Later Pleistocene Cultural Adaptations in Sudanese Nubia 9780860541349, 9781407325538

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Later Pleistocene Cultural Adaptations in Sudanese Nubia

Yousif Mukhtar el Amin

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 4 BAR International Series I I 4

1981

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M. A., D. Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. S-114, 1981: ''Later Pleistocene Cultural Adaptations in Sudanese Nubia" © Yousif Mukhtar el Amin, 1981 Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology General Editor John Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Dept. Archaeology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DZ England. Manuscript s should be submitted to Dr. Alexander in the first instance Also available: B.A.R. S-75, 1980: "The Niger Delta. Culture" by Nwanna Nzewunwa.

Aspects of the Prehistoric Economy and

B.A.R. S-89, 1980: "Prehistoric Investigations at Jenne, Mali" by Susan Keech and Roderick J. McIntosh. B.A.R. S-97, 1981: "Off-site Archaeology and Human Adaptation in Eastern Africa" by Robert Foley.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541349 paperback ISBN 9781407325538 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541349 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P reface L ist o f Maps L ist o f F igures CHAPTER I :

CHAPTER I :

CHAPTER I I:

CHAPTER I V:

H ISTORY OF RESEARCH I N THE NORTHERN S UDAN AND METHODS OF APPROACH

1

H istory o f Research

1

The Mode l

7

App l ica t ion o f t he Mode l

8

THE P LEISTOCENE H ISTORY OF THE R IVER N ILE I N SUDANESE NUBIA

1 4

I ntroduct ion

1 4

P re-Nub ian Campa ign ( 1900-1960)

1 6

The Nub ian Campa ign--de He inze l in 1 968

2 1

Butzer a nd Hansen 1 968

2 9

P ost Nub ia Campa ign Research a nd t he P rob lem o f t he E ar l iest N i lot ic S i l ts

3 0

C onc lus ions

3 4

DATING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS, PALAEOCLIMATIC CONDITIONS AND ECONOMY

3 7

The Nub ian Mouster ian

3 7

The Khormusan I ndustry

4 1

The Ha lfan I ndustry

4 3

P a laeoc l imat ic Cond i t ions

4 6

C l ima t ic I mp l ica t ions o f t he N i lot ic Events

4 9

S ubs istence E conom ies

5 1

S ummary

5 3

I NTERSITE AND I NTRASITE VARIABIL ITY

5 4

The M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Group S ite L ocat ions Type o f S i tes Ar tefact D istr ibut iona l P a tterns Raw Mater ia l U t i l iza t ion The Ha lfan I ndustry S i te L ocat ions Type o f S i tes I nterna l D istr ibut ion o f Artefacts Raw Mater ia l U t i l izat ion C onc lus ions

5 4 5 4 5 8 6 5 6 6 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 5 7 7 7 7

P age CHAPTER V :

CHAPTER V I:

MAJOR CHARACTER ISTICS OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL I NDUSTR IES

8 2

The Dent icu late Mouster ian S i te 4 40

8 3 8 8

Nub ian Mouster ian Type A

8 8

Nub ian Mouster ian Type B J ebe l Br in iko f

8 9 9 8

The Dongo la Assemb lages

1 01

The Khormusan I ndustry

1 18

Buhen Comp lex

1 20

The Ha lfan I ndustry

1 26

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME MAJOR ATTRIBUTES

1 36

S tat ist ica l P rocedures

1 36

Bas ic I nput Data

1 38

Data P reparat ion

1 40

Artefact S ize a nd Group ing o f A ssemb lages o n t he Bas is o f Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 41

The M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages L eva l lo is F lakes Retouched Too ls

1 41 1 54

Cores

1 62

S ummary

1 63

The Ha lfan Assemb lages Ha ifa F lakes

1 67 1 68

F orma l Too ls

1 68

Backed M icrob lades

1 72

S ummary

1 72

Group ing o f t he Assemb lages o n t he Bas is o f Typo log ica l a nd Techno log ica l A ttr ibutes

1 72

The M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages--13 Too l Types

1 72

Bordes ' I nd ices

1 77

5 Core Types

1 84

S ummary

1 84

The Ha lfan Assemb lages

1 86

S ummary CHAPTER V II: APPENDIX 1 :1

F INAL D ISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

1 95

ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS: Nub ian Mouster ian Khormusan a nd Dongo la Assemb lages Gu ide S heet 2 03

PRE FACE

The r esearches c arr ied o u t b y t he C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion a nd o ther I n terna t iona l t ea ms i n . Nubia d ur ing t he " Save t he N ub ian Monu ments C a mpa ign , 1 960 -1966" h ave d e monstra ted t he p resence o f ar ich p reh istor ic s equence i n t he r eg ion . G eograph ica l ly , N ub ia i s r egarded a s e x tend ing f ro m t he f i rst c a taract i n U pper Egyp t t o a s f ar s ou th a s t he f our th c a tarac t o ft he N i le. T here i s , h owever , n o g enera l a gree men t o n i t s s ou thern l im i ts a nd o ne a u thor i ty p laces K har tou m a s t he s ou thern b oundary ( Adams , 1 977 :20 ) . Wendorf a nd c o-workers o f t he C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion h ave r epor ted f ro m S udanese Nub ia o ver 2 00 s i tes r ang ing f ro m t he L ower P a laeo l i th ic t o t he P rotoh istor ic p er iod . Ac o mp lex a rchaeo log ica l s equence h as b een c ons tructed a nd f i t ted i n ag eo log ica l c hrono logy o ft he N i le . T hese r esearches b ased p r i mar i ly o n t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a t tr ibu tes o f s tone a r tefacts r esu lted i n ap lethora o fn a mes s tand ing f or a rchaeo log ica l e n t i t ies b e l ieved t o b e t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f c u l tura l ly d ist inc t h u man g roups. O ft he d ef ined i ndustr ies t h is s tudy d ea ls w i th t he Nub ian Mouster ian , Khormusan a nd Ha l fan , a l l o f wh ich h ave b een s tudied a nd p ub l ished b y A . E . Marks i n 1 968.

A lso

i nc luded i n t he s tudy a re f our a sse mb lages f ro m t he D ongo la R each a nd o thers f ro m t he s econd c a taract r eg ion wh ich h ave n o t b een i nc luded i n t he a bove men t ioned i ndustr ies ( s ee C hap ter 1 ) . S ince t he p ub l ica t ion o f Marks ' work , n ew f i eld d a ta o n t he N i le h istory a nd t he a ssocia ted a rchaeo log ica l s equence h ave b een o b ta ined b y t he C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion f ro m U pper Egyp t ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld , 1 976b ) .

T h is

n ew e v idence , h owever , r a ises a n u mber o f q uest ions p er tinen t t o t he c u l tura l s equence i n S udanese Nub ia a nd t herefore i tb eco mes i ncreas ing ly impor tan t t o r e-eva lua te t he l a t ter i n t he l igh t o f t he p resen t i n forma t ion . F or i nstance , ad icho to my b e tween t he Mouster ian a nd K hor musan i ndus tr ies i s i nd ica ted b y t he r ev ision o ft he N i le s equence a nd t he n ew C 14 d a tes o b ta ined f or t he l a t ter i ndustry . The Ha l fan d eve lop men t s uggested b y Marks d oes n o t s ee m t o b e c o mpa t ib le w i th n ew e v idence a nd t herefore r a ises t he q uest ion o f t he c u ltura l t ransi t ion t o t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic i n t he r eg ion .

I ti s t hese t wo

ma in p oin ts t ha t t he p resen t s tudy i s p ri mar i ly c oncerned w i th . As a mat ter o f c onven ience a nd t o a vo id i nconsistencies t ha t wou ld a r ise f ro m u s ing c onf l ic t ing t er m ino log ies , t he s tudy h as k ep t t he u se o f ' Mouster ian ' a nd 'M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ' i n p reference t o o ther t er ms l i ke 'M idd le ' o r ' La te S tone Age '.

T he l a t ter might s uggest t ypo log ica l o r t echno log ica l a f f in i t ies

w i th t he i ndustr ies k nown i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica b y t hese n ames , wh ich i s n o t n ecessar i ly s uppor ted b y t he e v idence . The t er m 'Mouster ian ' i s u sed i n p reference b ecause i th as b eco me we l l e n trenched i n t he l i terature s ince i t was f irs t a pp l ied b y Marks t o t he Nub ian d a ta . N e i ther ' Mous ter ian ' n or 'M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ' a re t er ms wh ich h ave a s tr ic t t e mpora l o r c u l tura l s ign i f icance , b u t b oth a re mere ly t ypo log ica l d esigna t ion .

I n N ub ia , t he t erm

'M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ' h as b een a pp l ied t o i nc lude t he Nub ian Mouster ian a nd o ther a sse mb lages wh ich h ave h andaxe e le men ts. u sed i n t h is s tudy ( s ee C hap ter 1 ) .

T he l a t ter h ave n o t b een

Throughou t t he t ex t t he t er m' M idd le

P a laeo l i th ic ' i s t aken t o r efer t o t he Nub ian Mouster ian , Khor musan a nd t he f lake a sse mb lages f ro m Dongo la .

The t er m ' Upper P a laeo l i th ic ' i s a lso k ep t

i n a ccordance w i th t he a bove a rgu men t a nd i ti s t aken a s r eferr ing s peci f ica l ly t o t he b acked microb lade e le men ts wh ich were a ssoc ia ted w i th t he Ha lfan i ndustry . The s tudy was b ased o n ap ersona l e xa m ina t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta men t ioned a bove t oge ther w i th a c r i t ica l e va lua t ion o ft he p ub l ished d a ta a nd f i e ld n o tes made b y t he C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion me mbers a nd o ther w orkers. A n a t tr ibu te a na lysis o f t oo ls , c ores a nd d eb i tage f ro m a l l t he a va i lab le r e levan t a sse mb lages h as b een c arr ied o u t .

The f i rsthand i n for-

ma t ion s o o b ta ined was s ub jec ted t o s i mp le s ta t is t ica l p rocedures a s wel l a s t o c o mpu ter ized mu l t i-var ia te t echn iques. C hap ter o ne o ft h is s tudy p resen ts a c r i t ica l s ummary o f p rev ious r esearch i n S udan a nd d ef ines t he s peci f ic p rob le ms wh ich Ih ave a t te mp ted t o e xa m ine . I ta lso d escr ibes t he a t tr ibu te a na lys is t ha t was p erfor med o n t he d a ta . C en tra l t o my a rgu men t , h owever , i s t he e vo lu t ion o f t he N i le a nd i t s r e la t ions h ip w i th l oca l c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions.

B o th a re e ssen t ia l f actors i n s hap ing

p reh istor ic s et t le men t a nd t he a va i lab le n a tura l r esources .

T hus , C hap ter

Two p rov ides a s u m mary o ft he L a te P leistocene N i le r ecord b ased ma in ly o n r ecen t s tud ies b y v ar ious workers , e spec ia l ly d e H einze l in ( 1 968) , Bu tzer a nd H ansen ( 1 968) a nd Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1 976b ) . C hap ter T hree c onsiders t he d a t ing o f s i tes a nd e xa m ines p a laeoc l i ma t ic c ond i t ions a nd t he s ubsistence e cono my o f t he p reh istor ic h u man g roups i nvo lved .

E v idence f or c l i ma t ic

c hanges i s a lso c i ted f ro m o ther p ar ts o f A fr ica . Aga inst t h is b ackground C hap ter F our a t te mp ts t o e xa m ine t he p reh istor ic s et t le men t p a tterns , s i te s tructure a nd a r tefactua l c on ten ts. T he s ources f or t h is c hap ter a re w ide ly s ca t tered among v ar ious p ub l ica t ions a nd i ti s h ere p ieced t ogether i n a n a t te mp t t o e stab l ish t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween i n tersi te a nd i n trasi te v ar iabi l i ty a nd t he v ariab i l i ty o bserved i n t he s tone a r tefacts. The d escr ip t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l p rov ided i n C hap ter F ive i s b ased o nt he p ub l ica t ions o f p revious workers a nd p ersona l o bserva t ion . C hap ter S ix d escr ibes t he s ta t ist ica l t reatmen t o ft he f i rsthand i n for ma t ion o b ta ined t hrough t he methods d escr ibed i n C hap ter O ne. I td iscusses t he r esu l ts o ft he a na lyses a nd a t te mp ts t o r each f i na l c onc lusions.

I n C hap ter

S even a n a t te mp t i s made t o a ddress w ider i ssues o f a rchaeo log ica l i n terpreta t ion a nd a f i na l s u m mary i s made o f t he r esearch f i nd ings. Iwou ld l i ke t o a cknow ledge w i th g rat itude t he a dv ice a nd h e lp Ih ave r ece ived f ro m P rofessor C . B . M . McBurney . Ih ad t he p r iv i lege t o b enef i t f ro m h is s cho lar ly i nstruct ion t hroughou t t he p er iod Is pen t i n C a mbr idge , b oth a s u ndergraduate a nd r esearch s tuden t .

Iowe a s pec ia l d eb t t o P rofessor

A . E . Marks , S ou thern Method ist U n iversi ty , Da l las , f or h is g enerousi ty a nd c on t inuous h elp a nd a dv ice .

L ikew ise , Iam g ra tefu l t o P rof . F . Wendorf a nd P rof . J . S h iner f or a l low ing me t o s tudy t he c o l lect ions f ro m D ongo la .

P rofessor S h iner h as

k ind ly a l lowed me t o u se h is o r ig ina l i l lustra t ions f ro m wh ich a r tefacts f ro m s i tes N 2, N 6 a nd N 91 a re r edrawn . Iw ish t o t hank w i th g ra t i tude Dr . P . L . C ar ter , Museu m o f A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy , C a mbridge , f or h is a dv ice a nd Dr . P . C a l low , U n ivers i ty o f K har toum a nd Mr . C o l in Du ly f or t heir d irect h elp i n t he i n i t ia l f i l ing o f my d a ta i n t he c o mpu ter . Iam g ra tefu l t o my c o l leagues a t C ambr idge K . A h med ( C lare Ha l l ) , J ohn G ow let t ( Corpus C hris t i ) a nd F iona W i l mo t ( New Ha l l ) f or t he ir k ind a ssis tance . F ina l ly , my g rea test d eb t a nd a pprecia t ion g o t o my w ife , Magbou la I brah im f or h er u nfa i l ing e ncourage ment a nd d ed ica t ion .

L IST OF MAPS

Map

P age

2 .1

S udan a nd Upper Egypt:

2 .2

Th ird Ca taract R eg ion:

2 .3

S econd C ataract R eg ion: L oca l i t ies

Ma in L oca l i t ies Ma in L oca l i t ies

1 8 2 2

1 3 D istr icts a nd Ma in 2 3

4 .1

L ocat ions o f Mouster ian a nd Khormusan S i tes

5 6

4 .2

L ocat ions o f Dongo la S i tes

5 7

4 .3

L oca t ions o f Ha lfan S i tes

7 3

P age APPENDIX 2 :

APPENDIX 3 . APPENDIX 4 : APPENDIX 5 : B IBLIOGRAPHY

METRICAL DATA ON M IDDLE PALAEOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

2 06

METRICAL DATA ON HALFAN ASSEMBLAGES

2 17

BORDE 'S TOOL TYPE L IST GLOSSARY FOR SOME CORE TYPES

2 22 2 24 2 25

L IST OF F IGURES

F igure

P age

1 .1 1 .2

Dorsa l S cars P a tterns. Measurement o f Artefacts ' D imens ions

1 1 1 2

2 .1 2 .2

P rof i le o f S ite 4 40 S ummary o f L a te P le istocene N i lot ic Events

3 3 3 6

3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4

P rof i le o f S i te 3 4A/D P rof i le o f S i te 6 G30 P rof i le o f F our Ha lfan S ites Corre la t ion D iagram o f t he I ndustr ies

4 2 4 2 4 4 4 7

4 .1

R estr icted P ercentages o f Retouched Too ls i n Tota l Co l lect ion a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S i tes

6 2

4 .2

R estr icted P ercentages o f Too ls a t Ha lfan S i tes

6 2

4 .3

T ernary D iagram S how ing P ercentages o f Gross Ar tefact C lasses a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S i tes ) Debr is Added)

6 3

T ernary D iagram S how ing P ercentages o f Gross Artefact C lasses. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages ) Debr is Om i tted)

6 4

4 .5

U t i l iza t ion o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t Khormusan S ites

6 7

4 .6

U t i l izat ion o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t " Buhen Comp lex" a nd S i te 4 40

6 8

U t i l iza t ion o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t Dongo la S i tes ( To ta l Co l lect ion)

7 0

U t i l iza t ion o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t Dongo la S i tes ( Too ls a nd Cores)

7 1

T ernary D iagram S how ing P ercentages o f Gross Artefact C lasses a t Ha lfan S i tes`)Debr is Om i tted)

7 6

4 .10

U t i l iza t ion o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t Ha lfan S i tes

7 9

4 .11

U t i l iza t ion o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t ' Ha lfa Comp lex ' S i tes

8 0

5 .1

R estr icted P ercentages o f S crapers a t M idd le P a laeol i th ic S i tes

8 5

R estr icted P ercentages o f Dent icu la tes a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S i tes

8 5

P ercentages o f L eva l lo is F lakes a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S i tes

8 6

5 .4

Cumu lat ive Graph.

Mouster ian Type B

9 0

5 .5

Cumu la t ive Graph.

Dent icu la te Mouster ian a nd S i te 4 40

9 0

5 .6

CuMu la t ive Graph.

Mouster ian Type A

9 7

4 .4

4 .7 4 .8 4 .9

5 .2 5 .3

F igure 5 .7 5 .8 5 .9 5 .10 5 .11 5 .12 5 .13 5 .14 5 .15 5 .16 5 .17 5 .18 5 .19 5 .20 5 .21 5 .22 5 .23 5 .24 5 .25 5 .26 5 .27 6 .1 6 .2 6 .3 6 .4 6 .5 6 .6 6 .7 6 .8 6 .9 6 .10 6 .11 6 .12 6 .13

P age Ar tefacts I l lustra t ions. S i te N6 Artefacts I l lustrat ions. S i te N6 Artefacts I l lustra t ions. S i te N2 Artefacts I l lustrat ions. S i te N2 Ar tefacts I l lustra t ions. S i te N2 Ar tefacts I l lustra t ions. S i te N91 Ar tefacts I l lustrat ions. S i te N20 Artefacts I l lustrat ions. S i te N20 Ar tefacts I l lustra t ions. S i te N20 Ar tefacts I l lustrat ions. S i te N20 Cumu la t ive Graph. Dongo la S ites N91 , N20 Cumu la t ive Graph. Dongo la S ites N6, N2-4 Cumu la t ive Graph. Khormusan S i tes 1 017 , 2 004 Cumu lat ive Graph. Khormusan S i tes 3 4A, 3 4D, ANW3 Restr icted P ercentages o f Bur ins a t Khormusan S ites M icro l i th ic I ndex a t S ix Ha lfan S ites I l lustra t ions o f Ha lfa Core a nd Ha lfa F lakes P ercentages o f Backed M icrob lades a t A l l Ha lfan S i tes R estr icted P ercentages o f Ha lfa a nd S ing le P la tform Cores a t a l l Ha lfan S i tes P ercentages o f B lades a nd Ha lfa F lakes i n Too l Typo log ies. A l l Ha lfan S i tes F lake a nd B lade Too l I nd ices a t S ix Ha lfan S i tes

1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 1 10 1 11 1 12 1 13 1 14 1 15 1 16 1 16 1 22 1 22 1 23 1 23 1 27 1 32 1 32 1 33 1 33

L inkage Dendrogram. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages. L eva l lo is F lakes, 8 Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 49

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is. Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 50

L eva l lo is F lakes, 8

L inkage Dendrogram. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages. L eva l lo is F lakes, 1 2 Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 52

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is. 1 2 Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 53

L eva l lo is F lakes,

L inkage Dendrogram. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages. Retouched Too ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 59

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is. Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 60

Retouched Too ls

L inkage Dendrogram. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages, Retouched Too ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes ( Uns tandard ized)

1 61

L inkage Dendrogram. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages. Core Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 66

L inkage Dendrogram. Ha lfan a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages. Too ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 71

L inkage Dendrogram. 1 3 Too l Types

1 73

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages.

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is. Assemb lages. 1 3 Too l Types

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic 1 74

L inkage Dendrogram. M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages. 1 3 Too l Types ( Uns tandard ized)

1 76

L inkage Dendrogram. Bordes ' I nd ices

1 79

M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages.

F igure

P age

6 .14

P r inc ipa l C omponents Ana lys is Bordes ' I nd ices

1 80

6 .15

L inkage D endrogram. Bordes ' I nd ices

1 81

6 .16 6 .17

Nub ian a nd B ir S ahara S i tes.

P r inc ipa l C omponents Ana lys is. S ahara. B ordes ' I nd ices

Nub ian a nd B ir 1 82

L inkage D endrogram. 5 Core Types

2 0 M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages.

6 .18

L inkage D endrogram.

Ha lfan Assemb lages. Ten Too l Types

6 .19

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is. T en Too l Types

6 .20

L inkage D endrogram. ( Unstandard ized)

6 .21

Average L inkage.

6 .22

L inkage D endrogram. Types

6 .23

1 83 1 87

Ha lfan Assemb lages. 1 88

Ha lfan Assemb lages 1 90

Ha lfan Assemb lages.

Ten Too l Types

Ha lfan Assemb lages.

P r inc ipa l Componen ts Ana lys is.

1 91

F ive Core 1 92

Ha lfan Core Types

1 93

Th is work i s d ed icated t o my f am i ly

CHAPTER I HI STORY OF RESEARCH AND METHODS OF APPROACH

H istory o fR esearch A l though s yste ma t ic a rchaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ions i n N or thern S udan b egan d ur ing t he o pen ing y ears o ft h is c entury , r esearch o n t he P a laeo l i th ic d id n o t s tar t s er iously u n t i l s ix d ecades l a ter .

T he t rave l lers a nd ama teur

a rchaeo log ists o ft he 1 8th a nd 19 th c entur ies r epor ted t he p resence o f a nc ien t Egyp t ian a nd C hr is t ian monu men ts wh ich h ad a s pec ia l a ppea l t o t hose who were a lready i nvo lved i n s uch work i n Egyp t . T he e ar ly i n terest i n monu men ts a nd s earch f or t he o r ig in o ft he e ar l iest c iv i l iza t ion , h owever , c on tr ibu ted t o s o me e x ten t t o t he d e lay o f P a laeo l i th ic r esearch . Work o n t he l a t ter s tar ted e ar l ier i n Egyp t , a nd a s e ar ly a s t he l a te 19 th c entury s o me o bservers s howed t ha t t here was i ndeed a s tone a ge i n Egyp t ( Ca ton-Tho mpson 1 946 :67 ) .

Th is

e ar ly s tar t i n t he 1 920s i s b est d e monstra ted b y t he works o f C a ton-Tho mpson a nd G ardner i n t he F ayu m , S andford a nd A rkel l a long t he N i le Va l ley a nd V ignard i n t he Ko rn Ombo p la in i n U pper Egyp t .

C a ton-Tho mpson r e marks

t ha t t he p ub l ica t ion o fV ignard is work i n 19 24 r epresen ts t he b eg inn ing o f s er ious r esearch o n t he Egyp t ian p reh istory ( i b id : 6 7) . T here was , h owever , l i tt le work o f s uch magn i tude i n t he S udan a nd t h is p er iod was g enera l ly marked b y al ack o f i n terest i n s tone a ge s tud ies.

T h is a t t i tude i s b est

r ef lected i n t he r esu l ts o ft he f i rs t t wo S yste ma t ic S urveys i n S udanese Nub ia t r iggered b y t he i n i t ia l b u i ld ing o f A swan H igh Da rn a nd a s ubsequen t e n largemen t ( 19 07-11, 1 929-33) .

These t wo s urveys d id n o t r epor t a ny P a laeo l i th ic

s i tes a nd t heir d irectors b e l ieved t ha t h u man s et t le men t i n Nub ia b egan w i th t he a rr iva l o f t he A -group p rogen i tors f ro m Egyp t i n t he 4 th mi l lenn iu m B .C . ( Ada ms 1 977 :71-77 , 1 01-104) . The r e markab le c on tribu t ion t o s tone a ge s tud ies d ur ing t hose y ears , h owever , i s t ha t o f S andford a nd Arke l l who e x tended t he ir work a long t he v a l ley b e tween A swan a nd S e mna s ou th o f t he S econd C a taract ( Map 2 .1). T hough t he ir work was l im i ted t o s urface c o l lect ion a nd g eo log ica l o bserva t ions t hey p ub l ished a g enera l e vo lu t ionary c u l tura l s equence i n wh ich t hey p oin ted o u t t hat A cheu l ian a r tefacts were n ot f ound s ou th o f Wad i Ha ifa i n S udan . T hey a lso a rgued t ha t U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo l t ypes were l ack ing i n N ub ia a nd t ha t t he Mouster ian t echno logy w en t o n f or a l ong t ime af ter i th ad d isappeared f ro m t he n e ighbour ing r eg ions. T hus t he c u l tura l d eve lopmen t i n t he S tone Age was d escr ibed a s marg ina l a nd c onserva t ive ( S andford a nd Arke l l 1 933 : 3 5 , C hap ter I :

1 9 ) .

T h is v iew o f c u l tura l r etarda t ion was w ide ly a ccep ted

b y a l mos t a l l workers i n t he f i e ld a t t ha t t ime.

C a ton-Tho mpson , f or i nstance ,

d escr ibed t he who le r eg ion o f N or th East A fr ica a s " to h ave b een s e lf-suf f ic ien t i n t he P a laeo l i th ic e ra a s s he was i n t he P haron ic t imes a nd b efore" ( 1 946 :

1

5 7 ) .

Moreover , t he P a laeo l i th ic s equence i n Egyp t i s a n " au tochonous ,

a u togener ic d evelop men t" a nd wh i le h av ing s o me A frican c haracter ist ics i t was i ncreasing ly b eco m ing N i lo t ic a nd s e lf-suf f icien t ( i b id :58) . I n S udan a s awho le s er ious a ct iv i t ies were l im i ted t o t he p ioneer w ork o fA . J . Arke l l , who a s ag overn ment of ic ia l a nd t hen C omm issioner f or A rchaeo logy i n 1 938, h ad t he o ppor tun i ty t o t rave l t o mos t p ar ts o ft he c oun try . A . J . Arkel l h as p rov ided e vidence , c on trary t o t he e ar lier v iews o f S andford a nd A rke l l t ha t L ower P a laeo l i th ic t ype o f a r tefacts were p resen t a s f ar s ou th a s Wad i A fu o n t he w est b ank o f t he N i le s o me 5 0 m i les s ou th o f Khar toum ( Map 2 .1 , A . J . Arke l l 1 949 ) .

T he b est k nown o fh is f i nds , h owever , a re t he

A cheu l ian/Sangoan s i te a t Khor Abu Anga , t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te a t S inga i n c en tra l S udan a nd t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic s i tes i n t he K hartoum p rov ince . F ro m t hese d iscover ies a nd n umerous s urface f i nds Arkel l p ubl i shed i n 1 949 t he f irst a ccoun t o f t he S tone Age i n S udan .

A l though A . J .

A rke lPs work o n t he P a laeo l i th ic i s ap ioneer e ndeavour i t must b e s ta ted t ha t i t was p r i mar i ly b ased o n s urface f i nds a nd h ard ly a ny s yste ma t ic e xcava t ions w ere u nder taken . T he p r ior i ty i n f i e ld work o rgan ized b y t he S udan An t iqu i t ies S erv ice was g iven t o h istor ica l a rchaeo logy i n wh ich , i t was b e l ieved , l ay t he impor tance o f S udan a s af i e ld f or a rchaeo logy . T hose who w ere i nvo lved i n S udanese a rchaeo logy were d edicated Egyp to log ists c omm i t ted t o u nravel l ing t he Egyp t ian c iv i l iza t ion a nd i t s s ou thern e xpans ion ( Arkel l 1 955 :

i n troduct ion ) .

T h is c oncep t p ers isted e ven d uring t he o rgan iza t ion o ft he l ast ' Save t he Nub ian Monu ments C a mpa ign 1 960-66 ' when i t was d ecided t o b u i l t t he N ew A swan H igh Da m .

S tone Age s tud ies were i nc luded i n t he p rogra m me t h is

t ime b u t t here were d oubts whether o r n ot i mportan t d iscover ies wou ld b e made ( Wendorf 1 968b :3) .

The C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion , wh ich

c arr ied o u t t he g reater p ar t o ft he p reh is tor ic r esearch c oncentra ted i t s a c t iv i t ies i n t he s tretch o f t he v a l ley f ro m t he S udan-Egyp t f ron t iers t o j ust s ou th o ft he S econd C a taract .

N eed less t o s ay t hese r esearches a re w ide ly

d if feren t f rom t hose u ndertaken b y S andford a nd A rke l l .

Wendorf s ta ted t ha t

t he e xped i t ion 's ma in t ask was t o s urvey a s much a s p ossib le o ft he a rea t hrea tened b y t he r ising waters o ft he N i le a nd a t t he s a me t ime g iv ing p r ior i t ies t o p ro m ising s i tes o r a reas. Thus i n t he a l loca ted 1 50 k i lo me tres a rea t he work was e f fect ively l im i ted t o a n a rea o f 6 0 k i lome tres a round Wadi Ha lfa ( Chap ter I : 2 1 ) . T he l im i ted t ime s pen t o n t h is s tretch o ft he v a l ley h as a d irect b ear ing o n t he p rob le ms o f s a mp l ing a rchaeo log ica l s i tes. Most o f t he s i tes t ha t w ere a ssoc ia ted w i th t he a nc ien t N i lo t ic s i l ts were b ur ied a nd e xcava t ion a nd i n i t ia l d iscover ies i nd ica ted t he n eed f or more t ime.

T he

K hor musan i ndustry f or i nstance was d ef ined b y Marks o n t he b asis o ff i ve a sse mb lages wh i le t he Nub ian Mouster ian i nc ludes o n ly 1 3 a sse mb lages. T here a re o ther f actors , h owever , wh ich a lso afected t he f i na l r esu l ts o f t he C o mb ined Exped i t ion . T he ma jor i ty o f i t s me mbers c a me t o Nub ia f ro m Amer ica , F rance , P o land a nd B elg iu m , f or t he f i rs t t ime , w i th d i fferen t b ackground a nd p erhaps s o me w ith l i t t le e xper ience o f t he p rob le ms i nvo lved i n A fr ican a rchaeo logy .

Moreover Nub ia i t se lf was v irtua l ly u nknown

a rchaeo log ica l ly a nd t hus t he p oss ib i l i ty o fa pp ly ing c onf l ict ing me thods a nd s tra teg ies was o pen . I n most c ases f i eld me thods f o l lowed E uropean l i nes

2

a nd t hese h ad t o b e mod if ied f ro m y ear t o y ear ( i b id :16 ) .

The s tric t a pp l ica t ion

o f European t oo l t ypo log ies , f or i nstance , must h ave c on tr ibu ted t o t he n umerous c on f l ict ing t er m ino log ies u sed t o d ef ine a rchaeo log ica l i ndus tr ies.

S o me o f

t hese d if fer ing t er ms were a pparent ly r eferr ing t o t he s a me t h ing .

T he

U n iversi ty o f C o lorado ' Buhen ' a nd ' Ha ifa ' c o mp lexes s tand r espec t ive ly f or t he C o mb ined Exped i t ion Khor musan a nd Ha lfan I ndustr ies . The a pp l ica t ion o f B ordes ' method o fc lassi f ica t ion t o t he Nub ian Mous ter ian was f ound u ns u i tab le f or t he Khor musan a sse mb lages wh ich migh t h ave b een i nc luded i n t he f or mer g roup i fa nother method h ad b een a dop ted ( S ee C hap ters V , V I ) . There i s n o i n tent ion , h owever , t o min im ize t he v a lue a nd magn i tude o ft he s a lvage c a mpa ign work . T he a ch ieve men ts i n d iscover ies a nd p rec ision i n r ecording a nd p ub l ish ing t he m c er ta in ly o u twe igh t he c ri t ic is ms t ha t c an b e o f fered . T hese d iscover ies h ave s hown t ha t t he c u l tura l s equence i n Nub ia was c o mp l ica ted a nd i ndeed u n ique i n many a spects. According t o Wendorf t he b asic u n i t o f s tudy was a c o l lect ion o f a pparen t ly a ssoc ia ted a rtefac ts f ro m a s i te o r al oca l i ty wh ich i s c a l led e f fect ive ly a n a sse mb lage . A sse mb lages were g rouped t ogether i n to u n i ts a ccord ing t o t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l s im i lar i t ies b e tween t he m . These u n i ts o r i ndustries were b e l ieved t o r ef lect a d egree o f c u l tura l h o mogenei ty o ft he p reh istor ic h u man g roup r esponsib le .

B u t d esp i te t he g enera l t endency o f

a r tefacts t o s uggest a t axono my o f a sse mb lages i t was f ound i n p rac t ice t ha t s o me o ft he a sse mb lages d o n o t r ead i ly f i t i n a ny o f t he s upposed moda l i ty . T hese l a t ter were c a l led 'm iscel laneous ' s i tes ( Sh iner 1 968b ) . F or Wendorf , t he i ndustries t hus d ef ined may h ave a t e mpora l d eve lopmen t o r may h ave e x isted a t a bou t t he s a me i n terva l o ft ime.

Each o f t he

i ndustr ies was i n terpre ted t o " represen t t he s tone t oo l mak ing a c t iv i t ies o f ap opu la t ion w i th a d ist inct c u l ture" a nd t hey were a lso v iewed a s " cu l tura l r ea l i t ies wh ich were n o t t he r esu l t o f s easona l a c t iv i t ies o r a cciden ts o f c ol lect ion , b u t wh ich e xpress t he d if feren t p a t terns o f b ehaviour f o l lowed b y d ist inct a nd s epara te p opu la t ions a nd h ave b o th h istor ica l a nd c u l tura l s ign i f ic ance" ( Wendorf 1 968d :1041) . The i ndustr ies w i th wh ich t h is s tudy d ea ls a re t he Nub ian Mous ter ian , t he Khor musan , t he H a lfan a nd f our a sse mb lages f ro m t he Dongo la R each . T he l at ter h ave n ot p rev iously b een p ub l ished i n ac o mp le te f or m a nd o ne s i te ( N20) i s d escr ibed h ere f or t he f i rst t ime .

Men t ion must , h owever , b e made

o f t he g roup o f a sse mb lages d escr ibed b y t he G u ichards a nd b y C hm ie lewsk i a s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic. T hese were s urface c o l lect ions f ro m workshop-s i tes c haracter ized b y af ew f i n ished t oo ls , l i ke s crapers , b i fac ia l f o l ia tes a nd b i faces. T he a sse mb lages h ave b een v ar ious ly c o mpared t o t he S angoan a nd A terian .

O n t he b asis o f a bsence o r p resence o f t hree d iagnost ic t oo l t ypes ;

f o l ia tes , Nub ian s crapers a nd Nub ian c ores , t he Gu ichards d ist ingu ished t wo f acies i n t hese a sse mb lages. One i s c a l led N ub ian ( w i th f o l ia tes ) a nd t he o ther n on-Nub ian ( w i thou t f o l ia tes ) .

C ons ider ing , h owever , t he a r tefact c o mposi t ion

o ft hese a sse mb lages , i ti s f e l t t ha t i t wou ld n o t b e a ppropr ia te t o u se t he m i n t h is s tudy . Moreover , most o ft he o r ig ina l s tud ies were u nder taken i n t he f i e ld w i th n o s ys te ma t ic c o l lect ions r e ta ined a nd i n s o me c ases s elect ive c ol lec t ion was made t o ' enr ich ' t he t oo l c oun t ( Gu ichards 1 965 :89 , Marks : p ers. c o mm .) . T hus n one o ft hese a sse mb lages were i nc luded i n t he p resen t s tudy . 3

T he Nub ian Mouster ian F ro m h is c lassi f ica t ion o f s tone a sse mb lages f ro m 1 1 s i tes Marks d ef ined t he Nub ian Mouster ian a s c o mpr is ing t hree f acies ; Mouster ian t ype A a nd Ba nd Den t icu la te .

T he b asic a na ly t ica l t oo l u sed f or t hese d iv isions was t he

c lassi f ica t ion method d ev ised b y F . B ordes f or s tudy ing t he F rench Mouster ian a sse mb lages ( Chap ter V ) . Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne , t he Mouster ian a sse mb lages were s urface c o l lec t ions a nd h ence t he s i tes h ave n o c hronome tr ic d a tes n or c an t hey b e r e la ted d irect ly t o t he l oca l g eo logy . t he s i tes a ccord ing t o Marks i s a s f o l lows : T ype A S ite

1 010-8

S i te

1 035

Type B

Den t icu la te

6

S i te

1 21

1 036

T he g roup ing o f

1 000 3 6B

J ebe l B r iniko l ( JB )

1 037 1 038 1 033 ( 2l evels ) Mouster ian t ype A a nd B h ave b een d escr ibed a s au n i f ied t ypo log ica l i ndus try a nd w ere s epara ted f ro m t he o thers ma in ly b ecause o f t he p resence o f af ew h andaxes i n t ype B a sse mb lages. A l though t he Nub ian Mousterian i s t ypo log ic a l ly a nd t echno log ica l ly d ist inct , Marks d escr ibed i ta s s im i lar t o t he t yp ica l Mouster ian o f Western Europe.

H e f urther p ostu la tes t ha t i ti s al oca l d eve lop-

men t i n f luenced b y i deas d i ffused f ro m o u tside Nub ia ( Marks 1 968a :292 , 3 131 4 , C hap ter V ) . T he Den t icu la te Mouster ian s hares t he s ame b asic L eva l lois t echno logy w i th t he N ub ian Mouster ian a nd a l though i tw i l l b e s hown t o r epresen t af ac ies emphasiz ing a s peci f ic a ct iv i ty , i ti s n ever the less c onsidered b y Marks a s epara te i ndustry . Marks a rgued t ha t i ti s most c o mparab le t o t he European Den t icu la te Mouster ian o f t he " non-Leva l lois d eb i tage w ith f acet ing" ( i b id : 2 92 , 3 00. S i te 4 40 I ncluded i n my s tudy o ft he N ub ian Mouster ian i s t he a sse mb lage f ro m s i te 4 40 a lready d escr ibed b y S h iner i n t he "m iscel laneous" g roup o f s i tes. The s im i lar i t ies wh ich t he a sse mb lage b ears t o t he N ub ian Mousterian was r ecogn ized b u t b ecause o f t he d ispu ted s i te s tra t igraphy a nd a l a te C 14 d a te o f 1 2 , 3 40 + 5 00 ( WSU-290 ) o b ta ined f or t he u pper l ayer , i t was n o t i nc luded i n t ha t g roup . S i te 4 40 was a ssocia ted w ith N i lo t ic s i l ts a nd a s i t was t hen b el ieved n one o f t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes c ou ld b e f ound i n s uch c on tex ts t he l a te d a te was a ccep ted f or t he s i te ( Sh iner 1 968b :636 ) .

T he imp l ied c oncep t

o f ay ounger r iver h as s ince b een r ev ised a nd t he a sse mb lage f ro m 4 40 i s f or ma l ly d escr ibed b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld a s b e long ing t o t he Mouster ian i ndustry ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 :129 , 1 976b 2 37 , C hap ter I , V ) . The Dongo la Asse mb lage I n 1 967 t he C o mb ined Exped it ion e x tended i t s f i e ld work f ur ther s outh i n t he Dongo la R each a nd h as d iscovered f our a sse mb lages i n wh ich L eva l lo is t echno logy was u sed .

Three o ft he f our a sse mb lages h ave b een b r ief ly r epor ted

4

a s " f lake a sse mb lages w i th L eva l lo is t echn ique .. ( Marks e t a l . 1 968 :71) . T he f i na l r epor t t o t he Na t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion s ta tes t ha t " as t hese s i tes , N 2, N 91, N 6 were o u tside t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l r ange o f mos t ( s ic ) i n t he Dongola R each , a nd s o , o u tside t he ma jor p rob le ms wh ich a ppeared d ur ing t he c ourse o f work , t heir s tudy l acks t he d ep th a nd c o mp leteness t ha t i s g iven t o t he o ther a rchaeo log ica l man i festa t ions" ( Marks e t a l . 1 971:37 ) . T here a re n o a bso lu te d a tes f or t hese s i tes a nd o n t he b asis o f t he r eg iona l d is tribu t ion o f a nc ien t N i le s i l ts w i th wh ich s i te N 2 i s a ssocia ted d e H einze l in e st i ma ted a d a te a round 1 7 ,000 B .C . ( d e H einzel in 1 971). T here a re n ow r easonab le o b jec t ions t o t h is c onc lusion b ased o n t he r ev ised N i lo t ic s equence a nd r e-exa m ina t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l ( Chap ters I , V ) .

Wendorf

a nd S ch i ld h owever , h ave r ecen t ly d escr ibed t hree o ft he a sse mb lages a s M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic ( 1 975 :130) .

S ince t hen Ih ave s tud ied t he t o ta l c ol lec t ions

f ro m t hese s i tes a nd i tw i l l b e s een t ha t t he f igures p roduced h ere f or a rtefact c lasses a re c onsiderab ly d iferen t f ro m t hose p ub l ished i n t he r epor t men t ioned a bove ( see C hap ter V ) . T he Khor musan I ndustry The Khor musan i nc ludes s even a sse mb lages ;

f i ve d escr ibed b y Marks

a nd t wo b y I rw in a s ' Buhen C o mp lex '. There i s n ow g enera l a gree men t b etween t hese a u thors t ha t t he t wo g roups o f a sse mb lages b e long t o a n i ndustry wh ich i s f u l ly d escr ibed b y Marks ( 1 968b ; a sse mb lages a re : Khor musan ( Marks : 1 968)

I rw in e t a l . 1 968) .

T he K hor musan

B uhen C o mp lex ( I rw in 1 968)

3 4A

6G30 ( 2l eve ls )

1 017

6027

3 4D AN W3 2 004 These a sse mb lages h ave b een v ar iously d escr ibed a s " Upper P a laeo l i th ic" , " Ep i-Leva l lo is" , " La te S tone Age" b u t f ina l ly g rouped t oge ther u nder t he n a me K hor musan wh ich i s d ef ined a s d ist inct f ro m a ny d iscovered a long t he N i le v a l ley ( So leck i 1 963 , Waech ter 1 965 , Wendorf e t a l . 1 965 , Marks 1 968b ) . Marks d escr ibed t he Khor musan a s b asica l ly a f l ake i ndus try d om ina ted b y t hree ma in t oo l t ypes ; L eva l lo is f l akes , d en t icu la tes a nd b ur ins . Da t ing o f t he s i tes was o r ig ina l ly b ased o n t he ir s tra t igraph ica l p os i t ion i n t he N i lo t ic s equence a nd t wo C 14 d a tes o f 1 5 , 8 50 + 2 80 a nd 1 8 ,950 ± 2 80 . A .t h ird C 14 d a te o f > 3 6 ,000 was o b ta ined f or s i te 6G30 ( Buhen C o mp lex ) b u t was n ot f avoured a t t he t ime . T hus t he K hor musan was b e l ieved t o h ave s panned t he p er iod b etween c a . 2 5 ,000 a nd 1 5 ,000 B .C . ( i b id : 3 18) .

T here a re t hree

ma in r easons wh ich Ib e l ieve h ave c on tr ibu ted c oncep tua l ly t o t he s epara t ion o ft he Khor musan a s ad ist inct i ndustry .

F irst i s t h is a pparen t l a te d a te ,

s econd t he a ssoc ia t ion o ft he s i tes w i th N i le s i l ts a nd t h ird t he d om inance o f b ur ins a t s o me o f t he s i tes. The e ar l iest N i le s i l ts o f E th iop ian o r ig in , i t was b el ieved t hen , c ou ld n o t d a te t o more t han 3 0 ,000 B .P . a nd t hus imp l ied al a ter d a te f or t he K hor musan ( d e H e inze l in 1 968 :49) . N ew f i e ld d a ta o b ta ined f ro m U pper Egyp t , h owever , s hows b eyond d oub t t ha t t he c oncep t o f ay oung r iver was c o mp letely e rroneous. A cheu l ian a nd

5

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tefacts were f ound i n s i tu w i th in a nd a bove N i lo t ic s i l ts o f E th iop ian o r ig in ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b ) .

Ar e-exa m ina t ion o f t he

g eo log ica l s ect ions f ro m S udanese N ub ia a nd o thers f ro m c en tra l S udan s uppor ts s uch av iew . Moreover t here a re n ow t wo n ew C 14 d a tes wh ich wou ld d a te t he Khor musan t o n o t l ess t han 4 0 ,000 B .C .

I t wou ld s ee m , t herefore , t ha t

t he a ssumed c ausa l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he a dven t o f t he N i le r eg i me a nd t he K hor musan d eve lop men t i s s er iously u nder m ined ( Chap ter I ) . F ro m t hese n ew f i nds Wendorf a nd S ch i ld h ave r ecen t ly p roposed a s cheme f or t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n N or th East A fr ica i n wh ich t he Khor musan i s i ncluded . T h is s che me c o mpr ises t h ree e nt i t ies : Mouster ian , A terian a nd K hor musan . T he t hree e n t i t ies a re u nderstood t o b e long t o t he s a me t echnol og ica l s tage a nd " fo l low e ach o ther a nd e ach i s c er ta in ly c on f ined t o ad ist inc t t ime p er iod a nd p ossib ly t o ar estr icted e nv ironmen t" ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976a :29 ) . T he Ha l fan I ndustry T o d a te t here a re t en s i tes f ro m S udanese N ub ia a ssigned t o t h is g roup . S ix a re k nown b y t he n a me Ha l fan a nd t he o ther f our a s ' Ha ifa C o mp lex '. T he s i tes a re : Ha lfan I ndustry ( Marks :1968c )

Ha ifa C o mp lex ( I rwin e t a l .: 1968)

S i te

S i te

1 020

6 B32

1 018

6G35

4 43

6 B28

6 24 2 014

6 G29

1 028 I ti s g enera l ly a ccep ted b y t hese a u thors t ha t a l l o f t he s i tes l i sted a bove b e long t o t he s a me e n t i ty wh ich i s d escr ibed a s am icro l i th ic i ndustry i n wh ich t he a t f i rst d om inan t ' Ha ifa f l ake ' e le men t was g radua l ly r ep laced b y a' m icrob lade ' e le ment .

A ccord ing t o Marks t he b lade le t t echn ique e volved l oca l ly a nd

f ro m t he a va i lab le C 14 d a tes a nd s i tes s trat igraphy h e d a ted t he Ha l fan s equence t o c2 0 ,000 t o 1 4 ,000 B .C. H e e nv isaged f i ve h ypo the t ica l s tages f or t he Ha l fan l i th ic d eve lop men t wh ich i s f i na l ly i n terpreted a s r epresen t ing t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f ad ist inct c u l tura l g roup ( i b id :458-460 , C hap ter I I , V ) . T here a re , h owever , c er ta in i ssues c oncern ing t he c u l tura l s equence j ust d escr ibed wh ich n eed c loser e xa m ina t ion . T hese i ssues a re o ft wo k inds ; c hrono log ica l o rder ing o ft he i ndustr ies a nd t heoret ica l c ons iderat ions i nvo lved i n t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he d iscerned v ar iat ion b etween t he i ndustr ies . S pec i f ic p rob le ms w i th wh ich t h is s tudy i s c oncerned a re : 1 .

T he v a l id i ty o f d iv iding t he N ub ian Mouster ian i n to t ypes A , Ba nd

Den t icu la te a nd t he c la im t ha t t he c o mp lex i s c o mparab le t o t he European Mouster ian . I t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o k now whe ther t hese d iv isions were r ea l o r mere ly r esu l ted f ro m a pp ly ing f or i nstance t he B orde ' st ype l i st . 2 . T he p osi t ion o ft he Khor musan I ndustry i n v iew o f t he r ev ised g eoa rchaeo log ica l s equence s uggested b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld i n wh ich i ti s d escr ibed a s t he y oungest f acies o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic .

A l though t he Khor musan i s

s hown t o s hare t he s a me t echno log ica l b ase a s t he N ub ian Mouster ian t he 6

t he wr i ters d id n o t o f fer a s pecif ic e xp lana t ion f or t he v ar ia t ion i n t he t ypo logy a nd t echno logy . 3 .

T he i den t i f ica t ion o ft he Dongola a sse mb lages a s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

i n i t s b roadest s ense , i fs ubs tan t ia ted wou ld i nd ica te t he s ou thern e x tens ion o f t he c u l tura l man ifesta t ion o bserved i n s ou thern N ub ia . Th is wou ld mean t ha t t he ' cu l ture a rea ' p ropounded b y Wendorf e t a l . i s n o t l im i ted t o t he S econd C a taract . 4 . Ar e-exa m ina t ion o f t he Ha l fan l i th ic d eve lop men t a nd i t s p osi t ion i n t he N ub ian s equence i s c a l led f or i ft he e ar l ier d a tes f or t he K hor musan i ndustry a re a ccep ted .

T he h ypo the t ica l s tages s uggested b y Marks a re n ot

c onv incing ly s ubs tan t ia ted b y e i ther t he s tra t igraphy o r t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ( Chap ter I I , V ) . I tr e ma ins f i na l ly t o a ccoun t f or t he a ppearance o f t he microb lade t echno logy whether i td eve loped l oca l ly a s Marks a rgued o r r esu lted f ro m e x terna l i n f luences f or wh ich t here a re s o me i nd ica t ions. T he Mode l An a l terna t ive model t o t ha t s uggested b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld f or t he M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic w i l l b e emp loyed i n t h is s tudy i n a n a t te mp t t o e xp lain t he Mouster ian/Khor musan d ichoto my . Is ha l l f i rst a rgue t ha t t he Khor musan i s l argely c on te mporary w i th t he N ub ian Mouster ian a nd t hat t hey b o th s panned t he p er iod b e tween c 5 0 ,000 t o >25 ,000 B .C. ( Chap ter I , I I ) . S econd t he d i f ferences i n t oo l t ypo logy a nd t echno logy a re a ccoun ted f or b y f actors • o ther t han t hose r esu l t ing f ro m c u l tura l d ifferences.

G ran ted t he d ocumen-

t at ion o f ab road c on te mporanei ty t he mode l v iews t he Mouster ian/Khor musan a sse mb lages t o r epresen t r esidues o f v ary ing h u man o ccupa t ion i n t ime a nd s pace. Var iab i l i ty i n s i te d istr ibu t ion ; t hose l oca ted a long t he r iver b anks ( Khor musan ) a nd t hose e x tend ing i n land ( Mouster ian ) i s c lose ly r e la ted t o l oca l c l i ma t ic c hange a nd f l uc tua t ions i n t he N i le f l ood .

I n tersi te a nd i n trasi te

v ar iab i l i ty i s t hus a ssu med t o h ave b een c onnec ted w i th t he a va i lab i l i ty a nd d istr ibu t ion o f t he n a tura l r esources i n t he e xp lo i ted t err i tory wh ich i s h ypot het ica l ly d ef ined a s e x tend ing f ro m t he a ncien t f l ood p la in t o s o me 1 0 k i lo me tres i n land .

Var ia t ion i n t he s pa t ia l d istr ibu t ion o f s i tes a nd t heir a rchaeo log ica l

c on ten t a re a ssu med t o r ef lec t d if ferences i n a dap t ive s tra teg ies o n t he p ar t o ft he s a me c u ltura l g roup (s) t ha t i nhab i ted t he r eg ion d ur ing t he p er iod s pecif ied a bove .

Exp lo i ta t ion o f ap ar t icu lar h ab i ta t a nd r esource i n a

s pecif ic p er iod o f t ime ( s eason ) c ou ld r esu l t i n a measure o f emphasis o n t he p roduct ion o f s pec if ic t oo l t ypes.

The l a t ter wou ld i nd ica te t ha t as peci f ic

a ct iv i ty was more emphasized t han o thers i n as pecif ic l oca l i ty . T he b asic u n i t o f a na lys is i s t he s i te wh ich i s c once ived , i n t he c ase o f Mouster ian/ Khor musan a s r epresen t ing a h ab i ta t ion s i te where t he h un ters p erfor med v ar ious a c t iv i t ies a l though o ne ma jor a ct iv i ty may b e emphas ized d epend ing o n t he a va i lab i l i ty o f r esources.

The d ura t ion a nd mechan is m o f s easona l

move men t d uring t he M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic i n Nub ia c anno t b e c on f ident ly e stab l ished b u t t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t t he g enera l p a t tern migh t h ave b een g overned b y l oca l c l ima t ic c ond it ions a nd t he N i le f l oods b o th d irec t ly a f fect ing t he a va i lab le r esources. F or t he Ha l fan d eve lop men t a nd t he p rob le m o ft he emergence o f t he b lade let t echno logy , ar a ther d ifferen t model i s a dop ted .

7

Ensu ing h yper-ar id

c ond i t ions p reva i led i n most p ar ts o f s ub-Saharan A fr ica c 2 0 ,000 B .C . d ur ing wh ich h u man s et t le men t i n N ub ia was c onf ined a long t he f lood p la in a nd i t s i m med ia te f r inges. The e xp lo i ta t ion t err i tory a long t he l im i ted f l ood p la in i s e xpected t o h ave h ad more o r l ess s im i lar microenv iron men ts . Hu man g roups were t hen c oncen trated a long t he v a l ley a nd move men t wou ld h ave b een c on f ined t o e i ther n or th o r s ou th o f i t . I ti s h ypo thesized t ha t t he Ha lfan i ndustry r epresen ts t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f j ust o ne o ft hese c u l tura l g roups . Wh i le t he L eva l lo is t echno logy p ers isted i n a mod i f ied f or m i n t he Ha lfan a nd c on te mporary i ndustr ies i ti s o n ly t he Ha l fan i n wh ich t he m icrob lade t echn ique a ppeared .

Hav ing t h is s i tua t ion o fv ar ious g roups e xp lo i t ing t he s a me h ab i ta t

i tw i l l b e s uggested t ha t t he a ppearance o f microb lades r esu l ted f ro m a n e x terna l i nf luence a nd t ha t i t s a ppearance was r e la t ive ly s udden . A _ pp l ica t ion o ft he Mode l T he i n for ma t ion u sed t o t est t hese h ypo theses was o b ta ined t hrough t wo l i nes o f i nqu iry ; ac r i t ica l r ev iew o f t he p ub l ished d a ta a nd f i rst h and d eta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l p er t inen t t o t he p rob le m . P ub l ished Da ta A l though a c onsiderab le amoun t o f i nfor ma t ion o n t he g eo logy a nd c l i ma te o ft he a rea h as b een c ol lec ted a nd p ub l ished b y t he C o mb ined Exped i t ion t here i s l i t t le e v idence t ha t i th as b een f u l ly i n tegra ted w i th t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . T he a rchaeo log ica l i ndustr ies were d ef ined ma in ly o n t he b asis o f a r tefact s im i lar i t ies a nd d if ferences b u t v ar iab les l i ke s i te l oca t ion a nd r aw ma ter ia l d istr ibu t ion were n ot s er iously c onsidered .

A s t hese v ar iab les were f acets

o f t he c u l tura l s ys te m t heir i n iegra t ion w i th a rchaeo log ica l r ecord s hou ld h elp i n u nderstand ing t ha t s yste m . The ma jor p o in t o f my a rgu ment i s c oncerned w i th c l i ma te a nd d istr ibu t ion o f t he n a tura l r esources , b oth w ere r ela ted t o t he p rob le m o fN i le e vo lu t ion t o wh ich a c hap ter i s d evo ted . Ib e l ieve t ha t ac r i t ica l r ev iew o f a l l t hese e le men ts s hou ld h elp i n e xp la in ing t he v ar iab i l i ty w ith in t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( Chap ter I , I I , I V ) . The S a mp le a nd Me thods o f Ana lysis T he a t tr ibu te a na lys is a bout t o b e d escr ibed was i n tended t o b e a pp l ied f or s a mp les o ft oo ls , f l akes a nd b lades a nd c ores f ro m a l l t he Mouster ian , Khor mus a n a nd Dongo la a sse mb lages .

Wh i le i nves t iga t ing t hese d a ta a t

S ou thern Me thod ist U n iversi ty , T exas , t he wr i ter f ound t ha t t hree o f t he Mouster ian s i tes d escr ibed b y Marks were missing . Moreover t he C o mb ined Exped i t ion 's workers a pparen t ly d id n o t k eep d eb i tage f ro m a l l b u t t wo o ft he Mouster ian s i tes. C ores a lso s ee med t o h ave b een s im i larly t reated . The f i e ld n o tes o f t he Exped i t ion i n r eference t o t h is p o in t s ay " on ly t oo ls a nd a s a mp le o f c ores h ave b een k ep t f ro m t hese s i tes ( Mouster ian ) , n a tura l ly L eva l lo is p ieces a re i nc luded .

A l l t he r es t i s t rea ted a nd d u mped i n t he

d eser t— in t he m idd le o f s o me wad i i n an ea t p i le" ( F ield n o tes O ctober 2 , 1 962) . However t o ta l c o l lec t ions o f c ores , t oo ls a nd d eb i tage f ro m Khor musan , Dongo la a nd Ha lfan a sse mb lages were b rough t t o Da l las a nd t herefore u sed i n t h is s tudy . My a na lysis was u nder taken o n 2 4 a sse mb lages , f ro m n ine Mouster ian s i tes , s i te 4 40 , 5K hor musan , 4 Dongo la a nd 5 Ha l fan . T he s ix th o f t he Ha l fan

8

s i tes ( 2014 ) was n o t p roper ly t rea ted i n t he f ie ld a nd o n ly r etouched t oo ls w ere b rough t t o Da l las a nd b ecause o f i t s d ispu ted s tra t igraphy i t was n o t i nc luded i n t he p resen t s tudy ( Marks 1 968c :46) .

T he s tudy , h owever , i s n o t l im i ted t o

t he 2 4 a sse mb lages men t ioned a bove b u t a t v ar ious s tages o f t he a na lys is a l l t he s i tes t ha t h ave b een r epor ted were u sed .

Thus i n t he c luster a na lysis o f

t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a t tr ibu tes a t o ta l o f 3 3 a sse mb lages were u sed .

T o a ch ieve t h is a n a t te mp t was made t o s tandard ize t he t oo l t ypo logy

o f t he ' Buhen C o mp lex ' a nd t he ' Haifa C o mp lex ' d escr ibed b y I rw in e t a l . t o o b ta in a u n if ied t ype l i st s u i tab le f or t he a na lys is ( Chap ter V ) .

The a ctua l

c oun ts o f g ross a r tefact t ypes i n a l l o f t he 3 3 s i tes c an b e s een i n C hap ter I V , V .

Those s a mp les t ha t h ave b een a ctua l ly e xa m ined d ur ing t he i nves t iga t ion

a re : Mouster ian S i te

T oo ls

C ores

1 000

1 82

3 0

3 6B

1 67

6

3 04

6 4

1 035

1 76

1 06

1 038

2 26

5 9

1 010-8

1 76

Deb i tage

2 00

1 033U

2 04

JB

1 79

1 00

4 40 ( M isc.)

1 99

1 99

Khor musan S i te

T oo ls

C ores

Deb i tage

3 4A

2 27

3 9

1 01

1 017

2 66

7 2

2 61

3 4D

2 85

5 7

1 71

ANW3

3 84

1 83

2 64

2 004

1 68

4 5

1 00

C ores

Deb i tage

Dongo la Asse mb lages S i te N 91-5

T oo ls 6 6

N91-15

2 12

N 20

3 67

2 84 1 68

1 69 2 32

N 2-4

1 27

9 6

2 27

N 6

1 94

1 07

2 24

Ha lfan S i te

T oo ls

C ores

1 018

1 67

1 34

1 98

1 020 6 24

1 39 2 82

1 61 1 51

2 26 2 38

4 43

3 84

1 07

2 87

1 028

1 31

8 2

1 75

9

Deb i tage

I tc an b e s een t ha t t he s a mp le o ft oo ls i nc ludes a l l t hose f ro m t he Mous ter ian a nd Dongo la a sse mb lages , o ver 7 0% o f t he Khor musan a nd t he Ha l fan ( excep t o ne ) a sse mb lages.

T rea t men t o f f l akes a nd b lades a nd c ores was made o n a

s ta t ist ica l s a mp le when t he c o l lec t ion i s f ound t o b e l arge . T he a na lys is o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a sse mb lages was a long t wo ma in a venues ; q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive . T he q ua l i ta t ive a spect c o m mences b y s or t ing o u t a l l t he b lanks ( i nc lud ing r etouched t oo ls ) i n to g ross t ypes w h ich a re w el l k nown i n t he l i tera ture ( Bordes 1 961, Marks 1 968) .

Three ma in

t ypes o f L eva l lo is , n on-Leva l lo is a nd c ore e le men ts were u sed a nd t hese w ere d iv ided i n to 9 s ubtypes ( Append ix 1 .1) . T he a na lys is o f t oo ls b eg ins w i th t he a pp l ica t ion o f B ordes ' t ype l i st t o t hose a sse mb lages wh ich h ave b een c lassi f ied b y o ther s yste ms d ev ised b y Marks. T hese a re t he K hor musan a nd Dongo la a sse mb lages .

T he p o in t b eh ind t h is was t o e xa m ine i t s s u i tab i l i ty t o a ssem-

b lages ,wh ich a re s uspec ted t o b e p ar t o f t he M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic C o mp lex . Moreover i ti s f e l t t ha t i t s a pp l ica t ion wou ld f aci l i ta te c arry ing o u t t he a t tr ibu te a na lysis a ccord ing t o t he t oo l t ype.

T hus t he Khor musan a nd

Dongo la a sse mb lages were s ub jected t o t ha t method t he r esu l ts o f wh ich c an b e s een i n C hap ter V .

The a na lysis t hen p roceeds t o c onsider t echno log ica l

v ar iab les wh ich a re b e l ieved t o b e r e la ted t o t he p rocesses o f a r tefact p roduct i on .

T hese v ar iab les d ea l w ith t he n umber a nd p a t tern o f s cars o n t he

f lak ing s urface o f a n a r tefac t , s tr ik ing p la tfor m t ypes a nd r aw ma ter ia l t ypes . Af ter c oun ting t he s cars t he a na lysis u sed 8 s ubtypes o f p a t terns j udged b y t he d irect ion o f t he o r ig ina l f lak ing wh ich r esu l ted i n t he p resen t p a t tern ( Append ix 1 .1) .

S cars wh ich o r ig ina ted f ro m o ne e nd o ft he a r tefact a re

c a l led u n id irec t iona l a nd t hey c an b e a long t he ma in a x is o r a cross i t .

T hose

o r ig ina ted f ro m b o th e nds a re b idirec t iona l a nd c an a lso b e a long t he a x is o r a cross i t . S cars wh ich o r ig ina ted f ro m a l l s ides o f t he b lank a nd r ad ia t ing t owards t he c en tre a re c a l led r adia l o r p ar t ia l ly r ad ia l d epend ing o n t he d egree o f e xecu t ion ( F ig . 1 .1) .

E igh t t ypes o f r aw ma ter ia l

t hese c overed a l l t he t ypes s een i n t he Nub ian c o l lec t ions.

e re

u sed a nd

I n t he s tudy o f

s tr ik ing p la tfor ms e leven c a tegor ies were u sed a l l r e la t ing t o t he f or m a nd n u mber o f sma l l f l akes t aken o f ft o p repare t he p la tfor m ( Append ix 1 .1 ). T he q uan t i ta t ive a spec t o f t he a na lys is d ea ls w i th t he s ize o f b lanks b y measur ing t he l eng th , w id th a nd t h ickness o f c o mp le te s peci mens t o t he n eares t mm . F or c onsistency t he b lank i s p laced w i th t he s tr ik ing-p la tfor m a ga inst a b ase l i ne a nd t he max i mu m d i mension p erpend icu lar t o i tr epresen ts t he w id th . F o l low ing t h is s ys te m , i tt hus h appens t ha t i n s o me c ases t he r ead ing f or w id th e xceeds t ha t f or l eng th ( F ig . 1 .2) . T h ickness i s measured a s t he max i mu m d i mension ( u s ing a s l iding c a l iber ) a long t he b lank e xclud ing t he t he b u lbar a rea .

L eng ths a nd h eigh ts o f s tr ik ing p la t for ms w ere a lso measured

t o t he n earest m m .

T he l eng th o f ap la tfor m b eing i t s max i mu m l eng th a nd

h eigh t i s t he l i ne p erpend icu lar t o t he p o in t o f p ercussion. A na lysis o f c ores f o l lowed more o r l ess t he s a me p rocedures a pp l ied t o t he b lanks.

I n i t ia l ly c ores were c lassif ied i n to ma jor t ypes wh ich a re i n t urn

s ub-d iv ided ( s ee g lossary f or c ore t ypes , Append ix 5 ) . The L eva l lois t ype o f c ore i nc ludes 5 s ubtypes i n wh ich a d ist inct ion i s made b e tween a n u ns truck L eva l lo is f l ake/b lade c ore a nd t hose f ro m wh ich t he ma jor f lake h as b een s truck .

D isco ida l c ores w ere d iv ided i n to 4 t ypes d epend ing o n t he d egree

o f f l ak ing whe ther i tc overed t he who le s urface o r n ot o r whe ther i ti s o n o ne 1 0

Rad ia l

Y-Pattern

Un id irectiona l

B id irect iona l

B id irect iona l a cross a x is

F ig. 1 .1

Ma in Types o f Dorsa l S car P a tterns

1 1

L ength

W idth

W idth

B lanks

W idth

Cores

L ength

Th ickness

F ig. 1 .2

Measurement o f Artefacts

1 2

D imens ions

o r t wo s ur faces .

T he r est o f c ore t ypes c an b e s een i n A ppend ix 1 .2 .

T he

r aw ma ter ia l t ypes u t i l ized i n c ores a re t hose l i sted f or t he s tudy o f b lanks . C ore s ize was o b ta ined b y measur ing l eng th , w id th a nd t h ickness . L eng th i s a lways t he max i mu m d i mens ion o f t he c ore a nd w id th i s t he max i mu m d i mens ion p erpend icu lar t o l eng th .

T h ickness i s t he max i mum r ead ing i n

mm a long t he c ore u s ing a s l id ing c a l iber ( F ig . 1 .2 ) . A na lys is o f t he H a lfan i nvo lved t he g roup ing o f t oo ls a nd c ores a ccord ing t o mod if ied l i sts b ased u pon t he o r ig ina l l i sts o f Marks ( Chap ter V ) . T o o bt a in a n e st i ma te o f s ize , l eng th , w id th a nd t h ickness o f t oo ls a ccord ing t o t ype were measured , i n a dd i t ion t o s tr ik ing p lat for ms , l eng ths a nd h e igh ts . Measure men ts were t aken f ro m c o mp lete s pec i mens i n t he s a me manner d escr ibed a bove . T he i n it ia l r ecord ing o f t he i n forma t ion o b ta ined was d one b y d ev is ing a c od ing s ys te m wh ich wou ld f ac i l ita te f ur ther h and l ing o f t he r aw d a ta . T he man ipu la t ion o f t h is mass o f d a ta o bv ious ly c a l ls f or t he u se o f ac ompu ter wh ich n eed less t o s ay h as b eco me a w ide ly a ccep ted a id i n a rchaeo log ica l r esearch . T he u se o f c o mpu ter ized s ta t ist ica l methods p rov ides p ower fu l means o f q uan t ify ing t he d a ta wh ich i n my o p in ion i s an ecessary p rocedure i fa ny s ubstan t ia t ive c onc lus ions were t o b e r eached . T hus t he r aw d ata was f i rs t f i led i n t he c o mpu ter u s ing t he S ta t ist ica l P ackage f or t he S oc ia l S c iences w h ich p rov ides v ar ious p rogram mes a nd s ub-progra mmes t ha t c ou ld b e u sed i n t he i n it ia l s or t ing o f t he d a ta ( N ie e t a l . 1 970 ) . I n forma t ion c oncern ing t he g enera l c harac ter ist ics o f t he a sse mb lages w ith r espec t t o g ross a r tefac ts c ompos it ion , t ypo log ies a nd r aw ma ter ia l t ypes i s p resen ted i n t h is s tudy i n s imp le g raph ic f or ms s uch a s f requency h istograms , c u mu la t ive g raphs a nd t ernary p lots .

T he s tudy a lso u sed a no ther s ta t ist ica l p ackage ( C lustan I C ;

W ishar t :1971 ) f or c luster ing a sse mb lages a ccord ing t o v ar ious t ypo log ica l , t echno log ica l a nd me tr ica l a t tr ibu tes .

T hus t he s ta t ist ica l o pera t ions wh ich

Ih ave c arr ied o u t d ur ing t he c ourse o f a na lys is may v ary f ro m s i mp le o nes s uch a s t ests o f s ign if icance t o mu lt i-var ia te o nes s uch a s C luster a nd P r inc ipa l C o mponen t A na lys is . Wh i le embark ing o n t h is e ndeavour , t he wr iter must a dm it t he d if f icu lt ies e ncoun tered p ar t icu lar ly b y o ne w ith l im ited ma thema t ica l b ackground . Wha t w i l l b e p resen ted i n t h is s tudy , t herefore , i s l im i ted t o t hose s ta t ist ica l p rocedures f or wh ich t he wr iter c an c la im af a ir u nderstand ing ( Chap ter V I ) . N o tes 1 .

D a ta o n d orsa l s cars i s p rov ided o n ly f or t he L eva l lo is f l akes ( Append ix 2 .2c ) .

2 .

B ecause i t was n o t p oss ib le t o o b ta in metr ica l d a ta o n t he Mouster ian d eb itage ( unre touched f l akes a nd b lades ) , i t was d ec ided n o t t o u se t ha t o ne o b ta ined f or t he o ther s i tes i n t he s ta t ist ica l a na lys is .

1 3

CHAPTER I THE PLE ISTOCENE H ISTORY OF THE R IVER N ILE I N S UDANESE NUB IA

I n troduct ion T h is c hap ter a t te mp ts t o b r ing t oge ther a nd e va lua te t he g eo log ica l e v idence f or t he P le istocene h istory o f t he N i le Va l ley i n S udanese N ub ia .

A l l o f t he

a rchaeo log ica l d ata w ith wh ich t h is s tudy d ea ls c an b e r e la ted t o N i lo t ic e ven ts . H owever , c o mp le men tary e v idence w i l l b e d rawn f ro m c en tra l S udan a nd U pper Egyp t a s we l l . P le istocene

I tw i l l b e s een t ha t my d iscussion i s more d e ta i led f or t he l a ter

whereas o n ly a b road s che me i s p rov ided f or t he e ar l ier p ar ts

o f t he P le istocene .

T h is i s b ecause most o f t he f i e ld d a ta o b ta ined r ecen t ly

f ro m N or thern S udan p er ta ins t o t he f or mer p er iod where p ar t icu lar a t ten t ion was g iven t o g eo log ica l s ect ions a ssoc ia ted w ith a rchaeo log ica l o ccurrences . Many workers d ur ing t he N ub ian c a mpa ign b e l ieved t ha t o n ly i n s uch c ases o f d irect a rchaeo log ica l a ssoc ia t ion wou ld i tb e p oss ib le t o r econstruct a c o mprehens ive p icture o fp ast e nv iron men ta l a nd c u ltura l e ven ts ( Fa irbr idge 1 961 a nd d e H e inze l in 1 956 , 1 968 ) . d e H e inze l in s ta ted t ha t t he g eo log ica l r econstruct ion o f t he p re- a nd p ro to-N i le s ed i men ts where most o f t he L ower a nd M idd le P a laeo l ith ic s i tes c ou ld b e a ssoc ia ted i s u nknown b ecause ,

"s ys-

t e ma t ic i nves t iga t ions a long t hese l ines were o u ts ide t he s cope o f o ur p rog ram me a nd o n ly o ccasiona l o bserva t ions were p oss ib le" . ( de He inze l in 1 968 :48 ) .

T he s a me a pp l ies t o t he mos t r ecen t work i n U pper Egyp t where

"t he ma in c oncern was t he i n terva l a f ter 2 0 ,000 B .C . a nd n o a t te mp t was made t o c o mp i le g eo log ica l s equence f or t he e ar l ier p er iods"

( Wendor f a nd

S ch i ld 1 976b :231 ) . T he r iver N i le , t he l ongest r iver i n t he wor ld , i s ah igh ly c o mp l ica ted h ydrograph ic s yste m c on tr ibu ted t o b y an u mber o f t r ibu tar ies .

O f t hese t he

B lue N i le a nd t he A tbara r ivers b o th d ra in t he E th iop ian h igh lands a nd p la teau . N on-Eth iop ian t r ibu tar ies a re t he S oba t , B ahr E l-Gaza l a nd Nahr E ljebe l wh ich , a f ter f o l low ing a c o mp lex c ourse , j o in t he Wh i te N i le t he s econd ma jor t r ibu tary o f t he ma in N i le .

T he N i le i n i t s p assage o f s o me 6 670 k i lo metres

t raverses t rop ica l A fr ica , t he S avana o f S udan a nd t he d eser ts o f E gyp t a nd S udan t o t he Med iterranean c oast n or th o f C a iro ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968 , Wh ite man 1 971 ) .

F ro m K har tou m t o A swan t he r iver r uns t hrough a l terna-

t ing p hys iograph ic z ones o f N ub ian s andstone a nd P reca mbr ian r ocks . a .

N ub ian s andstone f ro m j ust n or th o f Khar tou m t o A tbara w ith v ar ia b le t racts o f a l luv iu m o n b oth s ides o f t he r iver .

b .

P reca mbr ian r ock f ro m n ear A tbara t o t he s econd c a taract w i th N ub ian s andstone v is ib le i n af ew p laces .

c .

N ub ian s andstone f ro m t he s econd c a tarac t t o t he n or th o f A swan . 1 4

I n n or thern S udan t he r iver d iv ides b etween t he e astern ( Nub ian ) a nd western ( L ibyan ) d eser ts .

T he e as tern d eser t i s c haracter ized b y t he R ed S ea H i l ls

wh ich r ece ive h igh mo isture r espons ib le f or a c ons iderab le amoun t o f r a ins c arr ied t o t he N i le b y n u merous wad is t ha t d issect t he s andstone p la teaus . T he western d eser t i s av ast a r id p la teau w ith p oor ly marked d ra inage a nd c haracter ized b y af ew o ases n or th west o f D ongo la .

T oday t hese d eso la te

d eser ts e x tend r igh t t o t he b anks o f t he r iver e spec ia l ly o n t he west b ank , a nd v ege ta t ion i s o n ly v is ib le o n t he n arrow s tr ip o f c u l t ivab le l and a long i t s b anks . Wh i le t he f l ood p la in w idens i n f \ N T p laces t he g enera l p a t tern i s o ne o f l ess t han a k i lo me tre o f c u l t ivab le l and a nd e ven t h is g ives way t o r ocks a nd s ands i n t he e x tre me ly h arsh r eg ions o f t he c a taracts ( Wendorf 1 968b :5-7 : 1 971 a nd S a id 1 975 ) .

Wh ite man

T he impor tance o f t he N i le a s as ource o f l i fe i n t he p ast

a nd t he p resen t h as l ong b een r ecogn ized .

As u m mary o f i t s g eo morpho log ica l

e vo lut ion i s t h is s tudy may b e j ust if ied b y t he f o l low ing r easons :1 .

The s tudy o f a nc ien t N i lo t ic s ed i men ts s hou ld h e lp t o u nderstand t he

p a laeoc l i ma t ic a nd p a laeoenv iron men ta l c ond it ions d ur ing t he P le istocene . F or most o f t ha t p er iod t he l oca l wad is c on tr ibu ted t o t he N i le a nd N i lo t ic a nd wad i d epos its a re f ound i n terf inger ing a t many l oca l it ies .

S uch i n terre la t ion-

s h ip o f s ed i men ts c ou ld i nd ica te a c orre la t ion b etween t he s u m mer N i le f l oods a nd w in ter r a ins i n many p ar ts o f N ub ia ( Bu tzer a nd H ansen 1 968 ) .

T he r iver

N i le , b e ing a ma jor p er manen t s ource o f wa ter i n as em i-deser t a rea , wou ld h ave a t tracted b o th a n i ma ls a nd man .

T herefore d ocu men ta t ion o f N i lot ic

e ven ts i n t er ms o f a ggrada t iona l a nd r ecess iona l p hases s hou ld s hed l igh t o n t he mechan is m o f h u man s et t le men ts a long t he v a l ley .

Thus i ti s t o b e e xpec ted

t ha t d ur ing a s ubs tan t ia l f l ood-t i me b o th man a nd a n i ma ls wou ld t end t o move away f ro m t he r iver b anks t o e xp lo i t as o mewha t d if feren t e nv ironmen t .

I f

s uch a s i tua t ion was d ocu men ted i t wou ld h e lp t o u nderstand t he r o le o f c l i ma t ic c hange i n s hap ing h u man s et t le men t p a t terns a long t he N i le Va l ley .

O n t he

o ther h and s uch r epet i t ive f l oods wou ld g ive r ise t o t he d estruct ion o f much a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a nd t h is s hou ld b e r e me mbered when o ne i s d ea l ing w i th d istr ibu t ion a nd s a mp l ing o f a rchaeo log ica l e n t it ies . 2 .

The r ecord o f N i lot ic e ven ts p rov ides a n impor tan t means o f r e la t ive

d a t ing f or a rchaeo log ica l s i tes f ound a long t he r iver b anks , a nd a s y e t t he c u ltura l s equence i n Nub ia i s a l most t ota l ly d ependen t o n t he g eo log ica l s ucc ess ions o f t he N i le s ed i men ts .

A t te mp ts were a lso made t o r e la te N i lo t ic-

wad i s ed i men ts t o t he o lder p ene-p la ins w ith t he h ope o f d a t ing s i tes f ar i n land w h ich c an n ot o therw ise b e d a ted e xcept t hrough t he ir l i th ic c on ten ts ( Che me lewsk i 1 968 :110-47 a nd d e H e inze l in 1 968 :19-55 ) . 3 .

I th as b een s uggested t oo t ha t t he u n ique p os it ion o f t he N i le v a l ley

c onnect ing t rop ica l A fr ica a nd t he Med i terranean r eg ions p rov ides a p o ten t ia l f or i n ter-reg iona l c l i ma t ic a nd c u ltura l c orre la t ions ( Ca ton-Tho mpson 1 946 ) . Wor ld-w ide p a laeoc l i ma to log ica l c o mpar isons h ave b een a t te mp ted b y s o me s cho lars b ased o n d a ta o b ta ined f ro m t he N i le v a l ley ( Fa irbr idge 1 963 , d e H e inze l in 1 968 , S a id 1 975 , B u tzer a nd Hansen 1 968 ) . 4 .

One o p in ion t o b e e xa m ined i s t ha t t he N i le r eg i me i n af or m s im i lar

t o t he p resen t o ne i s af a ir ly r ecen t p heno menon o f al a te P le istocene a ge .

1 5

T h is v iew wh ich was p reva len t u n t i l v ery r ecen t ly i s g er mane t o o ur u nders tanding o ft he c u l tura l d eve lopmen t i n N ub ia . B ecause n one o ft he o lder M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes were f ound a ssocia ted w i th N i lo t ic s edi men ts o f a s ou thern o r ig in d ur ing t he Nub ian C ampa ign i t was c onc luded t ha t t he modern N i le s yste m i s o f ap ost Mouster ian a ge a nd t he i ndustr ies a ssocia ted w i th i t s s ed i men ts w ere c onsidered r ad ica l ly d if feren t f ro m t he e ar l ier o nes. Thus t he K hor musan i ndustry i s l abel led a s U pper P a laeo l i th ic . I t was c oncluded t ha t t he a dven t o ft he N i le s yste m c o incided w ith a c u l tura l c hange . p rov ided n ew m icro-env iron men ts a nd n ew r aw ma ter ia l s ources .

T he N i le U t i l iza t ion

o ft he N i le p ebb les r esu l ted i n mod if ica t ion o ft he l eva l lois t echn ique ( d e H einze l in 1 965 :55) . S uch v iews a re a lso e xp l ici t i n Marks ( 1 968a , 1 975b ) a nd a s n ew f i e ld d a ta i s o b ta ined f ro m o ther p arts o f t he N i le v a l ley s ince t he N ub ian c a mpa ign i tb eco mes i ncreasing ly n ecessary t o r e-eva lua te a nd r eassess s uch v iews. I n t he f o l low ing p ages t he l i tera ture o n t he N i le g eology w i l l b e p resen ted i n t wo p ar ts , t he p re-Nub ian c a mpa ign , a nd t he Nub ian c ampa ign a nd a f ter . T h is d iv ision i s d rawn f or c onvenience n ecess i ta ted b y t he f unda men ta l ly d iferen t a pproaches. T he l a t ter i s c haracter ized b y a n i n terd isc ip l inary a pproach d esigned t o d ea l w i th s pecif ic l oca l p rob le ms b o th g eo log ica l a nd c u l tura l , wh i le t he r esearches o ft he f or mer p er iod w ere i n ter m i t ten t a nd a i med t o s ubstan t ia te g enera l ized s ta te men ts o n t he p reh istory o ft he N i le v a l ley ( Sanford a nd A rkel l 1 929 , 1 934 , 1 939 ;

Wendorf 1 968b ) .

P re-Nub ian C a mpa ign R esearches ( 1 900-1960 ) T he s urveys a nd o bserva t ions o ft he l a te 1 9th a nd e ar ly 2 0th c en tur ies t hough s porad ic w ere c oncentrated o n t he Egyp t ian p or t ion o ft he N i le v a l ley . A s ar esu l t t he g eo log ica l h istory o f t he r iver i n S udan was c onsidered i n t erms o ft he Egyp t ian s tra t igraphy ( Berry a nd Wh i te man 1 968 :1-38) . S uch a t endency i s a lso c lear i n t he most r ecen t G eo-archaeo log ica l work i n wh ich t he p hysio graphy a nd g eo logy o ft he e n t ire N i le v a l ley i s r epresen ted b y t he r eg ion e x tend ing f ro m Wad i Ha ifa t o t he D e l ta i n t he n or th ( B . I ssaw i :1976 ) . G eo log ica l s tud ies c ou ld b e s a id t o h ave s tar ted w i th J . R usseger i n 1 8363 8 when h e s urveyed t he r eg ion b etween t he f i rst a nd s econd c a taract a nd f ur ther s ou th a round S ennar i n c en tra l S udan .

H e d escr ibed f or t he f i rst t ime

t he N ub ian s andstone a nd o ther g eo log ica l f ea tures ( q uo ted i n Bu tzer a nd H ansen 1 968 :200) .

O ther o bservers l i ke L epsius ( 1 842-45) , L ei th A da ms

( 1 864) a nd S ir W i l l ia m W i l lcocks ( 1 894 ) c o l lected i n for ma t ion o n t he N i le s ed i men ts a nd o ther t opograph ica l f ea tures n ear t he f i rst c a taract ( i b id :200) . I n o ther p ar ts o ft he c oun try t he S udan G eo log ica l S urvey workers w ere most ly c oncerned w i th i n for ma t ion o n wa ter s upp l ies a nd d am c onstruct ion .

I n s p i te

o ft hese p oor ly d ocu men ted o bserva t ions , G . Andrew p ub l ished t he f i rst g enera l a ccount o ft he S udan g eo logy i n 1 948 ( Andrew 1 948 :84-128) . S andford a nd A rke l l , 1 933 H owever , t he most r e markab le c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s tudy o f P leistocene g eo logy a nd a rchaeo logy i n N ub ia i n t h is p er iod i s t ha t o f S andford a nd A rke l l who s urveyed i n 1 929-30 t he v a l ley b etween A swan a nd S e mna , s o me 4 0 mi les s ou th o f Wad i Ha ifa .

I n t heir f i na l r epor t t he a uthors s ta ted t ha t t he a im o f

t he p ro ject was " p iec ing t ogether f or t he f i rs t t ime t he c on t inuous h istory o f 1 6

t he L ower N i le v a l ley a nd i t s i nhab i tan ts b efore t he k nown P redynast ic p er iod" ( S andford a nd A rkel l 1 933 :in troduct ion : XV ) .

I n t h is r epor t t he a u thors

s uggested a n e vo lu t ionary s che me f or t he g eo-archaeo logy o f N ub ia b ased o n c o mpar isons a nd c orre la t ions o f r iver t erraces e leva t ions a nd a rchaeo log ica l f i nds. I nheren t i n t h is p rocedure i s t he d if f icu l ty o fd ist ingu ish ing d iagnost ic f ea tures o n t he b as is o ft errace h eigh ts a s e rosion h as c aused v ar iab le d amage a long t he N i le v a l ley . F or i nstance n o t a l l t he t erraces r ecogn ized i n Egyp t c an b e s een i n U pper N ub ia . f o l lows :

Ab r ief s um mary o ft he ir c onc lusions i s a s

P l iocene r ecord : R eference i s made t o t he Med i terranean t ransgress ion wh ich l ed t o t he f or ma t ion o f ag u lf e x tend ing t o E sna i n t he s ou th . P la tfor ms o f more t han 3 50 f oo t a re a t tr ibu ted t o t h is p er iod . N o s uch d eposi ts were e ncoun tered s ou th o f A swan . P l io-p leistocene t erraces : These a re t he e ar l iest r iver f ea tures t raced b etween Wad i H a ifa a nd A swan . T he r espect ive h eigh t o f e ach f ro m o lder t o y ounger i s 3 00 , 2 00 , a nd 1 50 f oo t .

N o a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l was f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese d eposi ts

a nd t he a u thors a rgued t ha t man d id n o t l i ve i n t h is a rea d ur ing t ha t p er iod . P leistocene r ecord : T he ma in f ea tures w ere r epresen ted b y t he 1 00 , 5 0 , 3 0 , 1 0 f oo t t erraces a nd t he f i rst a ppearance o f s tone a r tefacts . Each t errace i s a cco mpan ied b y at echno log ica l i nnova t ion a nd t he e vo lu t ionary s equence g oes i n t he f o l low ing manner : T he 1 00 a nd 5 0 t erraces : T h is was a ssigned t o t he L ower P a laeo l i th ic .

T he 1 00 f t . t errace c on ta ined

i n s i tu ' Che l lean ' a r tefacts a nd t he 5 0 f t . t errace h ad ' Acheu lean ' a r tefacts . T he l a t ter c ou ld n o t b e t raced i n to t he Ba tn e l Ha jar , a nd t he a u thors t ook i t s l ast a ppearance a t A shkei t n ear Wad i Ha lfa t o r epresen t t he most s ou thern p resence o f l ower p a laeo l i th ic a r tefacts ( Map 2 .1) . 3 0 f tt errace : A ssigned t o t he M idd le P a laeol i th ic , t hough n one o f t he a rtefac ts w ere f ound i n s i tu . 1 0 f t . t errace : A ssu med t o c on ta in t he s a me Mouster ian i ndustr ies f ound i n E gyp t a nd N ub ia , t hough t he l ast t wo t erraces a re i n f act m iss ing i n N ub ia . T he a t tr ib u t ion o f ' Nub ian Mouster ian ' t o t hese t erraces i s b ased o n f or ma l c o mparisons. S andford a nd A rkel l a rgued t ha t t he a ppearance o f t he Mous terian marked " the b irth o f t he modern N i le a nd t he c rea t ion o f i t s n eighbour ing d eser ts , a nd i t s c lose o ft he Mouster ian i s t he d a tu m f ro m wh ich p ure ly a rchaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ion s hou ld b eg in" ( i b id :35) . T he s equence was c on t inued f ro m t he 1 0f t , t errace b y as er ies o f g rave l l ayers f o l lowed b y t he " aggradat ion p hase" o ft he N i le s i l ts a nd t he a ssocia ted a rchaeo logy i s a' younger Mouster ian ' a nd ' o lder S eb i l ian '. 1 7

T ahta

EG Y PT

•

Qena

S ohag • L uxor I s na

K harga Oas is 0

I d fu

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K urkur Oas is° B irTor fa w l 0 0 B ir S ahara

D unqu l Oa c s ' is

7

Wad i Ha ifa Akasha

L IB IAN

NUB IAN DESERT

DESERT

Dongo la C O

Mero we E d Debba

Berber A tbara

SU D A N Abu Anga

K hartou m

Wa rd i Af u

S inga Abu H ugar 500 km 300 m ls

Map 2 1 :

I

S udan a nd U pper E gypt . Ma in L oca l it ies

1 8

T o s u mmar ize ,t he a u thors e nv isaged t wo s tages f or t he N i le e vo lu t ion ; a n o lder r iver ( M iocene a nd e ar l ier ) wh ich r eceived i t s wa ters f ro m r a infa l l o ver t he R ed S ea H i l ls a nd N ub ia a nd a p os t-P l iocene r iver wh ich was c onnected s o mehow t o as ou thern s ource o f wa ter ( i b id :25) .

T hey a rgued t ha t t he s econd

c a taract a s s uch was n o t i n e x istence d ur ing t he d eposi t ion o ft he 1 00 a nd 5 0 f oo t t erraces , b oth a ssigned t o t he l ower P a laeo l i th ic s tage . The r iver e n tered t he S econd C a tarac t d ur ing t he 3 0 f oo t t errace ( M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) a nd t he ma in c onc lusion t herefore i s t ha t t he r iver i n S udanese N ub ia i s l i ke ly t o b e o f al a te P le istocene a ge . I n 1 932 S andford e x tended t he s urvey t o t he r eg ion a round A tbara n ad Merowe a nd t he r eg ion b etween S hend i a nd D ongo la ( Map . 2 .1) .

He f ound t ha t

t here a re n o h igh r iver t erraces c o mparab le t o t hose f ound i n U pper Egyp t a nd l ower Nub ia . H e a lso n o ted t ha t t here i s ad issi m i lar ity b etween t he N i le v a l ley u pstrea m a nd d ownstrea m o f t he D ongo la b end w i th r espect t o a l t i tudes o f N i le t erraces . T he s uccession r ecorded f or t he B erber-A tbara s tretch o ft he r iver i s t ha t o f g ravel d eposi ts r ising t o c . 2 5 f eet ( 8m ) a bove t he f l ood p la in u sua l ly p ass ing u nder a l ayer o f o lder N i lo t ic s i l ts.

At yp ica l

s uccession f ro m a n e xposed s ect ion f ro m A tbara i s a s f o l lows , f ro m o lder t o y ounger : 1 . As ter i le l ayer o fc oarse g rave ls a nd p ebb les r is ing t o a bou t 8 metres a bove t he f l ood p la in . 2 . L ayers o ff i ne g rave ls w i th r o l led a nd u nro l led ' Ether ia ' s he l ls , s o me i n p osi t ion o f g row th . F ew "M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic a r tefacts o f " leva l lo isian t ypes" were f ound i n s i tu . 3 .

T he a r tefac t b ear ing g ravels a re f ol lowed b y t he o lder N i lo t ic s i l ts

r each ing a h e igh t o f3 -4 metres a bove t he f l ood p la in ( Sandford 1 949 ) . Thro g hou t t he 1 00 km a long t he e ast b ank t hese o lder N i lo t ic s i l ts c on ta in i n s i tu l a te P a laeo l i th ic a r tefacts o f " older S eb i l ian t ypes" ( i b id :971 08) . F ro m t hese o bserva t ions , S andford c onc luded t ha t t he o ld s i l ts a t ta in av ary ing h e igh t a t d iferen t p laces. A t t he mou th o f Wad i Abu Do m ( Dongo la ) t he s i l ts r eached ah eight o f 1 1 metres a bove t he f l ood p la in w i th " o lder S eb i l ian" t ools i n s i tu wh i le t hey a t ta in ah eigh t o f 1 7 metres d owns trea m a t G oreir ( Mel -owe ) ( Map 2 .1) . T hese s i l ts were l a ter c orre la ted b y B u tzer a nd Hansen w i th t he b eds o f J ebe l e l S i lsi la F or ma t ion i den t if ied i n U pper Egyp t a nd d a ted t o a bou t 1 5 ,000-10 ,500 B .C. ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 6 8 :324 ) . S andford c onc luded t ha t t he o lder s i l ts r ise d ownstrea m f ro m A tbara t o r each ah eigh t o f3 0 m i nt he S econd C a tarac t a nd a round Wad i Ha ifa a nd t hen f a l l s tead i ly n or thwards t i l l t hey merge w i th modern N i le s i l ts i n Upper Egyp t . T h is i s av a luab le o bserva t ion b ecause i tp oin ts t o t he u nrel iab i l i ty o ft ak ing t he modern f l ood p la in a s ad a tu m f or i n ter-reg iona l c o mpar isons. A . J . Arke l l , 1 949 The o ther ma jor work i n S udan d ur ing t ha t p eriod i s t ha t o f A . J . Arke l l , whose b est k nown f i nd i s t he A cheu l ian/sangoan s i te o f K hor Abu Anga , al e f t b ank t r ibu tary o ft he N i le , o ne k i lo me tre b elow t he j unct ion o f Wh i te a nd B lue N i les ( Map 2 .1 ) . Arkel l d escr ibed t he f o l low ing s tra t igraph ica l s uccess ion f ro m Khor Abu Anga f ro m b o t to m t o t he t op :

1 9

1 . Ab asa l l ayer o f Nub ian s ands tone f or m ing t he b edrock wh ich o u tcrops i n p laces. 2 . I nconsisten t ly c over ing t h is b o t to m l ayer i s as heet o f d eco mposed s andstone w i th a bundan t k ankar . N o a r tefacts w ere f ound h ere . 3 .

As ter i le l ayer o f i ron-ce men ted c ong lomera te f o l lows .

4 .

As uper i mposed l ayer i s c o mposed o f wa ter-worn c oarse g ravels

a nd b ou lders o f s andstone a f ew i nches t h ick .

S ome " Che l les-Acheu l" a r te-

f ac ts c o l lec ted f ro m t he t op o ft he s ubsequen t l ayer ( 5 ) were c onsidered b y A rkel l t o b e d er ived f ro m l ayer 4 . 5 .

Al ayer o f f i ne i ronstone g rave ls of ten c emen ted w i th c lay a nd k ankar .

I ty ie lded i n s i tu h andaxes d escr ibed a s d eve loped t o l a te Acheu l ian t ypes t ogether w i th a f ew l anceheads a t tr ibu ted t o t he S angoan . 6a nd 7 . T hese a re l ayers o f c a lcareous s i l ts a nd a r ed b rown s andy c lay . A . J . Arkel l c orrela tes l ayer 7 w i th t he d epos i ts o f Khar toum Meso l i th ic s i te ( A. J . A rke l l 1 949 ) . O f impor tance i n t h is c on tex t a re l ayers wh ich y ielded t he A cheu l ian a r tefacts a nd l ayer 4 t o wh ich t he " Che l l ian" a r tefacts were a t tr ibu ted . The g eo log ica l i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t t he a rtefact b ear ing g ravels were l a id d own b y as trea m g raded t o a n o ld N i le f l ow ing a t c . 3 80 m e leva t ion a bove t he r iver , whi le t he p resen t h igh l eve l f or S ep te mber i s c . 3 75 ( i b id , Wh i te man 1 971) . T h is s uggests t ha t ar iver s ys te m was f l ow ing t hrough Khar tou m b y t he l ower P a laeo l i th ic t imes. S ubsequen t e xcava t ions o f s elected l oca l i t ies a t K hor Abu Anga b y t he U n iversi ty o f C o lorado Exped i t ion y ielded more t han a t housand a r tefac ts ( Acheu l ian/Sangoan ) .

T he s hor t n o te p ub l ished o n t he n ew e xcava t ions

g ives s o l i t t le i nfor ma t ion t ha t i t makes c o mpar ison w i th Arke l l 's s equence d i f f icu l t .

However , t he r epor t s uppor ts t he i n i t ia l s equence e xcep t t ha t l ayer

5i s d ee med t o b e d er ived i n s o me p laces where i tp ost-da tes l ayer 6 ( R . C ar lson a nd T . S . S igstad 1 967 :51-58) . Rushd i S a id a rgued t ha t t he Abu Anga g ravels b elong t o t he f l uv ia t i le d eposi ts o ft he ' pro to-N i le, t he t h ird r iver s ys te m o fh is s equence t o o ccupy t he N i le Va l ley .

These p ro to-N i le

d eposi ts a re e qua ted i n U pper Egyp t w i th t he 3 20 n t errace d escr ibed b y S andford a nd Arke l l a nd t hough t t o h ave b een d eposi ted b y ar iver wh ich o b ta ined p ar ts o f i t s wa ters f ro m s ou th o f Khar toum ( R . S a id 1 975 :21-23 ) . As im i lar s uccession t o Abu A nga i s a lso o bserved b y Arke l l a t Wad i A fu t hough n o a r tefac ts e ar l ier t han d eve loped A cheu l ian were f ound .

H e a lso

r epor ted t he p resence o f f l akes w i th f aceted p la tforms a nd t he c o mp le te a bsence o f S angoan t oo l t ypes ( Arke l l 1 949 ) . A t S inga s o me 2 00 mi les s ou th o f Khar toum Arkel l d escr ibed t he d epos i ts wh ich y ielded t he we l l k nown f ossi l h u man s ku l l , wh ich was d escribed b y Woodward a nd b y We l ls a s ' Bush man iod '.

The s ku l l

was f ound i n ad er ived p osi t ion i n al ayer o fh ardened c oncre t ions a nd c ong lo mera tes ( Woodward 1 938, We l ls 1 951) . Wh i le t he e xac t p osi t ion o ft he S inga f i nd i s n o t c omp le te ly c er ta in , Arkel l d escr ibed a n e xposure o f as im i lar s ec t ion .

T he s ku l l 's l ayer i s c .

6f eet b elow a l ayer o f c lay wh ich i s o ver la in b y al ayer o f k ankar c oncre t ions c on ta in ing f ossi l b ones.

T he l a t ter i s f o l lowed b y al ayer o f a l luv ia l s ands

w ith k ankar o ver la id u ncon for mab ly b y a no ther l ayer a nd c lay s im i lar t o t he 2 0

G ezira p la in d eposi ts .

A rkel l d id n o t f i nd a r tefacts a t S inga b ut h e i den t if ied

as im i lar f ossi l i ferous l ayer a t Abu Hu jar a t a bou t 2 5 m i les u ps tream f ro m S inga ( Arkel l 1 949 , Map 2 .1) .

A . D . L aca i l le d escribed t he 5 1 a r tefacts f ro m

Abu Hu jar a s c o mpr is ing L eva l lo is f lakes , c ores , s crapers , h am mers e tc. H e a rgued t ha t t he t echn ique a t Abu Hu jar i s s im i lar t o t he a dvanced L eva l lo is o r t he S t i l lbay i ndustry o f s ub-Saharan A fr ica ( Laca i l le 1 951) . T he A bu Hu jar c o l lec t ion s uggests t he a ssoc ia t ion o f aM idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ndustry w i th N i lo t ic s ed imen ts. Wh i te man a nd B erry o b ta ined a C arbon 1 4 d a te o f 1 7 ,300 + 2 000 BP ( 1 -712) o n ac rocod i le t oo th c o l lec ted f ro m a s im i lar d epos i t n ear t he o r ig ina l l oca l i ty b u t b oth t he a u thors a nd t he a na lys t c ast d oub t o n t he d a te b ecause o f t he e f fect o fp ossib le c on ta m ina t ion wh ich i mpregna ted t he f ossi l i ferous d eposi ts ( Wh i te man 1 971 :124 ) .

A much o lder d a te f or t he s ku l l a nd p robab ly

t he a r tefacts f ro m A bu Hu jar i s i nd ica ted b y t he r ecen t r e-exa m ina t ion o f t he S inga s ku l l b y S tringer who p laced i ti n t he N eander tha lo id g roup ( C . B . S tr inger 1 974 :338-39 , C . B . M . McBurney 1 977 :17 ) . Ad m i t t ing t he l ack o f a bso lu te d a tes a nd c on tro l led e xcava t ions a t t he a bove men t ioned l oca l i t ies , i ti s , n ever the less , p ossib le t o s ugges t t hat t he e v idence i s p er t inen t t o t he g eo log ica l h istory o ft he r iver N i le . O ne p oin t , h owever , c an b e i n ferred f ro m ArkelPs f i nds . The a ssoc ia t ion o ft hese a r tef acts a t Abu Anga , Wad i A fu a nd Abu Hu jar w i th r iver d eposi ts s ugges ts a n o lder a ge f or t he N i le t han t ha t s uggested r ecen t ly ( Fa irbr idge 1 963 , d e H einzel in 1 968) . De Heinze l in 1 968 ( The N ub ian C a mpa ign 1 960-66 ) Most o ft he r esearch a rea i n S udanese Nub ia ( 1 50 km ) , t he a rea f ro m F aras i n t he n or th t o Akasha i n t he s ou th f a l ls i n t he Ba tn E l Ha jar where t he r iver r uns t hrough t he P reca mbr ian C o mp lex .

Due t o t he l ack o f P le istocene

d eposi ts a nd p oor p reserva t ion i n t he Bat h e l Ha jar , r esearch was c oncen trated o n t he n or thern p or t ion o ft he a rea ( c . 6 0 km ) f ro m F aras t o Abka where t he p o ten t ia l i s much b e tter ( d e H e inzel in 1 968 :19 ) .

J . d e He inze l in who s tud ied

t he g eo logy d iv ided t he r eg ion f ro m F aras t o Abka i n to 1 3 a rb i trary d istr icts d el im i ted b y n a tura l b oundar ies ( Map 2 .3 ) . N o t a l l d istr icts e xh ib i t i den t ica l o r c on t inuous g eo log ica l f or ma t ions . T he r e mnan ts o f N i le f or ma t ions e ncoun tered r epresen t b asa l p ar ts o f s evera l a ggrada t iona l e p isodes ; t he b oundary b etween o ne a nd t he o ther i s made b y p a laeon to log ica l , g eo morphol og ica l a nd l i tho log ica l v ar ia t ions w i th in t he g ravels ( d e H einzel in 1 965 :76 ) . I n h is f ina l r epor t d e H e inze l in s uggested t he f o l low ing d eve lop men t : a f ter t he s pread o f Nub ian s andstone d ur ing t he C retaceous , t here o ccurred a n e rosiona l c ycle . T hen a l andscape o f p ene-p la ins was f or med o n t he s andstone c over a t u nknown d a te. Th is i s f o l lowed b y t ecton ic a ct iv i t ies r esu l t ing i n a s er ies o f f au l ts , t he f i rst o f wh ich s tar ted b y a bou t 2 5 mi l l ion y ears a go . A f ter a l ong p er iod o f e rosion a n " inc ip ien t r iver o r wad i s yste m a d justed i t sel f t o an ew g eo morph ic p a t tern" ( d e H einze l in 1 968 :51) .

T h is i s wha t i s

r eferred t o i n t he l i tera ture a s " the p re-N i le s yste m" . P re-N i le S yste m Th is i s r epresen ted b y as er ies o f h igh q uar tz g rave l t erraces , r ising t o a bou t 2 00 m a bso lu te e leva t ion . T hese d epos i ts a re c onsidered b y d e 2 1

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H e inzel in a s ' non-N i lo t ic '.

T he r iver s ys te m d ur ing t h is p er iod c annot b e

r econs tructed n or i s t here a ny d eta i led i n forma t ion o f t he n a ture o ft hese d eposi ts. However , t hey a re l u mped t ogether a nd n a med ' Dabarosa F orma t ion '. P ro to-N i le S yste m Th is i s a n u nknown p er iod b etween t he p re- a nd N i le s yste m b e l ieved t o h ave t aken p lace af ter a s econd f au l t ing e ven t ( i b id :46 ) . T he s tra t igraph ica l p osi t ion o f i t s s ed i ments i s n o t k nown b ecause l i t t le a t ten t ion was g iven t o i t . T here i s ap ossib i l i ty t ha t t he d eposi ts a t t he A cheu l ian s i tes , Ark in 8 a nd 1 4 , wh ich w ere d escr ibed a s o f l oca l o r ig in b e long t o t h is r iver ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :235) . Al a tera l d eve lop men t o f r edd ish s o i l o f wad i d eposi ts t ook p lace. Mos t o ft he A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes were l oca ted o n t hese ' o lder p ed i men ts ' ( Ch m ie lwesk i 1 965 a nd 1 968) . T he N i le S yste m Accord ing t o d e H einzel in a t a bou t 2 5 ,000 y ears a go a s udden o u tburs t o f wa ters f ro m t he s ou th c onnected t he B lue a nd Wh i te N i les w i th t he S aharan N i le f or t he f i rst t ime .

Pr ior t o t ha t N ub ia was d ra ined b y al oca l r iver , t he

" Egyp t ian R iver" wh ich h ad e stab l ished i t sel f i n t he s ame v a l ley s ince t he M idd le M iocene . T he modern N i lo t ic s ed i men ts a re d ist inc t ive i n t heir l i tho log ica l c on ten t a nd n ever r ise a bove 1 57 me tres a bso lu te e leva t ion . T hese d eposi ts c onsist o f an u mber o f v ary ing s ed i men ts a ccu mu la ted b y t he r ising wa ters o ft he N i le a t d ifferen t t imes. Each e p isode i s l abel led a s a ' For ma t ion ' b y d e H e inze l in a nd i s c once ived a s r epresen t ing l ayers a nd l enses o f s ed i men ts a t tr ibu ted t o ap art icu lar g eo log ica l e ven t .

Each c onsisten t

u n i t o f f l uv ia t i le d eposi ts i s c a l led ' aggrada t ion ' a nd d ef ined a s " the r esu l t o f ar ising wa ter l evel wh ich i nduced a b roader a nd d eeper s edimen ta t ion i n to t he f luv ia t i le c hannel" ( d e He inzel in 1 968 :45) .

T he p er iod o f t his ' N i le S ys te m '

was a cco mpan ied b y t he d eve lop men t o f t he ' Younger p ed i ments ', i .e. l a tera l wad i d eposi ts . The N i lo t ic f or ma t ions a s d ef ined b y d e He inzel in a re : T he I kh t iar iya F or ma t ion These a re l ayers o f s and d unes d eposi ted af ter t he e rosiona l e p isode o f t he p re-N i le.

T he s tra t igraph ica l s ect ion a t t he t ype l oca l i ty ( 34) s hows t ha t

t hese s ands were c overed b y t he f irst N i lo t ic s i l ts ( i b id :47 ) .

A t t he t op o ft he

I kh t iar iya s ands r ests wha t i s d escr ibed a s t he e ar l iest Khor musan i ndustry ( Marks 1 968b :318) . T here a re n o d a tes f or t h is f or ma t ion b u t d e H e inzel in d escr ibed i ta s o f l a te U pper P leistocene a ge ( op . c i t .:51) . D ibe ira-Jer F or ma t ion Th is i st he o ldest N i le a ggrada t ion r ecogn ized b y d e He inze l in .

I ncip ien t

N i le f l oods were f ound a t c . 1 35 metres a bso lu te e leva t ion a nd r eached t he max i mu m o f 1 53 a nd 1 55 m ;

c . 3 0 me tres a bove t he modern f lood p la in .

T he f or ma t ion i s d escr ibed a s o ft wo f acies ;

D ibe ira p hase wh ich r epresen ts

t he d epos i t ion o ft he f i rst s i l ts o f af ore ign o r ig in a nd t he J er p hase wh ich i s al ayer o fw ind b lown s ands a nd marked b y t he p resence o f c a lc if ied r oo ts a nd wood .

A t t he t ype l oca l i ty 1 017 a K hor musan s i te was f ound i n at h in

l ayer o f s ands " la id d own b e tween t wo b anks o f s i l ts" a t 1 47 m a bso lu te e leva t ion ( de H e inzel in 1 968 :23) . A C 14 d a te o f 1 8 ,950 B .C . ±2 80 ( WSU-203 ) , C ha t ters 1 968) was o b ta ined o n c harcoa l c o l lec ted f ro m t he o ccupa t ion f loor

2 4

a nd wh ich i s c ons idered t o d a te t he M idd le s tages o ft he f or ma t ion ( i b id :47 ) . However , ar erun o n t he r e mnan t o f t he s a me s a mp le g ave a d a te 3 3 , 8 00 BP +3 350 y ears ( S MU-245) ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :239 ) . O ther C 14 d a tes f or D ibeira-Jer were r e jected a s t oo y oung f or t ha t e ven t a nd t hey a re : 1 2,850 + 1 00 y ears BC ( WSU-107 ) 4 040 + 1 00 BC ( WSU-108) 3 170 + 1 00 y ears BC ( WSU-110 ) ( Cha t ters 1 968) A s s uch we d o n o t h ave e xact d a tes f or e i ther t he b eg inn ing o r t he e nd o f t h is F or ma t ion .

Accord ing t o d e He inze l in t he max i mu m i s o bserved a t 1 53 me tres

a t l oca l i t ies 4 43 , 1 014 , 1 018 , 1 020 a nd 2 014 i n t he Khor musa d istr ict b u t t hese a re s eparated f ro m t he t ype l oca l i ty b y ad istance o f t wo k i lo me tres a nd s ince t hese h igher d epos i ts a re n o t d a ted t he ir a t tr ibu t ion t o D ibeira a s d ef ined b y d e Heinzel in r e ma ins a ma t ter o f c on jec ture ( de He inze l in 1 968 :20-24) . Banana F or ma t ion Th is i s ar ecess iona l p er iod i n wh ich t he r iver l evel f e l l t o a bou t 1 0 metres a nd s and d unes a ccu mu la ted o n t op o ft he e roded s urface o f t he o lder D ibeira d eposi ts.

T he b est p rof i les were o b ta ined f ro m l oca l i t ies 4 43 , 1 014 , 1 018

a nd 2 041 ( F ig . 1 2 A t las ) where t he o ldest f luv ia t i le s i l ts ( Diber ia max i mu m ) a re f o l lowed b y a n e roded s urface c overed b y wad i d epos i ts .

On t he wad i

d eposi ts a nd t he e roded s urface a ccumu la ted a l ayer o f e o l ian d unes ( Banana F or ma t ion ) r each ing a max i mu m h eigh t o f 1 46 m. I n af ew l oca l i t ies l ike 1 020 , AN W3 , t hese s and d unes s ee m t o i n terf inger w i th y ounger N i lo t ic s i l ts b u t d e He inze lin c onc luded t ha t t he o vera l l e v idence p oin ts t o as epara te p hase o f s and a ccu mu la t ion d ur ing wh ich t he r iver r ecessed .

However e v idence f or

i n terf inger ing o f t he s ands a nd s i l ts i n Upper Egyp t i s more f requen t s uggest ing t hat t he e o l ian s ands were a cco mpan ied b y h igh N i le wa ters ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :235 a nd f o llow ing d iscuss ion ) .

There a re f i ve C 14 d a tes o n c harcoa l

o b ta ined f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n Nub ia ( Ha l fan a nd Khor musan ) a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is e p isode.

T he d a tes a re :

1 7 ,200 + 3 75 y ears BC ( WSU-332, R . C ha t ters 1 968 :482-84 ) ; Ha lfan s i te 2 014. 1 6 ,650 + 5 50 y ears BC ( WSU-318, i b id ) Ha l fan s i te 8 859 . 1 6 ,155 + 1 200 ( 1-863 , M . T rau t man a nd E . Wi l l is 1 966 :190 ) Dabarosa C o mp lex S i te 6B27 . 1 5 ,850 + 5 00 ( WSU-215 , o p . c i t .) Khor musan s i te AN W 3 1 4 ,550 ± 5 00 ( WSU-201 , i b id ) Ha lfan s i te 4 43. The l ast d a te i s c ons idered a s u nsa t isfactory b y t he a na lyst a nd i s n o t s uppor ted b y t he a ssoc ia ted a rchaeo logy ( de Heinzel in 1 968 :22-24 , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :235-40 ). There a re a lso t wo c onsisten t C 14 d a tes o n s he l l o b ta ined f ro m w i th in t he B anana s ands : 1 5 ,640 + 3 00 ( 1-3415 , Bud dy a nd Wi l l is 1 969 ) 1 6 ,070 ± 330 ( 1-3416 , i b id ) F ive o ther d a tes were o b ta ined f ro m s i te E 71 P 1 a t E l K it h , U pper Egyp t . The d eposi ts where t he s a mp les were c o l lec ted were o r ig ina l ly t hough t o f a s

2 5

b elong ing t o t he D ibe ira J er f or ma t ion b u t Wendorf a nd S ch i ld a t tr ibu ted t he s i l ts a nd t herefore t he d a tes t o t heir Ba l la .na- Mas mas a ggrada t ion , a n e p isode wh ich wou ld h ave w i tnessed b o th t he e ol ian a c t iv i ty a nd r ising o ft he N i le wa ters. The d a tes a re : 1 5 ,850 + 3 30 ( 1-3417 , o n s he l l , i b id ) 1 5 ,650 1 5 ,500 1 5,300

7300 ( 1-3419 , ;3 00 ( 1-3418, 7300 ( 1-3249 ,

o n s hel l , i b id ) o n s he l l , i b id ) o n s hel l , i b id )

1 5 ,000 ± 3 50 ( 1-3248, o n c harcoa l , i b id ) Ano ther d a te f ro m s i te E 6102 n ear Dandara i s a lso a t tribu ted t o t he B a l lana : 1 4 ,880 + 3 00 ( 1-3427 , o n s hel l , i b id , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :241) . S ahaba F or ma t ion T h is i s t he s econd ma jor N i le a ggrada t ion a nd t he b est p reserved s ed i men ts i n Nub ia ( 1 47 m a bso lu te e leva t ion ) .

I ta lso h as a w ide a rea l d istr ibu t ion a nd

i t s d eposi ts c on ta in r ich mo l luscan a sse mb lages a nd a n u mber o f a rchaeo log ica l i ndustr ies .

A ssoc ia ted i ndustr ies a re s o me Ha lfan s i tes , S eb i l ian a nd G e ma ian

i n Nub ia a nd S ebek ian a nd S i ls i lan i n Egyp t .

The s tra t igraphy o bserved b y d e

He inze l in a t t he t ype l oca l i ty ( 8 1) a nd o thers i s t ha t o f t wo l ayers o f f luv ia t i le s ands , s i l ts a nd g rave ls s epara ted b y a minor r ecessiona l p er iod .

Accord ing

t o d e He inzel in t he who le o f t he S ahaba c ou ld b e d a ted t o b e tween 1 5 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000 B .C. ( de He inzel in 1 968 :33 , 4 4 , 5 1) .

However d a t ing o f t he S ahaba

i s p rob le ma t ic b ecause l a ter work i n U pper Egyp t s uggests t ha t t he f irs t S ahaba p hase c ou ld b e c onsidered a s as epara te a gg rada t ion ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :273 ) .

Accord ing t o t he d e Heinzel in s che me t he l ower l im i t o f

S ahaba i s i nd ica ted b y C 14 d a tes f or t he B anana r ecession , a nd o lder d a tes r epor ted f ro m Egyp t . C 14 d eter m ina t ions f ro m w i th in S ahaba s ed i men ts i n N ub ia a re a s f o l lows : 1 1 ,700 + 3 00 y ears B .C . ( 6x-421 , o n s he l l , H . Krueger a nd Weeks 1 966 ) 1 1 ,020 + 3 00 y ears B .C. ( 6x 4 22 , o n s he l l ;

i b id )

1 0 ,690 + 4 00 y ears B .C . ( Y-1644 , o n s he l l , S tu iver 1 969 :599 ) 1 0 ,600 + 4 60 y ears B .C. ( WSU-202 , o n wood ; 1 0 ,520 + 1 60 y ears B .C. ( Y-1810 , o n s he l l ;

C ha t ters 1 968 :484) o p . c i t .:599)

1 0 ,440 + 1 20 y ears B .C. ( Y-1645 , o n s he l l , i b id ) 1 0 ,300 1 0 ,060

7200 y ears 71 60 y ears

B .C . ( WSU-109 , o n s he l l , C ha t ters 1 968 :282) B .C . ( Y-1808 , o n s hel l , S tu iver 1 969 :599 )

1 0 ,060 + 2 00 y ears B .C. ( Y-1809 , o n s he l l , i b id ) Bu tzer a nd Hansen r epor ted f ive c onf l ict ing d a tes o n c harcoa l a nd s he l l c o l lec ted f ro m J ebel S i ls i la 1 11. a nd S ebek ian .

The a ssoc ia ted a rchaeo logy a re t he S i ls i lan

The s ed i men ts o f S i lsi la 1 11 a re e qua ted w ith t he S ahaba i n

Nub ia a nd i ft h is c orrela t ion i s c orrect t hen t he C 14 d a tes f ro m b o th r eg ions w i l l g ive a f a ir ly p rec ise d a te f or t he N i lo t ic e ven t a nd d a t ing t he a rchaeo log ica l i ndustr ies ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968 :114) .

T hese f ive d a tes a re :

1 4 ,050 + 300 ( M-1551 , C rane a nd G ri f f in 1 965 :147 ) 1 3 ,250

77 00

( M-1642, C rane a nd G r iff in 1 968 :283)

1 2,29 + 3 70 ( 1-1298 , Sm i th 1 964 :811) 1 2 ,150—+ 4 50 ( 1-1299 , i b id ) 1 1,661

76 00

( M-1641 , C rane a nd G r if f in , 1 966 :282) 2 6

An e ven o lder d a te o f 1 5 ,050 + 3 00 ( 1-1297) i s a t tr ibu ted t o t h is e p isode ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968 :114) . The f o l low ing d a tes a re a lso c ons idered c onsisten t f or d a t ing t he who le o f J ebel S i lsi la F or ma t ion a t K or n Ombo : 1 3 ,360 + 2 00 ( Y-1376 , S tu iver 1 969 :642) 1 1,900 + 2 00 ( Y-1806 , i b id :598) 1 1,610 + 1 20 ( Y-1447 , i b id ) 1 1,120 ± 1 20 ( Y-1375 , i b id ) 1 0 ,450 ±400 ( 1-1300 , Bu tzer.a nd Hansen 1 968 :114 ) Two o ther d a tes f ro m U pper Egyp t a re o b ta ined : 1 1,430 + 7 70 ( 1 -3440 , Buck ly a nd Wi l l is , 1 969 :84) 1 0 ,550 7230 ( 1 -3424 , i b id ) At er m ina l d a te f or t he S ahaba a ggrada t ion i s i nd ica ted b y t he f o l low ing C 14 d a tes o n s hel ls o b ta ined f ro m K orn Ombo a nd Nub ia : 9 250 + 1 50 y ears B .C. ( WSU-106 , C ha t ters 1 968 :282) 9 ,460—+ 2 70 B .C . ( WSU-189 , i b id :283 ) 9 ,770 ± 1 95 y ears B .C. ( HV 1264 , Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968 :115) 1 0 ,050—+ 1 20 y ears B .C. ( Y-1446 , i b id ) 1 0 ,070 + 2 05 y ears B .C . ( HV1265 , i b id ) B irbe t , Ark in a nd Qadrus F or ma t ions These a re r ecessiona l a nd a ggrada t iona l e p isodes o ft he N i le d a ted t o a bou t 9 ,000 t o 4 ,000 B .C. a nd t he a ssoc ia ted a rchaeo logy i s L a te Ep iP a laeo l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic .

S ince t hese f a l l o u ts ide t he s cope o ft h is s tudy

f ur ther d iscussion w i l l b e l im i ted t o t he e ar l ier N i le F or ma t ions.

However ,

d e Heinzel in 's ma in c onclusions a re : 1 .

T he 'o lder t erraces ' o f S and ford a nd Arke l l a re n o more t han

' s tructura l p la tfor ms ', p ed i men ta t ion s ur faces o r wad i d eposi ts ( i b id :46 ) . 2 .

N o f luv ia t i le s ed i men ts o f E th iop ian o r ig in a long t he r iver b anks were

d eposi ted p r ior t o t he L a te U pper P leistocene . 3 .

O n ly a t a bou t 2 5 ,000 B .C. was t he r iver s yste m c onnec ted t o t he

s ou thern t r ibu tar ies , a nd f ro m t hen o n i t s c ourse was c on tro l led b y t ecton ic a nd f au l t ing move men ts .

F our N i lo t ic F or ma t ions were t raced a t a bou t 3 0 ,

2 0 , 1 0 a nd 5 me tres a bove t he modern f l ood p la in and a re c onsidered t o h ave b een s epara ted b y d owncu t t ing a nd d eposi t ion o f s ands . 4 .

T he e stab l ish men t o f ar iver s ys te m a s s uch h ad a p rofound e f fec t

o n h u man g roups i n t he N i le v a l ley .

I deas wou ld b e e xpec ted t o a rr ive f ro m

t he n or th a nd n ew s ources o f r aw ma ter ia l b eca me a va i lab le ( i b id ) . Further s ou th o ft he s econd C a taract l i es t he r ugged r eg ion o f Ba tn E l Ha jar wh ich r eceived l i t t le a t ten t ion d ur ing t he Nub ian C a mpa ign .

The i n i t ia l

s urvey r evea led t he p resence o f s i tes r ang ing f ro m t he Midd le Pa laeo l i th ic t o t he h is tor ic p er iod b u t n one o f t he e ar l ier s i tes were f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th N i lo t ic s ed i men ts.

O n t he e ast b ank o f Ba t h e l Ha jar t wo s uccessive N i le

t erraces were r epor ted b etween Akasha a nd Khor K id inkong a t a bou t 1 5 a nd

2 7

3 0 me tres a bove t he f l ood p la in ( Map 2 .2) .

There a re n o C 14 d a tes f or t hese

s i l ts a nd n o a r tefacts were f ound i n s i tu e i ther ( S o leck i e t a l . 1 963 ) . O n t he w est b ank a t Wad i Karagan ( Map 2 .2 ) s ed i men ts c o mparab le t o t he S ahaba F or ma t ion h ave b een r epor ted .

Two C 14 d a tes 1 3 ,650 + 3 00 y ears B .P .

( GXO-421) a nd 1 1 , 9 70 + 3 00 y ears B .P . ( GXO 4 22 ) w ere o b ta ined o n s he l l c o l lec ted f ro m wha t i s c a l led " La te Pa laeo l i th ic" s i tes a t Wad i Karagan ( Rob inson a nd H ewes 1 966 :44 ) . C o m men t ing o n t he g eo logy o f t h is wad i R ob inson a nd H ewes p o in ted o u t t ha t t he n arrowness o f t he v a l ley i n B a tn e l Ha jar " wou ld n ecessi ta te a r ise o f s evera l t ens o f me tres t o p roduce s ign i f ican t l a tera l s pread" whereas a r ise o f 5 metres wou ld c over s ubs tan t ia l a reas i n t he f l a t r eg ion o f Wad i Hai fa h ence o b l i tera t ing o lder N i lo t ic d eposi ts ( i b id : 4 4-52) . T hough t here i s n o a bso lu te d a te f or t he c u t t ing o f Wad i Karagan t hey a rgued t ha t t he e ar l iest s i l ts migh t b e o f aM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a ge . A s s uch t he a u thors f ee l t ha t t here i s d iscrepancy i n t he e v idence f or d a t ing t he N i le b oth n or th a nd s ou th o f t he S econd C a taract ( i b id :50 ) . T he o n ly o ther a rea s earched f or a ncien t N i lo t ic s ed i men ts i n N or thern S udan i s t he s tretch o ft he v a l ley b etween Ed Debba a nd Kor t i o n t he Wes t b ank o f t he Dongo la r each ( Map 2 .1) . T he C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion c onduc ted a s urvey i n 1 967 t o t est t he v a l id i ty o f t he N ub ian g eo-archaeo log ica l s equence t o o ther p ar ts o ft he N i le v a l ley . T he l andscape i n t h is r eg ion c ou ld b e d iv ided i n to : a ) L a ter P le istocene a nd Ho locene N i lo t ic s i l ts a nd t heir a ssoc ia ted p ed i men ts e x tend ing a long t he r iver a nd t o a bou t 5k i lo metres i n land , b ) ab and o f g rave l s heets d issec ted b y wad is , c ) s er ies o f g rave l h i l ls r est ing o n t he N ub ian s andstone e x tend ing t o a bou t 1 2 k i lo me tres i n land . d e H e inzel in p oin ted o u t t ha t e ar ly Wad i o r N i lo t ic d epos i ts h ave u nderg one a c onsiderab le amoun t o f washou t a nd t ha t l oca l i t ies s uspected t o h ave i nc luded e ar ly P a laeo l i th ic ma ter ia l w ere c o mp lete ly r ed istr ibu ted . n o t t race d epos i ts c o mparab le t o t he D ibeira-Jer o f Wad i Ha i fa ;

H e c ou ld

t he imp l ica t ion

i s t ha t e i ther t hey were b lanketed o r t ha t t hey h ad b een e roded away ( d e He inzel in 1 971 :20) .

O n t he b asis o f a rea l d istr ibu t ion o f s ed i men ts h e d ef ined

t wo N i lo t ic f or ma t ions o f al a te P le is tocene a ge. G oshab i F or ma t ion T hese a re t he o ldest d eposi ts f ound a nd a re r e mnan ts o f o lder ' i s lands ' r ising t o c . 1 3 me tres a bove t he f l ood p la in . T he s uccession o f t he G oshab i d eposi ts i s t ha t o f l ayers o ff luvia t i le g rave ls r est ing o n s ands a nd s i l ts. B ecause o f l a ter d issect ion t he g rave l l ayer i s n ow f ound i n af or m o f ' sha l low r e l iefs ' ( i b id :22) .

B e low t he g rave l l ayer t he s uccess ion o f s and a nd s i l ts i s

a s f o l lows : 1 .

Al ayer o f f l uv ia t i le s ands w i th f ew g ravels a nd c a lc ic c oncre t ions .

2 .

Al ayer o f e o l ian d unes .

3 .

Hardened s i l ts w i th c a lcic c oncret ions r are ly e xposed .

T he G oshab i F or ma t ion i s ma tched b y al a tera l d eve lop men t o f wad i d eposi ts r is ing t o a bou t 2 0 metres a bove t he f l ood p la in ( i b id :30 ) . T he G oshab i d eposi ts a re g enera l ly d evo id o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l e xcep t f or a f ew i so la ted a r tefacts f ound i n s i tu ( S i te N 2) . 2 8

Two ma in a sse m-

b lages ( s i tes N 2 a nd N 6 ) o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic n a ture w ere f ound o n a n o u tc rop s urface b el ieved t o h ave b een d ef la ted f ro m b e low t he u pper f l uv ia t i le s ands o r i t s l ower p ar t ( i b id :29 ) .

C o mparab le a sse mb lages c o me f ro m s i tes

N 91 a nd N 20 b o th f ound r est ing o n wad i d eposi ts e qu iva len t t o t he G oshab i . T here i s n o d a te f or t h is N i lo t ic e ven t b u t d e H einze lin s uggested t ha t i tc ou ld b e e qua ted w i th t he S ahaba F or ma t ion d escr ibed a bove . T here a re r esonab le o b ject ions t o t h is c onc lusion . F irst ly , t here i s t he u ncer ta in ty o f u sing t errace h eigh ts t o c orre la te s ed i men ts o ver l ong d istances a nd s econd ly i ti s n o t c lear why t he who le s equence o f s ands a nd s i l ts a re c onsidered a s o ne F or ma t ion . R esearches i n U pper Egyp t a nd p arts o f N ub ia s howed t he c o mp lex i ty o ft he N i le r ecord a nd t he v ar ia t ions i n p reserva t ion ( K . S andford 1 949 ; Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b ) . O n t he o ther h and , t he a ssocia ted a rchaeo logy r ef lects s im i lar i t ies w ith t he Midd le Pa laeo l i th ic o f N or thern N ub ia wh ich makes a c orre la t ion w i th t he S ahaba u n tenab le ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 a nd C hap ter V ) . T he G ira F or ma t ion T h is i s au n ifor m f l uvia t i le d eposi t o f g rave ls , s ands a nd s i l ts r is ing t o a bou t 5 metres a bove t he f l ood p la in . N o a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l was f ound i n s i tu b u t N eo l i th ic s i tes w ere l oca ted o n t he a cco mpany ing l a tera l p ed i men t . I ti s t hus e qua ted w i th t he Ark in F or ma t ion i n N or thern N ub ia ( d e H einze l in 1 971:71) . B u tzer a nd H ansen 1 968 I n U pper Egyp t B u tzer a nd H ansen c onduc ted f i e ldwork d ur ing t he C a mpa ign a nd t he ir r esu l ts a re i n g enera l a gree men t w i th t hose o f d e H einze l in .

The

g enera l t he me o f al a te P le istocene N i le i s a lso p ropounded t hough t he e ar l iest s ed i men ts o f as ou thern o r ig in r epor ted b y t hese a u thors a re d a ted t o a bou t 5 0 ,000 B .C . s o me 1 5 ,000 y ears e ar l ier t han t he d a te s uggested b y d e He inzel in ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 967 :336 ) . F ur ther more , t he a u thors r e marked t ha t t he a bsence o fE ar ly a nd M idd le P leistocene s i l ts " is n o p roof t ha t B lue N i le wa ters d id n o t r each L ower N ub ia e ar l ier t han t he d eposi t ion o f t he Korosko F or ma t ion" ( t he e ar l iest N i lo t ic d eposi ts t hey h ave i den t i f ied ( i b id : 4 55) . T h is i s s o b ecause t he d om inan t l oca l s ed i men ts " wou ld h ave e rad ica ted a ny f l ood s i l ts l ef t b y as lugg ish , s um mer-f lood r eg i me" ( i b id :264) .

T he e ar ly

a nd M idd le P leistocene were t herefore c haracter ized b y e rosion a nd d ownc u t t ing i n U pper Egyp t a nd Nub ia a cco mpan ied b y t he a l luv ia l d eposi ts o ft he p ro to-N i le a nd t he L oca l wad is d ra in ing t he R ed S ea h i l ls. The g eo morph ic r ecord o ft h is p er iod a t p resen t p o in ts t o a n Egyp t ian r iver d om ina ted b y l oca l r unof f wh i le e xo t ic ma ter ia l i s a bsen t . The a u thors p o in ted o u t t ha t i ft here was a ny c on tr ibu t ion b y t he E th iop ian s u m mer f l oods i tc ou ld n o t b e d educed f ro m t he e v idence a t h and ( i b id :78) .

T he s equence f or t he l a te P leistocene

N i le s uggested b y t hese a u thors i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f d e He inze l in , as uccession o f a ggrada t ions a nd r ecessiona l p er iods. T h is s equence i s b r ief ly s u m mar ized b elow f or c o mpara t ive p urposes. K orosko F or ma t ion I n l ower Nub ia a nd K orn Ombo t he s equence b eg ins w i th t he ' wad i c ong lo me ra te ' wh ich r eaches a max i mum h e igh t o f 3 4 m a bove t he f l ood p la in . Overl y ing i ta re s preads o f g ravels , s ands a nd mar ls r each ing ah e igh t o f 2 0 me tres .

2 9

T he l i tho log ica l c o mposi t ion o f t he l a ter d eposi ts " suggests a d er iva t ion f rom b oth l oca l a nd d istan t s ources" a nd i ta lso s uggests " a mixed f l uvia l s em ia qua t ic e nv ironmen t o fd eposi t ion" ( i b id :949 ) .

T he l oca l g rave ls i n terdig i-

t a t ing w i th t he s ed i men ts i nd ica te a l a te P le istocene p luv ia l ( Bu tzer a nd H ansen 1 967 :336 ) . T here i s n o p rec ise d a te f or t h is F or ma t ion b u t b y e x trap o la t ion o f aC 14 d a te o f 2 5 ,250 B .C. + 9 50 ( 1 -2061) f ro m L ower N ub ia t he a u thors s uggest a d a te a round 5 0 ,000 B .C. A f ew a r tefacts d escr ibed a s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic were a ssocia ted w i th t hese d eposi ts a t N ew K orosko ( Bu tzer a nd H ansen 1 968 :97 ) . S uch d epos i ts were n o t r epor ted f ro m S udanese Nub ia a nd i t wou ld s ee m t ha t e i ther t hey w ere e roded o r s i mp ly mixed w i th t hose i den t if ied a t D ibe ira-Jer . Mas mas F or ma t ion T he p reced ing e p isode was f o l lowed b y d owncu t t ing a nd e rosion f o l lowed i n t urn b y d epos i t ion o f f l uv ia l s ands a nd s i l ts ( Mas mas F or ma t ion ) r each ing ah eigh t o f c . 3 3 metres a nd e x tend ing t hroughou t L ower N ub ia t o K o m Ombo . L oca l wad i a ct iv i ty was min i ma l d ur ing t he d eposi t ion o f t hese s ed i men ts. N o a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l was f ound i n s i tu b u t aC 14 d a te o f 1 6 ,350 + 3 10 ( 1-2060) s uggested a d a te f or t he a ggrada t ion b e tween 2 2,000-16 ,000 B .C . a nd i ti s t herefore e qua ted t o D ibeira-Jer i n S udanese N ub ia ( 1 967 :336 a nd 1 968 :103) • J ebel S i ls i la F or ma t ion T he t h ird ma jor a ggradat ion , marked b y d epos i ts o f s ands , s i l ts a nd wad i g rave ls f ound a t more t han 1 3 m h igh . T he e v idence s uggests h igh N i le wa ters c arry ing h eavy minera ls k nown t o o ccur i n C en tra l S udan . Th is f orma t ion i nc ludes t hree a ggrada t ions s epara ted b y p er iods o f r ecession a nd e rosion .

T he f i rst o ft hese i s t he Darau me mber ( 2 2.2 m h igh i n Egyp t ian

N ub ia a nd 1 3 m h igh a t K or n Ombo ) wh ich i s d a ted b y C 14 d a tes t o 1 5 ,0001 0 ,500 B .C. a nd h ence e qua ted b y t he a u thors t o t he S ahaba F or ma t ion i n Wad i Ha lfa ( da tes l i sted a bove ) .

S ubsequen t a cce lera ted N i le f l oods a re

r ecorded i n t he d eposi ts o f t he Ar m ina Me mber ( 2 2 m a bove f l ood p la in ) wh ich was a cco mpan ied b y wad i a c t iv i ty s uggest ing a c orrela t ion b e tween t he E th iop ian s u m mer f l oods a nd w in ter r a in i n U pper Egyp t ( i b id :115) . T h is e p isode i s d a ted t o 9 ,200-8000 B .C .

T he l ast o f J ebe l S i lsi la F or ma t ion i s

t he K ibd i me mber d a ted t o a bou t 4 000-3000 B .C . T o r ecap i tu la te , t he Egyp t ian d a ta p resen ted b y B u tzer a nd Hansen l ends s uppor t t o t he o p in ion t ha t t he a ge o ft he N i le c ou ld b e t aken b ack t o t he Upper P leistocene o r e ar l ier . T hough t he e ar l iest s ed i men ts o f as ou ther o r ig in t hey h ave i den t i f ied a re d a ted t o a bou t 5 0 ,000 B .C., i .e . l a te U pper P leistocene , t hey a rgued t ha t t h is impression i s p erhaps d ue t o t he l ack o f e vidence a t p resen t a va i lab le ( i b id :264 , 4 55) . F ur ther more t he r ecogn i t ion a nd d a t ing o f t he J ebe l S i lsi la F or ma t ion w i th t he s ub-phases ( t he e qu iva len t o f S ahaba i n N ub ia ) c lear ly s hows t he c o mp lex i ty a nd s o met i mes c onf l ict ing n a ture o f t he f i e ld e v idence . P ost N ub ia C a mpa ign R esearch a nd t he P rob le m o f t he Ear l iest N i lo t ic S i l ts T he C o mb ined P reh istor ic Exped i t ion e x tended i t s f i e ld w ork i n 1 967-69 t o U pper Egyp t a nd t he F ayu m d epression .

3 0

The s urvey i nc luded t he a rea o n

t he west b ank f ro m j ust n or th o f A swan t o Ar man t n ear L uxor a nd f ro m L uxor t o Nag Ha mad i o n b oth s ides o ft he r iver ( Map 2 .1) .

A l though t he r esearch

was f ocussed o n t he s tudy o ft he l a ter P le istocene f unda men ta l e v idence f or t he o lder N i le s i l ts s o f ar k nown was o b ta ined.f ro m t he D andara-Qena a rea . Moreover i tb rough t t o l igh t n ew i n for ma t ion wh ich c a l ls f or a mod i f ica t ion o ft he l i thostra t igraph ic u n i ts d ef ined b y d e H e inze lin i n N ub ia . B u t i t must a lso b e r e me mbered t ha t s o me o ft he n ew d a ta i s d ispu tab le a nd ma jor i ssues r e ma ined t o b e s o lved ( Wendorf , S ch i ld a nd S a id 1 970 , S a id e t a l . 1 970 , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 , 1 976b ) . T he e ar l iest d eposi ts a t tr ibu ted t o t he N i le were r ecorded a s ab asa l u n i t a t l oca l i ty E 6101 a bou t 7k i lo metres s ou theast o f Dandara . T he u n i t i s d escr ibed a s a bou t t wo metres o f b rown f i ne s ands a nd c oarse s i l ts . I ti s f ound a t o ther l oca l i t ies i n t he Dandara r eg ion a nd o n t he e ast b ank o f t he r iver .

Over ly ing t he s i l ts a t t he a bove l oca l i ty i s al ayer o f p ebb les , g rave ls ,

b rown c lay a nd c oarse s i l ts. A cheu l ian h andaxes were f ound b e tween t he t wo l ayers a nd t hroughou t t he g rave l l ayer . T he s a me Dandara s i l ts w ere r ecorded a t l oca l i ty E 6103 where t he l ower l ayer o f g ray f i ne s i l ts i s o ver la id b y a no ther o f b rown s i l ts a nd f reshwa ter l imes tone. F ro m t he u pper most l imes tone p ar t aC 14 d a te o f more t han 3 9 ,000 y ears B .P . ( 1 -3424 ) was o b ta ined ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 :128 , 1 976b :93-97 ) . The Dandara s i l ts a re c overed b y au n i t o f g rave ls a nd s ands o f l oca l o r ig in wh ich i nd ica te a n i ncrease i n r a in fa l l . Q ena F or ma t ion .

T h is u n i t i s d esigna ted a s t he

A t E 6103 t he Q ena s ands a re o ver la id b y at h ick l ayer o f

p ebb les a nd c obb les l oca l ly d er ived a nd c on ta in ing i n ad er ived p osi t ion a r tefacts d escribed b y Wendorf a s S angoan ( i b id :97 ) .

Though t he s tra t igraph ic

s uccession o f t he Dandara-Qena d eposi ts i s n o t f i rm ly e stab l ished , t here i s n o d oub t a bou t t he p resence o f l a te Acheu l ian a r tefacts w i th in a nd a bove t he Dandara s i l ts ( i b id 1 976b :103 , S a id 1 975 :24) .

T he l i tho logy a nd m inera logy

o ft hese d eposi ts s how t ha t ac onsiderab le amoun t o ft he N i le wa ters w ere d erived f ro m t he E th iop ian h igh lands . T he s and u n i t c on ta ined c asts o f A fr ican s pecies o f mo l luscs i n a dd i t ion t o t he f ossi l s he l ls ( c orb icu la a r t in i , u n io a nd Mu te lina s pp .) f ound b y S and ford a nd Arke l l i n t he L ower P a laeo l i th ic t erraces , wh ich a re c onsidered t o b e t he e qu iva len t o ft he f i na l s tages o f t he Dandara/Qena c o mp lex ( i b id :26 ) .

I n as epara te s tudy o f t he h eavy m inera l

c o mposi t ion o ft he D andara s i l ts F . Hassan f ound t ha t t hey a re c lose ly c o mp arab le t o t he modern N i le s i l ts.

F ro m t heir s tra t igraph ica l p osi t ion a nd t he

a ssocia ted a rchaeo logy h e s uggested a d a te o f more t han 1 00 ,000 y ears a go ( Hassan 1 976 :436) .

More r ecent ly , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tefac ts o f L eva l lo isian

t echn ique w ere d iscovered i n s i tu w i th in a ncien t N i lo t ic s i l ts a t Naz le t K h .a t ir t o t he n or thwest o f T ah ta i n M idd le Egyp t ( P . M . V er meersch 1 978 :21) . Tha t s uch o lder d eposi ts w ere n o t r ead i ly i den ti f ied i n S udanese N ub ia may b e d ue t o t he n a ture o ft he r esearch i t se lf o r t o t he f act t ha t t hey h ave e roded a l together . D e H einze l in is s equence was e stab l ished i n t he l im i ted a rea o f t he S econd C a tarac t a nd r ecen t f i e ld d a ta s howed t hat a nc ien t N i lo t ic s i l ts a re n o t u n i for m e i ther i n t he ir l i tho log ica l c on ten t o r i n t he ir a rea l d istr ibu t ion . E th iop ian s i l ts a re d eposi ted a nd r e-eroded s evera l t imes b efore t hey r each t he S aharan N i le ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968 :449 ) .

F ur ther ,

t he u se o f t he h eigh t o ft he d eposi ts t o make r eg iona l c o mpar isons was s hown

3 1

t o b e mis lead ing . I n U pper Egyp t S a id e t a l . o bserved t ha t t he D ibe ira a nd S ahaba s i l ts o ccup ied a r eversed r e la t ionsh ip w i th r espect t o h eigh t s equence . Wh i le t hey s core r espect ively c . 3 0 a nd 2 0 metre h e igh t i n N ub ia t hey a re c . 6a nd 1 0 m i n U pper Egyp t . T h is means t ha t i n U pper Egyp t t he S ahaba i s h igher t han t he p reced ing D ibeira wh i le t he o pposi te i s t rue f or S udanese N ub ia ( Sa id e t a l . 1 970 :52) . A s t he g eo log ica l s ect ions d escr ibed f ro m S udanese N ub ia a re n ow c o mp le te ly u nder wa ter , i ti s o n ly p ossib le t o l ook f or s tra t igraph ica l c lues wh ich migh t i nd ica te t he p resence o f o lder N i lo t ic s i l ts. A p ossib le s i tua t ion i s d escr ibed b y C hm ie lewsk i a t t he A cheu l ian s i tes o f Ark in 1 4 a nd 8 , where t he a r tefacts w ere f ound i n s i tu i n al ayer o f g rave ls i n i t ia l ly c onsidered t o b e s tra t igraph ica l ly c on te mporaneous w i th t he h ighest N i lo t ic s i lts s een n earby .

T hough i ti s n o t a bso lu te ly c er ta in t h is a u thor s uggested t ha t t he

s i l ts c ou ld b e a pprec iab ly o lder t han t he D iber ia J er ( Ch m ie lewsk i 1 965 :154 , 1 968 :130-33 ) . A t l oca l i t ies 5 04 ( east b ank ) a nd 2 35 ( wes t b ank ) , n ear Wad i Ha i fa , f ossi li ferous l ayers o ff i ne q uar tz g rave ls a t ta ined a n e leva t ion o f 1 57 m ( Map 2 .3) . T hough a c haracter ist ic N i lo t ic f auna o f mu tela c f . r os tra ta , c orb icu la v ara a nd c leopa tra b u l i mo ides were i den t if ied , d e H e inze l in c ons idered t he d eposi ts t o b e o f al oca l o r ig in ( d e H e inze l in 1 968 :25-28) . These d eposi ts migh t r ecord a s im i lar i nciden t t o t ha t o f D andara/Qena a rea when t he N i le f l oods were a cco mpan ied b y l oca l r a in fa l l wh ich c arr ied l oca l s ands a nd g rave l t o t he v a l ley .

I ti s c lear t ha t t he e v idence f ro m t hese s i tes i s

i nco mp le te b u t i tc ou ld n ever theless b e b rough t t o b ear o n t he p rob le m o f t he o ldest N i lo t ic s i l ts. T he s uccession a t t he k ey l oca l i t ies 1 018, 1 020 a nd 4 33 ( t h is c hap ter p . 2 5 ) s uggest a n o ld d a te f or D iber ia J er o r a n e ven o lder s epara te e p isode . T he u nda ted h igher s i l ts a re s epara ted f ro m t he s ubsequen t s ands a nd s i l ts b y ap ronounced e rosion s urface o n t op o f wh ich were a ccu mu la ted wad i d eposi ts o f 1 43 m a bso lu te e leva t ion .

Wendorf a nd S ch i ld n ow c ons ider t he

y ounger s i l ts e qu iva len t t o t he ir B a l lana- Mas mas a ggrada t ion d a ted t o 1 7 , 0 001 5 ,0 00 B .C . T hey a rgued t ha t t he s im i lar i ty i n e leva t ion b e tween t hese d eposi ts ( 1 45 m ) a nd t hose a t t he t ype l oca l i ty f or D ibeira ( 1 47 m ) wh ich were e ar l ier d a ted t o c . 1 9 ,000 B .C. wou ld i nd ica te e i ther t ha t t he r iver 's l evel r e ma ined s tab le f or 4 000 y ears , o r t ha t t he s i l ts a t 1 017 a re 2 000 y ears o lder . Wh i le s im i lar i ty i n e leva t ions d oes n o t l end much s uppor t t o t h is a rgu men t t here i s y et a no ther p iece o f e v idence . Ar erun o ft he r e mnan t o f t he s a mp le f ro m s i te 1 017 g ave a C 14 d a te o f 3 3 , 8 00 B .P . +3 350 ( SMU-245). T here a re a lso t wo more o ld d a tes n ow a va i lab le f or t he n or musan i ndustry wh ich i s t rad i t iona l ly a ssigned t o t he D ibe ira d eposi ts . T hese a re : >36 ,000 y ears ( GXO-409 ) >41,490 y ears ( SMU-106 ) ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :236-39 ) Add i t iona l e v idence f or s uch a n e ar ly N i le a ggrada t ion c ou ld b e d etected a t s i tes 4 40 a nd 1 440 i n t he Khor musa a rea . A t s i te 4 40 ( See C hap ter I I ) t wo c u l tura l l ayers were r ecovered f ro m a l ayer o f s ands . T he t wo l ayers were s epara ted b y 5 0 cm o f s ter i le s ands.

T he s ands c on ta in ing t he c u l tura l

l ayers a re u nder l ied b y s i l ts o fa n u nknown a ge a nd a lso c overed b y s i l ts a nd s ands r each ing a h e igh t o f c . 1 53 m a bove s ea l eve l . T he p os i t ion o f t he t wo

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s i l t l ayers i s c on troversia l a nd d e H e inze lin s uggested t ha t t he o ver ly ing s i l ts c ou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o e i ther t he S ahaba F or ma t ion o r a n e ar ly s tage o f D ibe ira F or ma t ion ( d e H einzel in 1 968 :24 , F ig . 2 .1) . A s men t ioned a bove , t he C 14 d a te o f 1 2, 3 40 + 5 00 f avours a S ahaba a ge b u t i ti s t oo y oung f or t he a ssemb lage wh ich t ypo log ica l ly a nd t echno log ica l ly d i ffers f rom a ny o f t hose a sse mb lages a ssoc ia ted w i th t he S ahaba F or ma t ion . However , t he e xcava tor s uggested t ha t t he s ands c on ta in ing t he a rtefacts b elong t o t he la t iyar ia F or ma t ion a nd t he o ver ly ing s i l ts t o e ar ly D ibeira ( Sh iner 1 968b :636 ) .

The s a me c onc lus ion

i s made b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld t hough o f c ourse t he l ower s i l ts c ou ld b e much o lder ( 1 976b :237 ) . A t s i te 6G30 o n t he west b ank o pposi te Wadi Hai fa a n e ar ly Khor musan a sse mb lage was f ound i n as and l ayer a bou t 1 8 m a bove t he f l ood p la in .

T he C 14 d a te o f more t han 3 6 ,000 was o b ta ined f ro m t h is c u l tura l

l ayer wh ich wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he u nder ly ing s i l ts h ave t o b e o lder t han 4 0 ,000 y ears a go .

I rw in e t a l . d escr ibed t he a sse mb lage a s s im ilar t o t ha t

f ro m 4 40 a nd a rgued t ha t b o th s edi men ts a re o lder t han t he o ne a t 1 017.

T ha t

means t he N i le a f ter f l ow ing a t 1 8 m ( 6G30 a nd 4 40 ) r ose t o ah eigh t o f 3 0 m a s a t s i te 1 017 a nd t hus " the h ypo thet ica l 3 0 m t errace ( Dibeira ) i s a c tua lly made u p o fv ar ious i ndustr ies a nd s i l ts d eposi ted a t t ha t e leva t ion , t oge ther w ith v ar ious s and a nd s i l t u n i ts o fd i f feren t a ges" ( I rw in e t a l . 1 968 :5-9 , 1 11 ) . R eturn ing t o t he Egyp t ian s equence we f ind t ha t t he g rave ls o ver ly ing t he Qena s ands a re f o l lowed b y al ong p er iod o f e rosion o f wh ich v ery l i t t le i s k nown ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :231) . C o l luv ia l d eposi ts a re i nd ica ted b y t he p resence o f g rave ls a nd p ebb les f o l low ing t he e rosiona l p er iod . The f i na l s tages o f t h is s lopewash c on ta ined t he a r tefacts d escr ibed a s " ear ly l a te P a laeo l i th ic" a t s i te E 6104 a nd d a ted t o a bou t 2 0 ,000 B .C . ( i b id :231).

A f ter a g ap i n t he r ecord , f o l lows t he s ands

a nd s i l ts o f B a l lana- Mas mas a ggrada t ion wh ich a ccord ing t o t h is s che me i nc ludes t he B a l lana r ecession a nd Ear ly S ahaba o f d e H e inze l in a nd Mas mas a ggrada t ion o f B u tzer a nd H ansen ( i b id :236 ) . T h is i s f o l lowed b y ar ecess iona l p er iod c a l led D er E l-Fakhur i wh ich i s e qu iva len t t o t he o ne s epara t ing t he t wo s tages o f t he S ahaba a s d ef ined b y d e He inzel in i n N ub ia ( i b id :259 ).

The n ex t

ma jor a ggrada t ion i s c a l led S ahaba-Drau a nd i s d a ted t o 1 2 ,000-9 ,700 B .C. I ti s c haracter ized b y p ond d eposi ts a nd i n terf inger ing wad i a nd N i lo t ic s edimen ts. The a ssocia ted a rchaeo logy o f t h is p er iod f a l ls o u tside t he s cope o f t h is s tudy b u t as u m mary o ft hese mod i f ica t ions w i l l b e f ound i n F ig . 2 .2. C onc lusions I ta ppears f ro m t he a bove s urvey o f t he l i tera ture t ha t c er ta in i ssues c oncern ing t he p hysica l h istory o f t he N i le a re s t i l l c on troversia l . The a va i lab le d a ta , n ever the less , i s v a luab le a nd p rov ides a g enera l c hrono logy f or t he a rchaeo log ica l i ndustr ies a nd a v iew o f t heir r espect ive p a laeoenv ironmen ts . 1 .

T he ma in p o in ts c lear ly emerged f ro m t h is d iscussion a re : T he Dandara s i l ts o bserved i n U pper Egyp t a re t he o ldest N i lo t ic

s i l ts t o d a te a nd c an b e p laced o n s trat igraph ica l , g eo log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l g rounds t o at ime p r ior t o 8 0 ,000 y ears B .P .

T hough t hese s ed imen ts h ave

n o t b een i den t if ied i n S udanese Nub ia , t here a re s o me g eo log ica l i nd ica t ions o ft heir p resence .

T he mere f ac t t ha t t he N i le h as n o t c hanged i t s c hanne l i n

ad ra ma t ic way s ince t he U pper P l iocene s uggests t ha t t he r iver wh ich d epos i ted t he Dandara s i l ts must h ave p assed t hrough S udanese N ub ia . 3 4

2 .

Hav ing a ccep ted a n o lder a ge f or t he N i le i t wou ld s ee m r easonab le

t o a rgue t ha t a d just men t t o t he N i lo t ic micro-env iron men t t ook p lace p r ior t o t he l e lor musan i ndustry .

O n t he o ther h and , i tb eco mes d i ff icu l t t o a ccep t

t he v iew t ha t t he a dven t o ft he modern N i le s ys te m was a ma jor f actor i n e ffect ing a c u l tura l c hange i n N ub ia , i .e . Mouster ian/Khor musan . I ft he t wo c o mp lexes w ere l arge ly c on te mporary , a s i ts ee ms i s t he c ase , t hen c auses f or v ar ia t ion must b e o ther t han t he s i mp le p resence o f t he r iver . Wh i le t he r iver c ou ld h ave e x is ted b efore Mouster ian t imes , c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions were n o t t he s a me a l l t he t ime . T here i s e v idence f or d ry a nd we t p er iods wh ich o f c ourse afec t t he i n land a reas . T he l ong p er iods o f t he N i le f l oods a nd d own c u t t ing a re e xpec ted t o i nf luence h u man s e t t le ment a long i t s b anks .

I t

m igh t t herefore b e r eward ing t o e xp lore t he d is tr ibu t ion a nd t ypes o f s i tes a ga ins t s uch a b ackground ( Chap ter I V ). 3 .

T he mod if ied g eo-archaeo log ica l s equence s uggested r ecen t ly b y

Wendorf a nd S ch i ld , t ogether w i th t he a va i lab le C 14 d a tes , make i tr easonab ly p ossib le t o p lace e ach o ft he i ndustr ies c onsidered i n t h is s tudy i n at ime s pan ( Chap ter I I ) .

The o lder d a tes f or t he Khor musan w i l l c ast d oub t o n t he c on-

t e mporane i ty b etween i ta nd t he s ucceed ing HaHan i ndustry . h ave b een f or a s hor t p eriod i fi to ccurred a t a l l . 4 ,

I ndeed i t mus t

W i th r espec t t o t he G oshab i F or ma t ion i n Dongo la , t he e v idence

s hows t ha t ac orre la t ion b etween i ta nd t he S ahaba i n Wad i Ha ifa i su n tenab le . N ei ther t he g eo log ica l p osi t ion n or t he a ssoc ia ted a rchaeo logy s uppor ts s uch av iew .

F ur ther , t he s tra t igraph ica l p osi t ion o f t he Dongo la s i tes i s n o t

c o mp letely c er ta in i n r ela t ion t o t he u nda ted G oshab i . T here i s n o a l terna t ive t herefore r e ly ing o n t heir a rtefactua l c on ten ts t o e st i ma te a r e la t ive a ge .

3 5

B utzer a nd H ansen 19 68 K or n O mbo

d e H einzelin 1 90 N ubia • •• • ••

7

Q adrus

& m cd-rn

W endorf a nd S child 9 7rb N ubia/U.

E gypt

m ode ml '

-

K bdi p per I neiba w adi d eposit

A rkin F m.

A rkin

a ggradat ion

A rminna B irbit F m ( Recession) 1 3-

E J D 1 4- (

1 71 81 9-

R ecession D arau m ember

r i

L ate S ahaba

1 ; öwer W

1 6-

m ember

-

i nor R ecess.

C l )

P ost S ahaba R ece;_ S ahaba D arua a ggradation

e -1

w adi d eposits

C . )

E arly S ahaba B allana F m. R ecession/sands

D owncutting

D iberia-Jer F m.

M asmas

D er E l F akhuri R ecession B allana M asmas a ggrad. ( sands a nd s ilts)

2 02 1-

F m.

2 2-

D ibeira J er a ggradation

2 32 42 5-

h ktiariya s ands D owncutting ( Recession)

3 0-

Q ena s ands

4 0-

K orsoko

F m .

5 06 0-

P roto N ile g roup ( no d ata

W adi

c onglomerate

7 0-

c hange o f d rainage

E arly s ilts a t 6 C,3 0 1 017? ( Early D ibeira) S ands

a t

g roup?

F ig . 2 .2

4 40,1440

s ilts a t 4 43, 1 31 a nd A rkin 1 4?

5 ) P re-Nile

& s ilt

D andara s ilts n ot d efined i n N ubia p ossib. h igh

8 09 0-

D owncutting

S ummary o f L a te P le istocene N i lo t ic E ven ts 3 6

CHAPTER I I DATING ,

PA LAEOC L IMATIC CONDITIONS AND ECONOMY

T h is c hap ter a t te mp ts t o i ncorpora te t he s tra t igraph ica l e v idence d iscussed i nt he p rev ious c hap ter w i th i n for ma t ion a va i lab le o n t he p a laeoc l i ma t ic c ond i t ions a nd s ubsis tence e cono my d uring t he l a ter P le istocene i n Nub ia .

F ro m

t hese i ti s h oped t o r each g enera l c onc lusions a s f ar a s t he p resen t e v idence p er m i ts , o n t he p osi t ion o f e ach o f t he a rchaeo log ica l i ndus tr ies i n t ime. A ny d iscussions o n p ast c l i ma tes w i l l u ndoub ted ly c onsider i n ter-reg iona l c orre la t ions wh ich i nvo lves many u ncer ta in t ies. T he p ro longed d iscussion s ince t he b eg inn ing o f t h is c en tury o n t he p rob le m o f c orre la t ing t he A fr ican P luv ia l/In terp luv ia l c hrono logy w i th t he E urop iean g lac ia l s equence was h a mpered b y t he l ack o f b o th c hrono me tr ic e v idence a nd t he u neveness i n t he d istr ibu t ion o f a ncien t d eposi ts ( Oak ley 1 964 :82) . Due t o t h is f act e ar l ier a rgu men ts w i l l b e men t ioned i n p ass ing . Wha t s ee ms b est , It h ink , i s t o c oncen tra te o n t he e v idence f ro m N ub ia i n t he f i rst i nstance a nd c o mpare i t t o wha tever i s w ide ly a ccep ted n ow .

N eed less t o s ay t he e v idence o b ta ined

r ecen t ly f ro m t he L ower N i le V a l ley i s f ar f ro m c o mp le te a nd a s w i l l b e s een i n t he f o l low ing p ages t he o p in ions o f most a u thor i t ies a re i n d isagreem m t . T he Nub ian Mouster ian The Nub ian Mousterian s i tes l ack b oth a bso lu te d a tes a nd d irect s tra t ig raph ica l r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he l oca l g eo logy .

A l l o f t he Mous ter ian s i tes ,

e xcep t s i te 1 033 , a re c oncen tra t ions o f a r tefac ts f ound o n t op o f i nse lbergs a nd/or t he s urface o ft he o lder p ed i men ts ( Marks 1 968a :201) . A t s i te 1 033 t wo c u l tura l l ayers w ere r ecovered b enea th a l ayer o f a bou t 1 0 cm o f s ter i le s ands ( i b id :248-49 ) .

T he s i te was s i tua ted o n al ow h i l l 1 13 me tres a bso lu te

e leva t ion a nd i ti s 8t o 1 0 metres a bove t he h ighest N i le s i l ts o bserved i n i t s v icin i ty ( de H e inzel in 1 968 :38) . T he s uccession a t t h is s i te c an n o t b e r ela ted t o t he N i lo t ic s i l ts s er ies o r c onsidered n ecessar i ly t o p reda te t he m . T he o ther g roup o f s i tes i ncluded h ere i n t he s tudy o f t he Nub ian Mouster ian a re t he ' f lake i ndus tr ies f ro m t he Dongo la R each '. d en t ly o r g eo log ica l ly d a ted ;

These t wo c anno t b e i ndepen-

a s s hown e ar l ier a d a te c an o n ly b e e st i ma ted

f ro m t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a na lysis ( Chap ter 1 ; 4 , C hap ter 1 :28 ) .

Tha t t he Nub ian Mouster ian c anno t b e d a ted p oses a p rob le m f or c u l tura l d evelop men t i n N ub ia . F or i ns tance we c anno t b e s ure when t hese L eva l lo isb ased i ndustr ies f i na l ly r ep laced t he o lder h andaxes i ndus tr ies.

T he L eva l-

l o isian Mouster ian r epor ted b y S andford a nd Arkel l f ro m a long t he N i le Va l ley i n Egyp t a nd N ub ia , a nd t ha t d escr ibed b y C a ton-Tho mpson f ro m K harga Oasis , g ive n o d irec t e v idence f or d a t ing t he Nub ian ma ter ia l e xcep t ab road c orre la t ion b etween t he N i le t erraces a nd t he i ndependen t g eo log ica l s equence a t Kharga . T he c u l tura l s uccession a t Kharga c o m menced w i th a n Upper A cheu l ian h or izon 3 7

f o l lowed b y a n 'A . cheu l io-Leva l las ian ' a nd a n Upper a nd L ower 'L eva l lo isMouster ian '.

T h is t er m ino logy h as a lso b een a pp l ied t o t he Egyp t ian Mous ter ian

a ssoc ia ted w i th t he 3 0 a nd I OF t errace ( Ca ton-Tho mpson 1 946 :67 ) .

The K harga

s equence i s b e l ieved t o h ave t aken p lace d uring a ma jor p luv ia l wh ich i s e qua ted w ith European W i ir m ( Ca ton-Tho mpson 1 952 :F ig . 1 , 1 4-21) .

I ti s o bv ious

t ha t t h is i s o f l i t t le v a lue i n e st i ma t ing a d a te f or t he Nub ian Mouster ian . However i n Nub ia i t sel f at er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i s s uggested b y t he l a te C 14 r ead ings t hen o b ta ined f or t he l ü lor musan wh ich w as b e l ieved t o h ave s ucceeded t he Nub ian Mouster ian ( Chap ter 1 :24 ) .

F ro m

h is t ypo log ica l a na lysis o f t he Nub ian Mous ter ian Marks s uggested t ha t a t l eas t o ne f acies o f i ti s b road ly c o mparab le t o t he t yp ica l Mousterian o f S ou th West F rance ( Marks 1 968a :308) .

Th is i s o f c ourse o f l i t t le v a lue t oo u n less

i ti s e stab l ished t ha t t he t wo c an b e c onnected . d e monstra ted .

Th is , h owever , h as n o t b een

By t he e nd o f t he Nub ian C a mpa ign t he g enera l f ee l ing among

mos t workers i s t ha t t he N ub ian Mouster ian i s r ela t ive ly l a te a nd c an b e d a ted t o a bou t 4 5 ,000-33 ,000 BC ( Wendorf 1 968d :1043) . r eason , h owever , t o b e l ieve i n s uch a l a te d a te .

T here i s n o c o mpel l ing I t was i nd ica ted b y t he y ounger

d a tes f or t he Khor musan i ndustry o b ta ined a t t he t ime wh ich a re n ow c onsidered u nre l iab le ( Chap ter I : 2 4 ) .

L ack ing a bso lu te d a tes i n Nub ia , o ne migh t , h ow-

e ver , c a l l u pon o ther i nfor ma t ion o n t he a ppearance o f t he L eva l loiso- Mous ter ian i n t he n eighbour ing r eg ions where t hey a re c onf iden t ly d a ted .

O f c ourse

r eg iona l d ifferences o r e ven c u l tura l t rad i t ions migh t h ave emerged b y t h is t ime b u t t he f act r e ma ins t ha t t hey a l l s hare b road ly s im i lar t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a t tr ibu tes i n p ar t icu lar t he w ide a dop t ion o ft he p repared L eva l lo is c ore , a t t he e xpense o f t he h andaxe e le men t ( McBurney 1 960 :129 , 1 975 :423 , J . D . C lark 1 970 :114) . T he r ecen t r esearch i n Upper Egyp t d id n o t b r ing t o l igh t d a ted M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes e xcep t t he e ncounter o f af ew a r tefacts i n ad er ived p os i t ion a nd b e l ieved t o d a te >50 ,000 BP ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :96) .

T o t he Wes t

o ft he N i le , i n t he Egyp t ian S ahara , S ch i ld a nd Wendorf h ave r ecen t ly d iscovered f ive Mouster ian h or izons o f L eva l lo is f acies f ound w i th in l ake s edi men ts i n B ir S ahara a nd B ir Tarfaw i a rea s o me 3 50 km west o f Abu S i mbel ( 1975 :101 ) . S o me o f t hese a sse mb lages b ear a g enera l r ese mb lance t o t he Nub ian Mouster ian a nd a s t hey a re d a ted o n t he b asis o f s tra t igraph ica l p os it ion a nd C 14 r ead ings , t hey p rov ide a u n ique o ppor tun i ty f or r eg iona l c o mpar isons ( i b id :105) .

F ive

C 14 d a tes were o b ta ined f or t hese Mouster ian s i tes a t B ir S ahara a nd t hey a re : 3 2 ,780 BP + 9 00 ( S MU-80 , i b id :91) 4 0 ,710 BP + 3 270 ( S MU-82 :91 ) >41 ,450 BP

O lder L acustrine s er ies

( S MU-81 :91)

3 0 ,870 BP + 1 000 ( S MU 7 5 i b id :92) 4 4 ,700 BP —

U pper L acustr ine s er ies

( S MU 7 9 i b id :92)

The a u thor p o in ted o u t t ha t s o me o ft hese d a tes ( S MU-80 a nd 7 5) were o b ta ined o n s he l ls c o l lec ted e i ther f ro m t he s urface o r t ha t s o me were o n ly f ragmen ts a nd c ou ld n o t b e c leaned .

T ha t s uch d a tes may b e c onsidered t oo y oung a nd

c on ta m ina ted i s f ur ther p ossib ly s ugges ted b y t he d ifference b etween SMU8 2 a nd 8 1 when b o th s a mp les were c o l lected f ro m t he s a me s pot ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 976 :105) .

T he c o mb ined a rchaeo log ica l , c l i ma t ic a nd f auna l e vidence

3 8

h owever imp ly t ha t t he Mouster ian a t B ir S ahara c an b e d a ted t o more t han 4 2,000 BP ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 977 :231).

F ur ther t o t he n or th west t he b est

s equence s o f ar a va i lab le c o mes f ro m t he Haua F teah c ave i n L ibya .

There ,

t he f irst a ppearance o f t he L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian i n l ayer XXX IV i s d a ted b y as er ies o f C 14 d a tes , i so top ic c a l ibra t ions b etween s tra t if ied s hel ls a nd d eep s ea s ed i men ts o f c en tra l Med i terranean a nd c l i ma t ic f luc tua t ions r ecorded i n t he ma m ma l ian f auna a nd s ed i men ts o f t he c ave.

T he C 14 r ead ings d irec t ly

p er t inen t t o t he L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian a t Haua a re : 4 1,450 + 1 ,300 B . C. ( GRN 2 564 , L ayer XXVI I I ) 4 5,050

73 ,200

B .C . ( GRN 2 ( 523 , L ayer XXX I I I )

>34 ,000 B .C. ( W 85 , L ayer XXVI I I McBurney 1 967 :71) C onsider ing a l l t he e v idence f ro m L ibya , McBurney s ugges ted t hat t he a ppeara nce o f t he L eva l lo iso- Mous ter ian t here c ou ld b e d a ted t o l a te Ee m a nd t he Haua Mouster ian c ou ld n o t b eg in l a ter t han 6 0 ,000 BP o r e nd l a ter t han 4 0 ,000 BP .

On t he who le h e c onsiders t he max i mu m r ead ing a s t he most p lausib le

a l l t h ings c onsidered .

Thus t he a ppearance o f af u l l b lade t echno logy i s d a ted

t o a bou t 4 0 ,000 B .C . i n L ibya ( McBurney 1 967 :69 , 3 26 ;

1 975:419 ) .

I n s ou thwest A sia d a t ing o f t he L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian was b ased o n c orrela t ion o ft he s trand l ines o f t he e astern Med i terranean w i th t he European g lacia l s equence ;

b u t t h is r a ises v ar ious c on troversia l i ssues c oncerned

w i th t he l oca l g eo logy ( Sk inner 1 965 :214) . There a re n ow an u mber o f C 14 d a tes f or t he e ar l ier Mouster ian i n t he a rea o f wh ich a re : >52,000 BP ( GRN-2556 ;

Garrod 1 962 :244 )

3 9 ,500 BP + 5 00 ( Gro2534 ;

i b id )

4 0 ,900 BP + 1 000 ( Grn-2695 ;

Ras e l K e lb

Tabun B .

i b id ) Tabun C .

4 2,000 BP + 1 000 ( Gro-2552 ;

i b id ) K ebareh F .

4 2,000 BP + 1 700 ( Grn-4142 ;

S k inner 1 965:245)

G eu la .

G arrod p o in ted o u t t ha t t he d a te f ro m Tabun C i s t oo y oung a nd c ou ld b e u nrel iab le b ecause a t h ird r un o ft he s a me s a mp le g ave a d a te o f4 5000 + 2 000. S he c oncluded t ha t t he L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian i n P a lest ine c an b e d a ted t o e ar ly Wt ir m ( op . c i t . 2 44 ) .

T he impor tance o ft he Tabun d a tes , h owever ,

l i es i n d a t ing t he u nder ly ing l ayer D ( Leva l lo iso- Mouster ian ) wh ich C ope land t en ta t ive ly d a ted t o a bou t 7 5 ,000-65 ,000 BP ( Cope land 1 975 :329 ) . F ro m t he c en tra l N egev i n P a lest ine , Marks r epor ted t hree C 14 d a tes f or t he e ar ly L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian a t s i te Rosh E in Mor . >50 ,000 BP ( P ta-546 ;

Marks 1 975a :361)

>44 ,000 BP ( P ta-543 ;

i b id )

>37 ,000 BP ( TX-1119 ;

These a re :

i b id )

I th as b een s uggested t ha t t hese d a tes a re min i ma l f or t he e ar ly Mouster ian a t Rosh E in Mor a nd t ha t t he o vera l l e v idence i nd ica tes a d a te a round 6 0 ,000 BP ( i b id :360 , C rew 1 976 :77) .

S im i lar o lder d a tes were o b ta ined f ro m t he

u pper a nd t op o f l ayer D a t S han idar C ave , I raq . 5 0 ,300 + 3 000 ( GRO-1495 ; 4 6 ,000

75 00

( GRO-2527 ;

S o leck i 1 971 :180 ) i b id )

3 9

They a re :

S o leck i a rgued t ha t t he p os it ion o f t hese d a tes i n t he c ave s tra t igraphy wou ld s uggest a d a te b etween 8 0 ,000 a nd 6 0 ,000 BP f or t he L eva l lo isoMouster ian a t S han idar ( i b id :182) . C 14 d a tes f or t he L evant ine Mouster ian t o t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic i n terf ace c o me f ro m S yr ia , L ebanon a nd t he C en tra l N egev .

Da tes f ro m S yr ia

a nd L ebanon a re : 4 4 ,000 BP + 1 200 ( GRO 2 574/5 , Garrod 1 962:244) 4 3 ,000 + 2 00-0 ( NZ-76 ;

K sar Ak i l l

i b id ) J erf A jela L eve l 1

4 3 ,000 ± 1 500 ( GRN-2579 ;

O ak ley 1 964 :166 )

K sar Ak i l l .

F ro m t hese d a tes a nd o thers C ope land e s t i ma ted a d a te f or t he e nd o f L eva l lo iso- Mous ter ian i n t he L evan t a round 4 2,000 BP ( Cope land 1 975 :336 ) . T he U pper P a laeo l i th ic i n terface i n t he c en tra l N egev i s d a ted b y t hree C 14 d a tes o b ta ined f or a t ransi t iona l i ndustry a t s i te B oker Tach t i t . >33 ,050 B .C. ( Gx-3642 ; >43 ,540 B .C. ( S MU-184 ;

They a re :

Marks 1 977 :9 ) i b id )

4 2,980 B .C. + 2,420 ( S MU-259 ;

i b id )

Marks , h owever , a rgued t ha t t he l owest o f t he l eve ls c on ta in ing t he t ransi t iona l i ndustry d a tes t o c . 4 5 ,000 BP ( i b id :10) . I ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t mos t o f t hese s e lected d a tes f ro m t he Near Eas t a re b eyond t he r ange o ft he C 14 method a nd t hey a re c i ted h ere s i mp ly t o s uggest t ha t t he L eva l lo iso- Mous ter ian a nd t he t ransi t ion t o t he Upper Pa laeol i th ic c an b e o lder t han i th as b een b el ieved t o b e .

More s ign if ican t a re t he

e ar ly d a tes f or t he a ppearance o f t he b lade t echno logy i n t he L evan t a nd N or th A fr ica wh ich d a ted t o >4 0 ,000 BP . d if feren t .

However , t he s i tua t ion i n Nub ia was

Though i tw i l l b e s uggested h ere t ha t t he Nub ian Mouster ian c ou ld

b e c on te mporary t o s im i lar i ndustr ies i n t he n e ighbour ing r eg ions , t he t ransi t ion t o t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic was o f ad ifferen t k ind a nd h as t aken p lace a t a much l a ter d a te ( Th is c hap ter ) . T he e v idence f ro m S ou thern A fr ica i s a lso s uggest ive .

B eau mon t a nd

Vögel i n t heir r ev ised c hrono logy o ft he M idd le S tone Age i n S ou thern A fr ica a rgued t ha t i t s f ina l s tage a n teda tes 4 0 ,000 B .C . a nd t ha t i t s b eg inn ing f a l ls e n t ire ly o u tside t he r ange o f C 14.

C onsider ing t he s tra t igraph ica l a nd f auna l

e vidence t hey e st i ma ted a d a te a round 1 00 ,000 B .C. ( Beau mon t a nd Vöge l 1 972 :160) .

Most i n teres t ing a re t he n ew d iscover ies o f M idd le S tone Age

s i tes i n C en tra l E th iop ia c lassi f ied b y Wendorf e t a l . a s " S t i l lbay o r a s g enera l ly s im i lar t o t yp ica l Mous ter ian o f L eva l lo is f acies" ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 975 :740) . l ayers ;

T here a re a n u mber o ft her mo lu m in iscence d a tes f or t he c u l tura l

t he most r e l iab le o ne i s 9 7 ,000 + 8 ,500 BP ( P t-303C ;

S ch i ld 1 974 :55) .

Wendorf a nd

Two o ther e x tre mely impor tan t K-Ar d a tes f or t he s a me

l ayers a re : 0 .181 + 0 .006 my ( UAKA-73-131 ;

i b id )

0 .149 + 0 .013 my ( UAKA-73-132 ;

i b id )

Wha t t h is means f or d a t ing t he Nub ian Mouster ian m igh t a ppear u nconv inc ing b u t i n my o p in ion a l l o f t he o lder d a tes f ro m a d jacen t a reas imp ly a n e ar ly d a te f or t he b eg inn ing o f t he Nub ian Mous ter ian t han h as b een s uggested

4 0

b y Wendorf a nd Marks ( 1 968) .

Bu t t he f act r e ma ins t ha t s uch a d a te c anno t

b e c onf iden t ly d ecided . The K hor musan I ndustry Da t ing o f t he f ive Khor musan s i tes r epor ted b y Marks was o r ig ina l ly b ased o n t wo C 14 d a tes , s tra t igraph ica l p osi t ion o f t he s i tes i n t he N i le s equence a nd t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l s er ia t ion o f t he a r tefacts ( Marks 1 968b : 3 17 ) .

D iscussion w i l l b e l im i ted h ere t o t he s tra t igraphy a nd t he C 14 d a tes

b ecause much w i l l b e s a id o n t he a rchaeo logy i n t he f o l low ing c hap ters . Marks ' o rder ing o f t he s i tes i s a s f o l lows : S i te

C 14 Da te

3 4A

N o d a te

1 017

1 8,950 B .C. + 2 80 ( WSU-203 , i b id ; H e inzel in a s-2 0 ,750 BC + 2 80 ;

3 18 ;

r epor ted b y d e

1 968 :24 )

3 4D

N o d a te

AN W3

1 5 ,950 B .C. + 5 00 ( WSU-215 o p . c i t .:318)

2 004

N o d a te

Accord ing t o h im t hese s i tes f a l l s tra t igraph ica l ly u nder a nd t hroughou t D ibeira-Jer , i n t he B a l lana a nd p ossib ly t he b ase o f S ahaba s i l ts a s d ef ined b y d e Heinze l in ( Chap ter I ) .

T hus t he Khor musan was c onsidered t o s pan

b etween a bou t 2 5,000 t o 1 5 ,000 B .C. ( Marks 1 968b :329 ) .

The s uccess ion a t

s i te 3 4A a nd 3 4D i s w el l e s tab l ished a s s hown i n F igure 3 .1 ( de H e inze l in 1 968 A t las F ig . 5 3-56 , i b id :318) .

The a sse mb lage f ro m 3 4A was f ound o n t he

d ef la ted s urface a nd i n al ayer o f s and d unes c overed b y s i l ts a ssigned t o D ibeira F or ma t ion ( i b id :318) .

As s hown i n F ig . 3 .1 s i te 3 4D i s s tra t igraph ica l ly

a bove 3 4A a nd t ha t t he s i l ts c over ing 3 4D were a t tr ibu ted t o t he l ast s tage o f D iber ia J er F or ma t ion .

Th is a rrange men t wou ld s epara te t he t wo a sse m-

b lages b y most o f t he D ibeira d ura t ion . f or 3 4D ( S MU-106 ;

An ew C 14 d a te o f more t han 4 1 ,490

Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :239 ) imp l ies a d a te b eyond t he

r ange o f C 14 f or t he u nder ly ing a sse mb lage o f s i te 3 4A .

Wh i le t he s uccession

a t t h is l oca l i ty i s c lear , t he p osi t ion o f t he o ther s i tes i s n o t c o mp lete ly c er ta in .

F or i nstance t he p os i t ion a nd d a t ing o f t he t ype l oca l i ty 1 017 h as b een

r ev ised a nd i ts ee ms n ow t he o lder D ibeira J er F or ma t ion migh t h ave i ncluded s i l ts o f af or mer N i le a ggrada t ion .

Th is i s more i nd ica ted b y t he r ev ised

C 14 d a te o f 3 3 ,800 + 3 350 f ro m s i te 1 017 ( Chap ter I ) . S i te AN W3 d escr ibed b y Marks a s l a te Khor musan was f ound i n as andy l ayer ( Ba l lana s ands ) b anked a ga inst a r e mnan t o f o ld N i le s i l ts wh ich a re a ssu med t o b e D iber ia s i l ts.

The i n terpreta t ion o f t he AN W3 p rof i le s ee ms

t o b e c on trad ic tory a s s hown b y d e He inze l in , p erhaps b ecause t he s ect ion was r edrawn a t Da l las s o me t i me af ter b e ing o bserved ( de H einzel in 1 968 A t las f ig . 3 2) .

T he C 14 d a te o f 1 5 ,850 B .C. + 5 00 ( WSU-215) f or t he c u l tura l l ayer

i s n ow c ons idered t oo y oung i n v iew o f t he r ev ised N i lo t ic s trat igraphy ( i b id : 2 30 ) . S i te 2 004 ,the l a test o f t he Khor musan i n Marks c hrono logy was l oca ted a t G e ma i v i l lage s ou th o f t he S econd C a taract a nd a r tefacts were l a id d own o n t op o f as andy l ayer c overed b y al ayer o f s i l ts a t tr ibu ted t o t he S ahaba F or ma t ion ( Marks 1 968b :321 , d e He inze l in A t las F ig . 2 1) .

4 1

S ince t he s i te i s

S ites

1 48 —

S ands A

0 .0

0

0

A

A

0

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A .

0 0 0 ' 0 .

Asse mb lage

34D

A

Asse mb lage

34 A

oo os

S ter i le Sand D unes

0

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1 47

F ig . 3 1:

P rof i le o f s i te 3 4 A/D ( Af ter d e He inze l in 1 968 A t las F ig .55 )

Surface

s ands

V ert iso l C lay

i n s i lts

Hor izon

Sands

F ig . 3 -2:

U pper Cu ltura l

Layer

Lo wer Cu ltura l

Layer

P ro f i le o f s i te

6G30 ( A fter I rw in e t a l . 1 968 • F ig .4)

4 2

s i tua ted away f ro m t he ma in g roup o f s i tes i ti s d i f f icu l t t o a ccep t s uch a l a te d ate i n t he a bsence o f C 14 r eadings. Da t ing o f t he t wo s i tes d escr ibed b y I rw in e t a l . a s " Buhen C o mp lex" w ere a lso b ased o n s tra t igraphy a nd o ne C 14 d a te. A t s i te 6G30 t he s uccession b eg ins w ith a l ayer o f 1 0-30 cm o f s ands a nd g rave ls o ver ly ing t he b asa l b edr ock .

Af ew r o l led f l akes w ere f ound w i th in t h is g rave l l ayer .

O ver ly ing i t

i s au n i t o f s ands ( 3 0 t o 4 0 cm ) c on ta in ing t he l ower c u l tura l l ayer . Ah orizon o f d eveloped p a leoso l c overed t h is c u l tura l l ayer f o l lowed b y al ayer o f s i l ts ( 1 00 cm ) a t t he b ase o f wh ich t he u pper c u l tura l l ayer was f ound . T h is i s c overed b y al ayer o f 1 0-15 cmof s i l ts a nd w ea thered v er t iso l ( i b id :5-9 , F ig . 3 .2) .

Ar ad io-carbon d a te o f more t han 3 6 ,000 ( GXO-409 ;

i b id :6 , 1 10) was

o b ta ined o n c harcoa l f or t he u pper c u l tura l l ayer . Three a reas ( A , B , C ) were e xcava ted a t s i te 6G27 a nd a t yp ica l s uccession a t a rea A i s a s f o l lows : O ver ly ing t he b edrock i s al ayer o f wh i te s ands ( 1 0-100 cm ) a t t he t op o f w h ich b eg ins a l ayer o f c oarse g ravels a nd s ands ( 8 cm ) a nd c on ta in ing t he c u l tura l ma ter ia l . T h is i s c overed b y a n u nstra t if ied l ayer o f s i l ts ( i b id :11 F ig . 8 ) . T here i s n o C 14 d a te f or t h is s i te a nd t he e xcava tors s uspec t t he p osi t ion o f t he s i te i n r e la t ion t o 6G30 b u t t hey c onc luded t ha t i tc ou ld b e much y ounger ( i b id :112) . The o vera l l e v idence , i ts ee ms , s uggests t ha t a l l o ft he Khormusan s i tes c an b e t aken b ack t o more t han 3 0 ,000 B .C. o n t he b as is o f t he r ev ised N i le s tra t igraphy ( Chap ter I ) a nd t he t hree o lder C 14 d a tes j ust men t ioned . The f our th d a te o f 1 5 ,850 + 5 00 f ro m s i te AN W3 c an b e r e jected i n v iew o f t he a bove a nd t he f act t ha tt he s tra t igraph ica l p os it ion o f t he s i te i s d ispu tab le . A ddi t iona l s uppor t f or t h is p o in t c o mes f ro m t he s ta t ist ica l a na lysis o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta ( s ee C hap ter V I ) .

V iew ing t he K hor musan s i tes i n ad i f-

f eren t p erspec t ive ( Chap ter I V , )i ti s n o t u nreasonab le t o a rgue f or a t e mpora l p rop inqu i ty b etween t he m a nd t he N ub ian Mouster ian .

I t wou ld s ee m , t here-

f ore , t ha t t he Khor musan c ou ld n o t h ave l asted l a ter t han c . 2 5,000 B .C. T he Ha l fan I ndustry There a re o n ly f our C 14 d a tes f or t he t en Ha l fan s i tes ( Chap ter I )a nd t herefore d a t ing was b ased ma in ly o n t he s tra t igraphy a nd t he t ypo log ica l a na lysis.

F o l low ing d e He inze l in i ti s b e l ieved t ha t t he Ha l fan o ccupa t ion

t ook p lace d uring t he l ast e rosiona l s tage o f D ibe ira-Jer F or ma t ion , t hrougho u t t he Ba l lana a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he S ahaba F or ma t ion . F our o f t he s ix s i tes d escr ibed b y Marks ( 1 020 , 1 018, 4 43 , 2 014 ) w ere l oca ted i n ab ranch o f t he Khor musa a nd c an b e p laced i n t he l oca l s tra t igraphy b u t a s w i l l b e s een t here i s d isagree men t o n t heir c hrono log ica l o rder . S i te 1 020 , t he e ar l iest a ccord ing t o Marks l i es o n a nd i n av er t iso l c overed b y al ayer o f s and d unes ( 5 -10 cm ) . T h is v er t iso l i s b e l ieved t o h ave b een f or med b y s easona l f lood ing o f t he wad i s oon a f ter t he e rosion o f t he D iber ia-Jer s i l ts . U nder ly ing i ti s a no ther l ayer o f s ands . Most o f t he a r tefacts c o me f ro m t he v er t iso l d own t o ad ep th o f 7 5 cm ( d e H e inzel in 1 968, A t las F ig . 1 3) . The s a me v er t iso l i s o bserved a t s i tes 4 43 , 1 018, n earby wh ich a re s epara ted b y an arrow wad i ( A t las F ig . 1 3 , Marks 1 968c :413) . f our l oca l i t ies.

F igure 3 .3 s hows t he s tra t igraphy a t t he

L oca l i ty 1 018 i s s i tua ted o n as and l ayer o n t op o f ah ard

4 3

1 47

D IBE IRA-JER 443 4 . :

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TO 1 53 m .

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1 43

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4 4

4 )

c rus t t hough t t o b e e qu iva len t t o t he f i na l v er t iso l f or ma t ion a nd t hus 1 018 i s c onsidered s l igh t ly y ounger t han 1 020 ( i b id :398) .

Wh i le s o me o ft he a r tefacts

f ro m s i te 1 018 were i nc luded i n t h is c rust , n one o f t hose a t 4 43 were f ound i n i ti nd ica t ing t ha t s i te 4 43 i s s l igh t ly y ounger t han s i te 1 018 b u t " there was p robab ly n o r ea l g ap b e tween b o th o ccupa t ions" ( d e H einze l in 1 968 :22, A t las F ig . 1 2) . AC 14 d a te o f 1 4 , 5 50 B .C. + 5 00 ( WSU-201) was o b ta ined o n c harcoa l f ro m t he c u l tura l l ayer a t s i te 4 43. T h is d a te i s c onsidered t o b e m ini ma l a nd t oo y oung f or t he a sse mb lage ( op . c i t .:400) . T h is s hor t i n terva l s epara t ing s i tes 1 018 a nd 4 43 , i nd ica ted b y t he g eo morph ic e v idence c asts s o me d oub t o n t he i ndustr ia l d evelop men t s uggested b y Marks f or t he Ha lfan . S i te 1 018 r epresen ts S tage I wh i le s i te 4 43 r epresen ts S tage I V i n h is s equence ( Chap ters V , V I ) . S i te 2 014 d id n o t r eceive p roper t rea t men t i n t he f i e ld a nd d e ta i led s tra t igraphy i s n o t p rov ided .

I ti s d escribed a s b eing s i tua ted o n t he e roded

v er t iso l o bserved a t t he o ther s i tes .

A C 14 r ead ing o n c harcoa l f ro m w i th in

t he l i v ing f l oor g ave a d a te o f 1 7 ,200 B .C . +3 75 ( WSU-332 ; i b id :446 ) . T hough a l l o f t he f our s i tes a ppear t o p ost d a te t he D iber ia-Jer F or ma t ion a s d ef ined b y d e Heinzel in , i ti s h ard t o e stab l ish t heir e xact s tra t igraph ica l o rder . F or Marks t he s equence o ft hese s i tes wou ld b e 1 020 , 1 018, 4 43 , 2 014 a s i nd ica ted b yh is t ypo log ica l s er ia t ion o f t he a r tefacts . O n t he o ther h and d e He inzelin p laces s i te 2 014 a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he s equence a nd a rgued t ha t s i tes 1 020 , 1 018 a nd 4 43 a re v ery n ear i n t ime ( d e H e inzel in 1 968:22) . I ti s p ossib le t ha t t he s l igh t s tra t igraph ica l d i fferen t ia t ion i s c aused b y t he r ising wa ters o f t he N i le a s s hown i n t he f or ma t ion o ft he v er t iso l .

E ven i f

t h is e f fect i s e l im ina ted i ti s n o t c lear wha t t he s tra t igraph ica l d if ference means i n t er ms o f y ears. The s uccession a t s i tes 6 24 a nd 1 028 i s o f l i t t le v a lue w i th r egard t o t he r ela t ive d a t ing o ft he Ha l fan i ndustry .

S i te 1 028 i s l oca ted 2 00 me tres e ast

o f Nag E lIkh t iayr ia a nd a r tefac ts were f ound o n t he s urface a nd w ith in h ear th mounds t ha t c anno t b e p laced i n t he s equence .

Typo log ica l a na lysis s hows

t ha t t he s urface ma ter ia l i s c o mposed o f mix ture o f d er ived a r tefacts p ossib ly f ro m a n earby Khor musan s i te ( op . c i t . 4 50) .

S i te 6 24 i s c o mp letely d ef la ted

a nd t hus g ives n o c lues f or d a t ing t he Ha l fan . The ' Ha ifa C o mp lex ' d escr ibed b y I rw in i s i n t he f o l low ing o rder f ro m o ld t o y oung : 6B32, 6G35 , 6B28 , a nd 6G29 . An i den t ica l s uccess ion i s o bserved a t 6 B32, 6G35 a nd 6G 29 i n wh ich t he i n s i tu ma ter ia l was f ound i n l ayers o f s andy s i l ts d eposi ted b y N i le wa ters s ubsequen t t o t he e ar l ier o ne r ecorded a t Khor musan s i te 6G30 ( I rw in e t a l . 1 968 :16 , F ig . 1 1 , 1 09 ) .

S ince

t he g eo logy o f t hese s i tes was u nder taken i ndependen t ly f ro m t ha t o f d e H einzel in i ti s d iff icu l t t o work o u t d eta i led c orrespondence b etween t he t wo . A C 14 d a te o n C harcoa l f ro m s i te 6B32 g ave a d a te o f 2 3 ,750 + 2 500-3700 B .C. ( GXO-410 ; ( GX0-576 ;

i b id :110 ) .

A s econd d a te o f 1 3 ,020 B .C. + 1 ,420-1730

i b id :110) was o b ta ined f or s i te 6G29.

The a sse mb lage f ro m s i te

6B28 was f ound i n al ayer o f r edd ish s ands u nder la id b y a no ther o f wh i te s ands b el ieved t o b e c o mparab le t o t he o ne o bserved a t t he Khor musan s i te 6B27 a nd t hus 6B28 i s t aken t o r epresen t t he m idd le o ft he Ha ifa C o mp lex ( i b id :113 ) . I rw in e t a l . s uggested t ha t t he Ha i fa C o mp lex c ou ld d a te t o 1 6 ,000-13 ,000 B .C. Th is wou ld s uggest t hat t he d a te f ro m 6B32 was t oo e ar ly f or t h is i ndust ry b u t t h is may n o t b e t rue i n t he l i gh t o f t he p resen t e v idence ( i b id :109 ) . 4 5

S im i lar Ha l fan s i tes were a lso r epor ted f ro m Egyp t ian Nub ia a nd U pper Egyp t a nd t he f o l low ing C 14 d a tes were o b ta ined : 1 6 ,650 B .C. + 5 50 ( WSU-318, Wendorf 1 968c :797) s i te 8 859 Ba l lana 1 5,000 B .C. + 3 50 ( 1-3248 Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975:134) 1 5 ,300 B . C. ±300 ( 1-3249 ;

i b id )

1 5 ,650 B .C . +3 00 ( 1-3418 ;

i b id )

1 5 ,650 B .C . +3 00 ( 1-3419 ;

i b id )

1 5 ,850 B .C. + 3 30 ( 1-3417 ;

i b id )

T he l ast f ive d a tes c o me f ro m s i te E 71P1 , Upper Egyp t where a Ha l fan f acies was f ound i n d eposi ts a t tr ibu ted t o t he Ba l lana- Mas mas a ggrada t ion a s r ecen t ly d ef ined b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld .

Wh i le t he Nub ian d a tes s ugges t

o lder a ge f or t he Ha lfan i ndus try t hose f ro m U pper Egyp t c lus ter b e tween 1 5 ,850 +3 30 a nd 1 5 ,000 + 3 50.

T h is l ed Marks t o s ugges t t ha t t he N ub ian Ha l fan

a ppeared f irs t a nd s panned t he p er iod b e tween 2 0 ,000 a nd 1 5 ,000 B .C . ( Marks 1 968c & 1 975b :442) .

I ti s t rue t ha t t he e ar l iest d a te f or t he Ha l fan , s o f ar ,

c o mes f ro m N ub ia b u t we c annot b e s ure t ha t i td a tes t he e ar l iest Ha lfan a long t he e n t ire N i le Va l ley .

I n v iew o ft he c onfused Ha lfan s tra t igraphy a nd t he

p auc i ty o f C 14 d a tes t he q uest ion o f t he e ar l iest Ha l fan o r b lade let t echno logy must b e h e ld i n a beyance u n t i l f or i nstance t he p or t ion o ft he v a l ley i n M idd le Egyp t i s f u l ly s urveyed .

Moreover t he n ew C 14 d a tes f ro m T a mar H a t i n

Eastern A lger ia i nd ica te t ha t b acked a nd Ouch ta ta b lade let t echno logy o f t he Nor th A fr ican I bero- maurus ian a ppeared a t a much e ar l ier d a te t han i t was k nown t o b e .

The o ldes t o f t hese C 14 d a tes i s 2 0 ,600 + 5 00 BP ( Saxon 1 974 :

5 0) . A s u m mary o ft he c hrono log ica l o rder o ft he t hree i ndus tr ia l c o mp lexes i s s hown i n t he i dea l ized d iagra m ( F igure 3 .4) . D esp i te many u ncer ta in t ies i n t he s equence t he p osi t ion t aken h ere i s t ha t t he Khor musan c an b e a pprec iab ly o lder t han i s s uggested b y Marks.

I tf o l lows t ha t t h is i ndustry f a l ls i n t he

M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic p er iod wh ich i s t en ta t ively e st i ma ted t o s pan t he p er iod b etween c . 6 0 ,000 t o c . 2 5 ,000 B .C. I n t he a bsence o f a bso lu te d a tes a nd more t horough i nvest iga t ions a long t he N i le Va l ley t he f irst a ppearance o f t he b lade let t echno logy ( Ha lfan ) c anno t b e c on f iden t ly d ecided b u t t he a va i lab le i n for ma t ion , h owever , makes i tu n l ike ly t ha t t here was a g ap i n t he r ecord . P a laeoc l i ma t ic C ond i t ions I n c onsider ing t he L a te P le istocene e nv iron men ts i n N ub ia i t may n o t b e o u t o f p lace t o d escr ibe v ery b r ief ly t he p resen t c ond i t ions.

The who le o f

Nor thern S udan , o f wh ich Nub ia i s t he n or thern l im i t , i s d escr ibed i n g eog raph ica l maps a s d eser t .

T oday t he r eg ion f ro m Wad i Ha ifa t o Dongo la

r ece ive v ir tua l ly n o r a in fa l l a s i tl i es o u tside t he t wo ma in p recip i ta t ion z ones ; t he Med i terranean c oast a nd t he S ou thern S udan .

T he mean a nnua l r a in fa l l

r eg is tered a t Wad i Ha ifa f or t he y ears 1 902 t o 1 940 i s 0 .1 m m a nd mean t e mpera ture t o 2 5.7 ° C ( I r land 1 948) .

S ou th o f Dongo la r a infa l l i ncreases

g radua l ly t o r each a bou t 1 2.5 m m i n Khar tou m .

The p resen t p ic ture , t here-

f ore , i s t ha t o f ar iver n ego t ia t ing i t s way t hrough n u merous c a taracts a nd b ounded b y t wo g rea t d eser ts ;

v egeta t ion c an o n ly b e s een a long t he b anks

o f t he r iver where sma l l p a tches o f l ands a re i rr iga ted t o g row Da te a nd Do m 4 6

B .C . X 1000

1 5 Other 20 -

25

Nub ian I ndustr ies

-

30

F ig . 3 .A :

Corre lat ion

d iagra m o f t he

i ndustr ies

4 7

p a l ms t ogether w i th c rops l i ke b ar ley , whea t a nd v ar ious v egetab les.

A long

t he f l ood p la in t here a re a lso a bou t h a l f ad ozen s pecies o f a cacia t ree ( Adams 1 977 :38) .

Al i t t le i n land r are f avourab le c ond i t ions s uppor t t he g row th o f

g rass , s hrubs a nd a cacia t rees b u t t he d om inan t s cene i s t ha t o f s ands a nd i nse lbergs . F auna i s a lso r estr icted t o af ew c a t t le , s heep a nd g oa ts k ep t b y f ar mers a nd w i ld s pec ies a re r epresen ted b y g aze l les , r abb i ts , f oxes a nd J acka ls. I ti s d iff icu l t t o c o m men t o n t he c l i ma t ic a nd e nv iron men ta l c ond i t ions d ur ing t he L a te P leistocene i n N ub ia . .

Y e t , d esp i te t he i nco mp lete e v idence

a n a t te mp t may b e made t o p iece t ogether t he a va i lab le i nforma t ion . C l i ma t ic C ond i t ions d ur ing t he Mouster ian P er iod T he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he Mous ter ian s i tes f ar i n land a nd t he l im i ted g eomorpho log ica l e vidence p er m i ts o n ly g enera l i n ferences .

O n t he o ther h and ,

i ti s a lso d i f f icu l t t o s ay w i th c on f idence whether o r n o t ap ar t icu lar g eo morphol og ica l c hange r ead i ly a f fects t he e cono m ic p o ten t ia l o f ag iven r eg ion . Y et e nv iron men ta l c hanges d id t ake p lace d ur ing i n terva ls o f t he p er iod i n q uest ion ( c . 6 0 ,000-15,000 B .C.) a s r ef lected f or i nstance i nt he c hang ing p a t terns o f t he N i le r ecord . T hese c hanges a re e xpected t o a f fec t h u man s e t t le men t t hough o ne must n o t e xaggera te t he ir r o le i n t he c u l tura l c hange . V ery b r ief ly , h owever , c l i ma t ic c hanges i n A fr ica d ur ing t he P le istocene h ave b een v iewed i n t er ms o f p er iods o f i ncreased r a infa l ls s epara ted b y a r id i n terva ls , t he e v idence f or wh ich was o bserved i n l ake l evels . Nu merous a t te mp ts were made t o c orrela te t hese c l i ma t ic c hanges w i th t he European g lac ia l s equence —a l l c en tred a round t he w ide ly c anvassed mode l o f s ynchrone i ty b etween A fr ican p luv ia ls a nd European g lac ia l max ima ( Oak ley 1 964 :81 , A l i men 1 957 :87 ) . S uch a s ynchrone i ty was a ssu med t o b e u n iform f or t he who le c on t inen t : t oday b asic r eg iona l d a ta s uggest o therw ise ( Monod 1 964 :124 ) . C on troversy o ver t he s ub jec t i s r ef lected i n t he n u merous s che mes s uggested b y v ar ious s cho lars r ang ing f ro m o ne t o a t l east 2 0 p luv ia ls ( i b id :129 ) . I n N ub ia a nd U pper Egypt S andford a nd Arke l l h ave a rgued f or o ne ma jor p luv ia l a nd a r id c ond it ions b egan s tead i ly b y t he c lose o f A cheu l ian . T he 3 0F a nd 1 OF t errace wh ich i s a ssu med t o i nclude t he Mouster ian i nd ica te s uf f icien t wa ter s upp ly , b u t b y t he ' s i l t p hase ' r a infa l l f a i led i n N ub ia a nd t he c l i ma te b eca me s em i-deser t ( Sandford a nd Arkel l 1 933 :86) . T h is s che me a pparen t ly c on trad icts t ha t o bserved a t n arga b y C a ton-Tho mpson where a n a r id p hase s epara tes t wo ma jor p luvia ls a nd p recedes t he a rr iva l o f t he U pper Acheu l ian ( Ca ton-Tho mpson 1 952:14-21) . I n S udanese N ub ia t here i s l i t t le e v idence f or t h is p luv ia l .

T he r edd ish

p a leoso ls where t he L ower a nd M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic s i tes w ere l oca ted a re i nd ica t ive o f a Med i terranean h um id c l i ma te b u t t he a c tua l mechan is m o f t heir d evelop men t i s u nknown . T he p resence o f l and s na i ls i n t he p ed iment d eposi ts a lso i nd ica tes s uch a c l i ma te ( de Heinze lin 1 968 :48 , Mar t in 1 968) . The s a me v iew o f f avourab le c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions i s ofered b y B u tzer a nd Hansen who a rgued f or a p luvia l c l i ma te i n t he e astern a nd western d eser ts d ur ing most o f t he P leistocene i nd ica ted b y g rave ls a nd s ands o f l oca l o r ig in c arried d own t o t he N i le b anks b y n u merous wad is ( 1 968 :48, 8 0) . D eposi ts o f s uch c o mpeten t wad is a re c on t inued i n t he 'Wad i C ong lo mera te ' a nd i nt he d eposi ts o f t he 4 8

K orosko F or ma t ion ( i b id :331 ;

C hap ter 2 ) .

Deposi ts o f Q ena F or ma t ion a nd

t he s ucceed ing ' S lope Wash ' wh ich c on ta ined d er ived M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac ts i nd ica te a s ubstant ia l r a in fa l l i n U pper Egyp t a round 6 0 ,000 B .C . ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b :230 ) .

T he a ssu mp t ion o f a we t c l i ma te d ur ing t he Mouster ian

o ccupa t ion i s r e inforced b y t he w ide d istr ibu t ion o f t hese s i tes i n t he a d jacen t d eser ts . O asis .

I n t he western d eser t s i tes e x tend f ro m J ebe l Uwe ina t t o Kharga S peci f ic c l i ma t ic d a ta h as b een o b ta ined f ro m Dungu l a nd Kurkur

O asis where t he Mouster ian s i tes were f ound i n s i tu n ear sma l l p onds a nd s pr ings.

Two p er iods o f p onds f or ma t ion s epara ted b y ad ry e rosiona l e p isode

were o bserved ( Hester a nd Hob ler 1 969 :31 , 1 59 ) .

S ign if ican t d a ta i s a lso

r epor ted b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld f ro m t he B ir S ahara-Tarfaw i a rea a nd t he Dakh la Oasis i n t he Egyp t ian S ahara .

Mouster ian s i tes were f ound a ssocia ted

w i th l acustr ine d epos i ts o f a ncien t l akes a nd p onds.

T he c o mb ined e v idence

f ro m t he ' Ab iar ' a rea d e monstra tes a t l east t hree w e t p hases s epara ted b y p er iods o f e rosion a nd d ef la t ion . T he f i rst wet p hase i s a ssocia ted w i th t he f ina l A cheu l ian t here a nd t he o ther t wo w i th t he Mous ter ian o ccupa t ions wh ich a re b e l ieved t o d a te > 4 4 ,000 a nd c onsequen t ly c orre la ted b y t he a u thors t o t he Ear ly European Wt Ir m ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 976 :106 , S ch i ld a nd Wendorf 1 977 : 1 55) . The f auna l a sse mb lage c on ta ins Wh i te Rh inoceros , e x t inc t c ame l , a ss , b u f fa lo ( Ho mo ioceros ) , a ntelope , a nd t he war thog t ogether w i th a l arge mo l luscan f auna ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 977 :218) .

T he mega fauna , h owever , s uggest

t he p resence o f g raz ing s avannah l andscape a round t hese l akes a nd p onds wh ich imp l ies i n terva ls o f i ncreased l oca l r a in fa l l .

T he f or ma t ion o ft he l akes

i s a ccoun ted f or b y b o th l oca l a nd r eg iona l r un-o ff ( i b id :221) .

I ti s wor th

s tress ing t ha t i n t he ' Ab iar ' a rea a l ong p er iod o f a r idi ty f o l lowed t he A ter ian o ccupa t ion d ur ing wh ich h u man s et t le men t s ee ms t o h ave c eased u n t i l b et ter c l i ma t ic c ond it ions p reva i led b yt he t er m ina l P a laeo l i th ic .

I tf o l lows , a ccording

t o t h is s equence , t ha t t h is h yperar id p er iod c orresponds t o t he European ma in Wt ir m .

Th is a pparen t ly c on trad ic ts a ny c orrela t ion o f p luvia l a nd g lac ia l

p heno mena ( i b id :232) . I t wou ld s ee m t hen t he e v idence o f c l i ma t ic ame l iora t ion i n t he a d jacen t d eser ts d ur ing t he Mouster ian o ccupa t ion , s uggests s im i lar c ond i t ions i n t he p ed ip la ins a nd t he h i l ls b ound ing t he r iver i n S udanese Nub ia . c ond i t ions c anno t b e r econs truc ted .

De ta i ls o f t hese

A s s ugges ted i n t he p rev ious c hap ter

t ha t t he Nub ian Mouster ian s i tes were o ccup ied when t he N i le h ad a lready e stab l ished a s im i lar c ourse t o t he p resen t o ne a nd h ence i t s r ecord t ogether w i th t he a bove e vidence c an b e p er t inen t t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s e t t le men t p a t terns . C l i ma t ic I mp l ica t ions o f t he N i lo t ic Even ts T he mean ing o f f l uctua t ions i n t he N i le wa ter l eve ls d ur ing t he l a te P leistocene i s a n o ngo ing c on troversy .

S ign if ican t q uest ions a re c oncerned

w ith t he mechan is m o fb u i ld ing u p t he t erraces a nd wha t t he f l oods mean i n t er ms o f A frican c l i ma te. O r ig ina l ly F a irbr idge u sed t he e v idence f ro m N ub ia t o d iscredi t t he t heory o f A fr ican P luvia l-G lac ia l s ynochrone i ty a nd a rgued t ha t g lac ia l max i ma a re ma tched b y a r id t o s em i-ar id c ond i t ions i n t rop ica l r eg ions.

I ncreased o r r educed r a in fa l l i s d ependen t o n v ar ia t ion i n

s olar r ad ia t ion . T hus d ur ing a n I ce Age East a nd C en tra l A fr ica r eceive l i t t le r ainfa l l a nd t h is mus t b e r ef lected i n t he N i le d ischarge. H e c onsidered

4 9

t he h igh s i l ts a round Wad i Ha ifa t o b e o f l a te W t i rm a ge a nd c a l led t he m t he ' S i l ta t ion S tage ' c aused b y a min i ma l f luv ia l d ischarge .

The t heory i s s i mp ly

b ased o n t he p re m ise t ha t a n i nco mp ten t r iver w i th i t s min i mu m d ischarge , c ou ld n o t c arry i t s l oad t o t he De l ta a nd t hus d eposi ted i t s s i l ts o n t he way ( Fa irbridge 1 962 :108-110) .

Wi th t he a va i lab le C 14 d a tes a t t he t i me F a irbr idge

d a ted t he s i l ts t o 2 0 ,000-12,000 B . P. a nd p o in ted o u t t ha t d ur ing t h is p er iod s u m mer monsoona l r a ins c eased a nd t h is wen t o n t i l l t he c ond i t ions improved a round 1 0 ,000 B .P . ( Fa irbr idge 1 963 :105) .

Two p o in ts must b e s a id o n t h is

t heory . F irst t he ' S i l ta t ion S tage ' h as b een s hown t o r epresent v ar ious e ven ts o f t he N i le h istory a nd s econd , t he a ge o f t he e ar l iest s i l ts i s much o lder t han h ad b een a n t icipa ted b y F a irbr idge ( Chap ter I ) . De Heinzel in o n t he o ther h and r e jects t h is t heory a nd s uggested t ha t t he h igh wa ter l eve ls were c aused b y a n i ncrease i n r a in fa l l i n Eastern a nd C en tra l A fr ica a nd t hey c orrespond t o t he U pper P leistocene s tadia ls.

T hough l oca l

p a laeo-c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions were i ndependen t t here i s e v idence f or mo is ter c ond i t ions d ur ing t hese p eaks o f N i le h igh wa ters.

R ecessiona l p hases

c orrespond t o i n terstad ia ls a nd t he c l i ma te was s o mewha t d r ier a long t he v a l ley ( d e H e inze l in 1 968 :49-50) . Bu tzer a nd Hansen a rgued a long t he s a me l i nes a nd a t tr ibu ted N i le f l oods i n Egyp t t o s ub-Saharan p luv ia ls a nd a greed t o t he p ara l le l is m a dvoca ted b y d e He inzel in .

T hey , h owever , a rgued t ha t o n ly d ur ing t he e ar ly p ar t o f Wt ir m

( 60 ,000-25,000 BP ) was t here a g enera l c orrespondence b etween Egyp t ian l oca l p luv ia ls a nd t hose o ccurred i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica .

Dur ing t he Wt ir m

max i mu m ( 2 4 ,000-18 ,000) wad i a c t iv i ty was l im i ted a nd c ondi t ions were d ry i n Egyp t .

A f ter 1 7 ,000 B .C . wad i a c t iv i ty i s r enewed b u t t he a u thors ma in ta ined

t ha t l oca l w in ter r a ins were n o t c o mp lete ly s ynchronous w i th t he s ub-Saharan f l oods ( 1968 :150 ;

1 967 :337 ) .

Ano ther mode l i s o f fered b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld who a greed t ha t N i le f l oods were s o le ly c aused b y s ub-Saharan p luv ia l , b u t ma in ta ined a r eversed r ela tionsh ip w i th t he l oca l c l i ma te .

T he ir ma in c onclus ion i s t ha t p er iods o f

h igh f l oods a re a cco mpan ied b y d ry c ond i t ions a nd l i t t le v egeta t ion wh i le r ecessiona l p er iods a re a cco mpan ied b y g rea ter mo is ture , wad i a ct iv i ty a nd f or ma t ion o f p er manen t p onds ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 970 :1169 ;

Wendorf a nd S ch i ld

1 976b :307-9 ) . I ndependen t e v idence f or a l a te P leistocene a r id i ty was o b ta ined r ecen t ly b y Wi l l ia ms a nd Ada mson f ro m t he Wh i te N i le b etween K osti a nd E l G e teina i n C en tra l S udan .

G eo morpho log ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l d a ta w i th C 14 r eadings

s how t ha t d une f or ma t ion was a ct ive a long t he r iver b ank b etween >14 ,500 a nd 1 2,000 BP when t he r iver s ee ms t o h ave b een d epr ived o f i t s wa ters. Th is p er iod o f h igh a r id i ty c o incides w i th a d rop i n L ake V ictor ia l evel ( W i l lia ms a nd Ada mson 1 974 :584-586 ) .

Wi l l ia ms a rgu ing f ro m v ar ious l i nes

o f e vidence c onc luded t ha t t rop ica l a r id i ty was w idespread d ur ing t he L a te P le istocene .

T h is i s s hown b y as ign i f ican t d rop i n l akeleve ls i n Kenya ,

U ganda , E th iop ia a nd C had .

The n ow f ixed s and d unes i n S enega l , Ma l i ,

N iger ia a nd S udan were e x tend ing d own t o l a t i tude 1 0-12 N or th , a nd s im i lar e ven ts w ere o bserved i n S ou th America , I nd ia a nd Aus tra l ia ( W i l l ia ms 1 975 : 6 17-618) .

Da ta f ro m L ake Abhe , E th iop ia c onf ir ms t he e x istence o f ah yper-

a r id p er iod b etween 1 7000 a nd 1 2,000 BP when t he l ake was c o mp lete ly d ry ( Gasse 1 977 :42) . 5 0

Wickens , i n h is r econstruct ion o f t he c l i ma t ic c hanges i n t he S udan d ur ing t he l a te P leis tocene , d escr ibed a d ry p er iod b etween 2 0 ,000 t o 1 5 ,000 BP s uggested b y t he s pread ing o f s ands t o t he s ou th o ft heir p resen t p os i t ion ( W ickens 1 975 :54-55) . Wha t c an b e c onc luded f ro m a l l t h is c an a t b es t b e a mere i n ference . T he mean ing o f a l terna t ions i n t he N i le l eve l i s n o t c o mp le te ly e stab l ished . F or i nstance , n ot e very N i le a ggrada t ion c o incided w i th t he s a me c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions. T he a r id c l i ma te n o ted b y Wendorf t o h ave a cco mpanied N i le a ggrada t ions b etween 2 5 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000 d oes n o t s ee m t o h o ld t rue f or t he e ar l ier f l oods.

A s B u tzer s ays e ach N i lo t ic e ven t i s t he " ne t e f fect o f i nnu mer-

a b le s hort t er m a l terna t ions o f s cour a nd f i l l i n t he wake o f e ach f l ood ( 1 968 : 8 1) .

.

The o vera l l e v idence , h owever f ragmen ted , s uggests t wo ma in p o in ts : 1 .

The p eriod c . 6 0 ,000 t o c . 2 5 ,000 i s c haracter ized b y mo is t c l i ma t ic

c ondi t ions a nd e v idence f ro m t he a d jacen t d eser ts s uppor ts t h is u nques t ionab ly . T he Khor musan megafauna , a bou t t o b e d escr ibed , i nd ica ted a s avannah g rassl and b eyond t he b anks o ft he r iver .

I ts hou ld b e r eca l led t ha t N i le a ggrada t ions

d ur ing t he Mouster ian/Khor musan p er iod were n o t n ecessar i ly a cco mpan ied b y a r id c ond i t ions . 2 .

The p eriod >20 ,000 t o 1 5 ,000 i s s hown t o b e o f ar e markab le a r id i ty

a nd e vidence t o t h is e f fec t i s k nown f ro m v ar ious p ar ts o f A fr ica a nd a long t he N i le v a l ley ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968, Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976b ) . I ti s h owever , d if f icu l t t o b e s ure a bou t t he efec t o f s uch a r id i ty u pon man a nd a n i ma ls s ince many a u thor i t ies s tress t he s ign i f icance o f a sma l l i ncrease i n p rec ip i ta t ion i n a r id r eg ions l ike n or thern S udan ( W ickens 1 975 :45) .

Bu t a s w i l l b e s hown

l a ter ( Chap ter 4 ) h u man s et t le men t b egan a t t h is t ime t o b e c onf ined t o t he b anks o f t he r iver a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies. S ubsistence E cono m ies T he s ubsistence a ct iv i t ies o ft he p reh istor ic p opu la t ions d ur ing t he p er iod o f c . 6 0 ,000 t o 1 5 ,000 B .C. i n N ub ia c an a t b est b e i n ferred f ro m t he l im i ted c l i ma t ic e v idence d iscussed a bove a nd t he f ragmen ted f auna l a sse mb lages o b ta ined f ro m t he K hor musan a nd Ha l fan s i tes. T he Mouster ian s i tes d id n o t y ie ld a ny o rgan ic ma ter ia l t ha t wou ld t hrow l igh t o n t heir e cono m ic a c t iv i t ies. I tc an o n ly b e a ssu med t ha t t hey h un ted a megafauna s im i lar t o t ha t f ound i n t he Khor musan o ccupa t ions a nd t he Egyp t ian d eser t s i tes. Wha t t he s upp lemen ts o ft he ir d ie t w ere i s impossib le t o t e l l . E ven i n t he K hor musan a nd Ha lfan s i tes o ne i s l ef t w i th i nco mp le te d a ta e i ther b ecause o f d if feren t ia l p reserva t ion o r b ecause l i t t le a t ten t ion was g iven t o c o l lec t s uch d a ta d ur ing t he r escue c a mpa ign . F or i nstance I rw in e t a l . r epor ted t he p resence o f f auna l r e ma ins i n t he ir ' Buhen C o mp lex ' a nd ' Ha ifa C o mp lex ' b u t d e ta i ls o f t h is f auna a re n o t g iven . I n o ne c ase ' Bos ' i s men t ioned i n c onnec t ion w i th s i te 6G27 ( Buhen ) a nd i n s i te 6B28 ( Ha ifa ) ,

" Fauna l d ebr is was p len t ifu l .."

( 1968 :18) . T he mam ma l ian f auna r ecovered f ro m s o me o f t he K hor musan a nd Ha l fan s i tes h as b een s tud ied b y A . G au t ier a nd a s u mmary o ft h is d a ta i s s hown b e low .

5 1

B . P r im iS i te 4 40

M isc .

1 017 A .N W3

G . Ruf i-

E . a . A fr i-

f ron

c anus

4 8

2

1

7 3

8

6

g en ius

n or-

2

1 020

3

1 018

1 3 H a lfan

4 43

l aphus

H . Amph ib ius 1

1 1

5 3

musan

2 004

6 24

A . B use-

4

2 0 4 0

2

9 7

6

1 1 14

1 028

3

4 0

1

2 6

2

G au t ier d escr ibed t h is ma ter ia l a s s carce a nd f ragmen tary .

H e a lso n o ted

t he d if f icu lty o f a t tr ibu t ing e ach c o l lect inn t o i t s e xac t s tra t igraph ica l p os it ion a s h is i nfor ma t ion was ' second h and '

( Gau t ier 1 968 :80 ) .

s ee ms t o b e d om ina ted b y t hree s pec ies ;

The c o l lect ions

a urochs ( 1 3. 2 P r im igen ius ) , Har te-

b eest ( / L . . B use laphus ) a nd Gaze l le ( G . Ruf irons ) s uggest ing t ha t t hey were p robab ly t he most a bundan t a nd t he r egu lar ly h un ted a n i ma ls t hough h eavy b ones o f B os h ave a b et ter c hance o f s urv iva l .

G au t ier a rgued t ha t h e c ou ld

n o t f ind a c ausa l r e la t ionsh ip b etween a bso lu te f requenc ies o f s pec ies a t e ach s i te a nd a ny c l i ma t ic f actors ( i b id : 9 7 ) . B u t , a s t he d a ta s tands i tc an b e s een t ha t t he t hree K hor musan s i tes a re d om ina ted b y a urochs a nd N ub ian a ss wh i le t he Har tebeest i s a bsen t .

T he Ha lfan s i tes , o n t he o ther h and , a re

d om ina ted b y Har tebeest r a ther t han a urochs e xcept a t s i te 4 43.

Whe ther

t h is v ar ia t ion means a s pecia l ized h un t ing o r p urely a cc iden ta l , a s Gau t ier wou ld l ike t o b e l ieve , c anno t b e k nown f or s ure .

I ti s p erhaps wor th men t ion ing

t ha t t he t wo c u l tura l l ayers a t s i te 4 40 y ie lded e v idence o f e cono m ic s pecia li za t ion .

The l ower l ayer i s d om ina ted b y ma m ma l ian f auna l ike B os , E quus ,

G azel le a nd H ippo ta mus wh i le t he u pper l ayer i s d om ina ted b y f i sh r e ma ins ( Sh iner 1 968b :634 ) . C o mp l i men tary e cono m ic d a ta o f f i sh r e ma ins i s a lso r eported f ro m Khor musan a nd Ha lfan s i tes b y G reenwood who d escr ibed t he c o l lect ion a s f rag men tary a nd u nrepresen ta t ive .

T he s i tes t ha t y ie lded f i sh r e ma ins a re

s i tes 4 40 ( M iscel laneous) , 1 017 , AN W3 , 2 004 ( Khor musan ) , 1 020 , 1 018 , 1 028 a nd 4 43 ( Ha lfan ) .

I ti s n o t iceab le t ha t a ctua l c oun t o f f rag men ts i s o f

l i t t le h elp i n d etect ing s pec ia l e cono m ic a c t iv i t ies e xcep t p erhaps a t s i te 4 40 . G reenwood n o ted t he a bsence o f c er ta in g enera wh ich m igh t b e e xpec ted t o o ccur a nd s uggested t ha t e i ther t hese w ere n o t c augh t o r t rea ted d if feren t ly f ro m t hese d iscovered ( Greenwood 1 968 :108) .

S i te 4 40 p rov ides t he most

v aried g enera wh ich i ncludes C lar ias , B agrus , S ynodon t is , T i lap ia . , a nd L a tes wh i le s i tes 1 017 , 4 43 , 1 018, 1 020 a nd 1 028 y ielded o n ly C lar ias. G reenwood s ugges ted t ha t i fh u man s elect ion i s n o t i nvo lved t hen t he p resence

5 2

o f o ne g enus ( C lar ias ) c ou ld i nd ica te f ou l wa ter c ond it ions a s t h is f i sh i s c apab le o f l i v ing i n s ha l low swa mps a nd s t i l l wa ters ( i b id :109 ) . F ro m K orn Ombo , E gyp t , C hurchur d escr ibed a much more v ar ied a nd r ich f auna f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith L a te P le istocene a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . T h is f auna r epresen ts 4 0 t axa o f wh ich t hree were f i sh , o ne r ep t i le , 2 2 b irds a nd 1 4 ma m ma ls .

H e a rgued t ha t t h is f auna i s s tr ik ing ly s im i lar t o t he

s ynchronous o ne f ro m S udanese N ub ia a nd N or th A fr ica ( Churcher 1 972 :1 ) . T he f i sh t axa a s i n N ub ia i nd ica te a bundan t a nd p er manen t wa ter i n t he s ide c hanne ls o f t he r iver a nd s tagnan t p oo ls .

T he a v i-fauna wh ich was c onsp icu-

o us ly a bsen t i n t he Wad i Ha ifa c o l lect ion , i nc lude v ar ious b irds s uggest ive o f b o th s ha l low a nd d eep wa ters .

T he h eron , f la m ingo a nd s poonb i l l wou ld

o b ta in i t s p rey i n s ha l low wa ters wh i le t he c or moran t , p ochard , g oosander a nd smew c an sw im i n d eep wa ter t o c a tch f i sh . G eese a re a dap ted t o s horel i nes a nd s avannah g rass lands . T he ma m ma l ian f auna a s i n Wad i H a ifa i s s uggest ive o f b o th wa tered a nd d ry l and f or ms w ith t he p redo m inance o f t he l a t ter ( i b id :124-125 ) .

C hurcher c onc luded t ha t t h is d a ta i nd ica te t hree ma in

e co log ica l z ones i n K o rn Ombo ;

t he we l l wa tered a nd swa mpy r iver ' sb anks

wh ich s uppor t a qua t ic f or ms ( ca t f ish , h ippo ) , t he r iver ine f orests a nd t he h i l ly c oun try w ith i t s g rass a nd a cac ia t rees . S u m mary An a t te mp t h as b een made a bove t o r each t he f o l low ing c onc lus ions : 1 .

A r ough s equence i s e st i ma ted f or t he a rchaeo log ica l i ndustr ies i n

wh ich t he K hor musan i s s hown t o o ver lap l arge ly w i th t he N ub ian Mouster ian ( F ig . 3 .4 ). T he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t he Khor musan s urv ived l a ter t han t he Mouster ian i s i nd ica ted .

I ti s , t hus , a ssu med t ha t a d just men t t o t he N i lot ic

microenv iron men ts was e stab l ished d ur ing t he Mouster ian t imes a nd t ha t b o th i ndustr ies e xp lo ited t he s a me t err itory . m icroenv ironmen ts ;

T h is t err itory i nc ludes t hree ma in

t he s avannah g rass lands , t he f orest r eg ion a long t he

v a l ley a nd t he im med ia te v ic in ity o f t he r iver w ith i t s s wamps a nd p oo ls . The s pa t ia l d istr ibu t ion o f t hese s i tes c an b e e xa m ined a ga inst t h is s e t t ing ( Chap ter I V ) . 2 .

Da t ing o f t he H a lfan b lade let f ac ies i s e st i ma ted o n t he b as is o f s tra t i-

g raphy a nd t he a va i lab le C 14 d a tes , b u t t he q uest ion o f i t s e ar l iest a ppearance c anno t b e r eso lved a t t he mo men t .

D a tes f ro m N or th A fr ica p lace t he b lade-

l et t echno logy a t a bou t t he s a me t ime a s i n S udanese N ub ia .

The c hrono logy

o f t hese i ndustr ies , h owever , s hows t ha t t he U pper P a laeo l ith ic i n ter face i n N ub ia was o f ad if feren t k ind i fc o mpared t o n e ighbour ing a reas .

I ti s r e-

p resen ted b y a microb lade t echno logy wh ich wou ld h ave a ppeared n o t e ar l ier t han 1 7 ,000 B . C . d ur ing t ha t p er iod .

H yperar id c l i ma t ic c ond it ions were s ubstan t ia l ly d ocu men ted T h is wou ld a f fect t he i n land r eg ion i n N ub ia a nd t hus

h u man s et t le men t wou ld h ave b een c onf ined t o r eg ions n ear t he r iver .

T he

a r id c ond it ions wh ich f o l lowed t he A ter ian o ccupa t ion i n t he Egyp t ian S ahara a nd c on t inued t i l l t he t er m ina l Pa laeo l ith ic m igh t i nd ica te t ha t i ft here was a ny h u man move men t i t wou ld h ave b een a long t he N i le V a l ley .

5 3

CHAPTER I V I NTERSITE AND I NTRASITE VAR IABIL ITY

The s tudy o f i n tersi te a nd i n trasi te v ar iab i l i ty i s c en tra l t o t he a rchaeo log ica l r econstruc t ion . I ts eeks t o e xa m ine t he s pa t ia l d istr ibu t iona l p a t terns o ft he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i n r e la t ion t o t he s urrounding e nv iron ment a nd n a tura l r esources .

I n t h is c hap ter i n ters i te v ar iab i l i ty i nc ludes t he l oca t ion

o ft he s i tes i n t he Nub ian l andscape , t heir p rox im i ty t o r aw ma ter ia l , a nd t o wa ter s ources . I n trasi te v ar iab i l i ty i s f ur ther c oncerned w i th t he s ize a nd s hape o f i nd iv idua l s i tes , r aw ma ter ia l f requencies , a r tefacts c lasses a nd t he ir d istr ibu t ion w i th in t he s i te . The t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l c haracteri s t ics o f t he a sse mb lages w i l l n o t b e c onsidered a t t h is s tage a s i tf or ms t he s ub jec t o ft he f o l low ing c hap ter . T he s a mp l ing p rob le ms r eferred t o i n C hap ters Ia nd I a re p ar t icu lar ly r elevan t when d ea l ing w i th p reh istoric s e t t le men t p a t terns i n N ub ia .

T he

d i f feren t ia l p reserva t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i s t he most i nh ib i t ing f ac tor i n s uch a n a na lysis. I ti s t he l andscape o f c . 6 0 ,000 y ears a go , o f wh ich v ery l i t t le h as r e ma ined , t ha t we a re d ea l ing w i th .

C on t inuous e rosion a nd

d es icca t ion must h ave d estroyed much o f t he e v idence ; t he s i tes r epor ted a re t he l east a f fected b y t hese p rocesses ( Marks 1 968a :200) . K leind ienst h as r igh t ly s a id t ha t " probab ly t he g rea test o bstac le t o d o ing mean ingfu l p reh is tory i n Nub ia i s t he c hange wh ich must h ave t aken p lace i nt he l andscape a tv ar ious t imes" ( K leind iens t 1 967 :112) . B ias i n t he r eported s a mp le o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i thic s i tes i s s een i n t ha t t he v ast ma jor i ty a re workshop s i tes o ccurr ing o n t he t op o f i nse lbergs a s t h is c o mpares t o t he s i tua t ion o f t he Khor musan a nd Ha l fan wh ich a re a l l l i ving s i tes o ccurr ing i n ad i f feren t l andscape ( Gu ichards 1 968) . S i tes e xpected t o b e l oca ted o n t he s lopes b order ing t he a nc ien t f l ood p la in must h ave b een t he most a f fected . Those s i tes l oca ted a long t he p la in were e ndangered b y t he r epet i t ive N i le f l oods ( Chap ter I ) . Thus t he ( m in i ma l ) s a mp le o f Khor musan a nd Ha lfan s i tes must b e v iewed i n t h is c on tex t . D isturbance c aused b y t he r ising wa ters i s n o ted a t many l oca l i t ies a nd t h is makes i t d if f icu l t t o b e s ure o ft he e xact l ayou t o f t he a r tefac ts. Hu man i n terference s ince a ncien t t imes b y d igg ing f or c onstruct ing s he l ters a nd a gr icu l tura l p ract ices i s a no ther f actor .

A s n o ted i n C hap ter I , as ource o f b ias i n t he

d a ta s te ms f ro m f i eld p rocedures d uring t he N ub ian C a mpa ign .

The p r i me

o b jec t ive o n c onstruct ing a c u l ture s equence f or a h i ther to u nknown r eg ion i n as hor t p er iod o ft ime must h ave r esu l ted i n t he n eg l igence o f s o me o f t he f i eld e v idence . F or t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , f or i nstance , s i tes were s e lec ted o n t he b asis o ft he n u mber o f r etouched t oo ls. T h is was n ecess i ta ted b y t he a pp lica t ion o f t he B ordes s yste m wh ich c a l ls f or a m in i mum s amp le o f a h undred t oo ls .

T hus sma l l b u t p erhaps i mpor tan t t ransien t s i tes were 5 4

c o mp letely i gnored ( Wendorf 1 968b :16-17 , Marks 1 968a :194 a nd p ers. c o mm .) . U sua l s yste ma t ic p rocedures a pp l ied i n s ett le men t a na lysis were t hus l ack ing when t he s urvey was c onduc ted . S ince t he d a ta h ave t hese d rawbacks , i ti s h ard ly n ecessary t o s tress i t s i nadequacy f or d eta i led a na lys is.

Moreover

s pa t ia l mode ls a nd t heories b ased o n modern s oc ia l s tud ies r are ly f i t we l l e ven t he b est a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ( Clarke 1 977 :27 ) . I nh is s tudy o ft he K ung S an s et t le men t p a tters Y e l len a rgued t ha t t here i s l ike ly t o b e " a c lose c orrela t ion b etween s i te s ize — inc lud ing b o th t he e x ten t a nd d ens i ty o f d ebr is — a nd l i kel ihood o f a rchaeo log ica l d iscovery" ( 1977 :81) .

T h is means t ha t sma l ler

s i tes h ave a l esser c hance o f s urviva l a nd s ubsequent d iscovery . T h is r a ises d if f icu l t ies i n r econs truct ing d istr ibu t ion p a t terns o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes. T hus t he Nub ian d a ta i sa pproached w i th d ue c au t ion t ak ing s uch r estra in ts i n to c onsidera t ion . T he M idd le P a laeol i th ic G roup A .

I n tersi te Var iab i l i ty a .

S i te L oca t ions

Due t o t he f actors j us t men t ioned i tw i l l n ever b e p ossib le t o k now t he o r ig ina l n umber o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n N ub ia , f or a l though many were d iscovered , f ew were r epor ted . Those M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes r epor ted c o me g enera l ly f rom t he f o l low ing l oca l i t ies. 1 . O n t he o ld P enep la in b order ing t he d eser ts a nd e x tend ing t o a bou t 1 5 k i lo metres i n land f ro m t he r iver . T hese s i tes w ere n o t s tud ied d ur ing t he N ub ian s urvey d ue t o t he f ac t t ha t a rtefac ts were c o mp lete ly a braded b y w ind a nd s and ;

t hey a re ment ioned o n ly t o s how t he e x ten t o ft he P reh is tor ic

o ccupa t ion f urther i n land . 2 .

O n t op o f i nse lbergs wh ich a re u sua l ly c apped w i th f errocrete s and-

s tone wh ich p rov ides a s u i tab le r aw ma ter ia l f or a r tefac t p roduc t ion .

S uch

i nselbergs a re l oca ted f ro m a bou t 2 km f ro m t he N i le u p t o a bou t 1 0 k i lo me tres e ast o f i t .

F ro m t hese i nse lbergs c o me n ear ly a l l o f t he N ub ian Mouster ian

a nd o ther M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic s i tes ( So leck i e t a l . 1 963 :75) . 3 .

O n t he o ld a nd y oung ' rubb le s urfaces ' b o th l oca l i t ies a re c haracter ized

b y t he a va i lab i l i ty o f s u i tab le b roken s labs o f i ronstone ( Marks 1 968a :200) . 4 .

O n t he b anks o f ma jor wad is . T he Nub ian Mouster ian

T he l ocat ion o f t he 1 2 Mouster ian s i tes i s p lo t ted o n map 4 .1.

W ith t he

e xcep t ion o f s i tes 1 033 a nd 4 40 , a l l Mouster ian s i tes were s i tuated o n t op o f i nse lbergs e i ther o n t hose n ear t he r iver o r c . 7k i lo metres e ast o f i t . F our s ites ( 1 035 t hrough 1 038) were f ound o n as ing le l arge i nselberg b order ing t he r iver .

Ac r i ter ion f or measur ing t he d istance o f e ach s i te f ro m t he p resen t

r iver h as b een u sed a s i ti sn o t p ossib le t o k now e xact ly where t he a ncien t b anks were o r t he n earest p ossib le wa ter s ources f or t hese s i tes.

T hose

s i tes l oca ted c . 7k i lome tres ( 1 010-8 , 1 000) f ro m t he r iver must h ave b een n ear a ncien t c hanne ls o r wad is i mp l ied f or i nstance b y t he wet c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions d ur ing t ha t p er iod ( Chap ter I I ) . 5 5

T hose b order ing t he r iver c ou ld n o t

Map 4 1:

L oca t ions o f Mouster ian a nd K hor musan S ites (After Marks 1 968 )

5 6

4

N 20

I ) 0

ED DEBBA

N ILE

1 km

Map 4 .2

L ocat ions o f Dongo la S i tes 5 7

h ave b een t oo f ar f ro m t he L a te P leistocene f l ood p la in wh ich i s e s t i ma ted t o h ave b een t w ice a s w ide a s i ti st oday ( Bu tzer a nd Hansen 1 968) . Wi th f our e xcep t ions t he Mouster ian s i tes were l oca ted d irect ly o n f err ocre te s andstone s ources a nd t hese f our d o n o t l i e more t han t wo k i lo me tres f ro m a no ther s ource ( i b id :199 ) . The Dongo la S i tes N 2, N 6 were l oca ted i n t he l a te P leistocene f l ood p lain o n ly a h undred metres a par t ( Map 4 .2) .

Wh i le a l im i ted u se o f N i le p ebb les was made , t he

ma jor i ty o f t he r aw ma ter ia l was b rough t f ro m t he o u tcrops 4 t o 5k i lo me tres i n land ( Marks e t a l . 1 971:43) .

T he t wo o ther s i tes , N 20 a nd N 91 were l oca ted

o n r aw ma ter ia l s ources a bou t f i ve k i lo metres away f ro m t he r iver .

T he

d is tr ibu t ion o f t hese f our s i tes r ese mb les t he Mouster ian/Khor musan i n n or thern Nub ia . The Khor musan A l l o f t he s even K hor musan s i tes were l oca ted w i th in a z one p rox i ma l t o t he r iver w i th t he e xcep t ion o f s i te 1 017 wh ich l i es o n as ide b ranch o ft he Khor Musa a bou t 2 .2 k i lo metres f ro m t he p resen t r iver .

A s s hown b y t he

s i te s tra t igraphy t h is b ranch h ad b een f l ooded b y N i le wa ters o n v ar ious o ccas ions ( Chap ter I ) . Thus a l l o f t he K hor musan s i tes c an b e c a l led r ivera in s i tes ( a s s hown b y t heir g eo log ica l p osi t ion ( Map 4 .1, C hap ter I I ) . s i tua t ions h ave b een o bserved i n t he K hor musan .

Two s i te

S i tes 1 017 , 3 4D , 2 004 , 6G30

a nd 6G 27 were s i tua ted o n l ayers o f s ands c overed b y f l uvia l s and a nd s i l ts , whereas s i tes AN W3 , 3 4A were f ound o n l ayers o f s and d unes c overed b y l ayers o ft he s a me s and d unes i nd ica t ive o f t he s a me r ecessiona l p hase ( Marks 1 968b :321, I rw in e t a l . 1 968:5 , 9 ) .

The p os i t ion o f t he l a t ter s i tes

i nd ica tes t ha tt hey were c a mps l oca ted n ear t he r iver b anks o r at r ibu tary a nd s ince t he ma jor i ty were c overed b y s i l ts a nd s ubsequen t N i le wa ters i t i s r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t s e t t le men t a long t he r iver b anks was s easona l . An a dd i t iona l p o in t i s s uggested b y t he a r tefac tua l c o mposi t ion o f t he Khor musan s i tes. I n Tab le 4 .1 i ti s s hown t ha t r aw ma ter ia l w ere p resen t a t t hese s i tes b u t a s w i l l b e s een i n t he f o l low ing d iscussion n o t a l l t ypes w ere a va i lab le a t e very s i te.

T hus j udg ing f ro m t he d is tr ibu t ion o f a l l s i tes i ti s a ssu med t ha t

t he e xp loi ta t ion t err i tory o ft he P reh istor ic p opu la t ion d ur ing t he M idd le P a laeol i th ic e x tended f ro m t he e dge o ft he L a te P leistocene r iver t o a bou t 1 0 k i lome tres i n land .

Ma jor d e ter m inan ts o f s i te l oca t ion wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een

p rox im i ty t o wa ter a nd r aw ma ter ia l s ources . B .

I n tras ite Var iab i l i ty

T hree ma in a spects o f i n terna l v ar iab i l i ty a t e ach s i te a re e xa m ined h ere . T hese a re , t ype o f s i te a s i nd ica ted b y i t s s hape , s ize a nd a r tefactua l c on ten ts ; r aw ma ter ia l f requencies a nd c orre la t ion w i th g ross a r tefact t ypes , l as t ly , t he d istr ibu t ion p a t terns o f a r tefac ts w i th in t he s i te a rea . T ypes o f S i tes W i th t he e xcep t ion o f 1 033 a l l t he Nub ian Mouster ian s i tes s tand i n c on tras t t o t he ma jor i ty o f workshop s i tes r epor ted b y t he G u ichards ( Chap ter I : 3 ) . T he ma in d if ference l i es i n t he h igh n umber o f r etouched t oo ls a t t he Mouster ian s i tes wh ich i nd ica tes t ha t t hey were most l i ke ly h ab i ta t ion s i tes . 5 8

Tab le 4 .1

Tab le 4 .1

Da ta o n I n tersi te/In trasi te Var iab i l i ty :

Mouster ian , Khor musan

a nd Dongo la S i tes S i te

D istance f ro m

Raw

S i te •

Area

Ma ter ia l

Area

C o l lected

r iver i n

s q . mt .

Densi ty s q . mt .

s q .m t .

km . 1 000

7 .0

2 00

3 6B

2 .2

2 00

1 010-8

7 .2

5 0

1 035

2 .4

1 036

2 .3

1 00 2 00

1 037

2 .1

6 0

2

2 73.0

1 038

2 .2

2 00

2

1 74.0

1 2

8 6.8

9

7 6.6

2

1 70.5

3 6 2 6

3 3.3 4 2.3

1 033L

2 .7

2 4.4

1 72.8

1 033U

2 .7

1 9

2 10.0

6

2 4 0

2 4.6

1 21

1 .8

J . B rin iko l

4 .7

4 40

2 .5

3 0

. 8

4 000

N 2-4 N 6

1

N 91-15

5

N 91-5

5

N 20

4 0

8 00

8 0 7 5

1 4.0 6 3.2

2 5

9 7 .8

2 .5

1 350

2 0

2 34.0

3 4A

1 .3

9 500

7 8

3 9 .0

1 017

2 .2

2 000

1 76

2 5.4

3 4D

1 .3

2 100

7 6

5 8.9

AN W3

0 .3

9 000

2 54

1 3.5

3 0

5 0.8

2 004

0 .5

6G30

0 .3

3 000

9 6

6G 27

0 .5

7 00

2 9

* =

impor ted t o t he s i te

* * = p resen t a t t he s i te a rea

s hows t he s ize o f e ach s i te , t he a rea s yste ma t ica l ly c o l lec ted , a nd t he d ens i ty o f a r tefacts p er s quare metre .

C oun ts o f t o ta l c o l lect ions a nd t heir b reakdown

t o g ross a r tefact c lasses i s g iven i n Tab le 4 .2.

M iss ing d a ta a re l ef t b lank

e i ther b ecause t hey h ave n o t b een r epor ted i n t he c ase o f t o ta l c o l lect ion f or i ns tance o r c ou ld n o t b e k nown a s i n t he c ase o f s ize o f s tra t if ied s i tes .

F ro m

t h is i n for ma t ion i tc an b e s een t ha t t he Mouster ian s i tes a re r ela tive ly sma l l , r ang ing f ro m 4 0 t o 2 00 s quare me tres a nd c haracter ized b y ah igh d ens i ty o f a r tefacts p er s q . me tre .

S i tes 1 035 , 1 036 a nd 1 21 h ave t he l owest d ensi ty

s uggest ing t ha t t he o ccupa t ion migh t n o t h ave b een a s i n tens ive a s a t t he o thers ( Marks 1 968a :284) .

I tc an a lso b e p o in ted o u t a t t h is e ar ly s tage o f d iscussion

t ha t s i te s ize a nd d ensi ty d oes n o t c orrespond t o t he d iv is ion o ft he N ub ian 5 9

Mouster ian i n to t ypes A a nd B . T he K hormusan s i tes o n t he o ther h and , a re e x tre mely l arge a nd o rien ted l i nea l ly a long t he r iver b anks . B ecause t hey a re s tra t i f ied s i tes e xp lored o ver t he ir s uperf ic ia l e xposure , i t was n o t p ossib le t o k now t he a ctua l s i te a rea ; a n e st i ma te b ased o n t he o ccurrence o f s urface f i nds was made b y t he e xcava tors ( i b id :322) . When c o mpared t o t he Nub ian Mouster ian t he d ensi ty o f a rtefacts a t t he e xcava ted a reas i s v ery l ow f ro m 1 3.5 t o 5 8.9 p er s q . me tre ( Tab le 4 .1) .

T he c u l tura l l ayers a tt hese

s i tes were t h in f ro m 4 cm a t t he u pper l ayer o f 6G30 t o c . 2 0 cm a t 3 4D . T he d ep th o f o ccupa t ion , h owever , may n ot b e ag ood i nd ica tor f or l eng th o f o ccupa t ion b ecause o f s ed i men ta t ion a nd wa ter a ct iv i ty . I n af ew c ases c u l tura l l ayers were p reserved a s a t 1 017 wh ich i s a bou t 4 cm t h ick a nd j udg ing f rom i t s c on tents Marks s uggested t ha t i tc ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied f or a v ery s hor t p er iod o ft ime ( i b id :322) . T he Dongo la s i tes e xh ib i t as im i lar p a t tern .

T hose l oca ted a long t he

r iver ( N2, N 6 ) d esp i te b eing d ef la ted h ave a l ow d ensi ty a nd a w ide a rea l d istr ibu t ion ( Marks e t a l . 1 971:62) . T he t wo o ther ( N20 , N 91) r ese mb le t he Mouster ian s i tes . N 20 h as t he h ighest d ensi ty a nd t he l argest a rea b u t a s s hown b y t he g ross a r tefac t t ypes i tc lose ly r ese mb les t he workshopl ike s i te 1 033 . N 91 o n t he o ther h and i s g enera l ly s im i lar t o N ub ian Mouster ian b u t i s a lso c haracter ized b y ah igh p ercen tage o f d ebr is. T ab le 4 .2 s hows t he d iv ision o ft he t o ta l c o l lec t ions i n to g ross t ypes where t he N ub ian Mouster ian ( excep t 1 033 ) h ave a h igher p ercen tage o ft oo ls when c o mpared t o t he K hormusan s i tes. I t must b e n oted t ha t a t f our s i tes ( 1 010-8, 1 036 , 1 037 a nd 1 038) Marks h as i ncreased t he n u mber o fr e touched t oo ls b y c o l lec t ing t oo ls f ro m a n a dd i t iona l a rea i n t he s a me s i te. T he n u mber o f t hese a dd i t ions i s g iven b etween b rackets i n Tab le 4 .2. A dd i t ion o f t oo ls t o t he o r ig ina l s ys te ma t ic c o l lec t ion was n ecessi ta ted b ecause o f t he a pp l ica t ion o f B ordes t ypo logy ( Marks 1 968a :196) . O n t he f ace o f i tt he r a t io o f r etouched t oo ls t o t he t ota l c o l lec t ion a t t he K hor musan s i tes r ese mb les t ha t o f t he workshopl ike s i tes ( 1 033 , N 20 , N 91) b u t s upp le men tary d a ta s uggest t ha t t h is i s n o t s o ( F ig . 4 .1) .

There a re

o ther f ac tors w h ich a ccoun t f or t he h igh p ercen tage o f d ebr is a t Khor musan s i tes , f or i ns tance t he n ature o f t he r aw ma ter ia l , d ura t ion o f o ccupa t ion , a nd t he f act t ha t t hese s i tes were s tra t if ied wh ich imp l ies t ha t sma l l c h ips h ave ah igher c hance o f p reserva t ion . T he i nfor ma t ion g iven i n T ab le 4 .2 i s p lo t ted i n t hree p o lar d iagra ms t o s how t he p osi t ion o f e ach a sse mb lage i n r e la t ion t o t he o ther . F irst , i n F ig . 4 .3 d ebr is i s a dded t o t he c lass o f f l akes a nd b lades a nd t herefore p ercen tages o f t hree ma in c lasses o f c ores , t oo ls a nd d eb i tage a re p lo t ted . I n t h is F ig . t he Dongo la s i tes N 20 a nd N 91 ( bo th a reas) g roup w i th Mous ter ian s i te 1 033 ( 2l eve ls ) a l l c harac ter ized b y av ery h igh p ercen tage o f f l akes a nd b lades , l ess t han 1 0% t oo ls a nd b etween 1 .5% a nd 7% c ores . S i te N 91 h as more c ores ( 7% ) maybe b ecause Ih ave d ea l t w i th a l l o f t he c o l lec ted ma ter ia l . C ores f ro m s i te N 20 p ose a p rob le m b ecause o n ly 7 0 c ores were f ound i n t he t o ta l c o l lec t ion wh ich h as a modera te p ercen tage o f t oo ls ( Chap ter V ) . F ie ld n o tes , h owever , men t ion t he p resence o f l arge c obb les o f r ock a pparen t ly f l aked a t t he s i te a rea wh ich were n o t c o l lec ted . I t wou ld s ee m t hen t ha t t hese 7 0 c ores r epresen t o n ly a s e lec ted s a mp le. t he Mouster ian s i tes c luster t igh t ly i n o ne g roup ( F ig . 4 .3) .

The r es t o f

The Khor musan

s i tes AN W3 , 2 004 , 3 4A a nd t he Dongo la s i tes N 6 a nd N 2 f or m a nother g roup 6 0

Tab le 4 .2 S i te

Ar tefac t C lasses a t Mous ter ian/Khor musan a nd Dongo la S i tes T ota l

T oo ls

C ores

F lakes/B lades

Debr is

C o l lect ion 1 000

1 042

1 84

4 1

5 65

2 52

3 6B

6 90

1 64

3 9

4 39

4 8

1 010-8

3 41

1 7

1 75 4 90

9 9 3 3

1 035

8 41

1 036

1 101

1 037

5 46

1 038 1 033L

3 48

5 0 ( 1 23 ) 1 80

4 5

7 17

2 04

9 9 ( 77 )

3 6

2 00

2 11

7 0 ( 1 55)

7

2 15

5 6

7 9

1 367

2 678

2 07

6 6

1 442

2 279

3 02

1 00

9 28

9 25

9 84

1 37

7 6

6 04

1 67

+ 1000

2 74

4 5

2 00

4 84

7 59

1 27

1 17

3 16

1 79

4 326

2 02

1 033U

3 994

6

2 270

1 21 4 40 N 2-4

1 38

1 35 ( 100)

N 6

1 122

1 94

1 60

2 49

5 19

N 91-15

4 742

2 12

2 77

8 95

3 358

N 91-5

2 446

6 6

1 58

3 86

1 836

N 20

4 680

3 67

7 0

1 189

3 054

3 4A 1 017

3 046 4 472

3 39 3 24

1 20 1 02

4 50 5 05

2 138 3 541

3 4D

4 478

3 45

1 77

3 08

3 649

A .N W3

3 444

5 25

4 55

5 53

1 911

2 004

1 525

2 05

1 26

3 27

8 67

6G30 6G 27

_

2 59 4 73

1 19 3 93

_

-

L egend : F lakes/B lades :

N on-pr i mary f lakes o r b lades. S o me migh t r e ta in p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l c ortex b u t d oes n o t c over more t han 5 0% o f t he ir d orsa l s urface.

B lades h ave a l eng th/w id th r a t io e qua l

t o o r g rea ter t han 2 :1. Debris :

I n t h is s tudy c ons ists o f p r i mary f lakes , c ore t ri m m ing f l akes , c h ips a nd c hunks .

P r i mary f l akes a re f lakes w i th

more t hen 5 0% o f t he ir s urface c overed b y c or tex .

C ore

t r im m ing f l akes a re t hose r esu lt ing f ro m c ore p la tfor m p repara t ion .

C h ips a re a l l sma l l f ragmen ts l ack ing

r ecogn izab le b u lbs a nd t hey a re u sua l ly b y p roducts o f t he f l ak ing p rocesses .

C hunks a re l arger f rag men ts o f i rregu lar

f or m a nd may r esu l t f ro m c rush ing o r a cciden ta l f l ak ing .

w i th more c ores a nd l ess f lakes a nd b lades t han t he Mous ter ian s i tes.

The

r e main ing Khor musan s i tes 1 017 , 3 4D a re c loser t o t he Mouster ian g roup o f s i tes . 6 1

' 7 00Z EMNV 0 E I LO

-C

c i p c 4 4 7 , 4 2

ON

4 c — d

S -16N

84

0

. 0 )

S t-16N

0

9 N

C d

a

ZN

C . ) g {

( Z I 9

C )

1 .

n uo t

C l )

l ECO t

C

8 E0 1

he i •

Z

t

9 E0 1

E 77

0

V Z9 e1 0 1 O ZO I

L

C )

6 2

c . )

Mous te r i an

L EO l

T oo ls 1 00 Mouster ian 1 0

90

20

•

K hor musan Dongo la s i tes

BO

30

7 0

40

60

50

50

40

60

70

30 3 6B 1 035

•

80

N 2 -4

AN W-3o 2 004

90

0

3 4A

a • N 6

•

1 037•

1 038

20

I

1 2 1

0

.

1 0 17

0

61 0 1036

j4D

N 20,

el 15a N 91 -5

1 00 Cores

1 0

2 0

30

40

50

60

70

BO

90

1 000 1 0 10-8

1 0 1 033U 1 033L

1 00 F lakes ,b lades

F ig . 4 -3 :

P ercentage o f G ross Arte fact C lasses ( Debr is a dded) M idd le P a laeoth ic S ites

6 3

& d ebr is

1 0

1 00 Cores

1 0

F ig . 4 _4:

2 0

30

40

90

50

60

70

Mouster ian

•

K hor musan

o

D ongo la s i tes

•

BO

P ercentages o f Gross A rte fact C lasses . M idd le P a laeo l ith ic S ites ( Debr is om itted)

6 4

90

1 00 F lakes & b lades

I n F ig . 4 .4 p ercen tages o f g ross a r tefact c lasses a re p lo t ted b u t om i t t ing d ebris t o a vo id b ias e xpected a t t he s urface Mouster ian s i tes. T he d ifference c aused b yt he om ission o f d ebr is i s t ha t a l l o f t he Khor musan s i tes t ogether w ith N 2 a nd N 6 'moved u p ' i n t he d iagram .

The s ame a lso c ou ld b e o bserved

a t t he o n ly s tra t if ied Mous ter ian s i te , 1 033.

T he Khor musan s i tes i n t h is

c ase a ppear t o h ave h igher p ercen tages o f t oo ls a nd c ores t han a ny o ft he Nub ian Mousterian s i tes .

T h is c on trad ic ts t he e ar l ier s ta te men t t ha t Mouster ian

s i tes h ave more t oo ls t han t he K hor musan a sse mb lages.

Wha t t h is s i mp le

e xercise s hows , h owever , i s t ha t a l l o f t hese s i tes w i th t he e xcep t ion p erhaps o f 1 033 , N 20 a nd N 91 c an b e d escr ibed a s h ab i ta t ion s i tes f ro m t he ir g ross a r tefact c o mposi t ion .

T he t hree workshopl ike s i tes , h owever , h ave a modera te

p ercen tage o f r etouched t ools wh ich warran ts t he ir i nc lus ion i n t h is g roup o f s i tes.

The h igh p ercen tage o f d eb i tage a t s i te N 20 c ou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he

n ature o f t he wad i c her t u sed i n t he p roduct ion o f a r tefac ts ( Chap ter V ) . Moreover t he h igh p ercen tage o f d ebr is a t Khor musan s i tes a nd p r i mary f l akes a t t he Mouster ian s i tes i nd ica te t ha t f l ak ing o f a r tefacts h ad t aken p lace most ly w i th in t he h ab i ta t ion s i te. Artefac t D istr ibu t iona l P a t terns The l ayou t o f a r tefac ts w i th in a s i te a rea i s af unc t ion o f t he n a tura l a nd c u l tura l f or ma t ion o f t ha t s i te . The o b jec t o f s tudy ing a r tefac t d istr ibu t ion a nd a ssoc ia t ion i s t o d iscover p referen t ia l a c t iv i ty a reas w i th in t he s i te . S uch i n for ma t ion h e lps i n u nderstand ing t he s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion o f a c t iv i t ies p erfor med b y t he p reh istor ic p opu la t ions. I fs uch i n for ma t ion i s o b ta ined i t wou ld h ave a d irect r e levance t o v ar iab i l i ty i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . Mouster ian s i tes l ack ing s tra t igraphy a re n o t s u i tab le f or s uch a n a na lysis a s t he p resen t d istr ibu t ion o f a r tefacts may b ear l i t t le r ela t ionsh ip t o t he ir o r ig ina l l ayou t . s i tes.

T here i s , h owever , s o me v a l id d a ta f ro m t he Khor musan

Bu t t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t t hese were a ffec ted b y t he c on t inuous r iver

a ct ion , c anno t b e e xc luded a nd a s S hac Idey h as s hown s trea m d eposi t ion a f fects t he o r ig ina l d istr ibu t ion o f c u l tura l ma ter ia l . C onsider ing c u l tura l a r tefacts a s s ed i men tary p ar t ic les i n af luv ia t i le e nv ironmen t s he a rgues t ha t t hey w i l l b e s ub jec ted t o " a c onsiderab le d egree o f i nv isib le s or t ing" ( Shack ly 1 978 :55-81) . Ac harac ter ist ic o f t he Khor musan i s ag enera l p a t tern o fc oncen tra t ion o f a r tefacts a round f i re p i ts a nd h ear ths ( Marks 1 968b :329 ) . A t s i te 3 4A t here i s a n e ven d istr ibu t ion o f a r tefacts b u t t here a re t wo ma in c oncen tra t ions ; o ne a t t he n or thern e nd o f t he e xcava ted a rea a nd t he o ther a ssoc ia ted w i th af i re p i t a t t he s ou thwest e nd o ft he s i te.

Ah igh p ercen tage o f t oo ls ( 1 1 t o

2 5% ) were f ound a round t he f i re p i t b u t t here i s n o p a t tern i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f ap ar t icu lar t oo l t ype ( i b id :334) . More p osi t ive d a ta o n s pec if ic a reas c o mes f ro m s i te 1 017 wh ich h as t wo ma in c oncen tra t ions , al arge o ne a t t he c en tre o ft he e xcava ted a rea a nd a sma l l o ne a t t he western e dge . The s i te c on ta ined f our amorphous f i re p i ts a ssoc ia ted w ith c oncen tra t ions o f a r tefacts , c harcoa l , f auna l r e ma ins a nd h e ma t i tes .

As trong c oncen tra t ion o f b ur ins was o bserved

a round t he c en tra l a nd w estern f i re p i ts wh i le t hey a re r e markab ly r are a t o ther p ar ts o ft he s i te. The e astern f i re p i t h as a c oncen tra t ion o f d eb i tage a nd a sma l l n u mber o f f i n ished t oo ls ( i b id :344 ) . A s im i lar p a t tern h as b een o bserved a t s i te 3 4D wh ich h as t wo ma jor c oncen tra t ions a t t he n or thern a nd s ou thern e nds. Wh i le t he o vera l l d ensi ty o f a r tefac ts i s l ow , t he s quares a t t he c oncen tra tion a reas p roduced 4 00 t o 8 00 a r tefacts . The s ou thern e nd o f 6 5

t he s i te h as a h igh p ropor t ion o f r etouched t oo ls a round a b urned a rea .

B ur ins

a re c oncen trated a t t he n or thern e nd a nd a round t he f i re p i t a nd a l most a bsen t i n t he a rea b etween t he m ( i b id :355) . S i te AN W3 i s more d isturbed t han t he o thers b u t t here a re i nd ica t ions o f sma l l c oncen tra t ions o f a r tefacts , b ones a nd b urned s ands.

S ix p ieces o f g round h e ma t i te a nd t wo b one t ools t he o n ly

t o b e f ound i n a Khor musan s i te were d iscovered a t t h is s i te. S i te 2 004 i s d isturbed a lso b u t , t here a re i nd ica t ions o f s o me c oncen tra t ions ( i b id :375) . A t s i tes 6G30 a nd 6G 27 t oo ls a nd c ores h ave a r a ther u n i for m d is tr ibu t ion t hough sma l ler c oncen tra t ion o f t oo ls c an b e s een a t c er ta in p ar ts o ft he e xcava ted a reas a ssoc ia ted w i th f auna l r e ma ins a nd c harcoa l ( I rw in e t a l . 1 968 :8 , 1 3) . D istr ibu t iona l d a ta i s l ack ing f ro m t he Dongo la s i tes d ue t o d ef la t ion a nd o n t he o n ly p reserved s i te ( N91) a r tefacts a re d is tr ibu ted e ven ly a nd t here i s n o s ign o f s pec ial a c t iv i ty a reas ( Marks e t a l . 1 071 :76 ) . T o s um u p , d istr ibu t iona l d a ta f ro m t he Khormusan s i tes , i tc an b e a ssu med , f ro m t heir s ize , t ha t t hey r epresen t n umerous o ccupa t ions. S e t t lemen t wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een c onf ined t o a long t he f l ood p la in r esu l t ing i n c lusters o f c a mps a s i nd ica ted b y t he s i te l oca t ion a nd s ize .

S peci f ic a c t iv i ty

a reas a re h owever i nd ica ted t o s o me e x ten t b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f b ur ins a t s o me o f t he s i tes where t he r esearch a nd c ond i t ions a l lowed t he o bserva t ions t o b e made . T he o ccurrence o fb ur ins a round f ire p i ts a nd h ear ths i s impor tan t b ecause t hey a re t he ma jor d ist inct ive f ea ture i n t he t oo l k i t o f t he r iver ine Khor musan s i tes. Raw Ma ter ia l U t i l iza t ion A t t he b eg inn ing o ft h is c hap ter i ti s n o ted t ha t t he o ccupan ts o f t he Mouster ian s i tes o verwhel m ing ly u t i l ized o ne r aw ma ter ia l , f errocre te s ands tone.

O ft hese s i tes o n ly s i te 1 036 h as a f ew t oo ls made o n p a t ina ted N i le

Pebb le , f ossi l wood a nd q uartz ( Marks 1 968a :228) .

T here a re , h owever ,

minor v ar ia t ions i n t he q ua l i ty o f f errocrete s ands tone wh ich c ou ld h ave c on tr ibu ted t o t he t echno log ica l d if ference i n t he a sse mb lages b u t t he c r i ter ia s ee m t o h ave b een t ha t s i tes were l oca ted where s u i tab le r aw ma ter ia l was t o b e f ound .

I n c on trast t o t h is e xc lusive u se o f f errocrete s andstone i s t he

s i tua t ion a t t he Khor musan s i tes .

Here n u merous t ypes o f ma ter ia ls were

u sed , s o me were f ound a t t he s i te a rea a nd o thers w ere impor ted f ro m n earby s ources. Types a nd p ercen tages o f t hese ma ter ia ls i n c ores a nd t oo ls c an b e s een i n F ig . 4 .5. Marks h as a rgued t ha t t here i s al i near d eve lop men t i n t he c ho ice o f r aw ma ter ia l t ypes i n t he Khor musan s i tes.

A ccord ing t o

h im a n e ar ly s tage a t s i te 3 4A i s c haracter ized b y ah igh p ercen tage o f f errocre te s andstone a nd a v ar iety o f o ther m inor t ypes. i s ad ef in i te s h i f t t o u s ing Preca mbr ian r ocks .

A t s i te 1 017 t here

The s econd s tage i s s een a t

s i tes 3 4D a nd ANW3 wh ich i s marked b y a n i ncrease i n t he u se o f N i le P ebb le a nd a d rop i n P reca mbr ian a nd f errocrete s andstone .

Th is l a t ter s tage i s

r eversed a t s i te 2 004 where P reca mbr ian h ad b eco me d om inan t o nce a ga in ( i b id :324-7) . I ti s , h owever , p ossib le t o a rgue t ha t t here was a g enera l t endency t owards a n i ncreasing u se o f N i le P ebb le a t s o me o f t he s i tes a s s hown b y i t s d istr ibu t ion a t s i tes AN W3 , 3 4D a nd 6G27 ( F igs . 4 .5 , 4 .6 ) , C hange i n r aw 6 6

DEB ITAGE

CORES

S ITE 2004

S amp le : 3 04

TOOLS

S amp le : 1 22

1 00

1 00

8 0

8 0

60

6 0

40

40

20

20

S amp le: 2 05

S ITE

AN W-3

e l . 10 0

10 0

8 0

8 0

6 0

60

60

40

40

40

20

2 0

2 0

80

8 0

8 0

6 0

6 0

6 0

4 0

4 0

4 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

S amp le : 4 45

S a mp le :525

. / .

S ITE 34 D

S a mp le : 484

• / .

* I .

* I .

S amp le : 323 80

8 0

0

60

6 0

1 1

40

40

20

20

S ITE 34 A

1/ .

1 00

1 00

80

80

6 0

6 0

40

40

2 0

20

• / .

S amp le :339

• / . P rec F ss

F ig .4.5 : U t i l izat ion o f r a w mater ia l t ype a t K hor musan

s i tes ( A fter Marks 1 968 )

6 7

Fw

F ig . 4 .6:

U t i l izat ion o f r aw mater ia l t ypes a t ' Buhen c o mp lex ' and s i te 440 S ite 440

80 T oo ls

70

S a mp le

1 99

60 ° 50 40 30 20 10

F errocrete

P reca mbr ian

0

( 1 ) 3 0

S i te

6G 27

70

S ite 6G30

T oo ls

60

Cores 50

T oo ls

50

Cores 40

30

30

20

20

1 0

1 0

F errocrete

Quartz ite

P reca mbr ian

— F errocrete

0

0

7

6 8

N i le p ebb le

40

( n 3

ma ter ia l u t i l iza t ion t hrough t ime a s s uggested b y Marks i s o f c ourse b ased o nh is s er ia t ion o ft hose s i tes wh ich d id n ot h o ld a bso lu tely t rue i n t he l igh t o f t he n ew e v idence ( Chap ter I I ) .

The g enera l p a t tern , i t wou ld s ee m , i s t ha t

aw ider u se o f ap ar t icu lar ma ter ia l was d icta ted b y i t s s u i tab i l i ty a nd a va i la b i l i ty a t t he s i te o r i t s p rox im i ty .

The e x tensive u se o f c haracter ist ic P re-

c a mbr ian a t s i te 1 017 , wh ich i s s een b y Marks a s ad eve lop men t f ro m 3 4A , c an b e e xp la ined b y t he f ac t t ha t i ti s immed ia te ly a va i lab le a t s i te 1 017 wh i le i ti s n o t a t 3 4A . T h is v iew i s r e in forced b y t he d istr ibu tion o f t hese ma teria ls a t s i te 2 004 wh ich l i es s ou th o ft he S econd C a taract .

H ere f errocre te s and-

s tone i s n o t a va i lab le a nd N i le P ebb le a re n o t r ead i ly a va i lab le a s a t t he n or thern s i tes a nd t hus P reca mbr ian was h eav i ly u t i l ized. Marks p oin ted o u t t ha t t here was a g enera l t endency t o u se a p ar t icu lar ma ter ia l f or t he p roduct i on o f p ar t icu lar a r tefacts .

I n Tab le 4 .4 i tc an b e s een t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f

L eva l lo is f l akes f ro m t he K hor musan s i tes were made o n e i ther f errocrete s andstone o r Precambrian .

T he s a me i s o bserved a t t he ' Buhen C o mp lex '

s i tes , 6G30 a nd 6G 27 ( I rw in e t a l . 1 968 :7 ) .

The p roduc t ion o f L eva l lo is f lakes

c a l les f or l arge s labs wh ich a re f ound i n t hese t wo t ypes o f r ock .

The s a me

p osi t ive c orrela t ion o ccurred b etween b ur ins a nd N i le P ebb les w h ich a ga in s uggests a f unct iona l r ela t ionsh ip . N i le P ebb les a re sma l l n odu les w i th a h ard t ex ture b el ieved t o b e s u i tab le f or mak ing b ur ins ( op . c i t .:327 ) .

O ver

h a l f o f t he b ur ins a t f our o ft he s i tes were o n N i le P ebb les ( Tab le 4 .3 ) . The h eavy r el iance o n N i le P ebb les f or p roducing b ur ins migh t b e t aken t o i nd ica te af unct iona l r ela tionsh ip b e tween t he t wo .

The e f fect o f u sing p ar t icu lar

t ypes o f ma ter ia ls o n t he o vera l l s ize o f a r tefac ts w il l b e d iscussed i n C hap ter V I . A t t he Dongo la s i tes , t hough , s ix t ypes o f ma ter ia ls w ere u t i l ized , t he a sse mb lages were d om ina ted b y wad i c hert a nd q uar tzi te ( Tab le 4 .5 , F igs . 4 .7 , 4 .8) .

A t s i tes N 2 a nd N 6 , l oca ted o n t he f l ood p lain , ma ter ia ls l i ke

q uar tzi te , f errocre te s andstone a nd wad i c her t mus t h ave b een i mpor ted f ro m o u tcrops i n land .

T he e f fec t o ft h is c an b e s een i n t he d istr ibu t ion o ft hese

ma ter ia ls i n c ores a nd t oo ls ( F ig . 4 .8) a nd t he n u mber o ft oo ls i n t he t ota l c o l lec tion ( Marks e t a l . 1 971 :45) . A l though t he t wo s i tes were l oca ted a long t he a ncien t r iver b ank a m in i ma l u se o f N i le P ebb les h as b een made . Th is s i tua t ion i s c o mparab le t o t ha t o bserved a t t he Khor musan s i te 3 4A .

S i tes

N 20 a nd N 91 a re d om ina ted b y wad i c her t a nd q uar tzi te —bo th immedia tely a va i lab le a t t he s i tes a reas . L ike t he Nub ian Mouster ian N i le P ebb les were n o t u t i l ized a nd e ven ma ter ia l o ther t han q uar tz i te a nd wad i c her t a re s tr ict ly l im i ted . T he r ough t ex ture o ft hese t wo ma ter ia ls must h ave a f fec ted t he t oo l t echno logy a nd t he l arge n u mber o f u nf in ished c ores r ecorded a t t hese s i tes c an b e c i ted i n s uppor t . T ab le 4 .3

P ercen tages o f B ur ins Made o n N i le P ebb les a t 5 Khor musan S i tes S i te 6G 27 1 017

3 0.9 4 5.5

3 4D

5 6.0

2 004

6 0.0

ANW3

7 8.6 6 9

6 0 5 0 4 5

S ITE N2-4

4 0

S ITE N9115

4 0

3 0

3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0

f irroc rete

Wad i c hert

F e rrcc ie te

T o

a , . 0 . 0 0 a .

•

o

0 •

9 0 8 0

7 0

7 0

S ITE N6

6 0

6 0

5 0

5 0

4 0

4 0

4 0

3 0

3 0

3 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

1 0

ii 0 •

N . . .

C I P L . L i

. . 0 3

0 L . L .

0

F ig. 4 .7

c

C Y

a ,

U .;

L . 0

F errocre te

-C

C D 4 . .

N . -

1 . 0 e a .

C1

0

0'

Z

Wad i c her t

5 0

S ITE N20

1 0 . 0 0

L .

0

0

F errocre te

S ITE N9 I-5

6 0

8 0

U t i l izat ion o f Raw Mater ia l Types a t Dongo la S i tes ( Tota l Co l lect ion)

7 0

9 0 8 0

S ITE N6

-7 0

T oo l s

6 0 5 0

5 0

4 0

4 0

3 0

3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

• ,

S ITE N2-4

o res

1 0

, o

0

9 5 9 0 8 0 7 0

F ig.

4 .8

F e r rocre te

Wad i c her t

0

U ti l izat ion o f Raw Mater ia l Types a t Dongo la S i tes ( Too ls a nd Cores)

S ITE N2 0

7 0

S ITE N91- 5

S ITE N9115

6 0

6 0

5 0

5 0

4 0

4 0

3 0

3 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

1 0 %

N

. . . ‘ . O

3 C I

0 )

0 0 . V

0. L .

L . 0 L I ..

N . . .

i : 2 . ,

0

-0 . 2 V

o Z

0

o

F errocre te

O .

C ) Wad ; c hert

Wad i c hert

0 / 0

7 1

c _ 0

0 IL

0

Tab le 4 .4

P ercen tages o f Raw Ma ter ia l T ypes U sed i n t he K hor musan L eva l lo is F lakes

S i te

F errocrete S andstone

3 4A

9 4.2

1 017

3 8.7

5 7 .1

2 .8

1 .4

AN W3

3 3.4

2 9.6

1 5.9

8 .5

1 1.4

3 4D

3 1.0

2 7.1 .

1 4.4

1 6 .3

1 .1

6 .3

5 2.6

1 7.1

1 2.4

1 0.4

2 004

P reca mbrian

N i le P ebb le

4 .2

F ossi l Wood

Quartz

1 .5

T o s u m mar ize t he d iscussion o n t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic g roup o f s i tes , i tc an b e s a id t ha t t he Mouster ian s i tes o ccurring o u tside t he f l ood p la in a nd l oca ted a t r aw ma ter ia l s ources u t i l ized e x tensive ly f errocre te s ands tone . The r iver ine K hor musan a nd Dongo la s i tes N 6 a nd N 2 u t i l ized n u merous r aw ma teria ls , i ncluding t hose u sed a t t he i n land s i tes a nd t he l oca l ly a va i lab le N i le P ebb les .

U t i l iza t ion o ft he l a t ter c an b e s een t o h ave p ro mo ted t he

p roduct ion o f b urins a nd a g enera l r educt ion i n a r tefact s ize ; t wo f actors wh ich a re u sua l ly t aken t o d ist ingu ish t he K hor musan f ro m t he Nub ian Mouster ian ( Chap ter V I ) . T he Ha lfan I ndustry S i te D istribu t ion A l l o ft he Ha lfan s i tes r eported f ro m S udanese N ub ia a nd Upper Egyp t were c on f ined t o t he f l ood p la in o n e i ther s ide o ft he r iver ( Map 4 .3) .

D is tance

f ro m t he p resen t r iver v ar ies f ro m a bou t h a lf t o t wo a nd a h a lf k i lo me tres . T he s i tes were ma in ly a ssoc iated w i th t he S ahaba F or ma t ion s ed i men ts , o ne o ft he l argest a ggrada t ions d ur ing t he L a te P leistocene ( Chap ter 1 :52) . T he f l ood p la in i s e xpec ted t o h ave w idened more t han b efore a nd t h is may e xp la in why most o ft he Ha lfan s i tes a re a l i t t le f ur ther f ro m t he p resen t r iver t han t he Khor musan s i tes w i th t he e xcep t ion o f s i te 1 017.

The Ha lfan s i tes were

s i tua ted o n e i ther s and d unes o r s i l ts a t t he e dge o ft he r iver o r o n s ide b ranches o f i t . A .

1 n trasi te S i te Var iab i l i ty a .

Types o f S i tes

I n c on trast t o t he Khor musan t he Ha lfan s i tes a re o va l i n s hape a nd sma l l i n s ize . B ecause many o ft he s i tes were p ar t ly d ef la ted i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o k now t heir e xac t e x ten t b u t Marks e st i ma ted t ha t t he s ix s i tes h e r epor ted f a l l i nt he r ange o f2 50 s quare me tres ( Marks 1 968c :384 , Tab le 4 .7 ) .

More-

o ver t he s i tes a re c haracter ized b y ah igh d ens i ty o f a r tefacts n o t ma tched b y a ny o ft he s i tes s o f ar men t ioned ( t hough t here i s s o me p rob le m o fd ep th o f o ccupa t ion ( Tab les 4 .6 , 4 .7 ) . I ti s p erhaps wor th ment ioning t ha t t he o ccupa t ion l eve ls a re o f a pprec iab le t h ickness d esp i te t he f act t ha t n o d iscernab le s tra t ig raphy c an b e o b ta ined ( Chap ter I I ) .

7 2

Map 4 -3 :

L ocat ions o f Ha lfan S i tes ( A f ter Marks 1 968)

7 3

Tab le 4 .5

P ercen tages o f Raw Ma ter ia l Types a t D ongo la S i tes ( Persona l Observa t ion )

A =I n T o ta l C ol lect ion Type

N 2-4

N 6

N 91-15

N 91-5

N 20

Wad i c her t

4 4.1

7 3.7

5 5.3

5 7.0

8 9.0

Quar tzi te

3 0.7

1 0.2

4 0.0

3 5.9

7 .5

1 5.2

4 .8

2 .4

3 .8

0 .4

5 .4

1 .7

1 .6

2 .2

1 .8

2 .6

9 .0

2 .0

0 .6

F errocrete s andstone Quar tz N i le P ebb le F ossi l Wood

0 .7

B=I n T oo ls a nd C ores Type

N 2-4

N 2

N 91-15

N91-5

N 20

T oo ls

C ores

T oo ls

C ores

T oo ls

C ores

T oo ls

C ores

Too ls

C ores

4 8.0

3 5.0

6 8.0

7 2.5

5 5.7

6 7 .9

6 6 .7

5 9 .5

9 4 .8

8 1.4

2 5.2

2 9 .9

1 3.9

8 .1

4 1.9

2 7 .1

2 4 .2

2 9 .1

3 .2

7 .1

1 8.9

1 3 .7

1 2.4

1 .9

0 .0

0 .7

6 .1

1 .3

0 .5

2 .9

5 .5

1 4.5

0 .5

0 .5

0 .5

3 .2

1 .5

8 .7

0 .0

4 .3

0 .8

5 .1

3 .6

1 1.9

1 .6

1 .7

1 .0

0 .6

1 .9

1 .1

1 .5

1 .3

1 .5

4 .3

Wad i c her t Quar tz i te F erroc re te s ands tone Quartz N i le P ebb le F oss i l Wood

L ong o ccupa t ion a t t hese s i tes i s f ur ther i nd ica ted b y t he h igh n u mbers o f a r tefacts , n u merous h ear ths , f auna l r e ma ins f ound f or e xa mp le t hrough ad eposi t o f 1 .5 metres a t s i te 1 020 a nd i n ac . 6 0 cm d eposi t a t s i te 4 43 ( I b id : 4 07 , 4 23 ) .

A s s hown i n Tab le 4 .6 t he a rtefact c o mpos i t ion i s d om ina ted b y

d ebr is f o l lowed b y f l akes a nd b lades a nd t hen c ores.

T oo ls h ave t he l owest

p ercen tage o f a l l c lasses a nd i fo n ly r etouched t oo ls a re c onsidered t he ir p ercen tage n ever e xceeds 4 .4% ( F igure 4 .2) .

7 4

Another c oun t o f p ercen tages

Tab le 4 . 6

Ar tefac t C lasses a t Ha lfan S i tes

S i te

T o ta l

T oo ls

C ores

F l/B lades

Debr is

C o l lect ion 1 020

8 794

2 00

4 99

8 83

7 212

1 018

7 895

2 16

2 55

7 24

6 700

6 24

9 632

3 93

7 62

8 93

7 584

4 43

4 3 ,265

1 964

4 256

4 498

3 2547

1 87

9 9 5 36

1 0085

2 014 1 028

2 92

1 62

6B32

1 1,075

1 96

1 00

6B28

5 01

2 18

6G29

1 76

8 2

6G35

8 6

8 8

Tab le

4. 7 D istance f ro m R iver a nd Ar tefact Densi ty a t Ha lfan S i tes

S i te

D istance

S i te Area

Area

Dens ity p er

f ro m r iver

s q . mt .

Excava ted

s q . mt .

i n km .

s q . mt .

1 020

2 .4

2 8

1 018

2 .3

2 1

3 75.9

6 24

0 .4

4 50?

8 0

1 20.4

4 43

2 .2

1 50

4 2

1 030.1

2 014

2 .5 4 40

7 9 .0

1 028

2 .2

1 60

6B32

1 .2

3 60

6B28

1

7 20

6G29

1 .4

1 70

6 0

6G35

1 .2

1 00

3 6

3 14.0

4 2

o ft hese c lasses i s made b u t e xc lud ing t he d ebr is a nd t he r esu l t i s s hown i n at hree p o lar d iagra m where t he f i ve s i tes c an b e s een t o h ave b etween 6 0 t O 4 0% f lakes a nd b lades a nd 2 0 t o 4 0% c ores .

T oo l p ercen tages v ary b e tween

1 0 t o 2 0% a t 4s i tes a nd 2 9% a t s i te 1 028 ( F ig . 4 .9 ) . I n terna l D istr ibu t ion o f Ar tefacts De ta i led i nfor ma t ion o n a r tefact d istr ibu t ion i s n o t p rov ided b u t t he e xcava t ions s howed t ha t i n a l l o f t he Ha lfan s i tes t here a re a s er ies o f c onc en tra t ions a round e ar th o vens o r h ear ths ( Marks 1 968 ; T hose f eatures were r epor ted a t 6o ft he 1 0 s i tes.

I rw in e t a l . 1 968) .

A t s i te 1 020 p ar ts o f t hree

e ar th o vens were d iscovered a bou t t hree metres a par t , t he l argest was 2 .5 metres l ong b y 1 .5 metres w ide a nd t he sma l lest i s l ess t han o ne metre i n d ia meter .

Each i s a bou t h a lf a me tre d eep . 7 5

Though a r tefacts c oncen tra te

T oo ls 1 00

1 0

90

20

30

70

40

60

50

50

60

40

1 028 S

7 0

30

80

20

90

1 0

1 00 Cores

1 0

2 0

3 0

40

5 0

6 0

7 0

80

90

1 00 F lakes &

F ig . 4 .9 :

P ercentage o f S ites (Debr is

Gross Artefact C lasses a t Ha lfanb lades Om itted)

7 6

a round t hese o vens , t here i s n o p a t tern wh ich wou ld s ugges t as pecia l a c t iv i ty a rea ( Marks 1 968c :408) . More e laborate f ea tures were d iscovered a t t he e xcava ted a rea o f s i te 4 43 , i nc lud ing s ix e ar th o vens a nd o ne h ear th . The h ear th was o vo id i n s hape a nd c . 2 5 cm d eep a nd l i ned w i th a s er ies o f b urned s tones. I tc on ta ined b one f rag men ts , c harcoa l a nd s tone a r tefacts . T he e ar th o vens g enera l ly h ave a n amorphous s hape o f o ne s quare metre i n s ize w i th n umerous b ones a nd b urned s tones. T he t wo e xcava ted e xa mp les were l oca ted a to pposi te s ides o ft he s i te b o th b eing s im i lar i n s ize a nd s hape a nd t he amoun t o f a r tefacts a ssoc ia ted w i th t he m .

T here i s , h owever , n o s ign i f ican t d if ference

i nt he t ypo logy o ft he t oo ls o r d eb i tage f ound i n t he m ( i b id :443) .

A t t h is s a me

s i te f i ve o str ich s hel l b eads h ave b een d iscovered , t he o n ly o nes t o b e f ound i n aHaI lan c on tex t .

O ne c o mp le te a nd o ne f rag men tary b ead s how t he e labora te

t echn ique i n t heir p roduc t ion wh ich i nvo lves s urface mod if ica t ion a nd p iercing ah o le a bou t 4 mm i n d iameter ( i b id :434-5) . S im i lar h ear ths a nd o vens h ave b een o bserved a t f our o ther s i tes ( 1 018, 1 020 , 6B28, 6G35) a nd t hose men t ioned c an s erve a s a n e xa mp le . T he p resence o f t hese l arge o vens a nd t he n a ture o f o ccupa t ion j ust d escribed i nd ica te t ha t t hese s i tes r epresen t t he ma ter ia l r ema ins o f sma l l g roups o f p eop le .

T he a pparen t l ack o f s pec if ic a ct iv i ty a reas

may h owever , s uggests t ha tt hey were t he c en tre o f n u merous e xp lo i ta t ive a c t iv i t ies . Raw Ma ter ia l U t i l iza tion D istr ibu t ion o f r aw ma ter ia l t ypes a dds more t o t he n o t ion s uggested a bove . T he t ypes a nd p ercen tages o f e ach minera l i n t oo ls a nd c ores i s g iven i n Tab le 4 .8 a nd i n ag raph ic f or m i n F igs. 4 .10 , 4 .11.

Though a bou t f i ve t ypes were

u sed t he a sse mb lages a re d om ina ted b y t he u se o f N i le c her t . 9 0% a t s even s i tes a nd a bove 8 0% a t t he o ther t hree .

I ta t ta ins a bove

A l though i ti s a dm i t ted

a s Marks h as p o in ted o u t t ha t t he d ec ided c ho ice o f N i le c her t may b e ac u l tura l o ne ( i b id :459 ) , i tc an b e a dded t ha t t he h eavy r e l iance o n N i le c her t s te mmed p ar t ly f ro m t he c on t inuous o ccupa t ion o f t he a ncien t f l ood p la in i n wh ich t h is ma ter ia l i s r ead i ly a va i lab le. A s move men t i n land h as b eco me r estr icted t hrough t ime o ther ma ter ia ls w ere g radua l ly a bandoned .

N i le c her t p redo m i-

n ance might r ef lect t he r ea l iza t ion o f i t s s u i tab i l i ty t o t he p roduc t ion o f t he c haracter ist ic m icro l i th ic Ha lfan t oo ls. C onc lusions The d a ta s u m mar ized a bove , d esp i te many u ncer ta in t ies g ives v a luab le i nd ica t ions a s t o t he c hang ing p a t terns o f s et t le men t i n s pace a nd t ime . T he f o l low ing p o in ts a re s uggested b y t hese d a ta : 1 .

Tha t a l l o ft he s i tes w i th wh ich t h is s tudy d ea ls c an b e c lassif ied a s

h ab i ta t ion s i tes .

The workshopl ike s i tes 1 033 , N 91, N 20 i n t he M idd le

P a laeo l i th ic g roup h ave a r easonab le n umber o f r e touch t oo ls wh ich warran t t he ir i nc lusion .

I ti s , t herefore , v a l id t o u nder take a c o mpara t ive s tudy o f

t hese a sse mb lages i n a n a t te mp t t o f ind a n e xp lana t ion f or t he v ar iab i l i ty o bserved i n t heir a r tefac t c o mposi t ion . 2 .

T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic g roup i s d iv ided i n to t wo :

t hose l oca ted

a long t he r iver b anks a nd t hose a l i t t le i n land o n t he i nse lbergs.

The b road

c on te mporane i ty o f t hose s i tes h ave b een d e monstra ted b eyond r easonab le d oub t a nd , t herefore , t ak ing a l l t he s i tes a s u n i ts o f o ne s yste m may y ie ld 7 7

4 . > • N

0 C . )

C Y 0

S andstone

C l ) < 1 . ) 0 C l ) 72 )

I rw in e t a l . 1 968)

•

g • , n

( 9 )

c ' J C . )

C l )

O i " • 4

0 0

C O C O C • • • • 0 0 1 1 0

C D 0, C • • • • • • 1 1 M C D

C • •

C O t s * 1 0 / 1 • • • • C D C Z 0 0 0 0 r 1

•

1 1

L C ) C O • • • 0 C D C D

C C > C : 5 " Z 4 ' 1

C I ) 0

c d

0

C O

C l c p CO C O C O • • • • • • • • • C D 0 c q C D c Y 3 C D C I t " ' "

C / 2

•

0

C f )

1 . 0 •

C l

C D

0

•

•

C >

1 1

CD

C -

0

C . -

•

•

•

•

•

CD

CD

C >

r f

L C Z

E 1

• C ID

c . r 1 ( 1 ) N

0

•

( / )

C Y Z

C O

•

•

•

C C D C Y Z • • • r I

C d C l

0

•

c n

• • 0 C D

c q

•

C d 1 , 4

C . )

0

•

• • • C D C D C Z

c o c m

C l

• • • • • c l C Z ) C Z e l T 4

C r J N • • r f

• • • • t Y3 CD r 4 C ' D

r . . 1

•

C d

\
c p C . )

•

c r )

C \ 1 •

•

•

•

•

C Z

C T >

C ' D

C >

C v D

•

•

•

•

•

C O c o c o i r D C l C ) 00 a ) c n o . ) 0 c z

c u C l ) , 4 0

• e i I n • •

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c z c z c z m cz CO

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S ITE 20 14

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S ITE1028

9 D

8 0

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C ore s

-

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8 0,

8 0

9 0

7 0

6 0

6 0

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5 0

5 0

4 0

4 0

4 0

3 0

3 0

3 0

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3 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

1 0

%

4 /.

C

P recambr ian

6 0

4 , 0. . A 0

a -

7 7 Z

S ITE 6 24

8 0

' 70 1 % ,

7 0

P recamb r ian

4 0

F errocre te

5 0

P recambr ian

5 0

N i le p ebb ie e

5 0

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r .

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T oo ls -_ .C o re s

4 0

F ig. 4 .11

U t i l izat ion o f Raw Mater ia l Types

P recamb r ia n

a t ' Ha ifa Comp lex S i tes

9 5

9 5 9 0

z o

8 0

8 0

7 0

7 0

7 0

G O

6 0

G O

5 0

5 0

5 0

1 . 0

4 0

4 6

3 0

3 0

3 0

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2 0

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1 0

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0

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9 0

P re camb r ian

G O

_ n 0 .

0

8 0

S ITE 6G35

P recambr ian

S ITE 6G29

S ITE 6B32

u sefu l i nfor ma t ion a s t o h ow t he P reh istor ic p opu la t ion e xp loi ted t he t err i tory d ef ined a t t he e nd o f C hap ter I I .

Hav ing d iscussed t he d istr ibu t iona l d a ta

a bove Iwou ld a rgue t ha t t hose s i tes l oca ted o n t he f l ood p la in ( Khor musan ) w ere s easona l c a mps v isi ted e very t ime t he r iver r ecedes d ur ing i t s l ong h is tory ( Chap ter I ) . Dur ing t hese r ecessiona l p er iods t he f l ood p la in a nd i t s f r inges p rov ided a bundan t g a me , w ide v ar iet ies o fw i ld p lan ts a nd p er manen t p oo ls. Dur ing ma jor f l oods a cco mpan ied b y i ncreased l oca l r a infa l l t he s avanna r eg ion b ecame more f avourab le f or o ccupa t ion a nd t he s urv ived r e ma ins o ft hose o ccupa t ions a re n ow f ound o n t op o f i nse lbergs a nd o ld p ed i ments . The a ssump t ion i s , t herefore , t ha t t here i s ar e la t ionsh ip b etween s i tes o n t he f l ood p la in a nd t hose o n t he i nse lbergs a nd t hey a l l i nd icate a s ys te m o f a l terna t ing s et t le men t p a t tern . T est ing o f t h is h ypo thesis r ests o n p o in t ing o u t t he s im i lar i t ies a nd d if ferences b etween t he c u l tura l r e ma ins a t e ach g roup o f s i tes a nd a ccoun t ing f or t hose v ar ia t ions .

I n tersi te a nd i n trasi te

d a ta may i nd ica te t ha t t he sma l ler Mouster ian s i tes r epresen t t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f d ispersed g roups o fp eop le d ur ing we t c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions wh ich r endered t he h i l ly c oun try f avourab le f or h uman o ccupa t ion . S i tes o n t he who le w ere l oca ted o n r aw ma ter ia l s ources .

T he l arger Khor musan s i tes o n t he

o ther h and c an b e s een t o r epresen t t he a ggrega t ions o ft hese g roups a long t he r iver b anks d ur ing t he r ivers r ecessiona l p er iods. T he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he Mouster ian/Khormusan s i tes i n t he e xp lo i ta t ion t err i tory d escribed a bove g ives v a luab le i n for ma t ion o n t he t ype a nd n a ture o f s e t t le men t d ur ing t he M idd le P a leo l i th ic p er iod .

I ti s e xpected t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i n s et t le men t t ype

wou ld r e la te t o t he v ar iab i l i ty i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , a s i nd ica ted b y t he s pecif ic a ct iv i ty a reas a t s o me o ft he K hor musan s i tes. 3 .

B y t he Ha lfan t imes ( 2 5 ,000-15 ,000 B . C . )a r id c l i ma t ic c ondi t ions

p rogressive ly p reva i led a nd h uman s et t le men t was g enera l ly l im i ted t o t he f l ood p la in a nd i t s i mmed ia te f r inges ( Chap ter I I ) . T he v a l ley was t hen c on t inuous ly i nhab i ted b y v ar ious c u l tura l g roups among wh ich were t he H a lfans.

T h is i s s een i n t he d ist inct ively d if feren t i ndus tr ies d a ted t o t h is

p er iod ( Chap ter V I I ) .

The c on t inuous s et t le men t i s i nd ica ted b y t he a bsence

o f Ha lfan o r o ther c on te mporary g roups o u tside t he f l ood p la in , t he s ize a nd c o mposi t ion o ft hese s i tes a nd t he p redo m inance o ft he l oca l ly a va i lab le N ile P ebb les i n t he p roduct ion o f a r tefacts.

The Ha lfan a sse mb lages , h owever ,

s hows t ha t t he s pec tru m o f a ct iv i t ies , a s c ou ld b e i n ferred f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , was u n ifor m a nd t here i sn o d irec t e v idence f or s pecif ic a ct iv i ty a reas.

8 1

CHAPTER V MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL I NDUSTR IES

Th is c hap ter p rov ides a d escr ip t ion o f t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a t tr ibutes o f t he Mouster ian , K hor musan , D ongo la a sse mb lages a nd H a lfan a nd c o m men ts o n t he methods t hat were a pp l ied b y Marks a nd o thers i n p res en t ing t hese a t tr ibutes .

S uch c o m men ts a nd o thers a re b ased o n ac r i t ica l

r ev iew o f t he l i terature a nd o n t he p ersona l e xa m ina t ion o f t he a ctua l d ata . T he a na ly t ica l me thod a pp l ied b y Marks t o t he N ub ian Mouster ian i s t ha t o r ig ina l ly d ev ised b y F . B ordes f or s tudying F rench Mouster ian s i tes s o me 2 5 y ears a go .

I t was b el ieved t o b e v a l id f or t he N ub ian ma ter ia l a s we l l

( Marks 1 968a :196) .

B ordes ' me thod i s b ased o n e le men tary s ta t ist ics a nd

d ea ls w i th t he t o ta l n u mber o f a r tefacts d iscovered a t a ny s i te . t wo a spects o f t h is method ;

t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l .

There a re

T he t ypo log ica l

a spec t c onsists o f c oun t ing p ercen tages o f t oo l t ype f requencies i n al i s t o f 6 2 t ypes , a nd c a lcu lat ing v ar ious i nd ices f ro m t hese p ercen tages ( App . 4 ) . T he t ypo log ica l i nd ices u sed b y Marks , f o l low ing B ordes a re : Typo log ica l L eva l lo is I ndex ( ILtY ) :

t he p ercen tage o f t ypes 1 t hrough 4 i n t he t o ta l n u mber o f t oo ls .

S ide S craper I ndex ( IR ) :

P ercen tage o ft ypes 9 t hrough 2 9 i n t he t o ta l n u mber o f t oo ls.

C haren t ian I ndex ( I C ) :

P ercen tage o f t ypes 8 , 2 2 t hrough 2 4 i n t he t o ta l n u mber o f t oo ls.

Backed Kn ife I ndex ( IA' ) :

P ercen tage o f t ypes 3 6 a nd 3 7 i n t he t ota l n u mber o ft oo ls.

B iface I ndex ( LB ) :

P ercen tage o fh andaxes i n t he t o ta l n u mber o ft oo ls.

B ordes emp loyed t wo d i fferen t t ypes o fc oun ts , o ne k nown a s t he ' rea l ' wh ich d ea ls w i th t he t ota l n u mber o ft oo ls ( 1-62) a nd t he o ther i s c a l led ' essen t ia l ' o r r estr icted wh ich d ea ls w i th r etouched t oo ls o n ly ; om i t t ing l eva l lois f l akes ( Bordes 1 961, 1 972 :48-54 ) .

t ha t i s

T he t ypo log ica l c oun ts

a re s upp le mented b y t he c a lcu la t ion o f o ther i nd ices k nown a s t he ' character is t ic g roups ' a nd t hese a re : G roup I( Leva l lo is g roup ) :

P ercen tage o ft ypes 1 -4 i n t he t o ta l n u mber o f t oo ls.

G roup I ( Mouster ian g roup ) :

P ercentage o ft ypes 6 -29 i n t he t o ta l n u mber o f t oo ls.

G roup I I ( Upper P a laeo l i th ic G roup ) :

Group I V ( Den t icu la te g roup ) :

P ercen tage o ft ypes 3 0-37 a nd t ype 4 0 . ( The l a t ter was n o t u sed b y Marks.)

P ercen tage o f t ype 4 3. 8 2

The t echno log ica l a spec t o ft he method d ea ls w i th c a lcu la t ion o f t he f o l low ing i nd ices : L eva l lo is I ndex ( IL ) :

F acet ing I ndex ( IF ) :

P ercen tage o f L eva l lo is f lakes a nd b lades r etouched o r n o t i n t he t o ta l c o l lec t ion . P ercen tage o f c onvex , d ihedra l a nd p la in f aceted b u t ts i nt he t o ta l n u mber o f r ecogn izab le b u t ts.

R estr icted F ace t ing I ndex (i fs ) :

P ercen tage o f c onvex a nd p la in f aceted b u t ts t he t o ta l n umber o f r ecogn izab le b u t ts .

. i n

L am inary I ndex ( IB ) :

P ercen tage o f a l l b lades , L eva l lo is o r n o t i n t he t o ta l n u mber o f f l akes , b lades a nd p o in ts .

By c o mb in ing t hese t wo t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a spec ts t he c u mu la t ive p ercen tages o f t oo l t ypes c an b e p resen ted i n ag raph ic f or m t o f ac i l i tate v isua l c o mpar isons b etween a sse mb lages.

U sing t h is method B ordes d ef ined a n umber

o f Mouster ian i ndus tr ies i n F rance .

Each i s c haracter ized b y ah igh p ercen tage

o f p ar t icu lar t oo l t ypes a nd e ach h as a n u pper a nd a l ower l im i t f or a ny o ft he i nd ices d escr ibed a bove . Accord ing t o B ordes e ach i ndus try r epresen ts a d iscrete c u l tura l t rad t ion ( Bordes 1 972 :53) . The B ordes me thod , h owever , h as b een c r i t ic ized b y s o me a u thor i t ies i n t he f i eld .

Wh i le i t emphasizes t he impor tance o f t he morpho log ica l c harac-

t er ist ic o f s tone a r tefacts i ti gnores ma jor a spects o fv ar iab i l i ty c aused b y d if ferences i n r aw ma ter ia l t ypes a nd s ize o f t he a r tefacts . These l im i ta t ions w ou ld , h owever , c ast d oub ts o n i t s a pp l icab i l i ty i n au n iversa l manner . McBurney , f or i nstance , a rgues t ha t " a l though t hey may ( u n iversa l me thods ) g ive a n a pparen t ly i mpart ia l d escr ip t ion o f t wo a sse mb lages , h ave t he d anger o f f orcing o ne o r b o th i n to a p reconceived f ra mework wh ich may e nd u p b y min im izing r a ther t han b r ing ing o u t t heir t rue c haracter a nd t he ir d i fferences" ( McBurney 1 967 :13 ) .

I ti s h oped t o p o in t o u t s uch p rob le ms t ha t wou ld emerge

f ro m s tr ic t ly a pp ly ing t he method t o t he N ub ian d a ta .

Marks h as a lready

n oted s uch d if f icu l t ies when h e f ound t ha t t he Nub ian Mouster ian h as o n ly b e tween 2 1 a nd 2 9 t ypes o ft he o r ig ina l 6 2 t ypes i n t he B ordes l i st . H e a lso d id n o t u se t ypes 4 6 t hrough 4 9 ( p ieces w i th minor a l terna te r etouch ) b ecause t he Mouster ian a r tefac ts c o me f ro m t he s urface a nd s uch l i gh t r e touch c ou ld b e a cciden ta l ( Marks 1 968a :282) . N ew c ore t ypes , o n t he o ther h and , w ere a dded t o t he o r ig ina l l i st . a re ;

These

P ara-Leva l lo is , marg ina l a nd Nub ian t ype Ia nd I c ores ( s ee A ppend ix

5) . T he Den t icu la te Mous ter ian The D en t icu la te Mouster ian i s r epresen ted b y s i tes 1 000 a nd 3 6B , b o th c harac ter ized b y h igh p ercen tage o f d en t icu la tes a nd a g enera l p auci ty o f o ther t oo l t ypes ( Tab le 5 .1, F ig . 5 .2) .

Desp i te a d if ference i n t he d en t icu la te

a nd s craper i nd ices t he c u mu la t ive g raph s hows t ha t t he t wo s i tes a re g enera l ly s im i lar i n t heir t oo ls c o mposi t ion ( i b id :282, Tab les 5 .2 , 3 , 4 , F ig . 5 .5) . Den t icu la tes f ro m s i te 1 000 a re d escr ibed a s more e labora te i n r etouch t han t hose a t s i te 3 6B .

T he work ing e dge i s f or med o f macro-no tches a nd i s e i ther

l a tera l , b i la tera l o r t ransverse ( i b id :206 , 2 13 ) .

8 3

Tab le 5 .1

Den t icu la te Mous terian :

Tool Typo logy

S i te 1 000

B ordes Type N o .

%

( Marks :1968) S i te 3 6B

R%

N o .

%

1

3 3

1 7.9

1 3

7 .9

2

2 0

1 0.8

1 0

6 .1

3

_

_

-

5 9

2 _

1 .1

1 .6

_

R%

^

2

1 .1

1 .5

3

1 .8

2 .2

1 0

3

1 .6

2 .4

4

2 .4

2 .9

1 1

1

0 .5

0 .8

6

3 .7

4 .4

_

1

0 .6

6 .7

1 6

_

_

1 7

-

-

-

1

0 .6

0 .7

2 3

_

_

_

1

0 .6

0 .7

2 5

4

2 .2

3 .2

5

3 .0

3 .6

2 8 2 9

1 _

0 .5 _

0 .8 _

1

0 .6

0 .7

3 0

2

1 .1

1 .6

-

3 1

1

0 .5

0 .-

5

3 .0

3 .6

2

1 .2

1 .2

3 3

1

0 .5

0 .8

3 4

3

1 .6

2 .4

4

2 .2

3 .2

4

2 .4

2 .9

_

_

1

0 .6

0 .7

3

1 .8

2 .2

5 .5

6 .6

3 5 3 7

_

3 8

5

2 .7

4 .0

3 9

1

0 .5

0 .8

4 0

1

0 .5

0 .8

9

4 2

2 8

1 5.2

2 2.4

2 4

1 4.6

1 7.5

4 3

6 0

3 2.4

4 8.0

4 3

2 6.2

3 1.3 4 .4

4 4

2

1 .1

1 .6

6

3 .7

4 5

6

3 .2

_

4

2 .4

1 -

_

_

5 0

_

-

5 1

-

-

-

2

1 .2

1 .5

5 2

_

_

_

2

1 .2

1 .5

6

3 .7

4 .4

6

3 .7

4 .4

5 3

2

1 .1

1 .6

5 4

3

1 .6

2 .4

1

0 .5

0 .8

6 2

1 84

-

1 64

LZ 9 9 110E99 ' 10-E9 9 . 7 00Z

' EMNV ' 07E

• V‚E ' OZN • S1 46 N •9N

c f )

04747 C )

. 81

" F t s '

t 21 .

' 7 51

9 •l EEOL

a ,

C e

c n

E EOL

c f )

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C )

9E OL 5 E0 1 . ( 3 -0LOL g9 E 0 00 1 .

P l d C)

c • s 3

0

0

CZ ,

U t09 10E39 1 0E09 4 7 00Z

EMNV 0 47 E L LOL / E O Z .N S L L 6N 9 N

0I ' M O f

•9 l EE04 f l EEOL 8 E01 , ,L EOL

9 E0 l .

5 E01 . 8OW L

s z a

l e •— •

0

P ercentages o f L eva l lo is F lakes a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S i tes

e-Z N

Tab le 5 .2

Den t icu la te Mouster ian a nd S i te 4 40 T echno log ica l I nd ices ( S i te 4 40 :wri ter )

S i te

I L

I F

I Fs

1 000

1 4 .3

4 9.7

2 7 .3

3 6B

1 1.6

3 3.6

2 0.6

8 .8

2 8.4

1 5.7

4 40

Tab le 5 .3

D en t icu la te Mous ter ian a nd S i te 4 40 :

I La me

C o mp le te Typo log ica l I ndices

S i te

I LtY

I R

I C

I AU

I

I

I I

I V

1 000

2 8.7

6 .0

1 .6

0 .0

2 8.7

7 .2

5 .9

3 2.4

3 6B

1 4 .0

1 3 .3

3 .0

0 .6

1 4.0

1 4.8

7 .2

2 6 .2

4 40

1 6 .5

1 2.5

1 .5

0 .0

1 6 .5

1 2.5

5 .0

4 5.2

Tab le

5 .4 Den t icu la te Mouster ian a nd S i te 4 40 :

R estr ic ted Typo log ica l

I nd ices S i te

I L tY

I R

I C

I AU

I

I T

I I

I V

1 000

0 .0

7 .2

2 .4

0 .0

0 .0

9 .6

8 .0

4 8.0

3 6B

0 .0

1 5.8

3 .6

0 .7

0 .0

1 7 .4

8 .7

3 1.3

4 40

0 .0

1 5.0

1 .8

0 .0

0 .0

1 5.0

6 .0

5 4.5

The c ore t ypo logy s hows s o me d if ferences i n t ha t t here a re more L eva l lo is c ores a t s i te 1 000 t han a t s i te 3 6B wh ich h as more marg ina l c ores ( Tab le 5 .5) . Marks a t tr ibu ted t h is t o d i f ferences i n t he t ypes o f f errocre te s andstone u sed , wh ich i s f ine g ra ined a t s i te 1 000 a nd c oarse g ra ined a t s i te 3 6B . The s a me r eason ing i s o f fered t o a ccoun t f or t he d if ference i n t he F ace t ing I ndex wh ich i s h igher a t s i te 1 000 ( i b id :281, Tab le 5 .2) .

He c onc luded t ha t t he t wo

a sse mb lages a re v ery s im i lar a nd b oth r epresen t as eparate f ac ies o f t he Nub ian Mousterian w h ich i s c o mparab le t o t he Den t icu la te Mous ter ian o f Europe .

F o l low ing B ordes h e f ur ther a rgued t ha t t he t wo s i tes b elong t o t he

' Dent icu la te Mous ter ian w i thou t L eva l lo is Deb i tage" wh ich i s d escr ibed a s h av ing a L eva l lo is I ndex b e tween 4 .9 a nd 1 2.7 ( i b id :300) .

8 7

Tab le 5 .5

D en t icu la te Mouster ian :

Type

C ore Typo logy ( Marks : 1968)

S i te 1 000 No .

L eva l lo is B lade L eva l lo is F lake

3

7 .3

1

2.6

4 1.4

9

P ara-Leva l lo is

3

7 .3

6

1 5.8

Marg ina l

6

1 4.7

9

2 3.7

1

2 .4

1 1 4 1

2 6.8

D isco ida l G lobu lar U n iden t if iab le

1 7

S i te 3 6B N o .

.

2 3.7

-

-

1 1 3 3 9

2 .6 3 3.2

S i te 4 40 T h is a sse mb lage b ears s im i lar i t ies t o t he D en t icu la te Mous ter ian j us t d escr ibed b u t h as n ot b een i ncluded i n t ha t g roup b ecause o f i t s d ispu ted s tra t igraph ica l p osi t ion ( Sh iner 1 968b :637 , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 :130 , C hap ter 1 1 :65) . s urface .

T he a r tefacts c o me f ro m t wo e xcava ted l ayers a nd f ro m t he

T he l a t ter i s b el ieved t o h ave b een d er ived f ro m b o th l ayers

( Sh iner 1 968b :630) . S hiner d escr ibed 2 71 t ools o fw h ich o n ly 1 15 were f rom t he e xcava ted l ayers . The t oo l l i st i s d om ina ted b y d en t icu la tes ( 5 1% ) a nd o ther t ypes s uch a s s crapers a nd U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls o ccur i n sma l l n u mbers ( i b id :631) . Af rag men t o f ab ifacia l f o l ia te was c o l lected f ro m t he s urface .

C ores were n ot k ep t b y t he e xcava tors a nd S h iner r epor ted o n ly

4 5 c ores a nd c ore f rag men ts a nd h e n o ted t ha t t h is p auci ty o f c ores s ugges ts t ha t f l ak ing migh th ave b een u nder taken o u tside t he s i te a rea ( i b id :633 ) .

A

s a mp le o f1 99 t oo ls f ro m b o th t he l ayers a nd t he s urface i s t aken f or a na lysis i n t h is s tudy .

The s a mp le was s ub jected t o t he B ordes method t he r esu l ts o f

wh ich i nd ica te s im i lar i t ies w ith s i tes 1 000 a nd 3 6B .

S i te 4 40 h as t he l owest

L eva l lo is a nd F ace t ing I nd ices b u t t ypo log ica l ly i th as t he h ighest p ercen tage o f d en t icu la tes ( Tab le 5 .2, 5 .4 , 5 .6 , F ig . 5 .2, 5 .3 ) . The c umu la t ive g raph i nd ica tes a n o vera l l s im i lar i ty w i th t he Nub ian Den t icu la te Mouster ian ( F ig . 5 .5 Nub ian Mouster ian Type A S even a sse mb lages f ro m s i tes 1 010-8 , 1 033 ( 2l ayers ) , 1 035 , 1 036 , 1 037 a nd 1 038 b elong t o t h is g roup . Wh i le t hey may b e g rouped t ogether t here a re an u mber o f i n terna l v aria tions i n t ypo logy a nd t echno logy . T he L eva l lo is I ndex v ar ies f ro m 1 1.9 t o 2 5.4 a nd i s c onsidered g enera l ly l ow i n c o mpar ison t o t he o ther Mous ter ian i ndus tr ies d ef ined b y B ordes e lsewhere ( Marks 1 968a : 2 85) .

Ano ther d is t ingu ish ing f ea ture i s t he l ow l eve l o ft he B lade I ndex

( Tab le 5 .10 ) .

Wh i le t he Facet ing I ndex i s g enera l ly s im i lar a t Mouster ian

t ype A s i tes t here a re d if ferences i n t he r estr icted F ace t ing I ndex ( Tab le 5 .9 ) . T he p ropor t ion o f r etouched t oo ls i s g enera l ly c o mparab le a t a l l t hese s i tes b u t s i tes 1 033 , 1 036 a nd 1 037 h ave more n u merous L eva l lo is f l akes. Marks a rgues t ha t a par t f ro m t h is d if ference i n t he o ccurrence o f L eva l lo is f l akes , t he a sse mb lages a re h o mogeneous ( i b id :286 , F igs . 5 .3 , Tab les 5 .7 , 5 .8 ) . 8 8

Tab le 5 .6

S i te 4 40 :

T oo l Typo logy

B ordes Type

( wr i ter )

N o .

R%

1 2

2 6 3

1 3.0 1 .5

3

3

1 .5

4

1

0 .5

0 .6

9 1 1

9 4

4 .5 2 .0

5 .4 2 .4

1 2

1

0 .5

0 .6

1 4

2

1 .0

1 .2

1 7

2

1 .0

1 .2

1 8

1

0 .5

0 .6

1 9

1

0 .5

0 .6

2 2

3

1 .5

1 .8

2 5 3 0

2 5

1 .0 2 .5

1 .2 3 .0

3 2

5

2 .5

3 .0

4 0

3 .5

4 .2

4 2

2 0

7

1 0.0

1 2.1

4 3 4 8

9 0 2

4 5.2 1 .0

5 4 .5 1 .2

6 2

1 2

6 .0

7 .2

1 99 ( Sa mp le )

Thus t he d ef in i t ion o f Mouster ian t ype A r el ies ma in ly o n t he r es tric ted t ypo log ica l i nd ices ( Tab le 5 .11) wh ich s how t ha t t he a sse mb lages a re c haract er ized b y ah igh p ercen tage o f U pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd a modera te p ercen tage o f Mouster ian t oo l t ypes.

Marks a rgues t ha t t here i s ap osi t ive c orrela t ion

b etween t he t wo g roups o ft oo l t ypes a nd d esp i te minor v ar ia t ions t he s even a sse mb lages h ave a n ear ly i dent ica l c u mu lat ive g raph ( i b id :286 , F ig . 5 .6 ) . The n u mber o f c ores r epor ted f ro m t hese s i tes s ee ms t o b e t oo sma l l t o a ccoun t f or t he f l akes a nd b lades r ecovered a t t he r espect ive s i tes ( Chap ter I V :F ig . 4 .4) .

Th is may s uggest t hat e i ther l arge f l akes were b rought t o t he

s i tes o r t ha t as a mp l ing p rob le m i s i nvo lved .

T here a re , h owever , d if ferences

i n t he o ccurrence o f t he c ore t ypes r epor ted .

S i te 1 035 a nd 1 038 h ave a

c onsiderab le p ercen tage o ft he N ub ian C ore Type I( 2 1% ) wh i le i ti s a bsen t o r v ery r are a t t he o ther s i tes .

Nuba in C ore Type I i s o n ly f ound a t t hese

t wo s i tes b u t d oes n o t e xceed 2 .1% .

The p ercen tage o f Mouster ian d isco ida l

c ores i s g enera l ly l ow a t a l l o f t hese s i tes e xcep t 1 036 wh ich h ad more t han 1 0% ( Tab le 5 .12 , i b id :287) . N ub ian Mousterian T ype B Th is i s i den t if ied a t o n ly t wo s i tes , 1 21 a nd 6 p ri mar i ly b ecause o f t he p resence o f af ew b ifaces.

The t oo l t ypo logy , a par t f ro m t hese b ifaces , i s

8 9

1 00

9 0

4

6

iT i r, ; I 1 t T i IT I T . r I I, - TT. Ti l l i - I, Tri T I 8 1 0 1 2 1 8 2 2 2 6 2 8 3 0 3 2 3 4 3 6 3 8 4 0 4 2 4 45 152 5 4 5 55759 6 2 1 7 2 0 2 4 5 6586 1

F ig . 5 -4 :

4

6

8

F ig . 5 -5 :

Cu mu lat ive

1 0

1 218 1 7 2 0

2 2 2 4

2 6

2 8

g raph . Mouster ian T ype B

3 0

3 2

3 4

3 6

3 8

4 0

4 2

Cu mu lat ive g raph . Dent icu late a nd

s ite 440 9 0

4 45 152

5 455575962 5 6586 1

Mouster ian

e l ' e l 1 1 • • • I C ) C Z 1 4

1

C Z

C Z

C Z

•

•

•

C . -, C Z 1

C : ).

r;

C . . I CI▪

1

C C v • •

" I 0 0 r 4 • • • 1 1

•

1

I n

C

•

L t Z 1 -4

•

•

I C)

1

o

•

N

o fn •

•

•

e

C

•

o •

1 . 0 •

, z 1 4 t ' 1 C e o o o o • • • • • • • 0 r I CI N 0 0 0

. 1

0

•

e

o '

e q' c

L • • •

.

0

N•

CC e N • • • 0 : I rt

C Z

I C • o

I

I

I L f 3•

I

I

I

I

•

r 4

C Z

C M

C 7 3

I

L C•

C Z•

•

C C

e

l

e t. C Z. 1 0.

0 0

•

e t

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0

C O

I

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0 • CZ•

1 1

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4 4

C D

C M

c e

1 , L I Z L C • • •

r l

•

0

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N

0

0 0

I n

r I

C D

( X )

1

•

C f ) r 4

0 0

1 4

c o

T oo l t ypo logy ( Marks : 19 68)

•

C O

C T D

• • 0 c \ 1

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N

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Bordes ' Type

0 0

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CD r 4

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t • • r I

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< =7 ,

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1 1

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CD N

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I

C Z C 9

L I Z C D G O • • • " : 11

N c e ce oz

m

m VD C C C Z C Z C Z C q 12 2 • • • • • • • • • • • C Z C Z C 9 1 4 C Z C Z L Z CN 1 C Z

co e c q c z •

•

i n

CD

[ S D • r 1

e

•

•

7 14 e l

•

•

CD

CD

e

C D r 4

• • • • • • C D C l C A C D C D e l r I

G O

G O r 4

C n r 4

•

r z c e D

G •

•

o o

CD

•

•

r -

I n

c e e i t r z

r 4

• • • c p c q c q

CD

•

I f Z L C Z 0 0 0 C V C V C q T -4 • • • • • • • • • C V C V 0 r 4 r 1 r f

e c o t - t -

0

.

C Z • U Z

1

e

c , zc o c o c o c o c . c ) •

• • • • r I C Y D Ce C >

c e D

V D • • • ' C D C D e

C q

•

7 1,

0 e i C D

• • • r I 0 0 1 1 v 4

7 11

•

•

c o e

e i

C O

I n

00

' e l

4

•

•

C 0

•

•

1

r 4

e s i D

•

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r I

1 1

1 1

C . 0

C Y D

•

•

(C

O C )

I

0 0 ICM

C D U Z • • C Z C Z

CD

•

e

0 e i

r . 4 U Z

0

t -

r 4

• • • • c i c ) CD c e j c m i n

CD r4

•

I

v 4

C 5 3

0 IC L c " D 1 4 C N 1

L O

• • •

1

C D

C D

e

•

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U Z

1 1

c e

C Z

CD

•

•

CO CO •

•

c . , 1 C

00

C Y D

•

•

C \ I

r i 1 4

CZ

C Z

L C D 0 0 0 0 • • • C Z

.

( 3-J •

r f

B ordes ' Type

c q

c f j c n

fi

1

I

i n

I 0

1

up oz c yz cz

1

N. rz

I

CD

CZ

C O 0 0 1 1 e i r f • • • • • O ' D r I 0 0 C S ) r 4

C Z ) •

• C N 1

1 _ 0

I

e i Ir D e s1 r I r 4

1 1

•

C Y ) 1 1

c

•

C C ) r4

0 0 0Z ( 0 C9 cz cz ,e e

I 4

4 _ 4 0 •

C Z L C D 1 1 • . • • C Z 7 1, CD 1 1 r I

e C I

0 0

C I

C . C D •

r I •

GO i

1 3•

e i

cZ 7 1 4 t r z ii ,e - e -e i L C Z

9 2

C . 0 IC D CO

C D

m t r D

I

•

0 01 CM -

e co cq L C D C . 0

S i te 1 033L

•

e

•

o o e • •

,

c z , C) r . 4 L ' • t • • C I t • • • • • • • • •

C D N

C O 1 4

M t4 C .

C D

i l

C D

C e e l

0 0 N

C D

v I

C V

r 4

r 1

1

1

•

e

C Y 2 ' e e l C D C Z • • • • N r 4 r I 1 4

r 1

C 9

C l

1.3

N

" e l

i i

i

i

i

i

i

i

1

1

1

1

1

1

CI

C M

C D

•

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1 1

1

C D

C D

•

•

•

0

L I Z •

'

I

I

0

•

r 1

B ordes ' Type

•

I

I

0

•

I 0

1 4

I

C . Z I

1

I

•

I

•

1 4

e

•

c s .

I

0

•

co e

N

t -

e

C v

C M

C 9

1 4

N

C Y 3

V D

C D

0 r . 4

1 4 r i

1 1

C 9 v 4

C Y D 1 . . 1

1

I

I

'

1

1

1

C • r 1

C M v I

L O v

9 3

i ce.

1

C

C

I

c e i i

I

•

I

M

e )

•

1 1

0

C D

e

C D •

0

r 1

N

0 N

1 1 N

•

C >

•

0

N

N

•

•

•

c z

( D

M

•

•

•

•

C >

r . 4

1 1

e

•

C S) •

c . o e l • • I C Z 0

o 0

N

I n

•

I n N

I

I

•

e

•

• e

c >

e

•

I O

1

C O N

L . C D C Z

CD CO LO C .0 • • •

L i z o

1 4

1

N

N

•

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t i i c e ;

c D ce c e c e c )

r 1

•

0

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r: f

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•

0

1 4

•

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c .

N .

I c z c o

•

0

e

•

CT " 1 1

l

1 . 0

•

I

e l i n r 4 c o c e •

I

L . C D

•

I

C ) C M C D C e • • • •

C • l

1

0 i

o C ) Q C ) t -- O C ) • • • • N C ' D

N N

I .

• e i

1 1

( X ) N

o•

e e • • • M e l 0

1 1

C -

C Z N

0 c e

0 r i

N C e

S i te 1 033 L

0 0

t-

• C N

C D•

•

c -

0 0

•

•

0 0

C O

C l

•

•

•

_

c \ 1

1

S i te 1 033U

C O 1 4

C .

N

•

0 0

CO

•

•

C O " e 4 r I 1 0 • • • • G o C Z 1 1 1 4 r I

C Z •

L s " .

00

•

•

C l

r 4

CO r I C O • z t i • • • • • " e C D L O GI N

C l

C • C D

•

r4

t-

r 4

1 4

• r• • 4

e

C >

C D

•

•

•

•

1

C Z

C O

•

•

• C

C YJ CD • • N

c e

c q

c e Io o 7 11

e

I

(

c >

0 0 N • •

i

I

1Z

II

s e 0 3c z

•

•

e c i e

1

" e 4

' e • • r 4 r I

C l

• • co c q r 1

L s - 0 0 00 • • • • N C O C > 0 • 4

N

O " e l C D • • • r I 1 1 r I

i n

1 ( 3

•

v I

0

•

1

CO mt + • • I r I CO

r 1

0 0

0

•

c q

C S : D •

7 1,

C D C l

c s o l

• 1

o o

1

C S >

l

c )

1

c z.

CO

r 4

0 0

C Z • c )

•

t -

4 1-J

1

C . C D •

CO • c Y z

C l 1

C l

10 II n

C . ) Go 1 0

Bordes ' Type

C l

C O C O

C O

I n CO

G0 CO

C s CO

C l ) C O

C Z C O

el

C l et

C O

' e l

1 0

s e s e

9 4

r 4 1 0

C O i n

i n

z s z, C l i n c c

Tab le

5 .9

I nd ices

Nub ian Mouster ian Type A : 1 036

1 033L

T echno log ica l I nd ices

1 033U

( Marks :1968)

1 037

1 038

1 035

1 010-8

I L

4 .9

8 .3

7 .0

1 1.6

1 8.7

2 1.7

2 5.4

I F

5 2.6

4 3.7

4 6 .8

4 3.0

5 4.1

6 9.3

3 0.8

I FS

2 5.6

1 5.2

1 7 .9

1 5.4

3 0.1

3 8.6

2 1.8

3 .2

1 2.7

.9 .8

6 .0

1 1.0

7 .8

3 .5

I La me

T ab le

5 .10

Nub ian Mous ter ian Type A :

C o mp lete Typo log ica l I nd ices

( Marks :1968) I nd ices

1 033L

1 033U

1 035

1 038

1 010-8

1 036

1 037

5 2.0

4 5.4

3 6.7

3 1.0

1 6 .8

1 0.2

1 0.8

E R

8 .0

1 1.2

1 0.1

1 3.2

1 2.7

2 1.6

1 9.8

I C

2 .6

3 .4

2 .2

5 .3

3 .5

3 .8

3 .4

Mu

1 .3

1 .4

1 .6

0 .9

0 .0

1 .2

4 .5

I

5 2.0

4 5.4

3 6.7

3 1.0

1 6 .8

1 0.2

1 0.8

I

8 .7

1 2.6

1 1.2

1 5.0

1 3 .8

2 2.0

1 9.8

I I

7 .4

9 .1

1 0.9

1 4.2

1 5.1

1 4.4

2 3.6

F V

1 0.8

5 .9

1 2.5

1 2.0

1 3.9

1 0.2

1 0.8

I L tY

Tab le

5 .11

Nub ian Mouster ian Type A :

Restr icted Typo log ica l I nd ices

( Marks :1968) I nd ices I L tY

1 033L

1 033U

1 035

1 038

1 010-8

1 036

1 037

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

E R

1 6 .8

2 1.0

1 5.8

1 9 .3

1 6 .7

2 3.6

2 3.7

I C

5 .6

6 .4

3 .6

7 .8

4 .5

4 .5

4 .0

Mu

2 .8

2 .8

2 .7

1 .3

0 .0

1 .5

5 .2

I

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

I

1 8 .2

2 3.8

1 7 .6

2 1.9

1 8.2

2 4.1

2 3.7

I I

1 5.4

1 7 .5

1 8.0

2 0.8

1 9.7

1 7.0

2 6.8

r y

2 2.4

1 1.1

1 9.8

1 7.9

1 8.2

1 2.2

1 2.5

9 5

1 2 3 •

t O

1 . 0 C l

1 4

• C ' e

• L c D

0 C l

. : 1 4

O D •

1 4 • 1 . 0 C l

1 0 • r • r I

GO r I

1 4

•

L r z

( Af ter Marks : 1968)

C O

• r I C o

0

e

N ub ian Mouster ian Type A :

e l •

e z I • 1 • o o C O

o I

I

I

I

C O •

0 0 •

0 0

C l

C l

r I

r 1

I C D •

I

C l • C l

C Z • C l

L I Z

C l

e l

0 0

I

0

• 4 C l

I

1 1 • C l

1 . 1

Ci e)

0 0 • C O

v . 1 • 0 r I

I

C > •

C Z

I

I

e4

C l

C l

I

I

C O • 0 0

I

I

C l

7 14

C O

o

t • 1 4

t • • • t • • r I

C O

o o

o o

• 1 3

' • C l

c

C O

1 . 0

T a '

7 d 1

; 1

9 6

• , 4 l i

I

0

MI « ) " A IC e

0 C l

I

C l • c e C l

C V C 0

; • A c d

31

0

, C 2

Z 1

7 3

c n • r f

r I

i s z

I

I

bn

C l C l

I

1 1

c d

C l C l

I

C l

•

I

co

P ara-Leva l lo is

I

t " •

•

C O

N ub ian Type I

C l

Nub ian Type I

L eva l lo is F l

e l

C C

C I D

C l

L eva l lo is P o in t

L eva l lo is B lade

c )

t O

1 0 • r I

1 4 1 C l

I : • ' 4 1 4

1 4

o • C . 0

•

C O

C l

r 4

o

•

o

I

0 0 C I

C 0 C Z • . L C ) C D C O C Z

c ) ,

U n iden t if iab le

L e D • t • •

I so la ted F lake

S i te 1 033 L

t O •

I00

90 -

80 -

70 -

S i te S ite S ite -- S ite - - S ite • S ite

80 -

1 035 1 036 1 037 1 038 1 0 10-8 I 033U

50

• • •

30

20

1 0 -

• T

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0 1

: 1 7 2 0

F ig. 5 .6

,

1

1

1

1

T

T

T

I

T

T

I

I

I

•

I

1 2 1 8 2 1 2 2 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 9 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 . S 44 5 1 2 4

Cumu lat ive Graph.

5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 7 5 9 6 2 516 g 8

Mouster ian Type A ( af ter Marks 1 968a)

9 7

s im i lar t o t ha t o f Mousterian t ype A ( i b id :289 ) . T ypo l ig ica l ly t he t wo a sse mb lages a re s im i lar e xcep t t ha t s i te 1 21 l acks b acked k n ives a nd t hus h as a l ow U pper Pa leo l i th ic t oo l I ndex ( Tab les 5 .15 , 5 .16 ) .

A s p resen ted b y Marks t he

t wo a sse mb lages a re c haracter ized b y ah igh p ercen tage o f s ide s crapers , b u t Ih ave o bserved a n u mber o f a dd i t iona l d en t icu la tes a nd n o tches a t s i te 6 . T hese a re s hown b etween b racke ts i n t he t ype l i s t ( Tab le 5 .13 , F ig . 5 .1) . T he L eva l lo is I ndex f a l ls w i th in t he l ower r ange o f Mous ter ian Type A ( Tab le 5 .14 ) . C ore t ypo logy i s d om ina ted b y t he L eva l lo is a nd d iscoida l t ypes wh i le o ther t ypes o ccur i n sma l l n u mbers ( Tab le 5 .17 ) . Marks c onc luded t ha t b oth i n t oo l a nd c ore t ypo log ies Mouster ian T ype A a nd B b e long t o t he s a me i ndus try b u t t he d if ference l i es i n t he p resence o f b ifaces a t Type B .

T h is h owever

n eeds a f ur ther c o m men t a s t he l a t ter a re e xceed ing ly r are a t b o th s i tes. T here i s o ne b i face f ragmen t a t s i te 6 ( i b id :291) . T he o n ly c onv incing p ieces a re t wo b i faces f ro m s i te 6 w h ich a re i l lus tra ted b y Marks ( i b id :289 , F ig . 4 6 , b -c ) .

T he f ragmen ts a re ' d ista l e nds ' a nd i ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e s ure whether

t hey a re p ar t o fh andaxes o r n o t e spec ia l ly when f o l ia tes a re k nown t o o ccur i n M idd le P a laeo l i thic c on tex ts s uch a s t hose d escr ibed b y t he G u ichards ( Gu ichards 1 965 , p ers. o bserva t ion ) . I t mus t b e r e me mbered t ha t b o th s i tes 6a nd 1 21 a re s urface s i tes a nd t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t t he h andaxes were d er ived c anno t b e r u led o u t . I n v iew o f a l l t h is i ti s d if f icu l t t o s ee t heir s ign if icance i n t he o vera l l t oo l t ypo logy .

T he v iew a dop ted h ere , t herefore , i s t ha t t hey

d o n o t warran t t he d iv is ion o ft he N ub ian Mouster ian i n to Type A a nd B . S i te JB ( Jebe l B r in iko l ) The a sse mb lage f ro m J ebe l B r in iko l was o rig ina l ly d escr ibed b y t he G u ichards a s " Nub ian M idd le P a laeo l ith ic I " b u t Marks a rgued t ha t i tc ou ld a lso f i t i n w i th h is Mous ter ian Type B ( Gu ichards 1 965 :86 , Marks 1 968a :298) . There i s , h owever , as a mp l ing p rob le m .

Wh i le Marks a rgued t ha t a n o r ig ina l

s ys te ma t ic c o l lec t ion was made f ro m o ne a rea o f t he J ebe l s urface a nd t hen s p l i t b y mistake b e tween Da l las a nd B ordeaux , t he G u ichards i ns ist t ha t t he t wo c o l lec t ions c o me f ro m d if feren t a reas.

T he l a t ter d escr ibed t he c o l lec t ion

i n t he ir p ossession a s h aving a l ow L eva l lo is I ndex ( 2 4.5) a nd l ack ing Nub ian s ide s crapers , wh ich c haracter ize t he ir Nub ian M idd le P a laeo l i th ic I . T hey a lso n o ted t he p resence o f b i facia l f o l ia tes ( Gu ichards 1 965 :89 ) .

Marks u sed

t h is i n for ma t ion a nd c onc luded t ha t b o th c o l lect ions a re o ne h o mogeneous a sse mb lage ( op . c i t . 2 75) . T o a void t he s a mp l ing p rob le m i nvo lved a nd b ecause Ih ave n o t s een t he c o l lec t ion h e ld a t B ordeaux , my a na lysis d ea ls o n ly w i th t he s a mp le h e ld a t t he S ou thern Method ist U n ivers i ty .

I ti s f ound t ha t t h is l a t ter c o l lec t ion

i nc ludes 3 3 more t oo ls t han h as b een r epor ted b y Marks ( Tab le 5 .13 ).

R e-

s tr icted t oo l t ypo logy i s d om ina ted b y s ide-scrapers , d en t icu la tes a nd n o tches ( Tab le 5 .16 ) .

T echno log ica l ly t he a sse mb lage i s s im i lar t o Mouster ian Type

Be xcep t f or a h igher B lade I ndex a t J ebe l B r in iko l ( Tab le 5 .14) .

The o vera l l

s im i lar i ty w i th Type B i s i nd ica ted b y t he c u mu la t ive g raphs o ft he t hree s i tes ( F ig . 5 .4 ) .

V ery f ew c ores h ave b een r epor ted a nd o ver h a lf o f t hese

a re o f t he L eva l lo is t ype ( Tab le 5 .17 ) .

T he ma in c harac ter ist ics o f t he Nub ian

Mouster ian t herefore a re :1 .

T oo l t ypes a re n o t u sua l ly n umerous a nd many a re a typ ica l w i th p oor r e touch . 9 8

Table

5.13 Mousterian Type B: JB:

writer)

Site

Bordes' Type

6

No.

%

3

35 19 6 7

12. 0 6.5 2.1 2.4

11

8 12 5 1

2.7 4.1 1.7 0.3

1 2

5 6 9 10

12 15 17 18 19 21 22 23 25 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37 38 39 40 42 43 44 45 50 51 53 54 55 62

Tool Typology (Sites

1

%

22 15

16 10.9

·3.1

1

0.7

3.6 5.3 2.2 0.4

3 8 3

0.4 0.7 0.4 0.9 5.8

1.0 3 2.7 8 2.7 8 2 0.7 1.4 4 1.7 5 1.7 5 1.4 4 2.7 8 0.3 1 17 5.8 45 (5) 15.5 33(16) 11.3 3.1 9 2.4 7

1.3 3.6 3.6 0.9 1.8 2.2 2.2 1.8 3.6 0.4 7.6 20.1 14.7 4.0

1 2 13

121

No.

0.3 0.7 0.3 0.7 4.5

2

. Site

R%

4 7

1.4 2.4

1.8 3.1

9 291

3.1

4.0

99

6 and 121 Marks 1968,

R%

Site JB No.

%

H%

1.0

16 14 2 1

8.9 7.8 1.1 0.5

0.7

2.2 5.8 2.2

3.2 8.4 3.2

3 8 8

1. 7 4.5 4.5

2.0 5.4 5.4

1

0.7

1.0

1 1

0.7 0.7

1.0 1.0

3.6

5.3

2 1 5 2 1

1.4 0.7 3.6 1.4 0.7

2.1 1.0 5.3 2.1 1.0

3 2 6 1 3

0.5 1.1 0.5 1.1 1.7 1.] 1.7 4.5 0.6 1.7 1.1 2.4 O.G 1.7

0.7 2.0 0.7 1.3 2.0

5

1 3 1 2 3 2 3 8

0.7 2.0 .3 4.1 0.7 2.0

3

2.1

3.1

6 1 6 14 16 5 5

4.4 0.7 4.4 10.2 11.7 3.6 3.6

6.3 1.0 6.3 14.7 16.8 5.3

5 3 7

2. 8 1.7 3.9

3.4 2 0 4.7

7 14 26 3 5

3.9 7.8 14.5 1.7 2.8

1 7 9

1 2 6

0.7 1.4 4.4

1.0 2.1 6.3

0.7

1.0

2.8 0 6 6.1

4.

1 137

5 1 11 179

1

1.3

2.0 ,- • 1

2 0

0.7 7.5

T ab le

5. 13

( con t .) S i te 6

B ordes ' Type N o .

S i te 1 21

%

R%

N o .

1

p ick

1

R%

B iface f rag men t 1

+c leaver 1 d isc

%

S i te J B N o .

%

R%

B ifaces 1 P icks 2

B i face s ub tr iangu lar 1 B i face c ord ifor m 1 B i face f rag ments 6 To ta l =1 1

Tab le 5 .14

Nub ian Mouster ian Type B :

T echno log ica l I nd ices ( Marks :1968

a nd wr i ter ) S i te

I L

I F

I Fs

I La me

6

6 .3

4 4.1

3 2.8

1 0.5

1 21

7 .9

3 8.9

2 2.9

6 .9

JB

1 0 .1

4 0.6

3 5.1

1 6 .5

Tab le

5 .15

S i te

y I Lt

IR

I C

I Au

I B

6

2 0.6

1 6 .3

4 .8

1 .3

3 .3

1 21

2 6.9

1 7 .3

6 .5

0 .0

JB

1 7 .4

2 6 .5

7 .3

1 .7

Tab le 5 .16 S i te

N ub ian Mouster ian Type B :

C o mp lete Typo log ica l I nd ices I

I

I I

I V

2 0.6

1 9 .1

1 3 .2

1 1.3

0 .7

2 6 .9

1 8.0

8 .5

1 1.7

0 .6

1 7.4

2 7 .1

1 1.3

1 4.5

N ub ian Mousterian Type B :

R estr ic ted Typo log ica l I nd ices

I LtY

I R

I C

I A '

I B

I

I

I I

I V

6

0 .0

2 1.3

6 .6

1 .7

4 .2

0 .0

2 4.4

1 6 .0

1 4.7

1 21

0 .0

2 5.2

9 .4

0 .0

1 .0

0 .0

2 6 .2

1 2.5

1 6.8

JB

0 .0

3 3.5

8 .7

2 .0

0 .6

0 .0

3 4.2

1 3 .5

1 7.8

1 00

T ab le 5 .17

Mous ter ian Type B :

C ore Typo logy

S i te 6

T ype

S i te 1 21

N o . L eva l lo is B lade

4

L eva l lo is F lake

1 9

3

N ub ian Type I

_

P ara-Leva l lo is

5

J ebe l B r in iko l

N o . 4 .0 1 9.0

L eva l lois P o in t N ub ian Type I

( Marks :1968)

2 2 3

N o . 2 .6

2

3 0.3

2

2 .6

3 .0

1

1 .3

-

-

-

5 .0

-

-

Marg ina l

1 6

1 6 .0

1 3

1 7 .1

D iscoida l

1 0

1 0.0

1 1

1 4 .5

1 2

4 1.3

1

3 .4 .

2

6 .8

3 .4

G lobu lar

5

5 .0

1

1 .3

1

B lade

2

2 .0

_

_

_

U n iden ti f iab le

3 6

3 6 .0

1 00

2 .

2 3

3 0.2

7 6

6 .8

1 1

3 7 .9

2 9

I n t he r es tr icted t ypo logy s idescrapers f a l l b e tween 1 5 t o 2 5% e xcep t a t J ebe l B r in iko l wh ich i s j ust o ver 3 0% .

3 . 4 .

V ery f ew b acked k n ives o ccur a nd t hey a re mos t ly a typ ica l . U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo l t ypes h ave a p ercen tage b etween 1 4 a nd 2 6% i n t he r es tr icted t ypo logy .

5 . 6 .

L ow L eva l lo is a nd B lade i nd ices wh i le F ace t ing I ndex i s v ar iab le . The c ore t ypo logy i s d om ina ted b y t he L eva l lois t ypes wh i le o thers o ccur i n sma l l n u mbers.

T he Dongo la Asse mb lages The f o l low ing d escr ip t ion o ft hese a sse mb lages i s ma in ly b ased o n p ersona l o bserva t ion a nd p ar t ly o n t he r epor t s ub m i t ted b y t he C o mb ined P reh is tor ic Exped i t ion t o t he N a t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion ( Sh iner 1 971) .

Typo log ica l a nd

t echno log ica l c oun ts a re o b ta ined b y s ub ject ing t he a sse mb lages t o t he B ordes me thod ( Chap ter I ) .

A s Ih ave d ea l t w i th t he t o ta l c o l lect ions h e ld a t t he

S ou thern Me thod is t U n iversi ty t he n u mber p roduced h ere

f or a r tefacts c lasses

a t e ach s i te a re c ons iderab ly d i f feren t f ro m t hose i n t he r epor t men t ioned a bove.

I n t he i n i t ia l c lass if ica t ion o f t oo ls Ih ave k ep t t ypes 4 5 t o 4 9 o f t he

B ordes l i st b u t t hey w ere om i t ted i n c a lcu la t ion o f t he r estr icted i nd ices t o a void i ncons istency when c o mpar ing t he m t o t he Nub ian Mouster ian ( Tab le 5 .18) .

1 01

•

C e

C . 0 0 C I • • 1 1

•

o L C m e c 5 . >C l

i I •

©

• • • 1 4 1 -4 N

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

L C >

0 0

r I

•

•

•

C . 0 C e r 4 • • • 0 e l

•

0

•

c q • ; t 4

N •

•

•

•

C l

C 5 3

C e D

C l

0 0

C •

C r >

•

C l

l f " )

1 " J

r I

0

C D

r I

C . 0

e c q

C l

c e ec i

C O

0 0 •

0 0 • r 4

.

• r I

•

L C D •

L f p

•

T 1

•

C >

u z

C l

1 1

•

C >

c x )

C l

•

•

0

, 4 r I L C , L o • • • • • N

r I

• • • • r I C D L I Z ri

N

C l

1 . 0

C D

•

0 0

•

e l

C I

1 4

•

0 0

•

0

C I

cY

0 0 • C V

C O t • • • • e 4 " e l

L C ) • 1 4

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C l

C l

L C D •

i C

C V C Z I n I C J • • • • C V

e e

. 7 1 . 1 c z • • • • t • • N

' e l 0 0 • . t • • C . 0 C l

c . 5 J • •

C l

t r 3 c o I I . r >

0 0

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C 0

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C I

0 0

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0 . 0

▪

•

•

C I

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I

-

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0

C . 0 •

c o

•

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B ordes ' Type

t• -

1 4

C l

0 0

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c > c >

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▪

0

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r I

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I

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1 1

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C l C l

L ' . •

•

•

C l

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1 I

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r I

00

I c2 ,

1

Cl

II

•

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c;

•

r 4

C l

.

0 0

• • • • 0 . 0 c q

r I

•

1 4

I I— II

•

• i e i

•

r I

I

I

" e l

' e l

e i

G I

N

N

c >

C l

C Z

C e

C l

c e D e

C l

C l

r 4

N

C l

C O

i n 0 c ) c z )

C l

C l

C l

C e

Cl

e e • •

• • • •

N

c o c > c s ) • • • •

7 I

C l

•

C V

c o c > • •

I

C C

I

C l

c

I

M

1 1

ri

C l

C l

e l iö

c e

I

t ' •

c Y 3

0 0

C e I n ' 44 • • • r I t • •

t £ , 2 C l )

• r I

•

• C e

t " ' • C \ 1

,

t - t o c \ I e t o • • • • • • • t • • N t • • C C 0

i c e

c i

C 9

C Y Z

co C Z

1 3

0 0 •

O C ) N C ) • • • • C r > C \ 1 r I C C Y 3

L r j c z •

• L C D e I

c e

0 It • • N

I n 0 t o • • • 1 1 N

r I

e m lc 9

c \ i r

C 7 3I r I

M •

•

•

S i te N 91-5

r I

r I

e

• L s • •

I

I LO

C T 3

•

U Z

o

I

!

I

I

0 0 N • • e

• t • • Y I I C J

• r I ri

I

I COI L s . . IC S >

C

C > •

' e l e l • • 0 "I

0 0 0 0 • •

I e N

e

0 Ic \ I c l

e

• • • • C \ 1 0 C1 r1 N C e D

to

c a

m

( x )

•

•

•

•

•

o • c e

I C J • o o

e

co •

N C e t • Ic l

T ab le 5 .18

c . )

B ordes ' Type

r I

t " 0-J c o c e e

C l c e • Z t4 e

e e l

L f el

Z ) e l

0 0 e l

C ) L I D

C l L c D

1 03

L ike t he N ub ian Mouster ian , t he Dongo la a sse mb lages w i th t he e xcep t ion o f s i te N 20 h ave a l im i ted n u mber o ft oo l t ypes d escribed i n t he B ordes l i s t . S i tes N 91 ( bo th a reas ) , N 2-4 a nd N 6 a re d om ina ted b y L eval lo is f l akes , d en t icu la tes a nd n o tches .

W i th t he e xcep t ion o f s i te N 6 t he L eva l lo is f l akes

a re p oor ly made a nd a bou t h a lf o ft he m f a l l i n t he a typ ica l c lass . T hey a re l arge f l akes w i th massive b u t ts a nd t he o vera l l p a t tern r arely f i ts t ha t g iven b y B ordes f or t he ' c lass ic ' L eva l lo is f l akes ( F igs . 5 .9 , 5 .12 , 5 .16 ) . A t s i te N 6 t he L eva l lo is t echn ique a ppears t o b e more d eve loped a s w el l a s t he F acet ing ( Marks e t a l . 1 971:65) .

S i te N 20 h as t he l owest L eva l lo is I ndex

( 8 .4 ) b ut t he t oo l l i st i s d is t inct ly marked b y v ar ious t ypes o f s crapers n o t s een i n a ny o ft he o ther s i tes ( Tab le 5 .20 , 5 .21) . S crapers a t a l l s i tes a re g enera l ly p oor ly made more o f ten w i th d iscon t inuous r etouch , a nd t hose a t s i te N 91, N 6 , N 2-4 l ack t he c onvergen t t ypes ( F igs . 5 .7 , 5 .9 , 5 .12) . T he o ther ma jor t oo l t ype i s t he d en t icu la te w h ich s hows minor v ar ia t ion i n f requency a nd q ua l i ty o f r e touch f ro m s i te t o s i te . T hey a re u sua l ly made o n l arge f l akes b y as er ies o f s ing le b lows wh ich a re i n t urn r etouched b y r e mov ing sma l l f l akes.

Wh i le macroden t icu la t ion i s t he n or m , t here a re a

f ew m icroden t icu la tes w i th e labora te r etouch .

D en t icu la tes c an b e s een a s

l a tera l , b i la tera l , t ransversa l o r c on t inuous ( F ig . 5 .7 , 5 .9 , 5 .10 , 5 .14 ) . A no ther f ea ture o f t he t oo l i nven tory i s t he a bsence o r n ear a bsence o f b acked k n ives a nd t he r e markab le r ar ity o f U pper P a laeo l i th ic t ools i n g enera l . T he h ighest p ercen tage o ft he l a t ter o ccur a t s i te N 20 ( 9 .3) wh ich i s e qu iva len t t o t he l owest o bserved i n t he N ub ian Mouster ian ( Tab le 5 .19 ) .

A t s i te N 20 ,

h owever , t he ma jori ty o f t hese a re b orers ( 6 .1% ) a nd e nd s crapers ( 3 .1 % ) . T he a sse mb lage f ro m i t e N 2-4 h as a u n ique f ea ture wh ich i s t he p resence o fb ifacia l f o l ia tes . T hese a re r epresen ted b y t hree p ieces o f f o l ia tes a nd f i ve d oub tfu l f rag men ts .

Two o ft he t hree p ieces a re made o n q uartz w ith

a n a verage s ize 2 50 m m l ong , 3mm w ide a nd 1 3 mm t h ick . T he t h ird i s a b roken p iece made o n f errocrete s andstone ( F ig . 5 .10) . I t must b e r eca l led t hat wh i le t he s i l ts w i th wh ich s i te N 2-4 was a ssoc ia ted were a ssigned b y d e H einzel in t o t he L a te S ahaba F or ma t ion i n Wad i Ha ifa , n one o f t he i ndus tr ies a ssoc ia ted w i th t he l a t ter h ave t he b ifacia l t echn ique .

F urther more , i ti s o n ly

f ound i n t he much o lder M idd le P a laeol i th ic i ndustr ies a nd t h is wou ld i nd ica te a n o lder d a te f or t he a sse mb lage ( Chap ter I a nd I I ) . Wendorf a nd S ch i ld h ave d escr ibed t h is a sse mb lage a s Den t icu la te Mouster ian b u t s ubsequen t ly r el abel led i ta s ' A ter ianl ike ' ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 :130 , 1 976a :22) . The o vera l l t ypo logy , h owever , a s w i l l b e s hown f avours a n a t tr ibu t ion t o t he Mousterian w i th a h igher p ercen tage o f D ent icu la tes .

T he a sse mb lage a lso

i nc ludes t hree c hoppers o ne w ith a s harp e dge a nd t he o ther t wo merge w i th c ores ( Marks e t a l . 1 971:55) . T he p oor q ua l i ty o ft he L eva l lo is t echno logy n o ted a bove i s a lso r ef lected i n t he c ore p reparat ion . N u merous c ores a ppear t o b e u nf in ished , a nd t h is i s p erhaps d ue t o t he n ature o f r aw ma ter ia l u sed ( Chap ter I V ) . The t ype l i s t i s d om ina ted b y t he s ing le p la tfor m c ores , ma in ly u nfaceted , o pposed p la tfor m a nd d iscoida l c ores ( Tab le 5 .22, F ig . 5 .8 , 5 .11, 5 .15) . T o e xa m ine t he r e la t ion b e tween t hese a sse mb lages t he c umu la t ive p ercen tages o ft he r estr ic ted t ypo log ies i s i l lustra ted i n F igures 5 .17 a nd

1 04

Tab le

5 .19

Dongo la S i tes :

C o mp lete Typo log ica l I ndices a nd G roups

S i te

I LtY

I R

I C

I AU

N 91-15

3 2.1

1 0.0

2 .2

0 .0

N 91-5

3 4.9

1 9 .6

7 .2

N 2-4

3 2.0

9 .6

N 6

4 1.8 8 .4

N 20

T ab le 5 .20

I

I I

I V

3 2.1

1 2.8

2 .7

3 3.0

0 .0

3 4.9

2 0.3

1 .4

2 2.3

0 .8

0 .0

3 2.0

1 2.0

5 .6

2 1.9

3 .5

0 .5

1 .0

4 1.8

5 .0

6 .0

1 7.5

1 0.8

3 .2

0 .0

8 .4

1 1.4

9 .3

2 4 .5

Dongo la S i tes :

S it e

I L tY

I R

N 91-15

0 .0

N 91-5

I

Restricted Typo log ica l I nd ices a nd Groups I C

T AU

I

1 4.7

3 .5

0 .0

0 .0

2 9.2

1 1.2

N 2-4

0 .0

1 6.8

N 6

0 .0

N 20

0 .0

T ab le

5 .21

I

I I

I V

0 .0

1 9.7

4 .2

5 0.0

0 .0

0 .0

3 1.4

2 .2

3 4.0

1 .2

0 .0

0 .0

1 8.0

8 .4

3 2.9

6 .4

0 .9

1 .8

0 .0

9 .2

1 1.1

3 2.0

1 3.3

3 .9

0 .0

0 .0

1 3.9

1 1.4

3 1.0

Dongo la S i tes :

T echno log ica l I ndices

S i te

I L

I F

I FS

I La me

N 91-15

7 .2

3 2.8

2 2.2

5 .9

N 91-5

6 .6

3 5.1

1 9 .5

7 .5

N 2-4

1 0.4

2 3.5

1 8.0

7 .8

N 6

1 5.1

5 0.3

3 8.4

8 .0

3 .4

2 3.0

1 3.2

4 .1

N 20

5 .18.

The t wo c o l lect ions f ro m s i te N91 a re t ypo log ica l ly a nd t echno log ica l ly

s im i lar p erhaps r epresen t ing o ne a rteface p opu la t ion .

Area N91-5 h as a

h igher p ercen tage o f s ide s crapers b u t t he s a mp le i s t oo sma l l t o p er m it a ny f i rm c onclusion .

S i tes N 2-4 a nd N 6 c an b e s een t o f or m a n a l most i nd ist ingu ish-

a b le g raph ( F ig . 5 .18) .

1 05

a

F ig. 5 .7

S ite N6 Too ls: a , e , Dent icu la tes; b . d , S ide-scrapers; Bur in; f , L eva l lo is F lake; g , L eva l lo is p o int ( Sca le 1 :1 )

1 06

c ,

a

F ig . 5 .8

S i te N6 Too ls: b , Borer; c , Dent icu late. d , Opposed p latform ( sca le 1 :1) 1 07

Cores:

a , G lobu lar;

a

F ig. 5 .9

S ite N2 Too ls: a , b , L eva l lo is F lakes; d , Dent icu lates ( sca le 1 :1 )

1 08

c , e , S ide-scrapers;

F ig. 5 .10

S ite N2 Too ls: a , Bur in; b . Dent icu late; f ac ia l f o l ia te; d , Borer ( sca le 1 :1) 1 09

c , F ragment o f b i-

a

b

F ig. 5 .11

S i te N2 Cores: a , Opposed p latform, b , S ing le p latform, c , G lobu lar ( sca le 1 :1)

1 10

F ig. 5 .12

S i te N91 T oo ls: a , b , Dent icu la tes; c , Bur in; d , L eva l lo is f l ake; e , f , S ide-scrapers. Core: g , L eva l lo is ( sca le 1 :1)

1 11

a

b

c

d

e

F ig. 5 .13

S ite N20 Too ls: ( sca le 1 :1)

a , End-scraper;

1 12

b , c , d , S ide-scrapers

a

b

c

d

F ig. 5 .14

e

S i te N20 T oo ls: a , Bur in; d , No tch; l a te; e , C ompos i te ( sca le 1 :1)

1 13

c , Borer;

d , Dent icu-

l

7

: 1

b

F ig . 5 .15

S i te N20 Cores:

a , D isco ida l;

14

b . L eva l lo is ( sca le 1 :1)

a

F ig . 5 .16

S i te N20 : a , S ing le P la tform Core; ( sca le 1 :1)

15

b , c , L eva l lo is F lakes

v

r

l

i

r

8

M

1 0

F ig . 5 17:

4

6

8

F ig . 5 18 :

i

r

1 218 2 2 1 72 0 2 4

2 4

2 8

3 0

3 2

3 4

3 6

3 8

4 0

4 2

4 45 152

5 4555 759 6 2 5 658 6 1

Cu mu lat ive g raph . Dongo la s i tes N9 1, N20

1 0

1 21 8 1 72 0

2 2 2 4

2 6

2 8

Cu mu lat ive

3 0

3 2

3 4

3 6

3 8

4 0

4 2

4 4 .5 152

g raph . Dongo la s i tes 1 16

5 455575962 5 65 86 1

N6 ,N 2 -4

Tab le

5 .22

Dongo la S i tes :

C ore Type

N 2-4 No .

C ore Typo logy N91-15

N91-5

N 6

N 20

%

N o .

%

N o .

%

N o .

%

N o.

%

8

1 1.4

L eva l lo is f lake

1 6

1 3.6

5 8

2 0.9

1 6

1 0.1

2 8

1 7 .5

D iscoida l

1 4

1 1.9

9 4

3 3.9

5 1

3 2.2

3 0

1 8.7

1 4

2 0 .0

3 0

2 5.6

3 9

1 4 .0

2 0

1 2.6

2 5

1 5.6

1 6

2 2.8

1 4

1 1.9

4 5

1 6 .2

3 1

1 9 .6

3 3

2 0.6

1 2

1 7 .1

S ing le p la t for m Opposed p la tfor m 9 0 d egree

7

5 .9

7

2 .5

G lobu lar

3

2 .5

6

2 .1

1 2

1 0.2

4

1 .4

2 1

1 7 .9

I so la ted f lake U n iden t if iab le

1 77

1 0

3 .6

2 77

6

6 2 8

3 .7

3 .7 1 7.7

1 58

8

5 .0

3

4 .2

7

4 .3

1

1 .4

9

5 .6

5

7 .1

2 0 1 60

1 2.5

1 1

1 5.7

7 0

Thus t echno log ica l ly t he a sse mb lages c an b e d escr ibed t o h ave a l ess d eve loped L eva l lois t echn ique , a modera te F acet ing I ndex a nd a v ery l ow B lade I ndex .

Too l t ypo logy i s c haracter ized b y L eva l lo is f l akes , d en t icu la tes

a nd a f ew s crapers .

Ac o mpar ison b etween t hese i nd ices a nd t hose o ft he

Nub ian Mouster ian s uggests a n u mber o fp o in ts o f wh ich t he most impor tan t a re : 1 .

Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f s i te N 20 t he t ypo log ica l L eva l lo is I ndex i n t he

Dongo la a sse mb lages f a l ls w i th in t he u pper r ange o f Mouster ian t ype A .

S i te

N 20 f i ts i n w ith t he l ower r ange o bserved a t s i tes 1 036 a nd 1 037 o ft he s a me g roups ( Tab le 5 .21) . 2 .

T he s craper i ndex i s g enera l ly d if feren t f ro m t ha t o f t he N ub ian

Mouster ian A a nd B a nd o n ly c o mparab le t o t he l ower r ange s een a t s i tes 1 033 , 1 035 a nd 1 038 o f Type A .

The Dongo la S craper I ndex , h owever , i s r e markab ly

s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he Den t icu la te Mouster ian s i tes 1 000 a nd 3 6B ( F ig . 5 .1) . 3 .

I n t he r estr icted t ypo logy , t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo l g roup ( group

I I ) a t s i tes N 2-4 , N 20 a nd N 6 i s much l ike wha t i ti s i n t he Den t icu la te Mouster ian . 4 .

The o vera l l s im i lar i ty b etween t he Dongo la a sse mb lages a nd t he

Den t icu la te Mouster ian i s f ur ther i nd ica ted b y t he Den t icu la te I ndex ( Group I V ) .

A t t he f or mer s i tes i tv ar ies b etween 1 7 .5 a t s i te N6 t o 3 3.0 a t s i te

N 91-15 a nd t he l owes t v a lue h ere i s e qu iva len t t o t he h ighest i n a ny o ft he Nub ian Mousterian t ypes A o r B .

The Dongo la s i tes , t herefore , f i t i n we l l

w i th t he Den t icu la te Mouster ian a s d escribed b y Marks.

I ti s i n terest ing t o

n ote t ha t i n t hese a sse mb lages , a s i n t he Dent icu la te Mouster ian , t he h igher 1 17

p ercen tage o fd en t icu la tes i s ma tched b y al ow p ercen tage o f s ide-scrapers ( F ig . 5 .2) . 5 . T he a pp l ica t ion o ft he B ordes me thod t o t he Dongo la a sse mb lages , a s f ar a s i t s c lassi f ica tory p ower g oes , s hows t ha t t hey a re i n t he t ypo log ica l r ange o f t he Nub ian Mouster ian i ndustries a nd most c o mparab le t o t hose emphasizing t he p roduct ion o f d en t icu la tes. 6 . The s ta t ist ica l a na lysis o ft hese d a ta , a s w i l l b e s hown , s ugges ts t ha t t he a sse mb lages c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he Mouster ian o f Nub ia a nd t heref ore r ender ing d e He inze lin 's s ugges t ion o f al a te d a te u n tenab le ( d e H einze l in 1 971:19-35 , C hap ter V I ) . T he K hor musan I ndus try T he Khor musan i s p redo m inan t ly a f lake i ndustry w i th o n ly a f ew t yp ica l b lades. T echno log ica l ly i ti s c haracter ized b y as trong L eva l lo is t rad i t ion r epresen ted b y ah igh n u mber o f L eva l lo is c ores a nd f l akes. The L eva l lo is t echn ique i s e labora te i n c o mpar ison t o many o ft he Mouster ian s i tes , a s s hown b y t he q ua l i ty o f r etouch a nd t he h igh p ercen tage o f f aceted b u t ts . Typo log ica l ly i ti s d om ina ted b y t hree ma in t oo l t ypes ; b ur ins a nd d en t icu la tes.

L eva l lo is f lakes ,

E nd s crapers a nd s idescrapers t hough t hey o ccur a t

a l l s i tes a re q u i te f ew i n n u mber . O ther t oo ls , s uch a s b orers , b acked b lades a nd b ifacia l e le ments a re c onsis ten t ly l ack ing i n t he Khor musan . I n h is a na lysis o ft he K hor musan a r tefacts Marks emp loyed t he s a me t echno log ica l me thod h e a pp l ied t o t he Nub ian Mous ter ian b u t h e d id n o t u se t he B ordes l i st f or c lassi fy ing t he t oo ls.

I nstead h e d evised a n u mber o f

i nd ices r epresen t ing t he p ercen tage o f t he ma in t oo l t ypes ( Marks 1 968b :316 ) . A ccord ing t o h im t he L eva l lo is t echno logy , t hough ma in ta in ing a h igh l eve l a t a l l s i tes , s hows a d ef in i te d ecrease t hrough t ime ( F ig . 5 .3) .

The L eva l lo is

I ndex , h owever , d oes n o t c lear ly s how t h is t rend a s t he Typo log ica l L eva l lo is I ndex d oes.

Even i n t he l a t ter t he v ar ia t ion i s minor ( Tab les 5 .23 , 5 .24 ) .

Aga in t h is d evelop men t i s a ssu med b y Marks o n t he b as is o fh is c hrono log ica l o rder ing o ft he s i tes wh ich i s n ow s ubstan t ia l ly r ev ised ( Chap ter I V ) . Moreo ver t he l ow L eva l lo is I ndex a t s i te 2 004 , f or i ns tance , c ou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he c oarse g ra ined P reca mbr ian r ocks wh ich d om ina te t he r aw ma ter ia l u t i l iza t ion ( Chap ter I I ) . T he F ace t ing I ndex o n t he o ther h and i s g enera l ly c onsis ten t a t a l l o f t he Khor musan s i tes ( Tab le 5 .23 ) . I n h is o r ig ina l c lassif ica t ion o f t he Khor musan t oo ls Marks a pp l ied a d eta i led t ypo logy f or t he ma in t oo l t ypes , t he b ur ins a nd d en t icu la tes. a re s even t ypes o fb ur Ms a t s i te 3 4A a nd u p t o 1 5 t ypes a t s i te 3 4D.

There B ur ins

w ere c lassif ied a ccord ing t o t he f or m o f t he work ing e dge r ather t han t he t ype o f a r tefact o n wh ich t he b ur in was made ( i b id :317 , F ig . 5 .21) . Aga in h e e nv isaged a n i n terna l d eve lop men t t hrough t ime i n t he p roduc t ion o f b ur ins b eg inn ing a t s i te 3 4A t o r each a c l i max a t s i te 3 4D ( i b id :332) . He n o ted t he s ign if ican t n u mber o ft ransverse b ur in a s au n ique f ea ture o ft he Khor musan ( i b id :332) . t ypes.

T here i s , h owever , n o c lear p a t tern i n t he o ccurrence o fb ur in

Mu l t ip le b ur ins a nd b ur in ' p lan ' ma in ta in a s im i lar p ercen tage a t a l l

o ft he f i ve s i tes b u t d ihedra l b ur ins a nd b ur ins o n t runca t ions e xh ib i t s o me n u mer ica l d ifferences.

A t s i tes 1 017 a nd 3 4D b ur ins o n t runca t ions e xceed 18

Tab le

5 .23

Khor musan I ndustry :

T echno log ica l I nd ices

( Marks :1968)

S i te

I L

I F

I Fs

3 4A

3 4 .0

6 3.8

4 2.3

8 .1

1 017

3 6 .6

7 8.3

5 0.5

1 4 .1

3 4D

2 3 .2

7 4.2

5 0 .5

9 .0

AN W3

3 0 .1

6 9 .7

4 0 .1

1 4.1

2 004

1 8.8

6 7.4

4 3 .3

1 1.7

Tab le

5 .24

Khor musan I ndus try :

I La me

C o mp lete Typo log ica l I nd ices

S i te

I LtY

I R

I C

3 4A

6 3.3

8 .7

0 .4

0 .0

1 0.4

4 .3

7 .6

1 017

6 5.9

0 .9

0 .0

0 .0

1 .5

1 6.9

1 0.8

3 4D

5 9 .7

1 .2

0 .0

0 .0

1 .2

2 4 .0

8 .4

AN W3

5 1.4

3 .7

0 .0

0 .0

4 .2

2 7 .6

8 .2

2 004

4 4.3

5 .5

0 .0

0 .0

5 .9

1 6.1

1 5.1

T ab le

5 .25

Khor musan I ndustry :

Res tr icted Typo log ica l I ndices

S i te

I R

I C

I

I I

I V

3 4A

2 5.6

1 .6

3 0.3

1 2.1

2 0 .9

1 017

2 .7

0 .0

4 .5

5 0.4

3 2.1

3 4D

3 .5

0 .0

3 .5

5 9 .6

2 0.8

AN W3

7 .9

0 .0

9 .1

5 6.6

1 6.8

1 0.4

0 .0

1 1.3

2 8.9

2 7.2

2 004

t he d ihedra l t ypes b y t hree t i mes wh i le t hey o ccur a t a bou t t he s a me p ropor t ion a t s i te AN W3 ( i b id :332) .

A c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f t hese b ur ins i s t ha t o ver

h a lf o ft he m , a t a l l t he s i tes e xcep t 3 4A , o ccur o n p ieces t ha t a re t runca ted , n o tched o r d en t icu lated .

The ma jor i ty , h owever , a re o n t runca ted p ieces .

Den t icu la tes h ave b een c lassi f ied b y Marks a ccord ing t o t he p os i t ion o f t he d en ticu la ted e dge o n t he p iece , whe ther i tb e l a tera l , t ransverse o r c onverg en t .

Accord ing t o h im d en t icu la tes d o n o t s how a c lear p a t tern o fc hange

( i b id :317 , 3 33) . 1 19

I n a pp ly ing t he B ordes method t o t he Khor musan a sse mb lages Ih ave c o mb ined a l l t he b urins i n t ype 3 2 a nd a l l t he d en t icu la tes i n t ype 4 3 o f t he B ordes t oo l l i s t .

Resu l ts o fa pp ly ing t h is method s how t ha t t hree s i tes , 1 017 ,

3 4D a nd 2 004 o n ly h ave 1 3 t ypes , s i te AN W3 h as 1 7 t ypes a nd 3 4A h as 2 1 t ypes o ft he o r ig ina l 6 2 t oo l t ypes i n t he B ordes l i s t .

T ypes 4 4 t o 6 1 d o n o t

o ccur a t t he K hor musan s i tes ( Tab le 5 .26 ) . Types 2 2 t o 2 4 ( Charen t ian I ndex ) a re o n ly r epresen ted a t s i te 3 4A ( 0 .4 ) b u t t hey a re a lso v ery r are i n N ub ian Mousterian s i tes. Types 3 6 a nd 3 7 ( Backed Kn ife I ndex ) a re a lso l ack ing i n t he Khor musan . There a re n o b orers a nd t herefore t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo l i ndex i s r epresen ted b y t he p ercen tage o fb ur ins a nd e nd s crapers . T he c o mp lete t ypo log ica l i nd ices s how t ha t t he Khor musan i s c haracter ized b y a h igh t ypo log ica l L eva l lo is I ndex ( IL tY ) n o t s een i n t he Mous ter ian s i tes e xcep t a t s i te 1 033 a nd N 6 a nd N 2 o ft he Dongo la s i tes.

T he S craper I ndex n ever

e xceeds 8 .7 wh ich i s a bou t t he l owest v a lue i n t he N ub ian Mous ter ian . Den t icu la te I ndex i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f Mouster ian t ype A a nd B .

T he

I t must b e

a dm i tted t ha t t here a re s o me d iff icu l t ies i n s tr ict ly a pp ly ing t he B ordes l i s t t o t hese a sse mb lages .

Type 6 2 ( m isce l laneous ) , f or i ns tance i nc ludes n umerous

t oo ls s uch a s mu l t ip le t oo ls a nd r e touched p ieces wh ich d o n o t f i t a ny o f B ordes d escr ip t ions . T he r ar i ty o r a bsence o f many t ypes i s i l lustra ted b y t he c umul a t ive g raphs o f t he r estr ic ted t ypo log ies ( F igs 5 .19 , 5 .20) . T he c ore t ypo logy r ef lec ts s o me v ar ia t ion .

A ccord ing t o Marks a d ecrease

i n L eva l lois c ores i s a cco mpan ied b y a n i ncrease i n t he s ing le p la tfor m t ypes ( i b id :331) . T he c hanges i n t he t ypo logy a nd t echno logy a re c en tred a round t he i ncreasing u se o ft he N i le C her t .

L eva l lo is c ores w i th e x tensive b ifacia l

p repara t ion a re n u merous a t s i tes 3 4A a nd 1 017 where a h igh p ercen tage o f f errocre te s andstone a nd P reca mbr ian r ocks w ere u sed ( Chap ter I V ) . l a t ter a re a va i lab le i n l arge s labs wh ich n eed s uch p repara t ion .

T he

O n t he

o ther h and N i le p ebb les a re sma l l a nd h ard a nd o n ly c a l l f or t he r e mova l o f t he c or tex a t o ne s urface t o o b ta in a r egu lar f lake .

T he u nder s urface o ft he

p ebb le h as a n a tura l c onvex s hape wh ich f aci l i ta tes f l ak ing w i thou t t he e x tens ive p repara t ion u sua l ly n eeded t o work o ther ma teria ls ( i b id :372) .

Ano ther v ar ie ty

o f L eva l lo is c ore a t s i te AN W3 h as t wo c arefu l ly p repared p la tfor ms a t e ach e nd o f ap ebb le w i th min i ma l s ide p repara t ion . Marks c a l led t hese L eva l lo is b ecause u sua l ly o ne ma jor f l ake i s s truck a nd h e a rgues t ha t t h is t echn ique l ed t o t he d eve lop men t o ft he o pposed a nd s ing le p la tfor m t ypes ( i b id :372-373 ) . The c ore i nven tory s hown i n t ab le 5 .27 h owever , s hows t ha t t he Khor musan l i th ic t echno logy u t i l ized n u merous t ypes o f c ores many o f wh ich a re k nown i n t he N ub ian Mouster ian . N ub ian C ores Type Io ccur i n t he Khor musan i n n u mber e qua l t o t he Nub ian Mouster ian , s uggest ing a c on t inu i ty i n t he b asic t echno logy . B uhen C o mp lex I n s tudy ing t he a sse mb lages f ro m s i tes 6G30 ( 2l ayers ) a nd 6G 27 , I rw in e t a l . u t i l ized a t oo l t ypo logy c o mparab le t o t ha t u sed b y Marks ( I rw in e t a l . 1 968 :7 , 1 2) .

S ince Id id n o t s ee t hese a sse mb lages i ti s d if f icu l t t o c lassi fy

t he t oo ls u sing t he B ordes me thod f ro m t he p ub l ica t ion a lone .

The n u mber

a nd p ercen tage o f t he ma in t oo l t ypes c an b e s een i n Tab le 5 .28. A sse mb lages f ro m t he t wo l ayers o f s i te 6G30 a re s im i lar ; b oth c haracter ized b y ah igh p ercen tage o f L eva l lo is f lakes , d en t icu la tes a nd s ide-scrapers . more b ur ins a nd b orers t han i n t he f or mer a sse mb lage . 1 20

S i te 6G27 h as

The b ur in t ypes a re

0

I

C 7 3

S i te AN W 3

0 t • •

•

e l

•

•

co cc

o

C e 1 4

C \ 1

L f )

•

•

0 0

e

? A

m

« )

•

•

CI

I

I

C l C Y ) C Z • • • • r . 4 e 1 0

, I

L C )

C •

•

•

•

I

I

e •

•

1

I

1

I

1

I

1

C . 0

I

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F ig . 5 .22

M icro l i th ic I ndex a t S ix Ha lfan S i tes

1 23

T ab le 5 .27

Khor musan I ndus try :

Type

C ore Typo logy

( Marks :1968)

S i te 3 4A

S i te 1 017

S i te 3 4D

S i te AN W3

N o .

%

N o .

%

N o .

%

N o .

%

2 0

1 6 .7

4 4

4 3.2

2 4

1 3 .5

1 38

2 9.5

S i te 2 004 N o .

%

L eva l lo is f l ake L eva l lois B lade L eva l lo is P o in t

-

1

1 .0

5

4 .2

1

1.0

1

0 .8

1

0 .8

4

3 .3

1 6

1 2.7

1

0 .2

0 .6

8

1 .8

1

0 .8

-

-

7

1.6

2

1 .6

4

2 .2

6

1 .3

1 0.7

8

4 .5

8 1

1 7 .8

5

2 .8

2 3

5 .1

2

1 .6

6 .2

3 3

7 .2

6

4 .8

2 4

5 .3

2

1 .6

1

0 .8

1

0 .8

1

N ub ian Type

ParaL eva l lo is S ing le P la tfor m , F aceted

1 1

1 6

1 2.7

S ing le P la tfor m , U nface ted

-

-

8

7 .8

Opposed P la t for m

_

_

7

6 .8

6 .7

1

1 .0

1

0 .6

-

1

1.0

1

O .6

2

1 .1

D isco ida l

8

1 1

N inety d egree

-

B ipo lar

1

0 .8

I so la ted f l ake

1

0 .8

G lobu lar

-

U n iden t i f iab le

7 9 1 20

-

7 _

6 5.9

2 1 1 02

6 .8 _ 2 0.6

2 1 18 1 77

-

8

2 1

1 .1 6 6.6

1 1 04 4 55

s im i lar t o t hose o ft he Khor musan s i tes d escr ibed a bove .

1 .8

4.6 0 .2 2 2.8

7 9 1 26

6 2.6

The most c o m mon

t ypes a re d ihedra l , o b lique a nd t ransverse a nd t hey mos t ly o ccur o n t runca ted p ieces .

Deta i led t echno log ica l a t tr ibu tes s uch a s F ace t ing I ndex c anno t b e

c a lcu la ted s ince t he a u thors d o n o t g ive f u l l i n for ma t ion o n t he t o ta l c o l lec t ion r ecovered a t e ach s i te .

T he t ypes o f b u t ts i n t oo ls , h owever , s how t ha t 6 0%

o f t he m a re f ace ted ( i b id :7 , 1 2) .

T he c ore t ypo logy a nd t echno logy i s s im i lar

a t b o th s i tes a l though c ores f ro m 6 G30 a re d escr ibed a s l arger i n s ize ( i b id : 7 3 , T ab le 5 .29 ) . I rw in e t a l . a rgue t ha t t he o vera l l t ypo logy a nd t echno logy o ft hese a sse mb lages a ssocia te t he m w i th t he Khor musan s i tes 3 4A , 1 017 a nd AN W3 ( i b id :112) . 1 24

Tab le

5 .28

Buhen C o mp lex ( Khor musan ) :

G ross Too l Types ( I rw in e t a l .:

1 968) Type

S i te 6G30 I

S i te 6G30 I

S i te 6G27

N o .

%

N o .

%

N o .

%

L eva l lo is F lakes

4 5

3 5.7

4 0

3 0.0

1 51

3 4.5

L eva l lo is F lakes , r e touched

2 1

1 6 .6

2 2

1 6 .5

2 3

5 .3

L eva l lo is P o in ts

1 4

1 1.1

1 8

1 3.5

4 6

1 0.5

S ide-Scrapers B orers

* 2

No tches

1

Den t icu la tes

3 8

Bur ins Re touched F lakes

1.6

8 1

6 .0 0 .8

8 3 8

1 .8 8 .7

0 .8

3

2 .3

1 7

3 .9

3 0.1

4

3 .1

1

0 .8

3 5

1 26

Tab le 5 .29

' Buhen C o mp lex ':

Type

2 6 .3

3 9

8 .9

4

3 .0

8 3

1 9.0

2

1 .5

1 5

3 .4

1 33

Ma in C ore Types

4 20

( I rw in e t a l . 1 968)

S i te 6G30 I

S i te 6G30 I

S i te 6G27

No .

N o .

No .

%

2 72

6 9 .2

L eva l lo is F lake

6 2.3

4 1

1

1 .9

-

-

L eva l lois P oin t

7

1 3.2

9

1 3.6

4 1

1 0 .4

D isco ida l

1

1 .9

5

7 .5

4 4

1 1.2

2

3 .7

-

-

L eva l lois B lade

B lade

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 2.1

8

5

2 .0

1 .3

3 70

I n s umm ing u p t h is d escr ip t ion o f t he Khor musan a sse mb lages a c o mpar ison b etween t he r estr icted p ercen tages ( i .e. om i t t ing t he L eva l lois f lakes ) o f ma jor t oo l t ypes a t t he Khor musan s i tes a nd t hose a t Mous ter ian a nd Dongo la s i tes w i l l s how t he f o l low ing : 1 .

A ma jor d i f ference l i es i n t he p ercen tages o f b ur ins a t t he 5 Khor musan

s i tes wh ich v ary b etween 2 0% a t s i te 2 004 a nd 5 5% a t s i te 3 4D.

I ti s i n terest ing ,

p erhaps , t o r eca l l t ha t t he e ar l iest C 14 d a te s o f ar k nown f or t he Khor musan c a me f ro m t he l a t ter s i te .

The t wo ot her s i tes , 6G30 a nd 3 4A h ave v ery f ew

b urins b u t i ti s t hese t wo s i tes wh ich h ave a S craper I ndex c o mparab le t o t he Nub ian Mouster ian ( F ig . 5 .21) . 2 .

T he d en t icu la te c lass d oes n o t s how a marked d ifference b e tween

Khor musan a nd t he Nub ian Mouster ian a nd i ndeed s i te 6G30 h as a h igh p erc en tage o f d en t icu la tes n ot ma tched b y a ny i n t he Nub ian Mous ter ian i nc lud ing t hose d escr ibed b y Marks a s Den t icu la te Mouster ian ( F ig . 5 .2) .

Thus t he

ma in d ifference w i th t he Mous ter ian l i es i n t he h igh n u mbers o fb ur ins a nd L eva l lo is f lakes a t t he ma jor i ty o f s i tes. 1 25

T he Ha lfan I ndustry I n g enera l t er ms t he Ha l fan i ndustry c an b e d ef ined a s as pecia l ized m icrol i th ic t rad i t ion i n wh ich t he o nce p redo m inan t mod i f ied L eva l lois t echn ique i s a l mos t f u l ly r ep laced b y ab lade let t echno logy .

O ne b as ic f ea ture i n t he H a l fan

i s t he p roduct ion o f Hai fa f l akes f ro m Hai fa c ores ( Marks 1 968c :

I rw in e t

a l . 1 968) . Ab r ief d escr ip t ion o ft h is t echn ique a s p rov ided b y t hese a u thors w i l l c lari fy t h is s ta te men t . I tw i l l b e r eca l led t ha t t he r aw mater ia l t ypes u t i l ized a t t he Ha l fan s i tes i s e xc lusive ly d om ina ted b y N i le C her t ( Chap ter I V ) .

The f l ak ing p rocess b eg ins b y s hap ing a s a t isfac tory p la tfor m a t o ne

e nd o ft he n odu le a nd i tc ou ld b e u nface ted o r s tra igh t f aceted .

A s er ies o f

microf lakes u sua l ly a bou t 1 0 mm l ong were t hen s truck f ro m t h is p la tfor m . Ano ther d ihedra l p la tfor m i s a lso s haped a t t he o pposi te e nd o ft he c ore f rom wh ich a n u mber o f f l akes were s truck t o r e move t he r est o ft he c or t ica l s ur face. T h is i s c o mp le ted b y t ak ing o ff f l akes f ro m t he c ore s ides s im i lar t o t he L eva l lo is p repara t ion . T he d ihedra l p la tfor m i s t hen mod if ied t o ac onvexf aceted p la tfor m o f a' chapeau d e g endar me ' t ype . A ma jor f l ake i s t hen s truck f ro m t h is p la tfor m wh ich w ou ld r e move t he e ar l ier f l ake s cars b u t n o t t hose o ft he m icrob lades d etached f ro m t he o ther e nd . T he s a me c onvex p la tfor m r eceived a s econd t rea t men t t o r eta in i t s f or mer s hape.

A t t h is

s tage t he c ore wou ld h ave a l arge f l ake s car c over ing mos t o f i t s s urface a nd t he r est i s c overed b y t he d ista l b lade lets s cars .

The d esired Ha ifa f l ake

c an b e s truck a t t h is p o in t a nd i fi ti s s uccessfu l i t wou ld h ave a c onvex-face ted p la t for m a nd a ma jor f l ake s car a nd p ar ts o f t he sma l l d ista l b lade s cars ( Fig . 5 .23b ) .

U nsuccessful f l ak ing o f a Ha l fa f l ake c an r esu l t i n t wo t ypes o f

f l akes . The f i rst o ne wh ich r e moves a l l o f t he d ista l m icrob lades s cars t hus s how ing t he s hape o ft he c ore s urface j ust p r ior t o t he r e mova l o f an or ma l Ha ifa f l ake ( F ig . 5 .23c ). The s econd o ne i s o ne wh ich f e l l s hor t a nd l eaving a l l t he microb lades s cars o n t he c ore a nd i t s s hape i s r em in iscen t o f at h in s hor t L eva l lo is f l ake ( F ig . 5 .23d , Marks 1 968c :393-95 , I rw in e t a l . 1 968:47 , 1 18) . A s econd ma jor f ea ture o ft he Ha lfan t ypo logy a nd t echno logy i s t he p roduct ion o f b acked m icrob lades. M icrob lades a re s truck f ro m s pecia l t ypes o f s ing le p la tfor m c ores ( most ly u nface ted ) , wedge a nd o pposed p la tform c ores ( see g lossary f or c ore t ypes :

Append ix 5 ) .

T he Ha lfan microb lades

a re g enera l ly o fi rregu lar s hape s how ing p ar ts o ft he o r ig ina l c or tex o n t heir u pper s urface. B ack ing i s c onsisten t , n or ma l ly o f af ine a nd l i gh t t ype a nd i s a l most o bverse . There i s a lso a d ec ided t endency t o b ack microb lades o n t he l e f t s ide o ft he p iece ( Marks 1 968c :405) .

M icrob lades a re u sua l ly mod if ied

t o o ther mu l t ip le t oo ls s uch a s n o tches , d en t icu la tes a nd t runca t ions. I n h is a na lysis o f s ix o ft he t en Ha lfan s i tes Marks d ev ised a n u mber o f i nd ices t o f aci l i ta te c o mpar ison b e tween a sse mb lages. These a re c a lcu la ted a s p ercen tages i n t he t o ta l n u mber o ft oo ls a t e ach a sse mb lage.

These

i nd ices a re :

F lake T oo l I ndex :

P ercen tage o f t oo ls measur ing 3 0 mm o r l ess P ercen tage o ft oo ls o n f lakes

B lade T oo l I ndex :

P ercen tage o f b lades a nd b lade lets

C ore Too l I ndex :

P ercen tage o f t oo ls o n c ores

M icro l i th ic I ndex :

1 26

a

F ig . 5 .23

Ha ifa Core a nd F lakes S i te 1 018 : a , c ore; b , n orma l f lake; c , o verpassed; d , underpassed ( sca le 1 :1)

1 27

Wh i le t he Ha l fan i s d om ina ted b y e i ther Ha ifa f l akes o r microb lades t here a re a f ew o ther t ypes s uch a s s crapers , s ca led p ieces , b ur ins , d en t icu la tes a nd n o tches.

These d o n o t s how g rea t v ar ia t ion .

Marks s ubd iv ided t he b acked

f lakes a nd b lades a ccord ing t o t he a dd it iona l r etouch wh ich t hey h ad a nd whe ther t hey were b roken o r n o t . H is t ypes , t hus v ary f ro m 2 3 t ypes a t s i te 1 020 t o 4 5 t ypes a t s i te 4 43 ( i b id :408, 4 36) . Wh i le h and l ing t hese d a ta t he wri ter f ound i tn ecessary t o s i mp l ify o ne t ype l i st b y c o mb in ing c er ta in ma jor t oo l t ypes. T he l i st i s mean t t o b e u sed f or f ur ther s ta t ist ica l a na lysis ( Chap ter V I ) . Og iva l a nd n osed s crapers a re g rouped w i th e nd-scrapers. C ar inated a nd c ore s crapers a re a dded t o t he s ide s craper c lass. A l l t ypes o fb ur ins f a l l i n o ne t ype. Den t icu la te c ore s crapers a re a dded t o t he d en t icu la te g roup a s t hey a re ' no more t han n orma l d en t icu la tes ' ( i b id :396 ) . T he t ype ' backed f l akes ' i n t he n ew l i st i nc ludes a l l t hose p ieces c o mp le te o r b roken w i th p ar t ia l o r c o mp lete b ack ing . Backed f lakes wh ich h ave b een mod if ied i n o ther t oo l f or ms a re a lso a dded t o t h is g roup . The s a me a pp l ies t o a l l t ypes o f m icrob lades . O ther t oo l t ypes a re k ep t a s t hey a re i n t he o r ig ina l l i st . The f i na l l i s t t hus i nc ludes 1 9 ma in t oo l t ypes ( Tab le 5 .30) . I n t he ' Ha ifa C o mp lex ' I rw in e t a l . h ave u sed a r a ther s im i lar t ypo logy t o t ha t o f Marks b u t t hey i n troduced a n u mber o ft erms a pparen t ly f or t he s a me t ypes o ft oo ls . T he a pp l ica t ion o f t he 1 9 t ype l i st d epends c o mp le te ly o n t he d escr ip t ion a nd i l lus tra t ions p rov ided b y t hese a u thors.

Their ' Dabarosa

p o in ts , b lades a nd f l akes ' f ound o n ly a t s i te 6B28 a re c ons idered h ere L eva l lo is f lakes. The ' Dabarosa ' t echn ique h as b een d escr ibed a s e ssen t ia l ly a mod i f ied f or m o f L eva l lo is i n wh ich t he c ore s urface i s f laked a cross i t s l ong a x is f ro m o ne s ide f or m ing a r idge . Th is r idge i s s ubsequen t ly r e moved l eav ing a d iagnost ic f l ake s car . p la tfor m .

B o th e nds o f t he c ore were t hen p repared w i th f ace ted

T r iangu lar f l akes were t hen s truck f ro m e i ther e nd o ft he c ore

( I rw in e t a l 1 968:48, 1 17-8) .

S im i lar ly wha t t he a uthors c a l led " Ark in m icro-

f /b lade" i s g rouped i n t he b acked microb lade t ype . Ark in m icrob lades a re d escr ibed a s u sua l ly o f a max i mu m l eng th o f 3 0 mm , t he ma jor i ty i n t he r ange o f 2 0 mm . The r etouch i s ak ind o f b ack ing d escr ibed a s s em i-abrup t a nd n ot v ery d iferen t f ro m t he Ouch ta ta r etouch ( i b id :50 , 1 19 ) . O ther t oo l t ypes i n t he ' Ha i fa C o mp lex ' a re t rea ted i n t he s a me way a s t he o ther Ha lfan s i tes . A s c an b e s een i n Tab le 5 .31 , t he ' Ha i fa C o mp lex ' a sse mb lages l acks s ca led p ieces a nd c or tex b acked k n ives t wo t ypes wh ich s ee m n ot t o h ave b een u sed b y t he a u thors. T he mod i f ied l i st o ft oo ls , h owever , s hows t ha t t wo a ssemb lages , 6B32 a nd 6G35 a re d om ina ted b y Ha i fa f l akes a nd b ur ins wh i le o ther t oo l t ypes o ccur i n sma l l amoun ts .

Backed microb lades a re r e markab ly f ew

o n ly 2 .6% a t 6B32 a nd 5 .8% a t 6G35. The r everse o ft h is d is tr ibu t ion o ft oo l f requenc ies o ccur a t s i tes 6B28 a nd 6G29 where t he b acked m icrob lades a re more t han 7 0% a t e ach o ft he a sse mb lages. Ha l fan c ore t ypo logy i s p resen ted i n T ab le 5 .32 a nd t he r estr icted p erc en tages ( om i t t ing u n iden t i f iab le c ores ) o f Ha lfa a nd s ing le p la tfor m c ores i s i l lus tra ted i n F ig . 5 .25.

The l a t ter s hows t ha t as harp d ecrease i n t he

Ha l fa c ore i s a cco mpan ied b y a n i ncrease o ft he s ing le p la t for m t ypes .

C ores

f ro m t he ' Ha ifa C o mp lex ' a re a lso a dap ted t o Marks ' l i st o f c ores. P r is ma t ic c ores a re i nc luded i n t he s ing le p la t for m t ype s ince i ti s d escr ibed a s a n

1 28

0 •

I

0

0

T .

0

:

t • • •

•

I

0

0 •

0 •

'

0 •

N •

•

•

j•

N.

0 0

00

C e

•

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•

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0 0

1 1

C \ 1

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c e j C

C e

C l

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2)

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r I

1 29

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1 . 0

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Q

C d .4

c d 0 0 c Y >

r I

Tab le 5 .31

Ha lfa C o mp lex :

T oo l Typo logy

S i te 6B32

( based o n I rw in e t a l .: 1968

S i te 6B28

S i te 6G 29

N o .

%

N o .

%

No .

1 00

5 1.0

5 9

1 1.8

7

2 7

1 3.8

3 9

7 .8

3 5

1 7 .9 1 .4

%

S i te 6G 35 N o .

%

4.0

4 2

4 8.8

2

1 .1

1 5

1 7 .4

3

1.7

1

1 .2

1 Ha ifa f lakes , u nretouched 2 Ha i fa f lakes , r e touched 3 L eva l lois f lakes

.

4 End s crapers

7

5 S ide s crapers

-

-

6 B orers

-

-

7 Bur ins

2 0

1 0.2

8 Den t icu la tes

2

_

1.0

_

_

1

0 .2

-

-

2

2.3

8

1.6

-

-

8

9 .3

4

0 .8

2

1 .1

2

2 .3

3

1 .7

1

1 .2

2

1 .1

_ 1

_ 1

8 8.1

5

5 .8

0 .6

1

1 .2

9 No tches 1 0

T runca ted f lakes

1 1

S ca led p ieces

1 2

4

2.0

2

0 .4

1 -

C or tex b acked k n ives

1 3

Backed f lakes

1 4

Backed b lades

1 5

0 .5

B acked microb lades

1 6

1

5

2 .6

3 60

7 1.9

1 55

T runcated microb lades

6

1 .2

7

1 .4

8

1.6

1

1 7 Re touched microb lades a nd B lades 1 8

Re touched f lakes

1 9

Var ia

2 _ 1 96

1.0 _

_ 5 01

-

1 _ 1 76

0 .6 _

9

1 0.5

_

_

8 6

u nface ted p la tfor m c ore f or t he p roduct ion o fb lade le ts ( I rw in e t a l . 1 968 :52) . Aga in d oub le p la tfor m c ores a re t rea ted a s o pposed p la tfor m t ypes ( i b id :52) . T he ' cone-shaped ' c ore i s n o t i l lus tra ted i n t he p ub l ica t ion a nd t herefore i nc luded i n t he l i st a s i ti s ( Tab le 5 .33 ) . Marks h as a t te mp ted t o s en a te h is s ix s i tes i n ad eve lop men ta l s tage b ased o n s tra t igTaphy , C 14 d a tes a nd t he t echno log ica l d evelop men t t ha t t he e nv isaged t o h ave t aken p lace .

T he r esu l t i s ah ypo the t ica l f i ve s tage-sequence 1 30

C l

•

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e C l

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N ine ty d egree

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c

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F ig 5 .24

P ercentage o f

Backed M icrob lades a t

a l l Ha lfan S ites 90 80

0 2

7 0

-

60

. .

50

_

40 3 0 2 0

-

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o t . A c . , c , J , t 0 g L D e

00 c v o —

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c i

2

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t v C o 0

R estr icted P ercentages o f Ha ifa a nd S ing le P latfor m Cores a t a l l Ha l fan S ites

80 Ha ifa 70

S ing le P lat

--

—

60

/ • / ` ,

50

/

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! . ° 40

/ /

• /

v

/ / /

30 20 1 0

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c o

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a ) N ( 9 U )

1 32

o L N

c o o ( N —

B l ade s/b lade le t s H a ifa / Leva l /o i s f l ake s 9 0

8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0

1 0

r n

F ig. 5 .26

0 c v

f ,)

—

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c o . — a _

. 7 C . 1 v z i

r , . 1 4 .

• . 1 >

7 D r

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< N I m

C S '

t s + 1 1

P ercentage o f B lades a nd Ha ifa F lakes i n Too l t ypo log ies, a t a l l Ha lfan S ites F lake t oo l i n dex B l ade t oo l i n dex 1 00 9 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0

1 0

DO

C D

F ig. 5 .27

• • • • • •

C D

F lake a nd B lade Too l I nd ices a t S ix Ha lfan S ites

T ab le

5 .33

' Ha ifa C o mp lex ':

Type

C ore Typo logy

S i te 6B32

S i te 6G35

S i te 6B28

S i te 6G29

N o .

%

No .

%

No .

%

N o .

5 0

5 0 .0

4 3

4 8.9

4 2

1 9 .2

5 .7

3 1

1 4.2

2 3

2 8.0

1 0

3 .7

1 0

1 2.2

1 7 .4

1 3

1 5.9

1 . 2 .

Ha ifa S ing le p la tfor m

3 .

D isco ida l

1 1 2

1 .0 1 2.0

4 .

Opposed p la tfor m

2 0

2 0.0

5 . 6 .

Wedge C one-shaped

-

U n iden t if iab le

1 7

7 .

5 8 -

-

2

1 7.0

2 0

1 00

T ab le

5. 34

( based o n I rw in e t a l .: 1968)

1 1.4

8

%

2

2 .4

9 .1 2 .3 2 2.7

8 8

3 8 8 9 1

3 .7

4

4 1.7

4 .9

3 0

2 18

3 6 .6

8 2

Restr icted P ercen tages o f Ha lfa a nd S ing le P la t for m C ores a t a l l Ha l fan S i tes

Type

Ha ifa

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

S i te

6G35

6B32

1 018

1 020

6B28

6 24

4 43

6G29

2 014

1 028

6 3.2

6 0.2

4 5.5

4 3 .1

3 3 .1

1 5.6

4 .4

3 .8

3 .2

0 .0

7 .4

1 .2

2 5.4

2 0 .9

2 4 .4

4 1.5

5 3 .7

4 4 .2

7 7.7

6 6 .1

S ing le p la t for m

o f wh ich s tages I , I I a nd V a re r epresen ted e ach b y o ne s i te wh i le s tages Ia nd I V a re r epresen ted b y t wo s i tes e ach ( Marks 1 968c :455-457 ) . T he p rob le ms o f s tra t igraphy a nd t he C 14 d a tes h ave a lready b een d iscussed where i ti s i nd ica ted t ha t t he a va i lab le i n for ma t ion d oes n o t l end much s uppor t t o h is c onclusions ( Chap ter I I ) .

T he s ugges ted t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l

d eve lop men t n eeds a f ur ther c o m men t .

There i s n o q uest ion t ha t t he Hal fan

a sse mb lages a re d ec ided ly micro l ith ic ( F ig . 5 .22 ) . T he ' Ha ifa C o mp lex ' i s a lso d escr ibed a s micro l i th ic b u t d eta i led i nfor ma t ion t o a l low c o mpar isons i s n o t a va i lab le .

Marks a rgues t ha t t he Ha l fan s hows a g radua l s h if t f ro m

a microf lake t echno logy t o t rue microb lade t echno logy a nd t ha t t here i s a c onstan t i ncrease i n t he p ropor t ions o f b lades t o f lakes t hrough t i me ( i b id :401) . Typo log ica l ly t he a sse mb lages h ave t hree ma in t oo l t ypes , Ha ifa f lakes , b acked microf lakes a nd b acked microb lades a nd ' on ly d ur ing a t ransi t iona l s tage t ha t a l l t hree o ccur i n s ign i f ican t amoun ts ' ( i b id :402, F ig . 5 .26 ) .

He

f ur ther a rgues t ha t t he s h if t ing p a ttern i n t he p roduct ion o f t hese t wo t oo l t ypes g roups s i tes 1 020 a nd 1 018 a s a n e ar ly s tage , s i te 6 24 i s t ransi t iona l a nd s i tes 4 43 a nd 2 014 a t ta in t he f u l l d eve lop men t o f t he microb lade t echno logy The c l i max o f t h is d eve lop men t i s a ch ieved a t s i te 1 028 ( F ig . 5 .27 ) .

Wh i le

t here i s ad ef in i te d ecrease i n t he p roduct ion o f L eva l lo is a nd Ha ifa f l akes a t a l l t en Ha lfan s i tes , i ti s n ever the less p ossib le t o p oin t o u t t ha t t he Ha i fa f l ake

1 34

d id n o t d isappear i n t he manner p resen ted b y Marks . Dur ing my i nves t iga t ion o f t hese d a ta Ih ave o bserved , f or i ns tance , t ha t a t s i te 6 24 ' t ransi t iona l ' t here a re 3 5 Ha i fa f l akes i nc luded b y Marks i n t he b acked f lakes g roup b u t n o t c oun ted a s Ha ifa f l akes . T h is i s f ur ther s uppor ted b y t he h igh n u mber o f Ha ifa c ores h e r epor ted f or t he s ame s i te ( Tab le 5 .32) .

Moreover , 1 5 L eva l lo is f l akes

w ere o bserved among w ha t was c onsidered b y Marks a s d eb i tage. T he s a me a pp l ies t o s i te 4 43 where Ic oun ted 4 0 Ha ifa f l akes wh ich were a pparen t ly o verl ooked .

T hese wou ld a ppear t o b e minor n umbers b u t t hey i nd ica te t he c on t inu i ty

o f t he Ha ifa f l ake p roduct ion .

I ti s a lso d i f f icu l t t o a ccep t t he i dea t ha t Hai fa

f l akes a nd c ores were c o mp lete ly a bsen t a t s i te 1 028 i n v iew o f t he d ispu ted s tra t igraphy a nd t he om ission o fp ar t o f t he o r ig ina l c o l lec t ion f ro m t he a na lys is ( i b id :450) .

T h is h as a d irect r e levance t o t he p rob le m o f microb lade

o ccurrence a t t hese s i tes. I ndeed microb lade o ccurrence s hows a d if feren t p a t tern i n w h ich i ts ee ms t ha t t hey a ppeared f u l ly d eve loped i n l arge n u mbers . T he p ercen tages o f m icrob lades a t t he t en Ha lfan a sse mb lages i s i l lustra ted b y F ig . 5 .24 wh ich s hows t ha t ad ras t ic i ncrease i n t he ir f requency o ccurred a t s i te 6 24 . T here i s ar e markab le d if ference b etween t h is s i te a nd s i tes 1 020 , 1 018, 6G35 a nd 6B32 w here microb lades a re q u i te f ew .

Marks a ssu med t ha t

microb lades a t 6 24 h ave d eveloped f ro m t he l a t ter s i tes b u t t h is i s q uest ionab le . Wh i le t he B lade I ndex r eported f or s i te 1 018 i s 1 2.8, t here i s o n ly o ne t rue microb lade c ore i n t ha t a sse mb lage .

He f ur ther c o m men ted t ha t t hese micro-

b lades a t s i te 1 018 e i ther r esu l ted f ro m t he p repara t ion o f Ha ifa c ore d ista l e nds o r f ortu i tous ly p roduces f ro m f l ake c ores ( i b id :422) . Even a ccep t ing t he sma l l n u mber o ft hese microb lades i ti s d oub tfu l i ft hey s uppor t t he g radua l d evelop men t s ince d a t ing o ft hese s i tes s hows t ha t t here i s n o s ubs tan t ia l t ime g ap b e tween t he p resu med e ar l ier a nd l a ter s i tes ( Chap ter I I ) .

1 35

CHAPTER V I STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SO ME MAJOR ATTRIBUTES

T he a pp l ica t ion o f s ta t is t ica l p rocedures t o t he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l a t tr ibu tes d escr ibed i n t he l ast c hap ter a nd t o t he f i rs t-hand i nfor ma t ion o b ta ined o n t he s ize o f a r tefacts , i s mean t t o g o b eyond t he s i mp le p ara meters t ha t w ere s e t b y p rev ious workers t o p resen t d i f ferences a nd s im i lar i t ies b etween t he a sse mb lages.

T h is i s , o f c ourse , n o t a n e nd i n i t self a nd s ta t is t ica l

r esu l ts may , i n s o me c ases , o n ly s uggest o r i nd ica te n ew a venues f or t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , a l though t he b est d e mons tra t ion o ft h is w i l l , o f c ourse , b e where p osi t ive r esu l ts h ave b een o b ta ined . S ince o ne o f t he p r i me c oncerns o ft h is s tudy i s t he e xam ina t ion o fv ar iab i l i ty w i th in t he d ef ined i ndustr ies , t he a na lysis was most ly u nder taken a t t he a sse mb lage l evel .

T he a im i s t hen t o e xa m ine t he ' rea l i ty ' o f t hese e n t i t ies b y u s ing a

s pecif ied s e t o fv ar iab les t ha t a re b el ieved t o r ef lec t t o b es t a dvan tage t he i n terrela t ionsh ips b etween t he m . O ther l eve ls o fa na lysis migh t h ave b een t hough t t o a ddress t he p rob le m t hrough t he s tudy o f s peci f ic a t tr ibu tes o r a t tr ibu te s ta tes i n ap ar t icu lar a r tefact (s ) c lass , b u t i ti s f e l t t ha t t he l a t ter wou ld n o t s u i t t he Nub ian d a ta a t h and .

P rob le ms o f a r tefact a ssoc ia t ion a nd

t he d ispu ted s tra t igraphy o f mos t o f t he s i tes c oncerned h ave a lready b een d iscussed ( Chap ters I I , I V ) . T he a pp l ica tion o f mu l t i-var ia te t echn iques i n a l l l evels o f a na lys is a nd t he v a lue o ft he r esu l ts o b ta ined d epends s o le ly o n t he c ho ice o fv ar iab les a nd t he ir v a l id i ty t o t he s pec if ic p rob le m u nder c ons idera t ion .

R ecen t l i tera ture o n t h is s ub jec t r ef lec ts t he f or ma t ive s ta te o f

s ta t ist ica l a pp l ica t ion i n a rchaeo logy t hough i n s o me c ases d ef in i tive a pproaches a nd s ound r esu l ts h ave c er ta in ly b een o b ta ined ( Doran a nd Hudson 1 975) . T he p resen t c hap ter i s o rgan ized i n t he f o l low ing manner : 1 .

Ab r ief d escr ip t ion o f t he s ta t is t ica l p rocedures t ha t h ave b een

a pp l ied t o t he d ata . 2 .

t he v ar iab les c hosen f or a na lysis a nd d a ta p repara t ion .

3 .

p resen ta t ion o ft he r esu l ts a nd d iscussion .

S ta t ist ica l P rocedures S tuden ts ' t -test T h is i s aw el l k nown me thod o ft est ing s ign i f ican t d if ferences b etween s a mp le means. I ti s u sed h ere t o t est t he s ign if icance o fd if f erence b e tween means o f metr ica l a t tr ibu tes b e l ieved t o b e r e levan t t o t he s tudy o fv ar iab i l i ty w ith in t he a sse mb lages. S ince t he u nder ly ing ma the ma t ica l a ssump t ions o f t he t -test method a re c overed i n most s ta t is t ica l t ex t b ooks , i ts ee ms u nnecessary t o d escr ibe t he m h ere .

Dur ing t he a na lys is s ign if icance t ests

were c arr ied o u t o n most o ft he metr ica l a t tr ibu tes b u t b ecause o f s pace l im i ts o n ly t hose wh ich a re b e l ieved t o g ive s ign if ican t r esu l ts w i l l b e d escr ibed . 1 36

C lus ter Ana lys is T he c o mpu ter p ackage emp loyed i n t he s tudy i s C lus tan v ers ion I C , wr i t ten b y Dr . Wishar t ( 1975) . I ti s as ing le o ver layed p rogra m me o f s ubr ou t ines t ha t c an b e c a l led a t a ny s tage o f t he a na lysis.

T he p rogra mme

c o m mences b y f i l ing a d a ta ma tr ix a nd t hen e xecu tes a s er ies o f s ta t is t ica l o p t ions e ach b eing s uitab le t o ap ar t icu lar p rob le m .

T he t echn ique emp loyed

i n t he p rogra m me i s b ased o n t he k - means o f c lus tering wh ich s eeks t o f i nd t igh t "m in i mu m v ar iance" c lusters .

I ti nvo lves " character iz ing a ny c luster

b y t he a verage v a lue o f t he s cores o f i t s me mbers o n e ach r e levan t a t tr ibu te" ( Doran a nd Hodson 1 975 :180 ). U n l ike t he s ing le l i nkage me thod i ts eeks t o r ea l loca te a ny me mber o f ac lus ter t o a no ther d ur ing t he a na lysis , u n t i l a f ina l s o lu t ion i s r eached . G iven t he d a ta p repared i n as u i tab le f or m ( s ee b e low ) t he p rogra m me c o mpu tes a c oef f icien t d istance ma tr ix wh ich i s " a t r iangu lar a rray o f N * ( N-1)/2 c oef f ic ien ts s uch t ha t e ach e le men t measures t he s im i lar ity b etween t wo e le men ts" ( W ishar t 1 975 :25) .

T here a re 4 0 o p t ions

o f c oeff ic ien ts a va i lab le i n t he p ackage a nd t he o ne u sed i n a l l o f t he a na lyses h ere i s t he Eucl idean d istance wh ich i s d e f ined a s " a p ercen tage r a t io o f t he s um o f t he s quared d istance b etween u n i ts a nd t he ir c luster c en tres r e la t ive t o t heir s um med d istances f ro m t he o vera l l d a ta mean" ( Hodson 1 971 :34) . I n o ther words , f or e ach p a ir o f u n i ts ( a sse mb lages ) t he measure o f d istance b e tween t he m i s g iven b y t he s quare r oo t o ft he s um o f t he s quared d iference i n e ach v ar iab le .

T he Eucl idean d istance h as b een f ound r easonab ly a ppropr ia te

t o measure r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a rchaeo log ica l u n i ts a nd i ti s a lso a c onv en ien t b asis f or t he k - means t echn ique wh ich i s a dop ted i n t he a na lys is ( Doran a nd H odson 1 975 :139 ) . H ierarch ica l L inkage o fA sse mb lages There a re a n u mber o f a lgor i th ms a va i lab le i n t he c lustan p ackage e ach o f wh ich w i l l g ive a s u m mary o f t he i n for ma t ion s tored i n t he d istance ma tr ix i n t he f or m o f g roups o r c lusters .

T he mos t u sed me thod i n t h is s tudy i s t he

'Ward method ' wh ich i s t he " su m o f t he d is tances f ro m e ach i nd iv idua l t o t he c en tro id o f i t s p aren t c luster" . I tt hus " co mb ines t hose t wo c lusters whose f usion y ie lds t he l eas t i ncrease i n t he e rror s um o f s quares" ( W ishar t 1 975 : 3 7 ) . I tt hus s eeks f or t he p a ir o f i nd iv idua ls wh ich h ave t he l owest d istance c oeff ic ien t a nd c on t inues t o f use p a irs o f i nd iv idua ls u n t i l t he who le s a mp le i s f used i n as ing le c lus ter . A no ther a lgor i th m ( Average l i nkage ) h as b een a t te mp ted b u t o n ly o ne e xa mp le i s p rov ided h ere ( F ig . 6 .21) . T he n e t r esu l t o f t he o pera t ion i s p lo t ted i n ad endrogra m i n wh ich t he c ases ( un i ts ) a re l i sted o n t he y -ax is a t t he b ase o ft he d iagra m a nd t he x -ax is t o t he l e f t s ide s hows t he s ca le , i .e . e rror s um o f s quares . I n a dd i t ion t o t he d endrogra m t he c o mpu ter p rin t o u t g ives o ther i nfor ma t ion wh ich c haracterizes t he c lusters . P rinc ipa l C o mponen ts A na lysis Th is i s as epara te o p t ion i n t he s ame p ackage wh ich s u m mar izes t he o r ig ina l d a ta ma tr ix i n ad i fferen t manner . T he p rocedure o pera tes t o s et u p n ew a xes ( co mponen ts) i n mu l t i-d i mens iona l s pace .

The f i rst P r inc ipa l

C o mponen t ( or f ac tor ) a ccounts f or t he max i mum p ossib le v ar ia t ion w i th in t he s e t o f v ar iab les u nder c onsidera t ion . T he s econd P r incipa l C o mponen t a ccoun ts f or t he r e ma in ing v ar ia t ion a nd s o o n u n t i l t he f i na l c o mponen t ( l east

1 37

impor tant ) i s r eached .

N or ma l ly t here a re a s many c o mponen ts a s v ar iab les

u sed , b u t i n t he c ase o f t he N ub ian d a ta i ti s f ound t ha t t he f i rst t wo c o mponen ts u sua l ly a ccoun t f or more t han 6 0% o ft he v ar ia t ion .

T herefore , o n ly t he

s ca t tergra ms o f a sse mb lages a nd t he s cores f or e ach v ar iab le o n t he f i rs t t wo P r incipa l C o mponen ts w i l l b e p resen ted . B asic I npu t Da ta 1 .

Me tr ica l A t tr ibu tes

T hese a re measure men ts o fd i mens ions o f a r tefacts i nclud ing l eng th , w id th , t h ickness , wh ich a re b e l ieved t o g ive a r easonab le e s t i ma te o f s ize . C ons idered a s a t tr ibu tes a re t he r a t ios o f t hese measure men ts a nd t he d i mens ions o f s tr ik ing p la tfor ms , l eng th a nd h e igh t .

S tandard Dev ia t ions o f s ome

d i mensions w ere a lso u sed i n s o me o f t he a na lyses a nd t hese w i l l b e n o ted i n t he r espect ive a na lysis.

As men t ioned e ar l ier t hese measure men ts were

t aken a ccord ing t o t he i nd iv idua l t ype o f a r tefac t ( Chap ter I )b u t b ecause many o f t he s a mp les a re r e la t ive ly sma l l , i ti s f e l t a ppropr ia te t o g roup a r tefac ts i n to l og ica l c lasses.

T hus t he t oo l l i s t o f t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a sse mb lages

i s d iv ided i n to t wo , o ne f or r e touched t oo ls a nd a no ther f or L eva l lo is f l akes . T he Ha lfan a sse mb lages o n t he o ther h and a re f urther d iv ided t o a vo id p rob le ms t ha t c ou ld a r ise f ro m u s ing h eterogeneous d a ta , t hus t he t oo l l i st i s d iv ided i n to Ha lfa f l akes , b acked microb lades ( a l l t ypes ) a nd o ther f or ma l r etouched t oo ls ( t ypes 5 -10 o ft he mod if ied t ype l i st , s ee C hap ter V , Appendices 2 a nd 3 ) . 2 .

B ordes ' Typo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l I nd ices

Th is s e t o f d a ta a pp l ies o n ly t o t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a sse mb lages. Those i nd ices t ha t a re a bsen t o r r are i n t he Nub ian d a ta a re om i t ted f ro m t he a na lys is a nd t he o nes t ha t w ere a ctua l ly u sed a re : T ypo log ica l I nd ices 1 .

Typo log ica l L eva l lois I ndex ( IL tY )

2 . 3 .

S ide-scraper I ndex ( IR ) G roup I ( Mouster ian )

4 .

G roup I I ( Upper P a laeo l i th ic I ndex )

5 .

G roup I V ( Den t icu la te I ndex )

T echno log ica l I nd ices 1 . 2 . 3 .

L eva l lois I ndex ( T T ' F ace t ir,( 1 2) , ,eung I ndex R es tr icted ( I Fs)

The ' Buhen C o mp lex ' s i tes 6G30 , 6G 27 a re n o t i nc luded s ince t he i nd ices c an n o t b e c a lcu la ted f ro m t he a va i lab le p ub l ished d a ta . i nd ices a nd o thers c an b e s een i n C hap ter V .

T he v a lues f or t hese

G roup ing o f a sse mb lages a ccor-

d ing t o t he s e lected i ndices wou ld u ndoub ted ly r a ise d i f f icu l t ies d ue t o t he way t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly c a lcu la ted .

Ab asic b ias l i es i n t he s a mp l ing p rob le m

i nvo lved s ince t he c a lcu la t ion o f I LtY a nd I F , f or i ns tance , d epends o n h ow much o f t he d eb i tage f ro m e ach s i te was c arefu l ly r ecorded . Ano ther p rob le m wou ld a r ise when o n ly a p or t ion o f as i te a rea i s c o l lec ted where b y c hance o r f or o ther r easons t he d eb i tage i ncidence was p ar t icu lar ly l ow . 1 38

Bu t a s

t hese i nd ices w ere u sed a s t he p r inc ipa l t axono m ic c r i ter ia i n i so la t ing t he i ndustr ia l g roups , i tw ou ld b e o f c onsiderab le v a lue t o s ub ject t he m t o a more r igorous s ta t is t ica l a na lysis . 3 .

R e touched T oo ls a nd C ore Types

T he c ho ice o ft oo l o r c ore t ypes f or a na lys is p oses a p rob le m s ince i t i s d irec t ly r e la ted t o t he q uest ion o f wh ich o ft he t ypes i s r ea l ly s ign if ican t i n t he o vera l l t oo l k i t .

T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly r elevan t when a c er ta in t ype i s o n ly

r epresen ted b y t wo o r t hree s pec i mens i n a n a sse mb lage . B ecause many o f t he N ub ian s i tes c a me f ro m t he s ürface i ti s d iff icu l t t o k now whether s uch t ypes were a ctua l ly r are o r whe ther t hey a re a f fected b y as amp l ing p rob le m . Moreover t he u nretouched L eva l lo is f l akes a nd b lades i n t he M idd le P a laeol i th ic a sse mb lages a re c ons idered b y B ordes a s t oo ls b u t t h is c an a lso a pp ly t o o ther u n mod if ied f lakes .

T o a vo id s uch p rob le ms t he L eva l lo is f l akes were

om i t ted i n t he a na lys is o ft oo l t ypo logy .

C owg i l l h as p oin ted o u t t ha t i f at ype

i s s u f f icien t ly r are i n t he l i st o f v ar iab les , " i t w i l l t end t o s how r e la t ively l ow c orre la t ions w i th a l l o ther c a tegor ies" a nd h e s uggested t ha t r are t ypes s hou ld e i ther b e om i t ted o r p oo led ( Cowg i l l 1 968 :373) .

T h is p rocedure i s

f o l lowed h ere a nd t herefore a l l p ieces wh ich h ave minor o r weak r etouch a nd o ther r are t ypes w ere om i t ted .

Types o f s crapers w ere g rouped a ccord ing

t o t he o rder o f t he w ork ing e dge a s s hown i n t he t oo l l i st b e low .

T o o b ta in

ab et ter s a mp le t oo ls f ro m t he t wo a reas o f s i te N 91 were c o mb ined a nd a lso f or t he t wo l evels o f t he I f ior musan s i te 6G30. The f ina l t oo l l i s t i nc ludes 1 3 t ypes wh ich a re u sed i n a l l s tages o ft he a na lysis . The c ho ice o f c ore t ypes f o l low t he s a me p rocedure .

T he L eva l lo is c ore t ype , f or i ns tance , i ncludes

a l l t he c a tegor ies o f t ha t t ype d escr ibed i n C hap ter V .

O ther t ypes wh ich a re

r are were om i t ted . I t must b e r e me mbered t ha t s a mp les o f c ores f ro m t he Mouster ian s i tes w ere r e markab ly sma l l a nd t he p ossib i l i ty o f g et t ing misl eading r esu l ts c anno t t herefore b e c o mp lete ly e xc luded . s i tes were om i t ted f ro m t he c ore a na lys is .

Thus s o me o f t he

T hese a re s i tes 4 40 , 1 010 , 3 6B

a nd JB . I n t he Ha l fan t oo l a nd c ore a na lys is s e lec t ion was made a long t hese l i nes b u t t he t oo l l i st i nc ludes t he Ha ifa f l ake s ince i ti nvo lves q u i te a s pecia l ized t echn ique a nd t ha t most o f t he m a re r e touched . I n t he mod if ied t ype l i st o f C hap ter V t en t ypes were f ina l ly s e lec ted . b o th g roups o f a sse mb lages a re :

T he l i sts o f t oo ls a nd c ores f or

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A sse mb lage L ist o f T oo l t ypes

B ordes t ype

L ist o f C ore t ypes

S i mp le s ide-scrapers Doub le s ide-scrapers T ransverse s crapers

( 9-11) ( 1 2-20) ( 2 1-24 )

L eva l lo is N ub ian Type I a nd I

I nverse r etouched s crapers S ide-scrapers w i th a brup t ,

( 2 5 )

S ing le P la tfor m 9 0 o

( 2 6-29)

D isco ida l

b i facia l o r a l terna te r e touch E nd-scrapers B ur ins

( 3 0-31) ( 3 233)

B orers

( 3 4-35)

T runca t ions

( 4 0 )

1 39

N o tches a nd n o tched-end p ieces

( 4 2+54)

D en t icu la tes

( 4 3)

B ec Bur ins I nverse r e touched p ieces

( 4 4 ) ( 4 5)

T he H a lfan A sse mb lages L is t o f T oo ls

L ist o f C ores

Ha ifa f l akes End-scrapers

Ha ifa c ore S ing le p la tform

S ide-scrapers

O pposed p la tfor m

B ur ins

Wedge

D ent icu la tes N o tches T runca ted p ieces

D isco ida l

B acked f l akes B acked microb lades T runca ted microb lades Da ta P repara t ion The r aw d a ta s o o b ta ined a lso r eceived s o me f ur ther man ipu la t ion b efore b eing s ubm i t ted t o C lustan . Two p rocedures w ere emp loyed t o t ransfor m t he r aw d a ta t o as u i tab le f or m .

T h is i s mean t t o a vo id t he s ta t is t ica l p rob le ms

t ha t wou ld r esu l t f ro m u sing d irect ly r aw c oun ts o r p ercen tages . I th as b een s uggested t ha t i ft he d a ta i s u sed i n t h is f or m i t wou ld c ause s ta t is t ica l d i f f icu l t ies i n t he c a lcu la t ion o ft he c orre la t ion c oef f icien t .

T he ma in p rob le m

c en tres a round s a mp le s izes a nd t he f requencies o f c a tegor ies a t e ach .

When

l arger s a mp les a re c o mpared t o sma l ler s a mp les " any th ing i s l i ke ly t o c orr e la te p osi t ive ly w i th e very th ing" ( Cowg i l l 1 968 :327 , D oran a nd Hodson 1 975 : 1 45) . T he f irs t p rocedure u sed i n d a ta h and l ing i s t o t ransfor m i tu s ing a s ub-progra m me ( ARC ) wr i t ten b y Dr . P . C a l low . T he p rogra mme f i rst c onver ts t he v ar iab les i n to p ercen tage f requencies a nd t o n or ma l ize t hese p ercen tages i tt ransfor ms t he m t o t heir a rcs ine v a lues u sl ig t he f or mu la : 1 s in 1 (W 100) 2 . Th is i s a me thod f am i l iar i n o ther f i elds. T he s econd p rocedure i s t o s tandard ize t hese a rcs ine v a lues u sing a n o p t ion a va i lab le i n C lustan I C . T h is i s ar egu lar p rocedure i n d a ta h and l ing wh ich s tandard izes t he v ar iab le b y " d iv id ing a l l s cores b y t he S tandard Dev ia t ion o f t he a t tr ibu te c oncerned" ( Doran a nd Hodson 1 975 :137) .

When t he

d a ta i s n o t s tandard ized " the s im i lar ity c oef f icien ts w i l l b e b iased t owards t hose v ar iab les wh ich h ave l arge v ar iances" ( W ishar t 1 975 :17 ) . S tandard iza t ion i n t h is manner wou ld mean t ha t a l l v ar iab les c hosen f or t he a na lys is wou ld c on tr ibu te e qua l ly t o t he c a lcu la t ion o f t he d istance ma tr ix wh ich i s t he i n i t ia l s tep u pon wh ich t he c luster ing t echn ique i s b ased .

T h is h as t he a dvan tage o f

u nder tak ing t he a na lysis w i thou t t he e f fec t o f ' f ossi l t ype ' imposed o n t he d a ta. A l though t he d a ta h as b een s tandard ized i n a l l s tages o f a na lyses i ti s f el t u sefu l t o u se i tu nstandard ized i n s o me o f t he a na lyses f or c o mpara t ive p urposes .

Thus a l l o ft he d endrogra ms a nd s ca t ter-grams p resen ted h ere a re

b ased o n s tandard ized d a ta a nd when t hey a re n o t i ti s n o ted i n t he d endrogram c ap t ion .

1 40

A r tefact S ize a nd G roup ing o f A sse mb lages o n t he B asis o f Metr ica l A t tr ibu tes T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A sse mb lages L eva l lo is F lakes S ign if icance t ests o n t he L eva l lo is f l akes w ere c arr ied o u t o n t hree v ar iab les. T hese a re l eng th , t h ickness a nd t he n umber o f d orsa l s cars. T he t hree v ar iab les t aken t ogether , i ti s b e l ieved , w il l s hed l i gh t o n t he t echn o log ica l v ar ia t ion w i th in t he a sse mb lages a s s een i n t he p roduc t ion o f t hese f l akes . T hese v ar iab les c ou ld a lso b e r e la ted t o t he n ature a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia l t ypes . F or e ach s ta t ist ica l t es t t wo t ab les a re p rov ided ; o ne s u m mar izes t he v ar iances s ign if ican t ly d if feren t a t t he 5% l eve l , a nd t he o ther s hows t he t tes t r esu lts. I ti s o n t he l a t ter t ha t t he d iscussion w i l l ma in ly c oncen trate . S ince t he t ab les g ive t he d eta i ls o f t hese t ests t he d isc ussion w i l l b e l im i ted t o t he ma in p a t terns t han c an b e o bserved . S ign if icance t es ts o n l eng th o f L eva l lo is f lakes a t t he 1 8 s i tes s hows t ha t t he D ongo la s i tes d o n o t h ave w ide ly d i f feren t v ar iances. Wh i le t here i s n o d i f ference i n v ar iance b etween t hese s i tes a nd t he Khor musan s i tes , t he ir v ar iances a re s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f ro m t he Mouster ian s i tes ( excep t 1 000 a nd 3 6B ) .

O n

t he o ther h and , v ar iances i n t he Khor musan a re d if feren t f ro m t he Mouster ian s i tes ( excep t 1 000 , 3 6B ) . Ano ther Mous ter ian s i te 1 035 h as a s im i lar v ar iance t o t wo Khor musan s i tes 3 4D a nd 2 004 ( Tab le 6 .1.1) . T he t -test r esu l ts o n t he s a me v ar iab le , h owever , s how a r a ther c o mp l ica ted p at tern . T o t ake t he Dongo la a sse mb lages f i rst , i tc an b e s een t ha t o n ly s i te N 91 i s s ign i f ican t ly d iferen t f ro m t wo o ther Dongo la s i tes , N 20 a nd N 6. F lakes f ro m N 20 h ave a mean l eng th s ign i f ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m t hose a t N 2 o n ly a t t he 1% l eve l ( Tab le 6 .1.2) .

O n t he who le , L eva l lois f l akes i n t he Dongo la a sse mb lages

c an b e d escr ibed a s h o mogeneous , a nd o n ly N 91 i s d i f feren t w i th a mean l eng th o f 6 3.8 m m . The s ame s i te h as a s im i lar mean t o t he Mous ter ian s i tes e xcep t t hose w i th c o mpara t ive ly s hor t f l akes —s i tes 1 000 , 3 6B a nd 1 035. The Mouster ian s i tes a lso h ave d if ferences b e tween t he m a nd a Mous ter ian t ype A c an b e s im i lar o r d if feren t t o t ype B o r Den t icu la te . The "m isce l laneous" s i te 4 40 i s s im i lar t o t he Mouster ian s i tes w i th ah igh mean v a lue ( 1 038 , 1 010 , 1 033 , JB , Appendix 2 .2a ) .

T he f i ve K hor musan a sse mb lages h ave means

s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m o ne a no ther e xcep t 1 017 a nd 3 4A .

T he who le g roup

h as mean l eng ths s ign i f ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m a l mos t a l l t he a sse mb lages f ro m Dongo la a nd t he Mous ter ian . T he e xcep t ions t o t h is a re t he t wo Mouster ian s i tes , 1 035 a nd 1 000.

S i te 1 000 wh i le s ta t ist ica l ly d if feren t f ro m a l l t he

means o f Dongo la a sse mb lages a nd mos t o f t he Mouster ian , d i f fers f ro m o n ly o ne Khor musan s i te ( 2 004) .

F lakes f ro m s i te 1 035 a re s ign if ican t ly

d if feren t f ro m t wo K hor musan s i tes ( 3 4D a nd 2 004) a t t he 0 .1% l evel a nd f ro m s i te AN W o n ly a t 1% l eve l .

I ti s wor th men t ion ing t ha t t he t wo Mous ter ian

s i tes f oun .d s ta t ist ica l ly c o mparab le t o t he Khor musan u t i l ized impor ted r aw ma ter ia l ( Chap ter I V ) .

The K hor musan L eva l lo is f lakes w i th sma l l s ize

( a t s i tes AN W , 3 4D , 2 004) were made l argely o n N i le c her t wh ich b y i t s n a ture c ou ld h ave c on tr ibu ted t o sma l ler s ize o f t he b lanks.

On t he o ther

h and , L eva l lois f lakes a t s i tes 1 017 a nd 3 4A were a l most a l l made o f impor ted F errocrete s andstone a lso u sed i n t he Mouster ian s i tes b u t n ever the less t he f or mer s i tes h ave g enera l ly sma l ler b lanks t han t he Mous ter ian . I tc an b e a ssu med t ha t sma l ler s labs o ft h is ma ter ia l w ere c arr ied t o t he s i tes t o a ch ieve a n e cono my o f efor t .

Th is p o in t w i l l b e p ursued l a ter . 1 41

2 004

AN W

3 4D

3 4 1\

1 017

JB

1 033U

1 010

C ) 1 4 I C 4 • )

1 038

1 035

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C Z J

6

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i f icance T ests

C . ) C • S • 4 r •H •

3 6B

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T ab le 6 .1.1

F -Ra t io Resu l ts :

•

N 6

N 2

N 20

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CI

c 4 c n1: : : < Z 1 7 t 1 CC CZ r c z c n 2 u,2 . ,7 r i oc . c ) c p o o o g l o e l e l _ ,o z 4 , zi 4 , e l , 4 c n c o ri 1 4 1 1 1 1 ? "" J ri c n r z . a . ,N 1

-

1 42

2 004

AN W

3 4D ( r ) c r ) a ) a )

3 4A

C l . h !

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" f l ,

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1 038

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1 035

( Leva l lois F lakes)

' 1. 1. " t i . " t i -

1, 1. T h

H

H

6

3 6B

1 000

4 40

N 6

Ttest Resu l ts :

N 2

N 20

N 91

2 ©4 22w z > .. • ' 4c zc o 7 t i r ,

r I

C D

C D

C D

i n C o Z

C Y Z 0 ,

C D 1 1

O Z C I

C -

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1 43

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3 41 )

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JB

1 033U

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1 000

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4 40

*

*

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*

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1 0 C 0 C D 1 1

0 0 C O

•

F-Rat io Resu l ts :

N 6

N 2

N 20

*

*

C s 1 z

C S D z

N 91

r I 4 . 4

N z

C > 7 1,

C >

1 44

1 1

0 r I C >

C I C Y Z

0 r I

< e

e i C ' Z

z

e

2 004

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3 4D

3 4A

1 017

JB

1 033U

1 010

1 038

1 035

6

3 6B

1 000

4 40

N 6

N 2

H 1 1 1,

1, 1, ' f l ,1 4 " H.

N 20

N 91

( 1 1.

0

c i , z c , qe 9e i0z o . 1 A At A4 4

H

c, Ic e , . 1< 4n 0c )00P i a 0 e Ce z e I ' ` . , .4 c . 1 . L C D

00

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4 40

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N 6

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N 2

N 20

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N 91

1 -4 CD C " )

Z

4

2 c z 4 4

Z

0

0

z

r I

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4

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00

0

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r 1

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c e C d > C D g E ; 2 -

I I

H " H , ' f l , ' f l .

1 ,

' H .

I " t i , " f i , -1 ,

T h

1 035

1

6

H

3 6B

H ' f l . " f l .

f 4 1 4 " f l , " f l ,

H

' f l . " f i, ' f l .

' f l , ' f l ,

H " f l , ' f l, " f l .

H ' H. " t i , ' W . ' f l ,

1 000

H ' B . ' f l. ' f l ,

" f l ,

4 40

' f l , ' f l , 1, " f l,

N 6

H

N 20

' f l , ' f i k

H

r f C D Z p

H

I 'W . ' f l , ' f l .

H

H

" f l, " f l .

" f l .

N 2

T ab le 6 .6 .2

' f l ,

1 ,

1 038

N 91

-e -

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1,

H ' f l , ' f l ,

' f l , " f l ,

H

c i

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e

C D e l e l _ , 0 f r Z 1 1 C I C I ` " , + N

15

1—

14. 1 51

12. 5 01

—

10. 8 51

—

9. 2 01

7. 5 51

5. 9 0 0

4. 2 5 0

2 .6 0 0

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t o

F ig . 6 .5

r -

1 -

c s )

m ( r )

0 3 •

L inkage D endrogram o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages o n t he b as is o f R etouched Too ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 59

0

FPC T OR

1

+JB

+34 D

+1

17

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F ig. 6 .6

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is. M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages, Retouched Too ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 60

F ig

6 .7:

L inkage Dendrogra m o f M idd le Pa laeo l ith ic Asse mb lages o n t he b as is o f Retouched T oo ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes ( Data U nstandard ised)

706 . 134 -

632 . 238

558 .343 •

484 .447

4 10 .552

3 36 .656

262.760

1 88 . 865

14 . 970

4 1 .075

n T Z Y ;0 z

0

z

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1 61

o

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e 0

4 0

t C )

z o m e z o • 0 < 0

f ro m t he r est o ft he Mous terian s i tes .

The l a t ter Mouster ian c luster , a s i n

t he p rev ious d endrogra m , i nc ludes s i tes f ro m b oth t ype A a nd B .

T he

P r incipa l C o mponen ts a na lysis a s s hown i n t he s ca t tergram c onf ir ms t he g enera l c luster ing o ft he s i tes t hough t here a re s o me d if ferences ( F ig . 6 .6 , T ab le 6 .7 ) . F or i nstance , t he K hor musan s i tes ANW , 2 004 , 3 4D d o n o t f or m a t igh t c lus ter a s t hey d o i n t he d endrogra m . S i te 3 4A i s a lso s o mewha t s epara ted f ro m i t s o rig ina l c luster i n t he d endrogra m . Another a na lys is was u nder taken u sing t he s ame s et o fd a ta b u t n o t s tandard ized . Th is i s mean t t o t est t he p osi t ion o f t he Khor musan i n r e la t ion t o t he Mouster ian s i tes when t he e f fect o fe qua l weigh t g iven t o v ar iab les i s r e moved .

T he r esu l t i s , h owever , q u i te c onsis ten t w i th t he f orego ing a na lys is

a nd o nce a ga in t he t wo K hor musan s i tes ( 3 4A , 1 017) r e ma ined i n t he s a me c luster ( F ig . 6 .7 ) . I tc an b e s een t ha t a l l t he s i tes k ep t t heir o r ig ina l c lusters e xcep t t ha t s i te N 91 n ow l i nks w i th Mouster ian s i tes c harac ter ized b y l arger f l akes . C ores S ign if icance t ests o n c ore s ize were b ased o nt wo v ar iab les , l eng th , a nd t h ickness r a t io . T o t ake t he Khor musan s i tes f i rs t , i tc an b e s een t ha t 3 4D , ANW a nd 2 004 h ave a mean l eng th s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f ro m a l l t he s a mp les e xa m ined i nc lud ing t he Khor musan s i tes 1 017 a nd 3 4A .

T he mean l eng ths o f

t he l a t ter d o n o t d ifer s ign if ican t ly f ro m Mouster ian s i te 1 036 .

S i te 3 4A o n

t he o ther h and i s s ign i f ican t ly d iferen t f ro m f our o ther Dongo la a nd Mous ter ian s i tes , b u t o n ly a t t he 1% l evel . T hus t he s im i lar i ty i n c ore l eng th b etween t he t wo s i tes a nd t he Mouster ian a nd Dongo la s i tes d escr ibed e ar l ier a s " in ter med ia te" i s c onf ir med .

S a mp les f ro m N 2 a nd 1 038 h ave a mean l eng th

s ign i f ican t ly d if feren t f ro m a l l s i tes a nd t hey a re g enera l ly c harac ter ized b y l arger c ores t han a ny o ther s i te i nt he s amp le ( Tab les 6 .8.1., 6 .8.2) . S ign i f icance t ests o n t h ickness r a t io g ive c o mparab le r esu l ts . T here i s n o s ign if ican t d if ference w i th in t he Khor musan s i tes e xcep t t ha t s i te 3 4D i s d if feren t a t 1% l eve l f ro m s i te AN W .

T he Mous ter ian s i te 1 035 w i th i t s sma l l

c ores i s s ign i f ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m t he K hor musan s i tes 3 4A a nd 1 017 t o wh ich i ti s h owever c o mparab le i n t he s ize o f L eva l lo is f l akes a nd r etouched t oo ls .

Th is d if ference i n c ore t h ickness r a t io may i nd ica te t ha t c ores a t

t h is s i te r ece ived f ur ther r educ t ion t han a ny o f t he o ther s i tes . Ano ther

T ab le 6 .7

E igenvectors : A t tr ibu tes

M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic R etouched T oo ls Me tr ica l

V ec tor 1

V ector 2

L eng th

6 .355

0 .104

Wid th Th ickness

0 .359 0 .346

0 .115 0 .011

L ength/ W id th

0 .030

0 .871

Th ickness/ W id th

0 .283

0 .357

P la tfor m l eng th

0 .351

0 .059

P la tfor m h e igh t

0 .352

0 .082

1 62

Mousterian s i te 1 000 t o wh ich r aw ma ter ia l was imported d oes n o t d if fer ( i n mean t h ickness r a t io ) f ro m Khor musan s i te AN W a nd i s d i fferen t f ro m s i tes 1 017 a nd 2 004 o n ly a t t he 1% l evel .

O ft he Dongo la s i tes N 2 a nd N 6 d o n o t

d if fer f ro m t he Khor musan s i tes 3 4A , 3 4D a nd 1 017 e xcep t i n t ha t N 6 i s s ta t ist ica l ly d i fferen t f ro m 3 4D a t 1% l eve l . O ne Mous ter ian s i te 6 d oes n o t d if f er f ro m a ny o ft he Khor musan s i tes .

Taken a s a who le , t he r esu l ts s how

g rea t v ar iab i li ty b e tween s i tes b u t t here i s o n t he who le at endency t o f i nd sma l l c ores o ccurr ing i n s i tes where r aw ma ter ia l was i mpor ted o r t ha t i t o ccurs i n sma l l n odu les a s i n t he K hor musan s i tes 2 004 , AN W a nd 3 4D .

I t

must b e r e me mbered t ha t t hese measure men ts i nc luded c ores o f v ar ious t ypes a nd t hese w ere c o mb ined s i mp ly b ecause t he s a mp les w ere t oo sma l l . T he s a mp l ing p rob le ms c aused b y s e lec t ion i n t he Mouster ian s i tes a nd t he p rob le m wh ich migh t a r ise f ro m c o mpar ing t he m t o l arger s a mp les ( i .e . f ro m D ongo la a nd Khor musan ) m igh t a l l l ead t o s pur ious v ar iab i l i ty .

I ti s a ga ins t s uch

d rawbacks t ha t t he c luster ing o f s i tes a ccord ing t o t he metr ica l a t tr ibu tes o f c ores must b e w e ighed . T he v ar iab les t ha t were u sed i n t he l a t ter a na lys is a re mean l eng th , w id th a nd t h ickness a nd l eng th a nd t h ickness r a t ios . T he r esu l ts c an b e s een i nt he d endrogra m ( F ig . 6 .8) wh ich s how t hree ma in c lus ters . T he f irst o ft hese i nc ludes t hree Mouster ian s i tes a nd o ne s i te f ro m Dongo la ( N91) . The i nc lus ion o f s i te 1 035 i n t h is g roup c haracter ized b y l arge a nd t h ick c ores a ppears t o b e i nconsisten t w i th t he t test r esu l ts b u t t h is migh t b e c aused b y u s ing r a t ios i n t he l i st o fv ar iab les i n t he a na lys is .

T he s econd

c lus ter i nc ludes t wo D ongo la s i tes ( N2 , N 6 ) , o ne Mous ter ian s i te ( 6 ) a nd t wo Khor musan s i tes ( 3 4A a nd 1 017 ) .

T he t h ird c lus ter i nc ludes t he r e ma ining

t hree Khor musan s i tes wh ich a s ag roup a re c loser t o t he s econd c luster t han t o t he f i rst o ne . O n t he who le t he a na lysis a part f ro m t he p os i t ion o f s i te 1 035 i s i n g enera l a gree men t w ith t he p rev ious r esu l ts . S u m mary The s ta t ist ica l a na lysis o f a r tefact s ize a t t he Mous ter ian , Dongo la a nd K hor musan s i tes p resen ted a bove r a ises a n u mber o fp o in ts . A s e xpec ted o f c ourse , n o t wo a sse mb lages c an t urn o u t t o b e i den t ica l . S ta t is t ica l d if ferences o ccur b etween a nd w i th in t he d ef ined i ndustr ia l g roups.

A l low ing

f or c hance v ar ia t ion , s a mp l ing d rawbacks a nd p robab ly m inor s ty l ist ic d if ferences a d ef in i t ive t rend o r p a t tern c an n onethe less b e o bserved w i th in t hese a sse mb lages. T he ma in c onc lusions t ha t c an b e d rawn f ro m t he a na lys is o f metr ica l a t tribu tes a re : 1 . I th as b een s hown t ha t v ar ia t ion i n a r tefac t s ize w i th in t he Mouster ian a sse mb lages t ha t w ere e xa m ined d oes n o t c orrespond t o t he t ypo log ica l g roup ing o ft he a sse mb lages s uggested b y Marks.

I ndeed , h e made a s im i lar p o in t

f ro m h is e xa m ina t ion o f r e touched t oo l l engths ( Marks 1 968a :294). 2 .

T he s ize o ft he Dongo la a sse mb lages f a l ls w i th in t he r ange o ft he

Mousterian , i n p ar t icu lar t wo s i tes N 91 a nd N 20 a re d is t inct ly c o mparab le t o t he Mouster ian a sse mb lages w i th l arger a nd t h icker b lanks . I tw i l l b e r eca l led t ha t t hese s i tes were d irec t ly l oca ted o n r aw ma ter ia l s ources ( Chap ter I V ) . 3 .

O f t he Khor musan a sse mb lages t hose f ro m 1 017 a nd 3 4A a re s ta t is t i-

c a l ly c o mparab le t o t he Mouster ian s i tes 1 035 a nd 1 000 a nd i n s o me v ar iab les

1 63

T ab le 6 .8.1

L eng ths o f C ores , M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic A sse mb lages : T ests .

F -Ra t ios R esu l ts :

S ign if icance

Var iances S ign i f ican t ly D if feren t a t t he

5% L eve l . N91

N 2

N 6

*

*

1 000

6 1 035

1 038

1 017

3 4A

3 4D

AN W

2 004

N 91 N 2 N 6 1 000 6 1 035 1 038

*

*

*

*

1 017 3 4A *

3 4D

*

AN W 2 004

T ab le 6 .8.2

T test Resu l ts :

Mean L eng th o f C ores S ign if ican t ly D if feren t a t

1% a nd 0 .1 % L eve l . N 91

N 2

N 6

1 000

=

=

6 1 035

1 038

1 017

N 91 N 2 N 6 1 000 6 1 035 1 038 1 017 3 4A

=

3 4D

/

=

AN W 2 004 means s ign if ican t ly d i fferen t a t 0 .1 % l eve l . = means s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t a t 1% l eve l .

1 64

3 4A

3 4D

AN W

2 004

Tab le 6 .9 .1

Th ickness/ W id th Midd le Pa laeol i th ic C ores : F -Ra t io Resu l ts :

N 91

N 2

N 6

1 000

S ign i f icance T ests .

Var iances S ign if ican t ly D if feren t a t 5% L eve l

6 1 035

1 038

. 1 017

3 4A

3 4D

AN W

2 004

N 91 N 2 N 6 1 000 6 1 035 1 038

*

1 017 3 4A

*

*

3 4D AN W

*

*

*

*

*

*

2 004

Tab le 6 .9 .2

T -Test R esu l ts :

Means ( Th ick Ra t ios o f C ores ) S ign if ican t ly

D if feren t a t 1% a nd 0 .1 L eve l N 91

N 2

N 6

1 000

6 1 035

1 038

1 017

3 4A

3 4D

N 91 N 2 N 6

=

1 000 6 1 035

=

1 038 1 017

. =

-

3 4A 3 4D AN W 2 004

= = , _ -

=

=

= =

=

=s ign if ican t ly d if feren t a t 1% l evel ( t -va lue = 0 .01 t o 0 .001) s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t a t 0 .1 % l eve l ( t -va lue = 0 .001 o r l ess)

1 65

AN W

2 004

12. 7 5 6

11 -A 2 8

10. 1 0 0 .

8. 7 72

7. 4 44

6. 1 1 6

.7 8 7

3.

4

59

2. 1 31

2. 8 03

C D

F ig . 6 .8

t f ) T O 0

O 0 0

C O

i n

0

N I Z

( D •Z

0 r

1-

D ( D

i n

G N J

L inkage Dendrogram o f M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages o n t he Bas is o f Core Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 66

Z C I

t o t he Dongo la s i tes N 6 a nd N 2.

A l l o f t hese s i tes h ave med iu m s ize b lanks

t ha t f a l l b etween t he l arge a nd t h ick o ft he f or mer g roup a nd t hose w i th s hor t a nd t h ick b lanks ( see b e low ) . T he f our s i tes 1 035 , 1 000 , N 6 , N 2 u t i l ized impor ted r aw ma ter ia l .

The D ongo la s i tes h owever d o n o t g ive c onsisten t

r esu lts i n t he t test a na lysis .

The Khor musan s i tes 3 4A , 1 017 u t i l ized a h igh

p ercen tage o f F errocre te s andstone wh ich was a lso b rough t f ro m n earby l oca l i t ies a nd i tc an b e a ssu med t ha t i t was b rough t i n sma l l s labs ( Chap ter I V ) . 4 . T he l ast g roup i ncludes t he Khor musan s i tes AN W , 3 4D , 2 004 , c haracter ized b y sma l l a nd t h in b lanks . These s i tes u t i l ized a s ubs tan t ia l amoun t o f N i le p ebb les wh ich b y i t s n a ture wou ld p ro mp t t he p roduct ion o f s uch b lanks . 5 . T he b road d iv ision , h owever , c orresponds t o ag rea ter e x ten t t o t he t echno log ica l a spec ts o fb lank p roduct ion . T h is i s e specia l ly r ef lec ted i n t he L eva l lo is f l akes . I nt hese l a t ter t here i s ag enera l t endency t owards c orre la t ion b etween b lank s ize , s tr ik ing-p la tfor m p repara t ion , a nd t he n u mber o f d orsa l s cars .

I n t hese a sse mb lages t he sma l ler t he b lank t he more i th as b een

p repared .

A l though t here migh t b e o ther f actors wh ich c on tr ibu ted t o al esser

d egree t o t h is p at tern i ti s t he q ua l i ty a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia l t o wh ich t he g rea ter p ar t o ft he v ar ia t ion c an b e a t tr ibu ted . E f fects o n s ize a nd t echno logy i nduced b y t he q ua l i ty a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls h as b een s hown b y many workers e lsewhere . McBurney , f or i nstance , d e monstra ted t h is p o in t b y t wo a na logous c ases . T he f i rst i s ac o mpar ison o f t he f lak ing p rocesses a t t he L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian s i tes a long t he L ibyan c oas t a nd a no ther c on te mporary L eva l loiso- Mouster ian s i te ( Ha j C r ie m ) l oca ted f ur ther i n land .

T he f or mer

s i tes were l oca ted n ear r aw ma ter ia l s ources a nd a re c haracter ized b y l arge b lanks a nd l ess p repared c ores . A t Ha j C r ie m where t he r aw ma ter ia l was e v iden t ly b rough t t o t he s i te a rea t here i s ah igh d egree o fc ore p repara t ion a nd a g enera l r educ t ion i n b lank s ize .

T he s econd e xa mp le i s f ro m L a C o t te

d e S t . B re lande where i ti s d ocumented t ha t d ur ing h igh s ea l eve ls wh ich wou ld t end t o d epr ive t he c ave o ccup iers o f r aw ma ter ia l s ources , t he t endency was t o e cono m ize o n t he i mpor ted ma ter ia l f ro m d istan t t err i tor ies.

T h is i s

r ef lec ted i n c ore p repara t ion , h igher d egree o f f acet ing a nd a g enera l r educ t ion i n s ize . McBurney s u ms u p t h is s i tua t ion b y s ay ing t ha t " th is r eact ion was n o t i n t he n a ture o f l ong-ter m c u l tura l b u i ld-up b u t r a ther a n immed ia te o r s hor t t erm f unct iona l r esponse" ( McBurney 1 975 :415-417 ) .

R educt ion i n s ize

o f s o me o f t he K hor musan a sse mb lages c an n o t b e r ead i ly e xp la ined f or i ns tance a s c hange t hrough t ime a s Marks s uggested . O ne o ft hese s i tes , 3 4D , wh ich h as t he sma l lest a r tefacts , h as t he e ar l ies t C 14 d a te s o f ar o b ta ined f or t he Khor musan ( see C hap ter I I ) . T he Ha lf an A sse mb lages The me trica l d a ta o b ta ined o n 5 Ha lfan s i tes i s p resen ted a ccord ing t o t he ma jor a rtefact c lasses i n Append ix 3 . T he f ive s i tes c an b e t aken t o r epresen t t he who le o ft he s equence a s i ti s d escr ibed b y Marks.

S i tes 1 018 a nd 1 020

r epresen t h is e ar l iest h ypo thet ica l s tage , 6 24 t ransi t iona l a nd s i tes 4 43 a nd 1 028 r epresen t i t s f u l l d evelop men t .

B ecause t he n u mber o f a sse mb lages i s

s o sma l l , n o c lus ter ing o ft he s i tes o n t he b asis o f metr ica l d a ta h as b een a t te mp ted .

However , o ne a na lys is was u nder taken i n wh ich t he Ha lfan a nd

1 67

M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic a sse mb lages were c lustered o n t he b as is o ft he s ize o f Ha lfan f or ma l t oo ls ( t ypes 5 -10) a nd t he Midd le P a laeo l i th ic r etouched t oo ls ( F ig . 6 .9 ) . Apar t f ro m t h is a na lys is , t hen , t he s tudy o f Ha lfan a r tefact s ize i s l im i ted t o t he t test r esu l ts . Ha lfa F lakes There a re v ir tua l ly n o Ha lfa f lakes r epor ted f ro m s i te 1 028 a nd t hus c an n o t b e u sed i n t he t -test a na lysis ( Chap ter V ) . T o o b ta in a g ood s a mp le f or s ign i f icance t ests f l akes f ro m s i tes 4 43 a nd 6 24 w ere c o mb ined . S ign if icance t ests o n l eng th s how t ha t t he f our a sse mb lages h ave e qua l v ar iances . The t t es t r esu l ts o n t he o ther h and s how t ha t mean l eng th o ff l akes a t s i te 1 018 i s s ign if ican t ly d if f eren t f ro m t he c o mb ined s a mp le f ro m s i tes 6 24 a nd 4 43. T hose f ro m s i te 1 020 d o n o t s ign if ican t ly d if fer f ro m e i ther s i te 1 018 n or f ro m s i tes 6 24 a nd 4 43. S ign if icance t ests o n t h ickness o f Ha ifa f l akes were u nder taken i n c on junct i on w i th t he K hor musan L eva l lo is f l akes . v ar iances w i th r egard t o t h ickness.

T he H a l fan a sse mb lages h ave e qua l

T test r esu l ts s how t ha t o n ly s i te 1 020

i s s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m t he c o mb ined s a mp le f ro m s i tes 6 24 a nd 4 43. Ha lfa f l akes mean t h ickness i s s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m a l l Khor musan L eva l lo is f l akes e xcep t t hose a t s i te AN W . T he K hor musan s i te 2 004 a lso d oes n o t s ign if ican t ly d if fer f ro m t he Ha lfan s i te 1 020 ( Tab les 6 .10.1, 6 .10.2) . S ign if icance t ests o f l eng th :w id th r a t io o f Ha lfa f l akes s hows t ha t o n ly s i te 1 020 i s s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f ro m t he c o mb ined s amp le o f s i tes 6 24 a nd 4 43 ( Tab les 6 .11.1, 6 .11.2) .

T he a bove c i ted t ab les , h owever , w i l l s how t ha t

t he Ha lfa f l akes b y a nd l arge ma in ta ined a c o mparab le s ize i n a l l o f t he f our s a mp les e xa m ined . ' For ma l ' T oo ls T hese a re r e touched t oo ls o ther t han b acked e le men ts , t ypes 5 -10 o ft he mod if ied t ype l i st i n c hap ter V . T tests o n mean l eng ths o ft oo ls f ro m 5 Ha lfan s i tes s how t ha t o ne s i te , 1 018, i s s ign i f ican t ly d i f feren t f ro m s i tes 4 43 a nd 6 24 a t 1% l eve l .

T he s a me r esu l t i s o bta ined f or mean t h ickness , where

o n ly s i te 6 24 h as a mean t h ickness d if feren t f ro m s i te 4 43 a t 1% l eve l . F urther more t test r esu l ts o f mean t h ickness :w id th r a t ios s how n o s ign if ican t d iference a t e i ther 0 .1, 1 o r 5% l eve l .

T hese r esu l ts wou ld s uggest t ha t

t here i s n o s ta t ist ica l d ifference i n s ize b etween t he f or ma l t ools i n a l l o f t he Ha lfan s equence . Ac o mparison b e tween t he Ha l fan a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a sse mb lages i s made b y c luster ing t he s i tes o n t he b asis o f f i ve metr ica l a t tr ibu tes o ft oo ls . T hese a re l eng th , w idth , t h ickness a nd l eng ths a nd h e igh ts o f s tr ik ing p la tfor ms . T he d endrogra m ( F ig . 6 .9 ) s hows a c lus ter o ft he H a l fan s i tes a nd K hor musan s i tes 3 4D , 2 004 , AN W , we l l s epara ted f ro m t he r es t o ft he s i tes.

These

t hree K hor musan s i tes , h owever , f or m a s epara te c luster i n a l l o f t he a na lyses c arr ied o u t s o f ar o n a r tefact s ize . T he c haracter ist ic r aw ma ter ia l—N i le P ebb les —do m ina tes b o th t he Hal fa n a nd t he Khor musan s i tes .

T he c luster

d iagnosis i nd ica tes t ha t t he s i tes were ma inly s epara ted b y l eng th a nd t h ickness I ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t ha t i n t h is s a me d endrogra m s i te 1 018, t he ' ear liest ' o f Marks ' s equence f uses w i th s i te 1 028 wh ich i s t he ' youngest ' i n t ha t s equence .

1 68

Tab le 6 .10.1

Th ickness o f Ha lfa F lakes a nd Khor musan L eva l lo is F lakes : S ign if icance T es ts .

F -Ra t io Resu l ts :

Var iances S ign if ican t ly

D if f eren t a t 5% L eve l 1 017

3 4A

3 4D

AN W

*

*

*

2 004

*

*

*

1 018

*

*

*

1 020

*

*

*

*

*

*

AN W

2 004

1 018

1 020

6 24/443

1 017 3 4A 3 4D

6 24/443

Tab le 6 .10.2

T test Resu l ts :

Means ( Ha lfa F lakes Th ickness ) S ign if ican t ly

D if feren t a t 1% a nd 0 .1 L evel 1 017

3 4A

3 4D

ANW

2 004

1 018

1 020

1 017 3 4A 3 4D AN W 2 004 1 018 1 020 6 24/443

=s ign if ican t ly d iferen t a t 1% l eve l ( t -va lue = 0 .01 t o 0 .001) s ign if icant ly d if feren t a t 0 .1% l eve l ( t -va lue - 0 .001 o r l ess )

1 69

6 24/443

Tab le 6 .11.1

L eng th/ W idth o f Ha lfa F lakes a nd Khor musan L eva l lois F lakes : S ign if icance T es ts .

F -Ra t io R esu l ts :

Var iances S ign if ican t ly

D if feren t a t 5% L eve l 1 017

3 4A

3 4D

*

*

*

AN W

2 004

1 018

1 020

6 24/443

1 017 3 4A 3 4D AN W 2 004

*

1 018

*

*

*

*

*

*

1 020

*

*

*

*

6 24/443

Tab le 6 .11.2

*

T test :

* *

*

Means ( L/ W Ha lfa F lakes ) S igni f ican t ly D if feren t a t

1% a nd 0 .1 % L eve l 1 017

3 4A

3 4D

AN W

2 004

1 018

1 020

1 017 3 4A 3 4D AN W 2 004 1 018 1 020 6 24/443 =s ign if ican t ly d if feren t a t 1% l evel ( t -va lues = 0 .01 t o 0 .001) s ign if ican t ly d if feren t a t 0 .1 l evel ( t -va lue = 0 .001 o r l ess)

1 70

6 24/443

3 062 •5 02 -

2 741 • 690 -

2 420 •879 -

2 100.067 -

1 779.256 -

1 458 • 444 -

1 37 • 633 -

8 16 -8 22-

4 96.0 10 -

1 75 .198 -

_ M

— c r %

0 0

Z

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el V)

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L inkage Dendrogra m o f Ha l fan a nd M idd le P a laeo l ith ic A sse mb lages o n t he b as is o f T oo ls Metr ica l A ttr ibutes

1 71

B acked M icrob lades B ecause b acked microb lades a re v ery f ew a t s i tes 1 018 a nd 1 020 , t he t wo s a mp les were c o mb ined a nd i n a ny c ase t hey r epresen t t he f i rs t d eve lopmen t o f t he b ladele t t echno logy a ccord ing t o Marks .

S ign i f icance t ests o n

l eng th o ft hese microb lades s how t ha t s a mp le means f ro m s i te 6 24 a nd s i te 1 028 h ave v ar iances s ign if ican t ly d if f eren t f ro m s i te 4 43 a t t he 5% l eve l . T t est r esu l ts s how t ha t t he mean l eng th o f t he c o mb ined s a mp le f ro m s i tes 1 018/1020 i s s ta t is t ica l ly d if feren t f ro m t ha t a t s i te 4 43 ( 0 .1% ). T he f or mer h as a mean l eng th o f2 2.5 m m a nd t he l a t ter 2 6.8 m m . Means o f m icrob lades a t s i te 6 24 a nd 1 028 a re a lso s ta t ist ica l ly d if feren t f ro m s i te 4 43 a t 0 .1% l eve l . L eng th :w id th r a t io a lso s hows a s ign i f ican t d iference b e tween 1 018/ 1 020 a nd s i te 6 24. T he l a t ter i s a ga in s ign if ican t ly d if f eren t f ro m b oth s i tes 4 43 a nd 1 028 a t 0 .1% l eve l .

T test r esu l ts o n mean t h ickness , h owever , d o

n o t s how a ny s ta t ist ica l d if ference b etween t he s a mp le 1 018/1020 a nd t he r est o ft he s i tes , b u t s i te 6 24 i s s ign if ican t ly d iferen t f ro m 1 028 a t 0 .1% l eve l . O ne i mpor tan t r esu lt o ft hese t ests o f Ha lfan microb lades c an b e s ing led o u t wh ich i s t he d if ference i n l eng th b etween t he s a mp le o f 1 018/1020 a nd t he r es t o ft he s i tes.

T he d ub ious n ature o f t hese microb lades h as b een n o ted e ar l ier

a nd t he s ta t is t ica l d if ference s hown b y t he p resen t a na lysis s uppor ts t he s uggest ion t ha t t hey were b y-produc ts o f t he Ha i fa c ore p repara t ion ( Chap ter V) . S u m mary 1 .

The s ize o f Ha i fa f l akes i s s ign if ican t ly d iferen t f ro m t he Khor musan

L eva l lo is f lakes b eing d ist inct ly sma l l a nd t h in .

W i th in t he Hal l am s i tes t he m-

s elves t hese f lakes d o n o t s how a ma jor d if ference i n s ize .

T h is migh t

i nd ica te t ha t t he Ha lfa t echno logy a s f ar a s i ti s r ef lected i n t he s ize a nd t ypo logy o ft hese f lakes ma in ta ined i t s g enera l c haracter t hroughou t t he s equence . 2 . There i s n o d if ference o f magn itude i n t he s ize o f t he Ha lfan ' f or ma l ' t oo ls wh ich a lso i mp l ies t ha t t he ' basic ' i nven tory o ther t han t he b acked microb lades r e ma ined more o r l ess t he s a me . 3 .

T he t tests r esu l ts i n t he Ha lfan microb lades a l though n ot e n t irely

c onc lusive o n t he v ar iab les e xa m ined , s ugges t t ha t t he p resu med ' ear ly s tage ' a t s i tes 1 020/1018 i s o fd oub tfu l r ea l i ty . I tr e ma ins o f c ourse t o a ccoun t f or t he b ack ing t echn ique e xh ib i ted a t s o me o f t hese d oub tfu l m icrob lades. G roup ing o ft he A sse mb lages o n t he Basis o f Typo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l A t tr ibu tes The M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A sse mb lages 1 3 T oo l Types I tc an b e s een i n t he d endrogra m b ased o n t he 1 3 t oo l t ypes t ha t t here a re t hree ma in c lus ters , t he f i rst o f wh ich i nc ludes t wo s ub-c lus ters ( F ig . 6 .10 ) . One o ft he s ub-clusters i nc ludes s i tes N 91, 4 40 a nd 3 4A . The s econd i nc ludes t wo Khor musan s i tes ( 6G30 , 6G 27 ) , t he D en t icu late s i te 1 000 a nd Dongo la N 6 . T he c luster d iagnosis d oes n o t s how a s ubstan t ia l d if ference b etween t he t wo g roups o f s i tes e xcep t p erhaps t he p resence o r a bsence o f ar are t ype .

1 72

The

17. 1 1 8

T

15. 3 3 4

13. 5 4 9

11. 7 6 5

9. 9 3 0

8.1 9 6

6. 41 2

4 .62 7

2 -84 3

1. 0 5 8

L L Z •e 0 ' )

[ l o

G Ö C D O C E CO D Z CO 0 0

N

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4 E

D c o c o

( Y )

11

F ig . 6 .10

L inkage D endrogram o f M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages o n t he b as is o f 1 3 T oo l Types

1 73

.I

C O

N C O Z S 1 4

FACTOR

1

4 -34 D

+ ANW

+6 G27

+-1 01 7

+1 037

_ , 1035 1 0 10-i - _ 4 . + 1033 1 1 1 038 -1 03b

+ 2004

4 1033L

4 -6 G 30

+440

N 6 4 ± 3 4A

1 2 e

f JB

1 -N2

FA CTOR

2

+1 000

4 -N91

F ig. 6 .11

P r inc ipa l Components Ana lys is M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages 1 3 Too l Types

1 74

whole c luster i s c haracter ized b y t he a bsence o r n ear a bsence o ft he main t ypes o f s crapers w i th t he e xcep t ion o f s i mp le a nd i nverse t ypes . However , t hese l a t ter o ccur o n ly i n modera te n u mbers .

Moreover , t he a sse mb lages

h ave v ery f ew t runca t ions a nd v ery f ew b ur ins e xcep t t he K hor musan s i te 6G 27 wh ich h as ah igh p ercen tage o fb ur ins. I t s i nc lusion i n t h is c luster i s p robab ly c aused b y a bsence o r r ar i ty o ft ypes wh ich a re a lso l ack ing i n t he o ther s i tes i n t he s a me c luster a nd b y t he modera te p ercen tage o fd en t icu la tes a nd n o tches wh ich a re a lso t he main c haracter is t ic o ft he who le c lus ter . T hus t he ma in f ea tures wh ich s ing led o u t t hese s i tes a re a h igh i ncidence o fd en t icu la tes a nd n otches p lus a modera te p ercen tage o f s i mp le s crapers . T he s econd c lus ter ( f ro m t he l e f t s ide o ft he d endrogra m ) i nc ludes t he r e ma in ing f our Khor musan s i tes a nd i ti s c harac ter ized b y t he a bsence o fb orers , b ec b urins , d oub le s crapers a nd i nverse r e touched p ieces .

Wh i le t here a re a f ew s i mp le s crapers ,

t he ma in t oo l c lasses a re b ur ins , d en t icu la tes a nd n o tches .

T he l a t ter t wo

t ypes c aused t he s i tes t o f use a t ah igher l eve l o ft he s ca le w i th t he f i rst c luster c haracter ized b y d ent icu la tes a nd n o tches r a ther t han w i th t he l as t c luster a bou t t o b e d escr ibed . I n t he Khor musan c lus ter ( 4 s i tes ) i tc an b e s een t hat s i te 3 4D wh ich h as t he o ldest C 14 d a te f uses w i th s i te AN W wh ich i s d escr ibed b y Marks a s t he ' youngest ' i n t he s equence . S i te 2 004 o n t he o ther h and , t hough i nc luded i n t he Khor musan c luster , i s c loser t o t he f i rst c luster ( Den t icu la te) p robab ly d ue t o t he p ropor t iona l ly h igh p ercen tage o f d en t icu la tes a t t h is s i te .

T he t h ird c luster i ncludes t he ma jor i ty o f t he

Mouster ian s i tes i n a dd i t ion t o t he Dongo la s i tes N 20 a nd N 2.

I ti s i n terest ing

t o n ote t ha t t he Den t icu la te Mouster ian s i te 3 6B l i nks w i th t h is g roup o f s i tes , i nd ica t ing t ha t i t s i nc lusion i n t he D en t icu la te Mouster ian was p robab ly i nduced b y t he c a lcu la t ion o ft he B ordes i nd ices ( Chap ter V ) .

F urther more ,

t he i nclus ion o f t he Mouster ian t ype B s i tes ( 6 , 1 21, JB ) i n t he c luster i nd ica tes t he o ver lap b etween t he t wo f ac ies.

T he c luster t aken a s a who le i s c haracter ized

b y ah igh p ercen tage o f s i mp le s crapers , d oub le s crapers , a nd modera te n u mbers o f o ther t ypes o f s crapers . B ec-bur ins , t runca t ions , d en t icu la tes a nd n otches o ccur b u t i n sma l l n u mbers wh ich a s t he c luster d iagnosis s hows a re n ot t he most i mportan tv ar iab les wh ich g roup t he s i tes t oge ther . As econd a na lys is was u nder taken u s ing t he s a me 1 3 t oo l t ypes b u t t he d ata was n o t s tandard ized . A s c an b e s een i n F ig . 6 .12 t he f i rst c luster i nc ludes t he s i tes o f c luster o ne i n t he p revious d endrogra m e xcep t s i te 6G27 b u t w i th t he a dd i t ion o f Khor musan s i te 2 004 a nd N 2 ( Dongo la ) a nd 1 033L ( Mouster ian ) . The t hree s i tes wh ich a re a dded t o t h is c luster h ave a r ela t ive ly h igh p ercen tage o fd en t icu la tes. S i te 6G27 n ow j o ins t he Khor musan s i tes c haracter ized b y n u merous b ur ins . T he t h ird c luster o ft he Mousterian s i tes ( s craper g roup ) r e ma ins more o r l ess i n tact a nd i ti s wor th s tressing t ha t t he d en t icu la te Mouster ian s i te 3 6B s t i l l c lus ters w i th t he Mous ter ian s i tes i nc lud ing t hose o ft ype A a nd B . T he p osi t ion o f t hese s i tes wh ich s ee m t o o ver lap b etween c lus ters i s h owever more c lar if ied b y t he P r inc ipa l C o mponen ts a na lysis. T he s ca t tergra m f ro m t h is a na lysis ( F ig . 6 .11, T ab le 6 .12) s hows t he s i tes c haracter ized b y s crapers a nd t hose b y d en t icu la tes f or m ing t wo t igh t c lusters wh i le t he K hor musan c luster i s s o mewha t l oose. S i tes N 20 , N 2 a nd 3 6B a re more c lose t o t he d en t icu la te g roup wh i le t he Khor musan s i te 2 004 f a l ls b e tween i t s p aren t c luster a nd t he Dent icu la te c luster . Taken t ogether t he t hree a na lyses s uggest t hree ma in g roup ings w i th a t l eas t f our s i tes o ver1 75

. 2 . 4 0 .2 6 3

0 .2 3 3

0 .2 0 2

2 ,171

•- / l e • -1 10

2 -0 7 9

O .0 4 8

O. 01 8

C r ) c t-

F ig. 6 .12

0 1C r ) OL O CU c n , c o o ( r ) C D 'e C \ i (G D : \ J L O C D O

( r ) c n C ' J D O

C r " )

c

z \ t - 0

L inkage Dendrogram o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lages o n t he b as is o f 1 3 Too l Types ( Da ta Unstandard ized)

1 76

T ab le 6 .12

E igenvec tors :

M idd le Pa laeo l i th ic , 1 3 T oo l T ypes Vector 1

Vector 2

S i mp le s crapers

0 .228

0.320

Doub le s crapers

0 .169

O .0 64

T ransverse s crapers

0 .317

0 .176

I nverse s crapers S crapers , o ther

0 .269 0 .285

0.166 0 .124

E nd-scrapers B orers

0 .247 0 .277

0 .431 0 .028

T runca t ions

0 .319

0 .258

N o tches Den t icu la tes

0 .276 0 .245

0.342 0.475

0 .338 0 .303

0 .096 O .0 34

0 .289

0 .461

B ec Burins I nverse r e touch B ur ins

l app ing b e tween t he c lusters .

T he Khor musan s i tes 3 4A a nd 6G30 a re c ons is t-

e n t ly i nc luded i n t he c lus ter wh ich c an f or ma l ly b e c a l led d en t icu la te. Two o ther Khor musan s i tes , 2 004 a nd 6G27 , o ver lap w i th t h is c lus ter . T he D en t icu la te c luster , h owever , i nc ludes more s i tes t han h as p rev ious ly b een r ecogn ized . B ordes ' I nd ices The d endrogram b ased o n t he B ordes ' i nd ices s hows f our ma in c lusters a nd e ach c luster d iagnosis i nd ica tes m inor v ar ia t ion w ithin i t s me mbers ( F ig . 6 .13) .

The f i rst c luster t o t he l ef t s ide o ft he d endrogra m i ncludes t he

Khor musan s i tes , s i te N 6 ( Dongo la ) a nd t wo Mousterian s i tes ( 1 035 , 1 000 ) . C haracter ist ic o ft he c lus ter i s av ery h igh Typo log ica l L eva l lo is I ndex , F acet ing I ndex f o l lowed b y Den t icu la te a nd S craper I ndices . Wi th in t h is s a me c luster t he Khor musan s i tes AN W3 , 1 017 a nd 3 4D f use t ogether a nd a re s epara ted f ro m t he r e ma inder o f s i tes i n t he c luster p ossib ly d ue t o ah igher U pper Pa laeo l i th ic I ndex a t t hese s i tes. Th is makes t he t wo Khor musan s i tes , 3 4A a nd 2 004 , more c lose t o t he Mous ter ian s i tes r a ther t han t o t heir s upposed p aren t g roup ( Khor musan ) . T h is i s i n g enera l a gree men t w i th t he r esu lts o b ta ined f ro m t he a na lysis b ased o n t oo ls t ypo logy . I th as b een s uggested e ar l ier t ha t t he t ype o fr aw ma ter ia l a nd i t s a va i lab i l i ty afects a t l east p ar t ia l ly t he s ize a nd t echno logy i nvo lved i n t he p roduc t ion o fb lanks.

One

o ft he ma in f ea tures w h ich c haracter ized t he c luster j ust d escr ibed i s ah igh F acet ing I ndex wh ich i s d irec t ly r e la ted t o t he t echno logy .

O ft he s i tes

i nc luded i n t h is c luster t hree s i tes , 1 000 , 1 035 a nd N 6 , u t i lized impor ted r aw ma ter ia l wh i le t he r e ma ining s i tes u t i l ized b o th impor ted mater ia l a nd t he sma l l N i le P ebb les . R eturn ing t o t he d endrogra m i tc an a lso b e n o ted t ha t o nce a ga in t he Den t icu la te s i te 1 000 i s s epara ted f ro m i t s s ister s i te , 3 6B . T he s econd c lus ter i nc ludes t hree Dongo la s i tes ( N2, N 91 , N 20) . Den t icu la te Mouster ian s i te 3 6B a nd s i te 4 40 , a l l o f wh ich a re c haracter ized b y ah igh Den t icu la te

1 77

I ndex a nd a modera te S craper I ndex .

T he F ace t ing I ndex i s " in ter media te"

b etween t he f i rst c luster a nd t he t h ird c luster wh ich i nc ludes t he ma jor ity o f t he Mouster ian s i tes . T h is t h ird c luster i nc ludes Mous ter ian s i tes o ft ype A a nd B a nd c haracter ized b y ah igh S craper I ndex , ah igh U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo l i ndex b u t al ow Den t icu la te I ndex . T he F ace t ing I ndex i s much l ower t han a t t he o ther Mous ter ian s i tes wh ich l i nk w i th t he Khor musan s i tes . T he o verl app ing o f t ype A a nd B i s b est i nd ica ted b y t he f usion o f s i te 1 21 ( Type B ) w i th s i te 1 038 ( Type A ). T he f our th c luster i s c o mposed o f t he t wo l ayers o f s i te 1 033 ( Type A ) wh ich l i nks w i th t he p rev ious c luster b u t s epara ted d ue t o av ery h igh Typo log ica l L eva l lo is I ndex a nd a c o mpara t ive ly l ower S craper I ndex . T he s epara t ion o f s i te 1 033 ( 2l ayers ) wou ld f ur ther i ndica te t he g rea t v ar ia t ion e ven w i th in Mouster ian t ype A a lone . T he P r inc ipa l C o mponen ts a na lys is p laces t he U pper l ayer o f s i te 1 033 v ery c lose t o t he g roup c haracter ized b y ah igh L eva l lo is a nd D en t icu la te I nd ices ( 1 000 , N 6 , 3 4A ) wh i le t he l ower l ayer i s much c loser t o t he Mous ter ian s i tes ( F ig . 6 .14 , Tab le 6 .13) . T he s ca t tergram a lso s hows t ha t t he c lusters a re n o t a s we l l d ef ined a s t hey wou ld a ppear i n t he d endrogra m . A n a t te mp th as b een made t o c o mpare t he N ub ian s i tes w i th a g roup o f Mouster ian s i tes f ro m t he B ir S ahara a rea ( Egyp t ian S ahara ) d escr ibed b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld . T hese a u thors p ub l ished Typo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l I nd ices c a lcu la ted a ccord ing t o t he B ordes ' s yste m b u t n o t i nc luding t he F ace t ing I ndex ( IF & I Fs ) .

These t wo l a t ter a re t herefore om i t ted f ro m t he

v ar iab le l i st ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976a :22) .

The d endrogra m o b ta ined f rom

t h is a na lysis ( F ig . 6 .15) s hows t ha t t he f i rst c lus ter i s made u p o ft en s i tes i nc lud ing t he B ir S ahara s i tes , Den t icu la te Mouster ian s i tes 1 000 , 3 6B a nd Dongo la s i tes N 2, N 20 , N 91 a nd f i na l ly s i te 4 40.

S i te 3 6B f or t he f i rs t t ime

l i nks w i th t he D ent icu la te g roup o f s i tes o bvious ly b ecause o ft he om ission o ft he F acet ing I ndex .

T he s econd c luster i nc ludes f i ve Mouster ian s i tes

( 1 036 , 1 037 , 6 , 1 21, JB ) o ft ype A a nd B a nd c harac terized b y a modera te S craper I ndex , al ow D en t icu la te I ndex wh ich p laces t he c luster n ear t o t he t h ird c lus ter o f Mous ter ian s i tes. A l though t he r e mova l o ft he F acet ing I ndex c aused s o me s i tes t o i n terchange c lusters t he Khor musan s i tes 1 017 , 3 4D , a nd AN W f or m a s epara te c luster a s i n t he p rev ious a na lyses.

T he

r e la t ionsh ip o ft he B ir S ahara s i tes t o t he Dent icu la te s i tes f ro m Nub ia i s made c lear b y t he P r inc ipa l C o mponen ts Ana lysis o f wh ich t he f i rst t wo f ac tors a ccoun t f or 8 2.4% o ft he v ar ia t ion . T he s ca t tergram , h owever , s hows more wel l d ef ined c lus ters t han i n t he o ne o b ta ined f ro m t he p rev ious a na lysis ( F ig . 6 .16 , Tab le 6 .14 ) .

Tab le 6 .13

E igenvec tors :

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A sse mb lages , Bordes I nd ices

I L

I F

I Fs

I LtY

I R

I

Vec tor 1

0 .347

0 .309

Vec tor 2

0 .318

0 .342

0.475

0 .165 0.434 0.165

0 .376

1 78

I I

I V

0 .474

0 .012

0.339

0.168 0.137

0 .640

0 .339

T

16. 01 3

14. 3 5 8

12. 7 0 3

1 1 . 04 7

—

9. 3 9 2

7. 7 3 7

6. 0 81

4. 4 2 6

2. 7 7 0

1.1 1 5

0

0

0

1 4

C

C r )

0

C O

C E

Z

1 4

N 7 1- C n Z Z

, .

M N 0

1 1

r I

L

.0

r n Mc nc n

94

M 0

1 4

F ig . 6 .13

L inkage D endrogram o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic Assemb lage, o n t he b as is o f B ordes ' I nd ices

1 79

M 0

F ACTOR 1

•4 40

N9 1 • oN2

634A 41 000

• 1 0330

oN6

36B

•

•

N 20

1 0 17 •

1 2 1

•1 0 10

S

•1 033L

1 038 • • 1 035

•J B

2004 • AN W •

34D

•

FACTOR 2

6

61 036

1 037 •

F ig 6 . 14

P r inc ipa l C omponen ts A na lys is

1 80

B ordes ' I nd ices

16 .687

-

14. 7 6 7

13. 0 4 7

11 . 3 2 6

—

9. 6 0 6

7. 8 8 6

6. 1 6 6

4. 4 4 6

2. 7 2 5

1. 0 0 5

1 • •

r o

N 11

,4

02

▪

L O r n

c n

P i : D L r . i 0 3 C r ) C O „ CO fn (0 M

: r ,7c A( T . !( \ iE E c i J —. ; . r . )- — — ,- — 4z N ( r i— i nc r

, , N Z Z Z - . 0 )

F ig. 6 .15

L inkage D endrogram o f Nub ian a nd B ir S ahara S i tes o n t he Bas is o f Bordes ' I nd ices

1 81

FACTOR 1

BSI •

440 •

ON6 •N 2

•

1 033L . • • •

6

•1 2 1

06

1 033U • 1 0 10

.1 035

2 004

1 0 17 •

034A 034 D

a

1 03 r :

1 036 •

OAN W

•JB 1 037 •

F ig 6 . 16

P r inc ipa l C omponen ts A na lys is . N ub ian a nd B ir S ahara S i tes , B o rdes ' I nd ices

1 82

FACTOR 2

B513 • 2 0 N9 1 3 6B •

1 000 •

12..4 57

-

1 1 .1 5 J

9. 6 5 0

8. 54 -6

7. 24 3

5 -9 3 9

4. 5 3 5

3. 3 3 2

2• 0 2 9

0. 7 2 5

e ( Y)

C

O

M

I

F ig . 6 .17

S

S

E

E

( .0

E

Z

L inkage Dendrogram o f 2 0 M idd le P a laeo l ith ic Assemb lages o n t he b as is o f F ive Core Types

1 83

Tab le 6 .14

E igenvectors : I L

Vector 1 V ec tor 2

0 .466 0.171

N ub ian a nd B ir S ahara S i tes , B ordes ' I nd ices

I LtY 0 .504 0.110

m

I

i n

I V

0.487 0.350

0.481 0.351

0 .188 0.538

0.159 0 .650

5C ore T ypes G roup ing o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a sse mb lages o n t he b as is o fc ore t ypo logy p oses a p rob le m . I n t he p resen t a na lys is , h owever , ag rea t d ispar i ty b etween s ize o f s a mp les a nd c ore t ypes r e ma ins e ven a f ter t he om iss ion o f r are t ypes o r s i tes w i th sma l l s a mp les. T hus t he r esu l ts o b ta ined o n g roup ing 2 0 s i tes a re b ound t o b e afected b y t h is s a mp l ing p rob le m a nd a lso b y t he d iscrepancies i n t he t ypo log ies a pp l ied b y d iferen t workers. Th is l as t e fect i s b est s hown i n t he d endrogra m ( F ig . 6 .17 ) where t he c lusters r ef lec t more o re l ess t he t axono m ies d ev ised b y t he d i f feren t w orkers.

T he Mousterian

s i tes 1 035 a nd 1 038 a re h owever i nc luded w i th t he K hor musan s i te i n o ne c luster , t hus a pparent ly i nd ica t ing p ar t ia l o ver lap b etween t he t wo g roups . S um mary T he c onc lusions t ha t c an b e d rawn f ro m t he c o mb ined a na lyses o f a rtefac t s ize , t he t ypo logy a nd t echno logy h ave a lready b een p oin ted o u t i n t he d iscuss ion o ft he r esu l ts b u t t hey c an b e b r ief ly r esta ted . 1 .

I nt he a na lys is o f B ordes ' i nd ices t he s i tes t ha t l i nk t ogether i n

c luster 1 ( F ig . 6 .13) a re s epara ted ma in ly b ecause o f ah igh F acet ing I ndex a nd a h igh L eva l lo is I ndex .

T he s tudy o f a rtefact s ize a nd L eva l lo is t echno logy

s uggests t ha t t hey p ossess t he sma l lest a r tefacts i n t he who le s a mp le .

More-

o ver t he L eva l lo is f l akes a t t hese s i tes h ave t he h ighest mean n u mber o fd orsa l s cars.

Ac o mmon f ea ture b e tween t hese s i tes , h owever , i s t ha t t hey e i ther

u sed t ota l ly o r p ar t ia l ly imported r aw ma ter ia l . T h is wou ld imp ly t ha t a t l eas t s o me o ft he o bserved v ar ia t ion i s i nduced b y t he a va i lab i l i ty a nd t ype o f r aw ma ter ia l . 2 .

A l l l evels o f a na lysis d e monstra te t hat t he d iv ision o ft he Nub ian

Mousterian i n to Marks ' t ype A a nd B i s n o t warran ted . The s i tes o verlap i n a l mos t a l l o ft he a na lyses u ndertaken . T he ma jor i ty o f t he s i tes f ro m t h is g roup a re c harac ter ized b yh igh p ercen tages o f s crapers a nd modera te p ercen tages o fd en t icu la tes a nd n o tches. T hey a lso o f fer a h igh Uppper P a laeo l i th ic I ndex u s ing B ordes ' me thod . T he d if f erences b etween t hese s i tes c an b e s a id t o c en tre a round t he p ropor t ion o f s crapers a t e ach s i te . 3 . O ft he t wo s i tes d escr ibed b y Marks a s Den t icu la te s i te 3 6B was f ound t o c lus ter i n most r espec ts w i th t he Nub ian Mous ter ian s i tes . The a na lysis , n ever theless , h as s hown t ha t q u i te a s ubstant ia l n umber o f s i tes c luster t ogether o n t he b as is o f ah igh i nc idence o fd en t icu la tes , n o tches a nd f ewer o ther t oo l t ypes. Th is g roup i ncludes t he Den t icu la te Mouster ian s i te 1 000 , s o me o ft he Dongo la s i tes , Khor musan s i tes 3 4A a nd 6G30.

Thus a r ecogn i t ion o f al arge

g roup o f s i tes d omina ted b y Den t icu la tes c an b e s ubstan t iated .

1 84

4 .

T he t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he Khor musan

a nd Mous ter ian i s i nd ica ted b y t he i nc lusion o f s i tes 3 4A a nd 6G30 i n t he g roup o f s i tes d om ina ted b y d en t icu la tes. A l l a spec ts o fa na lysis s uppor t t h is c onc lusion .

Two o ther K hor musan s i tes , 6G27 a nd 2 004 , t end t o c lus ter w i th

e i ther t he D en t icu la te g roup o r w i th t he r e ma in ing Khor musan s i tes , 1 017 , ANW , 2 004. T hese l a t ter s i tes , h owever , ma in ta in a s epara te c luster i n a l l v ar iab les e xa m ined a nd t hey a re most ly c harac ter ized b y ah igh i nc idence o f b ur ins b u t a modera te p ercen tage o fd en t icu la te a nd n o tches o ccur . I th as b een n o ted a bove t ha t s i te 3 4D wh ich h as t he e ar l iest C 14 d a te s o f ar k nown f or t he Khor musan ( >41, 4 90 B .P . )f uses i n a l l o ft he d endrogra ms w i th s i te AN W , t he y oungest o f t he Khor musan a ccord ing t o Marks ' s equence.

I n

v iew o ft he i n terre la t ionsh ip b etween t hese t wo s i tes a nd t he Mousterian s i te , t he l a te C 14 d a te o f1 5 ,850 B .C. + 5 00 f ro m s i te ANW must b e t reated a s i nco mpa t ib le w i th t he o vera l l e v idence.

T he c onsisten t l i nkage o f t he t hree

Khor musan s i tes w i th o ne h av ing s uch a n e ar ly d a te wou ld i nd ica te t ha t t hey i n f act r epresen t am in i ma l s a mp le o f t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic v ar ian t t ha t i s c haracter ized b y t he b ur in e le men t . 5 .

T ypo log ica l ly a nd t echno log ica l ly t he D ongo la a sse mb lages c an b e

s a id t o f i t we l l w i th in t he Nub ian Mouster ian e i ther w i th t he Den t icu la te o r s craper g roups. 6 .

T he

"m isce l laneous" s i te 4 40 c an n ever the less c onf iden t ly b e a ssigned

t o t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd i t s l i nkage w i th Den t icu la te s i tes i s s hown b y v ar ious a na lyses . A s i ndica ted a bove t he c lusters o b ta ined f ro m t he a na lys is d o n o t ma in ta in ad iscrete c o mpos i tion e very t ime t he v ar iab les u nder e xa m ina t ion were c hanged . Th is i s o f c ourse t o b e e xpected a s t he a sse mb lages s hare t he s a me t echno log ica l b ase a nd t hey o ver lap i n t he t oo l i nven tory .

D esp i te t he f act t ha t s o me s i tes

t end t o c hange c lus ters i ti s y et p ossib le t o d iscern a g enera l p a t tern i n t he a sse mb lage g roup ings wha tever v ar iab les were u sed .

T he f o l low ing i s a

t en ta t ive g roup ing o ft hese a sse mb lages b ased o n t he a na lys is d escr ibed a bove.

Each g roup i s c haracter ized b y t he a ssoc ia t ion o f many t ypes , s o me

o f wh ich o ccur i n o ther g roups , b u t o ne e le men t u sua l ly s tands o u t a s t he most d ist inct ive .

Three ma in g roups a re s uggested b y t he a na lyses a nd t hey a re

f or ma l ly l abe l led b y t he e le men t most c haracter ist ic o f t he g roup . t end t o c hange c luster a re l ef t b etween t he g roups.

S i tes t ha t

G roup 1 ( S craper e le men t ) 1 035 , 1 036 , 1 037 , 1 038 JB , 1 033U , 6 , 1 21, 1 010

1 033L , N 20 N 6 , 3 6B

G roup 2 ( Den t icu la te e le men t ) 1 000 , 4 40 , N 91, N 2 , 6G30 , 3 4A

6G27 2 004

G roup 3 ( Bur in e le men t ) AN W ,3 4D , 1 017

1 85

T he Ha l fan A sse mb lages A l l t en Ha lfan s i tes were u sed i n t he a na lys is b ased o n t oo l a nd c ore t ypes . R esu l ts o f t he a na lysis b ased o n t he s e lected t en t oo l t ypes c an b e s een i nt he d endrogra m wh ich s hows t hree c lusters ( F ig . 6 .18) .

T he f i rst c luster i ncludes

s i tes 1 020 a * nd 1 018 a nd i s c haracter ized b y ah igh p ropor t ion o f Hai fa f l akes , d en t icu la tes , t runca t ions a nd b ur ins . B acked m icrob lades a nd b acked f l akes a re t he l eas t impor tan t v ar iab le i n f us ing t he s i tes .

T he t wo s i tes a s s hown

b y t he d endrogra m s ca le a re more s im i lar t o e ach o ther t han a ny o ther s i tes. The s econd c luster i ncludes s i tes 6B32 a nd 6G35 ( Buhen C o mp lex ) a lso c haracter ized b yh igh p ercen tages o f Ha lfa f l akes , b ur ins , d en t icu la tes a nd t runca t ions.

T he t wo s i tes a re l i nked t o t he f ormer Ha lfan s i tes i n t he d endro-

g ra m a nd t hey a re s epara ted p robab ly b ecause t hey b oth l ack s ide-scraper s a nd e nd-scrapers .

T he f our s i tes t aken t ogether a re we l l s epara ted f rom t he

r est o ft he Ha lfan s i tes .

I tw i l l b e r eca l led t ha t t he e ar l iest C 14 d a te k nown

f or t he Ha lfan ( 2 3 , 7 50 B .C .) c o mes f ro m s i te 6B32 wh ich i s s epara ted f ro m s i tes w i th much l a ter C 14 d a tes a nd d om ina ted b y t he microb lade e le men ts. T hese l a t ter a re i ncluded i n t he t h ird c lus ter o f s ix s i tes . A s ag roup t he s i tes a re d om ina ted b y b acked microb lades , b acked f l akes a nd f ew t ypes o f t he f or ma l t oo ls , i .e. s crapers , d en t icu la tes e tc.

H owever , s i te 6 24 h as ah igher

p ropor t ion o f t hese f or ma l t oo ls i nc lud ing Ha lfa f l akes t han a ny o ther s i te i n t he s a me c luster .

The p os i t ion o ft h is s i te a s i n ter med ia te b e tween t hose

s i tes d om ina ted b y m icrob lades a nd t hose b y o ther t oo ls i s s hown i n t he s ca tterg ra m o ft he P r inc ipa l C o mponen ts a na lysis ( F ig . 6 .19 , Tab le 6 .15).

T he s i tes

d om ina ted b y m icrob lades s how a t igh ter c luster i n t he s ca t tergra m t han d o t he o ther s i tes. A s ecn r id a na lysis was c arr ied o u t o n t he s a me d a ta b u t w i thou t s tandard iz ing i t . T he d endrogra m s hows a ga in t he s a me t wo ma jor c lus ters e xcep t t ha t t he c lus ters a re t i gh ter t han t hey a ppear i n t he f i rst d endrogram ( F ig . 6 .20) .

At h ird a na lysis was c arr ied o u t o n t he s tandard ized d a ta u s ing ,

t h is t ime , t he Average L inkage me thod .

The o n ly d iference i n t he d endrogra m ,

h owever , i s t ha t s i te 6B32 moved f ro m t he f i rs t c luster i n t he p rev ious d endrogra ms t o f or m a c luster o f i t s o wn ( F ig . 6 .21) .

T he c lus ter d iagnos is

s hows t ha t t h is s epara t ion i s c aused b y t he a bsence o f s ide-scrapers a nd e nds crapers n o ted a bove . T he t oo l t ypo logy a t t h is s i te i s i n efect d om ina ted b y Ha l fa f l akes . G roup ing o ft he Ha lfan a sse mb lages o n t he b as is o f c ore t ypes g ives a l most t he s a me r esu l ts o b ta ined f ro m t he t oo l t ypes a na lys is. The f irs t c luster ( 1 020 , 1 018 , 6B32, 6G35) i s c haracter ized b y ah igh p ercen tage o f Ha lfa c ores f o l lowed b y o pposed p la tfor m a nd sma l l n umbers o f o ther t ypes . A s econd c luster i ncludes s i tes 6 24 , 4 43 , 2 014 a nd 1 028 wh ich a re a lso c lose t o t he t h ird c luster o f s i tes 6B28 a nd 6G29.

T he l as t t wo s i tes d if fer f ro m t he

f or mer o n ly b y t he a bsence o ft he o pposed p la tfor m c ore t ype .

The s ca t ter-

g ram o b ta ined f ro m t he P r inc ipa l C o mponen ts a na lys is s hows t ha t t he s i tes d o n o t make t igh t c lusters e xcep t t ha t t he g roup d om ina ted b y t he s ing le p la tfor m a nd wedge c ores ( 2 014 , 1 028, 4 43 , 6 24) i s more d ef ined t han t he o ther s i tes ( F ig . 6 .23 , Tab le 6 .16 ) . S u m mary 1 . The c lus ter a na lys is b ased o n t oo ls a nd c ore t ypes c onsistent ly s uggests t ha t t he t wo ' Ha lfa c o mp lex ' s i tes ( 6B32 a nd 6G35) l i nk w i th t he 1 86

6 .208 5 . 372 4 . 936 4 .299 3 . 663 3 .027 2 .391 1 .755 1 .11 8 0 .482

I G N 0

F ig. 6 .18

c o

, , 0

N

C O C O ( 1 0

0

( r ) C _ J ( . 0

1N ( 1 )

c o

11-

1-

, i n

N

C O N

o

, -

C O N C D W

L inkage Dendrogram o f Ha lfan Assemb lages o n t he Bas is o f Ten T oo l Types 1 87

F ACTOR 1

6

6 1332

•

6G35

46 1328

1 018 • 4

1 020

•1 028

• 6G29 2014 •

F ig

6 .19:

c r 0

443 •

4624

P r inc ipa l Co mponents Ana lys is . Ha lfan

A sse mb lages . T en T oo l T ypes

1 88

Trunca ted microb lades

B acked microb lades

B acked f lakes

T runca ted p ieces

N o tches

Dent icu la tes

B ur ins

S ide-scrapers

End-scrapers

Ha ifa f l akes

1 89

• -65 8

O. 5 9 0

O .5 21

• . / 1 - 52

O. 3 8 3

O. 31 5

O .2 4 6

O. 1 7 7

O. 1 0 8

O .0z 10

N i n C O C O

F ig . 6 .20

L O r 0 0 C O

1N • ( _ 0

( 1 1

• s t

' I

, 4

N

N

N

, 4

0

0

0

L inkage Dendrogram o f Ha lfan Assemb lages o n t he b as is o f 1 0 Too l Types ( Da ta Unstandard ized) 1 90

0

N M C D

.3. 2 5 9

2- 9 41

2- 51 3

2. 2 8 4

1- 9 5 6

1. 5 2 7

1- 2 9 9

O. 9 71

O. 6 4 2

O. 31 4

0

c o

0

0

N

, 4

t n ( r ) C D

' 4 N

r I

F ig . 6 .21

(0

0 1 ' e •'e

e

— 4 0

o p

N 0

c o

N C O ( f )

Average L inkage o f Ha lfan A ssemb lages o n t he Bas is o f T en Too l Types 1 91

C r ) ( \ ; 0

N

c o 0 3

8. 5 26

7. 6 36

6. 764

5. 8E 32

5. 221

4.1 5 0

3. 27 9

2.

4

08

1. 53 6

0. 6 55

( T )

2 1

F ig. 6 .22

L inkage Dendrogram o f Ha lfan Assemb lages o n t he Bas is o f F ive Core Types

1 92

FACTOR 1 1 028 0

•1 018

20 14 •

10 20

624 •

443 •

,

6 B32 • 6G 35 •

6 B28 0 • 6G

29 -

F ig

6 . 23

P r inc ipa l

Co mponents

Core T ypes

1 93

Ana lys is Ha lfan

T ab le 6 .16

E igenvectors :

Ha lfan A sse mb lages C ore Types

Ha ifa c ore

S ing le

Opposed

p la tfor m

p la tfor m

Wedge

D iscoida l

V ector 1

0 .542

0 .523

0 .431

0.482

0 .115

Vector 2

0.207

0 .389

0 .501

0.362

0.651

H a lfan s i tes , 1 018 a nd 1 020 .

The f our s i tes a re c haracter ized t ypo log ica l ly

b y s teep d if ferences i n t he o ccurence o r a bsence o f ac ore o r t oo l t ype.

T he

d om inan t f ea tures a re t he Ha ifa f l akes a nd o ther t ypes o f f or ma l t oo ls . B acked m icrob lades f or m a n e x tre mely i nsign if ican t e le men t i n t he t oo l i nventory a nd i ndeed t he ir p resence a t s o me s i tes i s d oub tfu l ( e .g . s i te 1 020 ) . Moreover t he t test r esu l ts o n t he f ew microb lades f ro m s i tes 1 020 a nd 1 018 , t hough i nconclus ive , i nd ica te t ha t t hey a re n o t t rue m icrob lades .

F ur ther

e v idence f or t h is i s t he a bsence o f t rue b lade c ores a t t hese s i tes ( Chap ter V ) . I tb eco mes , t herefore , d if f icu l t t o a t tach a ny s ign if icance t o t he ir o ccurrence i n t h is g roup o f s i tes . 2 .

A s econd g roup o f s i tes ( 6 24 , 4 43 ) d o h owever h ave a s ubstan t ia l

p ercentage o f b acked microb lades a l though o ther t oo l t ypes s uch a s s crapers , b ur ins , d en t icu lates s t i l l f or m a n importan t e le men t i n t he t oo l i nventory . T tes t r esu l ts s how t ha t t he s ize o ft hese t oo ls a nd Ha i fa f lakes d o n o t s how a ny r e markab le d if ference i n a l l t he a sse mb lages i ncluding t hose d om ina ted b y t he b acked e le ments . 3 .

T he t h ird s et o f s i tes ( 1028 , 2 014 , 6B28 , 6G29) i s f u l ly d om ina ted b y

t he b acked e le men ts t o t he n ear e xc lus ion o f o ther t oo l t ypes .

I fs i tes 6 24

a nd 4 43 a re t aken t o r epresen t a n i n ter med ia te p hase where t he b acked e le men ts o ccur i n l arge n u mbers , i ti s d iff icu l t t o a ccoun t f or a l oca l d eve lop men t f ro m s i tes 1 018 a nd 1 020.

T here a re n o t e nough C 14 d a tes f ro m t hese s i tes b u t t he

s tra t igraph ica l e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t s i tes 4 43 , 1 020 a nd 1 018 a re v ery c lose i n t ime ( See C hap ter I I a nd V I I ) .

Thus t he o vera l l e v idence , a s i t

s tands , a l l r uns c oun ter t o t he t heory o f l oca l d eve lop ment .

1 94

CHAPTER V I I F INAL D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUS IONS

The s pec if ic f i nd ings o ft h is kudy h ave b een l i sted a t t he e nd o f t he p rev ious c hap ter a nd t herefore t he f o l low ing d iscussion w i l l a ddress t he i mp l ica t ions o f t hese r esu l ts a nd t heir r e levance t o t he w ider i ssues o f a rchaeo log ica l i n terpre ta t ions .

S ince t he r esearch p rob le m a s d ef ined i n C hap ter

Ii s l im i ted t o S udanese N ub ia , v ery l i t t le a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o r eg iona l c o mpar isons. T h is i s s o b ecause c o mparab le ma ter ia l f ro m t he n eighbouring r eg ions i s i n mos t c ases i nco mp le te ly p ub l ished o r t he wr i ter h as n ot b een a b le t o c onsu l t t he a c tua l d a ta .

Need less t o s ay , i ti s d if icu l t t o make s ub-

s tan t ive c o mpar isons u n less t he d a ta a ctua l ly h as b een t rea ted i n a manner t ha t wou ld p er m i t s uch c o mparisons . C o mparisons b ased o n p ub l ica t ions a lone a par t f ro m p erhaps p oin t ing o u t s uperf ic ia l s im i lar i ties o r d iferences b etween a rchaeo log ica l a sse mb lages a re i ndeed o f l i t t le v a lue. I n S udan i t se lf c o mparab le d a ta a re n o t a va i lab le a nd p ract ica l ly n o th ing o f t he M idd le P a laeol i th ic i s k nown s ou th o ft he S econd C a taract a par t f ro m t he s porad ic s urface f i nds o f A . J . A rke l l ( Chap ter I ) .

Abou t a l l o ne c an s ay i n t h is r espec t

i s t ha t c o mpar isons b etween t he c u l tura l s equence i n N ub ia a nd e lsewhere s ou th o f S econd C a taract a re n o t p ossib le a t t he mo men t . However , s ince t he p ubl ica t ion o f t he ' Nub ian C a mpa ign ' f i nd ings t here h ave b een s o me a t te mp ts — though most ly i n p assing — to c o mpare t he Nub ian Mouster ian , f or i nstance , w i th t he o ther Mouster ian i ndustries i n N or th A fr ica o r t he N ear E ast .

Marks i n h is o r ig ina l p ub l ica t ion h as a t te mp ted

s uch c o mparisons b ased o n p ub l ished r epor ts f ro m o ther a reas a nd i t wou ld s ee m q u i te u nnecessary t o r ehearse h is c onclusion .

T he f i rst p rob le m

c oncern ing t he Nub ian Mousterian i s i t s r e la t ion t o t he e ar l ier h andaxes i ndustr ies i n Nub ia . T here i s , h owever , n o e v idence a t t he p resen t t o s uggest al oca l d eve lop men t . T he s a me a pp l ies t o e x terna l r ela t ions a nd t hus a ny g uess a bou t i t s o r ig in wou ld p robab ly b e a s g ood a s a no ther . C o mpar isons o ft he t oo l t ypo logy s how t ha t t he Nub ian Mouster ian i s d ist inc t f ro m t he N or th A fr ican a nd L evan t ine L eva l lo iso- Mousterian b y t he n ear a bsence o f t he L eva l lo is a nd Mous ter ian p o in ts .

Wh i le i tl acks t he c harac ter ist ic n u merous

s crapers o ft he f or mer i ta lso emphas izes a h igh U pper P a laeo l i th ic t oo l i ndex . T he Nub ian Mouster ian i s a lso t ypo log ica l ly d if feren t f ro m t he Egyp t ian L eva l lo iso- Mouster ian . A l though Marks p o in ted o u t i t s d ist inct iveness h e n ever the less f ound i t most c o mparab le t o t he European Mous ter ian ( 1 968a , s ee C hap ter V ) . The Mouster ian , a s i ti s k nown , a nd wha tever d ef in i t ion we may g ive i t , i s aw ide ly d istr ibu ted p heno menon a nd t herefore t he u n ique a spects o ft he N ub ian Mouster ian mus t b e t aken a s p o in ters o f r eg iona l d i f ferences o r d ivergencies i n t he t e mpo o fc u l tura l c hange a nd d eve lop men t . I n a dd i t ion t he r ecogn i t ion o ft he Khor musan i ndustry a s p ar t o ft he Nub ian Mous ter ian 1 95

wou ld r ender a c o mpar ison w i th t he European Mouster ian =tenab le .

A s

ment ioned e ar l ier , Marks ' i n terpre ta t ion o f t he K hor musan i s b ased o n t heore t ica l c oncep ts o f l oca l v ersus e x terna l o r ig in t hough h e c onc luded t ha t t here i s n o c onc lus ive e v idence t o s uppor t e i ther a l terna t ive.

Wha t h as b een s a id ,

h owever , a bou t t he Mous ter ian e x terna l r e la t ions a pp l ies e qua l ly t o t he K hor musan .

C o mpar isons o ft he l a t ter w i th t he S t i l lbay i ndus try o f Eas t a nd

S ou thern A fr ica d o n o t g o b eyond r e mark ing o nt he o ccurrence o f t he L eva l lo is t echno logy i n e ach o ft he m . T he c oncep t o f a n e x terna l i n f luence a s at r igger f or a c u l tura l c hange i s o f c ourse we l l e n trenched i n a rchaeo log ica l i n terpre ta t ion a nd i ndeed i tc ou ld b e q u i te f eas ib le ;

T h is s tudy h as a t te mp ted t o s how t h is

was n o t t he c ase f or t he Mous ter ian/Khor musan d icho to my .

Bo th Marks '

i n terpreta t ion a nd t he r ecen t mode l s uggested b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( see C hap ter I )a re , h owever , c en tred a round a c u ltura l e xp lana t ion f or t h is d icho to my .

T he l ast n a med a u thors , t hough t hey d id n o t e xpand o n h ow t he ir

mode l wou ld o pera te , e nv isaged a d eve lopmen ta l s equence o f t hree f acies , Mouster ian , A ter ian a nd Khor musan . T he i mp l ica t ion s ee ms t o b e t ha t t he ir model c o mb ines b oth c u l tura l a nd t e mpora l e xp lana t ions f or t he v ar iab i l i ty w i th in t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ndustr ies.

A Word must b e s a id , h owever ,

a bou t t he p resence o f t he A ter ia n a long t he N i le V a l ley . T he A terian h as b een k nown f or a l ong t ime t o o ccur i n N or th A frica a nd t hroughou t t he S ahara e x tend ing a s f ar e ast a s t he Egyp t ian S ahara ( S ch i ld a nd Wendorf 1 975 ) . T hough i ti s f ound a s n ear t o t he N i le v a l ley a s Dungu l O as is i th as n o t b een f ound i n i t s c lassic f or m i n t he v icin i ty o ft he r iver .

I ti sq u i te o u t o f p lace t o g o

i n to d eta i l o n t he d if ferences b etween t he Mouster ian a nd t he A ter ian o r t he p rob le m o ft he A ter ian d istr ibu t ion e xcep t t o s ay t ha t i th as b een r ecogn ized b y most a u thor i t ies a s aN or th A frican a nd S ahara p heno menon ( McBurney , 1 960 , F err ing 1 975).

T he r ecen t d iscover ies i n N ub ia r evea led t he e v idence

f or b ifacia l t echn ique ( f o l ia tes ) b u t t he c lassic A ter ian p eduncu la te f or ms w ere l ack ing . Wendorf a nd S ch i ld , h owever , b ased t he ir " A ter ianlike" f ac ies o n t he p resence o f f rag men tary p ieces a t af ew l oca l i t ies i n N ub ia a nd i tt herefore d epends o n h ow much weigh t o ne wou ld a t tach t o s uch i so la ted f i nds .

Th is i s

e spec ia l ly s o s ince b ifacia l t echn ique i s k nown t o o ccur i n many o f t he a sse mb lages d escr ibed b y C hm ie lewsk i a nd b y t he G u ichards a s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( see C hap ter I ) .

C onsider ing t he o vera l l A ter ian t ypo log ica l c onf igura t ion i t

wou ld s ee m t ha t i t s p resence a long t he N i le V a l ley h as y e t t o b e d e monstra ted . Exp lana t ion o fv ar iab i l i ty i n s tone i ndustr ies o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h as r ecen t ly b eco me a f ocus o f ac onsiderab le d iscuss ion among p reh istor ians a nd v ar ious mode ls o r h ypo theses h ave b een a dvanced w i th v ary ing d egrees o f p o ten t ia l f or ofer ing s ound i n terpre ta t ion ( Co les a nd H iggs 1 968 :67-75 ) . The mos t w ide ly e n ter ta ined o ft hese mode ls i n t he M idd le P a laeo l ith ic l i tera ture a re t hose p ropounded b y B ordes , B inford a nd Me l lars —a l l b e ing emp loyed f or c ase s tud ies o ft he F rench Mous ter ian .

T he a rgu men ts f or a nd

a ga inst e ach o ft hese mode ls a re we l l k nown b u t i ti s worthwh i le d escr ib ing t he m b r ief ly a s t heir imp l ica t ions g o b eyond S ou th West F rance .

B ordes i n

h is a na lysis o ft he Mouster ian ( s ee C hap ter V ) d ef ined f our f acies w ith s ubt ypes. T hese i nc lude t he C haren t ian ( Qu ina a nd F errassic t ypes) , Typ ica l Mouster ian , Mous ter ian o f Acheu l ian T rad i t ion ( A a nd B ) a nd Dent icu la te Mouster ian .

B ordes v iews t hese f ac ies a s r epresen t ing d if feren t c u ltura l

t rad i t ions i n t oo l manufactur ing t echnique made b y d iferen t h u man g roups ,

1 96

c o-ex ist ing i n t he s a me r eg ion w i th v ery l im i ted i n teract ions b etween t he m . T h is p a t tern i n a r tefact p roduct ion r epresen ts p a t terned h u man b ehav iour wh ich i s c u l tura l ly d eter m ined ( Bordes 19 72 , B ordes a nd B ordes 1 970 ) . Me l lars , work ing most ly o n t he s a me d a ta , a rgued f or a n e vo lu t ionary d eve lopment i n t he s a me c u l tura l c on t inuu m . A ccording t o h im , t h is i s s ubstan t ia ted a t l east b y t hree o f B ordes ' Mouster ian f acies : Mouster ian o f A cheu l ian T rad i t ion .

F errassie , Qu ina a nd

T hese f acies d o n o t o ver lap a nd t he e v idence

d oes n o t s uppor t e i ther f unct iona l o r d iferen t c u lture models ( Me l lars 1 969 , 19 70). T he t h ird mode l o f fered b y B inford v iews v ar ia t ion i n t he Mous ter ian a s r epresen t ing merely d if ferences i n s pec ia l ized a ct iv i t ies. S im i lar i t ies a nd c o-var ia t ion b e tween s tone t oo ls a t e ach l oca l i ty p r i mari ly d eter m ined b y t he s pecif ic t ask (s ) p erfor med a t t ha t l oca l ity .

He t hus p ostu la tes t ha t

a rchaeo log ica l s i tes w i l l c orrespond i n t heir a r tefactua l c onten t a nd d istr ibu t ion t o t he s pec i f ic t ask b eing p erfor med . He r ecogn ized t wo ma in t ypes o f s i tes , t he ma in tenance a nd t he work c a mps.

T he f i rs t i s t he " base c a mp" i n wh ich

t he h un ters p rocess t he s ubsistence a lready c o l lected a nd a lso i ncludes a ct iv i t ies i nvo lv ing p repara t ion f or a ct iv i t ies t ha t wou ld t ake p lace o u tside t he " base c a mp" . T he " base c a mp" i s l ocated " in a c en tra l l oca t ion w i th r espect t o t he d is tr ibu t ion o f r esources" . The s econd t ype o f s i te i s t ha t where " ex tract ion a ct iv i t ies" u sua l ly t ake p lace — thus a ' k i l l s i te ' c ol lect ion s i te ' e tc . ( B inford 1 966 :268 , 1 973) .

A s ment ioned a bove t hese h ypo theses were

f or mu la ted f or p ar t icu lar c ase s tud ies a nd t here i s n o ap r ior ir eason why a ny o ne o ft he m wou ld s tr ict ly a pp ly t o t he Nub ian s i tua t ion . I n N ub ia a n e vo lu t ionary o r t e mpora l d evelopmen t f or t he Mouster ian/ K hor musan c an h owever b e d isregarded . The c r i t ica l e va lua t ion o f t he g eoa rchaeo log ica l s equence a nd t he a va i lab le C 14 d a tes h ave s hown r easonab ly we l l t ha t t he t wo ' en t i t ies ' were l arge ly c on te mporary , s pann ing t he l ong p er iod f ro m >50 ,000 t o 2 5 ,000 B .C .

T owards t he e nd o ft he s equence h u man

s et t le men t was l arge ly c onf ined t o t he z one a long t he r iver b anks ;

ap rocess

e nhanced b y t he i ncreasing a r id i ty , t he e v idence f or wh ich i s r epor ted f or many p ar ts o f s ub-Saharan A fr ica ( Chap ters I , I I , I V ) . Thus t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t a Mouster ian/Khor musan s et t le men t b eca me l oca l ized t owards t he e nd o f t he s equence may n o t b e r eadi ly d is m issed . T he e v idence s i mp ly d oes n o t a l low f or a d eta i led c ons idera t ion o ft h is p o in t b u t a s h as a lready b een p o in ted o u t , a n e va lua t ion o f t he o vera l l c u l tura l s equence c er ta in ly a l lows i ti n t ha t i n N ub ia i td oes n ot p osi t ive ly i nd ica te a b reak i n t he r ecord . A s econd p roposi t ion migh t h owever b e o f fered i n wh ich c on te mporane i ty o f t he Mouster ian a nd Khor musan i s a ccep ted , b u t wh ich v iews t he t wo ' en t i t ies ' a s b elong ing t o s epara te c u l tura l g roups . I n v iew o f t he p resen t e v idence a s p u t f orward i n t he p rev ious c hap ters t h is mode l s ee ms t o b e u n l ike ly .

The

s ta t ist ica l a na lysis o ft he Mouster ian a nd Khor musan a sse mb lages r evea ls a r e la t ive ly c o mp lex p ic ture o fv ar ia t ion a nd f actors a f fect ing s uch v ar ia t ions h ave b een s hown n o t t o r e la te t o t he o bserved c u l tura l d if ferences.

T he

t en ta t ive g roup ings o f a sse mb lages a s s uggested b y t h is a na lysis i nd ica te t ha t b o th t he Mouster ian a nd Khor musan a re t ypo log ica l ly c on t inuous . T he t oo l i nven tory i n i t s t o ta l i ty i s r epresen ted a t e ach g roup b u t t he d if ference l i es i n t he p ropor t iona l f requencies o f c er tain ma jor t ypes. C ross-cu t t ing t he g roups a re b as ic t echno log ica l a spects o f v ar ia t ion wh ich c ou ld b e r e la ted i n p ar t icu lar t o v ar ia t ion i n r aw ma ter ia l u t i l iza t ion .

1 97

T hus t he mode l s ugges ted i n t h is s tudy ( Chap ter I )t o a ccoun t f or t he o bserved v ar iab i l i ty v iews t he Mous ter ian/Khormusan s i tes a s s easona l c amps : i n ters ite a nd i n tras ite v ar iab i l i ty i s p ostu la ted t o r ef lect v ar iat ion i n a dap t ive s tra teg ies o f i n terre la ted c o m mun i t ies r a ther t han t rue c u l tura l d if ferences . A s i nferred f ro m d is tr ibu t ion s i tes t he e xp lo i ta t ion t err i tory d ur ing t he M idd le P a laeo l ith ic i s h ypo thet ica l ly d ef ined t o e x tend f ro m t he a nc ien t r iver b anks t o a bou t 1 0 k i lo metres i n land . T he g eo log ica l h istory o ft he N i le s hows t ha t t he r iver h ad e stab l ished i t se lf i n as im i lar f or m t o t he p resen t o ne a t l eas t b y A cheu l ian t imes .

Thus t he r iver i s ac ons t i tuen t p ar t o f t he s urround ing

e nv iron men t i n t he t err i tory d ef ined a bove a nd t herefore h u man a d jus t men t t o t h is e nv iron men t mus t h ave p receded t he Mousterian . T he Mous ter ian/Khor mus an s i tes a re u n i ts o f t he s ame d yna m ic a dap t ive s yste m o pera t ing i n t hree r ough ly d ef ined m icroenv ironmen ta l z ones ( Ch . I V ) .

T he c hanges t ha t h ave

t aken p lace i n t he l andscape a nd t he c o mp lete o r n ear a bsence o f e cono m ic a nd e nv iron men ta l d a ta r e la t ing t o t he s i tes c oncerned c onst i tu te a f or m idab le o bs tac le i n a t te mp t ing a ny d eta i led r econstruc t ion . T he s easona l move men t i s i nd ica ted b y t he l oca t ions o f Khor musan s i tes o n s and d unes a long t he r eced ing r iver b anks a nd t he Mouster ian o n t op o f i so la ted j ebe ls f urther i n land . o ccupa t ion o pera tes i n a n a l terna t ing manner .

H uman

Dur ing p er iods o f w e t c l ima te

a cco mpan ied b y N i le f l oods , h u man g roups wou ld t end t o move t o e xp lo i t t he s avannah r eg ions wh ich a re e xpec ted t o b e f avourab le f or o ccupa t ion .

R eg ions

b order ing t he r iver w ou ld b e most f avourab le a f ter t he r iver r ecedes a nd h u man g roups a re e xpec ted t o c luster a long t he r iver b anks. The d i fference i n s ize b etween t he l e lor musan s i tes wh ich r epresen ts s uch c lusters a nd t he sma l l Mouster ian s i tes r epresen t ing sma l ler u n i ts h as b een n oted a bove ( Chap ter I V ) . Exact ly h ow t he s yste m o f s easona l move men ts o pera ted i s n o t k nown s ince t here i s a l mos t n o d irect e v idence f or t he d ura t ion o f N i le h igh l evel a t t ha t t ime . Exp lo i ta t ion o f ap ar t icu lar microenv ironmen t w i th i t s a t tendan t i mp l ica t ions f or t he a ct iv i t ies t ha t wou ld b e p erfor med b y t he h un ters c ou ld a lso b e e xpected t o i nduce v ar ia t ion i n t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins a t a ny s et t le men t . I n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord t h is wou ld b e man ifested i n t he p roduct ion o f t oo ls t ha t were f ound t o b e mos t ef ic ien t i n t he e x tract ion o ft he a va i lab le r esource .

Thus i ti s l i kely t hat s uch v ar ia t ion i n t oo l i nven tory w i l l

c o-vary w i th t he a ct iv i t ies mos t u nder taken b y t he h un ters .

T he g roup ing o f

s i tes s uggested a bove i s e xpected t o c onfor m w i th t he b road microenv ironmen ta l z ones w i th in t he d ef ined t err i tory .

A dm i t ted ly , s uch g roup ing o f s i tes d oes

n o t r ead i ly f i t i n w i th t he p red icted p a t tern b u t t here a re s o me i nd ica t ions o f t h is . F irst , t he s i tes d om ina ted b y b ur ins a re l im i ted t o t he im med ia te v ic in i ty o f t he r iver a nd s econd ly t here i s at endency f or t hose s i tes d om ina ted b y d en t icu la tes t o s hare t he s a me e nv ironmen ta l z one , a l though o ne s i te ( 1 000) a t l east i s l oca ted f ar i n land . T hose s i tes w i th a s craper e le men t a re u sua l ly l oca ted o n t op o f h i l ls a nd wha tever t he ir d istance f ro m t he p resen t r iver , t he i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t t he o ccupan ts were u t i l izing a s o mewha t d i f feren t e nv ironmen t .

T he n u mber o f s i tes s tud ied , h owever , p roh ib i ts a ny a t te mp t t o g o i n to

s uch d e ta i ls .

T he a rgu men t o f s easona l o ccupa t ion a nd v ar ia t ion i n r esource

u t i l iza t ion a s c aus ing t he v ar ia t ion o bserbed i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a pproaches t he f unct iona l mode l o f B inford , a l though t here a re s o me d if ferences wh ich must b e p o in ted o u t . The p resent e v idence f ro m Nub ia d oes n o t s uppor t t he t heory t ha t i nd iv idua l s i tes c an b e d iv ided i n to s pec if ic a ct iv i ty s i tes .

T he

e xcep t ion t o t h is a re t he q uarry s i tes a nd t hese c an b e t aken t o h ave s panned 1 98

a long p er iod o ft ime b e ing r ev isi ted b y t he s a me o r d iferen t c u ltura l g roups . T he h ab i ta t ion s i te i n t he c ase o f Nub ia i s a n o ccupa t iona l l ocus i n wh ich a s er ies o f a c t iv i t ies w ere p erfor med .

I n o ther words i ti s a mu l t i-ac t iv i ty

a rea , t he s ize o fw h ich i s d e ter m ined b y t he s ize o f t he s oc ia l g roup i nvo lved wh ich i s p ostu la ted t o v ary w i th t he s eason a nd t he t err i tory o ccup ied ( s ee C hap ter I V ) .

S pec ia l a c t iv i ty a reas a re i nd ica ted b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f b ur ins

a round h ear ths i n t he Khor musan s i tes b u t t hese a re l oca ted w ith in t he s i te a rea . A ct iv i t ies t ha t were u nder taken o u ts ide t he s i te a rea , a nd t hese wou ld h ave b een e xpected t o o ccur , h ave e i ther l ef t n o t race b ecause o f p reserva t ion p rob le ms o r were l im i ted a ct iv i t ies wh ich h ave a l esser c hance o f r ecovery . E cono m ic s pec ia l iza t ion i s a lso i nd ica ted b y t he t wo c u l tura l l ayers a t s i te 4 40 ( Chap ter I I ) . T he n u merous b ur ins a t s o me o f t he K hor musan s i tes , a ccoun t ing f or n ear ly h a l f o f t he t oo l i nven tory , wou ld i n t he mse lves s ugges t t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f as pec if ic r esource. A l though t h is m igh t a ppear a c ircu lar a rgu men t t he i mp l ica t ion t ha t b ur ins were p r i mar ily a ssocia ted w i th a r iverine e nv iron men t c an h ard ly b e d en ied .

I n t he p ast b ur ins h ave o f ten b een t aken

a s a marker f or t he U pper P a laeol i th ic a nd t hus c on tr ibu ted t o t he s epara t ion o ft he Khor musan a s ad ist inct i ndustry .

T hey a re h owever n ow k nown t o

o ccur i n many M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c on tex ts a nd i ti s n ow g enera l ly a ccep ted t ha t ab ur in may n o t b e ar e l iab le i ndica tor o f t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic ( Bordes 1 961, McBurney 1 967 ) . I th as b een s uggested t ha t t he u se o f t he l oca l ly a va i lab le N i le C her t i nduced t he p roduct ion o f b ur ins b u t t h is c anno t b e t aken a s t he s o le f actor .

T here i s n o d irect e v idence f or wha t t hey were u sed f or.

I ti s u sua l ly a ssu med t ha t b ur ins were u sed f or e i ther work ing b ones o r wood . I n t he Khor musan s i tes t here i s l i t t le o r n o e v idence f or b one work ing a l though b ones were f ound i n c onsiderab le q uan t i t ies. I tc an t hus b e r easonab ly s uggested t ha t t hey w ere u sed i n work ing wood wh ich i s o f c ourse e xpected t o h ave b een a bundan t a long t he r iver b anks ( Marks 1 968b :390 ). Var iab i l i ty i n s i te s tructure a nd d istr ibu t ion e nv isaged f or t he M idd le P a laeo l ith ic i n N ub ia c an , h owever , b e i l lus tra ted b y e xa mp les f ro m e thnog raph ic c oun terpar ts .

S im i lar s i tua t ions h ave b een r epor ted f ro m many

c on te mporary h un t ing a nd g a ther ing s ocie t ies a nd Y e l len 's s tudy o f t he K ung S an s e t t le men t p a t terns w i l l s erve a s a n e xa mp le ( Ye l len 1 977 ) .

The

tKung s e t t le men t s ys te m i s c entred a round s easona l move ments i n ad ef ined t err itory d epend ing o n t he a va i lab i l i ty o f t he r esources . c a mp were o bserved ;

Two ma in t ypes o f

t he d ry s eason c a mps a nd t he r a iny s eason c a mps.

T he f or mer c a mps a re u sua l ly l arge a nd o ccup ied f or l onger p er iods o f t ime wh i le t he l a t ter a re sma l l a nd d istr ibu ted o ver a l arge a rea i n t he t err i tory . Y e l len d ist ingu ishes b etween a c t iv i t ies t ha t t ake p lace o u tside t he b ase c a mp a nd t hose i ns ide i t . D if ferences i n a ct iv i t ies t ha t o ccur w ith in t he s i te a re c losely r e la ted t o d if ferences i n r esource u t i liza t ion . The more b r ief ly t he s i tes a re o ccup ied t he l ess s im i lar i ty t hey b ear t o t he o thers w i th r egard t o t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins. I n tersi te c o mpar isons o f t he d ry s eason s e t t le men t " are l ike ly t o y ie ld v a l id i n for ma t ion a bou t h ow a reas were u sed , a nd d iferences f ro m o ne c a mp t o a no ther a re l i ke ly t o r ef lect c u l tura l ly a nd e nv ironmen ta l ly s ign if ican t f acts" ( Ye l len 1 977 :82).

He f ur ther a rgues t ha t ad iv ision o f s i tes

b ased o n d ifferen t a c t iv i t ies a s s uch d oes n o t s u i t t he ' .Kung 's s et t le men t s ys te m . T h is i s i nd ica ted b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins w i th in a s i te a rea wh ich g ive l i t t le e v idence f or s pec ia l a ct iv ity a reas. P a t tern ing o f

1 99

a ct iv i t ies w i th in a s i te d epends o n wha t p ar t o ft he s i te a rea t he a ct iv i ty was p erfor med a nd a lso o n t he s ize o ft he s oc ia l g roup i nvo lved . Tha t i s , a c t iv it ies c an b e c o m muna l o r p r iva te. I nd iv idua l n uc lear f am i ly g roups t end t o p erfor m d iferen t a c t iv i t ies a round h ear ths a nd t hus i n al arge s i te t he p a t tern w i l l o f fer ad iscre te s er ies o fh ear ths w ith s im i lar c lusters o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins ( i b id : 7 7-97 ) . T he 1 .Kung e xa mp le c anno t o f c ourse b e t aken a s ad irect mode l o f t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tua t ion i n Nub ia b u t i ti s i nd ica t ive o f h ow c o mp lex s uch s yste ms c ou ld b e . T he s econd p rob le m wh ich t h is s tudy h as a t te mp ted t o a ddress i s t he emergence o ft he U pper P a laeo l i th ic i n t he r eg ion r epresen ted b y t he microb lade t echno logy . T he a rgu ments p resen ted b y Marks f or i t s l oca l d eve lopmen t a nd t he n o t ion t ha t i t was t he e ar l iest i n t he who le o f N or th-east A fr ica h ave a lready b een d iscussed . I n c onsider ing t h is p rob le m i ti s h owever a ppropr ia te t o d ist ingu ish b etween t hose Ha l fan s i tes wh ich a re d om ina ted b y Ha lfa f l akes a nd o ther f or ma l t oo ls t o t he n ear e xc lus ion o f b lade le ts : a nd t hose d om ina ted b y t he l a t ter . The d iferences b etween t he m h ave b een s hown t o b e s ta t ist ica l ly s ign if ican t a nd t he o ccurrence o f b lade le t t echno logy i n t he f or mer s i tes c an b e d isregarded o n t he b as is o ft he ir i nsign if ican t n u mbers o r d ub ious n a ture ( Chap ters V , V I ) . Moreover d a t ing o f t he who le s equence a s i ts tands d oes n o t a l low f or a l oca l t rans i t ion i .e . Marks ' s equence . T he e ar l ies t C 14 d a te o f2 3 ,750 B .C . was o b ta ined f ro m s i te 6B32, o ne o f t he f l ake d om ina ted s i tes .

T he o ther s i tes ma in ly d om ina ted b y b acked m icro-

b lades d a te t o n ot more t han 1 7 ,000 B .C . t hough t h is i s n o t y et f u l ly e stab l ished i n v iew o f t he s tra t igraph ica l p rob le ms a nd t he f ewer C 14 d a tes a va i lab le . T he f or mer e ar l ier d a te i s h owever c o mpa t ib le w i th t he s equence e nv isaged f or t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic wh ich i s p ostu la ted t o h ave ' ended ' a bou t t h is t ime . Having s uch d iv is ion b e tween s i tes b ased o n t he p resence o f t he d iagnost ic microb lades i ti s n ecessary t o make s uch a d ist inc t ion b etween t he ' or ig in ' o f t he Ha ifa f l ake a nd t he ' orig in ' o f t he b acked m icrob lade .

Though i ti s n o t

p oss ib le t o f ind a d irec t t echno log ica l l i nk b etween t he Ha lfa f lake a nd t he L eva l lo is b ased t echno logy i n t he r eg ion , i ti s n o t i nconce ivab le t o a rgue f or al oca l d eve lop men t .

T he Ha lfa f l ake h as b een d escr ibed a s a mod if ied

L eva l lo is f l ake i nvo lv ing a s pecia l c ore p repara t ion a nd i ft ha t i s c onsidered at echno log ica l i nnova t ion i ti s q u i te c o mpa t ib le w i th t he c u l tura l d ivergence a lready o bserved d ur ing t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic.

T herefore , i ti s a t a bou t

1 7 ,000 B .C . t ha t o ne i s d ea l ing w i th t he U pper P a laeo l i th ic i n terface i n N ub ia where i ti s r epresen ted b y ab lade let t echno logy .

T h is i s au n ique a spec t o f

t he c u l tura l d evelop men t i n Nub ia i f we c onsider t ha t af u l l b lade t echno logy was a lready p ract ised b y a t l east 4 0 ,000 B .C . i n N or th A fr ica a nd e ven e ar l ier i n t he N ear East .

Moreover , when t he b lade le t t echno logy a ppeared

i n Nub ia , b y wha tever a gency , i td id n o t a t f i rs t s pread a long t he v a l ley i n S udanese N ub ia .

T he Ha lfan I ndustry i s t he o n ly o ne among o ther c on te mporary

i ndus tr ies o ccupy ing t he s a me r eg ion .

I t s d istr ibu t ion i s l im i ted t o t he S econd

C a taract r eg ion a nd t he s urvey c onducted i n t he D ongo la R each d id n o t r evea l a ny i nd ica t ion o f i t s p resence ( Sh iner 1 971) . N or th o f t he S econd C a tarac t , h owever , t he Ha lfan i s k nown f ro m many l oca l i t ies i n Upper Egyp t a s f ar n or th a s E sna . O ft he i ndustr ies d escr ibed a s c on te mporary o r p ar t ly c on te mporary w i th t he Ha lfan i n S udanese Nub ia a re t he G e ma ian a nd S eb i l ian b o th o f wh ich a re d istinc t ly d if feren t f ro m t he Ha lfan .

2 00

The G e ma ian h as b een

k nown f ro m 8 s i tes a l l l oca ted a round Wad i Hai fa a nd d escr ibed a s af l ake i ndustry o f med iu m s ize a r tefacts.

T he t oo l t ypo logy i s d om ina ted b y s crapers ,

d en t icu la tes , b ur ins a nd p o in ts . T he c harac ter ist ic Hai fa f l ake i s c o mp le te ly l ack ing wh i le b acked e le men ts a re e xceed ing ly r are a nd a ccord ing t o S h iner t he t wo i ndustr ies d ifer i n a l most e very t ra i t ( Sh iner 1 968b :563 ) .

T he

S eb i l ian i s a lso t ypo log ica l ly a nd t echno log ica l ly d iferen t f ro m t he Hal fan . I ti s c haracter ised b y ah igh L eva l lo is I ndex , av ery l ow B lade I ndex a nd i s d om ina ted b y t runca ted p ieces ( Marks 1 968d :458) . A long t he N i le i n U pper Egyp t t he s i tuat ion s ee ms t o h ave b een d if feren t f ro m S udanese N ub ia t hough we a re s t i l l d ea l ing w i th n u merous d ist inc t a rchaeo log ica l i ndus tr ies o ccupy ing t he s a me r eg ion .

I nt he f or mer r eg ion t he U pper P a laeo l i thic i s r epresen ted

b y microb lade i ndus tr ies w i th a L eva l lo is e le men t ( a s i n N ub ia ) , a nd b y a no ther wh ich i s f u l ly d om ina ted b y ab lade t echno logy . A s t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t hese f acies i n Egyp t c ou ld b e r e levan t t o t he S udanese Ha lfan p rob le m t hey w i l l b e b r ief ly men t ioned . The f i rst o ft he b lade le t i ndustr ies i s t he F akhur ian , k nown f ro m 8 s i tes a t De ir E l-Fakhur i t o t he n or thwest o f E sna . Typo log ica l ly t he F akhur ian i s c haracter ised b y b acked b lade lets , n o tches , d en t icu la tes a nd b orers.

C o mpared

w ith t he S udanese Ha lfan , i th as f ew microb lades a nd b ur ins a re a lso r are . U n l ike t he Ha lfan , t he F akhurian l acks t he L eva l lo is t ype o f c ore a nd i s i nstead d om ina ted b y t he s ing le a nd o pposed p la tfor m t ypes. f or t h is i ndustry ;

There a re t wo C 14 d a tes

1 6 ,070 B .C. + 3 30 a nd 1 5 ,640 B .C. + 3 00 wh ich p lace i t

a s c on te mporary w i th t he Ha lfan s i te 4 43 a nd 2 014 , b o th d om ina ted b y b acked microb lades ( Lubel l 1 974 :163-65) . The o ther c o mp lex i s t he I dfuan r epresen ted b y s even s i tes l oca ted n ear I dfu a nd E sna . T he I d fuan i s d escr ibed a s o f t wo d is t inct f ac ies ; o ne w i th a L eva l lo is e le men t a nd t he o ther l ack ing i ta nd i s f u l ly d om ina ted b y b lade let t echno logy .

T he I d fuan s equence i s d a ted o n t he b asis o f l oca l s tra t igraphy

a nd C 14 d a tes b etween 1 5 ,850 a nd 1 5 ,000 B .C .

One o f t he t hree s i tes d escr ibed

a s h av ing t he Ha ifa a nd L eva l lo is e le men ts ( E71P1 ) h as t wo ma in a reas ; o ne i s c harac ter ised b y modera te n u mbers o fb acked microb lades a nd n u merous r etouched b lades e spec ia l ly e longa ted o nes . n otches o ccur b u t b ur ins a re q u i te f ew .

O ther t oo ls s uch a s d en t icu la tes ,

The s econd a rea o f t he s a me s i te i s

d om ina ted b y b acked microb lades a nd o ther f or ms o f r e touched t oo ls wh ich make a bou t h a lf o ft hese f ound i n t he o ther a rea .

T h is f acies o f t he I d fuan

i s h owever d ifferen t ia ted f ro m t he S udanese Ha lfan b y t he p resence o f e longa ted b lades a nd a much l ower M icro l i th ic I ndex . The s econd I d fuan f ac ies i s r epor ted f ro m f i ve s i tes a nd i s c haracter ized b y h igh f requencies o f e longa ted b lades , r e touched f l akes a nd b lades , b ur ins a nd d en t icu la tes. B acked e le men ts a re v ery r are . 2 1,588 BP

+

O ne o ft hese s i tes ( E71K9 ) h as a t her mo lu m inescen t d a te o f

1 ,518 y ears a nd a l though i ti s b e l ieved t o c on trad ic t t he l oca l

s tra t igraphy i ti s s t i l l s uggest ive ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 975 :138, 1 976b :251) . I ft h is d a te t urns o u tt o b e c orrect t hen t he t heory o f a n e ar l ier U pper P a laeol i th ic f orms a long t he N i le i n Egyp t w i l l r ece ive f ur ther s upport .

Wha t t he

Egypt ian e v idence t hen s hows i s t he p resence o ft hese t wo l i nes o fd eve lop men t ; o ne w i th b lade t echno logy d evo id o f a ny o ft he L eva l lo is e le ments , a nd t he o ther wh ich c o mb ines b o th . The l a t ter f acies i s h owever s o mewha t l a ter i n d a te . T he a pparen t ly s udden a ppearance o f b lade let t echno logy i n t he Ha lfan s equence a nd i t s a ssoc ia t ion w i th s im i lar f lake i ndustr ies i n Upper Egyp t migh t 2 01

b e t aken a s ac ase f or a ccu l tura t ion .

Tha t t he n ew t echn ique a rr ived f ro m

t he Nor th o n ly a long t he v a l ley i s i nd ica ted b y i t s c o mp le te a bsence i n t he a d jacen t d eser ts . Wh i le t here a re i nd ica t ions f or a n e ar l ier a ppearance o f b lade le t i ndustr ies i n N orth A fr ica y e t t he ma jor ity o f C 14 d a tes c lus tered a round 1 7 ,000 B .C.

T herefore t he u l t ima te o r ig in o f t h is i nnova t ion c an n o t

b e k nown f or c er ta in n ow s ince t he p ossib i l i ty o f E ast Med i terranean c onnect i ons c an n o t b e c o mp lete ly r u led o u t .

I n N or th A fr ica , i th as b een s hown

t ha t t he t rad i t ion h as n o l oca l p rogen itors a nd t herefore t he p ossib i l i ty o f a f ore ign s ource i s n o t u n l ike ly .

McBurney was p erhaps c orrect when h e

p os tu la ted a n e astern o r ig in f or t he ö ran ian ( b lade let i ndustry ) wh ich h e d iscovered a t Haua F e teah i n L ibya . H e s uggested t ha t t here i s as im i lar i ty b e tween t he b acked microb lades i ndustr ies o f N or th A fr ica a nd t he L evan t . He wen t o n t o s ugges t t ha t ar ou te o f d if fus ion c ou ld h ave b een t hrough t he N i le v a l ley ( McBurney 1 967 :214 , 2 18) . T hus t he c u l tura l d eve lop men t i n N ub ia a s f ar a s t he a va i lab le e v idence s hows c an n o t b e t aken t o h ave b een a t o ta l ly l oca l e vo lu t ion , t hough o f c ourse t he s pecia l ized Hai fa f l ake t echn ique a nd t he c on t inued u se o ft he L eva l lo is t echn ique i n t he o ther c on te mporary i ndus tr ies i s a no ther s ubstant ia l p iece o f e v idence f or r eg iona l d ivergence .

2 02

APPENDIX 1 .1 A ttr ibute Ana lys is Nub ian Mouster ian, Khormusan a nd Dongo la Assemb lages B lank Types 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

L eva l lo is f l ake L eva l lo is b lade L eva l lo is p o in t Non-Leva l lo is f lake Non-Leva l lo is b lade Non-Leva l lo is p o int P r imary f l akes Core t r imm ing f lakes Chunk

Bordes ' Types 0t hrough 6 2 ( 0 =d eb i tage) Dorsa l S cars A -Pattern: 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

Un id irect iona l a long a x is Un id irect iona l a cross a x is Y p a ttern B id irect iona l a long a x is B id irect iona l a cross a x is Rad ia l P ar t ia l Rad ia l None Un ident if iab le

B -Dorsa l C ount:

Number o f s cars o n t he f l ak ing s urface

Raw Ma ter ia l Types 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

Wad i Chert N i le P ebb le Aga te F . S andstone Quar tz Quar tz ite P recambr ian F oss i l Wood O ther

S tr ik ing P la tform Types 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1.

Unfaceted D ihedra l F ace ted, c onvex F aceted, c onvex F ace ted, c onvex Chapeau d e g endarme Cor tex ( +50% ) Crushed Th inned Un ident if iab le Broken

2 03

S tr ik ing P la tform S ize 1 . 2 .

L eng th i n mm ( to n earest mm) He ight i n mm ( to n earest mm p erpend icu lar t o t he p o int o f p ercuss ion)

B lank S ize 1 .

Max imum L eng th ( to n earest mm) measured p ara l le l t o a x is o f p ercuss ion. P la tform p laced a ga inst a b ase l i ne.

2 .

Max imum W idth

3 .

Max imum Th ickness a long a r tefact e xc lud ing t he bu lbar a rea.

( to n earest mm) measured p erpend icu lar t o l eng th.

2 04

APPENDIX 1 .2 Core Ana lys is Nub ian Mouster ian, Khormusan a nd Dong ,o la Assemb lages Core Type L eva l lo is 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

F lake F lake unstruck/ear ly s tage. B lade B lade uns truck/ear ly s tage P o int Nub ian t ype I , I

D iscs 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 .

Un ifac ia l P ar t ia l un ifac ia l B ifac ia l P ar t ia l b ifac ia l

S ing le P la tform 1 1 . 1 2. 1 3. 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 . 1 8 .

F lake B lade Opposed P la tform s ame s ide Opposed P la tform o ppos i te s ide 9 0 d egree G lobu lar I so la ted f l ake O ther S ize L eng th: W idth: Th ickness:

S car Count:

max imum d imens ion i n mm max imum d imens ion i n mm p erpend icu lar t o l eng th max imum d imens ion a cross t he c ore f or L eva l lo is o n ly

Raw Ma ter ia l Types 1 . Wad i c her t 2 . Quar tz i te 3 . Quar tz 4 .N i le P ebb le 5 . F. S andstone 6 . P recambr ian 7 . Foss i l wood 8 . Agate 9 . O ther

2 05

Append ix 2 :l a

S ite N91 N20 N2 N6 4 40 1 000 3 6B 6 1 035 1 038 1 010 1 033U J B 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

Metr ica l Da ta o n R etouched T oo ls; S i tes ( Measured i n mm)

S amp le 1 75 3 20 1 20 9 9 1 63 1 27 1 31 2 30 9 8 1 52 1 32 9 8 1 40 1 10 1 02 1 28 1 99 8 8

Mean L eng th

S tandard Dev ia t ion

5 3,4 4 8.0 5 6.3 4 7.1 6 2.0 5 4 .5 4 4 .7 5 4.0 4 6.6 6 5.9 6 0 .5 6 2.1 8 4.5 4 9 .2 4 2.5 3 1.0 3 1 .5 3 4 .3

1 5 .6 1 6 .4 1 3.9 1 0.1 1 7 .9 1 6 .7 1 4 .7 1 5 .9 1 3.3 1 4 .8 2 0.3 1 7.5 2 7 .0 2 0.1 1 6.6 1 0.0 1 0 .9 1 3.0

2 06

t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

Mean W idth 4 1.9 3 7.0 4 4 .4 3 2.0 4 4 .2 4 0.4 3 3 .2 3 9 .3 3 5 .3 5 3.0 4 8 .5 4 4 .4 5 5.6 3 5 .1 3 1.4 2 0.8 2 3 .7 2 4 .8

S tandard D ev ia t ion 1 2.3 1.7 1 2.5 7 .8 1.9 1.8 9 .7 1 2.9 9 .4 1 4 .1 1 6 .7 1 2 .8 1 6 .3 1.9 1 3 .8 7 .4 7 .3 3 .7

Append ix 2 :l a ( con tinued)

S i te N91 N20 N2 N6 4 40 1 000 3 6B 6 1 035 1 038 1 010 1 033U J B 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

Mean Th ickness

S tandard Dev ia t ion

1 3.3 1 2.0 1 3.1 1 0 .3 1 4 .6 1 1 .9 9 .8 1 2.7 1 1 .0 1 4.2 1 3.0 1 3.2 1 7 .8 1 1 .3 9 .4 8 .0 7 .8 7 .7

4 .7 4 .7 6 .4 4 .3 5 .3 5 .2 3 .5 4 .9 3 .8 4 .9 5 .4 4 .3 6 .1 5 .0 4 .1 3 .0 3 .4 3 .7

L eng th/ W idth 1 .31 1 .33 1 .32 1 .53 1 .46 1 .41 1 .39 1 .44 1 .35 1 .32 1 .30 1 .45 1 .58 1 .45 1 .40 1 .56 1 .36 1 .43

2 07

S tandard Dev ia t ion

Th ickness/ W idth

S tandard Dev ia t ion

0 .40 0 .35 0 .37 0 .43 0 .47 0 .49 0 .42 0 .46 0 .46 0 .43 0 .41 0 .41 0 .49 0 .41 0 .67 0 .49 0 .43 0 .43

0 .33 0 .33 0 .35 0 .32 0 .34 0 .30 0 .30 0 .34 0 .32 0 .27 0 .28 0 .32 0 .33 0 .34 0 .33 0 .41 0 .34 0 .33

0 .12 0 .10 0 .11 0 .11 0 .10 0 .11 0 .09 0 .11 0 .09 0 .08 0 .09 0 .10 0 .10 0 .13 0 .15 0 .15 0 .13 0 .12

Append ix 2 :l b

S i te N91 N20 N2 N6 4 40 1 000 3 68 6 1 035 1 038 1 010 1 033U J B 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

S tr ik ing P latforms L eng ths a nd H e ights: ( measured i n mm)

Retouched T oo ls

S amp le

S tr ik ing P la tform L eng th

S tandard Dev ia t ion

S tr ik ing P la tform He ight

S tandard D ev ia t ion

1 31 2 13 9 0 7 1 1 14 1 02 1 09 1 63 7 7 1 17 9 9 7 7 1 04 8 5 6 5 6 7 1 10 5 5

2 4.6 2 3.7 2 7.2 2 2.1 3 2.5 2 8.7 2 3.4 2 6.8 2 5.0 3 2.8 3 2.3 2 8 .3 3 6.6 2 4.7 2 8.2 1 5 .7 1 9 .3 2 0 .7

1 1.1 1 0 .3 1 0 .5 8 .6 1 1.5 1 2.3 9 .8 1 1.9 8 .6 1 2.4 1 3.4 1 0 .2 1 4 .0 1 0 .1 1 2 .6 7 .8 7 .5 1 1.0

8 .0 9 .2 1 0 .6 7 .7 1 1.9 1 0 .1 8 .1 9 .9 9 .7 1 1 .7 1 1.6 1 0.9 1 4.7 8 .6 8 .7 5 .7 6 .3 7 .2

3 .4 4 .2 4 .1 3 .1 4 .2 4 .5 3 .4 4 .6 3 .4 4 .3 5 .0 4 .1 5 .7 4 .1 3 .5 2 .4 2 .6 3 .9

2 08

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2 09

Append ix 2 :2 b

S i te N91-15 N20 N2-4 N6 4 40 1 000 3 6B 6 1 035 1 038 1 010 1 033U J B 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

L eva l lo is F lakes: S tr ik ing P la tform L eng ths a nd He ights ( measured i n mm)

S amp le 5 9 2 9 3 5 6 2 2 3 5 1 1 7 4 4 4 6 6 0 2 4 8 7 2 6 8 9 1 31 1 13 1 51 4 4

Mean L eng th

S .D.

Mean He ight

2 6.6 2 4.4 3 2.5 2 2.3 3 4.4 2 6.8 2 6.7 2 6.4 2 3.2 3 1.2 2 9.9 2 9 .1 3 1 .6 2 2.6 2 2.3 1 8 .2 2 2.6 1 7 .1

1 0.8 1 0.4 1 2.6 8 .9 1 5 .1 1 0 .7 9 .0 7 .7 7 .2 9 .8 1 2.7 1 0 .9 1 1 .3 9 .0 1 2.1 8 .4 8 .5 7 .3

7 .6 7 .4 1 0 .6 6 .7 1 1.2 7 .5 8 .5 7 ,9 7 .0 9 .2 7 .9 9 .1 1 0 .9 6 .7 5 .9 5 .0 6 .3 4 .5

2 10

S .D. 2 .8 3 .3 3 .9 2 .3 4 .8 2 .6 2 .8 2 .3 2 .0 2 .9 3 .1 3 .2 4 .3 3 .1 3 .3 2 .5 2 .1 1 .6

Append ix 2 :2e Mean Number o f Dorsa l S cars a nd P ercentage o f Rad ia l a nd B id irect iona l P a ttern o f L eva l lo is F lakes

S ite ANW3 3 4D 1 017 3 4A 2 004 N91-15 N2-4 1 033U 1 038 N20 1 010-8 N6 6 J B 1 035 1 000 3 6B 4 40

M ean No. o f S cars

S tandard Dev ia t ion

%o f Rad ia l P a ttern

%o f B id irect iona l P a ttern

5 .9 5 .8 5 .5 5 .2 4 .9 4 .9 4 .4 4 .4 4 .3 4 .2 3 .9 3 .8 3 .5 3 .4 3 .3 3 .3 3 .3 3 .2

1 .8 1 .9 1 .9 1 .5 1 .5 1 .3 1 .2 1 .7 1 .6 1 .6 1 .3 1 .0 1 .1 1 .3 0 .8 1 .3 1 .1 1 .1

8 4.1 8 2 .4 6 1 .4 8 6.2 8 9.1 4 7 .0 5 5 .0 5 3 .2 3 7 .1 4 8.4 4 8.3 3 3.3 3 5 .2 3 7 .5 2 2.3 2 2.6 1 2 .0 3 1 .2

1 3 .0 1 0.8 2 3.4 3 .9 1 .8 3 3.8 1 7.5 1 7 .0 2 0.0 2 2.6 2 0.7 2 3.3 1 1.1 1 8.8 1 7 .9 1 8.9 4 7.8 1 8.8

2 11

Append ix 2 :3a

S i tw N91-15 N20 N2-4 N6 4 40 6 J B 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

Metr ica l Da ta o n F lakes a nd B lades ( Deb itage) M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( measured i n mm)

S amp le

Mean L eng th

S .D.

Mean W idth

S .D.

1 69 2 32 2 27 2 17 1 99 2 00 1 00 1 01 2 61 1 71 2 64 1 00

5 0 .9 4 8.3 5 4.2 5 1.7 4 3.4 4 7.8 8 4 .3 4 0.2 3 7 .5 2 7 .6 3 7 .1 2 9.7

1 6.7 1 6.2 1 3.3 1 3 .5 2 6.2 1 8 .5 2 9.3 1 2.1 1 3 .5 9 .1 1 4 .0 1 0 .9

3 6.8 3 3 .6 4 5 .1 3 3.4 3 3.7 3 6.8 5 5.1 2 9.9 2 6.8 1 9 .9 2 6.7 2 3.1

1 2.8 1 0 .3 1 0 .5 8 .8 1 3.5 1 3.6 1 9 .4 9 .4 1 0 .2 6 .8 1 0 .4 1 1 .4

2 12

Mean Th ickness 9 .7 1 1.2 1 3.7 9 .5 9 .9 1 1.1 1 8.2 9 .0 7 .1 5 .9 7 .3 6 .2

S .D. 4 .4 4 .2 5 .1 3 .8 4 .3 5 .5 8 .1 4 .0 3 .8 3 .2 3 .0 3 .2

Append ix 2 :3a ( cont inued)

S i te N91-15 N20 N2-4 N6 4 40 6 J I 3 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

Mean L eng th/W idth 1 .48 1 .48 1 .23 1 .59 1 .37 1 .35 1 .62 1 .40 1 .50 1 .49 1 .48 1 .41

L engths a nd Th ickness Ra t ios o f F lakes/B lades, M idd le P a laeo l ith ic S ites ( measured i n mm)

S .D. 0 .54 0 .42 0 .30 0 .86 0 .56 0 .43 0 .59 0 .40 0 .56 0 .56 '0 .54 0 .48

, 2 13

Mean Th ickness/ W idth

S .D.

0 .27 0 .34 0 .30 0 .29 0 .31 0 .31 0 .34 0 .31 0 .26 0 .29 0 .28 0 .27

0 .09 0 .11 0 .09 0 .09 0 .11 0 .12 0 .11 0 .13 0 .09 0 .12 0 .09 0 .08

Append ix 2 :3b

S i te N91-15 N20 N2-4 N6 4 40 6 J B 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

S tr ik ing P la tform L eng ths a nd He igh ts: ( measured i n mm)

F lakes / B lades

S amp le

Mean L eng th

S .D.

Mean H e ight

1 38 1 24 1 41 1 77 1 59 1 53 6 8 6 9 1 72 1 11 1 76 7 2

2 3.3 2 2.0 3 2 .7 2 2.4 2 5 .5 2 5 .7 3 7.2 2 1.8 1 7.3 1 4 .6 1 8.8 1 8.6

1 2 .1 8 .8 1 3 .8 8 .9 1 1.8 1 1.3 1 5 .6 7 .6 7 .3 5 .5 8 .6 9 .4

7 .8 8 .7 1 2.5 7 .7 9 .4 9 .4 1 4 .5 7 .6 5 .6 4 .4 6 .1 5 .9

2 14

S .D. 4 .1 3 .3 5 .3 3 .6 4 .2 4 .4 6 .6 3 .4 2 .8 1 .8 2 .9 2 .8

Append ix 2 :4

S i te N91-15 N2-4 N6 1 000 6 1 035 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

Metr ica l Da ta o n Cores; i n mm)

S amp le

Mean L eng th

1 68 9 6 1 07 3 0 6 4 5 9 3 9 7 2 5 7 1 83 4 5

5 9 .0 6 2.0 4 5.9 6 1.8 6 2.3 7 3.2 5 2.9 4 9 .5 3 9 .0 4 0.2 3 2.9

S. D. 1 2.4 1 3.2 9 .6 1 6.8 1 7.4 1 1 .4 1 2.8 1 5.2 1 2.8 1 0.3 9 .8

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S i tes ( measured

Mean W idth 5 1 .2 5 2.9 3 8.7 5 0 .7 5 2.0 6 0 .2 4 4.6 4 2 .2 3 1.9 3 3.1 2 8:0

• 2 ‘ 15

S. D. 1 1.1 1 2.1 7 .6 1 4 .6 1 3.6 1 0 .6 1 2.5 1 3 .2 9 .4 8 .9 8 .2

Mean Th ickness 2 3 .2 3 0 .7 1 9 .6 2 1.3 2 7.3 2 6.8 2 3.7 2 1.6 1 7.3 1 6.1 1 4.3

S. D. 7 .2 1 1 .9 7 .4 5 .9 9 .1 6 .0 7 .2 7 .6 4 .8 5 .8 4 .9

Append ix 2 :4 ( cont inued)

S ite N91-15 N2-4 N6 1 000 6 1 035 1 038 3 4A 1 017 3 4D ANW3 2 004

Mean L ength/Width

S . D.

1 .16 1 .18 1 .19 1 .23 1 .20 1 .19 1 .23 1 .20 1 .18 1 .24 1 .22 1 .18

0 .12 0 .17 0 .18 0 .19 0 .17 0 .16 0 .19 0 .16 0 .17 0 .36 0 .16 014

2 iß

Mean Th ickness/Width 0 .45 0 .58 0 .50 0 .43 0 .53 0 .45 0 .45 0 .54 0 .53 0 .57 0 .49 0 .51

S .D. 0 .13 0 .17 0 .15 0 .12 0 .14 0 .11 0 .11 0 .13 0 .18 0 .18 0 .14 0 .12

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2 18

Metr ica l Da ta o n Ha lfan R etouched T oo l Types 5 -10 ( see Chapter V )

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Metr ica l Data o n Ha lfan Cores ( measured i n mm)

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2 21

APPENDIX 4 F . Bordes ' Too l Type L ist ( 1961)

Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0

L eva l lo is f l ake, t yp ica l L eva l lo is f l ake, a typ ica l L eva l lo is p o int L eva l lo is p o int, r etouched P seudo ; Leva l lo is p o int Mouster ian p o int Mouster ian p o int, e longa ted L imace S ide-scraper, s ing le s tra ight S ide-scraper, s ing le c onvex S ide-scraper, s ing le c oncave S ide-scraper, d oub le s tra ight S ide-scraper, d oub le s tra ight-convex S ide-scraper, d oub le s tra ight-concave S ide-scraper, d oub le c onvex S ide-scraper, d oub le c oncave S ide-scraper, d oub le c onvex-concave S ide-scraper, c onvergent s tra ight S ide-scraper, c onvergent c onvex onvergent c oncave S ide-scraper, c S ide-scraper, o ffset ( de jete) ransverse s tra ight S ide-scraper, t S ide-scraper, t ransverse c onvex S ide-scraper, t ransverse c oncave S ide-scraper, i nverse ly r etouched S ide-scraper, a brupt r etouch S ide-scraper, t h inned S ide-scraper, b ifac ia l ly r etouched S ide-scraper a l terna te ly r etouched End-scraper, t yp ica l End-scraper, a typ ica l Bur in, t yp ica l Bur in, a typ ica l Borer, t yp ica l Borer, a typ ica l Backed kn ife, t yp ica l Backed kn ife, a typica l Na tura l ly b acked kn ife Rac lette Truncated p ieces Mouster ian t ranche ts No tched p iece Dent icu late B ee bur in I nverse ly r etouched p ieces Abrupt r etouched p iece, t h ick A lternate r etouched p iece, t h ick Abrupt r e touched p iece, t h in A l ternate r etouched p iece, t h in B ifac ia l ly r etouched p iece 2 22

5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3

Tayac p o int Notched t r iang le P seudo-microbur in End-notched p iece Hacho irs Rabot Tanged p o int Tanged t oo l Chopper I nverse c hopper Chopp ing t oo l Var ia L eaf-shaped b ifac ia l p iece

2 23

APPENDIX 5 G lossary f or S ome Core Types

Nub ian Type I :

E ssent ia l ly a L eva l lo is p o int c ore . F o l low ing t he u sua l p er iphera l p repara t ion, t wo e longa ted f l akes a re s truck f rom t he d is ta l e nd l eav ing c lose n egat ive bu lbs. A p latform i s t hen p repared a t t he p rox ima l e nd f rom wh ich a L eva l lo is p o int i s s truck ( Gu ichards 1 965 :6 9) . •

Nub ian Type I :

A L eva l lo is c ore o f t r iangu lar s hape f rom wh ich p o in t f l akes o r p o ints were s truck. I t i s n o t s tr ict ly L eva l lo is p o int-core b ecause p o ints " are n o t d eb i ted a long a r idge" ( ib id.:69).

P ara-Leva l lo is:

Th is i s L eva l lo is f lake c ore but was s truck a cross t he a x is i nstead o f 'a long i t ( Marks 1 968a:209).

Marg ina l :

Def ined by Marks a s af l ake c ore i n wh ich a n a tura l f racture p lane wh ich i s a t 9 00 t o af lak ing s urface i s u sed t o s tr ike a s er ies o f f l akes ( ib id. : 209).

Opposed P latform:

A c ore f l aked i n t wo d irect ions a long t he ma in a x is f rom t wo p latforms a t b o th e nds. When t he o pposed p la tforms a re f ound o n t he t wo s urfaces o f t he c ore i t i s t hen c a l led o ppos i te s ide c ore ( Marks 1 968c : 3 96-7). A c ore w i th t wo p la tforms. One f or r emova l o f f l akes o r b lades a long t he l ong a x is a nd t he o ther f or r emova l o f f lakes o r b lades a cross t he l ong a x is b ut o n t he o ppos i te s urface o f t he c ore. Thus f l ake s cars d etached f rom e ach p la tform a re p erpend icu lar t o o ne a no ther ( ib id.:396).

N ine ty d egrees:

G lobu lar :

A c ore i n wh ich a number o f p la tforms were u sed t o s tr ike f l akes o r b lades.

B ipo lar :

Usua l ly a p ebb le i s p laced o n ah ard a nv i l a nd s truck v er t ica l ly w ithout p la tform p repara t ion. A s ar esu lt f lakes c ome o ff b oth e nds o f t he p ebb le.

Wedge:

Descr ibed by Marks i n t h is manner , " F irst a p r imary f lake i s r emoved f rom o ne e nd o f ap ebb le a t a n a cute a ng le t o t he p ebb le s urface t o b e f l aked. A s er ies o f m icrob lades a re t hen t aken o ff f rom t he p la tform. These n ever e xtend t he who le l eng th o f t he c ore, l eav ing t he l ower p ar t o f t he p ebb le unworked. Once t hese m icrob lades h ave b een r emoved, a s econd s er ies i s s truck o ff u s ing t he b ase o f t he m icrob lade s cars a s p la tforms f rom t he o ther s ide o f t he p ebble" ( ib id.: 3 97).

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S tr inger, C . B . 1 974 . P opu la t ion R e lat ionsh ips o f L a ter P le istocene Hom ino ids: a Mu lt ivar ia te S tudy o f Ava i lab le Cran ia, J . Arch. S c. 1 :3 17-342 . S tuv ier, M . 1 969 . Ya le Na tura l Rad iocarbon Measurements I X, Rad iocarbon 1 1(2):545-658. Trautman, M . A . a nd W i l l is, E . H . 1 966 . I so topes, I nc. Rad iocarbon Measurements V , Rad iocarbon 8 :161-203 . Vermeersch, P . M . 1 978 . Be lg ian M idd le Egypt P reh istor ic P ro ject 1 978, Nyame Akuma ( 12):20-22, A News letter o f A fr ican Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f Ca lgary, A lberta, Canada . Waechter, J . 1 965. A P re l im inary Report o n F our Ep i-Leva l lo is S ites, i n Contr ibut ions t o t he P reh istory o f Nub ia , Wendorf , F . ( ed.) F or t Gurgw in Research C enter a nd SMU P ress, Da l las:117-145. Wendorf , F . ( ed.) 1 965 . Contr ibut ions t o t he P reh istory o f Nub ia, Da l las, F or t Burgw in Research C enter a nd SMU P ress. Wendorf , F . ( ed.) 1 968a . The P reh istory o f Nub ia , 2 Vo ls. a nd A t las, Da l las, F ort Burgw in Research C enter a nd SMU P ress. Wendorf , F . 1 968b. I ntroduct ion i n The P reh istory o f Nub ia, Vo l . 1 , Da l las, F or t Burgw in Research C enter a nd SMU P ress:3-18 . Wendorf , F . 1 968c. L a te P a laeo l ith ic S i tes i n Egypt ian Nub ia , i n The P reh istory o f Nub ia , Vo l. 2 , S a l las, F or t Burgwin Research Center a nd SMU P ress:791-953 . Wendorf , F . 1 968d. S ummary o f Nub ian P reh is tory, i n The P reh istory o f Nub ia , Vo l. 2 , Da l las, F ort Burgw in R esearch C enter a nd SMU P ress, Da l las:1041-1058 . Wendorf , F ., L auny, R . F ., S ch i ld, R ., Vance H aynes, C ., Damon, P ., S ha t ique lah, M . a nd S carborough 1 975. D a tes f or t he M idd le S tone Age o f E ast A fr ica , S c ience 1 87 :740-742. 2 30

Wendorf , F . a nd S ch i ld, R . 1 976b. A cadem ic P ress.

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S ome

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2 31

I NDEX

Abu Anga , 2 0 A cheu l ian, 2 0,31 Adams, Y . M ., 1 ,48 Arke l l, A . J ., 2 ,19 ,20

S a id, R ., 2 0,31 S andford a nd Arke l l, S h iner, J ., 3 ,34,200 S inga , 2 1

B eaumont, P . B ., 4 0 B inford, L ., 1 97 B ir S ahara , 4 9 ,184 Bordes, F ., 8 2 ,196,199 Bu tzer, K . W ., 2 9 ,58

Wad i A fu , 2 0 Wad i Ha lfa, 1 ,16 W endorf , F ., 2 ,3 ,30 ,38 ,190 Wh i teman, A . J ., 5 0 W i l l iams, A . J ., 5 0 W ishart , D ., 1 37 ,140

Ca ton-Thompson, G ., 1 ,38 ,48 Chm ie lewsk i , W ., 1 5 ,24 C lark, J . D ., 3 8 C owg i l l, G . L ., 1 39 Dakh la, 4 9 Dandara , 4 1 d e H einze l in, J ., 2 1 ,29 ,31,50 D eir E l F akhur i , 2 01 Dongo la , 1 9,28 ,60 F a irbr idge, R .,

4 9

Gaut ier, A ., 5 1,52 Greenwood,P. H ., 5 2 Gu ichard, J ., 3 ,54 ,58 Ha j Cr iem, 1 67 Ha lfan, 4 6,126,167 ,186 Hodson, F . R ., 1 37 ,140 I bero-maurus ian, 4 6 I dfu, 2 01 I rw in, H . T ., 4 3 ,45 ,120 J ebe l Br in iko l,

9 8

Khormusan, 8 ,41 ,118,141 K le ind ienst, M . R ., 5 4 Lube l l, D .,

2 01

McBurney, C . B . M ., 2 1,38,82, 2 02 Marks, A . E ., 7 ,37 ,40,54,82 , 1 70 ,194 Me l lars, P ., 1 97 Mouster ian, 7 ,41,54 ,88,154

Y e l len, J .,

1 99

2 ,48