Khashabian: A Late Paleolithic Industry from Dhofar, southern Oman 9781407312330, 9781407342009

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BAR S2601 2014

British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 15 Series editors: D. Kennet & St J. Simpson



Khashabian

HILBERT

A Late Paleolithic industry from Dhofar, Southern Oman



Yamandú Hieronymus Hilbert

THE KHASHABIAN

B A R

BAR International Series 2601 2014

British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 15 Series editors: D. Kennet & St J. Simpson

Khashabian A Late Paleolithic industry from Dhofar, Southern Oman

Yamandú Hieronymus Hilbert

BAR International Series 2601 2014

ISBN 9781407312330 paperback ISBN 9781407342009 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407312330 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monograph Series Series editors: D. Kennet & St J. Simpson British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monograph Series (formerly Society for Arabian Studies Monograph Series) was launched in 2004 with the intention of encouraging the publication of peer-reviewed monographs on the archaeology, early history, ethnography, epigraphy and numismatics of the Arabian Peninsula and related matters. Creating a specific monograph series within the British Archaeological Reports International Series is intended to allow libraries, institutions and individuals to keep abreast of work that is specifically related to their areas of research. Whilst research and conference volumes in the series will all be peer-reviewed according to normal academic procedures, the decision was taken to allow the publication of doctoral theses, field reports, catalogues and other data-rich work without peer review where this will permit the publication of information that, for one reason or another, might not otherwise be made available. Already published: BAR –S1248, 2004 Sasanian and Islamic Pottery from Ras al-Khaimah Classification, chronology and analysis of trade in the Western Indian Ocean by Derek Kennet with a contribution by Regina Krahl. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 1. ISBN 1 84171 608 1. BAR –S1269, 2004 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002 edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 2. ISBN 1 84171 622 7. BAR –S1395, 2005 People of the Red Sea Proceedings of Red Sea Project II held in the British Museum October 2004 edited by Janet C.M. Starkey. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 3. ISBN 1 84171 833 5. BAR –S1456, 2005 The Tihamah Coastal Plain of South-West Arabia in its Regional Context c. 6000 BC – AD 600 by Nadia Durrani. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 4. ISBN 1 84171 894 7. BAR –S1661, 2007 Natural Resources and Cultural Connections of the Red Sea Proceedings of Red Sea Project III held in the British Museum October 2006 edited by Janet Starkey, Paul Starkey and Tony Wilkinson. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 5. ISBN 9781407300979 BAR –S1776, 2008 La Péninsule d’Oman de la fin de l’Age du Fer au début de la période sassanide (250 av. – 350 ap. JC) by Michel Mouton. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 6. ISBN 978 1 4073 0264 5 BAR –S1826, 2008 Intercultural Relations between South and Southwest Asia Studies in commemoration of E.C.L. During Caspers (1934-1996) edited by Eric Olijdam and Richard H. Spoor. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No. 7. ISBN 978 1 4073 0312 3 BAR –S2052, 2009 Connected Hinterlands Proceedings of Red Sea Project IV held at the University of Southampton September 2008 edited by Lucy Blue, John Cooper, Ross Thomas and Julian Whitewright. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 8. ISBN 978 1 4073 0631 BAR –S2102, 2010 Ports and Political Power in the Periplus Complex societies and maritime trade on the Indian Ocean in the first century AD by Eivind Heldaas Seland. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No 9. ISBN 9781407305783 BAR –S2107, 2010 Death and Burial in Arabia and Beyond Multidisciplinary perspectives edited by Lloyd Weeks. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No. 10. ISBN 9781407306483 BAR –S2237, 2011 Water Management: The Use of Stars in Oman by Harriet Nash. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No. 11. ISBN 978 1 4073 0799 2. 32.00. BAR –S2346, 2012 Navigated Spaces, Connected Places Proceedings of Red Sea Project V held at the University of Exeter September 2010 edited by Dionisius A. Agius, John P. Cooper, Athena Trakadas and Chiara Zazzaro. British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 12 ISBN 9781407309293. BAR –S2483, 2013 Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in Northern Oman Peninsula A multi-tiered approach to the analysis of long-term settlement trends by Nasser Said Ali Al-Jahwari. British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 13. ISBN 978 1 4073 1095 4. BAR –S2510, 2013 La vallée de Bithnah au cours de l’Age du Fer edited by A. Benoist. British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 14. ISBN 978 1 4073 1128 9.

Potential contributors, please contact the editors in the first instance: Dr Derek Kennet: Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, England DH1 3LE [email protected] Dr St John Simpson: Department of the Middle East, The British Museum, London, England WC1B 3DG [email protected]

Foreword From 2009 to present, I have served as a member of the Dhofar Archaeological Project (DAP), directed by Dr. Jeff Rose and funded by a research grant from the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council (AH/H033912/1) . The DAP, consisting of myself, Dr. Jeff Rose, Prof. Tony Marks, Dr. Vitaly Usik, Prof. Richard Roberts, Prof. Riad Bayoumi, Christopher Galletti, Muhammed Jaboob, and Jeanne Marie Geiling, is an inter-displinary investigation of prehistoric archaeology, archaeogenetics, and palaeoenvironmental history across the mosaic landscapes of Dhofar, a region nestled in the southwestern corner of the Sultanate of Oman. Among the most thrilling discoveries made by the DAP team during these years was the discovery of a distinct Middle Palaeolithic lithic industry from North Africa, the Nubian Complex, along with its technological progeny, the Mudayyan industry. Somewhat less sensational, albeit equally spectacular, was the discovery of stratified Late Palaeolithic assemblages unlike any other archaeological technocomplex known outside of the region. These Late Palaeolithic sites are enigmatic, at first glance dominated by a seemingly tedious and repetitive laminar technology with virtually no variability. Detailed analyses of these assemblages, however, have demonstrated this apparent homogeneity to be an illusion. Beneath the mountain of discarded blade cores and blade blanks lies a complex set of technologically and typologically varied assemblages spanning thousands, if not tens of thousands, of years of human prehistory. Building upon these new discoveries in Dhofar, as well as other recent findings in Yemen, there is increasing evidence to suggest that the Late Palaeolithic industries of southern Arabia comprise a long and continuous lithic tradition, possibly reaching as far back as 50 thousands years ago (ka BP). The further one delves into the subject, wider and deeper is the puzzle of the South Arabian Late Palaeolithic. This book is an unfettered exploration down the this rabbit hole, built upon questions raised over the course of my doctoral research as well as largely based on my dissertation. It provides comprehensive technological and typological analyses of several lithic assemblages found in Dhofar; all are characterized by the production of elongated end products (i.e., blades/leptoliths) using different core reduction modalities. These modalities are defined by technological analysis of production waste and artefact refittings, as well as the presence of formal tools such as tanged projectiles (Fasad points), burins, endscrapers and pseudo-backed knives. The discovery of such assemblages in multiple stratified settings enables us to date this specific Late Palaeolithic technocomplex – termed the “Khashabian Industry” - between 10 and 7 ka BP. We may add these new discoveries to the short list of dated Late Palaeolithic sites found in southern Arabia. Similar laminar-based assemblages from stratified sites have been found in Yemen (Shi’bat Dihya) and Oman (al Hatab), ranging between 55 and 14 ka BP. Given the striking technological overlap with these sites, and lack of overlapping features with any other industries found outside of the region, we may surmise that the Khashabian is the terminal manifestation of a deeply rooted, blade-based lithic tradition indigenous to southern Arabia.

Acknowledgments I am in debt to my advisor, mentor and friend Dr. Jeffrey I. Rose who aided and guided me in so many ways; I will never be able to pay you back. For all the help with the bureaucratic jungle nightmare that are British academic institutions I am in great debt to Dr. Paul Garwood, my supervisor at Birmingham. I am also grateful to Prof. Anthony Marks and Dr. Philip van Peer for their support. For nearly maddening discussions about technological processes and intentionality outside the Levallois technological mantle I am grateful to Dr. Vitaly Usik. I would also like to acknowledge the participants of the Dhofar Archaeological Project Amir Beshkani, Christopher Galletti, Dr. Ash Parton, Dr. Mike Morley. I am also grateful to Prof. Richard “Bert” G. Roberts and Lauren Linnenlucke for the OSL dates they have provided. For very insightful discussions on archaeology and the more mundane things I am grateful to Dr. Rémy Crassard, Dr. Ash Parton, Mags Kleszczewska Rose, Viola Schmidt, Christoph Wissing, Björn Bitterlich, Dominik Koscielny, Dr. Hannes Napirala, Dr. Bernd Trautmann, Krischan Hoyer. Thanks also go to my dear friends Dr. Andreas Taller and Markus Schumacher for all the mountain biking, BBQs, drinks and discussions about technology. I am also grateful to my family for their support, especially my mother Liliana, my brother Lautaro, my uncle Hannes, aunt Iola, my cousins Pati, Martin and Joschka. Last but not least I thank my wife Jeanne Marie Geiling for her support and love, I could not have done this without you. The DAP was financed by an AHRC (AH/H033912/1) early carrier grant awarded to Dr. Jeffrey I. Rose. Funding for OSL dating comes from the Australian Research Council (DP0880675) awarded to Prof. Richard G. Roberts. The investigations in Dhofar have been conducted under the auspice of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture of Oman. The finalization of this book was made possibly by a Post Doc grant awarded to me by the Fyssen Foundation.

Table of Content 1. Introduction

1

5.2.12 Axis 59 5.2.13 Cortical percentage on blanks dorsal surface 59 5.2.14 Scar pattern on dorsal surface 59 5.3 Core Analysis 60 5.3.1 Core orientation, metrics and other numerical attributes 61 5.3.2 Core Typologies 61 5.3.3 Core Striking Platform 62 5.3.4 Cortex 63 5.3.5 Core flaking surface (vertical convexity) 63 5.2.6 Position of Flaking surface (horizontal convexity)63 5.4 Tool Analysis 65 5.4.1 Tool Type 65 5.4.2 Position of retouch 66 5.4.3 Type of Retouch 66 5.4.4 Characterization of the blank 67 5.5 Summary 67

2. Archaeological evidence from South Arabia dating between 50 to 10 ka BP 5 2.1 Assemblages A from Faya NE-1 5 2.2 Shi’bat Dihya 8 2.3 Al Hatab  11 2.4 Summary 17 3. Climate frame and data for South Arabia 3.1 The Marine record 3.2 The Indian Ocean Monsoon  3.3 The terrestrial records  3.4 Summary

18 18 20 21 25

4. Dhofar and the Nejd Plateau: Geomorphology and geography29 4.1 The Sultanate of Oman  29 4.1.1 The Hajar Mountains and central Omani plain: Geography and geomorphology 30 4.2 Dhofar: geography and geomorphology 33 4.2.1 The costal plain and the Dhofar Mountain Chain 33 4.2.2 The Nejd Plateau and the Rub al Khali desert 37 4.3 Summary 45 5. Towards understanding lithics 5.1 Reconstruction of reduction sequences 5.1.1 Refittings 5.1.2 Replication studies in lithic technology 5.1.3 Chaîne opératoire 5.2 Débitage Analysis 5.2.1 Blank orientation and measurements 5.2.2 Blank Type 5.2.2.1 Flake  5.2.2.2 Blade  5.2.2.3 Technologically diagnostic débitage 5.2.3 Blank Condition 5.2.4 Patina 5.2.5 Edge damage 5.2.6 Raw Material 5.2.7 Platform Morphology 5.2.7.1 Débitage platform types 5.2.7.2 Lipping 5.2.7.3 Platform abrasion 5.2.8 Blank Shape 5.2.9 Blank midpoint cross-section 5.2.10 Blank distal portion 5.2.11 Blank Longitudinal profile

6. ALPHA Transect 6.1 ALPHA Transect Sites 6.2 Jebel Eva (TH.67) 6.2.1 Site Location 6.2.2 Sampling strategies and documentation 6.2.3 Spatial distribution 6.3 The assemblage  6.3.1 Débitage 6.3.2 Cores 6.3.3 Tools 6.3.4 Refittings 6.4 ALPHA Transect comments 6.4.1 TH.59 6.4.2 Jebel Eva (TH.67)

47 47 47 49 49 50 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 55 56 56 56 57 58 58

7. BRAVO transect 7.1 Khamseen Rockshelter (TH.50) 7.1.1 Site location 7.1.2 Sampling Strategy 7.1.3 Spatial Distribution 7.1.4 The assemblage 7.1.5 Débitage 7.1.6 Cores 7.1.7 Tools 7.1.8 Refittings 7.2 Ghazal Rockshelter (TH.47) 7.2.1 Site locatio 7.2.2 Sampling Strategy 7.2.3 Spatial Distribution 7.2.4 The assemblage 

V

69 70 74 74 74 75 76 77 83 85 86 88 88 88 89 89 90 91 96 97 98 105 107 108 113 113 114 117 118

7.2.5 Level 2 7.2.5.1 Débitage 7.2.5.2 Cores 7.2.5.3 Tools 7.2.5.4 Level 2 refittings  7.2.6 Level 1  7.2.6.1 Débitage  7.2.6.2 Cores  7.2.6.3 Level 1 refittings 7.3 BRAVO Transect Comments 7.3.1 Khamseen Rockshelter 7.3.2 Ghazal Rockshelter

118 118 125 126 128 134 134 136 137 143 143 143

8. GOLF transect 8.1 Gulf Transect Sites  8.1.1 TH.125 8.1.2 TH.128 8.1.3 TH.133 8.2 Wadi Haluf 1 (TH.124b) 8.2.1 Site Location 8.2.2 Sampling strategy and documentation 8.2.3 Spatial distribution 8.2.4 The assemblage 8.2.5 Débitage 8.2.6 Cores 8.2.7 Tools 8.2.8 Refittings 8.3 GOLF transect comments 8.3.1 TH.125, TH.128 and TH.133 8.3.2 Wadi Haluf 1 comments 

145 145 145 147 150 152 152 153 153 154 156 162 163 165 167 167 168

9. Conclusions 169 9.1 The Late Palaeolithic of Dhofar 169 9.1.1 Reduction modalities 170 9.1.2 Débitage and cores 172 9.1.3 Tools 173 9.1.4 Raw material economy  178 9.1.5 The Khashabian: a new south Arabian lithic industry179 9.2 The Khashabian: landscape and climate 181 9.3 The Khashabian in Arabia 181 9.4 The Khashabian: local or exogenous? 182 9.4.1 Exogenous 182 9.4.2 A local source  185 9.3.3 Palaeodemographics and genetics 185 9.5 Transition to the Neolithic 186 9.6 Summary  187 Bibliography 

189

VI

List of Figures Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Map showing the location of MIS 3 and 2 sites.5 Figure 2.2 Photograph of Faya NE-1. 6 Figure 2.3 Profile of the main section form Faya NE-1.  7 Figure 2.4 Artefacts from assemblage A. 7 Figure 2.5 Plan showing the concentration at SD1.  9 Figure 2.6 Artefacts from SD1. 9 Figure 2.7 Tools from SD1.  10 Figure 2.8 Topographic map of al Hatab. 11 Figure 2.9 Excavation areas at al Hatab.  12 Figure 2.10 Section 2 from al Hatab area 3. 13 Figure 2.11 Section 1 from al Hatab area 1.  13 Figure 2.12 Artefact patination at al Hatab.  14 Figure 2.13. Artefacts from al Hatab.  15 Figure 2.14 al Hatab Tools.  16 Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Migration of Indian Ocean Monsoon. 19 Figure 3.2 Monsoon intensity.  21 Figure 3.3 Linear dunes at the Wahiba Sands, Oman.  22 Figure 3.4 Northward migration of the ITCZ.  24 Figure 3.5 Sum probability curve fort eh Late Pleistocene of Arabia. 25 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Map showing the Location of the South Arabian Highlands.  29 Figure 4.2 Map of the Sultanate of Oman.  30 Figure 4.3 Photographs of distinct environments within the Hajar Mountains and northern Oman. 31 Figure 4.4 Photographs of the Wahiba and Rub al khali deserts.32 Figure 4.5 Sand dune morphology. 32 Figure 4.6 Schematic of windborne transport. 32 Figure 4.7 Salalah costal plain.  34 Figure 4.8 Sketch of the main geological formations.  35 Figure 4.9 Wadi Darbat waterfall.  36 Figure 4.10 Photograph of southern Dhofar during the monsoon.  36 Figure 4.11 Transition between the Dhofar escarpment and the Nejd Plateau.  37 Figure 4.12 Flint artefact carped.  38 Figure 4.13 Photographs of Wadis Aybut.  39 Figure 4.14 Photograph of the Mudayy Member near

Habarut.  Figure 4.15 Rockshelter schematic.  Figure 4.16 Rockshelters and karstic features in South Arabia.  Figure 4.17 Map of Dhofar ecozones. Figure 4.18 Panoramic images of the Southern Nejd.  Figure 4.19 Central Nejd Plateau.  Figure 4.20 Springs by Mudayy.  Figure 4.21 Northern Nejd and Rub al Khali desert. 

39 41 41 42 42 43 44 45

Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 Diverse situations in the field susceptible to production refits. 48 Figure 5.2 Example of illustrated refit from SJ. 51.  49 Figure 5.3 Blank orientation and measurements. 51 Figure 5.4 Edge damage on artefacts for archaeological context.  54 Figure 5.5 Raw material nodules at Wadi Haluf .  55 Figure 5.6 Blank platform types.  55 Figure 5.7 Blank Shape.  57 Figure 5.8 Blank midpoint cross-section schematics.  57 Figure 5.9 Blank termination.  58 Figure 5.10 Blank dorsal scare pattern. 59 Figure 5.11 Arabian Middle Palaeolithic core and Late Palaeolithic core. 60 Figure 5.12 core measurements and orientation.  61 Figure 5.13 Core convexity schemata.  63 Figure 5.14 Core work surface position.  64 Chapter 6 Figure 6.1 ALPHA transect.  Figure 6.2 Large lithic scatter.  Figure 6.3 Blade scatter at TH.123c. Figure 6.4 Photograph of refit #2. Figure 6.5 Refit #3 débitage.  Figure 6.6 Refit #3 stages A and B.  Figure 6.7 Refit #3 stages C and D.  Figure 6.8 Photograph of the site prior to collection. Figure 6.9 Topographic map of Jebel Eva. Figure 6.10 Artefact density at Jebel Eva. Figure 6.11 Artefacts patina and photo of refit.  Figure 6.12 Jebel Eva débitage.  Figure 6.13 Jebel Eva cores.  Figure 6.14 Jebel Eva tools.  Figure 6.15 Jebel Eva refit #4. Figure 6.16 Jebel Eva Refit #13. 

VII

69 70 70 71 72 73 73 74 75 76 77 81 84 85 86 87

Chapter 7 Figure 7.1 BRAVO transect. 89 Figure 7.2 Photographs of the sites. 90 Figure 7.3 Panorama photograph of the Khamseen Rockshelter.  91 Figure 7.4 Chert outcropping directly at the site.  91 Figure 7.5 Map of Khamseen Rockshelter.  92 Figure 7.6 Fireplaces at Khamseen Rockshelter.  92 Figure 7.7 East profile of area 1.  93 Figure 7.8 South and east sections of area 2.  94 Figure 7.9 Area 1 and 2 vertical density. 96 Figure 7.10 Photograph of refit # 11.  98 Figure 7.11 Khamseen bladelets.  102 Figure 7.12 Khamseen blades.  103 Figure 7.13 Khamseen cores. 106 Figure 7.14 Khamseen tools.  107 Figure 7.15 Khamseen refit #10 débitage.  108 Figure 7.16 Khamseen refit #10.  109 Figure 7.17 Khamseen refit #11 débitage.  109 Figure 7.18 Khamseen refit #11. 110 Figure 7.19 Khamseen refit #16 débitage.  111 Figure 7.20 Khamseen refit #16.  111 Figure 7.21 Khamseen refit #13. 112 Figure 7.22 Khamseen refit #14. 112 Figure 7.23 Photograph of the Ghazal prior to excavation and during excavations.  113 Figure 7.24 Topographic map of Ghazal.  114 Figure 7.25 Surface plot of Ghazal.  115 Figure 7.26 Profile EAST 1 from Ghazal.  115 Figure 7.27 Profile EAST 2 from Ghazal.  116 Figure 7.28 Profile SOUTH 1 from Ghazal.  116 Figure 7.29 Photograph of the roof collapse and eolian sediments below.  117 Figure 7.30 Artefacts from Ghazal.  118 Figure 7.31 Distribution of artefacts. 118 Figure 7.32 Ghazal débordant débitage Level 2. 120 Figure 7.33 Ghazal débitage from Level 2.  123 Figure 7.34 Ghazal convergent core from Level 2.  125 Figure 7.35 Ghazal cores from Level 2.  126 Figure 7.36 Ghazal tools from Level 2. 127 Figure 7.37 Hammerstone from Ghazal Level 2. 127 Figure 7.38 Ghazal level 2 refit #2 débitage.  128 Figure 7.39 Ghazal level 2 refit #2. 129 Figure 7.40 Ghazal level 2 refit #5 débitage. 130 Figure 7.41 Ghazal level 2 refit #5. 130 Figure 7.42 Ghazal level 2 refit #20 débitage.  131 Figure 7.43 Ghazal level 2 refit #20. 131 Figure 7.44 Ghazal level 2 refit #25 débitage. 132 Figure 7.45 Ghazal level 2 refit #25. 132 Figure 7.46 Ghazal level 2 refit #19 débitage.  133 Figure 7.47 Ghazal level 2 refit #19. 134 Figure 7.48. Ghazal Level 1 cores. 136 Figure 7.49 Ghazal level 1 refit #28 débitage.  137

Figure 7.50 Ghazal level 1 refit #28.  Figure 7.51 Ghazal level 1 refit #29.  Figure 7.52 Ghazal level 1 refit #30 débitage.  Figure 7.53 Ghazal level 1 refit #30. Figure 7.54 Ghazal level 1 refit #31.  Figure 7.55 Ghazal level 1 refit #31. Figure 7.56 Ghazal level 1 refit #31.  Figure 7.57 Ghazal level 1 refit #31.  Figure 7.58 Ghazal level 1 refit #31.  Figure 7.59 Ghazal level 1 refit #31. 

138 138 139 139 140 141 141 142 142 143

Chapter 8 Figure 8.1 GULF transect. Figure 8.2 Photograph of TH.125 locality.  Figure 8.3 TH.125 refitting débitage.  Figure 8.4 TH.125 refitting.  Figure 8.5 Photograph of TH.128 locality.  Figure 8.6 Photograph of TH.128 biface.  Figure 8.7 TH.128 refitting débitage. Figure 8.8 TH.128 refitting .  Figure 8.9 TH.133 refitting débitage.  Figure 8.10 TH.133 refitting.  Figure 8.11 Wadi Haluf 1 photographs.  Figure 8.12 Wadi Haluf 1 artefact density.  Figure 8.13 Wadi Haluf 1 spatial distribution.  Figure 8.14 Wadi Haluf 1 débitage.  Figure 8.15 Wadi Haluf 1 BTF’s.  Figure 8.16 Wadi Haluf 1 cores.  Figure 8.17 Two unopposed platform core.  Figure 8.18 Wadi Haluf 1 tools. Figure 8.19 Wadi Haluf 1 trifaces.  Figure 8.20 Wadi Haluf 1 refit #14 débitage. Figure 8.21 Wadi Haluf 1 refit #14.  Figure 8.22 Wadi Haluf 1 refit #1. Figure 8.23 Wadi Haluf 1 refit #5 débitage. Figure 8.24 Wadi Haluf 1 refit #5. 

145 146 146 147 148 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 159 160 162 163 164 164 165 166 166 167 167

Chapter 9 Figure 9.1 Reduction modality 1 schematic.  170 Figure 9.2 Technologically diagnostic débitage produced by Modality 1. 171 Figure 9.3 Reduction modality 2 schematic. 172 Figure 9.4 Reduction modality 3 schematic.  172 Figure 9.5 Technologically diagnostic débitage produced by Modality 3.  172 Figure 9.6 General débitage count for analysed sites.  174 Figure 9.7 Artefact platform type. 174 Figure 9.8 Artefact cortical cover.  174 Figure 9.9 Artefact longitudinal profile. 175 Figure 9.10 Artefact termination.  175 Figure 9.11 Artefact midpoint cross section. 175 Figure 9.12 Artefact shape. 176 VIII

Figure 9.13 Artefact scar pattern. 176 Figure 9.14 Blade index of elongation. 176 Figure 9.15 Blade relative platform size.  176 Figure 9.16 Blade index of platform flattening. 177 Figure 9.17 Débordant blade index of elongation. 177 Figure 9.18 Débordant blade index if relative platform size.  177 Figure 9.19 Débordant blade index of platform flattening. 177 Figure 9.20 Pseudo-backed knifes.  178 Figure 9.21 Selected Artefacts typical for the Khashabian.  180 Figure 9.22 Selected PPNB Artefacts.  183 Figure 9.23 Selected Proto-Neolithic Artefacts. 184 Figure 9.24 Main branches of the complete R0a mtDNA tree.  186 Figure 9.25 Trihedral projectile points from diverse sites across the Nejd.  187

IX

List of Tables Chapter 6

Table 7.27 Ghazal blank axis. Table 7.28 Ghazal blank’ shape. Table 7.29 Ghazal blank scar pattern. Table 7.30 Ghazal blank length. Table 7.31 Ghazal blank width. Table 7.32 Ghazal blank thickness. Table 7.33 Ghazal blank weighs. Table 7.34 Ghazal blank IPF. Table 7.35 Ghazal blank IOE. Table 7.36 Ghazal blank RPS. Table 7.37 Artefacts from Ghazal Level 1 Table 7.38 Refittings from Ghazal level 1.

Table 6.1 Jebel Eva assemblage. 76 Table 6.2 Jebel Eva % amount of dorsal cortical cover. 78 Table 6.3 Jebel Eva striking platform morphology. 78 Table 6.4 Jebel Eva blank striking platform abrasion. 79 Table 6.5 Jebel Eva blank midpoint cross section. 79 Table 6.6 Jebel Eva blank longitudinal cross-section. 79 Table 6.7 Jebel Eva blank’s distal morphology. 79 Table 6.8 Jebel Eva blank axis. 80 Table 6.9 Jebel Eva blank’ shape. 80 Table 6.10 Jebel Eva scar pattern. 80 Table 6.11 Jebel Eva blank length. 82 Table 6.12 Jebel Eva blank width. 82 Table 6.13 Jebel Eva blank thickness. 83 Table 6.14 Jebel Eva blank weight. 83 Table 6.15 Jebel Eva IOE. 83 Table 6.16 Jebel Eva IPF. 83 Table 6.17 Jebel Eva RPS. 83

122 122 122 123 123 124 124 124 124 124 134 137

Chapter 8 Table 8. 1 Wadi Haluf 1 artefact count. 156 Table 8.2 Wadi Haluf 1 % amount of dorsal cortical cover.157 Table 8.3 Wadi Haluf 1 blank striking platform morphology.  157 Table 8.4 Wadi Haluf 1 blank midpoint cross section. 157 Table 8.5 Wadi Haluf 1 Longitudinal cross-section. 157 Table 8.6 Wadi Haluf 1 blank’s distal morphology. 158 Table 8.7 Wadi Haluf 1 blank axis. 158 Table 8.8 Wadi Haluf 1 blank scar pattern. 158 Table 8.9 Wadi Haluf 1 blank scar pattern. 158 Table 8.10 Wadi Haluf 1 blank length. 160 Table 8.11 Wadi Haluf 1 blank width. 161 Table 8.12 Wadi Haluf 1 blank thickness. 161 Table 8.13 Wadi Haluf 1 blank weight. 161 Table 8.14 Wadi Haluf 1 blank IOE. 161 Table 8.15 Wadi Haluf 1 blank IPF. 161 Table 8.16 Wadi Haluf 1 blank RPS. 161

Chapter 7 Table 7.1 Dates for Khamseen Rockshelter. 95 Table 7.2 Late Paleolithic artefacts from Khamseen. 97 Table 7.3 Khamseen dorsal cortical cover.  99 Table 7.4 Khamseen striking platform morphology.  99 Table 7.5 Khamseen blank striking platform abrasion.101 Table 7.6 Khamseen blank midpoint cross section. 101 Table 7.7 Khamseen Longitudinal cross-section. 101 Table 7.8 Khamseen blank’s distal morphology. 101 Table 7.9 Khamseen blank axis. 101 Table 7.10 Khamseen blank’ shape. 101 Table 7.11 Khamseen blank scar pattern. 102 Table 7.12 Khamseen blank length.  104 Table 7.13 Khamseen blank width.  104 Table 7.14 Khamseen blank thickness.  104 Table 7.15 Khamseen blank weight.  104 Table 7.16 Khamseen IOE.  105 Table 7.17 Khamseen IPF.  105 Table 7.17 Khamseen RPS.  105 Table 7.19 Dates for Ghazal Rockshelter. 117 Table 7.20 Artefacts from Ghazal Level 2. 118 Table 7.21 Ghazal % amount of dorsal cortical cover. 120 Table 7.22 Ghazal striking platform morphology. 120 Table 7.23 Ghazal blank striking platform abrasion. 121 Table 7.24 Ghazal blank midpoint cross section. 121 Table 7.25 Ghazal blank Longitudinal cross-section. 121 Table 7.26 Ghazal blank’s distal morphology. 122

Chapter 9 Table 9.1 Distribution of the reduction modalities across the analysed samples. 171 Table 9.2 Absolute dates for sediments holding Khashabian assemblages. 179

X

Chapter 1

Introduction There is much to be done in South Arabia: a variety of undefined lithic industries carpet the landscape. It is only a matter of time until stratified Palaeolithic sites, which have eluded Arabian archaeologists for over half a century, will be unearthed. − Jeffrey I. Rose, Among Arabian Sands: Defining the Palaeolithic of Southern Arabia (2006, 333)

When I was an undergraduate student starting work in the Arabian Peninsula, the “tabula rasa” scenario proposed by Rose (2006) was the default model for Palaeolithic habitation in Arabia. Tabula rasa is based on the assumption that Arabia was only able to support human populations during pluvial phases - periods of increased rainfall and, consequently, elevated landscape carrying capacity. Conversely, during glacial phases, the Arabian climate was characterized by extreme aridity, at which times human populations were not present. In the words of Thesiger (1959: 1) “a cloud gathers, the rain falls, men live; the cloud disperses without rain, and men and animals die.” When rainfall increased, the desiccated Arabian landscapes were transformed into more fertile ecosystems, drawing in human populations from outside the peninsula to colonize these uninhabited territories. Since each new population would have brought with them the lithic technology from whence they came, it follows that the tabula rasa model should be verifiable through the study of the material culture found at Stone Age sites in Arabia. Exploring the implications of this point Marks (2008) proposed that Palaeolithic sites found across Arabia will either bear the technological and typological features of their origin, or show a unique set of characteristics indicating their indigenous development. Palaeolithic sites are either the product of local populations that survived at least one cycle of climatic deterioration and subsequent amelioration, or were created by foreign groups that moved into Arabia during pluvial phases. Given that most of the territories surrounding Arabia (i.e. Southwest Asia and Northeast Africa) have enjoyed a long and comprehensive history of archaeological and paleoanthropological research (e.g. Solecki, 1952, 1955; Clark, 1954; McBurney, 1967; Marks, 1975; Bar-Yosef, 1980;Valladas et al., 1988; 1993; Hublin, 1993; Schwarcz, 1994; McBrearty & Brookes, 2000; Monigal, 2002; Van Peer & Vermeersch, 2007; Barham & Mitchell, 2008; Hovers, 2009; Van Peer et al., 2010; ), it should be possible to determine if the various prehistoric populations in Arabia came from the Levant, Africa, or across the AraboPersian Gulf.

Lower Palaeolithic sites are reasonably well known throughout Arabia (e.g. Amirkhanov, 1994; 2006; Biagi, 1994; Whalen & Schatte, 1997; Zarins, 1998; Whalen et al., 2002, Petraglia, 2003; Jagher, 2009; Petraglia et al., 2009). Attribution of these sites to a specific source area outside of Arabia is difficult, because of the homogeneity of the lower Palaeolithic record across Arabia and its neighbouring regions (Marks, 2008; 2009; Chauhan, 2009). The archaeological situation is much clearer in the Middle Palaeolithic; sites discovered in Arabia bear distinct African features and indicate multiple population expansions into Arabia between 128-75 ka before present (BP) (Petraglia, 2011; Petraglia et al., 2012; Armitage et al., 2011; Rose et al., 2011a; Usik et al., 2012; Crassard & Hilbert, 2013). Regardless of the route they took entering Arabia (i.e. Sinai or Bab Al Mandeb), these Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age (MP/MSA) sites indicate that hunter-gatherer groups occupied the peninsula during MIS 5. These expansions out of Africa and into Arabia occurred along the posited southern dispersal route (e.g. Quintana-Murci, 1999; Stringer, 2000; 2003; Field & Lahr, 2006; Field et al., 2007; Oppenheimer, 2008). What happened next remains a mystery. Did these MIS 5 populations die out during the MIS 4 climatic downturn, as the tabula rasa scenario predicts? This question remains unanswered, given that there is too little information on MIS 4 and MIS 3 occupation(s) of Arabian. It is noteworthy that the few dated assemblages from this time period bear no resemblance to either Levantine or African industries after MIS 5 (