program. If your school has the capacity to be flexible in who is labeled a “newcomer,” more students will benefit. For example, a student may have greater English proficiency but no background knowledge and skills to navigate the school system. A newcomer may have arrived 13 months ago and still need additional assistance with the language. A student may have moved three times to different states and schools and needs to be acclimated even though he or she may have arrived in the U.S. two years prior. A successful program will consider the individual needs of each student and be designed accordingly. Newcomer classes, usually held at the middle and high school levels, are intended to help students more quickly and easily integrate into their enrolled schools. Elementary-aged newcomers, instead of having a separate program, are generally guided through a newcomer-type process within the context of their regular classroom and with the assistance of English Language Development specialists, counselors, administrators, student buddies and others. At the secondary level, many interventions are also provided in students’ academic classes, but the addition of a separate newcomers’ class offers some additional advantages. These classes equip students with intensive English

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language learning opportunities and a safe place to practice their learning. They are also intended to help students understand American culture and the culture of the school and community to which they have arrived. They encourage students to ask questions without fear of embarrassment. They provide an orientation to everything from grades to lunchroom protocols to classroom and school behavioral expectations and social functions. Students are empowered to go out into the school and practice their newly acquired skills with adults and peers with whom they feel most comfortable. Another important role of a newcomer program is to assist students in exploring areas of interest. This includes making sure students know about the various clubs, athletic teams, after-school activities, etc., that are available in the school. The newcomer class can assist students with getting information, signing up, understanding any prerequisites or try-outs required and so on. Several immigrant students I spoke with told me that they learned English more quickly when they participated on a team or in a club. In joining one or more of these, the students found that they had shared interests with their English-speaking peers outside of the regular classroom setting, and friendships began to form. While the duration of newcomer programs varies, continuing them for a minimum of a semester is advisable, with a year being preferable. Many programs are established as a full year or longer and are in a self-­ contained classroom where the majority of academic classes are also taught through the newcomer program. If, alternatively, newcomers are taking their academic classes alongside proficient English speakers, then providing co-teaching English Language Development staff in the content classes is recommended. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics Study, Helping Newcomer Students Succeed in Secondary Schools and Beyond, “Not only do these newcomers have to master complex course content, usually with incomplete background knowledge and little understanding of the way that U.S. schools are structured and operate, but they have fewer years to master the English language than do students who enter at elementary grades” (Short & Boyson, 2012). This is certainly part of the reason that “the dropout rate for foreign-born and immigrant students remains above 30 percent, three times that of U.S.-born white students” (Mitchell, 2016). If there is no time during the school day, due to scheduling and/or staffing constraints, this class can also be done as an after-school club and/ or as a summer program. Funding sources to offer a full program can be

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pursued through Title III dollars as well as state and local grants. Home visits, described in detail in chapter 2, are an ideal way to let families know of this class/program as well as other opportunities for ELLs. Although newcomer programs should be designed to fit the local context, the program goals should include: ● Flexible scheduling of courses and students ● Careful staffing plus targeted professional development ● Basic literacy development materials for adolescents and reading interventions adapted for ELLs ● Content area instruction to fill gaps in educational backgrounds ● Extended time for instruction and support (e.g., after school, Saturday and summer programs) ● Connections with families and social services ● Diagnostics and monitoring of student data ● Transition measures to ease newcomers into the regular school programs or beyond high school (Short & Boyson, 2012) A searchable database of exemplary secondary newcomer programs, compiled by the Center for Applied Linguistics, can be found at http:// www.cal.org/what-we-do/projects/newcomer. This site provides a comprehensive list of programs from around the country and includes information about staffing, curriculum, funding, assessments, scheduling and additional programmatic details.

Welcome Center A welcome center is a place to greet new immigrant families and orient them to the school system and the community. Depending on the size of the school district, the center could be a separate function or it can be incorporated within the central office or a school with existing personnel. There are a myriad of ways to set up the center which will be guided by your local resources and other circumstances or constraints. Following

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is a menu of welcome center functions from which to choose, add and/or adapt. ● Greeters—Assign an individual(s) to greet the families. As the old adage goes, “You never get a second chance to make a first impression.” A friendly face for someone in a new land and in a new school system makes the best first impression. If the greeter does not speak the language of the family, provide a translator and information for the family to access a community resource for translation. ● Enrollment—Provide an option in the welcome center to register new families for the local school with a dedicated computer or bank of computers along with instructions in the major languages of your school district. Include, as part of this process, a home language survey to determine the best placement for the student(s). In addition to the survey, a language assessment of the students could also be a part of the enrollment process. Best practice would include having someone available to assist the family through the entire enrollment process. ● Video—Display a short (e.g., five-minute) video in the center (and on your website) about your school district. Allow families to select in which language to view the video, offering options from the top three languages spoken in your district. The video content would be specific to your local context but could include: a welcome message from the superintendent; a brief overview of the school district; the assistance that is available to new immigrants through the district and in the community; and tips for parents to help their students be successful in school. ● Resources—Provide written (and translated) community resources information. Depending on your community, the individual(s) in the welcome center can assist the family in connecting with those agencies, perhaps even making an initial appointment if/when needed. Information could include: agencies that assist immigrant families with health insurance coverage; local food bank information; housing options; employment resources; adult education opportunities, including English classes; local places of worship; contact information of a parent advocate; and so on. ● Legal Assistance—Depending on the circumstances of each family, have available information about local and other legal resources, such

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as the Administrative Relief Resource Center, http://www.adminrelief. org/. This organization will assist families in understanding how they can stay together, receive authorization to gain employment as well as a deferral from deportation under DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals) and DAPA (Deferred Action for Parental Accountability). ● School Connection—Create a personal connection to the school the students will attend. If the center is located at the central office or a separate site, let the school know when the family will be visiting the school so the staff can, in turn, make their best first impression. In that vein, upon arrival at the school, the principal should be the one to welcome the family. The school visit can provide another opportunity to connect families to local resources in addition to offering a tour of and an orientation to the school. While there, school staff should make an initial appointment for the student(s) with the school counselor. Many times immigrants have experienced anxiety, trauma or the threat of trauma during their transition. Knowing there is someone to talk to will help mitigate further distress caused by starting school. ● School Supplies—Provide information in the welcome center about school supplies. Through Parent-Teacher Organizations, local foundations, grants, etc., ensure schools can donate school supplies to new immigrant students. This allows students to join classes in a timely manner with the tools needed to begin their education and will set the tone for these new students to be successful.

Family Outreach The family circumstances of immigrant students vary greatly. We found this to be true as we interviewed students in our community. Some students were here without any parents. Some had one parent, while others had both. Some were living with relatives. Some students and some parents were here legally and others were undocumented. Some came from countries where their lives were literally in danger and others immigrated by choice for new opportunities. Undoubtedly, larger communities would experience even more scenarios. Students with no parents in the U.S., or with undocumented parents, or who are themselves undocumented, face additional challenges. In M. Tamer’s

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interview of author Natasha Warikoo (2014) on immigration, Warikoo states, “Children face barriers because of their parents’ undocumented status, often related to poverty, fears of deportation, and more, while undocumented youth themselves face increasing barriers to social mobility as they enter adolescence and hope to obtain driver’s licenses, after school work, and financial aid for college.” Given these realities, excelling in school is often lower on the priority list than is legal status, shelter, clothing, work and food. Regardless of the pathways families took to be in the United States, or their current circumstances, immigrant families share some common needs that school districts can help to address that, in turn, will also help to meet the needs of your schools. As stated above, providing information to families to access various agencies, connecting them with the school(s) their children will attend and ensuring the students have school supplies upon initial enrollment is helpful. This, however, is a lot to take in all at once. Parents, just like their students, need time to acclimate to a new community and school system. Schools can ease the transition by connecting with families in a variety of ways over time. In addition to home visits, schools can host monthly topical meetings with immigrant parents and offer translation. Topics can include anything that is relevant to the school and community. Examples include: logging on to look at students’ grades (including how and where to access a computer, if this is a need); how to help with homework; learning about entrance to college; the American teenager; clubs, activities and athletics; and parent volunteers in school. Another way to connect with these families over time is to offer a parent “coffee hour,” in which immigrant parents gather monthly to discuss their own topics. This may include a faculty liaison who could help them to arrange community speakers and translation. These speakers/topics might include an immigration attorney, someone from the local food bank, an employment resource professional, information about citizenship, a health care specialist and successful immigrant parents who have been in the U.S. for a number of years. Getting the word out about these types of opportunities, however, can be challenging. School communication may be, for some, a new concept. We have found that traditional methods of communication about parent meetings at school have not worked well. Instead, we have found that hosting these meetings just before or after student performances or making personal

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phone calls to invite families have been the best way to improve attendance. Hosting parents’ meetings while their students are simultaneously meeting in a student newcomer group is also an option. While these systems have produced better results in terms of parent attendance, don’t leave out the simple step of asking these families how they would like to receive communication. Also, let them know the frequency with which they can expect to see school communication and how they will know whether there is any action that parents need to take (e.g., signing a permission slip, listening to their child read, signing off on homework or grades, attending a meeting, etc.). School leaders should consider their current communication systems and whether they are easy to understand and to follow. If not, simplifying may be in order (e.g., parents can expect communication every Wednesday via email and anything that requires action is labeled in bold red letters). Establishing an easy-to-understand system will serve all families well. Another need that school systems can assist immigrant families with is English language acquisition. Families who come with limited English proficiency are often anxious about learning the language and need assistance in how to access classes or information. A great way to meet this need is to utilize a staff English Language Development teacher and provide night classes for adults. Offering adult English classes in the school setting brings families into the school and, thus, increases their comfort level with being involved with their children’s education. It also provides teachers and school leaders a venue for reaching out to the family to inquire about their English class and extends a bridge to a conversation about how well their child is doing in school and other topics they might like to discuss. Another model, which our district’s dual-language school employed, is to partner with a local college to offer an adult ELL course through the university, but hosted at the school. Offering the class through a college or university creates a connection to higher education. The instructor can intentionally integrate the message that higher education is important for their children to pursue. Part of the class can also be a “field trip” to the local university to create greater exposure and access to higher education, while mitigating some of the fear factor that new immigrants may have about college. It’s important to remember that immigrant families come with a wealth of information and experiences from which schools can be enriched. Many had professional jobs, skills and talents that they were actively using in their home countries. There are a multitude of ways to integrate these adults into your schools, avenues that go beyond the traditional “food, flags and

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festivals,” to actually incorporating these adults as valued guest instructors. For example, immigrant parents can be used as speakers in the classroom and at assemblies in areas of their expertise. They can provide the perspective of events in our history books from their countries’ lenses. They can serve as tutors and mentors (once the language is acquired and/or through translators). They can help students with proficiency in the immigrants’ native languages if these languages are offered at the school. They can help lead before- or after-school clubs. For example, at one of our schools, parents from Mexico started a student/parent/staff dance troupe, teaching those interested about Mexican dances and then putting on performances in traditional costumes for the school and for the community. The big idea is that school leaders need to make it a priority to reach out to these families with the clear message that they are valued as much as other, non-immigrant families.

Extended Learning Opportunities As previously stated, immigrant students often have interruptions in their educational pathways. Some have little or no formal schooling prior to coming to the United States. Many enter high school without a realistic expectation of graduating on time. School leaders can improve the likelihood of success for immigrant students by providing extended learning opportunities and/or alternative pathways to graduation. Extended learning opportunities should begin by maximizing the time available during the school day. The structures to increase learning are beneficial to all students, but may make the difference between graduating or not graduating to an immigrant student. One such structure is to make better use of lunchtime. Students are notoriously quick eaters. By setting up a system whereby students who have not completed the prior day’s work, or who need extra help with assignments, eat lunch in a specific place with teachers accessible to provide assistance, focuses students on completing their assignments while help is available. This works best when classroom teachers enroll students electronically to attend this “lunch bunch” (the term used in our district) and input the specific assignment(s) to be completed. The teacher(s) in charge can then take roll to ensure everyone assigned to the intervention arrives. For immigrant students and others who may be in a similar circumstance with insufficient credits, failing grades or who need extended learning time

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due to language barriers, the school can schedule a class before or after lunch for this group so that these students have an even longer period of concentrated learning and catch-up time. In order to avoid this seeming like a punishment, incentives should be built in for students who do catch-up. The requirements should also remain flexible so that when students can demonstrate their knowledge and skills of the standard in a way that is commensurate with the objective(s) of the assignment(s), this alternative demonstration or modification should be accepted. It’s not, after all, about the quantity of work, but about the understanding and application of the concepts. Another option during the school day is to create an extension period at the end of the day, at least once a week, in which the day is one hour longer and students are assigned to various interventions and extensions as their needs warrant. Alternatively, the class time periods can be shortened on one day per week allowing one extra period to fit into the existing school day. These extensions and interventions should be deliberately created as part of the schedule to meet students’ needs with flexible entry and exit points as students master skills and demonstrate a need to acquire others. Traditional seven period days (or whatever the traditional model is in your local high schools) are being replaced by more creative models. One such model offers time for students to work on projects of their own choosing during the school day. The latest in education is asking us to teach our students to create their own questions, do their own research, and form their own conclusions with their learning. Why? The world is a collaborative, communicative place and it is the world of online tools that has made it this way. Our students’ workplaces will be places with teams at tables, not individuals in cubicles. They will be asked to be innovative and create the next tool, not to push bureaucratic paper. (20 Time in Education) One way to do this is with “20%-Time.” This is a concept, developed by Google, in which students spend 20 percent of their time working on a project of their choosing. These can be completely open-ended or the topics can be guided by a teacher. While it may seem counterintuitive to free

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Strategies for Immigrant Students

up more time for students who are behind, it actually serves to produce quicker results because of the engagement level of the students. Teachers can set parameters, such as: establishing the timeline for the project, along with a completion date; linking students up with a mentor; requiring that students demonstrate certain skills and knowledge through the process (i.e., those in which the students need to gain proficiency); determining whether the projects will involve groups or be individual; when and how the project will be presented; and, how it will be graded. Presentation to an authentic audience (e.g., parents, community members, people in the fields of students’ areas of study, etc.) further motivates students to do a great job. Technology is another venue available to help students mitigate their learning deficits. Whether this is through a blended learning model, a flipped classroom or online classes, learning is no longer anchored between four school walls. The combination of access to technology and the ability to “do school” anytime, anyplace, makes it possible to more quickly meet learning targets with instantaneous feedback when the teacher is not physically present. Technology also offers a virtual collaboration platform to interact with other students and build on one another’s ideas, just as students do in the regular classroom. Technology access, however, can be a challenge. Immigrant families and students who live at or below the poverty level, do not always have internet access or computers in the home. Schools and districts have to find ways to bridge this divide. Our district approved a one-to-one (a device for every student) initiative, prioritizing devices first to go to families living in poverty. Project Red, a large-scale national study of 1:1 technology, found that, “schools employing a 1:1 student-computer ratio and key implementation factors outperform other schools, and reveal significant opportunities for improving education return on investment (ROI) by transforming teaching and learning” (Greaves, Hayes, Wilson, Gielniak & Peterson, 2012). Even with a device, internet access and other in-school interventions, time is often what immigrant students need more of, and what a traditional school schedule does not permit. Filling the time within the school day with more opportunities for learning and extending student engagement outside of school through technology, is a first step. Another way to extend time is to look at what has traditionally been called summer school and reframe it into a fifth quarter. This is a window of time (and opportunity) which few districts leverage.

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Strategies for Immigrant Students

Most students finish the school year in the typical four quarters, while others may need a fifth quarter to complete requirements. A quarter is typically nine weeks long. The usual summer break lasts 11 to 12 weeks. This allows for the option of adding another full quarter to the school calendar. If districts add this as an option, students can plan for this as early as the beginning of the year when they sign up for classes. This is an opportunity, not only for students to catch-up, but can also be used to accelerate learning for those ready to move at a quicker pace and tackle advanced class work. Students from immigrant families often have to work in addition to going to school full time. We have found that many local employers will partner with the school district to encourage completion of homework, provide mentoring and reiterate the importance of a postsecondary edu­ cation. Many will also flex students’ hours to accommodate for school needs and communicate student progress to the school. The district can establish a list of local employers who are willing to coordinate with the school district in meeting the needs of both the employer and the students. The work world, and the skills students learn there, can create another pathway to demonstrating proficiency in related academic areas, meeting certain course requirements and gaining credit in a non-traditional way. Other ways to reduce the amount of seat time for these students, while still earning the credits necessary to graduate, include: compacting the curriculum, waiving certain credits (e.g., waiving a P.E. requirement if students participate in a sport) and allowing students to demonstrate mastery of standards in alternative ways. Finding ways to extend learning opportunities for immigrant students necessitates an examination of current systems and practices, from seat time to assignments to grading. Schools and districts should look outside the box for alternative ways to meet the unique needs of our immigrant learners. In so doing, educational systems will find that all students will benefit from the implementation of new approaches born of innovative thinking.

Conclusion The faces and languages spoken in our classrooms have changed. The new reality is a classroom full of students from different backgrounds, races, socioeconomic levels and countries. Increasingly, school districts, even those in

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Strategies for Immigrant Students

rural areas, are seeing an influx of immigrant students. Families who immigrate to the United States have unique needs that schools and districts are in a position to address. Specific newcomer classes give learners the time and attention needed for students to acclimate to a new school, system and community. Establishing a Welcome Center creates an opportunity for school systems to engage with the family to understand their circumstances and provide for their students’ educational needs while simultaneously addressing some of the family’s basic needs through community resources. Family outreach incorporates the families into the school, helping them to become engaged in their students’ learning, while simultaneously providing an outlet for dialogue with other immigrants and addressing some of their ongoing needs. Extended learning opportunities offer immigrants a variety of options in meeting their learning needs within the school day, outside of the school day and over the summer. These options can be maximized through unique scheduling, revamping school structures, using 20 percent time, working with area employers and adding a fifth quarter to the school year. Immigrants face unique challenges in completing school. District and school leaders can pave the way for their success by offering a variety of learning pathways. The end goal is for each ELL student is to walk across the stage, high school diploma in hand well prepared for a bright future of endless possibilities.

District Leader Checklist My district has a Newcomer Program at the secondary level and a Newcomer Program or process at the elementary level. Access to and exit from the program is fluid (i.e., students can enter and exit at different points) and based on student need. Our Newcomer Program is adequately staffed. My district has a Welcome Center for new immigrant families. The Welcome Center includes at least some of the following: ●  A greeter ●  Enrollment of the student(s) ●  Parent completion of a Home Language survey ●  Student language assessment ● Information, translated into the top languages represented in your district, about the school district and how it supports immigrant students and families (this can be a video or done in another medium)

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● Information, translated into the top languages represented in your district, about available community resources, including organizations for legal assistance ● Connecting to the school of enrollment prior to each family’s visit to the school ● Information about how to acquire free school supplies ● Other things our Welcome Center include are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My district successfully engages immigrant families in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My district translates information disseminated to parents into the top languages represented in the district. My district includes translators at parent meetings and functions. My district offers adult English language classes. My district offers extended learning opportunities to immigrant students.

School Leader Checklist My school has a Newcomer Program at the secondary level and a Newcomer Program or process at the elementary level. Access to and exit from the program is fluid (i.e., students can enter and exit at different points) and based on student need. Our Newcomer Program is adequately staffed. My district has a Welcome Center for new immigrant families. The Welcome Center connects students to my school. When families arrive at the school: ● A school leader (e.g., principal, assistant principal) personally welcomes the family ●  A school leader gives them a tour of the building ● A school leader or staff member gives them a short orientation (what they need to know for the first week of attendance) ● A staff member provides them with a translated welcome packet, including important school information (Continued)

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School Leader Checklist, continued ●  A staff member schedules the family to meet with a counselor ● A staff member reiterates to the family that school supplies will be at no cost ● Other ways my school welcomes and connects to new immigrant families include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My school successfully engages immigrant families in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My school translates information disseminated to parents into the top languages represented in the district. My school includes translators at parent meetings and functions. My district or school offers adult English language classes. My school offers extended learning opportunities to immigrant students. These opportunities include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

References 20 Time in Education. Inspire. Create. Innovate. Retrieved from http:// www.20timeineducation.com/ Center for Applied Linguistics. Exemplary programs for newcomer English language learners at the secondary level. Retrieved from http://www.cal. org/what-we-do/projects/newcomer Greaves, T., Hayes, J., Wilson, L., Gielniak, M., & Peterson, E. (2012). Revolutionizing education through technology: The project RED roadmap

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for education. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education. Retrieved from http://one-to-oneinstitute.org/images/books/ ISTE_Book.pdf Mitchell, C. (May 10, 2016). Mispronouncing students’ names: A slight that can cut deep. Education Week, 35(30), 1, 10–11. Retrieved from http:// www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2016/05/11/mispronouncing-studentsnames-a-slight-that-can.html Morse, A. (March 2005). A look at immigrant youth: Prospects and promising practices. Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures Children’s Policy Initiative. Passel, J., & Cohn, D. (November 2008). Unauthorized immigrant totals rise in 7 states, fall in 14: Decline in those from Mexico fuels most state decreases. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center’s Hispanic Trends Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewhispanic.org/ files/2014/11/2014–11–18_unauthorized-immigratio Passel, J., & Cohn, D. (February 11, 2008). U.S. population projections: 2005– 2050. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www. pewhispanic.org/2008/02/11/us-population-projections-2005–2050/ Pew Research Center. (January 15, 2015). Unauthorized immigrants: Who they are and what the public thinks. Retrieved from http://www.­pewre search.org/key-data-points/immigration/ Short, D.J., & Boyson, B.A. (2012). Helping newcomer students succeed in secondary schools and beyond. Executive summary. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Warikoo, N. (2014). The education of immigrant children: As the demography of the U.S. continues to shift, how can schools best serve their changing population? Interviewer M. Tamer. Harvard Graduate School of Education. Retrieved from https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/uk/14/12/ education-immigrant-children

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2

The Three-Legged Stool Balancing the Roles of the School, the Students and the Parents

At the end of the day, the most overwhelming key to a child’s success is the positive involvement of parents. —Jane D. Hull

Family Engagement as a Collaborative Process A common saying is, “Education is like a three-legged stool.” Each leg of the stool is represented by the school, the students and the parents. This is a powerful metaphor for the importance of engaging families in their children’s education. With the three-legged-stool concept, each leg has a different yet equal responsibility. Family engagement is related to a range of benefits for students, including improved school readiness, higher student achievement, better social skills and increased likelihood of high school graduation (“Redefining,” 2014, p. 2). Investing in family engagement is so cost-effective that having involved parents equates to spending one thousand dollars more per pupil in regards to student achievement (Harvard Family Research Project [HFRP], 2009, p. 1). As with all children, it is paramount that we reach out and engage parents of our ELLs. Educators might ask valuable questions such as, Who are the parents of my students? What are their backgrounds? What can I learn from them? What were their educational experiences? What are their goals for their child’s education? These questions can serve as the springboard for engagement.

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Expected Outcomes What expected outcomes would you include as part of your programs that encourage parental involvement? What does success look like in terms of parent engagement and involvement? Ideally, parents of ELL students would be involved in curriculum and programming decisions. These parents would serve on parent-teacher organizations, District Accountability Committees and any other school and/or district committees on which English-speaking parents serve. ELL parents would be regular volunteers in the buildings, and there would be consistent and open communication between the school and families. Parents of ELL students would be actively involved in the academic education of their children, regularly attending parent teacher conferences, school functions and extracurricular programs. All materials would be translated and printed in languages spoken by ELL parents. Meetings would be conducted using translators and the languages would be alternated, one in English and the next one in the native language of the ELL parents. There would be a wide selection of reading material available for families to use with their children in their native language. This environment, in which ELL parents are equal stakeholders and active participants in their children’s education, would create an inclusive learning space where all learners can succeed. But how do we get there? In assessing such outcomes for successful parent engagement, review the National PTA (n.d.) set of standards for family–school partnerships. These include: Standard 1: Welcoming all families into the school community—­ Families are active participants in the life of the school and feel welcomed, valued and connected to each other, to school staff and to what students are learning and doing in class. Standard 2: Communicating effectively—Families and school staff engage in regular, two-way, meaningful communication about student learning. Standard 3: Supporting student success—Families and school staff continuously collaborate to support students’ learning and healthy

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The Three-Legged Stool

development both at home and at school and have regular opportunities to strengthen their knowledge and skills to do so effectively. Standard 4: Speaking up for every child—Families are empowered to be advocates for their own and other children, to ensure that students are treated fairly and have access to learning opportunities that will support their success. Standard 5: Sharing power—Families and school staff are equal partners in decisions that affect children and families and together inform, influence and create policies, practices and programs. Standard 6: Collaborating with community—Families and school staff collaborate with community members to connect students, families and staff to expanded learning opportunities, community services and civic participation. (PTA, n.d., p. 1) Conduct a school and family partnership audit to determine your school’s level of implementation through the use of the National PTA’s standards for family engagement. By incorporating the following strategies and standards for engaging parents, both the academic and opportunity gaps for ELL students will narrow. High school graduation rates will increase as will attendance rates. Students with more highly involved parents will likely make greater gains in both reading and math than will children with less involved parents. This finding has held across all income and education levels and is the very foundation for why reaching out and engaging families of ELLs is paramount (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). An excellent way to reach out to parents is by taking the time to visit them in their homes and discuss ways to partner with them for the academic success of their children.

Home Visits Home visits have long been the practice in preschool but more and more they are becoming common at all levels of public education. ELLs often begin kindergarten woefully behind in terms of vocabulary and life experiences or background knowledge. In fact, many Latino children begin

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kindergarten six months cognitively behind their own non-Latino peers (Bridges, Cohen & Fuller, 2012). Visiting the homes of all incoming kindergarteners can help set these students up for success in school. Kindergarten teachers can utilize summer months to go to the homes of these students and not only take school supplies and books, but also show the parents how to use them. It is important to take books in the parents’ native language. Games can be taken for parents to use with their children as well. It is through these home visits that valuable information is being gathered about the students and parents. Showing the parents how to set up the online data management of the district opens the lines of communication. Parents then know how to check grades and attendance. Discussing expectations for academics, attendance and behavior can eliminate any misunderstandings of the parents who might have expectations that originate from their schooling experience. It is helpful to discuss the kindergarten readiness expectations so that parents will have a clear understanding of what their children will need to know on Day 1 of kindergarten. Paulina, a kindergarten teacher, said this about the home visits, Home visits were a great way to begin the school year. We have seen a huge difference in parents’ confidence to be involved at school and ask questions or bring up concerns. We were welcomed into their homes. For many of our parents we saw a huge effort from both mom and dad to be present when we visited. Kids were so excited to meet us and show us their toys. From that moment on, when we talk to parents we have already established a connection with them so we are truly partners in their child’s education. Making that first connection a positive one goes a long way toward establishing a relationship with the family built on trust. Home visits at the middle school are done when the students transition to the next level of education. Parents of this level often have different concerns about the educational environment, such as social and emotional issues as well as academics. Often parents want to talk about setting limits or boundaries for their children. At this level, students have multiple teachers, and parents are interested in ensuring that their students will not fall between the cracks. The parents and the school make a plan for effective

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communication; and again, parents are shown how to check grades and attendance. This initial visit concludes with another invitation to come into the school for a follow-up activity or event. The middle school principal in our Colorado rural district tells the story of visiting a 6th grade student and her family: The translator and I entered the house to find Maria, the student, her younger brother and the two parents in the living room. The younger brother was actively running around the room while I was trying to make introductions. The parents seemed timid, almost with a bit of distrust as to why we were even there. I began the conversation with my usual question, “Maria, what do you want to be when you grow up?” She very confidently answered, “A doctor.” The mother, in disbelief said, “Maria, you have never told us that before!” Maria answered, “You have never asked.” All of a sudden the mother burst into tears upon which so did Maria. The mother went to Maria and embraced her. The translator and I exchanged awkward glances. I knew that I had just witnessed the birth of a dream, a dream bigger than food on the table and a roof over their heads. Many of these families have risked everything to escape dangerous situations and often the sheer dream is for safety alone. This simple statement of wanting to be a doctor represented the very reason that this family came here: to create a better life for their children. This dream was the realization that their plan was working for everything begins with the dream for something better. It was a powerful moment that I was privileged to observe. I will never forget it. Joel, the middle school principal went on to add, These families leave their extended families and support systems when they come to the United States. They are isolated, not only from family, but by the language barrier as well. We, the school, become their village. Now when I call them I am like family. These families trust me and know that I am there for their support. We adults in the home visit program

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The Three-Legged Stool

have become invested in not only these families, but in their children’s dreams. We become part of the realization of that dream. We help these families connect the dots to see that education is not just a governmental requirement but a valid pathway to the success of their children. Home visits at the high school for all incoming freshmen can prove to be invaluable. Parents of students entering high school have a lot of questions: How do credits work? What are electives and how do they factor in? What extracurricular activities are available and how does eligibility work? Are there scholarship opportunities for children of a low socioeconomic status? What about Advance Placement (AP) and Diploma Programme (DP) classes? Many parents of ELLs might not know to ask these questions, but they can provide valuable information to ensure their student’s success. The high school principal did a home visit with every incoming freshman the summer before they entered school. Not only did she make strong connections with the families, but her visits proved her dedication to the children’s success. She did it on her own time all summer long. She remained invested with these children, encouraging and supporting them throughout their tenure even though she changed jobs after their freshman year. When this class graduated, who do you think they asked to be the keynote speaker at their graduation? Yes, they selected this principal who had spent her summer vacation taking the time to go and visit all of them and their families to ensure they got off to a successful start their freshman year. This speaks volumes to the power of going into the homes of students, taking the time to find out who they are and what they want out of life and finally, making a plan with them to accomplish their dreams.

Setting Up a Home Visit Program Go with a Partner When conducting home visits, go with a partner, preferably another teacher or administrator, when doing a home visit. This is good for safety, and having a partner also gives the family, not one, but two friendly contacts at the school. Having a partner can help with the navigation in an unfamiliar part of town or in remembering all of the important parts of the conversation.

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Take a Translator with You If you are going to homes that speak a language other than English, it is important to have a translator with you. Perhaps a school employee who speaks the family’s native language can go as well. Find out if there is a community agency that provides translators for educational purposes in your area. What is the school’s plan for communicating with families that speak a language other than English? Perhaps you could use the same service that is used throughout the regular school year.

Block Out the Visits in Neighborhoods for Efficiency Plan ahead for the neighborhoods that you will visit. Schedule the home visits on the hour. The visit itself should last between 30–45 minutes, and then give yourself 15 minutes to get to the next home. Cover individual neighborhoods within a block of days then move to the next neighborhood.

Call Ahead and Set Up Appointments Make sure families have a phone number to call in case something comes up that will prohibit them from meeting. Have the scheduler relay the reason for the visit to the parent to ensure a level of comfort for the families. Ask if there are any particular questions that they would like answered in the visit. Setting these up well will make the visits go smoothly for all stakeholders.

Take Material for the Parents to Review Afterward This material might answer subsequent questions or generate more. The material needs to be printed in the parents’ native language. Such material might include class schedules, phone numbers of key personnel in the school, brochures for extracurricular activities, intervention and enrichment opportunities, school start and end times, pick-up and drop off directions and an invitation to the first on-campus parent event. Be sure and show parents how to access the online grade book and

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attendance recorder. Possibly you could even set up these apps on the parents’ phones so that they have ready access to important information about their child.

Go Hungry! Families may want to be hospitable and provide food to share with you. Sometimes the entire family will be present and ready to meet with you.

Expectations Do you hope for parents’ engagement or expect it? Most would answer, “Hope.” A better response is to expect it. How can parent engagement be expected? Begin your first conversation with them with the question, “What are your goals for your children’s education?” Continue the conversation with strategies that parents of successful students engage in. The educational system in the United States is possibly different from the parents’ educational experience and often parents must be given ways to engage. Parents might also view their role in terms of how their own parents were engaged in their educational experiences. Parents from Mexico, for example, often have the understanding that the educational experiences are left entirely up to the school district. In comparing three different countries’ educational systems, Mexico, Vietnam and Uzbekistan, we found that the role of parents differs vastly from the role of parents in the United States, as outlined in Table 2.1. Once parents understand the expectations of being an educational partner they are more than likely to comply. Our parents have been expected to read nightly with their children and sign reading logs. We implemented classes for parents to show them how to read with their children and what questions to ask. We made phone calls to all parents to invite them to and sign them up for slots in the parent–teacher conferences. We asked parents to volunteer in the school lunchroom and on the playground. Parents began volunteering to mentor student research groups. We formed groups of parents to get their feedback and input on school policies and decisions. All of this is done in the family’s native language. Parent outreach is ongoing and intentional.

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Uzbekistan Parents view their roles as being supportive after school hours. They pay for extra tutoring if their child is struggling. They help with homework and they sign a daily communication log that goes back and forth between home and the school.

Parents are not part of governing boards and the schools make decisions without parental input.

There is an expectation that parents and teachers communicate daily in regards to not only academics but behavior as well. This is done through a daily form.

Vietnam Parents view their role as one of providing the optimal environment for their children to succeed in school, including proper meals and a quiet place to study. They leave the actual teaching to the school and the teachers. They do send their children to private tutors, and private extracurricular classes.

Parents are not part of governing boards of schools.

Parents are expected to attend a parent/teacher conference each quarter.

Mexico

Parents are invited to school with the expectation of monetary support or in-kind support: painting the school, cleaning the school yard, hosting a Mother’s Day celebration, providing food for a fiesta, etc.

Parents are not part of the governing boards of schools nor are they asked for their opinion toward school success. Therefore, parents leave education to the experts: the teachers.

Unlike our legal mandates parent involvement (parent/ teacher conferences) is not required or even encouraged.

United States

Parents are not only expected to volunteer and fundraise but they are also expected to be partners in terms of academics. This includes reading nightly with their children, checking homework and providing background experiences for their children. Often parents of successful children provide extracurricular, cultural, arts and sports experiences and lessons for their children.

Parents are expected to serve on District and Building Accountability Groups, Parent Teachers Organizations and even local school boards of education. Input and feedback is not only valued but expected.

Parents are expected to attend all conferences and invited meetings with teachers.

Table 2.1  Parents’ Roles: A Comparison of Four Countries

School uniforms are required in public schools. The parents pay for them. A national curriculum is used including the same textbooks for every school in the country. All children begin school at age 5.

There is not a compulsory education law. How long a student attends school is a decision made by the families.

Grading system uses a 1–5 with 5 being the highest.

School uniforms are required in public schools. National curriculum for grades 1–12.

Universal preschool is provided for all children.

Compulsory education is required for 12 years of schooling.

Grading system uses 1–10 with 10 being the highest.

School uniforms are required in public schools.

National curriculum and free textbooks for all.

Preschool is mandatory and provided for all.

High school is not mandatory in Mexico. Students enrolled can either receive a diploma or a vocational certificate.

Grading system uses a number system, 5–10, with 10 being the highest grade and 5 failing.

School uniforms may or may not be required in schools.

Not a national curriculum across the country although the Common Core is an attempt to provide this.

Preschool is optional and many children, particularly low socioeconomic children, do not have access.

Compulsory education until the age of 17–18 across the U.S. Graduation earns a diploma.

Grading system typically uses either a 1, 2, 3, 4 or A, B, C, D, F.

The Three-Legged Stool

Barriers pertaining to language, school staffs’ lack of familiarity with culturally and linguistically diverse families and parents’ unfamiliarity with U.S. schools can all impede effective parent–school collaboration (Waterman, 2008). Often these parent conversations can result in help that will enable the parents to more actively engage. Consider the times of the day that you are expecting parents to engage. What about logistics? Is the location easily accessible? Is childcare provided? Reach out to community partnerships to provide funding for such necessities. Are there community organizations that deal with issues for disenfranchised families? Such organizations might include churches, nonprofit groups that focus on poverty and civic groups that have community outreach programs. Perhaps there are local restaurants you can work with to provide dinner at a lower cost or possibly have the food donated. Be sure and provide translators and have written material in the parents’ native languages. Go into the neighborhoods of the families and hold meetings there if possible. Many times meetings can take place in community rooms in neighborhoods where families live. Taking these steps can help you remove the barriers to educational engagement. Help parents learn how to ask good questions. For example, encourage them to move from asking closed to more open-ended questions. Recognizing the value of environmental print can open up a wealth of literacy resources. Language development is a skill that falls initially on the parents. Parents need help in understanding the value of talking to their children. Regardless of the primary language learned or spoken at home, the art of conversation and providing background experiences or schema are developed under the parents’ tutelage.

Effect on Teachers Teachers agree overwhelmingly that parent involvement contributes to more effective teaching, more successful students and more positive school climates (Epstein & Dauber, 1991, p. 28). Teachers may vary in the way that they interact with parents according to the grade level. At the elementary level, parents are often seen volunteering in the schools for simple administrative tasks, such as running copies or cutting out materials needed for manipulatives in lessons. Some parents volunteer to read to children while others help out in the lunchroom. Teachers feel supported

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and often report more positive feelings about teaching overall (Epstein & Dauber, 1991). Conversely, in the middle school and high school levels parent volunteering wanes and the involvement begins to look different. Teachers still want parents that support academic success by establishing routines, setting healthy bedtimes and limiting recreational use of technology and social media when it starts to become a priority over homework. Teachers also continue to communicate with parents in the form of conferences or through email and texts. Regardless of age level, teachers want parents that are involved in their children’s education as the benefits are significant.

Family Literacy Programs Family literacy programs are excellent avenues for promoting parent engagement. Family literacy appears in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Reading Excellence Act, Workforce Investment Act, Community Services Block Grant Act and the Head Start Act thus reinforcing the prevalence and importance given to this concept. These programs often address several components including teaching English to parents, offering classes in reading and GED preparation, parenting classes and modeling for parents how to interact with the academic assignments that children are given. These classes could also facilitate increased parent– teacher collaboration by supporting such things as parental ability to: (a) ensure the completion of homework, (b) better understand the written communication between the school and the home and (c) better understand how to support literacy development (Waterman, 2008). Family literacy moves beyond simply delivering the transmission of skills, and shifts to acknowledging and integrating ELL parents’ own literacy practices, skills and abilities. While integrating parents’ own literacy background and experiences, family literacy may involve teaching ELL parents how to read and write, then supporting them as they learn to create situations in the home that encourage reading and writing with their children (Arias & Morello-Campbell, 2008, p. 12). Both ESL classes and family literacy programs also inspire children’s motivation and school engagement as children are influenced by seeing their parents in their school, modeling a value of academic learning (Waterman, 2008). According to a 2010 study by the National Institutes of Health,

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A mother’s reading skill is the greatest determinant of her children’s future academic success, outweighing other factors, such as neighborhood and family income. . . . Programs to improve maternal literacy skills may provide an effective means to overcome the disparity in academic achievement between children in poor and affluent neighborhoods. (Greenwood, 2015, p. 1) To organize and begin a family literacy program in your school look for local partners in your community including community colleges and universities, the library and civic groups that have members who want to volunteer. First, determine a need or desire to pursue educational endeavors from ELL parents. Survey the parents and gauge their interest in learning English. Find out who and how many would be interested in learning to read or obtaining their GEDs. Determine a place to hold classes. Bring all community partners together for a planning meeting. These community partners might include the local library, churches, senior centers, local colleges and possibly retired teachers who might be interested in tutoring. Collectively organize the resources available. Will the school district help fund this? Are community grants available? Who will teach the classes, and what classes will be given? Will childcare be needed? Can you partner with local agencies to teach specialized classes, such as technology and basic computer literacy or parenting classes? Head Start is an excellent partner to offer parenting classes. Utilize the institutions of higher education in your area to provide GED preparation, English classes, computer skills and basic literacy for parents. If there is no university or community college in your area perhaps there are teachers, retired or active, that could teach the classes. Service organizations in the community are great resources for volunteers. Provide the space in which to teach these classes or work together with the parents to use community spaces in their neighborhoods. Regularly scheduled activities to include could be a regular story time scheduled at the school library. The librarian would model a read aloud for parents, preferably in Spanish. If this is not possible, then a translator or community member could do the reading. Fun activities that go with the book could be completed with the parents and the students together. The evening could end with checking out a book to take home for the week. Another monthly activity involves the family playing board games that promote literacy. Such games would include Hi-Ho Cherry-O, Spot-It

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The Three-Legged Stool

and BananaGrams, to name a few. Parents and children could co-author and illustrate books together that document family experiences. Additional activities to include would be singing songs, learning poems and rhymes, developing fine and gross motors skills and having family cooking evenings. Getting the parents and children together to interact with literacy activities will result in a big payoff for everyone. The following guidelines should be taken into consideration when developing a family literacy program in your school: ● Strive to understand parents’ literacy strengths and reinforce their knowledge and skills. ● Believe that literacy is acquired through shared dialogue, where learners are actively contributing to their own learning. ● Provide opportunities for adults and children to reflect on literacy practices in their daily lives. ● Recognize the literacy history of parents and that all parents come with some memories of literacy. ● Design your program out of needs of participants and examine resources in a sociocultural context. ● Adopt an empowerment philosophy and take action to break down patterns of social isolation. ● Respond to the interests of adults and children. ● Document their experiences and learn from them, which at the same time contributes to building a research base for family literacy. (Redefining family engagement for student success, 2014)

Using Technology to Involve Parents With technology today there are more opportunities now than ever before to keep lines of communication open between the school and parents. In working with the parents in our district and trying to find the best means of communication for them we have found that the most common form of technology that parents have access to is a smartphone. Sending out group texts to parents with information is a reliable option for effective communication. School Facebook pages, Instagram and Twitter accounts give

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The Three-Legged Stool

parents ideas as to what to focus the dinner table conversations around. Students can now blog, even in kindergarten, using programs like Edublogs. Services like Remind101 provide a safe, one-way, mass text messaging system created specifically for use in Education. It keeps your phone number, and the phone numbers of your subscribers, completely private, stores all of your sent messages and is completely free to use. Connect with parents and engage students with polls, exit tickets, event reminders and more using ClassPager. ClassPager allows parents and students to use their own devices (phones, tablets, laptops or other computers) to respond to questions or surveys that the teachers design with simple text messaging. Poll Everywhere provides a terrific way to capture the thoughts, ideas and opinions of parents. Simply set up a multiple choice or free response poll, text parents the code and have them text in their answers as they do on shows like The Voice. These are just a few innovative ways to connect with parents. There is a plethora of digital programs to use for communication, and new ways are being developed all of the time, even as you read this book.

Making the School the Hub for Families Help parents level the playing field by ensuring that all children have access to a wide variety of books. This can be done through a lending library, book bags and opening the school at select times throughout the summer for children to exchange books. Offer parenting classes on topics such as supporting emotional, academic and social skills for children. Ensure that teachers participate in ongoing communication with families, not only to address student needs, but to celebrate successes along the way. Open your school to community resources that would be of service to families. These can include health clinics, after-school programs, job trainings, recreation and social activities. Offer computer labs for families to use at certain hours of the day. Hold family nights that are planned around academic activities. Initiate multiple opportunities for parents to see their children perform. Ensure that all parents are aware of volunteer opportunities and always reach out to dads as well as the mothers. Plan a “Doughnut and Dads Breakfast.” Encourage all dads to commit to spending one day in the school working in the lunchroom, the playground, as hall monitors and reading to children.

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Policies It is important to analyze the policies that school districts have in place that can be a support or a barrier to the successful engagement for ELL families. Accordingly, it is recommended that policy makers: ● Support the implementation of traditional parental involvement programs that are culturally relevant and linguistically appropriate. ● Fund the implementation of non-traditional parental involvement programs that reflect a reciprocal involvement in the school/parent community. ● Support the professional preparation of teachers who can identify community funds of knowledge for curricular development and school outreach. ● Support community-based education programs that inform parents about school values and expectations and work with parents to help them become advocates for their children. (Arias & Morillo-Campbell, 2008)

Conclusion Always assume that parents want the very best for their child’s education. Parental engagement from immigrant families might not look the same when compared to their White Anglo-Saxon counterparts but this does not mean they are not involved. Many of these families risked everything to come here to the United States. They are very interested in the education of their children. We cannot assume that they understand the methods and norms in our educational system. We must teach them and show them how we want them to engage. Make parent engagement a priority of the school and put someone in charge of community outreach, if possible. When families of all backgrounds are engaged in their children’s learning, their children tend to do better in school, stay in school longer and pursue higher education. The diversity is a gift and everyone benefits from the experience. Clearly, children at risk of failure or poor performance can profit from the extra support that engaged families and communities provide (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Most importantly, the parents bring

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The Three-Legged Stool

profound commitment and motivation. The majority of the parents of ELLs have come to the United States in order that they and their children will have a “better life.” And many of these families quickly come to believe that supporting their children’s educational attainment is central to turning this dream into a reality (Waterman, 2008). This commitment to engaging families is a valuable endeavor and one that should be aggressively pursued. If schools devote time and resources toward developing new ways of understanding and approaching parent–school collaboration, they will generate a strong and cohesive source of support for increased ELL school engagement and success, as well as increased satisfaction for parents and school staff (Waterman, 2008).

District Leader Checklist Consider the metaphor “Education is like a three-legged stool.” From your perspective, as a district leader, are each of the legs equally represented? If so, how? If not, what would you need to change to balance the stool? What grade would you give your district for engagement of ELL parents? What steps will you take to make improvements? My leadership team involves ELL parents at the district level in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. When comparing my district’s level of family engagement against the National PTA Standards, we found the following areas in need of greater focus: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. We have a district plan to support schools in conducting home visits. We have a district plan to engage our community partners in helping us with meeting the needs of our ELL families. We have a family literacy plan for ELLs.

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The Three-Legged Stool

We leverage technology for two-way communication with our ELL families. We use our schools as the community hub. We have district policies that promote the engagement of ELL families.

School Leader Checklist Consider the metaphor “Education is like a three-legged stool.” From your perspective, as a school leader, are each of the legs equally represented? If so, how? If not, what would you need to change to balance the stool? What grade would you give your school for engagement of ELL parents? What steps will you take to make improvements? My staff involves ELL parents at the school level in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. When comparing my school’s level of family engagement against the National PTA Standards, my staff found the following areas in need of greater focus: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. We have a school plan to support staff in conducting home visits. We have a school plan to engage our community partners in helping us with meeting the needs of our ELL families. We have a family literacy plan for ELLs. We leverage technology for two-way communication with our ELL families. We use our schools as the community hub. We have district policies and school practices that promote the engagement of ELL families.

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The Three-Legged Stool

References Arias, M.B., & Morello-Campbell, M. (2008). Promoting ELL involvement: Challenges in contested times. Retrieved from http://greatlakescenter. org/docs/Policy_Briefs/Arias_ELL.pdf Bridges, M., Cohen, S., & Fuller, B. (2012). Abriendo puertas: Opening doors to opportunity. Retrieved from http://ihd.berkeley.edu/AP_ OD%20Brief%20101212%20FINAL.pdf Epstein, J.L., & Dauber, S. (1991). School programs and teacher practices of parent involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 279–289. Retrieved from https://www.jstor. org/stable/1001715?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Greenwood, M. (2015). Family literacy: One district’s approach to ELL instruction. Retrieved from http://www.smartbrief.com/original/2015/02/ family-literacy-one-districts-approach-ell-instruction Harvard Family Research Project. (2009). Seeing is believing: Promising practices for how school districts promote family engagement. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/cbeck/Downloads/SeeingIsBelieving.pdf Henderson, A.T., & Mapp, K.L. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED474521.pdf National standards for family–school partnerships. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.pta.org/nationalstandards Redefining family engagement for student success. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/ redefining-family-engagement-for-student-success Waterman, H.B. (2008). Building collaboration between schools and parents of English language learners: Transcending barriers, creating opportunities. Retrieved from http://www.colorincolorado.org/research/ building-collaboration-between-schools-and-parents-english-­languagelearners-transcending

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3

High-Impact Professional Development

We now accept the fact that learning is a lifelong process of keeping abreast of change. And the most pressing task is to teach people how to learn. —Peter Drucker With student populations of ELLs increasing, the need for effective professional development for both novice and veteran teachers continues to grow. Over 70 percent of preservice teachers lack the training to be effective with ELLs (Ballantyne, Sanderman & Levy, 2008). “The lack of training is not only evident in reviewing required coursework, but also in the sentiment among surveyed teachers who [identify] an inadequate background in appropriate strategies and techniques for instructing and assessing ELL students as the number one gap in their preparation for teaching” (López, Scanlan & Gundrum, 2013, p. 201). “No longer can an ELL endorsement be considered an extra certification. Preservice training for teachers needs to include many hours of coursework in the area of second-language acquisition, cultural proficiency and the principles of Universal Design for Learning (“UDL,” n.d.). Teachers need multiple opportunities to expand their craft in instructional strategies for ELLs that work. The professional development needs to be differentiated. Questions to address at the district level include: ● What structures are in place that might be utilized? Is there a regular Professional Learning Community (PLC)? Are district-wide professional development days for all staff scheduled into the district calendar or negotiated into a Master Contract? Are there professional development days before school begins or during the school year?

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Professional Development

● How can technology be accessed by all teachers to provide professional development? Do teachers have the technology skills to create and navigate online classrooms? Is the infrastructure in place for district-wide use of technology? ● How have the demographics changed in the last five years? Is the professional development to date keeping up with the trends in student demographics? ● What staff positions are in place that might lend themselves to coaching? Co-teaching? ELL Coaches? How can you leverage the expertise that is already in your district? How many teachers have an ELL endorsement or a degree in this field? ● Is there money in the budget to support professional development for teachers to hone their skills in the area of instructional strategies for ELLs? How could the money best be spent? Thinking about the answers to these questions will help you complete an audit of available resources to use to create a professional development plan for your district. There are a number of innovative strategies to use in the design of the plan that will be highly impactful for your district.

Teachers as Second-Language Learners Sometimes we do not know what we do not know. One of the most powerful professional development practices that was put into place in our district’s dual-language (English and Spanish) school involved the staff learning Chinese. All of a sudden we were put in the role of a secondlanguage learner. This professional development ignited a spark in staff. We quickly realized that we had work to do. The epiphanies that resulted from this intensive day of difficult learning included: ● I speak too fast. ● I do not use visuals. ● I do not get enough repetitions in.

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Professional Development

● I try and teach too many words in one lesson. ● It is mentally exhausting to learn a new language and new content at the same time. After the entire day of learning Chinese I remembered three words when I got home. This day was not only one of the most powerful days of professional development, but served as a catalyst for staff to garner empathy for our students and learn first-hand what practices were needed to ensure success. Until teachers have been put in the place of a secondlanguage learner, they will not fully understand the challenges these students face on a daily basis. The ELLs not only have to learn the content presented; they have to learn it in a second language. Professional development for staff members to teach a second language is imperative to succeed with these students. If you have ELLs in your school you are all language teachers. Elementary, middle and high school teachers must embrace the understanding that they are all language as well as content teachers. Any school with ELLs is essentially a language school, and until this premise is embraced by all staff members ELLs will never fully acquire the academic language to succeed and to do so as rapidly as possible.

Using Language Coaches We placed ELD certified language coaches in schools that were highly impacted with ELLs. These coaches had the roles of ELL Coordinators both in individual buildings and also at the district level. The coaches began their work with mini-presentations each week at PLC time. These presentations consisted of modeling a specific strategy that was effective in the classroom. The strategies focused on language acquisition and were appropriate for all content areas. Some of these strategies included Kagan Structures, Teaching Reading through Reading and Storytelling (TPRS), the use of word walls and the use of gestures to teach new vocabulary. The coaches also observed classrooms and provided feedback afterwards. Lessons were planned together to ensure that strong language acquisition components were in place. Coaches would then observe the planned lesson and debrief with the teachers afterwards. These coaches

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Professional Development

would also model lessons and specific strategies for teachers in their classrooms. Ashley Maxwell reflects on how her instructional practices were impacted through working closely with an instructional coach: As a new teacher, the importance of professional development and learning is critical for my success. There are a myriad of professional development opportunities out there for teachers: online classes, peer observations, expensive conferences, online blogs and videos, countless professional books and district required trainings. But, with this great list of different options one, arguably the most beneficial, is often forgotten. That opportunity, invaluable to teachers, is classroom coaching. Having a coach in my classroom is like having a captain navigate our ship. This type of coaching is very beneficial because it allows teachers not to have to master something new before trying it. Teachers can be learners with their students. Through coaching I have also gained trust and respect in my building as a teacher and learner alike. The open atmosphere coaching provides, is beyond its more obvious face value. In my experience, this is classroom coaching for my own learning. It is me not quite getting something or seeing something in my practice, then having an expert right there, someone who has seen all the mistakes, walking with me stepby-step until I can be independent and successful on my own. At PLC meetings the coaches then began to share videos of effective practices that had been demonstrated in the buildings. A bulletin board was set up in the faculty lounge with pictures of best practices for ELL instruction. These pictures might include word walls, a teacher using props for a lesson or posting of language structures right next to a content objective. Everywhere in the buildings were reminders of strategies to use for ELL student success. As the year progressed, teachers began to present the effective strategies at the PLCs. Every PLC began with a mini-lesson showcasing an effective strategy for ELLs. No longer were PLCs driven by the coaches. The teachers were becoming the experts and they were beginning to take the lead. They took pride in the fact that their focus on second-language instructional strategies was working and they began to see results. The

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excitement was contagious and this shared model for teacher leadership began to take hold. Working as an English language learner instructional support specialist has so many advantages. I have always realized that I have as much to learn from the teachers and students I’m supporting, as they have to learn from me. Our students have stories to share and can contribute to the richness of the classroom environment. As I work in various classrooms, I am afforded the opportunity to continue my own learning or professional development. As I’m observing and interacting, I continually use the lens of an ELL student. Most rewarding is when a teacher working with ELLs realizes the importance of considering a lesson from the perspective of someone who is in the early stages of language acquisition, as in, “I hadn’t thought about it that way,” or “ I had no idea.” Lis Pursley, Instructional Coach

Co-Teaching Another way we utilized the language coaches and our ELL teachers was to place them with regular classroom teachers to offer a co-teaching model. Having the ELL teacher work in tandem alongside the classroom teacher planning and implementing lessons not only ensured that the lessons had the components of second-language acquisition embedded but also raised the level of expertise for the classroom teacher. There are countless factors that contribute to an ELL’s ability to continually develop those language skills necessary to be successful both in and out of the classroom. When working with those responsible for educating ELLs there are numerous considerations including lesson planning that addresses both content and language objectives, identification of vocabulary/academic language and the explicit instruction of vocabulary and features of academic language. Differentiated assessments that afford all students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of concepts, listening and

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communication skills, all the while taking into account the background knowledge of students, is all key. (L. Pursley, personal communication, April 4, 2016) Crystal Miller, elementary principal, established co-teaching in her school. She feels that the process has not only been highly impactful for her ELLs, but that it has decreased the number of students reviewed in an RtI (response-to-intervention) meeting as the co-teaching provides for such exemplary differentiation to meet the needs of all of her students. Co-teaching provides on-going daily support for ELL students. In co-teaching for ELLs not only does the student experience differentiated support during the co-teaching time but the strategies become embedded as they become part of what a classroom teacher does. Co-teachers deliver a big impact for ELL students by planning and reflecting together for the good of the students. Of the many tools readily available for ELL students, I have found co-teaching to be the most effective as the classroom teacher and the child are supported together. Good co-teaching is like a good marriage, as each person’s strengths are leveraged and together, they support and instruct the child learning a language. The secret to successful co-teaching is in the planning. The ELL and the classroom teacher plan together. The critical component is having the administrator structure time in the schedule to allow for the co-planning to take place. Having the ELL teacher included in the planning ensures that the lesson will be delivered with a critical lens to instructional practices that make a difference in language acquisition.

Book Study Once we determined that we had to develop a better understanding of second-language acquisition instructional strategies, we decided to put several book studies into place. We purchased five books and let teachers selfselect which book most appealed to them. Groups were formed and a leader

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for each group was chosen. All of the books centered on ELLs and instruction. The book study lasted for two months with the groups meeting every other week. At the end of the two-month period, each group had to present to the rest of the staff the lessons learned and the big ideas from their respective books. Notes were taken on each group’s presentation. Graphics from each book were chosen and collectively a portfolio of best practices was developed for each teacher incorporating all of the knowledge garnered from the five books. From the presentations the faculty then created a checklist of best practices to be presented in every class, every day. Each teacher committed to incorporating these practices into his/her daily instruction. These practices included: ● Use of a Word Wall. These word walls were fluid and changed as the words changed. They were also used as teaching resources. ● Use of visuals. Each teacher agreed to always have the computer hooked up to the projector to readily pull up pictures from the internet to explain terms. Pictures from the internet were used throughout the daily lessons to help ELLs grasp the new vocabulary. ● Use of repetitions. Delivering a minimum of 60 repetitions is necessary for newly learned vocabulary. For students to own a new word they must hear and use it a minimum of 60 times. ● Use of physical gestures. ELLs need physical gestures to attach language structures to. Teachers agreed to create these gestures and use in vocabulary development. ● The use of graphic organizers. Graphic organizers were put into place embedded within everyday instruction. These organizers have been shown to be beneficial to ELLs. ● Infusing culturally responsive teaching. Integrating culturally responsive teaching into daily lessons was deliberate. Helping students make personal connections to content cements an understanding for students to better retain content.

Twitter Chats We began to host a weekly Twitter Chat for my district. You can find us on Twitter every Monday night at #ssdedu. Each week we discuss a different

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topic. We scour the nation looking for the biggest and brightest names that are experts on the various topics. Many of our topics center on ELLs. All of our topics include a focus from the ELL perspective. We have discussed TPRS (Teaching Proficiency through Reading & Storytelling) with Blaine Ray and Leslie Davison, Teaching Academic Language with Beth Skelton and Differentiating Instruction for ELLs with Larry Ferlazzo hosted by our ELL coaches. Tuesday morning we always send out a recap of the chat along with plenty of other articles on the topic for the entire district to read. Here is an example of a Tuesday morning recap:

Twitter Recap Thanks to everyone who participated in the chat last night. It was a ver­ itable think tank of knowledge with so many experts on. Thank you to Leslie Davison for arranging the top minds in the nation to join us and to Renea Hill and Shari Evans for hosting! Here are some resources to further your understanding of TPRS and CI (Comprehensible Input). If you work with ELL students (we all do) then you need to know about these important methodologies! http://www.blaineraytprs.com/ Check out Blaine Ray’s (one of our guests) website. It is filled with resources for you to see! http://www.sdkrashen.com/ Dr. Steven Krashen’s website has many resources that you will want to read!

Twitter Chats to Access #ellchat Every Monday night at 7PM Mountain Time #langchat Every Thursday night at 6PM Mountain Time https://youtu.be/Hl9eBJkRkeQ

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“Language Acquisition with TPRS” video https://storify.com/cathypetreebeck/tprs-ci Here is a link to the chat last night. It is FULL of resources! Twitter chats are not for everyone as they are fast paced. Those who enjoy this technological style of professional development love them! The intent is to create a spark of interest and a working knowledge to move forward with exploration of the topic. Another positive facet of Twitter chats is the opportunity to dialogue with top names in the country around various topics. Finally, having our teachers connect with others outside of the district opens doors to new ideas and innovations. As a full-time teacher, mom to four beautiful children under the age of 10, and finishing up a graduate program for a Master’s degree in Special Education, it can be challenging to find time to further my professional development within my school district community of peers. The weekly Monday evening Twitter chats have brought PD and learning into my living room. Not only do I get to sit in the comfort of my home among my family, but I also get to participate in enriching, provoking and educationally stimulating conversations that provide me with multiple resources that I can implement in my classroom the very next day. Another aspect of the Twitter chats that impact me on a professional level is the sense of community it builds among my peers across the district. I usually wouldn’t get to connect with these peers under other circumstances. For example, if we were to have optional district wide professional development offered in a face-to-face atmosphere I would probably gravitate toward my own school due to familiarity instead of reaching out and connecting with teachers from different schools within my school district. Finally, the connections made nationwide from the professional experts brought in as hosts on the varying topics has been inspiring and helped to create more breadth to the depth of knowledge offered during the PD Twitter chats. Overall, I would say the weekly Twitter chats

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have impacted my professional learning positively, have helped me to be a more responsive and reflective teacher, and have helped me feel connected to the amazing community of teachers in our school district dedicated to our students’ achievement. Julie Willis, Preschool Teacher To set up a Twitter chat for your district first choose a hashtag (#). Search the intended hashtag to ensure it has not already been taken. Choose a consistent day and time for the chats and secure participants to attend the first few chats to guarantee enough activity. Practice by having a mini-chat with administrators and/or teachers. Choose topics and create a semester or year-long calendar. Here is the (2015/2016) calendar (Table 3.1) for the #ssdedu chats held every Monday evening from 8:00–9:00 p.m.: Table 3.1  Twitter Chat Calender Date

Topic

Facilitator

Guests

September 7

Building Relationships

Joel Rivera

Cathy Beck James Sturtevant Sandra Harris

September 14

Establishing a Hollyanna Bates Culture of Literacy for All Levels

Dr. Mary Howard

September 21

Second-Language Instructional Strategies

Leslie Davison

Sarah Adkins Carol Gaab Larry Ferlazzo

September 28

Standards Based Grading

Doug Blake Ben Lausten

Doug Reeves

October 5

Engaging Parents

Joel Rivera

Joe Mazza

October 12

Parent Teacher Conferences

Cathy Beck

Dr. Jim Detwiler

October 26

Formative Assessments

Cathy Beck

Kathy Dyer Crystal Miller

November 2

Arts Integration

Jonathan Johnson

Susan Riley

November 9

Cultural Proficiency

Kerry Buhler Ann-Marie Westerhoff

Paul Gorski

November 16

STEM

Renea Hill

Peder Hansen, Suzy Boss

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Table 3.1  Continued November 30

The Power of Being a Connected Educator

Cathy Beck Crystal Miller

Jimmy Casas Jeff Zoul Connie Hamilton

December 7

Inspiring Creativity into the Classroom

Cathy Beck

Doug Reeves Curiosita Rick and Patti Shade David Culberhouse

December 14

TPRS

Renea Hill & Shari Evans

Leslie Davison Blaine Ray

January 11

Student Engagement Strategies

Cathy Beck

John McCarthy Rick Duvall

January 18

Problem Based Learning

Jim Smith

Mary Margaret Smith

January 25

1:1 Technology

Bethany Massey

Crystal Miller Brad Currie

February 1

Social/Emotional Supports for Students

Kerry Buhler Barb Ellis

Julie McCluskie

February 8

Digital Badging and Student Motivation

Crystal Miller

Noah Geisel Kasey Bell

March 7

Differentiation that Leads to Success

Jamie Zaparro

March 14

Co-Teaching

Crystal Miller

Susan Fitzell

March 21

Teaching Academic Vocabulary

Sarah Adkins

Liz Pursley Beth Skelton

March 28

Design Thinking Model

Peder Hanson

Frisco Elementary Staff

April 4

Best Practices for GT

Cathy Beck

GT Coordinators

April 18

Design Thinking

Cathy Beck

Peder Hanson

April 25

Inquiry-Based Learning

Kendra Carpenter

IB Coordinators

May 2

Blended Learning

Jim Smith

Crystal Miller

May 9

Preventing Summer Slide for All Readers

Hollyanna Bates

LRTs

May 16

Ending the School Year

Cathy Beck

Principals

Mary Kay Dore

Professional Development

Advertise the chat several days in advance and explore offering credit for participation. Enlist teachers to host and guest experts to dialogue with the participants. Support staff members by following them on Twitter, encouraging them to post to the district hashtag and asking them to help with this leadership endeavor. Send out written directions for how to navigate them and hold workshops to help teachers practice for better participation (see eResource A). Build your personal learning network (PLN) as a great wealth of resources to expand your personal professional development. Follow educators on Twitter who share the same interests such as working with ELLs. People to follow on Twitter who are great resources for teaching ELLs include: ● @Larryferlazzo ● @CarolGaab ● @lesliedavison ● @darcypippins ● @Marintabex ● @Brycehedstrom ● @MJtprs (Michele Whaley) ● @placido (Kristy Placido) ● @KarenRowan ● @SenoraCMT (Carrie Toth) ● @easkelton (Beth Skelton) Twitter can provide nonstop access to relevant articles, educators and ideas. “A strong PLN is definitely the most effective, relevant and inspiring professional development in which a teacher will ever participate and it is available 24 hours a day” (Westerberg & Davison, 2016, p. 189). Collect articles that would be of interest to district employees under the hashtag, specifically articles pertaining to ensuring the success of all ELL students. Use your district hashtag as a clearinghouse of resources. Encourage other administrators to post helpful articles. Finally, encourage your teachers to post pictures and ideas of successful strategies and practices regarding ELL instruction. The ideas become practices and the wealth of information begins to spread. As the expertise radiates throughout the district the student achievement for ELLs begins to increase.

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I am fortunate enough to live and work in a great community and district but it can still be very isolating to be a teacher. As a preschool teacher who rarely leaves the room, I need time to connect with other like-minded educators who can offer support and really challenge my thinking and teaching practice. Sometimes you have to get outside your building and Twitter has allowed me to do just this! I have joined several Twitter chats which were all based on my goals and interests as an educator. Each of the chats I chose to participate in allowed me to gather ideas and resources and to reflect and improve upon my teaching practice. The teachers I connect with are all incredibly helpful and supportive. I can put ideas and questions out there and they can give me feedback or connect me with others who can provide answers or new ideas. I set the time aside to participate in these chats and foster relationships on Twitter because it truly makes me a better educator and I have total control over what direction I want to take my professional learning. I strongly believe that Twitter is one of the most powerful tools that all teachers need to be using. If you’re not on Twitter you’re missing out on a wealth of resources! These are the chats I participate in and strongly support: #SSDEDU, #ECEchat, #ELLChat, #BMoreEdChat, #DLHisd, #DualLangChat. I am sure the list will continue to grow as I harness the power of Twitter. Tara Dye, Preschool Teacher

Google Classrooms We struggle with teacher turnover each year. Every summer we are faced with having to go through the same district topics year after year. We longed for sustainability and structure. We began to archive our professional development in Google Classrooms. This provided us with materials that could be revisited over and over. Oftentimes, new teachers are so bombarded with new material that not all of it is retained. Having the material in a Google Classroom allows for the teachers to go back and review at their leisure.

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We also have teachers who come from Spain and other countries. Many times these teachers do not arrive in time for new teacher orientation. Now we can send them the Google Classrooms and they can begin to go through the material before they arrive, thus preventing them from being behind upon arrival. This is a terrific way to allow teachers to complete professional development at their own pace, in their own time. Finally, finding substitute teachers to cover large numbers of teachers at a time to participate in professional development is just not feasible anymore in our district. We had to resort to changing the model to include technology. Through the use of Google Classrooms all teachers in the district can receive that same professional development and never have to leave their buildings. Working in these virtual classrooms can be done together in teams at the building level or individually at home. This works to meet everyone’s preferences.

Peer Observation “Schools and districts should identify and support expert teachers who act as models of strong teaching practice for ELLs” (Santos, Darling-­Hammond & Cheuk, n.d., p. 6). All teachers can benefit from observing others who can deconstruct the classroom practice in terms of academic language and supports that best promote both language acquisition and content development. A cost-effective professional development model that leverages the talent in your district is through the use of a formal peer observation process. We created a district-wide peer observation model for all of our elementary schools. The district hired three instructional paraprofessionals to provide coverage for three hours of observation. These instructional paraprofessionals were trained in all of the elementary programs, and the district created a calendar for teachers to reserve the paraprofessionals. Teachers were expected to get out of their buildings and go observe other teachers in the district once per semester. The coverage for three hours allowed for travel time, time to observe and possibly time to reflect with the teacher being observed. A follow-up email was required giving positive feedback and asking for further clarification of still unanswered questions. A form was created for observing teachers to fill out and share with both the teacher being observed and the Assistant Superintendent (See eResource B and eResource C). The response was overwhelmingly positive.

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Teachers love the opportunity to learn from their peers and there are many teachers doing amazing, innovative lessons in their classrooms. Open the doors and watch the teachers learn from each other!

EdCamps Possibly the most exciting form of professional development as of late is the EdCamp, or the “unconference.” This style of professional development is organic, participant-driven professional learning experiences created by educators, for educators (EdCamp, 2014, p. 1). It is a high-energy, fun way to learn from colleagues about topics of personal interest. I have yet to go to an EdCamp that many sessions on teaching of ELLs are not present. With the continued increase of ELL students in our schools this topic is of high importance to everyone. Always at the EdCamp are teachers who have experience or knowledge to share about instructional strategies for secondlanguage acquisition, cultural proficiency or engaging parents who come from other countries. An EdCamp begins with no set agenda. Everyone gathers and begins to create topics of interest. Teachers write what they want to learn about on a sticky note of one color and what they can facilitate on a sticky note of another color. The notes are posted and sessions are formed, thus creating a schedule for the day. The mantra of an EdCamp is “the room is the expert.” Teachers leave with new connections, new ideas and a renewed sense of energy.

Podcasts According to the New Oxford American Dictionary, a podcast is a “digital recording of a radio broadcast or similar program, made available on the internet for downloading to a personal audio player.” In other words, it is a digital audio file that is created, shared and heard. Podcasts can also be in the form of videos streamed online; however, video podcast is known as vidcast or vodcast (Guide, n.d., p. 1). Educational podcasts are an excellent way to keep current with the latest trends and ideas. They provide a wonderful use of time in a daily commute as well. There are many excellent podcasts for educators to take advantage of. Here are several to explore:

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● BAM Radio Network: This site is divided into sections for leaders, teachers and ed-tech. The podcasts are short and often host several experts discussing specific topics. ● #EdChat Radio: Once a week highlights and amplifications from the Twitter discussion of the week are found on #EdChat. This podcast is hosted by Tom Whitby and Nancy Blair and members of the EdChat team of moderators including MaryBeth Hertz, Kyle Pace, Jerry Blumengarten, Jerry Swiatek, Steven Anderson, Shelly Terrell and Bernadeth Wall in the UK. ● The Bedley Brothers: This is an education podcast dedicated to keeping you informed and connected to what’s current and what works. ● Moving at the Speed of Creativity: In one of the longest running podcasts, producer Wesley Fryer records ponderings, anecdotes and sometimes whole presentations that he attends at conferences. Moving at the Speed of Creativity centers largely on ed-tech with podcasts that vary in length and release date (Ray, 2015, p. 1). ● ESLpod: This site offers a weekly podcast that focuses on practical topics for those learning to speak English. The podcast comes with a learning guide as well.

Conclusion Clearly, now more than ever, school systems must provide wrap-around professional development that meets the needs of both novice and veteran educators. The process must be on-going and comprehensive. Effective professional development is 24–7. Seriously, every time the faculty gathers face to face or on-line, we should anticipate professional development through discourse, idea exchange, sharing articles or lecture notes, listening to a guest speaker, observing and critiquing others’ lessons, analyzing data, contemplating the latest research report, participating in an on-line discussion, or by visiting a helpful website. It’s not something we compartmentalize as in, “I only do professional development on the third Thursday of each month.” (Wormelli, 2015, para. 11)

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Regardless of the professional development structure, it is imperative that you, as a district leader, set up and offer high-quality professional development that is impactful in the classroom. All professional development must be created with the lens of ELL students in mind. Teachers must have a grounded understanding of the components of language acquisition and the strategies necessary to ensure the success of all ELLs in the classroom. To improve professional development opportunities for general education ELL teachers, policymakers need to take the following steps at the national, state and local levels: ● Increase awareness among educational leaders and the public about the need for high-quality ELL staff development. ● Review policies and incentives that shape ELL staff development and determine what changes may be needed to support improvements. ● Set standards and priorities for the design, implementation and content of ELL professional development. ● Increase the time available for ELL staff development. ● Support the adoption of promising approaches to ELL professional development. ● Support the increased use of outstanding ELL teachers in leading staff development activities. ● Support efforts to ensure that all professional development activities include a significant, separate module for teaching English learners. ● Support efforts to address the needs of English Language Learners in all types of professional development activities for teachers. (National Education Association [NEA], n.d., p. 3) It is critical that professional development pertaining to ELLs is embedded within all of your professional development offered at the district level to make meaningful reforms that deliver a maximum impact for student achievement.

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District Leader Checklist My district has time dedicated for professional learning communities. Professional development is a priority in my district. Technology is used to leverage professional development. Teachers’ expertise is valued and utilized in leading professional development. My leadership team has participated in specific PD around ELLs. The district has dedicated resources for ELL training. My district believes that all teachers are English language teachers, and we have provided the corresponding resources. We use language coaches, co-teaching, peer coaching and/or other structures to maximize the learning for ELL students. My leadership team has identified PLNs (Personal Learning Networks) to expand their own professional development. My leadership team has participated in, or has a plan to begin, PD through: book studies, Twitter chats, Google Classroom, podcasts, EdCamps and/or __________________________.

School Leader Checklist My school has time dedicated for professional learning communities. Professional development is a priority in my district and school. Technology is used to leverage professional development. Teachers’ expertise is valued and utilized in leading professional development. My staff has participated in specific PD around ELLs. My school budget has dedicated resources for ELL training. My staff believes that all teachers are English language teachers, and we have provided the corresponding resources.

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We use language coaches, co-teaching, peer coaching and/or other structures to maximize the learning for ELL students. My staff has identified PLNs (Personal Learning Networks) to expand their own professional development. My staff has participated in, or has a plan to begin, PD through: book studies, Twitter chats, Google Classroom, podcasts, EdCamps and/or __________________________.

References Ballantyne, K.G., Sanderman, A.R., & Levy, J. (2008). Educating English language learners: Building teacher capacity roundtable report. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. EdCamps. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.edcamp.org López, F., Scanlan, M., & Gundrum, B. (2013). Preparing teachers of English Language Learners: Empirical Evidence and Policy Implications. Education Policy Analysis Archives 21(20) Retrieved from: http://epaa. asu.edu/ojs/article/view/1132 National Education Association. (n.d.). Professional development for general education teachers of English language learners [Policy brief]. Retrieved from National Education Association website: http://www. nea.org/assets/docs/PB32_ELL11.pdf Ray, B. (May 25, 2015). Best education podcasts. Edutopia. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/best-education-podcasts-betty-ray Santos, M., Darling-Hammond, L., & Cheuk, T. (n.d.). Teacher development to support English language learners in the context of Common Core State Standards. Retrieved from http://ell.stanford.edu/publication/ teacher-development-appropriate-support-ells Teacher’s guide in the use of podcasts in education. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.educatorstechnology.com/2012/12/teachers-guide-on-useof-podcasting-in.html Westerberg, G., & Davison, L. (2016). An educator’s guide to dual language instruction. New York: Routledge.

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What is UDL? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/ whatisudl Wormelli, R. (May 23, 2015). The kind of professional development that we need [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/ classroom_qa_with_larry_ferlazzo/2015/05/response_the_kind_of_pro fessional_development_we_need.html

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Effective teachers strive to acknowledge the kaleidoscope of background experiences students bring to the classroom and to ensure the materials and methods are representative of this ever-growing diversity. (Oran, 2009)

Pablo’s Story I came from Chile. It’s hard to put yourself out there and figure out how to make friends and learn a new language. You’re scared they won’t understand you when you speak. Kids make fun of your accent. There is racism in the schools, especially from students who support certain political candidates. It’s stressful. Students like Pablo are now part of American classrooms everywhere. In today’s classrooms, teachers must be prepared to teach all students to be successful learners and citizens regardless of race, ethnicity, language, education, sexual orientation, zip code, background, country of origin, documentation status, or religion. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, while classrooms are becoming more ethnically and linguistically diverse, the teachers are primarily white and female (Coffey, n.d.). Those of us who are white have a very hard time seeing that we constantly receive special treatment just because of the color of our skin. This is called “white privilege,” and it is

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invisible to us because it’s part of our culture’s very structure. Since we do not consciously have racist attitudes or overt racist behavior, we kindly judge ourselves to be open minded, egalitarian, and therefore surely not racist. Because we have never been on the other side, we largely do not recognize the structural access we enjoy, the trust we think we deserve, the assumption that we always belong and do not have to earn our belonging. All this we take for granted and normal. Only the outsider can spot these attitudes in us. (Rohr, 2016) Given the largely monocultural nature of the teaching profession, and one’s propensity to see the world and act in it from the perspective of a single culture, employing culturally relevant pedagogy is neither easy nor intuitive. To make a shift from no acknowledgment of differences between students of varying cultural backgrounds to one of full recognition and inclusion of all cultures requires staff to change their perspectives and practices. Since we do not understand what we have not yet learned, educators must first gain awareness that there are many cultures in a school. This process begins with an examination of educators’ own cultural backgrounds and beliefs. Think back to a time when you entered a room full of people and immediately felt out of your comfort zone. You did not fit in. What was the situation? Who made up the group of people? What made you feel uncomfortable? Was there an aspect of culture that played into it? Our experiences, values, beliefs and backgrounds make up our culture and the lens through which we see the world. That sense of not fitting in can often be explained as the clashing of two different cultures, in which you intuitively know that “I am not like the people in this room,” or you may think of it as, “The people in this room are not like me.” Unless you have engaged in examination, reflection and action around cultural proficiency, you may not recognize the setting as a cultural conflict. A white, English-speaking, protestant, college-degreed male from a middle-class American background will see the world quite differently than a black, Arabic-speaking, Muslim, high-school educated female from a poor Sudanese background. What do each of our backgrounds and experiences say about who we are? How do we see the world and how do we see others who have a different worldview? If we want to understand the

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students and families we serve, we have to also understand how our individual worldviews impact how we relate to others. As educational leaders, we have the opportunity and moral obligation to propel our schools toward a culturally inclusive system for our students. There are four steps educational leaders can take to move a school and a system toward a more inclusive environment in which all cultures feel not only tolerated but celebrated. These steps include: (1) an examination of educators’ cultures; (2) integrating culturally responsive teaching practices; (3) conducting a series of equity audits to determine whether there are embedded systemic biases; and, (4) ongoing training of staff and students.

An Examination of Educators’ Cultures One way for district and school leaders to begin this process of examination is to lead staff members through a personal inventory about their backgrounds and cultural heritages (see eResource D). Superintendents or other key executive district staff can lead principals and other building leaders through a personal inventory, and they can, in turn, lead their staffs through the same inventory. The personal inventory may include any relevant demographic data such as: gender; ethnicity; first language; educational level; parents’ educational level; socioeconomic status; and, religion. These data can then be juxtaposed with a series of questions. In your family of origin, did you grow up with one or two parents or with another head of household configuration (e.g., grandparent)? Did you have a variety of books in the home? Was education valued? Was more than one language spoken in the home? How did you view your socioeconomic status growing up? Who were your friends? What kind of neighborhood did you grow up in? Did your neighbors look like you? What were your favorite activities? What did you want to be when you grew up? Do you consider yourself part of the majority population or a minority population? When did you first interact with any of the following: a person with a significant disability; someone of a different ethnicity; someone who spoke a different language; and/or, someone who lived a lifestyle that was very different from your own? Completing an inventory with information and questions like these, will prompt staff to recall relevant details that make up part of the lens through which they see the world.

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Once the inventory has been completed, staff may use it as an outline to then write their personal stories. “Stories are the ‘lenses’ through which we view and review all of human experience” (Denman, 1991, p. 4). This is work we seldom engage in as educators, and yet, who we are and how we perceive others has everything to do with how leaders and ultimately teachers relate to students in our classrooms as well as the kind of curriculum, assessments and instructional strategies educators employ. “We frame the accounts of our cultural origins and most cherished beliefs in story form, and it’s not just the ‘content’ of these stories that grip us, but their narrative artifice . . . Even more striking, we represent our lives (to ourselves as well as others) in the form of narrative” (Bruner, 1996, p. 40). While there is great benefit to writing one’s story, there is even greater benefit in sharing it with another. There is a caveat of which leaders need to be mindful prior to sharing personal stories with others. Staff may first require some initial training around sensitivity toward others and creating safe places for open discussions. For example, if someone grew up poor or in a single-parent home, or had a parent incarcerated, or identifies in a variety of ways differently than the majority population, it may be difficult or uncomfortable to share that information. Professional development, sometimes with an outside organization like the Anti-Defamation League or a local university or other organization with significant experience in working with staffs in this area, can set the stage for a safe and productive conversation. Once you feel the staff is ready to begin the work and that they have a safe space in which to expose some of their vulnerabilities, ask individuals to pair up with someone whose profile differs from theirs and begin a conversation. A great way to start the discussion is with the scenario previously described, in which each shares an example of when he/she felt uncomfortable and did not fit in. This will help staff members feel a sense of “me too” before discussing personal differences. Sharing who we are with someone else will serve to begin the process of self-reflection into why we behave as we do and then expand one’s frame of reference to include an understanding of someone with a different background. Our collective stories are a large part of what makes up the culture of our schools and districts. Consider just two of the stories from colleagues, Laura and Ana, and how each might view the world, their roles as teachers and the students in their classrooms.

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Laura’s Story By any external measure, you would say that I am privileged. I grew up as a white female in a two-parent home in a wealthy area in Connecticut. I had a top notch education at a private school with other girls just like me. I earned good grades and traveled the world on Christmas and spring breaks. I learned enough French to ask basic questions on a trip to Paris, but never became fluent. My father was in business and my mother stayed home with me and my younger sister. I liked to ski, tutor younger girls in the school and perform in plays at school and in local theater. This is the version of my story that I have always told. And now, as in the words of Paul Harvey, the rest of the story. Both of my parents were alcoholics. My dad went to his first AA meeting after I was out of the house and married. He has been sober ever since. My mother never sought recovery. She became mean when she drank and was prone to violent outbursts. I couldn’t bring friends home and I couldn’t make any plans because life was so unpredictable. I spent my childhood trying to be perfect so as not to provoke her. Needless to say, it didn’t work. The predominant feeling I associate with my childhood is shame. No one at school, especially my teachers, ever knew.

Ana’s Story My father left my mother and brother when my mother was pregnant with me. I never knew him. As a single Latina parent with a high school education, my mother worked two jobs just to scrape by. We lived in a mobile home most of the time, but also spent a couple of months in a homeless shelter. My mother always emphasized the importance of getting a good education and repeatedly told us that we would go to college. She loved us, believed in us and made sure that we stayed out of trouble and read lots of books. I went to a public school in a poor area. There were not many bells and whistles at our school. Our books, equipment and the school itself were all pretty mediocre. In fourth grade, Mrs. Wilson came into my life and, along with my mother, had the greatest impact on who I would become. She told me how smart I was and that I could do and become anything I set my mind to. She

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reinforced my mom’s message that education was the key to my future. What I loved best about Mrs. Wilson was that she had the same message for every student in her class. We all sat up a little taller that year and tried a little harder and acted kinder toward others. Mrs. Wilson is the reason I became a teacher. There is power in writing and sharing our stories. Stories give voice to who we are and can reveal previously undiscovered or unexamined areas of our lives. Stories also emphasize that we are all different and that one truly cannot know someone else’s background, struggles and triumphs based on the external factors of race, country of origin, first language, religion, educational level, etc. After shedding light on our own and one another’s stories, the conversation will naturally flow to how we bring those backgrounds into the classroom and interact with students in culturally responsive ways.

Integrating Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices It was Henry Ford who said, “If you always do what you’ve always done, you’ll always get what you’ve always got.” Through the decades of ups and downs in achievement, and the inability of the nation as a whole, individual states, school districts, schools and classrooms to close the achievement gap, we have to admit that what we have always done in education has not worked. At least it has not worked for all students. Regardless of what the flaws of the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act may have been, it did begin to shift the conversation. For the first time, educators were required to focus on the achievement of underserved populations and target proficiency in reading and math for every student. Unfortunately, mandating a specific achievement bar does not change a teacher’s, school’s or system’s beliefs about each student’s ability to learn. With the No Child Left Behind Act came the frequent use of the phrase, “ALL students can learn.” This phrase has become part of the vernacular in education. It is a phrase that was certainly meant to uplift and include, but has not had that effect. In our experience, “ALL students can learn,” has been used less as an exclamation point and more as a sentence starter, as

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in “ALL students can learn at some level, given enough time and resources and English proficiency and. . .,” the list goes on. Incorporating culturally responsive teaching practices into the classroom requires teachers to (1) develop relationships with students, (2) infuse culture into the classroom environment and (3) explicitly teach multicultural education with a corresponding commitment to social justice.

Developing Relationships with Students There is no substitution for knowing your students, including their backgrounds and how each student’s story adds value to the classroom. After all, good teaching, including culturally responsive pedagogy, begins with relationships. The American education system perpetuates a deficit model of learning for our underserved populations. We tend to think in terms of what students cannot do (e.g., he is not on grade level; she is not fluent in English; they will never graduate; and, so on) instead of what they are not only able to do but what they also bring to the classroom. Developing a relationship with these students will enrich the classroom and the school and serve to motivate these students to learn. According to Hamre and Pianta (2001), when teachers form positive bonds with students, classrooms become supportive spaces in which students can engage in academically and socially productive ways. Part of relationship building includes understanding who students are beyond the classroom walls. Teachers need to bring the students’ stories into the classroom, much in the same way as they revealed their own stories to their colleagues. Students can complete a similar inventory about their cultural backgrounds and then turn that information into a story that can be shared. ELL students may first want to write and share their stories in their native languages and then work on the translation to English. In order to fully complete their stories, students may need to do some additional background work, interviewing family members and/or conducting research to be able to fully understand and appreciate their rich cultures. This is a wonderful beginning of the year project that opens doorways for students to share their stories, and breaks down barriers between students. It can also provide opportunities for honest dialogue about how students treat one another.

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My name is Amina. I am from Senegal. My father came to America when I was a baby. I came here at the beginning of the school year. I am 18 years old. I am a Muslim and practice Islam. I have been wearing a hijab, a headscarf, since I was a young girl. All Muslim women wear them when there are men around. It’s a sign of purity and wanting to please God. When I came here, the other students stared at me and made me feel uncomfortable for wearing my hijab. There were stories in the news about Muslim women who were terrorists. These women also wore hijabs. I did not want anyone to think that way about me. I felt so uncomfortable that I took it off and now I don’t wear my hijab anymore. You can imagine the silence that followed in the history class where Amina shared her story. The students had not realized how she felt or the meaning behind wearing the hijab. They also did not have information about or an understanding of Islam or what it’s like to be a Muslim woman. These kinds of stories build a bridge of understanding between cultures. Another aspect to understanding students’ cultures and nurturing the teacher–student relationship includes understanding the students’ home lives. There is no better way to do this than to conduct home visits as described in Chapter 2. There is so much educators can gain from being in a student’s home and connecting with the student’s family. One of the great benefits is to understand more fully a student’s rich heritage, what is important to the family and the assets the home environment imparts to the student that can be incorporated into the classroom. These Funds of Knowledge, as described by Luis Moll (n.d., para 1), include “the knowledge base generated by families on the basis of their experiences, especially their work experiences, their social practices, and their social history.” One of the goals in having educators visit homes of their ELLs and other populations with increased risk factors, is to exchange any lingering deficit thinking for an asset mindset. While an individual educator can generate classroom changes based on home visits, a school or district leader conducting home visits can change an entire system. As the district leader, the opportunity arose to conduct a home visit of young students of poverty. The visit included bringing books to the home and reading to three preschool-aged students. While there, parents spoke of the value of education in the home, but the lack of

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financial ability to provide their children with books, especially in the family’s native language (Spanish). One of the eventual outcomes of this visit included working with a local nonprofit agency to provide books, including books in Spanish, to the homes of every incoming kindergarten student. This program has since expanded to include giving incoming kindergarten students backpacks filled with books and activities, along with providing training for parents on how to use the materials.

Infusing Culture into the Classroom Environment Every classroom is already infused with culture. The question is: whose culture is it? If culture is defined, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (n.d.), as “the beliefs, customs, arts, etc., of a particular society, group, place, or time,” then, which students’ beliefs, customs and arts are predominant in the classroom? A quick review of teachers’ lesson plans, student work, wall displays, seating assignments and even classroom routines will reveal whether the culture is inclusive or exclusive of different student groups. School leaders can look at each of these collaboratively with their teachers and consider the following questions associated with each area. Lesson Plans—Do teachers’ lesson plans incorporate various cultural points of view? Are assignments relevant and balanced? Are students given choices for completing assignments? Do assignments allow for the incorporation of students’ voices, creativity, expertise and background experiences? Are lessons differentiated and scaffolded? Are the expectations for quality, rigorous work that meets or exceeds grade-level expectations the same for all students? Is there explicit teaching of content vocabulary? Are research-based, instructional strategies at the forefront of every lesson? Student Work—Does a student’s body of work include evidence of his/ her culture and background experiences? Is the work of high quality and at grade level? Is the student’s writing, vocabulary and command of the content improving over time? Does the student work reflect the student’s full potential? At what level is the work? What insights does the teacher have after reviewing student work in general and ELL student work specifically? Do assignments, extensions and homework take into account resources that may or may not be available in students’ homes?

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Wall Displays—If someone outside of the education field walked around the classrooms of your school, what information would they gain about who is in each classroom, what cultures are represented and what’s important and not important? What do the displays say about the quality of the work students do? What connections do students make to the world around them? Seating Assignments—What is the configuration of the room? How is the furniture laid out? Does the furniture style and configuration promote flexible student grouping? Is there a pattern for where students sit (either assigned by the teacher or self-selected by the students)? Where do ELL students, or students of color, or Special Education students sit? Do they sit in homogeneous groups based on these categories or is grouping mixed? Based on seating arrangements, where are these students in relation to the teacher during instruction? Do certain seats have greater access to computer outlets or supplies and materials? Classroom Routines—What are the established classroom routines? How are students involved in these routines? Which students are involved? Are students involved equitably? Do students have a voice in these routines? Are the routines fully understood by students of all backgrounds and cultures?

Explicit Teaching of Multicultural Education Multicultural education can improve mastery of reading, writing, and mathematical skills; subject matter content; and intellectual process skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, and conflict resolution by providing content and techniques that are more meaningful to the lives and frames of reference of ethnically different students. (Gay, 1994, p. 22) While research supports multicultural education as a means for improving student achievement, the primary reason to explicitly teach students about other cultures is simply because it’s the right thing to do. Such teaching educates students how to live, work and thrive with people who may look, sound, dress, speak or act differently from them. Multicultural education, according to Nieto (1992), is “comprehensive school reform and

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basic education for all students that challenges all forms of discrimination, permeates instruction and interpersonal relations in the classroom, and advances the democratic principles of social justice.” (p. 307) Beginning with expressing one’s own story and sharing the stories of others is one aspect of multicultural education. Multicultural education also includes teaching students about discrimination of all kinds, including race, gender, first language, age, etc. It involves equipping students with skills to work with, solve conflicts with, get along with and celebrate other students who do not look like as they do. Multicultural education extends to social justice. It embraces bringing to light and righting injustices. It promotes active citizenship. Taking action can occur at any time and with any age group. In our dual language elementary school in Colorado, students conducted a survey of their peers and discovered that they were not inclusive of all of the students in the school. Approximately half of the students in the school are native English speakers, while the other half are native Spanish speakers. They shared their results at the school level and started a dialogue together about intentionally reaching out to one another. They took further action by appealing to the school board to support an all-district diversity day. Taking social action is integrated into the philosophy of the school. The teachers empowered students of all ages to make a difference in their world.

Conducting Equity Audits Equity audits should occur at all levels of the organization, from the classroom to the school to the district office and the board of education. Biases, both hidden and overt, can and do occur across school systems. “In its purest form, education should be a great class equalizer. But that’s often not the case in practice, of course. Bias still seeps into education, in ways both subtle and blatant” (Erbentraut, 2015).

Classroom Audit Classroom practices can be fraught with bias, from the subtle to the not so subtle. Teachers’ interactions with students impact their perceptions of those students, good or bad. “Students who are perceived positively are advantaged in instructional interactions” (Gay, 2010, p. 59). According to

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McKenzie and Skrla (2011), equitable and excellent teaching requires both an equity consciousness and high-quality teaching skills. It’s not enough to have an awareness of and information about equity. All aspects of the classroom need to be objectively studied, followed by specific action to change practice. The principal can work with his/her teachers to conduct an audit of teachers’ classroom practices and procedures (see eResource E), taking into account the information and questions below. ● Expectations and Grades—Expectations translate to grades. You will know the level of expectations teachers hold for their students by reviewing grades. Students respond to and perform at expected levels. Do teachers have a sense of which students they tend to hold to high expectations and from whom they expect less? What do the grades show? Is it a bell curve? If so, which students make up the tails? Who has the high grades? Where do ELL students perform? Is there a grade pattern for students of underserved populations? Are both assignments and assessments that make up the grades tiered and differentiated? Is the content for both assignments and assessments accessible to ELL students? What is the evidence? ● Student Engagement—Are all students engaged in the learning? What is your evidence? If you randomly ask students the objective of a lesson, can each clearly state what that objective is? Do you notice a correlation between students’ grades and their level of engagement? What are teachers doing to engage ELL students? Is there a chance they are not engaged because they are having difficulty accessing the content? ● Airtime—A colleague of mine was fond of saying, “Whoever is doing the most talking, is doing the most learning.” How much class time is spent with students working things out collaboratively versus the teacher delivering the instruction? To be sure, both are necessary, but shifting the class from teacher “airtime” to students learning together will shift the ownership of the learning to the students. Teachers can ask peers to come in and observe teacher versus student airtime. Analyze the data together to see what you can learn. ● Calling on patterns—Who are teachers calling on? How often? When they call on students, are they expecting the same level of rigor from each student’s response? How long is their wait time? Does the wait time accommodate students who require more processing? Do teachers ask each student higher-level questions? Do teachers expect ELLs to be able

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to respond with in-depth answers and insights? What practices do teachers have in place to help ELL students construct their responses? ● Names—Saying each student’s name correctly, whether when calling roll or reading names at graduation, is essential to having each individual feel valued. When someone uses my name, I feel important and I notice the use of my name. When names are not used or are mispronounced, it has the opposite impact. Students get the message that it’s too much effort to learn to pronounce names or that the person behind the name is not worth the effort. It’s a seemingly small thing that can make all the difference. Can teachers and administrators correctly say each student’s name? Is your staff self-conscious about asking students to repeat their names? Does your staff have a strategy for correctly learning all the names? Does the entire staff share the view that correct pronunciation of names is vital?

School and District Audit ● Physical space—Are the spaces in your school or district reflective of the cultures of your students? Have you built a culturally responsive library by selecting leveled books in the languages represented by your students? Are there other manifestations of children’s cultures, such as flags from their different countries, signage translation in different languages, school musicals that incorporate songs from around the world, etc.? Are students free to speak in their native languages at lunch and other times throughout the day? When are students able to speak in their home languages in the classroom? ● School discipline—Break down each school’s and the district’s discipline statistics by the various subgroups represented (gender, ethnicity, ELL, Special Education, etc.). What do the data tell you? What are students being disciplined for? Where does the discipline primarily take place (e.g., hallways, lunchroom, outside, passing periods, etc.)? Do you need to make changes in practice or policy to ensure that discipline is not doled out primarily to these subgroups? ● Grading policies and homework—Do your grading practices or policies inherently favor students who have help and technology at home? What accommodations do you make for students who have neither?

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What are your expectations for homework completion? Is homework graded? If so, what weight does homework hold in a student’s grade? ● Higher level and remedial classes—Which students are enrolled in higher-level classes? Is there broad representation of students from all subgroups? Do you have remedial classes? Who fills these classes? Are students in remedial classes remaining on a remedial track over time? What do the longitudinal data tell you? Are ELL students proportionately represented in gifted and talented classes/programs? If not, revisions to both policy and practice may be required to broaden the identification assessments to a body of evidence that removes biased items. ● Observation protocols—Do your observation protocols include analyzing how ELL and students in other subgroups are performing? How do you use the information from observations? Do your protocols embed the expectation that teachers use proven instructional strategies for ELLs? ● Curriculum—Does the curriculum review process include the use of a tool that assesses curriculum for bias of all kinds? Is the selected curriculum research-based? Does it include strategies for teaching ELL students? ● Families—Is there a welcome center, as outlined in Chapter 1, for new ELL families? What training do you have in place for teachers to help them to integrate ELL students and their families into the school and classroom?

Ongoing Professional Development for Students and Staff Cultural proficiency training for students and staff needs to be ongoing. One training at the beginning of the year is not sufficient for either students or staff to have adequate knowledge of or practice with cultural proficiency. For staff training at the district or school level, leaders may want to consider the following: 1. Choose a staff training professional development program on culturally proficient pedagogy that staff engages with at least monthly. Often expertise for this training is located within your school district English

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Language Development staff, or through a local university or as part of a published curriculum. 2. Use a peer coaching model with staff to observe one another’s implementation of culturally proficient pedagogy and provide feedback. When peers give one another feedback, it is less threatening than coming from the principal and it is non-evaluative. 3. During new teacher training, include initial training of culturally proficient pedagogy along with the expectation to continue that training throughout the year. 4. Implement monthly self-assessments with staff, using the same tool each time to determine if they are gaining an understanding of and comfort with culturally proficient pedagogy. If you Google phrases like “cultural proficiency self-evaluation” or “cultural competence self-assessment for teachers,” there will be a number of useful tools from which to choose. Also, any cultural proficiency training program for staff that you choose will likely have a self-assessment tool (included in eResource G are samples from the self-assessment tool our district uses). Ask staff to debrief their monthly results with a peer coach and to set a goal for the next month. 5. Create a cultural proficiency mission statement. Identify together the values you hold and the behaviors you hope to emulate and turn those into a mission statement for your district or school. For example, shared values around cultural proficiency might include: a. open-mindedness b. compassion toward others c. inclusiveness d. high academic standards e. dedication to equity and excellence for all f. social justice g. personal and corporate integrity A mission statement emanating from values like these might read something like this:

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The staff and students of ABC School, a school dedicated to equity and excellence for all, will embrace inclusion of all peoples and encourage others’ ideas, committing ourselves to take positive action for the character and academic success of every student in a compassionate environment. Like staff, students’ training should be ongoing, and include explicit teaching of multicultural education as mentioned above. Teachers can use monthly student surveys to gauge attitudes and behaviors toward students of different subgroups. An effective training option for students is to bring small groups of students from different cultures together for a day-long retreat. These “Unity Retreats” (the name chosen in our school district) involve students of different subgroups coming together to do activities around cultural proficiency. During the retreat, students learn how to interact with other students and how to talk about questions they have around race, gender, poverty, language, etc. These are especially powerful when teams of trained secondary-level students representing different subgroups lead the retreats for peers and younger students alongside staff. Pre- and post-surveys (see eResource H) can provide valuable information for student and staff leaders conducting the retreats. The pre-survey should be conducted well in advance of the retreat so that the information from those surveys can be used in planning. A search of “cultural proficiency activities for students” can provide you with many ideas for surveys and developing a retreat agenda. Sample Agenda (eResource H includes directions and information about the activities listed below): 8:00–8:30—Signature game 8:30–9:00—Setting the table 9:00–9:30—Why are we here?—Facilitators lead students through a discussion of what the retreat is about, incorporating information gleaned from the pre-surveys. 9:30–10:00—Where do I belong? 10:00–10:15—Debrief activity 10:15–10:30—Break

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10:30–10:45—Students journal how they are currently feeling and what they are learning 10:45–11:45—Students write their stories 11:45–12:15—Lunch 12:15–1:00—Students pair up with someone they don’t know well and share their stories 1:00–2:00—Play and debrief Barnga (game and directions can be found at http://pt.educationforsocialjustice.org/file.php/1/Bargna_ Game.pdf) 2:00–2:15—Debrief the day 2:15–2:30—Take the post-survey There are other optional activities that schools may want to incorporate. These other activities are also listed in eResource H. Through the pre-survey, prior to participating in one of these retreats, many students expressed anxiety, excitement and curiosity. Following the experience, some of the comments included: This really opened my eyes to how others see me, others and themselves. It also opened my eyes to the stereotypes I have and how I see myself and others. I learned a lot about the people around me. I made connections to people whom I wouldn’t have thought I would outside of the retreat.

Conclusion Knowing who we are and how we, as educators, see the world is at the core of teaching culturally relevant pedagogy. We have to understand our own biases and how we view the world, before we can “change glasses” and see in a new way. A powerful way to begin this process is by telling

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our own stories. This written narrative followed by sharing with others gives voice to the values we have integrated into our lives, and how those impact how we interact in the world. Once we are able to accomplish this, we can help students through a similar process and build a school and district community that honors all perspectives and treats everyone with dignity, holding high expectations for each student. This unmasking process then extends to the school building, the classroom, curriculum, practices and policies through a series of equity audits to ensure that hidden biases do not go unchecked. This is not easy work, but requires diligence and ongoing monitoring and professional development. It also requires direct teaching in all classrooms and opportunities for students to meet and learn together.

District Leader Checklist My leadership team has completed a personal inventory. My leadership team has written and shared their stories. My leadership team expects their staffs to develop relationships with each of their students. My school leaders conduct visits to the homes of their ELL students. The various cultures represented by the student body are evident in each school and classroom. My leadership team has been trained in multicultural education. Students in my district are empowered to take action against injustices. My leadership team regularly engages in classroom, school and district-level equity audits, and makes changes accordingly. Districtlevel audits include: the cultures represented in the physical spaces of district and school buildings, district-wide discipline patterns, grading policies, homework policies, the composition of higher level and remedial classes, observation protocols, curriculum bias, the role of families and _____________________. My leadership team engages in ongoing professional development around cultural proficiency. Students in my district participate in cultural proficiency training.

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School Leader Checklist My staff has completed a personal inventory. My staff has written and shared their stories. My staff develops relationships with each of their students. My staff and I conduct visits to the homes of their ELL students. The various cultures represented by the student body are evident in my school and in each classroom. Together, with my teachers, we have examined teachers’ lesson plans, student work, wall displays, seating assignments, classroom routines and _______________________, to ensure that all students’ culture(s) are represented. My staff has been trained in multicultural education. Students in my school are empowered to take action against injustices. Evidence of this includes: ____________________________ _______________________________ My staff regularly engages in classroom and school-level equity audits, and makes changes accordingly. Classroom audits include: expectations, student grades, student engagement, airtime, calling on patterns, saying student names correctly and _____________________. School-level audits include: the cultures represented in the physical space of your school building and classrooms, school discipline patterns, grading policies, homework policies, the composition of higher level and remedial classes, observation protocols, curriculum bias, the role of families and _____ __________________________. My staff engages in ongoing professional development around cultural proficiency. Students in my school participate in cultural proficiency training.

References Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Coffey, H. (n.d.) Culturally relevant teaching. Retrieved from http://www. learnnc.org/lp/pages/4474

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Denman, G.A. (1991). Sit tight, and I’ll swing you a tail . . . Using and writing stories with young people. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Erbentraut, J. (2015). Schools nationwide are working to overcome bias in education. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www. huffingtonpost.com/entry/racial-bias-in-schools-education-week_ us_5601a2e7e4b00310edf8d2d3 Gay, G. (1994). A synthesis of scholarship in multicultural education. Urban Monograph Series. Oak Brook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Lab, Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED). Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research and practice. New York: Teachers College Press, Amsterdam, NY: Columbia University. Hamre, B.K., & Pianta, R.C. (2001). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625–638. McKenzie, K., & Skrla, A. (2011). Using equity audits in the classroom to reach and teach all students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Merriam-Webster.com. (n.d.) “Culture” definition. Retrieved from http:// www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture Moll, L. (n.d.). Funds of knowledge: Office of head start 50th anniversary. Retrieved from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-­ linguistic/docs/001077-funds-of-knowledge-luis-moll.pdf Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. New York: Longman. Oran, G. (December 23, 2009). Culturally relevant pedagogy. Education.com. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/ culturally-relevant-pedagogy/ Rohr, R. (March 27, 2016). Adapted from Richard Rohr. Dancing standing still: Healing the world from a place of prayer (Paulist Press: 2014), 37; and Richard Rohr’s interview with Romal Tune, “Richard Rohr on White Privilege.” Retrieved from https://cac.org/blinded-by-privilege-2016–03–27/

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Equality of opportunity is not enough. Unless we create an environment where everyone is guaranteed some minimum capabilities through some guarantee of minimum income, education, and healthcare, we cannot say that we have fair competition. When some people have to run a 100 metre race with sandbags on their legs, the fact that no one is allowed to have a head start does not make the race fair. Equality of opportunity is absolutely necessary but not sufficient in building genuinely fair and efficient society. —Ha-Joon Chang In education we often hear the terms equity and equality. These two terms, while sounding similar, can have very different implications. Equity means ensuring that needs are met for all children and that everyone has access to the tenets of a quality education. “We can define equity as the policies and practices that ensure that every student has access to an education focused on meaningful learning (i.e., that teaches the deeper learning skills contemporary society requires in ways that empower students to learn independently), taught by competent and caring educators who are able to attend to the student’s social and academic needs, and supported by adequate resources that provide the materials and conditions for effective learning” (Noguera, Darling-Hammond & Friedlander, 2015). It has been said that “equity is the process; equality is the outcome, given that equity— what is fair and just—may not, in the process of educating children, reflect strict equality—what is applied, allocated, or distributed equally,” (“Hidden curriculum,” 2014, p. 1). Equality, in contrast, means that everyone gets the same. Everyone does not need the same, therefore it is our responsibility

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as educators to level the playing field for all children. In reviewing assessment data from schools around the nation we see a consistent achievement gap between ELLs and their English-speaking counterparts. “As these children grow up, the achievement gap turns into an opportunity gap, creating a starkly stratified society. Inequity and the growing opportunity gap are explicitly linked in a causal relationship. There are various ways that schools inadvertently contribute to the inequity” (Center, Rassen & Gunderson, n.d., p.2). Societal Inequity—Take a minute and think about a high-performing student in your school. What grade is this student in? What interactions have you had with this student? Do you know the parents? Now, what is this student’s native language? Did you think of an ELL student? “Minority students are often the victim of bias or discrimination, in terms of our expectations for student achievement” (“Hidden curriculum,” 2014, p. 1). An informal survey was done to ask these questions to educators around the country. A total of 53 surveys were given. When asked what the native language of the student that immediately came to mind when thinking of a high-achieving student the results showed that 78.6 percent thought of an English speaker. (See Figure 5.1.)

Other 8.9% Spanish 12.5%

English 78.6%

Figure 5.1 What is the native language of a high-achieving student in your school?

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To break this down a bit further, participants who worked in schools with less than 50 percent English speakers named an English speaker as the high achiever 71 percent of the time. Participants who worked in a school with more than 50 percent English speakers named an English speaker 92 percent of the time. Cultural Inequity—Often when our immigrant families arrive in the United States they find the educational system difficult to navigate. The educational priorities or parental expectations might be different from what was experienced in their native country. Couple this with their children being educated often in a language unknown to them creates for varied challenges for families. Socioeconomic Inequity—Many ELLs are also students of poverty. There is an alarming achievement gap that exists between children growing up in poverty and their higher-income-peers, effectively barring low-­ income children from an adulthood that includes economic mobility and financial security (Center, Rassen & Gunderson, n.d., p. 1). It is imperative to help these students dream bigger dreams and have higher aspirations for their educational attainment to level the playing field. Programmatic Inequity—In looking at advanced classes in secondary schools, we often see that there are very few students of color. ELLs tend to be disproportionately represented in lower-level classes with lower academic expectations which can give rise to “cycles of low expectation.” Stereotypes about the academic performance of minorities are reinforced and perpetuated because they are held to lower academic standards or taught less than their peers (“Hidden curriculum,” 2014, p. 1). Staffing Inequity—So often schools that have a high percentage of ELLs do not have teachers that are representative of their native language or culture. Assessment Inequity—There is nothing reliable or valid about having ELLs take high stakes state assessments in English, their second language. These assessments mainly measure a student’s language acquisition or level of proficiency in English rather than their understanding of the content. The newer assessments that are taken strictly online can be a further disadvantage to ELLs that do not have access to regular computer use, either at school or in the home. So what can we do to address these inequities to indeed level the playing field for our ELLs? There is no one answer to this but rather a tapestry of

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reforms that must be put into place to bring about positive changes that will impact student achievement and educational equity for ELLs. Questions to be considered when embarking on the task of implementing change might include the following: ● What is our role as educators in providing equality and equity for all students? ● Should schools treat all students equally or equitably? ● To what extent does racism and prejudice exist in our district? ● What do the demographics of our advanced classes look like? ● How many of our ELLs are involved in our extra-curricular activities? After pondering these questions there are some strategic practices and structures that you can put into place that will have an impact.

Food Bags Many of our ELL students are also students of poverty. A weekend food bag program was put into place at our schools that had a high number of ELLs and students of poverty. The local food bank collaborated with the school district to pack bags of food for families to get every Friday to ensure proper nutrition for the families throughout the weekend. Volunteers from each school met and helped to pack the bags each Thursday. They then delivered them to the schools where they were given out to the families. A survey was sent to all families asking if a food bag would be helpful. Everyone was eligible to get a food bag each week. Approximately 140 food bags were given out weekly throughout the school year.

Mentors As many of our ELL students’ parents worked multiple jobs and often had the older children caring for the younger ones after school, we found a need to establish a mentor program for our at-risk students. The staff identified ELLs that would benefit from a regular mentor relationship. This mentor would

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meet weekly with a small group of students to check in, build a solid relationship, be the liaison between school and the parents and provide academic support for the students. Once at-risk students were identified they were paired with a mentor and a parent permission letter was sent home (see eResource I). Both a Parent Survey (eResource J) and a Student Survey (eResource K) were given to get baseline data in terms of support and needs. These mentorships lasted for several years and provided the important basis for educational success. Families knew who to reach out to for help or to answer their questions. The mentor meetings might include homework help, one-on-one reading time, grade check-ins and social/emotional support. These mentors also served as advocates for getting these children into after-school or extra-curricular activities that provided enrichment in the arts or sports.

Extra-Curricular Activities Once a month our dual language school held an all-school assembly to showcase individual students’ talents such as playing the piano or violin. Never did the ELL students perform. These students were also students of poverty and they were not afforded the opportunity for music lessons. An all-call was put out to the district staff looking for piano keyboards that people were willing to donate. Very quickly twelve keyboards appeared at the school. The music teacher agreed to spend one afternoon a week after school teaching beginning piano to our first group of twelve. Letters were sent home to gather information on students who were truly interested and to identify parents who were willing to make the commitment to students practicing and attending after school lessons. A parent meeting was held to explain the expectations and the music lessons were off and running. These twelve students performed at the final assembly in May and then again at the Talent Show the last day of school. What a proud day it was for everyone to remove the barrier for such an activity. During the 2015–16 school year, I gave small group piano lessons to ELL second grade students. These students elected to come to school early once a week and learn new songs, as well as practice at home with a piano supplied by the school. Students showed great pride in being able to learn

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the piano, and always looked forward to Piano Club. I also found that the parents were great supports in making space for the piano in their homes and time for their child to practice and attend Piano Club, and were very appreciative of the opportunity provided for their students to learn piano. Students then used their Piano Club knowledge to be the ‘experts’ when we had piano lab in class and taught their classmates simple songs, giving these ELL students a sense of pride and accomplishment in music. Where they may not have ever been the ‘expert’ on something in music, they could be now because of Piano Club and what they were able to learn in that setting. Music can level the language barrier for ELL students in its own way—music is a language in and of itself that we can all speak! Brooke Hoffman, elementary music teacher Many of the school playgrounds were also used by the local baseball and soccer leagues for both practice and games. If you attended a game you would be watching all of the English-speaking Caucasian students in their uniforms playing each Saturday. The neighborhood Spanish-speaking students were sitting on the sidelines watching the games. What a metaphor for the opportunity gap that exists between the various cultures! The counselor decided to take it upon himself to recruit and sign up ELL students to play community sports in the various leagues that were offered locally. He made phone calls to parents and arranged several afternoon sessions for the parents to come and get help with the application process. If there was a financial need, he found sponsors (mostly teachers) who paid the registration fees for the students. As the games and practices were held in the neighborhood parks the students had no trouble with transportation. The diversity in these teams soared and no longer were our ELLs sitting on the sidelines anymore but instead became active participants in the enrichment activities.

Summer School One August during the first welcome to students, I witnessed a teacher talking with a second grader (who is living in poverty and speaks English as a second language) about the

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reading he did over the summer. She was pretty upset with the child because he honestly answered her question and the answer was that he didn’t read. At all. I know that teacher’s perspective and it’s a difficult one. We invest blood, sweat and tears into helping these students make big gains during the school year and when they lose ground in the summer, it feels overwhelming and depressing. I felt terrible for the student as I knew his perspective all too well. I was almost certain the child had no books at home that he could read, yet he was being berated for not reading. I knew I needed to help teachers understand that in order to get a child to read over the summer, we were going to need to send home books. Using Donalyn Miller’s survey in the appendix of The Reading Whisperer, we realized just how few books some of our children have available to them. Many students reported that they have 0–5 books at home. Further inquiry revealed that the books in their homes were not children’s literature. When teachers began to understand the complexity of the situation with summer reading, we were able to advocate for a program to get high quality books home with students for summer reading. The conversations the next August were quite different as every single student read at least some of their books over the summer! —Hollyanna Bates, Reading Recovery Coordinator “Summer reading loss has been determined to be the major component of the existing rich/poor reading achievement gap,” (Allington & Franzen, 2003, p. 18). Certainly the “summer slide” was alive and well in our district. With many of our ELL students also being students of poverty, it was not uncommon to see losses of almost half of a year of achievement in reading in only eight weeks. We had tried a traditional summer school model but often our students not only were not making gains, they were not even holding steady with the level they left school with in June. Something had to be done. We decided to try something different: the summer school model that Allington and Franzen used in Florida. We gave every student the opportunity to choose fifteen books to take home with them to begin the summer. We expanded the practice and then set up days

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over the summer where the students could come in with their parents and exchange the books. We purchased book bags for the children to hold their books. We also kept track of what books each child chose. This took an investment in purchasing enough books to use for summer school. It also took a release of control of the books and the decision that we, as a school, cared more about the readers than we did about losing some books–this was BIG! Our data began to change as a result of this model. We noticed right away that the percentage of students who lost levels of achievement over the summer began to decrease. Even more exciting, our percentage of students who remained steady at their spring reading level began to increase. (We used the Developmental Reading Assessment®, 2nd Edition, DRA2). Within 2 years the entire district adopted this model (see Table 5.1). The degree of change is in regards to a DRA level. A -2 indicates a loss of two reading levels. The term, Even, represents no change in DRA level. Notice that from 2012 to 2013 we experienced drops in the number of students who lost levels of reading achievement over the summer. Our percentage of students who held ground or remained at the same level from Spring DRA to Fall DRA increased. In 2nd grade the number of students who gained 1 DRA level of reading doubled. These numbers were a big improvement over our traditional model for summer school. We affirmed Allington and Franzen’s model of research that asserted that when students have access to self-selected books over the summer that they not

Table 5.1  Change in DRA2 Reading Levels 3rd Grade Degree of Change over summer

-2

-1

Even

1

2012

16%

34%

32%

8%

2

2013

15%

19%

52%

5%

5%

Change

-1%

-15%

20%

-3%

5%

2nd Grade Degree of Change over summer

-2

-1

Even

1

2

2012

15%

23%

52%

8%

2%

2013

6%

10%

64%

16%

1%

-9%

-13%

12%

8%

-1%

Change

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only remain steady in their reading ability, but often they can gain levels of reading achievement just like their English-speaking counterparts. Some questions to ask to successfully implement this model: ● Do you have enough books to send 10–15 with every child? ● Is there physical space to store these books over the school year as you do not want these books to be available any other time during the year? ● Do you have funds to pay teachers to open the school during the summer for book exchanges? ● Do you have volunteers who could level and label all of the summer books so that students have books that they are able to independently read as well as books that can be read with an adult? Providing equal access to high-quality, self-selected books levels the playing field. ELLs have a chance to spend the summer reading in the same manner that their English-speaking peers have long enjoyed.

Technology No device should ever be hailed as the silver bullet in “saving” education—­ nor should it be completely shunned—but when it comes to the possibility of bridging the digital divide between low-income, high-income and ELL students, devices may play a pivotal role (Barseghian, 2013, para. 1). Technology use and access is another area that ELLs can experience an opportunity gap. Providing devices is not enough. Internet access is equally as important as the device. Our district just voted to fund a 1.5M “One2World” initiative to put Chromebooks in the hands of every student. We have also partnered with the local cable provider to offer affordable internet for every family. We understand that we must work with the parents of our ELL students to ensure that they, too, have the skills to not only support their children, but that they understand how to help their children use the devices to deepen the learning and enhance creativity and application of skills learned at school. While we, as a school, can monitor the use of the computers during the school day, we want to help our ELL families understand ways for their children to use the computers at home to:

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● Go on virtual field trips ● Connect with family members in other countries via digital blogs ● Create visual representations of their learning ● Research people and places of interest ● Read daily news from around the world, from a country that speaks the native language of the family ● Watch educational videos showing how to do something new. To accomplish this we have partnered with the local libraries to offer Family Tech nights once a month. These sessions last for 2 hours. In the first hour the parents work with our tech coaches to learn the skills to use Chromebooks. While the parents are working with the tech coach the students are working with the librarians to play educational games on the computer. During the second hour the students join their parents and together they complete a project. An example of a project that the parents might do in conjunction with their children might include researching recipes for ethnic food and creating a cookbook with the promise of then going home to try an evening of recipes from the cookbook. Another example would be to take a virtual field trip to the Louvre Museum in Paris. Showing the parents the power of the technology as an educational tool is one step toward closing the opportunity gap. Access to the internet is not always the issue for ELL families: how technology is used is what continues to perpetuate the divide. We plan to close this gap through education and hands-on learning.

Kindergarten Readiness We have preschool programs in many of our elementary schools. Unfortunately the spaces are limited and we do not offer early childhood education for everyone in the district. Many of our ELL families are left without affordable preschool options for their children and often these children enter kindergarten woefully behind. One practice that we initiated is our district Kindergarten Backpack Program. In the spring before students enter kindergarten, schools hold readiness meetings for incoming families and their rising kindergartners. The children are given a backpack full of supplies at these meetings. The kindergarten teachers, in coordination with a

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local community partner, spend the hour sharing the contents of the backpacks and explaining how to use them for optimal results. The backpacks are filled with books in the native language, magnetic numbers and letters, crayons, markers, scissors, glue sticks and journals. Reading, math and language acquisition strategies are given along with ideas to make learning fun over the summer. A list of kindergarten readiness skills is given to the parents to ensure they understand the expectations. After the initial meeting to introduce the backpacks, the kindergarten teachers do a home visit before school begins to get to know the families better and to spend time reading with the child and enjoying the contents of the backpacks in an educational manner. Further questions are answered for the parents and additional resources are given if needed. This home visit accomplishes several things: ● It is yet another opportunity for the teacher to build a relationship with both the parent and the student. ● It is an additional chance to review how to use the contents in the backpack for deeper learning. ● It gives the parents a chance to ask additional questions that might have arisen. Our district has found that our ELL students who did not get a preschool slot but who participated in the kindergarten backpack program have entered kindergarten with more readiness skills than before this program was in place. Stronger parental partnerships have been forged as a result of this program as well.

School-Based Health Centers ELLs often do not have access to regular high-quality health care resulting in their physical and mental health needs being neglected. School-based health centers can offer a solution that is both convenient and affordable. Four schools in our district house these centers. These school-based health centers offer basic medical, dental and mental health care. Insurance is accepted and no co-pays are required. School-based health clinic nurses provide vaccinations, eye examinations and dental screenings that also

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include fluoride at no cost. This very valuable resource ensures that all children have access to quality health care.

Language Camp Over the various breaks throughout the year our ELLs can experience a regression in English skills as they go for extended periods without access to English. To remedy this situation we offer a Language Camp. The Language Camp provides not only engagement with quality literacy and language acquisition strategies throughout the week but it provides childcare for working families during the break. We choose a theme for the week and ensure that activities are literacy-based and language-rich. Both breakfast and lunch are served every day. Teachers are recruited and paid to work throughout the week. Often hands-on activities like cooking, art and drama are incorporated throughout the week. The camp concludes with families invited for a presentation put on by the students.

Standardized Testing ELLs are at a definite disadvantage when it comes to standardized testing. More often than not the test is more of a measure of language acquisition than of content. There are certain strategies than can be used to level the playing field. While we do not advocate teaching to the test, we do encourage teaching test preparation skills. ELLs need to understand the language of assessment and academic vocabulary. Students need to practice the technology skills required to complete the assessments. Using a daily warm-up that mimics the test questions will go a long way in garnering familiarity with the format of the test. Unit tests should also use both the format and the level of rigor that students will face on standardized tests. Finally, students’ stamina must be developed to be able to sit for extended periods of time and work in a concentrated manner. Leveling the playing field not only gives ELLs a fighting chance to compete with peers, it is the right thing to do. Every student has the right to a quality education. Not every student has the same supports to successfully navigate and access the education offered. Meeting the needs of each student to ensure success is the job of educators today. Polices to put into place to level the playing field should include:

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Design   1. Limit early tracking and streaming and postpone academic selection.   2. Manage school choice so as to contain the risks to equity.   3. In upper secondary education, provide attractive alternatives, remove dead ends and prevent dropout.   4. Offer second chances to gain from education.

Practices   5. Identify and provide systematic help to those who fall behind at school and reduce year repetition.   6. Strengthen the links between school and home to help disadvantaged parents help their children to learn.   7. Respond to diversity and provide for the successful inclusion of migrants and minorities within mainstream education.

Resourcing   8. Provide strong education for all, giving priority to early childhood provision and basic schooling.   9. Direct resources to the students with the greatest needs. 10. Set concrete targets for more equity, particularly related to low school attainment. (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2008, p. 6) Conduct an audit of your policies to determine whether and to what degree they not only support ELLs but offer them every chance for success. Finally, provide equity in resources needed to truly level the playing field for our ELLs.

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Conclusion We are often asking our ELLs to play a game in which we have not only failed to give them the rules but we are handicapping them in terms of equitable equipment needed to play. We must not only determine, but then initiate, practices that will support and propel ELLs to the finish line with success. It is not only fair, but it is the moral thing to do. Fair does not always mean equal and equal does not mean equity. We must implement equitable practices within our schools to fill in the economic, social and extracurricular gaps for all children.

District Leader Checklist My district has evidence that ELLs experience a summer slide in reading proficiency. My district has determined that a summer reading program is necessary. To implement this I have ascertained the following: ● There are available funds to purchase 10–15 books for every child in grades K–5. ● There are available funds to pay for teachers to open school bi-weekly for students to exchange books. Every student in my district has equal access to technology and if not there is a plan in place to move in that direction. My district has evidence that ELL students experience a reading slide over school breaks. If so plans are in progress for a Language Camp. To implement this the district needs the following: ● A space to hold Language Camp that allows for classrooms and free play. ● A coordinator who can hire staff, create curriculum and be there as an administrator. ●  Transportation to and from Language Camp daily. ●  Food served during the day. ●  Funds to sponsor Language Camp costs. My district has knowledge of all incoming kindergartners who have not been to preschool. Plans are in place for meetings with parents to ensure an understanding of kindergarten readiness. Plans include the following: ● Purchase a backpack and supplies for each kindergartner (if possible). ● Employ kindergarten teachers in each building to run the meetings.

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● Send out invites to all incoming students. Make follow-up phone calls to those who have not attended preschool and extend a personal invitation. ● Make arrangements to fill the backpacks with the supplies and have them sent to each school.

School Leader Checklist My school has evidence that students struggle with meeting food/ nutrition needs over a weekend. If this is the case then we have reached out to local food banks, grocery stores and local businesses to partner to provide food bags each week. To do this I have taken these next steps: ● Arranged to get food each week to a determined place for storage. ●  Arranged to have volunteers come weekly to pack bags. ● Given out an application to everyone in the school to sign up for food bags. ●  Begin giving out bags each Friday. My school has determined that there are at-risk students who would benefit from having a mentor who would serve as the liaison between home and school. Once this has been determined I have taken the following steps: ● I have asked for staff volunteers to serve as mentors for at-risk students. ●  I have matched up students to mentors. ● I have created an information/permission page for parents in regards to mentorship. (See eResource I) My school has determined that there is a gap in participation in extra-curricular activities for ELL students. If this is the case then I have taken the following steps: ● I have made plans to communicate with ELL parents to give information about sports, music and art programs available. ● I have arranged for help in the registration process for these families wishing to participate. ● I have arranged financial assistance if needed to pay for extracurricular fees. My teachers have given explicit instruction in test-taking skills and academic vocabulary needed to ensure success in state assessments.

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References Allington, R.L., & Franzen, A.M. (2003). Summer reading loss is the basis of almost all the rich/poor reading gap. Retrieved from Reading Recovery: https://readingrecovery.org/images/pdfs/Conferences/TLI15/Handouts/ Summer_reading_loss_ch.pdf Barseghian, T. (2013). For low-income kids, access to devices could be the equalizer. Retrieved from http://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2013/03/13/ for-low-income-kids-access-to-devices-could-be-the-equalizer/ Center, E., Rassen, E., & Gunderson, J. (n.d.). Leveling the playing field. Retrieved from http://ilcommunityschools.org/images/Community_ Schools_Whitepaper_Leveling_the_Playing_Field.pdf Hidden curriculum. hidden-curriculum

(2014).

Retrieved

from

http://edglossary.org/

Noguera, P., Darling-Hammond, L., & Friedlander, D. (2015). Equal opportunities for deeper learning. Retrieved from http://www.jff.org/ sites/default/files/publications/materials/Equal-Opportunity-for-Deep er-Learning-100115a.pdf Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2008). Ten steps to equity in education [Policy brief]. Retrieved from http://www. oecd.org/education/school/39989494.pdf

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We have to tell students that they can achieve and they can overcome language barriers, and then help them start thinking about and preparing for college very early. Being hopeful and bringing a positive message goes a long way. The most important thing is to believe that students can achieve, and to reinforce what is possible instead of what isn’t. —Dr. Frances Contreras Imagine the complexities of navigating the postsecondary education process if you are a first-generation college-bound student. You have no context for thinking about college. No one in your family has ever attended college and in some cases are not only reticent to let you go, but hostile to the idea. Now add to that complexity English as your second language, and the pathway from high school diploma to college admissions becomes overwhelming. ELLs are the fastest growing student demographic in the nation, comprising 10.5 percent of K–12 students, more than doubling since 1990. Within the K–12 system, grades 7–12 experience the highest rate of growth (NCTE, 2008). Thus, more ELL students are entering U.S. schools later in their undergraduate careers, shortening the amount of time available for proficient English language acquisition. While it varies based on the individual and many other factors, it is widely accepted that learning a new language fluently takes five to seven years (Haynes, n.d.). Not surprisingly, many of these students who enter the school system with fewer than five years until twelfth grade, struggle to complete their high school careers.

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Based on statistics from the 2011–2012 school year, ELLs continue to lag behind in high school graduation rates, with a 59 percent completion rate compared with an 80 percent completion rate of the general high school population (NCES, 2014). Students without a high school diploma have a more difficult time obtaining a job. These students also have considerably less earning potential than those who complete high school. Likewise, students with a bachelor’s degree significantly outearn their high school completer counterparts. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, between 1990 and 2012, adults with at least a bachelor’s degree were employed at higher rates than were adults without a bachelor’s degree. “In 2011, young adults with a bachelor’s degree earned almost twice as much as those without a high school diploma or its equivalent (97 percent more), 50 percent more than young adult high school completers, and 21 percent more than young adults with an associate’s degree” (Aud et al., 2013). Academically, ELL students’ progress, when compared with their nonELL age peers, is found wanting. Not surprisingly, without fluent English language skills, students do not perform as well on standardized tests and have a greater challenge in building a portfolio of academic accomplishments that is attractive to colleges. As part of the language acquisition process, students gain conversational command in a new language before being able to write and comprehend the written word at the same level (Mohr & Mohr, 2007). The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, n.d.) is one of the measures used to highlight ELL progress. The NAEP is administered to representative samples of students in grades 4, 8 and 12 across the United States. “In 2011, the achievement gaps between ELL and non-ELL students in the NAEP reading assessment were 36 points at the 4th-grade level and 44 points at the 8th-grade level.” (Aud et al., 2013, p. 54). With the growing number of ELL students in our schools, it is incumbent upon educators to intentionally develop a plan to ensure high school completion for these students, and offer a clear pathway to success in postsecondary education. There are five steps a school can follow to support and guide first-generation ELL students through twelfth grade and on to college: (1) Start early: A high school diploma begins in kindergarten; (2) Develop a culture of college; (3) Keep expectations high; (4) Establish a first-generation pre-collegiate program; and (5) Engage the family.

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Start Early: A High School Diploma Begins in Kindergarten Over the years, we have had countless opportunities to interview kindergarten students about what they think their futures will look like. While popular culture influences their answers (Mutant Ninja Turtles in the 1980s to Hunger Games’ heroes more recently), firefighters, police officers, doctors, athletes and movie stars remain high on the “wannabe” list. What our littlest learners do not have a sense of is what it will take to achieve their dreams. Interestingly, as students matriculate through the grades, the trend of not knowing how to access the path to their preferred futures persists. For those students with no family connection to or background knowledge about college, and whose first language is not English, their dreams about attaining future goals, without specific interventions, often remain only as dreams. Turning dreams into reality requires a plethora of strategies, one of which is to start front loading college information as early as possible. Why is it important to build this vocabulary and understanding so early? One reason is that the nationwide movement to Common Core Standards expects it. The College and Career Anchor Standards found in the Common Core Standards begin in kindergarten. The standards articulate a set of competencies (skills and understandings) by content and grade level that build toward college readiness. There is now a nationwide expectation that even in kindergarten, students will begin to articulate the importance of completing high school and understand the competencies required to be successful in college or a chosen career. A college education makes a difference in other ways as well. Students who complete college vote and volunteer at higher levels, have healthier lifestyles, including lower rates of smoking and obesity and are more likely to be involved with their own children’s education (Balemian & Feng, 2013). There are a number of practical steps that school leaders can train their teachers to do in the classroom in order to develop a connection to higher education in the early grades. 1. In preschool and kindergarten, as students learn the counting sequence, associate that sequence to grade levels (grade 1, grade 2, grade 3, grade 4, etc.). This is simple to do but not intuitive to young learners if not explicitly taught. If your school district has elementary, middle and

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high school on the same campus or close by, take a field trip through the grades so students can attach greater meaning to the sequence. 2. Refer to each grade level as their graduating class. Kindergarten students entering in the fall of 2017 will be the graduating class of 2030! 3. Create a literacy-rich environment in English and in a student’s first language. Research indicates that students learn English more quickly and effectively if they maintain and develop their proficiency in their native language (Krashen, 2004). 4. Provide students with elementary appropriate career inventories (there are a number of these available and accessible online). Talk with students about the results. Help them to research what each career entails. 5. Hold an annual career fair in elementary schools, asking participants to link their careers back to courses required in school. Be sure to invite individuals who work in the careers identified on student career inventories. 6. Talk regularly with students about their futures and emphasize what subjects link to those careers (e.g., to become a doctor requires good grades in advanced math and science classes in high school and college). 7. When setting goals with students, include how attaining those goals will link to their future hopes and dreams. Instead of simply talking with a student about how she will attain her goal of becoming more proficient with math facts, discuss with her how her newfound math skills will help her to be successful in school and in the career(s) in which she has expressed interest. 8. By fifth grade, begin working with students and their parents on backwards mapping course pathways through high school for various college/career desired scenarios. If a student wants to be an engineer and attend MIT, she will need a specific course pathway to ensure sufficient math and science classes, a certain score on the SAT/ACT, etc. A student who wants to become an auto mechanic may choose to attend a technical school and have a different pathway. Regardless of preferred college/career, all students should still be encouraged to take courses that are advanced, with a high level of rigor. Following these steps will benefit not only ELL students, but all students.

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Develop a Culture of College Every organization has a culture within it that reveals its identity. Some cultures develop haphazardly, without much thought as to what the culture ought to be. Other cultures are intentionally shaped to reflect the values, attitudes and goals of the organization. A culture of college within a school system does not happen automatically, but requires deliberate actions. Culture begins with beliefs. Identifying teachers’ beliefs about ELL students’ ability to graduate from high school and enroll in college is a key to understanding the steps necessary to building a culture of college in your school. Teachers can access one of the many formal bias inventories available, or use a more informal approach. Teachers can simply look at their list of students and place an X in one of three categories: Likely to Complete High School; Likely to Complete High School and Enroll in College; Not Likely to Complete High School (Table 6.1). Who is in each category? Is there a preponderance of certain groups of students in one or another category? Where are the ELL students, the students of poverty, the gifted students or those with a history of discipline issues? Talking it through with colleagues about why students were placed in each category will help teachers understand where their assumptions come from. This is not to say that there are not legitimate reasons for teachers’ placement of students. Students may have poor attendance, lack effort, have a learning disability and so on. The placement of students may in fact, be accurate, if no interventions occur. The first step is to hold a followup conversation about what it would take to move every student into the ‘Likely to Complete High School and Enroll in College’ category. Table 6.1  Bias Inventory Student Name

Likely to Complete High School

Likely to Complete High School and Enroll in College

Not Likely to Complete High School

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The “what would it take” conversation is then turned into a school action plan. This process can be completed with elementary, middle and high school teachers. Teachers are one part of this equation. Students’ expectations about their own abilities to access college are another. A process similar to that used with teachers can be implemented with elementary, middle and high school students. At the elementary level teachers may want to modify the inventory and simply interview students for their perceptions. Reviewing the results will help educators understand students’ perceptions about their own futures and provide an entry point into a conversation about college and creating a student action plan to remove barriers. Completing this step with teachers and students is an important part of developing a culture of college. Many of the elementary school ideas listed above are also applicable to a college culture in middle and high schools, including conducting career inventories, hosting career fairs, setting goals and mapping course pathways. In addition to these, other culture-promoting activities for the middle and high school levels include: providing college resource materials in a variety of languages; holding a college fair; ensuring school counselors are devoting time to college counseling; offering apprenticeships to students with community partners; writing essays based on college application questions; creating a college display in every school; bringing in ELL graduates to speak with students (at all three levels); and working with local colleges/community colleges to host events for students on their campuses throughout the year. By promoting an intentional culture of college among ELL students, schools will devolve ownership from administrators and teachers to the students, bringing them one step closer to the collegiate dream.

Keep Expectations High Setting the culture is one aspect of keeping the expectations high. However, culture, in and of itself, is not adequate to address all facets of high expectations for ELL students. We’ve all heard the saying, “You get what you expect.” If schools are not getting the desired results for their ELL students, it may be because, regardless of the words conveyed, high expectations are not universal. Teachers’ beliefs about student potential are

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particularly powerful for students of color and students from poor families (Ferguson, 2002). Many of our ELL students fall into one or both of these categories. To hold high expectations means to do this for all students. When teachers hold high expectations for students and engage them in high-interest activities, students gain self-esteem, build confidence and increase academic achievement (Brophy, 2008, 2010). Students seem to know intuitively when less is expected of them. Instead of altering the target for students who can’t quite reach it, teachers need to provide the right tools, resources, instruction, practice, tutoring, examples, etc. so that, even with difficult content, every student can hit the mark. Ongoing support for students is essential to building mastery. Support includes scaffolding lessons with graphic organizers, chunking information, providing engaging content, identifying essential knowledge and providing students with additional help and support during the school day (Blackburn, 2008; 2012). This means rethinking how we structure traditional schooling. The typical American school continues to function much as it did in the factory model of the 1950s. Although in today’s classrooms there is more collaboration, more interesting curriculum and an emphasis on technology integration, what’s missing is a laser-sharp focus on student learning as the outcome. By and large students are still provided teacher-driven instruction followed by assignments and assessments with grades attached based on the results of those assignments and assessments. If students do not meet the benchmark, they are simply given a lower grade and expected to move on to the next unit. This is the “sort and punish” model of education. Success builds on success and failure builds on failure. All the high expectations in the world won’t change the outcomes under this model. What’s needed to interrupt this pattern is a shift to a learning-focused system. Policy decisions over the last decade (No Child Left Behind, Standards-Based Education, Common Core Standards, etc.) have endorsed a learning-focused system. Unfortunately, the passing of policy does not equate to adequate training and resources to fully realize the change. A true standards-based learning model focuses on student mastery of the standards, with time and method as the variables. As part of this process, students need to understand what mastery looks like and the pathways to getting there.

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As educators, we need to demystify what we are asking of students. Imagine turning 16 and going to the DMV to take your driver’s test but having no idea what it requires to achieve mastery and thus, receive your license. This scenario seems ludicrous, yet it’s still common practice in many of today’s classrooms. Too often we hold a specific expectation for student performance without articulating what that expectation is and how to achieve it. With standards-based education, students should not only know what is expected of them but understand how to achieve the desired level of proficiency. If we truly expect ALL students to achieve at high levels then we would continue to support students in meeting the standards until they could demonstrate grade-level knowledge and application. It is incumbent upon the teachers as the professionals, to pursue the best avenues for accomplishing this task. Everything from changing the structure of the school day to examining the makeup of the schedule within the day to reviewing the learning tasks within each lesson, should be scrutinized for maximum impact on student learning. When every ELL student masters the grade-level standards, then and only then can teachers be satisfied that they have delivered on their promise of high expectations.

Establish a First-Generation Pre-Collegiate Program Programs to address first-generation students often begin in high school, which is too late. The data reveal that first-generation students are in every grade level in the education system, and thus, need to be addressed systemically. First-generation students are more likely to be low-income, come from minority backgrounds and be non-native English speakers (Brachman, 2012). Instituting a comprehensive pre-collegiate program for first-generation students can have a profound impact on their success in high school and enrollment in and success in college. According to the Pell Institute (Engle, Bermeo & O’Brien, 2006, pp. 39–41), some of the benefits of such a program include: ● Raising awareness about students’ educational and career interests ● Providing assistance with postsecondary choices

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● Understanding financing options ● Improving academic achievement ● Raising self-confidence ● Believing that college is a possibility ● Understanding that a college education may improve their lives and lives of others Although not all ELLs are first-generation students, many fall into this category. These students must overcome at least two barriers to get to college, if not three or more. There are many facets to a well-rounded, successful, first-generation program.

Dedicate Staffing to First-Generation Students A program of this magnitude requires detailed coordination and followthrough. Staff are needed to meet regularly with students, coordinate with classroom teachers, connect with colleges, assign mentors, oversee the curriculum, conduct college visits and for a plethora of other activities. Dedicating staffing on the front end will pay large dividends in the form of increased graduation rates, decreased dropout rates, increased college enrollment, higher GPAs and increased engagement in school, to name a few.

Identify First-Generation ELL Students Beginning in elementary school, identify ELL (and other) students whose parents did not attend college. Follow these students’ academic gains throughout their schooling, while implementing the activities and processes outlined above. Determine various benchmarks for each student’s language and academic development and what measures will be used to assess their progress and with what frequency. Use this data and other student work to develop a portfolio that follows each student through the grade levels.

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Assign Mentors Each first-generation student can benefit from a community mentor who is a college graduate. These mentors can assist students with homework, share with them about life skills, talk about the importance of college, be their cheerleader, provide opportunities for formal or informal internships in the community, serve as a caring adult who listens to them and be a role model. Students will also benefit from having an internal mentor from staff. The staff mentor can check in weekly with students about assignments/ grades, regularly encourage students, ask about their college/career ambitions and reach out to the family. A third mentor can be drawn from the older pre-collegiate students. These students can share their own experiences about the impact of a first-generation program. They, more than anyone else, can share what students need to pay attention to, what’s coming up next in the program, why it’s important to get good grades and the steps to picking out a college. Younger students also look up to older students and are sometimes more willing to listen to them than to an adult. Building trusting relationships with adults and older students helps first-generation students feel supported. As these mentors invest in the students, the students then invest in the process which ultimately is an investment in their futures.

Provide In-School Tutoring A successful first-generation program provides in-school tutoring for the students. Many of these students, particularly if they are students of poverty, do not have an adult at home after school who can assist with homework, because they are working. Students themselves, once in high school, may also have a job and some may even be living on their own. Finding a regular time, at least on a weekly basis, to hold a tutoring session for first-generation students during the school day will help them to catch up and keep up with the curriculum demands at each level. Tutors can further be utilized to help accelerate the learning of these students. The expectation should be to keep the bar high. Students should

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be expected to take advanced level courses and enroll in at least one college course while in high school. To do this successfully, ELL students will often require additional help to navigate the content and language demands (reading, comprehending, writing and speaking) that come with higher level coursework.

Institute a Curriculum The depth and breadth of a comprehensive first-generation program requires a curriculum. There are specific skills and content students need to master at each level. There are some ready-made curriculums available, although many of these are specific to high school students only. Schools with first-generation programs may choose to assemble their own curriculum from various sources. Much of the content, while differentiated for each level, is applicable to all levels. Topics/content across levels include: study skills; time management; self-advocacy; career interest inventories; meeting with mentors; understanding my culture; language acquisition; progress with academics and WIDA (World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment) standards; why grades matter; understanding the benefits of high school and college completion; and goal setting. Other topics are more specific to each level. ● Elementary—transitioning to middle school; course pathways in middle and high school; exploring a local college; building oral and written communication skills ● Middle school—transitioning to high school; refining oral and written communication skills; course pathways in high school; understanding different kinds of colleges; visiting colleges; summer college camp (on a campus); mentoring elementary students ● High school—mentoring middle and elementary students; high school course taking for college(s) of choice and the importance of rigor; employing oral and written communication skills; SAT/ACT prep; college essays; financial aid and filling out the FAFSA; how to get scholarships; what college admissions officers are looking for; taking a college class while in high school (strongly recommended); visiting multiple college campuses (if possible, include some out-of-state schools);

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summer college experience for sophomores and juniors (living in dorms and taking college classes); applying to colleges (make this mandatory); transitioning to college; managing finances in college; support while in college. While these topics are not meant to be all inclusive, they will provide a springboard for those choosing to develop their own curriculum.

Target Math and English While ELL students need to meet the graduation requirements of their high school in all curricular areas, they will require additional focus on math and English. “Students in remedial reading or math have particularly dismal chances of success. A U.S. Department of Education study found that 58 percent of students who do not require remediation earn a bachelor’s degree, compared to only 17 percent of students enrolled in remedial reading and 27 percent of students enrolled in remedial math” (NCSL, 2015). Overall, about 20 percent of all high school graduates require remediation in college. However, 25 percent of first-generation students required remedial classes. Students with parents who completed some postsecondary education had lower enrollment in remedial courses than did those who had parents with a high school diploma or the equivalent (Sparks & Malkus, 2013). One state, Colorado, found that ELLs were more likely to need remediation than non-ELL high school graduates. Approximately, 80 percent of ELL students in Colorado needed remediation compared 35 percent of non-ELL students (Garcia, 2014). These statistics are daunting. High schools need to address the remediation concerns before graduation. Many schools are now using assessments, like the College Board Accuplacer or the ACT Compass in a student’s sophomore year to identify remediation needs and address them while still in high school. Requiring certain courses will also help mitigate college remediation. Gaining English proficiency and grade level content, along with taking four years of English will assist students in avoiding remedial English classes. Enrolling in higher level English classes also makes a difference. “English

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language learners who are able to negotiate entry into high-level courses develop higher levels of literacy than do ELLs of similar proficiency who are tracked in low-level courses” (Koelsch, 2006, p. 1). With regard to math, Algebra has long been known as the “gatekeeper” course. It’s broadly seen as necessary for future success in math and in technical employment. Ensuring first-generation students are proficient with algebra is essential for college success. In fact, research now suggests that students should take four years of math and complete at least Algebra II. According to the U.S. Department of Education, “the highest level of math taken in high school is the most powerful predictor of whether a student will ultimately earn a bachelor’s degree, and that students completing Algebra II in high school more than doubled their chances of earning a four-year college degree” (Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education, 2007). For our first-generation students, a high school diploma is only the first step to their success. The high school diploma in hand should not only provide them access to enrolling in college, but should also guarantee that they are ready for college-level courses without remediation.

Engage the Family While engaging the family is more fully discussed in Chapter 2, it is of such importance as to warrant some additional coverage here. Parents and extended family are not always supportive of their first-generation students’ college aspirations. First-generation students and first-generation ELL students are already at a disadvantage in completing high school, enrolling in and persisting through college. The Pell Institute lists factors that affect college access as: ● Lower levels of academic preparation. ● Lower educational aspirations. ● Less knowledge about the college application process. ● Fewer resources to pay for college. ● Less encouragement and support to attend college, particularly from parents. (Engle, Bermeo & O’Brien, 2006, p.14)

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Economics, cultural expectations and family obligations play a part in a family’s acceptance of college. “While students whose parents have a college education tend to experience ‘college as a continuation’ of their academic and social experiences in high school, going to college often constitutes a ‘disjunction’ in the lives of first-generation students and their families.” (Engle, Bermeo & O’Brien, 2006, p. 17) It’s essential that schools begin working with first-generation families as soon as possible to convey the importance of a college education and its benefits. As teachers and mentors schedule meetings with students, a portion of these, beginning in elementary school, should involve the parents. Another way to involve families is to facilitate them forming their own support group. A parent-to-parent team, comprised of parents who have first-generation students at varying stages in the process (elementary, middle, high, college, post-graduate) can serve many positive purposes. In addition to building trusting relationships, this group can meet regularly to help quell the fears and answer the questions that many of these families have. First-generation students and their parents who have successfully navigated the college process can serve as regular speakers to the group.

Recommendations ● In order to successfully meet the needs of first-generation students, you need to ensure that there is systemic buy-in. Is the superintendent and school board supportive of allocating resources? Are principals willing to develop schedules so that time is devoted to the various aspects of the program? What are the roles of ELL teachers and regular classroom teachers? ● Set goals for the system if you are a superintendent or for your school or classroom if you are a principal or teacher, respectively. Goal areas might include increasing percentages of underserved populations in advanced courses, gifted programs and student leadership roles; increasing graduation rates and decreasing dropout rates of ELL and other minority populations; monitoring GPAs; increasing college applications, acceptances and enrollment; monitoring longitudinal data on exited ELLs (due to gaining full English Proficiency); and charting the

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amount of time ELLs continue in each level of the program. Regularly track and report the results of the goals set to maintain accountability. ● Engage community partners in this work. Not only will they serve as mentors and tutors, but they can also provide opportunities for student internships and may be a source of program funding. ● If you do not have a local college or university already engaged in working with first-generation students, begin the conversation. There are programs around the country that can be replicated. Colleges win by gaining a stream of new students and an excellent reputation with the school district. The school district wins by graduating more students from high school ready and excited to enroll in college. The students win by getting a college education, which in turn, benefits society.

Additional Resources ● Additional resources can be found on the NACAC (National Association for College Admission Counseling) website at http://www.­nacacnet. org/. This site includes a section on underserved populations. ● Collegewise.com has compiled a list of resources for college counselors to use in guiding students. ● The Hispanic Association for Colleges and Universities (HACU) at http:// www.hacu.net/ also has resources. Part of their mission is to “address challenges facing both higher education and K–12 in recruiting, retaining, and graduating Hispanic students.” (retrieved from: http://www. hacu.net/hacu/Schools_Districts.asp on September 8,2015).

Conclusion Preparing ELL students for life after high school requires leaders to implement a number of strategies throughout the school system: 1. Begin working with first-generation, ELL students in kindergarten. The sooner students begin hearing about and exploring college, the more likely they are to attend.

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2. Develop a culture of college. Part of this process requires an examination of both teachers’ and students’ beliefs. It also entails exposing students at all levels to college information and aspirations in very concrete ways like college fairs, writing college essays, conducting career inventories, etc. 3. Keep expectations high by focusing on learning outcomes and mastery of content. 4. Establish a first-generation pre-collegiate program. Students who are first in their families to aspire to college need extra help, time and support. They benefit from mentors, tutoring, visits to colleges, assistance with all aspects of the college application, advanced course selection and help with remediation needs while still in high school. 5. Engage the family. If students are pulled in different directions by home and school, it becomes difficult to persist to and through college. Involving families early and often as part of the process is essential to student success.

District Leader Checklist My district believes that the path toward high school completion and postsecondary education begins in kindergarten, and has created a roadmap to follow to bring this philosophy to fruition. My district espouses the philosophy and employs corresponding practices that promote students’ acquisition of their home language while learning English. My district has set high graduation targets for ELLs (and all subgroups) and has developed corresponding action steps for reaching the target. The district data indicate that we are reaching the targets. My leadership team understands the importance of high school graduation and postsecondary education for all students. My district has created a “map” of course pathways that correspond with specific postsecondary choices. My district/high school(s) offer ACT and SAT prep classes. My district monitors the composition of advanced classes and has clearly articulated goals for increasing the percentage of underserved populations in classes where these students are underrepresented.

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My leadership team has completed a bias inventory and developed a plan based on the results. My leadership team has high expectations for ALL students in their buildings AND the data verify this. The schools in my district have clearly articulated expectations for ALL students and have given students the information, supports and tools needed to be successful. Together with the leadership team, we have examined our school structures and systems for bias and made changes where necessary. My district has a successful (high graduation rates and low dropout rates) program for first-generation students. We actively engage the families of first-generation students. The college remediation rates for our ELL graduates is low (i.e., lower than the state average), and we address remediation needs while these students are still in high school. My district requires all high school seniors to apply to college, even those who do not expect to go. My district engages community partners to work with first-generation students.

School Leader Checklist My staff believes that the path toward high school completion and postsecondary education begins in kindergarten, and has created a roadmap to follow to bring this philosophy to fruition. My school espouses the philosophy and employs corresponding practices that promote students’ acquisition of their home language while learning English. My school has set high graduation targets for ELLs (and all subgroups) and has developed corresponding action steps for reaching the target. Our school data indicate that we are reaching the targets. My staff understands the importance of high school graduation and postsecondary education for all students. My district/school has created a “map” of course pathways that correspond with specific postsecondary choices. My district/high school(s) offer ACT and SAT prep classes. My high school monitors the composition of advanced classes and has clearly articulated goals for increasing the percentage of underserved populations in classes where these students are underrepresented. (Continued)

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School Leader Checklist, continued My staff has completed a bias inventory and developed a plan based on the results. My staff has high expectations for ALL students in their buildings AND the data verify this. My staff and I have clearly articulated expectations for ALL students and have given students the information, supports and tools needed to be successful. Together with the staff, we have examined our school structures and systems for bias and made changes where necessary. My high school has a successful (high graduation rates and low dropout rates) program for first-generation students. We actively engage the families of first-generation students. The college remediation rates for my high school’s ELL graduates is low (i.e., lower than the state average), and we address remediation needs while these students are still in high school. My high school requires all high school seniors to apply to college, even those who do not expect to go. My school engages community partners to work with first-generation students.

References Aud, S., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Kristapovich, P., Rathbun, A., Wang, X., & Zhang, J. (2013). The condition of education (NCES 2013–037). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://docplayer.net/1502274-Thecondition-education-nces-2013–037-u-s-department-of-education.html Balemian, K., & Feng, J. (2013, July 19). College board aspirations, preparedness and challenges. Presented at the College Board AP Annual Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Blackburn, B. (2008). Rigor is NOT a four-letter word. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. Blackburn, B. (2012). Rigor made easy. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.

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Brachman, C. (2012). Improving access and success for first-­generation college students. Retrieved from: https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1307084205.html Brophy, J. (2008). Developing students appreciation for what is taught in schools. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 132–141. Brophy, J. (2010). Motivating students to learn (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Engle, J., Bermeo, A., & O’Brien, C. (December 2006). Straight from the source: What works for first-generation college students. The Pell Institute. Retrieved from https://www.tgslc.org/pdf/files-sfts_what_works.pdf Ferguson, R. (2002). Addressing racial disparities in high-achieving schools—A North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved from http://www.ncrel.org/policy/pubs/pdfs/pivol13.pdf Garcia, J. (2014, May). Legislative report on remedial education. Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Education (CDE). Haynes, J. (n.d). How long does it take to learn English? Everything ESL.net. Retrieved from http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/_long_does_ take_learn_english_55843.php Koelsch, N. (November 2006). Improving literacy outcomes for English language learners in high school: Considerations for states and districts in developing a coherent policy framework. National High School Center. Retrieved from http://www.air.org/sites/default/files/downloads/report/ NHSC_ImprovingLiteracy_010907_0.pdf Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading: Insights from the research. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education. (2007). Massachusetts one of nine states to offer voluntary Algebra II exam. Retrieved from: http://www.doe.mass.edu/news/news.aspx?id=3364 Mohr, K., & Mohr, E. (February 2007). Extending English language learners’ classroom interactions using the response protocol. The Reading Teacher, 60(5), 440–450. Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets. org/article/extending-english-language-learners-classroom-interac tions-using-response-protocol

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National Assessment of Educational Progress. (n.d.) NAEP overview. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ National Center for Education Statistics. (April 2014). Retrieved from http:// nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014391/tables/table_02.asp on 8/21/2015 National Council of State Legislatures. (2015). Hot topics in higher education: Reforming remedial education. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl. org/research/education/improving-college-completion-reforming-reme dial.aspx National Council of Teachers of English. (2008). English language learners: A policy research brief. Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/library/ NCTEFiles/Resources/PolicyResearch/ELLResearchBrief.pdf Sparks, D., & Malkus, N. (January 2013). Statistics in brief: First-year undergraduate remedial coursetaking: 1999–2000, 2003–04, 2007–08. National Center for Education Statistics.

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Diversity vs. Inclusion

Civilization is the process in which one gradually increases the number of people included in the term “we” or “us” and at the same time decreases those labeled “you” or “them” until that category has no one left in it. —Howard Winters What is your definition of diversity? Of inclusion? Does your district have a common definition of each? Can your staff members discuss the differences? If you are reading this in a high school, walk down the hall to an advanced class. Count the number of ELL students. How many are there? What is the percentage of ELL students to the total class? Now walk down to a lower-level class or a remedial class. How many ELL students are in that class? What is the percentage of the total class? Do the results surprise you? All too often, we confuse diversity with inclusion. Diversity is about numbers. Inclusion is about making the numbers count (personal conversation with Bill de la Cruze, June 6, 2016). Diversity is data. Inclusion is a process. We can have a diverse population and yet not be inclusive. Having diversity can be a result of geography. The two are related and yet very different. Diversity is a field of beautiful and varied flowers. Inclusion happens when they all receive the conditions they need to bloom and flourish. Providing the right conditions to create an inclusive culture requires thoughtful policies and practices. Federal, state and local policies give voice to the importance of ELLs and can impact their success in school. The recent revision to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act

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(ESEA) from No Child Left Behind (NCLB) to the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) contains a valiant attempt to make inclusive provisions for ELLs.

Every Student Succeeds Act There are some major tenets in ESSA that are highly impactful for ELLs. These include: ● ELLs’ English proficiency will now be included in state accountability systems. This is a big shift and one considered a bonus for supporters of ELLs. The inclusion of English language proficiencies infers a more robust commitment to ELLs. Goals will be set at the state level. States that have a smaller number of ELLs will now have to pay more attention to this subgroup of students. English language proficiency will also be an indicator for a school’s overall rating. ● There will be an extension of former ELL inclusion in the EL subgroup. An ELL student may be included in the EL subgroup for up to four years after he has exited the program. This change will enable districts to track growth and progress of ELL students for a longer period of time. A potential drawback to this is that when both former and current ELL students’ data is mixed it will be difficult to determine how students who have not gained enough proficiency to exit the program are doing. States should require that this data be disaggregated to get a true picture of both current and former ELL students’ language acquisition. Without the disaggregation of data, a district might experience a false sense of security. ● States are required to create a standardized entry/exit criteria for ELLs. This is seen as a huge equitable step toward ensuring that ELL students consistently receive services as they might move from district to district. No longer will geography and a zip code determine the existence of services provided for students. ● States have a new option for exempting ELL outcomes in accountability systems. This addresses the validity (or lack thereof) of having ELL students take state assessments when they have not demonstrated proficiency in English. Often these assessments are more measures of

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language acquisition instead of content. School districts with high numbers of ELLs have experienced negative consequences when poor scores are returned. States have options in terms of how to include this in the requirements to meet ESSA (McHugh & Pompa, 2016). ● ESSA updates Title III to include assisting preschool teachers who teach EL students. It also includes the option to design and implement early childhood language instruction education programs. The good news is that ESSA provides a mandate for states to now focus on the needs of ELLs. Acquisition of English for ELLs is a high priority and it is leveraged into the accountability of the law. ESSA also increases funding for Title III which addresses the needs of ELLs. This new legislation increases the focus on ELL students thus providing for inclusive measures to meet the needs of our ELL students.

Dual Language Learners On June 2, 2016, the U.S. Department of Education released a statement (included in eResource L) by U.S. Secretary of Education, John B. King Jr., and a corresponding “Fact Sheet,” entitled, “Supporting Dual Language Learners in Early Learning Settings.” The statement reads, in part, “The number of children ages 5 to 17 in the U.S. who speak a language other than English at home has more than doubled in the past three decades. These home languages are an asset that should be valued, and research shows that supporting bilingualism from early ages can have wide ranging benefits, from cognitive and social advantages early in life, to long-term employment opportunities” (https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/02/ fact-sheet-supporting-dual-language-learners-early-learning-settings). The media release served to announce a new federal policy statement from the U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services and Education on supporting Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in early childhood programs. The release included recognition of “the cultural and linguistic assets of this population of children, and provides important resources and recommendations to the early childhood field to ensure that our nation’s early education programs are accessible to these families, and that they appropriately foster the learning and development of this large and growing group

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of children” (https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/02/ fact-sheet-supporting-dual-language-learners-early-learning-settings). These policy provisions include: ● Recommendations to states and to early childhood programs, which include; ● Setting an expectation for high-quality and appropriate supports and services specifically designed for young children who are DLLs; ● Increasing awareness about the benefits of bilingualism and the important role of home language development; ● Reviewing the research on the unique strengths of and challenges faced by this population, and strategies that are effective in promoting their learning and development; ● Providing recommendations to early childhood programs, tribes and states on establishing policies and implementing practices that support the learning and development of children who are DLLs; ● Providing considerations for tribal communities engaged in Native language revitalization, maintenance, restoration, or preservation efforts within their early childhood programs; and ● Identifying free resources to support states, tribal communities, programs, teachers, providers and families in supporting the development and learning of children who are DLLs. (DHH Policy Statement, June 2016) ● Recommendations that, “States and local communities work together to ensure that all early childhood programs are welcoming and linguistically accessible to families;” ● Support for early childhood staff in addressing the learning needs of Dual Language Learners; and, ● Release of a free DLL electronic toolkit released by the Office of Head Start. This toolkit can be accessed at https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ tta-system/cultural-linguistic/Dual%20Language%20Learners/toolkit It is imperative that district leaders understand, plan for and implement policies and practices that will meet the goals of the accountability plans as determined by each state.

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At the state level, recent work has also resulted in greater focus on ELL students. According to a report from the Education Commission of the States (ECS), which can be found at http://www.ecs.org/clearing house/01/17/92/11792.pdf, ECS convened a group of experts in December 2014, “to reflect on available research, practice and state policy around this topic and to make recommendations in areas where potential impact at the state level is greatest” (Wixom, 2015, p. 3). The important findings include the following: ● Adequate funding levels by themselves do not lead to improved student performance: states, districts and schools must also strengthen their ELL programs and program capacity. ● ELL students benefit when states require teachers and administrators to be trained in ELL instruction methods and cultural competency. ● Monitoring ELL and former ELL students throughout their school career is a valuable way to analyze the efficacy of ELL programs. (p. 3) Taken together, these federal and state level policy statements are encouraging. At the local board level, school districts should develop policies that expand on federal and state expectations for ELL students. At the local level, to ensure equitable access to learning, school boards can adopt policies and regulations that move from best practice recommendations to mandates for implementation. Brown University has developed an ELL quiz for local school boards, district and school leaders (retrieved from https:// www.brown.edu/academics/education-alliance/teaching-diverse-learners/ tools-what-your-schools-equity-policy-quotient-epq on 6/14/2016). This quiz includes items such as: 1. Policy of my school district regarding students for whom English is a new language: a. Does not exist b. Might exist—can’t be sure c. Varies from building to building (at the principal’s discretion) d. Is set by the superintendent e. Is whatever the ESL teacher(s) deem(s) it to be

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f. Exists somewhere, but is largely ignored g. Exists as approved by the school committee h. Exists as approved by the school committee and is vigorously followed 2. When a newcomer arrives and is identified as an English Language Learner because (s)he speaks another language at home, the student: a. Is referred to a Pupil Evaluation Team for consideration of special education services b. Is placed among students a grade or more below his/hers c. Is greeted through intake personnel who are trained in greeting families from non-English cultures. Such personnel include individuals who can speak the newcomer’s native language. Placement is determined following appropriate culture-fair assessments 3. Determination of classroom placement for an English Language Learner, as well as his/her eventual transition to an all-English (non-ESL) setting, is conducted through: d. Reliance on teacher judgment e. Reliance on entry- and exit-level assessments for English by the ESL teacher f. Reliance on entry- and exit-level assessments for English and acquisition of content knowledge and skills by the ESL teacher and a team of teachers and other personnel Answering questions like these can reveal where your district and school are with regard to implementation of best practices and can then adopt policies, procedures and practices to improve what is currently in place. Why bother? “As America’s fastest-growing student group, English Language Learners represent the greatest untapped reserve of brainpower, energy, and creativity in our schools” (NEA, 2015). However, if our policies do not reflect this belief, or worse, run counter to it, then we are doing a disservice to not only ELL students, but to all students and to the future of our country. A Colorado School Psychologist ponders, “How many future teachers and engineers are written off because educators aren’t being trained to recognize and develop the potential of ELL students?” (NEA, 2015). How many indeed!

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What do we include in policies at the local level to ensure this does not happen in your school district and schools? In addition to meeting legal requirements of federal and state law, local policies and/or procedures/ practices should include: ● Expectations for proportional representation of ELL students in advanced classes, activities, clubs, etc.; ● Monitoring reporting systems for ELL and other subgroup percentages (e.g., gifted programs, Special Education, discipline referrals, suspensions and expulsions, GPAs, etc.); ● Provisions for training of all staff in ELL instructional strategies; ● Funding for curriculum/programs that incorporate ELL instructional strategies; ● Setting graduation targets that include sub-groups. Many of these targets are set initially at the state level. Raise the bar! ● Establishing high achievement and growth goals for all subgroups (achievement should not be able to be masked by aggregated data); Philosophical statements, either as part of board policy or curriculum and instruction program documents, that include: ● Engagement of ALL families with deliberate systems to ensure followthrough. For example, if you conduct a survey of your parents, ensure the survey is disseminated in students’ home languages to their families AND follow through with those families until you receive sufficient responses to be statistically valid as a represented group in the results. ● Inclusion coupled with in-classroom supports such as differentiation and co-planning and co-teaching with the regular classroom teacher and the ELD teacher. ● An asset-based mind-set of English learners; one that views students who speak more than one language as a strength, embracing their cultures and experiences as something that strengthens the entire learning community. ● Support to remove remedial classes. Remedial classes all too often become an education track that students enter but never exit. Instead,

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the new “floor” should be grade-level classes and curriculum. To make this shift, provide extra supports in classes as described above. As much as we may resist mandates and new regulations, there is a shift in behavior that occurs when laws or policies are passed. Passing the seat belt law, for example, impacted everything from how cars are made to “buckling up” to reducing deaths associated with car accidents. Passing laws and policies, along with accountability for follow through, will change how individuals view, relate to and teach ELL students.

Change Process Change, however, does not occur overnight. It’s a process. Acknowledging this up front to staff members will give them breathing room to adapt to the change. This does not mean that someone for whom a new policy is difficult to support is exempted from its implementation. Instead, delivering the message as the school or district leader that, “We are in this together and I will give you the supports you need to be successful,” communicates the expectation to move forward in a climate of teamwork. There are numerous change models, steps and processes accessible. It’s helpful, during times of significant change, to select one of the many models, train staff in it and then follow that model through implementation of the change. Part of adapting to change is recognizing where staff are in the process. Resistance, anger and a lackluster response, may be less about disinterest in the change, than it is about fear of the unknown and of failure. Training staff in a change model is essential so that they may be able to self-identify where they are along the change continuum and what they need (more information, more training, more practice, etc.) in order to keep moving forward. Some basic components of any change model include sharing with individuals why the change is necessary. What is the problem or issue the change is meant to fix or address? This is important even when the change is one that is mandated and not selected. The “why” should not be about compliance but about commitment to a meaningful new direction. For example, the “what” might be, that the school board has adopted a new policy that requires that advanced classes

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have proportionate representation of ELL students. The “why,” on the other hand, would include the rationale for the change. A principal, in addressing the “why” with her staff, might share something like, “Over the past five years, the number of ELL students in our school has grown by 10%. These students now comprise 30% of our student body. All teachers now instruct ELL students every day. Our data show that these students continue to lag behind their English speaking peers on every measure. These students not only drop out at higher rates, but are less likely to go to college. Those that enroll in college are less likely to complete. They are also more likely to need remediation in both English and math. Those who complete are more likely to need more than four years to do so. We have to do a better job in meeting their needs and in preparing them for success in college and in life.” Once we understand the why, it’s important to create a personal connection, or buy-in for the change. This is then followed by training to develop a deeper understanding, and time to practice. District and school leaders need to create a culture that makes it safe to share frustrations and experience failure along the way, before expecting full integration of the change.

Conclusion To move from an acceptance and understanding of diversity to a model of full inclusion of ELL students requires implementation of federal, state and local policies and procedures. Federal and state laws and policies bring about changes with which we must comply. However, it is at the local level, in teachers’ classrooms every day, where policy meets each child. This is the intersection at which teachers determine the actions they will take that will either propel each ELL student forward to thrive, or permit each to languish. School and district leaders must create the conditions for the former to occur, by being thoughtful in the implementation of policies and procedures, paying attention to the change process and creating a learning environment that connects each staff member to the desired change.

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District Leader Checklist My leadership team has taken the ELL quiz: https://www.brown. edu/academics/education-alliance/teaching-diverse-learners/ tools-what-your-schools-equity-policy-quotient-epq. My school leaders understand the difference between diversity and inclusion. My school leaders understand what ESSA says about ELLs. My school leaders understand our state’s laws, policies and procedures around ELLs. My school leaders can articulate the requirements outlined in our local board policies about ELLs. Our district policies and philosophy statements include many of the provisions outlined in Chapter 7. If not, I am willing to recommend changes to policy. My school leaders can provide me with evidence that these policies are active in the classroom. I observe these policies being implemented in classrooms when I conduct walk-throughs with the principal. I have identified additional training my leadership team needs to increase their expertise and comfort in teaching ELLs. My leadership team believes the statement, “ELLs represent the greatest untapped reserve of brainpower, energy and creativity in our schools.” Our district data indicate that the practices we are following are working for ELL students. I have identified and used a change model with my leadership team to implement best practices for ELL students.

School Leader Checklist My staff have taken the ELL quiz: https://www.brown.edu/ academics/education-alliance/teaching-diverse-learners/ tools-what-your-schools-equity-policy-quotient-epq. My staff understands the difference between diversity and inclusion. My staff understand what ESSA says about ELLs. My staff understands our state’s laws, policies and procedures around ELLs.

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My staff can articulate the requirements outlined in our local board policies about ELLs. My staff can provide me with evidence that these policies are active in the classroom. I observe these policies being implemented in classrooms when I conduct walk-throughs. I have identified additional training my staff needs to increase their expertise and comfort in teaching ELLs. My staff believes the statement, “ELLs represent the greatest untapped reserve of brainpower, energy and creativity in our schools.” My school’s data indicate that the practices we are following are working for ELL students. I have identified and used a change model with my staff to implement best practices for ELL students.

References McHugh, M., & Pompa, D. (January 21, 2016). Taking stock of ESSA’s potential impact on immigrant and English learner students [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.migrationpolicy.org/events/taking-stockessa-potential-impact-immigrant-and-english-learner-students National Education Association. (March 2015). How educators can advocate for English language learners: All in! Retrieved from http://www. colorincolorado.org/sites/default/files/ELL_AdvocacyGuide2015.pdf Policy statement on supporting the development of children who are dual language learners in early childhood programs. (June 2016). Retrieved from https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic/Dual% 20Language%20Learners/toolkit/docs/dll-policy-statement-final.pdf Wixom, M.A. (2015, March). State-level English language learner policies. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States.

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Index

Administrative Relief Resource Center 7 Advance Placement (AP) 23 after-school learning opportunities 11 airtime in equity audit 68 Allington, R. L. 83 – 5 Amina’s story 64 Ana’s story 61 – 2 assessment inequity 79 – 80 BAM Radio Network 52 Bates, Hollyanna 82 – 3 Bedley Brothers, The 52 best practices for teachers 43 bias inventory 97 Blair, Nancy 52 Blumengarten, Jerry 52 book studies for teachers 42 – 3 calling on patterns in equity audit 68 – 9 Center for Applied Linguistics Study 4 – 5 change process and models 120 – 1 Chang, Ha-Joon 77 Chromebooks 85 chunking information 99 ClassPager software 32 classrooms: culture in, infusing 65 – 6; equity audits of 67 – 9; Google 49 – 50; routine in 66 coaches, language 39 – 41 coffee hours 8 college: culture, developing 97 – 8; education 31, 95; family outreach opportunities and local 9; importance of 13, 95; see also

first-generation pre-collegiate program College and Career Anchor Standards 95 Common Core Standards 95 communication, school 8 – 9, 21 community resources and information 6, 32 computers see technology Contreras, Dr. Frances 93 co-teaching 41 – 2 cultural inequity 79 culturally proficient pedagogy: culture in classroom and, infusing 65 – 6; District Leader Checklist for 74; multicultural education and, explicit teaching of 66 – 7; overview of 73 – 4; personal stories involving 57 – 64; professional development for 70 – 3; school and district equity audits and 69 – 70; School Leader Checklist for 75; teacher-student relationships and developing 63 – 5; see also diversity; equity audits culturally responsive teaching 43, 62 – 3 curriculum: in equity audits 70; for first-generation pre-collegiate program 103 – 4; scaffolding 99 Davison, Leslie 44 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) 7 Deferred Action for Parental Accountability (DAPA) 7 Developmental Reading Assessments (DRA2) 84

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Index Differentiating Instruction for ELLs 44 Diploma Programme (DP) 23 district leaders: culturally proficient pedagogy checklist for 74; inclusion checklist for 122; leveling the playing field checklist for 90 – 1; parental involvement checklist for 34 – 5; preparing students for life after high school checklist for 108 – 9; professional development for teachers checklist for 54; strategies for immigrant students checklist for 14 – 15 diversity: defining 113; dual language learners and 115 – 20; Every Student Succeeds Act and 114 – 15; as gift 33; hijab and 64; see also culturally proficient pedagogy dropout rate for foreign-born and immigrant students 4 Drucker, Peter 37 Dual Language Learners (DLLs) 115 – 20 Dye, Tara 49 EdCamps 51 Edublog software 32 education: in America 26 – 7, 63, 99; college 13, 95; deficit model of 63; family engagement in 18, 105 – 6; family literacy programs and 29 – 31; in Mexico 26 – 7; multicultural, explicit teaching of 66 – 7; policies 62, 88 – 9, 99; return on investment 12; “sort and punish” model of 99; teachers and parental involvement 28 – 9; as three-legged stool 18; in Uzbekistan 26 – 7; in Vietnam 26 – 7; see also home visits; parental involvement in education; school Education Commission of the States (ECS) 117 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) 113 – 14 English classes for adults 9 English language acquisition 9, 37, 39, 93 English Language Learners (ELLs): demographics on 2, 93; dropout rate for foreign-born and immigrant students and 4; extended learning opportunities in school for 10 – 13;

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extra-curricular activities for 81 – 2; graduation rates of 93 – 4; mentors for 80 – 1, 102; newcomer classes and 3 – 5, 14; Plyer vs. Doe and 2; situations of 2 – 3; state accountability systems and 114; support for 99; teachers in role of 38 – 9; welcome centers and 5 – 7, 14; see also strategies for assisting immigrant students English, targeting 104 – 5 enrollment in school, assistance with 6 equity 77; see also equity audits; leveling the playing field equity audits, conducting: airtime 68; calling on patterns 68 – 9; of classrooms 67 – 9; curriculum 70; expectations 68; family outreach opportunities 70; grading policies 69 – 70; higher-level classes 70; homework 69 – 70; name pronunciations 69; observation protocols 70; physical space 69; remedial classes 70; school discipline 69; school and district 69 – 70; student engagement 68 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) 114 – 15 expectations: in equity audits 68; grades and 68; about parental involvement 25, 28 extended learning opportunities in school 10 – 14 extra-curricular activities 81 – 2 family: engagement in education 18, 105 – 6; literacy programs 29 – 31; outreach opportunities 7 – 10, 14, 70, 86; partnerships with school and 19 – 20; see also home visits; parental involvement in education Family Tech nights 86 Ferlazzo, Larry 44 first-generation pre-collegiate program: benefits of 100 – 1; curriculum for 103 – 4; English and, targeting 104 – 5; family engagement in 105 – 6; math and, targeting 104 – 5; mentors for 102; recommendations for 106 – 7; resources for 107; staffing for 101;

Index starting 100; students for, identifying 101; Ford, Henry 62 Franzen, A.M. 83 – 5 games for promoting literacy 30 – 1 Gay, G. 66 GED preparation 30 gestures of teachers, physical 43 Google classrooms 49 – 50 grades and expectations 68 grading policies in equity audits 69 – 70 graduation rates for foreign-born and immigrant students 93 – 4 graphic organizers 43 greeters at welcome centers 6 Hamre, B. K. 63 health centers, school-based 87 – 8 Helping Newcomer Students Succeed in Secondary Schools and Beyond 4 higher level classes in equity audits 70 hijab, wearing 64 Hispanic Association for College and Universities (HACU) 107 Hoffman, Brooke 81 – 2 home visits: appointments for, setting up 24; in middle school years 21 – 3; partner system and 23 – 4; in preschool years 20 – 1; review material and 24 – 5; scheduling in neighborhoods 24; setting up 23 – 5; teacher’s experiences with 21 – 3; telephone contact information and 24; translators and 24 homework in equity audits 69 – 70 Hull, Jane D. 18 immigration statistics 2, 93 inclusion: change process and 120 – 1; defining 113; District Leader Checklist for 122; dual language learners and 115 – 20; Every Student Succeeds Act and 114 – 15; School Leader Checklist for 122–3 inequity: addressing 79 – 80; assessment 79 – 80; cultural 79; programmatic 79; societal 78 – 9; socioeconomic 79; staffing 79; see also leveling the playing field

Kagan Structures 39 Kindergarten Backpack Program 86 kindergarten readiness 86 – 7 language: acquisition 9, 37, 39, 93; camp 88; coaches 39 – 41; of high-achieving students, perception of 78, 78; see also English Language Learners Laura’s story 61 legal assistance 6 – 7 lessons plans, infusing culture in 65 leveling the playing field: addressing inequity and 79 – 80; assessment inequity and 79; cultural inequity and 79; District Leader Checklist for 90 – 1; extra-curricular activities and 81 – 2; Family Tech nights and 86; food bag program and 80; health centers and, school-based 87 – 8; importance of 90; kindergarten readiness and 86 – 7; Language Camp and 88; language of high-achieving students and, perceived 78, 78; mentors and 80 – 1; overview of 77 – 80, 90; policies for 88 – 9; programmatic inequity and 79; questions to ask before beginning and 80; School Leader Checklist for 91; societal inequity and 78 – 9; socioeconomic inequity and 79; staffing inequity and 79; standardized testing and 88; summer school and 82 – 5, 84; technology and 85 – 6 literacy programs, family 29 – 31 lunchtime learning opportunities 10 – 11 Mario’s story 1 – 3 math, targeting 104 – 5 Maxwell, Ashley 40 mentors 80 – 1,  102 Miller, Crystal 42 Moll, Luis 64 monocultural nature of teaching profession 58 multicultural education, explicit teaching of 66 – 7 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 94 National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC) 107

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Index National Center for Education Statistics 94 National PTA 19 – 20 newcomer classes 3 – 5, 14 night classes for adults 9 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) 62, 114 observation protocols in equity audits 70 One2World initiative 85 Pablo’s Story 57 – 9 Pace, Kyle 52 parental involvement in education: barriers to 28, 33; country differences in 26 – 7; District Leader Checklist for 34 – 5; expectations about 25, 28; family literacy programs and 29 – 31; first-generation pre-collegiate program and 105 – 6; importance of 18; National PTA standards for 19 – 20; outcomes of, expected 19 – 20; overview of 33 – 4; policies of school and 33; preparing students for life after high school and 105 – 6; School Leader Checklist for 35; teachers and, effect on 28 – 9; technology and 31 – 2; see also home visits partner system for home visits 23 – 4 peer observation 50 – 1 Pell Institute 100 personal learning network (PLN) 48 physical gestures of teachers 43 physical space in equity audits 69 – 70 Pianta, R. C. 63 Plyer vs. Doe 2 podcasts 51 – 2 policy, educational 62, 88 – 9, 99 post-secondary education see college preparing students for life after high school: bias inventory and 97; college culture and, developing 97 – 8; District Leader Checklist for 108 – 9; early start to 95 – 6; English and, targeting 104 – 5; expectations and, keeping high 98 – 100; family involvement in 105 – 6; first-generation pre-collegiate program and, establishing 100 – 7;

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math and, targeting 104 – 5; overview of 93 – 4, 107 – 8; recommendations for 106 – 7; resources for 107; School Leader Checklist for 109 – 10 preservice training 37; see also professional development for teachers professional development for teachers: book studies and 42 – 3; co-teaching and 41 – 2; culturally proficient pedagogy and 70 – 3; District Leader Checklist for 54; EdCamps and 51; Google classrooms and 49 – 50; language coaches and 39 – 41; need for 37, 52; ongoing 52, 70 – 3; overview of 37 – 8; peer observation and 50 – 1; personal stories about 40 – 2; podcasts and 51 – 2; questions addressed at district level 37 – 8; School Leader Checklist for 54 – 5; steps for improving 53; teachers in role of second-language learners and 38 – 9; see also Twitter Chats for professional development Professional Learning Community (PLC) 37, 39 – 40 programmatic inequity 79 Project Red 12 Pursley, Liz 41 – 2 Ray, Blaine 44 remedial classes in equity audits 70 Remind101 software 32 review material for home visits 24 – 5 routines, infusing culture into classroom 66 scaffolding lessons 99 school: ClassPager software and 32; communication 8 – 9, 21; discipline in equity audits and 69; English language acquisition and 9; enrollment in, assistance with 6; equity audits and 69 – 70; extended learning opportunities in 10 – 13; Facebook pages of 31 – 2; family outreach opportunities and 8; GED preparation and 30; health centers connected to 87 – 8; as hub for families 32; Instagram accounts of 31 – 2; lunchtime

Index learning opportunities and 10 – 11; night classes for adults and 9; parents’ meetings 9; partnerships with families and 19 – 20; seven period days tradition and 11; societal inequity and 78 – 9; summer 82 – 5, 84; supplies 7; technology in, importance of 12; tutoring in 102 – 3; Twitter accounts of 31 – 2; video about district and 6; visits 7; volunteer opportunities, promoting 32; welcome centers and connection to 7; year, typical 13; see also home visits school district video 6 School and Family Partnership Audit 20 school leaders: communication by 9; culturally proficient pedagogy checklist for 75; inclusion checklist for 122–3; leveling the playing field checklist for 91; parental involvement checklist for 35; preparing students for life after high school checklist for 109 – 10; professional development for teachers checklist for 54 – 5; strategies for immigrant students checklist for 15 – 16 seating assignments, infusing culture in 66 second-language acquisition 9, 37, 39, 93; see also English Language Learners Skelton, Beth 44 societal inequity 78 – 9 socioeconomic inequity 79 staffing: first-generation pre-collegiate program 101; inequity 79 standardized testing 88 state accountability systems for English Language Learners 114 strategies for assisting immigrant students: after-school learning opportunities 11; challenges facing immigrants and 14; changing classrooms and 13 – 14; database of exemplary 5; District Leader Checklist for 14 – 15; extended learning opportunities 10 – 14; family outreach opportunities 7 – 10, 14; importance of 3; local

college and family outreach and 9; newcomer classes 3 – 5, 14; overview of 13 – 14; personal stories about 1 – 3, 57 – 9, 64; School Leader Checklist for 15 – 16; school lunch time opportunities 10 – 11; technology and 12, 85 – 6; welcome centers 5 – 7, 14; working students and 13 students: computer-student ratio and 12; engagement in equity audit 68; for first-generation pre-collegiate program, identifying 101; language of high-achieving, perception of 78, 78; professional development for 70 – 3; relationships with teachers and 63 – 5; working 13 student work, infusing culture in 65 summer school 82 – 5,  84 supplies, school 7 Swiatek, Jerry 52 teachers: best practices for 43; book studies for 42 – 3; culturally responsive teaching and 43, 62 – 3; cultures of 59 – 60; graphic organizers used by 43; home visit experiences of 21 – 3; parental involvement and, effect on 28 – 9; physical gestures of 43; professional development for teachers; relationships with students and, developing 63 – 5; in role of second-language learners 38 – 9; 60 repetition concept used by 43; visuals used by 43; Word Walls used by 43; see also professional development for teachers Teaching Reading through Reading and Storytelling (TPRS) 39, 44 technology: ClassPager software 32; computer-student ratio and 12; EduBlog software 32; family outreach and 86; leveling the playing field and 85 – 6; parental involvement and 31 – 2; Remind101 software 32; in school, importance of 12; strategies for assisting immigrant students and 12, 85 – 6 Terrell, Shelly 52 translators for home visits 24

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Index tutoring, in-school 102 – 3 Twitter Chats for professional development: advertising 48; calendar 46 – 7; chats to access and 44 – 5; describing 43 – 4; dialogue with other professionals and 45 – 6; people to follow on 48; personal learning network and, building 48; personal stories about 45 – 6, 49; recaps of 44; resources 48; topics discussed during 44 Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 37 U.S. Department of Education 104 – 5,  115 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 115 U.S. Supreme Court 2

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vidcast 51 video about school district 6 video podcast 51 visits, school 7 visual materials 43 vodcast 51 volunteer opportunities in school, promoting 32 Wall, Bernadeth 52 wall displays, infusing culture in 66 Warikoo, Natasha 8 welcome centers 5 – 7, 14 Whitby, Tom 52 Willis, Julie 45 – 6 Winters, Howard 113 Word Walls 43 World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) standards 103