Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Governance and Accreditation 3030975002, 9783030975005

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Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities Governance and Accreditation Jerry Crawford II

Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Jerry Crawford II

Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities Governance and Accreditation

Jerry Crawford II University of Kansas Kansas, KS, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-97500-5    ISBN 978-3-030-97501-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97501-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

I would like to dedicate this book to my grandmother Lillie P. Miller and my daughters Roxy, Asia, and Tiana for always supporting me with their love and best wishes.

Preface

Growing up, I used to visit with my grandmother, Lillie Miller, in Winston-­ Salem, North Carolina. She lived near several colleges and almost equal distance between Wake Forest University and Winston-Salem State University (WSSU). At times, I would hear my older aunts and uncles and their friends talk about going to sporting events at WSSU and how much fun it was to see everyone having a great time. None of them had ever attended college, so, as I looked back on these discussions, I used to wonder why they spoke about WSSU and Saint Augustine’s University and North Carolina A&T so fondly. They would talk with excitement and pride in these schools and that some of their friends or an occasional child of their friend would go to school. It was celebrated with joy by everyone. I was part of a large family unit. I had many cousins and lived in a neighborhood with many friends. It was a good life. We all did well in school and then, it seems, everyone would go to work at RJ Reynolds or enlist into the military. I was fortunate. I was able to be the first in my family to attend college and I have been able to see just why my family and others in my community were so enamored with Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). Yes, there were and are fun sporting “homecoming” events. But that is just the tip of the wonderful story. HBCUs provide employment for their communities. They are economic engines—supplying the neighborhood and region with possibilities. They are the places of hope and wonder. They reach out to and for everyone, regardless of race or socioeconomic standing. vii

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It is that welcoming for all that makes HBCUs so important. Their mission is to educate the underrepresented, not just Blacks. They mainly started as places where newly freed Blacks were taught the basics of everyday life and vocational skills. They are now institutions where students earn humanities and STEM degrees. HBCUs produce doctors, lawyers, engineers, animal scientists, poets, and media professionals. HBCUs, along with other Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs)— Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs), and Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs)—are places where students from these communities feel safe and welcomed into higher education. They see and are taught by role models. Administrators at these institutions are facing financial and accreditation challenges. These leaders, primarily at HBCUs and TCUs, even before the COVID-19 pandemic, have seen funding cut from both state and federal agencies. This becomes a circular problem of not having the funds to maintain accredited funding, which many have as standards needed to maintain the accreditation. This has been my focus—to see why and how administrators at these institutions have had to balance their institutions’ missions with the current “business model” happening throughout higher education. Journalism and mass communication units at HBCUs produce over 80% of all media professionals. As they prepare many of the journalists to meet the ever-changing roles for the world’s media landscape, HBCUs have struggled to earn and retain accreditation from the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) Standards. Chief among the stumbling blocks are the requirements for Governance, Scholarship: Research, Creative, and Professional Activity of faculty, as well as how the unit defines the goals for learning that students must achieve, including the organization’s stated Professional Values and Competencies. The assessment of how students have learned not only traditional news values and ethics but also how they are prepared to work in multi-platform converged media careers will be keys to those schools’ future ACEJMC accreditation. Research shows HBCUs are challenged on these issues due to the number of courses faculty must teach and the lack of faculty with terminal degrees and tenure. This book analyzes the challenges Historically Black Colleges and Universities face in earning their place among the highly respected accredited journalism programs. It is with this book that I can start the conversation and help all MSIs see how best practices and working together can

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help show state and federal decision-makers the importance of these wonderful learning institutions. There is paucity of in-depth research on these colleges and universities. This book attempts to broaden and deepen the overall knowledge and scholarship in this area. HBCUs are alike and also unique. They are not monolithic in structure. There are private and public institutions. There are two-year and four-­ year institutions. There are teaching institutions and Research I institutions. They all matter. They all make America and the world a better place.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Dr. Barbara Hines and the editors for their assistance in copyediting the manuscript and the formatting of the book. The entire team at Palgrave Macmillan was wonderful. I would also like to thank the co-authors noted in the book for their work on the studies that directly contributed (roughly in the order that they occur in the book): Scott Reinardy, Barbara Hines, Joseph Erba, Pamela Peters, and Amalia Monroe-Gulick.

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Contents

Introduction  1 Accreditation  9 ACEJMC Accreditation Standards Change 21 Accreditation: A Pathway to Excellence and Acceptance 35 Standard 1: HBCU Governance Challenges 49 Marlen Livezey: A Case Study 79 Recruitment and Retention of Students 97  COVID-19: Dealing with the Pandemic Under the Pressure of Funding and Self-Care Decisions115 How HBCU Libraries Can Help with ACEJMC Standard 5133

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MSI Accreditation Challenges: HBCUs, HSIs, and TCUs161 Conclusion173 Index183

List of Tables

ACEJMC Accreditation Standards Change Table 1 Table 2

HBCU and accredited administrators’ critique of ACEJMC standards31 HBCU administrators rate the importance of ACEJMC accreditation32

COVID-19: Dealing with the Pandemic Under the Pressure of Funding and Self-Care Decisions Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4

How worried are you about the impact of coronavirus on your institution? 121 How worried are you about the impact of coronavirus on you personally?122 How confident are you that the university will have the resources to return to full operations? 122 How many students enrolled at your institution? 127

How HBCU Libraries Can Help with ACEJMC Standard 5 Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Participants’ self-reported professional and demographic identities144 Institutions’ access to databases and journals (N = 58) 146 Librarians and instructors’ perceptions of open access 150

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List of Tables

Table 4

Librarians and instructors’ perceptions of the role of librarians vis-à-vis open access

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MSI Accreditation Challenges: HBCUs, HSIs, and TCUs Table 1

Research 1 Hispanic Serving Institutions US Department of Education (2021)

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Introduction

Historically Black Colleges and Universities The more educated a country’s citizens are, the more they are prone to demand their fair share of the governance and decision-making regarding rights and laws. Education is the cornerstone for a successful democracy and a key to the maintaining of freedoms for all living within its laws. In America, education has proven to be a predictor of socioeconomic mobility. However, education’s costs have deferred the Dream for many in American society. We care about our students and their academic success and want to provide them the privilege of moving forward with a zero balance. We believe that relieving them from these balances will provide much needed relief that will allow our scholars to focus more intently on their academics and degree completion. The VSU Board, President and all stakeholders decided the use of CARES Act funding, due to COVID 19 challenges, was critical to helping students continue to pursue their academic dreams as COVID-19 has severely affected financial resources for thousands of families nationwide. (Virginia State University Provost/Senior Vice President of Academic and Student Affairs Donald Palm, Ph.D. (VSU, 2021))

Palm’s declaration of the importance of investing in students, communities, and the world is nothing new for Historically Black Colleges and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Crawford II, Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97501-2_1

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Universities (HBCUs). Research has shown the effects of how to pay for college are critical to prospective students and are consistent with more recent studies on the topics of financial aid available, tuition costs, federal grants, and even religious affiliation at HBCUs and Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) important for these students (Crawford, 2012; Freeman, 2005; St. John et al., 2005). Therefore, Palm’s announcement shows how HBCUs are willing to take on the responsibilities of their missions. HBCUs both educate and graduate the majority of minority voices in the United States. Images and portrayals of stereotypes and the historical framing of African Americans as “the other” can only be challenged and changed by having African Americans “in the room where these images are created and approved.” As the United States struggles with the challenges of the political questions regarding education and racial historical complexities, it is important to have these institutions ready and willing to engage in the conversation to bring sustenance to the many misperceived purposes of equal education and understanding for all in America and throughout the world. HBCUs have been respected incubators for discussions regarding race, policy, legal standing, humanities, and the socioeconomic impacts of equality for all. The lifeblood and lifeline for all institutions of higher learning centers around the purpose and mission each strives to deliver to students and the institutions’ other stakeholders. The topics and examples in this book are applicable to all schools with journalism/mass communication units— large and small; Historically Black Colleges and Universities; Predominantly White Institutions; Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs); Tribal Colleges and Universities; Research I; Teaching; Public; and Private. The book will also examine journalism/mass communication units with different designations—colleges, schools, departments, programs, majors, minors, credentials, and certificates. In essence, the book’s purpose is to discuss how all of these units try to prepare many of the journalists, strategic communicators, public relations practitioners, and other media professionals in their ever-changing roles in the world’s media landscape. Today, more than ever, a driving force for any institution’s survival— budgetary and academically—is its status within each unit’s ability to follow best practices. This usually equates to accreditation. Accreditation is an essential system for recognizing professional and educational programs

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affiliated with those institutions as having standards, a level of performance, integrity, and quality that entitles them to the confidence of the educational community and the public. The study of accreditation is important because it helps the public and other stakeholders have a record of the practices and procedures that govern institutions of higher learning. This book, while looking at regional and national accreditation, focuses on HBCUs with journalism or communication departments that sought professional accreditation from the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) during the period 1982–2020. In that period of time, 12 HBCUs have voluntarily sought to earn ACEJMC accreditation with varying degrees of success. The programs reviewed included Florida A&M University (FAMU), Hampton University, Howard University, Grambling University, Jacksonville State University, Norfolk State University, North Carolina A&T University, Southern University, Winston-Salem State University, Savannah State University, and Morgan State University. Florida A&M University was the first HBCU to earn accreditation in 1982, while Morgan State University earned ACEJMC accreditation in 2020. As of June 2021, there were seven HBCUs with full ACEJMC accreditation. The purpose of this book was to find which of the ACEJMC standards HBCUs were found to be most frequently in non-compliance during the 38-year period. ACEJMC currently uses nine standards to which universities need to comply to earn accreditation; prior to 2006 there were 12 standards. The study also examined the process by which accrediting agencies develop their standards and the role of the agency that accredits regional and national professional accrediting agencies. The aim of the book is to provide in-depth and structured information regarding each of the 11 HBCUs that have sought ACEJMC accreditation. The book will also examine how administrators at a wide cross-section of all ACEJMC-­ accredited units have viewed the current standards and how the standards are relevant to all institutions. It is important to know how and why these institutions of higher learning were established and how they have risen to not only join but also be equal to PWIs in the academy of higher learning. HBCUs have the same rigor of scholarship and accreditation as PWIs. HBCUs have been around for over 166 years and have served as a beacon in the African American community for vocational, professional, political, and scholarly education. The roots of designation started in Congress.

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Justin Morrill, a congressman from Vermont, championed legislation in 1862 for each state to have land set aside to establish agriculture and vocational/mechanical arts. The rights for Blacks to receive these opportunities were minimal or nonexistent. Therefore, because of the “educational segregation of the Southern states, a subsequent Morrill Land Grant Act, enacted in 1890, established 16 Black colleges (Land Grant Colleges) to serve the same purpose for the African American population” (Justiz et al., 1994, p. 198). These new schools, and some that had previously been created, were all known now as “the ‘1890 colleges’ to distinguish them from the 1862 land grant colleges” (Justiz et al., 1994, p. 198). Southern states simply opened the new colleges and excluded Blacks. Some educators, such as Paul Barringer of the University of Virginia, were against educating these freedmen. He said it was foolish to try to educate the former slaves while there are so many poor whites that needed to be trained for the same jobs. In stating his case, Barringer emphasized, “We cannot equip both, and to equip the Negro to the neglect of the poor white would be a grave political error and an economic absurdity” (Brooks, 1996, p. 241). The second Morrill Act demanded the southern states to create schools to educate the freedmen. Unfortunately, as is reality now, the funding for these two groups of institutions was never equal or fair. Even with the differences in funding, “this second Morrill Act did eventually give rise to several historically black agricultural and mechanical colleges” (Jones-Wilson et al., 1996, p. 18). Although many HBCUs were established after the Morrill Act of 1890 providing for state-supported, land-grant HBCUs, most were established before 1890. Cheney State University in Pennsylvania is the oldest being established in 1837, Lincoln University in Pennsylvania in 1854, Wilberforce University in Ohio in 1856, Bowie State University in Maryland in 1865, Lincoln University in Missouri in 1866, and Howard University in Washington, DC, in 1867 (Ohles & Ohles, 1986). The majority of the HBCUs are located in what is considered the South or southern geographical area of the United States. As the study will show later in this chapter, Lincoln University was the pioneer for HBCUs having a journalism and mass communication department. Historically Black Colleges and Universities were first established in the United States to meet the educational needs of Blacks who were disenfranchised by the predominantly White population of the country. Most

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public Black colleges in their early years were true “colleges” in name only. Most began as primary schools and added upper grades and collegiate divisions as students progressed over the years. For example, as late as 1917, Florida Agriculture and Mechanical College (FAMU) enrolled only 12 students at the collegiate level. “In contrast, all the other Black public colleges combined enrolled 7,500 students in elementary and secondary grades and only 24  in the collegiate curriculum” (Justiz et  al., 1994, p. 197). Although these institutions are still referred to as 1890 schools by many, what really has made these schools viable was the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965. This Act was enacted to help fund colleges and universities and provide funding for students to attend higher education institutions—particularly for lower- and middle-income students. As we will see in later chapters, this funding has created avenues for students to move from lower socioeconomic to higher socioeconomic situations and, thus, helped to improve the overall economic health of America. Why was the HEA’s action so important? It was because even the Morrill Act did not protect the full education for African Americans. The new institutions were important, but failed to have the same value placed upon them from the government than PWIs. Their second-class status was solidified in the Supreme Court’s 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which established a “separate but equal” doctrine in public education. This resulted in Black schools receiving less funding. HBCU supporters fought for more funding but were ultimately denied by the Supreme Court, “which found that reparations for past wrongs unduly burdened the contemporary Southern states” (Allen & Jewell, 2002). This inequity persisted even after Brown vs. Board of Education negated the Plessy ruling in 1954 (Sturgis & Johnson-Ross, 2019). You do not take a person who, for years, has been hobbled by chains and liberate him, bring him up to the starting line of a race and then say, “You are free to compete with all the others,” and still justly believe that you have been completely fair. (Johnson, 1965, p. 2)

HBCUs have not only served as the exclusive avenue of access to higher education for African Americans, with its promotion of a participatory ethos and an open-door admissions policy, but it has also provided avenues of student leadership potential and social development. Historically,

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these universities have been underfunded and have had a weaker governance structure than other state-supported or private, traditionally White universities. It is also important to note that HBCUs were established for different reasons than traditional schools. Many HBCUs were threatened because they did not have the adequate resources to gain status as an accredited college. HBCUs have had the ability to recruit African American students since the 1860s by stressing a sense of inclusion and family through their mission statements and community outreach. There was little to no competition for African American students from predominantly White institutions until integration was fully implemented 100 years later in the 1960s. HBCUs, by their standing in the community, have been a gateway to first-­ generation college students, regardless of race or social class status, and many continue to have ‘open’ admissions policies, welcoming all who wish to attend college, regardless of previous academic performance. African American, Latin(X), and other underrepresented groups have also faced the criticism of being “tokens,” selected based on race, but only a few chosen, as to not lessen the importance of the institution’s overall status. Wherever their numbers grow, this reasoning implies, lowered academic standards cannot be far behind. Thus, the best way to improve an institution or community’s academic reputation is to exclude African Americans or greatly limit their presence. This perspective has accompanied the multiplication of so-called high-stakes standardized tests: assessments whose results determine not only who will enter the next level but also who will qualify for graduation from the previous level. These instruments serve ably as mechanisms that can disqualify the educational goals or aspirations of a whole generation of Black students. (Allen et al., 2002)

HBCUs have always welcomed students from all socioeconomic, racial, cultural, and religious backgrounds and circumstances. HBCUs are important. They make a difference in their communities and the world. It is with this backdrop of smaller budgets and less stable governance that this book sought to understand the manner in which HBCUs could earn ACEJMC accreditation, knowing that the first standard required by ACEJMC is how well the unit is governed. These institutions have historically been able to be accredited by other regional and national education

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agencies. These agencies also had criteria that included both governance and budget, along with the ever-important issue of assessment. VSU’s Palm’s declaration on the school’s hope to continue to help all students in achieving academic success is the model of HBCUs and their earliest missions and the role those governing these schools held deeply. There will be different models discussed in chapters later in this book. However, the goal of having institutions able to compete with schools throughout the world will be the key to success. This success will depend on the rigor and sustainability of not only the institution but the different units within the institution. This means accredited units would be the norm and the goal of these institutions. How to earn accreditation and how to maintain accreditation will be important.

References Allen, W. R., & Jewell, J. O. (2002). A backward glance forward: Past, present and future perspectives on historically black colleges and universities. The Review of Higher Education, 25(3), 241–261. Allen, W. R., Teranishi, R., Dinwiddie, G., & Gonzalez, G. (2002). Knocking at freedom’s door: Race, equity and affirmative action in U.S. higher education. Journal of Public Health Policy, 23(4), 440–452. https://doi. org/10.2307/3343241 Brooks, R. L. (1996). A strategy for racial equality?: A strategy for racial equality. Harvard University Press. Crawford, J. (2012). A link to the future: A pilot study at how historically black colleges and universities with journalism and mass communications units use the internet in recruiting. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 5(2), 47–60. Freeman, K. (2005). African Americans and college choice: The influence of family and school. State University of New York Press. Johnson, L. B. (1965, June 4). To fulfill these rights. Commencement address presented at Howard University, Washington, DC. Jones-Wilson, F. C., Asbury, C. A., Okazawa-Rey, M., Anderson, D. K., Jacobs, S. M., & Fultz, M. (Eds.). (1996). Encyclopedia of African-American education. Greenwood Press. Justiz, M. J., Wilson, R., & Björk, L. G. (Eds.). (1994). Minorities in higher education. Oryx Press. Ohles, J. & Ohles, S. (1986). Public colleges and universities. New York. Greenwood Press.

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St. John, E. P., Paulsen, M. B., & Carter, D. F. (2005). Diversity, college costs, and postsecondary opportunity: An examination of the financial nexus between college choice and persistence for African Americans and Whites. Journal of Higher Education, 76, 545–569. Sturgis, I., & Johnson-Ross, S. (2019). Kerner issue: The role of HBCUs in training journalists to improve media images post-Kerner. The Howard Journal of Communications, 30(4), 336–354. VSU will pay off account balances for all students enrolled during the COVID-19 pandemic impact period. Virginia State University. (2021, September 7). Retrieved November 15, 2021, from https://www.vsu.edu/news/2021/vsu-­ pay-­off-­balances.php.

Accreditation

While there are processes and standards accrediting agencies use to access levels of compliance, there really is no real clear roadmap for success in earning accreditation. Part of the process is also the ability to reapply or correct any standards institutions have been found to be in non-­compliance. Several HBCUs, and PWIs, have not been able to, in the given time frame provided by the accrediting agency, successfully be removed from provisional status. Some have simply lost accreditation and all the funding and program security accreditation provides to the institutions. According to Whitford (2021), Morris Brown College president Kevin James’ response to the challenges of accreditation was indicative of many HBCUs, “We are elated about accreditation candidacy and making history. I want to thank all the faculty and staff for their hard work. We intend on making history as the first HBCU to regain its status after a 20-year hiatus and the first HBCU to have a flagged hotel on its campus for a hospitality education program. These achievements have sparked other closed HBCUs to try again” (Whitford, 2021). James’ work in leading Morris Brown out of the problems the school faced is commendable. The work of the faculty, staff, and yes, students, in trying to ensure that Morris Brown is able to survive shows the community and impact that HBCUs have in the educational landscape of America. The small liberal arts college, founded in 1881, was founded by the African Methodist Episcopal Church. According to the school’s website, “The

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College is proud of its tradition of serving the educational needs of the best and brightest young minds, while simultaneously providing educational support to students who might not otherwise receive the opportunity to compete on the college level” (History, n.d.) To understand how African Americans and other underrepresented groups have been able to be a part of the higher educational system, we need to look at how the Morrill Act, which stewarded in colleges and schools, to more universal Acts, which were aimed at educating the nation. This effort continues the desire to learn that fueled African American soldiers after World War I.  This renewed emphasis on education was a challenge for the American government. By design, the first federally funded programs were established. With the federal funding came the need to have a mechanism for assessment—this would become accreditation practices. To reduce the possibility of postwar depression brought on by widespread unemployment, the National Resources Planning Board, a White House agency, studied postwar manpower needs as early as 1942 and in June 1943 recommended a series of programs for education and training. The American Legion designed the main features of what became the Serviceman’s Readjustment Act and pushed it through Congress. The bill unanimously passed both chambers of Congress in the spring of 1944. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed it into law on June 22, 1944, just days after the D-day invasion of Normandy. American Legion publicist Jack Cejnar called it “the GI Bill of Rights,” as it offered Federal aid to help veterans adjust to civilian life in the areas of hospitalization, purchase of homes and businesses, and, especially, education (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, n.d.). Indeed, to understand the full scope of the GI Bill, we must consider the limited options that Black veterans had when it came to college admissions. Conversely, when considering the desegregation of historically segregated southern colleges and universities, we must also evaluate the strong will many Black veterans expressed in their desire to redeem the federal government’s promise for a college education. When the war ended in 1945, UF, along with many other colleges and universities across the United States, witnessed unprecedented growth due in large part to the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, or GI Bill of Rights (McCardle, 2017). For many war veterans, the GI Bill served as yet another dream deferred, as most southern colleges and universities prohibited African Americans from enrolling in their institutions. With Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) experiencing

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capped enrollments due to a great demand for higher education in the African American community, many Black veterans were left out of the federally promised dream of a college education (Older African Americans Flocking to College, 2007). Not long after the GI Bill, Congress decided to modify the funding of education. The Veterans’ Readjustment Assistance Act of 1952, called the Korean GI Bill, provided unemployment insurance, job placement, home loans, and mustering-out benefits similar to those offered to World War II veterans. The Korean GI Bill made several changes, however, in education benefits, reducing financial benefits generally and imposing new restrictions. In contrast to the 48 months of education allowed by the 1944 law, the Korean GI Bill permitted a maximum of 36 months. The Korean GI Bill also did not provide tuition payments to colleges. Instead, veterans were paid subsistence checks, which were also to cover their college expenses. The effect of the changes was that the benefit no longer completely covered the cost of veterans’ education (VA History in Brief, n.d.). The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was passed in 1958 in response to the Soviet acceleration of the space race with the launch of the satellite Sputnik. The law provided federal funding to “ensure trained manpower of sufficient quality and quantity to meet the national defense needs of the United States.” In addition to fellowships and loans to students, the legislation bolstered education in the areas of science, mathematics, and modern foreign languages. The House report recommending passage of the bill stated: “It is no exaggeration to say that America’s progress in many fields of endeavor in the years ahead—in fact, the very survival of our free country—may depend in large part upon the education we provide for our young people now.” The NDEA authorized the appropriation of more than $1 billion over the next seven years to achieve its goals, making it the first example of comprehensive federal education legislation, and signaling the expansion of the role of the federal government in the education of citizens (National Defense Education Act, n.d.). The next subsequential Act by Congress to fund higher education and address societal issues was the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965. The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89–329) authorizes numerous federal aid programs that provide support to both individuals pursuing a postsecondary education and institutions of higher education (IHEs). Title IV of the HEA authorizes the federal government’s major student financial aid programs, which are the primary source of direct federal support to students pursuing postsecondary education. Titles II, III, and V of

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the HEA provide institutional aid and support. Additionally, the HEA authorizes services and support for less-advantaged students (select Title IV programs), students pursuing international education (Title VI), and students pursuing and institutions offering certain graduate and professional degrees (Title VII). Finally, the most recently added title (Title VIII) authorizes more than two dozen other programs that support higher education; most have never been funded. The HEA was last comprehensively reauthorized in 2008 by the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (Hegji, 2018). These four Congressional Acts have laid the groundwork for all higher educational institutions are required to follow to ensure federal funding. The framework is complete to the pathway to the funding consideration—Accreditation. So, having been on both the inside of regional accreditation and outside looking back on it, [I have seen that] accreditation has long tried to revolutionize itself, while at the same time increasingly becoming subject to federal regulatory burdens and expectations from the Department of Education. That has backed it into becoming a bureaucracy at the very time it needed to and has attempted to break out to focus on innovation, learning, and student success based on an institution’s mission and the individuals served. (Priddy, 2020. Lynn Priddy, Ph.D., former university provost)

Accreditation, for all institutions, is a considerable financial undertaking that can be a barrier to success. The amount of time that is needed and required to prepare for accreditation and maintain accreditation also needs to be factored in the entire process. According to scholars (Alstete, 2007; Gaston, 2014), the origins of higher education accreditation in the United States traces back to 1784 when the Regents of the University of the State of New  York was established as a governing board for what was then King’s College, now Columbia, and for other institutions in New York. Obtaining and keeping accreditation can be difficult. When faced with an adverse accrediting action, institutional leaders may choose to dedicate resources to regaining accreditation or contesting the adverse action, and the likelihood of institutional success is greatest against an accreditor that has clearly violated its own policies and procedures (Flood & Roberts, 2017). Colleges, universities, and programs are accredited. In the U.S., colleges and universities are accredited by one of 19 recognized institutional

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a­ ccrediting organizations. Programs are accredited by one of approximately 60 recognized programmatic accrediting organizations. [Accrediting organizations that are “recognized” have been reviewed for quality by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) or the United States Department of Education (USDE).] (chea.org)

Institutions need to look starkly at their finances, enrollment, organizational structures, resources, and student populations. The current financial and non-financial indicators of accreditors and the Department of Education are too backward-looking. If there is even a possibility of being on the brink in three or four years, based on set metrics, I recommend that the institution meets with its institutional/regional accreditor regularly and all other state and programmatic agencies (Priddy, 2020). According to Klasik (2016), the issue of balancing the country’s uniquely open approach to regulating colleges with the need to protect students from lower-quality colleges while respecting the rights of institutions, states, and the federal government has remained a considerable challenge for more than a century. Since the 1970s, American higher education policy has relied on a— distinctly American—“triad” system of oversight and accountability involving voluntary accreditation, state government control through institutional charters and professional licensing boards, and federal government oversight exerted primarily through Title IV of the Higher Education Act (Harcleroad, 1980). On his visit to the United States in 1882, Oxford professor August Freeman noted, “One of the first things that strikes the stranger is the amazing number of universities and colleges” (Freeman, 1883). “We can hardly be wrong in inferring that the degrees granted by some of these institutions cannot be worth very much … And perhaps we should not be wrong if we were to infer that it would be a gain if some of these degree-­ giving bodies were abolished or merged” (Freeman, p. 178). Klasik (2016) states that Freeman observed these issues ran headlong into American federalism. While “loath to say a word … against the powers of the several States,” Freeman offered, “it is surely not unreasonable to hint that the right of granting degrees should be assumed only by authority of the federal power. For a degree is surely a national thing” (Freeman, p.179). In the late 1880s, although there were many providers of higher education in the United States, there was no consensus as to what a college should comprise (Leef & Burris, 2002). Higher education in the United

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States was dominated by small colleges, typically with less than 1000 students (El-Khawas, 2001). The distance and frequency of communication during that era was far less than today, thus making it difficult for a prospective student to make an informed decision about attending one institution over another institution. Given that students traveled only within their region to attend school, regional organizations developed to provide a means for universities to distinguish themselves as organizations with sufficient resources to provide an adequate education. Universities paid a fee for membership in these regional organizations and provided information to substantiate their resources for the provision of education, such as the number of faculty, the duration of their academic programs, the number of volumes in their library, and the size of their endowments (Humfeld, 2021). What began as a means of assuring academic quality through a process of nongovernmental peer-review, accrediting agencies are now the gatekeepers of access to over $125 billion annually in federal financial aid funds to the nation’s colleges and universities (GAO-18-5, 2017). Different types of accreditation organizations review diverse postsecondary educational institutions, each with dissimilar standards, principles, and criteria (Donahoo & Lee, 2008). Additionally, one level of accreditation would be insufficient to address the accrediting needs of the various institutions. Currently, three major types of accrediting organizations operate in the U.S. higher education system (Barrett, 2020). Eaton (2003) argued that accreditation helps preserve the academic value of higher education and provides a buffer from political influence. It also provides assurance to private employers in making hiring decisions, supporting employees’ educational aspirations, and making charitable donations. While all of the regional agencies use common practices, there are differences in standards, processes, and terminology (Eaton, 2010). For example, Southern Association of Colleges and Schools on Colleges (SACSCOC) clusters the components listed above around four phases of the accreditation process: (1) preparation, (2) off-site review, (3) on-site review, and (4) action by the SACSCOC Board of Trustees. The 17 steps in the accreditation process are summarized in the following four phases, as discussed in the SACSCOC Handbook for Institutions Seeking Reaccreditation (SACSCOC, 2018). This regional approach is the primary avenue to accreditation even today. These are the challenges to most schools, and even more so for HBCUs. In later chapters, we will delve into more of these impediments.

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Because many of the HBCUs are located in the Southern United States, it is important to know the regional accreditor for these schools. SACSCOC is the regional body for the accreditation of degree-granting higher education institutions in the South. It serves as the common denominator of shared values and practices among the institutions in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Latin America, and other international sites approved by the Commission that award associate, baccalaureate, master’s, or doctoral degrees (SACSCOC, 2017). In June of 2016, SACSCOC voted to remove its accreditation for Paine College, an HBCU located in Georgia, for failure to meet standards related to financial resources and stability (Toppo, 2018). This action set off a series of legal challenges that continue to this day. Bennett College, an HBCU in North Carolina, is following a similar path, also having lost accreditation for financial reasons and turning to the courts to retain its accreditation (Osei, 2019). Why fight so hard to maintain accredited status? In a word, the answer is survival. Accreditation is the gatekeeper to more than $120 billion of federal financial aid (Department of Education, 2022), which is a fiscal necessity for many colleges and universities across the country. Without access to this funding, many institutions would close. St. Paul’s College, an HBCU in Virginia, met such a fate in 2013 after it lost accreditation for financial, faculty, and institutional effectiveness issues. St. Paul’s main challenge? It could not maintain an endowment of $5 million and was deemed to be worthy of being shuttered as a result. According to SACSCOC (2021), to gain or maintain accreditation with SACSCOC, an institution must comply with the standards contained in their Principles of Accreditation: Foundations for Quality Enhancement and with the policies and procedures of the Commission. The “principles” were last updated in 2018. It is important to note that SACSCOC does accredit the entire school; this accreditation extends to all programs and services of an institution wherever located and however delivered. However, SACSCOC does not accredit individual programs, locations, or portions of an institution (SACSCOC, 2021). Schools seeking to reaffirm their accreditation are placed within a 10-year cycle for compliance review. In some cases, the Principles of Accreditation can be incongruent with the missions of HBCUs. Burnett (2020) posits SACSCOC’s Comprehensive Standard 3.7.5 requires that “the institution publishes policies on the responsibility and authority of faculty in academic

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governance matters.” However, as Burnett notes, the system of faculty governance at HBCUs is different than at most other institutions because some HBCU faculty members spend disproportionately more time supporting students than on governance. There are some institutions and organizations trying to help bridge and support HBCUs in these schools’ quests to maintain both their mission and their accreditation. One is the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) through its Institute for Capacity Building. Another is the HBCU Collaborative for Excellence in Educational Quality Assurance (HBCU-­ CEEQA). Both the UNCF and HBCU-CEEQA work to tell the story and history of HBCUs to the world and help in focusing the message to political decision-makers in state and federal government. According to Orr et al. (2020), HBCU-CEEQA’s vision is to be a leader in building the capacity to demonstrate the impact and effectiveness of HBCUs within the postsecondary context. HBCU-CEEQA focuses on best practices and assessment evaluation. Also, not to be forgotten is the importance of accreditation to the financial bottom line for HBCUs. SACSCOC accredits 77 of the 101 HBCUs (76 percent). The decisions made by SACSCOC not only carry the proof of assessment and best practices but also provide avenues to federal financial aid. Research has shown a large number of students attending HBCUs receive some form of financial assistance in the form of Pell Grants, which uses income as its primary criteria for approval. What makes a school able to prove and show it is secure financially? According to SACSCOC’s policy, “when peer evaluators are considering financial and physical resources they may consider a sound financial base like total assets, unrestricted net assets, endowment balances and so forth” (SACSCOC, 2021). While this may seem straightforward in how to view a school, the policy also states, “there is no one way for an institution to present a case for sound and stable resources, or for a peer evaluator to evaluate it” (SACSCOC, 2021). According to UNCF (2019), such subjectivity allows for a level of reviewer bias that could skew their assessment; thus, the institution’s future and the future of their students is largely based on the impressions of individuals from dissimilar campuses who are using an ambiguous standard to evaluate an institution’s resource base. This approach is not different in what faces administrators in individual departments, such as journalism and mass communication units seeking

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accreditation with the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC). Not all Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) are or have been under the same constraints as HBCUs. Accreditation for Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) is a more complex and different area in which to explore. HSIs are relatively new in their designation. Once the 2000 U.S. Census was released and showed an increase of Latinos in America, it became a topic regarding economics, government programming, and educational opportunities. Nevertheless, HSIs are important institutions for Latinos in pursuing higher education. Most HSIs were not originally established to serve a particular student population. As the federal definition makes clear, HSIs are characterized by their enrollment ratios rather than by their institutional mission. However, there are several exceptions. For example, institutions in Puerto Rico were created with a mission to serve the residents of the island, the vast majority of whom are Hispanic (Santiago, 2006). In the mid-1980s, educational leaders and policymakers saw value in identifying institutions that enrolled large concentrations of Latino students. One purpose was to target funding to improve the quality of education at these institutions and thus improve the learning environment for large numbers of Latino students. In the past 20 years, policymakers and institutional leaders have come to accept the HSI classification as meaningful and as a funding vehicle to improve the quality of education at institutions enrolling large concentrations of Latino students (Santiago, 2006). This is important to remember in the realm of accreditation needed for survival. While HSIs are required to have accreditation, the main reason for them was for funding. This is different from the pressures seen and felt at HBCUs. However, the biggest difference is that most HSIs are primarily two-year institutions. According to Barrett (2020), there has been long-standing criticism of SACSCOC’s relationship with the nation’s HBCUs. In a centennial history of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, 1895–1995, Miller (1998) provided a general account of the place that SACSCOC occupied in Southern society and history over the first 100 years of existence. Wielding substantial power and influence in Southern education and society, SACSCOC’s founders began with the earnest desire to improve standards of the profession, bring order to the region’s educational system, and be a progressive influence on the wider society in which

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they worked and lived. SACSCOC was shaped by historical and social forces in its creation and development over the years, while similarly playing a significant role in shaping Southern education and society (Miller, 1998). Barrett (2020) posits that policymakers can benefit from additional insights into accreditation to strengthen the argument for needed changes to the overall quality of the U.S. higher education system. Likewise institutional leaders can develop better strategies to improve academic quality on their individual campuses. Faculty, staff, students, and other constituents can also gain a deeper understanding of accreditation, which remains sparse in the academic literature. For example, better understanding of accreditation can dispel the perception of it being an intrusion into academic freedom and encourage more faculty participation in the process. According to Molinero (2013), the system of higher education in the United States is evolving, as it must, to meet the changing needs of institutions and students in the current economy. It follows logically that the existing traditional accreditation system should adapt to these changing conditions and develop uniform required procedures designed to ensure that all students at higher education institutions receive a quality education. HBCUs and other MSIs will need to be at the forefront of these changes and adaptations.

References Alstete, J. W. (2007). College accreditation: Managing internal revitalization and public respect. Palgrave Macmillan. Barrett, A. W. (2020). Power of accreditation in U.S. higher education (Order No. 27998680). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2454633888). Retrieved from https://www2.lib.ku.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/dissertations-­t heses/power-­a ccreditation-­u -­s -­h igher-­ education/docview/2454633888/se-­2?accountid=14556 Burnett, C. (2020). Diversity under review: HBCUs and regional accreditation actions. Innovative Higher Education, 45(1). Department of Education. (2022). About us. Retrieved from https://studentaid. ed.gov/sa/about Donahoo, S., & Lee, W. Y. (2008). Serving two masters: Quality and conflict in the accreditation of religious institutions. Christian Higher Education, 7, 319–338. Eaton, J.  S. (2003). Is accreditation accountable? The continuing conversation between 38 accreditation and the Federal government (CHEA Monograph Series

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2003, Serial No. 1). Retrieved from http://www.chea.org/pdf/ CHEAmonograph_Oct03.pdf Eaton, J.  S. (2010). Accreditation and the federal future of higher education. Academe, 96(5), 21–24. El-Khawas, E. (2001). Accreditation in the USA: Origins, developments and future prospects. International Institute for Educational Planning. Flood, J., & Roberts, J. (2017). The evolving nature of higher education accreditation: Legal considerations for institutional research leaders. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2016(172), 73–84. Freeman, E.  A. (1883). Some impressions of the United States. Longmans, Green, and Co. Gaston, P.  L. (2014). Higher education accreditation: How it’s changing, why it must. Stylus. Harcleroad, F. F. (1980). Accreditation – History, process, and problems (Vol. 6). American Association for Higher Education. Hegji, A. (2018). The Higher Education Act (HEA): A primer. FAS.ORG. https:// fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43351.pdf. History. (n.d.). Morris Brown College. https://morrisbrown.edu/history/ Humfeld, K.  D. (2021). Exploring the meanings behind the quality assurance requirements for higher education industry regional accreditation (Order No. 28319487). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2504826100). Retrieved from https://www2.lib.ku.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/dissertations-­theses/exploring-­meanings-­behind-­quality-­ assurance/docview/2504826100/se-­2?accountid=14556 Klasik, D. (2016). Bobbing for bad apples: Accreditation, quantitative performance measures, and the identification of low-performing colleges. The Journal of Higher Education, 90. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2018.1512804 Leef, G. C., & Burris, R. D. (2002). Can college accreditation live up to its promise? (Policy paper, Issue). https://www.goacta.org/publications/can_college_ accreditation_live_up_to_its_promise McCardle, T. (2017, March/April). A promise deferred: Black Veterans’ access to higher education through the GI Bill at the University of Florida, 1944–1962. Educational Studies, 53, 200131946. Miller, J. D. (1998). A centennial history of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, 1895–1995. Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Molinero, S. (2013). Reexamining the examiners: The need for increased government regulation of accreditation in higher education. Duquesne Law Review, 51(3), 833–860. National Defense Education Act. (n.d.). US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives. https://history.house.gov/HouseRecord/Detail/15032436195 Older African Americans are flocking to college. (2007). Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 55, 50.

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Orr, V., Reneau, F., Howse, M., & Stanford, S. (2020). HBCU collaborative for excellence in educational quality assurance experiences significant growth in two years. Assessment Update, 32(5). Osei, Z. (2019, February 22). Despite raising $9.5 million, Bennett College loses accreditation  – And then regains it temporarily. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/Despite-­ Raising-­95-­Million/245755 Priddy, L. (2020). Trends in accreditation: How will accreditors once again become relevant for higher education? Planning for Higher Education, 49(1), 26–33. Retrieved from https://www2.lib.ku.edu/login?url=https://www. proquest.com/scholarly-­journals/trends-­accreditation-­how-­will-­accreditors-­ once/docview/2479491939/se-­2?accountid=14556 SACSCOC. (2021, March 25). Accrediting standards. Retrieved October 16, 2021, from https://sacscoc.org/accrediting-­standards/ SACSOC. (2017). In SACSCOC. Retrieved January 15, 2022, from http://www. sacscoc.org Santiago, D.  A. (2006, March). Inventing Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs): The basics. www.edexcelencia.org/research/pubs.asp. Retrieved November 3, 2021, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED506052.pdf Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (1944). (n.d.). Our documents  – Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (1944). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc. php?flash=false&doc=76 Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges. (2018). Handbook for institutions seeking initial accreditation. Retrieved from. http:// www.sacscoc.org/pdf/handbooks/Initial%20Accreditation%202018%20 Edition.pdf Toppo, G. (2018, October 16). Paine College on the brink? Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com UNCF. (2019). Biases in quality assurance: A position paper on Historically Black Colleges and Universities and SACSCOC. https://www.uncf.org/wp-­content/ uploads/Biases-­i n-­Q uality-­A ssurance_UNCF-­A ccreditation-­W hite-­P aper-­ Updated.pdf VA history in brief. (n.d.). https://www.va.gov/opa/publications/archives/ docs/history_in_brief.pdf Whitford, E. (2021, April 14). Morris Brown earns Accreditation candidacy after 19 years. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/ quicktakes/2021/04/14/morris-­b rown-­e arns-­a ccreditation-­c andidacy-­ after-­19-­years

ACEJMC Accreditation Standards Change

In today’s highly politicized world, what passes for journalism education in many colleges is sometimes not true education at all. Instead, especially when the teachers themselves are not truly educated in the principles of journalism, they merely shower students with facts. Journalists are not required to graduate from a university, be it accredited or not; however, when these journalists then enter academia as professors, without the knowledge of basic mass communication theories, they may lack the structure in which to teach students. According to the research found in some studies, this seems most likely to happen when the teachers are those who have enjoyed a long professional career. Often adjunct faculty members pick up an enormous amount of information working as practitioners. Once these instructors enter the classroom, they give that information to their students, however, sometimes without a theoretical framework. Without a strong theoretical base, students are left with a void as to why and how the media functions in society. As a result of the perceived lack of academic basis for the profession, many scholars merely considered journalism and other forms or mass communication education to be vocational in structure. Accreditation requires effort, financial stability, sound governance, and faculty commitment to scholarship to the university. In supporting the idea of accreditation, education administrators have called for clearer standards to be used as litmus tests for accreditation. They note that accredited

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programs tend to be at large, state-supported institutions and that smaller, mainly tuition-funded schools are more challenged to earn and maintain the hardships of volunteer accreditation. When it comes to defining quality, a single federal schema has not yet emerged. However, some preferences are clear. The schema is basically the same standards the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) uses for institutions to earn accreditation. The indicators of quality that are mentioned most frequently include graduation rates, job placement, course completion, pass rates on licensure and certification examinations, and successful transfer or entry to graduate school. Quality is defined as tangible benefits gained from a collegiate experience. With regard to judging quality, there appears to be a firmly entrenched belief that external criteria, external validation, or a single set of external benchmarks must be applied to the indicators to make reliable judgments about quality. The benchmarks set by either federal and state legislatures and those set by accrediting agencies are being imposed on institutions of learning throughout the United States. Journalism education has been called schizophrenic. It has not known which way to go, should it become primarily professional, or should it be a traditional academic discipline? Journalism educators sometimes lack the respect of their colleagues in the academic community because they are seen as teaching a trade. Thus, there are several forces that have traditionally hampered the view many have regarding mass communication and journalism schools. Part of the problem is not just the definitions that were noted earlier in this study regarding just what is mass communications education but also the manner in which those in communications actually communicate with each other. This moving target nature of mass communications is what makes ACEJMC’s structure and standards a stabilizing compass in the field of education. At the very core of any professional education lies the consideration of what one is doing. So, what is the core? What are the main issues being taught by professors to those taking mass communications and journalism courses? What are the theories and concepts that are universal in the disciplines? In addition to understanding journalism itself, the students must also strive to achieve an understanding of news, of interpretation, of evaluation, of advocacy. Journalism does not exist in a vacuum; potential journalists need to know those outside factors that influence, limit, or direct the arts of journalism. A journalist that is locked in the present is the captive of a very small world.

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This is the challenge that faces ACEJMC and how that agency has had to morph several times, restructuring and updating standards to better represent what is happening in the field of mass communications. It has not always been a smooth road in trying to set standards that not only convey ethics and professionalism but also are not out of the reach of reasonably run colleges and universities. Just what should be taught by these institutions? Moderating the balance between professional journalism training and academic rigor is ACEJMC.  Established as the American Council on Education in Journalism in 1945, the organization discussed 17 standards by which to act as an accrediting agency. Fred. S. Siebert, president of the American Association of Schools and Department of Journalism—an organization that had become a default accrediting body without the support of professional journalism—wrote in the March 1945 issue of Journalism Quarterly that the support of professional organizations such as the American Newspaper Publishers Association and American Society of Newspaper Editors were the impetus for the new accrediting council. “These organizations have indicated an interest in our problems and have offered to help” (Carey, 1978). A week after the American Council on Education in Journalism was adopted by a group of professional organizations and the AASDJ, an Editor & Publisher (E&P) article said the American Council on Education in Journalism (ACEJ) will improve the quality of journalism instruction and create the “elimination of marginal and sub-marginal programs” (Bentel, 1945, p. 12). In the E&P article, ACEJ Chairman Richard Powell Carter was quoted as saying, “This is the most progressive step taken in journalism education since journalism schools were founded” (p. 12). While accrediting standards have been streamlined to nine in recent years, ACEJMC’s mission remains relatively unchanged in its established guidelines to distinguish an accredited program from a non-accredited program. The mission statement, in part, reads: “The Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications is dedicated to fostering and encouraging excellence and high standards in professional education in journalism and mass communications” (http://www2. ku.edu/~acejmc/PROGRAM/mission.SHTML). However, disagreements concerning “high standards in professional education” persist. In the early years, the Council had to overcome the stigma of being a pseudo-government entity prescribing a homogeneous curriculum (Siebert, 1945, ACEJ minutes p. 5; Conn, 1970). ACEJ has

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been accused of “accreditation by the numbers” (Highton, 1968), and schools have been indicted for placing too much emphasis on skills and not enough on liberal arts (Carey, 1974; Carey, 1978; Kirtz, 1997; Reese & Cohen, 2000). Additionally, accrediting standards are expected to evolve with changes in the media industry, diversity expectations, and university transformations. The purpose of this study is to examine the current perceptions of ACEJMC’s nine standards among administrators of accredited journalism programs. A survey of administrators of accredited programs will assist in evaluating the current accreditation standards and process. The information gathered in this study will allow ACEJMC council members to self-­ assess their required standards, accreditation procedures, and perceived value and function of accreditation. In 1937, Hyde proposed that AASDJ amend its constitution to create a “National Committee on Relations of Schools of Journalism and Newspaper Groups,” which would include 10 educators and 10 newspaper industry representatives (Journalism Quarterly, 1938). A vote on the issue was expected in 1938 but Hyde withdrew the proposal because other cooperative discussions between journalism educators and the newspaper profession were in the works (Conn, 1970). Constitutional amendment or not, it was clear that there was great interest among academics and professionals to jointly develop educational standards. By 1945, AASDJ was fully entrenched in the accreditation issue. In the March 1945 issue of Journalism Quarterly, AASDJ President Fred S. Siebert’s address was recounted. “In its capacity of accrediting agency this Association has adopted a set of standards, 17 in all…,” Siebert said (Siebert, 1945, p.  34). He explained meeting the standards constitutes accreditation and “satisfactory professional training in journalism” (p. 34). However, Siebert continued, the current system had at least three flaws: a periodic review of schools has not been established; there was no mechanism for removing a school from the accredited list; and schools and departments were providing accreditation without guidance from outside the academic community. Siebert said, “The impetus for a re-evaluation of our accrediting system and our standards has come from the professional organizations of newspaper editors and publishers” (Siebert, 1945, p. 34). Although Siebert mentioned AASDJ’s 17 standards, he said a joint accrediting agency among professionals and academics would need to set its own standards. He even questioned some of what AASDJ had established, saying, “The requirement that no professional courses should be

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given in the sophomore year is open to doubt as is also the requirement that a teacher with professional rating must have five years of practical experience” (Siebert, 1945, p. 37). Siebert also questioned the quality of liberal arts courses being required by journalism programs. At its inaugural meeting in April 1945 at New York’s Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, the ACEJ included four individuals from newspaper associations and five academics. The alternatives included three from professional groups and two from academic groups. After receiving testimonials from the American Newspaper Publishers’ Association, American Society of Newspaper Editors, Inland Press Association, Southern Newspaper Publishers Association, and the National Editorial Board, ACEJ Chairman Richard Powell Carter explained that the AASDJ agreed to “transfer its accrediting functions to this Council” (ACEJ minutes, 1945). The Council did not set accrediting standards during the two-day meetings, instead establishing a protocol for accreditation. Actual accrediting standards were addressed during the December 7, 1946, meeting in Cleveland. University of Ohio’s Neil Luxon explained that Earl English from the University of Missouri consulted with University of Minnesota professors Charles Rogers and Ralph Nafziger to develop a plan of “accrediting procedures” (ACEJ minutes, 1946a, 1946b, 1946c, p. 3). ACEJ’s Accrediting Committee approved the procedure, which was being presented to the Council in Cleveland. Luxon said in developing the procedure, the Accrediting Committee had “taken into consideration the special objectives of journalism training existing in the various institutions and has carefully avoided the dangers of standardization of procedure” (ACEJ minutes, 1946a, 1946b, 1946c, p. 3). The plan asked programs to complete a 40-item questionnaire that addressed journalism resources such as “faculty, library, curricula, students, financial support and employers’ appraisals of graduates” (ACEJ, 1946a, 1946b, 1946c, p.  4). The questionnaire provided a quantitative measurement to examine a program’s overall achievement. The expansive nature of the questionnaire was designed to avoid narrow interpretations of a program. English also proposed that visiting site committees would meet with school faculty to qualitatively measure intangibles (student morale, teaching effectiveness, school prestige, etc.). Luxon said, “In this way, the committee has avoided putting itself in the untenable position of having to set up inflexible levels of minimum achievement, for the schools themselves will set the standards” (ACEJ, 1946a, 1946b, 1946c, p. 4). The procedures were unanimously adopted.

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In 1949, Northwestern’s Kenneth Olson, an original member of the Council, wrote: “From the very first, it was decided that there would be no regimentation. Each school was to be free to set up the program that would best serve the publications in its area” (ACEJ minutes, 1949, p. 3). Olson explained, for example, that for states that feature more weekly newspapers, a program should adhere to those needs. “All that accreditation demands is that each school set up a sound educational program in which at least 75 percent of the courses are in background liberal arts courses and that the professional courses represent sound professional practice” (ACEJ minutes, 1949, p. 3). Under the adopted guidelines, 41 journalism programs had been approved for inspection as of late December 1947 and 16 had been inspected (ACEJ minutes, 1947). Although the system of accreditation appeared to be working, Council members continued to struggle with the standards issue. Finally, in 1960, ACEJ’s Accrediting Committee proposed seven standards that were, as Michigan State University professor Fred S. Siebert said, “general enough to be useful and specific enough to be effective” (Friedman, 1960, p. 11). Siebert added that adoption of standards had come at the encouragement of many. In October 1960, Siebert, who was also the Association of Education in Journalism (AEJ) president and ACEJ Committee on Standards and Objectives member, presented seven standards for adoption by ACEJ. The standards addressed Objectives, Background Education, Professional Courses, Faculty, Facilities, Graduates, and Relationship with the media and professional organizations (ACEJ minutes, 1960, Exhibit B). Each standard included several sub-standards outlining expectations of schools seeking accreditation. For example, Standard 2 (Background Education) included four sub-standards, including: (a) a program of education for journalism should be based on a wide and varied background of competent instruction of the liberal arts and sciences; (b) the program for education in journalism should be located in an institution with a four-year accredited program in liberal arts and sciences; (c) the liberal arts and sciences background of the student in journalism should include wide selections as well as depth in such fields. Generally, three-fourths of the student’s program should consist of courses in the area of liberal arts and sciences and one-fourth in professional courses in journalism (ACEJ minutes, 1960, Exhibit B). Other sub-standards included that professional courses should be concentrated in the final two years of study (Standard 3: Professional Courses),

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the program should include no less than two full-time faculty members (Standard 4: Faculty), and a school should produce at least five graduates a year (Standard 6: Graduates). It was also recommended that faculty have at least four years of professional experience (ACEJ minutes, 1960, Exhibit B). Throughout the 1960s, the standards were modified to eliminate a minimum on journalism faculty, and the minimum amount of professional experience required to teach classes. However, the ACEJ council suggested that 75 percent of classes are in the arts and sciences and 25 percent in journalism. Also, it was recommended that laboratory courses not exceed 15 students to one instructor (Conn, 1970). Minor adjustments to standards continued into the 1970s and early 1980s. For instance, in 1972, it was added that “no school will include sex, race, color, or religion in standards for enrollment, grading, hiring and promotion” (ACEJ Council minutes, 1972, Exhibit C); in 1975, the Council examined the 15-to-1 student-to-instructor ratio in writing courses (ACEJ Council minutes, 1975); in 1977, ACEJ determined it would accredit graduate programs separate of undergraduate programs (ACEJ Council minutes, 1977); and in 1980, a clarification on internship credits was presented (ACEJ Council minutes, 1980). Although a committee routinely examined the standards and offered minor revisions, a major renovation in standards did not occur until 1985. By 1981, ACEJ changed its name to the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications, and former AEJ President James Carey was designated chairman of the standards review committee in 1983. It was reported in the ACEJMC minutes (1983) that Carey “said the committee saw its task as one of rewriting the accreditation standards for the Council” (p. 3). In October 1984, the revised standards—12 in all—were presented to the Council. Although remnants of the original 1960 standards remained (75/25 liberal arts courses to journalism courses, faculty expertise in journalism, facilities), the revisions provided more clarity and direction to administrative and budgetary resources allotted to journalism and mass communications programs, evaluation of classroom instruction, faculty scholarship, research and professional activities, public service conducted by units, self-assessment of graduates, and Standard 12: Minority and Female Representation (ACEJMC Council minutes, 1985). Standard 12 read:

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Organized efforts must be made to recruit, advise, and retain minority students and minority and female faculty members and to include in the curriculum information for all students about contributions to journalism and mass communications made by minority and female practitioners from early America to the present. (ACEJMC Council minutes, 1985, p. 14)

For the next 10 years, there were minor modifications to the 12 standards but no major overhauls until 1996. That year, standards 2 (Budget), 3 (Curriculum), 4 (Student Records/Advising), 6 (Faculty), 10 (Public Service), and 12 (renamed “Diversity”) were modified (ACEJMC Ascent newsletter, 1996b). In the past, the budget standard (Standard 2) requested information about individual faculty salaries. The new standard read, “No information about salaries paid to individuals, or to rank, ethnic or other groups, will be sought or considered” (ACEJMC Ascent newsletter, 1996b, p. 1). A U.S. Court of Appeals’ (Fifth Circuit) ruling in Hopwood v. State of Texas forced a change in Standard 12. The court ruled that state universities could not use race as a factor in student admission. The Hopwood decision rendered Standard 12 unenforceable in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, where at the time 16 accredited schools were located. The new Standard 12 was re-titled “Diversity” and avoided listing specific minority groups. After lengthy debate, the motion passed, 18–14, but a committee was established to continue working on Standard 12 language (ACEJMC Council minutes, 1996a). Although it hadn’t been 10 years, the most recent review and revision of standards occurred in 2003. Called the “most significant changes to standards” since 1984, the revisions combined content of several standards to reduce the number from 12 to 9 (ACEJMC Ascent newsletter, 2003). A new standard, Standard 9: Assessment of Learning Outcomes, asks schools to “regularly assess student learning and use results to improve curriculum” (http://www2.ku.edu/~acejmc/PROGRAM/ STANDARDS.SHTML). The historical review of journalism accrediting standards demonstrates the complexity of developing a comprehensive system for measuring educational instruction. For about 90 years, educators have struggled to set a high bar for professional journalism training without being too prescriptive as to what that training should entail. However, whenever institutions present guidelines—ACEJ in the beginning and now ACEJMC—the

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institutional influence shape journalism and mass communications instruction for those desiring accreditation and possibly beyond. Accreditation is an essential system for recognizing professional and educational programs affiliated with those institutions as having standards, a level of performance, integrity, and quality that entitles them to the confidence of the educational community and the public. The study of accreditation is important because it helps the public and other stakeholders have a record of the practices and procedures that govern institutions of higher learning. Institutional agencies look at the operation of the entire college or university. The administration of institutions of higher education is a complex, challenging, and, in many instances, frustrating undertaking. The administrator must deal with many groups, including students, faculty, other administrators, federal, state, and local governing agencies, accreditation agencies, business and professional organizations, service clubs, and alumni. A study by Crawford (2014) examined how administrators at ACEJMC-­ accredited and non-accredited HBCU programs felt about the nine standards used in the accreditation process. Nearly unanimously, the administrators agreed that accreditation, or as those not accredited stated, “best practices,” are essential. The study focused on three standards: diversity of students and faculty (Standard 3); scholarship: research, creativity, and professional activity (Standard 5); and assessment of learning outcomes (Standard 9). According to Aikat (2021), the Diversity Standard at ACEJMC has evolved. From 2007 to 2013, I was an elected member of ACEJMC and in many ways I was surprised by how the Diversity Standard was developed. We were having a meeting during this time on “What is Diversity?” I stood up and said, “The Diversity Standard is very simple, if somebody is not white (which is the majority community) then they are included in the diversity community. ACEJMC has progressed from this basic determination. There are institutional challenges at various schools—be it HBCUs or PWIs in trying to achieve diversity. One example, if someone was born in Africa and later becomes an American citizen, they are not counted in the diversity current model. Diversity also includes the LBGTA+ community. ACEJMC has had to move with the current times” (Aikat, 2021). The accrediting standards of ACEJMC help to continue these practices. It does show, however, how internal and external forces can tend to make schools adjust their teaching and missions. The administrators’ challenge

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is to make their units as successful as possible. Administrators define success in different ways and institutional theory works because it does not give a template as to what makes the organization a success. Based on the literature and interviews, this study examined the following research questions: RQ1: What do administrators of accredited and non-accredited journalism and mass communications programs at PWIs and HBCUs think of the nine ACEJMC accrediting standards as best practices? RQ2: Are there differences of opinions about ACEJMC standards between administrators at accredited journalism and mass communications programs and non-accredited HBCUs with journalism and mass communications programs? RQ3: How do administrators at PWI and HBCU journalism and mass communications programs rate the value of accreditation? Of the 109 journalism and mass communications administrators, 68 responded to the initial ACEJMC assessment survey, with 66 actually completing the survey for a response rate of 60.5 percent. This is well within acceptable response rates for online surveys. Reinardy and Crawford (2013) found that over 50 percent of the ACEJMC-accredited institutions self-reported that their units had an equal balance between teaching and research. On average, these accredited schools had an average of 553 enrolled students. It is important to mention that 4 of the 68 accredited schools were HBCUs. These same four schools were included in the second group of surveys sent to 20 HBCUs, 16 of which were non-­accredited. Of the 21 HBCU administrators, 20 responded to the survey for a response rate of 95.2 percent. On average, the HBCU units had an average of 198 enrolled students. The survey used descriptive statistics to answer RQ1, which asked administrators to rate the nine accrediting standards. The administrators had a chance to review the standards and rate them as “good as is,” “needs MINOR changes,” and “needs MAJOR changes.” This study was interested in only three of the nine ACEJMC standards—Diversity and Inclusiveness (3); Scholarship: Research, Creativity, and Professional Activity (5); and Assessment of Learning Outcomes (9). Following strict IRB and confidentiality rules, respondents were invited to provide additional information and suggestions for improving each standard.

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Respondents were also given the opportunity to “opt in” on providing any personal/unit identifying data or even to self-identify. In answering RQ1, respondents from both groups agreed that there was a need for standards to serve as best practices. The accredited units actually had only a mild critique of the nine standards as a whole. In fact, Reinardy and Crawford (2013) found on eight of the nine standards, a majority of the respondents rated the standards “good as is” (see Table 1 below). All 20 of the HBCU respondents said the standards were needed and served as a source of best practices in educating journalists and future media professionals. The HBCUs, as a group, looked at the standards as a way to gauge their own programs. Many HBCU administrators attend the annual Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) conference. It is through these conferences that the unaccredited units have an opportunity to immerse in the yearly discussions regarding the standards. Of the 20 responses, 14 (70 percent) stated they had never been accredited, but they admitted to trying to have their units follow the standards and found this allowed their students the best opportunities in career aspirations. RQ2 asked if there were differences of opinions about standards between administrators at ACEJMC-accredited programs and those at non-accredited HBCU programs. In answering RQ2, the ACEJMC-­ accredited programs were divided into three groups based on student Table 1  HBCU and accredited administrators’ critique of ACEJMC standards

Standard 1 Standard 2 Standard 3 Standard 4 Standard 5 Standard 6 Standard 7 Standard 8 Standard 9

Needs MINOR

Needs MAJOR

Good as is (%)

Changes (%)

Changes (%)

86.2 32.3 47.7 73 2 67.7 95.3 82.8 78.1 50.8

9.2 27.7 26.15 2.2 26.15 3.1 14.1 15.6 29.2

4.6 40 26.15 4.8 6.15 1.6 3.1 6.3 20.0

Courtesy Reinardy and Crawford (2013)

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enrollment. Smaller programs were considered to have 317 or fewer students, medium-sized programs were grouped into categories of 318–556 students, and larger programs consisted of student populations of 557 or more students. This study used analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the differences between the perceptions of administrators in the three groups. The smaller group of administrators was compared to those of the HBCU administrators. The comparison showed a similar viewpoint of Standard 9 (Assessment of Learning Outcomes) by both the smaller accredited group of schools and those of HBCU administrators. They both thought the standard was a good way to determine student learning. However, the larger accredited group disagreed with this appraisal; 29 percent of the larger school administrators reported needing major changes, and only 6 percent of the smaller schools responded needing major changes to the standard (Reinardy & Crawford, 2013). RQ3 asked administrators of ACEJMC-accredited journalism and mass communications programs and administrators at HBCU programs to rate the value of accreditation. On a five-point, Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strong agree), administrators were asked to give their perceptions on whether the financial investment of accreditation was worth the return and to give their perceptions on whether or not the investment of faculty time in the accreditation process was worth the return. An ANOVA examining the differences between the four groups (small, medium, large, and HBCU programs) showed no significant differences in attitudes on either question. In fact, of the 20 HBCU respondents, only three stated they were not going to apply for accreditation in the next five years (see Table 2). Similarly, to the beginnings of journalism, accrediting agencies in the early 1900s, pondered on how journalism should be taught, even today’s current Standards are not set in stone and progress with current professional and educational demands.

Table 2  HBCU administrators rate the importance of ACEJMC accreditation Not important 14.3

Somewhat important 33.3

Very important 42.9

Othera 9.5

Other Comments: The university administration seems eager for us to pursue ACEJMC accreditation, but we are not entirely persuaded. For one thing, we feel that we need more support from the administration before applying. We follow ACEJMC curriculum guidelines as best we can a

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Later, in chapter “Conclusion,” we will look at the changes in ACEJMC standards, approved in November 2020, and will take effect in the Fall of 2022. As Aikat (2021) posited, the new Standard 4 “Diversity and Inclusiveness” will be a challenge for HBCUs. He believes the mere counting of faces will not be acceptable for the future. Accreditation matters and the transparency of the process allow non-­ accredited units to use the standards as best practices.

References Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. (1946a). Minutes of meeting, December 7, 1–7. Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. (1946b). Minutes of meeting, October 16. Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. (1946c). Minutes of meeting, October 19. Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. (1985). Minutes, September 27–28. Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. (1996a). Minutes, May 5–6: 1–34. Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. (1996b). Ascent Newsletter, 3(3), 1–4. Aikat, D. (2021, October 15). Deb Aikat, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Hussman School of Journalism and Media, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Personal. Bentel, D. (1945). Press becomes full partner in school accrediting plan. Editor & Publisher, 78(9), 12. Carey, J. W. (1974). Journalism and criticism: The case of an undeveloped profession. The Review of Politics, 36(2), 227–249. Carey, J.  W. (1978). A plea for university tradition. Journalism Quarterly, 55(4), 846–855. Conn, E.  L. (1970). The American Council on Education for Journalism: An accrediting history. Unpublished dissertation. Indiana University. Crawford, J. (2014). Leaders in journalism education: Administrators at ACEJMC accredited programs and non-accredited HBCU programs critique the standards. Journal of Research Initiatives, 1(2) Article 10. Friedman, R. B. (1960). Educators study draft of minimum standards. Editor & Publisher, 93(36), 11, 60. Highton, J. (1968). AEJ revisited: Accrediting by numbers. Editor & Publisher, 101(17), 50–51.

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Kirtz, B. (1997). Good journalists have a good grasp of the liberal arts. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 43(22), B6. Reese, S. D., & Cohen, J. (2000). Educating for journalism: The professionalism of scholarship. Journalism Studies, 1(2), 213–227. Reinardy, S., & Crawford, J. (2013). Assessing the assessors: JMC administrators critique the nine ACEJMC standards. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 68(4), 335–347. Siebert, F.  S. (1945). The AASDJ accepts new accrediting policy. Journalism Quarterly, 22(1), 34–44.

Accreditation: A Pathway to Excellence and Acceptance

Journalism education and the manner by which professionals and those in the academy have dealt with the responsibilities and roles by which journalists should be trained continue to be debated and refined. Should students simply learn on the job, or should they have their education couched in a more liberal arts education? Should journalism education be taught by professionals or instructors well versed in theory? Can an institution’s own mission be superseded by ever-evolving standards? Should institutions not able to bear the financial demands required to both prepare for and maintain accreditation be seen as “less than,” even if these institutions are providing similar and equal assessed instruction? Hampton University and Howard University are two of the larger HBCUs and their programs have a tradition and legacy of producing journalists and media professionals. Their administrators, along with leaders at other Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), still have to battle the perception that their graduates do not match up with graduates from Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). HBCU Journalism and Mass Communication (JMC) administrators have to make decisions as to the best way to refute this image. One way is to seek accreditation (Crawford, 2012). Administrators of the 55 JMC units at HBCUs have to lead with an eye on tradition while dealing with current financial issues. The administrators are faced with the personal challenge of tenuous term limits, served at the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Crawford II, Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97501-2_4

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discretion of higher administrators, and teaching two or three classes. They work under larger units and have minimal authority over budgets, hiring, or strategic planning for their units. Their faculty work full course loads and few have tenure. Dean Walter Williams, in 1908, established the nation’s first stand-­ alone school of journalism at the University of Missouri, and 66 years later, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (FAMU) became the first HBCU to establish a journalism program in 1974. Journalism programs in universities have grown in tandem with the professionalization of journalism, so much so that journalism education and professionalization are sometimes treated as synonymous. Colleges and universities are becoming more like corporations due to pressures of complexity, financial support from states, and national budgets. Institutional theory states that organizations exist in a layered form encompassing the environmental field, the organization, formal and informal groups within the organization, and the individual employees. The degree of conformity, or fit, between the layers determines the degree of organizational stability. However, there is always a measure of diversity, or degrees of freedom, at every level. At the group level, for example, all educational systems witness intergroup struggles for new resources against a fixed budget. Journalism schools, by their normal make-up, have had to adapt to the current forms of media and technology through the years. However, these units also strive to keep their traditional norms and ethics. The accrediting standards of ACEJMC help to continue these practices. It does show, however, how internal and external forces can tend to make schools adjust their teaching and missions. The administrators’ challenge is to make their units as successful as possible. HBCUs, unlike larger and more financially secure PWIs, such as Northwestern University’s Medill School of Journalism, Media, Integrated Marketing Communications, are not able to go the route of eschewing accreditation. Medill was not the first prominent program in the United States to eschew ACEJMC accreditation. University of California-Berkeley also announced that it was letting its accreditation lapse (Blom et  al., 2018). However, these institutions did not drop accreditation due to the fear of not being able to maintain the standards. They believed they were beyond the standards and could sustain their programs on their own name, alone, and were already practicing best practices. According to Blom et  al. (2018), virtually everyone who works in an accredited

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program in the United States has debated the pros and cons of ACEJMC accreditation because it requires significant decisions in the content and management of programs and budgets. Some find the accreditation procedures and standards challenging. ACEJMC accreditation is important. Only about one-fourth of all journalism programs in the United States are accredited. Journalism educators in the United States have grappled with the challenges of racial equality and opportunity for decades, a struggle raising questions about how PWIs came to be integrated, and what forces are to credit for achieving the ideals of diversity (Wilkinson et  al., 2020). According to Sturgis and Johnson-Ross (2019), the ability to pivot to adopt change can be agonizingly difficult for any institutions but brings special challenges to HBCUs. The digital divide has been described as the distance or gap in access to the Internet based on race, ethnicity, income, education, and geographical location. HBCUs educate more African Americans, the majority of whom come from lower socioeconomic levels than students that attend predominantly white institutions. HBCU administrators know they do not have the luxury to simply move away from departmental/unit accreditation—especially if the unit has previously been accredited. However, the larger PWIs, with tens of millions of dollars in endowments, can believe their own “name brand” can carry them through the next iteration of mass communication and journalism education, accreditation still matters. Of course, there are concerns. Critics also worry that the current accreditation process is focused on larger programs. On one hand, small schools with limited faculty and resources may have a harder time passing all standards. It might also be difficult to find funding for the annual dues and visiting site team expenses and pay overload for a faculty member to take the lead on self-study (Blom et al., 2018). Educational leadership within college or university units makes them strong and, at times, vulnerable for failure if the leaders are not able to work within the unit’s mission statement and culture, and yet be innovative enough to look forward for opportunities for institutional success. HBCUs are facing challenges to their continued existence on several fronts. One is fiscally as federal funding for education has been cut and the responsibility for paying for higher education has been levied on students and parents. Another challenge is the amount of endowment dollars available to them and, lastly, there are questions today as to if HBCUs are still needed in a society that has allowed African Americans to enroll in PWIs.

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Administrators of professional schools have the pressures of meeting professional standards of accreditation and best practices. Administrators are responsible for at least helping to guide the focus of the creation and sustaining curricula, recruiting students and faculty, and preparing for the future. How are administrators at HBCU JMC units chosen? How do they operate day to day? How do they interact with faculty and students? This study is important because HBCU JMC units produce the majority of journalists in America, and in a democratic society a loss of minority voices is a danger to its freedom. A loss of African American voices could be a result if HBCU JMC units fail. HBCUs both educate and graduate the majority of minority voices in the United States. HBCU JMC administrators hold this responsibility in their hands as they lead their units. These administrators have to work within the institutional constraints, yet are also willing to move the unit forward. Older models that have a focus on a print product have to be changed to incorporate social media and other technologies. There is the never-ending debate over having more professionals or terminal degreed faculty and how this affects courses and the focus of the unit. The struggles with racism and funding that made it difficult to have institutions of higher learning for freed Blacks and other African Americans that were addressed with the Morrill Acts continued with the establishment of journalism units. While the institutions could educate their students in fields such as teaching and agriculture, journalism was not among the disciplines to be offered. There were no real options for African Americans to go to PWIs either to become a journalist. “The case of Lucille Bluford describes the reality of Blacks and American journalism and mass communication education in the era of ‘separate but equal’” (Jeter, 2002). The Morrill Act did allow for this type of funding, states only had to provide access. Bluford applied for admission to the journalism school at the University of Missouri. To avoid admitting her to the all-white school, the state of Missouri created in 1942 a new and separate journalism program at Lincoln University, the state’s college for Blacks, and assigned one teacher to it (Jeter, 2002). Of course, this was not equal. It was, however, separate and the decision started what would become the first HBCU with a unit of journalism. “The Missouri school was the only HBCU to offer journalism major until 1967 when Hampton Institute [now Hampton University] established its mass media arts major” (Jeter, 2002).

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The Freedmen’s Bureau was the first federal investment in HBCUs, and private Howard University was one of the beneficiaries to receive funds to help former slaves adjust to freedom. Separately, the effectiveness of HBCUs was thwarted by the realities of segregation. The federal Morrill Act of 1890 provided financial support to public colleges that was contingent upon a one-to-one state match (Sturgis & Johnson-Ross, 2019). Howard University, founded in 1867, established journalism and radio-­ TV-­film majors as part of a comprehensive communications school and admitted its first students in 1971. Howard University is still the only HBCU to offer a doctoral degree in communications. As in most cases of accreditation of schools and programs, the aim is to ensure the curricula and outcomes of a member meet established standards. This is not to say accreditation is the deciding factor for administrators, just that it is a choice. Accreditation creates other challenges, most noticeably, financial. The cost to apply, prepare, and implement accreditation standards is too much for many units, HBCUs and PWIs to afford. So, HBCU JMC administrators face the challenge of using the best of the accreditation practices to ensure their students are competitive. Can the administrators hire the most qualified faculty, can they foster an atmosphere that is conducive in moving curricula forward, and will the administrator have the term and freedom to do these things? In 2003, the highest number of HBCUs was involved or interested in ACEJMC accreditation. Seven of them were fully accredited—Florida A&M University, Grambling State University, Hampton University, Howard University, Jackson State University, Southern University-Baton Rouge (now Southern University and A&M College), and Norfolk State University. There were four other HBCUs seeking this accreditation, by 2005, North Carolina A&T, Alcorn State University, Winston-Salem State University, and Savanna State University. It was during this time that then Executive Director of ACEJMC, an invited speaker at the BCAA, explained the accreditation process to HBCU representatives. Shaw said accreditation does not happen overnight. “It takes three to five years for a program if they want to go forward,” she said, adding that sometimes a school goes up for accreditation twice before it is successful. The voluntary process begins with a pre-accreditation visit. Shaw looks at a program and suggests ways to comply with the council’s 12 accreditation standards (Berry, 2003). There were 12 standards; now there are 9 standards.

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This historical look at HBCUs and ACEJMC accreditation is important because it shows several critical topics. The seven fully accredited schools were joined by North Carolina A&T University and Savannah State University to bring the number to nine. Three of the four perspective schools failed to earn accreditation. Since then, both Grambling State University and Jacksonville State University lost their ACEJMC accreditation. There are currently seven HBCUs with this accreditation—Howard University, Florida A&M University, Savannah State University, Southern University and A&M College, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Norfolk State University, and, one new school, Morgan State University. Morgan State University’s School of Global Journalism & Communication joined the HBCU accredited schools in 2020. What makes Morgan State’s arrival on the scene notable is that it had never been ACEJMC accredited prior to their application. The site team, regarding the Standard 3 Diversity and Inclusiveness wrote, as part of its report: With both a Statement on Diversity and Inclusion that carries a general philosophy about diversity and an updated SGJC Diversity and Inclusiveness Plan, the school has been strategic in addressing diversity in a way that aligns with the overall university’s goals and core values. In an effort to diversify his faculty, an especially tough challenge for most historically black colleges and universities, the dean of the School of Global Journalism & Communication has mandated that all job searches produce a diverse pool of applicants. Data from the latest faculty hires show the school has made some progress in achieving this goal as 30% of recent faculty hires have been non-African American individuals. Since many of its recruitment efforts are in their early stages, the school has not made measurable progress in diversifying its student body. However, it has taken steps to show that it has an environment free of harassment and all forms of discrimination. This is communicated with signage and special wall displays pointing out the institution’s efforts to prioritize diversity as a core value. (Report of on-site evaluation of undergraduate …—ACEJMC)

The data provided by Morgan State, to show their compliance with Standard 3, the site team included a full faculty table:

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Faculty populations, full-time and part-time academic year 2019–2020 full-­ time faculty Group

Female % Total faculty Male % of total faculty

Black/African American White American Indian/Alaskan native Asian Hispanic/Latino (any race) Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander Two or more races Other race International No response

9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

42.8% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

10 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

47.6% 4.8% 0% 4.8% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Table courtesy of ACEJMC site team report

The table shows the challenges of trying to meet specific data points to be seen as being diverse and inclusive. In the South, diversity conveys African Americans, but in the Southwest, it refers to Hispanics; on the West Coast, diversity points to Asian Americans, while the Plains states might think of Native Americans (Ross et al., 2007). The Association of Schools of Journalism and Mass Communication (ASJMC) Diversity Committee took on the challenge of trying to define diversity. In terms of numbers, diversity among female students and faculty was increasing, although overall non-white student numbers remained low, and the breakdown of racial groups lacked detailed specificity. In response, some administrators claimed the diversity standard was not being enforced, whereas others demanded a broader interpretation. The report recommended that “diversification” be expanded to cover students and faculty with differing sexual orientations and disabilities (Wilkinson et al., 2020). Another standard that has caused challenges for HBCUs, due to these institutions’ mission of originally being “teaching institutions,” is Standard 5: Scholarship: Research, Creative and Professional Activity. The site team wrote: As Morgan State was recently designated an R2- Research Institution- High Research, the School of Global Journalism & Communication recognizes that its scholarship can be traditionally academic, professionally centered or both. To encourage faculty members’ scholarly productivity while carrying

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heavy teaching loads, central administration has implemented a new system of tracking release time. The goal is to help those who need additional time for research and creative activity. Beyond traditional travel funding, the ­university has implemented additional innovation funding that reflects core values of innovation, transformation, and disruption. With major forums and symposia that have attracted national leaders and experts on timely topics of importance, the school has been innovative in building an environment for intellectual curiosity, critical analysis and expression of different points of view. (Report of on-site evaluation of undergraduate …—ACEJMC)

Morgan State was found to be in full compliance with all ACEJMC standards. However, there were some weaknesses noted by the site team: 1) Tensions between faculty who are more academically oriented than the professional faculty. 2) An ill-defined governance structure. 3) A diversity plan that lacks comprehensiveness and clearly stated strategies. Faculty are challenged by the arrival of a notable number of poorly prepared students. Also, the team noted the challenge the school had in writing and preparing the self-study. The self-study is the heart of the accrediting process. Often the quality of that document determines the degree of success of the site visit. Summarize the team members’ judgment of the self-study. Even though well-written, it clearly was not a team effort. Faculty need to participate in the production of the report. Documentation showed that while all faculty were invited to participate in the writing of the self-study, few did. (Report of on-site evaluation of undergraduate …—ACEJMC)

Even with these challenges, the team considered the school’s overall document “to be among a handful of the best achievements in the last 20 years” (ACEJMC, 2020). Morgan State University’s ACEJMC accreditation, viewed through the prism of the site team, shows how site team members are subjective in how they specify compliance of the standards. Studies that look at the process, for example, can help identify how the accreditors can better support colleges and universities through the process and tailor reviews to each mission. A critical look at how peer

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reviewers are trained may provide agencies with a deeper understanding of how to accommodate different types of missions. Given the limited research into how accreditors and the accreditation process treat mission diversity in practice, there are extensive opportunities for future studies (Burnett, 2020). As is the case in most instances of accreditation of schools and programs, the aim is to ensure the curricula and outcomes of a member meet established standards. This is not to say accreditation is the deciding factor for administrators, just that it is a choice. Accreditation creates other challenges, most noticeably, financial. The cost to apply, prepare, and implement accreditation standards is too much for many units, HBCUs, and PWIs to afford. No unit on a campus wants to be the one unit that does not have accreditation. Historically Black Colleges and Universities are important to the society. HBCU journalism/mass communication units are just as important because they produce the majority of African American journalists and media voices. Democracy cannot afford to lose these voices. The administrators of these units will be key in keeping HBCUs competitive and productive. The success of these institutions can be attributed to the campus climate, the faculty, and the administrators (Crawford, 2013). ACEJMC revises its standards every 10 years. The latest changes were approved in November 2020. The changes go into effect in Fall 2022, with school self-studies, to take into account the changes, starting in 2021–22. According to ACEJMC (2021), in summary, here’s what is changing for the standards. All standards were revised, including indicators and evidence. • The number of standards is reduced from nine to eight. The current Standard 4 (Full-Time and Part-Time Faculty) and Standard 5 (Scholarship: Research, Creative and Professional Activity) are combined into a new Standard 5 (Faculty). Both Standards 4 and 5 focused on faculty and how faculty activity meets the university and unit teaching, research and service mission. • The order of the standards changes. The current Standard 9 (Assessment of Learning Outcomes) becomes Standard 3, contiguous with Standard 2 (Curriculum and Instruction), given that assessment and curriculum go hand in hand. • In Standard 1 (Mission, Governance and Administration), revisions place greater emphasis on effective leadership within the unit.

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Strategic plans will be given greater scrutiny by site teams to ensure units are using the plan to guide decision-making and measure progress in meeting goals. • In Standard 2 (Curriculum and Instruction), the requirement for 72 hours outside the unit is eliminated. The goal is to give students and units more flexibility in constructing learning plans that connect with today’s journalism and strategic communication worlds. The Council stressed that this recommendation does not conflict with ACEJMC’s fundamental commitment to students receiving a well-­ rounded liberal arts and science education. Units will be required to explain how their curriculum results in a balance between professional skills and liberal arts and sciences. • In Standard 2, the Professional Values and Competencies are reduced in number from 12 to 10 and updated to be more current and relevant. • The current Standard 3 (Diversity and Inclusiveness) becomes Standard 4. Revisions strengthen the standard by encouraging progress in diversity, inclusion, and empowerment, going beyond a focus on numbers. The revised standard recognizes that diversity, equity, and inclusion issues are significantly more important in our society and an even more central part of a well-structured education. During the 2015–16 ACEJMC site team visit decisions, North Carolina A&T State University was placed on provisional reaccreditation. During the 2017–18 site team visit period, NCA&T was removed from provisional status and fully reaccredited. Unfortunately, just a year earlier, 2016–16 decisions, Grambling State University was denied reaccreditation—with the site team finding the department had two standards in non-compliance and other weaknesses. For the 2020–21 site team visit, there is currently one HBCU with provisional status—Hampton University’s The Scripps Howard School of Journalism and Communications. According to ACEJMC (2021), Hampton was in non-compliance with Standard 2: Curriculum and Instruction; Standard 7: Resources and Equipment; and Standard 9: Assessment of Learning Outcomes. As part of the summary for the decision, the site team wrote after its January 26–29, 2020, visit: Summarize the problems or deficiencies that should be addressed before the next evaluation (i.e., related to non-compliance with standards).

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Standard 2: The School needs to work on updating the curriculum to include courses in the digital area (i.e., social media). Standard 7: Students are hampered by a shortage of adequate equipment to complete assignments and be prepared for the professional world. Standard 9: The assessment process for direct and indirect measures is not working as it should because it lacks a measurement tool (i.e., a rubric) that can be applied to the capstone projects. There is also a lack of professional involvement in the assessment process that would help update the curriculum.

The site team’s summary addressed the challenges facing the new administrators: While the unit’s budget is fair and equitable in comparison to other units; it is insufficient in meeting ACEJMC’s competency related to “applying current tools and technologies.” Strategically, the budget is insufficient and necessitates the need for internal operational funding to purchase current equipment and software that would make their students competitive in this changing media landscape. The facilities are sufficient to support the curriculum and faculty, but the travel funding, equipment and computers, in general, are insufficient to adequately support either the curriculum to remain current and the faculty to produce and disseminate quality research, or professional and creative products.

The site team also noted, “The school’s administrators had not been through the accreditation process before. The self-study lacked some information. Critical information relevant to a standard that was non-­ compliant in the last visit was not included” (ACEJMC, 2021). In response to ACEJMC’s decision, B. DaVida Plummer, Dean of The Scripps Howard School of Journalism and Communications, wrote a letter to Patricia Thompson, Executive Director, ACEJMC. The letter is part of the process to address the organization’s decision and allow units an opportunity to show how it will move forward in correcting any of the non-compliant standards. The letter becomes part of the decision and is located on ACEJMC’s site. In part, Plummer wrote, that her administrative team “…and I appreciated ACEJMC site team’s thorough and fair review of our school. We already are taking major steps toward implementing significant improvements in our areas of curriculum, facilities and assessment” (ACEJMC, 2021).

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Hampton’s acknowledgment and reply shows how schools need to be proactive in maintaining accreditation. It shows that the process cannot be completed in short order. It also shows the challenges of funding, time, and expertise in writing the document that administrators need in being successful. This touches on the dilemma of the instability of administrators common at HBCUs. The fact that the site team acknowledged this is significant. According to Blom et al. (2020), ACEJMC traditionally focused on a program’s curriculum and resources, such as faculty and facilities, when making accrediting decisions. Over time, diversity (e.g., faculty, students, and awareness of inclusiveness) and assessment of student outcomes have emerged as major foci, representing two of the nine standards the organization uses to evaluate programs. On one hand, it is unclear how emphasis on U.S.-centric conceptualizations of diversity (domestic or otherwise) extends into the international arena. However, these same challenges are facing HBCUs because of the types of faculty normally on their campuses. Success, at least in terms of ACEJMC accreditation standards, will depend greatly on department, unit, and school leadership. Standard 1: Mission, Governance and Administration will be the key in how HBCUs meet the challenges of helping to craft the self-studies, faculty governance, and stakeholder partnerships needed to attain and retain accreditation.

References ACEJMC. (2020). Report of the on-site evaluation of undergraduate programs for 2019–2020 visits. http://www.acejmc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/ 05/19.-Morgan-State-University.pdf ACEJMC. (2021). Report of on-site evaluation of undergraduate programs for 2019–2020 – ACEJMC. ACEJMC. Retrieved November 9, 2021, from http:// www.acejmc.org/wp-­content/uploads/2020/05/7.-­Hampton-­University.pdf Berry, C. (2003, April 29). HBCUs seek accreditation. Quill. Retrieved October 19, 2021, from https://www.quillmag.com/2003/04/29/hbcus-­seek-­ accreditation/ Blom, R., Bowe, B. J., & Davenport, L. (2020). International expansion of the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) curricular evaluation program. International Communication Gazette, 82(8), 749–763. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048520926654 Blom, R., Bowe, B.  J., & Davenport, L.  D. (2018). Accrediting Council on Education in journalism and mass communications accreditation: Quality or

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compliance? Journalism Studies, 20(10), 1458–1471. https://doi.org/10.108 0/1461670x.2018.1526641 Burnett, C. A. (2020). Diversity under review: HBCUs and regional accreditation actions. Innovative Higher Education, 45(1), 3–15. Crawford, J. (2012). The challenges and successes of department governance: A look at HBCU journalism and mass communications unit administrators. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 5(3), 215–226. Crawford, J. (2013). Higher education: How freshmen and first-year journalism and mass communication students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Predominantly White Institutions used the Internet in their decision. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 6(1), 29–36. Jeter, P. (2002). Journalism and mass communication education at HBCU: History and current issues. Education, 123(1), 200–223. Ross, F. G. J., Stroman, C. A., Callahan, L. F., Dates, J. L., Egwu, C., & Whitmore, E. (2007). Final report of a national study on diversity in journalism and mass communication education, phase II. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 62(1), 9–26. Sturgis, I., & Johnson-Ross, S. (2019). Kerner issue: The role of HBCUs in training journalists to improve media images post-Kerner. Howard Journal of Communications, 30(4), 336–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064617 5.2019.1592726 Wilkinson, J., Davie, W., & Taylor, A. (2020). Journalism education in black and white: A 50-year journey toward diversity. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 75(4), 362–374.

Standard 1: HBCU Governance Challenges

The Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) has been an agency which has had changes in its mission and standards throughout its existence. This is primarily due to societal changes as well as the inclusion of different disciplines throughout the field of mass communications. The standards for these inclusive disciplines have had to continually meet a variety of challenges to be able to work across the many professions, such as reporting, marketing, advertising, print, broadcast, and now multimedia. Each standard concludes with a list of various forms of documentation and evidence that the unit should include in its self-study report to demonstrate that it meets the expectations defined for indicators. The site team will supplement this evidence by inspection of the facilities and equipment; by observation of the activities of the unit; by meetings and interviews with university administrators and faculty from other units and with unit faculty, staff, and students; and by calls to professionals who hire the unit’s students as interns and full-time employees. The list of evidence for each standard is only a guide to possible forms of evidence (ACEJMC, 2021). Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) are facing challenges to their continued existence on several levels. One is fiscally as federal funding for education has been cut and the responsibility for paying for higher education has been levied on students and parents. Another © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Crawford II, Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97501-2_5

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challenge is the amount of endowment dollars available to them, and lastly, there are questions today as to whether or not HBCUs are still needed in a society that has allowed African Americans to enroll in Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). These challenges are contingent on the most critical issue—accreditation. The loss of accreditation of units and entire institutions has forced several HBCUs to shutter their doors. According to Crawford (2017), in 2016 alone, four presidents were fired due, in part, to accreditation and budgetary shortfalls. HBCUs are more than learning institutions; they are also cultural and economic incubators in their localities and regions. The closure of HBCUs creates a loss of valuable opportunities for first-generation students of all races, a loss of diverse researchers, and the loss of voices in our American society. Historically Black Colleges and Universities are academic institutions established prior to 1964 whose principal mission was, and still is, the education of Black Americans (Roebuck & Murty, 1993, p. 3). This singular mission is sometimes at odds with HBCUs aspiring to, acquiring, and maintaining individual units and overall university accreditation. In order to earn the HBCU designation, the school must be accredited or working toward accreditation in their states and can be junior colleges or have programs that work toward a bachelor’s degree. “Ashmum Institute, now Lincoln University, was the first all-African American institution to remain in its original location, award baccalaureate degrees, and develop completely into a degree-granting college” (Harper et al., 2009). HBCUs have been around for more than 156 years and have served as a beacon in the African American community for vocational, professional, political, and scholarly education. The roots of designation started in Congress. Justin Morrill, a congressional representative from Vermont, championed legislation in 1862 for each state to have land set aside to establish agriculture and vocational/mechanical arts. The rights for Blacks to receive these opportunities were minimal or nonexistent. Therefore, because of the “educational segregation of the Southern states, a subsequent Morrill Land Grant Act, enacted in 1890, established sixteen Black colleges to serve the same purpose for the African American population” (Justiz et al., 1994, p. 198). These new schools, and some that had previously been created, were all now known as “the ‘1890 colleges’ to distinguish them from the 1862 land grant colleges” (Justiz et al., 1994, p. 198). Southern states simply opened the new colleges and excluded Blacks. Some educators, such as Paul Barringer of the University of Virginia, were against educating these freed men. He said it was foolish to try to

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educate the former slaves while there are so many poor whites who needed training for the same jobs. In stating his case, Barringer emphasized, “We cannot equip both, and to equip the Negro to the neglect of the poor white would be a grave political error and an economic absurdity” (Brooks, 1996, p. 241). The second Morrill Act demanded that southern states create schools to educate the freed men. Unfortunately, as is reality now, the funding for these two groups of institutions were never equal or fair. Even with the differences in funding, “this second Morrill Act did eventually give rise to several historically Black agricultural and mechanical colleges” (Jones-Wilson et  al., 1996, p.  18). Present-day funding is tied to institutional outcomes—from accreditation to enrollment to assessment. Accreditation is a way in which an institution is perceived as having legitimacy and transparency in the manner it is structured and operational. Most accreditation bodies of higher education institutions and programs require that programs assess their effectiveness. These accreditation processes often require self-study of individual programs as well as the institution in and of itself (Davidson-­ Shivers et al., 2004). Accreditation is an essential system for recognizing professional and educational programs affiliated with those institutions as having standards, a level of performance, integrity, and quality that entitles them to the confidence of the educational community and the public. The study of accreditation is important because it helps the public and other stakeholders have a record of the practices and procedures that govern institutions of higher learning. Institutional agencies look at the operation of the entire college or university. The administration of institutions of higher education is a complex, challenging, and, in many instances, frustrating undertaking. The administrator must deal with many groups, including students, faculty, other administrators, federal, state, and local governing agencies, accreditation agencies, business and professional organizations, service clubs, and alumni. This chapter looks at how HBCUs operate as institutions. “Institutional Theory is an emergent set of theoretical arguments about the influence of broader sets of societal values, cultural theories, ideologies, perceptions on organizational structures, and practices” (Heck, 2004, p.  150). Institutional theory provides an alternative to technical-rational conceptions of organizations. This perspective on organizations “flows from a general institutional theory of social organization, which explains that the behavior of actors, both individual and collective, expresses externally

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enforced institutions rather than internally derived goals” (Crawford et al., 1997, p. 14). “Institutional theory stresses that organizational adaptation occurs due to institutional pressures for legitimacy rather than market pressures for efficiency” (Greenwood & Hinings, 1996). HBCU administrators work within this framework of having their units, focused as primarily teaching institutions, while attempting to have at least some working professionals on staff. Many of these administrators have found that having media professionals, in the various fields, to join their faculty, as both adjuncts and lecturers, is a way to meet current best practices at accredited institutions. “Institutional theory is powerful in demonstrating the way in which organizations are linked to their environment; the role of agency is underestimated. It is therefore important to examine the processes by which strategic choice is exercised within organizations” (Child, 1972). The administrators’ challenge is to make their units as successful as they can. They define success in different ways, and institutional theory works because it does not give a template as to what makes the organization a success. “Institutional isomorphism stresses legitimacy over efficiency, thereby allowing for the persistence of inefficient, but legitimate, organizations” (Poole & Van De Ven, 2004, p. 136). HBCUs, whose primary missions were to be teaching units, have an outstanding record of achieving and maintaining accreditation for their teaching units. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) is one accreditation that HBCUs have proven to master. NCATE is a national accrediting body for schools, colleges, and departments of education authorized by the U.S.  Department of Education. NCATE determines which schools, colleges, and departments of education meet rigorous national standards in preparing teachers and other school specialists for the classroom. Colleges and universities with Schools of Education have had to evolve with current laws and social mores. This one national organization whose direct actions have affected the question of who should be accredited in a particular state. In 2013, the blending of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and the Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC) resulted in the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) as the sole accrediting body for educator preparation programs in the United States (Alkhateeb & Romanowski, 2021).

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So, how can HBCUs, being so sound in maintaining CAEP standards, be failing in other accreditation models? HBCUs have closed their doors or been in danger of closing in the last several years.

HBCU Governance: Challenges and Successes Researchers have examined the leadership and governance of colleges and universities during the last decade. The topic of accreditation has also been researched, primarily regarding online degrees, during this period. However, the paucity of specific research on how accreditation and HBCUs intersect has been lacking in the leading educational and journalism academic journals. Educational leadership within a college or university’s units makes them strong and, at times, vulnerable for failure if the leaders are not able to work within the unit’s mission statement and culture, yet be innovative enough to look forward for opportunities for institutional success. Decision-making contexts can be affected by structural, cultural, or situational distinctions that leaders of these institutions must take into account. If governance is the structure by which decisions are made determining the direction of a campus, then research on what affects decision-­ making is important. While the distinctiveness of HBCUs is widely recognized, defining what contextual aspects potentially affect decision-­ making practices has not been a focal point of scholarship (Minor, 2004). Kezar and Eckel (2004) found at the broadest level, most theories assume that governance refers to the process of policymaking and macro-level decision-making within higher education. While most of the focus has been on the presidents and chancellors at HBCUs, there are reasons to look higher than that level of governance. The single most important decision an HBCU board makes is the selection of a top-notch chief executive. Despite this fact, there are countless examples of HBCU boards appointing presidents/chancellors who have failed miserably—and publicly—at other institutions. Moreover, there are documented instances of boards failing to honestly evaluate the president/chancellor and communicate to him/her long-standing performance issues. The failure of a board to hire the best, or fire an underperforming, chief executive is one of the worst forms of nonfeasance. For example, between September 2016 and November 2016, four HBCU presidents were relieved of their positions. Former Jackson State University president Carolyn Meyers resigned in October amid concerns

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about the school’s finances. Lady June Cole was fired from Allen University in September after three years with the university. Elmira Mangum stepped down as president of Florida A&M University in September. Mangum reportedly had strained relationships with members of the Board of Trustees (theculture.forharriet.com, 2016). The latest being Dr. Gwendolyn Boyd of Alabama State University. “She has been placed on administrative leave following the board’s declaration of failure to maintain confidence. She battled accreditation issues, credit drops and budget short falls” (theculture.forharriet.com, 2016). Nearly as important is the board members’ fiduciary responsibility. Schools do not fail at anything overnight. Years before the accrediting bodies, lawyers, or governmental auditors and investigators show up, there are telltale signs that a diligent board should have seen. In a number of instances, HBCU boards have chosen to ignore the obvious and only respond when forced to by outside third parties; this is inexcusable malfeasance (Taylor Jr., 2012). College and University Boards or Regents most commonly consist of members with business backgrounds. This could be the main conflict in choosing presidents and chancellors to lead these institutions. Kamery and Lawrence (2002) found that comparing the academy to corporations is not the way to choose leadership. “Corporations are managed hierarchically, whereas a college or university is not.” “Chief Executive Officers may make decisions with or without board approval, but administrators share decisions with faculty members” (Kamery & Lawrence, 2002). This conflict has placed successful business leaders into the academy, many of which have no acumen or understanding of the role of faculty in the academy. Many university presidents are hired for the purpose of fiscal leadership. As a result, many faculty feel as though they are employees and not teachers and researchers. The academy works best when there is a mutual respect and shared governance. The majority of HBCUs are teaching colleges. They are not Research I designated and do not have the ability to be competitive in NIH or other grant making endeavors. According to Taylor (2018), many HBCUs have faced unprecedented struggles in recent years. In May 2017, Cheyney University—the oldest HBCU in the United States—released a report detailing its problems retaining high-quality leadership, as frequent turnover of executive leadership at Cheyney has proven costly both in terms of finances and long-term planning for increased student enrollment.

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HBCU governance leaders have a myriad of challenges that administrators at many PWIs rarely face, including the pressures of larger schools actively seeking to take students and even entire programs from their campuses. HBCUs have to fight for the funding that is being pulled more and more from the legislatures toward state schools. Enrollment figures are important. Dollars follow the number of students in programs and schools in state funding decisions. Challenges like these need a more collaborative and institutional systematic response and answers. Conventional thinking regarding the governance at HBCUs is that there is a lack of full faculty inclusion and participation in conjunction with presidents, chancellors and boards, and/or regents. Thus, HBCUs face a crisis in shared institutional governance. Because of the many complex issues facing HBCUs, effective decisions require a high degree of input and thought from the participation of faculty. HBCUs may reach conclusions because decisions are made without the thorough examination of the issues. One way in which administrators and faculty can shine is through the process of accreditation. As important as enrollment is in funding, accreditation is more important. HBCUs have a long history of achievement in earning and maintaining accreditation in certain disciplines; this has to be more campus-wide to allow for HBCUs to fully compete in this global environment. In his 2013 article in Diverse Issues in Higher Education, Joseph Stevenson wrote, “We must continue to think more long-term and not continue with the complacency of short-term solutions to our compelling institutional challenges. This is particularly important with regard to accreditation, where we tend to prepare only one year in advance, as opposed to embracing accreditation as a process for assessing continuous quality improvement” (Stevenson, 2013, p. 21). However, HBCUs continue to master accreditation in the field of education. This may be due to their mission of educating students from a wide array of backgrounds and college preparedness. However, we also know there have been instances where individual schools have lost not only their program accreditation but also the accreditation of their entire institution. This loss usually means the closing of the institution. In 2012, the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) voted to take accreditation from Saint Paul’s College. The college had been educating students and providing stability in Lawrenceville, Virginia, for over 124  years. The loss of accreditation is tantamount to a death sentence. Without it, colleges and universities are ineligible to receive federal aid, a major source of financial support,

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without which they are unable to operate. So how did this happen, and what are the implications for the nation’s HBCUs? In the midst of the accreditation process that happens every 10 years, Saint Paul’s College was placed on warning two years in advance, an action giving it time to achieve compliance. When the commission met in June, St. Paul’s had exhausted its warning status and was found deficient in five areas related to financial issues, institutional effectiveness, and the terminal degrees of faculty. St. Paul’s College had ample time to get its house in order—failure to do so raises questions about its governance (Schexnider, 2012, p. 40). It is noteworthy to mention being able to raise $5 million in endowment to keep its doors open and its accreditation could have saved St. Paul. There were efforts to reconcile the financial deficits, at least two presidents tried, along with plans by at least one other HBCU, St. Augustine, in North Carolina, to try to incorporate St. Paul’s as part of their institution, but the financial challenges would have potentially endangered both schools.

HBCUs: Journalism Units Show Strength in Accreditation Unit Accreditation: HBCU Programs and Best Practices To understand the importance of having people of color in what is considered the Fourth Estate in America, it is important to understand the value of the press in the formation of the United States. The press in the early American colonies spoke out about what they considered tyranny from England and was determined to let everyone know the issues of the day. Benjamin Franklin and other newspaper printers helped to create a “collective consciousness of eighteenth-century America, thereby playing a central role in establishing the legacy of social importance that the press has enjoyed to the present day” (Frasca, 2006, p. 21). While the American colonists were advocating for freedom from English control of the press and other basic rights, these rights were for white males, specifically white male landowners. There were whole sections of the populace living in the colonies that were not given the opportunity to even learn how to read these powerful messages. The American slave was forbidden to learn to read. The overwhelming ethnicity of a slave in America was one of African descent. The process of keeping African slaves and their descendants illiterate continued throughout America’s history. The common practice of legislating literacy throughout the American

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South was accepted and had a purpose. Those who chose to break these laws were ostracized or worse. “Indeed, the idea of the masses having access to information and ideas terrified those at the top of society” (Rudin & Ibbotson, 2002, p. 18). This challenge to authority is a key to journalism. Having different voices in a society to speak for all society is a privilege and an obligation for journalists. “First Amendment rights and the democratic political environment of the United States have contributed to the uninhibited growth of the news media in public and private communication”. It is with this in mind that HBCUs continue to be a beacon to those who crave and depend on African American media voices. Dean Walter Williams’ establishment, in 1908 at the University of Missouri, the nation’s first stand-alone school of journalism, was 66 years before Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (FAMU) became the first Historically Black College and University to establish a journalism program in 1974. Crawford (2012) found there are 49 HBCUs with journalism and mass communications units. These units can be delineated as concentrations, programs, divisions, departments, and schools. These 49 units make it possible for African Americans to help shape the images and messages that are generated by the media. The best way for African Americans to be a part of the media is to produce students and graduates who are taught the theories and techniques used by the media. HBCUs are producing many students enrolled in mass communication and journalism as minor and major courses of study. HBCUs offering degrees in journalism and mass communication need to be accountable for providing the basic skills and theoretical framework to allow students the ability to compete with students from PWIs for career opportunities. Studies, such as those conducted by the Dow Jones News Fund, the University of Georgia, and Texas Tech University, have shown over 80 percent of all media professionals have some link to an HBCU. The Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communication grants accreditation. As in most cases of accreditation of schools and programs, the aim is to ensure the curricula and outcomes of a member meet established standards. This is not to say that accreditation is the deciding factor for administrators; just that it is a choice. Accreditation creates other challenges—most noticeably, financial. The costs to apply, prepare, and implement accreditation standards are too much for many units, HBCUs, and PWIs to afford. Therefore, HBCU JMC administrators face the challenge of using the best of the

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accreditation practices to ensure their students are competitive. Can the administrators hire the most qualified faculty, can they foster an atmosphere that is conducive in moving curricula forward, and will the administrator have the term and freedom to do these things? Will the cost and time needed to do the self-study and all the other steps needed to prepare for accreditation take away funding otherwise needed for salaries and operating expenses? These questions present a challenge to the way administrators have operated their institutions since their founding as HBCUs. Institutional governance at HBCUs has seen the need for more shared governance, focused toward the future, to be successful. Embracing accreditation reviews and submission needs to be a pillar in these endeavors. Journalism programs are embracing the standards and the best practices expected of ACEJMC members. In 2021, there are 117 in the United States and outside the U.S. ACEJMC-accredited schools. Of these units, there are 9 accredited HBCUs. To have 9 (of which 2 are provisional) accredited units at HBCUs, out of the 117 schools, is impressive. There are over 490 institutions offering journalism and/or mass communication degrees (ACEJMC, 2021). HBCUs also are trying to shed the notion that “qualified” journalists of color only come from predominantly white institutions. They no longer want to be seen as providing an education that is somewhat less credible than what a student could get at a predominantly white school. Administrators, faculty, and staff at HBCUs have continued to provide avenues of success for journalism and mass communication units at these institutions. Accreditation of these units does not ensure proper funding or favorite-status on campus, but it does allow for the recruitment and retention of students. Fiduciary response to enrollment is an expectation and accreditation is a key to favored-status. Most colleges and universities are struggling to find money to fund departments, hire the best professors, and improve and solidify their infrastructures. The challenge is massive. HBCUs historically provide education to students that are not able to pay the full cost of college. HBCU journalism units are currently competitive with their PWI peers in providing best practices and real-world experiences for their students. The recruitment and retention of students of color and lower socioeconomic status will continue to be the base populations for HBCUs. Accreditation allows HBCUs to show they are on the same level as other schools. Accreditation levels some of the challenges and allows teaching institutions to make up some of the ground on Research 1 institutions.

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Certainly, there are flaws in the accreditation process, including the individual site teams and the values they place on the institutions’ self-reports and onsite interviews. There is no one-size-fits-all academic standard. However, there are consistent traits inherent in all the accredited institutions—teaching, assessment diversity, research, and effective shared governance. HBCU administrators have mentioned the possible cost deterrent in pursuing ACEJMC accreditation. This lack of enthusiasm may be part of the reason why these leaders have been seen as not supporting the effort to support faculty and other stakeholders in initiating the process. According to a survey by Blom et al., (2019), many who favor accreditation see it mostly as reputation enhancement, as only about a quarter of U.S. journalism programs receive ACEJMC endorsement. Others cannot justify the expense: $1000 for seeking first-time accreditation; $2000 for annual dues; $3500 for a three-person site team and $4500 for a four-­ person team; $1000 for potential additional accreditation costs by the site team or ACEJMC for photocopying, postage, and so on; and the expense of the team leader to give the report to the committee. Some of this is refundable if not used. Additional expenses are incurred by the home institution’s faculty and staff during the self-study and the site visit (Blom et al., 2019). Joining ACEJMC is simply no option for many smaller programs, like HBCUs. Most administrators indicated they were too small in the number of students, faculty, and financial resources to comply with the standards. More than 20 respondents indicated that their department was too small to comply to ACEJMC’s standards, in particular, when it comes to the number of faculty to sustain the minimum faculty-to-student ratio required for journalism skills courses or just relatively low budgets in general. As one participant simply explained: “Can’t afford it.” Seven respondents specifically mentioned the lack of “resources” as the main reason for not pursuing accreditation (Blom et al., 2019). HBCU administrators have struggled to find just the right place to start in adding a fully accredited ACEJMC unit. In which current department or unit do they place this new financial budget line? Do they start with a minor or as a concentration or even a certificate? One man saw a way for journalists to have their own school. In Missouri, George S. Johns, editor of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, in 1906 invited a student group to write, edit, and produce a special Sunday section. According to Nevins, the experiment attracted so much attention that

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Missouri newspapermen called for a school of journalism, and the school was established under the leadership of Dean Walter Williams in 1908. Williams was the architect of the first stand-alone school of journalism. He was a proponent of the “learning comes from doing” model. However, as more and more institutions started programs, other models were implemented. Journalism and mass communication education was forged in the twentieth century out of several goals: the recognition of the desirability of educating journalists enlightened by the liberal arts; and the nation’s need to understand, deploy, and defend itself from overwhelming publicity. Williams showed how important it was to understand the best practices and responsibilities of having a school of journalism. His vision had the financial support of both the professional and academic communities. Unfortunately, Williams’ school would not admit African Americans. Freedom of the press is a responsibility that should not be taken lightly by those given the opportunity to be journalists. The best way to have an informed and ethical journalist is to teach them about the best practices of the profession. These best practices could simply be considered securing and advancing all journalism to adhere to its original and fundamental principles. But do journalists get these skills and canons by simply doing or do they need a solid academic framework of liberal arts to give them a better viewpoint of the world? The purpose of accreditation and setting standards is for all journalism schools to have cornerstones to build a sound structure. Accreditation matters and the transparency of the process allow non-accredited units to use the Standards as best practices. A study by Crawford (2012) analyzed the results of a web survey sent to 21 unit administrators of Historically Black Colleges and Universities with schools of journalism/mass communications (JMC). The survey explored the attributes and thoughts these administrators have in how they guide their individual units. The study provides a basis for future research on the governance of HBCU JMC units in areas including research, teaching, tenure, funding, and accreditation. Educational leadership within a college or university’s units makes them strong and, at times, vulnerable for failure if the leaders are not able to work within the unit’s mission statement and culture, yet be innovative enough to look forward for opportunities for institutional success.

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Universally, HBCUs are facing challenges to their continued existence on several fronts. One is fiscally as federal funding for education has been cut and the responsibility for paying for higher education has been levied on students and parents. Another challenge is the amount of endowment dollars available to them, and lastly, there are questions today as to if HBCUs are still needed in a society that has allowed African Americans to enroll in PWIs. These are all management issues that administrators have to consider in guiding their units. They will need to take on “competing priorities and demands to engage the community, business, and industry; to solve social problems and improve the schools; to generate cutting edge research and innovations” (Kezar & Eckel, 2004). Administrators of professional schools have the pressures of meeting professional standards of accreditation and best practices. Administrators are responsible for at least helping to guide the focus of the creation and sustaining curricula, recruiting students and faculty, and preparing for the future. Administrators and faculty at these institutions show that the “vitality of HBCUs highlights the need to not only understand the current significance of these institutions, but also to address how their relevance and mission have shifted and evolved over time” (Allen et al., 2007). How are administrators at HBCU JMC units chosen? How do they operate day to day? How do they interact with faculty and students? A loss of African American voices could be a result if HBCU JMC units fail. Ever since the invention of the printing press, people have used its ability to produce information on a mass scale, and this ability now has moved into the digital realm. This ability has created what are now called citizen journalists who post their ideas and comments for everyone to see. This is not journalism; this is commentary. Journalists have a code of ethics that steers away from commentary and conjecture. From its beginnings, journalism was seen by the establishment as a threat to its existence, or at the very least those “holding power in society were alarmed that their actions might be challenged and that this would have unforeseen consequences.” The press in the early American colonies spoke out about what they considered to be tyranny from England and was determined to let everyone know the issues of the day. Benjamin Franklin and other newspaper printers helped to create a “collective consciousness of eighteenth-century America, thereby playing a central role in establishing the legacy of social

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importance that the press has enjoyed to the present day” (Frasca, 2006, p. 21). “Indeed, the idea of the masses having access to information and ideas terrified those at the top of society” (Rudin & Ibbotson, 2002, p. 18). This challenge to authority is a key to journalism. Having different voices in a society to speak for all society is a privilege and an obligation for journalists. “First Amendment rights and the democratic political environment of the United States have contributed to the uninhibited growth of the news media in public and private communication”. It is with in mind that HBCUs continue to be a beacon to those that crave and depend on African American media voices. HBCUs both educate and graduate the majority of minority voices in the United States. HBCU JMC administrators hold this responsibility in their hands as they lead their units. One of the major responsibilities is the fiscal role in both finding the funding for the institution and the proper allocating and usage for federal and state governance funding. Funding: Follow the Money to Success (The Higher Education Act of 1965) President Lyndon Johnson signed the Higher Education Act of 1965 into law as part of his war on poverty, “the HEA was intended, along with the Economic Opportunity Act, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, to eliminate poverty and discrimination” (Brown & Freeman, 2004, p. 71). What the act did was start a federal assistance program for students, rather than for the institutions themselves. HBCUs historically provide education to students who are not able to pay the full cost of college. Students who traditionally attend HBCUs come from low-income families, and HBCUs have missions that require the institutions to provide the ability for the students to attend. “In short, both student opportunity and HBCU enrollments depend upon financial aid packages” (Brown & Freeman, 2004, p. 71). The freed slaves, churches, philanthropists, and other individuals would have a hard time trying to keep all the new institutions open. The first Morrill Act provided millions for states to create colleges, which they did, but the institutions were for Whites. The second Morrill Act provided for segregated and poorly funded schools. These acts really boosted the ability for everyone to participate in education. But they were just the beginning.

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HEA has eight sections or titles, each of them designed to aid in enhancing education. Two of these, Title III and Title IV, are particularly relevant to HBCUs. “Title III was designed to aid historically black colleges, but was ‘drafted in terms that veiled the basic intent of supporting primarily black institutions’ (Parsons, 2000)” (p. 86). Title III allocates money for infrastructure and technology and is to be used to assist institutions. Title IV is geared toward helping individual students in their quest to go to college. “Title IV, with its four-part package of financial aid, is the heart of the HEA. The Democrats were finally able to gain student scholarships in the form of Educational Opportunity Grants to institutions” (Parsons, 2000, p.  86). The HEA led to such programs as Pell Grants, Sallie Mae loans, and TRIO. HEA is reauthorized every 5–7 years with the current authorization due to expire in 2025. The federal assistance allows for the “Aid for Institutional Development (commonly referred to at Title III) Program to fund journalism and mass communication activities” (Jeter, 2002). HBCU JMC administrators work very closely with their institution’s Title III staff to maintain their technical and student support funds. There is currently a White House Initiative on HBCUs that has been a part of every U.S. president’s budget. It was established as Executive Order 12232 of President Jimmy Carter* on August, 8, 1980; Presidents Ronald Reagan, George Bush, and Bill Clinton, Barak Obama, Donald Trump, and Joe Biden have also signed executive orders to continue this program. The order calls for the government and even private citizens to support the effort. In 2021, President Joseph Biden also signed the initiative. President Biden appointed Tony Allen, President of Delaware State University, as the Chair of the President’s Board of Advisors on HBCUs. Through HEA programs, the increase means an increase of about $400 million in Pell Grants since the start of the first President Barack Obama administration. The TRIO program, which provides funding for support of college preparation and completion activities for participants, is geared toward low-­income and first-generation students. According to Whitehouse.gov (2021a, 2021b), the Biden-Harris Administration is committed to supporting the vital mission of HBCUs. Through the American Rescue Plan and by forgiving capital improvement debt of many of these institutions, the Biden-Harris Administration has already committed more than $4 billion in support.

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Endowments The increase by President Biden is promising for the 2021–22 school years, but it also shows the danger of having to rely on whoever has that position to continue to see a need for the initiative. With the United States facing debt ceiling issues and a new Congress seeking to cut social spending, HBCUs can be faced with losing this initiative in the near future. It is clear that HBCUs have not traditionally been given the same funding as other schools from either the state or federal level. The need for the majority of their students to have to rely on Pell Grants and having lower economic family backgrounds makes it tough for HBCUs to increase their tuitions and fees to compensate for a lack of federal and state funding. In fact, HBCUs have raised their tuitions in the last several years, but fear if they raise them too much, African American students may choose to attend PWIs or community colleges. HBCUs, having lower outside funding, charging less than PWIs to attend, and having students from lower economic backgrounds have a large challenge of trying to get these same students to give back to their schools. Alumni from these institutions for decades were not even requested to help. “HBCUs neglected to ask their alumni for support, assuming that their alumni had little to give and doubting the return on investment of money and time spent cultivating alumni contributions” (Gasman, 2009). As some politicians look to cut education spending at all levels, the need for alumni and corporate giving increases for HBCUs. “During difficult economic times, however, it is not easy to secure dollars from alumni not in the habit of giving” (Gasman, 2009). In 2008, the combined endowments of all HBCUs were less than $2 billion, “while the endowment at Harvard University is approximately $35 billion. Only four HBCUs, Hampton, Howard, Morehouse and Spelman, have endowments exceeding $100 million” (Cole, 2008). In 2021, examining the HBCU endowment world prior to Mackenzie Scott’s 2020 philanthropy shows Howard University powering ahead toward becoming the first HBCU endowment to $1 billion. Their lead over number two Spelman extended from $302 million in 2019 to $355 million in 2020. Unfortunately, only four of the 10 HBCU endowments saw increases in their endowment market value, while among the PWI’s Top Ten endowments all 10 saw increases in their market value. The Top Ten PWI endowments for 2020 combined for $199.8 billion versus $2 billion

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for the Top Ten HBCU endowments showing an institutional wealth gap of almost $100 to $1 (hbcumoney.com, 2021). The top five HBCUs are Howard University ($712 million), Spelman College ($378 million), Hampton University ($281 million), Morehouse College ($157 million), and Meharry Medical College ($157 million) (hbcumoney.com, 2021). These numbers, while increasing, are still far below peer PWIs and make it difficult for HBCUs to compete for not only potential students but also faculty that are the best teachers, researchers, or combination of both. HBCU JMC administrators are facing all these challenges. Many of these administrators are new to the position and are learning as they go through their first year or two on the job. What model of structured governance do they have? How do they make the system work for the betterment of the institution, students, faculty, and staff? Reaching back to examine these roles and the systems, we can see how institutional theory explains how these administrators make decisions in governance. The core of institutional theory lies in the institutional fields that are locations that guide the behavior of institutions found within them as they are the sources of institutional conformity and embeddedness pressures (Zietsma et  al., 2017). The same actors argue that they also enable the institutional infrastructure in which the embedded actors interact with each other predictably (Hsu et al., 2018). Institutional fields and forms are shaped by their societal context, both as agent and as environment (Scott, 1995). This construction process can be explained as bottom-up and top-down. On one hand, the transmission or diffusion of institutions can be explained as an environmental process of copying already existing forms, be it coercive, normative, or mimetic (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Scott, 1995). It is this bottom-up and top-­ down construct that ties shared governance to the purpose of strong leadership. Institutional theory looks at how the institutions, rather than how the individual, work. “Although more often applied to organizational studies, the theory offers an alternative lens through which to view the behavior of actors in policy situations, as well as the behavior of organizations in adopting policy changes” (Heck, 2004, p. 150). “From the institutional perspective, policy action results from the enactment of institutional norms and rules as opposed to individuals’ choices” (Ogawa, 1992). This is

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important due to the relatively short time the administrators in this study have been in their roles. “Meyer (1983) posited that new structures, or innovations, introduced by individuals at lower, technical levels of organizations are more likely to affect their substantive performance.” Are the HBCU JMC administrators willing to allow faculty to be a part of shared governance? “Institutional theory is powerful in demonstrating the way in which organizations are linked to their environment the role of agency is underestimated. It is therefore important to examine the processes by which strategic choice” (Child, 1972) is exercised within organizations. The administrators’ challenge is to make their units as successful as they can. They define success in different ways and institutional theory works because it does not give a template as to what makes the organization a success. “Institutional isomorphism stresses legitimacy over efficiency, thereby allowing for the persistence of inefficient, but legitimate, organizations” (Poole & Van De Ven, 2004, p. 136). As in most cases of accreditation of schools and programs, the aim is to ensure the curricula and outcomes of a member school meets established standards. This is not to say accreditation is the deciding factor for administrators, just that it is a choice. Accreditation creates other challenges, most noticeably, financial. The cost to apply, prepare, and implement accreditation standards is too much for many units, HBCUs, and PWIs to afford. So, HBCU JMC administrators face the challenge of using the best of the accreditation practices to ensure their students are competitive. Can the administrators hire the most qualified faculty, can they foster an atmosphere that is conducive in moving curricula forward, and will the administrator have the term and freedom to do these things? One of this book’s objectives is examining how Historically Black Colleges and Universities with journalism/mass communications units operate in the leadership position. There is very little research available on this topic, and this study will provide a baseline for HBCU JMC administrator studies and comparative studies with PWIs. These challenges to the HBCU JMC administrators lead to three research questions. First, the study sought to determine the structure of the unit in relation to the institution. Were the units autonomous or were they part of other larger units on campus? Are the administrators charged with the responsibility of maintaining and strategizing for the future of their units? What is the actual role they play in the administrative governance model at the institution?

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The research questions posed: RQ1: Do HBCU JMC administrators have enough independent authority to manage and lead their units? Second, the study is interested in finding out how HBCU legacies are faring in their operational model after the first of these were established 150  years ago. More specifically, the study is interested in knowing if HBCUs with JMC units have changed since the first one, Lincoln, Mo., was created in 1942. RQ2: Have HBCUs had to change their missions to adapt their journalism/mass communications units to compete with other institutions? Finally, and perhaps the most important, the study wanted to know how major federal laws have worked to help HBCU JMC units since the Morrill Acts and the later Civil Rights Acts, specifically those that were geared toward breaking segregation and limiting access to education of the 1960s and early 1970s throughout the United States. RQ3: How have HBCU journalism/mass communication units fared under the guidelines of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Higher Education Act of 1965? This study used a web-based survey to serve as a baseline for future research on HBCU JMC governance. There are 103 Historically Black Colleges and Universities in the United States. They are not a unified entity—some are four-year, some are two-year, and there are also several with community college designations. A search of these institutions found 55 of them had journalism/mass communications units at different layers—schools, departments, concentrations, and minors. The decision to use a web-based survey fits well with grounded theory in examining the results given by the HBCU JMC administrators. “The approach originated with the work of Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss and, in particular, their book The Discovery of Grounded Theory, which was published in 1967” (Denscombe, 2003, p.  109). When using grounded theory, researchers follow systematic, analytical procedures in most versions of the approach. “Grounded Theory is more structured in its process of data collection and analysis than other forms of qualitative

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research even though their strategies are similar such as thematic analysis of interview transcripts, observations and written documents” (Daymon & Holloway, 2002, p. 117). “This inductive analytical process involves a constant interplay between data collection and data analysis. Essentially, as data are collected, they are analyzed for emergent theoretical categories” (Sprenkle & Piercy, 2005, p. 42). This study collected data for over two years and systematically used as Strauss and Corbin posited “looped back into the collection of data and analyzed further for their interrelationships and meanings” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Glaser and Strauss developed grounded theory together, but in later years, their views and thoughts on how the theory should be used differed. “Glaser emphasizes the emergent process of theory development, whereas until his death Strauss emphasized the systematic aspect of managing data analysis and synthesis” (Sprenkle & Piercy, 2005, p. 45). This study uses the process championed by Strauss. “His formalized approach to coding data is especially helpful to beginning grounded theory researchers, because it helps reduce the ambiguity that generally goes along with grounded theory analysis” (Sprenkle & Piercy, 2005, p. 45). The dataset this study received allows for a new theory possibility as it serves as a baseline for future research. The questionnaire was developed by reading the results of 15 self-studies done by HBCUs in their attempts to gain ACEJMC accreditation over a period of three years. The questionnaire also took into account the reports of the site teams and committee reports done for ACEJMC of the HBCUs up for accreditation designation. From this information, common themes were seen and used to ask current HBCU JMC administrators how they handle these themes. The result of these requests was 21 responses from HBCU JMC administrators. The survey asked the administrators to provide information on their titles, academic rank, length of time in their roles, number of faculty and type. The survey also asked about tenure, governance, fund raising, and the unit’s interest in ACEJMC accreditation. Data from the administrators were entered into a data file. Of the 55 institutions, it was found that 6 of them no longer had a journalism/mass communications track due to budget cuts and units being downsized to concentrations of larger institution units. This made the final total 49 HBCUs with these units; the 21 administrators that responded represent 38 percent of the total administrators at HBCU JMC units.

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Limited research has been done on HBCUs with journalism/mass communications units and the option for students to consider HBCUs as a way to become journalists and media professionals, and this study helps to provide information on these units. The study examined the roles and the responsibilities of administrators at these units. How Long Have You Been in Your Role as Administrator? For the purposes of this study, the term dean refers to an administrator who leads a school of journalism/mass communications, chair refers to an administrator who leads a department, and director refers to an administrator who leads a concentration or any other unit under another larger unit within the institution. Top administrators are key participants in the change process. They are the sponsors of change and must also assume responsibility for building an environment where all members of the HBCU feel free to help the institutions change. They must relate practical plans for change to broader institutional plans, problems, and issues. As with any leader, they need time to conceptualize plans and see them to completion. Of the 21 HBCU JMC administrators in their current roles, the results show that 5 of the 21 administrators were in their first year in their roles and three more were entering their second year. An interesting part of this data is that 8 of the 21 had been in their roles for more than 5 years and 3 of these administrators had been in their roles for over 10 years. The longevity of these administrators is rare for HBCUs in JMC units. It was disclosed by two of these administrators that they would be resigning their positions by the end of July 2011, thus ending 20 and 40 years of service at their institutions. Presidents and administrators of historically Black colleges and universities are often accused of being autocratic and the mission and plight of HBCUs situates them in distinctly different contexts that potentially affect campus decision-making and leadership practices (Minor, 2004). The results found that there are as many new administrators as there are longer-­ termed administrators. The academic rank and title of the administrator is used to give texture to the study’s participants. The survey found 13 of the 20 administrators who responded hold the title of chair. The one administrator who skipped the question noted later in an email they were retiring and did not answer for that reason. The person did note they held the title of chair and rank

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of professor. The study found of the 21 administrators, 9 held the title of full professor, 9 were associate professors, and 2 were assistant professors. The surprise was in the number of full professors; however, four of them were from institutions that held JMC programs in other disciplines such as Languages and Literature or Humanities and not as a separate entity. Next, the questionnaire asked the administrators the designation of their unit—concentration, program, department, school, or other. Thirteen of the 21 administrators reported their units being a department. In what seems to be trend for most of the smaller institutions, three of the 21 administrators reported their units to be other. Their responses included the comment “My unit is under the English department and I coordinate that program.” Of the other responses given, one reported they were under Academic Affairs and one reported they were a division. Question 5 asked the administrators how they were chosen for their position—by faculty vote, appointed by administration, rotating position, or other. The results were that 14 of the 21 administrators were appointed by the institution’s administration and served at the discretion of that office. Four of the 21 were chosen by the faculty. Three of the 21 administrators chose the other category and responded with different answers. One administrator responded, “I coordinate the program I created”; another responded, “The position was advertised nationally,” and the other responded, “Faculty interviews in department by administration then administration decides.” Question 6 asked the administrators when their term ends. Fourteen of the 21 administrators reported they did not have a term limit, which seems to tie in with the responses later that reported 14 of the 21 were chosen by higher administration to hold their position. Four of the 21 chose the other category. Their responses included “I am ‘acting director.’ When our dean returns to our program, she will resume her previous job as director of the communication’s program.” The other three administrators that chose other for question 6 responded with “based on performance,” “it is an at-will appointment,” and the third response was “serve at the pleasure of the chancellor, advised by the dean.” Questions 8 and 9 asked the administrators how many full-time faculty and how many adjunct faculty were in their units. One of the administrators, who is also the assistant chair of the English department commented, “We have no part-time mass communications faculty at the moment, though some of us teach English as well as mass communications courses.”

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Question 9 dealt with the use of adjuncts and brings back the issue of the use of professionals and terminal degreed faculty. Administrators, per AEJMC standards, need to decide the ratio for their units and ensure their students are getting a good balance of theory and practical instruction. There is also the issue of cost to the unit. “Media practitioners sometimes see the academy’s hiring of adjunct professors as a way of making the academy more rigorous” (Blanchard & Christ, 1993, p. 119). Question 11 asked the HBCU JMC administrators what they would say the primary role of the faculty was in their unit between teaching and research. This question goes to the heart of the mission of HBCUs and may or may not take into account any thoughts of professional or academic accreditation. “Based on HBCUs’ historical roots and current statements, the vision and mission of these institutions generally viewed as recognizing community as a unit of identity meriting institutional attention and support” (Sydnor et al., 2010). This means HBCUs were traditionally more interested in providing a nurturing educational opportunity for students than research. The results clearly show this to be the case. Nineteen of the 21 administrators responded that teaching should be considered the faculty’s primary role. One administrator that chose other gave this response, “Primarily teaching with research expectation.” Question 14 asked the HBCU JMC administrators, “Do you teach any courses?” Twenty of the 21 administrators reported, Yes. One administrator answered, No. A sampling of their comments brought these responses, “A full load,” “2 per semester,” “3 per semester, plus chair duties,” and “Not mass communications.” Results show 9 of the 20 administrators reported they teach two courses per semester. One administrator reported zero courses taught and one did not respond but commented they teach but in other courses. When looking at these results, it is important to remember these units have limited adjuncts in and the administrators consider their units to be teaching-oriented. HBCU JMC Administrator Comments (from Survey) Administrators were asked if there were any comments they would like to make in response to the survey or to their individual unit’s operation. Here is a sample of their comments –

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HBCUs face a lot of financial challenges. These challenges are especially, well, challenging, in the j-comm area. J-Comm is a tech intensive program. It requires a constant influx of money to keep up with changing technology. Yet, it is not really considered a STEM area that attracts a lot of grant support. Decision-making is a collaborative effort, especially regarding important issues that affect faculty, staff and students in the department. I believe that if we are all involved in making the decisions, we are more likely to work harder toward their implementation. My unit consists of English and Communication Studies. At the moment we only have one full time tenured faculty member working in Communication Studies. English is strong in tenured and tenure track. Communication Studies is weak in this area, as we have one Ph.D. who is on reduced appointment because he is also the director of Community Outreach and Engagement for Carnegie designation. The rest of the faculty are adjuncts/part-time. My role is servant to the faculty, students and administration. However, I have no real authority to pursue my individual goals. All agendas are decided by committee and/or department faculty as a whole.

Conclusion and Implications Historically Black Colleges and Universities continue to be the only viable option for thousands of African American students. Their tradition and missions have been to open their doors to provide college educations for those of all races and to students who may come from K-12 education divisions that may not have prepared them at a level that some may dismiss their academic backgrounds as worthy of admittance. “Since their inception, Black colleges have been known to attract students who are low-­ income, first-generation, single parents or from underrepresented minority groups, and these institutions continue to fulfill this mission” (Allen et al., 2007). “Despite the accomplishments of HBCUs they are the subjects of considerable criticism within the higher education community” (Minor, 2004). It is with this in mind that those in governance roles at HBCUs owe it to the founders and pioneers of African American education, from post-slavery to today, to continue to help prepare students for productive careers and lives. “HBCUs play important roles in the perpetuation of

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Black culture, the improvement of Black community life, and the preparation of the next generation of the Black leadership” (Allen et al., 2007). Administrators of journalism/mass communication units at HBCUs are a part of the governance in this legacy of educators. This baseline study suggests that these administrators are still finding their way in the academy’s administrative hierarchy. They do not seem to have the same authority as other units because most of their units are part of other units on campus and share faculty and budgetary responsibilities. Only 2 of the 21 units were actually a school, while 6 of them were part of a larger unit. The administrators in this survey were indicative of HBCU JMC units in that 8 of the 21 have been in their roles for less than two years and 17 of the 21 are appointed by higher administration and serve at that office’s pleasure. This number is even more highlighted by the survey response by the administrators that 18 of the 21 do not have a term limit; however, when you look at the response above that 8 of the 21 have been in their roles for less than two years, you see the instability in the position. The administrators used for this study reported that their units are focused primarily on teaching, with 20 of the 21 giving this response, continuing to be true to the traditional HBCU mission. In fact, faculty in these 21 units overwhelmingly teach four courses per semester, and, as a whole, the faculty are not tenured. Only 3 of the 21 administrators responded that their faculty teach three or fewer classes. The heavy course loads and lack of part-time or adjuncts make it very difficult for any of the faculty to do research or other scholarly work. The administrators teach on average two courses per semester. This obviously takes a lot of possible actual administrative time and limits their ability to plan and strategize for the future. This look to the future, by the administrators, for their units could involve preparing for the accreditation process. In academe, accreditation is an important achievement. “Accreditation may be the most fully developed institutionalization of the idea of accountability in higher education” (van Vught, 1994, p. 42). No unit on a campus wants to be the one unit that does not have accreditation. For journalism/mass communications, accreditation is awarded by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. The HBCU JMC administrators in this study were mixed in their thoughts regarding this professional accreditation. It is rather impressive that 4 of the 21 administrators reported their units are accredited and, indeed, nine HBCUs have

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accreditation with ACEJMC, out of the total 117 programs the organization recognizes with this distinction. This study serves as a baseline research tool for the future study of Historically Black College and Universities governance. There are 103 HBCUs and within these institutions roughly 49  units that teach some form of journalism or mass communications. Twenty-one of these units responded and represent the total population of units. Future research should involve more longer interviews with all the leaders of the units. Researchers could add Critical Race Theory to examine the governance and operation of the units. Critical Race Theory in education challenges how history has portrayed race and the “uni-­ disciplinary focus of most analyses, and insists on analyzing race and racism in education by placing them in both a historical and contemporary context using interdisciplinary methods” (Solorzano, 1998). Research should also include any new or continued federal and state funding acts or laws that directly benefit Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Along with this, a look at endowments and alumni giving at each of the schools will show if HBCUs are growing the types of funding to make them on a closer level with PWIs of comparable size and scope. Historically Black Colleges and Universities are important to the society. HBCU journalism/mass communication units are just as important because they produce the majority of African American journalists and media voices. Democracy cannot afford to lose these voices. The administrators of these units will be key in keeping HBCUs competitive and productive. The success of these institutions can be attributed to the campus climate, the faculty, and the administrators. “Faculty members at HBCUs are committed to the education of the underserved student. Faculty are not only expected to achieve excellence in their academic work, but they are also counted on to be engaged in hands-on teaching and mentoring” (García, 2000, p. 9). Journalism departments at HBCUs would need champions and visionaries to establish viable units—sometimes from and within other departments already on campuses. One such person was Marlen Livezey.

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References ACEJMC. (2021). Accredited programs. http://www.acejmc.org/accreditation-­ reviews/accredited-­programs/ Alkhateeb, H., & Romanowski, M.  H. (2021). Identifying administrators’ and faculty’s perspectives regarding CAEP accreditation in a College of Education: A Q methodology research. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 70. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.101004 Allen, W. R., Jewell, J. O., Griffin, K. A., & Wolf, D. S. (2007). Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Honoring the past, engaging the present, touching the future. The Journal of Negro Education, 76(3), 263+. Blanchard, R. O., & Christ, W. G. (1993). Media education and the Liberal arts: A blueprint for the new professionalism. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Blom, R., Bowe, B., & Davenport, L. (2019). Accrediting council on education in journalism and mass communications accreditation: Quality or compliance? Journalism Studies, 20(10). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 1461670X.2018.1526641 Brooks, R. L. (1996). A strategy for racial equality a strategy for racial equality. Harvard University Press. Brown, M. C., & Freeman, K. (Eds.). (2004). Black colleges: New perspectives on policy and practice. Praeger. Child, J. (1972). Organizational structure, environment and performance: The role of strategic choice. Sociology, 6, 1–22. Cole, J. B. (2008, January 1). The triumphs and challenges of Historically Black Colleges and Universities. National Urban League. The State of Black America 99+. Crawford, J. (2012). A link to the future: A pilot study look at how Historically Black Colleges and Universities with journalism and mass communication units use the internet in recruiting. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 5(2), 47–59. http://www.cluteinstitute.com/ojs/index.php/CIER/article/ view/6919 Crawford, J. (2017). HBCUs: Accreditation, governance and survival challenges in an ever-increasing competition for funding and students. Journal of Research Initiatives, 2(3). Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https://digitalcommons. uncfsu.edu/jri/vol2/iss3/1 Crawford, M., Kydd, L., & Riches, C. (Eds.). (1997). Leadership and teams in educational management. Open University Press. Davidson-Shivers, G., Inpornjivit, K., & Sellers, K. (2004). Using alumni and student databases for program evaluation planning. College Student Journal, 34(4), 510. Daymon, C., & Holloway, I. (2002). Qualitative research methods in public relations and marketing communications. Routledge.

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Denscombe, M. (2003). The good research guide for small-scale social research projects (2nd ed.). Open University Press. DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. http://theculture.forharriet.com/. (2016). Four black women presidents have been fired from HBCUs in two months. The Culture. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from http://theculture.forharriet.com/2016/11/four-­black-­women-­ presidents-­have-­been.html Frasca, R. (2006). Benjamin Franklin’s printing network: Disseminating virtue in early America. García, M. (Ed.). (2000). Succeeding in an academic career: A guide for Faculty of Color. Greenwood Press. Gasman, M. (2009, November/December). Historically Black Colleges and Universities in a time of economic crisis. Academe, 95, 26+. Greenwood, R., & Hinings, C. R. (1996). Understanding radical organizational change: Bringing together the old and the new institutionalism. Academy of Management Review, 21, 1022–1054. Harper, S., Patton, L., & Wooden, O. (2009). Access and equity for African American students in higher education: A critical race historical analysis of policy efforts. Journal of Higher Education, 80(4), 389–414. HBCU Money’s 2020 top 10 HBCU endowments. (2021, March 19). HBCU Money. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from https://hbcumoney.com/2021/03/19/ hbcu-­m oneys-­2 020-­t op-­1 0-­h bcu-­e ndowments/#:~:text=HBCU%20 M o n e y ’ s % 2 0 2 0 2 0 % 2 0 To p % 2 0 1 0 % 2 0 H B C U % 2 0 E n d o w m e n t s . % 2 0 1,7%20NACUBO%20Average%20–%20%24903.1%20million%20 %281.56%25%29%20 Heck, R.  H. (2004). Studying educational and social policy: Theoretical concepts and research methods. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hsu, P., Maccari, E., Mazieri, M., & Storopoli, J. (2018). A bibliometric review of institutional theory on higher education institutions. Future Studies Research Journal, 10(3), 383. Jeter, P. (2002). Journalism and mass communication education at HBCUs: History and current issues. Education, 123(1), 200+. Jones-Wilson, F. C., Asbury, C. A., Okazawa-Rey, M., Anderson, D. K., Jacobs, S. M., & Fultz, M. (Eds.). (1996). Encyclopedia of African-American education. Greenwood Press. Justiz, M. J., Wilson, R., & Björk, L. G. (Eds.). (1994). Minorities in higher education. Oryx Press. Kamery, R. H., & Lawrence, R. C. (2002). An issue of tenure: Should colleges and universities function as a for-profit business? Journal of Economics and Economic Education Research, 3(1), 31.

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Kezar, A., & Eckel, P. D. (2004). Meeting today’s governance challenges: A synthesis of the literature and examination of a future agenda for scholarship. Journal of Higher Education, 75(4), 371–389. Minor, J.  T. (2004). Decision making in Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Defining the governance context *. The Journal of Negro Education, 73(1). Ogawa, R. T. (1992). Institutional theory and examining leadership in schools. International Journal of Educational Management, 6(3), 14–21. Parsons, M. D. (2000). 4 the higher education policy arena: The rise and fall of a community. In J. Losco & B. L. Fife (Eds.), Higher education in transition: The challenges of the new millennium (pp. 83–103). Bergin & Garvey. Poole, M. S., & Van De Ven, A. H. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of organizational change and innovation. Oxford University Press. Roebuck, J. B., & Murty, K. S. (1993). Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Their place in American higher education. Praeger. Rudin, R., & Ibbotson, T. (2002). Introduction to journalism: Essential techniques and background knowledge. Focal Press. Schexnider, A. J. (2012, December 2). A requiem for Saint Paul’s College. Diverse issues in Higher Education, 29(23), 40. Scott, W.  R. (1995). Institutions and organizations. https://doi-­org.www2.lib. ku.edu/10.1109/MPER.2002.4312460 Solorzano, D. (1998). Critical race theory, racial and gender microaggressions, and the experiences of Chicana and Chicano scholars. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11, 121–136. Sprenkle, D. H., & Piercy, F. P. (Eds.). (2005). Research methods in family therapy (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. Stevenson, J. (2013, February 14). Plea to next and new HBCU presidents. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 30(1), 21. Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. SAGE. Sydnor, K.  D., Hawkins, A.  S., & Edwards, L.  V. (2010). Expanding research opportunities: Making the argument for the fit between HBCUs and community-­ based participatory research. The Journal of Negro Education, 79(1), 79+. Taylor, J. C., Jr. (2012, August 30). A call to accountability: The HBCU board. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 29(15), 31. http://diverseeducation.com/ article/48101/ Taylor, Z. (2018). “Now you’re competing”: How historically-Black colleges and universities compete (and don’t) on the Internet. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s41239-­018-­0111-­4

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Van Vught, F. (1994). Intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of quality assessment in higher education. In D.  F. Westerheijden, J.  Brennan, & P.  Massen (Eds.), Changing contexts of quality assessment. Lemma. Whitehouse.gov. (2021a, September 3). Executive order on white house initiative on advancing educational equity, excellence, and economic opportunity through Historically Black Colleges and Universities. The White House. Retrieved October 28, 2021, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-­room/ presidential-­actions/2021/09/03/executive-­order-­on-­white-­house-­initiative-­ on-­a dvancing-­e ducational-­e quity-­e xcellence-­a nd-­e conomic-­o pportunity-­ through-­historically-­black-­colleges-­and-­universities/ Whitehouse.gov. (2021b, September 8). President Biden announces intent to appoint Dr. Tony Allen as chair of the President’s Board of Advisors on Historically Black Colleges and universities. The White House. Retrieved October 28, 2021, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-­room/ statements-­r eleases/2021/09/08/president-­b iden-­a nnounces-­i ntent-­t o-­ appoint-­d r-­t ony-­a llen-­a s-­c hair-­o f-­t he-­p residents-­b oard-­o f-­a dvisors-­o n-­ historically-­black-­colleges-­and-­universities/ Zietsma, C. E., Groenewgen, P., Logue, D., & Hinings, C. R. (2017). Field or fields? Building the scaffolding for cumulation of research on institutional fields. Academy of Management Annals, 11(1), 1–95. https://doi. org/10.5465/annals.2014.0052

Marlen Livezey: A Case Study

Reduced and unequal federal and state funding for HBCUs, in relation to similar public institutions, within their own state has been a hurdle many HBCUs have had to maneuver through the years. Recently, Maryland’s public HBCUs won a lawsuit that contended that Morgan State University, the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Coppin State University, and Bowie State University historically received less state funding and the state allowed its white institutions to create duplicate programs that hurt HBCUs (Sturgis & Johnson-Ross, 2019). The lawsuits represent the resolve and actions HBCUs need to be ready to take in several state school systems. Unfortunately, Maryland is not the only state (or Commonwealth) where public HBCUs receive less funding and opportunities than their peer institutions. This makes maintaining best practices, hiring faculty and staff, and infrastructure (buildings and equipment) difficult for administrators to lead their units. The burden of competing for funding and educational freedoms with PWIs has a long history in America. While Lincoln University was the first HBCU to establish a journalism program, the nation’s first HBCU, Cheney University, took another route in building a curriculum and unit to teach students journalism and mass communication. It took someone with patience, expertise, and drive. It took Marlen Livezey.

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Morrill Acts to Kerner Commission: An Educator Prepares Livezey, as a Caucasian woman, knew the roadblocks to society’s mobility for those who were not part of the hegemonic plurality in America. She had a dream and a desire to give a voice to a culture that was not being heard from and a culture that, if not given the opportunity to frame their own story, could disappear. To do this, she would have to overcome the challenges of being a woman in journalism and a white woman looking to be an administrator at an HBCU. Her first dilemma would be to alter the expectations of others. The first HBCU, Cheyney State University, was established in 1837 (Ivy, 2002). According to the official records at the institution, “Cheyney was established on February 25, 1837, through the bequest of Richard Humphreys, a Quaker, who left in his will $10,000 dollars for the establishment of a teacher’s school for African Americans. He entrusted these funds to thirteen fellow Quakers. Humphreys wanted to do this because he observed the mistreatment and discrimination that African Americans were facing in Philadelphia, and was convinced that educational opportunities were vital. The school began in Philadelphia as the Institute for Colored Youth and successfully provided free classical education for qualified young people. In 1902, the Institute moved to George Cheyney’s farm, 25 miles west of Philadelphia. In 1913, the name was changed to Cheyney State Teachers College and would change again in 1914 to Cheyney Training School for Teachers, partly because of land acquired from George Cheyney” (Cheney University, March 4, 2013, FAQ, retrieved from http://cheyney.edu/FAQ/cfm). The names would continue to evolve from the State Normal School at Cheyney, in 1921, to Cheyney State College in 1959. Finally, in 1983, Cheyney joined the State System of Higher Education as Cheyney University of Pennsylvania (Cheyney University (n.d.), About CU, retrieved from http://cheyney. edu/about-­cheyney-­university/). Livezey embraced and faced down the myriad obstacles to creating an academic unit from scratch, one that was needed, yet not seen as a priority by Cheyney University as a whole at that time. Cheyney was reticent to transition from its traditional teaching philosophy. This is primarily due to the original missions of Historically Black Colleges and Universities. The struggles with racism and funding that made it difficult to have institutions of higher learning for freed Blacks and other African Americans that were addressed with the Morrill Acts continued with the establishment of

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journalism units. While institutions could educate their students in fields, such as teaching and agriculture, journalism was not among the disciplines to be offered, and there were no real options for African Americans to go to HBCUs to become journalists (Crawford, 2012). Livezey, in her quest to educate students who deserved to be taught about themselves and their communities, embodied the purposes and goals of HBCUs. She fell in love with the campus and she embodies the mission of Cheyney. Phil Pagliaro, Director of Telecommunications and Media Services at Cheyney University, reflected on Livezey’s time at the university: She has a sincere love for this institution and through the students she showed that love. The students here, they deserve a chance and from Dr. Livezey, they got that opportunity. (P. Pagliaro, personal communication, November 10, 2012)

Livezey wanted to make a difference. As she walked through the grounds and quad of Cheyney, she saw students engaged in positive and strategic campaigns of expression. During the turbulent times of 1967–68, students were conducting sit-ins and demanding classes and lectures that pertained to them as African Americans. The time had come for Cheyney. However, the time in the country was one of massive civil unrest and one of a lack of information and messages that were crafted and portrayed by the media that would shape African Americans and lower socioeconomic groups in America for decades to come. President Lyndon Johnson saw that college campuses across the country were the scenes of protest and debate regarding how the war, economy, and lack of jobs were crippling many in America. Nowhere were the calls for fairness and opportunity heard more than on the campuses of HBCUs.

Family Background Livezey is a first-generation American, the daughter of German immigrants who had barely the equivalence of an elementary school education. Her parents were married in 1927. She reflected on her family’s move to America, “Dad came here about 1922–23. He sent for mom four years later. They had met in southwest Germany working at a flourmill. She worked in the kitchen. Dad made his way there from Siberia where he had been taken as a young man” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012).

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Her family had lived on the border between East Prussia and Lithuania. Her grandfather was a miller and taught her father that trade. During the Russian revolution, her father’s older brothers escaped to America to avoid military service. “Others in the family sneaked across the border to safety. Then the rest of the family were captured and separated into different prisoner of war camps” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). The story of World War I captivity encompasses eight years, from the very first days of fighting in August 1914 until the repatriation of the last group of POWs from the port of Vladivostok in the summer of 1922. Most of the prisoners who survived the ordeal and an estimated 750,000 out of 8,500,000 prisoners died in enemy custody, spent on average three to four years in captivity before returning home in the years 1918–19. About 430,000 prisoners from Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Turkey found themselves in Siberia (Rachamimov, 2002). Her father survived by working for farmers, selling fish he caught in the Ural River, and selling baskets he wove. “He has so little regard for his life that he sat on the bank of the river, fishing, while the two armies were shooting at each other across the river. When the war ended, the communists gave him a copy of the Communist Manifesto and told him he was free” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 28, 2012). Livezey’s father wanted to see his family and to see if any of them had survived the war’s camps and turmoil. “He got work helping to repair the town’s flourmill so that the grain the farmers grew could be made into bread to eat and to sell to make money. Through the International Red Cross, he undertook a search for his family. He kept searching and finally found a younger brother and sister” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 28, 2012). Now, along with his brother and sister, her father contacted the Red Cross in hopes of finding his family that had earlier escaped to America. He was able to locate them in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The family, excited to know he and his siblings were still alive, sent for them.

Higher Education Livezey’s father’s advice, or rather, statement about wasting money on college, was always in the back of her mind. “At one point in my childhood, I entertained the notion of becoming a nurse. Choices of careers for women, remember, were limited in the 1940s and 1950s. We were groomed to be housewives and mothers. It seemed to be a conspiracy to

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get women out of the workforce to open opportunities for the soldiers coming back from war” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 30, 2012). When she graduated high school, Livezey did follow her sister’s secretarial footsteps and started working immediately as a stenographer for the FBI. “It was interesting work to say the least. I stayed with it for 2 ½ years. Two events, however, started me thinking about doing something else. The first was a conversation I had with a fellow Olney High School graduate who also came to work at the FBI. She mentioned to me that she was planning to quit to go to Millersville State College to become a teacher” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 30, 2012). Livezey’s friend’s decision to follow her own dream and enroll in Millersville State College eventually rekindled Livezey’s own desire to further her own education. Livezey tried to convince her friend that it was a bad idea to quit her stenographer job because “you won’t be making as much money as you are here. That turned out to be true. She went there anyway and loved it” (M. Livezey, personal communication, October 3, 2012). Within six months, Livezey was enrolling at East Stroudsburg State College. East Stroudsburg itself started out as Stroudsburg Normal School, in 1893. Livezey says, “Somehow the more I tried to dissuade her, the better the idea sounded to me!” It seemed as though Livezey’s destiny was to be a part of the rich tradition of teachers who were taught the importance of the individual learner. Stroudsburg provided a solid base of purpose for Livezey. The school’s mission included principles that continued to propel her throughout her career. Part of that statement reads, “a learning community that promotes diversity and views teaching as the university’s main purpose. We are committed to the principles of intellectual integrity, freedom of expression, the fair and equal treatment of all, good citizenship, environmental stewardship, and accountability for our actions and the resources entrusted to us” (East Stroudsburg University (n.d.), Mission and Value Statement, retrieved from http://www4.esu.edu/ about/history_beliefs/mission_statement.cfm).

Onward to Cheyney While teaching at Upper Moreland, Livezey came into contact with faculty from Cheyney. She found out that Cheyney was in need of someone to teach Literature in the English department. She felt she was prepared for the challenge. She had attended schools that stressed the individual

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and diversity. Her family’s experience provided a blueprint for her to show that everyone, when given the chance, can succeed. “When I arrived for the interview at Cheyney State College in August of 1967, I was enchanted by the loveliness of the campus—the stately Dutch elm trees that lined the quadrangle, the historic stone buildings, and especially the warm friendliness of the people I met. Dr. Turner, a math professor whom I asked directions to Biddle Hall, insisted on escorting me there personally, although at that time she was walking with crutches. But she always embodied the Cheyney family to me” (M. Livezey, personal communication, October 4, 2012). This sense of family and community is the cornerstone of schools like Cheyney. Sadly, those stately elms that Livezey found on her first visit succumbed to Dutch elm disease and had to be removed. However, the new trees planted in their place have restored the historic quadrangle to its former elegance. The campus is filled with history, and Livezey felt she was in the middle of it all during her initial interview. “One of the actual stops on the Underground Railroad is at an unoccupied house across from campus, not in the basement of any building on campus as some students claimed. I had the opportunity to meet United States President Jimmy Carter, Senator Julian Bond, comedian Bill Cosby, Coretta Scott King, Jesse Jackson, Maya Angelou and so many more influential people who came to speak at Cheyney” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, October 4, 2012). Livezey felt right at home as soon as she stepped on the campus. She now knows every inch of the quadrangle. “During my time there, I taught in almost every building—Leslie Pinkney Hill Library (for computer access), Evangeline Rachel Hall (now removed, to use for what was then the TV studio). I taught during the early years in Baily Hall, where once the asbestos was removed, the acoustics were undesirable. Because I had no room-darkening shades, I improvised (by adding night classes) to show film clips” (M. Livezey, personal communication, October 4, 2012). She says that, like many schools, Cheyney’s atmosphere was different in the late 1960s. Class attendance was better then. Students were not rushing off to part-time or even full-time jobs. “Not many students had cars on campus. They were driven here or came by train. There was no commuter bus service then. At holiday time and at the ends of semesters a chartered bus would come for the Pittsburgh students. Some faculty and fellow students hosted foreign students during the holiday breaks. One

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summer, I hosted an African student who could not stay on campus or return home. We had a more racially mixed population then.” Livezey went on to say, “As buildings and programs were being repurposed across the campus, several tracks and disciplines were eliminated. When the industrial arts program ended, I moved to Logan Annex. I cleared tons of old equipment there to create an interactive classroom. I also moved my office about six times to various locations around campus.” The reason for moving the equipment would serve a larger purpose, one that was building for years, the need for a dedicated facility that would accommodate the students and technology to create a media entity. Again, Livezey would have to create something that was not there and convince others there was a need.

Creating the Concentration “In the summer of 1967, Dean McKinley Menchen [at that time we had no vice presidents] and English department chair, Dr. James Oliver interviewed me and offered me a teaching position—Freshman English I, one preparation, three classes that met every day, for a total of 15 credits. Classes met at 9:30, 10:30, and 2:30 in the newly opened Baily Building. I was given an office in Burleigh Hall. After having taught five classes a day at Upper Moreland High School in Willow Grove, with no time to step outside into the sunshine, I relished the freedom to walk outside and to have an office to myself. I enjoyed the experience of having students stop by my office to chat. I especially remember Milton Daniels, who came often and was very helpful in orienting me to the campus and African American culture—though at that time the term ‘negro’ was more commonly used. Within a year or two, ‘Black’ or ‘Afro-American’ replaced ‘Negro.’ Then, during the Civil Rights era, the term ‘African American’ became the standard. ‘Afro’ remained only as a term for a natural hairstyle. Students here all seemed to compete to see who could wear their hair in the largest ‘fro’ or ‘bush’” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). At that time, the English department at Cheyney followed the trend of the rest of the campus—providing a classical education. There was not one African or African American author in the textbooks. “I decided to include African American poets—Paul Lawrence Dunbar, Langston Hughes, Gwendolyn Brooks—by creating overhead transparencies to read and discuss in class. The students appreciated those efforts to include their

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culture into the curriculum. Within a few years, they clamored for and received courses in African American literature and history” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Gwen Owens, Cheyney University’s Director of Public Relations and Constituent Services, thinks Livezey’s heart and passion revolves around teaching and helping students and posits that Livezey’s love of literature and teaching was apparent to everyone. “Dr. Livezey is kind and compassionate, but she can be a hard disciplinarian, tough grader and one tough cookie. She always told me, ‘Every student has the opportunity to choose to fail.’ That meant she would do everything she can to help students succeed, but if they choose to fail, she could not save them. Students love to point fingers at someone or something else when it comes to why it is not their fault. Marlen wanted students to take ownership over their lives and their futures. Marlen was a wonderful mentor to me. She loved Cheyney and she loved the students. She commuted about an hour each way her entire career at Cheyney. That’s real dedication!” (G.  Owens, personal communication, November 20, 2012). In September 1967, Livezey started adding even more African American literature as well as media components focusing on how people communicate to her classes. She was always supportive of the students, and her courses quickly became popular and enrollment followed suit. Livezey was still primarily a professor in the English department, responsible for teaching American Literature. Those times were about to change. “One day in 1972–73, Dr. Charlene Conyers and Dr. Coragreene Johnstone asked me to plan a Communications Art curriculum. They initially intended it to be supplemental to the English Secondary Education program. I created the Communications Art program with the dream that someday there would be faculty to teach the courses” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Drs. Conyers and Johnstone’s desire to create the new curriculum was not popular to the entire English faculty and certainly not the full administration. Many of the faculty, at that time, did not have a desire to learn more about journalism or to incorporate it into their syllabi. Livezey felt that it would be important to have people who could teach every aspect of media. She was approached by some colleagues in the English Department about helping to structure an option for the English Department to have courses in communications. “I, instead, wrote a program that would be ‘for’ communicators. The courses were geared toward media and not English courses” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 26,

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2012). Even though Livezey wrote the curriculum proposal and seemed to have the backing of everyone, something that happened to a colleague made her have second thoughts. “Rich Henson, a Cheyney alumnus who had served as editor of the Cheyney Record, graduated and worked for the Philadelphia Inquirer. His teaching was outstanding, but because he did not have the master’s degree, we could not retain him” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Livezey had her master’s degree at the time, but knew that she may need more than that to further the program. She was right. After what had happened to her, as a result of Dr. Echewa, who had taken a leadership position from her because he had his doctorate, Livezey knew she would need to earn a doctorate if she was to continue in her quest to build a strong program. She started taking doctoral classes at Temple to see if she would be able to “make it.” She earned an “A” and a “B” for the first two courses, so she continued to go there, part-time. She was also still teaching three classes per semester at Cheyney. Things were going well, but again, a challenge would present itself. Livezey was struck with a tragic medical condition. She was diagnosed with a brain tumor and had to leave teaching for a while. But her hope was to return to teaching and make the Communication Arts concentration, within the English department, strong and viable. It would not be an easy or fast task to even get well, physically, to make that a possibility. “You have your share of tragedies, but you also have blessings. When I was operated on for the brain tumor, the first surgery was done to install a shunt to relieve the water on my brain. The shunt leads down to my stomach. Sometimes, there are complications. Every seven years or so, my husband will find me mumbling aimlessly around in the kitchen. When he asks me what year it is, I tell him something like 1976. When he asks who the President of the United States is, I answer with Richard Nixon or whoever was the president at the time” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Her condition would appear without warning or symptoms. “I find myself again in an unfamiliar room with my head bandaged and I am wearing a hospital gown. I have no memory of the kitchen or the trip to the surgeon or hospital. That is when I realize how blessed I am that the blockage occurs in a safe place and that the ‘roto-­ rootering’ has been successful. So every day I wake up ‘clothed in my right mind’ is a blessing” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012).

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The fight back to “normalcy” would be more than memory loss. “It was because of the brain tumor and my new inability to read post op (I became dyslexic. The letters would spin around on the page so that I could not tell ‘n’ from ‘u’ or ‘p’, ‘b’, ‘d,’ or ‘q’) that by the time I figured out one word I had forgotten the others in the sentence. Frustrating? You bet! How could I continue as an English teacher? So, five months later, while on sick leave, I enrolled as a Continuing Ed student at Temple. I took two graduate courses, taping every lecture (she was also now blind, right of center). I had to constantly turn my head to avoid walking into things” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Through it all, Livezey persevered. She was able to earn good grades and to transfer the courses and credits from the Continuing Ed program into the Mass Media and Communication (Ph.D.) program. She continued to take courses at Temple after returning back to teaching at Cheyney, even during her residency semester. “I need to give credit to former department chair, Jacob Rayapati, who lightened my load by giving me speech courses to teach during my residency semester at Temple. It took me 11 years, but in 1985, I finally was able to earn my Ph.D. My parents were very supportive and proud of me for being a college graduate, even becoming a teacher! Neither lived long enough to witness my receiving the Ph.D., but I am pretty sure they know… at least I’d like to think so” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). “The Commutations Arts program at Cheyney, upon my return, eventually hired Professor Paul Morgan to help teach print journalism and public relations courses. After the Industrial Arts program folded, Clarence Harris taught broadcast classes. Around 1984, the Communication Arts Concentration, within the English department started to expand. I guess it was like the ‘tail wagging the dog’ in that I seemed to be ahead of the curve in regards to adding courses and students to the unit. Students started leaving the English department’s courses and started taking the African American and media writing classes” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). This meant more faculty would be required to handle the increase interest and maintain continuity. “I created a plan of rotation, but we were not able to teach the more advanced classes because we had to continue to offer the introductory-­ level courses. So, we sent students out on internships. I supervised some of the interns. In 2000, I revised the program to add more rigor and preparation. I revised all the course outlines. Dr. Deirdre Ray was the

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chairperson at that time” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). With increased numbers, came expanded roles and supervisory responsibilities for Livezey. “I had as many as 100 majors now, while English and Speech dropped to a number around 10 total majors. I had the responsibility of advising all of the Communication Arts majors” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Livezey worked tirelessly to make the program feasible. “Her work with the students was awesome. She worked with tenacity for the students. Once her mind was set, she would not let it go. She deserves a lot of credit for what we are and where we are” (P. Pagliaro, personal communication, November 10, 2012). The numbers grew so large that the entire structure of the unit evolved into focusing less on English and more on communications. “There was a lot of conversation and faculty debate on making a change, but the students were the voices requesting the move and the numbers made a change make” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Livezey was up to the challenge and the task of becoming the lead administrator.

Chairing the Move from Concentration to Major Although Livezey loved teaching, she understood she’d have to learn how to navigate the politics of administration. “Pat Walker, acting Vice President of Academic Affairs, famously said, ‘If it isn’t in writing, it doesn’t exist” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Livezey found that a verbal promise might not be honored. To keep faculty and staff from overspending the budget, forms for all purchases had to be preapproved. That meant she would sometimes need to walk from office to office around campus and wait for the right person to sign the forms to ensure the proper procedures were met by upper-level administrators. “If you needed something quickly, you could pay out of pocket, but the chances were that you would not be reimbursed” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). “Dr. Marlen Livezey designed the entire communication program, and later, the Liberal Studies major, as well. She taught for more than 40 years here at Cheyney and was the advisor for many, many students who sought her advice, wisdom and direction” (G. Owens, personal communication, December 4, 2012). As mentioned, the change would require the full faculty to agree and represented a cultural shift within the discipline. Livezey would also have to champion the change through the full

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university channels—from the department’s curriculum committee to approval from university administration. The first change would be the name. No longer would Communication Arts be a concentration within the English Department. The unit was renamed the Department of Communication Arts. Grant writing was not something Livezey had to know as a teacher, but acquiring that skill was now essential. It was evident that there would not be a budget line specifically for the courses she was proposing and that were clamored for by students. For one thing, the current radio station’s situation was not something that would suffice for academic and viable operation. “WCSR was established on campus as a low-powered carrier current radio station that broadcast on an irregular schedule. Students held dance parties, ate and spilled sodas in the studio. They continually damaged the equipment. Dr. Clarence Harris, who taught technology courses, refused to continue to repair the equipment because students failed to follow his directions” (G.  Owens, personal communication, December 4, 2012) Livezey had to make one of her first administrative decisions by replacing what she saw as a “party atmosphere” at the campus radio station and add both rigor and responsibility to the programming played throughout the operating day. It was not received well by everyone. “I agreed to fully take over the radio production, but I insisted that it would be run in a professional manner, following FCC regulations and it would now be a part of the Communication Arts curriculum” (G. Owens, personal communication, December 4, 2012). Doing radio production was different than having a fully functional radio station. However, her other administrative and teaching responsibilities were also increasing due to increases in enrollment. She needed help from someone who could be a permanent station manager. There were not any faculty or staff available to do that, much less money to make a hire, so she shut down the entire station until she could find someone to take over this responsibility. Media writing was a start for the program, but to be a true communications unit, Livezey felt the students needed more media avenues. Livezey was not quite sure how she would do it because there was little to no budget for the new department. “A faculty colleague, Juliet Sawyer, from the Department of Business Administration, knew how long and how many times I had been unsuccessful in attempts to get funding for the department. I wanted a radio station for the students. So, I wrote a grant to the Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development (DCED) to fund a station. Without Juliet, I never would

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have been able to do it. It was she who told me about the DCED grant. She contacted her former student, Michael Horsey, then a State Representative, and asked for his support. Thanks to his efforts, I got the grant” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Livezey was also instrumental in securing U.S. Department of Education Title III funding. Not everyone on the faculty or on campus was happy with the new program and its future. “It is important to recognize those people who helped me because there were some who did their best to get in the way. For example, we hired a professor to teach the public relations courses. That fellow came from industry and regarded me, as a woman, as his secretary. I dealt with him by moving my office and the majority of the program to a newer building. He finally retired” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Livezey remembers administrators who would hold up the changes to the Liberal Studies Program because it did not have “his” name on the changes. After he finally left, the revisions were approved and again Livezey was allowed to move them forward to completion. There were other units on campus that were not happy with the changes, if only for the number of students now interested in the new program. “It was back to me and I was not overseeing the change and also recruiting and advising the major. There was little to no cooperation from the departments whose students were transferring to liberal studies” (M. Livezey, personal communication, September 26, 2012). Livezey wanted to advise and teach students more than media and African American literature. She wanted them to understand the culture and importance of Cheyney. “Marlen put signs in her classroom that really made me chuckle. The signs talked about everything from how to treat furniture (something like—if you wouldn’t put your feet on your grandmother’s table, don’t do it here either) to grammar tips, how to get a good grade and how to fail—you name it, she had a sign for it. The longer she taught, the more signs she had stockpiled somewhere to pull out in just the right scenario. She designed each new course and really expanded the major to include minors and concentrations. By the time I came in 2009, there were five different tracks you could take if you wanted to be a Communications major. Marlen taught everything from composition and technical writing to radio, TV, film and print media” (G. Owens, personal communication, December 4, 2012). One person who was a partner in helping with the radio station was Phil Pagliaro, Cheyney’s current Director of Telecommunications and

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Media Services. “I definitely need to give credit to Phil Pagliaro. I gave him the money ($93,103) I received from the DCED grant and he made the best use of it to start a radio station and upgrade the television studio. He also managed to find and use another grant to enhance the entire television product—moving it to a choice location and arranging to name it after our most famous alumnus, Ed Bradley of 60 Minutes and CBS News fame. On February 22, 2011, Humanities and Communication Arts faculty, staff, students and alumni gathered to mark the official opening of the Ed Bradley Broadcast Center. Without, Phil’s technical expertise and assistance I would not have been able to offer any of the radio and television courses in the program” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Livezey knew that if she was to have a successful program the writing and creative productions had to have an equally quality technical foundation. Livezey’s technical experience was rooted in the theory and books, “I would read about how a camera or video editor works and just do it. In many cases, I would literally learn how to do it the week or even class before I would teach it, during the early years!” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). One of the changes Livezey and Pagliaro made was to improve the facilities. “The former photography dark room in Vaux Hall became the studio, a cramped closet where up to seven students huddled around the equipment. Now the studio has been moved to DSS, where there is room to breathe” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). The students loved having the “hands-on” and real-world experience and Livezey was gaining the respect of more and more of the faculty and staff. In fact, Livezey, in her plans and hopes to fund the department, asked faculty to contribute to the future. She also worked with the administration to find desks, bookcases, and space. Keith Bingham, Cheyney University’s Archivist, remembers her tenacity, “Professor Livezey definitely knew the campus and the buildings. She seemed to scout out the best areas for the department and if another department was not at full capacity, would put a claim for the space and building for Communication Arts” (K. Bingham, personal communication, November 19, 2012). “Part of my job requires me to oversee the television, radio, and media service operations. When I came on board, there was no radio station. The television station was an empty space. It all started with the first wave of funding from Dr. Livezey that got us off the ground. Because of Prof. Livezey, the Department of Communication Arts is part of the Center of Excellence, if it were not for her, the department would not be seen as

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integral as it is now for the entire university” (P. Pagliaro, personal communication, November 10, 2012). Thus, the television station and WCUB (radio station) were completed and dedicated. Students broadcast live on tape, and the shows are aired on a schedule. Pagliaro was the perfect technical mind and skilled person Livezey needed. He allowed her to concentrate on content and writing. “I listened to their live-on-tape recordings and approved their work for quality of sound and FCC compliance before airing them in the early years. Now, I had help to do that and our students became professional and proficient” (P. Pagliaro, personal communication, November 10, 2012). Cheyney students were fast becoming known as great interns and were comparable to students from larger institutions. “We see demand for the program and as the field has and continues to change over the years, there has been a convergence of areas such as Graphic Design (print, animation, television). This concentration within the department is what we feel will really grow. Our proximity to various media outlets (New Jersey, Philadelphia, Washington, DC, and New  York) allows our students to have the opportunity to experience great internships, co-ops, and careers. Our mission is to attract and retain students, so we stay as ‘state of the art’ as possible. The ultimate goal is to prepare them for higher education and successful careers” (P. Pagliaro, personal communication, November 10, 2012). Communication Arts is now a solid program, recognized and respected on campus and with employers worldwide.

Service to the University Livezey, now a chairperson/teacher, was seen as a valuable administrator at Cheyney. She saw networking and assisting the university as important as being within a single silo on campus. Livezey also admired other administrators at Cheyney who loved the mission of the school. “Wade Wilson, who became president after a student rebellion and sit-in forced Dr. Allen to resign, told of arriving as a student, barefoot. He had to borrow shoes from a dorm mate. As president, he was successful in getting money from the state to build the administration building that now bears his name” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Livezey knew that one person could make a difference, even working within groups that have differing ideas of what should be done to help students. One of Livezey’s proudest university-wide duties was working with the Faculty Senate. “I believe in the late 1960s and early 1970s (I arrived in 1967) the

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Faculty Senate had started to wane in attendance and structure. After earning my doctorate, I joined the Senate and was voted to the position of recording secretary. I held this position for many years, publishing detailed minutes overnight and distributing them in faculty mailboxes by the next day. Gradually, the Senate gained in power and influence during this period, and continues to serve a vital function today” (M. Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). Other committees that Livezey was a member on campus were: College Level Examination Program Exam Method (CLEP), she wrote the original guidelines for Cheyney; the bookstore committee; provost search committees; and Academic Affairs Advisory Council; and co-chaired University Self-Study Committee on Educational Programs (2004–05); and chaired the Institutional Review Board (14 years); as a member of the Middle States Commission on Higher Education Steering Committee, Livezey helped write part of the Middle States report for re-accreditation.

Retirement and Legacy As could be expected, it was hard for Livezey to leave a place she so loved after 45 years. She had created a program; in fact, Livezey developed and initiated all courses, their outlines, and syllabi in the Communication Arts curriculum and taught almost all of them at one time or another. She also created study guides for faculty and students for all the courses. She set up the course and graduation schedule to help advisors and students know to schedule during their four years of study to graduate on time. “I have the satisfaction of knowing that Communication Arts majors from Cheyney have taken positions at radio and television stations, the Philadelphia Inquirer, New York Times, Washington Post, ESPN, and even the White House as a member of Vice President Joe Biden’s staff and a member of the U.S. Secret Service. Some have returned to teach here or other institutions like Bennett and Henson, to name a few” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, December 5, 2012). “She designed the different tracks that students can choose (television, radio, print, public relations, graphic design, theater, music, liberal studies, etc.). In addition, Dr. Livezey served as advisor to many students, which entailed spending hours and hours of office time, pouring over transcripts and meeting with students to learn their interests, dreams, strengths, weaknesses, etc.—in order to help them make wise decisions

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about their futures. She was dedicated to the school, the students, and her vision” (G. Owens, personal communication, December 4, 2012). It is indeed rare that someone who has so much passion and drive has very little ego or over-evaluation of self. Livezey is this exception. “Dr. Livezey was wonderful to work with. She has a wonderful personality and is kind-hearted. She loved her students, and really, all students. She definitely made positive impacts on the lives she touched. The students here, they deserve a chance. They just need the opportunity. She sees students that may not be accepted at other schools. The students that go through the Key Honors Program (which is highly competitive) are going through Ph.D. programs, earning significant jobs in industry, and enrolling in study abroad programs. Without Cheyney, these students would not have had the opportunity” (P.  Pagliaro, personal communication, November 10, 2012). As for Livezey, she does feel as though she did her best and has only warm memories of her time at Cheyney. “I had a desire to create a flexible major for students with many interests, a major in which students, with the help of an advisor, could craft programs to prepare themselves for future careers. That the dream of such a major met with some resistance from other professors who saw it as a threat to their own programs did not stop us. Ultimately, Liberal Studies came into existence. I did what I could, but needed help. Professors and administrators eventually came aboard, including Dr. Janet Manspeaker, Dean Bernadette Carter and former Vice President Kenoyoke Eke had a hand in helping in its development” (M. Livezey, personal communication, February 15, 2013). Yes, she says that she worked long hours for a lot of years. But why wouldn’t she? “I remember Dr. John Jones, Dean of Arts and Sciences. He often scribbled what I thought were ‘notes’ while he was offering suggestions or directions. Afterward, I asked to use his notes, but found they were just scribbles on paper. He loved teaching. He used to chuckle, ‘I’m having so much fun’ and he did a little backward shuffle, before adding, ‘And they PAY me to do it’” (M.  Livezey, personal communication, February 15, 2013). She also remembers her father’s voice and his stories of struggle and love of family and for other people. Dr. Livezey leaves behind a degree program and a world-class communications building. The Ed Bradley Center is a state-of-the-art learning facility, one that would make Cheyney University’s most famous alumnus and one of the world’s most revered reporters, proud to have as his namesake.

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Livezey’s efforts to grow her program are the same as current HBCUs, in that it is not an easy task. The competition for first-generation students, the largest percentage of all enrolled students, has increased through the years, as PWIs have set up special programs such as “First Year Experience” and “Student Success and Retention” units. There has been a recent increase in initiatives spearheaded by student affairs professionals which seek to encourage and support the intersecting identities of students (Haley et al., 2018). This approach is acutely relevant to students who inhabit one or more historically marginalized identities. “Student success and retention are deeply influenced by the degree to which students experience a sense of integration and engagement on campus and in the classroom, which is experienced through a lens of student identity” (Haley et al., 2018, p. 33).

References Cheyney University. (n.d.). About CU. Retrieved from http://cheyney.edu/ about-­cheyney-­university/ Crawford, J. (2012). The challenges and successes of departmental governance: A look at HBCU journalism and mass communications unit administrators. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 10(3), 215–226. East Stroudsburg University. (n.d.). Mission and value statement. Retrieved from http://www4.esu.edu/about/history_beliefs/mission_statement.cfm Haley, K., McCambly, H., & Graham, R. D. (2018). Perceptions of student identities and institutional practices of intersectional programming. College Student Affair Journal, 36(2), 32–47. Ivy, M. (2002). Honors programs at historically black colleges and universities. Education, 123, 1. Rachamimov, A. (2002). POWs and the great war: Captivity on the eastern front. Berg. Sturgis, I., & Johnson-Ross, S. (2019). Kerner issue: The role of HBCUs in training journalists to improve media images post-Kerner. Howard Journal of Communications, 30(4), 336–354. https://doi-­org.www2.lib.ku.edu/10.108 0/10646175.2019.1592726

Recruitment and Retention of Students

The lifeblood of higher education is the actual enrollment of and the retaining of students. The laws of segregation, integration, and, later, affirmative action in the United States have allowed for new ways for some state legislatures to hinder the full economic support HBCUs need to compete with PWIs. State legislatures and regents, boards, and other statewide bodies of leadership establish budgets for higher education institutions. If they do not allow for HBCUs to have the same physical plant maintenance, building renovations, technology, general funding to help lower tuition and fees, and overall personnel funding, it can make these institutions de facto unequal to their peer institutions. Students make decisions to attend an HBCU or a PWI by comparing cost (e.g., tuition, room, and board), in light of family financial resources, scholarship offers, and proximity to home. When controlling for some of the background characteristics, however, students choose HBCUs for additional reasons. In terms of academic preparedness, recent trends suggest that HBCUs are attracting more academically capable students than in previous generations. The primary reason participants chose to apply to and subsequently attend an HBCU for their undergraduate education was their desire to be in a predominantly Black educational environment. This desire was shaped over time through interactions with family members, teachers, and significant others who spoke of positive experiences and perceptions of HBCUs. (Johnson, 2018). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Crawford II, Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97501-2_7

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HBCUs have had the ability to recruit African American students since the 1860s by stressing a sense of inclusion and family through their mission statements and community outreach. There was little to no competition for African American students from PWIs until integration was fully implemented a hundred years later in the 1960s. HBCUs, by their standing in the community, have been a gateway to first-generation college students, regardless of race or social class status and many continue to have “open” admissions policies, welcoming all who wish to attend college, regardless of previous academic performance. Today, HBCUs have to actively recruit students who can now apply and enroll at PWIs, with the use of technology that includes the Internet. How has the digital divide changed from its classification in the 1960s? How are African Americans using the web, and are HBCUs using the Internet to inform, recruit, and enroll African American students today? There are studies now that challenge the “need” for these institutions in 2021 and beyond in America. African Americans can now enroll in any college or university they can qualify academically for and afford to pay tuition. There are many different reasons that African Americans look for today to make their college choice—other than the tradition of HBCUs. High school guidance counselors and pastors at the local church no longer are the primary focus of information for students looking to learn more about colleges. Technology allows prospective students to look deeper into a college and, specifically, a program in which they are interested in pursuing than the brochure in the guidance office offers. It should be noted that many first-generation hopefuls have not been encouraged to apply for college and “have little insight or experience with the process; and they may not know factors to consider in selecting a suitable college” (Elam & Brown, 2005). Colleges and universities are changing the way they market their programs and looking for innovative ways to recruit students by providing new linkages for everyone who normally plays an important role in the prospective students’ choice to enroll into a specific school and to matriculate at that school. Cognitive responses are informative as they have been found to affect brand evaluations, and those effects have been found to be persistent over time (Pomering & Johnson, 2009). Most students are still interested in affordability, financial aid, what courses are required, cultural/student organizations, career possibilities, and living opportunities. One source of differences across groups in college-related outcomes is knowledge about college and financial aid. But,

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research also shows that a lack of knowledge about college, specifically, financial aid, is prevalent in society today (Bell et al., 2009). African Americans may also be interested in such things as minority ratios within a school or program. They can look up this information on the Internet—primarily on each college’s website and additionally on other informational sites. HBCUs now need to compete for these students. How do HBCUs persuade or influence students to enroll in their programs—what is the message, if any, central to their websites? Will it be financial opportunities? The fear of not being able to afford college is real. “Schools can help reduce these anxieties by providing parents with informational sessions, newsletters, and websites on financial aid” (Daigneault & Wirtz, 2008). How about a solid career placement program? Many of these students will not have any insight as to how to walk through the maze of information. Often this lack of knowledge is most pronounced among Latino and Black students and parents, low-income parents and parents who have no direct personal experience with college, and students who aspire to attend a two-year versus a four-year institution (Bell et al., 2009). A pilot study by Crawford (2012) examined how six HBCUs that offer journalism/mass communication courses used their websites as a means to provide information to prospective students. The study looked at each school’s website usability matrix designed by Jakob Nielsen and if they contain 20 topics chosen as a way to measure this matrix. The schools were chosen in two groups—one group regarding size and the other group regarding in-state tuition rate. These schools were able to represent the 49 total HBCUs that offer journalism/mass communication units in future research on this topic. The stakes are high for universities as institutions and HBCUs are no different in how they look to recruit applicants. The debate over admissions has attracted so much attention in recent years that it has encouraged a tendency in the public to forget that American universities have large social responsibilities. These responsibilities encompass far more than assessing the academic merits of individual applicants against each other (Atkinson & Pelfrey, 2006).

Persuasive Messages There have been many studies that look at how messages are sent and received and how they are produced. This pilot study looks at how HBCUs use the medium of the Internet, specifically their journalism/mass

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communication unit’s website, to persuade prospective students to apply for enrollment. HBCUs have to use their histories and original missions and begin “treating communication as a mechanism by which message senders use their knowledge and skill to affect the understanding or behavior of message receivers toward predetermined goals” (Shelby, 1998). In discussing how colleges and universities utilize the Internet, Matt Nathan, vice president of ePageCity, says with schools, “content is king”; in other words, school websites are more about information than marketing (Starkman, 2006). Rhetoric produces temporally constrained truths arising from cooperative critical inquiry. No longer playing simple handmaiden to the grand truth, rhetoric is charged instead with “creating” multiple, situated truths (Rufo, 2003). Schools need to realize they have to market themselves and, using their own medium (website), they can control their brand better than ever. The college choice process received enormous attention in the past two decades. With the explosion of the Internet came the incorporation of the Web in this process. Researchers have consistently found that prospective students utilize the Web on an increasingly frequent basis (Poock, 2006). The information that is provided to the audience needs to be authentic, but will the audience listen? The ultimate result of marketing is an exchange. Exchanges, however, do not eventuate solely on the basis of the information a supplier disseminates (Pomering & Johnson, 2009).

College Websites: The Search Begins Web accessibility relates to the publishing of online, digital information in ways that is accessible to individuals with disabilities. These publishing efforts often include adding information to media files (metadata) to make these files readable by a wide range of assistive technologies (U.S. Access Board, 2018). Poock and Lefond (2001) examined the characteristics of effective graduate school websites utilizing focus groups and surveys and Poock replicated this in 2005 (Poock, 2006). What is interesting is that undergraduate research shows the same results as those of graduate students. Additionally, Crawford (2012) surveyed new graduate students at a major research university. A consistent finding in these studies is that an institution’s website is the dominant tool utilized by prospective graduate students (Poock, 2006).

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African American students looking at websites for colleges will be searching not only HBCUs but also predominantly white institutions. What types of messages will these other institutions be sharing? Will they be similar? Are there different messages for African Americans and Whites? Previous studies have been done on this. “Much of this research finds that Black consumers heavily rely on print and television for information and use that information when making purchases” (Appiah, 2003). College websites need to keep these differences in mind when they build their pages. As the Internet becomes more crowded and as Blacks increase the use of and access to the Internet, content providers will need to know how best to reach both Black and white audiences. So, is it an economic or cultural difference in why there is a difference? Blacks with incomes below $40,000 were far less likely than whites to own a computer and go online for hours (Appiah, 2003). It is easy to surmise that African Americans with salaries “above $40,000 are as likely or more likely than Whites to own a computer, have computer access at work, and use the Internet during office” (Appiah, 2003) It is almost impossible today to apply to any college without using a computer. In the past, students needed to be proficient in reading and writing. The norm now is to be proficient in computers—this will be “expected of incoming freshman in the 21st century, so much so that technological access and proficiency have become a part of the skill set in the application process” (Richardson, 2008). In 1968, Task Force on Violent Aspects of Protest for the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, commonly known as the Kerner Commission Report, discussed the media divide between whites and African Americans. The report did bring to light how African Americans and whites used information with the “news media portrayed the 1967 riots as black-white conflicts rather than placing them in the context of people stressed by deteriorating economic and living conditions” (Mastin, 2000). The challenge in 2011 is in keeping democracy strong with full access for everyone with high-speed Internet connections. The Kerner Report was in response to what many thought was happening to America and said that the United States was heading toward “two societies—one black, one white-separate and unequal” which hastened the nation’s movement from anti-discrimination to affirmative action policies (Atkinson & Pelfrey, 2006). The “digital divide” is most often used to refer to differential access to the Internet (Zimmerman & Meyer, 2005). According to the

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organization Digital Partnership in Seattle, the term “digital divide” was first coined during the debate over the Telecommunication Act of 1996 (Feldman, 2000, p. 55). As late as 1999, studies found the digital divide between (at least) urban African Americans and whites was still a large one. Just 11.8 percent of urban Blacks had a computer in their homes, contrasted with 30.3 percent of whites and 13.2 percent of Hispanics, said a 1999 report, “Falling Through the Net” (Dreyfuss, 2001). The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, as part of the Commerce Department, published that report. In a comment that is completely timely in 2011 with how HBCUs must be able to compete with other institutions, President Lyndon Johnson in 1967 asked, “Can we be ‘completely fair’ without attention to race and ethnicity, especially in access to education?” (Atkinson & Pelfrey, 2006). The Digital Network, a coalition of the National Urban League and Benton Foundation, identifies the term digital divide as a “gap between those who can effectively use new information and communication tools, such as the Internet, and those who cannot” (Feldman, 2000, p.55). Are there any changes in the digital divide since the 1960s? Other empirical studies indicate that there is virtually no difference in Internet use among Blacks and whites with middle to upper-level incomes and that Blacks are among the fastest growing segments on the World Wide Web (Appiah, 2003). The digital divide may have shortened, but there is a new challenge—an information literacy divide. Information literacy is the ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and use the information. The skills divide replicates the access divide—those who lack skills tend to be older, less educated, poor, African American, and Latino (Tapia & Ortiz, 2008). This skill of being able to understand what information is “out there” and discern the use of clicking on video games on the web are two distinct differences. In America, African Americans are using technology at even higher rates than whites. A 2010 pewinternet.org study found African Americans and Latinos continue to outpace whites in their use of data applications on hand-held devices (Smith, 2010). This simply means African Americans are not aware of the capabilities of using the web or wireless Internet options. Studies show that 87 percent of Blacks and Hispanics own a cell phone compared to 80 percent of Whites. Additionally, Black and Latino cell phone owners take advantage of a much wider array of their phones’ data functions compared to white cell phone owners (Smith, 2010).

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The question to answer now is, “How are African-Americans using the Internet?” A 2011 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that minority children spend an average of 13 hours a day using mobile devices and computers—about 4.5 hours more than white kids (Marcus, 2011). The study was done as a focus on obesity causes, but it clearly shows African American children are now high-level users of the Internet. The study tracked children 8–18 years of age on their use of media. One of the results of the study is quite alarming. The research indicated that among all groups, computer playtime far outweighs homework, which accounts for only about 16–20 minutes a day (Marcus, 2011). This use of computers at home is staggering. It shows African Americans have the opportunity to use these skills to expand their educational horizons, if mentored in this area. If not at home, then it would seem these same students would be able to get this guidance within the K-12 educational system. However, this is not the case; the technology access and use in U.S. schools is indeed somewhat polarized with schools serving Black, Hispanic, and low socioeconomic status (SES) students tending to have the lowest access to, and the most remedial usages of, new technology. Reliance on high schools for information about college is problematic as often these same students attend inadequate high schools that provide minimal college guidance to students (Bell et al., 2009).

What Makes a Well-Designed Website? Usability. In his book, Designing Web Usability, Jakob Nielsen states, “The Web is the ultimate customer empowering environment. He or she that clicks the mouse gets to decide everything” (Nielsen, 2000). If a site is not immediately interesting or the audience is not impressed, that first impression is lasting. It is so easy to go elsewhere; all the competitors in the world are but a mouse click away (Nielsen, 2000). The choice of a college in 2011 and beyond will continue to move away from the standard brochure, that a prospective student will see by chance at a college fair, to information they can acquire at their own pace and convenience. Nathan Gault, assistant director for technology support at Yale University, was surprised at the importance of a school’s website until he was speaking with a colleague. His daughter would visit an admissions home page, and if she couldn’t find what she was looking for in five seconds, she would immediately click away (Feeney, 2009). In making a college choice, many African American students use their perception and

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assessment of institutional quality, the financial-aid package, the academic programs offered, and the institutions’ attempts to attract students (Tobolowsky et al., 2005). Students have iPads, smartphones, and other mobile devices. As they begin their search for schools, many of them will simply log in and see the institution’s website. So, what is the target audience? Is it the student? The parent? In 2001, Poock and Lefond studied college-bound high school students and found that virtually all of them relied upon the Web when applying to colleges or universities (Poock, 2006). Jami Silver is the assistant dean of admission at Wesleyan University and sees the changes that have occurred in college recruiting. More and more students are looking at colleges based on the Internet, and more and more admissions offices are looking at the Internet as a tool, Silver said (Feeney, 2009). HBCUs need to use these basic design tenets and remember what is important for students who are looking at them as primary college choices. Though many more African Americans have computers and Internet options, the challenge of finding and paying for college is still paramount. Therefore, it is a combination of basic computer literacy and understanding of how funding works that many students and their parents lack the instrumental knowledge needed to efficiently navigate websites in order to gain information about, and apply for, financial aid (Bell et al., 2009). While Crawford (2012) looked at HBCU websites in totality, Taylor (2019) found that although HBCUs remain a vital source of postsecondary education for Black students in the United States, many HBCU websites were not Web accessible for students with disabilities after the most recent amendment of Section 508. As a result, Black postsecondary students with disabilities may be facing an unprecedented degree of minoritization in the U.S. higher education landscape as Black students are already underrepresented on U.S. college campuses, and Black postsecondary students with disabilities are rarely researched.

Methodology for the Study Subjects Several steps were taken to acquire an adequate sample of HBCUs that had units of journalism and websites. The first step was to identify schools as being designated as an HBCU. The second step was to identify the

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HBCUs that offered any form of journalism/mass communication as a concentration, program, or degree option. A subject sampling of 18 HBCUs was randomly selected from a population of 49 institutions with units that contained journalism tracks. The schools were chosen from a list of HBCUs from CollegeStats.org which categorizes HBCUs by cost (in-state tuition—most, medium, least) and by size (largest, medium, low). The decision to choose in-state tuition was due to the financial challenge most applicants face and the proximity to the “hometown” school. Size was chosen due to the fact about how many students feel about attending large or small schools. HBCUs have, as part of their overall mission, a desire to nurture students and know the importance of a “strong, supportive campus, interpersonal relations and social networking for cognitive, intellectual, and career-related functioning of Black students on Black campuses” (Sissoko & Shiau, 2005). Random sampling has been applied to avoid bias in the selection of subjects by choosing a list of three each for high, medium, and low from both categories and ensuring the choices were spread to all regions of the country that had these institutions. Attention was also given to not duplicate schools in more than one category. None of the single-sex institutions were included in the survey. The HBCUs for this study are in the size category of High (Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Tennessee State University, and North Carolina A&T State University), Medium (Grambling State University, University of the District of Columbia, and Alabama State University), and Low (Talladega College, Edward Waters College, and Wilberforce University) and in the cost category of High (Clark-Atlanta University, Hampton University, and Bethune-Cookman University), Medium (Voorhees College, Lincoln University of Pennsylvania, and Jarvis Christian College), and Low (Elizabeth City State University, Albany State University, and Bluefield State College). The empirical data was observed over a six-week time period and was the continuation on research on HBCUs and their role in the future of journalism (Crawford, & Hines, 2010). This research follows the Strauss model by which the researcher goes looking for the meaning data holds and goes beyond the superficial (Denscombe, 2007, p. 102). Using the data found on each of the HBCUs’ websites created the possibility of analyzing where the HBCUs currently are with their information and marking. The sample size for this study was an issue due to the total number of

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prospective target HBCUs being small. Also, there was a time element to consider for data collection. The research focused on a core set of 20 subjects that were pertinent to the research and were observed over a six-week time period. It was from these observations that the coding was generated. Codes (labels) are inductively created by the researcher during repeated data readings. One does not examine whether predetermined concepts are in the text, as in a content analysis (O’Callaghan & Hiscock, 2007). Coding Jakob Nielsen, who is considered the leading authority on web usability, says that content is the primary reason people visit and use a website. When users go to a page, they look immediately in the main content area and scan it for headlines and indications of what the page is about (Nielsen, 2000). This study wanted to determine the common elements on the HBCU websites and whether the websites have a commonality to what are considered. The home page is the key as the first immediate goal of any home page is to answer the questions: “Where am I?” and “What does this site do?” (Nielsen, 2000). Visitors from outside the site, once they are there, do not have to be reminded over and over where they are; “interior pages need to focus more on specific content and less on providing a general welcome or overview of the site” (Nielsen, 2000). Twenty different elements were coded—mission statement, financial aid/scholarship opportunities, curriculum, course schedule/graduation roadmap, menu bar location, menu bar construction, text size(s), search engine on home page, faculty listing, faculty vitae/web pages, career opportunities, social media links, student activities/organizations, student media, contact (other than webmaster), research opportunities, alumni, admissions information, logo/branding on page(s), and human images depicted (race, gender, dress, and activity). Each of the six three-member groups was graded on a basic scale of (0) for none present, (1) for present but no interactivity, or (2) for present and functional. Interactivity is defined as allowing the person to access information and points to relevant information. If an element was more than three clicks away, the unit was given a 0. The six-week timeframe was used to allow for any instances by institutions to make regular updates on their websites and to include the occurrences of graduations, summer school, and registration for the upcoming school year. The cycle of reflection, observation, and analysis was repeated

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until the theoretical formulations had exhausted the available data (Peters, & Wester, 1990). A sample size of 18 of a universe of 49 possible institutions did show some trends within the coding.

Findings and Analysis The research for this pilot study was interested in finding African Americans and other students interested in attending college at Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Eighteen HBCUs were monitored during a six-­ week period, and 20 different elements were examined to gain knowledge as to how HBCUs are using the Internet to recruit and interest prospective students. Studies found that African American and other minority students are now heavy computer and mobile device users and “most potential students will view a website before they visit a campus. A dynamic website is a cost-effective way to increase visibility and to attract new students” (Malroutu & Tripp, 2008). In a recent study, Freeman et al. (2021) posit that in contrast to a common focus in educational psychology on understanding African American students’ motivation in relation to experiencing racial stigma, threatening conditions, and hostile environments, it is important to examine motivation in racially affirming contexts, such as HBCUs. Examining the motivation patterns of students at HBCUs can provide new insight into the motivational psychology of African American students. Will the move to a more Internet-based recruitment tool change the more personable, face-to-face, interpersonal recruitment HBCUs have used to provide context to their founding? Mission Statement HBCUs have a legacy of over 155 years of being both educator and community pillars for African Americans. “HBCUs are facing a turning point as they strive to fulfill their missions while at the same time competitively prepare for the future” (Camp et al., 2009). It is this challenge that drives this research. Have HBCUs lost their mission? This pilot study used, as one of its elements of web usability, the “mission statement.” Mission statements have a variety of purposes; among them is that “a shared sense of purpose has the capacity to inspire and motivate those within an institution and to communicate its characteristics, values, and history to key external constituents” (Morphew & Hartley, 2006).

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This study found that half of the units (9 out of the 18) did not have a mission statement regarding what they strategically saw as their purpose to educate or nurture students. Financial Aid and Scholarships Most HBCUs have 70–85 percent of their students on some kind of financial aid. Problems have been legend in the distribution of these funds to the students (Evans et  al., 2002). A majority of first-generation college hopefuls have no idea how they will pay for college and they definitely do not know how to navigate through the maze, that is, the financial aid office. This study found that only 3 of the 18 units had a functionally available link to financial aid from the unit’s home page. Twelve of the 18 had a link to financial aid, but it was somewhat “hidden” under such headings as “prospective students,” “admissions,” or even “offices.” The challenge with this strategy or web design is that if the student and their parents and guardians, none of which have ever been to college, do not see financial aid, they could easily be discouraged and leave the site prior to finding the correct tab. Financial aid is crucial for those trying to attend college. The lack of know-how to find ways to pay for college could set up a self-fulfilling prophecy that college is not affordable among low-income students, whether or not those students may actually qualify for substantial federal, state, and/or institutional financial aid (Green, 2005). Course Descriptions and Listing The catalog has long been the primary source of information, containing vital information about the college, including general information, such as the university’s mission and campus (Black, 2000, p. 15). Many colleges, much less HBCUs, could not afford to print all possible catalogs needed by those just wanting to find information about what classes are offered at the school. Course choice is important to a student. They like to see what courses are needed within a major. If they need to take extra math or foreign languages, for instance, it is important for these students to know prior to making a college and major choice. The unit’s web page has the ability to take over and improve the traditional catalog. They can be interactive and, with a brief blurb, can inform a student precisely what the class requires from the professor. This study

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shows that HBCUs have at least taken some steps to address this need. It was found that 12 of the 18 units have some courses listed for the major. Eight of the 12 only list the courses, while 4 show descriptions of the courses. However, 6 of the total of 18 websites do not list courses needed for the major—or a “roadmap to graduation.” Graduation Roadmap The price of a four-year college education seems to have moved into a 4.5to 5-year equation due to limits in class offerings (and those not being offered) because of budget cuts and other personnel issues. Schools with the “roadmap to graduation” listing of all four years, broken down into semesters, help students see not only the core but also the electives, and just when to take the classes in sequence. Students can then see if they may need summer courses and when they can do a study abroad or internship years ahead of time. Finding the right mixture is important. “Think of electives not as easy ways out, but as ideal ways to enhance your course of study with interests that make you happier and more well-rounded” (Scheele, 2005, p. 49). This study was interested in seeing if HBCUs had the “four-year plan” included on their units’ websites. Knowing what classes come, and in what order, is a way to help students succeed. Most undergraduate students need to prepare a schedule of courses for each term in which they plan to enroll, and this schedule of classes must be approved by an academic advisor (Valverde, 2002, p. 120). The study found HBCUs are not doing a good job of helping students be as prepared as they could be by not having the curriculum on their websites. Eleven of the 18 schools did not have their plan online and only 5 of the 18 had a complete proposed plan on their site. Social Media Links African Americans have not only joined the social media craze, but they, along with Hispanics, lead the way in actual usage via computers and mobile devices. This study examined HBCU journalism/mass communication websites to see if they had any of the more popular social media as links on their home pages. For the purpose of this study, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and RSS feeds were used. With more access to the Internet, usage on social media networks is to be expected as minorities and families with modest incomes continue to grow. African Americans,

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along with middle-income families, are the major group responsible for the sharp rise in home broadband (Kenix, 2007). What this study found was the opposite in social media growth, at least with the HBCU websites themselves. The study found the depth of this situation, with 13 of the 18 HBCU websites not having any of the social media platforms on their home pages and only one of the schools having all three of the social networks on its site.

Conclusion Attention was paid to the selection of institutions in this study to ensure that they are representative of Historically Black Colleges and Universities, therefore allowing generalizations to be made that are valid. The exclusion to this pilot study regarding HBCUs was to not use single-sex institutions. HBCUs are competing for students and using the Internet is a way to be even more inclusive in this marketing strategy. As the digital divide continues to shrink and African Americans gain both computer literacy and access to the web, it is important for HBCUs to use the technology to recruit and continue their mission of nurturing and educating students who would otherwise not go to college. The factors that will end the discussion of a digital divide are long-standing issues in the African American community—better education, a promotion of entrepreneurial culture, and access to capital (Dreyfuss, 2001). HBCUs have done a good job of having individual unit web pages as a whole. Most of the sites have bits and pieces of what would be considered a usable page. It must be acknowledged that most colleges and universities work off of a universal template and cannot change their unit’s overall look, but there are ways to work around any template to allow for better content. HBCUs need to have more user-friendly websites. They need to make them simple and consist of relevant information, yet have it updated and as interactive as possible. Ultimately, users visit a website for its content; everything else is just the backdrop (Nielsen, 2000). Provide them with the information and with someone to contact via social media or email and not just fax or a phone number of the unit. Only four of the 18 HBCUs actually had a contact other than webmaster/unit. It was interesting to see that only 5 of the 15 have links to social media sites— Facebook, Twitter, Instagram—or RSS feeds. This should change as soon as possible. One of their limitations may be for someone to monitor and

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respond, but it would be well worth the effort to have this option for people interested in the unit. This study monitored 18 of the 49 HBCUs that have units of journalism or mass communications to see if HBCUs are making full use of their websites in communicating who they are, what they can do, and who they educate. The findings indicate that HBCUs have, in general, not responded to the rising Internet usage by African Americans to promote their units and ease in the recruitment of students. In his study, Taylor (2018) found regarding public, four-year institutions, data in this study suggest that HBCU websites are much smaller, much less popular, and spend less on web hosting than non-HBCU peers, while most of the two-year institutions were comparable to other two-year institutions. Future research should include all 49 institutions over a longer period of time, separating them into subgroups of size, cost, public or private, and even region. Research should also be conducted to include a survey of student perceptions of the HBCU websites. Interviews with unit governance, and possibly the institution’s office of information, regarding any possible template demands should also be considered. Research on comparable Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) should also be conducted with a focus on units with journalism and mass communications. There is a lack of studies that have been done to show the relationship between websites and enrollment in colleges and universities. Future research should also include three very important groups—prospective students, parents and guardians, and high school guidance counselors. These groups will provide great insight as to the assessment of the HBCU units’ websites and provide a rich texture of information regarding the uses and designs of the sites.

References Appiah, O. (2003). Americans online: Differences in surfing and evaluating race-­ targeted web sites by black and white users. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(4), 537+. Atkinson, R.  C., & Pelfrey, P.  A. (2006). Opportunity in a democratic society: Race and economic status in higher education1. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 150(2), 318+. Bell, A. D., Rowan-Kenyon, H. T., & Perna, L. W. (2009). College knowledge of 9th and 11th grade students: Variation by school and state context. Journal of Higher Education, 80(6), 663+.

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Malroutu, Y. L., & Tripp, P. J. (2008). Proactive recruitment strategies at CSUS increase FCS majors. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 100(1), 18+. Marcus, M. (2011, June). Minority kids spend most of their waking hours plugged in. Retrieved from http://yourlife.usatoday.com/parenting-­family/ story/2011/06/Minority-­kids-­spend-­most-­of-­their-­waking-­hours-­plugged-­ in-­/48172486/1?loc=interstitialskip Mastin, T. (2000). Media use and civic participation in the African-American population: Exploring participation among professionals and nonprofessionals. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(1), 115+. Morphew, C. C., & Hartley, M. (2006). Mission statements: A thematic analysis of rhetoric across institutional type. Journal of Higher Education, 77(3), 456+. Nielsen, J. (2000). Designing web usability. New Riders Publishing. O’Callaghan, C., & Hiscock, R. (2007). Interpretive subgroup analysis extends modified grounded theory research findings in oncologic music therapy. Journal of Music Therapy, 44(3), 256+. Peters, V.  A., & Wester, F.  P. (1990). Qualitative analysis in practice. Catholic University. Pomering, A., & Johnson, L. W. (2009). Constructing a corporate social responsibility reputation using corporate image advertising. Australasian Marketing Journal, 17(2), 106+. Poock, M. C. (2006). Characteristics of an effective web site in educational leadership. College Student Journal, 40(4), 785+. Poock, M. C., & Lefond, D. (2001). How college-bound prospects perceive university web sites: Findings, implications, and turning browsers into applicants. College and University, 77(1), 15+. Richardson, J. W. (2008). Demystifying and deconstructing the college application process. The Journal of Negro Education, 77(4), 382+. Rufo, K. (2003). Rhetoric and power: Rethinking and relinking. Argumentation and Advocacy, 40(2), iii+. Scheele, A. M. (2005). Launch your career in college: Strategies for students, educators, and parents. Praeger. Shelby, A. N. (1998). Communication quality revisited: Exploring the link with persuasive effects. The Journal of Business Communication, 35(3), 387+. Sissoko, M., & Shiau, L. (2005). Minority enrollment demand for higher education at historically Black colleges and universities from 1976 to 1998: An empirical analysis. Journal of Higher Education, 76(2), 181+. Smith, A. (2010, July 7). Mobile access 2010. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2010/Mobile-­Access-­2010/Summary-­of-­Findings.aspx Starkman, N. (2006). If you build it right, they will come: Easy-to-use content management systems are helping schools and districts create websites that appeal to the eye—and to users. T H E Journal (Technological Horizons In Education), 33(1), 20+.

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Tapia, A., & Ortiz, J. A. (2008). Deploying for deliverance: The digital divide in municipal wireless networks. Sociological Focus, 41(3), 256+. Taylor, Z. (2018). “Now you’re competing”: How historically-Black colleges and universities compete (and don’t) on the internet. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s41239-­018-­0111-­4 Taylor, Z. W. (2019). HBCUs online: Can students with disabilities access historically Black college and university websites? Journal of Black Studies, 50(5), 450–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934719847373 Tobolowsky, B.  F., Outcalt, C.  L., & McDonough, P.  M. (2005). The role of HBCUs in the college choice process of African-Americans in California. The. Journal of Negro Education, 74(1), 63+. U.S. Access Board. (2018). Text of the standards and guidelines. Retrieved from https://www.access-­board.gov/guidelines-­and-­standards/communications-­ and-­it/about-­the-­ict-­refresh/final-­rule/text-­of-­the-­standards-­and-­guidelines Valverde, L. A. (Ed.). (2002). The Latino Student’s Guide to College Success. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Zimmerman, J. N., & Meyer, A. (2005). Building knowledge, building community: Integrating internet access to secondary data as part of the community development process. Journal of the Community Development Society, 36(1), 93+.

COVID-19: Dealing with the Pandemic Under the Pressure of Funding and Self-Care Decisions

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The risks of getting COVID-19 are higher in crowded and inadequately ventilated spaces where infected people spend long periods of time together in close proximity (WHO, 2021). Researchers at one HBCU, Virginia State University (VSU), found in their study that the new normal of this pandemic requires a systematic knowledge of delivering online instruction, remote communication with students and administration, and many other challenges that may not have been revealed. Some institutes of higher learning may not be ready for these institutional challenges. Many reasons exist such as the age of faculty; the reluctance to learn new things with students and master modern technologies because of uncertainty in the future; and low salaries (Thomas & Spencer, 2020). Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), like most Predominantly White Colleges (PWIs), have been facing myriad challenges in the past two decades. These challenges have ranged from federal funding to accreditation to decreasing enrollments. HBCUs have faced many of these challenges throughout their history. The new challenge is the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic has made HBCUs, already

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Crawford II, Journalism at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97501-2_8

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dealing with smaller endowments and threats to federal and state support, to deeply consider moving beyond their original mission and establish more of a business model. The decision to make any changes and face the challenges is part of the role of the administrators at these institutions. The missions of the HBCUs are the key to how the administrators view the current challenges. American slaves were forbidden to learn to read. The process of keeping them and their descendants illiterate continued throughout America’s history. The common practice of authorizing literacy throughout the American South was accepted and had a purpose (Crawford, 2014). The nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities are diverse. Although we discuss them as a category based on their historical racial makeup, these institutions are in fact quite different from one another. According to the government’s definition, Black colleges are bound together by the fact that they were established prior to 1964 (the year of the Civil Rights Act) with the express purpose of educating African Americans. While the education of Black Americans was one of the primary missions of HBCUs, other roles of importance include serving as economic and social anchors to the surrounding communities. Currently, many HBCUs have begun to develop initiatives and institutes in health disparities research, biomedicine health disparities, and biomanufacturing (Livingston et al., 2018). This can be a very important position during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the accomplishments of HBCUs, they are the subjects of considerable criticism within the higher education community. Presidents of Historically Black Colleges and Universities are often accused of being autocratic, and the mission of these institutions is said to compromise academic quality (Minor, 2004). Chancellors and presidents are charged to ensure the financial viability of their institutions. To be effective, this means they need a strong cabinet and a strong relationship and partnership in shared governance, including faculty and staff. HBCUs have not only served as the exclusive avenue of access to higher education for African Americans with their promotion of a participatory ethos and an open-door admissions policy for all races and cultures, but they have also provided avenues of student leadership potential and social development. Many industries operating in the public interest look to Black college graduates to further support a diverse workforce.

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HBCU administrators are the gatekeepers to making this happen. They champion their institutions in the halls of Congress and business. They solicit endowment funds and federal grants and other sources of funds. Oftentimes their terms are cut short by being overwhelmed or they move on to another opportunity. The average term for respondents to this study was four years. Could challenges, such as COVID-19, lead to more upheaval? How does the satisfaction they have in their roles affect how they responded to the pandemic, and does the organizational structure affect their decisions and overall job satisfaction? COVID-19 has led to sharp disruptions in financial markets in the United States, a shift in activities in organizations across industries and sectors, and changes in daily life for all Americans. Federal, state, and local leaders have responded by adopting practices and protocols geared toward mitigating the spread of the virus, including the adoption of social distancing rules, curfews, and mandatory stay-at-home orders. Despite the human, economic, and medical resources being distributed to fight this virus, marginalized and underrepresented populations remain particularly vulnerable (Wright & Merritt, 2020). These vulnerable communities include populations such as low-income individuals, people of color, indigenous people, and senior citizens. Of these vulnerable populations, preliminary data suggest that COVID-19 is infecting and killing African Americans in the United States at disproportionately high rates. According to an April 7, 2020, New York Times article, “Initial indications from a number of places … are alarming enough that policymakers say they must act immediately to stem potential devastation in black communities” (Eligon et al., 2020). In deciding whether to resume in-person classes, college administrators faced significant cross-pressures. On one hand, colleges faced financial and political pressure to reopen. Administrators at many schools could expect steep enrollment declines if they kept instruction online, as distance learning is generally perceived by students as a poor substitute for in-person learning. The decision, unfortunately, became more and more political, with some politicians tying funding for schools dependent on campuses being fully opened for in-person classes. HBCU leaders, like many college administrators, were not able to make unilateral decisions. The decisions regarding remote, online, and in-­person instruction had to be made jointly with leaders at the board of governors/ regents as well as state legislative levels. Administrators, in real time, had to make judgments within complex economic, political, health, and

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cultural environments with limited knowledge of the pandemic’s future challenges. Throughout the initial and post-vaccine challenges, many college students were wary of paying standard college tuition to attend exclusively online courses. Many students seemed to feel that the experience of in-­ person classes is far more compelling than what can be obtained virtually. College administrators knew that if they remained online, it was likely that significant numbers of students with these preferences would defer or transfer, prompting enrollment decline. The more financially vulnerable an institution, the less able it would be to weather the tuition loss, and thus the more likely administrators would be to pursue a return to the classroom (Felson & Adamczyk, 2021).

Literature Review Educational leadership within a college or university’s units makes them strong and, at times, vulnerable for failure if the leaders are not able to work within the unit’s mission statement and culture, yet be innovative enough to look forward for opportunities for institutional success. HBCUs are facing challenges to their continued existence on several fronts (Crawford, 2012). The current and most pressing challenge is COVID-19. Administrators, facing a truly unknown variable, have had to make major decisions, in the short term, which may affect the long-term future of their institutions. One of the decisions to try to alleviate some of the financial burdens and to help students stay on track for graduation was to add more summer courses. Schools like Winston-Salem State University and Virginia State University have seen an increase in summer enrollment, and Virginia State University’s administrators made incoming freshmen courses more affordable and lowered tuition rates and fees for in-state students. Virginia State University’s President Dr. Makola Abdullah said the school understands the challenges COVID-19 has had on students. “While there may be budget challenges for universities nationwide, we have decided that VSU will not pass that down to our students” (vsu.edu). The website indicates that upward of 90 percent of VSU students receive financial aid and 70 percent are Pell Grant eligible. The outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) began in the Wuhan region of China in December 2019. By February 2020, cases of COVID-19 had been detected on every continent. Governments were

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advising citizens to be prepared for an outbreak in their community. Today, we are globally experiencing closures in schools and universities, postponements or even cancellations of conferences and other organized events, and social distancing (Vlachopoulos, 2020). The rush by all schools to make everyone safe and moving all or the majority of learning to the Internet was expected due to the severity of the pandemic. This decision would have a cascading effect on the entire learning and fiscal policies within the higher educational system. At this point, no one—not government officials, public health authorities, or healthcare professionals—can forecast how long this global pandemic and its countermeasures will last. By all accounts, COVID-19 is pervasively wreaking havoc on a social and institutional level. At my private HBCU, its impact has been substantial and far reaching—it has been very disruptive to our students, faculty, and staff—in ways that are markedly different from more familiar natural disasters. All of us have found that there is no playbook for COVID-19 (Smothers, 2020, p. 28). The emergence of the COVID-19 health crisis at university level has been an unprecedented challenge at political, administrative, and pedagogical levels. Universities, like other educational institutions, have had to continue with the forced and compulsory continuation of telematic teaching and to guarantee its quality as far as possible. This effort is limited to a pandemic that has had unprecedented consequences, and in which social gaps, connectivity, family reconciliation, and other problems that already existed have been further exacerbated. The difficulties in adopting the telematic modality in the university environment, beyond the additional problems arising from the circumstances, have led to a proliferation of debates ranging from the identification of the difficulties of tele-training in an educational context in which technological progress has been slow, to the comparison of face-to-face and distance teaching in terms of quality (Montenegro-Rueda et al., 2021). Current research has demonstrated that technology itself doesn’t guarantee an effective or pleasant learning experience. This can only be achieved through systematic training initiatives that clearly set out the teaching and learning that institutions expect of their educators and students, respectively (Vlachopoulos, 2020). Institutions, large and small, ranging from The Ohio State University, with nearly 70,000 students, to Antioch University’s Seattle campus, with fewer than 700, are replacing in-person classes with an online learning format. They are holding meetings with software that otherwise would have just required a table and

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chairs, restricting travel and nixing study abroad programs (Iupui et al., 2020). What every college and university is facing is an immediate cash flow crisis. Administrators at Virginia State University’s Department of Teaching and Learning (DTL), which is housed in the school’s College of Education, say that VSU has been looking at ways to improve the learning experiences of students and helping faculty and staff through workshops, training, and other opportunities. VSU has an eye toward moving their undergraduate programs online, recognizing that these changes will evoke a range of both positive and negative emotions and that we will need to design our programs to address this mix of emotions, and manage them in ways that will allow for constructive learning outcomes.

Theoretical Framework This research looked at institutional theory to examine how each of these administrators and institutions have navigated the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic. “It is well known that the institutional theory can be applied to analyze phenomena in the social, policy, or economic realms. Since the scope of the institutional theory is vast, and its contents and streams are various” (Scott, 1987). Understanding the culture of not just the industries and other stakeholders involved is easier when you look at institutions of higher learning as just that, institutions. During the construction of public systems of higher education, the basic logic lies in the fact that the functions of all units need to be distinguished in order to increase the efficiency of the system and improve the overall educational system (Ajdarpašic & Qorraj, 2019). Thus, institutional theory traces the emergence of distinctive forms, processes, strategies, outlooks, and competences as they emerge from patterns of organizational interaction and adaptation. Such patterns must be understood as responses to both internal and external environments (Selznick, 1996). It is with this in mind that this study moves forward by establishing each of the HBCUs as institutions, with a structure and a mission statement that dictates the manner in which the institution functions educationally.

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The data in this study show that educational changes, like those required by the COVID-19 crisis, are often an organizational response to the need to adapt to the ever-changing environmental conditions. For example, the administrators used in this study decided it was important to have a platform for HBCUs to share their thoughts on funding, shared governance, and academic rigor qualifications—to be equal to all other institutions in academia. This allows students at HBCUs to compete equally with students from institutions seen as the elite few in higher education.

Measurements Perceived Organizational Support In an effort to measure the organizational commitment of the administrators, Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, and Sowa (1986) developed the perceived organizational support (POS) scale. Eisenberger et  al. wanted to measure employee’s individual dedication to their employers, and the elements that influence dedication. The administrators at HBCUs exhibited a high range of allegiance to their institutions. Their nine-­ question measurement is rated on a seven-point Likert-like scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). This study modified this to a 1–5 scale. Work-Family Conflict HBCU administrators were asked about how the COVID-19 pandemic has also affected their own personal and professional lives, and how they felt it would/could affect them in the future. As seen in Table 1, as part of the survey, administrators were asked, “How worried are you about the impact of coronavirus on your institution?” Eighty percent answered Table 1  How worried are you about the impact of coronavirus on your institution?

Concern level Not worried at all Not so worried Somewhat worried Very worried Extremely worried

Percentage (%)

Total responses

0 0 9 81 9

0 0 2 18 2

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Table 2  How worried are you about the impact of coronavirus on you personally?

Table 3 How confident are you that the university will have the resources to return to full operations?

Concern level Not worried at all Not so worried Somewhat worried Very worried Extremely worried

Number of years In 1 year In 2–3 years In 4–5 years More than 5 years

Percentage (%)

Total responses

0 0 18 59 23

0 0 4 13 5

Percentage (%)

Total responses

40 60 0 0

9 13 0 0

“very worried” on the five-point scale (1  =  extremely worried; 5  =  not worried at all). Table 2 shows the results of the next question asked, “How worried are you about the impact of coronavirus on you personally?” Twenty percent answered “extremely worried,” 60 percent answered “very worried,” and 20 percent answered “not worried at all” (1 = extremely worried; 5 = not worried at all). In reviewing 190 work-family studies, Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, and Brinley (2005) reported that work-family conflict increases stress and reduces career satisfaction. With that understanding, Netemeyer, Boyles, and McMurrian (1996) developed a short, valid WFC instrument. Netemeyer et al. (1996) defined WFC as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities” (p.  401). The instrument is having statements to be answered using a five-point Likert-like scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Role Overload The survey asked, “How confident are you that the university will have the resources to return to full operations in the next (in years).” The options were 1 year; 2–3 years; 4–5 years; more than 5 years; and other/specify;

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with (1 = 1 year; 5 = other). The answers, highlighted in Table 3, were in two categories, 40 percent answered 1  year and 60 percent answered 2–3 years. These answers were consistent with the open-ended questions asked in the survey. Differentiating the stressor of role overload and role conflict, Bacharach, Bamberger, and Conley (1990) remodeled the role overload measurement developed by Beehr, Walsh, and Taber (1976). Beehr et al. defined role overload as, “having too much work to do in the time available” wp. 42). Bacharach et al. defined role overload as “the professional’s perception that he or she is unable to complete assigned tasks effectively due to time limitations (i.e., the conflict between time and organizational demands) concerning the quantity of work to be done” (p.  202). The three-statement instrument is answered using a four-point Likert-like scale (1 = definitely false; 4 = definitely true). To examine how administrators worked with their cabinet and shared governance, the survey asked an open-ended question regarding how they configured their institutions’ COVID-19 response team/members. “How were they chosen and why?” The answers all varied, but the central titles were—provost, vice provost of student affairs, IT staff, risk management director, faculty senate/representative, housing, registrar’s office, staff council/representative, student council/representative, and campus health directors. Administrators found sharing the decision-making role with many stakeholders allowed the institution to make seamless and meaningful decisions. As could be expected, the topic of overall funding was important to the administrators. The CARES Act: Higher Education Emergency Relief Fund was passed to help schools with funding. Administrators were asked an open-ended question regarding federal funding assistance, “Was the school provided funding from the CARES Act? If so, are you comfortable stating how much was provided?” Again, the answers varied and ranged from $1.2 million to $8.5 million. One administrator wrote, “We received $8.45 million from the CARES Act and we used them—$3.3 million for the Paycheck Protection Plan; $2.25 million for Emergency Relief; and $2.9 million through Title III HBCU Aid.” However, when asked, “Do you feel the federal funding was adequate for your needs?,” using a four-point Likert-like scale (1  =  Yes; 2  =  No; 3  =  Not sure, will need to access later; 4  =  Other/specify), 20 percent answered “No,” 60 percent answered “Not sure,” and 20 percent

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answered “Other” (with the prevailing answer being “we appreciate the funding, however there is a significant need for additional funding”). Job Demands Karasek’s (1979) seven-question job demand-control (JDC) measurement was designed to assess the effects of job stress on the physical health of workers. The scale specifically examines job demand (workload in terms of time pressure and role conflict) and job control (administrator’s ability to control his or her work activities). Karasek wrote: “psychological strain results not from a single aspect of the work environment, but from the joint effects of the demands of a work situation and the range of decision-­ making freedom (discretion) available to the work facing those demands” (p. 287). Karasek suggests that high levels of control act as a buffer against job dissatisfaction. The questions are answered on a five-point Likert-like scale (1 = never; 5 = extremely often). In examining the motivators and hygiene factors that determine job satisfaction among HBCU presidents and chancellors, this unique study builds upon previous work. The motivators include perceived organizational support (shared governance and their cabinet) and management’s commitment to fiscal and academic responsibility (working conditions), work-family conflict (factors in personal life), and job demands (working conditions) will be the hygiene factors. This study examines several research questions and hypotheses, including: RQ1: How will administrators’ demographic characteristics correlate with overall job satisfaction, work-family conflict, role overload, social support, job demands, and perceived organizational support? RQ2: How will administrators rate on the MOAQ’s job satisfaction scale? H1: Herzberg’s motivators (perceived organizational support and stakeholder’s commitment to getting the institutions fiscally through the pandemic) will be significant predictors of overall job satisfaction among the administrators. H2: Herzberg’s hygiene (role overload, work-family conflict, and job demand) will be significant predictors of overall job dissatisfaction (results of decisions) among administrators.

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Methodology The study incorporated, as its primary method, a survey, along with several face-to-face and electronic video interviews. The questions in each case were the exact same and asked in the exact order. The study explored the leadership styles, personal and professional goals during the pandemic, the level of shared governance used in decisions, and the possible variables involved in the process for their specific institution. Fifty schools were randomly selected—there are 89 four-year HBCUs, and of this total, 40 are public and 49 are private; there are 14 two-year HBCUs, of which 11 are public and 3 are private—to be contacted, from a list of the 103, currently still open, colleges identified by the United States Department of Education as Historically Black Colleges and Universities. The list was obtained from the website http://www. thehundred-­seven.org/hbculist.html. Emails were sent to administrators at each of the 50 schools to request their participation in the survey. The emails also included a consent form and the option for the administrator to be interviewed via electronic video conference or by telephone. Permission to conduct the study was approved by the researchers’ Institutional Review Board (IRB) and any individual requested institution’s own IRB, as required by their procedure or request. All data for this study were handled with confidentiality and each participant’s privacy is protected, unless they specifically agreed to have both their name and institution used as part of any publication.

Results Some of the results of the study—in tables—can be seen at the end of this chapter, each detailing the impacts of how administrators handled the pandemic and led their units. A third email was sent, as a reminder, three weeks later, explaining the study’s purpose, to the administrators requesting their participation in the survey. The email also explained that the study was confidential and voluntary and respondents could refuse to answer any question. The email included a SurveyMonkey link. The questionnaire was distributed three times during a five-week period. Of the 50 administrators contacted, there were 8 dead email accounts or there had been a change of administrators listed on the schools’ websites. An additional 8 schools were randomly selected to bring the total back to 50. Of that number, 22 administrators

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or their representatives completed the survey for a response rate of 44 percent for this study. The response rate is similar and within accepted rates for online surveys. The data for this study is a result of their answers and comments. The administrators each had about 12 years of professional administrative experience, with an average current role of 4 years, were more than 85 percent Black or person of color males and 15 percent Black or person of color female, 95 percent were married, and 52.7 percent had children living at home. School sizes (determined by student size) were measured by the number of students enrolled. Eighty percent of the schools had 0–5000 students, while 18 percent had 5001–10,000 students, and 2 percent had over 10,000 students. Those in the study averaged 52 hours of work a week, both in and outside the institution, and were primarily either chancellors or presidents (85.7 percent). Correlations were conducted to answer RQ1, which asks how demographic characteristics will relate to overall job satisfaction, work-family conflict, role overload, job demands, and perceived organizational support. Results indicate that job satisfaction had a small, positive, and significant correlation with how the administrators handled the time invested in working during the COVID-19 pandemic, but a small, negative correlation to the institution’s size. Work-family conflict had a small, negative, and significant association with working with federal funding, and role overload had a moderate, positive, and significant correlation with working with shared governance. Additionally, organizational support (their cabinet and working with their boards or regents) had a moderate, significant association score. RQ2 asked how will administrators rate on the MOAQ overall job satisfaction scale developed by Cammann et al. (1983). The authors did not create a legend that determines high or low levels of job satisfaction based upon raw scores. However, in this study, administrators had a mean score of 17.5 out of a possible 21. Multiple regression analysis was utilized to examine H1, which states that administrators who report high levels of motivators (perceived organizational support and boards’/regents’ commitment to fiscal responsibility) will report high levels of overall job satisfaction. When job satisfaction was the dependent variable, perceived organizational support and management’s commitment accounted for about 42 percent of the variance [adjusted r-square = 0.369, F(2,22) – 71.26, p