Kitab Jawi: Islamic Thought of the Malay Muslim Scholars 9789814376204

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I5EA5 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies was established as an autonomous organization in May 1968. It is a regional research centre for scholars and other specialists concerned with modern Southeast Asia. The Institute's research interest is focused on the many-faceted problems of development and modernization, and political and social change in Southeast Asia. The Institute is governed by a twenty-two-member Board of Trustees on which are representatives from the National University of Singapore, appointees from the government, as well as representatives from a broad range of professional and civic organizations and groups. A ten-man Executive Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is chaired by the Director, the Institute's chief academic and administrative officer.

The responsibility for facts and opinions expressed in this publication rests exclusively with the author and his interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of the Institute or its supporters.

KITAB JAWI: ISLAMIC THOUGHT OF THE MALAY MUSLIM SCHOLARS

Mohd. Nor bin Ngah

Research Notes and Discussions Paper No. 33

INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES 1983

Pub I i shed by Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Hang Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 0511 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retr i eva I system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, e I ectron I c, mechan i ca I, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute ot Southeast Asian Studies. © 1983 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

ISSN 0129-8828 ISBN 9971-902-29-X

CONTENTS

Page vii

PREFACE INTRODUCTION

1

The Literature of Kitab Jawi I

THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT

1

9

The Attributes of Allah

9

The Essence of Allah

11

The Attributes of the Messengers of Allah

12

The Origin of Man and the Creation of the Universe

13

The Process of Creation

15

The Creation of Adam and Eve

15

The Soul of Man

15

Punishment of the Grave

16

iii

Page

II

Paradise and Hell

17

Communication with Allah

18

The Freedom of Man

18

The Purpose of Creation of Man and Other Creatures

19

The Angels

20

The Jinns

20

THOUGHT ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF LIFE

27

Equality among Muslims

27

Muslim Solidarity

28

Women and Society

29

Choice of Spouse

31

Parent-Child Relationship

32

Value System: Knowledge

Seeking of 33

Material Values

34

I I I POLITICAL THOUGHT

40

The Sultan

40

iv

Page The Rebels

42

The Jihad

43

CONCLUSION

45

BIBLIOGRAPHY

46

Kitab Jawi

46

Other Books

51

v

PREFACE

The purpose of this study is twofold: firstly, to describe the contributions of Malay Muslim scholars ('ulama') to the development of Islamic studies in th1s region by collecting their scattered works known as Kitab Jawi (religious books written in the classical Malay language using Arabic characters) ;1 and secondly, to trace and investigate the Islamic thought of Malay Muslim scholars based on their works. From the early period of Islam in the Malay Archipelago until today, Kitab Jawi have been used by the Malays as a major source of Islamic knowledge because most Malays do not understand Arabic. Abdullah Munshi observed that Arabic was used by the Malays only in worship and prayers.2 Nowadays Kitab Jawi are still widely used in mosques, surau (prayer halls}, and pondok3 in Malaysia. They were written mostly during the peri ad from the nineteenth to the early twentieth century. Although the younger generation of Malays read and write in Rumi (the Romani zed script of the Malay language) and many religious books are now written in Rumi, their contents are not very different from those of Kitab Jawi .4 Some Kitab Jawi are simply rewritten in Rumi without change, for example, kitab Hikam by Ibn 'Ata• Allah and kitab Perukunan by 'Abd al-Rashid Banjar.5 vii

This study is based on Kitab Jawi which are available in print. Hikayat (stories) are not included because they are neither written by Islamic scholars nor used for teaching purposes. The stories are highly exaggerated and not based on historical facts.6 The Islamic thought under study includes theological, social, economic, and political thought only because these aspects of thought are frequently discussed by Malay Muslim scholars.

NOTES Literally, kitab means "book" and Jawi means "people of Java" which a I so refers to "Ma Iays" because the Arabs in the past considered all the people in the Malay Archipelago as Javanese; therefore the Malay writing using Arabic characters is called Jawi script. Kitab in Malay usage means only "reI i g i ous book"; the term Jaw i a I so refers to the peop Ie of Sumatra and Malays in general. See R. Roolvink, Bahasa Jawi (Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden, 1975), p. 2. 2

Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munshl, Hikayat Abdullah, trans. A.H. Hi I I (Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1970), p. 56.

3

Litera I I y, pondok means 11 hut 11 • These huts, usua II y bu i It near the house of the teacher, are where the students reside when receiving instruction on a wide range of Islamic studies.

4

However, using the Roman spelling when teaching Islamic rei igious knowledge reduces the accuracy in pronouncing the peculiar Arabic sounds. Therefore since 1980 Islamic knowledge has been taught in Jawi again in government schools in Malaysia, especially from Primary One to Form One.

5

Th is book i s most wide I y used because It contaIns a Imost a 11 aspects of basic Islamic teachings.

viii

6

For example, Muhammad 1 AI i Hanafiyah was described as a great warrior in Hikayat Ali Hanafiyah, but according to the sources of Is Iami c hi story, he did not take part in any batt Ie against the Lmayyad ca I i ph. On I y a 1-Mukhtar ibn Ab i 'Ubayd cIa i med that he fought on beha If of Muhammad. See Baladhuri, Ansab ai-Ashrat, V (Jerusalem, 1936), pp. 222-23.

ix

INTRODUCTION

The literature of Kitab Jawi

The writers of Ki tab J awi came from every corner of the Malay Archipelago and their villages or hometowns can be identified by their last names,l for example, al-Fatani (from Pattani), al-Falembani (from Palembang), and al-Funtiyani (from Pontianak). However, many of them remained anonymous; they did not wish to be named because they wrote for the sake of Allah, not for worldly purposes. A few authors of Kitab Jawi also wrote books in Arabic -- for example, Ahmad Fatani and Nawawi al-Bentani.2 Among the most popular and widely used Kitab are kitab Perukunan and kitab Jawharat ~awhid, a translation and a commentary respectively of Ibrahim al-Laqani • s work by an anonymous Malay Muslim scholar. According to Manning Nash, kitab Perukunan and Mutiara Tawhid [Pearls of Monotheism]3 are two major sources of religious knowledge in a small village in Kelantan where he conducted his research. Jawi

The sentence construction and style of writing of Kitab Jawi are greatly influenced by Arabic, and many Arabic words are used. The spelling is more brief and more cone i se than the modern J awi writing. Usually the authors of Kitab Jawi begin their writing like this: 1

In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate, I, a destitute, weak and worth 1ess person before the Lord rich and exalted, say ••• At the end of the kitab, they ask the readers to correct any mistakes found in their writings and they beg forgiveness from Allah. Usually one small kitab is combined with or affiliated to a bigger one. The sma 11 er ki tab is written in the margin of the bigger kitab. Almost all the names of Kitab Jawi are in Arabic, perhaps to attract the readers, but their contents are written in Ma 1ay. Many Kitab Jawi are translations or adaptations from Arabic, but 1oca 1 views are a 1so preva 1ent in the kitab. Sometimes even the title of the original book is changed, for example, kitab Umm al-Barahin by al-Sanusi (d. 895 A.H./1490 A.o.)4 was translated into Malay by Muhammad Zayn b. Jalal al-Oin in 1757 A.D. under the title Bidayat al-Hidayah. Muhammad Zayn al-Oin b. Muhammad Badawi al-Sambawi translated it under the title Siraj al-Huda in 1886 A.D. and a third translation was completed in 1890 by Zayn al- 1 Abidin b. Muhammad al-Fatani entitled •Agidat al-Najin. The Umm al-Barahin was used for teaching purposes in Malacca, as acknowledged by Abdullah Munshi ,5 as well as in Penyengat on the island of Riau, as noted by Raja Ali al-Haji.6 Several branches of Islamic knowledge are dealt with in Kitab Jawi, like Theology, Fiqh (Islamic law), Hadith (Tradition of the Prophet), and Sufism, but there are very few Tafsir (commentary on the Qur•an).7 The Malays only interpret the Qur•an when it is re 1event to their discussion. At the pondok, they usually use the Arabic Tafsir al-Jalalayn by alSuyut i a 1though an interpretation of the Qur• an was 2

written in Malay by Shaykh Aminuddin Abdul Rauf b. Ali al-Fansuri in the middle of the seventeenth century.8 There are also very few writings on Islamic hi story. The Bust an a 1-Sa 1at in by a 1-Rani ri cannot be considered as a rea 1 Is 1ami c hi story book because it was not based on the works of Ibn I shaq, Ibn Hisham, Baladhuri, Tabari, Ibn al-Athir and other primary sources which were written with Isnad (using a chain of narrators). Al-Raniri based h1s work on 1 Aja 1 ib al-Malakut and other unreliable books outside the sphere of Muslim historiography. There were no dates in the Bustan and therefore it is more 1 ike a hikayat than a h1storical work. It was only in 1922 that Syed Shaykh al-Hadi published his first 250-page book called al-Tarikh al-Islami [The History of Islam] which, as he originally planned it, was to consist of twenty vo 1umes. But the demand for the first vo 1 ume was disappointing and he therefore d i scant i nued the project. 9 However, according to Drewes, there is a trans 1at ion of Futuh a 1-Sham [The Conquest of Syria] by al-Waqidi (d. 874 A.D.), but since it is in manuscript form, it is not widely used.10 With reference to theology, Kitab Jawi explain the Sunni doctrine. When discussing Fiqh, the Kitab Jawi expound the Shafi • i school of thought. The1r discussions of Sufism include mainly the teachings of al-Ghazal i; the Tariqah (Sufi order) Naqshabandiyah, and Qadiriyah. Most Ki tab J awi were pub 1 i shed and printed in Singapore, Penang, Surabaya, Mecca, and Cairo, but today they are mostly reprinted in Penang (Malaysia). Generally, there are no copyrights; therefore they

3

are reprinted severa 1 times without dates permission from the next of kin of the authors. authors of some kitab are unknown.

and The

The scholars of Malay studies have not paid much attention to Kitab Jawi. However, Sir Richard Winstedt considered Kitab Jawi a part of classical Malay literature and cited several works of al-Raniri, Hamzah Fansuri, Shamsuddin of Pasai, Abd al-Samad of Palembang, and Daud b. Abdullah of Pattani, amongst others.11 There are, nevertheless, several Dutch contributions concerning Kitab Jawi, for example, Doorenbos • work on Hamzah Fansuri, the work of A.H. Johns on Abdul Rauf, Niewenhuize's dissertation on Shamsuddin, and Tudjimah's dissertation on al-Raniri, -- these works were all confined to Muslim scholars from Acheh. Syed Muhammad Naguib also focused his attention on the myst i ca 1- theo 1ogi ca 1 po 1emi c of al-Raniri versus Hamzah Fansuri.12 Drewes is the only one who has presented an exce 11 ent coiTITlentary and translation of a Javanese text and two Kitab Jawi (which he called Kitab-Malay) from Palembang in his work entitled Direction for Travellers on the Mystic Path. Ironically, Kitab Seribu Mas'alah [Book of the Thousand Questions}, written by Ki Agus Muhammad Mi zan 1 n 1273 A.H ./1856 A.D., received speci a 1 attention from Malay studies scholars despite the fact that the book was badly written and contained wrong quotations and interpretations of the Qur' an and wrong historical facts.13 Nevertheless, the book was edited and translated into Dutch by G.P. Pijper and published in Leiden in 1924. There are many more va 1uab 1e Kitab J awi written by Malay Muslim scholars which deserve our attention. One of the earliest Kitab Jawi available in 4

print is kitab Bad' Khalg al-Samawat wa al-Ard [The Beginning of Creation of the Heavens and the Earth] by Nur al-Oin b. 'Ali Hasan Jib. Muhammad Hamid al-Raniri who came from Rander, India, in the month of Rajab in 1047 A.H./1639 A.D .14 Written at the request of Sultan Iskandar Thani who reigned in Acheh between 1636 and 1641 A.D., the book contains the story of the creation of man, angel, jinn, and all things in the universe based on the Qur'an, Hadith, and stories told by Ka'b al-Ahbar.15 Al-Raniri also wrote a book on Fiqh (Islamic entitled Sirat al-MustaBim [The Straight Path] in 1044 A.H./1634 A.D. This oak was based on Minha~ al-Talibin by al-Nawawi, Minhaj al-Tullab arrd Fat al-Wahhab by Shaykh al-Islam Zakariyya Ansari (d. 927 A.H./1520 A.D.), and many more books of the Shafi • i school. Altogether he wrote about twenty-three books on several branches of Islamic religious knowledge including Theology, Fiqh, Sufism, and Hadith. !o.l'l)

In the 1atter part of the eighteenth century, Muhammad Arshad b. 'Abdullah al-Banjari wrote a Fiqh book named Sabil al-Muhtadin [The Way of the Guided]. He completed his work in 1195 A.H./1780 A.D. at the request of Sultan Tahmidullah bin Sultan Tamjidullah, the Sultan of Banjar. Al-Banjari said that Sirat al-Mustagim by al-Raniri contained many Achinese words, which were not widely understood. So he wrote his own book based on Sharh Minhaj by Zakariyya Ansari, Mughni by Khatib Sharbini, Tuhfah by Ibn Hajar al-Haitami ,16 Nihayah by al-Raml i, and other books of the Shafi'i school. On Sufism, 'Abd al-Samad al-Falembani wrote Hidayat al-Salikin in 1192 A.H./1778 A.D.; although 1t was a translation of Bidatat al-Hidayah by al-Ghazal i (d. 505 A.H./IIII A.b. , he added some of his personal views. He also wrote Sayr al-Salikin which was an adaptation from Ihya' 'Ulum al-D1n by al-Ghazali. 5

The most productive author of Kitab Jawi in the nineteenth century was Daud b. •Abdullah al-Fatani. He wrote more than twenty books, his greatest being Furu• al-Masa•n, a Fiqh book written in 1254 A.H./1838 A.D. based on Fatawa by al-Ramli and Kashf His book on prayers, a 1-L i tham by a1-Maha ll i. Muniyyat al-Musalli, was most popular and widely used among the Malays. Al-Fatani also wrote a book on theology entitled al-Durr al-Thamin [The Precious Pearls] in 1232 A.H./1816 A.D. and a book on Hadith called Jam• al-Fawa• id [A Collection of Useful Advice] in 1239 A.H./1823 A.D. On life after death, the punishment and agony of buri a1 , and the suffering of a dying man, Daud al-Fatani wrote a book named Kashf al-GhaiTlllah. Almost all his books were written while he was in Mecca. A book on Sufism entitled Hikam [Wisdoms] by Ibn •Ata• Allah was translated by an anonymous author and Taj al- 1 Arus [Crown of the Bride] also by Ibn 1 Ata' Allah was translated in 1304 A.H./1886 A.D. by •uthman b. Shihab al-Oin al-Funtiyani. In 1295 A.H./1878 A.D. Ahmad Khatib b. • abd al-Ghafar Sambas wrote Fath Al-Arifin [Door of the Learners] which describes the practices of the Tari gah or Sufi order of Qadiriyah and Naqshabandiyah. One of the most popular books on Theology and Islamic Jurisprudence is kitab Matla• al-Badrayn [Rise of the Two Full Moons] written by Muhammad b. Ismail Daud Fatani in 1303 A.H./1885 A.D. It is used as a textbook by some religious schools in Malaysia. On Hadith, 1 Abdullah b. 1 Abd al-Mubin wrote a book entitled Tanbih al-Ghafilin [Reminder to the Neglectful] in 1303 A.H./1885 A.D. and 1 Ali b. 1 Abd al-Rahman al-Kelantani wrote Jawhar al-Mauhub [A Presented Jewel] in 1306 A.H./1888 A.D., a 6

translation of 400 Hadith collected by Jalal al-O·in a 1-Suyut i. A simple book on Theology, Kitab Sifat Dua Puluh [Book of the Twenty Attributes] was written by 'Uthman b. 'Abdullah b. Yahya of Betawi in 1304 A.H./1886 A.D. Another, entitled Kashf al-Ghaybiyah, which tells us about the creation of the heavens and the earth, the creation of man, ange 1, and j inn, and life after death, was written by Zayn al-'Abidin b. Muhammad al-Fatani in 1301 A.H./1883 A.D. As all the above-mentioned books classified as Kitab Jawi are available in print and are still used by Muslims in Malaysia, this study will be based mainly on them.

NOTES Their I ast names are not surnames because Ma I ays do not have surnames. 2

Wan Muhammad Saghir b. 1972), p. 48.

'Abdullah, Dian,

No. 49 (Kota Bharu,

3

Manning Nash, Peasant Citizens: Politics, Religion, and Modernization in Kelantan, Malaysia (Ohio University, 1974), p. 48. I presume that Mutiara Tawhid [Pearls of Monotheism) is kitab Jawharat ai-Tawhid [Jewel of Monotheism) or Permata Tawhid -- Nash's translation is not very accurate.

4

The

Umm ai-Barahin

has

also

been

translated

into

French,

German, and English by J.D. Luciani, P. Wolff, and Frederick J. Barny respectively. 5

Abdullah b. Abdul Kadir Munshi, op. cit., p. 55. A.H. Hi II trans I ated Umm a 1-Barah in as "Mother of Exp I a nations", but I think "Mother of Proofs" is more accurate.

7

6

Raja Ali ai-Haji, Tuhfat ai-Nafis (Singapore, 1965), p. 335.

7

G.W.J. Drewes cited three Tafsir books translated into Malay, but they are not available in print. See Drewes, Directions for Travellers on the Mystic Path (The Hague, 1977), p. 217.

8

HAMKA, Pengantar Qur 'an a 1-Kar Im H.B. Jas In (Jakarta 1977) , p. 7. Abdul Raufts interpretation is not identical to Baydawi ts Tafsir although his translation is entitled Tafsir Anwar Baydawi.

9

Ll Chuan Slu, A Blrd's-eye View of the Development of Modern Malay Literature (Kuala Lumpur, 1970), p. 10.

10

Drewes, op. cit., p. 218.

11

R.O. Winstedt, A History of Classical Malay Literature (Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1969), pp. 135-54.

12

Syed Muhammad Naguib a 1-Attas, AI-Rani r i and the Wuj ud i yyah of the 17th Century Acheh, tlonograph of Ma Iays ian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore, 1966).

13

According to sources of Islamic history, 'Abdullah ibn Salam did not ask the Prophet the one thousand questions -- he became Muslim immediately after the Prophet arrived at Medina or, according to others, when the Prophet was still at Mecca. Encyclopaedia of Islam I (Leiden, 1960), p. 52.

14

a I-Rani r i , Bad 1 Kha I q a 1-Samawat wa a l-Ard ( in the margIn of kitab Taj ai-Mulk) (Penang, n.d.), p. 8.

15

A Yemeni te Jew who became a convert to Is Iam probab Iy in 17 A.H./638 A.D. and is considered the oldest authority on Judaeo-lslamic traditions.

16

The Tuhfah was trans Iated into Javanese and then into Dutch by L. De Vries, Kitab Toehaph en Tuhfat ai-Muhtadj li Sjarkh ai-Minhaj (Batavia, 1929). The Minhaj has also been translated into French, and from French into Eng I ish.

8

I

THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT

The authors of Kitab J awi stress various aspects of theology in their works. They devote a great deal of effort to explaining the attributes and essence of Allah and the Messengers of Allah, jinns, and angels. Explanations of the creation of the universe, the world, and man are also present in their writings. The character and position of man vis-a-vis the world and Allah is another theological theme which dominates Ki tab J awi. These rna in theo 1ogi ca 1 themes are presented in greater detail in the following sections.

The Attributes of Allah On theology, the Malay Muslim scholars follow the school of Ash•ari (d. 935 A.O.)l which accepts the dialectics to assist rational use of Greek theologizing and supply logical bases for Islamic doctrines.2 The introduction of 1ogi ca 1 categories of wa~ i b (necessary), mustahil (inadmissible), and ja iz (admissible), together with logical proof of Allah's existence and doctrines on the theory of knowledge completed the final acceptance of Aristotelian logic into the fold of Islamic theology.3 9

Before discussing the attributes of Allah, Kitab

J awi exp 1a in that every person of sound mind shou 1d

know the law of reason (hukum 'aqal) which is limited to the above three categories, that is, waj i b mustahil and ja'iz. According to Ash' ari, there are thi rteen4 attributes of Allah that are wajib (necessary) and that every Muslim must believe. They are: wujud (existence), qidam (state of non-origination), baga 1 (permanence), mukhalafah li al-hawadith (difference from the created), qif, p. 44.

54

Daud b. •Abdullah ai-Fatani, Jawahir ai-Saniyah (Singapore, n.d.), pp. 18-19; Bad' Khalq, pp. 24-30; Anonymous, Usul ai-Tahqiq (combined with Miftah ai-Jannah) (Penang, n.d.), p. 24.

55

This is explained by the Qur•an, "Or do they think We hear not their secret and what they conspire together? Yes, indeed, and Our messengers are present with them writing it down." XLIII: 80.

56

Jawharat ai-Tawhid, p. 42; Daqa 1 iq ai-Akhbar, p. 20; Muhammad Azhar i b. 1 Abdu I Iah a 1-Fa Iemban i, 'At i yah a 1-Rahman (In the margin of kitab Siraj ai-Huda) (Penang, n.d.), p. 26.

57

The Qur 1 an, LV: 15; Bad• Khalq, p. 48.

58

lbl is is the father of Satan, Zayn ai-'Abidin b. Muhammad ai-Fatani, 1 Aqldat ai-Najin (Singapore, n.d.), p. 138.

59

The Qur•an, XVIII: 50; Bad' Khalq, p. 48.

60

Bad 1 Khalq, p. 51; Azhari (Singapore, n.d.), p. 4.

61

Tuhfat ai-Raghibln, p. 23.

62

Zayn ai- 1 Abidln b. Muhammad ai-Fatani, Kashf ai-Litham, (Cairo, 1308 A.H./1890 A.D.), p. 6; Muhammad b. Ismail ai-Fatani, Wishah ai-Afrah (Cairo, n.d.; reprinted., Penang, n.d.), p. 12.

26

ai-Khalidi,

Qisas

I Imu Had i th

ai-Anbiya•

II

THOUGHT ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF LIFE

In addition to thea 1ogi ca 1 thought, the authors of Ki tab J awi are a 1so concerned with presenting basic beliefs and orientations toward social and economic aspects of 1 i fe. They attempt to present a mode 1 of social and economic life for Muslims to use as a These guide in their dealings with each other. aspects, presented in more detail in the fo 11 owing sections, include such topics as women and society, the choice of a spouse, parent-child relationships, and the essential elements of a value system.

Equality among Muslims All believers of Islam possess equal rights and duties in the community to which he or she may be admitted regardless of sex, class, office, or position. In Islam all men are equal; Islam discards racial distinction and admits no other criterion save that of piety, as is explained by the Qur'an, 11 Verily, the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Allah is Knower, Aware ... 1 The Prophet also said,

27

11

The Paradise is for the

pious man, even if he is a slave from Abyssinia, and the Hell is for the villain even if he is a noble Quraysh i • "2

Muslim Solidarity Kitab Jawi emphasize the importance of solidarity in society -- Qat• al-arham or severing relationships with other Muslims or relatives is a grave sin. One Hadith explains that if a person severed links with his society and then died without repentance, he would die as a disbeliever.3 The Prophet also said, "A Muslim who does not speak to his fell ow Muslims for more than three days and dies, will go to Hell."4 From the cradle to the grave, a Muslim must live together and co-operate with other members of his society, for example, if a man was sick, it is sunnah to visit him and if he died, it is fardu kifayah to attend the funeral.5 The dead must be buried quickly -- according to a Hadith, he who dies in the early morning ought not to rest at midday anywhere but in his grave.6 Urgent work like this must be done in co-operation with other members of the society, otherwise it cannot be accomplished. The prayer of Jama • ah7 or prayer in a congregation is also fardu kifayah. The whole community in a village or town are guilty of sin if they do not conduct prayers in a congregation in surau or mosques. Furthermore, the reward of such prayer is twenty-seven times more than the reward of prayer offered at home and alone.8 The reason for the emphasis on prayer in a 28

congregation is to unite the Muslim society, as is explained by the Qur•an, And hold fast all of you together, to the rope of A11 ah and do not separate ...... 9 11

Praying in a congregation can be performed at the time of usual daily prayers, that is, five times a day -- at dawn, at noon, in the afternoon, at sunset, and at nightfall. All Muslim prayers must be said in a definite way, bowing and prostrating in the direction of Ka•bah.lO Friday prayer is also important for the unity and solidarity of Muslims. It rests on direct command.ll It is fardu • ain (bounden duty) of every Muslim personally to attend public noon prayer with the congregation at the mosque. If a person does not perform this prayer three times consecutively, Allah will stamp his heart (close his heart to Iman or faith).l2 The Hajj or pi 1grimage to Mecca is the fifth foundation on which Islam is built up. The performance of this pilgrimage once at 1east in his lifetime is obligatory for every Muslim.l3 The Hajj signifies the brotherhood of all Muslims in this greatest of all international assemblies. Besides the Hajj, the payment of Zakat or Charity Tax is another duty that continually reminds Muslims that Believers are brothers ... l4 11

Women and Society

In Islamic society women are respected and considered as companions who share men•s sorrow, joys, and burdens. When she is a child, it is obligatory for the girl•s father to support and look after her until 29

she gets married. After marriage, the obligation is transferred to her husband, and if she becomes a widow, her children (or if she has no children, her · brothers) are obliged to support her.15 From the cradle to the grave, a woman in Islamic society is supported and looked after by her father, brother, husband, and children. A woman does not have to worry about earning a living; family structure is large and in it she can find a place and take refuge from soci a1 and economic pressures even if she has no father or husband. Therefore, the inheritance share of a female heir is half of that allotted to a male.16 Man bears all economic responsibility. It is his duty to support his family completely even if his wife is rich and despite the fact that she is completely independent economically; he therefore receives a daub 1e share according to Is 1ami c 1aw of inheritance.17 Many Kitab Jawi explain the responsibility of a woman towards her husband; some simply confine their discussions to the responsibilities of husband and wife, like kitab Muhimmah and •ugud al-Lajjayn. Most, however, discuss and explain the punishment towards the woman who is unfaithful to her husband. Thus, the Malay Muslim scholars provide only one-sided exp 1anations. Near 1y every chapter of the kitab discusses the responsibilities of a wife and only a few pages mention those of a husband. For example: The Prophet said, "If a human being can prostrate to another human being, I sha 11 ask every woman to prostrate to her husband."18 Disobedience towards one•s husband is amongst the greatest sins. Going out of the house without 30

first obtaining permission from the husband considered disobedient and is forbidden.19

is

A good follows:

as

woman

is

depicted

by

Kitab

Jawi

The Prophet said, "A Muslim cannot obtain (after righteousness) anything better than a well disposed, beautiful wife: such a wife who, when ordered by her husband to do anything, obeys; and if her husband looks at her, is happy; and if her husband swears by her to do a thing, she does it to make his oath true; and if he be absent from her, she wishes him well in her own person by guarding herself from inchastity, and takes care of his property."20

Choice of Spouse The Malay Muslim scholars offer guidance in choosing a bride: The Prophet said, "A woman may be married for four qualifications: One on account of her money; another on account of the nobility of her pedigree; another, on account of her beauty; a fourth, on account of her faith; therefore 1ook out for religious women, you will be rich."21 The purpose of marriage is to have children. •umar ibn al-Khattab said, "I do not marry except for purpose of getting some children."22 Hence, it is sunnah (commendable) to marry a fertile woman.23 It 1s also sunnah to marry a woman who is not a close relative, a first cousin for example, as this relationship will produce weak children.24 31

Parent-Child Relationship Kitab Jawi explain in detail the duties of a parent towards a child and the duties of a child towards his parent, for example: The Prophet said, .. Verily, for a man to teach his child manners is better for him than to give one bushel of grain in alms ... 11

No father has given his chi 1d anything better than good manners ... 25 The Prophet also said, 11 Say to a good child: Do as you 1 ike, you will not go to Hell, and say to the Do as you like, you will not enter bad child: Paradise ... 11

The consent of Allah is in the consent of parents and the wrath of Allah is in the wrath of parents ... 26 Parental obligations must be observed strictly in Islamic society. There is a Hadith which explains that everybody is responsible in society and in the family: The Prophet said, .. Everyone of you is a ruler and everyone of you shall be questioned about those under his rule; the king is a ruler and he shall be questioned about his subjects; and the man is a ruler in his family and he sha 11 be questioned about those under his care; and a woman is a ruler in the house of her husband and she shall be questioned about those under her care; and the servant is a ruler so far as the property of his master is concerned and he sha 11 be questioned about that which is entrusted to him ... 27

32

Value System:

Seeking of Knowledge

According to Kitab Jawi, acquisition of knowledge is obligatory to all believers, male or female.28 Some Kitab Jawi confine their discussions to the importance of knowledge and its value like kitab Hidayat al-Mukhtar which comments on forty Hadith pertaining to the value of knowledge.29 However, most Kitab Jawi define knowledge as "Islamic knowledge" only. Therefore it is obligatory for every Muslim to learn the Shari 1 ah or Islamic law and know the Essence of Allah and His attributes.30 This suggests that "worldly knowledge" is not as important. Only kitab Hidayat al-Salikin explains that any kind of knowledge which benefits mankind should be learned. A man who goes out of his house in the early morning to study a part of knowledge is better off than if he were to say one thousand rak 1 ah of prayers; however, he must be sincere in his study for the sake of Allah and not for money or any worldly ambition.31 Qur 1 an reading is very much emphasized -- every Muslim must learn to read it correctly. Allah gives rewards to any Muslim who can read even a single verse correctly even without knowing the meaning of it. To read the Qur'an with wrong pronunciation and not according to Tajwid (art of reading) is sinful, therefore learning the Tajwid is obligatory.32 Many Kitab Jawi confine their teachings to the Tajwid or art of reading the Qur 1 an, for example, kitab Tajwid al-Qur 1 an, kitab Tuhfat al-Ikhwan and others, but very few translate and comment on the Qur'an.33

33

Material Values Very few Kitab Jawi speak about the material welfare of man, whether as an individual or as a group, or both. Many kitab denounce material life or worldly enjo~nent. Below are examples of some such statements. "The Prophet said: The world is a dirty corpse, the persons who look for it are dogs."34 "The Prophet said: Live in this world as if you are a foreigner or trave 11 er, and consider yourself as an inhabitant of the grave."35 "The Prophet said: This world is a prison for the believers and paradise for the disbelievers ... 36 "Umar ibn al-Khattab said: Do not enter the houses of the rich because the wrath of A11 ah is on them. "37 "Poverty is one of the treasures of Allah and one of His blessings."38 Many more Kitab Jawi speak about the abuse of worldly 1ife; only a few of them discuss economic affairs. The rest deal mainly with 'Ibadat, that is, worship in Muslim law. The majority of Malays in Malaysia live in rural areas and economically theirs is a peasant society. There is a Hadith pertaining to agriculture: The Prophet said, "Any Muslim who plants a tree or cultivates crops, then it is eaten by bird, man or beast, the reward wi 11 be given to the p1anter. "39 This is conveyed by al-Bukhari. 34

This Hadith means that any Muslim, man or woman, will be rewarded even if his crops or produce were to be eaten by birds, human being or beasts. This Hadith encourages Muslims to work hard because their efforts will be rewarded -- they will not be in vain. It also implies that agriculture is important for the economy of every country. However, only one Kitab J awi, that is, a 1-J awhar a 1-Mawhub emphasizes th1 s Hadith although 1t is very 1mportant for Malay peasant society.40 On the importance of trade and commerce, only one or two Kitab Jawi relate a Hadith transmitted by a 1- Ti rmi dh i : "The honest merchant wi 11 be with the Prophets, the believers and martyrs in the world to come. "41 On marriage, divorce, adultery, slaves, and inheritance, the explanations of Kitab Jawi are i dent i ca 1 to the exp 1a nations of Arabic Fi qh books which follow the Shafi'i school. No further e 1 abo ration wi 11 therefore be given here. The same a 1so app 1 i es to certain aspects of economic matters 1 ike contracts, debts, ri ba, or the taking of interest. ----

NOTES The Qurlan, XLIX: 13; Husayn b. Muharm~ad, Uns ai-Muttaqln (combined with kitab Tanbin ai-Ghafi I in) (Cairo, 1938), p. 31. 2

1 Abd

a I-Ra 1 uf Fansur I Acheh, a 1-Mawa 1 I z a 1-Bad I I ah (comb I ned

with kitab 3

Anonymous,

Muhirm~ah)

Sharh

(Penang, 1949), p. 60.

usul

ai-Tahqiq

Penang, n.d.), p. 31.

35

(Cairo,

1936; reprint ed.,

4

Anonymous, 'Uqud ai-Lajjayn (in the margin of ai-Yawaqit wa ai-Jawahir) (Surabaya, n.d.), pp. 47-48.

5

Zayn

al-'abidin

b.

Muharm~ad

ai-Fatani,

lrshad

kitab

al- 1 I bad

(Singapore, n.d.), p. 14; Muharm~ad Arshad b. 'Abdullah, Sabil ai-Muhtadin, I (Singapore, n.d.), pp. 65, 68; Fardu kitayah is not obligatory tor every individual of the Muslim community -- it only a few fulfi I it, it is sufficient, but it none fulfi Is it, the whole community is guilty of sin.

6

Kasht a 1-Ghammah, I, pp. 91-92.

7

Prayer must be performed in a group with at I east one (leader) and one ma'mum (follower).

8

Furu' ai-Masa'i I, I, pp. 97-110; ai-Fatani, Muniyat ai-Musall i {Cairo, Penang, n.d.), p. 20.

9

The Qur 1 an, Ill: 102; Muniyat ai-Musalli, p. 20.

10

Some K i tab Jaw i cont i ne to the questions kitab Mau'izah li ai-Nas and others.

11

The Qur 1 an, "0 believers, when proclamation is made tor the Day of prayer on Congregation, hasten to God 1 s remembrance and leave trafficking aside, that is better tor you, did you but know." LXII: ai-Mubtadi {Penang, n.d.l, p. 34.

12

Nur ai-Din

ai-Raniri,

Sirat ai-Mustaqim

kitab Sabil ai-Muhtadin), 21. 13

Daud b. 'Abdu I I ah n.d.; reprint ed.,

of

prayer

Anonymous,

(in

I ike

Bidayat

the margin

of

1, p. 220; Muniyat ai-Musalli, p.

The Qur 1 an, "And proclaim among men the Pilgrimage, and they shall come unto thee on toot and upon every lean beast, they shall come from every deep ai-Mustaqim, II, pp. 150-60.

14

9;

Imam

ravine."

XXII:

27;

Sirat

The QUr 1 an, XLIX: 10; Sabi I ai-Muhtadin, II, pp. 95-108. All Fiqh books by Malay Mus I im scholars explain that Zakat

36

on the agricultural products should be confined to cereals and tru its, but according to the reso Iuti ons of the Zakat Seminar at Peta I i ng Jaya on 1 January 1980, Zakat must be imposed on all agricultural products. 15

Daud b. 'Abdullah ai-Fatani, Jam' ai-Fawa 1 id (Penang and Singapore, n.d.), pp. 235-41; ldah ai-Bab (Cairo, n.d.; reprinted., Penang, n.d.), pp. 52-57.

16

The Qur 1 an, 11 AI Iah charge you, concernIng your chi Idren: to the rna Ie the I ike of the portion of two fema Ies ••• 11 1v: 1 Abd I I; ai-Ra 1 uf ai-Fansuri Acheh, Kitab ai-Fara' id (combined with kitab Kitayat ai-Chulam) (n.d.), pp. 48-49.

17

Nur ai-Din ai-Raniri, ai-Fawa'id ai-Bahiyah (in the margin of kitab Jam'ai-Fawa'id) (Singapore and Penang, n.d.), p. 235.

18

Muhimmah, p. 21.

19

Anonymous, Uqud ai-Lajjayn (combined with kitab ai-Yawaqit wa ai-Jawahir) (Surabaya, n.d.), p. 3. This teaching is reflected in Malay society -- generally Malay women ask permission from their husbands to go out of their houses.

20

1

21

Ibid.; ldahai-Bab, p. 4. Thus,· in Malay society rei igion is one of the criteria tor judging the value of a woman.

22

r Abd a 1-Samad a 1-Fa Iemban i, Singapore, n.d.l, I I, p. 22.

23

ldah ai-Bab, p. 4; Anonymous, Kltab ai-Nikah n.d.l, p. 3; 1 Uqud ai-Lajjayn, p. 48.

24

Ibid.

25

Muhyi al-Oin, Acheh, Kitab ai-Lubab (in the margin of kitab Kashf ai-Ghaybiyah) (Singapore, n.d.), pp. 109-10.

Uqud ai-Lajjayn, pp. 16-17.

37

Sayr

a 1-Sa I I kIn

(Penang

and

(Singapore,

26

Ibid., pp. 106-107; •All b. 1 Abd ai-Rahman ai-Jawhar ai-Mawhub (Penang, n.d.), p. 156.

27

ai-Fawa•id ai-Bahiyah, pp. 166-67; ai-Yawaqit wa ai-Jawahlr, p. 33; •Uthman b. Shlhab al-Oin Funtiani, Tanwir ai-Qulub

al-kelantani,

(Cairo, 1346 A.H./1927 A.D.), p. 24. 28

Uns ai-Muttaqin, p. 26.

29

HI day at a 1-Mukhtar by Tuan Hasan b. Tuan Abdu II ah Fatan i (combined with kitab Bad' Khalq ai-Samawat wa ai-Ard) ~~~~~~~~~------~~~ (Mecca, 1328 A.H./1910 A.D.).

30

usul ai-Tawhid, pp. 4-10; Sayr ai-Sal ikln I, p. 19. Thus, a I though the pursuit of know I edge is encouraged in Ma I ay society, it is con f i ned most I y to Is I ami c know I edge; on I y recently has this attitude changed.

31

•Abd ai-Samad ai-Falembani, Hidayat ai-Sal ikin (Cairo, n.d.; reprinted., Singapore, n.d.), p. 5. Islam, according to its true nature, does not make any distinction between "rei igious science" and "worldly science", because it is a social rei iglon. See Charis Waddy, The Mus I im Mind (London and New York, 1978), p. 139.

32

lsma'i I b. 1Abd ai-Mutall ib Acheh, Tuhfat al-lkhwan (Cairo, n.d.; reprint ed., Singapore, n.d.), pp. 2-3; Anonymous, Tajwid ai-Qur•an (combined with Miftah ai-Jannah) (Penang, n.d.), pp. 38-40.

33

The emphasis on Qur 1an reading and ceremony.

34

1 Aqidat Jawharat ai-Tawhid, p. ai-Najin, 42; a 1-Mawa 1 i z a I -Bad i 'ah, p. 72; Uns ai-Muttaqin, 1 Uthman b. Sh i hab al-Oin ai-Funtiani, Taj ai-1Arus n.d.), p. 55.

35

1 Uthman b. Shihab al-Oin ai-Funtiani, (Cairo, 1324 A.H./1906 A.D.), p. 45.

38

is ref I ected

in Ma I ay custom

p. 80; p. 30; (Penang,

Fath ai-Mutafakkirin

36

Ibid.

37

Uns ai-Muttaqin, p. 31.

38

Ibid., p. 32; Kitab ai-Lubab, p. 88.

39

Bukhari, ai-Jami' ai-Muzara'ah.

40

'Ali b.

41

Fath ai-Mutafakkirin, p. 19.

1

ai-Sahih

(Paris,

1928),

I.

Abd ai-Rahman ai-Kelantani, ai-Jawhar ai-Mawhub.

39

kitab

III POLITICAL THOUGHT

The religion of Islam also provides a guide to the political system which governs a Muslim society. The authors of Ki tab J awi devote their writings to an explanation of this political system, in which they stress three important elements: firstly, the role of the Sultan, secondly, the position of rebe 1s, or opposition, and thirdly, the meaning of jihad.

The Sultan In Islam, the Supreme Commander of the Muslim community after the death of the Prophet is ca 11 ed ,. Imam" or Ca 1i ph .1 But after the power of the Ca 1 i ph in Baghdad became very weak, the provinces of the Caliphate were ruled by independent governors who called themselves "Sultan". Thus, in his own dominion every Sultan was absolute ruler in matters both spiritual and temporal. During this time Islam came to the Ma 1ay Arch i pe 1ago, and the Ma 1ays therefore ca 11 ed their Supreme Commander ,. Su 1tan,.. The Sultan must be supported by the "ul ama" or re 1i gi ous scho 1ars, because re 1 i gi on is not separate from politics, and religion is the basis of the authority. 40

According to the Malay Muslim scholars, the installation of the Sultan or King is Fardu kifayah: the election of the King is valid only if it is conducted by qua 1 ifi ed persons 1 ike "u 1ama" and other such important persons; or by will as in the case of Abu Bakr who appointed •Umar as his successor; or by the King who has the power to appoint his son.2 Kitab Jawi support the Sultan by considering him a shadow of Allah upon the earth. Disobedience is only permissible in the event of the ruler•s decisions being manifestly contrary to the Qur•an and the Hadith as is explained by Muniyat al-Musalli: The Prophet said, "Respect the Sultan and honour him, because he is the honour of Allah and the shadow of Him upon the earth if he is a just Sultan."3 The Prophet also said, "Seven persons will be shaded by A11 ah on the day where there is no shade except His shade, they are just rulers ••• "4 Although Kitab Jawi by Malay Muslim scholars support the Sultan, they warn him not to rule unjustly. According to Ma•qil ibn Yasar, "Verily, the Messenger of Allah observed: A11 ah does not entrust to His servant the responsibility of managing the affairs of his subjects if he is a dishonest ruler; Paradise will be forbidden by Allah for such a ruler."5 The Prophet said, "There is no servant to whom Allah bestoweth the 1eadershi p of a peop 1e and who passes away when he passes away, he being dishonest to his people, unless Allah forbiddeth on him the entry to Heaven."6

41

Thus, in political affairs, Kitab Jawi support the Sultan but at the same time sternly warn him to be just and honest. Be 1ow are some verses of the Qur•an quoted by Kitab Jawi: Allah said, .. David, behold, We have appointed thee a viceroy on earth; therefore judge between men justly •••• "? .. For wrong-doers [unjust rulers] we have prepared a fire whose [smoke and flamesl like the wall and roof of a tent, will hem them in."B The ruler also stressed that the prayer of the oppressed is usually accepted by A11 ah because there is no veil between them and Allah.9 Imam al-Ghazali also said that it is wrong to pray for the unjust ruler, because if we do that it means we like the wickedness and sin on earth.lO

The Rebels If a group of Muslims rebel against the Sultan or a just ruler, for example, by refusing to pay zakat (tithe), the government must fight them 1nto submission, but the prisoners shou 1d not be k i 11 ed, they who flee should not be pursued, and their properties should be returned to them.ll Sometimes the uprisings take place because of misunderstanding, in which case the ruler must send scholars to advise the people and find peaceful solutions.l2

42

The Jihad

Jihad means fighting a holy war and it is fardu kifayah for able-bodied Muslims to fight. If the enemy comes to a Muslim land, it is obligatory for the people to declare j i had.13 On murder and theft all Kitab Jawi follow the law of the Shafi'i school.

NOTES The word 11 Imam" means pr i mar i Iy an exemp Iar, head, or Ieader who is followed by the people. Caliph (Khal ifah) means successor, that is successor of the Prophet. See Ibn Manzur, Lisan ai-Arab XIII (Beirut, 1955), pp. 24-25; IX, p. 83. 2

Zayn ai-'Abidin b. Muhammad ai-Fatani, (Cairo, 1308 A.H./1890 A.D.l, p. 362.

3

Muniyat ai-Musall I, p. 31. (sound).

4

ai-Fawa' id ai-Bahiyah, transmitted by Bukhari.

11

5

Muniyat ai-Musalli, p. 31. This Hadith is transmitted by a Muslim, see Sahih Mus I im, kltab al-lmam, Hadith no. 261.

6

ai-Fawa•ld ai-Bahiyah, p. 158.

7

The Qur 1 an, XXXVI I 1: 26; ibid., p. 160.

8

The Qur'an, XVI I 1: 29; Munlyat ai-Musalli, p. 35.

9

ai-Fawa 1 id ai-Bahiyah, p. 180; Munlyat ai-Musal I I, p. 36.

10

Sayr ai-Sallkln 11. p. 85.

However, this Hadith is not sahlh

p.

43

Kashf ai-Litham

158.

Th i s

Had i th

is

sah i h,

11

Daud b. 'Abdullah ai-Fatani, Sui lam ai-Mubtadi (Surabaya, n.d.), p. 24; Muhammad Nur b. Muhammad ai-Fatani, Kifayat ai-Muhtadi (Penang, 1351 A.H./1923 A.D.), pp. 317-19.

12

Jawahir ai-Saniyah, pp. 202-203.

13

Ibid., pp. 210-11; Kifayah ai-Muhtadi, pp. 320-21.

44

CONCLUSION

Thus we can see that the theological, economic, social, and political thought of the Malay Muslim scholars is identical in principle to the Islamic thought of other Muslim scholars. However, in some cases the Malay Muslim scholars have their own interpretations and perceptions. Their exp 1anations emphasize •Aga•id (Beliefs) and Ibadat (Devotional work 1ike prayers, fasting, and Hajj). Their works, Kitab Jawi, have a strong influence on Malay society and adherence of the Malays to Islamic religious knowledge continues to be a potent force in the region. 1

45

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THE AUTHOR Mohd. Nor bin· Ngah is Lecturer at the Department of Islamic Studies, University of Malaysia. A research fellow at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in 1980, Mohd. Nor's current research interest is Islamic history and Islamic thought in Southeast Asia. He has published several articles including 11 Some Writing of the Traditional Malay Muslim Scholars Found in Malaysia", Tamaddum Islam (1980) and 11 The Influence and Contributio n of the Khawarij During the Umayyad Period", Islamika (1981).