Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism (International and Cultural Psychology) 3031461045, 9783031461040

Citation preview

International and Cultural Psychology Series Editor: Anthony J. Marsella, Ph.D.

Edil Torres Rivera

Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism

International and Cultural Psychology Series Editors Anthony J. Marsella, Alpharetta, GA, USA Grant J. Rich, School of Psychology, Walden University, Minneapolis, USA

Explores problems and challenges to mental health, psychosocial wellbeing, human growth and development, and human welfare that are emerging from our contemporary global context. It advances in psychological knowledge regarding the nature and consequences of the many social, cultural, economic, political, and environmental events and forces that affect individuals and communities throughout the world. The series covers areas like therapy, assessment, organizational psychology, community psychology, gender, child development, and specific disorders. In addition, it addresses major global challenges such as poverty, peace, urbanization, modernization, refugees, and migration. The series acknowledges the multidisciplinary, multisectoral, and multicultural nature of the global context of our lives, and publishes books that reflect this reality.

Edil Torres Rivera

Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism

Edil Torres Rivera Interventions Service & Leadership in Education (ISLE) Wichita State University 1845 Fairmount St., Box 142, Wichita, KS, USA

ISSN 1571-5507     ISSN 2197-7984 (electronic) International and Cultural Psychology ISBN 978-3-031-46104-0    ISBN 978-3-031-46105-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

To the beautiful people of the public housing projects in Mayaguez, particularly the women in my life (Titi, Taina, Eliza, & Ivelisse).

Preface

This book has been a long task that took me a few years to get done finally. While the theme of decolonization seems to be on the lips of most mental health professionals these days, it is also true that very little has been published in terms of what that means. The words are often overused, as Moosavi indicates in a recent publication (2020). Nonetheless, as the United States continues to move to be more divided and less tolerant of difference between their people, this book attempts to provide some hope and partial answers to issues that, in my opinion and experience, should have been up front and center long before we talked about diversity, equity, and inclusiveness, given that as a country the United States never deconstructed their past as colonizer. In the following chapters, I offer a perspective to work with Latine people, considering their pre-Colombian heritage, the colonization process, and the tools used. The book also combined the principles and concepts of liberation psychology with the decolonization and decoloniality process to work effectively with Latine clients. Wichita, KS, USA

Edil Torres Rivera

vii

Introduction

Recent events in the United States have forced mental health professionals to revisit the issue(s) of racism and oppression as an unresolved problem that needs more work and rethinking. This book attempts to provide an old theoretical structure to see racism and oppression from a colonialism perspective that somehow has escaped the mind of many mental health intellectuals, researchers, and practitioners when working with Latinx populations. Instead, they have moved too fast into emancipation and social justice as the new (or beyond) multicultural perspective (Chung and Bemak 2011). The author of this book in the first chapter will go over the different indigenous groups that existed in the Americas before Christopher Columbus and the European invasion of the Americas, as well as the principal characteristics of each group. Finally, the first chapter will illustrate the main characteristics of Latinxs in the United States. The first chapter serves as the basis to proceed with the idea that while a number of Latinxs are direct decedents of Europeans, other large populations are mestizos or direct descendants of indigenous populations, and as such, many of their characteristics are well served using indigenous interventions (Tate et al. 2015). In Chap. 2, the stages of colonialism are revisited with descriptions and definitions followed by the tools that colonizers used to maintain power, linking these two elements (stages of colonialism and the tools of the oppressor) to Albert Memmi (1957, 2000) and others (i.e., Fanon, Enriquez, etc.) definition and conceptualization of racism and Hook’s and others (i.e., Eberhardt, Biko, etc.) analysis of the mind of the colonizer. In this book, the author is looking at moving beyond colonization and racism by analyzing power structures and providing readers with possible solutions based on the consciousness and action of the colonized when working with Latinx populations in the United States, in particular to the wave of racisms against Latinx populations after the 2016 elections (Bobo 2017). The author utilized the analysis of colonialism done by the Filipino psychologist Virgilio Enriquez that appeared in his classic book, From Colonial to Liberation Psychology: The Philippine Experience (1994, 2004), and later summarized and used as a model to

ix

x

Introduction

understand colonialism as a process and not just a one time as it is many times portrait (Laenui 2000). In the chapter, colonialism is linked to racism (Diaz 2010). The chapter also presents the tools named by Moane that colonizer uses to take power and maintain power (Moane 2003, 2014). Finally, the chapter closely examines the colonization process of the United States via meta-colonization and structural violence (Bulhan 2015; Farmer 2003; Grosfoguel et al. 2006). In Chap. 2, however, it is Memmi (2014), in his analysis and definition of racism, who provides a clear link between colonialism and racism. Thus, recent events in the United States can be seen as the aftermath of colonialism and offer more evidence as to why the need for more work on the elimination of racism by stop denying that in the twenty-first century in the United States, racism is still part of our everyday interaction and socialization process. Furthermore, this year in a presentation by Jeremiah Wright (2015) at the American Educational Research Association, he presented an assertion from a religious perspective (Black liberation theology) that also links racism to the colonialism process. Wright stated that depending on how a culture defines god, it would open or close doors to what is good, bad, beautiful, ugly, acceptable, wrong, etc. That is, if we introduced a god that is light skin, has clear eye color and light hair color, and with a number of high criteria for the reach of salvation that only a few selected individuals can reach, that society’s tolerance of acceptance to those who are different from their god will be harder and even impossible. Therefore, it should not surprise anyone in the United States that we continue to see spurs of violence against people of color and that the dominant culture continues to mislabel these events depending on the perpetrator. Although it appears to be a commitment by many mental health professionals to address issues of oppression, inequality, and discrimination, it is equally clear that many professionals have increasingly directed more time and energy in assessing and facilitating what are viewed as individual deficits or personal disorganization and problems rather than engaging in promoting systemic changes and/or looking at the lingering effect of colonialism and oppression. In doing so, many professionals primarily strive to help clients develop new dimensions of their human potential by learning new coping strategies that enable them to more effectively deal with environmental stressors (Morris 1999; Torres-Rivera et al. 2005). In contrast, professionals who operate from liberation, ethnopolitical, critical, and social justice paradigms not only direct time and energy toward stimulating positive changes among the individual clients with whom they work, but they also strive to intentionally ameliorate environmental toxins and social injustices that adversely impact the mental health of more significant numbers of persons in devalued and marginalized groups in our society. This involves directing attention to the complexity of culture as well as a broad range of issues related to gender, race, socioeconomic status, sexual/affectional orientation, power relations, socio-­political factors, injustices, and various forms of cultural oppression when working with their clients (Sue 2001; Vera and Speight 2003).

Introduction

xi

Although the different mental health movements (i.e., multicultural, ethnopolitical, etc.) are similar in their emphasis on fostering personal and social environmental changes, they are often disparate paradigms misunderstood by many professionals in the field. With all of this in context, the proposed book presents a native psychology that Latine created. In Chap. 3, we look at the decolonization process and pay particular attention to models based on liberation psychology. This pattern continues in Chaps. 4 and 5. We used a native approach to decolonization and emphasized the Indigenous Way of Knowing as a legit way of understanding the word and working with Latine populations. In Chap. 5, I enter into the Latine sources of knowledge and will investigate the sources of knowledge for Latine populations. While the different sources of knowledge, information, or content usually have a similar origin in terms of what are areas of content in academic settings, in this chapter, the author includes controversy in educational settings such as ethnic studies (Adames and Chavez-Dueña 2017; Morales 2018). Finally, in Chap. 5, I will move into praxis, considering that praxis is the dynamic interaction between theory and practice. It is more than simple application and delves into a reflective and transformative process. Praxis involves individuals actively engaging with the world around them, analyzing societal structures, and challenging oppressive systems. By critically reflecting on their experiences, individuals gain a deeper understanding of the world and develop strategies for transformative action. Praxis acknowledges the interconnectedness of knowledge and action, emphasizing the importance of informed and intentional practice (Martin Baró 1998; Montero 2009, 2016).

References Bobo, L. D. (2017). Racism in Trump's America: Reflections on Culture, Sociology, and the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election. The British Journal of Sociology, 68(S1). Bulhan, H. A. (2015). Stages of Colonialism in Africa: From Occupation of Land to Occupation of Being. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 3(1), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.5964/ jspp.v3i1.143 Chung, R.  C.-Y., & Bemak, F. (2011). Social Justice Counseling: The Next Steps Beyond Multiculturalism. Sage Publications. Diaz, P. (2010). The end of poverty? Cinema Libre Studio. Farmer, P. (2003). Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor. University of California Press. Grosfoguel, R., Maldonado-Torres, N., & Saldivar, J.  D. (2006). Latin@ in the world-system: Decolonization struggles in the 21st century U.S. empire (R.  Grosfoguel, N.  Maldonado-­ Torres, & J. D. Saldivar, Eds.). Routledge. Laenui, P. (2000). Processes of decolonization. In M. A. Bastiste (Ed.), In Reclaiming indigenous voice and vision. (pp. 150–160). The University of British Columbia Press. Memmi, A. (1957). The colonizer and the colonized. Trans. Howard Greenfeld. Boston: Beacon, 1, 86. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315065670

xii

Introduction

Memmi, A. (2000). Racism. University of Minnesota Press. Moane, G. (2003). Bridging the personal and the political: Practices for a liberation psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(March), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.102 3/A:1023026704576 Moane, G. (2014). Liberation psychology, feminism, and social justice psychology. In J.  Diaz, Z.  Franco, & K.  Nastasi, Bonnie (Eds.), The Handbook of Social Justice and Psychology: Fundamental issues and special populations (Vol. 1, pp. 115–132). Praeger. Tate, K. A., Torres Rivera, E., & Edwards, L. M. (2015). Colonialism and multicultural counseling competence research: A liberatory analysis. In P. Goodman, R. D., & Gorski (Ed.), Decolonizing “multicultural” counseling through social justice (pp. 41–54). Springer, New York.

Acknowledgments

I like to thank Dr. Marsella for not giving up on me in order to get this book published. To Dr. Michael P. Wilbur and his wife Dr. Janice Robert-Wilbur for helping me find my way.

xiii

Contents

1

History��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1 1.1 Pre-Columbus: Background of the Latine People in Their Native Lands��������������������������������������������������������������������������   3 1.2 Background of the Latine People in the United States ����������������������   6 1.3 Particular Characteristics of the Latine People in the United States ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   6 1.4 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   8 References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   9

2

 The Colonization Process and the Tools of the Colonizer����������������������  11 2.1 The Colonization Processes����������������������������������������������������������������  12 2.2 The European Colonization Processes������������������������������������������������  12 2.3 Tools to Gain Control During the Colonization Process��������������������  14 2.4 The Second Colonization��������������������������������������������������������������������  15 2.5 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  16 References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  16

3

Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness; Decolonization Stages)��������������������������������������������  19 3.1 Decolonization Process (Decolonization Model) ������������������������������  21 3.2 Deconstruction and Reconstruction by Problematization: Searching for Lost History������������������������������������������������������������������  22 3.3 New Consciousness Versus False Consciousness ������������������������������  25 3.4 The Latinization of Psychology����������������������������������������������������������  28 3.5 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  29 References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  29

xv

xvi

Contents

4

 Knowledge and Research (Indigenous Way of Knowing)����������������������  33 4.1 Indigenous Way of Knowing or Other Ways of Knowing������������������  34 4.2 Native Methodology ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  36 4.3 Prelude for Praxis Following the Teaching of Freire��������������������������  37 4.4 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  38 References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  38

5

Applications and Future Directions (What Can Be Done and How)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  41 5.1 Examples of Community Praxis Models��������������������������������������������  42 5.2 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Directions����������������  44 References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  45

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  49

Chapter 1

History

Abstract This chapter covers the significance of recognizing biases and assumptions when working with Latine clients and suggests that liberatory psychology and community-specific approaches are crucial for effective therapy. It acknowledges the complexities within the Latine community and the need for tailored interventions considering different Latine groups’ diverse experiences and circumstances. Keywords Colonialism · Racism · Liberation · Indigenous · Oppression · Latine Recent events in the United States of America have forced mental health professionals to revisit the issue(s) of racism and oppression as an unresolved problem that needs more work and rethinking. This book attempts to provide an old theoretical structure to see racism and oppression from a colonialism perspective that somehow has escaped the mind of many mental health intellectuals, researchers, social justice activists, and practitioners when working with Latine populations. Instead, they have moved too fast into emancipation and/or social justice as the new (or beyond) multicultural perspective (Chung and Bemak 2011), meaning the unconscious disregarding the issues of race, ethnicity, and the aftermath of colonialism (Grosfoguel et al. 2006; Helms 2003; Memmi 2000). The book revisits the stages of colonialism with descriptions and definitions followed by the tools that colonizers used to maintain power, linking these two elements (the stages of colonialism and tools of the oppressor) to Memmi’s work (2000) and others’ work such as Fanon (Fanon and Chevalier 1965), Enríquez (Enriquez 1994), and Foucault (Campbell 2008; Foucault 2000; Grosfoguel et al. 2006). Furthermore, the definition and conceptualization of racism provided by Hook and others (i.e., Ebert, Biko, etc.), as well as their analysis, is what has been coined as the “colonizer mentality” (Bulhan 1985; Enriquez 1994; Hook 2011; Memmi 1957). In this book, the author looks at moving beyond colonization and racism by analyzing power structures (Farmer 2003; Martin Baró 1998) and provides readers with possible solutions based on the consciousness and action of the colonized when working with Latine populations (Montero 2016). The author uses the term “Latine” rather than the term “Hispanic or Latino/ Latina,” based on the notion that the term “Latine” is a more inclusive term that has beginnings from people of Latin/Hispanic descent to empower themselves in © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E. Torres Rivera, Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism, International and Cultural Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7_1

1

2

1 History

political arenas, humanities, and literature (Dussel 2005; Grosfoguel et  al. 2006; Torres-­Rivera and Ratts 2014; Wallerstein 2006). The term is not without controversy given that while in the American Psychological Association manual, under the subtitle “racial and ethnic identity,” it is stated that “Depending on where a person is from, individuals may prefer to be called Hispanic, Latino, Chicano, or some other designation; …” (APA 2017, p. 75), whereas in the same manual, under the subtitle “the other ethnic minority groups,” it is indicated that the most progressive terms are more acceptable (APA 2017). According to some mental health professionals, Latine is a preferred term as it affirms their native pre-Columbian identity and their sexual orientation (Orford 2007). In this book, the author uses the analysis of colonialism as a blueprint that Filipino psychologist Virgilio Enriquez presents in the book From colonial to liberation psychology: The Philippine experience (1994, 2004) and later summarizes and uses as a model to understand colonialism as a process event and not just one-­ time event (Laenui 2000). In this analysis, it is possible to see and appreciate how the colonization process is also a racist event. However, Memmi (2000), in his analysis and definition of racism, provides a clear link between colonialism and racism. In the United States, events of hate, racism, and violence can be attributed to the lack of recognizing the effect that colonialism had in our society and offer more evidence as to why the need for more work on the elimination of racism by stop denying that in the twenty-first century in the United States, racism is still part of our everyday interaction and socialization process. Furthermore, during a presentation at the American Educational Research Association, Jeremiah Wright (Noble et  al. 2015) presented an assertion from a religious perspective (Black liberation theology) that also links racism to the process of colonialization. Wright stated that depending on how a culture defines god will open or close doors as what is good, bad, beautiful, ugly, acceptable, wrong, etc. (Torres Rivera and Torres Fernandez 2015). That is, if we introduced a god who has light skin, has clear eye color and light hair color, and with several high criteria for the reach of salvation that only a few selected individuals can reach, that society’s tolerance of acceptance to those who are different from their god will be more challenging and even impossible. Therefore, it should not be a surprise to anyone in the United States that we continue to see spurs of violence against people of color and that the dominant culture continues to mislabel these events depending on the perpetrator (Grosfoguel et al. 2006). Although it appears to be a commitment by many mental health professionals to address issues of oppression, inequality, and discrimination, it is equally clear that many professionals have increasingly directed more time and energy in assessing and facilitating what are viewed as individual deficits or personal disorganization and problems rather than engaging in promoting systemic changes and/or looking at the lingering effect of colonialism and oppression. In doing so, many professionals primarily strive to help clients develop new dimensions of their human potential by learning new coping strategies that enable them to more effectively deal with environmental stressors (Chavez et al. 2016). In contrast, professionals, who operate from liberation, ethnopolitical, critical, and social justice paradigms not only direct time and energy toward stimulating

1.1  Pre-Columbus: Background of the Latine People in Their Native Lands

3

positive changes among the individual clients with whom they work, but they also strive to intentionally ameliorate environmental toxins and social injustices that adversely impact the mental health of more significant number of persons in devalued and marginalized groups in our society. This involves directing attention to the complexity of culture as well as a broad range of issues related to gender, race, socioeconomic status, sexual/affectional orientation, power relations, sociopolitical factors, injustices, and various forms of cultural oppression when working with their clients (Montero 2016; Montero and Sonn 2009; Vera and Speight 2003). Although the different mental health movements (i.e., multicultural, ethnopolitical, etc.) are similar in their emphasis on fostering individual and social-­ environmental changes, they are often disparate paradigms misunderstood by many professionals in the field. With all of this in context, this book presents a native psychology created by Latine for Latine (Dueck et al. 2006; Moane 2003; Torres-­ Rivera and Ratts 2014).

1.1 Pre-Columbus: Background of the Latine People in Their Native Lands Latine people are a combination of mixed ethnicities and races (Dussel 2005; Hernández-Wolfe 2013), that is, Mesoamerica and South America, as a constellation of countries, were colonized on a large scale first by the Europeans, namely Spain and Portugal. Nonetheless, before the arrival of the Europeans, some advanced civilizations were already in existence in Mesoamerica and South America (Kurnick and Baron 2016). The most mentioned habits of the pre-Colombian times from Mesoamerica and South America are the Mayans, the Aztecs, and the Incas. However, those are only a few of about 12 important civilizations of that period (Adams 2018). Thus, given this fact, it is important to consider that the influence of these previous cultures and civilization still have an impact on today’s Latine populations (Carrillo et al. 2017; Ramirez 1983) (see Carrillo et al. 2017; Martinez and Mendoza 1984; Ramirez 1983). The area of Mesoamerica that the author is referring to covers the countries of what is today Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, eastern Honduras, and El Salvador (Adams 2018). This is important because most Latine groups in the United States are Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Salvadorans, Cubans, Dominicans, Guatemalans, Colombians, Hondurans, Ecuadorians, and Peruvians (Flores et  al. 2017). Thus, in the following paragraphs, it is vital to have a baseline knowledge of the cultural characteristics of the native pre-Colombian group that occupied those regions. While it is important to remember that the information in this chapter is limited, it is also helpful as it provides readers with another piece of knowledge to be able to understand the influence of the pre-Colombian cultures in today’s Latine cultures that goes beyond the Europeans and the United States’ cultural influence in the Latine cultures in the United States.

4

1 History

Mayans  The Mayan culture is presented as one of the most advanced civilizations of the Americans and one of the most intriguing and mysterious of the great American societies as it disappeared with no real explanation as to why that took place. Nonetheless, some critical cultural traits in this large civilization can be traced to the modern Latines of today’s day. The Mayans can be traced geographically to southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Belize. According to the local literature of the Mayans, the following are the core values of the Mayan culture. The first one is the sacredness of nature (Salazar Tetzague and Telon Sajcabun 1999). The following significant value is the sacredness of the universe. Accordingly, it is the value of life, which means the value of our mission in life and our vocation in this life. It is also our responsibility toward our community (Salazar Tetzague and Telon Sajcabun 1999). Among the most developed and taught in the Mayan culture is the value of gratitude and gratefulness. The value of accomplishment is another value mentioned in the Ximénez (1700) or book of life. Being at peace and being responsible are other values cherished by Mayans. Additionally, the value of being able to take and provide advice is also cherished in this culture. Work and the protection of everything alive are held in high esteem. Finally, we respect parents and grandparents and honesty in our words (Salazar Tetzague and Telon Sajcabun 1999). Aztecs  The Aztecs, or Mexicas as they called themselves, are the second group that strongly influences today’s Latine populations. This particularly also has significantly advanced cultural values. They used currency; every child was required to attend school, even those considered enslaved. The school was significant given that it was the place where the importance of warfare, history, religion, and work was taught. The average Mexica did not write, as the priests were the only people allowed to note. The Mexicas also followed time in the form of calendars, one was to mark religious festivities, and another was to keep track of time. They also treasured music, which was as crucial as their religious ceremonies. The appreciation of what was esteemed by the Mexicas can be found in the gods that they worship, such as Chantico (goddess of hearth), Chicomecoatl (goddess of maize), Chalchiuhtlicue (goddess of lakes and streams), Coatlicue (goddess of life’s pain), Huehuetectim (god of fire), Huitzilopochtli (god of sun, war, and nation), Mictlantecuhtl (god of the dead), Quetzalcoatl (god of wind, priesthood, creation, and knowledge), Tezcatlipoca (god of war and death, and magic), Tlaloc (rain god), Tloque Nahuaque (god of everything and everyone), and Xipe Totec (god of suffering and of spring and new life). Incas  The Incas did not have a sophisticated writing system; thus, they passed their knowledge through oral history and myths (History 2017). While they did not have the tools of writing, their power of observation was incredible and to the point that they could predict atmospheric phenomena such as “El Nino” at least six months before the season started. There is also some evidence that fatalism was a vital part of the Inca culture (History 2017). The Incas also believed in sacrificing their children when necessary to serve as messengers to the gods.

1.1  Pre-Columbus: Background of the Latine People in Their Native Lands

5

Additionally, the Incas believed in diplomacy before war. They were only the ruling class of the civilization, and the ruling-class male always married their sister and other women, too, but only the child of the “sister” marriage could be the next chief or “Inca.” As mentioned, the Incas practiced human sacrifices; however, the victims were willing and treated like gods beforehand. Arawaks  They are two groups of indigenous people that, while they lived a more simplistic life, need to be mentioned here as they cover the Caribbean, which includes Cuba, Española (the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Puerto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles (Wilson 1997). The Arawaks, also known as taínos, extended from the South of Florida to the north of Venezuela, Belize, and Colombia (Alegria 1997; Allaire 1997). According to many historians, the Arawaks had a political and economic system that was more advanced than that of all other native Indians from the other Antilles (Gomez Acevedo and Ballesteros Gaibros 1978; Sued Badillo 2008). Rouse (1992) classified the taínos into three groups; he called the first group “taínos clasicos,” which included the taínos living in Española, Puerto Rico, and eastern Cuba (Gomez Acevedo and Ballesteros Gaibros 1978; Lamarche Robiou 2005). The second group is the “taínos orientales,” which included those taínos living in the Lesser Antilles where no Caribs were present. Finally, the last group included the “taínos occidentales,” which were the taínos from Jamaica, central Cuba, the Bahamas, and the extreme southwest of Española (Gomez Acevedo and Ballesteros Gaibros 1978; Lamarche Robiou 2005). The cultural characteristics of the taínos seem consistent with most of the scholars on indigenous Caribbean cultures, where they describe the taínos as social, religious, and enjoying singing and dancing. The culture was also matrilineal, and it was the social order regarding who was in charge (Gomez Acevedo and Ballesteros Gaibros 1978; Lamarche Robiou 2005; Wilson 1997). Caribs  The Caribs were a highly mobile group; they possessed canoes similar to those of the Arawaks, but they employed them for more warlike pursuits. Their social organization appeared to be simpler than that of the Arawaks. They had no elaborate ceremonial ball courts like those on the larger islands. Still, their tiny, wooden frame houses surrounded a central fireplace that might have served as a ceremonial center. Many of their cultural artifacts—especially those recovered in Trinidad, resemble those of the Arawaks. This might be partly explained by the Carib’s capture of Arawak women as brides, who could have socialized the children along Arawak lines (Allaire 1997; Wilson 1997). The social and political organization of Carib society reflected both their military inclination and their mobile status. Villages were small, often consisting of members of an extended family. The leader of the town, most often the head of the family, supervised the food-gathering activities, principally fishing, done by the men, and cultivation, a task for the women. Also, the leader settled internal disputes and led raids against neighboring groups. The purpose of these raids was to obtain wives for the younger males of the village. However, there have been some debates about the real reason for the attacks and the cannibalism claims (Allaire 1997).

6

1 History

Warfare was an important activity for Carib males, and before the arrival of the Spanish, they had a justified reputation as the most feared warriors of the Caribbean. Using bows, poisoned arrows, javelins, and clubs, the Caribs attacked in long canoes, capturing Arawak women and, according to Arawak informants, ritualistically cooking and eating some male captives. There are, however, no records of Caribs eating humans after the advent of the Europeans, thus casting doubts on the Arawak tales.

1.2 Background of the Latine People in the United States The Latine population is approximately 56 million in the United States. About 63% are of Mexican ancestry, 9% are Puerto Ricans, 3.8% are Salvadoran, 3.7% are Cubans, 3.3% are Dominican, 2.5% are Guatemalan, 1.9% are Colombians, and 1.5 are Hondurans (Flores et al. 2017), 76% are US-born, while only 37% are foreign-­ born. The median age is 28 for both men and women (Flores et al. 2017). About 79% of all Latine people belong to a household unit—about 23% of those households with five or more members and 22% with two people. Latine can be found in every state of the United States, with the largest concentration in the southwestern states. The states with over 20% of Latines are Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas. Additionally, it is essential to mention that 66% identified as White, 2% as Black or African descendants, 1% as indigenous, and 26% as other. Sixty-six percent are US-born, while only 34% identify as foreign-born, where 12% are citizens of the United States and 14% are not. A few other details that help readers understand the complexity of Latines in the United States are the following: In 2015, 62% attained high school education or less, a 2% drop from 2010, and 15% earned a bachelor’s degree or higher in 2015, an increase of 2% from 2010 (Flores et al. 2017). The preceding demographics indicate that Latines are a significant portion of the United States population and an important one whose needs cannot be ignored. Given that in the helping professions, it could be nearly impossible not to come across a person of Latine ancestry, one can also think that the components of human nature and self-esteem, in particular, are a variable that needs some attention.

1.3 Particular Characteristics of the Latine People in the United States While it is clear that Latine groups are very different (Dussel 2005; Wallerstein 2006), it is also clear that similarities exist among Latines in the United States, with the most important similarities as follows: (1) The use of the Spanish

1.3  Particular Characteristics of the Latine People in the United States

7

language; (2) the primary religion among Latines is Catholicism (even though about 25% of all Latines are protestants—mainly Pentecostals) (3) families, which indicates family members loyalty for family, which includes compadres and comadres; (4) respeto, meaning respect for authority, family, and tradition; (5) personalismo, which is the inclination of Latines to prefer personal contacts over detached or institutional ones; (6) machismo, which is related to male superiority and the ability to achieve sexual conquest; (7) marianismo, referring to the idea of female spiritual superiority, which teaches that women are semi-divine, morally superior to, and spiritually stronger than men; and (8) simpatia, which refers to an interpersonal style that focuses in lowering conflict and promotes agreement. Religion  The majority of Latines in the United States belong to the Roman Catholic religion. However, the number of Catholics among Latines is declining, while rising numbers of Hispanics are Protestant or unaffiliated with any religion. Twenty-four percent of all Latines are now ex-Catholics (Pew Research Center 2014). This trend indicates a religious polarization in the Latine community, with the shrinking majority of Latine Catholics in the middle ground between the evangelical Protestants and the unaffiliated at opposite ends of the spectrum. The number of Latine Catholics has declined for at least the last two decades. That is, as of 2010, 67% were Catholic. But from 2010 to 2014, the number of Catholics dropped by 12 percentage points (Pew Research Center 2014). Regardless of their religious tradition, God is an active force in everyday life for the great majority of Latines. As a rule, many Latines pray every day and usually have a religious object in their home, and most Latines attend a religious service at least once a month. By significant majorities, Latines who identify with a religion believe that miracles are performed today just as they were in ancient times. Amid this overall religiosity, important differences emerge among Latines of different religious traditions and between Latines (Pew Research Center 2014). http://www.pewforum.org/2014/05/07/the-­s hifting-­r eligious-­i dentity-­o f-­ latinos-­in-­the-­united-­states/ SES  The median annual income for Latine households in 2015 was $44,800, representing an increase of $8049 a year from 1980 ($36,751). However, it also represents a modest gain of $1316 from 2010 ($43,484). Individual income in 2015 for Latines was $24,000, an increase of $2258 from 2010 (Flores et al. 2017). Education  Sixty-one percent of all Latines in the United States age 25 years old and older reported a high school or less of schooling as of 2015. Additionally, 15% of Latines age 25 years old and older reported having a bachelor’s degree or higher level of education, which is an increase of 7.3% from 1980 and almost a 2% increase from 2010 (Flores et al. 2017).

8

1 History

1.4 Conclusion In this chapter, I have pointed out many issues, including the idea that when working with Latines, it is essential to understand our personal biases, stereotypes, and assumptions and how these may undermine our effectiveness as counselors. Furthermore, a number of these biases, stereotypes, and assumptions usually are the product of a lack of knowledge about the historical roots of different groups. Additionally, many of these assumptions and biases are based on a Universalist focus that does not address differences in experiences and beliefs or the effects of oppression, marginalization, and discrimination (McGoldrick and Hardy 2019; Montero and Sonn 2009). While many new resources have come out to pay attention to Latine clients, little or no attention is given to their unique issues (Organista 2007). It is also imperative that we remember the work of Enriquez, where he stated to point out that the realities from the native perspective (in this case of the Latines), taking into account the particularities and distinct values and characteristics of the Latines, which the Western models invariably not only fail to explain but to take in consideration when developing interventions (Enriquez 1994). In conclusion, this chapter presents the indigenous influence of Latine cultures. In doing so, the author discussed relevant issues, including the role of culture-­specific values and beliefs such as familismo, respeto, dignidad, personalismo, machismo, and marianismo, among others. Given the importance of such cultural values in the Latine cultures, it is imperative that mental health professionals aim to understand, honor, and validate such values when working with Latine clients. Furthermore, liberatory psychology also offers an excellent blueprint for best practices since it considers the stories of discrimination, marginalization, and oppression that are common among Latine immigrants. Lastly, it is important to note that although these authors endorse these blueprints for practice, they should not be considered and applied as a one-size-fits-all model. In other words, there are many differences among Latine groups, and therefore each group should be conducted by considering their group members’ specific characteristics and life circumstances. It is essential to consider that training mental health professionals in universal training settings is ethically and morally wrong as the specific cultural variables of the clients are ignored (Greenberg 2010; Watters 2010). While it is essential to understand and acknowledge that the logistics and practicality of using the liberatory psychology approach when working with this population that is client-specific (Martí Baró 1998) seem difficult and at times unpractical, several social researchers seem to suggest otherwise (Aldarondo 2007). This new research on different therapy approaches indicates that the effects of colonialism from within the Latine populations are still uncharted territory.

References

9

References Adams, R. E. W. (2018). Ancient Civilizations Of The New World (Essays in World History) (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. Aldarondo, E. (Ed.). (2007). Advancing social justice through clinical practice. Psychology Press. Alegria, R. (1997). The study of Aboriginal people: Multiple ways of knowing. In S. M. Wilson (Ed.), The indigenous people of the caribbean (pp. 11–19). Gainesville, FL: The University Press of Florida. Allaire, L. (1997). The lesser Antiles before Columbus. In M. Wilson, Smamuel (Ed.), The indigenous people of the caribbean (pp. 20–28). The Universty Press of Florida. American Psychological Association. (2017). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 2020: the official guide to APA style (7th ed.). American Psychological Association. Bulhan, H. A. (1985). Franz Fanon and the Psychology of the Oppressed. New York: Plenum Press. Campbell, C. (2008). Book review: Foucault, psychology and the analytics of power by Hook, Derek. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007, 327, 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp Carrillo, R. A., Cardenas, I. A., DelCastillo, R., Tello, J., Saucedo Martinez, C., Torrres, E. C., … Martines, S. (2017). Cultura y bienestar: MesoAmerican based healing and mental health practice based evidence. Middleton, DE: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Chavez, T. A., Torres Fernandez, I., Hipolito-Delgado, C. P., & Torres Rivera, E. (2016). Unifying Liberation Psychology and Humanistic Values to Promote Social Justice in Counseling. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 55(3), 166–182. Chung, R.  C.-Y., & Bemak, F. (2011). Social Justice Counseling: The Next Steps Beyond Multiculturalism. Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications. Dueck, A., Cutiongno, R., & Ramos, Z. (2006). First world congress of cross-cultural psychiatry. In Patterns of Indigenizing psychology in Puerto Rico and the Philippines (pp.  1–6). Beijing, China. Dussel, E. (2005). “Ser hispano”: Un mundo en el “Border” de muchos mundos. In R. Grosfoguel, N. Maldonado-Torres, & J. D. Saldivar (Eds.), Latin@s in the world-system: Descolonization struggles in the 21st century U.S. empire (pp. 41–55). New York, NY: Routledge. Enriquez, V. G. (1994). From Colonial to Liberation Psychology: The Philippine Experience. De La Salle University Press. Fanon, F., & Chevalier, H. (1965). Studies of a Dying Colonialism. Grove Press. Farmer, P. (2003). Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor. Berkeley: University of California Press. Flores, A., Lopez, G., & Radford, J. (2017). Characteristics of the US Hispanic population: 2015. Pew Research Center: Hispanic Trends. Foucault, M. (2000). Power: Essential Works of Foucault, 1954–1984. New York: New Press. Gomez Acevedo, L., & Ballesteros Gaibros, M. (1978). Cultural indigenas de Puerto Rico. Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial cultural. Greenberg, G. (2010). Manufactoring depression. New York: Simon & Schuster. Grosfoguel, R., Maldonado-Torres, N., & Saldivar, J.  D. (2006). Latin@ in the world-system: Decolonization struggles in the 21st century U.S. empire. (R.  Grosfoguel, N.  Maldonado-­ Torres, & J. D. Saldivar, Eds.). New York, NY: Routledge. History, C. (2017). Ancient Civilizations: A Captivating Guide to Mayan History, the Aztecs, and Inca Empire. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Helms, J.  E. (2003). A Pragmatic View of Social Justice. The Counseling Psychologist, 31(3), 305–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000003031003006 Hernández-Wolfe, P. (2013). A borderlands view on Latinos, Latin Americans, and decolonization: Rethinking mental health. Jason Aronson, Incorporated. Hook, D. (2011). Retrieving Biko: A Black consciousness critique of whiteness. African Identities, 9(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2011.530442 Kurnick, S., & Baron, J. (2016). Political Strategies in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. (S. Kurnick & J. Baron, Eds.). Boulder, Colorado, Colorado: University Press of Colorado.

10

1 History

Laenui, P. (2000). Processes of decolonization. In M. A. Bastiste (Ed.), In Reclaiming indigenous voice and vision. (pp. 150–160). Vancouver: The University of British Columbia Press. Lamarche Robiou, S. (2005). Tainos y Caribes: Las culturas aborigenes antillanas. San Juan, P.R.: Editorial punto y coma. Martin Baró, I. (1998). Psicología de la liberación. Madrid: Editorial Trotta. Martinez, J. L., & Mendoza, R. H. (1984). Chicano psychology. (J. L. Martinez & R. H. Mendoza, Eds.) (Second Edi). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. McGoldrick, M., & Hardy, K. V. (Eds.). (2019). Re-visioning family therapy. Guilford Publications. Memmi, A. (1957). The colonizer and the colonized. Trans. Howard Greenfeld. Boston: Beacon, (1), 86. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315065670 Memmi, A. (2000). Racism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Moane, G. (2003). Bridging the personal and the political: Practices for a liberation psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(March), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.102 3/A:1023026704576 Montero, M. (2016). Psychology of liberation revised: A critique of critique. In B. Gough (Ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Social Psychology (pp.  147–161). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-­1-­137-­50018-­2 Montero, M., & Sonn, C.  C. (2009). Psychology of Liberation: Theory and Applications. New York: Springer. Retrieved from http://www.amazon.com/Psychology-­Liberation-­Theory-­ Applications-­Peace/dp/0387857834/ref=sr_1_27?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1399677823&sr= 1-­27&keywords=psychology+and+human+rights#reader_0387857834 Noble, W., Torres Rivera, E., West-Olatunji, C., & Wright, J. A. J. (2015). American Educational Research Association. In Professional Ethics, Pedagogy, and Research in the Human Sciences: Psychological Views From the Colonized. Chicago, IL. Orford, J. (2007). Community psychology: Challenges, controversies, and emerging consensus. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Organista, K. C. (2007). Solving Latino psychosocial and health problems: Theory, practice, and populations. John Wiley & Sons. Ramirez, M. (1983). Psychology of the Americas: Mestizo perspectives on personality and mental health. New York: Pergamon press. Rouse, I. (1992). The Tainos: Rise & decline of the people who greeted Columbus. New Haven: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=sgjsDvFiNuUC&pgis=1 Salazar Tetzague, M., & Telon Sajcabun, V. (1999). Valores de la filosofia Maya. In Valores de la cultura Maya: Desarrollo con identidad (pp. 15–52). Iximulew, Guatemala: Fundacion CEDIM. Sued Badillo, J. (2008). Agüeybaná el bravo. San Juan, P.R.: Ediciones Puerto. Torres-Rivera, E., & Ratts, M. J. (2014). Counseling Latin@ s From a Social Justice Perspective. Counseling for Multiculturalism and Social Justice: Integration, Theory, and Application, 179. Torres Rivera, E., & Torres Fernandez, I. (2015). Tools of oppression and control in counseling: Making the invisible, visible. Revista Griot, 8(1), 119–127. Vera, E. M., & Speight, S. L. (2003). The Counseling Psychologist Expanding Our Roles, 31(3), 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002250634 Wallerstein, I. (2006). Latin@s: What’s in a name? In R. Grosfoguel, N. Maldonado-Torres, & J. D. Saldivar (Eds.), Latin@s in the world-system: Descolonization struggles in the 21st century U.S. empire (pp. 31–39). New York, NY: Routledge. Watters, E. (2010). Crazy lik us: The globolization of the American psyche. New York: Free Press. Wilson, S. (1997). The indigenous people of the caribbean. (S. M. Wilson, Ed.). Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Ximénez, F. (1700). Popol Vuh: Transcription in Quiché Mayan and Translation into Spanish. [Place of Publication Not Identified: Publisher Not Identified, to 1703] [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2021668226/

Chapter 2

The Colonization Process and the Tools of the Colonizer

Abstract In this chapter, I am building on the previous chapter, where mental health professionals, educators, and researchers need to comprehend the complexities of colonization, its ongoing effects, and the tools used to exert control. It advocates for a perspective encompassing diverse experiences, histories, and worldviews while promoting critical thinking, reflection, and dismantling oppressive systems. Keywords Colonialism · Racism · Liberation · Indigenous · Oppression · Control · Mental health Working with all minority populations is important to emphasize the colonization process and the effects of this process on today’s mental health issues and developments. While in the last ten years, the results of colonialism have been well documented in many fields, including education, beyond the works of Fanon, Memmi, Freire, Césaire, and others in psychology, mental health is a current trend (Césaire 1972; Fanon and Chevalier 1965; Memmi 1957). Finally, attention has been given to the mental health counseling literature about how colonialization has affected counseling and other mental health interventions. The watch seems to be more of the same, prescribing interventions and immediate solutions (Macleoud et al. 2020). Some mental health professionals’ trend toward decolonizing the professions is another iteration of colonization (Bhatia 2017; Macleoud et al. 2020). Therefore, part of the purpose of this chapter is to help readers understand that while colonization is not a one-time event but rather a process, decolonization must be understood in the same manner as a process of continuous changes and iterations. Understanding this process is imperative because it is not only limited to acknowledging and understanding different forms of knowledge but also because that understanding of knowledge directly influences people’s realities (Torres Rivera 2020). The best manner to begin this part of the text is by defining and conceptualizing colonialism. At the same time, colonialism is difficult to define, as it is a political, legal, economic, cultural, and social phenomenon (Tate et  al. 2015). The terms “colonialism” and “imperialism” are frequently used

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E. Torres Rivera, Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism, International and Cultural Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7_2

11

12

2  The Colonization Process and the Tools of the Colonizer

interchangeably and are more associated with the two major groups of Latines in the United States (Mexicans and Puerto Ricans). Colonialism, in this chapter, is defined as the domination of a group of people by foreign leaders, accompanied by an injury to cultural pride, a degree of economic exploitation, the denial of human rights, and the stifling of the colonized people to achieve control over their political destiny. Radical changes must occur to restore people’s dignity, accompanied by their growing empowerment as they act (Torres Rivera et al. 2005).

2.1 The Colonization Processes Several Latin American countries have found themselves in the middle of a movement in which indigenous people reclaim their culture away from European influence (i.e., Spaniards, Portuguese, England, and France). This movement has made clear that the impact of indigenous culture in Latin culture is more vital than ever before. Latine/x in the United States is not immune to this movement as several Latine/x have embraced not only their Native roots but also their African roots, as in the case of the Caribbean Latine/x (Denis-Rosario 2022). Nonetheless, this is not enough to reduce the lingering effects of colonialism, mainly because Latine/x first had to endure the impact of colonization by the Europeans and later the influence of imperialism by the United States (Melendez and Melendez 1993; Morales 2018). Therefore, it is also necessary to work with ethnicity, class, and politics, which often means dealing with identity. As I present this material, I am mindful that several mental health professionals believe the task of changing political paradigms is more for politicians than for mental health issues. Nonetheless, the reality is that mental health professionals cannot work effectively unless they have firsthand knowledge of the discrimination struggles of the Latine/x that are often related to skin color and poverty (ComasDíaz and Torres Rivera 2020).

2.2 The European Colonization Processes The literature on colonization presents a few different processes and stages (Bulhan 2015a; Mignolo and Walsh 2018). For this book and this chapter, I use the colonization process and stages that Virgilio Enriquez first developed in the Philippines (Enriquez 1994) and later expanded by a native Hawaiian (Laenui 2000). As presented by Laenui, the stages are straightforward to understand. Later in the chapter, I also offer the tools used by the colonizer to maintain the status quo, as Moane indicated in her writing (Moane 2003, 2014).

2.2  The European Colonization Processes

13

Stages of Colonization Denial and Withdrawal  The first stage of colonization is called “Denial and Withdrawal.” During this stage, the first encounter takes place between the colonizer and the natives. In this stage, the invaders immediately assume superiority and look upon the native habitants as people without culture, no moral values, and nothing of any social value to merit kind comment. From the beginning, the invaders deny the existence of a culture of merit among the indigenous people, thus dehumanizing them. Indigenous people gradually withdraw from their cultural practices, especially those who develop a closer relationship with the newcomers. Some may even join in the ridicule and denial of the existence of culture among the native people. They may become quickly converted and later lead to the criticism of indigenous societies. Destruction and Eradication  In the second stage, as the native or indigenous culture refused to give in to the colonizer’s attempts to take over, the colonists took bolder action, as they physically destroyed and attempted to eradicate all physical representations of the symbols of indigenous cultures. This may include the burning of their art, their writing, and their god images and the destruction of their sacred sites, rituals, and other symbolic practices. The indigenous people may sometimes participate in this destruction—some may even lead to it. Denigration, Belittlement, and Insult  As colonization takes a firmer hold, the new systems created join to denigrate, belittle, and insult any continuing practice of the indigenous culture. Indigenous religious practices began to be portrayed as worship of the devil. As such, the practices of this type of religious ritual will result in physical torture, and the practitioners of such practices would have their souls condensed to hell. Trained medical practitioners by the colonizers refer to the indigenous doctors as witches if their medicine is successful, and ignorant superstitious fools if their medicine fails. The new legal institutions criminalize the traditional practices, fine the practitioners, and may declare the possession of traditionally sacred or healing materials illegal. Here, even symbols of evil must be imported by the colonizer for evil to gain legitimacy within the society. Thus, we find in many colonized societies, the importation of Dracula, Halloween, or other representations of evil through the colonial societies’ literature or legends, all the while they allude to the Indigenous peoples’ representations of evil as more ignorant superstitions. Surface Accommodation and Tokenism  In this stage of colonization, whatever remnants of culture have survived the onslaught of the earlier steps are given surface accommodation. They are tolerated as an exhibition of showing respect to the old folks and tradition and are given token regard. Transformation and Exploitation  In the last stage of the colonization process, the traditional culture, which refuses to die or go away, is transformed into the ­culture of the dominating colonial society. A Christian church may now use an

14

2  The Colonization Process and the Tools of the Colonizer

indigenous person as a priest, permitting the priest to use the indigenous language to incorporate some indigenous terms and practices within the church’s framework of worship. Indigenous art, which has survived, may gain popularity and form the basis for economic exploitation. Indigenous symbols in print may decorate the modern dress. Indigenous musical instruments may be incorporated into contemporary music. Support indigenous causes within the general colonial structure may become the popular political thing to do, so the culture is further exploited. Indigenous as well as nonindigenous peoples may commit this exploitation.

2.3 Tools to Gain Control During the Colonization Process As mentioned earlier, Moane (2003, 2014), using liberation psychology principles, highlighted the six mechanisms that colonialism and patriarchal societies use to gain and maintain power. These tools are used in the colonization process to dominate the indigenous cultures and, after the colonization process is complete, to hold control over the colonized subjects. Given that the United States presents characteristics of a patriarchal and colonizer society, we find evidence that these tools have also been used in the United States to keep minorities under control and in check and that these tools can be found in schools and universities curriculums (colonized curriculums), which serve as the indoctrination of minorities into the dominant culture (Mena 2021; Tate et al. 2015). Moane presents the following tools to gain and maintain power and control: (1) violence through military and/or police as well as battery and rape (structural violence is also part of this tool); (2) political exclusion via lack of voting rights and restriction of assembly as well as to assess votes and attitudes toward who can vote; (3) economic exploitation via seizing the land, who can own properties, low wages, and high taxes; (4) control of sexuality via enforcement of motherhood, birth control, and marriage; (5) cultural control via determining who have access to education and curriculum and what is included in it, erasing of actual history, stereotypes, and control of media; and (6) fragmentation via control of immigration, tokenism, and competition. Therefore, the tools coined by Moane per stage of colonization are described in the following paragraphs. In the first stage, denial and withdrawal, the colonizer uses violence through military and/or police, as well as battery, rape, structural violence; political exclusion; economic exploitation; and control of sexuality. The means at this stage are more blatant. These tools or approaches do not stop at this stage but continue into the second stage of colonization (destruction and eradication) (Laenui 2000). In the second stage, the colonizer is more aggressive and intentional in their conquest by adding control over the culture in addition to violence, political exclusion, economic exploitation, and control of sexuality. The third stage is denigration, belittlement, and insulting (Laenui 2000). The colonizer uses all tools named by Moane, mainly structural and conventional violence. The control of the culture takes a violent approach by creating new educational, health, legal systems, and religions (churches) and by making every aspect of the indigenous system evil, as mentioned earlier. This stage is followed by a period

2.4  The Second Colonization

15

of composure under the surface accommodation and tokenism stage. The author asserts that minorities in the United States still experience this stage through education and social media via fragmentation and cultural control. In the stage of transformation and exploitation, the colonizer’s dominant culture absorbed the dominated culture via exploitation and incorporation of some traditions and/or folklore. This is done by economic exploitation while still imposing control via structural violence, political exclusion, cultural control via curriculum design, erasing real history, stereotypes, media control, and fragmentation via tokenism and competition.

2.4 The Second Colonization In his book (Morales 2018) about Latine in the United States, Morales coined the second Conquista. It tells the story of Latine’s arrival in the United States through migration and absorption of territory thanks to the nineteenth-century Manifest Destiny, laying the groundwork for a new set of nomadic cultural identities. These were inflected by Latine’s Latin American origins and efforts to remake their new homes in their image. Such nomadic identity formation is evident in the hybrid living spaces of the Southwest borderlands, the Caribbean transformation in Northern cities such as New York, Boston, and Chicago, and the establishment of Miami as the northernmost capital of Latin America. It also leaves a significant cultural footprint, generating artistic touchstones from salsa to bilingual literature to the concept of intersectionality developed by Kimberle Crenshaw that has deeply informed the feminist and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) movements (Crenshaw 2013). Latine’s cultural inclination to view the world through multiple perspectives has given them a central role in US artistic creativity. It is essential to begin this part of the chapter by discussing something very neglected in the literature on decolonization and colonization in mental health. While it mentions discrimination, oppression, and inequalities based on differences, it does not say what some social scientists call meta-colonialism (Bulhan 2015b). The rewrite of history illustrates this meta-colonialism by those in power, which by default results in misleading reality once again dictated by the colonizer (Martín-­ Baró 1986, 1998). Then, the manifestation of meta-colonization can be seen in the domination of economics, particularly the currency that controls the markets (for example, the dollar and the euro) (Bulhan 2015b). Furthermore, controlling or influencing the economics further affect the wealth, self-worth, and rulings of the colonized in the form of international laws and statuses. In the United States, this meta-colonization can be seen in a state of structural violence against Latine/x populations (as appears during the 2016 election campaign of Donald Trump and the strong hand in immigration toward Mexico). Furthermore, the meta-colonization process in the United States is characterized by structural violence against minorities, particularly Latine/x groups. In recent times, this meta-colonization has manifested political exclusion by adding restrictions on the right of Latina people to vote and their right to assembly. This is also shown by

16

2  The Colonization Process and the Tools of the Colonizer

dictating who and how Latine/x can vote. The debates about what could be taught in public schools, including colleges and universities, are also evidence of cultural control, which includes determining who has access to education and curriculum and what is included in it. In addition to erasing actual history, stereotypes, and control of media, the last tool present in the meta-colonization in the United States is fragmentation via control of immigration, tokenism, and competition (Alomar Cox 2022; Lugones et al. 2022; Torres Rivera et al. 2005; Wagenheim et al. 2020).

2.5 Conclusion In this chapter, the stages of an ongoing colonization process have been laid out as a framework for mental health professionals to understand the complexity of the colonization process and the description of the six tools the colonizer uses to gain and maintain power. As a pathway to the next chapter, I would like to mention the names Freire and Montero as one of the decolonization tools in the process of problematization (Freire 1996; Montero 2009). According to Freire and Montero, problematization is questioning one’s reality. Furthermore, Freire pointed out the process problematization > reflection > critical consciousness > action and/or change. In conclusion, the understanding and recognition of the tools used by the colonizer to gain and maintain power and control over others (i.e., violence, exclusion, exploitation, control, and fragmentation) as well as the stages of colonization (i.e., denial and withdrawal; destruction and eradication; denigration, belittlement, and insult; surface accommodation and tokenism; and transformation and exploitation), although complex, allows individuals to acquire knowledge that is based on multiple experiences, histories, theories, and valuing new and old. This particular approach of creating critical thinking and consciousness (problematization > reflection > critical consciousness > action and/or change) offers a framework that organizes and facilitates the understanding of the numerous helping, educational, and psychological approaches that humankind has developed. It recognizes that theories, research methodologies, and knowledge of counseling and education developed in the Western world and those helping models indigenous to non-Western world cultures are inherently right or wrong and good or bad.

References Alomar Cox, R. (2022). Las constituciones de Puerto Rico. Editorial Nomos S.A. Bhatia, S. (2017). Decolonizing Psychology: Globalization, Social Justice, and Indian Youth Identities (Explorations in Narrative Psychology). Oxford University Press. Bulhan, H. A. (2015a). Stages of Colonialism in Africa: From Occupation of Land to Occupation of Being. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 3(1), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.5964/ jspp.v3i1.143 Bulhan, H. A. (2015b). Stages of colonialism in Africa: From the occupation of land to occupation of being. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 3(1), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.5964/ jspp.v3i1.143

References

17

Césaire, A. (1972). Discourse on Colonialism. New York, 1–31. http://books.google.com/books?hl =en&lr=&id=NbgAJUgplpsC&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-­PA222&dq=Discourse+on+Colonialism&ot s=PCcsotzhuP&sig=1Y7Fj3PJXFmEnvP07fytxjmOZsA Comas-Díaz, L., & Torres Rivera, E. (2020). Liberation psychology: Theory, Method, Practice, and Social Justice (L. Comas-Díaz & E. Torres Rivera, Eds.). America Psychological Association. Crenshaw, K. (2013). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. In Feminist legal theories (pp. 23–51). Routledge. Denis-Rosario, M. (2022). Drops of Inclusivity: Racial Formations and Meanings in Puerto Rican Society, 1898-1965 (SUNY series, Afro-Latine Futures). State University of New York Press. Enriquez, V. G. (1994). From Colonial to Liberation Psychology: The Philippine Experience. De La Salle University Press. Fanon, F., & Chevalier, H. (1965). Studies of a Dying Colonialism. Grove Press. Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of the oppressed (Rev. ed.). Penguin Group. Laenui, P. (2000). Processes of decolonization. In M. A. Bastiste (Ed.), In Reclaiming indigenous voice and vision. (pp. 150–160). The University of British Columbia Press. Lugones, M., Espinoso-Miñoso, Y., & Maldonado-Torres, N. (2022). Decolonial feminism in Abya Yala: Caribbean, Meso, and South American contributions and challenges (Global Critical Caribbean Thought) (Y.  Espinosa-Miñoso, M.  Lugones, & N.  Maldonado-Torres, Eds.). Rowman & Littlefield. www.rowman.com Macleoud, C. I., Bhatia, S., & Liu, W. (2020). Feminism and decolonising: Possibilities and challenges. Feminists and Psychology, 3(3), 287–3005. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353520932810 Martín-Baró, I. (1986). Hacia una psicología de la liberación. Boletin de Psiclogia, 22, 1–11. Martin-Baró, I. (1998). Psicología de la liberación. Editorial Trotta. Melendez, E., & Melendez, E. (1993). Colonial dilemma: Critical perspectives on contemporary Puerto Rico (E. Melendez & E. Melendez, Eds.). South End Press. Memmi, A. (1957). The colonizer and the colonized. Trans. Howard Greenfeld. Boston: Beacon, 1, 86. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315065670 Mena, J. (2021). Decolonizing curriculum. Decolonizing Curriculum; Teachers College. https:// www.tc.columbia.edu/decolonizing-­psychology-­conference/ Mignolo, W.  D., & Walsh, C.  E. (2018). On Decoloniality: Concepts, Analytics, Praxis. Duke University Press. Moane, G. (2003). Bridging the personal and the political: Practices for a liberation psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(March), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.102 3/A:1023026704576 Moane, G. (2014). Liberation psychology, feminism, and social justice psychology. In J.  Diaz, Z.  Franco, & K.  Nastasi, Bonnie (Eds.), The Handbook of Social Justice and Psychology: Fundamental issues and special populations (Vol. 1, pp. 115–132). Praeger. Montero, M. (2009). Methods for liberation: Critical consciousness in action. In M. Montero & C. Sonn, Christopher (Eds.), Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications (pp. 73–91). Springer. Morales, E. (2018). Latine: The New Force in American Politics and Culture. Verso. Tate, K. A., Torres Rivera, E., & Edwards, L. M. (2015). Colonialism and multicultural counseling competence research: A liberatory analysis. In P. Goodman, R. D., & Gorski (Ed.), Decolonizing “multicultural” counseling through social justice (pp. 41–54). Springer New York. Torres Rivera, E. (2020). Concepts of liberation psychology. In L.  Comas-Diaz & E.  Torres Rivera (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice (pp. 41–51). American Psychological Association. Torres Rivera, E., Phan, L. T., Garrett, M. T., & D’Andrea, M. (2005). Integrating Che Guevara, Don Pedro Albizú Campos, and Paulo Freire, in the revolution of counseling: Re-visioning social justice when counseling Latino clients. Radical Psychology Journal. Wagenheim, K., Jiménez de Wagenheim, O., & Martínez-Fernández, L. (2020). The Puerto Ricans: A documentary history (K.  Wagenheim, O.  Jiménez de Wagenheim, & L.  Matínez-­ Fernández, Eds.). Markus Wiener Publications. www.markuswiener.com

Chapter 3

Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness; Decolonization Stages)

Abstract This chapter discusses the complex process of decolonization, particularly in the context of education, mental health, and cultural identity. It emphasizes that while there are multiple approaches to decolonization, there is no one specific approach to achieving a decolonized frame of mind. Decolonization has gained popularity in recent years, evident in the increased presentations and publications on the topic. However, the process of decolonization is intricate and lacks a consensus on a particular structure or training method. Furthermore, it explores the concepts of decolonization and decoloniality, highlighting their significance in addressing the enduring impacts of colonialism on societies, cultures, economies, and worldviews. Decolonization involves dismantling structures established through colonialism, while decoloniality addresses colonialism’s epistemological and ontological aspects, challenging Western knowledge systems. Keywords Colonialism · Racism · Liberation · Indigenous · Oppression · Decoloniality · Latine psychology While there is more than one approach to decolonization, there is no specific approach to reaching a decolonized frame of mind (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020). Furthermore, decolonization as a subject is not new; however, it has gained popularity in the last ten years as evidenced by the number of presentations and publications (Goodman and Gorski 2015; Moosavi 2020; Trujillo-Pagan 2013). As illustrated in the previous chapter, decolonization is complex, just like colonization. Decolonizing the mind via education and training that promotes critical thinking skills is the most complicated process (Stein and de Olivereira Andreotti 2016). As a result of such complexity among social scholars, there is no consensus regarding using a particular structure to develop a decolonial agenda or even decolonial training. Moreover, many scholars see the movement promoting the process of creating a decolonial plan or the decolonization of education and mental health as another iteration of the existing colonial process (Freire 1996; Macleoud et al. 2020; Mena 2021; Mignolo 2017; Mignolo and Walsh 2018). Many mental health researchers know that the decolonization process is pluralistic and complex and is also © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E. Torres Rivera, Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism, International and Cultural Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7_3

19

20

3  Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness…

understood differently depending on the person’s geography, existence, history, and political stance. In this chapter, I continue to conceptualize decolonization as disrupting the Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic societies (WEIRD) epistemologies as well as the reclamation and reframing of what was erased from history by adding all knowledges using reflection and deconstructing the colonial discourse (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020; Sonn and Garth 2021). Decolonization is the embodiment of diverse approaches to resist colonization and racialization while creating a transformation and rediscovering by maintaining relevant ways of knowing and being (Grayshield and Ramon 2020; Mignolo and Walsh 2018; Stein and de Olivereira Andreotti 2016). As mentioned in the previous chapter, erasing the historical memory through the imposition of new institutions such as schools, churches, and political and legal structures is the center stage of colonial reproduction and indoctrination. Examples of these practices include the using the English language as the dominant language of instruction; using texts and materials that depict primarily White, Eurocentric-­ Euro American values; and demonizing the culture, language, and values of ethnic minority groups (Lebeloane 2017; Lumadi 2021). The resistance to the use of critique of pedagogies, training models, and praxis that promotes critical thinking, social awareness, and anti-oppressive methodologies has highlighted the role of politics and power relations in the training and educational processes (Moratilla 2019). Furthermore, many native scholars have argued that individuals with the power to define constructs of knowledge may distort, overlook, exaggerate, and/or extend ignorance to preserve their power at the expense of others (Torres Rivera et al. 2013). In recent years, we have seen a strong movement in the United States to attack public education Curriculum that refers to critical race theory and diversity (George 2021; Gholami 2021). These actions illustrated how colonized education is a tool to maintain power over others. Historically, knowledge has been colonized as evidence of this type of colonization is that schools have served as “laboratories in which social injustices such as class, gender, language, and racial inequality were inculcated, tested, implemented, and perpetuated” (Lebeloane 2017; p. 2). Thus, decolonizing must be a process that, while including education, requires examining which knowledge is being reproduced and denouncing the systems and mechanisms that historically have promoted the colonial ideology (Black 2010; Lumadi 2021). In Fig. 3.1, the decolonization process of education is illustrated as a dynamic process. It is also crucial to point out that to disrupt WEIRD epistemologies and to reclaim and reframe the erased history by adding all knowledges, two other components must be added beyond content first. The element of moving to the dialogue is connecting learning with interests. Furthermore, the dialogue usually leads to critical thinking, moving beyond teaching only content (Freire 1996). In the case of therapy is connecting action to talk, this process can move from only content to useable problem-solving skills and knowledge in therapeutic and teaching-learning settings.

3.1  Decolonization Process (Decolonization Model)

21

Fig. 3.1 Decolonization process of the Curriculum Decolonization Process

Faculty

Community

Students

Curriculum

3.1 Decolonization Process (Decolonization Model) There are different ways in which the therapeutic process can be decolonized to promote equity and social justice. However, in this chapter, I highlight the following elements: (1) deconstruction and reconstruction by problematization, (2) self-­ determination by reflection, (3) internationalization of indigenous or native experiences by creating critical consciousness, and (4) action by moving beyond the status quo. Decolonized mental health training becomes relevant and decolonized when it is reviewed, improved, and confronted to make the therapeutic process relevant and relatable to those who receive it. It is also important to stress that the promotion of critical thinking and reflection are key elements to fostering equity and social justice for all. Overall, all decolonizing processes involve shifting the current narrative by allowing different perspectives to be presented, increasing opportunities for representation. Tejeda et al. (2003) argued the need for an anticolonial and decolonizing pedagogical praxis that promotes the development of critical consciousness and works toward ending the “mutually constitutive forms of violence that characterize our internal neocolonial condition” (p. 14). Therefore, decolonizing the profession requires examining which knowledge is being reproduced and denouncing the systems and mechanisms that historically have promoted the colonial ideology (Lumadi 2021).

22

3  Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness…

Following the model of decolonization provided by Tate, Torres Rivera, and Edwards, we suggest the following model of decolonization of the profession (Tate et al. 2015).

3.2 Deconstruction and Reconstruction by Problematization: Searching for Lost History This stage can be conceptualized as a history of the people’s course(s) that outlines that people who have undergone colonization inevitably suffer from concepts of inferiority concerning their historical, cultural, and social background, as well as trauma (Riggs and Badgley 1995). Thus, it is a process of deconstruction while allowing a reconstruction of history that is not partial to one group versus another. Living in a colonized society serves as a constant and overwhelming reminder of oppression and brutal control that the colonial society sustains over the native of the colonized one. During the rediscovery process, the fundamental principle is that colonized peoples learn about their real history, which allows them to recover their own culture, language, and identity (Lebeloane 2017). Reclaiming their lost history creates the basis for the following stages. History is written from the oppressor’s perspective for many oppressed populations, particularly those subjected to colonization by alien societies and cultures, and this is a critical component of liberation psychology. Without an understanding of the actual etiology of the oppression and subsequent conditions, authentic experiences from the perspective of the oppressed cannot be attained. Self-Determination by Reflection: De-ideologization  This stage seems like a natural outgrowth of the first stage when people can lament their victimization and say goodbye to the painful part of their lives. In this stage, it is critical to remember that it is the place where the colonial subject begins the experience of self-­ determination. This is a crucial phase of healing, as bell hooks states that no decolonization process is complete without the ex-colonized issues experiencing some deep emotions, including sadness, pain, and loss (Riggs and Badgley 1995). This is also true for personal tragedies where a victim of some crime has experienced the death of a close loved one or suffered from a sexual assault. The victim must be permitted a time of mourning. People in mourning often immerse themselves in the rediscovery of their history-making for an exciting interplay between these two phases, feeding upon one another. Martín-Baró (1991, 1994) pointed out that dominant social forces in South America used several outlets that include the Church, media campaigns, and governmental bureaucracies to establish what is real about the lived experience of the poor and oppressed. These messages maintained what he called a “cultural stranglehold” on how social scientists studied and understood such circumstances. As such, MartínBaró (1994) posited that a critical step in achieving a socially just and mentally

3.2  Deconstruction and Reconstruction by Problematization: Searching for Lost History

23

healthy context for these populations was to investigate these dominant messages considering the lived experiences of those living on the margins. Montero (2009) described this process as “the conscious construction and reconstruction of an understanding of the world one lives in, and of one has lived circumstances, as part of a totality” (p. 75). By engaging in the de-ideologizing process, social scientists and oppressed populations can begin to make sense of their current situation, considering recovered historical memory and analysis of everyday experience. Internationalization of Indigenous or Native Experiences: Creating Critical Consciousness  The most important decolonization action occurs here, given the construction and creation. During this stage, the potentials and possibilities are encouraged and expressed, considered through debate, dialogue, and discussions; this will eventually result in the basis of new beginnings. During this stage, the colonized subject can explore their own cultures and future in more detail, including government and social order structures, which embrace and express their desires and goals. Martín-Baró (1994) pointed out that it is crucial to utilize the virtues of oppressed peoples when working to improve their lived experience. He described the virtues of the oppressed people of his own country. This strengths-based approach allows social scientists to depend on oppressed people to produce the tools and energy that may lead to liberation. Further, utilizing the virtues of oppressed peoples takes the tools used to cope with oppressive circumstances for generations and transforms them into an indispensable means for release. For this stage, clients may benefit from a course on reflection, identity, or global citizenship to learn about their past, grieve, and prepare for the next phase of decolonization of the mind. It is assumed that during the last stage, the people will have the opportunity to find their voices and understand their reality, which means that after going through a process of loss and grieving, people will be able to walk through the pain and the cult of personalities, family histories, and release themselves from chains of colonialism and patriarchalism. At this point, when the commitment stage takes place, it will help the client move in a direction in which everyone can engage in healthy acceptance of differences. It is important to note that there is no single “way” or process for a people’s expression of commitment. Furthermore, one of the primary goals of liberation psychology is the awakening of critical conscientization (i.e., critical consciousness) in the person/group. MartínBaró (1994) incorporated this concept from Freire’s new pedagogy of the oppressed into his foundations for liberation psychology. Critical consciousness “is not simply becoming aware of a certain fact, but rather a process of change” (Martín-Baró 1994, p. 227). To become conscious of reality in this sense is to become aware of and involved in the process of continual discovery and action related to “truth.” The author also suggests following the basic tenets offered by the Co-Intelligence Institute (2003), which are as follows: (1) Talk about what’s important to you; (2) listen to each other. We see how thoroughly we can understand each other’s views and experiences; (3) say what’s true for us without doing each other wrong; (4) see

24

3  Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness…

what we can learn together by exploring things together; and lastly (5) avoid monopolizing the conversation. Make sure everyone has a chance to speak. Critical Collaborative Inquiry: Seeking Conscientization  The author believes that because from the beginning, our goal has been creating consciousness and critical thinking, which is the goal of liberation and follows Freire’s ideas of problematization > reflection > critical consciousness > action > reflection dynamics, the presentation of theory without practical applications is useless. Therefore, the suggested model is based on the premise that transitions between stages follow a natural progression, and the creation of critical thinking will lead to action and ideas supported by the liberation psychology literature (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020; Sharma and Hipolito-Delgado 2021). Decolonization and Decoloniality  While most of the talk has been concentrated on decolonization, concepts of decolonization and decoloniality have gained significant prominence in recent years, emerging as powerful frameworks for understanding and addressing the enduring impacts of colonialism on societies, cultures, economies, and worldviews. As mentioned in this book, decolonization is a multifaceted process that involves dismantling the structures, ideologies, and power dynamics established through colonialism. Deconstructing Colonial Legacies  Decolonization transcends mere political independence. It necessitates a comprehensive reckoning with colonial legacies that continue to manifest in various dimensions. Socially, these legacies manifest as systemic racism, cultural erasure, and marginalization of indigenous knowledge. Economically, former colonies often find themselves trapped in patterns of resource extraction and economic dependence established during colonial rule. Furthermore, decolonization calls for revisiting historical narratives and reevaluating the portrayal of indigenous cultures, often distorted or silenced by colonial perspectives. Decoloniality  Decoloniality goes beyond the political realm to address colonialism’s epistemological and ontological aspects. Coined by scholars such as Aníbal Quijano and Walter Mignolo, decoloniality questions the dominance of Western knowledge systems and aims to restore the dignity of non-Western ways of knowing. Epistemic colonization refers to the imposition of Western knowledge as superior and universal, often erasing or devaluing the rich knowledge traditions of indigenous cultures (Mignolo and Walsh 2018; Quijano 2021). Decoloniality invites a paradigm shift that involves unlearning the deeply ingrained biases and assumptions that sustain colonial thinking. This involves challenging the binary oppositions, such as civilized/savage or developed/underdeveloped, that were instrumental in justifying colonial domination. By embracing diverse ways of knowing and acknowledging the value of multiple perspectives, societies can transcend the limitations of colonial epistemologies.

3.3  New Consciousness Versus False Consciousness

25

Decolonization and decoloniality are not one-size-fits-all approaches; they vary based on cultural contexts, historical trajectories, and local aspirations. However, some common threads weave through these transformative processes: 1. Education and knowledge production: Rethinking education is a pivotal aspect of decoloniality. This involves incorporating indigenous knowledge into curricula, fostering critical thinking, and promoting a plurality of perspectives. It also encourages interdisciplinary collaboration and respect for oral traditions alongside written sources. 2. Land and resource redistribution: Many indigenous communities continue to struggle for land rights and access to resources taken from them during colonial periods. A decolonial approach involves returning land and resource control to these communities, enabling them to sustain their cultures and livelihoods. 3. Language revitalization: Language is a carrier of culture, and efforts to revive indigenous languages play a crucial role in decolonization. Language revitalization is not just about communication, but it is also about preserving cultural nuances and reconnecting with heritage. 4. Cultural resurgence: Embracing and celebrating indigenous cultures is central to decolonization. This includes revitalizing traditional practices, arts, and rituals that were suppressed under colonial rule. 5. Intersectionality and solidarity: Decolonization recognizes that struggles against colonial legacies intersect with other forms of oppression, such as gender inequality and environmental degradation. Building alliances and promoting solidarity among diverse groups strengthen the overall movement. 6. Challenging global hierarchies: Decoloniality is not limited to former colonies; it challenges global hierarchies perpetuated by colonial ideologies. This involves reevaluating the role of Western powers in the world and promoting equitable international relations (Lugones et al. 2022; Maldonado-Torres 2013). Decolonization and decoloniality are intricate and ongoing processes that demand critical self-reflection, collective action, and a commitment to justice. These concepts invite societies to confront uncomfortable truths about their past while envisioning more equitable futures. By acknowledging the enduring impacts of colonialism and engaging in transformative practices, individuals and communities can contribute to unraveling the threads of colonization and weaving a tapestry of diversity, dignity, and resilience. The journey toward decolonization and decoloniality is, ultimately, a journey toward embracing the complexity of human experiences and honoring the wisdom of diverse cultures (Mignolo and Walsh 2018).

3.3 New Consciousness Versus False Consciousness Latine is not different from other ethnic minorities in the United States in terms of experiencing internalized oppression or double or false consciousness (David 2013; Fatima and Castillo 2017; Hipolito-Delgado et al. 2013). Therefore, the issues of

26

3  Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness…

identity, language, race, and ethnicity are essential to discuss in forums that claim the discussion of decolonization, as these areas are critical for defining one’s self-­ identification as a Latine being. Identity  Identity is at the core of what most humans struggle with, as is evidenced in the mental health field, given that all Curriculums in psychology, counseling, and clinical social work, just to mention a few professions, do offer courses in their training that cover human development. One of the core subjects is identity, and Erickson’s classic work is usually the foundation of those core courses. Therefore, it is not by mistake that people grapple with gaining an understanding of who they are in terms of individual identity and group identity. This process has been one of the essential tasks in every person’s life (Adames and Chavez-Dueña 2017); that is, that understanding of identity as an individual and as part of another large group is complex, and at least three other elements directly influence the understanding and acceptance of such understanding. Language  Language is the primary means of providing help by mental health professionals in the United States, given that talk therapy is the major source of treatment and the essential method of communicating and understanding each other in this culture. This critical element magnifies when working with culturally different people whose first language is not English because language variation can mean the difference between receiving or not receiving services. Additionally, the variations in the language are language values and characteristics of the language, such as speaking directly, secretly, loudly, softly, and rapidly and muttering, whining, yelling, swearing, and touching while speaking (Phan and Torres Rivera 2004; Torres Rivera et al. 2008, 2013). While this has been known for a while, many psychologists and mental health professionals forget that languages influence how people think and communicate in writing (Boroditsky 2001; Phan and Torres Rivera 2004; Torres Rivera et al. 2013; Vygotsky 2011). This means that depending on the language the culture communicates determines the thinking process and patterns of information processing. Therefore, the implications of miscommunication based on language variation are more complicated than simple misunderstandings, with results possibly leading to the misdiagnosing and misapplication of treatment to linguistically different clients in group counseling. Latine Language Variations  Spanish-speaking people are the most significant linguistic different group in the United States, with 61.6% of the US population speaking Spanish. When looking at the three largest Spanish-speaking groups in the United States (Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans), the percentages of people in the United States using Spanish to perform their daily transactions could be even more significant. Spanish is very different from English because of its nonlinearity, syntax, phonology, and semantics. Semantics also differs among Spanish-speaking people, with variations from country to country.

3.3  New Consciousness Versus False Consciousness

27

Spanish is a high-context language. The dynamics of narrative communication for Spanish-speaking people are sound and solid and are not a characteristic of a deficient way of communicating, as many monolingual people have suggested. Of equal importance for mental health professionals and especially group leaders working with bilingual Latine clients is the awareness of different narrative forms of communication in Puerto Ricans, which tend to be more historically present and dramatic than the narrative forms of communication present in Mexicans and Chileans (Phan and Torres Rivera 2004). Most bilingual people are creative. Hence, Latine bilingual clients are not an exception to that creativity, as illustrated by their ability to move from one language to another (fluidity). If one examines the patterns of applying English phrases to Spanish and Spanish words to English and the use of code-switching, creativity can be seen along with other variables, such as gender role bias among Latine clients (Phan and Torres Rivera 2004). Race and Ethnicity  Another important aspect of Latine/x population is their diversity of ethnicities and race from within the Latine/x groups. This aspect can be traced to Spain as Spain is also a multiethnic country. Morales (2018) talks about the spanish triangle as he describes the partial origins of our constantly changing identity in Spain, which struggled to reconstitute itself as a universal Christian nation after a nomadic branch of Islam encountered the post-Roman fragments of Iberia. Despite centuries of convivencia, or a tenuous “living together” arrangement between Christians, Jews, and Muslims, exclusion based on religion shifted to one based on race. This ultimately became the root of the modern conception of race, as Spain’s racial politics allowed for genocide, slavery, indoctrination, and acculturation. The unique model of race and class hierarchy formed in Latin America remains influential to this day through centuries of strife, miscegenation, and race-based trial and error. The saga continues with “Mestizaje vs. the Hypo American Dream,” which is how mestizaje, in ideology and practice, became the cultural legacy that accompanied Latine/x on their migration north to the United States, characterizing racial mixedness both as a path toward whiteness and as a source of strength, the basis of a Latin American exceptionalism and a precursor to the forces of the United States (Morales 2018). “The Second Conquista: Mestizaje on the Down Low” tells the story of Latine arrival in the United States through both migration and absorption of territory thanks to the nineteenth-century Manifest Destiny, laying the groundwork for a new set of nomadic cultural identities. These were inflected both by Latine’s Latin American origins and efforts to remake their new homes in their own image. Such nomadic identity formation is evident in the hybrid living spaces of the Southwest borderlands, the Caribbean transformation in Northern cities such as New York, Boston, and Chicago, and the establishment of Miami as the northernmost capital city of Latin America. It also leaves a significant cultural footprint, generating artistic touchstones from salsa to bilingual literature to the concept of intersectionality as developed by Kimberle Crenshaw that has deeply informed the feminist and

28

3  Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness…

lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) movements. Latine’s cultural inclination to view the world through multiple perspectives has given them a central role in US cultural creativity.

3.4 The Latinization of Psychology Since 2010, the number of psychologists identifying as Latine has increased from 8.20% to 10.14% Latino psychology is a field of study that focuses on understanding the psychological experiences of individuals of Latino or Latine descent. It encompasses various topics, including cultural identity, acculturation, immigration, discrimination, and mental health disparities. By examining the unique cultural, social, and historical contexts that shape the lives of Latinos, this discipline aims to promote culturally responsive and inclusive approaches to mental health and well-being. One fundamental aspect of Latino psychology is the exploration of cultural identity. Latinos often navigate multiple cultural influences, including their ethnic heritage and the mainstream society in which they live. This interplay between cultures can impact their self-perception, values, and beliefs. Understanding the complexities of cultural identity is essential for mental health professionals to provide effective and sensitive care to Latino individuals and communities. Acculturation, the process of adapting to a new culture while maintaining aspects of one’s original culture, is another vital area of study. Latinos may experience various levels of acculturation, ranging from assimilation to biculturalism or maintaining a strong connection to their heritage. The impact of acculturation on psychological well-being, family dynamics, and interpersonal relationships is a crucial consideration in Latino psychology. Additionally, Latino psychology examines the challenges faced by Latino immigrants and their families. Immigration experiences, including leaving one’s home country, language barriers, and adapting to a new society, can contribute to psychological stressors. Mental health professionals within this field aim to understand and address the unique needs of Latino immigrants, including trauma, anxiety, depression, and acculturative stress. Moreover, Latine psychology acknowledges the presence of discrimination and social inequalities that affect the mental health of Latinos. Systemic racism, prejudice, and stereotyping can have detrimental effects on psychological well-being. By highlighting the impact of discrimination and advocating for social justice, this field strives to create inclusive environments and improve mental health outcomes for Latines. Lastly, Latino psychology emphasizes the importance of community and cultural strengths. Latino individuals often draw upon their cultural values, family support systems, and community networks to cope with challenges and promote resilience. Recognizing and fostering these strengths can contribute to positive mental health outcomes and empower individuals and communities.

References

29

Latine psychology is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field that explores the psychological experiences of Latinos. By focusing on cultural identity, acculturation, immigration, discrimination, and community strengths, this discipline aims to address mental health disparities and promote well-being among Latinos. Through culturally responsive practices and advocacy for social justice, Latino psychology contributes to a more inclusive and equitable approach to mental health care.

3.5 Conclusion Equity, inclusion, social justice, and anti-oppressive education have been significant movements within the US educational system. However, decolonizing the Curriculum and integrating practices that disrupt and challenge the systems that perpetuate oppression, discrimination, and marginalization of minoritized, and racialized groups continue to be challenging. These challenges are primarily associated with the dominant discourse of imposing Eurocentric values at the expense of demonizing and devaluing indigenous ways of knowing. Thus, decolonizing educational spaces requires a deep understanding of the colonization process and the integration of liberatory praxis. This means creating educational practices that promote critical reflexivity, problematization, and social transformation. As part of this chapter, the authors first introduced the different stages of colonization presented by Enriquez (1994) and later applied Laenui’s model (2000) as a framework to decolonize academic Curriculums. The second part of the chapter discussed different approaches that have been suggested as decolonizing frameworks in both high school and university settings. The chapter concludes with a proposed model for decolonizing the Curriculum based on Enriquez and Laenui’s model. Hopefully, this chapter motivates educators and academics to engage in critical dialogues regarding what is being taught. How is it presented? Who is represented? And What values is it promoting? This author asserts that even though decolonizing academic spaces is a complex and challenging process, it is imperative that we strive to achieve equity and promote anti-oppressive education.

References Adames, H. Y., & Chavez-Dueña, N. Y. (2017). Cultural Foundations and Interventions in Latino/a Mental Health (Explorations in Mental Health). Routledge. Black, C. (2010). Schooling the World. Lost People Films. Boroditsky, L. (2001). Does language shape thought? Mandarin and English speakers’ conceptions of time. Cognitive Psychology, 43, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.2001.0748

30

3  Liberation and Decolonization (Critical Thinking and Consciousness…

Comas-Díaz, L., & Torres Rivera, E. (2020). Liberation psychology: Theory, Method, Practice, and Social Justice (L. Comas-Díaz & E. Torres Rivera, Eds.). America Psychological Association. David, E.  J. R. (2013). Internalized oppression: The psychology of marginalized groups (E. J. R. David, Ed.). Springer New York. Enriquez, V. G. (1994). From Colonial to Liberation Psychology: The Philippine Experience. De La Salle University Press. Fatima, A. C., & Castillo, F. A. (2017). Consciousness : the arena of struggle today : response to ‘Frantz Fanon and the decolonial turn in psychology : from modern/colonial methods to the decolonial’ attitude by Nelson Maldonado-Torres. South African Journal of Psychology, 47(4), 446–447. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246317738179 Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of the oppressed (Rev. ed.). Penguin Group. George, J. (2021). A lesson on critical race theory. The American Bar Association, 1–9. Gholami, R. (2021). Critical Race Theory and Islamophobia: challenging inequity in Higher Education. Race Ethnicity and Education, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332 4.2021.1879770 Goodman, R. D., & Gorski, P. C. (2015). Decolonizing “multicultural” counseling through social justice (R. D. Goodman & P. C. Gorski, Eds.). Springer. Grayshield, L., & Ramon, D. C. (2020). Indigenous Ways of Knowing in Counseling (L. Grayshield & D. C. Ramon, Eds.). Springer International Publishing. Hipolito-Delgado, C.  P., Gallego Payan, S., & Baca, T.  I. (2013). Self-hatred, self-doubt, and assimilation in Latina/o communities: Las consequencias de la colonización y opresión. In E. J. R. David (Ed.), Internalized Oppression: The Psychology of Marginalized Groups (1rst ed). Springer New York. Intelligence Institute (2003) https://www.co-intelligence.org/co-intelligence-1.html Lebeloane, L. D. M. O. (2017). Decolonizing the school curriculum for equity and social justice in South Africa. Koers, 82(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.19108/KOERS.82.3.2333 Lugones, M., Espinoso-Miñoso, Y., & Maldonado-Torres, N. (2022). Decolonial feminism in Abya Yala: Caribbean, Meso, and South American contributions and challenges. Rowman & Littlefield. Lumadi, M. W. (2021). The pursuit of decolonising and transforming curriculum in higher education. South African Journal of Higher Education, 35, 1–3. Retrieved from http://www.scielo. org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1753-59132021000100001&nrm=iso Macleoud, C. I., Bhatia, S., & Liu, W. (2020). Feminism and decolonising: Possibilities and challenges. Feminists and Psychology, 3(3), 287–3005. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353520932810 Maldonado-Torres, N. (2013). On the coloniality of being: contributions to the development of a concept. In Globalization and the decolonial option (pp. 94–124). Routledge. Martín-Baró, I. (1991). Developing a critical consciousness through the university curriculum. In Towards a society that serves its people: The intellectual contributions of El Salvador’s murdered Jesuits (pp. 220–244). Martín-Baró, I. (1994). Toward a liberation psychology. Writings for a liberation psychology, 17–32. Mena, J. (2021). Decolonizing curriculum. Decolonizing Curriculum; Teachers College. https:// www.tc.columbia.edu/decolonizing-­psychology-­conference/ Mignolo, W. (2017). Coloniality is far from over, and so must be decoloniality. Afterall: A Journal of Art, Context and Enquiry, 43(Spring/Summer), 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1086/692552 Mignolo, W., & Walsh, C.  E. (2018). On decoloniality: Concepts, analytics, praxis. Duke University Press. Moosavi, L. (2020). The decolonial bandwagon and the dangers of intellectual decolonisation. International Review of Sociology, 30(2), 332–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/0390670 1.2020.1776919 Montero, M. (2009). Methods for liberation: Critical consciousness in action. In M. Montero & Christopher C. Sonn, (Eds.), Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications (pp. 73–91). New York: NY: Springer. Morales, E. (2018). Latinx: The New Force in American Politics and Culture. Verso.

References

31

Moratilla, N.  C. A. (2019). Revisiting Paulo: Critical Pedagogy and Testimonial Narratives as Liberative Spaces in the Philippines’ K-12 Curriculum. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies (JCEPS), 17(2). Phan, L. T., & Torres Rivera, E. (2004). The impact of language on dynamics in counseling and psychotherapy groups. Handbook of Group Counseling and Psychotherapy, 283–294. Quijano, A. (2021). Colonialidad del poder y clasificación social. In Cuestiones y horizontes (pp. 325–370). https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1gm019g.12 Riggs, M., & Badgley, C. (1995). Black is ... Black ain’t. California Newsreel. Sharma, J., & Hipolito-Delgado, C. P. (2021). Promoting anti-racism and critical consciousness through a critical counseling theories course. Teaching and Supervision in Counseling, 3(2), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.7290/tsc030203 Sonn, C. C., & Garth, S. (2021). Tracking the decolonial turn in contemporary community psychology: Expanding socially just knowledge archives, ways of being and modes of praxis. In S. Garth & C. C. Sonn (Eds.), Decoloniality and epistemic justice in contemporary community psychology (1st Ed, pp. 1–19). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­72220-­3_1 Stein, S., & de Olivereira Andreotti, V. (2016). Decolonization and Higher Education. In M. Peters (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational philosophy and theory. Springer Science+Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­287-­532-­7_479-­1 Tate, K. A., Torres Rivera, E., & Edwards, L. M. (2015). Colonialism and Multicultural Counseling Competence Research: A Liberatory Analysis BT—Decolonizing “Multicultural” Counseling through Social Justice (R. D. Goodman & P. C. Gorski, Eds.; pp. 41–54). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­1-­4939-­1283-­4_4 Tejeda, C., Espinoza, M., & Gutierrez, K. (2003). Toward a decolonizing pedagogy: Social justice reconsidered. Pedagogies of Difference: Rethinking Education for Social Change, 9–38. Torres Rivera, E., Conwill, W., Garrett, M. T., West-Olatunji, C., Conwill, W., Garrett, M. T., Phan, L.  T., Torres-Rivera, E., West-Olatunji, C., Conwill, W., Garrett, M.  T., Phan, L.  T., Torres Rivera, E., Conwill, W., Garrett, M. T., West-Olatunji, C., Conwill, W., Garrett, M. T., & Phan, L. T. (2008). Language as a form of subtle oppression among linguistically different people in the United States of America. Revista Perpectivas Sociales, 10(1), 11–28. Torres Rivera, E., Maldonado, J., & Alarcon, L. (2013). From Vygotsky to Martín Baró: Dealing with Language and Liberation During the Supervision Process. Universal Journal of Psychology, 1(2), 32–40. Trujillo-Pagan, N. (2013). Modern Colonization by Medical Intervention: U.S. Medicine in Puerto Rico. Haymarket Books. Vygotsky, L. (2011). Chapter 3: Stern’s Theory of Language. Thought and Language, 1–12. papers://dee23da0-e34b-4588-b624-f878b46d7b3d/Paper/p572

Chapter 4

Knowledge and Research (Indigenous Way of Knowing)

Abstract In this chapter, the author explores the sources of knowledge for Latine populations, focusing on their diverse origins and influences. The chapter examines the significance of various knowledge sources, particularly in educational settings with controversial aspects like ethnic studies. The author highlights that Latine knowledge encompasses multiple disciplines and perspectives from Spain and Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America. However, relying solely on Spanish sources limits the representation of other native languages of the Americas. The chapter discusses praxis, a transformative process combining theory and practice. This approach, informed by liberation psychology, involves reflection, critique, and action to promote personal growth and social change. An intro for praxis is outlined, involving self-reflection, contextual analysis, critical inquiry, and collaborative dialogue. This preparatory phase empowers individuals and communities to engage meaningfully in addressing social issues and advocating for justice. Keywords Colonialism · Racism · Liberation · Indigenous · Oppression · Decolonization · Counseling · Psychology · Praxis In this chapter, the author investigates the sources of knowledge for Latine populations. While the different sources of knowledge, information, or content usually have a similar origin in terms of what are areas of content in academic settings, in this chapter, the author includes controversy in educational settings such as ethnic studies (Adames and Chavez-Dueña 2017; Morales 2018). As such, Latine sources of knowledge encompass a wide range of disciplines and perspectives originating from the Latine world, which also includes Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America. Nonetheless, relying only on sources that only speak Spanish is limiting, given that Spanish is the colonizer language and excludes other native languages of the Americas, such as native language (Akkeren and Rudd 2007; Ciafalo 2019). Keeping this in mind, sources of knowledge that have contributed significantly to various fields include literature, art, philosophy, history, and science. It is essential to mention that for Latine

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E. Torres Rivera, Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism, International and Cultural Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7_4

33

34

4  Knowledge and Research (Indigenous Way of Knowing)

populations. These are significant sources of knowledge, as we learned during our formatting years in traditional school systems and using traditional curriculums, as mentioned in previous chapters, to reemphasize the curriculum’s colonization process (Donald et al. 2018). Departing from the traditional curriculum using the colonizer language of Spanish, we find that one prominent area of Latine knowledge lies in literature. Spanish-language authors such as Miguel de Cervantes, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, and Jorge Luis Borges have produced timeless works that explore the human condition and challenge traditional storytelling techniques (Chandler and Schwartz 1991; Rogler 2008). Furthermore, Latine sources of knowledge also include the contribution of renowned painters such as Diego Velázquez, Frida Kahlo, and Pablo Picasso. These artists’ contributions are essential because they have enriched the visual arts, encouraged new artistic expressions, and helped shape the unique Latine identity in the Americas (Dussel 2005; Stein and de Oliveira Andreotti 2016). Latine philosophers, such as José Ortega y Gasset and Octavio Paz, have significantly contributed to philosophical thought. Their writings delve into existential questions, cultural identity, and the role of individuals in society. Through their philosophical inquiries, they have fostered critical thinking and influenced intellectual discourse in the Latine world and beyond, again not to forget the work of Dussel (2005). As it is common in using decolonization and liberatory methods of seeking affirmation, history does provide not only a valuable insight into the past but also an affirmation of the value of the cultural identity beyond pre- and postcolonial identity development (Phinney 1991; Rivera Ramos 2001; Torres Rivera 2005). Latine sources of knowledge encompass literature, art, philosophy, history, and science. From the literary masterpieces of Cervantes to the artistic expressions of Kahlo, the philosophical inquiries of Ortega y Gasset, the historical research of León-Portilla, and the scientific discoveries of Ochoa, these sources have enriched human understanding and continue to shape our world (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020).

4.1 Indigenous Way of Knowing or Other Ways of Knowing Indigenous ways of knowing refer to the unique knowledge systems, perspectives, and worldviews held by Indigenous cultures and communities worldwide. These knowledge systems are deeply rooted in the interconnectedness between humans, nature, and the spiritual realm. Indigenous peoples have developed ways of knowing through generations of lived experiences, observations, and interactions with their environments (Grayshield and Mihecoby 2010). Latine people are a mix of native people, African descendent people, European descendent people, and other colonizer people from within the Americas (Diaz

4.1  Indigenous Way of Knowing or Other Ways of Knowing

35

2010). Thus, it is essential to underline Indigenous culture’s strong influence on the Latine identity development (Adames and Chavez-Dueña 2017). Consequently, it is important to list the characteristics and principles of Indigenous ways of knowing. First, there is the principle of a Holistic worldview. Indigenous cultures often view the world as interconnected, where everything is interdependent. This holistic perspective recognizes the intrinsic relationships between humans, animals, plants, land, water, and the spiritual realm. The concept supports this first principle to keep some balance. Every living thing must be aware that we need other living and non-­ living things in our ecological system (Garrett et al. 2008). The oral tradition and storytelling are also very important to the Latine people, and Indigenous knowledge is often transmitted orally through storytelling, ceremonies, and rituals. This tradition emphasizes the importance of collective memory, wisdom, and continuity of cultural teachings across generations (Rogler 2008; Torres Rivera et al. 2004). Native people were the first environmentalists (Zbrog 2023). Therefore, their land-based knowledge is an important element of their methodology. Indigenous peoples have a profound connection to their ancestral lands and territories. They possess intimate knowledge of the environment, including plants, animals, ecosystems, and natural cycles. This ecological knowledge is vital for sustainable resource management and preserving biodiversity (Garrett et al. 2008). Spirituality and interconnectedness: Indigenous ways of knowing also acknowledge the spiritual dimensions of life and the interconnectivity between humans, nature, and the spiritual realm. Spirituality is often integrated into everyday practices, ceremonies, and rituals. Respect for ancestors and elders: Indigenous cultures value the wisdom and guidance of ancestors and elders. They honor their ancestors’ knowledge and seek guidance in decision-making processes (Comas-Díaz et al. 2019; Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020). Collective and community oriented: Indigenous knowledge is often communal, focusing on the community’s well-being. Decision-making processes emphasize consensus-building and the inclusion of diverse perspectives (Afuape and Hughes 2016; Torres Rivera 2003). Experiential and observational learning: Indigenous ways of knowing prioritized direct experience and observation as a means of practical and valuable learning. Knowledge is gained through immersion in the natural world, participating in traditional activities and learning from elders and community members (Afuape and Hughes 2016; Morrow 2008). Indigenous ways of knowing are diverse and vary across different Indigenous cultures and communities worldwide. Each group has unique perspectives, practices, and knowledge systems shaped by their specific cultural, historical, and geographical contexts. This also sounds real to the Latine communities.

36

4  Knowledge and Research (Indigenous Way of Knowing)

4.2 Native Methodology Traditionally, we have functioned with the idea that we got four sources of new knowledge, including intuition (beliefs), authority (the influence of someone with more experience), rational induction (relating to previous knowledge or tying two ideas together to create a new one), and scientific empiricism (programmatic research) (Torres Rivera 2013). For the most part, Western traditions rely heavily on scientific empiricism and believe that creation needs improvement and is imperfect. As such, the continuous search for new knowledge, this idea, along with the idea that some people are superior to others, keeps other types of expertise sequestered for public consumption (Blume 2020). Thus, given the diversity of the Latine people, Indigenous methodologies encompass a diverse range of research approaches rooted in Indigenous communities’ cultural, social, and ecological contexts. These methodologies reflect Indigenous peoples’ unique worldviews, values, and knowledge systems, providing a framework for preserving traditional knowledge, promoting self-determination, and empowering communities (Denzin et al. 2008). Indigenous methodologies emphasize preserving traditional knowledge, recognizing it as a valuable resource accumulated over generations. Unlike conventional Western research paradigms, Indigenous methods prioritize holistic and interconnected world understandings. They incorporate oral histories, storytelling, and community engagement, fostering a deep connection to land, ancestors, and spirituality. By honoring Indigenous ways of knowing, these methodologies safeguard traditional practices, ecological wisdom, medicinal knowledge, and cultural heritage against the erasure often experienced due to colonialism and globalization (Ciofalo 2019; Grayshield and Ramon 2020). Indigenous methodologies empower communities by centering their cultural values, languages, and practices. They recognize that knowledge generation and dissemination must be community led and mutually beneficial. Indigenous researchers work collaboratively with community members, prioritizing their needs, aspirations, and self-determination. This approach ensures that research outcomes are relevant and respectful and contribute to the community’s well-being. By engaging in research and knowledge production that aligns with their cultural frameworks, Indigenous communities strengthen their identity, self-esteem, and agency in a world that often marginalizes them (Chavez et al. 2016). Indigenous methodologies challenge the dominant Western-centric paradigms that have historically marginalized and misrepresented Indigenous peoples. By decolonizing research, they contest the power imbalances inherent in traditional research frameworks. Indigenous researchers engage in ethical and equitable partnerships with nonindigenous scholars, fostering dialogue and co-learning. They critique the appropriation of Indigenous knowledge and advocate for the respectful use of traditional knowledge in research, policy-making, and other areas (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020).

4.3  Prelude for Praxis Following the Teaching of Freire

37

Indigenous methodologies offer a transformative approach to research and knowledge production rooted in the values and perspectives of Indigenous communities. By preserving traditional knowledge, empowering communities, and decolonizing research, these methodologies foster cultural resilience, enhance community well-being, and contribute to a more inclusive and equitable world that embraces the wisdom of Indigenous peoples. Recognizing and supporting the ongoing revitalization and application of Indigenous methodologies in academic and societal realms is essential.

4.3 Prelude for Praxis Following the Teaching of Freire The world praxis is found in all literature about liberation psychology, and it is associated with action as it encompasses the transformative process of theory informed by practice and practice shaped by theory (Freire 1996; Martin Baro 2006; Moane 2003; Morrow 2008). It is important to mention that liberation psychology is based on the concept that it can be equated with autonomous or native psychology (Duran et  al. 2008; Duran and Duran 1995; Enriquez 1994; Martin Baró 1998). Nonetheless, through praxis, individuals and communities engage in thoughtful reflection, critique, and action, fostering personal growth, social change, and the pursuit of justice (Martin Baró 1998; Montero and Sonn 2009). Therefore, a prelude for praxis sets the stage for this transformative journey, serving as a critical preparatory phase that combines introspection, research, and intentionality. By delving into this preliminary phase, individuals can better understand their values, goals, and sociopolitical context in which they operate (Montero 2009). Here, the author presents the significance of a prelude for praxis, highlighting its essential elements and emphasizing its role in empowering meaningful action (Chavez et  al. 2016; Montero 2016). The first element of a prelude for praxis is self-reflection. It involves introspection, contemplation, and an honest examination of one’s beliefs, biases, and experiences. Through self-reflection, individuals can uncover their motivations, passions, and personal stakes in pursuing praxis. It also facilitates the identification of areas for growth and personal development. By engaging in self-reflection, individuals cultivate self-awareness and a clearer understanding of their roles as agents of change (Freire 1996, 2000; Montero et al. 2017). The second element of a prelude for praxis is contextual analysis. This involves examining the broader sociopolitical and cultural context in which one’s praxis will occur. Understanding power dynamics, systemic inequalities, and historical perspectives provides a foundation for informed action. The contextual analysis enables individuals to recognize societal issues’ root causes and identify the most effective avenues for intervention and change. Critical inquiry: Critical inquiry is another essential prelude to praxis. It involves rigorous research, examination, and analysis of relevant theories, frameworks, and best practices. Engaging with diverse perspectives, scholarly literature, and

38

4  Knowledge and Research (Indigenous Way of Knowing)

practical case studies deepen one’s understanding of the issue. Critical inquiry equips individuals with the knowledge and analytical tools to challenge assumptions, question prevailing narratives, and propose innovative solutions (Chavez et al. 2016; Montero and Sonn 2009; Torres Rivera 2020). Collaborative dialogue is a vital aspect of a prelude to praxis. Engaging in conversations with diverse stakeholders, including affected communities, experts, and peers, fosters a broader perspective and enriches the collective understanding of complex issues. Collaborative dialogue also promotes empathy, shared learning, and the co-creation of strategies that are responsive to the needs and aspirations of all stakeholders involved (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020).

4.4 Conclusion In summary, a prelude for praxis acts as a catalyst for meaningful action and transformative change. By incorporating self-reflection, contextual analysis, critical inquiry, and collaborative dialogue, individuals can embark on their praxis journey with clarity, intentionality, and a nuanced understanding of their positionality and the broader social landscape. The prelude for praxis empowers individuals to address social injustices, challenge oppressive systems, and advocate for equitable and sustainable solutions. Through this intentional preparation, individuals and communities are better equipped to navigate the complexities of praxis and contribute to a more just and inclusive society (Freire 1996; McLaren et al. 2000; Torres Rivera et al. 2005; Walsh n.d.).

References Adames, H. Y., & Chavez-Dueña, N. Y. (2017). Cultural Foundations and Interventions in Latino/a Mental Health (Explorations in Mental Health). Routledge. Afuape, T., & Hughes, G. (2016). Liberation practices: Toward emotional well-being through dialogue (T.  Afuape & G.  Hughes, Eds.). Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/ products/9781138791138 Akkeren, Rudd, V. (2007). La visión Indigena de la conquista. Serviprensa. Blume, A. (2020). A New Psychology Based on Community, Equality, and Care of the Earth: An Indigenous American Perspective. Praeger ABC-CLIO, LLC. Chandler, R. E., & Schwartz, K. (1991). A new history of Spanish literature. LSU Press. Chavez, T. A., Torres Fernandez, I., Hipolito-Delgado, C. P., & Torres Rivera, E. (2016). Unifying Liberation Psychology and Humanistic Values to Promote Social Justice in Counseling. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 55(3), 166–182. Ciafalo, N. (2019). Indigenous psychologies in an Era of Decolonization (N.  Ciofalo, Ed.). Springer. Ciofalo, N. (2019). Indigenous Psychologies: A Contestation for Epistemic Justice. In N. Ciofalo (Ed.), Indigenous Psychologies in an Era of Decolonization (pp. 1–38). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­04822-­8_1

References

39

Comas-Díaz, L., Hall, G. N., & Neville, H. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74(1). https://doi.org/10.1037/ amp0000442 Comas-Díaz, L., & Torres Rivera, E. (2020). Liberation psychology: Theory, Method, Practice, and Social Justice (L. Comas-Díaz & E. Torres Rivera, Eds.). America Psychological Association. Denzin, N., L. Y., Tuhiwai Smith, L., Denzin N., L. Y., & Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2008). Handbook of Critical and Indigenous Methodologies Intro.pdf (pp. 1–19). Sage Publications. Diaz, P. (2010). The end of poverty? Cinema Libre Studio. Donald, L., Oupa, M., & Lebeloane, L.. (2018). Decolonizing the school curriculum for equity and social justice in South Africa. https://doi.org/10.19108/KOERS.82.3.2333 Duran, E., & Duran, B. (1995). Native American postcolonial psychology. State University of New York Press. Duran, E., Firehammer, J., & Gonzalez, J. (2008). Liberation Psychology as the Path Toward Healing Cultural Soul Wounds. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 288–295. https:// doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-­6678.2008.tb00511.x Dussel, E. (2005). “Ser hispano”: Un mundo en el “Border” de muchos mundos. In R. Grosfoguel, N. Maldonado-Torres, & J. D. Saldivar (Eds.), Latin@s in the world-system: Decolonization struggles in the 21st century U.S. empire (pp. 41–55). Routledge. Enriquez, V. G. (1994). From Colonial to Liberation Psychology: The Philippine Experience. De La Salle University Press. Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of the oppressed (Rev. ed.). Penguin Group. Freire, P. (2000). Cultural Action for Freedom (2000 ed). Harvard Educational Review. Garrett, M. T., Brubaker, M., Torres-Rivera, E., West-Olatunji, C., & Conwill, W. L. (2008). The medicine of coming to the center: Use of the Native American Centering Technique—Ayeli— to promote wellness and healing in group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 33(2), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933920801977322 Grayshield, L., & Mihecoby, A. (2010). Indigenous Ways of Knowing as a Philosophical Base for the Promotion of Peace and Justice in Counseling Education and Psychology. Journal for Social Action in Counseling and Psychology, 2(2), 1–16. Grayshield, L., & Ramon, D. C. (2020). Indigenous Ways of Knowing in Counseling (L. Grayshield & D. C. Ramon, Eds.). Springer International Publishing. Martin Baró, I. (1998). Psicología de la liberación. Editorial Trotta. Martin Baro, I. (2006). Hacia una psicologia de liberacion. Revista Electrónica de Intervención Psicosocial y Psicología Comunitaria, 1(2), 7–14. McLaren, P., Leistyna, P., & McLaren, P. (2000). Che Guevara, Paulo Freire, and the Pedagogy of Revolution. In Educational Researcher (Vol. 29, Issue 3). Rowman & Littlefield. Moane, G. (2003). Bridging the personal and the political: Practices for a liberation psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(March), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.102 3/A:1023026704576 Montero, M. (2009). Methods for liberation: Critical consciousness in action. In M. Montero & C. Sonn, Christopher (Eds.), Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications (pp. 73–91). Springer. Montero, M. (2016). Psychology of liberation revised: A critique of critique. In B. Gough (Ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Social Psychology (pp.  147–161). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-­1-­137-­50018-­2 Montero, M., & Sonn, C. C. (2009). Psychology of Liberation: Theory and Applications. Springer. http://www.amazon.com/Psychology-­Liberation-­Theory-­Applications-­Peace/dp/0387857834/ ref=sr_1_27?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1399677823&sr=1-­27&keywords=psychology+a nd+human+rights#reader_0387857834 Montero, M., Sonn, C. C., & Burton, M. (2017). Community psychology and liberation psychology: A creative synergy for an ethical and transformative praxis. In M. A. Bond, I. Serrano-­ García, C. B. Keys, & M. Shinn (Eds.), APA handbook of community psychology: Theoretical foundations, core concepts, and emerging challenges, Vol. 1 (pp.  149–167). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14953-­007

40

4  Knowledge and Research (Indigenous Way of Knowing)

Morales, E. (2018). Latinx: The New Force in American Politics and Culture. Verso. Morrow, R. A. (2008). Paulo Freire, indigenous knowledge, and Eurocentric critiques of development: Three perspectives. In Social Justice Education for Teachers (pp. 81–100). Brill. Phinney, J. S. (1991). Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem: A Review and Integration. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 13, 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863910132005 Rivera Ramos, E. (2001). The legal construction of identity: The judicial and social legacy of American colonialism in Puerto Rico. America Psychological Association. Rogler, Lloy. D. (2008). Barrio Professors: Tales of Naturalistic Research. Left Coast Press. Stein, S., & de Olivereira Andreotti, V. (2016). Decolonization and Higher Education. In M. Peters (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational philosophy and theory. Springer Science+Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­287-­532-­7_479-­1 Torres Rivera, E. (2003). Groups with Latinos. Handbook of Group Counseling and Psychotherapy, 213. Torres Rivera, E. (2005). Liquid identity: A nonlinear approach to the understanding of the Puerto Rican identity. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 39(1), 107–116. Torres Rivera, E. (2013). Is quality a culturally-based or universal construct? Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 47(1), 1–6. Torres Rivera, E. (2020). Concepts of liberation psychology. In L.  Comas-Diaz & E.  Torres Rivera (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice (pp. 41–51). American Psychological Association. Torres Rivera, E., Garrett, M.  T., & Crutchfield, L.  B. (2004). Multicultural Interventions in Groups: The Use of Indigenous Methods. Torres Rivera, E., Phan, L. T., Garrett, M. T., & D’Andrea, M. (2005). Integrating Che Guevara, Don Pedro Albizú Campos, and Paulo Freire, in the revolution of counseling: Re-visioning social justice when counseling Latino clients. Radical Psychology Journal. Walsh, C.  E. (n.d.). Pedagogías decoloniales caminando y preguntando  : notas a Paulo Freire desde Abya Yala. Zbrog, M. (2023). Indigenous Healing Techniques and Counseling. Counseling Schools.

Chapter 5

Applications and Future Directions (What Can Be Done and How)

Abstract This chapter discusses the concept of praxis. Praxis is not limited to simple application; it encompasses a reflective and transformative process. It engages individuals with their environment, promoting critical analysis of societal structures and the challenge of oppressive systems. Through praxis, individuals gain deeper insights into the world, leading to informed and intentional action. This interaction between knowledge and action emphasizes the interconnectedness of these two elements. Latine psychology acknowledges the unique experiences of Latin American communities within psychology. It considers culture, history, language, and identity in shaping psychological well-being. Latine psychology must engage in decolonization, challenging oppressive systems and incorporating indigenous knowledge and practices to be transformative and liberating. This approach fosters holistic healing and empowerment within these communities. However, decolonizing Latine psychology faces challenges, including diverse identities, the need for ongoing cultural competency training, and an intersectional approach to address multiple forms of oppression. Ultimately, decolonization within Latine psychology contributes to a more inclusive and equitable mental health landscape, promoting resilience, empowerment, and liberation for all individuals within the Latine community. Keywords Colonialism · Racism · Liberation · Indigenous · Oppression · Decolonization · Counseling · Psychology · Praxis As mentioned in Chap. 4, Praxis, derived from the Greek word “prattein,” meaning “to do,” refers to the transformative process of putting theory into practice. It bridges knowledge and action, allowing individuals and communities to engage with their surroundings and effect meaningful change critically. In this chapter, we explore the concept of praxis and examine its practical applications in various contexts (Freire 1996; McLaren et al. 2000; Morrow 2008; Torres Rivera et al. 2005). Praxis encompasses the dynamic interaction between theory and practice. It goes beyond mere application and delves into a reflective and transformative process. Praxis involves individuals actively engaging with the world around them, analyzing societal structures, and challenging oppressive systems. By critically reflecting © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E. Torres Rivera, Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism, International and Cultural Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7_5

41

42

5  Applications and Future Directions (What Can Be Done and How)

on their experiences, individuals gain a deeper understanding of the world and develop strategies for transformative action. Praxis acknowledges the interconnectedness of knowledge and action, emphasizing the importance of informed and intentional practice (Martin Baró 1998; Montero 2009, 2016). Social movements provide an ideal platform for praxis in practice, and they often emerge in response to injustices and aim to challenge existing power structures. Through praxis, activists can analyze societal issues, study the root causes of inequality, and propose alternative solutions. Social movements can foster positive change by organizing protests, engaging in grassroots initiatives, and implementing community-driven projects. Praxis enables individuals to bridge the gap between theory and action, empowering them to challenge oppressive systems and envision a more just society (Martin Baró 1998; Tate et al. 2013, 2015). By incorporating experiential learning, critical thinking, and real-world applications, educators can empower students to become active participants in their education (Freire 1996; McLaren et  al. 2000). Students engage with complex societal issues through praxis, analyze multiple perspectives, and collaboratively develop solutions. This approach transcends rote memorization and promotes a deeper understanding of knowledge, encouraging students to apply what they learn to real-­ life situations. Praxis in education cultivates lifelong learners equipped to address social challenges and actively contribute to their communities (Freire 2000). Praxis extends beyond academia and social movements and finds relevance in professional settings. By combining theoretical knowledge with practical experience, professionals can develop innovative approaches and drive organizational change (Morrow 2008; Walsh n.d.). Praxis enables individuals to critically assess current practices, identify areas for improvement, and implement solutions based on evidence and analysis. It encourages collaboration, creativity, and adaptability, ensuring organizations remain responsive to evolving contexts. Praxis in professional settings enables individuals to bridge the gap between theory and application, fostering innovation and growth (Torres-Rivera and Phan 2001; Torres-Rivera and Ratts 2014). Praxis is a transformative force, allowing individuals and communities to bridge the gap between theory and action. By critically engaging with their surroundings, people can challenge existing systems, effect meaningful change, and envision a more equitable and just society. Praxis catalyzes personal growth, societal transformation, and collective empowerment (Montero et al. 2017; Montero and Sonn 2009).

5.1 Examples of Community Praxis Models Community praxis refers to applying theoretical knowledge and ideas to real-world situations in a community setting. It involves actively engaging community members in problem-solving, decision-making, and implementing change. Below are some examples of Praxis models used with Latine populations.

5.1  Examples of Community Praxis Models

43

First is the participatory action research (PAR). This particular model involves collaborative research conducted by community members and researchers. It emphasizes the active participation of community members in identifying issues, collecting data, and designing and implementing interventions. PAR aims to empower communities by involving them in research and addressing their specific needs (Fernández Siham 2020). Asset-based community development (ABCD): ABCD focuses on identifying and mobilizing a community’s existing assets and resources. It encourages community members to work together and utilize their strengths and capacities to address local challenges. This model emphasizes the importance of community self-reliance and sustainability (Webber et al. 2018). Another example is community-based participatory research (CBPR). This model is a collaborative research approach involving community members, researchers, and other stakeholders working together throughout the research process. It aims to address community needs and build equitable partnerships between researchers and the community. CBPR promotes community ownership of research and the utilization of research findings for positive change (Lykes and Tavara 2020). Another example is the community organizing model, which involves bringing community members together to address social, economic, or political issues collectively. It emphasizes grassroots mobilization, community empowerment, and collective action. Community organizers help facilitate the process of building relationships, developing leadership, and advocating for change (Prilleltensky 2001). Another model to consider is that restorative justice circles provide a space for dialogue and healing within a community. They bring together individuals affected by conflict or harm and allow open communication, empathy, and problem-solving. Restorative justice circles aim to repair relationships, restore harmony, and prevent future harm (Cavanagh et al. 2014). Finally, the community-led development model places community members at the forefront of decision-making and project implementation. It involves empowering community members to identify their needs, develop solutions, and take ownership of development initiatives. Community-led development recognizes that sustainable change comes from within the community (Blume 2020; Lykes and Tavara 2020; Rich and Ramkumar 2021; Roopnarine and Chadee 2015). While these are just a few examples of community praxis working models, there are many variations and combinations of these approaches depending on the specific context and goals of the community. Each model emphasizes the importance of active community engagement, participation, and collaboration to create meaningful and sustainable change when working with Latine populations (Comas-Díaz and Torres Rivera 2020).

44

5  Applications and Future Directions (What Can Be Done and How)

5.2 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Directions Thus, we must understand that Latine psychology is a complex field of study that examines the psychological experiences, challenges, and strengths of individuals who identify as Latine, a gender-neutral term used to encompass people of Latin American descent living in the United States (Adames and Chavez-Dueña 2017; Martinez and Mendoza 1984). As a marginalized group, Latine populations have often faced systemic oppression, discrimination, and effects of colonization (Torres-­ Rivera 2013; Torres-Rivera and Ratts 2014). The concept of decolonization seeks to challenge and dismantle these oppressive systems, enabling Latine individuals to reclaim their identities, heal from historical trauma, and shape their narratives. This chapter explores the importance of Latine psychology and its relationship with decolonization (Fatima and Castillo 2017; Gorski and Goodman 2015; Hernández-­ Wolfe 2013). Therefore, we must accept that Latine psychology acknowledges the unique experiences of Latine populations within the broader context of psychology. It emphasizes the importance of culture, history, language, and identity in shaping psychological well-being (Adames and Chavez-Dueña 2017; Morales 2018; Torres-­ Rivera et  al. 2004; Torres-Rivera and Ratts 2014). By recognizing the diversity within the Latine community, the field aims to challenge the homogenizing tendencies that often overlook individual differences and perpetuate stereotypes. Latine individuals often face challenges related to their cultural identity and self-­ concept. The acculturation process and negotiation between Latin American heritage and the dominant culture can impact their mental health. Latine psychology seeks to address the complexities of bicultural identity and foster a positive sense of self by validating diverse experiences and encouraging individuals to embrace their heritage (Chambor Chanabor et al. 2019; Cotté Morales et al. 2012; Morales 2018). Colonialism, slavery, and sociopolitical conflicts have left deep scars on Latine communities, resulting in historical trauma that persists across generations. Latine psychology acknowledges the intergenerational effects of trauma and aims to provide healing strategies that recognize and validate these experiences. Mental health professionals can offer culturally relevant interventions by contextualizing psychological distress within historical and social factors (Grosfoguel et  al. 2006; Maldonado-Torres 2008). Decolonization involves questioning and challenging the oppressive systems and narratives imposed on marginalized communities. For Latine psychology to be truly transformative and liberating, it must engage in decolonization (Tate et al. 2015). Decolonizing Latine psychology necessitates a return to indigenous knowledge and practices that predate colonization. Recognizing the wisdom of indigenous traditions, healing practices, and worldviews allows for a more holistic understanding of mental health. By incorporating culturally appropriate approaches, such as curanderismo or other traditional healing methods, the field can expand its repertoire of therapeutic interventions (Costantino et al. 1988; Rogler 2008).

References

45

Decolonization also involves empowering Latine communities to challenge oppressive structures and reclaim agency over their lives. By promoting community activism, advocacy, and social justice initiatives, Latine psychology can contribute to the dismantling of systemic barriers that perpetuate inequality and mental health disparities. This empowerment fosters resilience, collective healing, and cultivation of positive social identities. The journey of decolonization within Latine psychology faces several challenges that require ongoing attention and collaboration. Latine individuals encompass diverse racial, ethnic, gender, and sexual identities. Decolonizing Latine psychology should incorporate an intersectional approach, recognizing the intersecting forms of oppression experienced by individuals at the intersections of multiple identities. This approach ensures inclusivity and prevents the reproduction of power imbalances within the field. To effectively address the needs of Latine individuals, mental health professionals must engage in ongoing cultural competency training. Professionals can provide culturally sensitive and appropriate care by understanding the sociopolitical context, history, and cultural nuances. This training should be incorporated into psychology programs and continuing education to ensure the provision of equitable mental health services. Latine psychology and the process of decolonization are intertwined, providing a framework to understand the psychological experiences of Latine individuals and challenge oppressive systems. The field can foster resilience, empowerment, and liberation by centering cultural identity, historical context, and collective healing. Decolonizing Latine psychology requires collaboration, cultural humility, and an unwavering commitment to social justice, contributing to a more inclusive and equitable mental health landscape for all Latine individuals.

References Adames, H. Y., & Chavez-Dueña, N. Y. (2017). Cultural Foundations and Interventions in Latino/a Mental Health (Explorations in Mental Health). Routledge. Blume, A. (2020). A New Psychology Based on Community, Equality, and Care of the Earth: An Indigenous American Perspective. Praeger ABC-CLIO, LLC. Cavanagh, T., Vigil, P., & Garcia, E. (2014). A story legitimating the voices of Latino/Hispanic students and their parents: Creating a restorative justice response to wrongdoing and conflict in schools. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(4), 565–579. Chambor Chanabor, M., Chambor Chanabor, C., Morales Vazquez, J. M., & Diaz Diaz, E. (2019). Uk’Ay K’ax (El Canto de La Selva---Song of the Rainforest). In N. Ciofalo (Ed.), Indigenous Psychologies in an Era of Decolonization (pp. 153–172). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­04822-­8_4 Comas-Díaz, L., & Torres Rivera, E. (2020). Liberation psychology: Theory, Method, Practice, and Social Justice (L. Comas-Díaz & E. Torres Rivera, Eds.). America Psychological Association. Costantino, G., Malgady, R.  G., & Rogler, L.  H. (1988). Folk hero modeling therapy for Puerto Rican adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 11(2), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0140-­1971(88)80050-­2

46

5  Applications and Future Directions (What Can Be Done and How)

Cotté Morales, A., Orfilia Barreto, M., Pizarro Claudio, D., Quiñones Sierra, W., Seda Rodriguez, Raquel, M., & Vega Rodriguez, Luz, A. (2012). Trabajo comunitario y descolonizacion. Fundacion Frnacisco Manquique Cabrera. Fatima, A. C., & Castillo, F. A. (2017). Consciousness: the arena of struggle today : response to ‘Frantz Fanon and the decolonial turn in psychology : from modern/colonial methods to the decolonial’ attitude by Nelson Maldonado-Torres. South African Journal of Psychology, 47(4), 446–447. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246317738179 Fernandez Siham, J. (2020). Liberation Psychology of and for Transformative Justice: Centering Acompañamineto in Participatory Action Research. In L.  Comas-Diaz & E.  Torres Rivera (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice (pp.  91–110). America Psychological Association. Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of the oppressed (Rev. ed.). Penguin Group. Freire, P. (2000). Cultural Action for Freedom (2000 ed). Harvard Educational Review. Gorski, P.  C., & Goodman, R.  D. (2015). Introduction: Toward a Decolonized Multicultural Counseling and Psychology BT—Decolonizing “Multicultural” Counseling through Social Justice (R.  D. Goodman & P.  C. Gorski, Eds.; pp.  1–10). Springer New  York. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­1-­4939-­1283-­4_1 Grosfoguel, R., Maldonado-Torres, N., & Saldivar, J.  D. (2006). Latin@ in the world-system: Decolonization struggles in the 21st century U.S. empire (R.  Grosfoguel, N.  Maldonado-­ Torres, & J. D. Saldivar, Eds.). Routledge. Hernández-Wolfe, P. (2013). A borderlands view on Latinos, Latin Americans, and decolonization: Rethinking mental health. Jason Aronson, Incorporated. Lykes, B.  M., & Tavara, G. (2020). Feminist Participatory Action Research: Coconstructing Liberation Psychological Praxis Through Dialogic Relational and Critical Reflexivity. In L. Comas-Diaz & E. Torres Rivera (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice (pp. 111–130). America Psychological Association. Maldonado-Torres, N. (2008). Against War: Views from the Underside of Modernity (Latin America Otherwise). Duke University Press Books. Martin Baró, I. (1998). Psicología de la liberación. Editorial Trotta. Martinez, J. L., & Mendoza R. H. (1984). Chicano psychology (J. L. Martinez & R. H. Mendoza, Eds.; Second Edi). Academic Press. McLaren, P., Leistyna, P., & McLaren, P. (2000). Che Guevara, Paulo Freire, and the Pedagogy of Revolution. In Educational Researcher (Vol. 29, Issue 3). Rowman & Littlefield. Montero, M. (2009). Methods for liberation: Critical consciousness in action. In M. Montero & C. Sonn, Christopher (Eds.), Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications (pp. 73–91). Springer. Montero, M. (2016). Psychology of liberation revised: A critique of critique. In B. Gough (Ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Social Psychology (pp.  147–161). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-­1-­137-­50018-­2 Montero, M., & Sonn, C. C. (2009). Psychology of Liberation: Theory and Applications. Springer. http://www.amazon.com/Psychology-­Liberation-­Theory-­Applications-­Peace/dp/0387857834/ ref=sr_1_27?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1399677823&sr=1-­27&keywords=psychology+a nd+human+rights#reader_0387857834 Montero, M., Sonn, C. C., & Burton, M. (2017). Community psychology and liberation psychology: A creative synergy for an ethical and transformative praxis. In M. A. Bond, I. Serrano-­ García, C. B. Keys, & M. Shinn (Eds.), APA handbook of community psychology: Theoretical foundations, core concepts, and emerging challenges, Vol. 1 (pp.  149–167). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14953-­007 Morales, E. (2018). Latinx: The New Force in American Politics and Culture. Verso. Morrow, R. A. (2008). Paulo Freire, indigenous knowledge and Eurocentric critiques of development: Three perspectives. In Social Justice Education for Teachers (pp. 81–100). Brill.

References

47

Prilleltensky, I. (2001). Value-based praxis in community psychology: Moving toward social justice and social action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(5), 747–778. https:// doi.org/10.1023/A:1010417201918 Rich, G. J., & Ramkumar, N. A. (2021). Psychology in Oceania and the Caribbean (G. J. Rich & N. A. Ramkumar, Eds.; 1st ed.). Springer. Rogler, Lloy. D. (2008). Barrio Professors: Tales of Naturalistic Research. Left Coast Press. 9781598741155 Roopnarine, J.  L., & Chadee, D. (2015). Caribbean Psychology: Indigenous Contributions to a Global Discipline (J.  L. Roopnarine & D.  Chadee, Eds.; 1st ed.). America Psychological Association. Tate, K. A., Torres Rivera, E., Brown, E., & Skaistis, L. (2013). Foundations for liberation: Social justice, liberation psychology, and counseling. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 47(1), 373-382. Tate, K. A., Torres Rivera, E., & Edwards, L. M. (2015). Colonialism and multicultural counseling competence research: A liberatory analysis. In P. Goodman, R. D., & Gorski (Ed.), Decolonizing “multicultural” counseling through social justice (pp. 41–54). Springer New York. Torres Rivera, E., Phan, L. T., Garrett, M. T., & D’Andrea, M. (2005). Integrating Che Guevara, Don Pedro Albizú Campos, and Paulo Freire, in the revolution of counseling: Re-visioning social justice when counseling Latino clients. Radical Psychology Journal. Torres-Rivera, E. (2013). Relationships, oppression and resolutions: An editorial comment to the 45.3 Interamerican Journal of Psychology issue. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia/ Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 45(3). Torres-Rivera, E., & Phan, L.  T. (2001). Process versus content: Integrating personal awareness and counseling skills to meet the multicultural challenge of the twenty-first century. In Counselor Education & Supervision (Vol. 41, pp.  28–40). http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1002/j.1556-­6978.2001.tb01266.x/abstract Torres-Rivera, E., & Ratts, M. J. (2014). Counseling Latin@ s From a Social Justice Perspective. Counseling for Multiculturalism and Social Justice: Integration, Theory, and Application, 179. Torres-Rivera, E., Wilbur, M.  P., Phan, L.  T., Maddux, C.  D., & Roberts-Wilbur, J. (2004). Counseling Latinos with Substance Abuse Problems. Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling, 25(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-­1874.2004.tb00191.x Walsh, C.  E. (n.d.). Pedagogías decoloniales caminando y preguntando: notas a Paulo Freire desde Abya Yala. Webber, S., Butteris, S. M., Houser, L., Coller, K., & Coller, R. J. (2018). Asset-based community development as a strategy for developing local Global Health curricula. Academic Pediatrics, 18(5), 496–501.

Index

C Colonialism, 1, 2, 11, 12, 14, 23–25, 36, 44 Controls, 12, 14–16, 22, 25 Counseling, 11, 16, 26 D Decoloniality, 24, 25 Decolonization, 11, 15, 16, 19–26, 34, 44, 45 I Indigenous, 5, 6, 8, 12–14, 16, 21, 23–25, 29, 34–37, 44 L Latine psychology, 28, 29, 44, 45 Latines, 1–8, 12, 15, 25–28, 33–36, 42–45

Liberation, 2, 14, 22–24, 37, 45 M Mental health, 1–3, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19, 21, 26–29, 44, 45 O Oppression, 1–3, 8, 15, 22, 25, 29, 44, 45 P Praxis, 20, 21, 29, 37–38, 41–43 Psychologies, 2, 3, 8, 11, 14, 22–24, 26, 28–29, 37, 44, 45 R Racism, 1, 2, 24, 28

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 E. Torres Rivera, Latine Psychology Beyond Colonialism, International and Cultural Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46105-7

49