Kurdish Dialect Studies [Vol. 1]

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LONDON 0Jt1ENTAL SERIES· VOLUME 9

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES-1 BY

D. N. MAcKENZIE 'L,1;:.. ur i11 lrtz1:1.io11 �ts SMHI. of Orimtol @tl AJrko" Sn,dJ·.,

LONDON

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS NSW YORK TORONTO 1961

SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

London Orimtal St.rin

Volume 9

01(/ord � Prut, Allfffl Horue, � E.C.4 � KSW YOU � k� �IGTO!f 9CIIIMY

c.u.cvn-J.

M40IIM �I

Çf,Hf'OWH 1� �

l(UIJA WlaUll

AOCII.

0 D. N. Mtu&nxit rg6:r

PllllfftD "' oa•AT ••nAllf

TOMY

KURDISH FRIENDS

PREFACE THB study of Kurdish bas a longer hjstory than th.2t of most modern I ranian laoguages. Yet, although it early became clear that the dialects of Kurdi.sb differed considerably from ooc another, no attempt bas previously been made to classify them. These studies are accordingly intcndod to point both the feasibility and the nectSSity of some clwification. To this end, a descriptive sketch is given of the grammar of a series of dialects &om ccntnl Kurdistan, some of them treated for the first time here, and an attempt is then made to group the dialects systematically. My introduction to Kurdish, in 1951, I owe to Mr. C. J. Edmond, and it is a pleasure to record my gratitude to him. for hi$ help and • , encouragement at all times. The award ofa mostgenerous Student.,. ship, 1953-51 by the Com.ooittee for Studentships in Foreign Languages and Cultures of H.M. Treasury made it possible for me to visit Iraq and to tCMONOS, C. J. (l) 'SuautioM for the un of Latin character in the writ-

ina of Kurdith', JRAS., 1931 and 193,3. (ii) 'Prepoaitions and Persoo.tl Affutea in Southern KUNfuh', BSOAS, xvn. '490 FOSSUM, L. 0. Proe#cal Kurdid, f"Ommgo feuy'/ta (K""'"41fdh), Po,utiko, Moeff/l(}zi.ja. M01oow--Lcningrtd, 1957. - - t.Dd I. CvuRMAN. ' Kurdakie tdctty', I,ttm.kuJa#yki, 11. MO&COW, 1950. L I& COQ, A. 'ION. lutrdisuu Tat•. J)e.rlin, 1903.

Lnw, P. Forschwr,gm abn- du Kurd.at. St. Petenburr, 1857. LiscoT, R. (i) E-nq,,dlf ,aa, lu Y«id.is. Beirut, 1938. (ii) Tatu Jv,r,du, I. Cr. Soxot.QVA, V. S. (i) 'Novyjc ,,•edtnija po fonet:ikc innsm jazykov', I,'1nilr.i•Jo~ki. II. Moscow, 1950. (ii) 04'/u /Kl fon.ctike t'rt1111k{,: j~M)f), I . . . . kllrthlr.ij . •• ja#yk. Moscow, 1953, Ttm~ WczMI. Datt/bf klmcbti ku,dl. Baghdad, 1929. X4lidi, Yihlif ,{)iytr",td-d!n Pdfa. 1-Jodiyyotu. l~diyyd fi l-hly,oti 0

l..Jatrdiyyd. bcanbul, 1892,

..

I ..

:/··· ........

;-

•.

A

..

'

!

i

+

_,,..

,'

11, . .,...,, , ,

,,

.. _ ,

,

'' ,, ;

,,

''-,

\_,,

·,

''

•

+

• .,

i

•

'

t I

'

I'

INTRODUCTION

I

\

r

,

Bretn·s UH lalx,ro . •• THB survey of Kurdish dialects which follows is ~sod primarily on material githcrcd during a vis.it to Iraqi Kurdistan in 1954-5. Only in the case of the Sulcimani dialect has: it been possible to supplement this material where necessary with example& from printed sowoes. It was origin.ally intended to spend an equal period of time in the Kurdis,b,.,epeaking areas of Turkey and Iraq. In the event, permission not king forthcoming from the Turkish authorities, some ten months were spent in northern Iraq, between Halebje

and Zakho ~fap B). From the town& of Sulci.maniye and Akre as bases visits were made to the centres of as many dialect areas as could profitably be covered in the time available. Where possible the linguistic n otes made were supported by connected texts, either taken down directly from dict:ation or r ecorded on magnetized tape and then tnnac.rihcd. Inevitably these texts are of uncqulll Yalue, according both to the nature of

their authors and to the possibility of checking them. However, of the texts transcribed without the assistance of the authors thos.e from BtmJJiiri•:i6r are the only ones presented about which any serious doubt remains. Throughout the history of Kurdish dialect studies it has been notoriously difficult to find trustworthy informant', even in titu. Thus Chodzko's informant in Paris was an aristocrat better acquainted with Turkish and Fenian than with his mother tongue; Prym :lnd Socin were obliged to obtain most of thcir Kurdish tc.'\:ts from an Aramaic-speaking Christian and an itinerant Jewish st·ory•teller: Maka.s's Ml'.lrdini Kurd, who had travelled for years in Eastern Europe. wu telling ttories he had hc:ud tv.-cnty year& before; even in reoent years the authon of the Kurdoe,;.·-Cukennan cexts were refugees who h:d arrived in the Caucasus by stages Crom va.rious parts of Turkey. The same difficulty was encountered in Inq in certain cases. Thus the autt.or of the main 1Jingird1 text (Bin. 314-79), a man of about twenty.five years of age, had lived for about one year in

KURDI SH DIALECT STUDJ.C:S

PiJdar; the X6lnllu, speaker, some forty years old, had worked fora dozen years in cosmopolitanArbil; theSWlispeaker, well past hit fUtieth year, had lived for the past two years on the outskirts of Akre; dte forty..ycar-old Gu/JI informant had lived for about ten years in Zakho. A new fo.ctor disturbing dialectal purity is the spread of the 'official' Suleimani dialect throughout its home province and neighbouring Arbil. Thu• the Warmawa (War. 188->07), 8ingird (Bin. 299-313) a.nd Arbil speaker, had all either attended school or done their military service, and adopted certain Suleimani fonns as a resuJt. In the main, however, the pure dialect forms arc clearly discernible in all the texts. ~ the- majority of the dialect& treated here have not been recorded or describod hitherto, the material is presented in the form of :\ descriptive grammatical sketch. On the basis of this description the features distinguishing the different dialects are then &umrnarizcd. In the description the dialects are divided into two ad hoe groups purely for coM•enience. Not unn:iturally, however, this division will be found to coincide in general with the grouping into Northern and Central dialects adopted in the summ..1ry. In the two groups the two dialects best represented, viz,. Suleimani and Akre. are taken as the basis of the dC$Cl'iption, the other di:tlem bt:i.ng de$Cl'ibed only in so far as they differ from thCR. Where po&Sible the dialects have been quoted in the following, approximately geographical, order: Group I. Sulcimani Group II. (Sti.rll) warnrawo Akre Bi,sgitd Arnldiye

Piidar Mukri

Barr&hl-J6r Gv/ll

Arbil RewandtZ

Zakho (Shcikhan)

X61nliw Throughout, the words 'the . dialeet(s) alone', or the like, naturally imply •alone of those here studied'. Of previous descriptions of these and neighbouring dialects the following, which have appeared. within the last hundred yeara, alone merit attention. xviii

INTRODUCTION

For the Sulcimani dfaleet the first sketch LI th.at of Chodzko. It is inaccurate in a number of details, some of them hard to explain (e.g. J; reiti 'fox', f~r flwi), but suffers mos-t from the deficiencies of the rnformant. His frequent, but not cons-tant, pronunciation of , fo r I might be explained as an aristocratic peculiarity (cf. § 14), or as a non-Sulei.mani form, hardly as an older dialect form. Both the grammars of Soane give a highly subj ective deseription of the language. Many form, given are divorced from re:ility (e.g. the paradigms of intransitive •·crbs in the p.ist tenses, conjugated here as if transitive) and there would be little point in making rcference to these details merely to correct them. Even the vocabulary is suspect, in that a great deal of it bas been taken uncritically from dispana~ sourc,es. 1 Edmonds's description, unfortU.nttcly not yet in print, wa.s made available to me by the author as an invaluable introduction to the ,tudy of Kurdish. My description of Suleimani, although it may differ in the.manner of presentation, is essent.i1Uy the same as I.hat of Mr. Edmonds. Only where he intentionally cm, from the point o( view of di.alcct purity, in favour of normalization ha& jt been nc«ssary to note the divergence. The most recent description o f a single Kurdish dialect i& that

of Dr. McCarus. His Dtscriptive Alllllysit of the Kurdish of Sulai• maniyn is an interesting exercise in modern lingujttic deteription. It ii regrettable, therefore, that the writer soon pam company with fact and never fuUy regain, touch. t As an analysis of the dialect its value' i.s thus somewhat impaired. The grammars wriucn by Kurdish scholars arc ofanother,tamp, being primarily prescriptive in character. An early attempt is that of Sa'ui $idqi. Although his 1.nalysis is somewhat naive, and leans towards the Arabic grammatical system, the result ia an honest and useful d escription of the Suleimani dialect at 2 time shortly after its rue to the dignity of 1n official written language. T(lf;(Jflq Walrbrs fint grammar, published U\ the following year, is more scientific in character. The writer is, however, concerned to purge the language of its non-Kurdish clements and is acoordingly prone to theoriu.. For this reuon he must be followed with caution. The most recent work is that of Niiri 'All Amm. Although more 1 i

e.g. the abott-word pttn 'pia:', d. Bcovcol•te, DSL, XLY. 88. S« my dec11iled review in BSOAS, u u. 591. xix

KURDISH DIAL ECT ST UDJUS

ambitiout, and showing an acquaintance with English grnmmatical terminology, it could be described nnaalis mutandi1 in almost the aame terms as $idqi's earlier work.. A oom~ison of the two books gives • valuable idea of the neologisms which ha,•c been introduced into the dialect in the course of the last thirty yean of devcfopmcnt. Mann's grammatical sketch of the Muhi diAJcct is quoted throughout for the sake of oompa.rison with the neighbouring S6rm11 dialects. Any di$!1grecmcnt with Mann's description is specifically noted. Fossum'& grunmar of the ume di:alect, with its attachment to the writctn form, adds noth.i.ng to Mann's analysis. Of the BlJ.tlinl1n dialcas Jardine's short grammar gives a quite aceu.ra.tc balic des(ription. Cove.ring as it does, however, some hat(.fflcn dialects it is not :t suitable source for our purposes. Bcldar's grammar of the Zakho and ncighbouriog dia1eets is entertaining but useleu. Indeed, witl1out :a good knowledge of the dialect it L1 almost impossible to interpret the texts gil•cn ln 'trans• literation'. Rhea's sketch of the lfak6rt dialect is aocuratc but, although this is nowhere stated, it ~ra unmistakable &.igns of reprcttnting two or mote di.alects, presumably thos.e of the Gewer and Urmiye areas in the first place.1 There rcnuin the more derivative description• of Kurdigh in Justi's grammar and Socin'a sketch in the GnmdrijJ du I,o.n;,dum Phik>logi, . Both &eholara were M:verely limited by the i.nform:.tion at their disposal For the di:altct.s covered here only Chocfalco's material, diseussed above., was available. Apart from grammaticil descriptions there are two sets of texts which can be quoted. T he tc.,ts from Nehri, southern Hakari, published by M. Nikitine, being in the Persian script, give a good. idea of indigenous •phonemic theory'. At the sa.me time they suffer horn the limitations of the script and to some extent require interpretation. They can, therefore, only be quoted here in cases of certainty. It is hoped to publish other miteria.l from this source, with a fuJI commentary, at a later ds.te. 'fhc ' Kurdish Songs' of Dr. Mokri :arc mainJy important for the.information they provide concerning the lesser-known dia.lccq of southern, Persian, Kurclistan. Ncvenhcless, the (cw Sulcimani :ind Mukri songs gi...cn provide useful corroborative evidence. 1 c.,c, 'A)v.1111'/f or kci11!iil or

n. blood'.

lm/#1t, v. foll ', 'Miit or Mon {i.e. •.;,. : .nlw),

INTRODUCTION

M it Y.'U found impossible to vi.sit eastern Turkey no new material could be- obtained concerning the Kurdish dialect.9 of that area. While there is quite a large number of published Kurdish texts from the area- those of Dufresne (JI. As., 1910), Egiazarov (Tiflis, 1891), Hadank, J:aba, Kurdocv-Cukennan, Le Coq, Lerch, Lesoot, Maku, Prym~n, &c.-they are ex tremely unequal in a number of particulars a..nd, above all, lack ulliformity. To have included a description of them, with the .necessary apparatus criticu.s, would have enlarged this survey djgproportionatcty. Fonunately valuable evidence r elating to these dialects has recently come to light. The m:atcrial collected by Oskar Mann iii. the course of his 1906-7 j ourney from Aleppo to Mosul, via Urfa, Si.verck, D iyarbeltir, Bitlis, Jezire, and Dohuk, has mostly survived the upheavals of the Secon d World War and is now divided between the Ak;idemie der Wisseoscha.fte.n und dcr Literatut, Mainz, and the Institut fiir Oricnt!orschung of the Deutsche Akadern.ie dcr Wissensehaften zu Berlin. This material provides a viluable unifying link benvcen these Kurdish texts from Turkey and, moreover, rcoords the dialects as they were before the di&placement of Kurdish tribes which followed the F-irst World War. 4

The publication of Mann's material will provide the opportunity to rca'SSe$$ the texts mentioned above. Apart from the dialt1.;t teJCts quoted there have recently appeared two indigenous grammars of nonhern Kurd_ish, those of Dedir-Xan and Kurdoev. Both are normalized and as such do not provide an ideal source of information for a dialect s.tudy. However, they arc cited parenthetically in tho description of the Badina-ni dialects when they give features common to the Kurdish dfa.1ects of Turkey and the Caucasus, but contrasting with B11di116nl. The studies of Cukcrman, Miller, and Sokolova are highly specialized and largely deal with dialects beyond the scope of this survey. The same can b,e ,aid of Barr'adcscriptionof Andrcas's $0Uthern Kurdish texts. These latter have been expressly excluded from th.is survey because of the lack of sufficient new evidence. This is now provided, however, by Mann'• manuscript material and will also be the subject of later work.

•

PART I

PHONOLOGY A. DIALECTS OF GROUP I SUL&IMANIYE DIALECT (Kd. Suaym4,,l)

Phonemic System § 1. The Sul. dialect has the following phontm.ic $ystem of twenty-nine consonants (including two semi-vowe.li, and with one important additional allophone)' and nine vowels:1

lcl

.li

It g

q

Srop and

p

Aft'ricatb

b

d

Fricative

I

Nasal

m

•'

La1Cnl Vibrant

Semi-vowel

l

'

•

..

~-

,l

!j aJ ~., ~ •JJ

l

•

' (•)' Front

J l l

I

;

~

•y

r

i

b

a~ Kn the vehidc of Kd. i)), e.g. ll bikam

['6 •ykt,y ['½, e,jk'gl (ii) Following a fin.a! consonant, the conjunction a 'and', the Izafe i (v. § 183), and the prepositions barattJ, la, :tn in.iti:tl vowel is generally not preceded by (?). The appearance of the glottal stop in the&e contexts indicates 'careful' or 'emphatiC" &poccb. The gloual stop does not occur intcmxalically, even at a morpheme juncture, thus: al1dt [?arht;t1, but naaltdJ ['naa 1ha:t')1

(b) The glottal stop is thus not a distingui$.hing feature of any utterance and cannot be considered as. a consonant phoneme of

Kurdish. It docs ooc:ur, however, in a few u.na.ssimilated lt>a.ll• words from Arabic, and is then written 3$ •, e.g. tu'al 'quet.tion', beside swii.l 'begging'

Semt ..,.,owels § 34. r.o is a bilabial (back) frictionless continuant [w]. ,Vhcn it is followed by a front ,·owcl there is a slight fronting of the tongue,

giving [w

> q).

§ 35. ·(a) y is a ptlatal (front) frictionl~s continuant [.J1.

(b) Between vowel.a the rtalization of y is sometimes almost imperceptible, e.g. -Oya- [-1,:J~), particularly in the contexts r, I,

o-y-a, ,;, e.g. kursfyak [k'u,~i,p:') diyak ['de,ak1 g,yak ['S(Yak'J

d!y011 [•di,1,n) (•. § 6o) lfynn [•Jq ,n)

f•ydn iznants ii& generally not realiud, provided that no impermissible consonant group it thereby cau....i (•. § 56). Thus, compare lnkam ('bik'am] lnrdin [bi,' dikd g•+ -akd > g,yakd doni+ ~aw > donlwa ko+•i2U'4 > koyawa

woni,.

In both meulcal ~d ayllabi,c \'CBC the i 1yJ!ablc seema more often to be counted prqcnt dlan abten.L For O:UDJ)le: 0

-v -- l -v--1- ..,- - 1-v -.

14 Wot M.il1·111 ~ dbi dtmml J>i'·tili111, Uti Jral fllilli. sik4ldy lf4tikl Zfl"" t1 r,,tftM; d6~1nm, lidtl Ao btt'1 ~dinow• eedqf ww1i»l Wm olh,;,t.l 6ct f6'rl tt6yttll It.it dtrr bifbn. Bauli.

OttbylJabio, Lo Ur mbo,4 ""'"" ,111116qiy,1/at pa!Jfrl twt1r M.tlbf Aon

Hll 6r'J 10, sio p l abil4too .rim.firl /irii,, iilftlfJ, rH»ttl ~

,.

)

PHONOLOGY ff ◄,4-9 Corresponding to -(,}wi- [qt:] the realization [ett] is normally heard in Sul., e.g.

n(i)r,H [oqc:3]

> na!i [n~3J

cl, Jin;,, [d3incy) > 'fitein > f•n [d319'n) The converse is not, however, true. Thu, g.. (J~z) nowhere •ppearS as (Jqe,z] •g(i)wu

o hu, therefore, an identity distinct from ffJI. § 45. (J has two allophones. NonnaUy j t ia an open, fron t-oentral 1,--owel [a]. In coniact with l or y it is a halJ-open, front vowel [c],

more close preceding 1 and more open following I, y, e~g.

yak (j1k'J

gai11

[&t•i:nJ

§ 46. {a) IJ. is an open, front-central vowel (!:], slightly more open and bade than the corre:s-ponding short a. Pre-ceding t, y, jt js even more open and back. In fi.nal, unstressed position, as [a], it may be confu$Cd with a.

(b) ii baa the effect of appreciably deQpirn.ting a pre niiya,n (ln3:jun] .ad4l ['nan:'c·J > n(ad)ay> ['n@:jrj (b) The distinction between [wa] -wa-, [u:a] -aa-, .uu,a., lnd {9:] ❖ is frequently losti even in stre&SCd position. They are generally perceived as -6-, e.g. ordaaM (>:rdwalk'a] > 6rdllk4 (>:tdQ: 'k'a] Mtuwata, . . (li;:,t'u:ata] > hiitdta .. . (ha: 1t'Q:ta] 1

Note the pluwe, Nit okay (1ra:u k'ti] 'You are right',

,a

I;

PHONOLOGY

Note, M. 1,wwa/fdq Conversely, x6yi!n ('xQ:j1:nJ

> m6/dq.

> xway,ln [1xwtj1:n]

Note, l:>ttll- watlii 'master craftsman'.

§ 60. When a CI05C vowel is foUowed by a related scmj-vowel any distinction of length is Jost in the realization. Thus -,:,...., -ry-, HY.Y·) are realized•• [i:J, e.g.

biyimfira ['bi:1:9g11ra] drylm ['di:a:n] piniy (p'i,'si:J lumlyok [k'uc~i:lk'J At. niyyal > niyat (nial) (ru: 'tt'] biygira ['bi:gm]

(lyt [tJi:t]

Similarly [u:] may represent, beside a, the groups -uro- and (-umw-), e.g.

RQw-

bi,,;,1 > ' buwiri ['bu:e:n;•J (v. § SS (b)) buwim ['bu:"m] lOwiJ- ['t/u:i:t] At. quwwol > qiiwal (go,,t) [qu:'"1 \VARMA.WA DIALEOT

Phonemic System § 61. The War, diaJect has the same phonemic system :u the Sul. dialcet (u. § t). The rtalizations of a number of phonemes are, however, different. For comparison, therefore, following each paragraph number that of the corresponding paragraph of the Sul. &e«ion is given in p2renthescs.

b,d,g

Consonants

§ 62 (§ 3). In pootvoc,lic ])0$ition b coincides with u(o. § 67), e.g.

'Jwab [d3Wl!:u], • g,,brui!n [qll/,"i:n], •aybam [tjwam] •aybinim (liqi:rum], "4frllzy4b [!:f11:si!l:)'l •tayb4t (t'tjw1:t'J < Ar. /abra1, •quball[qu:li:J

,.

§ 63 (§ 8). d bu the same realizations in mcdw and fuw po) oydam [lii•mJ, bim&,i [bimia,e·J but [mtj~!:n] mayyan

§ 64 (§ 23). g. ID intervocalic potitlon and following n, r, y, 11, the phoneme g appcara ts a voiced, frictionless continuant. The blade of the tongue appmches, but docs not touch, the velum in the position of [g], producing IPA [w] with the lips in ncutro.l position. This will be written [l). Following a vowel in a cl06ed syllabic the same sound form, a. series of diphthongs (a~, &c., analogous to c1... (iii)(§ 50), e.g. •agir [!:i!jt], •dig,,1 [dip:n], •1ag [.,Jl 'aJgirim [tj~im], •bag,4da [bajz!:i"] •asingar (;:sin~], 'dargd [datp:) •,,.;,-g (mrtfl, •ni,gara (ni>j!an) In the sa.mc contexts g occasionally disappears, c.g.•tagal [laj!al] > Iii p~:IJ, a(g)ina [tjnn] IIIU(c)awt [m~t') § 65. These devclopmcnta do not in themselves alter the phonemic system, i.e. from the phonemic writi.ng 6, d, g, the medial, oontinu.ant realizations [w, i, ~ would 5till be predictable. The case is altered, however, by the irregular occurrence of loanwords, be it from spoken Arabie or the dominant Sul. dialect1 with intervocalic voiced p1osives. The reaultiog confusion is well exemplified in the following sentences:

(•q~: b"i"li b9: bidam. •abl hadali b6 6idam.

qabu:lim ni:t) gabtllim nta

In

oertain verbal steins, moreover, the intervocalic continuant occurring in certain forms has been introduced into initia.l position,

e.g. .-11111 (Sul. ba,tl) after aywlUI (Sul. aybtalucd allophones of k, g (v. § 83), there being no confusion between the two types. The p«uliarity is marked, a.s a. mnemonic, by 'writing the phonemes (, J.

Velar § 83 (§ •s), k, g are strongly palat>lized by a following front vowel or the semi-vowel y. With some speaker'$ this L$ carried to the extent of realizing, not (c, J], but the affricates (tJ, d3]. There is, however, no confusion with the phonemes l,J(fJ. § 82). Vowels

§ 84 (§ 43). i is normally a half~dose, front vowel (~:], as in the War. dialect(o. §70). In final position following r, y it is rc:tliud as a aborter and more open [v,], i.e. approaching a, e.g. nt:aric [&w@:C~f•]

§ 85 (§ 44), • is commonly the ming diphthong [v~J. With some speak.en it is so close [qe) as to au.ggegt an analyais u wi.

I 1

Diphthongs § 86. The diphthongs of cl&SS (iii), ending in [•], do not ooc:ur

(o.

~

so, s3). Modifications

§ 87. There appears to be some neutralization of the opp05.ition 42.)' : i in final position (the former bting pcreeived as: the latter), despit·c the morphological oonfusion which Jll2Y result (cf. Mu.k. § 7 (b) 1), e.g. aw bare< •bara-,,

.,

H 84'""91

KURDISH OJAL8CT STUD I BS

§ 88. With certain Pa. ,peaker> the ., of elm (ii) diphthong, is aufficiently comonantal in charicter to form an unpronounceable group with a follo..ving oonsonant group or fin.a) consonant. Accordingly an unstressed., non-phonemic [i] ia realized after the semi-vowel (o. § 56 (c)), e.g. kawt-ha ( 1k'aw't'bu:] Consonant groups § 89 (§ 57). (•) The g,-oup, nd and st ate normally preserved in all p06itions. (b) There is a tendency to fonn inter- and postvocaJjc groups of 'voiced plosive preceded by a homorganic nasal' to rt-place eithtr single consonant, espoc:ially in loanwords, e.g. bandan < Ar. hadan 'body' m&l.l)lborak < Ar. ntubarak 'blcsacd' ~ambd/ < Ar. (,am,"41 'porttr' fimb < Ar. rimJJ, 'Janee' m.aanda < Ar. ma.;,a,mat 'conjocturc' dond.im < Tk. d6niint "acre'' Treatment of loanwords § 90 (§ 77), In addition to the changes deocribed in § S

'ii}l [,alr 'Haji Ali' (not

S0R ¢l DIALECT

Phonemic System § 102. The Sur. dialect has the same phonemic system as the Arb. dialect (c. § 96) but the realizations of certain phonemes arc appreciably different.

Consonants § 103. k, g arc palatalized by a following front "'owcl or y, being tealiua'va) and i < i (o. § •83 (•)) in d4 lit (do: •tji:t'] : d4 lita . • . [,da:/t'a '· ..] (c) As the number of consonant groups toler:atcd in initial position in Ak. is limited (v. § 153 (a)) the syncopation of i ln initial unstressed syllables i.s much lcs., common than in Sul. (cf. § .µ), though it does occur, e.g. bi,a [b,a:J 'brothu', but [•b~a:) 'O brotherr The general intolerance of consonant groups often leads to the realization o( a shon, unstressed i-Jike vowel, not here oonsidercd •• phonemic (o. § 153 (c)). § 143. l i.s t medium, front ,.-owel [~:], except in the diphthong ly, where it ,pproache< a hill-close, front [e:J. § 144. a is normtlly • half-open, front--centn.l vowel [a]. In the d;phthong ay ;, ,ppro,ch« a h>lf-op bu~ > l>-xu:], written bu Jl:/0, ~nd 10 coincidence with

p,w.

3♦

PHONOLOGY

§ 149.

ff

1 ~5 1

is ii close, front vowel with lip-rou.nding [y:]. Some speakers (it ia said, the natives of one only of the three Kd.. quarters of Ai.re, and certainty the noo-Kurdiab, Christian. population) rcpl.aoe this '10wel rcgu]arly by [i:], thus ma> ml. As a result of this, aoccasionallyreplaoetetymological iinoommon Q

A.k., e.g.

'Od < Ar. 'td

langa]ba

< •b; 'weeping willow'

Diphthongs § 150. There are two classes of diphthongs in the Ak.. dialect, namely thos.c ending in: (i) a close, front vowel, [~, ~. ~. \!.J, d], (ii) • C10$C, back vowel, [~, '9)· They are phonemically identical with the corresponding Sul, diphthongs of the same classes (v. §½ 50-52) and for the same reuons may be written iy, ay, ay, 6y, dy, and m, aw.

Distribution of Phonemes

Consonants § 151. The recorded Kd. vocabulary of lhc Al k't;J

§ 154. The occurrence of heavy secondary consonant groups is quite common, owing to the frequency of the prtpositions l,p, l, v

and the mod>! affix I• (o. §§ 3or, 28r (•)). Groups of three consonants art commonly rtaliud with no intervening Yowel, thus CCC, e.g.

Jayr p xurtJ [ajtp•xurt';,J /,;f;m p pinf [k';rimp•p'~:nd3) sab tkaU ['6a!ltk'at'~:) A short, unstrtSSed ,Towel [ij may, however, be realized, either befo,. the 6111I con,onant of the group, thus (C)CC,C, e.g. 1 az dim [as t l/~:m] sab I agiri [&all J•?a:gu;:J kaft I x4ni [k'aft l''xa:ni:J

or, Jess commonly, before the penultimate consonant, thus ( C)C,CC, e.g. dat p ruin [dat'fbno:n]

sob tkati ["'1111k'at'~:] hal stl/ ('hal•st'a:) Owing to this variation CCC: CCtC: C-CC the vowel cannot be regarded as phonemic.

,.

I

PHONOLOGY

l.Argcr &eeondary groups may be oocas.ioned by the non.. realization of unstressed, but phonemic, i(1'1, § 142), The pattern of realization is then C"Cl?CC, i.e. by groups of two COl\$0nants

from the last, a non-phonemic (i) being realized where nCCCSW"y, e.g. yi 1-Ji}ai-it w~:tfik' 1ti:t') but U t-fikin't.J ['t'~: t'·1fk'fr1t'e:J gal,ili t-girit fga'4kt' 1g,ri:t'J SHEIKBAN AND DOBUK DIALECTS (Kd.

Sw.,

D,MJ,)

§ 155. The Sim. and Dhk. dialects have a phonemic system identical with that of Akrc(ti. § 1o8). The only phonetic difference is in the realization of 61 a as the simple vowels [o:, u:J, rather than [u:, y:], rcspectlvcly, AMADIYE AND ZAKHO DIALECTS (Kd. Amldl(,I), Zdx4; A, • • Amodb')

Phonemic System § 156. The dialects of Amadiye and 2akho1 together with those of the intermediate B.fU'fJXiri-ib, Sindi, and GuJJi areu, have the following phonemic sy&tcm of thirty•tb.rtc oonsonants (including two scmi•vowelt) and eight oonsonints:

p

I

p

t

h

d

I

,

I

~

:r

#

m

"I

.. '

l

Ii

f

k g

J I

;

• 1

,;

,

q h

(')

,, •

i

0

s

I a 4 The ,y,tem differs from that of Ak. (•- ! 1o8) in having two series of voicclm plosivcs, namely J,, I, Ji aspirated and P, t, A una.apirated.

,.

ff1sH

KURDJSH DIALECT STUDIES

Consonants

§ 157. The aspinted voiceless plosh'es P, I, Rcorrespond phonetically in every particutar to the Ak. phonemes p, t, k (p', t\ k']. The Am., Zx. series p, t, h m unaipiratcd in. all contexts. The tignificant factor in the oppos.itions [p' : p, t' : t, k' : k) being the aspiration it is convenient to mark this posjtively in the phonemic notation fi, I, Ji. Examples: J,Sa •mos'.qu.ito' pl'foot' po.b6'n 'to cook' pobm'heel' lax/. 'bench' taf!ti 'felt rug' liar 'donkey' /«tr 'piece' ~JI. 'fur coat' /auk 'broody (hen)' Vowels

i 158. Q [y:J;, confut diltf (d;:Qg) Consonant Groups

§ 159. (o) In Am. seconda.ry consonant groups arc rcaHzcd as in Ak. (v. j J54)1 i.e. either without an intrusive vowel, as CCC, e-.g. li tkan ! hirii [tf~:tkinJ'ltiri:,:J or as CC--C, e.g. faHd I h iy, kay,d4y, x6y,nay d/., dd-+•·• > attD, dliw pl, go, mamo, gi, go, ga+•-i > ply, t•Y, mamay, gay, goy, gay The ,peeial =es of •i/1+•-1 > -i/ly > -i, -•+ •·• > -OtD > •a. are described in § 6o.

( b) I non:oatly retllins its identity, sometimes ooalcscing with prooeding I, a, e.g. ... ••· + ' -i(t) > i(t), """(•) War. gaya-+ •-i(t) > gayi(t) Bin, ii,

gita+ •--1 > fll, qisl

Unstressed -l may appear u -ya following any other vowel (cl. § S9 (a)), e.g. bida, nada+'·l > Bin. bldaya, Sul. n(ad)dya kurli, di,g11, ietira, k.ibr4,J6, xana+•-tk > kurJ,,ak, 1 dJya/t, 1 g,yak,' iwar6yak, k,lb,dyak, ftyak, xandyak

(c) a is generally linked to a preceding vowd, other than r, a, by the semi-vowel y, e.g. di, gr,, iwiira, k4hrl1, /6+•...a > diya, goya, iwiiraya,

k/lbr&ya, ftya Bin. di, sa, iiyii, taqo+•-aka larpyaka I

> dlyaka,

5"§3-5(6),

.,

,ayaka, iiyayaka,

ff 171~ KURDISH DIALBCT STUDIES Alternatively, unstressed -a may be elided following I, a, II, 6, but not normally •• in internal combination, e.g.

dl, - · · kab,-a, /6, (g•)+' -akd > dtM, i d1mlwa, iwiir4toa, istdwa, niwai&.oa, (k~) The vowel a follows f, a directly, but the resulting group may be reduced in uns.tteued position, la, a.a > i, 6 respectively (•. § 59), e.g. lauti, 6rda+ • ·aka > kuniakd, 6rdD4k4 > kim!M, 6rd6kd (d) 4 is joined to prcocding i, •• O, 6 by the semi-vowel y, e.g. dl,g#, lirii, hal6+•-an > d.iyan/ g11yiin-,' lt.'r4J'iin, lt.a/6yi1n It coalesces with preceding a, e.g. iwora+• -an > iwiirdn

It follows immediately on i, a, e.g. kur:ti, xana+•-an > kuuidn, ,r.anaan (•) Summary.

,.

-1

·•,,

...

·•

ly>I il,y; 1)-a ,. (> l)

...,

•·ly .,.•· II,; iya

.,..

iy(l, I

'>"'

lyl

,yl

•·

•·

4y 41

"Y I

a:,-a IZ)'(I,

•

a

(>-

4y

4ya

.,..

iya, 4

4ya,6

...

'>'•

6)-6

•·

iiy

Ql,fbl

Qya

•• (> 6) ul W>ii

SECONDARY CONTACT OF CONSONANTS

§ 172. (o) In all Kd. falec1$ final conSQrunl$ are particularly unstible, There it a strong tendency for a fin2l voiced plosive, affricate or lricitive to be devoiced in pause or in secondary contact with a voiceless co0$0na.nt, e.g.

..

• s.. f u< •>·

..

I

l

PHONOLOGY ! ,,. Sul. la bar mrd, [lt'irt] gu,j {µvn.im [gurtj b . ..] sari barz i,ird [bank' . . .] ,ad J>"III [e>t p' . . .] waka sag 1ar (eak. s:u) Ak. az ..dum [?as x ..•] ,:6 hii/ind. (hi3a:nt) 1$ 6tuv Q4lruni Ut'ufh .. . ] oTMtuv. [w,t'uf]

In one borderline ~ that of Ak., &c., -av (•. i 300 (a)), so written in the light of the general form -(a)oa,;,: voiced consonant ia also rtguhrly devoiced in contact with a fotlowiQg nasal or lateral, c~g. Ak, bidav min [blcbf min] l6v 14/i [tju:f I •• .]

(b) To a lesser extent a final voice.le$$ plosive or fricati"c may be voiced in contact with a voiced consonant or vowel, e.g. Sul. palayak •hi [p1:,/1:jtg a•b.:J omayoy hliJ ba (h9:3 •bu:] agar lit nit [fc:d 'ru:t] Bin. awild~(awi:3dc:] ba$maliklii[bazm ...] bi-1,oyf nun [be:k'tjv ni:m] Ak. dast dd [du da:] omma p rcf[amma: bwi:]• Am. 1ru i, [8'" 3• 3e: I (c) In secondary oontact occasioned by the lo&s of an unstressed i (v. §§ 421 142) a voiced consonant is generally assimilated to a voiceless COll$0nant, whether it precedes or follows, e.g. Sul., &c. ""1ibl [ka:s•p'i:J (cf. a,pilb < Ar. osMb) \Var. toaki < •t6ziki Ak., &c. li bii,oyn [~jipk'ajn]

l>iutov ,:6 [be:/t'afxu:J

There are, however, exceptiong, e.g . Su.I. fiiw a f4wlgiir < •ttfw..a-Jikiir (d) T here are certain, very rare, examples of the asaimilation of a consonant to another with which it it oot in dfrtct contact, e.g.

Sul. Bin.

< :sik < •it yabar < xahar

sii,

Bin., Muk. lwtl < guti

1 Thia example i1 ex«-ptioinaJ. The Ale,, &c., ptt;f)Oli1t0fll p, t ind the modal prdix. t• (v, ff 301, a.81 (o)) uc IO normalized, rather than 6, d, 4•, bec11~ol the «gular appurancc of tho voiee.ldt comorwu in (l()l'IIU:t.t whcN: 1 TOiad coraoioaot would OOn'D&lly be prcterwd, e.s:, Ak. p Ju [p'' )HJ - t:/IJm.lJ1# [a,t'ln l'fi:tim) t 4iU 11444 (t'l dil] nl CftiC!fftnt (uunilvi:sim} tllli tbim {t'c:lni:1bim) 0

.....,

••

•

PART II

SULEIMANIYE, WARMAWA, BING IRD, PIZDAR, MUKRI, ARBIL, REWANDIZ, AND XO SNA W DIALECTS A. MORPHOLOGY

NOUNS

Definition and Number

§ 173. (o) In Sul., War. the simple DOl.lll, formally singular, may have • generic or indefinite plural sense, e.g. 1 fUy )Qfaa Bx a kf:w: he set out for the mountain, JO kuP . . . fMJtin : the lads went +8 sari biruidam: men's: heads War. 118 lagal tafiqim: with my friends

Sul.

( b) In the Sor. dialccta and Mu.le. the same is true of a formally singular nouo, be it in the di.rcet or oblique case (o. § 18o)1 e.g. Bin, 3u talay4n: b6 dinut dak4t: he makes tnpa for them Pi!. dasdtlin bil6n: wash your hands Muk. 83n iex nirdyiin: the sheikhs sent .. . § a lcri dabl bihfmn: you must kill lion, More frequently, bQ\VC\'er, the morpheme •dn is present to indic:ite indefinite plurality (o. § 177 (a)). § 174. (• ) In Sul., War., all Sor., and Muiilak: a thicket The ruf!ix may coole,oe with a pr«eding r, giving -ik (o. § 59 (o)),

e.g. Arb. 4'7 grumak > gTdnck: a famine (c) A noun qualified by an indcfin.i.te or interrogative adjective (v. § 191) commonly takes the suffix -i(k). .ak and may, nevertheless, luvc a plunl SCNay gaJ: which bright star but, lili w3: ma: there ia no such thing

Sul. -

yaluklka }

Arb. 426 yakaki dib another one Sul. War. -

z6r

f/Jr)

.

ft

fira fir many tunes, o en

b ut, Sul.

P p6rayz6r,kalk18a:whatisthcuscofmuchmoncy?

DemonstratJve a djectives

§ 192. (a) Sul., War. have two jn.ftc:xible demonttntive adjectives., am 'this', ow 'that'. A noun, singular or plural, qu-ali.ficd by either or th= i• nornully followed by the defining •u.ffi.x -4 (§ 175). All Sor. and Muk. hu·e only one demonstrative adjective am 'this, thar'. The !onn arn 'this' appc:an in Bin. as a loan from

Sul., e.g.

Bin. 299 /am iJ4nay: from these works

••

§ 192,

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

(b) 1n Bin., Pi!. the general demonstrative adjective aw, qwlifying an oblique plunl noun, may also take the ending -4n, in which case the noun does not take the tuf6x -d, e.g .

Pi!. 3991 Muk. 41 law qisiM: from these words (qria) but, Bin. 378 /awin qi.sirul4: in these words 330 bO awln n;,4rlo: for those horsemen In Pit, Muk. the gencnl demonstrative adjective aw, when qualifying a feminine singulu oblique noun, may take an oblique ending -i, 1 in which case the noun also takes the oblique ending -i (§ 18o (b)) and not the suffix -d, e.g. Bin. 346 'algtaw /,i(ay: in love with that girl but, Pit. awe Mic way /urd': that girl did thu> la b6 aw la bt) awe md/! went to that house Muk. 991* bawl birinC: from this wound passim, awe/awe: (on) Wt night In Arb., Rdz., Xol a noun qutlified by DnJ, (i) takes the tu.ffix -4 only when it is 'proximate', i.e. indicates something physically near or which hu already been referred to in narrati.,-c, e.g.

malay)

aw kvl'a: this boy Rcb.. 475 ,1 birlf lagarim haya, aw sl birlydna: the.rt are three brothers with me, these th.rec brothers ...

Arb. -

(ii) takes the suffix --ilzll when it indicatet something phygie3Uy remote, e.g. Arb. - aw kldche: that boy yonder (ill) takes no suffix when it rcJcrs to something absent, e.g.

Arb. -

aw kuf: that boy .f3S aw bir6)'4nimin: those brothets of mine

1 'flle re:tu!tUlr 11d ii iiot, thettfott, with M•M.. Muk. § 18. the cmcral obliq1,1e ~ fMtl o ( tM-UCCclN but• ~ Y Feminine: oblique.

• er. f 18o Cc> (ii).

• Cf, Sur. (MIAIJ a71, thttealo~aM.lpablcu •as,;,a+-1+¥

'°

I

'

j

~

f

lI I

SULEIMANIYE, ETC., DIALECTS

Numerals

Gardlnal

p93

• •3

..

,

Sw,, W1t.

dff, diiln, dt#lfn II, ,ydn

faf

•. .. s

..••.,

b,twt (ii. § 31)

ho/I

da ya,;1ta (§ 2+ (6))

.,..... •••s ,.,.,,, ,,••,s -• in the past ten.teS (~.§us), (iv) governed by• p reposition (v. ~ 237), (v) with dative ,en,. (o. §§ 2'8 (a), •••(•}, 239 (b)}.

Examples: (i) Genitive rel.ltion, Sul. P la bari.atca dd niltuwin : they arc seated in front of him 1 f/Xlfd.xt Mr tJhl: he has no offspring (lit. 1his hearth is blind') 9 mo arJRayb : that g:1-ulle of them 69 la fyJ.tl d4yktll.n: instead of your mother Pi-!. 393 kayfi xiiwa: it is your own plcuure Muk. 103 21 1abrO bibl: lei patience be youn (ii) Direct Object,

Sul.

to !Jay/a bi.ykulin: it is a pity, that w e should kill it mlti . •. biygiri: he v.-anted to catch-it zo haz ak/1 ka biihlnl: he would like to see thee Pi!. 402 datbam: I shall take thee 10

(iu) Agent, Sul. 2

dasti birda ba.:catt, siwilri dar hinii, dliya das pild: he put his hand into his bosom, took out an apple, put it in the king>s hand Pi!. 38o m5lin bar kirdin: we Joa_ded up (our) homes

{iv) Governed by a preposition, Sul. 17 boy bina: bring ... for him Bin. 351 lit. mumbdrak hi: may it be fortunate for thoc Muk. 1 16 a-Ol'it ldka dagal dakam: I ahall do much good fo r thee 63u nanhlnitcan : let there not be bct\J.·ocn us t67l 1 lin: against ua 77

ff 191-8

KURDISH OJALEC'J' STUDIES

(v) Dati>·e, Sul. E

ampiirayat.MnliT)k.tn#.uwa: how has this money faJJen into thy iw,ds I p wl.nay @u; pi kawt 1 : he ca.ught sight of the picture p ma/dyln p11fin add: he points the mullah out to them 10 hal.iin:um.\imnln abl(cl. ro hata bomin mrnnkin bi.bl): as far as it may be possible for us !Jaqi fili a/um;i: the price of the clothes is due IO I (faJJs) to him § 198. The pe110nal pronoun suffixes arc affixed directly to • noun to which they stand in genitive relation (v. § 200). This is also true when the noun fonna part of a compound preposition (•. § a38). When fulfill.ing any of the other functions liated in § 197 (b) above, a pronominal auffix is affixed to whichever word of the followi~g cuegories appean earliest in the claUiC:1 (i) an independent noun, pronoun or adjective which is either («) the Direct Object, or Aflectee (§ ia3), or its oomploment, of a tnn.sitive verb, or. in certain circumstances, is (/1) the Subject., or ita complement, of an intmisith,e verb; (ii) a noun or pronoun governed by a prcpotition, i.e. the I ndirect Object, or Affcctee, of a tran&itivc verb; (iii) an •boolute prepooition,J form(•· § a37); (iv) the verb, with the limitation that thi.s c:an support only one such pronominal suffix. It is then suffixed to the first of whichever of the following possible components of a verbal fonn 1$ present: («) a pre,·erb (v. § 235) or other word forming a compound verb (v. § 23♦), (ff) a negative or modal affix (o. § ao6), (y) the verbal stem or participle, or an auxiliary (v. § 227). 1 Tiir. . kn 'how?' War. {an, Sul. lan/v, ~t. & Muk. land •how much, many?' /,;' (Muk. § 43 lll(M)) 'who I' Sul., War. koy, PiI., Mult. kongl, Arb. kongr 'when I' Mm(•) 'wruch I' 1

•

J

Often ~uted to Ml, 161, and cwn M, l4 'why 1' ~ form {tl tppct,n in an itola.ttd p ~ with 1tbbt, e.g. Sul. J JI to •4lt111 ! how should WC know l MWC. t 43 ioxlnlm: howabowd I knowr Once in Bin, Ill appun .. • rdtb'vo pronowi -.vith an antecedent (cl.§ a43), Bin. 3SS ohi kU II JaJbl .. . : thou whom the-y call •• ,

s,

ff 203-4 Examples:

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

Bin. 3:1 368 Muk, 4.s 14i.s Sul.

P

m.oa ha 6 tfbi: what did you go for?

aJa daliy 0: wb:it dost thou say? ~i d4kay: what an thou doing? •tiya (&): what is it? llm4 ba &l)a: how much is this? U Qf«I: who (is) that (at the door)? j,gl

-l(un), -In

.;n

I

Bin•• Pil., Muk.

..i,nh>

-ins) is part of the mbal fonn (•- § u7). 1 In Bin., Pil., Mu.k. f 71, tbe p H-t ,tcin oldie 1'Ub 6D.ti it red\lud to hi- in tbo Pluperfect t.eote, tbut b/bu.w, &e. 1 Not. with Mann, Muk. f 71, m t!tu0ative prete:nt •teffl 64. dit«dy a>m• pa.~Wo with NP. 1>41•. Mu.k. 116"' Mm 'wowd I had ~m•, Rdz. 487 ~ ' htd11 thou not bttn', &e., IN rcdt1oed form. of tbo Pe:d«c CooditiOC'lal •b44m, &c., duo praum1bly to con.l'taioo ol th,e •ta'O bl- (d. previous fn.) with tho Wcntlcal mod1l ptt6x.

..

,

l

SULEJMAN IYB, 8T C., DIALECTS

ff 2 J6-7

Thus:

Sor., Mui:. (bl)hat(,)bilm («)Mt(i}baly (M)hd1(1)bi Pl. I (M}h4l(i)bayn •• 3 («)Mt(i)ban (b} The suffix -~ya (o. § ,,. (b)) may be added to this form giving a Perfect ConWtional 1.1 tense, thus: Sg. I (bl)hiit(i)bilmaya, &10) 1,/,,.kau,.a, &c.

Past(§ >n) MfOt•im, &c. Imperfect(§••• (a)) a-Mwt•im, &c.

Past Conditional(§.,, (b)) b/,.kawt•im,.iiya, &c.

Put Participle (§ >13) kaa,t.d Perfect Indicative(§ z14) kawttnJ>-im, &e. Pluperfect (§ 2l 5) kaa,t(l)bam, &c.

Perfect Subjunctive(§ ., 5) kaa,t(i)lmn, &c.

•••

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

Perfect C.,nditional I(§ 216 (a)) (b/Y •llI.1 War. -yasi, Arb. -lti, then commonly replaoe -fa, -ya in this context, whether the latter actually contains a 3rd Sg. ~.rsonal pronoun suffix or not, and e\·cn when no ambiguity could arise. e.g. 13 .wnUfO)"lti1 < ••y-a: she has studied 16 ti dardiltttI < •-t--a: what pain he has War. 210 XOloyasi < •-y-a: it is hi& uncle zz.4 ku1tif1w1 < •-y-a: he hu killed him Muk. MS. g.st~t1awa1 < •-y-at-owa: he bas moved (house) Arb. - m,a pilr.tl < •-t-a: that is his back Sul.

and. where -y- is merely cu.phonic, Sul.

ba ltr sarlwayatI < • s.ar•i-awa-ya: is under his head 178 la bariayati < • i>ar-f-ii-ya: he bu (his coat) on 112

§ 2:20. (o) The present tenses of the verb wl.ttin cwant' are provided by an impcnotW construction. T he stem (a)ml•, taking the normal mocbl affixes(§ 200) and prcscnt verbal cndiogs (§ 2o8),

l

SULEIMANIYE. BTC., DIALECTS ffuo- 1 tppcan with the person:a.l pronoun suffixes with dative sense

(§ 197 (b) (v)).' The full stem awi- ooeurs after a peraonaJ pronoun suffix at• tached to the mod:il or negative affix. Otherwise the shorter stem toi- appears oonnccted i.m.mediatcly with the affix. Thus:

Sul.

P P

Bin., &.c. 394

Arb., &c. In the p,s,t

a-m-awi(t), -m a-wi(t): I want a-t-awl(t), -t a-11:>l(t): thou wantest a-y-atd(t), -1 a-td(t): be want$, &c. a-y-awi,n: he wants me x41-im a--uiyt: I love thee (XQI fltLttin) aziin.£ min tom I.and x.61 m»it: thou. knoweit how much I love thee(•. § 196 (c)) bi-I""'"'( [1xwa:rdti·J: he ate thee (Bin. 3u) niiratnl > (1ng:,dni·] : he sent U$ niirdw.iti > (na:t'du:ti-]: he has sent thee

Certain forms then coincide, e.g. ('n3:1dni•J: he sent us, you, them demanding, in tum, a consistent spelling u -iii, ...jty-, -inr, •iny(v. §§ 41 (c), zo8 (a) 1), t.g.

...

.miarditi, ndrdini, ndrduwitt, &c..

•1 •• jj l il t, i iu a.s

th ·!

ubIl .j

'i'i H

il d r~11.. iJ •! iiift i ,.,!

i

ii

~H.

fl

lt I

) ,j

d

~.ie

~~1

-

ii ;,~ Ji1 11 'ii ~

t -

ttlt! j

t ' ti fl ll ~,!

..

E

)11 .,,l

f.• '1

';'

u

~

~ ~ 'I

:1

1

11 t l

i! J~ ~h t·t ·!

.....

U .)

.,,~

n 11 tt fl

fl i, -1~·'

u·'ff~!tt..~

.,J ~) tr (ti$

h kui-rl-, kui(r)ya-, ku.i(r)>' gll)•l-, gay,a-, giiy ,an.

or

§ 232. The formation of the passi,,c $terns of oertain verbs is

irregular: (i) Reduction of stem final -a- to ~i-, J Cf. J ~2 (11'). u8

.l

SULBIMAN l YB, ETC., DIALECTS

Sul. kirdin, lul- 'do' > kiri-, kirii-, ki,6n 'be done' birdin, ba- 'carry> > biri-, bir/J., birlin 'be carried' d4n, da- 'give, hit' > dirl-, dird-, dirlin 'be given, hit' xistin, xa- 'throw' > xiTi•, xir4-, ·xirlln 'be thrown' Cf. \Var. kiry4n 'be done', xiryiin 'be thrown', &c. (ii) Lo.. of mm final -i-, Sul. n4n, ttl• 'put' > nirl-, ni.rii-, nirim 'be put' wutin, -ti- 'say' > defective present -lri- (more commonly t1.mtrl-) 'be said' (iii) &similation Or -r-, Sul. g6fut,g6f- 'change' > gl,1-rl > gOfi•, gOfd• 'be changed' ln'fln, ln'i- 'cut' > 1,il-rl- > bifl--, bif4• 'be cut' Cf. Wa,. b;fyan 'be cu~. (iv) Euphonic -d- . The groups -n(a)r•, -rr• arising in the passive attms commonly become -,ulr-, -rdr- respectively in. Sor. and Muk., e.g. Bin., Rdz. da nan, nl· 'put down' > dandri- , dandrd-, d4ndrdn (cf. Sul. ndn > niri-, ii. abo,•e) 'be put down' Mu.k.. § 101 niirdi.n~ nlr- 'send' > nlrdr~. nirdrfi•, nlrdr6n 'be sent' zdnin, :tan- 'know' > #andrl-, ziindrd-, x4ndrlin 'be known'

(v) Various, Sul girtin, gir• 'ho)d' : girl-, glrii-, gir4n 'be held', alaogiril-, girsa-,giu6n; cf. War.gt,(,)yan XV)6rdin, xt;. 'eat' : xurl-, xur/1.-, xu,an 'be ea.ten' lih'n, 10- 'wash' : llJrl·, J6r4-, l1Jrlin 'be washed' Arb. laltin, 16- 'wash' : lari-, lDTd•, lardn 'be washed'

Causative Conjugation § 233. The Causative of an intransitive \ erb ia expressed by a secondary conjugation. This causative verb is conj ugated regularly as a transiti\ft. verb. The addition of the morpheme& Sul., War., Bin., Pil.., Muk., Arb. -In-, Rdz., Xol. -in- to the present stem. of the intr.uuiti,·e 1

...

KURDISH 011\,LECT STUDIES ff 233-s ..-erb yields the preseot stem of the Cau,ative conjugation. U the present &tem of the i.ntransitiYe verb ends in -I- th.is it displaced by the eausatr.·e morpheme. The additiM to the l otransith·c preseot stem of the morphemes Sul., Wa.r., -an-, Sor., Muk. --and- yields the past stem of the Causative. Thus: > di;in., dil6n.-, difDnin 'tear Sul., War. difan, dif/.. 1teir' difln-, difQl/d-, diiiindin Bin., Pi!., Muk., Arb. diHn-, di;and-, diTlbuiin Jldz., Xoi. Sul., &c. sawn, sfl1l. •bum' > ID.tin•, silt6n•, tfil4nin 'bum! slitln•, $111.at:d-, sflldndin Bin., &c. > ~tin-, sotand-, '6lllndin Rdz.., Xo§. sot.in, rot.> fifin -1 fiidn·, fi,6m'n, also Sul. firm, [If• 'fly' Fifln•, ftJfm-, lifiim'n 'snatch' liian, iili- 'Bow' > fiJin -, Ii.ion-, fiiiinin •pour' gai{,lh')n, ga• 'an't\'e' > gayin-, gay®•, gayanin 'send' Note, nilltin, nfl-- 'sleep' > nwin•, mob·, no,anin 'put to

sleep' Compound Verbs

§ 2:34. A simple verb DUlY oombine with either a preverb (o.

§ 235) or a nominal form to yield a compound verb. The meaning They do not differ in form from simple verb< beyond the fact that the modal prefix 11(1)(f 206(a)) docs not nonnally appear with them, e.g. Sul. 25 hi lua da nili: let the boy sit here (d/i nlltin) 56 fiim gira: rake me up! (fd girlin) 8o q6fl. mill /ta: in order to k.ii;s hia foot (uriil kirdin) but, with b(i)-, Sul. 11 ewa dii binilin: sit ye down I of compound verb$ ii a lexical matter.

PART10LE$

Preverbs §

m. There are two typeo of proverbs:

(a) The adverbs dar, do, hal(Arb., &c., lw), f/1, f3{Sor., Muk.), war a.n.d the 'postvcrb' suffix -(a)wa (War. -6). This latte:r may appear, but nrely, in the form of a pre..-crb wa, e.g.

...

SULEIMANIYE, ETC., DIALECTS

ff 2JS-6

dOli : d.in-6 Bin. 345 wa paiina : pafandin-awa Muk. § 61 wa baHn : barm-awa War.

191 wa

The suffuc bu two distinct functions. It may either gi\'e the sense of repetition, or reversion, e.g. Sul. wr1tin : wutin-awa - say : repeat gaflin : gaF4n..awa - wander : tum back or modify the meaning of the simple vc.rb unpredictably, as do the other preverba, e.g.

kirdin : kirdin-Oftla : iii kirdin - do : open : .run away xwdrdin : xwiirdin-ttt»a - eat : drink (b) The 'absolute' forms of the simple prepositions, pi, &c., and their derivati""', piwa, pldd, plk, &•• dllldwa: I shall go back 61 14 ismd'il-a dwciy .Wy xi.s-c: lhe put Shah Ismail behind her 6i abtyt-a dar: thou carriest out

Only on the rare occasions when the prtp0$ition is repeated. bu.t not the Yerb, docs it stand independently, e.g. War.

gaiita qaraxi 151'

Q a dam dan:J6zaka: reached the edge of the town and (came) before the gate 246 h!tlna pariyiitD/a, a diy JU: we came to Pariyawlc, 227

to the sheikh's village § 237. (a) Corresponding to the simple prepositions ba (wa)i la (da)~ a there arc the foJlowing 'absolute' forms., employed when the form governed is other than an independent noun or pronoun : 1 pl, wi; II, ti; I,• e.g.

Sul.

17 ba ,,,;.,, bili) II I pc-m bill " me 158 xawim ba Wwa I have teen a dream about

dltca)

xmcim plwa diwit

thee

The correspondenoc is not, however, always regular, e.g. Sul. 130 tl-y ha/ don : thr>sh biml -yon I°"' ha/ d4: they thruhcd him ayda,n ba fil.o.n: I give it to so-and-so aydam-C: I give it to him Muk. 35 11 awi.ri,n bar Oil la badani: a fire hu ignited in my body ..~~ 6wirikim tC bar ba•a: a fire has ignited in me l>o. &c., and lagal, &c..1 art also employed absolutely. (b) The absolute forms of the prepositions., with the exception of I, atind independently and in no particular position in relation to the form they govern. This may be a pronoun suffix1 in its

• Se,off

t

198, 2-29(6), 135(6). The r«ognitioin ol l •• the • bsolute fotM or .:i i• It'•, o. BSOAS, xn1. 496, :u. Mann. Muk, f 67, could noc explain the form, J

..,

hJ7

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

appropriate position (v. § 198), or a coms.ponding ...erbal ending, attached to the verb (o. § a:9(h)(ii)). l, like a(§ :a36(d)), is always cocljtic following a vetb, e.g.

Sul. 2

:,:WO owl6yaki nlrbun

adat-e: God will gi\ C thee male. 1

offspring (c) The independent ab$olutc prepositions unite with the postpositions ...mtia, -d4, &c., yielding: pb.ca (War. ~ . pldd (Sul, War. pyli) lhl:a (War. /iii) liwa (War. tili), tldll (Sul., War. 1yd) Iacaldli (Su.I. /agald, War. /Ila, &4 =I /awe, that night and, with a preposition, Bin . 320 ltbta xw/Iri: came down Mu.k. 1ol• IMna Jar~: we.nt inside

The form -I appeal:"S occasionally in Su.I., where it cannot be equated with an Oblique case form, except p0$$ibly as a fossil

fonn, e.g.

Sul. 14 l>6 m41c: towards home 3z Imo!: at night

With prepositions, howevu, the normal Sul. fonnation is with the suffix -awa, e.g.

Sul. rz hiita dorawa: came outside IS b6 mdlawa: towards home (b) A s.uffi.x -i appear& to form a type of distributive adverb with the numeral yak and (attested in \Var. only) with nouns signifying periods of time, e.g.

yaki ti fannybn girtin: they took three photos of each one of ua i57 yak.I dasl barli b6 dirus kird: he made a suit of clothes for each one Muk. 2411 yaki kufikyan dahL: each one will have a son War. 193 f6Zi da bayroiin, si !}aywiin akuru,: each day we ki!J two or throe anim:11.s 234 agar f6ll . . . g1'/tt U l)iwifl, if each day thou \Var.

205

cuttcst flesh from him

am kafati: once each year

"'

,, i I

f -&40

KURDISH DI AL£C-T STUD IES

(c) •(t)f 'also, cvcn' 1 may be suffixed to either a nominal or a ;\'eTbal form. The form ./ is normal following a vowel, e.g. Sul.

13 am.23: this too '41 Ima§: WC too

ln War., however, and as an exceptional form in Sul., ·yl appears in postvocalic position, e.g. Sul. 74 h6 "6yli: for himself War. 197 """1}i: God also In order of auftiution .l] alwaya precedes a personal pronoun suffix. Thus when suffixed to a nomin:al form it hu the position J in 1he order Sul., &c., A B C D (E) J G H, War, A B C J G H J) (•. § 199). Ewnplcs: Sul., &e. AJ Muk. 99" k,11an.bl: the highlands 100 BJG Muk. 89" .iiniru!u: your WQmen too CJ Sul. P la layakowa .. . la ~ .. . : on the one hand . , . on the other hand also . .. CJG Sul. kankUim la ka,kuka: one of my'°"" also i> in Kidtuk DJ Sul. 76 am da kilayf: 1hese IWO girls also EJ Muk. 87d xanzadaxana . . . dlnim: I shall bring Kh. too JG Sul. ..Ii: he hi-If JH Sul, 52 agar afaltli nahinawim: if on the other hand Thou hist not brought (the hour of) my de.lb Wdmuiwa JD Wu. 200 ""' baJzljayfa: th.i begzade too 267 aun1a : that too With a ,·crbal form it i.s ruflixed to the first of whichever of the following possible componen,s i.s preseot (•. § 198 (iv)), preceding any pen,onal pronoun tuffix: (a) a prcvcrb, (I) a negative or modal affix, (y) the-verbal stem or participle. Eiwnples:

(•) Sul. -

/Eli hard: be forgave him also tiktlim d.i: I have spoilt it too

' Of. Si'Mf .Jt, -y(, c.r. Mokri, Sol'llt ~31, nNJYllm ' I too'.

us

j

SULEIMANIYE, ETC., DIALECTS

(/J) Sul.

P P Muk. 33 1' (y) Sul. P

P P

11 ......

aliniiwn: I know b;m too agar naVt4lin,ar:a: and if I do not oome back daiibaynawa: even if we take her back agar hali'J.unawa: and if I do come back kawtHawa Oiri: he remembered also agar mirduwla: even u heh,. 13)

B. SYNTAX Emphasis

§ 241. In the Agcntial construction the Agent generally appears at the beginruog of the sentence and syntactically outside it, i.e. it ii not tsSential to the main construction and must be resumed by the Agential suffix within the sentence (o. § 223). There is thus no particular empbasia on an Agent expressed by a nominal form. A simil•r oonstrue1ioo with verbs in the p resent tense, bowc\·cr, gives eoophas.is to the nominal form so isolated, which may be either the direct or in.direct object or the complement of the tub~ jeet. It iJ then reswned within the sentence by a pcrsona1 pronoun

suffix, e.g. Sul. -

paliminin, ldxyin. Ii bihcdya: those with regreta, if horns were to grow OJ\ them .. . 10 a.ma, 116r bay/a biykdin: this., it ia a great pity that we should kill it 26 piii, lawi dar i: the king, may his eyes come out War, 188 min, nJho'im n4mlqa: I, my ruuncis Namiq In Sor,, when the nominal form so rcmO\'ed from the main phrase requires it, it appears in the Obl. case, e.g. Bin. 353 xwiji kiMls.i, na/iimi haba: K.hwaja Kawus, he had

a horoacope pjf, 38s tOtinak.ay, niwlwli /tat: the tobaooo, its weeds came 398 iiniJt.i J1ahQ1 aw kumindlray: he b:td a wife, that

commander

Concord § 242. (o) The concord between subject and verb is gencnlly straightforward, i.e. a singular subject takes a singular verb and a subject with the plural morpheme -tin takes 1 plural verb.

\

.....

...

•

i

~2

KUROISH OJALECT STUDIES

(b) A simple noun with generic plural sense (f 173) may take

either a singular or a plural verb, e.g. Sul. dlnF am Avia ti.n/sixi.n: this boy's teeth arc close together E lira ft, .i6ra: there are many lions here 9 4.tik . . . alowf6n: gazelles were grazing Muk.. 871 Jin dayalin: women arc treacherous 178" imd«u bQgirin: may bunters catch you (c) 'lv,-o or more singular nouns joined by the conjunction a, w 'and' or the prepositions lagal (. , . •d4), ba ... -awo, &c., 'with' constitute a plural subject taking a plu.ral verb, e.g. Sul. 2 min U: 16 lartlk aAayn: I and thou1 (we) sha11 rru'lke a bond 21 pllld ba is/i#llki f,,4,,,.•~ . . . lDn: the king, with • fine reception committee, (ihey) went 63 kul lagi.l plrilin hatin: the boy, with the old woman, (they) came Muk.. 24• dagal uw-iri x6y Ital din, foin: ht, with hi.s viziers, (they) $Cl off and went 138u ltAtiin . .. qarawdl U mdmunff: maids and nurs.e:s ha•;e oome

In Bin., p;f., Muk. (Muk. § 28) two noun> joined by a may take the ptural ending ../In, e.g. Bin. 340 ato bit fl salamina: th0$C idols (bit, saJam) 369 gwiy Imo gira w ba.sinoya: he hear, these sayings (qua, "'1,) Muk. 66• bbin o parin bistini: takes bracelets and earrings (biizin, pd,a) 112>' la tirti lir a Z41'tfaTin: from {cir of swords and d,gge" (llr, xanfar) or the pluril l,.fe -1 da (§ 183 (ikay4n ka wa tawqiki a/tan, la milaya: that gazelle which has a collar of gold round jts neck ...

In Sor. and Muk. ka i$ commonly replaced by other particles.

.

J f~l

K URDISH DI ALECT STUDIES

To introduce :i dcscripti,·e relative clause waka a.ppesrs in Din., PiZ.,1 har ka in Arb., agar in Muk., e.g. Bin. 327 lin •.. wakti w1alikayJaxratiinja: (his) wife, who is Queen Fakhrutaj, . .. Arb. 418 p,IJOJ ,nilr, bar ka 'a,.;id mltri l>D: the ldng o( Egypt, who was Aziz of Egypt, .. . Mu.k. § 44 xu/4, agar amin a u,y ha ;oJ4y ltindwa: God, who created me and you1 • • •

To introduce a rcs.trictive clause, and in the other functions of ka, viz.. introducing a subordinate clause and a8 an adverb 'when\ aga, appe2rs in Bin.,• Pi!., Muk. (Mui agar kirdibDy): she understood perfectly what he hadS>id Muk. 2 11 b6 :t4tir awukQ (for •001a kO) . .. bizlinin: so that 1hcy should think .. . Arb. 424 wisti ha.r ka {Ji$ay /agar bika: he wanted to speak with her 429 wakJ ganimf •• , tl dalum: when you are pouring in wheat Xol. 4S9 t!i wu,ayak nla . .. kU amin mim' bihim: is there no hone that I may mount?

( b) When a relative claU5C is restrictive and immediately follow, an antecedent which is either defined by the suffix ..akd (§ 174) or a demonstrative adjctti.Yt, or i& a pronoun1 then the relative clause m.2y be introduocd by the Izafe, e.g. Sul - mo killbay dam xistuwa, ha.Ii• gira, 1 In 5'11, chit is p.robably «iSltiettd co '♦10r)'•ttlleB' • 1tyle, o.g.. SuL ♦7 ltld, wak0.14 llffld'il 61: the boy, who it Shah lumil ••• • kl once in Bln., "'· p. 83, fo. 3. • -Y tuft, o. (,I,) below. • Scc§~1.

.,.

j

I

I

I

I

SULEIMANIYB, ETC., ' DIALECTS aw killba ha/ gira ka ddm xistuma: pick up

but

thai

book which I have thrown down 13 away t6 dtrci1.a: that which thou hast seen aai miwii.nakay hdtihn: the guest who had co.me 414 ar: Xlltl)tttty aw Jara gifdtawa: that dream which you related then

Muk. § 46 Arb.

The particle ka, &c., may appear with the lz:Ue, e.g. Sul.

9 Qf()Qtlay ka tea alawafln ba fy4: those which are

p;f.

408 m, WI/a 1aray k• . . . hinil/)(Jyawa: that skull

grazing apart which he h..1.d brought back An extension of this ia to be seen in such conjunctional phrut$ as 31 la tar mna ka kuf . •• dawiiy mini Ja'rd, •. . la sar atJJ.ay b aw g&ira: because the boy asked for (my hand), .. . because he is an infidel

Sul.

Use of Tenses § 244. (a) The Present Indicative ha, both habitual and actual present meaning, e.g.

Sul. -

mi:tg011Jt bl maid nibe: there is no mosque without

-

a mullah (no rose without a thorn) xalgi k6ya.ri tipi au.nC.tawa: people read (evil into) white (i.e. blank) paper

- a.mu siird akutC: he is strilr.ing cold iron -

har n4n uom:

I am just uting

z t/J ll akay lira: what art thou doing here? ( b)' The adverb w4 'thus' gives a sense of a state or action in

progress, 1 e.g. • In Wu. tho (onri• ud" ~d (Ji)4 giv& • 1imilu Klllkl LB the 1bttn.!ln.tiYe verb, e,e, Wu. - l4ui:"' wl tM: 1 1cc it (my ere is on it) I~ wl, fOIJ '411'ft611I: it (if) in OW' J)O$k3tlon 269 hi lo 1Ulr4tt4: (they u") on the poi.nt or bcin.J utm *1 1 Hf'4i bl IWl 1M 14"4) (there UI) 1 rode on her 1houldtt 273 lxmU 4 tta 10, 14"(6

'"

KUR.DISH OlALeCT STUDIES

Sul. - wi•y la ka: where art thou? - wi-m lira: here I am 9 am atiJuma Aa wi alawmn: these g:aze.Uca which arc gnzing 9 aw dsikaydn ka wit tau,qiki iillDnf la mildya: that one of them which has a collar of gold round its neck.

(c) The Present ttMC l$ also used for Future time, e.g. Sul. 10 ba das aygirtn: we shall take it by hand 16 n ta/ab okay atdame: whatever thou sceltcst I shall give thee 58 amkuU: she will kill me (d) In narrative it may alternate with the simple Past tense, e.g. Sul. 1 pal".)-aA abe ... n,i aki .. , ale ... Ida, ltitd ... fi!J' kirda lax: there is a king . .. be prays .. . he says ... he put on (clothes) ... he tu.med towards the mountains 16 kuf ii,n6zoyaAi • •• abe , .. wuti . .• to: the boy bu • cousin .. . she said ... she went . . • z7 Uy di, rot, kuf-wi kuf afwii: the boy set off and wt.nt - Jo, he is going Bin. 378 agar wa iilr kawt tamMIJ dill: when he entered

he sees ... § 245. The Present SubjunetiYe is used: (a) in &ubordinate clauses, whether introduced by a oonjun' ..mea G 235(•)) ,a!lh:ed to the wo,tl 1rfHWW thee verb is a chsr.et'-ristio or the Si111tE aod n\OrC toUd~m dialects.

ff 254~5 KURDISH DIALECT STUDI BS § 254, Secondary Adj ectival compounds may be poueuivt or prepositional. (o) The P('.)isSC;mvc compounds a.re gcnCN!ly descriptive oomp0unds with adjectival meaning. e.g. l)ad.1,4, 'evil-doer' (b-pleasant) sar-garm 'cager' (head-hot) (b) The prepositionJ ba, bl form an infinite numbt.r of adjectival 1

compounds, e.g. ba ba-g• ba-fi

ba-k4r

u

h~c:tanawz bi-g• bi-Ml bi-q,uii

'obedient' (,vith w) 'fitting' (in pbce) 1 U$tCul' (with work) 'drowsy' (with sleep) 'disobedient' (without ,.,) 'uncon,,ciouS" ' unharmed' (without accident)

I

I

I

l

1

~

Sufflxff

§ 255. The following suffixes form nouns: (a) Abscnct -t forms ibstnct nouns from adjectives, e.g. .ig.iddrf 'care', dsdnl 'ea$t', MkirM 'obviousness'. b61t 'emptj.ncs.t', Ioli 'dcscrtcdness', gawrai 'greatness', lautl '$hortneu', xofi 'pleasure'.

•.

SULEIMANIYB, ETC., DIALECTS

fa,.s

With s.djectives of meaaure, &c., it altema.tt.t with

-••• (·a.>••11), e.g.

mtarr, astilTM(lhiekness', bm:ti, .;,r'height' ,-di,lii., .JJi'lc.ngth', gannl, •iii 'warmth', qali, ...ar 'depth', bi/indi, ln1indiiyat1

'height'. With other adjectives it frequently alternate& with

•yati > -iti, e.g. 6z4i, d:14yllti 'bravery', bandai, btn1dayati ',Javery', kami, kamlti 'shortcoming', panr, --m, •IJi 'breadth'. -a.ti, •iati > -yafl > ../tl, -llyoti form abstmcc nouns from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, e.g. iiytiyati 'agha-ship', biriiyati 'brotherhood'. dostiiyati 'friendship', dulminiiyati •enmity', l}6kimlti 'judge-, governors.hip', py4trHJtl 'manhood, service', 14rist4niti 'civilization', xizmiiyati 'kinship'; loniati 'how.·ness', klyati 'who--nw'; bi11ltl 'hu.Dger, lli.klatl 'goodness', tlnaltl 'thirst', yakiati, yakiti 'oneness, unity'. -ini., more rarely, form1 abstract n.ouna, e.g. bakini 'bride-ship', ltiwbtl 'evil-eye', kitlnl 'maidenhood', kufinl 'youth, boyhood'. (b) Diminutive. •/., -h, ./., - I-, in various combinatioru., form derived nouns, and occasionally adjectives, which m:i.y be classed generally as 'diminutive'. Thus: .{a 1:,4.xEa 'small garden', ndw(a 'district' ..fka fllka 'string, file', xiinfllka 'little house' •ak da.ttak 'pole, beam', 14nak 'ttousel'.'S• •ik da,tiA 'bWlch, handle\ ffJ.li.k 'chick' -ka d6lka 'bucket', llltka 'mountain peak', milrlliinka 'neckfaoe' -aka pOlako 'fish scale, spangle', toraka 'small bag' -ok @4k 'tolling pin' -6ka baiOka 'pullet', fiifii6ka 'whirligig', fm6ka 'jinnee' -kala xifka/a 'short and stout' -la mirl1.la 'ant', pilila 'cat', q11tila 'little lamp• -/aka f/llaka 'Jew'

.....

§ 255

lCURO ISH DlAl,ECT STUDIES

-fla -Ola -alk4 - la

mmulila (finger r'ing',prlUa 'kidney', kiirila 'kid' danilla 'porridge', f8JDla 'baby ass', mllola 'mosquito' ddsa!R.a 'small tickle', pa!Olka 'small pick' g6:14la 'small pitcher',Jafala 'chick' -ala girdala 'hillock', latQlala 'little fresh one' "'1a /,i;,a/a 'little girl', pitl,6/a 'small, tiny' ~ka 01.dllui 'tmall saucepan', gird61ka, tapolka 'hillock'

(c) Concrete -g4, forms nouns of pl:acc, e..g. ha,doga (War. Mtdaa) 'aimy camp', k6gii 'store', flg4 'road', say,anga 'beauty-spot', tafJKa 'waterfall'.

-4/4n., (Bin., Pi!. -.a/in), for.ms nouns with the meaning 'tract, expanse of .. .', e.g. barda'l4n 'stony tract, wilderness', narmaltin 'soft land', qmtti1ald11 (13in. gomilal.in) 'reed-bed', saa,;,a/an 'grten, verdant tn.ct', :Mlan (Pif. rlafin) 'thorny ttaet'. dxal6n 'stretch of gravel'. -(1)st8n forms nouns with the meaning 'place, country 0£ •• !, e.g. d4ris.tdn 'woodQand)'i Jar;b'stan 'jungle\ lnmlilt4n 'land of the Kurds', •tlln 'highlands, uplands', qabrist6n 'gravcyud', larist4n 'city'.

.:

-ftldn, -fi, -gar form nouns of trades or skills, e.g.

ilawlln 'miller', baxawatl 'gardener', kaJtum,Qn 'boatman',

malatc6n 'swirn.mer',p4tar..'>Qn 'watchman', liixlzf.c4n 'moun.t:ainecr', Wardin 'fisherman' (net-man); boydxlr'shoebl.ack', ldyli 'teashop-keeper', qaf,,dxll'smuggler', latDli 'huntsma.n', tanaJudr 'tinsmith'; ii.n'ngar 'bltclr.smith', laq6gar 'cutler', misgar 'coppersmith'. -dim forms DOUD$ with the meaning ' ... -holder'. e.g. lirlidiin 'lamp-holder'. darxidan 'needle-bolder'1 fUalul4n 'b3.0dolicr-'1 Ji:1d6.n 'wallet', m6mddn 'candlestick', min4lddn 'womb', mt...,'/dtfn 'bladder'. -d.ir forms nouns and adjoctives with the meaning 'possess.or of .• .', e.g.

(

•

SULBIMANIYE. ETC., DIALECTS

f:ass

amlnd.ir '1teward', hayd4:rd6r 'flagb(arer', lxildiir 'partner', dukii.ndaT 'shopkeeper', dt1dtir 'lover', dardaJ!iir 'invalid', mif;COnddr 'host'; iigii.dOT 'careful', attlradfir 'starry', MldaY ' winged', d4nd4r 'toothed, cogged', zydnd6r 'damaged'. -kar, -Mr, less commonly -gdr, -yiir, form nouns and adjectives with the mc:nning 'doer, maker of . . .•, e.g. &""It-, nfin-kar 'cook', kOJ'DRar 'maidservant', k4.uJl.lkar 'ruminant', twalkar 'beggar', lai'kar 'fighter'; iirazOkar 'des;irol.1$', ilkar •industrioUi', noikar 'devout'; hanak.ir 'lusty youth', kiriRar 'hired labourer'; f>arhgiir

'a.bs-temious';

fotyllr 'ploughman', kill(y)4r ' buyer, customer'. -MZ forms nouns with the meaning 'addicted to .•. ', e.g. hatiwbiix 'pederast' (lratttlJ 'orphan'), qum.ir6iia 'gambler'.

-in (Arb., &c., -ii1Jl) forms the names of games, e.g. haliJAln 'tip-eat', halmaJin, malin (Arb. kallayanl) 'marblC$', fab/',lb, 'football', ,artrinfb, 'chess', Ii/pin (Arb. 16p,lni) 'ball game', but zlirmt (Arb. zOTiinl) 'wrestling'.

(d) Verbal --Ok, -nok form nouns or adjecti,·es with the sense 'habitual doer

of ... • from verbal stems, e.g. ga,ok 'wandering. nomad'; girini>k 'whining, cry-baby', tirm6k 'coward'.

-ar' form& agent n ouns from verbal stems, e.g. lndar 'killer', na.sar 'writer'. nouns of materials from verbal past stems. e.g. sQtamanI 'fuel•. xtdlrdamant 'food'. -a forms nouns of ' noise'. From the 1uffix-free morpheme dea -amanl forms

nominative tnn.siti,.,e verbs are formed by the addition of the causative morpheme,(§ •33). 66/a: bM4nin 1murmu.r', Mfa: 6d.Flinin 'bleat', fika :fikilnin 'whistle', !!Ila: !Jiliin,'n 'n eigh'. 1 A ncoloeism. Conned on the 11nal017 0£ noun• in .Jrar (v. (c) above): kirdiff. It.a-, -#l'(v, § as6): 45,,._, U -, --Hr: &i'rds',,._, 6o-, e,s, ~ 'lioad-earri-tt, pomr', fo.11jbor 'l1boure.r'.

·: 1 ffsss-, KURDISH DIALECT STUOJES Such .i;i.ouns also fonn copulati,·e compounds(§ zsi (t)), e.g. git:a-gio 'rumble', qirta-qi,l 'crackle, aplu.tter', qlia4,i 'scream'. § 256. The following suffix.es form adjectives: -i forms adjectives of kind, or origin, e.g. b~Mi 'common, of the m3Tkct', koJtlinl 'mountaineer', lddii 'rustic', mil'Jd 'musk-coloured, black', ~ 'coffeecoloured, brown'; hllWfltl '0£ Arbil', Jurrcrdmi 'of Avroman'. -Uf, -lu.i form adjectivti from nouns, chidl)' of mate.rials, e.g. iigirin 'fiery', OWlin 'iron', fa,-in 'colourful'; ardawi 'floury', bafrlirci 'made of ,now', qufiiwi 'muddy', xol4ui 'dusty', xondwi 'bloody'. -in forms adjectives of qutlity from nouns, e.g. aspiwin 'lousy', lilkin 'filthy', go/tin '-fleshy', lndkin 'Mr/, Jwmi,, 'wormy', likin 'dribbly', qi.iin, tiikin 'hairy', wu.rgin 'big-bdlied'. -man/!!, (-mand) fonns adjectives with the sense 'possessed of .. ••,

e.g. 'agfman 'wiid, Ol'arima!J 'detirous', d/idn1a9 'juat', dawlaman/9 ' rich'. dardman 'ill', hunarmay 'skilled'.

-dar forms adjcctivea: meaning 'giver of . .. ', e.g.

dgadar 'aware',Jarmand(lf 'commanding'. -k.ir, -haw modify adjectives of colour, e.g.

falk.i.r 'blackah', #/)rk6r 'whitish', sarbiiw 'reddish\ lmk.41',

--bufD'btuish'. •ana forms :i.djecti\ es and, more commonly, adverbs, e.g. mU,dna 1snaky', mdVoJ'la 'monthly', 1i/dn4\:mnual'; 1

O)'Oy.ina 'agha..tike', tii'6)'6.na 'bravely', birO)liina 'brotherly', pyodna 'manly'. ll,dna 'like a lion'. § 2.57. In Sul., Sor., and Mule. the 'regular' Intransitive verb is charattcriz.ed by the past stem ending ~a.., infinitive -6n, e.g. hiri011 'be roasted', kulan 'boil', tfit4n 'burn', Ikon 'break.'.

•••

j

..

.j

i

1

•

j

l

j

''

j

I

SULE IMANJYE, ETC., DIALECTS

§:257

With a few verbs this may alternate with a past stem in •i-, e.g.

qar:m4fbt 'happen\ timii/in 'collapse', fizajfn 'rot', togiifm 'bunt', :nuii/in 'itch'. The corresponding Transitive. \'etb is a Cauutivc fon:nation (§ 233) from the Intransitive, e.g. birZIJnin 'roast', ku/6ni,i 'boil', sDtiinin 'bum', lk6nin ' break". t6qiinin 'terrify'. :curbm'n 'scntch'. In War. the 'regular' Intransitive vetb form j5 marked by the pa.st stem ending "')Iii-, jnfinitivc -yon, e.g.

h;rlydr,, ku/yiin, ,atyan, lkiyii11 ( < ' lkyiin, • · § 56 (a), end).

...

PART I II

SOR6l, AKRE, AMADIYE, BARWARl-tOR, GULL!, ZAKHO, AND SHEIKHAN DIALECTS A. MORPHOLOGY NOUNS Definition

§ 258. (a) A noun in its simplest form may be either definite or ;ndcfirutc, singular or plural(,.§ •6o (b}), e.g. A1. - kaor: rock, the rock, rocka, the rocks - bi&k: child, the child, children, the children There is no general means of further definiog a noun. The following suffixes, however, appear in particular context$, (b) The suffix -aka appcan in Sur., At, only, in narrative, dcfirung known c:haracten (cf. § 174), e.g. Sur. 5o8 mir6wb g6ta mru.i1 : the man sa.id to the woman Ak. 534 mirwaka l&ca: the man returned SSS "'""'kt kuh: the snake was killed 68• daJ hl!tolta kilake' : he reached for the gut

{c) The suffix -a appears in all dialects Sur., Ak.- Zx. following a noun qualified by the proximate demonstrative adjective ao, &c. (•. § •7" (•)), e.g. Ak. 547 ao mira: this make 591 ao hJtia: lhis watennelor,. Zx. ns w f,i,a: th;, br;dge It is not reaJiud after a noun ending in a, e.g. Ak. 564 av 1a: ttu, dog (la) ' Su f 261 (b).

SORCJ, AKRE, ETC., OlALECTS

ff 2JS-,

Not6. The same 'proximate' suffix i.s present in Ak. 597 li l /,ind.a ganimay Jum,: what shall I do with this much wheat I (•. § 261 (b)) contrast li. l kinda ganimi kam: what would I do with that (so) much wheat? Cf. also Ak. hutuva 'in this way': waltro 'in that way'. § 259. (o) The suffix -ak (i.e. Sur., Ak. [-ak'J, Am.-zx. [-ak]) gives the noun an indefinite sense or one of unity, 1 e.g. Sur. so8 .wtak amir6rc.dt J,a/,Qn: there was onc:c a woman and

a man Ak. 531 mir6vak lrab8: once there was a man 534 ktiyuak nivisi: he wrote a letter 551 )'I /umlfiviak-a: yonder is a fox

Zx. 790 mrJ/ii/ak: a difficulty (b) Following a noun ending in before the suffix, thus -yak, e.g.

a,

ii an euphonic --y- appears

Ak. 556 qu,balayak: • badger 58o i.iy,fyak: a wpcnt 586 bfrayak: a brother In Am.-Zx., however, this -y-- is often imperceptible after d (cf. § 35 (b)), e.g. Arn. 704

bir4'ak: • brother Wak:awind 718 (J(WiYok: 72-3 qazdyak: a di&tric:t In all dialects, Ak.- Zx., the .suffix may appear following a as -k only, e.g. ']C9A

Ak. 536 dobllnfak: a pistol 563 quak: • saying 5S, figiirak: a ciga.rcttc Arn. 705 qobrktk: a tribe 719 fiilfflb/'ok: a mosque BX$ describea • ' PJu.~ Indefinite Article', i,e, tu.ffi:x, °"·"'• AJ1bough quoted 8X 19 wh b a Plunl oblique endin,I •41t (v. f 261 (b)), thua, 4'nill Aa,s,tndn 'tho ,ound of hone.', It it ebewbete only •netted whh th& Secondary h aft, q ,v. ff :a63 (c), 26,+ (,). 1

ffa.s~

KURDISH DIALECT STUDJ£S

The g,:oup -ialt may be reduced to -ik (cl.§ S9 (a)), e.g.

Ak. 531 pifteki dma: a load of sticlu(p,1u1 653 h1vdrll fivh, Jari

be 1oodi.Ged to I in the Str. 'door' > dl'fl.

.,,

§ 26 1

KUROJSH D IALECT STUDIES

Following a, a the M. Sg. Obi. ending -Iappcan as -y, e.g. Ak. S3X • l:)..y: to the mountain S34 m4l4 k4br4y: the fellow'• hou.sc 556 • qurWoy: to the badger 544 ,rri,WQkay g6ti': the man said (mir6v, -aka) The F. Sg. Obi. coding -i coolcaocs with prcccdmg a, e.g. A.k. 533 I fi//Jn Jade: in ,uch-and..gucb street (Jdd•) s36 dariki qulc: the door of the town ~ I (gillo) 533 g6ta iinakc: aid to the woman (lin, -aka) 682 dAs hl/olta lolakl.: reached for the girl (/ol, -aka) An i prcooling the Pl. ObL coding -,;(•) may he modified to

,, e.g.

Ak, 555 p har d4 pii: with both fect (P') Zx. 78s prl Ml: he came on foot contrast, Ale s65 rca•: three people (,I) The full form -dn of the Pl. Obi. morpheme only oocure when. it i• followed by the cnclitic form of the substantive verb(§ 284 (a)),

~g. Ak. 66:2 ku.fl d01'Wllin-l: thou art the aon of (one of) some deivishes 679 lhe (kiib-rii M.) 531 xudiini dik4ne: owner of the shop (dik4n F.) 536 flgarmc : pla('arab M.) Bar. 730 !J,l}lunit baiiri: governors of the city (MJII' M.) Gui. 750 pi/It ,a'd{,M ; after an hour (1a'al F.) (v) with adverbial sense(•. also§ 305 (a)), Ak. 531 ham6 ;Sic: daily (foi F.) S31 f&iakc: one day S53 Jtinda F6Fa: for some days 548 Mf'Jine: in summc.r (hafJin F.) S4S u l6r qw,a,i: for three odour (qimiiy F.) Am. 703 naq.lak!: Ol)(C, at one time (naql F.)

••ages

Vocatin § 262. (a) In the Vocative nouns denoting animitc beings may take the following endings, with a forward shift of itreu where postible: Sg.M. F. PI.M.&F. Sur. •t..uua '-a '·I Ak. PClr occ...ioaally

in OK Plul'W.I.

• Mal.al J,m ('l>itc4n', ed. Hutmann, Ikrtin. r904) hH, betlde ·•b, t.bo !om, •4tf 41,', e,r . p . u7, metre lto..~-l "1f!ob•i-1ifuf-i .aq10r

__ ..,,.., __ ..,,.., __ ..,,.., __

~1,;,..., diJf::>b ~~~ •lafmtn dJ 11'-yo}, ;4 4ildrmfima u %011611 : blade era C8\11od riot and blood•

"""

._;-:;, , ~.,JI,!, .:,,JW.

rlu

•114d,am bi lamdll.n., bi laJl(flc.n di 6i/tuti: I &ball not give (up your bctutwf;, &e.) for lhe paradisi1n li$bt1 and bc1ude1

Sc,e Kurdoev, KK, §

100, J\OIC :l.

.,.

§ i64

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

Ak. 533

Wie mbh·,;; the eldest brother (birii M.)

5.S /de luml, yonder bough (/4 M.)

537 ;ta,ifaripiJik-zir: gold-studded dagger (xanfar F.) . Am. 716 ba>-...ln'l'Uc:: 1) with 'tt119b1dc' la1Clherili:11 ol lba vowel tnd tlot.tal mp,

I

SORtJ/, AKRE, ETC., DIALECTS

,,. ,. ,, ,, ...,.,"""" , ,.,, Sw.'

•'

•'

•' • ,.• ,," ••,, 7

.

,,••

Ao/< ..,,

..-· _,. ,.,,. NO(A) ""(h)

)'4,uda

duxl,a4o

--· l4'da

u~do

•••• ,. ,, 40

l4,

In" Iii

lbJo

..... .,,,,.

14=da ha.Ida

p,,,Ja

Mh

,....,. da

,,.,,.-t/4,udo

/11,udo /uroda (JJc)

..,,.,.-

.. -

p/11/a

Its
l•Fli

...,,, flrf

ft,(

/µ,/fl ltaffl

--

halfl

---

!lJ,n. ,Iii

-

---

.. ,.....,.

lt4/t (,k:) halt

do

,......,,.

--

-d• l4111d.o

....-

~(aie)

n4lll40

,;

-

....,,./)hljl

,,,,

M/ti

Mlllb

• Sur., Ai:. , Shn. p, t, It tlways ..pitttcd, Am,..z,r, p, t, It un.upirlc«I.

Sur., Shn. 6, ii (o:, u:J, Ak.-Zx. d, 0 (u:, y:), • - •i.aniBea 'the tame form" that noted co I.be left'.

§ 273. (a) Cardinal numbers immediately pr~ede the noun they qut1lify (o. § 269). A cardjnal u.sed sul»tantively, or a noun qualified by a cardinal n umber, taltcs the Plural Obi. ending -d(n) (§ 261 (b)) when

appropriate, e.g. Direct Ak. 545 ava SC Ear f6i-a: this is three or four day, 598 SC ~5:r dirlram habin: if there be three or four dirhams Am. 705 sl mir6o 14 waslyat,: three men wcr~ standing

·~

,1

tf1.13--4

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

Oblique Sm. 510 o:., dl dlla dama ta: I stwl give thee two Ak, 565 sa piJJiit x6 dd girh'n: three put down their loads (v, § 196 (b))

S-45 ~ a'.r gi,naya: for th.rec or four 8ta.geS 592 lir pcnJ ,I;,,faki: for four or five rimes(•. § 259 (c)) Am. 704 lal ,ind4qi ll ka: m>ke l/114 >._Kif 'for bimttlr, &c., c,, f 1+3,

.,.

,.

SO'RCI, AKRB, E T C,, DIALECTS The fu.Uer Oblique forms, avf', &c., appear principally as igent in the Pass:ive construction (§ 296) and gencraUy after a pause.

(b) Enmpl": (i) Direct Sur. - awlb~ t'iya: what LI that? 524 t.\'r.l tlya: what is thia? Ak. 591 ava yi xiriiba: this one is bad 541 aw kla: who L$ that? 591 aw birQfJtl1 : that one was ta.ken back S35 aw tal;ay,'r ,nan: they were amazed Am. 710 ava ma 6 kir1 : what is th.is we have done? ?OJ aw fii h6n: they got up 710 aw 1ti11a: is it not that? Bar. 726 aw xi: he too (ii) Oblique Sur. - X4Uii way bfl: it wu this one's fault Ak. 591 vf bibaoa: U.kc this one back 558 u ... vina nilx8m: I shall not eat these 565 aWi 6, kir 1 : what did he do? 534 birlllt wi: his brothers

549 141£ we: nexc to her 53S birai wi: their brother 536 gOta v.--in1 : said to them. 537 aw'.rn goll1 : they said to lum 537 awa li kir 1 : what did they do ? Am. 709 hi'ng di . . . awl daMtJ min: you will give me that back 703 Nilri wi: their donkey 706 awi g6ll 1 : they said to him ... Bar. 743 awi lfrak girl1 : he seized a sword 716 b6 ·w in: for them Cul. 76o biraJ wE hii{: her brother came 749 babi win mi,: their father died Zx. 772 16/i wini avaya : thi$ is thcix work

lnterrogaUve § 278. (a) The following interrogative pronouns, and related ad. verbs, occur (cf. adjective>, § 269 (a) (um: • htlive eomwcdoo. v. f 296.

'"

§ a,S

KURDISff DIALECT ST U DIBS

li (ll 011Jy in paus~ and in the fixed adverb M lf 'why?'). Oblique (rare) {l; Sur. e(,) 'what I'' land, Obi. Sur. (at1d1/i1 Ak.1 &c., landi 'how much ?' liJ"" (Sur. 1111, Gui. ? Iii,, Am., &c., &h,IJ, KK § 367 liUJ, liiwd) 'howr kl, Obi. ki(Am., &c., lit, 11,j 'who I' lumgi (KK § 36'] /uuwl) 'when I' Am. iUN(KK§ 141 Illian, BX 51 kiJik) 'which I'

Examples: Sur. 6i xw/Jrdl; what did you cat? 520 kO ba: how was it? Ak. 537 auid" ti kirt: what did they do? 56o hun.g WUI': what are you? 561 at&c!:i txdnl: what dost thou know? 66'] NT ~e: for what (rca,oo)? Ak. 531. Arn. 7o6 p l!andC: for how much? Ak. S95 Otuv b6: how was it? 539 at6 kiy: who art thou? 564 k1 /aJil kCya:: who is son of whom l 546 ldli kC: to whom? kang; di hlt ; when will he come I Am. 7u mo~ kirt: what have we done r .,o6A tryO:: what is itl lflna: whom wt/you/they? ow 11.i d.i n.i': who put this down? 712- 'fJ.w'fi/0 . • . biba.t: how can the Jew take . •. ? Bir. 736 ax kufl Rbna: whose son am I? Gui. 756 Ru /Iha/in: how Juve they &red? Zx. 774 Ml kuiin: whom should we k.ill 1 (b) The fonn k4(Mj, Am., &c., li4(nl)3 eontalns the sense of a verb, 'where is, arc . . . e.g.

r,

1

As an indt£ni1~ proQOUn ti NI ui obi, pl, form~. Ale. 616 tyl a, 6dimo '4: ,...huevu (thU\lt) J .cnay 11ry to You • Pusivc. eot11-trucdon, ti. §a¢. 1 The nme form bu •nothtr, ,cemind, \lfttnna!.tabf.t, uw., c.r. Ak. 639 kijiU'IIVfli Nly(I, RlliO: let ui,o u,d wt..1 the.re it • M wbat there It not

"'°

Am. 717 lint dl tlli l .o .\4ya111 t bdrimt: (wdl), wllatevu dllOu wDt do to \ll we are ready

,,.

SOR"/, AKRE, £TC., DIALECTS

Ak. 613 kane aw mali: where are those fish? Bar. 747 la$t penonal endings:

Sg. I

-(-im, &6n, gOta Jay>f: they were all three brothers (and by them) it was uid to the owner of the bird 533 gaJta birai m/Wiri, mill x6 l mili wi di: 'she' rcaebed the clde,t brother (and by 'her') her ahooldu was struck against his shoulder Aro. 7')6 mof,Uo, /i1lik4k !ni daroa: he got up(and by him) • cat w;lS brought out Zx. 774 atD hun.ii M ao p;,a h,mi ivi kiri . . . : the mason who (by him) thw bridge has been built . . .

,,,dun,

(b) When an Agent is expressed it is in the Oblique case, e.g. Sur. -

k.,...,.o mttl/sl . thc Iettcr 1 ang6 Jt4,;,a.z niuiri} h2\'C you wntten

509 i inakC,giI l,ud: the wom-an took the ox 509 wki gl·Y bird: when the took the ox At. 533 finakt goli 1 : the woman said to him 536 ahmadl •iinl: Ahmed knew 538 min a!yai hu1116 bir: I have taken your things 539 bikimI . . . g6tl': the-governor said . .. 539 min t8 'a/8 kiri: I h.ase forgiven thee 54-2 abmadi !}dkim t tindO(Jlnd: Ahmed put the governor into the chest Am. 705 balili Hifillak kir t batiNd x&Jll: BahluJ put a cat into Ju, pocket 709 awlg6il1, bild: they said to him. 'So be it' 'The Oblique ca:sc endings may, however, be omitted(§ 261 (a)),

e.g. Sur, soS miro',\,Ua g6ta 4i1Ulkl: the man said to the woman Alt. 534 tlbo! das hdvlta iinai ka/;n--, kaliind-, kaldndin ' boil' difya,1, difyi- 'tear' > diml•, dif arui,,, dif4ndin 'tear' girin, giri- 'weep' > girln~, giryimd-, girydndin 'make weep'

Compound Verbs § 299. A simple ,·erb may combine with either a prevcrb (§ 300) or a nominal form to yield a compound verb. These do not differ 1

., ,. p11•i~ (c(. § a3r) Airl- 'be~• nppcan in Ak., e.g. wtltCIU tftlofw, tkittc: it is pronounoed ,o •lao ""' ~ s,1, n1kirtt: nothina be dMC by u,

~ solitary

Al. -

s69 • tim· < •firi-in-.

=

..

ff 299-100

KURDISH D IALECT S'l'UOJES

in form from simple verb$ beyond the fact th-at the modal aA.ix b(1)- (§ :i81 (a)) does not normally appear with them, e.g. Ak. 584 1yd. , . ll rear g;r;t: he could take . . . from him (ntar

girt;n)

584 M ni: ait down! (fd niltr'n)

Am. 704 loJ ,;,,doqi1-re) bofmilr6liA 'type of litard', d4plr6Hk 'spider'. (c) Concr hilobt : hiicma 'summer' > niio : nmo 'name' > ao : 41.o 'water' > lat1 : lato 'night' > lio4n : Ir,,!n '•hephcrd'

-

This dC't·dopment of m affocts the proximate demonstrative

adjccti'.,·e. In Ak., &c., the forms av, &c. (§ z77) < Olr. ima• art distinct from the remote demoD!trative aw, &c. < Olr. oaia... In

Sur., Muk,, and the Sor. dialect& the two demonstratives fa11 regularly together in the forms at0, &c. On!y in Sul., War. it the ,n imgularly preserved, and with it the distinction between

proximate and remote demonstratives am:ato (§ 192) (cf. Barr, op. cit, p. 183, Anm.). The development ofp is reflected in the common prt.verb Ak., &c., va,-{a},,a(§3oo(a)), Sul., &c., -{a)wa(§235), cf. NP b(§ 275). (ii) The suffix pronouns have a \'lll'icty of functions(§ 1"7 (b)) of which the most clar:tctcristic is that of Agent in the Agcntial construction or the wne C. dialects (§ 2.:13). This construction, with itt obligatory Agent, 00ntnsts with the simpler Passive oonstructioo of the N. dialect$(§ 296). The contr'8$t is heightened by the &culty of the C. dialoct verb for taking two veri>al ending1 (§ 230). In Bin., Pa. alone of the C. dialccta is there any reflection of the N. con,uuction (§ z,5, Nou). (iii) Apart from the Passi.,.e comtruction of the paat tenses of aU tr:lnlitive verbs the N. dialects have no Pu.s.ive conjugation. A present P3$$ive can only be expressed by a periphrasis(§ 297). In contrast. all the C. dialects have a fu1Jy developed sooondary Passive conjugation (§ 231). (iv) Wh.ile an indefinite- nominal suffix appears i.n all Kd, dialects in the form •lkor-ak(§§ 176,259) a c.orresponding definite suffix -alu: is found only in the C. dialects, including Sur., and to a leutr extent in Ak. (ff 1741 258 (b)). Cognate with thi& there appe:irs i general demonstrative suffix -a in all C. diaJccts (§ 175), which i$ res:tricted to proximate dcmons.trative use in the N.

DIALECT GROUPING

dialects Sur., Ak.-Zx. Both •aka and -a commonly appear in conjunction with the open compound construction(§ 185), which is not found in the N. dialects.

!I• 1.

§ 326. In the main the systems of nominal inflexion for number, gender, and case., and including the 17.afe, are conln'l8ted on either side of the same line. A number of Northern features do, however, appear in modified form below the line. Thus: (i) All N. d ialects have a distinction of grammatical gender in the Singular, manifest in the case endings (§ i61) and the Izafe (§ 264). This distinction is preserved in the C. dialects of Muk., Arb., Rd?~, X~., but only in the case endi.L~gs (§ 18o). With the gender distinction preserved in the Bin., Pit. (Muk.), Izafe (§ 183), and 3rd singular personal pronoun oblique(§ 196), as well as in the nominal cast endings, these dialects go together with the N .

dialects more closely. (ii) Corresponding to the Singular Oblique case endings the N.

dialect$ h,ve an exclusively Oblique Plural ending -a(n) (§ 261 (a)). This same ending forms a general plural in all C. dialects.(§ J77), whether the dialect ha$ a case system or not.

(iii) The specifically l'hml Izafe forms -lt, &c., of the N. di>leclS (§ 264) are found also in Bin., PU:., Muk. -1 da (§ 183 (c)). § 327. The verbal syatem.s of the varioua dialects offer the follow• ing contras:ts: (i) While all dfalect& from Bin., Pi!. northwards have a modal

prefix da- (§ 206 (a)), or ,. < di- (§ 281 (a)), Sul. and War. have a-. This must be taktn as a separate. entity (with Barr, op. cit., p. 2-21, Arun.), and not as a form of da•, since initial dis not lost completely in any dialect (cf. § 8). Moreover, the two prefixes appear together in Rdz., Sur. where d i.s quite ata.ble, but a• may here be a later borrowing.

(ii) The formation of a Future tense with an independent modal particle di, &c., is restricted to the N. dialects., including S ur., Rwn., Bot. (§ 281 (b)). The temporal and other \lse of wriOl.1.$ forms of 12.Uc with the verb(§§ 309, 313) is likewise a feature of the N. dialects from Sur. to Rwn., with no counterpart in the C. dialects.

,.

f 3.a.8 F-;URDlSH DJALECT STUOJBS i 328. From the following diagram it wiU be seen that there are two major lines of divition between the diaJccts treated here: (o) that betw«n A,b, (Sur.) and Ak., dividing North from Centre1 and ( b) that between Sul. and Bin., &c., dividing the more archaic Central dialcc,s (Ser. and Muk.) from !hose of Sul. and War., with their, IC2ning towards the Southern group.

)

...

...,,,. ;-;:'~"' ;-..,,.~-

;,,,,'j,Uin, l>U•, -atDa; Arb. ht/tin (bi.fin), vt. sift. hu£4n, 6ull, -area, vi. reccwer, conv#.lcsc;e. bi£4rdin, bilir-, -= Muk., vt. pick, u lcct. (Pit. bil4rtUI, roast, &ce lia.t ll, t.v.] lilu.in, liWt.-; d4 ~, vi, start, shy. la.m4n, «lllil-, = Muk.; Rdz. Mmll11, l6m-, vi. bend.

•libs, l-, c: Sor., Muk.: Sur. 16n, t-, vi. go. l4nin, lb- ; Sor., Muk. l4ndt'n, vt. .ow, linin., hit--.. - Sor., Muk., vt. 1 knit. 2 pluck, (aqin, laq,E-, vi. ttick,

be inserted.

lirilc4nin, liriUn-; Sor. -lindin, vt. shriek. 6rpiinin, lirpin-; Sor. -4ndin, vt. whisper tM4n, 1411-, -= Muk,, vj, drip. b#p4n, wpl-, = Sor., vi. a.tick, adMre.. llltin (lllm), la-, = Muk., vt. taste. dam4nin, damin-; Sor. -4,u!UI, vt. blow. •d4n, da-, -= Sor., Muk., vt. gl\'c.

•du, (hrntn), bin-; Sor., Mule. ditiJ,; War. f'WI., vt. ace. dirJuinffl, dirAln-, vt. utter, blurt out. diriin, dirii-, - Mule. ; War. ddrUI, diir-, vt. sew [JU]; """'°AIO, reap. dif4n, di//,., = Muk.; War. dUy4n, vi. tear, be torn. difln, dif-, - Muk., vt. teu. d6!4nin, dOlln-; Sor. -.indin, vt. lose a 1amt, itakL d6im, d61-, - Sor., vt. milk. •Mult:. d4ltin, d&·, vt. irrigate. dilin, set din. dt#all, dwl-,

= Muk., vi, speak.

dixln, d,.'~-, - Sor., Muk., vt. steal. tlo.wrn, d6.t•; War. ? WU'-; ~awa, vt, diaoover. fllt4nin,jllt.ln-; Sor. -4ndin, vt. whjstle.

/armibt,/armil-, = Sor., Mu.k., vt. order, deign.

KURDISH DIALECT STUDIES

•.fi,6(/)tm,fi,61-, - Sor., Muk., vt. te:ll. filin, fil·, = Mult., .;. fty.

fil"(4°Ji,,. -

lif;,,/_,r;..

fl14nffl,jlffn., ,,,. pus liqujd atool. Joc.."'6n,/owtl•, • Sor,, vi, pcrah,

tiJ4tt, ti'II-, = Muk.; War,ti'lyb• vi.. tumble. gil.6ftin, gi14/-, vt. rub, squ~ 11n, ,,... - Sor., Mule.; War. tdbt, vt. copulate: wiJlr. lf111}4", g,mjl-, vi. be possible, occur. pnill.,

z--, vi. rot.

tirtm, zi,/., • Muk,, ,i be caught, held. grtrlbt, pril·, = Mok., vt. flay bt w piu,. g4r4"ffl, g4rl,r-, vt. cluck. gi,slfff, ginb-; Sor. girtin; Wu. gi,1y4n; 44-, vi. light. be kindled. gin4tt, glrll-; War. tfrrylil; -= J:lt6n.

gi,tin, tu·, = Sor., Muk., vt. ta.kt, hoLd. •ti',yln, pr-; Sot. giryE.; Muk. l gitY4--, vi. weep. gdt!n, gall-, • Muk, ; Wu.gol)'tln, vi. wander.

=

gl14tt, gll-, Muk., vt. turn; .....awa, rcbtc, #fin, ,Ofl-, - Muk., vi. change.

,«ui, 14'-, co Muk., ,'l. clur'!ge.

gastin (tasi,a), gn-, = Mui:., vt. bite-. gal4n, g4/I,., vi t b loom, a glow. guim,gul-; Sor., Muk. kM/ln, Jad., vt. p~ ,quceu. g6tm, ptin, a« te11ti11. gt,:dstUl(tu4n},zu-; Muk.r,ti'"(tutin); Arb.g6stiA,g6z-; -aw, vt. move ltouu, Jiome. •gilUI (:ailti'n, 1oyltin), ga-, -= Sor,, Muk.; War. ga(yo)-. vi. arrivt, gttycfm11.,g4>'ht-; Sor, -4ndin, vt. cause tO arri,·c. ~ gastm. gn41f, ace pl:t.in. gftrDzi11, garu- 1vL roll in tlu dust.

,am.

NJ1n;.;r, haya, = Muk.; Arb. Myo, /rayt-; War, hos, vi. txilt, ltl14n, 8tt Jrntin. J,Wn, (h)ln-, = Muk.; Arb. Mn4rf, (h)ut-, vt. bring. A&.IFn, JrfAJ,; Mul:. /toMJ'n; Arb. htlltln, htm• j -.2wa, vt. pb.it• .Mll4,dl.'n, ace n4rdill. A41bt, Alff.., - Arb,; Pi!. hifin, lsil-, vt. grind, •lulti• (/:11411), (•)ll·, - Mui.; Arb. M-; Reh. (h)u-, vt. 1cm. •"41,11, t., • Sor., Mult., vi. come. •War, A4t,,-wd£n, if., ,1. bring.

u8

APPBNOl:X.. LlST OP \f8R8S

-{h),fwl(l)t;n, (h)4u,l(.f)-, -Mult. ; Alb. Mwiltin (h41'l(l)t;n), Mwl,; Bin. /1t'ht:-, vL throw. Mlo{/)on, ,.. 4wlln.

!Jaji.min, ? bo)t'm-, vi. be ltill. {J114n.UI, [jilln-; Sor. ~ndin, vt, neigh. /}aJ>aldn, ? bapa,1-, Mut., vi. be bewildertd. ba.imt, !Ja.,.£., - Muk.; ......awn, vi. reit. /,(Jfl)(!n, {JO'tJJI•, - Muk.., vi. stay, dwell.

=

Jlil4n, JMII-, = Mu.k. ; Arb. Jt1ran, vi, move. Ji',nin, Jim-, vi. move. /tin, /11·, Muk,, vt. chew.

=

Jinin, SOC 011Jut.rn.

kaftin, sec ltmotin. Jwkin, - kOJ:in. klt6n, kll•, Muk., vt. plough.

=

=

Muk.; Arb. Mrin, vt. dig out. h/6n (kulm), Aull-,= Muk. ; Ari>. kurlln; Sur. Mrilf, AM., vi, boil. ltanin(ka,in), Aan-; Muk. kandin, vt. dig. lumin, kan -, Muk., Arb.; pl~, vi. laugh. kt'rm41Un, kirmln- ; Sor. -4ndin, vt. crunch. Mlin (/t614"), k61-,

= •k,.'rdin, RJJ., = Sor., Mule., vt. do, mnke. ltiro(l)h'n, kir6J-, vt. crunch. kr.'rt4nin, = kun:4ml,,

1tr.·ria411, ? ltiriJxl- ; -awa, vi. compbin of pt,wrty. kiim, ltif-1 - Muk., vt. buy. lt.il4nin, ltifln•; Sor. -4ndin, VL scratch. A614nin, k6fht-; Sor. 4rtdiit, vt. J\eig:h. kll4n, Alf., • Muk., vt. pull. kll4n, Ju'Jl., = Muk,, vi. crawl. lto11n, Ml-, = Muk. ; ti~, vt. 11rlve. kulln, ace gulin. Jt.u.ftin, Ad-,== Muk., Arb.; Pit. kt'I.J-, vt. kill. lutwtin, km..,.,= Muk.; Arb. luJ(j)tin, km»-, vi. (all. kut4n, /tut~, - Muk., vt. ,trike. kutin , see icutin. Juhln, ~-. - Muk., vi. OC>Ugb. lti.x4nin, Nin•, vt, tcorcb, singe. Jcu..14n, kdl-, = Muk.; War. mdy4n; -afCO, vi. die doiAii, 0

liMn, h'kl-, 1414n) 1411-,

= Muk., vi. adhere. = Muk.; ......asoa, vi. implore. u9

KURDI SH DIALECT STUDIES 149"', lat-,= Muk., vi. move, aha.Jee. liir6nm, liirht-j Sor. -cbuiin, vt. bowl. la,ibt (win). larl-; """'OWQ, vi. wkt, trtmble. ~ lar:r-, Mok., vi. thivu, tremble. •li.ttm, /is-, = Muk.; Atb. Ustin; vt. lick. Ja,a, fw-., vi. be ,uita.ble..

=

'"""°""°•

14w4nVly 14tt;/,r-; Sor. -4ndin; -ama, vt. 1 soot~, z lament. lawa11n (~m). knvall-, Muk.., vi. graze.

=

m41hr, M41-; Muk. mtilin (m41tin); Arb. m4riir, m4r-, vt. sweep. •m4n, min-, - Muk.; Arb. mini-; Rdz. min-, vi. remain. mirdin, mu., - Mvk., vi. die. mif411ilr, rnilln-; Sor. -l!ndin, vt. growl. Mulc. tnllltin, mud-; f4 ~,vi.tit&.

Muk. mlstin, mb--, vi. uri.oatc, m4/tin., set m4/in. mom, ? m4>'b, vi. cozgulate. ll'l4Z14.ii, IMZ1'l-, ... Muk.; da vi. be ettablia~d. ,nj#in, mi£-, - Muk., ,1, tuck,

~,

,rik/9h'11, r.iA/IJfn-, vt.. moan. ml44.nUJ, m2M.rr-, vt. moan. •Nifn:, 111-, = M.uk., Arb.; War. n14n, ,i,i., vt. put. nuqmr, ,riiql-, vi. dole, cle.nch. IWdin (llan6rdin), ntr-, = Muk., Arb., vt. send.

ffiffn, tee 'IIWlftn. tr4n11, 114J..., - Sor., Muk., vt. k~, re~gn.iu. 1tJU411, ,riisl-, Mule., ,i. adhere. 114'br, ,..a,., - Muk.; Pi!., Sur. lfiwisin, nifois-, vt. write.

= -, = Sor., Mule,; Sur. l'liuistin, niw-, vi. sleep.

•n14tUI, d n4ltin, 1114-, - Muk., vt. bury.

nillin, nil-,= Sor., Muk,, vi.. ait, settle. n/Jlt4n, 1111lti-, = Mui., vi. foJd, bend. mo4nin. Mn•; Sor. -hdJ'n, vt. show. (ti.so cau.s. of rt.Gstin), Muk. 11WtJ;in, lfWtfl-; Aib. "6nn, n4f., = rw4nin. ntuin, tt4x-, vi. be proud. • p4/in, f,4l-, VL chop, clip. pil4n, pil-, Mu.le.., vt. fold. pUf14n, pi'lifi•, • Muk., vi. break, snap. p;.61ur, p1'li1-, Muk.,, vt. break, wt, KVer. jlllt4n, pilt-, vt. hit a 1Mrk. pil6tin, pi141-; Arb. por4sin, par6s-; 44 vt. maul.

= =

~,

'JO

APPENDIX. LIST OP VERBS

p414fflin, pafLto.., - Muk.; Arb. pllr4/tin, p6rfw.., vt. filter, attain. paqm, paq-, vi. split, burn. J':'";1iit, /"'rmU-, vi. trust.

punn, pv,-,

= Muk., vt. ask.

paristi,i., parist-, =- Mui:., vt. wQSolwn, pa16kl•, -= M ufc., vi. be oonfuscd. pillti.ni.n, pi.fkin-, =- Muk., vt. aami.nc, inapcct. pifkQtin, pi1ln l-, - M uk.; Arb. p.flAiftin, vi. bloom. pi/min, ace pilmin. pl/h, p;JE-, vi. be bokcd. po{i,1, p"1-, = Muk., vt. CO\'Cl', Muk. pi/4wtin, pillf'l'I-; Arb. pi14/tin; hill~, vt. rub, squeeze. pt,w4.n, piu:-, = Mule. ; A.rb. pfw4n, piw-, vt. measure. pihmn. pi'lm-; Muk., Arb. pilmbt, pi'fm--, vi. anccu. pil4n, pi.lb, vi. spurt.

qol,l41tin, IJ(Jblin-, vt. cwh:zate, assess.

giilanin, gulbt-, vt. clench. gili/an, tp'lili-; Muk. qalilin, qalil-; Arb. paltin, qarol-, \·i. aplit, crack. Muk. qal4/tUI, 9,0111-, v,. spliL (Jtl-Wm4n (gawmin), qmcml-, -= Muk., vi. happen. tp1p.4JI, (Jflpl•, vi. be dented. girl4n, gi,(1-; Isa/-, vi. 1 be scorched, a curl (lip). tp·;am·n, (/Uin• ; Sor. -4,idin, vt. imprecate. qif4n,'n., (Jfllff•, vt. croak, caw. (Jildnin., gi.lin- ; Sor. -llndin, vt. tcrcam.

fi/anin, fijln-; Sor. -4ndin, vt. sn2tch. fim4n (fimin). iiml•, vi. oollapse. f"m (fian), Ii-, co Mule..; Arb. fitin, vi(t), ,tool, {dcfccat~).

;anftin, fanfl•, == Mule., vi. be vcxod. fin&J, f in-, = Mule.., vt. scntch, •liltin, fls-,""' Muk. ; Arb. fhtin, vt. •pin, h11In, fi'f#., - Muk.; -awa, vi. ,•omit.

.,.

KORDISH OlALBCT STUOtES

'111411, Nil•, - Mul:., vi. bo sbradod. fa{t,.'", fal-, = War., vt. spply kohl to tlit ,yu. •Hlti11, ilL-, • Muk.; Arb. llfr,'11, \1, pou.r. fitin, eoe flit. fut4,c, iiitl-, ~ . \'L become bare. •~ ~ ftM•, i= Mul:.., vi.. grow, sprout. fuwin, ;aw-,= Muk.; -ow., vL shy, floe. hAfnin, ~4n-, • Mu.1. (tee nw-6H11), vL look at,

=

Arb.; Muk. hl#lbt, flal.-, vi. colbpte. fUut (16ittin, 16yn, IO}•ltUI), liJ-, Muk., vi. go. Idun, !hi•,= Muk.; .-..QU!d, vi. b& 11domcd, min (Nz5n), fhl-. • Mu.k,, vi, decay. liJ4,., fiEI-, - Muk., 'Ii. pbur, apill. fux4ft, Hlxl-,

=

tr1aMln, ? tilami-, --m.ra, vi. shy, flinch.

=

,,.'miff. lim-, Mui:., vt. bore, pierce. 1411, tee sttin. li1', nl•, Muk.; War. rr:in:; Art>. nr4nd,.'n, milt•, vt. rub.

=

•sa,(_tf)in (sl4n.in), i/Jr.-; Muk. astBndin, •sltlf4 ; Arb, 1t6ndin, Jtffl., vt,

cake, War. buy. iipmdllJ, n'pis- ; Muk. a,pllrdin, •,pir• ; Arb. pas4rdv,1 JHUh•, vt, commit, Ctl.tnlSt.

tup.iRin, =- tirj>4r.in.

#1'111.:WI (1irmtin), 1iravi•; Muk. 1.irawdtt, WatlJ.1-, vi. ra.t, relax, rifin. lif• ; Arb. 1tmn, t lif, ; Muk. anrlin, vt. wipe. 1'/IJt, liilb, • Muk.; Su.r. ffl,,"f/In, litn'f -, vi. .rcvt1!ve, circulate. •,(t)cfn, ,(th = l\fuk. ; !sat~ (had6n), vi. rise. Muk. ,1,m, 16J-; Reh. s4t-, vi. burn. tfittm, titl-, • Muk:., Arb., vi.. burn.

,t4triJr, tee ,m,din,

siitmlJ"n, S'U.tln -; Sor. -6ndin; Rdi. '4141ul£n, s6Jffl-, vt. burn. thin, 1bl•, - Muk., vi. be rccoocilcd.

Ol.41r. lkl•, • Muk.; \Var. lh'y6.n., vi. break. l4lt4tt, (akl-, c: Muk., vL &bake, tremble.

lolitt., /4/., -= Muk., vi. limp. llMII. UI-, = Muk.,, vt. tread, knead, l,.1a¢ft., f,.'la:Jl-; Arb. li16q4n, lil4ql•, vi. ,hake. Jim,,, Im-, ,•i. quiver,

glitter.

•14sd£n, 14r-, = Arb. ; Muk. llr•; .-....auia, vt. hide, Jirix4nin, = Grik4mn. •Jilin, '16-; Muk. ldiin; A.rb. lti.flut ; War.16td,.'n, f6r., vL wu h. Jbcdn, liwi•, i= Muk., vi. be disturbed.

l

APPEND IX. LIST OP VERBS lak4n, takl-, vi. shake.

liJum, likl-, = Muk., vi drip. tillfn, tiU-, vi. roll.

umm, ton-,= Mu.k., vt. plait. 14n;n, soc tw4n:F.n. tapln, tapf., vi. be comprtucd. t6pin, t6p-, vi. die, drop dead (animal). tagin., taq-, - Muk., vi. burat, pop.

togin (t6gmt). ttiq,l-, - Muk., vi. 1 burs-t, ~ be ttrrifu:d. tirakile, tiroJt.., vi. ¢rack. bunt, whdp, tiru.kiinin, tin2kln- ; Sor. ..mu/in, vt. blink. t6r4n, tlJrb ; War, t6ry4n, vi. be annoyed. tin·nJ41t, liri11JI-, vi. be crammed, awffcd into somt.tlting. •tirs4n, tin-; Muk., Arb. tirsl-, vi. be afraid. tirl4n, tirlt-, vi. ferment. tirlb6n, tirbl-, vi. comc apart. tifin, ti/.., ,•i. break wind. tiiurn, 1411-, Mu.k. vi.. choke. 14.lfn, tal•, -= Muk.., vt. cut, sba\·e. tUt4n, till-; hill ....., vi. crouch. lw4n, 1,,-. co Mule.; Atb. t4wdn) t4fll/.. ; .....arco, vi. melt.

=

tw4nin, t:mm,., -

tlUm, ta:,-,

Muk.; Arb. t4nin, tan-, vt. be able.

= Muk., vi. be numbed.

"'1q4ni•, "'1gln·, vt.

Cryuttcn9el

Put participle Compound tense•

Summary CetUin verbt

-·"""' -ratr """"'

Auxiliarict

Verbal C()Qtttuetiont Aaffl1ial CON.tNctton

Ag,n1iolwffix Direct Affect«

Ag,,,1,,.,,.Ugm, Indirect Affcctcc Two ,·erb1l codings Pusi\•e conju,-.tion

C.Uw.tive cor\lUiati4$

CONSPECTUS

''

ff

2