Latin Catholic Buildings in Istanbul: A Historical Perspective (1839-1923) 9781617191275, 1617191272

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Latin Catholic Buildings in Istanbul

MI

JH

Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies

A co-publication with The Isis Press, Istanbul, the series consists of collections of thematic essays focused on specific themes of Ottoman and Turkish studies. These scholarly volumes address important issues throughout Turkish history, offering in a single volume the accumulated insights of a single author over a career of research on the subject.

Latin Catholic Buildings in Istanbul

A Historical Perspective (1839-1923)

Sezim Sezer Darnault

The Isis Press, Istanbul

0iirgiaS ptSS 2010

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2010 by The Isis Press, Istanbul Originally published in 2004 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of The Isis Press, Istanbul. 2010

ISBN 978-1-61719-127-5

Printed in the United States of America

Sezim Sezer Darnault is an Assistant Professor of Art History at the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has graduated with a B.A. in Archaeology and Art History from the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University and has obtained a M. Arch, in Architectural History from the Istanbul Technical University. She received her Ph.D. in Art History from the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University. She was a visiting scholar at the Department of Near Eastern Studies at Cornell University, New York, USA. Dr. Sczer Darnault is the co-author of the book- The Ottoman Missakian Archives (2003) - She has published works on: Late Ottoman Art and Architecture, European influence on Ottoman Art and Architecture; the pluralistic society, non-Muslim communities and their impact on the Ottoman city and art.

To my mother and in memory of my father

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction

15

2. Istanbul as a Pluralistic City

21

3. The Latin Presence in Istanbul

33

4. The Catholic Missions in Istanbul

39

5. An Overview of the Latin Catholics' Legal Status

51

6. The Organization of the Latin Catholics in Istanbul

57

7. Latin Catholic Buildings in Istanbul Demolished by the 19th Century

61

8. Latin Catholic Buildings in Istanbul (1839-1923)

77

The Churches and Associated Buildings

77

The Schools

198

The Hospitals

221

The Cemeteries

229

9. Evaluation and Conclusion Bibliography Istanbul Map Showing Location of Latin Catholic Structures (1839-1923) (Demolished or Surviving)

241 251

LIST OF PHOTOS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

The Church of Saint Paul. The Church of Saint Marie. The Church of Saint Nicolas. The Parochial Church of Saint Antoine at Beyoglu. The Parochial Church of Saint Antoine at Beyoglu, façade. The Parochial Church of Saint Antoine at Beyoglu, interior. The Parochial Church of La Naivete de la Vierge Marie at Büyükdere, façade. The Parochial Church of La Naiveté de la Vierge Marie at Büyükdere, interior. The Parochial Church of La Naiveté de la Vierge Marie at Büyükdere, the painting on the ceiling. The Parochial Church of La Naiveté de a Vierge Marie at Büyükdere, elevation and the convent. The Parochial Church of Sainte Marie Draperis at Beyoglu, façade, early 20 t h century. The Parochial Church of Saint Pacifique at Büyükada, façade. The Parochial Church of Saint Pacifique at Büyükada, interior. The Parochial Church of Saint Pacifique at Büyükada, convent. Tubini Chapel at Kadiköy, façade. Tubini Chapel at Kadiköy, interior. The Parochial Church of Saint Louis des Français at Beyoglu, façade. The Parochial Church of Saint Louis des Français at Beyoglu, interior, early 20 t h century. The Parochial Church of Saint Louis des Français at Beyoglu, interior The Parochial Church of Saint Louis des Français at Beyoglu, apse. The Parochial Church of Saint Etienne at Yegilköy, façade. The Parochial Church of Saint Etienne at Yesilkoy, interior. The Parochial Church of Saint Etienne at Yegilköy, interior, detail. The Parochial Church of Saint Etienne at Yesilkoy, the painting in the apse: The martyrdom of Saint Etienne. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata, main entrance. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata, interior. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata, dome over the choir. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata Galata, apse. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata, main altar. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata, main altar, detail. The Parochial Church of Saint Pierre et Saint Paul at Galata, convent. The Parochial Church of Notre Dame du Rosaire at Bakirköy, façade. The Parochial Church of du Rosaire at Bakirköy, interior. The Parochial Church of Notre Dame du Rosaire at Bakirköy, apse. The Church of Notre Dame de L'Assomption at Yedikule The Church of Saint George at Galata, façade. The Church of Saint George at Galata, interior.

10

LATIN

CATHOLIC

BUILDINGS

IN

ISTANBUL

38. The Church of Saint Benoit at Galata and its associated buildings, aerial view. 39. The Church of Sacré-Coeur at Bebek, interior. 40. The Parochial Church Notre Dame de L'Assomption at Moda and its associated buildings in early 20 t h century. 41. The Parochial Church of Notre Dame de L'Assomption at Moda, façade. 42. The Parochial Church of Notre Dame de L'Assomption at Moda, façade in early 20 t h century. 43. The Parochial Church of Notre Dame de L'Assomption at Moda, interior. 44. The Parochial Church of Kumkapi and the Assomptionists' School. 45. The Church of Saint Augustin at Fenerbahçe and the Assomptionists' School. 46. The Church Saint Augustin at Fenerbahçe, interior. 47. The Church of Notre Dame du Rosaire and the School of Sainte Euphémie, at Haydarpasa in the early 20 t h century 48. The Church of Notre Dame du Rosaire and the School of Sainte Euphémie at Haydarpasa, façade. 49. The Church of Notre Dame du Rosaire and the School of Sainte Euphémie at Haydarpasa, interior of the chapel, in the early 20 t h century. 50. The Church of Saint Esprit at Pangalti, façade. 51. The Church of Saint Esprit at Pangalti, interior. 52. The Church of Saint Esprit at Pangalti, interior. 53. The College of Saint Joseph at Kadikoy, façade. 54. The Saint Louis School at Haydarpasa. 55. The School of Sainte Jeanne D ' A r c (Saint Michel) at Ferikôy, façade. 56. The School of Sainte Jeanne D ' A r c (Saint Michel) at Ferikôy, elevation and chapel. 57. The School of Sainte Jeanne D ' A r c (Saint Michel) at Ferikôy, interior of the chapel. 58. The School of Sainte Jeanne D ' A r c (Saint Michel) at Ferikôy, Sainte Jeanne D ' A r c , stained glass. 59. The College of Sainte Pulchérie, façade. 60. The College of Sainte Pulchérie, interior of the chapel. 61. The school of Sainte Eugène at Péra, façade facing the court. 62. The school of Sainte Eugène at Péra, façade facing the court. 63. The Italian Secondary School at Péra, façade. 64. The School at Buyiikdere. 65. The Italian Hospital, main building. 66. The Hospital of La Paix, aerial view. 67. The Latin Cemetery of Ferikôy. 68. The Latin Cemetery at Ferikôy, chapel. 69. The I^atin Cemetery at Ferikôy, monumental tomb of the Corpi family. 70. The Latin Cemetery at Ferikôy, Ossuaire Générale. 71. The Buyiikdere Cemetery.

LIST OF FIGURES

1. The Church of Saint François, general view. The Archives of the Roma Propaganda Fide; S. R. 163, f. 258 v, 59 r. (Matteucci). 2. The Church of Saint François. The main entrance. The Archives of the Propaganda Fide, Rome S. R. 163, f. 290 r. (Matteucci). 3. The Church of Saint Antoine at Beyoglu, plan. (Montico). 4. The Church of Saint Louis des Français 5. The Church of Saint Louis des Français and the builings of the College Apostolique (Bruno). 6. The Moda School and Chapel (Bruno). 7. The Moda School and Chapel, layout. B.O.A., plan no. 441. 8. The Church of Notre Dame de L'Assomption at Yedikule. Plans. BOA, îrade, Hariciye, no. 9, Saban 1328. 9. The Church of Saint Benoit at Galata, plan (Gurlitt). 10. The Church of Notre Dame du Rosaire and the School of Sainte Euphémie, plan and façade. BOA. Irade, Hariciye, no.7. 11. The Fire Map of Beyoglu, 1870. Illustration, Samedi 25 Juin 1870. 12. The Scool of Saint Michel at Beyoglu and its surroundings. Goad Map, 1904, detail. 13. The School of Saint Joseph, plan. 1903. BOA. Irade, Hariciye, no.13, 1328. 14. The School of Saint Vincent at Uskiidar. Jacques Pervitich Map, 1930, Usktidar, Selamsiz, detail. 15. The School of Notre Dame du Rosaire at Bakirkôy, plan. BOA, irade, Hariciye Zilhicce 1328. 16. The French Hospital at Taksim, 1894 unrealized project. BOA, Irade, Hariciye, no. 16, 18 Zilhiccc 1813. 17. The French Hospital at Taksim. Goad Map, 1904, detail. 18. The Italian Hospital, layout 1906. (Mori). 19. The Geremia Hospital and its garden. BOA, Irade, Hariciye, no. 6, Ramazan 1330. 20. The proposal for the chapel of the Cemetery of Yegilkoy. The Archives of the Church of Saint Etienne. 21. The proposal for the chapel of the Cemetery of Ye§ilkoy. The Archives of the Church of Saint Etienne.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Among the numerous people to whom I have become indebted in the course of writing this book I should like to thank in particular Prof. Dr. Semra Germaner for her advice and help on countless issues on the topic. I also wish to thank Prof. Dr. Ayla Ódekan who shared her knowledge and time with me. I would like to express my profound gratitude to R. P. Lorenzo Piretto OP, P. Aloys Bailly, P. Joseph Ract, P. Pierre Mazouet, P. Claudio Ceccherelli, R.P. Alphonso Sammut., R. p. Luigi Fazzi OP, P. Adriano, F. Henri, Soeur Janine, Soeur Isabelle Márquez, Giovanni Caliche, Joseph Strub who allowed me to consult their archives and rendered their buildings accesible. I thank the staff of the The Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry for their help during my research. Particular thanks to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rahim Tanm, Mehmet Asil and Yiicel Demirel, who helped me in the transcription of the Ottoman documents and Ass. Prof. Dr. Aygül Agir for the translation of the Italian texts. Also to Zafer Ceylan and Erdal Aksoy who with their photos reflected the buildings in their best appearances, and Gók9e Sozer who transferred the visual material into the digital format. I also extend my thanks to Qelen Birkan and Güven Birkan who read, commented on and contributed to the manuscript and especially, to Celen Birkan for the translation of the book from Turkish into English. I am above all grateful to my parents Seher and Siimer Sezer and also my husband Christophe Darnault for their endless support. April 2004, Sezim Sezer Darnault

1. INTRODUCTION

AIM OF THE STUDY From the Byzantine era onwards Istanbul has been a significant center at the crossroads of trade routes linking the East and West. Throughout its historical evolution, the city has displayed a socio-cultural diversity, within which people of different ethnic origins co-exist. During the Ottoman period also, several religions, tongues and cultures continued to live together in Istanbul, which, apart from being the capital of an empire spread over vast lands, was also the center of the Caliphate, housed the Greek and Armenian patriarchates, and a great part of the Jewish population that had migrated from Europe. Foreigners who settled in the city for various social and economic reasons also contributed to the richness of this multi-colored life. Geographic, social, economic and religious factors provided a privileged place to Istanbul, when compared with other major cities of the world, and it thus becamc a pluralistic "World City". The process during which this polyphonic existence, in other words, the socio-cultural mosaic experienced in the city was at its richest, was the Late Ottoman period, beginning with the declaration of the Tanzimat (Edict of Regulations) in 1839, to the establishment of the Republic to the 1923. The Tanzimat Fermani, which proclaimed the equality of the non-Muslim community and the Muslims on a legal basis, constituted almost a turning point in the acceleration of the cosmopolite structure of the community. It enabled an activity of reconstruction throughout the empire and led to a noteworthy accumulation in architecture and arts. After 1839, the Greeks, Armenians, Jews and the foreigners, the majority of which were French, Italian and English, began to construct their own buildings for religious, educational, health, trade and social purposes. It is certainly worth studying the reflection of the multi-cultural structure, resulting from the existence of communities belonging to different languages, religions and culture, to the urban space, architecture and history of art. Books such as Armenian Churches by Pars Tuglaci, Osmanh Donemi Rum Kiliseleri (Greek Churches in Istanbul During the Ottoman Era) by Zafer Karaca, Istanbul Sinagoglari (Sinagogues of Istanbul) by Nairn Giileryiiz and Istanbul Protestan Kiliseleri (Protestant Churches in Istanbul) by Mustafa Numan Malkoç are studies dealing with the non-Muslim buildings in the city. However, up to now, a contemporary and comprehensive study has not been conducted in relation to the architectural examples belonging to the Latins, who have existed in the city of Istanbul since the Byzantine era. Among the studies in this respect, carried out by foreigners, the most detailed one is François Alphonse Belin's L'Histoire de la Latinité de Constantinople, dated 1894. This has been succeeded by Michel Révah's Le Catholicism en Turquie, published in 1933 and Ludvig Biskupski's

16

LATIN

CATHOLIC

L'Origine

et Historique

BUILDINGS

de la Représentation

IN

ISTANBUL

Officielle du Saint-Siège

en Turquie

published in 1967. Articles by Dallcggio D'Alessio, studies published in Echos Relatione

dello Stato délia Christianita

di Pe'ra e Constantinopoli,

1204-1967, D'Orient,

the manuscript of Mgr.

Giovanni Mauri della Fratta, the Patriarchal Vicar, published by Dalleggio D'Alessio in 1925, which includes information about the Catholic structures of the 17 th century, and various studies of different periods made on Galata should also be mentioned. However, none of these can be considered as a contemporary approach to the Latin Catholic structures in Istanbul, from a viewpoint of history of art and architecture and their inter-relations with the city. The lack of a detailed study has rendered it necessary to take up the subject, supported with visual and documentary materials available in this area. A s a consequence of various impacts, these buildings are either being completely demolished, or are subject to change of function and f o r m , thus loosing much of their characteristics from day to day. This unavoidable development emphasizes the significance of and the necessity for a study of this content.

SCOPE OF T H E STUDY The physical area covered within the scope of this study is limited to the city of Istanbul. The reason for this choice is the fact that the city has not only preserved but also reinforced its privileged position starting from the Byzantine era, right through the Ottoman rule; and also because being the capital city of an empire within which different languages, religions and cultures jointly abide, it contains the most noteworthy and representative examples. In the future, further research can be conducted in other multi-cultural Ottoman cities, such as izmir, Salonica, Edirne, enabling the investigation of buildings belonging to non-Muslim ethnic groups who have lived within the empire. The time period chosen for the study comprises the last decades of the Ottoman rule, from the Tanzimat up to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. This period emerges as one during which the social multiplicity was at its peak level, with the increase in the nonMuslim Ottoman community as well as other foreigners, who had for different reasons, such as the legal and social privileges acknowledged to them, established themselves in the city. In the second half of the 19 t h century the population of Istanbul was made up of several different components. Therefore, within this process, it is worth studying the diversity created in architecture and art by these components, which formed the urban social mosaic of the city.

M E T H O D O L O G Y OF THE STUDY To start with, general studies in this field were investigated, buildings were visited and contact was established with related persons. T h e detailed studies carried out in the existing buildings constitute the m a j o r part of this research. Information obtained directly f r o m personalities belonging to the Latin Catholic community has provided important clues and has

17

INTRODUCTION

been revealing in many aspects. Especially the testimony of the surviving f e w w h o were active up to the middle of the 20 th century, arid were familiar with the buildings, paved the way to very valuable information. Apart from research in specialized libraries, an important part of the preparation phase of the study was carried out in the archives. The Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry and the individual archives of Latin Catholic structures were the major sources. Through this method it was possibly to attain comparable and complementary information about the structures. T h e Ottoman A r c h i v e s of the Prime Ministry is in possession of rich sources in this field. Several documents in relation to the construction, repair or assignment of churches, schools, hospitals and cemeteries can be found in the Dahiliye, iradeleri

arid mainly in the Hariciye

iradeleri.

found among the documents of Hariciye Hariciye

Nezareti

Hukuk Mügavirligi

Nezâreti

ísti¡áre

Maarif, Husust, Meclis-i

Vâlâ

Documents regarding the legal status can be Mektubâ

Odasi Hariciye

Kalemi, Nezareti

Bâb-i Asaft Kalemi Mektubt

Kalemi.

and Part

of the design drawings of these structures is preserved within the plan, project and sketches section of the archives. The Latin Catholic archives visited are the following: Dominican A r c h i v e s in the Church of Saint Pierre et Saint-Paul, Franciscan A r c h i v e s in the Church of Saint Antoine, Capuchin A r c h i v e s ini the Churches of the Saint Etienne and Saint L o u i s des Français, 1

Observants'

Archives in the Church of Saint Mary Draperis, Assumptionist Archives in the Church of Notre Dame de L ' A s s o m p t i o n and the archives in the L a Paix Hospital. Rare books and periodicals found in the libraries of the churches are among the valuable resources of this study, with the first-hand information they contain. Especially Bulletin

Apostolique

de Vicariat

Dailies such as Le Journal

de Constantinople

de Constantinople,

Bessarione,

are significant sources of this study.

Illustration,

Le Moniteur

Oriental

provided

valuable information encompassed in the articles published therein. Old maps and photographs have helped in tracing buildings, which do not exist today. A systematic and detailed program was executed for taking photographs, in order to visually support for the content of the study, as well as to document the buildings. A s all buildings comprised in the study, as well as all the primary sources of information are located in Istanbul, it was decided that limiting research to those sources available in Istanbul would suffice f o r the purpose of this study. Furthermore, one of the major aims of this study was to investigate and present the related information and documentation in Istanbul, which proved to be a considerably rich source. Both the scope and the method of this study has been organized so as to f o r m a basis for further studies in this field, be it by the same author or by others, which may also utilize accessible overseas sources. In this respect, it is important to note that with the numerous documents present in their archives the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, the Archives of the French Ministry of Foreign A f f a i r s in Nantes, the Archives of the 1 The Capuchin Archives of Istanbul in the Church of Saint Louis were transferred to Paris. Currently only few documents and drawings are preserved in Istanbul.

18

LATIN

CATHOLIC

BUILDINGS

IN

ISTANBUL

Chamber of Commerce in Marseille, the Archives of the Propaganda da Fide in Vatican and the archives in Venice and Genoa can contribute to further studies which may lead to important conclusions. In the introduction of the study the pluralistic structure of Istanbul and the Latin presence has been discussed. In this chapter, in addition to the religious missions active in Istanbul the organizations and institutions regarding health and education have been introduced within a historical perspective. The legal status of the Latin Catholics and the organization of their relations, both among themselves and with the Ottomans have been studied. Some Latin Catholic structures, known to have existed before the second half of the 19 th century, although being extinct by then, have been deliberately included in the study. Through this approach, the characteristics of the period on which the studied process is based can be reflected to the extent possible. Although Latin structures existed in the city even before the Latin Empire, it is during this period that the Franciscan and Dominican missions were institutionalized and started their activities. For this reason, the history of the buildings goes only as far back as the I^atin Empire. For the integrity of the study, surviving structures such as Saint Nicolas (Kefeli Camii), Sainte Marie (Odalar Camii) and Saint Paul (Arap Camii), that had been transformed into mosques prior to the 19 t h century, have also been included in this chapter, although they have lost their original function. All Latin Catholic buildings existing in Istanbul between 1839-1923, have been listed under four main titles: religious structures, educational buildings, health buildings and cemeteries. Structures built before, but still intact during the 19 t h century have also been included in this chapter, so as to provide means of comparison with the traditional approaches. Only buildings that are directly associated with the religious institutions comprise the scope of the study. Private or national schools are left outside this scope. Primarily, churches and buildings associated with them have been studied. Churches are the most important buildings among these structures. Religious, educational and health buildings assigned to the use of, or owned by the Latin community in Istanbul have been made subject to research. A catalogue has been prepared in relation to the function and present state for each individual building within the categories included in the scope of this study, constructed from the middle of the 19 th century onwards. In the catalogue of the churches which have survived to the present day, referring to the inscriptions, the building is studied under three main titles: the history of the building, the building analysis and the buildings associated with the church. Thus relative sections have been rendered easily and directly accessible for those interested. Under the title of the history of the church, there is also mention of the sacred relics in the church, as they have influenced the themes of the paintings and sculpture, and also related confraternities. The building analysis consists of the following sub-titles: the characteristics of the plan, characteristics of the façade, interior design and related decoration, examples of painting and sculpture and the church organ. Under the title of the buildings associated with the church, buildings related either on a physical or an institutional basis are introduced. While educational and health-related activities associated with the church are included under this title, independent

INTRODUCTION

19

educational institutions are studied under the title of schools. As information in regard to buildings, which have not survived ttt daté, was rather limited, some sub-titles have been omitted. In small churches or chapels contained within school buildings, the sub-titles regarding the history and analysis of the building have only been given for the school, as functionally it takes precedence over the modest structure of a church or chapel. There has been a problem of terminology throughout the script. Terms, which do not directly correspond when translated into English, have been preserved in their original state, mostly in French, and have been given in italics. French has been also preferred in the names of the saints, churches, confraternities and the organizations as it was the language widely used by the Catholics. Also the measurement units and the currencies mentioned in the study have been kept in their original form as quoted from the sources. In the chapter on Evaluation and Conclusion, a summary is made of the Latin Catholic structures in Istanbul within the period extending from the Tanzimat to the Republic. The chapter also includes an assessment of the Ottoman city and Ottoman architecture. The information gathered in regard to the buildings has been introduced within differing perspectives, with the aim of establishing various points of departure for future studies. Thus, while presenting the study, which can be considered as a basic accumulation of research and documentation, clues and questions that can guide new investigation, have also been put forth.

2. ISTANBUL AS A PLURALISTIC CITY

The city of Istanbul, an important center on the crossroads of the trade routes, which linked the East and West, has embraced different ethnic groups, ever since it was established. During the Ottoman period, as the capital of an empire, sovereign over vast lands, the city contained a socio-cultural mosaic, consisting of different tongues, cultures and religions. As a conscqucnce of these characteristics, Istanbul evolved into a pluralistic "World City", within its historical and spatial development process. An important trade center since the Byzantine era and specially after the period of Comnenos and Paleologos, the city was of significance not only for the Western Colonies -Genoese, Venetians, Amalfites, Pisans, Catalans and people from Proven§als- but also for those whose roots were in the East - Jews, 1 Armenians, Arabs and Turks, 2 - Gilíes le Bouvicr who visited the city a few years before 1453, notes that people from every country came to Istanbul, a City located by the sea, either to sell or to buy goods. 3 During the Ottoman period, after the conquest of Istanbul, Mehmet II, allowed the continuity of the activities of foreign tradesmen, with the aim of transforming the city into an imperial capital of culture and trade. He invited Muslims, Christians and Jews to Istanbul, 4 thus the number of Christian households increased from 5162 in 1478, to 5462 in 1489, while the number of Jewish households rose to 2491 from 1647. 5 Those migrating to Istanbul chose to settle either by the sea, or in the inlands, depending on the social structure of their origin. In general the Muslims preferred central areas, while the Christians and Jews settled in the

1

They were under the Venetian and Genovese commerce. Robert Maniran, "Foreign Merchants and the Minorities in Istanbul," Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, eds. Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis vol.1, (New York and London: Holmes & Meier, 1982), 127; Louis Bréhier, Le Monde Byzantin, vol. 3, (Paris: A. Michel, 1950), 85-86; George loan Bratianu, Recherches sur le Commerce Génois dans la Mer Noire au XIIIe siècle (Paris: P. Geuthner, 1929), 89, 101-105. ' Gilles Le Bouvier dit Berry Herald, Le Livre de la Description des Pays de Gilles le Bouvier dit Berry, Premier Roi d'Armes de Charles VII, Roi de France ed. T(héodore) E(rnest) Hamy (Paris, 1908), 5, 9, 93. 4 Mehmet II's method of repopulation was the compulsory resettlement. See ismail Hakki Uzunçar§ili, Osmanli Tarihi, vol. 2, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1988), 154. For the resettlement and repopulation of Istanbul see Omer Líitfü Barkan, "Quelques Remarques sur la Constitution Sociale et Démographique des villes Balkaniques au cours des XV. et XVI. siècles," Istanbul à la Jonction des Cultures Balkaniques, Méditerranéens, Slaves et Orientales au XVIe-XIXe Siècles (Istanbul, 1977): 279-81; 284-88; Heath. W. Lowry, "From Lesser Wars to the Mightiest War" The Ottoman Conquest and Transformation of Byzance Urban Centers in the Fifteenth Century" Continuity and Change in Late Byzantine and Early Ottoman Society, eds. Anthony Bryer and Heath W. Lowry (Birmingham, England : The University of Birmingham, Centre for Byzantine Studies ; Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: Dumbarton Oaks, Research Library and Collection, 1986), 323-338; M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, M. C. §ehabeddin Tekindag, "Istanbul", islam Ansiklopedisi, vol. 5, no. 2, (istanbul, Maarif Matbaasi 1950), 1180-1214. 2

5

Halil Inalcik, "Istanbul," Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2d ed., (Leiden: Brill, 1978), 224-248. On a document dated 1478 on the population it is stated that there were 8951 Muslim, 3151 Greek, 1647 Jewish, 756 Armenian, people from Caffa (Teodosiya) 267 and 31 Gypsy houses in Istanbul and 535 Muslim, 592 Greek, 62 Armenian, 32 European houses in Galata. See Omer Líitfü Barkan, Ekrem Hakkr Ayverdi, istanbul Vakiflari Tahrir Defteri 953 (1546) Tarihli (Istanbul: Baba Matbaasr, 1970); Alfons M.Scheineder, "XV. Yüzyitda Istanbul'un Nüfusu," Belleten 61 (1952): 3548; Plate: IX-X. ^Semavi Eyice, "Istanbul'un Mahalle ve Semt Adlarr Hakkinda bir Deneme", Tiirkiyat Mecmuasi,

14 (1965): 215.

22

L A T I N

C A T H O L I C

B U I L D I N G S

IN

I S T A N B U L

periphery. As a consequence communities of different origin formed their own quarters. 1 Components of the ethnic mosaic in the city, during this period were mainly, Turks, Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Jews and Italians. The first Italian colonies arriving in Istanbul were the Amalfites and the Pisans, but they were soon replaced by the Genoese and the Venetians. Alter the conquest of Istanbul, the Genoese began to lose their colonies on the Black Sea coast one after the other. This was a blow on the Genoan trade and while the number of Genoese in the city began to diminish, the activities of the French and the local non-Muslims increased. As mentioned above, the ethnic groups, which formed the socio-cultural mosaic in Istanbul, chose to live in different quarters. Communities belonging to the Italian mercantile colonies settled at Galata; the Greeks preferred the coast of the Golden Horn and settled on the south of the Samatya and Fener, up to Balat; the Armenians lived in Kumkapi and Samatya; the Jews settled in Balat. By the end of the 15 th century, the number of the Jewish population in the city increased highly, as a result of the migration to the Empire of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. 2 In the 16 th century, the population of the city consisted of 58 % Muslims, 32 % Christians, and 10 % Jews. 3 While the lack of interest prevailing among the Turks in regard to commercial fields caused an increase in the number of foreigners who settled in the city, it also encouraged the activities of the Jewish, Greek and Armenian mediators. 4 Tradesmen coming from the West could easily establish contact with the minorities. The lack of any language barriers, experience in trade and ability to find a solution to every problem were certainly important features in facilitating this communication. 5 On the other hand, trade was supervised and taxed by the Ottoman Treasury, and the tax officers were generally Turks. The Jews acted as mediators between these officers and the foreign tradesmen. 6 . The non-Muslims were also active in some guilds. 7 Apart from the Armenians, Greeks, Jews and Europeans in the city, there was another non-Muslim group, known as the Levantines. 8 Some of these were married to Greeks and Armenians who were Ottoman subjects, resulting with a generation of mixed nationality, but they still considered themselves as Europeans. In fact they were Occidental as far as their life style and their intellectual approach was concerned. However it was also true that their culture was somewhat enriched with the influence of the Oriental way of life. Most of them spoke French, Italian or some other European language, although they were born and brought up in

1

Semavi Eyice, "istanbul'un Mahalle ve Semt Adlan Hakkinda bir Deneme", Turkiyat Mecmuasi, 14 (1965): 215. Jews who came from Spain to the Ottoman Empire are called as Sefarads Halil Inalcik, "Istanbul", 235-236 4 Robert Mantran, "Minoritaires, Métiers et Marchands Etrangers à Istanbul aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles" L'Empire Ottoman du XVI. au XVIII siècle, V (Paris: Variorum Prints,1984), 132. 5 Robert Mantran, "Minoritaires, Métiers et Marchands",131. ® H. A. R. Gibb, H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West I, Islamic Society in the Eighteenth Century, vol. 1, (London, New York: Oxford University Pressl950-1952), 23-24; Alfred Cecil Wood, A History of the Levant Company ( JLondon]: Oxford University Press, 1935), 214. ' Robert Mantran, "Minoritaires, Métiers et Marchands", 130. 2

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8 The term "Levantine" is used for the Europeans, mostly originating from Italy or France, who settled in the Ottoman Empire.

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Istanbul. For the Turks, these people, who generally also spoke Turkish, played the role of a bridge linking them and to the Western culture. 1 From the 16 th century onwards, the capitulations granted to the European states caused an increase in the population of Western origin within the city. In the 17 th century, the English, Dutch, Austrians, Poles and Russians joined the Europeans who were active in the city, alongside the Italian and French who were already there. 2 From the end of the 18 th century onwards, Americans also began to come to Istanbul. 3 The privileges acknowledged to the Americans in 1830 were confirmed with new agreements in the following years. 4 The impact of the German population in the city increased after the second half of the 19 th century. 5 The legal organizations within the Ottoman Empire, starting with the Tanzimat Fcrmani (Edict of Regulations) of 1839 and the subsequent Islahat Fcrmani (Rescript of Reform) of 1856, as well as the increase in the privileges acknowledged to the Western states, brought along with it the surge of a large number of foreigners into the lands of the Empire, primarily to the capital, Istanbul. As a result of the capitulations between 1840 and 1900, as well as the concessions acknowledged to western tradesmen, 100.000 non-Muslims settled in Istanbul. 6 Although the foreigners lived in separate quarters, they joined in the trading activities of the Empire and continued their relations with other components of the population on a daily routine. This is how Sperco describes the economical relations between different communities in the city: Turkish-Muslim Ali Aga sold rye, grapes and broad beans to the English exporter Mr. Whitemoor, with the mediation of the Turkish-Jewish broker Mr. Kohen. The goods were boarded on Dutch ships by the Maltese Sion Mifsud, with the mediation of the Italian agent Sperco, The insurer was an Armenian, while the banker who supplied the credit was a Greek/ 1

Mustafa Cezar, 19. Yüzytl Beyoglusu (Istanbul: Akbank, 1991), 15. The main purpose of the English merchants for coming to the Mediteranean, more than the interest to the Orient, was to find a market for English textiles and to control the transit of the oriental products. They came to settle in the Ottoman capital at the end of the 16th century. In 1640's there were 20-25 English merchant households in Istanbul. Istanbul, as the most important trade center of the Mediterenaean was also a large market for the English wool products. The English dominated Mediterencan commerce during the most of the 17 century, especially in Istanbul. During the reign of Mehmed IV (1648-1687) the English Levant Company was leading the commerce before the Venetians and French. But in the 18th century French dominance took the place of the English. See D. Fisher, "The Development and Organization of English Trade to Asia, 1553-1605", (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1970), 200210; Wood, op. cit., 72; The Dutch situation for the commerce was difficult during that time. English and Dutch merchants dominated Ottoman market until they had secured bases in the newly explored lands and the regions that they could manage: America and East India. After the decline of the English and Dutch interest in the Mediteranean, the French took their place and French influence continued until the end of the 18" 1 century. See, Robert Mantran, "La Navigation Vénitienne et ses Concurrentes en Méditerranée Orientale aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles" L'Empire Ottoman du XVI. au XVIII. siècle, IX (Paris: Variorum Prints, 1984), 382-383. 2

3

James A. Field , Jr., America and the Mediterranean World 1776-1882 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969), 113; Fuat: Köprülü, "Tarihte Türk Amerikan Miinasebetleri," Belleten, 200 (1987): 927-947; Joseph L. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East Missionary Influence on American Policy 1810-1927 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 11971]), 36. 4 Leland James Gordon, American Relations with Turkey 1830-1930: An Economic Interpretation (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1932), 345. 5 Germans were mainly interested in railway projects and also served the Empire as military consultants. ® Standford Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 2, (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 241. 1 Willy Sperco, Turcs d'Hier et d'Aujourd'hui: (d'Abdul-Hamid à nos Jours) (Paris: Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1961), 63.

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Following the industrial revolution in Europe, the foreign tradesmen, commissioners, merchants, dealers, who at the start had only one foot in Istanbul, fully settled in the city when stock exchange began to be a profitable business. Thus, a new Levantine class, consisting of enterprising tradesmen and owners of large or small shops began to emerge in Istanbul, also partly in Izmir. A new surge of foreign population began when the stock exchange and banking started to be an area promising enormous profit. When a period during which all sorts of European commodities began to be bought and sold at the Galata exchange, also a venue for speculative transactions, foreigners began to show up at the stock exchange. 1 With the invasion of the stock exchange by the foreigners, the Ottoman Empire became the open market of Europe, and from then on, not only merchandise but also all European stocks and bonds began to flow freely in and out of the Empire. 2 Consequently, the stock exchange at Galata acquired a more serious outlook, certain figures clothed in stiff white collars and "ceketatay" (jacket-taille), the fashionable jackets of the period, also capable of speaking several foreign languages, began to show up in the auction halls and the backstage. 3 From 1871 onwards, the economic and financial policies put into practice by Mahmut Nedim Pa§a, provided the grounds for the increased presence of the Galata Bankers in the economy. Their activities were no longer limited to banking; they began to be involved in all sorts of production and trade activities, such as tramways, railways, construction, management of waterfronts and docks, the tobacco corporation, mining, mills etc. 4 Beyoglu was a real paradise, especially for the citizens of the large colonizing states of the era, such as England and France, who had established themselves in Turkey. It was for this reason that one French finance officer could make the remark: "Beyoglu is much safer for the French capital than any of the French colonies". 5 The non-Muslims and foreigners within the Ottoman Empire constituted a bourgeoisie of trade and finance. This bourgeoisie supported the churches, schools, hospitals and charitable societies with their increasing resources. The number of religious, educational, and health buildings belonging to each group showed a rapid increase, due to the legal and financial opportunities. Alongside the numerous buildings of different functions, built by the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, the Italians also had several churches, schools, hospitals, and social organizations; the English had churches at Galata, and Moda, a marine hospital at Galata and schools at Beyoglu and Ni§anta§i. 6 The English also wanted to build a church at Bebek, but could not obtain the necessary permission. 7 The Americans had schools along the Bosphorous and Üskiidar and a Protestant Church at Gedikpa§a, while the Germans owned the German

1 Haydar Kazgan, Galata Bankerleri (Istanbul: Türk Ekonomi Bankasi, 1991), 51; François Alphonse Belin, Des Capitulations et des Traités de la France en Orient (Paris: Chez Challamel Ainé, 1870), 30-32. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 Kazgan, op. cit., 61 5 Cezar, 19. Yiizyil Beyoglusu, 16. 6 One of the largest Greek churches built during this period is Aya Triada in Taksim which was constructed in 1882. For further reference on Greek Churches see Zafer Karaca, Istanbul'da Rum Kiliseleri (Istanbul: Yapi Kredi Yaymlan, 1995). On Armenian Churches see Pars Tuglaci, Istanbul Ermeni Kiliseleri, Armenian churches of Istanbul, IsCanpuli Hayots' ekeghets'inere (Istanbul: Pars Yayin Ltd, 1991) and on Jewish buildings see Nairn Güleryüz, Istanbul Sinagoglari (Istanbul: N. Güleryüz, 1992), Ilan Karmi, Jewish Sites of Istanbul: a Guide Book (Beylerbeyi, Istanbul : Isis Press, 1992). 7 Baçbakanlik Osmanh Ar§ivi (hereafter BOA) Irade, Hususi, no. 80, 27 Muharrem 1326.

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Protestant Church, German Hospital and the Teutoni (. m l I b. 1 With the Church of Sveti Stefan at Fener and their hospitals, the Bulgarians were also among the communities which had an institutional organization. 2 The colorful impression created by the clothing of people from different cultures, religions and nations also contributed to Istanbul's image as a "World City". Up to the passing of the law of 13 th June 1935, which forbid wearing religious clothing outside places of worship, nowhere else in the world except in Istanbul, could one come across such a diversity of clothing and head gear.3 Languages apart from Turkish, spoken by different religious-ethnic groups in the capital city of Istanbul, form a long list. The two languages heading this list were Greek and Armenian. The Jews living in Istanbul constituted the most interesting group, not only in this city, but also among all members of their religious community around the world with their language and traditions. 4 Alongside the non-Muslims who were Ottoman subjects, the Levantines and foreigners added to the variety of languages spoken in the city. There were also several publications in these languages. Books ranging from French to Persian 5 were being printed in Istanbul, and several dailies were published. Some of these publications in different languages which reflect the multi-cultural characteristics of the city were: the Jamanak, Marmara, Kulis and Sirp Burgig dailies of the Armenians; the Apovyematini and Iho dailies of the Greeks; the weekly §alom of the Jews; the newspapers The Levant Herald, Journal de Constantinople, La Moniteur Orientale, La Turquie of the French and La Rassegnale Italiana of the Italians. This multiplicity in the commercial, religious, cultural and social fields can be seen clearly when the distribution of population, which is the key issue, is studied. In the census of 1885, the distribution of the Ottoman subjects living in Istanbul, according to nations and religions were as follows: Muslims 44.06 %, Orthodox Greeks 17.48 %, Armenians 17.12 %, Jews 5.08 %, Catholics 1.74 %, Bulgarians 0.50 %, Latins 0.12 %, Protestants 0.09 %. The remaining 14.79 % of the population consisted of foreigners. 6 Abdtilaziz Bey, while speaking of the different quarters of the city in the second half of the 19th century, describes the distribution of the ethnic groups in Istanbul as follows: Starting f r o m Kumkapi, all along Yenikapi, Samatya and Yedikule, lined up on the southern coast of Dersaadet (Istanbul), there were mostly Armenian quarters, although there were also a f e w Greek houses. From the Cibali Kapisi of Istanbul, all along the banks of the Golden Horn, which extended till Fener Kapisi and beyond, including Balat, which comprised ' For American Schools see Uygur Kocaba§oglu, Kendi Belgeleriyle Turkiye'deki Amerika, 2d ed., (Istanbul: Arba Yayinlan, 1991). A The Church which was built in the Golden Horn, near the Greek Patriachate, is made of cast iron. The construction materials of the church which was completed in 1871, was imported from Vienna. For further reference on this church see Hasan Kuruyazici and Mete Tapan, Sveti Stefan Bulgar Kilisesi. Bir Yapi Monografisi (Istanbul- Yapi Kredi Yayinlan, 1988). ^ Sperco, op. cit., 114. 4 liber Ortayli, istanbul'dan Sayfalar, 2d ed., (Istanbul: Hil Yayin 1986), 21. J In the 19"1 century Istanbul there was a considerable population of Iranians living in Uskiidar. Most of them, although with Azerbaijani accent, were speaking Persian. See ilber Ortayli, Istanbul'dan Sayfalar, 22. ® Stanford Shaw, "The Population of Istanbul in the Nineteenth Century," International Journal of Middle East Sudies 10 (1979): 266-267.

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also the hills behind the coast, distinguished Greek families and Greek houses and quarters were located. From Balat to the pier of Defterdar near Eyiip, there were the houses of the Jews, while Eyiip was a location where Muslim houses were concentrated. On the other bank of the Golden Horn, right up to its end, the distribution was: Muslims at Kasimpaja, mostly Jews at Haskòy and Piripaga, and Muslim houses and quarters at Sutliice. Higher up, f r o m the A/aplar Kapisi to Beyoglu and Taksim, there were Christian families and foreigners, while Muslim families lived in the area extending between the £e§me Meydam and the Tower of Galata. Between Be§ikta§ and Ortakoy, there were islam sahilhaneleri1 and yalis2 belonging to viziers. Some Jewish and Armenian houses were scattered along the riverbed at Ortakoy. On the coast between Kuru