Journal of the Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland [8, 1 ed.]

Citation preview

THE

JOURNAL OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

VOLUME THE EIGHTH.

JOHN

W.

LONDON: PARKER, WEST STRAND. M.DCCC.XLVI.

Iir/ 3I/TJJ0V

& .utapi

30

8TVI3TV100

rqmioo jas

.

.

,i>a3 J

aaio/i

"«*'

—.in .Ta/

Tjadrnoa

.‘ngbnsjnhsquS

'

CONTENTS OF VOLUME

VIII.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. PAGE

Art.

I.

— On the

Geographical Limits, History, and Chronology of the

By Mr.

Chera Kingdom of Ancient India.

Art.

II.

— On the Rock-Cut Temples of India.

Esq.

Art.

.

—Notes on Indian Agriculture,

Dowson

.

.

.

.30

.

Western or Bombay Provinces of India. By Alexander Gibson, Esq., Superintendent of the Botanic Garden of Daporee

III.

as practised in the

.

Art.

1

.

By James Febgusson,

.

.

.

J.

IV..

the Royal Asiatic Society, on the Oriental MSS. Eton College .

Art. Y.

— Abstract

J.

— On the

.

.

.

in the Library of .

.104

.

.....

by Dr. Falconer, on the

of a Discourse,

Fauna of the Sewalik

Art. YI.

93

.

— A Letter to Richard Clarke, Esq., Honorary Secretary to

Hills

Fossil

107

Mustard Tree of Scripture. By Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., L.S., and G.S., &c., Professor Identification of the

of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, King’s College, London

.

113

Art. VII. Summary of the Geology of Southern India. By Captain Newbold, F.R.S., &c., Assistant Commissioner for Kurnool

138

—

Art. IX.

—Report on some

Art. X.

— On

Bhi'l

the

Temple

Corps

By Cap-

By Captain W. Hunter, .

.

.

By

the Hyssop of Scripture.

F.R.S., L.S., and

of Somnath.

172

of the Rights, Privileges, and Usages of the

Meywar.

Hill Population in

Mey war

.

.......

—

Art. VIII. A few Observations on tain Postans

J.

.178

Forbes Royle, M.D.,

....

G.S., &c., Professor of Materia

Therapeutics, King’s College, London

of the

.

.

Medica and

193

—

Art. XI. Summary of the Geology of Southern India. By Captain Newbold, F.R.S., &c.. Assistant Commissioner for Kurnool 213 .

Art. XII.— The Chenchwars; a wild Tribe, inhabiting the Forests of the By Captain Newbold, F.R.S., &c., Eastern Ghauts. Assistant Commissioner for Kurnool.

Art. XIII.

— Account

Staff Surgeon

.

.

.

.......

of Aden.

By

J. P.

Malcolmson,

271

Esq., Civil and

279

CONTENTS.

IV

PAGE

..... ...... .....

Art. XIV.— Narrative of an Excursion from Peshawer Ghari. By C. Masson, Esa. Art. XV.

— On the Kapur-di-Giri Rock Inscription.

Note by the Director Geology of Southern India

Art. XVI.

— Analysis

to

Shah-Baz

By Mr. E. Norris

293 301

308 315

of the Ganesa Purana, with special reference to

By

the History of Buddhism.

Rev. Dr. Stevenson

the

....

—

Art. XVII. The Ante-Brahmanical Rev. Dr. Stevenson

.

By

Religion of the Hindus.

319

the

.

.

330

—

Art. XVIII. Memorandum on certain Fossils, more particularly a new Ruminant found at the Island of Perim, in the Gulf of Cambay.

By Ai.bemarle Bettington, Service, F.G.S.,

—

M.R.A.S.

..... Esq.,

of

Bombay

the

Civil

340

Art. XIX. Extract from a Letter addressed by Professor Westergaard to the Rev. Dr. Wilson, in the year 1843, relative to the Gabrs

Art. XX.

in Persia

— Visit

.......

to the Bitter

Lakes, Isthmus of Suez, by the bed of the

ancient Canal of Nechos, the “ Khalij al

of the Arabs, in

June, 1842.

.

Art. XXI.

— On

Kadim” By Captain Newbold, F.R.S.

...

Gutzlaff

Art. XXII.

—The

Art. XXIII.

By

Hong Kong.

.

the

— Reports

its

.

XXIV.— On Lands now the late

Art.

XXV. —

368

381

the traces of Feudalism in India, and the condition of in

....

a comparative state of Agricultural Infancy.

Augustus Prinset,

Esq.

Extracts from a Report on Chota Nagpore.

Cuthbert,

361

Progress and Present

on the Mancbur Lake, and Aral and Narra By Captain Postans, and R. C. Knight, Esq., communicated by Captain Post ans Rivers.

Art.

355

Rev.

.

..... ....

Cinnamon Trade of Ceylon, By John Capper, Esq.

State.

.

the Secret Triad Society of China, chiefly from Papers

belonging to the Society found at C.

349

Esq., Magistrate,

Notes on the Perim

Fossil.

Ramghur

.

By Professor Owen

.

.

By .

By

390

S. T.

.407 .

417

t

Wdrcvngol Calycub

iTehfofa

.Adorn

Sadaebet 'Ffrt+Uir By

idrcoff

Jl£ungaLow and Dr. Buchanan Hamilton’s Statistics of Bagulpur, p. 23. 1

Asiatic Researches, vol. xv., p. 316;

G 2

S4

THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLES Doomar Lena,

intended, in the

for the space opposite the entrance,

is

there left blank, though the position of the sanctuary renders this

The great bust

improbable.

and

alone,

I will

now

is

generally allowed to be of Siva

not add anything to the discussion, further than by

mentioning that at Barolli there

is

a bust of large dimensions, and

almost exactly similar to this; but being cut in that remains of

however,

face,

more

it is

fine

hard stone,

unfortunately entirely defaced, but that on

is

all

The centre

easily distinguishable than here.

its

right

has a chaplet of skulls, and the “frontlet eye" open, and an angry and

The

animated expression of countenance. frontlet eye distinctly it is

meant

rest to

to

be represented as shut

this bust

statues of

that over

is,

face on the left has also the

marked, but as no eyeball

his three (query four?) faces,

shown,

presume

I

on the same stone, are full-length

it,

Brahma and Vishnu,

is

but what adds particular inte-

;

the former over the right face, with

and

his

Vahana, the goose, the

latter as

usually represented, with his four arms, and the gadhi, chakra, &c.,

circumstances which quite put to rest the idea of the bust senting the three persons of the Trinity, nor can

Sykes

in

supposing the

left

and destroyer

two ascribed

to

;

him by

itself repre-

concur with Colonel

The

face to be Parvati.

to be Siva, as creator, preserver,

attributes of the other

I

three

I

believe

an assumption of the his votaries

when

his

worship became dominant. In a ravine running from the great cave across the island, there are two other caves, similar in plan to those situated between the

Kylas and Doomar Lena, are so

much

injured

impossible to

make

by

at

Ellora.

These unfortunately, however,

the falling of the rock

out

more than

and the damp, that it is and a

their dedication to Siva,

general similarity to those of Ellora, with which are cotemporary

two

series

:

which

indeed there is

I

have no doubt they

a degree of similarity between the

is

singular in structures so distant, and which can

only be accounted for by their being undertaken at the same time, and

probably under the same direction. I

could find no trace of Buddhism in the whole island, and these,

therefore, are perhaps singular, as being the only purely Brahmanical series in the north of India; for

though those at Joyghesir and Mont-

pezir are likewise purely Hindu,

and apparently of the same age as

these,

they are situated in the same island, and so nearly in the

vici-

nity of the great Buddhist series of Kannari, that the motive before ascribed, as inducing the

them.

Brahmans

to

become cave

diggers, applies to

85

OF INDIA.

MAHAVELLIPORE. One only

remains

series

now

to be described,

and which, though

not so magnificent or extensive as some of those which have already

passed under review,

still

possesses peculiarities

and

distinctive features,

which render it scarce less interesting to the artist or the antiquary. Like Ellora, however, it has been so often described by Europeans, that little remains to be added to what has been already published on first by Messrs. Chambers and Goldingham in the Asiatic and afterwards, with more precision, by Mr. Babington, in The notices of Bishop the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. Heber and Mrs. Graham are also interesting, though not bearing on

the subject,

Researches,

the present subject of inquiry.

Between Covelong and Sadras, a long sandy ridge extends near bounded on the east by the sea, and on the west by a saltTowards water lagoon, now dry for the greater part of the year. forty miles,

the southern extremity of this ridge, a

number

of masses of granite

rock protrude through the surface, so numerous and large in one spot

form a

as to

hill

about a mile in length, with half that breadth, and

rising to the height of about a

and

it

is

sisting of

hundred or a hundred and

fifty feet

in this hill that the principal antiquities are situated, con-

some half-dozen of caves

in various states of progress, one

About half a

pseudo-structural temple, and the famous bas-reliefs.

and on the rock jutting into the sea, due east from the centre of the hill, the famous structural temple, known as the remaining one of the seven pagodas, from which

mile to the south of

this,

are the five raths,

its European name. The most completely finished cave

the place takes

here, (for

none

is

entirely so,)

the small one in the ravine, figured in Babington’s ninth plate. architecturally complete, though

The

finest cave,

however,

is

sculpture

its

is

It is

not quite finished.

is

the one containing the fine bas-relief of

Kali killing Mahaasura, (see plate 4 in Babington's description) by far the finest piece of sculpture here,

The

and equal

frontispiece of this cave, however,

cells are unfinished.

Like the others

is

it is

to

anything at Ellora.

merely blocked small

the northern caves, being only thirty-two feet ten inches, six inches, in the interior, exclusive of the three cells

which

is

out,

and

its

when compared with

;

by

fifteen feet

the centre one of

occupied by Siva sitting on Nandi, with Parvati and Sobra-

muni, and above them Brahma and Vishnu.

In form and detail this

be compared to the Rameswar at Ellora, or perhaps rather It cannot, however, be so old as either of to number seven at Ajunta.

cave

may

THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLES

86

them, as the architecture

much more

poorer, leaner,

is

and

its

details resemble

more modern date

those used in structural buildings of a

than the massive style of cave architecture that distinguishes these

That

specimens'.

it

is

a copy from these caves can scarcely

I

think

be doubted, but not one of the same age.

Immediately above of the design, style

;

this cave,

the part remaining

finished, or if the in the south,

am aware

and apparently intended

is

pyramid was

built of brick, as

jn-obably has fallen down.

it

to

form part

vimana of the same age and of granite, and it probably never was

the base of a structural

is

the universal custom

is

This

is

the only instance

may have

of such an adjunct, though they

been

common

I

in

Brahmanical caves. Opposite the front of this cave, at the distance of a few yards, the

workmen have commenced that stands there

its

;

mode

ing as showing the

taking of this

form

sort,

hew a temple

to

which the workmen

in

which was simply

and eighteen

of about twelve

out of an immense block

scarcely distinguishable, but

is

inches,

set

it is

interest-

about an under-

to divide the rock into squares

by channels two and three inches

deep, and then to split off the remaining mass, which the tendency

of granite to exfoliate easily enabled

There

is

them

to do.

another pseudo-structural temple of nearly the same size

and design as this one was intended to be, at the northern end of the hill, and which is nearly, though not quite, finished.

way

Immediately behind the present village temple, and about half

between the two caves above-mentioned, figured,

referred

The

to.

and

is

many

phanta.

The

in the paper above and so are many of the figures, but the whole wants unity of design and pur-

elejdiants are good,

inferior in

above, to

figures,

the great bas-relief so often

though never so well as by Mr. Babington,

particularly the ascetic pose,

is

;

every respect to the Kali sculpture in the cave

of those at Ellora,

rock, too, has

and

to all the sculptures of Ele-

not been smoothed

away between

which gives the whole an appearance of not being

isolates the figures

Adjoining

is

and groups

in

finished,

the

and

a very disagreeable manner.

an unfinished excavation very like

(in

plan), to the

and a little further to the south the other which, though of the same age, is of inferior execution

trimurti cave near the Kylas,

large bas-relief,

to the great one.

The

five raths are situated

direction of

its

axis,

about a mile south of the

hill in

and though small, and of course unfinished,

the

(like

everything else here,) are as pleasing examples of their style as any

1

Plate No. 10.

I

OF INDIA. know.

They

immense advantage over the pseudo-structural

possess an

temples of the north

87

for being cut out of detached masses of granite,

;

they stand alone in the sand, and are in every respect so like structural buildings, that

are not

a

fine,

requires

it

They have

so.

some examination

also the

advantage

to convince one’s self

bold-grained granite, of a reddish tinge.

tendency

to split,

when long exposed

however, a

It has,

which the trap of the north has

they

being cut from

in material,

not,

and

exfoliates

to the weather.

Daniell’s views of these temples,

and the various descriptions extant, I need not say more

have rendered them so familiar to the public that regarding them here

made

though

;

I

much wish

that the elaborate architec-

them for Colonel Mackenzie could be given to the public, as they would afford juster notions of what Indian antiquities really are, than any thing that has yet been published. I could not find in any of the temples or sculptures here the smallEvery where Siva appears as the preest trace of Buddhist worship. tural drawings

of

siding deity, though with a singularly liberal allowance of Vishnuism.

In the cave

mentioned so completely

first

is

this the case, that it

might

almost be called Vaishnava; and in the second the pendant to the Kali bas-relief

only

is

a Vishnu reposing on the Ses Seja

cell that is

believe,

occupied

is

from the unfinished state of the others

intended to be dedicated to Siva.

It

temple on the shore

and

is

;

dedicated

;

;

made

out

;

its

I

were certainly

has been doubted to

whom

the

sculptures, those at least

that they cannot

air,

and though Siva and Parvati appear on two sepa-

rate bas-reliefs, occupying the principal places, they gral,

in the raths the

for they

on the walls, have been so corroded by the sea well be

and

occupied by Lakshmi, though this arises,

may

not be inte-

and the large figure drawn by Babington, plate twelve,

is

Vishnu

on the Ses Seja, extremely similar to the one in the Kali cave, while the broken

Sthamba

Lingam, though

I

in

the central apartment

myself have

little

may

doubt that

it

may

or is,

not be a

and that the

temple was Sivite.

One

of the most singular characteristics of this series of caves

that they are all of one age,

and probably the work of one

prince,

has carried on the works simultaneously, but from some cause other has been unable to complete even one of

them

is

who or

had one been or workmanship, ;

finished, or had there been any gradation of style some chronological arrangement might easily have been traced; but nothing of the sort exists, at least among the monoliths, and the temple

on the shore does not

may mention rest.

that

its

fall strictly

age does not

within

my

present limits, though

differ materially

I

from that of the

THE HOCK-CUT TEMPLES

88 If the uorth it

owe

its

Kylas

to the

Chola mandalam, which

believe

I

certainly does, the south as certainly owes these Monoliths to the

Dekkan.

There

nothing here of which the prototype cannot be

is

traced in the caves of the north. the

Hindu

series at Ellora,

though

In plan and design they resemble

many

be found at Ajunta and Salsette; and

of their details are only to

cannot be supposed that two

it

people, unless copying from one another, could have invented the details in so short a period as could

vating of these, and those of the northern caves I

believe, will doubt, after

tecture

is

same

have elapsed between the exca-

what has been

;

and

besides,

no one,

said above, that cave archi-

indigenous in the north, while these are the only specimens

found in the south.

Maha

Passing by those traditions which refer to

which

at all events

there are

have no reference

A

Bali

and the Gods,

anything now existing here,

The

two which bear an appearance of great probability.

mentioned by Mr. Goldingham, “

to

vol. v., Trans. A.S., p. 74,

thus

first

:

northern prince, (perhaps one of the conquerors,) about one

thousand years ago, was desirous of having a great work executed, but the Hindu sculptors and masons refused to execute

Attempting

he offered. fled

with their

effects

force,

they

(in

it

on the terms

number about four thousand,)

from his country, hither, where they resided four

or five years, and in this interval executed these magnificent works.

The prince which

at length discovering them, prevailed

they did,

leaving

the

works unfinished

on them to return, as

they appear at

present.”

The second

is

from the Mackenzie MSS., as abstracted by Mr.

Taylor, in the Madras Journal, No. 20, p. 65.

“In

the Cali Yug,

Siughama Nayadu, the Zemindar of the Vellu-

goiivaru race, seemed to have ruled here. famine,

many

artificers resorted hither,

In that time, during a

and wrought on the mountain a

great variety of works during two or three years.”

Who collection,

this

(M.

Singhama was appears from another MS. J.

No.

19, p. 373,) where,

in the

speaking of this race,

said, “

Vennama Nayadu became head of his race. dacha N., who with his cousin were successful

same it

is

His son wasjYirain

their

incursions

against neighbouring places, extending to Canchi and to the

Pandya The Mussulmans are also mentioned as beaten in defence of another chieftain. The son of Vennama, named Singhama Nayadu, became the head of this race.” The thousand years of the first quotation I look upon as the usual Hindu synonym for “some time ago,” while the allusion to foreign kings.

conquerors seems to point to the only event

I

am aware

of that would

OF INDIA.

89

give probability to the tradition, namely, the invasion of Deoghur by

Alla-uddin, in the end of the thirteenth century

j

a supposition ren-

dered probable by the extracts from the Mackenzie manuscripts

though no date

is

there given for Singhama’s reign,

for

;

appears in the

it

context that his grand-uncle or great-grand-uncle, was engaged in the revolution that placed Pratapa

Rudra on the Ganapati throne, A.D.

1167, and he therefore flourished in the thirteenth century, probably

towards the end of also renders this

meddled

it.

The

still

more

allusion to the

Mahomedan

in this extract

Alla-uddin they scarcely

likely, as before

in the affairs of the south.

Though

this

evidence appears tolerably conclusive,

inclined to rely upon

were

it

it

not corroborated

dence of the caves themselves.

and a half

is all

the antiquity

But altogether

we can allow

I

by

I

should not be

the internal evi-

fear five centuries

to these boasted

monuments

of primeval times.

Singhama’s death in the

field,

before the fort of Jalli Palli,

still

is

more probably the cause of the sudden interruption of the works, than the reconciliation of the

workmen with

entirely a fancy of his own,

a part of the religion of the people,

would continue the There

is

their northern master

and neither indigenous it is

;

I

mean

though their general

is

incapable of

Their form, and Mr. Babington’s

much

illegibility does, I confess,

for their antiquity,

argue a higher anti-

haAr e ascribed to the buildings.

one done for the Alphabets of the south what Mr. Prinsep

did for those of the north, the question

that

am

the date of the characters inscribed on the

large rath over the figures there.

till

done, I fear this

mode

In concluding this paper

I

would be

of proof

is

would wish

easily determined, but

scarcely available.

to

add a few words on the

present state of the caves, and on the means that might (and

hope

will,)

nor

follies of his parent.

being able to translate them, does not say

I

being

one other means of fixing approximately the date of these

forming an opinion

Had any

it

not probable that his successor

temples, to which I have not alluded, and on which I

quity than

;

in the country,

I

be taken to preserve them from further injury before

now it

is

too late.

Those of Cuttack

are, as I

mentioned above, inhabited by Hindu

Fakirs, but as they are not used as places of worship, or esteemed

sacred

would,

by the inhabitants I

of the country, an order from the magistrate

conceive, be sufficient to dislodge them,

fering with

any

religious feelings of the people,

are justly so careful of offending.

If this

and without

inter-

which the Government

were done very

little

trouble

THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLES

90

or expense would be required to remove the

mud

walls and rubbish

they have accumulated, and thus restore to view these very interesting

monuments. Unless, however,

drawings of the tion in future,

intended to

is

it

series,

and

to take

make and

publish

some measures

accurate

for their protec-

scarcely to be wished that this should be done; for

it is

what has happened

doubt, judging from

in other places,

there

is little

that

a few pic-nic parties from Cuttack or Puri, and the destruc-

tive pilfering of a

few would-be antiquarians, would do more harm

a few years, than has been done by their present occupants in

in

centuries.

The caves

of Ellora, Salsette, Junir, &c., are entirely deserted as

places of worship,

and therefore easily accessible

to all

Europeans.

Their stucco and painting have however almost entirely disappeared, but their sculptures are not so easily broken, and are on too large a

tempt the cupidity of most

scale to

The cave exposed

injury than any of the others, and

to

Government protect

it

;

collectors.

at Elephanta being situated so near

Bombay, was more

much was

done,

till

at length appointed an invalid serjeant to look after

and

since that time

it

lias

been tolerably well cared

for.

The great cave at Karli is now, strangely enough, taken possession How far, of by the Brahmans, and considered a temple of Maliadeva. therefore, interference with it would be practicable I do not know access, however, is allowed to any strangers, and there are no paintings or sculptures which are likely to be injured by its present occupants, or even by English tourists. The only series, therefore, that demands immediate attention is that of Ajunta; the caves there are entirely deserted by the natives, and are only visited by Europeans.

As

mentioned above they

I

original paintings, but that

would now It is

visit

is

still

retain the greater portion of their

much

them, will miss

that

I

sad to think that after standing so

to so destructive

and a traveller who saw a few years ago.

fast disappearing,

many

years an exposure

a climate, after escaping the bigotry of the Moslem,

and the rough usage of the robber Bheel, they should be fast perishing from the meddling curiosity of the Europeans who now visit them. But such

is

unfortunately the case

;

for

few come away without picking

off

one or two of the heads he thinks most beautiful or interesting, and

as

most of them are reduced to powder before they reach their

nation, they are lost to the world for ever. I

can refer to in print,

Bengal, vol.

v., p.

is

in

561, where

The only instance

desti-

of this

the Journal of the Asiatic Society of it

is

stated, that Dr. Bird peeled four

OF INDIA. No.

figures off the Zodiac in cave

17,

only instance that has fallen under

I

91

and

my

this is unfortunately not the

observation.

have now brought to a conclusion the remarks

length than

supposed they would do when

I

described

is

so great, that

have found

I

originally undertook

I

The number of

the task of compiling them.

to make on much greater

had

I

the Cave Temples of India, which have extended to a

however, to be

objects,

impossible to compress into

it

shorter limits the foregoing descriptions, with the few remarks that

were necessary that I

am

to render the subject intelligible.

obscurity from attempting too great conciseness

plead

to

Indeed,

I

am

afraid

equally open to the opposite accusation of abruptness and

an apology for this

as

my

polish of style that pervades instance, I

have copied word

much more

it

By

would have been easy

readable, but this

paper the notes

in this

on the spot and in the caves themselves. attention to style

must be allowed want of

I

descriptions, that in almost every

word

for

but

;

as well as for the

fault,

to

a

little

made

I

and

amplification

have rendered the paper

would have added

which

to its length,

and besides, might, in describing objects so long ; after they were visited, have rendered my descriptions less correct, and thus have taken from them the only merit to which they can fairly is

already too great

pretend.

was

my

I

may

also add, that

when

this

intention to have published at the

some eighteen or twenty of

my

paper was

first

same time,

in

written,

it

a folio form,

sketches of the caves and temples

when taken with the illustrations now have added much to the interest of the sub-

described in the text, which, given, would, I conceive, ject, besides

supplying

I

regret,

many

is

any publisher willing

to

terms, nor has the project

quarter to which the risk

account;

of the deficiencies of the descriptions, of

more fully aware that I am. however, to say, that I have not as yet been able

which no one

I

met with

am

sufficient

have hitherto referred

and annoyance of bringing I

not,

to find

undertake the publication on satisfactory

it

it,

encouragement

to induce

me

to

out myself and on

however, without hope that

this

in

any

undertake

may

my own still

be

accomplished.

Since the foregoing paper was read, a Memorial was presented by the Council of this Society to the Court of Directors on the subject of these caves, to which

I

am happy

to hear they

have responded; and

orders have, I believe, been forwarded to the different Presidencies to

THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLES OF INDIA.

92

employ competent persons to draw and copy the antiquities and paintings in each district, and thus we may at last hope to have these caves illustrated in a manner worthy of their magnificence and great historical interest.

drop

till

I

only hope the subject will not

every monument of

examined and

detailed,

and we

ancient

may

now be allowed

India has been

to

thoroughly

thus escape the hitherto too well

merited reproach of having so long possessed that noble country, and

done so

little to illustrate its

history or antiquities.

93

Notes on Indian Agriculture

Art. III.

,

as practised in

the

Western or Bombay Provinces of India ; by Alexander Gibson, Esq., Superintendent of the Botanic Garden at Daporee.

Read 15th June, 1844. I

do not

nicate tents

offer these notes for perusal in the idea that

they commu-

any thing very new, neither do I suppose that from their concan be elicited any thing likely to be of solid benefit to the more

enlightened agriculturist of Great Britain

;

as little do I fancy that

they can possess even a tithe of the interest which must attach to a detailed description of the careful cultivation practised trious Chinese in

husbandman.

Still, I

deem

some points not be destitute of interest 1st. As showing that the agriculture of India

so rude or slovenly a character as

2nd. That

many

of the

it is

by the indus-

possible, that they

it

is

may

not altogether of

often supposed to be.

means and instruments

used, albeit simple,

are yet well adapted to attain the end in view. 3rd.

That much of what

is

bad

in the

husbandry of India,

is

owing

rather to the faulty framework of the social system of the Hindus,

than to any natural want of acuteness. 4th.

That

until the habits of the

system, be in some measure changed, present routine of practice

is

The remarks which have sions,

will

to

people as regards their social little

be looked

led

me

to

or no alteration in the

for.

form the above general conclu-

be found scattered among the details given hereafter.

Having premised thus much, I will proceed to notice separately the modes of cultivation of the various Cereal Grains, Legumes, OilPlants, &c., in

1st,

common

Wheat.

Is

use.

grown

chiefly

above the Ghats in the Dekkan,

Kandesh, and the Carnatic; also most extensively Farther south, the climate and

the sea border.

do not admit of

its

being grown.

It is also

in Gujarat,

soil

even to

under the Ghats,

extensively raised in

many

met with before the Ghats soften down to the flatter plains, and on such high levels the same measure of grain is found to weigh about one-quarter more than a similar quantity raised in the more plain country. Wheat is universally sown as a crop of the cold season. The land level table-lands

intended for

it,

however,

receives

its

first

preparation

either

in

NOTES ON

9-1

November in

May

December of the previous year,

or

of the year in which

paration

consists

bullock plough. as bringing

up an

to

it is

or after the

be grown.

rains

first

In Gujarat, this pre-

in

ploughing three or four times with the two

A

deeper-going

inferior sub-soil.

is deemed prejudicial Dekkan, the land is most

instrument In the

generally prepared with the six bullock plough, while in the more

southern districts, bordering on and in the Carnatic, a plough of from

twelve to sixteen bullocks the same land

to in

in general use,

is

but

not had recourse

is

after a period of twelve years;

till

and often

besides a ploughing with the great plough, the land has to be hand-dug

Haryali grass, so destructive to crops.

to root out the

The land having been thoroughly broken up and cleared of grassroots by ploughing, digging and hand-picking, is left to be beaten down by the action of the rainy weather. In September it again undergoes a slight preparation by the knife-harrow, koolas, (kulaval) and on the weather being deemed favourable, the seed is sown by the simple drill harrow of hollow bamboos, converging upwardly into a cup, and spreading below, so as to allow of the lower extremity of each being

and hollow harrow tooth tipped with iron. Rain is deemed to lessen the value of the crop, but

inserted into a thick

falling after germination

a few heavy showers after materially assist

has attained the height of three inches

it

The reason of the idea

growth.

its

is

sound and

apparent.

The land

may

best fitted for this growth

is

the strong black

soil,

which

be called our oldest alluvial, dating probably from the period

when the world was a mass

of lakes; hence,

found in greatest quantity the country tracts of such soil

no

artificial

manure

is is

where

a perfect

this

black

ever required.

soil is

In the best

level.

The

soil itself

seems, owing to the predominance of calcareous matter in a state of

very minute division, to have the property of converting every blade and stick which

falls,

very short space of time.

leaf-

into a substance identical with itself, in a

This

may

be one reason

why manure

is

not required.

Rotation

is

certainly necessary and universally practised, but not

always until two or three crops the ground.

Wheat

is

in succession have been taken from esteemed a very exhausting crop, or as the

natives say, “

its roots are foolish.” A person attempting to take a crop of sugar-cane after wheat, even supposing that he manures

largely,

is

sure to

fail.

This

I

have more than once had occasion

to see.

In the best black soils, the

power of retaining moisture

that a wheat crop sown, will, without the aid of

is

so great,

any after-showers,

INDIAN AGRICULTURE.

95

but simply by the retained moisture and the action of cold air, turn The rationale of this action of the cold I have not heard out full. explained, but the fact as to

wheat and other grain the ear has begun to

is

materially aiding in the growth of

its

Should rain

universally admitted.

fill,

the effect

prevalence of a southerly wind, which brings with the sea,

hardly

is

The

less so.

it

the moisture of

effect of either of these is to

In some seasons, instance, in 1834-5,

I

may

acres

be reaped. epidemically

are

rats

also,

produce a

many

red smut with mildew of the ear, so that in an extent of not one hundred pounds of grain

fall after

most prejudicial, nay, even the

is

some

recollect that in

For

destructive.

districts large remissions

of revenue had to be given on this account.

The wheat once sown

requires no farther care until the reaping season.

It is

then pulled,

bundled, and the shares of the village establishment having been duly

paid to them, the remainder

The

chaff

bullocks, I believe,

is

and stored

until the season

so extensive as

varieties of

Of

these,

It is also

not so certain a

is

a necessary part of rotation.

have seen grown

number

mentioned, Bakhshl, also called Daood

first

if

its

not identical

;

the

northern origin; these two are

both give a superior

white bread, sweetmeats, &c. is

in India,

;

a dry crop

the

fitted

flour,

best

always raised on

first is

only for the best

soil.

that the produce does not generally exceed twelve hundred

find

pounds per price at it

scarce.

I

be

irrigated land; the second

but

is

wheat would be

may

Khani, in allusion, doubtless, to

I

floor.

wheat which

very nearly related fitted for

other provender

for the grain

is,

it

crop as some other crops are.

Of

when

that but for this chaff, the cultivation of

by no means

is six.

trodden out on the threshing

is

carefully set apart as a most necessary provision for

acre,

and

is

most frequently short of

which these wheats

this quantity; the

higher than that of other wheats;

sell is

varies according to situation, season, &c., from sixty pounds to

ninety pounds per rupee,

i.

it

e.,

sixteen shillings per quarter.

may

be said to vary from ten to

In Gujarat, however, the produce

may

be larger than that above-mentioned.

The tax on an acre of the amount to eight or ten shillings.

best wheat ground,

In the

may

in

Dekkan and Carnatic

Gujarat border,

the rate of such ground, per acre, will probably vary from two to five shillings

under the new survey.

to the grain produce,

Each acre

of

wheat

will, in addition

be expected to yield chaff to the value of two

rupees.

The other

varieties of

2nd, Kathi.

wheat are,

Inferior to the last in colour

superior in quantity of produce.

and quality, but rather

XOTES ON

96 Pothi.

•3rd,

grey

soil if

4th,

Kowri or Khapale, Do.

5th,

Tambari.

common

to

Do.

Inferior to all of the above.

Not common

6th, Beardless wheat.

be

and even

Inferior to the last, but suited to poorer

manured.

here, but grain fine.

Said to

at Delhi.

The tax on the land whereon

it

may

raised

is

not exceed one and

sixpence or two shillings.

As

the storing of the crop, this in a tropical climate, where

to

animals of every description abound,

a most essential part of rural

is

The granaries are always underground

economy.

sloping places, or

places where the suh-soil

is

pits,

excavated

in

hard and dry; these

pits are from six to eight feet in depth, closing to a narrow mouth and having the bottom well puddled with clay, and the sides lined with thick ropes made of the leaves of sugar-cane, or other dry material, twisted; over these, teak or any other large leaves are carefully built as the filling proceeds; and the mouth is closed by grass beaten The leaves of the Nim-tree down and puddled over with earth.

are usually put in along with the grain, as they from their bitter quality,

have some power

warding

in

off attacks of the

weevil or other

insects.

In countries where dry grain

subterranean receptacles

is

much grown,

the

number

of these

so great, that an elephant driver will

is

most

reluctantly and carefully pilot his animal through the quarter of a

where the grain shops

city

giving

way under

fortunately

these

are,

from the fear of the hollow ground In a year of scarcity (and

the elephant’s weight.

are

becoming

and

less

Government,) the value of such receptacles

less is

common

fully

under our

felt.

At present

prices, a quantity of wheaten flour sufficient for a meal two natives, may be purchased for about one penny, and as the wages of labour on this side of India, rule at from four to eight shil-

for

lings per

month,

it

afford to feed on

will be obvious that the

wheaten

flour,

is

large.

number of persons who can The greater proportion,

however, of the labouring population seem to prefer as a food, the cereal next mentioned.

Bajri (Holcus

spicat .)

— This grain

as an article of food for the

working

is

a staple of

first

classes, and, indeed,

importance

many

of the

higher ranks, especially Mahrattas, prefer Bajri to wheaten bread. is

generally believed to be the best food for a

man who

It

has to labour

hard. It

is

grown extensively

in

Gujarat, the Dekkan, and Kandesh.

INDIAN AGRICULTURE. does

It

not

flourish

appear to be grown it is

soil

though

all

below the Ghats southward, neither

The

in the Carnatic provinces.

does

it

which best

soil

a brown mould, partly composed of red and partly of black

suits ;

97

be

this

most choice habitat,

its

it

will be found

growing

in

the coarser varieties of soil up to the merest detritus of trap rock,

forming the lower shelves of

hills.

of the Northern Desert or Run, Bajri land after

it is

much

weather; after the

then ploughed and cross-ploughed, and allowed

by the action of the sun in the hot heavy rain of June, and from that time until

as possible

first

the 20th of July, the final preparation

Weeds

twice run over the land.

burned in the land, and manure, grain

now sown with

is

ground

then smoothed

is

down by

down by

is

given by the knife-harrow

are carefully collected, heaped, and

procurable,

if

common

the

the weight of one or

When

growing luxuriantly.

will be found

generally ploughed and turned up as soon as possible

is

November]

to benefit as

In the sandy soils forming the borders it

drill

The

then spread.

is

sowing machine, and the

the drill machine inverted, and kept

more men.

the crop has reached the height of four or five inches weeds

and grass are removed, and the plants are clustered up by a light bullock hoe, composed of two pairs of horizontal iron brackets fixed in frames, and at such distance as to sweep the edges of each drill, removing weeds

in

their progress,

the earth before them.

one shilling

From site

;

;

this

and

also loosening

and turning up

cost of a pair of such hoes

may

be about

they are very effectual for the purpose intended. time until the grain has eared no farther care

should timely showers, usually looked for in August,

abundant; but even should these

will probably be

season, the plant rious,

The

is

is

the appointed

fail at

very tolerant of long drought ; much rain

particularly in the shallower

and sloping

this is

is

inju-

these, the

soils; in

under stratum being nearly impermeable to water,

requi-

the crop

fall,

accumulated

when manured

about the roots of the plants and speedily rots them, especially

no manure has been given. portion

while

In parts of the same

the

may the

often be seen to retain a dark and healthy green hue, unmanured portions are of a sickly and dying yellow.

The grain having been formed, the next care birds,

field,

is

to preserve

it

from

These animals are most destruc-

such as sparrows, parrots, &c.

happen to be situated near to the field ; when must be watched from sunrise to sunset, and for this

tive, particularly if trees

this is the case,

it

purpose members of the peasant’s family relieve each other on a stage erected in the bay.

field,

and with

The grain having

cries, slings,

ripened,

it

is

and

stones,

keep the birds at

stacked to await the peasant’s

leisure for threshing.

VOL. VIII.

H

NOTES ON

98

In threshing, the heads are

performed by women, who,

if

separated from the stems; this

first

hired, are paid at the rate of six

is

pounds

and a half of grain per one hundred bundles or sheaves of the straw It has often occurred to me that a small and simple

thus separated.

machine, like the model of a loaded guillotine, might be made in

chopping

The

the heads of grain.

of!'

efficient

would

chief obstacle to this,

composing a bundle; a

consist in the different lengths of the straws

this kind would save a vast quantity of manual labour. The produce of an average crop per acre, will be found to be about

machine of six

hundred pounds

but in rich

;

districts,

such as Gujarat, one thou-

sand pounds will be nearer the quantity.

The straw cattle-forage,

many

in

is

districts the

and therefore

is

only resource of the peasant for

most carefully stored, but

straw per acre

may

it

is

very

The amount of

inferior in nutriment to the straw of millet, or Jowari.

be about six hundred bundles, value about one

rupee ten annas, or three shillings.

As

to the price of the grain itself, I conclude that the ryot can

seldom, except in Gujarat, realise a gross product of more than four rupees per acre, and on poor unmanured, watery, or rocky lands about

two rupees per acre. The tax on land rupees per acre I

believe, that

for Bajri,

fit

in the

;

Dekkan,

may

be in Gnjarat from two to four

new survey, maximum, and six

&c., at least under the

one rupee eight annas

may

be the

annas the minimum, giving an average of fourteen annas ; the chaff of this grain

is

not eaten by cattle.

In the poorer soils along with Bajri,

Legume taken

(

Iloolya kullowla)'; this

off;

,

it is left

is

always sown a small

hardly in flower when the Bajri

is

is

and may give about one and a half maunds

to ripen

per acre. In the richer

taken

Tur

soils,

alternate rows, and

is

( Cytisus

bajari),

is

commonly sown

the

in

also left to ripen after the crop of Bajri

is

off.

The

selling price

of Bajri in the inland districts can be hardly

quoted as higher than one hundred and the abolition of transit duties tricts in

much

it

fifty

larger quantities than

was formerly the

has had some tendency to equalise prices.

sanatory rotation crop

;

it

is

pounds per rupee; since

has been exported to the coast dis-

It is

case,

and

this

reckoned as a very

also subject to fewer casualties than are

most of the other cereal grains.

Alone

it is

not given to horses, being

esteemed too beating, but mixed with math ( Phaseolus aconitifolius), forms an excellent food. 1

Mahrati, IIulagA or hulagi

:

Doliclios biflorus.

Editor.

it

INDIAN AGRICULTURE. Great Millet ( Holcus sively

cultivated

in

Millet

sorghum).

99 a grain very exten-

is

throughout Gujarat, Kandesh,

this Presidency,

Dekkan, and Carnatic, hut in the narrow strip of coast composing two Conkans, it is not suited to climate or soil, and consequently In the rich black plains of Gujarat or Kandesh it never raised.

the

the is

may

indeed most generally, he seen twelve feet high

often,

black

soil districts it is

in these

;

the established rotation crop for cotton and

wheat.

The been

is sown immediately after the first The land requires little preparation, as it had former seasons either prepared by trenching or by ploughing,

first

variety, or red Jowari,

rain in June.

fall of

in

and freed from all weeds; thus, the only farther preparation necessary in sowing Jowari is to run the knife-harrow several times over it, and afterwards to sow with the drill machine before-mentioned.

The plant watching

afterwards earthed up or weeded with the bullock hoe

is

required as in the case of Bajri, and unless done by the

is

peasant’s family, constitutes a considerable item of the expense of the

crop;

and

ripens in October,

it

pulled, stacked,

is

and the ear

after-

wards separated by manual labour.

The second

White

variety, or

or beginning of September; this

the

first,

but the ear

rejected tive,

by

in the

of this last contains

In quantity of grain this cereal

beasts.

The growth situation,

five

much

of the second variety

get showers

districts,

which from their

October or November, the commencing

in

It is

a crop which bears a good

cold has a beneficial action on the filling

least excess of

it

kills

chiefly in situations near a

frost occur,

which

diately dried up.

the plant,

and

when manure

of the ear,

this blight

is

It

which cotton

is

but

takes place

running stream, where the cold

is

a de-

Should

sometimes the case, whole fields are immea beneficent provision of nature that the is

straw of this grain should most abound ground.

is

confined to the more inland

is

gree or two greater than that of the surrounding country.

in

only

first

most produc-

is

deal of wet without injury to the straw, particularly

the

saccharine

hundred pounds per acre being a common crop

showers of the Madras monsoon. used;

grain than

soil.

and open country, particularly to those

is

end of August

tender ends are eatable, while the entire stem

two thousand

good

sown

much lower growing

wholly consumed in forage; whereas, of the

leaves and

the

in

is

a

greatly larger, fuller, and both grain and

The straw

straw are superior. matter, and

is

Millet, is is

raised,

in

the black soil districts

and which are generally

destitute of pasture

NOTES ON

100 For the transport of an

bulky as cotton, large numbers

article so

of bullocks are required; the Jowari straw can be afforded at a rate so cheap, as to be accessible to the poorest; the price varies according to

&c., from four to

season,

situation,

bundles, and the size of these

them form a load

may

rupees per thousand

fifteen

be judged of by the fact that ten

The straw, particularly of the second up as a resource in case of a bad season. In Gujarat it is stored in houses in the Dekkan and Carnatic, I remark that it is preserved simply hy overlaying the sloping stacks with clods of the black soil these are beaten down by the rain of

variety,

is

a man.

for

very nutritive;

it is

carefully stored

;

;

a uniform mass, which forms a hard crust over the stack.

into

straw trees

and shrubs are

This cereal

done

scarce.

often

is

sown

solely for the sake of the straw

;

this is

where other pasturage is scarce, but where the means are abundant ; when sown for this purpose, sowing takes

in districts

of irrigation

place in March, in ground well manured;

length of straw and not weight of ear

May

to begin cutting

by

having a supply

sufficient for

is

standing.

about

is

In

seasons

sown very It

thick, as

ought to be

fit

is

fit

for food

when from

is

is cut green, and and the remainder

it

;

cut,

deficiency of the early rain

can often be sold standing, at the rate of

scarce, this straw

fifty

is

and a careful husbandman calculates on his bullocks until the first rank grass of

the quantity required for daily consumption

forage

it

the object.

15th,

the rains gathers some heart and

left

This

the principal food for elephants and camels in countries where

is

rupees per acre.

In a poor country, such as that which forms a large portion of our

Dekkan

province, where there

forage, every fair

almost always an under supply of

is

means should be taken

to

encourage the extension of

a cultivation so essential for the preservation of animals as is

therefore with sorrow,

I

common

It

this.

remark, that under the new survey

now

in progress, a tax

on wells, even of the most

being re-imposed.

Since the total abolition of well tax in the Poonah

zilla

description,

is

which took place about seventeen years ago, the ryots have

exerted

themselves

We may

now

in

too probable, that even

The

vastly

multiplying the means of irrigation.

look for a complete check to this

many

wells

selling price of millet

hundred and forty

to

now

may

in use will

spirit,

and

it

be quoted as varying from one

one hundred and seventy pounds per rupee.

seems to form the principal food of the inhabitants of large artisans, weavers,

may

It

cities,

and others whose employments are sedentary.

quantity sufficient for two meals

penny.

seems

be thrown up.

A

be purchased for about a half-

INDIAN AGRICULTURE. The ments

101

thrown into embankEvery good cultivator

roots of the crop of a previous season are

to help in

binding together the

soil.

embankments when the soil of his field is at all sloping, Sometimes they are liable to be washed away. done by the labour of his own household, but more generally under

constructs such

and consequently

contract with wirdars, a class

work

who

travel about the country performing

of this kind.

Eleusine Coracana

(

Natcheny,

nagal'i,

maud). E.

cipally as a hill grain, but also in the plains.

cultivated in the latter in

garden

—Cultivated

prin-

stricta is the species

not an article of general culture, but only and below the Ghats, where soil is alluvial,

it is

;

villages, near

and stream water abundant.

The young plants are

by ash manure; on ought to be by the young plants are taken out and puddled down in the The previously prepared by a light plough and harrow. raised in a bed formed

the ground being thoroughly moistened, which

10th July, the adjacent fields

very great,

increase of this grain

is

pounds per acre ;

a cheap grain

one hundred and believe that the

it is

hill

Banyans often

productive; is

species, it

is

good

its

;

soil

about three thousand

may

price

be quoted at from

one hundred and ninety pounds per rupee.

fifty to

refuse

a proof of the small value attached

The

in

it

E. coracana,

it

to is

it

in proportion to its bulk.

a smaller plant and much

planted out in July.

I

as a return for cash borrowed,

As

the

mode

of

its

less

cultivation

identical with that pursued with the other hill grains (one excepted,)

one description

A

may

serve for

piece of jungle

all.

cleared of bushes or trees in

is

any of the dry

months; the bushes, leaves, and wood, are thickly spread so as to cover the ground intended for the plants;

are the

fire is

applied in April or

sown broadcast. When the plants sufficiently high, advantage is taken of wet weather to scratch adjoining ground into furrows, either by hand or a light plough,

May; with

the

first rainfall

seed

is

a person follows in the furrows with a basket of the plants, which are

simply dropped loose

No

soil.

in,

and

left to

farther care

is

be brought on by the rain acting on the required,

and reaping takes place

in

October or November.

On

account of the broken nature of the ground

estimate

accurately the

portion of

soil,

but

it

is

quantity of grain certainly less

by

rotation.

treated

is

impossible to

a given

three-quarters than that

obtained from the garden species above alluded

Land thus

it is

obtained from

to.

cultivated for four years in the following

102

NOTES ON

1st.

Eleusine Cor., Natcheny.

2nd. Wari, or Kang, (Kangni

?)

Panicum

Miliare, and P. Italicum.

3rd.

Harik, Kodroo, (Kadrava,) Paspalum scrobiculatum.

4th.

Verbesina, Black

Til,

an

oil plant.

These four crops are considered to exhaust the

which

soil,

is

left

The straw of Natcheny is indispensable to the Ghat peasant and the Concan cultivator, as a food for their cattle. in

fallow for twelve years.

In those countries the grass, either from the nature of the climate, or the late period at which

and

cattle fed

spare straw

is

on

it

is

it

cut, contains

or no nutriment,

little

could not labour for any time.

The

one of the resources of the peasant, and

sale of the is

it

largely

purchased by the Lingayet and other travelling grain dealers, whose

The Banjaras

good condition.

cattle are generally in

mans, make no provision of the kind for their sequence

that of those

is,

who come down

immense numbers die. The straw of the E. natcheny it

is

is

again, or Lu-

cattle,

and the con-

for salt late in the season

also used for burning bricks

chopped up and mixed with the brick clay; the effect, of course, thorough baking of the brick. The large bricks to be met with old buildings of the in this

is

it is

the

in all

princes of India have been prepared

wero compelled by Pharaoh

Vide Exod.

As

Mussulman

way, so that the children of Israel had reason

in that they (

when

intended that these should be large, or of choice quality;

to

make

for

grumbling

bricks without straw.

c. v.).

the roots are many, the grain

order that the plant, as

it

grows,

is

may

thrown on embankments

in

bind together the earth and

stones.

the

Other Hill Cerealia. Of these, it may be said generally, that mode of cultivation is as in that last described that the produce ;

and is seldom used as food beyond the The patch of rice is chiefly looked to districts where it is produced. as a mean of paying the land-tax, and the cultivator is fortunate if he is

quite as cheap or cheaper,

has a sufficiency of the other grains to last until the following October. I

remark, that this season locusts appear to have alighted only

villages close to the Ghats, or in the Ghats,

and

in

many

in

of these

the crops have been so completely eaten up, that the villagers have

already begun to feed on the stems of the wild plantain-tree, the wild

yam, and the more liferous plant

delicate but rarer root of

an undescribed umbel-

named “Peenda.”

Before concluding,

I

will advert to

the remarkable intoxicating

property found in one of these grains, Harik, a Paspalum (frumenta-

INDIAN AGRICULTURE. ceum?)

I

have had occasion

to see a large

103

number

of inhabitants of

a village simultaneously affected with intoxication, after a meal

from cakes of

made

Vertigo, a degree of sleepiness and fatuity,

this flour.

rather than active excitement,

is

the characteristic effect of this grain.

The symptoms are sometimes of a character more severe, lasting for seven days and attended with a vomiting of blood; fatal cases it is said sometimes happen, but I have not any case well authenticated the effect from the grain eaten

occur

when

heavy

is

not constant.

It is

most apt to

the grain has attained full development owing to late and

rain, acting

on a highly manured

Its intoxicating

property

steeping in water wherein

is

said

soil.

to

be neutralised by previous

cow dung has been

diffused.

The remedies had recourse to after the effects have taken place are, 1st, A pottage composed of the flour of “Borud,” (Phaseolus mungo); and 2nd, expressed juice of leaves of “Harsinga,” ( Nyctanthes arbor tristis).

The

action

of this

further investigation.

grain on the

human system

is

well worthy

104

Art. IV

—A

.

tary the

to

Letter to

,

Library of Eton [

My

dear

Read

1

6th March, 1844.]

you did me the favour to communithis Society, Major Postans, the Library of Eton College. That

of last season

from a member of

MSS. in had occupied iny attention some time

collection

or four years,

last three

on occasional

examined the MSS. very minutely,

known than

existence better

W.

the late lamented Sir

they seem

The fifty

to

it

chiefly Persian

is

the exception of

Orientalists.

between four and

five

India, till

The

when,

was

the

have accompanied the

four years after.

A

catalogue,

would be

far

science.

The kind

from satisfactory friends to

in

the present

whom

I

am

not entirely satisfactory, at research. tents

may

In the

mean

contains

indebted for the greatest

of this catalogue, from which, with the numerous notes I

by those

it

more advanced stage of

indulgence in visiting the College Library, have promised

MSS. themselves,

I

me

more available

a copy

haA’e

hope to be able to arrange a least

pre-

but was not

collection,

readily be conceived

It will

and

Colleges of Eton and

in their respective libraries.

to

its object,

compliance with the donor’s

in

conversant with Eastern bibliography that the description

of the

in

hundred MSS.,

which he was grateful for his gift was announced by a

to

the books were divided between

received

sister life

and Arabic, as the most appropriate offering he could

and deposited

in

the

at

from Mr. Pote, from Patna, Feb. 1788, explaining

King’s,

Above

curious and interesting.

completed his studies

two royal foundations education and preferment.

arrived in England in 1790,

pared

With

appears to be.

to the

wishes,

College,

King’s College, Cambridge, and entered on public

India, collected in that country

letter

the

Mr. E. Pote, a Scholar on the Foundation of Eton

having subsequently

institution,

earlier

to

purpose of making their

have entirely escaped the inspection of

years ago,

make

for the

having during

before, visits

Ouseley, and Professor Lee of Cambridge,

history of the collection

College,

in

College.

alluding to the Oriental

the

MSS.

the Oriental

Sir,

At the close me a letter

cate to

Richard Clarke, Esq., Honorary Secre-

the Royal Asiatic Society on

taken list,

for reference

time, the following hasty sketch

of

its

if

and con-

perhaps be worthy the notice of lovers of that literature.

The portion

of the Pote Collection appropriated to Eton

contains 222 volumes.

The department

rich, relates chiefly to the

country

in

of history in which

it

College is

most

which the collection was formed.

ETON COLLEGE ORIENTAL MSS. It

105

comprehends the valuable history the Bostani Khayal

;

a Tarikh

Kashmiri by Haider Ibn Hasan Mulk; the Ayini Akbari; the Tarikh

Shah

History of the Four Sons of Shah Jehan; and the

or

Sliujai,

and Muham-

Histories of Baber, Akber, Jehangir, ’Alamgir, Ferruksir,

med

Shah, which bear their names.

success in India I

may mention

in reference to our recent

Merely

also a

copy of the Gwalior Nameh, an

account of the capture of that fortress in 1780. In General History there are the

Majmua

al

Tawarikh

;

Labb

the

Tawarikh ; the Muklitasar al Tawarikh, by ’Abdasselam; the Tarikh Bedawani ; the Compendium called Muntakhab al Tawarikh ; and a History called Kutub al Tawarikh, terminating with the reign of Shah al

Tahmasp; while the Aalam Aral, Tarikh Nadiri, and Zafar Nameh (a made at Herat, 8 77), illustrate the reigns and conquests of Timur, Shah Abbas, and Nadir Shah. I must particularly notice valuable copy

a beautiful copy of the Matla as’saadin, in 2

the

vols., (written 993),

1000 years of the Hijrah, and another History of Abbas the Great, styled the Abbas Nameh, which I do not remember to have seen elsewhere. To the historical series may be appended a few works on Biography, Geography, and HisTarikh

Elfi,

or Chronicle of the

first

Geography; as, the valuable Heft Aklim, the Nigaristan of and the MS. of the Mesalik u Memalik used by Sir W.

torical

Ghaffari,

Ouseley

in his edition

Kamus, one

of Ibn Haukal.

a magnificently written large

Kashf

Kunz

al

al

In Lexicography there

of the most exquisite copies I have ever seen folio,

Maadan

the

pointed throughout; the Dictionaries?

Loghat, (from the library of Sultan

Loghat,

;

is

the Salihali,

Ahmed ben Masoul)

;

the

Loghat, Lutayif al Loghat, and Gherayib al

al

Loghat; the Ferhengi Rashidi, and a Ferhengi Akhlaki Nasiri specially devoted to the

difficulties

of that ethical work.

Nor

is

the collection

and Tradiwhich form so large a proportion of the contents of most Muham-

deficient in Theology, Ecclesiastical History, Jurisprudence, tion,

medan

libraries.

Accordingly,

we have

several Korans, with numerous

Commentaries, including that of Baidhawi

;

the curious

work Fusus

al

Hukama; a beautiful MS. of the Mirat al Kadas, or Tarikh Hezrati Isa; the Majmua al Bahrein by Dara Shikoh; the Rawzat al Ahbab, a noble folio in beautiful Naskhi; fine old copies of the Maarij la

Nebuwwat, of the Mishkati Sherif and the Sharhi Mishkat, with the voluminous cpnqfilations of Decisions collected under the titles of Awradi Imamiyah, Fatawai Alamgiri, and Fatawai Firozshahi. Among the philosophical and scientific works, besides several medical books, there

is

edited

the valuable Encyclopedia, Nefayis al

Commentary on the by the Text Society.

Persian

‘

Funun and ;

there

Milal wa’l Nahal’ of Shahrestani,

— The

Poetical

is

a

now

works are not numerous.

ETON COLLEGE ORIENTAL

106 There

however, a splendid Shah

is,

Nameh

longing to Col. Polier, of which there of the Pote collection

;

is

(in 2

al

Karan

poems of the Mantak

as’saadein of

Amir

Manawi

of great beauty

Asrar of Nizami; Jami’s Yusuf and

poem

Zulaikha, Hatifi’s Laili and Mejnun, and a

the

formerly be-

and there are duplicates of the well-known

Also the Makhzan

the Mystical

vols.),

another copy, apparently not

paraphrase Shamshir Khani, besides a Mesnawi

and value.

MSS..

al

of

Mahmud u Ayaz;

Tayr, and the Gulshani Raz;

Kliusru of Dehli, and his

Khamsah

The few Hindustani MSS.

and the entire works of Shaikh Ali Hazin.

the collection contains are chiefly in this class, comprising the

Madhu

Kamrup,

Null;’

(of

which there

is

‘

Story of

also the Persian version;)

—

and Sawda’s Kulliat, a very beautiful copy. There is also the PerNal u Damna, and a full set of a Persian translation of the Maka-

sian

bharata.

Some

of the

MSS.

of small Persian

ship and ornament, but the

Ajayib

al

gem

poems are of beautiful penman-

of the collection

is

an exquisite

little

Makhliikat, in verse, of which the original work in Arabic,

and the usual Persian version of Kazwini should have been mentioned before, and are all three embellished with miniature paintings. A Sanskrit work, highly ornamented, forms also one of the show pieces of the Library

believe

I

;

The usual a place here Tai Lutayif

;

;

it is

the Siva Purana.

works of Arabic and Persian literature have also the Gulistan and Bostan, beautifully written ; Hatim

lighter

al

Zarayif (stories);

Tiiti

Namak;

the

Makamat

ul

commentary; and the usual sprinkling of Risalahs on Music, Grammar, Cookery, and Farriery, which is incidental to a I may conclude in the words of that accommiscellanous collection. plished Persian scholar, Major Charles Stewart, who in the postscript to Hariri, with a

his ‘Descriptive

“

Were

Catalogue of Tippoo Sultan’s Library,’ says:

the Oriental Manuscripts, dispersed through England, either

generally known, or assembled in one place, Britons need not travel far to prosecute their Oriental studies.”

Believe

me

My

to be,

dear

Sir,

Very

faithfully yours,

N. Bland. Randall’s Parle, March, 1844.

107

Art.

V

.

—Abstract

Two the

Fauna of the Sewalik

when

Rooms,

Dr.

in

Hugh

on

Grafton-Street,

the

the Sewalik

The

hills.

and

logy, arts,

human

If

we

of

by

the Fossil

Fauna

of

Dr. Falconer referred to the

and the spreading of its mythoover other nations they had extended to

race in India,

sciences,

:

Greece and Italy through Egypt.

There

where we cease

research, at the point

8th

meeting was occupied with a general

first

description of the Sewalik fossil animals.

antiquity of the

and

1st

Falconer gave a discourse, in two lectures, on

the ancient animal races of India, as indicated

race.

Hills.

evening meetings of the Royal Asiatic Society were held at

Society’s

June,

Dr. Falconer, on the

of a Discourse, by

Fossil

to

a limit to antiquarian

is

have indications of the human

desire to dive further into antiquity,

we have

back

to fall

on the monuments and inscriptions constructed by nature, on the

fossil

remains of the extinct races of animals which formerly peopled the earth.

Some

of the Sewalik fossils appear to afford grounds for enter-

taining the presumption that

it

may

be possible to connect the

human

The Colossochelys Atlas, or gigantic discovered by Captain Cautley and Dr. Falconer,

epoch with very remote times. fossil tortoise

of India,

supplies a

representative of the tortoise which sustained the elephant

fit

and the infant world mogonies.

It is

in the fables of the

Pythagorean and Hindu

cos-

a point of great interest to trace back to a probable

source, a matter of belief like this, so widely connected with the speculations of

an early period of the human race.

Dr. Falconer gave a

brief historical account of the discovery of fossil remains of extinct

mammalia

commencing with the incident mentioned in Ferisliof Feroz Toghluki, a d. 1360; the discoveries of Captain Webb and Mr. Henry Colebrooke, in the elevated plain of Tibet; the Irrawaddi remains met with by Mr. Crawford, and in India,

ta’s history,

described

during the reign

by Mr.

Clift;

the Sewalik fossils

discovered by Captain

Cautley and Dr. Falconer, Captains Baker and Durand, and Colonel Colvin; the Nerbudda fossils,

by

fossils,

by Dr. Spilsbury; the Gulf of Cambay

Jumna

Dr. Lush and Lieutenant Fitzjames; and the

by Serjeant Dean.

specimens of the most remarkable

There were no

fossil species.

than five extinct species of mastodon and elephant ; latidens, (Clift);

M.

fossils,

Dr. Falconer then briefly described and exhibited

Elephantoides, (Clift);

Caut.); Elephas quadrifrons, (F.

M.

viz.

:

less

the Mastodon

Sivalensis, (Falc.

and C.); and E. Hysudrerisis,

(C.

and and

108 F.)

:

THE FOSSIL FAUNA OF

ON'

the Sewalik fossils showing that these so-called genera are undi»-

any characters derived from the form and strucThen followed the fossil species of Rhinoceros, the

tinguishable through ture of the teeth.

Hexaprotodon hippopotami, Merycopotamus,(Caut. and Falc.) a remarknew genus; Anoplotherium Sivalense; several species of Sus, and There were nearly as many fossil three species of the genus Equus. species of mastodon and elephant, as there are now species of the whole The fossil Rumiorder of Pachydermata upon the continent of India. able

nants were then described.

almost every type, cies of Giraffe, affinis,

(C.

They were

fossil or recent,

surprisingly rich, including

known

in the order; viz.,

two spe-

Camelopardalis Sivalensis, (Falc. and Caut.), and C.

and F.);

species of Camel,

Deer, Antelope, Musk, Bos,

Bubalus, Bison, in a great variety of forms, and the colossaFruminant,

Sivatherium giganteum, (C. and proaching the elephant

a

full-sized restored

in size.

F.),

bearing four horns, and nearly ap-

The Sivatherium was

illustrated with

diagram of the head.

The Carnivora were described as comprehending fossil species of Hyena, Canis, Mustelidae, Machairodus, and the new forms of Hyajnarctos, and Enhydriodon (F. and C.) There were several fossil species of Quadrumana, and forms of Rodentia and Insectivora. The Sewalik Felis,

Reptilia were exceedingly rich in forms, particularly of the Crocodiles

and Chelonians, some of which were undistinguishable from existing species order.

;

while the Colossochelys Atlas tortoise It

was

in

every part of

its

is

a prodigy of size in the

organization a true land tortoise

estimated from numerous remains, to have had a shell twelve feet long,

and six feet high. This colossal reptile has lately been described in a communication to the Zoological Society; and was illustrated by an excellent restored diagram of the inferred natural size,

eighteen feet long.

l)r.

by Mr. Scharf, Falconer speculated on the possible connexion

of this fossil form with the gigantic tortoise which figures so prominently in the

Pythagorean and Hindu cosmogonies.

In his second lecture, on the 8th instant, Dr. Falconer gave the general conclusions drawn from the Sewalik Fossil Fauna, and its bearings on the climate, geography, and geological changes of ancient India.

The first prominent character was the wonderful variety of forms. It seemed as if all the geographical divisions of the old continent, and every geological epoch from the older tertiaries down to the modern, had contributed representatives to form one comprehensive fauna in Monkeys, Camels, Girafies, ike., were mixed up with Anoplotherium, Sivatherium, &c. All the mammiferous remains which had been gone fully into, belonged to extinct species; while some, in ancient India.

THE SEWALIK HILTS.

109

regard to which the evidence was incomplete, came very near to existing species, and might ultimately prove to be identical with them.

Some

of the reptilian forms appeared to be identical with existing

The Sewalik Fauna was remarkable for a general peculiarity and for the number of transitionary forms contained in it. Half of it exhibits a parallel representation of the existing Fauna of India, and the remainder represented the forms met with in the older It contained, so far as the inquiries had yet gone, no species tertiaries. of the Marsupial, Edentate, or Cetaceous orders. The abundance of the remains in the Sewalik strata was indicated by the immense extent of That which Captain Cautley had munificently prethe collections. sented to the British Museum, amounted to about two hundred chests, forms.

of type,

averaging about four hundredweight of contents each, while other collections, nearly equal in extent,

were formed by Captains Baker and

Durand, Dr. Falconer, Colonel Colvin, and others.

Dr. Falconer then gave the geological and climatal bearings of The continent of India, at an early period of the tertiary

the question.

epoch, appears to have been a large island, situated in a bight formed

by the Himalayas and Hindoo Koosh ranges. The valleys of the Ganges and Indus formed a long estuary straight into which the drainage of the Himalayas poured its silt and alluvium. An upheavement took place, which converted these straits into the plains of India, connecting them with the ancient island, and forming the existing continent. The Sewalik Fauna then spread over the continent, from the Irrawaddi to the mouths of the Indus, two thousand miles; and, northAfter a long interval of west, to the Jhelum, fifteen hundred miles. repose, another great upheavement followed, which threw up a strip of the plains of India forming the Sewalik Hills, and increased the elevation This event, and the of the Himalayas by many thousand feet. climatal changes which

it

involved, caused the extinction of the Tibetan

and Sewalik Faunas. Dr. Falconer then discussed the climatal conditions of the case, and the changes implicated in these upheavements.

now

enjoying “the summer of the great what has taken place in Europe, there has been no decrease of temperature in that country, which has now as warm a climate, if not warmer, than it ever had, during any part of He endeavoured to show that the Sewalik Fauna the tertiary period. may have lived through a period equal to that occupied by several

He

inferred that India

is

cycle;” that, in contrast with

divisions of the tertiary epoch in Europe.

height of the Himalayas late period.

was

A

great addition to the

inferred to have been

made

at a very

1

ON THE FOSSIL FAUNA OF

10 At

Charles Lyell, Esq., at made some remarks on

the conclusion of the lecture,

invitation of the President of the Society,

He

subject of Dr. Falconer's discoveries.

said

the

the

could bear ample

lie

testimony to the value of the discoveries made by Dr. Falconer and his coadjutors in India, and expressed his belief that no

Government expe-

had ever done more than they had by their enlarge our knowledge of Natural History and

dition in a distant country

private exertions to

Museum with important

Geology, and enrich our national Dr. Falconer

the scientific

treasures.

and Captain Cautley had been separated from the rest of world, when prosecuting their investigations, and had no

access to large libraries or collections of osteology, while they were

determining the specific characters of

new

new

fossil

animals, and founding

genera, some of which supplied links, as they

had pointed

between widely distant genera, or families previously known. therefore highly creditable to their skill

that the justness of their views

and

out, It

is

acquirements,

scientific

and determinations had

since been

confirmed by Mr. Owen, and other eminent comparative anatomists in Europe.

This collection of organic remains from the Sewalik

hills

derives a novel and peculiar interest from the circumstance of their

affording the

first

example of a large number of

fossil

Vertebrata (with

very few exceptions of extinct species) procured from a country where the climate fossil

fossil

maybe presumed

to be as hot

now, as at the period when the

some of these Sub-Himalayan Vertebrata having been ascertained by Dr. Falconer to be identical animals flourished.

with species

The

fact of

living in the

still

by a considerable

same

region,

may

perhaps be explained

similarity of temperature in ancient

and modern

Nevertheless Mr. Lyell conceives that intermediate changes of

times.

may have been among the most influential causes which exterminated the greater part of the Fossil Fauna of the Sewalik hills, and he

climate

suggests that the colder temperature of that comparatively modern era,

when

erratic blocks

were drifted by

latitudes in both hemispheres,

may

ice

from the poles towards lower

have destroyed numerous species

in

India.

To determine

the relative age of the Sewalik

comparison of the

fossil shells

larger collection than will be necessary.

majority of the

we yet

fossils,

a more careful

brought home by Dr. Falconer with a

possess in

London of recent Indian species,

So far as they have yet been compared a decided

fossils

appear to be of extinct or unknown species, and

Mr. Lyell would not be surprised

if

the Sewalik strata should prove to

belong to the older Pliocene, or even the Miocene period, in which latter epoch in Europe the Palamtherium lived contemporaneously with the

Mastodon, Elephant, Hippopotamus, Dinotherium, Ape, Crocodile, and

THE SEWALIK HILLS. other recent and extinct genera of

a Fauna in

many points

mammalia and

Ill reptiles, constituting

analogous, and scarcely less rich or remarkable

than that of which the remains have been so successfully investigated

by

Mr. Lyell concluded by express-

Dr. Falconer and others in India.

ing a hope that the results of these elaborate researches would speedily

be made known to the public, and that the Government and East India

Company would

contribute funds towards the Osteological and other

necessary illustrations.

The Marquis

of

Northampton begged

to

say a few words on the

important nature of the discoveries which had just been laid before them, in addition

Mr. Lyell. It was were made in a region which empire, so that they might not be lost

to the able observations of

fortunate, he said, that these discoveries

formed a portion of a as soon as found, but

civilized

—“ penitus

our country

communicated

to the world.

toto orbe divisa”

—made

it

The situation of more incumbent

upon us as a nation to publish the results of our scientific enterprises we were less accessible than the other countries of Europe and ;

although at this

moment we were honoured by

the presence of an

Emperor and a King on our shores, such visits were necessarily few and far between. He thought that the publication of such extensive investigations and important discoveries, as those of Captain Cautley and Dr. Falconer, in geology, should be matter of national concern and, as President of the Royal Society, and one of the trustees of the British Museum, he felt it incumbent upon him to express his opinion, that the learned Societies of England should unite to call upon the Government of the country to afford means for so doing; and he had little doubt that the call would be successful. He would not sit down without ;

expressing his sincere thanks to Dr. Falconer, for the intellectual treat

he had afforded his hearers.

Lord Auckland concurred that the Royal Asiatic Society

the Royal Society, or with

able an enterprise.

fully with the noble Marquis ; and said would be most happy to co-operate with

any other

institution, in furthering so valu-

113

— On

Art. VI.

of the Mustard Tree of Scrip-

the Identification

Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., L.S. and G.S.,

ture; by J.

Materia Medica and Therapeutics King's

&c.. Professor of

,

College , London.

[Read March

N umerous attempts

16, 1844.]

have at different times been made by a variety

of authors to identify the two plants which in the authorised version of the Scriptures are translated

Mustard Tree and Hyssop.

That

these attempts have not been so satisfactory to others, as to set the

questions at rest,

evident from fresh plants being continually ad-

is

duced, even in recent works, as possessed teristics.

It

this paper, to

from

his

may be

have been more successful than preceding endeavours,

making a

Few

and which

fresh,

sumptuous attempt quirers.

to determine

fields,

have been cleared by the most never

throw

fails to

and what at

first

to

many

what has

will

baffled so

appear a pre-

many

able in-

however, are so barren, even after they seem to

grains to the careful gleaner. suit,

of the requisite charac-

inferred that these do not appear, to the author of

some any one pur-

skilful reapers, as not to yield

So, continued attention to

not only on

light,

itself,

but also on other,

Thus

appear but remotely connected subjects.

it

has been in the study of ancient for the purpose of elucidating modern

Materia Medica, and of both

in

connexion with the Botany of the

East, that the author has been led to conclusions,

date

some of the disputed points

As

this

may

require explanation,

already related', that

my

attention

fication of the natural products

which seem

to eluci-

in Biblical botany. I

was

may first

here mention, as

I

have

directed to the identi-

mentioned in ancient authors,

in con-

sequence of having, in 1825, while in medical charge of the station of Saharunpore,

Garden

there,

and of the Honourable East India Company’s Botanic been requested by the Medical Board of Bengal to

investigate the medicinal plants

the purpose of ascertaining plied with medicines

grown

how

This was for

might be sup-

in India,

imported from foreign countries. 1

and drugs of India. far the public service

instead of their being nearly all

In endeavouring to effect this im-

Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society, 19th March, 1836.

VOL. VIII.

I

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

114 portant object,

my

attention

was

making

in the first place directed to

myself acquainted with the different drugs which the natives of India

For

are themselves in the habit of employing as medicines.

pose

I

found

it

this pur-

absolutely necessary to examine the things themselves,

names by which they were commonly known. inquiry, it was necessary to become acquainted with the written works in the possession of the natives of India, as well as with their personal and traditional information. I therefore caused the works on Materia Medica to be collated by

as well as to ascertain the I

found that

soon

in

this

competent Hakims and Moonshees, among as

my

principal assistants, Sheikh

Nam

Dar,

whom

I

would mention,

commonly

called

Nanoo,

and

the head medical assistant in the Civil Hospital of Saharunpore,

Murdan Aly,

the chief plant collector, and keeper of the Herbarium

By them

Saharunpore Botanic Garden.

in the

these works, according to the Arabic alphabet,

the arrangement of

was persevered

in

but

;

the substances mentioned in each were arranged under the three heads

The works

of the Animal, the Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms.

which were collated

extend from a.d. 1892 to 1769, the first having been written shortly after the close of the classic age of the School of 1

Bagdad, the authors of which the Persian writers constantly follow.

A1 Buetar or Ibn Buetar, frequently quoted by Bochart

in

graphia Sacra,

He

1248; the

is

first

the last of the distinguished Arabs.

translations into Arabic

his

Geo-

died in

from the Greek and Sanskrit

having been made about a.d. 748, or just five hundred years before During the death of Ibn Buetar, during the Kaliphat of Al-Mansur. this period lived

Haly Abbas, Mesue, Serajnon, Ehazes, and Avicenna. for much of their information

These were themselves indebted respecting drugs, to Dioscorides.

But

to his description the Persians

Buddee, who completed his work in 770 of the Hejira, or a.d. who wrote on Medicine in the Persian language. Tohfet-al-Moomineen, written in a.d. 1069, by Meer Mohummud Mooruin; a native of Tinkaboon, in Dailim, near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. Ulfaz Udwiyeh, compiled by the physician of the Emperor Shah Jehan; translated into English, by Mr. Gladwin, and printed in 1 793. This is useful, as 1

Ilditiarat

1392.

He

is

said to be the first

giving the synonymes in Arabic, Persian, and Hindooce, in the Persian character.

Mukhzun-al-Udwiyeh, or Storehouse of Medicines, written

a.d. 1769,

and

printed at Hoogly, in 1824.

The Taleef Playfair,

Shereef, translated from the Persian by Superintending Surgeon

and published

in

Calcutta in

1833, has been referred

to

in

a few

instances.

my

return to this country in 1832, having obtained copies of the Latin Mesue, Serapion, Rhazes, and Avicenna, I have in many instances collated them with my manuscript catalogue.

Since

editions of

OF SCRIPTURE.

115

have fortunately appended the Asiatic synonymes, and have given

some account of Indian products not mentioned Arabs.

I

myself made a catalogue

in which, after the

(still

most usually received, that

synonymes

inserted the several

in

the works of the

in manuscript) of the whole,

the Arabic names, I

is,

and Hindee,

in Persian

as well as in

metamorphosed Greek. I obtained the articles, and traced them to the countries whence they were said to be derived, as well as to the animals and plants which were said to produce them j and made notes of

any remarkable

characteristics,

and the medical uses

to

which they

were applied. Being without any suitable library for such investigations, and able only to obtain a small copy of Dioscorides, (12mo, Parisiis, 154.9,) I

was

in

most cases obliged to depend upon myself, for the

The

fication of the several substances.

results of

many

identi-

of these inves-

tigations are briefly recorded in the observations on the history

uses of the different natural families of plants in

the Botany, &c., of the these materials in

my

Himalayan Mountains.

I

my

and

Illustrations of

also

made

use of

Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, in

tracing different Indian products from the works of the Arabs into

those of the Greeks, even up to the time of Hippocrates.

I

inferred

that tropical products could only travel from South to North;

that the Hindoos

them

must have ascertained

and

and used

became sufficiently famous to be obby the Greeks. Having thus traced many of

as medicines, before they

served and recorded

these Eastern products to the

was

their properties,

works of almost contemporary authors, I of them must be the same as those

many

led to conclude, that

mentioned in the Bible, especially as there blance between the Arabic and

is

often considerable resem-

Hebrew names

;

as, for

instance

:

Arab.

Heb. Abattacliim

Buteekh

Melons and Water-Melon

Adasliim

Adas

Lentils

Butzal

Butzl

Onions

Botnirn

Butum

Pistacio

Cammun

Kumoori

Cumin

Carcom

Kurkoom

Saffron

Some, again, would appear stance,

to

Nut

have an Indian origin ;

Ahalim, translated Aloes wood, which

is,

with very

as,

for in-

little

doubt,

same as the Malayan Agila, or Eagle wood, famed in ancient as in modern times. So Karpus, occurring in Esther i. 6., is translated green in the English Bible but being placed between the words which the

;

signify the colours white

and

blue,

it

would naturally appear I

2

to

be the

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

116 tiling coloured,

which was, no doubt, cotton, Karpas, from the Sanskrit

now

Karpasa,

in

And, it is further Hindee Karpas and Kapas. garden of the King’s palace

said, in the description of the court of the

and blue hangings were fastened with cords and pillars of marble. Of this we have a vivid representation in what may every day he seen in India, especially in the Hall of Audience at Delhi, where huge padded

at Susa, that these white

of fine linen

and purple

curtains, called

or blue pillars.

to silver rings

Purdahs, (and usually in stripes of white and red,

and white,) may be seen suspended from the tops of slender For this purpose, indeed, the rows of pillars in front of the

principal ruins of Persepolis appear to have been intended.

While the East,

residing I

and becoming acquainted with the manners of

in,

have often,

reading the Scriptures, been struck with the

in

brevity and force with which the sacred penmen, in describing what

was then before them, give a graphic jncture of the living manners In the absence of medals, monuments, and inscriptions, and where the mouldered ruins of mighty cities allow us with difficulty

of the day.

out even their

to trace

as the wind, in

sites,

which

we

are presented with the astonishing

Europe are Heeting and changeable the East, give living representations of those which

spectacle, that manners,

in

characterised the residents of the very same regions, more than three

So conspicuously

thousand years ago.

is

this the case, that

works

have been written describing the manners, customs, and other characteristics of the East,

passages sacred

for the express purpose of elucidating obscure

the Scriptures, as

in

Some

Scriptures.

tions of the Bible

Roberts’ Oriental Illustrations of the

again,

as

Dr.

Taylor, in

his

Illustra-

from the Monuments of Egypt, and Athenaeum,

Nos. 507, 508, and 509, have had recourse to the works of Rosseliui,

Champollion,

Wilkinson, and

others,

on

Egyptian

antiquities,

revealing most minute particulars of the public and private the

Egyptians, and thus

affording

life

as

of

“important because undesigned

confirmations of the historical veracity of the Old Testament.” It is hardly necessary to mention how the geography of Palestine, and the other countries which were the scenes of the transactions

described in Scripture, has in like manner, and from the earliest times,

been minutely examined for the purpose of illustrating the Scrqhures.

And

yet even in this department, from the more careful researches,

assisted

by

the knowledge of Arabic, of Mr. Eli Smith, unexpected

made by

discoveries have been

most interesting and instructive lers observe,

“There

is

in

Messrs. Robinson and Smith, in their travels.

On

this subject, these travel-

Palestine another kind of tradition, with

which the monasteries have had nothing

to do,

and of which they have

OF SCRIPTURE. apparently in every age, vation of the ancient

Hebrew names

known

or nothing

:

I

mean, the preser-

names of places among the common

people. The Aramaean form

of places continued current in their

long after the times of the selves in the

little

117

New

Testament; and maintained them-

mouths of the common people

by Greeks and Romans

in spite of the efforts

made

them by others derived from their own tongues. After the Muhammedan Conquest, when the Aramaean language gradually gave place to the kindred Arabic, the proper names of places, which the Greeks could never bend to their orthography, found here a ready entrance, and have thus lived on, upon the lips of the Arabs, whether Christian or Muslim, townsmen or Bedouins, even unto our own day, almost in the same form in which they have been transmitted to us in the Hebrew Scriptures.”

also p.

to supplant

Travels,

i.,

375. I

myself have long been of opinion that

bestowed on the material substances mentioned

if

similar pains were

in the Bible,

and equal

trouble taken to ascertain the natural history of the countries where

the several events are described as having taken place, or with which

was commercial communication, much light would be thrown upon the sacred writings. For the products of nature, whether minerals, plants, or animals, are similar in nature and properties to what

there

they were when them.

As

man

first

made

use

those only which were

or properties

would usually be

of,

or

became acquainted with

most remarkable

cited, so

many

appearances

in

of those

named

in the

Bible might be successfully ascertained, and afford most convincing proofs of books having been written at the times, and in the places to

which they are usually ascribed.

names of plants,

places,

we have

In this inquiry, as in that of the

not only the traditional names of animals,

and minerals to assist us, but also those which are registered in works on Materia Medica; as in these most of the useful

the Arabic

substances of antiquity are described. called Erez; lentils,

Adus;

Thus the cedar continues

the broom, translated juniper,

is still

to

be

known

by the name Retliam: and many others might be adduced. Considerable success has no doubt attended several of the attempts of naturalists to identify the natural history of the Bible.

our attention on the present occasion to plants only, Celsius, a friend of Linnaeus,

who

fifty

what

did for the plants of the Bible

Bochart had done for the animals, and quite as well. labour of

Confining

we have Olaus

He gave

years to the elucidation of the plants of the Bible

seems to have exhausted the learning of the subject, as far as

;

the

and

illustra-

from Greek and Roman writers, as well as from the works of the Jews, and of many Arabic authors are concerned. He also travelled tions

118

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

and being acquainted with botany, first gave precision to Hence many of his determinations of the plants of the Bible remain undisputed. Other plants have been determined by the few naturalists who have visited the Holy Land for the purpose of in the East,

our knowledge.

identifying those of the Bible.

three years (1546

— 1549)

who

Belon,

travelled in the East for

has given considerable attention to the

plants and animals of the Bible, in his “ Observations sur Plusieurs

Singularity et Clioses Memorables trouvees en Grece, Asie, Judee,

Egypte, Arabie, et autres Pays Etrangers: Paris, 1588.”

— 1579),

same century (1576 Mesopotamia; and made it

in the

Ilauwolf,

travelled in Palestine, Syria, and

his especial business to

make

himself ac-

His travels were translated

quainted with the plants of those regions.

and thus frequently escape

into English under the auspices of Ray,

notice,

two volumes are usually called Ray’s Travels. These have the advantage of valuable catalogues prepared by Ray, of the plants found as the

in

the East

by Belon, Rauwolf, and

were published

in the

Hasselquist, an enthusiastic pupil

Land

Ho

for the express purpose of

died at

himself,

Smyrna

tina in Linnaei Opuscula.

Holy Land.

Holy

and the Flora Pales-

into English in 1766,

Besides these, Labillardiere, Bove, Auclier-

Eloy, and other travellers, have

the

of Linnaeus, travelled in the

examining the plants of the Bible.

His papers were published by Linnaeus

in 1752.

and a translation

made

But we are

plants of Palestine.

Rauwolf’s own plants

others.

Flora Orientalis of Gronovius; Leyden, 1755.

us acquainted with

Russel has given a

and Forskal, Del isle, and

others, of

many

of the

without a complete Flora of

still

list

many

Aleppo; Egypt aud

of the plants of

of those of

Arabia.

Notwithstanding the exertions of these several naturalists, of the plants of the Bible

mentators, nothing

is

still

considered so uncertain, as the determinations

which have already been arrived thors has ascertained

many

remain undetermined, aud by some com-

some

Though each

at.

of the above au-

plants, or confirmed the determinations of

others, the success has yet not been so complete, as

expected from the exertions which have been made.

might have been I

am

not aware

of any modern botanist having applied himself to the study of the

Flora of Palestine, for the purpose of elucidating the natural history of the Bible.

The

difficulties of identifying objects

doubt considerable, as a knowledge History,

but also

converse

in,

useful

of

is

known

to the ancients are

some of the vernacular languages,

with the natives, and consult the works

plants

or

products

may

be

no

required, not only of Natural

described.

We

in

to

hold

which the

are

besides

OF SCRIPTURE. without the proper means

We

for

making

119

satisfactory

investigations.

do not yet possess a detailed Flora of Palestine, with the native

names, properties, and uses of the several plants, and the situaWith a simple Flora only, we should tions in which they are found.

among some thousand

be at a loss

upon the

plants, to determine

hundred or so which are mentioned

The

in the Bible.

which any particular plants possess, or the uses

to

properties

which they are

applied, necessarily restrict the attention to a smaller number, while

the present native

Hebrew, lead us

to

name might

without this assistance.

loss for,

shall find that

in

some

cases,

an identification, which

But even

from

we

its

similarity to the

should have been at a

wo

this is not sufficient, for

though some of the vernacular names are somewhat

Hebrew, yet this is not the case with many Yet these plants may have names in some of the cognate languages, which are so similar to the Hebrew, as to leave no reasonable doubt of their original identity. Even some of the Greek and Latin names are not so dissimilar, but that we may often suspect that they Many however of the substances mentioned indicate the same thing. in the Bible were the produce of commerce, and obtained from distant For these, a knowledge of the natural history and lancountries. guages of Syria and Palestine are without value. We must follow the routes of commerce, and trace them to the countries whence they

similar to the ancient others.

are said to have been obtained.

We

shall find in

many

instances that

similar substances continue to be produced in those countries, are objects of

and

in

still

commerce, and continue to be used for the same purposes,

some

cases, present us

even with so great a similarity

as to give us every reasonable assurance, that

we

in

name,

clearly identify in

the present product, the ancient article of commerce. It

was

in identifying

some of these

said to be the products of India, that to the subject.

articles of ancient

my

attention

was

commerce,

first

directed

In following Indian products with Indian names, from

India to Greece, as mentioned and described in the works of the

Greeks,

I inferred, as I

have already

stated, that their properties

must

have been investigated, and the substances made use of by the natives of India,

become

before they could become

articles of foreign

commerce.

known Hence

to distant nations, I

tled to infer the antiquity to a certain degree, of medicine

Hindoos

(

v

.

among

Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine).

course of these inquiries

I

and

conceived myself entithe

In the

perceived that the same course of inves-

some of the subthem appeared to be

tigation could be usefully pursued, for ascertaining

stances mentioned in the Bible; in fact,

many

the very same substances as those mentioned

of

by the Greeks.

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

120

The works of nature through and of

agreeable, would be the

to

were useful or

for such as

By

be employed in early times.

vernacular languages,

in the

these

which

retain a surprising degree of uniformity to their ancient forms,

also

we

first

and by the names

properties,

ages retain uniformity of structure

all

Those most conspicuous

properties.

W

e must, howexamine the history of the several substances in the only works which contain any detailed or special notice respecting them, that is,

are led to considerable certainty in our results.

ever,

in those of

Among

Materia Medica, or the Accounts of Drugs.

ancient times, as in the present day

in

shall find, that almost everything

is

among

these

Oriental nations,

we

mentioned which has any pro-

With this study we must conjoin a knowledge of the Natural History, or the Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology of the countries whence the substances were obtained. We perty either useful or agreeable.

shall thus attain a degree of certainty in our results,

which

many

to

appear surprising, and which will give a degree of precision and

will

correctness in our inferences and conclusions, respecting the commerce and intercourse among ancient nations, of which the subject, from its remoteness and dearth of facts, did not seem to be susceptible. In prosecuting such researches,

necessary to

it

is,

I

conceive, in the

determine the principles upon

conducted, and also, what kind of evidence factory, as determining that

Some

of these points

may

first

place,

which they should be

we should

consider satis-

any particular points had been made

out.

appear too obvious to require being insisted

on; nevertheless they have been entirely neglected in some investigations on these and similar subjects.

Confining ourselves at present to Biblical plants only, that

any plant adduced, should correspond

supposed to be. it is

1st.

is

made.

the products

or yield

penmen, or we ought still

ought to be found

It

which allusion

described, or to

the properties,

in properties,

in the

it is

essential

with that,

countries

it is

where

2ndly. It should possess

ascribed to

it

by the sacred

show that such opinions were, or are properties and products. 3rdly. As the

to be able to

entertained respecting

its

above would only amount to probability,

consequence of the numbers and often useful for the same purposes, the plant ought to have a name in some of the cognate languages, either ancient or modern, or better if in both, which has some similarity to the Hebrew name. In the same way with an article of commerce, we ought to be able to prove that it is, or was, obtained of plants

growing

in

the

same

in

situation,

from the direction, or the countries named or pointed out, and that has the properties which are ascribed to the ancient drug. also,

if

possible,

to

show

that

it

has a

name

in

We

it

ought

some of the languages

OF SCRIPTURE.

Hebrew

is similar to that employed Greek languages, or one of which that employed

modern commerce, which

in

or

in

of ancient or

the

121

these languages, seems to be only a translation.

Taking these principles as my guide, I shall endeavour to keep closely in view in determining the plant which is translated Mustard Tree; and subsequently, I shall treat of Hyssop in a

them

similar manner.

New

The Mustard Tree of the the

common mustard

because the

and

requisites;

Testament has frequently engaged

commentators.

of

attention

It

plant

is

continues

still

the peculiarities of that alluded to in Scripture

sown

a small seed ; being

in a

garden

all

which are combined

to find a plant in

it is difficult

undetermined,

considered not to possess

that

;

is,

the all

one producing

growing into a herb, and then

;

which afforded shade and shelter among its boughs In order to ascertain whether we can find any the fowls of the air.

into a large tree, to

such plant,

it

mustard tree

which

it

is

is

necessary to examine

passages in which

the

we may know

mentioned, that

the

the characteristics

by

was, and should in the present day, be found to be distin-

guished.

The mustard tree is by our Saviour at the heaven

is

like to a grain of

in his field:'’ (32,) it is

grown

“Which

the birds of the air is

indeed

is

among

herbs,

in

Mark

xiii.

31,

“The kingdom

the least of all seeds; but

and becometh a

in the

31

iv.

;

branches thereof.”

and the

tree

And

Luke

when

tree, so that

is

shooting out great branches, “so that the fowls of the air

under the shadow of

of

which a man took, and sowed

seed,

come and lodge

mentioned

one of the parables spoken

in

Matthew

mustard

the greatest

it is

same parable

mentioned

first

sea-side;

The

recorded as

may

lodge

The kingdom of God “ is like a grain of mustard seed, which a man took, and cast into his garden and it grew, and waxed a great tree and the fowls of the air lodged” (Kareo-Kpcwo-tc, built nests, Matthew and Mark, Karan kt^vow, make their abode) “in the branches of it.” The mustard tree is also mentioned by our Saviour in Matthew xvii. 20, “If ye have it.”

in

xiii.

;

faith as

19,

;

a grain of mustard seed,”

used metaphorically

and nearly

in the

among

same words

grain of mustard seed

?

kokkop cnvcnrecos;

the Jews, and in

Luke

an expression meaning the smallest part:

xvii. 6.

In the original, the

and described as the smallest of seeds, “ piKporepov pep ccrrt naprcop rap mrepparaipj' which grows into a SerSpoc, or tree St. Luke says that it becomes a great is

called “kokkco

aLvcmtcos,'"

;

tree, 8ev8pov peya.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in elucidating these passages, in consequence of the term

usually denoting garden

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

122

employed

herbs in opposition to wild plants, being

which was produced from the

plant

mustard in

a

tree,

Though distinguished as garden or plantation, this grew

but into a bevbpov pcya, great

Making

all

of expression,

arboreous in

the

tree.

due allowance for the figurative and the Oriental form it

does seem evident that the plant here indicated was

habit

though

;

it

certainly

may

appear

contrary to

great branches of which birds would build their nests. to

take this term

excluded, as few are

fit

On

build their nests.

for such a purpose, at the season this

it

in

autumn and reaped

grown

if

we

birds

in Syria

the

in spring,

But here again

for the purpose.

would lead them

reply, that their instinct

secure locality, than a crop which

and watchmen, and

in the

when

might be observed, that both

and Egypt, the crops being sown

cultivator

tree,

Indeed,

most herbaceous plants would be

literally,

plants might be sufficiently

we may

sown

also not ouly into a Sevbpov,

nature that a herb of the garden should ever grow into a

were

grain of

the smallest of seeds

seed.

KJ/7TOS,

to designate the

kokkov aivcnrews,

to select a more was constantly disturbed by the

down.

liable to be cut

It

is

however

quite possible to have a tree, cultivated almost like a herb, as

may

seen in the Mulberry cultivation of Bengal, where the object

to

is

be

have

and herbaceous leaves, as food for the delicate silk-worm. Commentators have usually taken it for granted that the common mustard plant, or some nearly allied species, is the plant; and have attempted various modes of explaining what appears to them the soft

several discrepancies in the parable of the

Browne

says, “ If

we

recollect that the

Mustard Tree.

mustard

seed,

the smallest of seeds, yet

may

believed to be the smallest of such as are apt to

grow

simply and

in

substance, and

view

itself

become a kind of

This

tree.”

is

Sir

though

Thomas it

be not

very well be into

a ligneous

probably the proper

we are informed by Buxtorf, by Rosenmiiller (Botany of the Bible, p. 104), that the later Hebrews used proverbially to compare to a mustard seed, any thing very small and insignificant; and he refers for the proverbial use of to take of the subject, especially as

as quoted

the expression Garghir hachardal, to Buxtorf’s Lex. Cliald. Talmud, p.

no

822.

On

literal

this,

Rosenmiiller remarks that, “In a proverbial simile,

accuracy or strictness

is

to be expected,

therefore not to be surprised that the mustard seed

being

‘

smaller than

all

other seeds,’ although

it

is

and we ought is

well

spoken of as

known

that

smaller seeds are to be found.”

Most have adopted the

idea,

that

the

parable of the

common

Mustard Seed producing a large tree may be best explained by supposing that this is caused by luxuriant growth in a richer soil and

OF SCRIPTURE. warmer

123

Dr. Clarke, for instance, observes,

climate.

“Some

soils

more luxuriant than others, and the climate much warmer, same plant to a size and perfection far beyond what a poorer

On

colder climate, can possibly do.”

this I

may

being

raise the soil,

observe, that

it

or a

does

that plants which are at home and flourish and climate of Europe, will, when cultivated in a warmer The the same time drier climate grow more luxuriantly.

by any means follow

not

in the soil

and

at

majority of them will, on the contrary, wither

away

or be dwarfed.

In conformity to the foregoing view, Sclieuchzer has described and figured (Physica Sacra,

Tom.

viii.,

Tab. dclxxxiii) a mustard

p. 59,

plant which grows several feet high, with tapering stalk; and which

spreads into

many

The Sinapis

branches.

Li mue us, is

erucoides of

adduced as a species attaining considerable

also

and having a

size,

Captains Irby and Mangles, in their journey

wood-like structure.

from Bysan to Adjeloun, met with the mustard plant growing wild, as high as their horses’ heads.

Mr. Frost, a few years obtained considerable

published a small pamphlet which

since,

attention

among

men, in which he

literary

attempted to prove that Phytolacca dodecandra was the SzvSpov peya of the

and

Scripture,

its

seed the kokkov

above plant grows abundantly

c

He

nvcmeus.

Palestine ; that

in

asserts that the

has the smallest

it

seed of any tree and attains as great, or even greater altitude than any other in that country, of which it is a native. As the only attempt at anything like a proof is, that the North Americans call ;

P. decandra, poke weed,

or wild mustard,

received

scientific

the

sujjport of

men,

opinion

this

because

is

it

has not

never

known

that the plant adduced has ever been found in Palestine, or even in Asia. it is necessary to determine what are Mustard Tree of Scripture, and what we

Before proceeding further, the characteristics of the

must look In the

for, in first

any plant supposed

place,

it

appears to

called a tree, perennial in nature, to

to be

me

it.

that

it

and woody

must be what in texture

;

is strictly

and growing

some considerable size. It ought, moreover, among the trees of the have a small seed, for it does not appear necessary that its

forest, to

seed should be the smallest of all seeds.

Nor indeed

is

it

probable

that the smallest seed of

any

the smallest of

The Sinapis or Mustard Plant of now commonly understood as the mustard

all

seeds.

similar

properties.

For

indeed of any garden herb,

is

2ndly.

what is some analogous species of

Scripture, if not plant, or

tree, or

we

Sinapis, ought to be a tree

shall

find

that

the

ancients

having often

grouped together plants and drugs, not so much from resemblance in

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

124 external

appearance as from the possession

of similar

properties.

Thus the black and white Hellebore, the black and white Bryony, the greater and lesser Centaury, were produced by plants having no external resemblance to each other; but the drugs which they yield have similar medical properties. 3rdly. The plant ought to have a name in the language of the country similar to that, by which the

common mustard None of the to

meet the

though tings,

little

which

plant

distinguished.

is itself

me

plants hitherto adduced appear to

taken notice

satisfactorily

to the purpose,

are the quotations from Talmudical wri-

of,

however,

are,

Much more

of the subject.

difficulties

disparaged by Rosenmiiller and others,

because they seem to suppose that the passages alluded

to,

apply only

common mustard plant. Thus the Babylon Talmud says, there was left to a man in Schechem, by his father, a mustard tree having

to the

number being taken was found wood was sufficient to cover the shed of a potter. So in the Jerusalem Talmud, R. Simeon Ben C'halogta says, “ A chardal tree was in my field, which I was wont to three boughs of chardal, and one of the

mustard ; and

to afford nine cabs of

men climb

climb, as

these passages,

as

common mustard

if

its

Instead of animadverting on

into a fig tree.”

they were exaggerated statements respecting the

plant,

it

would have been more philosophical to have any tree of Palestine to which the above

inquired whether there was description

and name could apply

:

and

also,

what was

likely to

been the name by which our Saviour spoke of the mustard

tree,

have

when

addressing in parables the people of Syria in the language of their country.

The language

in

doubt the Hebrew

which our Saviour addressed one of the cognate

or

his parables

was no

the

Syriac

dialects,

as

Western Aramaic, which formed the common language of Palestine at that time ; and both are so closely allied to the Arabic, that many words are identical in all three. Thus the above chardal, in the Hebrew signifying mustard, is no doubt the same word as the or

Arabic

/chardal, signifying mustard,

out the East.

But the

we have only

the

been spoken.

New

Greek

Though

Testament having been written in Greek, where the Arabic chardal may have

this

word chardal

three passages, in all of which

Thus

in

(

it

it

was

all

is

translated nettles in the authorised

31, “I went by the field grown over with thorns, and .30,

charullim) had covered the face thereof.”

is said,

“Among

not found in the Old Tes-

(^VIPT charul,) occurs in no less than

it is

Proverbs xxiv.

slothful, &c., and, lo,

seed, through-

sinapis,

tament, a word very similar to

version.

and mustard

the bushes they brayed

:

Again,

in

of the nettles

Job xxx.

7, it

under the nettles (charullim

OF SCRIPTURE.

125

And, thirdly, in Zephaniali, ii. 9. and commentators have no means of determining what intended, different ones, chiefly of a thorny nature, have been

they were gathered together.”

As

translators

plant

is

upon hy

fixed

different

number

greatest

means a

For

is

have however had the

we have no proof

but

:

appear needful that

nettle, neither does it

thorny or prickly plant sage.

Nettles

authors.

of suffrages

it

only appears that

it

fields

uncultivated or neglected become covered with weeds;

and

may

take shelter

being very similar to cliarul

this

may have

it

idlers

The Arabic khardal, being evidently

among. chardal, that

as,

the

cliarul

or that a

;

necessary to complete the sense of the pas-

in the first passage,

passage of Job, such

that

should

,

in, or

which are

and

the same as the I feel

in

the

take refuge

Hebrew

disposed to think

same meaning, or be applicable to one of the and we know that nothing so readily

kinds of khardal or mustard

;

springs up in neglected corn-fields as the charlock , chadloclc, or Jcedlock, as

it

different parts of this country,

called in

is

and which

is

the

sinapis arvensis of botanists. (Art. Charul, Cyclop. Bibl. Literature.)

Before proceeding to shew to what plant the term khardal appears to

be applied in the present day,

I

may

first

mention how

my own

was directed to the subject. This was in consequence of being asked, some time last year, by the Right Rev. the Bishop of Lichfield, then Principal of King’s College, London, whether I was acquainted with what was supposed to be the Mustard Tree of Scripture. I replied that I was not, as I had paid attention chiefly to those substances which had formed objects of ancient commerce, rather than to the natural products of Palestine; but that I had no doubt that some plant indigenous in that country would be found possessed of attention

me that Mr. and student of the College, then attending the theological class, had said, that he was perfectly well acquainted Dr. Lonsdale added, and that his description of the tree with it.

the

qualities.

requisite

Ameuny,

seemed

His Lordship then informed

a native of Syria,

to correspond

with everything that was required.

On

seeing

and asking him whether he knew any tree which answered to the Mustard Tree of Scripture, he replied, that he was perfectly well acquainted with one ; had often seen it, as it was Mr. Ameuny,

common enough

was

called

khardal. tard.

in the

for a

He

I

;

neighbourhood of J erusalem ; and that

man

to stand

he replied, that

it

observed, that that

said,

“So

it

is;

and

it

was large

asked him what

it

was everywhere known by the name

of

under on horseback.

is

it is

the

I

common Arabic name

for

mus-

also applied to the seeds of this tree,

which are universally employed throughout Syria as a substitute for mustard, of which they have exactly the taste and properties.”

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

126

Mr. Arneuny was unable ing

me any

to give

further information respect-

it.

this, but without paying any particular attention to had conceived that Vitex Agnus Castus might be the

Previously to the subject,

I

Mustard Tree of Scripture, as

it

woody

its

shrub, with

piper

agreste.

paridese,

I

stem, and

grows

also thought that

which grow

to the size of a good-sized

seeds have sometimes been called it

might be one of the larger Caphave berried fruit contain-

to a considerable size,

is described by Belon as “ Capparis Arabica fructu ovi magnitudine, semine piperis instar acre.”

ing numerous small seeds, and one of which

The flower-buds and seeds of the caper of Mount Sinai, capparis are pickled and the latter are called JilJil-i-jiblul, mountain pepper. But as there did not appear any proof iu favour of any of these, the investigation was not pursued. Having ascertained that the name khardal was in the present day applied to a tree in Palestine, the next point was to ascertain its name and nature, so that it might be seen whether it was in all points In referring to the ordinary Arabic answerable to what was required. dictionaries, and lists of drugs in the Latin editions of Avicenna, Serapion, and Rhazes, chardal and cardel are given as synonymes of sinapis only. In the Ulfaz Udwiyeh, translated by Mr. Gladwin, sinaica,

;

are mentioned:

three kinds of reiy,

1st,

translated wild mustard, are given as

and the

'3rd kind,

No. 853,

is

of Asiatic Materia Medica, of race, that is

No. 844, khirdul; Hindee,

2nd, No. 784, where khirdul hiree and junglee-rie,

mustard.

khardal,

In

my own

the khurdal of Forskal, according to Delisle; and this

allied to

sinapis

integrifolia,

khardal lurree, or junglee is difficult

race,

say what plant

to

catalogue

given as the synonym

is

Sinapis juncea, &c. (Decand. Prod.

mustard.

is,

synonymes of hirasha roomee;

khirdul farsce.

is

&c. (Decand. wild mustard, intended.

3.

ii.

is

612.)

is

ii.

612.)

clearly

2.

the second, though

it

Khardal roomee, Persian,

hirasha roomee, translated in Ilindee junglee raee, or wild mustard, of

which the

seeds, like those of the former kinds, are described as being

stimulant.

But neither

Udwiyeh, was of the plant. reference to

in this list

nor in the previous quoted Ulfaz

any information respecting the nature But the term roomee is by Asiatics usually used in

I

able to obtain

Constantinople, or to the Turkish empire; and

I

may

observe that, the kind called hirasha farsee, or Persian mustard, in the Ulfaz Udwiyeh,

is

called khardal roomee, or Turkish mustard, in

my

notes.

Finding by

this

investigation that several kinds of khardal, or

127

OF SCRIPT U R E. mustard, were tree of Syria,

name

in

it

to Asiatics,

was extremely

scientific

possessed

among

known

works,

and that

we might

that

so

name was applied

this

desirable to obtain,

For

my

other places, I referred to the index of

a

its

ascertain whether

the characteristics of the mustard tree.

all

to

possible,

if

it

this purpose,

Illustrations of

Himalayan Botany, where several Arabic names are mentioned, together with the names of the plants to which they are applicable. In this I did not find Jchardal, but a word so similar to it, that I was induced to refer to it, in the body of the work; and was surprised to

name but

find that it referred to a tree which, not only in

corresponded very closely with what

perties,

is

in pro-

required for the mustard

For instance, under the natural family of Chenopode® it is that, “Salvadora, which is placed in this order by Jussieu,

tree.

mentioned

but by Bartling in Myrsine®,

is

a genus

common

to India, Persia,

and Arabia; and the same species, S. persica, occurs in the Circars, north of India, and the Persian Gulf. Along with this another sjiecies is found on the banks of the Jumna, and from Delhi to Saharunpore. S. indica, nob.jdl of the Hindus, irak hindee of Persian authors,

This

is

who

also give this tree the

/S’,

persica

called

is

Materia Medica.

name

or tooth-brush tree

,

1

.

in

A decoction of the bark of the stem is considered

(Roxb.)

red berries are said to be edible/’ p.

Miswak

of

North India, arak and irak in works on The bark of the root is acrid, and raises blisters. Khurjal

Royle,

Illust. Bot.

tonic, and the Him. Mountains,

319.

On

referring to the

Flora Indica, vol. the tree

his

in

Telungu name

is

i.,

p.

;

of Dr. it

may

Roxburgh mentioned above, the

be seen that a figure

Coromandel Plants,

vol.

Pedda-warago-wenki.

sized tree, a native of

common

work 389,

i.,

He

pi.

describes

and ripe

fruit all the

minute,

much

is

given of

of which it

the

as a middle-

most part of the Circars, though by no means in every soil produces flowers

seems to grow equally well

it

26,

year round.

;

This fruit consist of “ berries very

smaller than a grain of black

pepper;

smooth, red

juicy, seed one.”

Of

Roxburgh continues to say have a strong aromatic smell, and taste much like The bark of the root is remarkably acrid, bruised and

the properties of the plant Dr.

“ The

berries

garden

cresses.

applied to the skin, soon raises blisters, for which purpose the natives often use

it

as a stimulant,

;

very considerable powers.” 1

Can

Affghans

this

it

promises to be a medicine

Roxb.,

1.

c., p.

possessed of

390.

be the plant to which Burckhardt alludes as the tree of which the tooth-brushes on their pilgrimage to Mecca ?

make

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

128

This plant was described

1780 by Retz,

in

in Obs. Bot. iv., p. 24,

under the name of Embelia grossularia, who stated that he obtained from Konig,

it

from

mentioned

in his

the natives by the

name

and

it is

growing

in

Bombay and

growing near the sea

The

late Sir

His description

Tranquebar.

Colonel Sykes fouud

respects with that of Roxburgh.

Manuscript Catalogue, of meru.

its

p.

it

agrees in the

250, as

in

all

Dekhan known to

In the catalogue of the plants

vicinity, Salvartora persica

is

mentioned as

both Concans.

in

A. Burnes, in his voyage up the Indus, mentions Sal-

radora persica (Travels,

vol.

with near Mooltan, and

in all

iii.,

122) under the

p.

name peeloo,

met

as

the tracts of saline soil that border on

the Indus and Punjab rivers and especially in the Delta of the Indus, and lower parts of Sinde ; and states that its seeds in taste resemble water-cresses, and that he found the fruit exposed for sale in the ;

He

bazars of Mooltan.

supposes

it

Arrian’s Indian History, as having

and growing

laurel,

the plant alluded to in

in places within the influence

there does not appear to

me any

Welsted

it

mentions

also

to be

leaves resembling those of the

occurring on

as

of the sea.

proof of this identity. the

But

Lieutenant

southern

coast

of

Arabia.

Before proceeding further in attempting to identify this tree with the Mustard Tree of Scripture,

it

description of this plant, which actions, for 1749, p. 491, in a

desirable to refer to the original

is

we

find

in

the Philosophical Trans-

paper written

French, by Laurence

in

Garcin, M.D., F.R.S., of Neufchatel in Switzerland, but translated

by

Dr. Stack. is woody. It grows sometimes into a tree, sometimes a shrub, and sometimes into a bush. Its native countries are the parts adjacent to the Persic Gulf, the North of Arabia, and the South of Persia It is most commonly found along high roads, and in dry

This plant

into

'.

and low

places, delighting in the hottest

even than palm

and

Dr. G. had not met with

trees.

driest places, it

where there are regular rainy seasons every year. the Gulf call this shrub

ably in size;

is

by

the

name

of Tckuch.

more

so

in Surat or Bengal,

The inhabitants

of

It varies consider-

It produces a number and very tufted branches, which most comthe ground. Its bark is moderately thick,

usually a larger sort of shrub.

of boughs without order,

monly hang down

to

sometimes smooth, sometimes in the is

full

of cracks, of an ash colour, both

trunk and branches, but green on the tender shoots.

everywhere

brittle,

and nearly of a straw

The wood

colour.

Mr. Bennett informs me that there are specimens in the British from Muscat, collected by Aucher-Eloy. 1

Museum

Wjfl&Lfy *$$, :

l?«Sahi

"i-

Mound ofSconce

,

eleven miles West from J$c/l(tr

Dvawnfiy LieudE.Laxvford (

,

A. .represents

Mao'ms fi/c

F/u/imters.

Aftnuni.)

OF SCRIPTURE. The leaves

129

shape nearly resemble those of the sea purslain,

in

and sometimes those of the misletoe of the apple

They

tree.

often covered with excrescences of different sizes and shapes

are

—round,

and sometimes very large. They are the work of the flying which abound in those parts. The flowers are disposed in clusters on the tops of the shoots.

oval,

insects

These

bunches

of

flowers

entirely

resemble

those

of

the

vine

blossom.

The pistil or embryo of the fruit and grows into a berry, in the

sions,

'afterwards swells in all dimenshape,

and

size of

(currant?) of three or four lines in diameter; at green, then a bright purple,

berry

is

and

a gooseberry of a pale

first it is

in its maturity, of a

dark

Each

red.

supported on a strong thick pedicle, attached to a small Its substance is

branch.

white transparent

flesh, full of juice,

much

resembling jelly, which surrounds a single round grain, marbled with black or brown spots, as in the tortoise-shell, when is

as large as a grain of hemp-seed, that

meter; but sometimes

less.

It is properly

has a cavity, which incloses a sort of colour, yellowish on

stance,

which

is

its

outward

pretty firm.

is,

little

surface,

ripe.

This grain

about two lines in diaa kernel, or a shell that

round almond of a straw

and pale

in its

inward sub-

All the parts of our plant have an acid,

pungent taste and smell, vastly like our garden cresses, but more biting. The fruit is the most pungent part of the whole. The smell of the plant

person

is

is

perceptible at seven or eight paces distance,

when a

to leeward.

The natives of the country use it against the bite of the scorpion, They also by rubbing the wounded part with its bruised leaves. employ its warm infusion to wash the bodies of their children, in order to keep them healthy; and they feed camels with it, who love it naturally.

Dr. Garcin finding that this plant did not correspond in characters

with any previously described plant, established a new genus, and applied to

it

the

name

Salvadora, in honour of M. Salvador, of Bar-

celona, a very skilful botanist, of tion in the Introduction to his

whom M.

Tournefort makes men-

Institutiones Rei Herbare®,

where he

him the Phoenix of his nation, because he was really the richest naturalist, and the most expert botanical traveller that Spain ever produced. Dr. Garcin also herborized with him before the siege in 1713 and 1714; and says, “I thought it incumbent on me to do honour to his memory, by giving his name to this plant, and I have done it with the greater justice, because it is certain that had he lived, he would have given a history of the plants of Spain, which by

styles

vol. virr.

K

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

130

accuracy would have afforded much pleasure to the botanists of

its

Europe.” This plant

is

also described

by Forskal,

in his Flora iEgyptiaco-

name

Arabica, published by Niebuhr in 1775, under the

of Cissus

arborea, which he found at several places, as he mentions that at

Surdud

it

is

Hashad

at

by (

the Arabs called

Kdhsad),

He

vilLJ" hebath.

Arabs; that the

the

tree

also states that

fruit

is

edible,

called

is

it

when

is

Sj\ orh, and the

;

that

an antidote against poisons, as to be celebrated

the

bruised

it is

also so

famed as

in

a song

by some

:

Olxill

He

when

fruit

by

held in high esteem

ripe; the leaves

applied upon the tumours called harm, &c.

Arab poet

rah';

redif; at Dabhi,

t_jL>

describes

it

as

i-J

a shrub with smooth stem, opposite drooping

branches, with the flowers arranged in terminal branches, which are

afterwards followed by berries about the size of a pea, and containing

a single seed.

Mr. Bennett informs me that the Salvadora persica was found in Egypt by Sir G. Wilkinson. Delisle gives us the locality “in Monte Gharab Egypti superioris.’’ Endlicher, in his Genera Plantarum, gives as the geographical distribution of Salvadora persica, “per Asiam mediam, ah India superiore ad mare Mediterraneum, per Africam borealem a Nilo ad Senegambiam 2 .”

1

In Indian writers we see that

irak, is applied to the

same

tree.

2

Mr. Johnson, in his recently published and interesting work, intitled, Travels in Southern Abyssinia, says, “ The Moomen, or tooth-brush tree (Salvadora perSeveral of the Hy Soumaulee brought me a handsica) abounded at Sakeitaban. ful of the berries to eat; but I was soon obliged to call out, ‘ Hold, enough!’ so warmly aromatic was their flavour. This singular fruit grows in drooping clusters of flesh-coloured, mucilaginous berries, the size of our

common

containing a single round seed, about as large as a pepper-corn.

red currants, each

The

taste at first

and not unpleasant, and by some, I think, would be considered very After some little time, if many are eaten, the warmth in the agreeable indeed. palate increases considerably, and reminded me of the effect of pepper, or of very hot cress. As we approached the river Hawash, I found these trees growing more

is

sweet,

abundantly.

“ The moomen forms a dense bush, some yards in circuit, and as their round leaves, of a bright green colour, afford an excellent shade, Reposing they form the favorite lairs, both of savage man and of wild beasts. upon the ground, near the roots, free from underwood and thorns, whoever, or

sleek, velvety,

OF SCRIPTURE. Haying traced in properties

this tree,

with what

131

which so singularly coincides

name and

in

required for the Mustard Tree of Scripture,

is

from the extremity and coasts of the Peninsula to the North-Western provinces of India, and from that to the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, is

necessary for our purpose to ascertain that

But

tine.

was long

in this I

it is

unsuccessful, as I

also

it

found in Pales-

was unable

to find

any

notice in systematic botanical works, or in local Floras, of the pre-

valence of Salvadora persica, to the north of the situations in which

Forskal had found

history; but I

any of the

lists

was

still

to the

who had paid some

books of travels in Palestine,

subject

tra-

I

then referred to the excel-

information on Natural History subjects contained

Mr. Kitto’s Physical Geography

in

and Natural History of the Holy Land, where at

unknown

works of

attention to natural

unable to find any notice of such a plant in

of the Flora of Palestine.

lent digest of the in

had recourse

I therefore

it.

vellers, especially of those

an extract which

plants, I found

is

p. ccLiii,

with other

directly applicable to our

:

“Advancing towards Kerek, from Dead Sea, Captains Irby and Mangles

the Southern extremity of the soon, on leaving the borders of

that sea, entered into a very

prettily

rushes and marshes.

this,

Leaving

plants became very great

wooded country, with high

the variety of bushes and wild

some of the latter were rare, and of remarkwe met with specimens such as none of our party had seen before ; a botanist would have had a fine treat able appearance.

in

this

various

:

'Occasionally

delightful spot. species of

the trees which we knew, were some instances we met with the the doom ; and the plant which we saw

Amongst

acacia,

and

in

dwarf mimosa: we saw also in Nubia, and which Norden calls the oschar There was one curious tree which we observed 1

which bore

in bunches,

fruit

It

has a pleasant although

exactly resembling mustard;

and,

quantity, produces a similar irritability of the nose

which

is

caused by taking mustard.

same pungent flavour it

probable that this

whatever

lies

there

is

or a hyaena skulks out

strongly

taken in any

and eyes

to that

leaves of the tree have the

We think

from sight ; and not unfrequently a leopard

or a startled antelope hounds from the very bush that

the tired Bedouin has selected for his p. 424.

own

retreat

from the sun.”

Travels, vol.

Moomen i

and

the tree our Saviour alluded to in the parable

entirely [covered of,

The

if

as the fruit, although not so strong.

is

procera).

resembling in appearance the currant,

with the colour of the plum. aromatic taste,

( Asclepias

in great plenty,

is also the name of pepper, Mr. Johnson informs me. Not the Doom Palm of Egypt ( Cucifera thebaica).

K

2

i,

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

132

Mustard Seed, and not the mustard plant which we have

of the

North;

in the

journey from Byssora to Adjeloun we met

for although in our

with the mustard plant growing wild, as high as our horses’ heads, still,

being an annual,

whereas the other

really such,

is

do, take shelter under

Mr. Murray’s

From Mangles

it

fell in

and birds might

and actually

easily,

Travels, p. 363; and p. 107 of

shadow.’”

think, quite evident that

I

is,

its

forming a volume of the Colonial Library.

edition,

this

did not deserve the appellation of “ a tree,”

it

with the very

tree, of

Captains Irby and

which we are

traced to Arabia; and which they were therefore the

and have

in search

recognise as

first to

the Mustard Tree of Scripture, though their discovery has not attracted the degree of attention which

and imperfect, yet reading

it,

it

Their description

deserved.

is

brief

contains enough to have convinced me, on

first

it

was the Salvadora

that the tree

being the same would not prove the point, for

and spicy

seeds,

into Palestine

have

though we

may

But when

in conjunction

mentioned as a

it

tree,

am

aware,

than probable, that

by Talmudical

many

properties

plants have

warm

not have succeeded in tracing them

having

its

with these properties

we

something

fruit in bunches,

(whence no doubt Retz’s name of Grossularia), we

like the currant

have a combination which as far as I

The

persica.

it

not usual

is

among is

writers;

among

the trees of Europe, nor

those of Syria and Palestine.

It is

more

name chardal is applied was large enough to be

to this tree that the

who

climbed like a fig-tree; that

state its

that

it

branches spread over like a

tent.

These statements have been considered unworthy of notice by Dr. Harris, Rosenmiiller, and others. But it is without doubt to the same

Ameuny applies the name me is usually employed in

tree that Mr.

khardal, and the seed of which

he informs

Palestine for the purposes of

mustard.

On

further inquiry of Mr.

at King's College,)

that he

had seen

where

it all

this

my own

Ameuny, (now attending

class

khardal tree was found, he informed

me

along the banks of the Jordan, and very abun-

dant in the neighbourhood of the Lake of Tiberias, and near Damascus.

He

also stated that

it

was

so generally recognised in Syria as

the Mustard Tree of Scripture, that the Reverend Storey

Hebard had Lake to

carried specimens of the plant from the shores of the above

Jerusalem, not as a rarity, because the khardal tree there, but

also found

is

as specimens to send to America, from the very locality

where our Saviour had spoken the parable of the Mustard Tree.

As specimens in

of the plant, or accurate descriptions of

it

by a qua-

would alone satisfy others of the existence of this plant the above localities, and knowing that my friend Dr. Lindley had

lified botanist,

OF SCRIPTURE. seen the collections of Bove, and those

him

lonel Chesney, I wrote to

133

made

in the expedition of Cowhether among these plants

to inquire

he had seen any specimens of Salvadora persica; and he informed

that he did not see

This

expedition.

it

among

the plants collected in Colonel Chesney’s

however an interesting

is

me

was found on Mount Sinai by M. Bove, but

in reply, that S. persica

locality, as

which

nects the Arabian localities with those in

it

it

thus con-

had been found by

Captains Irby and Mangles.

Having proceeded thus

far,

that

having found in India a tree

is,

which has the same properties as the khardal of Syria, and then ascertained that Salvadora persica (the kharjal of Northern India) is found along the Persian Gulf and the coast of Arabia, even

called kharjal,

up

to the

neighbourhood of Mount Sinai,

to infer

first

tree found

the

Dead

I

from their description that

thought that this

was

I

had been the

identical with the

by Captains Irby and Mangles, on the southern coast of But I was surprised in looking, with a totally different

Sea.

object, at

Dr. Lindley’s Flora Medica, to find the Salvadora persica

Mustard Tree of ScripHaving only recently obtained this information, I have been unable to ascertain the grounds upon which this supposition was entertained, as upon inquiry of Dr. Lindley he was unable to refer me exactly to the place where the speculation had been entertained either by Mr. Lambert or Mr. Don. But as my own conclusions had been arrived at by an independent course of investigation, to which I had been led by the Asiatic synonymes of the plant which is supposed in Syria to be the Mustard Tree of Scripture, I conceive them worthy there mentioned, as the tree supposed to be the

ture.

of presentation to the Society as tending to confirm those of other inquirers.

On

mentioning

this subject casually to

Museum, and Secretary

Mr. Bennett, of the British

to the Linnsean Society, he

immediately to seek out the information, and favor

was good enough

me with

the accom-

panying remarks, which were read at the Meeting of the Asiatic Society, on the 20th of April

“

:

Don and Lambert have

published notes on the Mustard Tree, suggested by the communications of Captains Irby and I

find that both

Mangles; but that both (instead of adopting) object

to the inference of

by them was the Mustard Tree the same time that they positively identify the Cap-

those travellers, that the tree observed of Scripture, at tains’ tree

with Salvadora persica, L.

“Don’s observations are phical Journal, vol.

ii.,

and Mangles, he says,

p. £

in

306.

On

Jameson’s

Edinburgh

New

Philoso-

After quoting the passage from Irby

reading this passage, both Mr. Lambert

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

134 and myself at

what the tree might he, and was a species of Phytolacca, with

felt interested in ascertaining

we were

first

inclined to suppose

which genus the

liahit of the plant,

it

as far as could be learnt from the

above description, pretty well accords; but the examination of an authentic sample in the possession of Mr. Bankes [Mr. William Bankes, gles],

who was

in Palestine at the

same time with Irby and Man-

has proved the supposition was unfounded, and that the tree

is

Salvadora pcrsica of Li imams, the Embelia grossularia of Retzius,

and the Cissus arlorea of Forskal.’

Don then

quotes Roxburgh’s

and speaks of

description of Salvadora for the sake of comparison, as

‘

He

18° and 31° N. latitude.’

suming

goes on to say, ‘I

this tree to be identical

of the sacred Scriptures St.

it

found in Arabia, Syria, Persia, and India, between the parallels of

Matthew appears

:

far

from as-

indeed, the whole passage in the Gospel

by

such an opinion, and

it

against

militate

to

am

with the apocryphal Mustard Plant

would appear that some common agricultural herb of large growth had been intended by our Saviour in the parable ; but whether the plant belongs to the same family with Sinapis of Linnaeus, and for

what purposes

it

was

cultivated, are questions rendered quite problema-

tical at this distant date.

We

cannot be a Phytolacca; for

it

are pretty certain, however, that

that genus has been observed in Palestine.’

Asiatica of Linnaeus, in the ‘

it

does not appear that any real species of

list

He

believes Phytolacca

of Hasselquist’s plants, forming the

Flora Palsestina,’ (‘Phytolacca foliis serratis’ of the

first

edition of the

'Species Plantarum,) to be probably intended for Salvadora persica,

‘with which Linnaeus does not appear to have been ever well acquainted.’

“Lambert’s ‘Note on the Mustard Plant of the Scriptures,’ Linna'an Transactions, vol. literally Sinapis

ment

xvii.,

nigra; and

of Captain Irby

449.

relies for

He

:

the

size to

Irby and Mangles, of which they brought to

is

his

Frost says about Phytolacca he

took from some conversation he heard in

proved

which that

The following

my

library, not relating to

the mustard seed of Scripture, but to a jdant mentioned

of the

in

confirmation of this on the state-

Holy Land.

‘What Mr.

is

believes the plant to be

and Mangles of the large

plant sometimes attains in reference to Salvadora

j).

me

by Captains

a specimen, and which

be Salvadora persica, found by them growing in a hot valley

Holy Land.’”

Mr. Bennett

also called

my

attention to

Lady

Calcott, having in

her work, entitled Scripture Herbal, referred to the above information obtained from Captains Irby and Mangles.

This

I

had overlooked,

from Sinapis nigra, or the common black mustard, being the plant selected for illustration by her Ladyship.

OF SCRIPTURE.

has therefore been ascertained beyond doubt that the Salvadora

It

persica

and

is

found in Palestine, in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea; considering the wide distribution of the plant,

I think,

allowed to conclude that the same plant

Lake

135

and that

of Tiberias,

it

has been concluded that this

alluded to in the parable of the Mustard Tree

may

factory; and they

mustard plant

think,

and was probably cultivated

small, as

is

is

persica, for anything that

me

seems to

But

in gardens.

seeds, for

mustard seed

this

but

;

still,

her-

is

far

trees, as

speaking generally,

also that of the khardal, or Salvadora

grows into a

and

tree,

Mr. Don, though not

to require.

it is

has a small seed,

;

even in Syria we have

the poplar and willow, with small seeds

mustard seed

not appear satis-

required, especially as

is

part of the parable

first

from beiug the smallest of

may

the tree

is

Mr. Lambert, that the common

as

suitable to all that

is

baceous as stated in the

be

To

there called khardal, or mustard.

it is

some, the evidence by which

we may

found on the shores of the

is

the parable

that,

satisfied

with

this, is as

and fancies that some unknown ; agricultural plant of large growth was intended, but which it would now be difficult to discover. But to me there appears nothing improbable in the Salvadora persica itself having been so cultivated, and its with the

little so,

common mustard

herbaceous parts employed, as well as fact,

we might

infer that

plant which he supposes later fact,

Hebrews

it

was

its

so, for

was the common mustard, was

cultivated as a garden plant.

that in the

seed, as a condiment.

Talmud (Massroth,

This

was

it

which

is

ploughed tithe. itself

If

Talmud (Massroth,

taken care fields),

cap.

to,

I.,

§

this

the

he infers

1) everything eatable,

and nursed growth from the

its

(in gardens,

earth,

is

to take the foregoing passage literally,

be sufficient to prove, that the

that alluded

by

buds are men-

From

cultivated,

of,

and which has

we were

at least

evident from the

because according to the general rule esta-

cultivated,

blished in the

is

cap. iv., § 6,) its

tioned amongst things which are subject to tithe. that

In

Rosenmiiller mentions that a

common mustard

it

and

or in

subject to

would of

plant was not

because herbaceous plants are without regular buds

and they are moreover not grown

to a great size at the season

when

birds build their nests.

We may Our Saviour

briefly,

in

may

which being sown we tree,

or,

as the Apostle

which the fowls of the is

mentioned

mustard, and

in

sum up

therefore,

the parable adduces

the

we may

suppose in a suitable

Luke

air

New

the result of our inquiries.

a plant having a small seed, soil,

grows up

into a

says, a great tree, in the branches of

take shelter or build their nests.

This tree

Testament by the Greek name Sinapc, or

infer that

it

was spoken

of

by

the

Hebrew

or

ON THE MUSTARD TREE

136 Syriac dal it

name of mustard, which, Whatever the plant may

be,

The Arabs, we have

it.

we

khardal or mustard

;

that

the

is,

chardul, or khar-

is

are justified in concluding that

properties of mustard, from

possessed the

applied to

as in the Arabic,

same name being

the

enumerate several kinds of

seen,

common, the

wild,

and the Persian

has been shown that the ancients were in the habit of ; grouping things together, rather by their intrinsic properties than their

and

kinds

it

external characters.

Having learnt that the tree which in Palestine is at the present day recognised as the Mustard Tree of Scripture is there called khardal, I was led to conclude that this was Salvadora persica before even It is a I could prove that this tree had ever been found in Syria. curious and interesting fact, and one which we cannot consider accidental, that in so remote a country as the North-West of India, the kharjal should be applied to the same tree as khardal

name

is

in Syria.

This proves the impossibility of collusion, or the recent application of the latter

name

who

merely to meet the exigencies some cases by unscrupulous monks,

to a plant of Palestine,

of the case, as has been done in

usually calculate on the credulity of their hearers being in pro-

own

portion to their

Subsequently

ignorance.

learnt that Captains

I

Irby and Mangles had found a tree near the shores of the Dead Sea, concluded from their short description must be Salvadora per-

which

I

sica.

This

Messrs.

I

afterwards ascertained had already been determined by

Don and Lambert, from examination

W.

from the very locality by Mr.

known both

in

Bankes, and

of specimens brought

we

find that

it is

a tree

Persia and Arabia, in India and Abyssinia, for

we

gratefully aromatic and pungent seeds, which

find

employed

its

at the

present day in Syria for the ordinary purposes of mustard, and which

we

are therefore justified in concluding

by Talmudical

the chardal tree alluded to

is

writers.

In conclusion,

it

appears to me, that taking everything into consi-

any other

deration, Salvadora persica appears better calculated than

that has yet

tree

required, especially

held respecting in cultivated

1

me

it

been adduced to answer to everything that if

we

take into account

in Syria.

We

have

in

it

its

name and

is

the opinions

a small seed, which, sown

ground, grows up and abounds in foliage.

This being

Mr. Norris, Assistant Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, has favoured “I have looked at the old Syriac version of the

with the following note:

—

7

passages where the mustard tree

is

named, and

find the

word

kharda'j. C

The same for

I

find

is in it

the Chaldee.

in the

Hebrew

The modern Jews appear version of the

New

also to use the

Testament.”

same word,

OF SCRIPTURE.

137

pungent, may, like the seeds, have been used as a condiment, as musis with us. The nature of the plant, however, is to become arboreous, and thus it will form a large shrub, or a tree, twenty-five feet high, under which a horseman may stand, when the soil and climate are favourable. It produces numerous branches and leaves, among which birds may and do take shelter, as well as build

tard and cress

their nests.

It

has a

name

in Syria

which

may

be considered as

which the Greek is a correct seeds have the pungent taste, and are used for the

traditional from the earliest times, of translation.

Its

And

same purposes, as mustard. plentiful, that

abound, that If

we

is,

is,

the shores of the in the

gambia,

we

to

a country where trees are not of Tiberias, this tree

the wide distribution of this plant, from

Cape Comorin, and from the Persian Gulf

still

said to

is

very locality where the parable was spoken.

consider, moreover,

Damascus

in

Lake

find that

it is

to

Sene-

well suited to illustrate the typical com-

parison of the doctrines of the Gospel, which though at

first

only a few adherents, would in the end spread far and wide.

gaining

138

—

Summary of the Geology of Southern India. By Captain Newbold, F.R.S., &c., Assistant Commissioner for Kurnool.

Aar. VII

.

[Read June

15, 1844.J

PRELIMINARY PHYSICAL SKETCH. Area and Geographical TnE

which it is purposed to attempt known, comprises peninsular India from

area, the geological features of

a description

Bombay on

so far as

of,

the west, and

lying between

northern limit

Ganjam on

the east coast, to Cape Comorin, and 20th degrees of north latitude. Its skirted by the Sub-Vindhyan ranges, and the plains

the is

of Central India

and

Position.

8th

while the remaining sides are washed by the ocean,

;

within the 72nd and S6th degrees of east longitude.

lie

General Physical Features. The prominent physical features of this extensive tract have origiin the elevation of two mountainous ranges, marking irregularly the coast lines, and termed the Eastern and Western Ghauts; which support on their Atlantean shoulders, and inclose as in a massive nated

framework, the intermediate table lands, at an altitude varying from 500

to

3000

From lar

feet

above the

sea’s level.

the basis of both these chains tracts of low land, with irregu-

and often abrupt elevations, varying from a mile to seventy in the sea, and have been expressively styled by

breadth, extend to

Mahommedan

writers

Payeen Ghaut, or land

in contradistinction to the table lands,

at the feet of the Ghauts,

which they name Bala Ghaut,

or land above the Ghauts.

Western Ghauts. The where

it

elevation of the

Western Ghauts commences

in

Khandesh,

meets that of the Vindhya beyond the limits of the area

under description

;

thence, pursuing a nearly south-by-east direction,

by the singular gap of Paulghautclierry, it terminates a above Cape Comorin, near the Amboli Pass, in a bluff granite

interrupted little

peak about 2000

feet

high.

A

low broken range extends from

its

GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN INDTA.

139

The extreme

base to the southern extreme of the peninsula.

ascer-

Western Ghauts above the sea occurs in the 8760 feet. a little above the gap of Paulghautcherry, Nilgherrys, Towards the north they rise, in the Mahabuleshwar hills, to the altiThe most striking feature in this great distude of about 5000 feet. tained elevation of the

—

—

location

is

the comparatively precipitous faijade presented

To the

or western side.

east, or inland, it usually slopes

by

its

sea,

away

gra-

dually, to the general level of the table lands.

Along part of the base of the western flank gushes a line of thermal which have been traced from the north of Bombay southerly Rajapore, and probably extend still further south, concealed in the

springs, to

forests that clothe the feet of the mountains.

I

have found springs of

a thermal character at the western base of the Eastern Ghauts, with a temperature from 88° to 89° Fahrenheit.

Eastern Ghauts. The Eastern Ghauts in lat.

21° 30' N.

;

are supposed to rise in the vicinity of Balasore,

and, passing a

the west of Ganjarn, pursue

little to

a southerly course to Naggery, where they appear to terminate in the bluff height called

line

Naggery Nose, about

Their course

from Madras.

of elevation,

which,

is

fifty-six

miles north-west

here broken apparently by another

sweeping

irregularly

peninsula in a south-westerly direction

by

inland,

crosses

the

Chittoor, Sautghur,

and

Salem, and joins the Western Ghauts north of the gap of Paulghautcherry. is

The southerly

marked

detached

direction of the first-mentioned elevation line

at intervals along the

hills,

and reappears

as a continuous

Coromandel coast by

mountain range.

and

Ceylon

There

other geological reasons, that Ceylon forces similar to,

outliers

in the almost contiguous island of

is little doubt from this and was raised above the ocean by

and contemporaneous with, those that elevated the

peninsula. It is worthy of remark that, while the steeper declivities of the Western Ghauts face generally towards the sea, those of this cross

range, or rather break in the continuity of the elevation, have usually

a southerly aspect.

Below, or south of this great break, which

I

shall call that of

Salem, the Eastern Ghauts, as just stated, lose the character of a chain, and reappear at intervals in detached hills, groups, and clusters, while the general level of the peninsula ceases to be sustained as a continu-

ous table land. the

Some

of these clusters rises to a considerable altitude

Pulney Hills attain an elevation above the

sea’s surface of between 6000 and 7000 feet; isolated patches of table laud not unfreciuently

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

140 occur on

Ghauts

1500

their

may

summits.

The average

be roughly stated at 4000

elevation of

Western

the

and that of the Eastern

feet,

at

feet.

Geographically speaking, these great chains are separate and distinct; but, in a geological point of view, after a careful

examination of the intervening table lands,

am

I

and extended

inclined, until further

evidence be adduced, to regard the Western Ghauts south of

Mai wan,

the Eastern Ghauts and their table lands, as part of one magnificent elevation of plutonic rocks,

may

which

by a succession of

efforts,

during a period

be termed plutonic, breaking up the hypogene schists

and, in some instances, uplifting aqueous beds of a more recent origin.

The

true general direction of this elevation

though the apparent directions of the lateral chains on

we have

as

noticed, to the east

W.

nearly N. 5°

is

its

flanks are,

and west of north respectively.

Physical Aspect of Table Lands of Southern India.

The surface of the table lands between these chains, extending from the Salem break on the south, and comprising the elevated plains Ceded Districts, the South Mahratta and Hydrabad and the Dekhan, ably described by Colonel Sykes, though usually presenting vast plains, which to the eye often appear perfectly of Mysore, the

countries,

horizontal,

Bay

of

has a general inclination easterly by south towards the

Bengal, into which the principal rivers empty themselves.

This gentle

often assisted

inclination,

by

cross

lines

of elevation,

determines the great drainage lines of the country, throughout our

Western Ghauts, and beyond it to the northerly whence another system of elevation and drainEvery traveller, who has ascended the Ghauts, is

area, east of the

slopes of the Vindhya,

age commences. struck

and

by

the singular appearance, in plutonic areas, of detached

clusters of hills, starting

hills,

up abruptly from the surface of the

plains spread before him, with

little

or no

tali,

presenting a coup

flat

(Toeil

which has caused the not inapt comparison of a table with tea-cups These hills are usually naked here and there reversed on its surface. masses of gneiss or granite, and seldom

feet;

many have been

Droogs or

hill-forts so

1

800

feet

above 500

;

selected

by

feet

from the

the highest not 1800

the natives as the sites of the

celebrated in the annals of Southern India.

The mean elevation didroog above the sea sinks to

rise

Some few exceed 1200, and

level of the plain.

of the table land around Bangalore and is

and a

3000 little

feet.

south of Bangalore

it

falls,

feet,)

it

by rather

abrupt steps, to the level of the plains of Salem and Coimbatore,

1400

Nun-

Northerly towards Hydrabad

(viz.

whence, to Cape Comorin, the mean height of the country

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

141

The average height of the low country between the on both the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, may be roughly estimated at 200 feet, rising at the base of the mounNothing can be more contrasted than the aspect of tains to 800 feet. tracts while the former presents an open and compacoast these ratively bare, sandy plain, gently rising towards the interior, the mois

about 400

feet.

Ghauts and the

sea,

:

notony of which

hilly clusters, palm,

by a few detached

diversified

is

man

cocoa-nut trees, and topes, planted by the hands of is

the latter

;

broken up by a succession of low irregular hilly spurs, separated hy

narrow marshy

flats,

covered with eternal forest, and often descending

to the sea in precipitous

Through these

cliffs.

and ravines a number of mountain torrents

flats

stream, in the monsoon, from the Ghauts’ steep sides; and, after a short but rapid course, rarely exceeding fifty miles, fall into the sea.

North of Malwan, owing

to

the different geological character of the

country, the physical aspect of the Western Coast undergoes a considerable change, being less clothed with

generally not so

Sykes'

much

forest,

elevated above the sea.

this part of the coast to

Konkan, presents a long

and

Bombay, which

is

to Colonel

usually called the

of land from thirty to

strip

lowlands

its

According

fifty

miles in

breadth lying between the Ghauts and the sea ; the mean elevation of this strip is less

than 100 feet, but

it is

bristled with isolated hills, or

short ranges, some of which attain an elevation equalling that of the

Numerous shoulders

Ghauts.

or salient angles are

the Ghauts on the Western or

the ascent to stood

when

Dekhan

I state

is

Konkan

effected; with

side,

what

thrown out from

and by means of these

difficulty, will

be under-

that the military road of communication between

Bombay and Poona up

the

Bou ghat

rises

nearly 600 feet in a mile.

Rivers.

The

large rivers of Southern India within our area, viz., the Goda-

very, Kistna, Toombuddra, Cauvery, and Pennaur, flow from the eastern slopes of the

Western Ghauts, and, crossing the peninsula

in

an east-

by-southerly direction, escape through singular fissures in the Eastern

Ghauts to the plains of Coromandel, and the Bay of Bengal. The Godavery passes through the break of Papcondah; the Kistna and Toombuddra through that of Beywarah, and the Pennaur through those of Ganjicotta and Sidhout. The Cauvery alone, having descended from the table land southerly by the Salem break, turns 1

Geology of the Dekhan, Transactions Geological Society, 409 432.

vol. iv., pp.

—

Second

Series,

SUMMARY

142 easterly

and

falls into

OF THE GEOLOGY

the sea below the southern termination of the

Eastern Ghauts as a continuous chain.

The

Paniani, and the

moun-

tain streams that rise west of the anticlinal ridge, or watershed of the

Western Ghauts, run westerly into the Indian Ocean. These fissures, and cross valleys, run nearly at right angles with the elevation line, and

striking illustrations of the correctness of Mr. Hopkins’s

offer

theory of the origin of the cross valleys of the Weald, a of which

district,

part

had recent opportunities of observing, during a brief visit Europe. The great Himalaya chain appears to present similar

to

I

phenomena on a scale of greater magnitude. The gap of Paulghautcherry, previously mentioned,

is

evidently a

continuation of the Salem and Nilgherry break, near the southern

base of whose lofty precipices

it

opens an easy commercial road of

communication between the interior and the seem, that

the

sea.

It

would almost

of crystalline schists had been

strata

here broken

asunder, across their direction, and to their very foundations,

unusual energy evinced by the upheaving forces that

had been swept away, and

its

by

the

the neighbouring

Western Ghaut chain,

elevation of the highest peaks of the

of the Nilgherries and Koondahs, and this great rift

in

viz.,

those

the shattered sides of aspect modified,

by the

current of the retiring ocean, above whose waves the granitic and

hypogene summits of the Ghauts then

The gap its

is

first

emerged.

from sixteen to twenty miles broad, narrowing towards

eastern extremity, the surface tolerably

the plains of Coimbatore and as to be almost

Salem

imperceptible.

Its

to the

flat

;

and the descent from

Malabar Coast,

approximated by means of the boiling point of water, about 970 feet above the soil,

so

gradual

height about the centre, roughly

sea’s level.

It is

I

found to be

covered with a reddish

mostly sandy, imbedding angular, or slightly worn fragments of

the granitic and hypogene rocks, from the detritus of which the soil itself

is

evidently the result.

places, protrude

from the

pitous, greatly modified in

and

Bare bosses of these rocks,

in

many

The rocks on both sides are preciexternal form by that process of exfoliation soil.

splitting into cuboids, to

which granitic rocks, and frequently the

crystalline schists in contact, are subject. It

has been stated as a well

known

fact

',

that ships navigating the

Malabar Coast during the N.E. monsoon commonly experience a stronger gale in the neighbourhood of Paniani (a town on the coast nearly opposite the western embouchure of the pass) than elsewhere

and

this

break

in

the Ghauts appears to be the cause of this effect.

1

Madras Almanac, 1840.

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. During the S.W. monsoon

it

exerts a considerable influence on the

on that of places immediately

climate of Coimbatore; particularly east of

or in a line with

it,

longitudinal axis,

its

through a funnel, and concentrating the westerly winds on the tracts within

situate centrically like Bellary is

full

by admitting,

force

Its influence

its focus.

but slightly

felt,

as

of the strong

on climate

At

even farther east than Trichinopoly.

in this respect is felt

monsoons

143

places

between the Ghauts, the force of the from the protection afforded by these

great natural barriers.

The

influence exerted

by the

geological features of the regions of

India not only over the climate, but over the commerce, government, the moral, social, and physical character of population,

in itself a

is

affords an ample and rich

field,

research of the philosopher, and It

may

singular and widely varying

its

study fraught with the deepest

man

interest,

and

almost untrodden, to the

hitherto

of inquiry.

not be irrelevant to remark, in order to show more clearly

the relative geographical position (in a physical sense) of the tract

under description, that the whole of the vast continent of India, embraced by the Ganges, the Indus, and the Ocean,

may

be classed under

four great physical divisions, independent of the climatic zones of alti-

tude peculiar to each.

The

first

racterized

that of Himalaya, and

is

by a general

line of elevation

its

subordinate chains, cha-

running nearly

and a drainage flowing southerly and easterly

into the

Bay

W.

26° N.,

of Bengal.

The second, that of Vindhya, or Central India, with its low plains by the Palamow and Vindhyan ranges, whose general direc-

traversed tion

is

W.

Indian

5° S., with a drainage running in a similar direction to the

This system

Ocean.

of elevation

serves to determine the

drainage of the Himalaya to the east, and that of the plains inter-

vening between

own

its

constituent ranges to the west, from their

otherwise natural southerly course.

The

third

is

that of the Ghauts, or Southern India, already described,

with a line of elevation N. 5° W., and a drainage running easterly

and southerly

to the

Bay

of Bengal.

The fourth and last is that of the Indus, flanking those of Himalaya and Vindhya; the great lines of drainage run S. by W. into the Indian Ocean, from the southern slopes of the Hindoo Kosh, whose course appears

A fifth

to be westerly

1

.

might be added, viz., that of Malaya, or Ultra-Gangetic India, comMalacca peninsula, part of Siam, and Birma. This immense line of elevation, extending from the foot of the Himalaya system to the verge of the Equator, has a direction almost parallel to that of Southern India, with which it 1

prising the

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

144 The above visions;

many

classification

causes, but the limits

them

is

exceptions exist,

chiefly

number

of a

susceptible

from

arising

of

subdi-

local physical

of this paper will not admit of

my

noticing

here.

I shall

now proceed

to

India, as far as hitherto

attempt a sketch of the geology of Southern

known, commencing with the

inferior stra-

hypogene rocks, following the ascending order. The plutonic and trappean rocks I have found it convenient to describe in the or

tified,

concluding portion of this paper.

SUMMARY. PARTI. The

geology of Southern India will probably have

little interest to

the mere studier of organic remains, from the extremely limited extent of

its

known

granitic,

fossiliferous strata

;

yet the bare extensive surfaces of the

trappean, and hypogene

exposes, not to be surpassed in

on a grand

rocks, afiford,

any other portion of the

scale,

globe, of the

protean aspects under which these rocks present themselves.

very absence of those

fossiliferous

the surface of a great portion of Europe, and

world,

is

in itself

The

beds which so thickly encrust

many

a subject of interesting research

anatomist of the earth’s skeleton may,

in

;

other parts of the

and the geological

the peninsula of India,

advantageously study a huge and disjointed mass of the nether-formed rocks which constitute the framework of our planet, and which here present themselves almost divested of integument, weathering under the alternations of a vertical sun, and the deluging rains of the tropics.

Commencing with

these rocks,

I

shall ascend to those

more recently

formed, in regular succession.

may is

possibly be found identical (in epoch.)

On

its

northern portions the drainage

determined southerly by the great westerly elevation of the Himalaya

and

Malaya system passes southerly along The anticlinal ridge of the chain that runs

entering the longitudinal valleys of the their course to the

down

Indian Ocean.

the interior of the Malayan peninsula throws off

and west

into the seas of China,

India,

and the

its

Straits

drainage to the east of

Malacca.

The

granitic rocks that constitute a great portion of this ridge are remarkably distin-

guished, mineralogically, from those of Southern India by their highly stanniferous character.

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Hypogene Extent

.

—Hypogene

145

Series.

penetrated and broken up by proand trappean rocks, occupy by far the

schists,

digious outbursts of plutonic

greater portion of the superficies of Southern India.

They

constitute

Western Ghauts, from between the latitudes of 16° and 17° N. to Cape Comorin; and from the base of the Eastern Ghauts, from beyond the north limit of our area, to their deflection at Naggery, Lat. N. 13° 20'. They are partially capped and fringed, in the Western Ghauts, by laterite; and in the Eastern Ghauts, by the great bulk of the

sandstone, limestone, and laterite.

From Naggery

to

Cape Comorin, they form, with a few excep-

be adverted to in due order, the basis of the plains of the

tions to

Carnatic,

Arcot, the

Coimbatore,

Tanjore,

Valley of Seringapatam, Salem, Trichiuopoly,

Madura, Tinnevelly, and

Travancore ;

and,

intimately associated with granite, the principal hills and ranges on the low lands south of the

North

of this valley,

Salem break and valley of the Cauvery. and above the break, they form the basis of the

table lands of Mysore, the Baramahal, Bellary district, part of

drabad, and the Southern

work on which

will

Hy-

Mahratta country; and present a ground-

be sketched out, as accurately as the present

imperfect state of information will permit, the circumscribed areas

Toward the north-west flank drawn diagonally across the peninsula from Nagpore by Bijapore to the western coast, the hypogene and

occupied by more recent aqueous strata. of our area, almost in a line

plutonic rocks disappear, emerging only occasionally, under one of

the largest continuous sheets of trap in the world, and which extends far

beyond our

limits to Central India.

Physical aspect of Hypogene area lations

.

— The

inequalities

and undu-

observed in the table lands and plains of Southern India,

though originating

in the dislocations

and flexures of the metamorphic

strata at the periods of their upheaval,

by aqueous erosion and by the bers

of the series,

clay

slates

left their

—such

as

have been evidently modified

faster weathering of the softer

mica and talcose

schists,

—the

memsofter

and shales; which crumbling and washed away, have

harder brethren standing out in relief on the face of the

country.

Where we

see gneiss, hornblende schist,

and

quartzite, rising in

by valleys, we generally find the valleys members of the series, often deeply covered with

parallel ridges separated

occupied by the softer debris from the ridges.

VOL. VIII.

L

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

146

The following section was taken from some low Mysore near Chinrayapatam.

ridges on the

table land of

GnP

Hornblende

Where its

gneiss rises above tbe general level of the surrounding plain,

may

elevations

hills of

be distinguished from those of granite, which the

thick-bedded varieties of gneiss sometimes assimilate, by their

greater continuity and uniformity of altitude;

smooth dome-shaped

outline,

their tendency to a

and greater freedom from precipices and

Near lines of plutonic disturbance, however, these marks are less perceptible. Elevations of mica and talcose schists obtain, generally, a less altitude than those of hornblende or gneiss; and have a more round-

disrupted masses. distinguishing

backed and smoother contour on the whole; yet the outline is

jagged, owing partly

to

in detail

these rocks weathering in larger,

more

angular, or less concentric fragments ; often leaving abrupt steps, and

Hornblende and gneiss are seen rising

small precipices.

Western Ghauts, the sea’s level.

in the Nilgherries, to the height of

The former

is

recognised by

its

8000

in

the

above

feet

bold sharp ridges,

often precipitous, but rarely presenting conical peaks. Hills

met with

composed entirely of :

actinolite, or chlorite, schist are

seldom

those of quartzite have long crest-like outlines, often run-

ning smoothly for some distance, but almost invariably breaking up into large, angular masses, sometimes cuboidal

are usually precipitous.

:

the sides of tbe crests

Hills of clay slate 'are distinguished

smooth, wavy, outline, separated by gently sloping valleys. or detached

remarked,

hills,

all

of this rock are usually

by a

Outliers,

mammiform. But, as before when near lines or foci

these normal crystalline rocks,

of plutonic disturbance, frequently undergo great changes in jdiysio-

gnomical aspect; and slate,

and

its

cleaved into

in lieu

of the smoothly rounded hills of clay

gently sloping vales smiling with

sterile,

fertility,

we behold

it

rugged ravines, and rocky precipices.

—

Gneiss is usually found lowest in the Order of Stratification next to it mica and hornblende schist, actinolite, chlorite, .

series:

talcose

and argillaceous

schist,

and crystalline limestone,

in

due sue-

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. cession: but

observed

to

granite without

numerous exceptions

are

there

rule

this

Why

usually intervening gneiss.

the

have

I

except crystalline limestone, resting on

rocks,

these

all

147

these beds,

termed metamorphic from the supposition of their having been deposited from water, and crystallized by the influence of plutonic heat, should not have

all

been similarly altered

difficult to explain, unless it is

is

supposed that their mineral composition differed originally, and that various degrees and durations of heat will produce different effects

upon the crystallization and mineral arrangement of the mass acted upon.

Dip and Direction

.

— The

often violently contorted, or

strata are

bent in waving flexures, particularly in the vicinity of plutonic rocks

and much irregularity occurs

in

throughout the hypogene area.

In the Western Ghauts

easterly,

and

portion of the Eastern Ghauts

amount and

from 10°

at angles varying

base I found the dip often

the

and

it is

usually

In the Udigherry

to 90°.

plain

the

in

direction of dip

their

at

eastern

and varying as above from

westerly,

10° to 90°.

The dip in the plains south of the Salem gap of Paulghautcherry, is for the most part from 30° to

80°.

Ghauts

Honawer,

further,

at

S.S.W.

tion it

:

At

was easterly

it

was

at an angle

in

of 30°;

a

little

the summit of the Ghauts near the falls of Gair-

an angle of 35° to the N.E.

the table lands the dip also varies

among

in the

to the S.S.E. at angles

In the low lands at the west base of the Western

sippa, the gneiss dipped at

On

and

dislocation,

the Kupputgode

hills, in

much

and direc-

in intensity

the South Mahratta country,

one situation quaquaversal ; and Benza observed the horn-

blende schists at the east and west bases of the Nilgherries dipping anticlinally

from the axis of elevation

from the plutonic rocks a

fact, indicating that

period, or that they

—

in

many

;

but they do not always dip

instances the dip

may .have

suffered inversion

be the case in beds of more recent origin. great lines of elevation, rally westerly,

and

is

towards them

the strata have been disturbed at some previous

viz.,

the

East and

which

is

of the is

to

two

gene-

with the direction of

usually southerly.

merous irregularities and exceptions, however, to occur, particularly near the

known

is

West Ghauts,

easterly, or at i-ight angles

the strata, that of the minor cross ranges

;

While the dip

this general

Nurule

northerly and southerly great synclinal

W

on the table lands between the Eastern and estexm Ghauts, and near localities where it is traversed by the cross lines of elevation. The intrusion of trap dykes has also caused much diversity in the line of dip

dip.

These irregularities will always prove obstacles

in tracing out

L

2

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

148

with accuracy the synclinal dip line between the Eastern and Western Ghauts.

and Cleavage

Joints

.

— The jointed structure

is

most observable

in the

thick-bedded variety of gneiss, the hornblende schist, and quartzite; in the two latter

is

it

often so strong as to deceive

have taken the joint planes

cross usually at right angles, or nearly so.

most

some observers, who which they

for the lines of stratification,

The planes

of cleavage are

and clay slates; they are sometimes but more frequently with the lines of strati-

distinct in the chlorite

parallel with the joints, fication,

which are often remarkably indistinct in the clay slates. Gneiss and hornblende schist are by far the

Lithologic Character

.

—

most prevalent rocks of the be termed subordinate.

series

Near

its

to gneiss the other

:

members may

contact with the granite

it

com-

what has been styled by Boue, granitoidal gneiss, losing its stratified appearance, and not to be distinguished in hand specimens from granite. Spherical and oval masses

monly assumes the character

of,

of granite, resembling boulders, are sometimes observed impacted in

the gneiss.

The following is a sketch of one of these bodies imbedded in the Western Ghauts, in the Paulghautcherry Pass near

gneiss of the

Vaniencolam.

These have certainly more the appearance of imbedded boulders of granite,

than the concretions

we

see in the sandstones of Eurojje

while others again assimilate the globular forms produced by heat in regularly

sheeted

trap rocks.

Veins of reddish compact felspar,

felspar coloured green with actinolite, epidote or chlorite, with,

and

without, quartz; also of milky quartz with nests of iron ore, mica

and hornblende, are very common granite.

in gneiss: also

dykes and veins

of,

All these veins are of older date than the intrusion of the

greenstone dykes which invariably sever them. of gneiss prevail in different districts.

where the mica

is

replaced by talc,

is

Particular varieties

Protogenic gneiss,

viz.,

gneiss

found in the western parts of

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. Mysore

;

albitic gneiss, in the

nets are universally distributed

Eastern Ghauts above Beswara.

its less

in

auriferous

many

The

gneiss of the Eastern Ghauts

is

from that of the Western Ghauts by

and more cupriferous character, and by north of the Kistna to Ganjam,

places

Gar-

but in the greatest abundance in the

:

gneiss of the Eastern Ghauts. also lithologically distinguished

149

its

assuming,

so arenaceous a

texture and colour as hardly to be distinguished from sandstone in

hand specimens; and where capped by true sandstone, it is difficult The mica to say where the gneiss ends or the sandstone begins. and felspar are replaced by quartz and minute garnets, coloured and loosely agglutinated by peroxide of iron. The felspar is often aggregated in veins, decomposing into a white clay. It is a fact worth remarking, that the gneiss in contact with granite almost invariably

The grand

assimilates the latter in mineral character.

of these rocks, however, on the Indian peninsula

is

characteristic

their highly ferri-

them from the stanniand granite rocks of the sister peninsula of Malacca, which has an almost parallel direction and is separated only by the Bay of Bengal. In Southern India these rocks not only abound in nests and veins of rich magnetic and oxidulated iron ore, but in thick ferous nature, which remarkably distinguishes ferous hypogenic

interstratified beds

and mountain masses of these minerals, while not a

grain of tin ore has hitherto been discovered.

Mica

Schist

.

—Mica

abundance and purity

found sparingly distributed over the

schist is

whole of the hypogene area

in

in the

remember ever having seen

in

thin beds.

It is

found

in the greatest

western parts of Mysore.

I

do not

a vein of granite, though abounding

it

Talcose, chloritic, and actinolitic schists are still more sparingly distributed the first is seen in the western parts of Mysore ; near Salem, in the valley of Cauvery ; and in the Eastern in those of quartz.

:

Ghauts, in beds of some thickness

Gairsippa ;

;

as also chlorite slate.

Fine varieties

Western Ghauts at the falls of near Palliconda, and Suntghur in the Carnatic ; and it is

of actinolitic schist occur

in

the

pretty generally distributed in thin beds over the Bellary districts,

Mysore, and

in

the western and southern portions of the Nizam’s

territories.

Hornblende Schist ranks next to gneiss in extent and thickness of and is seen washed by the sea at the bases of the Eastern and

beds,

Western Ghauts, forming some of the

loftiest

supporting large level tracts of table land.

peaks of the

latter,

and

This rock varies from the

compact structure of basalt to the crystalline texture of granite, and to that of

porphyry, and

may

be seen from laminse of a few lines in

thickness, passing into beds forming

mountain masses.

The

principal

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

150

for which so many different names have been applied by geologists according to the preponderance of one

constituent minerals of this rock,

or the other,

laminar, or thick-bedded structure, degree of crys-

its

and felspar. Quartz, garnet, and mica are frequently mixed. Near the junction with granite I have observed, in some situations, the hornblende rock appear to pass, like the change in this gneiss, into granite by insensible gradations tallization, &c.,

are hornblende

:

instance its

is

the

more

striking, as the hornblende rock not only loses

bedded structure, but, on account of

in its

its

hornblende and felspar

is

:

the resemblance

crystalline structure of granite,

The

the appearance of a few scales of mica. often becomes hornblendic. in

must not be

It

most instances, when these rocks come

marcation

is

serve

will

to distinguish

the dykes in granite, and in the

has been confounded

the

;

blended at the contact, into the other.

The

I

increased

still

granite,

in

latter

it

its

by

turn,

forgotten, however, that,

in contact, the line of de-

The occasional passage

tolerably distinct.

granite

into

darker colour, the change

more perceptible than in the gneiss the gradually separating, assume the granular and

mineral arrangement

of this rock

from the greenstone

of

hypogene strata, with which it rock, though sometimes slightly

have never witnessed passing insensibly one

needle-striped crystals of augite observable in its generally more compact and and greater freedom from quartz and felspar may serve as empiric distinctions between

the basaltic greenstone of the dykes,

homogeneous in

structure,

a separate state,

the two.

Large beds of compact

felspar, generally of a pinkish hue,

with a

—

and a few scales of mica, qnartzite, the Arkose of Brongniart, and milk quartz, having a similar direction to that of Interstratified garnet gneiss, &c., occur forming low ranges of hills. little

quartz,

—

met with at the base of the Eastern Ghauts, and at Senklidroog in Salem. Hypogene limestone (marble) is of such rare occurrence

rock

is

in the Nil-

gherries,

entirely escaped the this part of India.

who have

notice of most geologists

Cajffain

as to

have

written on

1

Macpherson mentions a “primary lime-

by argillaceous matter in the neighbourhood of Nundigamah near Bezwarah, in the Eastern Ghauts, but w as unable to

stone” laminated

T

ascertain

its

exact

situs.

Calder

velly district near Courtallum layers,

in

;

2

states its occurrence in the Tinne-

and

the hornblende schist of

1

s

Asiatic Researches, Vol. Ibid.,

Part

II.,

page

8.

I

have seen

Dummul,

XVIII., Part

it,

in

extremely thin

of the South

II.,

page

18.

Mahratta

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

151

country, and in that of the Copper Mountain range at Bellary, and also in the garnitic gneiss of Senklidroog

The

member

deficiency of this

developed in the Alps,

of the

and Karpur (Salem

metamorphic

almost equally remarkable in

is

rocks of the Grampians, and in those of

specified,

largely

hypogene

.the

Norway and Sweden.

Southern India in more

exists, doubtless, in

district).

series, so

localities

It

than those just

but in such paucity as forcibly to exemplify the truth of

Mr. Lyell’s remark,

“that the quantity of calcareous matter in

viz.,

metamorphic strata, or, indeed, in the hypogene formations generally, Why this should be so has is far less than in fossiliferous deposits.” been attempted to be explained by the theory of the non-existence of those mollusca

and zoophytes by which

at the period

when

shells

and

corals are secreted,

hypogene rocks were deposited.

the

again, are of opinion, that

when

Others,

by the

these strata were broken up

grand outbreak of plutonic rocks, the same heat which imparted to them their present highly crystalline texture, expelled from them the Neither of these theories, taken individually,

lime and carbonic acid.

appears to be satisfactory.

It

seems more reasonable to suppose that,

during the earliest phases of the history of our planet, when the

hypogene rocks were deposited, lime was far surface than at present; for although

it

and zoophytes did not

lime-secreting molluscs

less

abundant on

its

has not been proved that exist in the ancient

waters from which the metamorphic schists were deposited, yet

it

seems proved, from their scarcity in the lower rocks, that they must

have existed in far

The

other,

less

numbers than

crust has been derived,

lime brought up from beneath

interior of the earth,

with

this

is

its

little

If

surface.

we assume

that the

brought up from calcareous rocks in the

fused or heated, during periods of plutonic

to be the case

by

mineral abounding in volcanic

admitted, that but in

when

would seem

earth’s

springs of water charged with carbonate of

is

greatest quantity of lime

activity, as

at subsequent periods.

and principal source from which the lime on the

springs of water charged

districts, it will

be readily

lime was deposited during the period of repose

which the hypogene strata were accumulating under the ocean;

and that a large development of it took place, when by far the greater bulk of these beds were broken up and uplifted. At all events, there can be no question that the deposit of lime

brought

up from the earth’s interior by springs, many still in operation, must be greater now, than when it commenced at a remote geological era.

Clay-slate.

hypogene

— Clay-slate

area.

Its

does not occupy a large surface of the

principal localities are in the Nellore and

Gun-

SUMMARY

152

OF THE GEOLOGY

Darwar;

toor copper district; around

in the

Ceded

Districts, near Bel-

lary and Sondoor; in the south-west portions of the Nizam’s country,

and Cundagal.

at Idlapur

It

and

siliceous schists.

generally associated in conformable

is

and hornblende

strata with beds of chlorite

Blue roofing slate

is

schists, also of quartzite

The

rare.

siliceous schists

of Sondoor, Darwar, Ceded Districts, &c., often pass into a striped

and may be classed under M'Culloch’s second division of

jasper,

schist, viz.

:

“ F. Laminar, with alternate colours, and forming some varieties

The

of the striped jasper of mineralogists.

colours

are

commonly

and purplish black, and these kinds

shades of red, brown, yellow,

appear to be derived from the coloured shales. “ G. Containing imbedded crystals of quartz, and of a porphyritic aspect.”

This rock

usually seen cresting hills of chlorite, hornblende, or

is

At other times

clay-slate, regularly interstratified. is

obscure

the

;

the stratification

usually laminar, sometimes puts on the

structure,

aspect of a breccia that has the appearance of the laminar variety

having been broken up, and re-cemented in

The rock

ferruginous paste.

is

of alternate layers of magnetic iron ore

brownish-grey chert.

by a dark brown and composed with polarity, and grey, or situ

often highly ferruginous,

Basanite

occurs

associated

with the horn-

blende, chlorite, and clay-slates. It would be endless here to enumerate the various aspects under which the hypogene rocks present themselves dependent on mineralo-

The numerous divisions into which M‘Culloch has them may be all observed in an area of a few

gical differences.

petrologically classed miles’ extent.

described in

Their mineral character has, however, been minutely

my more detailed geological notes

of the Bengal and

Madras Asiatic

Imbedded Minerals in Silica

Chert

.

— Fine is

the

published in the Journals

Societies.

Hypogene Rocks

pretty generally distributed, also the

latter occurs

:

Earthy Minerals

—

crystals of quartz are found at Yellum, near Tanjore.

in

common garnet

;

the

the greatest abundance in the Eastern Ghauts, the

Copper Districts of Nellore and Guntoor, Salem, the Nilgherries, and Mines of the precious garnet, in the Western Ghauts below Goa. almandine, have been excavated by the natives at Gharibpett near Pal unshah in the Nizam’s territories. the central parts of the Peninsula of Senklidroog, in the

Salem

:

Pyrope

is

said to be found in

green garnet occurs in the gneiss

District

1

;

dodecahedral garnet, assimi-

Benza, Madras Journal of Literature and Science, Vol. IV., pages 266, 267.

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. lating essonite or

Nilgherries

>;

cinnamon

stone,

in

153

the hornblende schist of the

and black garnet, and tremolite

in the granitoidal gneiss

Wurralconda (Mysore). Epidote and actinolite are Hypersthene is occafound usually in quartz and felspar reins. sionally seen in the hornblende schist of the Ceded Districts. Indianite occurs sparingly with corundum, fibrolite, and garnet in of Peroor and

and hornblende schist in the valley of the Cauvery. Bournon considered Earthy Minerals : Alumina Corundum

gneiss

dianite

and

—

and

Phillips

gangue

always found blende

on what authority

states,

the Carnatic

in

it,

.

—

in-

be the matrix of corundum in Southern India;

fibrolite to

not mentioned, that

is

a coarse-grained white marble.

is

both in Mysore and Salem, in

schist, associated

with iron

ore, asbestus,

talc,

I

its

have

mica, or horn-

and sometimes

india-

imbedded in the rock in grains and Viralimodos and Skolasigamany are its principal localities crystals. in the valley of the Cauvery; Golashully and Kulkairy in Mysore, nite

and

where

it

It occurs

fibrolite.

also

occurs

Mundurim 2 near Seringapatam,

at

,

Beygoor, Bannercota, Baugoopilly, and other places.

Tippaty,

It is also said

to be

found in the hypogene schists of Nellore and Guntoor.

spinel

ruby (dodecahedral

corundum), and sapphire (the

hyalin of Haiiy), are occasionally found with the in the

Salem

district,

granular corundum,

and is

in the valley

The

corindon

common corundum Emery, or

of the Cauvery.

found at Bombardipadu 3, about twenty-four

miles northerly from Tripaty in North Arcot, in hornblende rock, in pieces varying from

the size of a pea to that of a hen’s egg, or even

Common corundum is

larger.

though the Eastern Ghauts, territories to

at

the plains of

also found

east

where the Godavery escapes the Nizam’s

of Papconda, from

Rajahmundry and the

sea.

Beryl occurs

Paddioor in Coimbatore; and, according to the natives, at Vani-

ambadi, at the north base of the Nilgherries. rarely with indianite and corundum, as has

Fibrolite occurs but

been before alluded I

to, in

speaking of the last two minerals.

Kyanite

found associated with adularia, asbestiform tremolite, and magnetic

iron ore, at

Adipuram;

in the Nellore district, in gneiss: it occurs in

the same rock near Gharibpett 4 , in the Nizam’s territories; also in

Mysore 5 and ,

in the

maritime

districts of the

Godavery and Kistna 6 The ,

with tremolite, pearl spar, bitter spar, almandine and staurolite. 1

Macgregor, Madras Quarterly Medical Journal, July, 1842, page 284.

2

Clarke,

3

Hayne’s Tracts, page 110.

5

Clarke,

6

Madras Journal, January, 1839, page

Madras Journal

121. 4

Voysey.

and Science for January, 1839, Macpherson, Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVIII., page 120. of Literature

p.

120.

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

154

last-mentioned mineral occurs

north of Ryacota,

in the

and epidote Earthy Minerals: Magnesia.

hypogene and plutonic rocks with

associated

hornblende,

1

felspar,

in

the

in

Baramahal,

.

—

Steatite occurs in the talcose schists

the western parts of Mysore; as also potstone, in beds of consider-

able size, and veins, and

more or

less dispersed

over the whole hypo-

gene area; occasionally associated with nephrite. Alkalino-Earthy Minerals

:

Potash.

—Mica

found universally

is

diffused.

In some parts of the Western Ghauts, and on the table

lands

the east, this mineral and talc are found in plates large

to

enough

windows, and lanterns;

for

also for ornamental devices,

Chlorite

India.

hornblende. laria is

is

and

which purpose they are used, as

for

for painting on,

by

the natives of

rarely found uncombined with felspar, silex, or

Nacrite, or scaly talc,

is

here and there met with.

found in the gneiss at Adipuram, in the Nellore

Adu-

district,

and

other places.

Alkalino-Earthy Minerals: Soda.

—Albite,

or cleavlandite, occurs

pretty abundantly in the gneiss of the Eastern Ghauts above Bezwara,

north of

the Kistna,

and occasionally

at Paddioor in Coimbatore,

throughout the gneiss districts of Southern India

:

as also tourmaline,

or schorl, both black and green.

Alumina and Lime.

Acidiferous Earthy Minerals:

—Sulphate

and

sub-sulphate of alumina are occasionally found in thin incrustations

and

efflorescences

between the layers of the

which the hornblende and mica

soft ferruginous slates into

schists pass; for instance, in

Copper Mountain range near Bellary, where

I

have also observed

careous spar in nests in the gneiss and hornblende schist.

General

Cullen has found calcareous spar in the gneiss of Travancore. of rare occurrence in the

mineral

is

India.

Bitter spar

is

said to occur

2

the cal-

This

hypogene rocks of Southern

in the

maritime

districts

of the

Kistna and Godavery. Acidiferous Earthy Minerals: Magnesia.

— Magnesite,

an almost

pure carbonate of magnesia, occurs in beds, veins, and nests in the hornblende and talcose schists near Salem,

associated

with rocks

analogous to serpentine, or chromiferous ophiolite, asbestus, chert, a silicate of

magnesia, nephrite, and chromate of iron

:

also at Yedi-

chicolum, and other places on the banks of the Cauvery; and in the

Hoonsoor

vicinity of

in

Mysore.

In geological

situs,

and

age, the

magnesite of Southern India assimilates the older magnesites of Styria,

Moravia, Baltimore, and Turin. 1

Hayne’s Tracts, page 345. Macpherson, Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVIII.,

p. 120.

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. Metalliferous Minerals : Iron

.

— Iron

distributed in small proportions in the

155

pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, is

hypogene rocks ; but the oxides,

both magnetic and haematitic, exist in extraordinary abundance, formIn ing masses and large interstratified beds in mountain chains. gneiss these ores frequently replace hornblende

with

found at Pakanandoo, in the Salem

Darwar

and

of Kittoor

Mysore, those

country ; in large masses among the in

many

district,

hills in

Southern Mahratta

Sondoor near Hospett, and

other localities.

Micaceous and specular iron ore are netic iron sand

origin

in the

hills of

is

in beautiful octohedral

massive state on the Baba Booden

It occurs in the

crystals.

and mica; alternating

Magnetic iron ore with polarity

quartz in regular layers.

is

less

common.

A

dark mag-

usually found, in the beds of streams having their

among hypogene

rocks, associated with gold dust

and some-

;

time with menaccanite.

—

Iron ore slightly titaniferous is found over the whole Titanium hypogene area. Menaccanite I found among the iron sand, and gold dust in the best of the Doni rivulet among the Kupputgode hills, and .

some of the rivulets of the Ceded Districts. Manganese The black oxide of manganese, associated with iron ore, is found in considerable quantities among the Kupputgode hills, and more sparingly in those of the Ceded Districts, Mysore, and the

in

.

—

Nilgherries.

—Chromate of Copper — Ores copper,

Chrome

iron occurs associated with the magnesite of

.

Salem, and probably exists in other magnesite

localities.

principally the green carbonate

of

.

and

sul-

phuret, occur in strings, nests, nodules, and short broken veins in the gneiss, mica,

and hornblende

The carbonate

tricts.

schists of the Nellore

also found

is

among

and Guntoor

the Kupputgode

dis-

hills, in

the Copper Mountain near Bellary; and in various localities in the

Eastern Ghauts.

The

the rocks of India

is

rarity of a regularly continuous lode of ore in

a remarkable peculiarity, and has hitherto dis-

couraged the exertions of miners. near the surface

to veins

a fair

trial

Silver

Mysore

.

has been

— Ores

1

I

.

:

made

and

I

However, our knowledge

confined

of their mineral resources.

of silver are said to occur in Madura,

and

also in

found a single fragment of the grey carbonate in the

auriferous sands of the Doni rivulet in the

rocks in

is

do not consider that up to the present

all these localities

Kupputgode

are hypogene and plutonic.

hills.

The

In the Doni

rivulet the sand contained magnetic iron sand, menaccanite, carbonate 1

Clarke,

p. 120.

Madras Journal

of

Literature and Science for January,

1839,

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

15 G

of copper, and a grain or

two of a white metal, soluble only

—

Two

in nitro-

bits of metallic silver

and

copper were also found in the sand here, which from not being in

situ,

muriatic acid,

and the

probably platinum.

possibility

of

being adventitious,

their

cannot

be safely

pronounced as native.

Antimony Baba Booden

.

— This

mineral

said

is

What

of Mysore.

hills

by Dr. Clarke

1

to occur in the

generally sold as surmeh, or

is

antimony, in the bazaars of Southern India, and used largely as a collyrium by the natives to improve the brilliancy of the eye,

fund to be a micaceous iron

have

I

Galena, or sulphuret of lead,

ore.

is

said

to be also substituted.

Combustible Minerals in

:

Graphite

.

—Graphite

I

found in thin shales

the south-west part of the Nizam’s dominions at

the gneiss of

N undapur. Many

minerals

common

in the

hypogene

Europe have not

series of

yet been noticed in this class of rocks in Southern India; such as spar, barytes, strontianite,

fluor

antomolite, and a

lusite,

Zircon

apatite,

chiastolite,

Nilgherries.

I

and of the

have

add greatly

little

pyenite,

anda-

of other minerals less frequent.

said to occur in the alluvium at Ellora,

is

that of the Kistna,

will

number

rivers in

and

cats’-eye in

Malabar; and umber

in the

doubt that the labours of future mineralogists

to this list of minerals associated with the

hypogene

formation of Southern India. In concluding this

summary

India, I cannot refrain from

mind the remark

of the metamorphic rocks of Southern

remarking how forcibly they

of the illustrious

Humboldt, who,

recall

to

in concluding his

purvey of the plutonic and hypogene series of South America, says

“When we and

plants,

pass to another hemisphere,

and even new

rocks

we

same

gneiss, the

still

we

new forms

see

of animals

constellations in the heavens; but in the

recognise our old acquaintances

same micaceous

schist,

PART

;

the same granite, the

quartz rocks, &c.”

II.

Diamond Sandstone, and Limestone. Resting immediately on the hypogene and plutonic rocks are found beds of limestone, sandstone, and sandstone-conglomerate (the latter imbedding diamonds)

often 1

p.

Clarke,

120.

Madras Journal

—argillaceous,

of

arenaceous,

Literature and

and

siliceous

Science for January, 1830,

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

157

which, from their being usually associated, sometimes alter-

schists,

and

nating,

frequent conformability of

their

strata,

has been

it

thought convenient, until the discovery of distinguishing

fossils,

to

describe under one head.

—

Next to the hypogene schists, and position and the associated plutonic rocks, these limestone and

Geographical extent just described,

.

sandstone beds occupy, perhaps, the greater portion of our area north

drawn from Pulicat

of a line

to

Mangalore on the south, and the

southern edge of the great overlying trap formation on

the north.

In the south of India, from Cape Comorin to the Salem Break, they

have not hitherto been seen ; and, what is remarkable, they appear almost wholly confined to the elevated table lands, and to the Eastern Ghauts, which they cap at intervals from Naggery to beyond the

Below the escarpment of the Western

northern limit into Cuttack.

Ghauts the sandstone has only been observed at Atchera

Malabar

1 ,

on the

coast.

Dipping

at a considerable

angle to the north-west, the limestone

has not hitherto been seen either on the maritime plains below the

Eastern Ghauts, or in those of the Western Ghauts. lands

these

vicinity of the great drainage lines of the country

of the Godavery, Bhima, Kistna naur.

On

the table-

works are most frequently observed, exposed

They occur

—

in

the

for instance, those

and Gutpurba, Malpurba, and Pen-

in irregularly-shaped patches, separated usually

by

broad and apparently denuded zones of the subjacent hypogene and plutonic rocks.

Physical aspect

.

— The

tracts occupied

by

the limestone and sand-

stone beds present a diversified aspect, sometimes

and at

flat

and monotonous, and

others, near lines of plutonic disturbance, bare, rugged,

The limestone in some situations has evidently been denuded of the usually supeijacent sandstone, dislocated, and elevated several hundreds of feet above the general level of the surrounding picturesque.

country

in

regular ranges,

and often

in highly-inclined

the tract between Banaganpilly and Gooty.

in

though

in

such cases often wanting, are sometimes seen

the limestone peaks.

The

strata,

as

Caps of sandstone, still

covering

outline of these limestone ranges usually

presents long, flattish-topped ridges, whose sides and summits are not

unfrequently covered with detached angular blocks of the rock, with a grey, weathered, and scabrous exterior, resembling that of the

moun-

tain limestones of Europe.

The sandstone, where undisturbed by plutonic 1

intrusion, occurs in

Malcolmson, Geological Transactions, Vol. V., page 367, Second Series,

Part III.

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

158 low,

flat,

wall-like ranges, rising at an almost similar level, rarely

exceeding 500 feet from the surface of the surrounding country, supporting table lands of some extent, and evidently once continuous.

by deep

It is often intersected

down

the rocks

the

to

fissures,

extending from the snmmit of

These sometimes run through and

base.

divide entire hilly chains, in a direction at right angles to their course,

and not unfrequently afford

the

outlets to

streams that cross the

Bay

Peninsula from west to east on their passage to the

The direction of the fissures is sometimes gap of Ganjicotta on the table land of which the Pennaur picturesque

cliffs

flows,

zig-zag, as in the

of Bengal.

remarkable

the Ceded Districts, through

washing the bases of the precipitous and

that form

its

sides.

In some instances these great

cracks in the sandstone have been widened and altered by the force of the streams that find a vent through them.

When

disturbed

contrast in

its

by

plutonic force, the sandstone exhibits a striking

outline to the

tame horizontal aspect

distance from the axes of disturbance.

It rises in

it

assumes at

bold relief against

the sky in lofty rugged cross, or hog-backed and crested

hills,

with

precipitous mural ridges, which, rarely running at the

same level for any distance, are interrupted by portions of the same ridge thrown up at various angles with the horizon in steep and often inaccessible cliffs. These features are more strikingly seen in the ranges east of Gooty, on the edge of the granitic rocks, and in the Eastern Ghauts in the vicinity

of Naggery,

When

crests the

often

it

Udigherry, and in some parts of Goomsur. hypogene rocks, the lower part of the elevation is

composed of the

200 to 400

feet,

inclination of from 15° to

20°,

latter to the height of about

the slope of which has usually an

while that of the cap of sandstone presents a steep or precipitous declivity varying from 45° to 90°, giving a decided character to the aspect

and configuration of the mountains

and

ranges

thus

formed.

The

hills of

arenaceous schists are to be recognised from the more

massive sandstones by their undulating, round-backed summits, and

and dimpled flanks ; while those of the softer slates and shales affect the mammiform outline. Both limestone and sandstone beds there is little doubt were formerly of greater extent than now, and owe much of their present their buttressed

discontinuity

and scattered positions

turbance, and subsequent denudation.

to the

The

agency of plutonic

dis-

tracts of country inter-

vening between their areas are usually occupied by granitic and hypogene rocks. The superincumbent beds, broken up by the granite rising to the surface,

have been more easily carried away by aqueous

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. currents, than in undisturbed situations,

To admit

greater.

where we

159 find their continuity

he necessary to adopt the theory of

this, it will

the granite's rising above the surface in a solid, or a nearly solid, state. It

a

is

that in granitic tracts

fact,

denudation has been most

the

complete.

now

I shall

proceed to notice, in detail, the extent, &c., of the

various detached portions, or patches, of the limestone and sandstone strata.

Cuddapah Beds tensive,

.

— The Cuddapah

beds appear to be the most ex-

occupying an area of about 9000 square miles, comprised of north

and the 17 th degrees

between the 13th

latitude.

They

extend east and west from the Eastern Ghauts over the table land of the Ceded Districts, to the village of Yaripilly, about nine miles east

and to Peddapa. On the north they stretch bank of the Kistna, near Waripilly, covering the

of the fortress of Gooty,

from

the

left

eastern and central portions of the Eastern Ghauts to Naggery, the

adjacent table lands of Cuddapah, Kurnool,

Tripetty,

and part of

North Arcot, to the north frontier of Mysore, near Rayachooty. It meets the hypogene and plutonic rocks of Hyderabad near Myapoor, a village on the

left

bank

Kistna,

the

of

about nineteen

miles

northerly from the city of Kurnool.

Godavery Beds

.

—A

number

of small

plains between the Kistna and the

outlying patches stud the

Godavery; and the sandstone

is

seen at intervals capping the Eastern Ghauts, and forming low ranges stretching

Cuttack

into

beyond

our

limits..

Near

mines of Condapilly, on the north bank of the Kistna,

the it

diamond

appears to

touch the Cuddapah beds, which are seen in the channel of the Kistna at

Amrawati.

tract

under

Further inland, on the north-east extremity of the

description, another patch

direction on the

west of

its

extends in a south-eastern

banks of the Godavery, commencing to the north-

confluence with the Banigunga, and traceable to the hot

springs of Budrachelum, on the south-east

Others occur at intervals

on the banks of the Godavery at various distances to the alluvial plains of

Rajahmundry near

its

embouchure.

—

South Mahratta Country Beds Separated by a zone of outcropping hypogene and plutonic rocks, about a degree and half in breadth, from the Cuddapah beds, and immediately to the westward of them, .

those of the South Mahratta country, extending north and south from the vicinity of Chimlughi, near the confluence of the Kistna and the Gutpurba, to Gujunderghur on the south, and from Moodgul lie

1

Malcolmson, Geological Transactions, Vol. V., Second Series, Part III,

pp. 567, &c.

SUMMARY

160

OF THE GEOLOGY

on the

east, to the subordinate chains of the Western Ghauts at Gokauk, and thence stretching down southerly towards Belgauui. The hill-forts of Pedda and Chich Nurgoond, and of Nowlgoond,

stand on outliers a

below the southern limit of

little

this patch.

The

course of the Gutpurba forms an irregular boundary to the north, with the great overlying trap of the Dekhan.

Hydrabad Beds

.

—Smaller

patches are observed in the

isolated

and Hydrabad, viz., at Muand Talicota, on the banks of the Bhima, between the city of Gulberga and Firozabad; and also in the vicinity of Digaye, between Southern Mahratta country, between

it

dibhal,

Muktul and Gulberga. The sandstone again

crops out in the

1

Hydrabad country near

Hunnumkoondah and Pakkal,

Sarapur, between

to

which

it

continues

penetrated by granite.

Beds of limestone occur at Kotah, about ten miles up the Pundeetah river above Identity

.

confluence with the Godavery.

its

— The identity of

these scattered beds

is

proved by their

relative geological position with respect to other rocks, their

pebbles,

Order of tions,

Stratification

— The

.

limestone occupies, with few excep-

the lowest position iu the sections afforded

and

drainage of these tracts, strata

imbedded

and striking mineralogical resemblance.

have been stripped

in

by the great

places where the

lines of

superincumbent

off.

Next in order of superposition come calcareous shales, mingled with much argillaceous matter, then argillaceous shales and slates, sandstone,

siliceous

and arenaceous

schists,

quartz rock and sandstone

conglomerates.

In one or two situations

vated into chains of

hills,

I

have observed the limestone, where

alternating with sandstone

between Banaganpilly and Pycut Puspoolah in the

Cuddapah

tract

Southern Mahratta Direction

and

;

ele-

for instance,

and near Ryelcherroo

also a little south of Kulladghi in the

tract.

and Dip

to that of the

3

;

.

— The direction

bypogene

schists

of these beds usually conforms

on which they

rest.

They have, with by

the latter, been broken through, penetrated, tilted up, and altered

plutonic rocks. beds.

At a

The disturbance

is

most apparent on the edges of the

distance from the lines, or foci of plutonic action, the beds

are found but slightly inclined, and their dip following the easterly

and southerly inclination of the great table lands. The Cuddapah strata have been raised at their eastern limits by the elevation of the Dr. Walker, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1841, No. 30,

p. 471.

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

1G1

Eastern Ghauts with the subjacent hypogene schists, to the average elevation of about 2000 feet above the sea’s

They have been

at their

level

dipping about

;

by platonic rocks western edge, between Ryelclierroo and Gooty, where the

40° westerly.

42° easterly.

dip

is

the

strata

lifted

Intermediate between these axes of elevation

but

are

similarly

In

inclined.

little

the

tongue

Toombuddra from the Kistna, the dip

ating the

and is in some bank of tbe Gut-

appears to conform to the undulations of the plain

mammiform

elevations, quaquaversal.

purba, near

its

On

the south

land sepa-

of

of the limestone ;

confluence with the Kistna, large masses of the light

bluish-grey limestone have been thrown on their edges, and the strata inclined at various angles

to the

At Kurnool,

horizon.

the ditch of

the fort affords a beautiful section, illustrating the little extent to

which disturbance

is

sometimes carried by plutonic

forces.

The beds

of limestone in the vicinity have but a very slight dip, which in the

short space of 500 yards, passes into highly inclined, waving, curved, vertical, and anticlinal, having been broken through by a wedge of hypogene rock (hornblende schist) resting on granite. The dip of the sandstone when resting Dip of the Sandstone Beds .

on the limestone

is

—

usually not so great as that of the latter,

other words, unconformable.

It

may be hence inferred

or, in

that an interval

took place between the deposition of the limestone and sandstone strata,

during which the former were disturbed and again tilted up

To strengthen

after the deposition of the latter.

this supposition of

two epochs of geological disturbance, it may be added that pebbles of chert and jasper, evidently derived from veins in the limestone, are frequently found

sometimes

in

sandstone conglomerates.

the

rests horizontally

in general it

conforms almost to the dip of the

places in the Eastern Ghauts, north

where the dip

is

The sandstone

on the granite and hypogene schists; but latter, as

seen in

many

Kistna, and in Goomsur,

of the

generally between 60° and 80°, and inclined to every

point of the compass.

Cleavage

and

Joints

.

—Joints

and planes of cleavage are often

strikingly developed in the structure of the

members

of the limestone

the Cuddapali

where

district,

12°, the cleavage planes sition,

dipping in an

more

and sandstone the

strata

schistose

and laminar

At Nundaloor,

rocks.

in

have an easterly dip of

formed an angle of 40° with those of depo-

almost

similar

direction,

and preserving far

greater regularity and uniformity of dip even over extensive tracts.

The

lines of deposition are here distinctly

marked by

alternate parallel

and dark-coloured bands. The joints are at right angles, or nearly so, with the planes of stratification, and often filled or lined

light

VOL.

vm.

M

OF THE GEOLOGY

SUMMARY

162

Near Kulladghi, the calcareous

with calcareous incrustations.

slates

associated with the limestone sometimes possess a true transverse

cleavage, dividing the rock into rhomboids capable of indefinite subat angles of

into similar forms,

division

The

direction of the strata.

The

right angles.

joints

from 30°

to 40° with the

here intersect the cleavage at

may

true surfaces of deposition

be usually dis-

tinguished from the smooth rectilinear planes of cleavage, by their peculiar dimpled aspect.

This characteristic

is,

however, often more

or less obscure.

Ripple J/arks

.

— On

the exposed surfaces of the sandstone

Ganjicotta in the Ceded

south of Cuddapah, at in

Districts,

cliffs

Gokauk

Southern Mahratta country, among the ranges between the localities, I have observed

the

Kistna and Bagulcota, and various other

Their longitudinal axes, though extremely

marks.

distinct

ripple

various,

have on the large scale a tendency

to

an E.N.E. direction,

showing that the current which caused them flowed generally

W.N.W.

in

The marks are not confined

or in an E.S.E. direction.

a to

strips or zones of the sandstones, like those of ancient beaches, but

extend in every direction over considerable spaces, resembling those on sand constantly under water. Fissures

and Caves

.

—

I

have already alluded to the

often cleave the sandstone masses from

numerous and crossing each other appearance

summit

to base.

and reminded me of the faces

mud

Roman

resembled

those

pebbled

artificial

ruins in Italy.

The pebbled

floors

level,

found among

many

In other situations the fissured sur-

produced by

may have

sur-

remarkably

in drying,

contraction

of a tank or river, or in the Regur, or black cotton

sandstone their origin

These when

at right angles, impart a tesselated

to the surfaces of the flat-topped hills.

faces of the comglomerates thus divided are often

of the

which

fissures

soil.

in

the

In the

been similar, during the consolidation

by plutonic heat. Vertical fissures are also seen in the limestone, though by no means to the same extent they vary from a few lines in width to many yards. Caverns, so common in the limestone formation of Europe, are rarely seen a few occur in the Cuddapah beds; some of which, as well as the fissures, I have searched in of the rock

:

:

vain for organic remains.

bonate of lime, the

stalactite,

They

rocks forming their sides.

quently the outlets of springs. often

smooth,

attrition

;

usually contain incrustations of car-

kankar,

detritus,

and angular debris of

Both caverns and

The

sides

of the

fissures

vaults,

are fre-

though

do not exhibit the polished or grooved surfaces of

nor can

are undisturbed.

we

expect to find such in tracts where the strata

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

and grooves, apparently caused by the action of

Parallel furrows

pebbles face:

163

moved along by

water, are occasionally observed on the sur-

particularly on the

Banaganpilly and Peapilly,

summit of some limestone cliffs between Ceded Districts. Rock basins above

in the

the present drainage level of the country are rare.

PART

III.

Diamond Sandstone, and Limestone. Lithologic Character of the Limestone

dark

.

— The

limestone passes from a

blue, or nearly black rock with a smooth, but

somewhat earthy,

conchoidal fracture, into one of a more compact texture and of a light buff, or cream colour, adapted for lithographic purposes for instance, some of the varieties near Bagulcota, and Talicota in the Southern Mahratta country near Kurnool and Ryelcherroo in the Ceded DisThe specimens of tricts; and Datchopilly in the Nizam’s territories. these lithographic limestones that have been subjected to actual experiment, though found occasionally to answer, have proved inferior to those of Germany ; being often penetrated by minute threads of silex, or It must be calc spar, and not of a sufficiently homogeneous texture. remarked, at the same time, that these localities have not been explored :

;

and quarried with adequate care or labour it is is

probable, the lower beds

may

yield.

for better specimens, which,

In structure the limestone

both thick-bedded, and laminar; in colour

it is

generally of a light

bluish grey, though, sometimes, as just observed, nearly black,

pass-

ing into a variety of beautiful and lively shades of green, yellow, pink,

and white ; sometimes irregularly disposed, but more frequently with the lines of stratification. The

in alternating hands, coinciding

green varieties are often spotted with a darker green, or bluish black, assimilating in colour

some

varieties of serpentine.

This latter mineral

sometimes occurs in thin strings and nodules in the limestone, and evidently imparts to in the vicinity of

siskin

green

it

much

of

its

colouring matter.

These nodules

Kurnool and Ryelcherroo, are usually of a

colour, translucent

and

sectile; streak

light or

nearly white.

Before the blowpipe they become opaque, redden slightly, and fuse partially on their edges into a white enamel.

stone

imbedding them

is

often magnesian,

although the general character of the beds as

is

evident from

the

is

The variety

of lime-

and contains asbestus siliceous and argillaceous,

following analysis of an average specimen

M

2

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

164 of

Cuddapah dark blue limestone made

the

for

me by my

friend

Mr. Macleod, Inspector-General of Hospitals, Madras. Silex

Alumina Oxide of

The

chief object of this analysis

I

of

the

iron

:

this limestone

had long thought

blowpipe,

Mr. Macleod

analysis is

5

2

5

iron

Carbonate of lime Loss

dark colour of

12

has

was

since,

;

1

3

33

3

0

4

50

0

to ascertain the origin of the

from

whitening before the

its

could not be ascribable to protoxide

it

proved

of opinion that

it

truth

the

owes

its

of

the

conjecture.

colour to volatile matter;

The limestone, in the vicinity of basaltic, jdutonic, and hypogene rocks, is usually siliceous, and presents veins of chert, red and brown jasper; sometimes intermingled with films and nests of a mammillary chert, resembling calcedony; and calc spar, as in the “extractive.’’

vicinity

of Kurnool,

and Yaripilly east of Gooty. The cherts are translucent, and sometimes of a faint

usually of a greyish white, roseate hue

;

while others resemble carnelian both in colour and tex-

In veins and layers,

it splits by microscopic fissures into paralThe red jaspers are often striped like the limeThe limestone frequently graduates insenstone with red and green.

ture.

lelopipedal fragments.

sibly into these cherts

A

and jaspers.

soft

reddish

and purplish

laminar variety of the limestone prevails in the western parts of

Kurnool and Cuddapah ; and more or this formation extends,

less

in

all

the localities where

passing by insensible gradations into the ordi-

nary blue limestone of the country.

The

transition, however,

is

some-

times so abrupt, as almost to excite the idea of their being a distinct

formation

:

but as yet, this conclusion cannot be arrived at in the

absence of organic evidence.

These red slaty and shaly beds are

frequently interlaminated with thin light green chloritic flakes, which are also seen in the white

marbly

varieties of the limestones of Ba-

gulcota in the Southern Mahratta country. thin argillaceous lamellae occur; which, light

brown hue and become

in

In the dark varieties decomposition, turn of a

distinctly visible, alternating with the

dark blue limestone. In the vicinity of Bagulcota, Kulladghi, and Kurnool, the

lime-

stone acquires so crystalline a structure as to resemble the finer marbles.

At

Talicota, beautiful dendritic appearances occur inscribed on

the successive surfaces of the laminae, like characters on the leaves of

a book, with features so strongly resembling those of vegetation as

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. to induce Dr.

Wight

the botanist to believe they were organic, though

probably the result of metallic

The following

165

infiltration.

the note he sent

me on

the subject; and,

if

these

appearances be really nothing more than the result of metallic

infil-

tration,

is

show how

will serve, at least, to

it

closely they sometimes

mimic the productions of the vegetable kingdom.

“The

appearance

arborescent

At

remain.

find,

least, I

the slate I think an organic

in

when under a high magnifying power,

that

the black lines can, with the point of a needle, be picked off without

touching the stone, as there.

I feel

if

was

the carbonaceous matter of the plant

still

uncertain, however, whether to call the original a moss

or a fucus, but think the latter.”

At Chillumcoor,

in the

Ceded

Districts,

the limestone

associated

is

with a greyish breccia, having a coarse granular and crystalline structure,

resembling that of granite, and imbedding small angular frag-

ments of

siliceous slate,

and iron

The

pyrites.

the ordinary blue limestone could not be traced

of the superincumbent

ratta country south of

in the

Southern Mah-

Darwar, which, from their insulated

circumscribed limits, and petrological character

its

hill

position,

would be premature

it

give a permanent place to in the formation

These beds constitute a

form shape, having

with

to the thickness

soil.

There are also some beds of a curious rock

to

line of junction

owing

under description.

near the village of Hurti with a

mammi-

surface covered with detached, angular,

and

rugged masses of a similar rock, which appears to have been subjected to the action of violent disruptive forces.

It is of

a massive character,

rarely laminar, veined with a white opaque quartz, and imbeds crystals

of iron pyrites.

It is

composed of minute angular fragments of

a dark glistening quartz, and crystals of pale flesh-coloured felspar,

cemented together by a greenish,

composed

granular,

chiefly of carbonate of lime.

subcrystalline

very likely

It is

to

paste,

be mis-

taken, from the colour, hardness, and granular texture, for a variety

and, in some varieties, resembles ; and serpentine; but on the application of a lens, and, indeed, by the naked eye, its true aggregate character may be distinctly of massive siliceous, chlorite rock

diallage

recognised.

The

application

of

dilute

rock

acid to the

nitric

in

substance excites but a feeble effervescence; but from the powder, the

extrication

varieties

of

delineations.

of carbonic acid gas

a dull green

hue,

are

is

abundantly evident.

traversed

Before the blowpipe, per

se,

it

Some

with reddish brown

phosphoresces slightly,

and exhibits on the edges points of black shining enamel.

The com-

pact varieties are susceptible of a high polish, and are used as au

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

166

ornamental building stone, which often retains the pyrites bespangling in gold-coloured spots the smooth surface. The minute scales of mica, the crystals of reddish felspar, and dark coloured quartz, together with

the general dull green hue of the rock, indicate the micaceous and chloritic schists with which

showing the dip of

section presented itself

pyrites, not weathering so

quently stand out from

its

origin from

its detrital it

is

beds.

associated.

The

rapidly as the embedding limestone,

This

its surface.

No

crystals of fre-

the case with the veins of

is

jasper and chert in the ordinary limestone of Cuddapali, the Southern

Mahratta country, &c., exhibiting curious reticulations

in

relief

on

their exterior.

Associated Minerals

.

— The

most prominent mineral characteristic

abounding in nests and cubic and which, on atmospheric exposure, particularly where subject to moisture, acquire a liver-brown hue. Nests and strings

of the limestone

is

the iron pyrites,

crystals;

of a poor hcematitic iron ore are also pretty generally distributed

more particularly

the former the latter

sometimes seen

is

and tubular

in the filling

dark blue and green varieties; a succession of small spheroidal

cavities in the substance of

uufrequently empty;

and have

possibly

the rocks, which are not originated

inclosed air, or gaseous extrication, while the rock

in

was yet

bubbles

of

in the state

of a soft mud.

Galena

is

found in the limestone near Jungumrazpilly, Bussapur,

Mahanandi, and other localities in the Cuddapah district ; usually in brown jaspideous calcareous and white quartz veins, associated with irou

ore

and sulphate of barytes, a mineral hitherto unnoticed by

writers on the geology of Southern India, and which occurs in the

Nundi Cunnama of the laminar,

Pass, over the Eastern Ghauts.

and more frequently

incrustations of muriate of soda are often found: that,

where

this saline

development

Between the layers

in the argillaceous varieties, thin

is

and

I

have observed

greatest, the rock

is less solid,

has an earthy fracture, and appears to have undergone a chemical change. Selenite is rare a specimen of this mineral, labelled “ Tiagar, :

southern division of Arcot,” occurs in the

Museum

of the

Madras

Branch Royal Asiatic Society. Coal has been discovered by Mr. Walker in the limestone on the 1

north limit of our area at Kotah, about ten miles up the Pundeetah river, above its confluence with the Godavery where it is described ; as occurring as a vein in a layer of shale

and bituminous

argillaceous limestone associated with the sandstone,

shale, in the

and dipping

low angle towards the north-east. 1

Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 112, 1841, pp. 841, Ac.

at a

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. Organic Remains

.

— The

almost total absence of

limestone, in Southern India,

impossible to assign

it,

167 fossils

in

this

a remarkable feature, and renders

is

it

for the present, a place corresponding with

any of the classed formations of Europe or America. In some of the chert veins in the limestone of Nannoor, in Kurnool, I recently discovered myriads of microscopic, spherical, and oval bodies, resembling at

sight the grains in oolite

first

;

but they are

and have a more organic appearance, resembling somewhat that of Bohemia. Their section, however, usually gives two or more concentric circles, with a point or nucleus in the centre, which have

larger,

sometimes a distinctly chambered structure, like that of nummulites.

These foraminifera exhibit no traces of carbonate of In decomposition they

entirely silicified.

fall out,

of the stone so perforated with cavities, as to give

Their colour

of coral.

is

being

lime,

leaving the surface the appearance

it

usually white and opaque

:

the opacity

is

evidently caused by disintegration, but in others, translucent, like

Those embedded

white carnelian.

in the red jasper-like chert fre-

some are entirely charged with the red colouring matter, while others have only the outer circles tinged quently retain this appearance

by

:

it.

Lithologic Character

of the Sandstone

.

— The

sandstone

and

its

associated beds, lithologically speaking, are not very dissimilar to the

Devonian sandstones of England, the

finer chloritic slates of

which,

with their dendritic delineations, find resemblances in those of Chitty-

and

waripilly,

between Cuddapah

Cummum

Divisions of the Eastern Ghauts, and in the vicinity of

Kulladghi, alternating with sandstones.

Gooty,

hard quartzose

in

the

slates,

Budwail,

tilestones,

and and

Assimilations to the millstone grit are seen in the coarse

white and red sandstones of Badami and Mudibhal in the Southern

Mahratta country.

In

many

localities,

for

instance

Banaganpilly,

Ryelcherroo, near Bagulcota, and the Juggernaut range of Kurnool,

we

find

breccias

and conglomerates passing into red sandstone and

quartz rock.

The sandstone-capping portion of the Eastern Ghauts, from Naggery to the Mahanuddi, rarely passes into a breccia, and is seldom associated with the limestone on the more elevated portions of Here it often assimilates the weathered gneiss on the Ghaut chain. which it rests. It frequently passes into red and green argillaceous and siliceous slates, and laminated marls. Beautifully variegated sandstones, exhibiting waving and contorted bands, occur in the vicinity of Sidhout, Cuddapah district. The sandstone conglomerate

of Southern India

is

most remarkable

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

168

for being the matrix of the

and other data

to

class

diamond; and with any

it

it

is

known

absence of organic

in

formation, that

has

it

been deemed convenient, from this almost peculiar mineral feature, to

apply to

temporary distinctive

this

it

both in the sandstone and

The diamond occurs and conglome-

prefix.

interstratified breccias

its

in which are principally quartz, chert, flinty slate, and jaspideous clay impregnated with iron, with a

rates, the pebbles

basanite, jasper,

few fragments of trap, and the hypogene quartz greatly predominate

and

;

it

is

The pebbles

schists.

worthy of

single bit of true granite has hitherto been found

note, that not

in

of

a

these conglome-

Those of chert, jasper, and indurated clay have evidently been

rates.

derived principally from the subjacent limestone, and the rest from the hypogene rocks. Fossil chert from the limestone embedded in the diamond breccias of Banaganpilly and in

As

Kurnool.

subjacent rocks,

the

it

is

often found

of

Ramulacota

diamond has never been discovered

in these

cannot be said to exist as a transported crystal or

The pebbles from the hypogene and

fragment in the sandstone.

limestone rocks are both rounded and angular, varying in relative proportions in different localities, and are found from the size of a

duck-shot to that of a man’s head. ther

by an arenaceous

paste,

more or

They

argillaceous matter and oxide of iron. rest on the

are usually cemented toge-

less fine

limestone, particularly the beds

been found in greatest abundance.

In

and compact, mixed with

These conglomerates usually

where the diamond has

many

localities the limestone

and the conglomerates and sandstone rest immeGranite, or basaltic dykes are invadiately on the hypogene strata. riably found intruding into diamond areas, of which as a detailed is

entirely wanting,

account has already been given, be noticed, passim, that in

all

I

will not dwell

on them here.

alluvia in which the

diamond

It is

may

found,

The most noted diamond Cuddapah District, near Condapetta, Lamdoor, Penchetgapadoo, and Ovalumpully, at Banaganpilly, and in Kurnool at Bamulacotta, Devanur, Tandrapaud, and near the Nundi Cunnama Pass, near Gazoopilly at Munimudgoo, and Wudjra Caroor

pebbles of this formation invariably occur. localities are

in

near Gooty;

at

the

;

from

Ellore;

at

Malavilly,

a village about sixteen miles

Ganipartata',

Pertala, Wustapilly,

or

Partial,

Alkur,

W.S.W.

Burthyeupada,

and Codavetty Kalu; at Kattakindapalle, near

Bombartipadu, about twenty-four miles northerly from Tripetty.

diamond

pits

Old

are also said to exist about forty six miles west from

Ongola, and about twenty miles north from Nellore.

have been found from time

to

the Moorcondah ferry in Kurnool. 1

Large diamonds

time in the bed of the Kistna, below

Hayne’s Tracts, pp. 92 and 110.

OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

169

Most of the localities just enumerated were formerly within the kingdom of Golconda, but are now under the British Government and the Nizam of Hyderabad. The diamond also occurs in the alluvia of the sandstone districts of the Mahanuddi, the Bramini and Ehee rivers, particularly the latter. There are diamond mines at Wyragurh, ninety miles S.W. of Nagpoor, formerly celebrated, but ancient

now nearly

deserted.

Muriate of soda and sulphate of alumina occur frequently in thin

and layers

seams

interstratified

veins of

in

reddish,

purple,

the

with the sandstone of the

manganese

in the sandstone

and

hills of

between the

brownish shales,

Gokauk falls

;

and

I

found

of the Gutpurba

and Kulladghi. Iron ores, chiefly magnetic and lia3matitic (specular and micaceous more rarely) are pretty generally distributed in veins with quartz and in

nodules; iron pyrites occur less frequently in veins of white quartz. Cavities filled with fine crystals of quartz, and sometimes em-

bedded in calc spar, occur these crystalline nests I

Juggernaut range of Kurnool.

in the

In

observed a few laminae of a mineral of a

bright grass green colour, with a lustre and appearance resembling

Galena occurs

those of uranite.

in the quartz veins of the

Nulla Mulla

chain and occasional detached strings and thin patches of carbonate of copper.

Anthracite has recently been found in the Goond country in the

sandstone of Dantimnapilly,

Jungaum, which

is

about twenty

sixty-five miles west

an extreme breadth of three are also said to exist in

feet,

the

and length 200

north-west from

feet.

The bed has Traces of coal

diamond sandstone north-west of Nag-

and it occurs in great abundance the Nerbudda, a little further north.

pore, of

miles

from Chinnore.

in similar rocks in the valley

The great intrusion of basalt into diamond areas has already been and it has usually been accompanied by evidence of heat, viz., induration and silicification of the limestone, fissures, and numerous thermal springs rising up through them, impregnated with carnoticed,

bonic

acid.

It

is

possible that this subterranean

heat,

during

its

periods of intensity,

by acting on the limestone which has been shown

to contain volatile

vegetable

matter, in addition

to

carbonic acid,

drove off a portion of these in a gaseous form, with the superincumbent sandstone, and thus caused

its

diamondization,

if I

may

be per-

mitted so to express myself, by a process somewhat similar to that of the dolomization of limestone.

The atoms

of carbon set at liberty

from their old combinations of lime, oxygen, and hydrogen, and having little affinity

for the silica of their

new

matrix, gradually aggregated

SUMMARY OF THF GEOLOGY

170

under the influence of certain laws

in

the pores of the sandstone, and

assumed a crystalline form. Organic Remains.

—Although,

as already stated, there

is

a certain

degree of mineral resemblance between the sandstone beds of Southern India and those of the Devonian group, yet the singular ichthyolites, molluscs, and corallines that distinguished the latter are totally want-

ing in the former

—that

as far

is,

The sandstones supporting

as has hitherto been ascertained.

the coal measures at Chirra Punji, resting

upon plutonic rocks, hypogene

schists,

and supposed

to be identical

with the diamond sandstones of Punna in Bundlecund, of Cuddapah, Kurnool, Banaganpilly, and Nagpore, are said to abound in teredines,

and

imbed

to

stems and fruits of Mimosae, while in

fossil

limstone, bivalved and unclassed, are found,

from

univalved

and a

single gryphite

superior position to the sandstone,

its

with

shells, 1

;

is

associated

its

coralloids

hitherto

this limestone,

however,

probably of more recent

origin than that just described.

A

few impressions of stems and leaves of plants, one of which

fossil Glossopteris Danasoides of the Burdwan coal-fields by Professor Royle, have been discovered by Lieutenant Monro in the Nagpore sandstone. There are two other impressions in Lieutenant Monro’s specimens, bearing some resemblance. Mr. Malcolmson thinks, to the large bony scales of the sauroid fishes of the old red sandstone. However, they were so indistinct, that it would

resembles a figured

not be prudent to indulge in any speculation, until further discoveries

One

be made.

of those impressions,

which

I

carefully examined, bore

resemblance to that of the reticulated skeleton of a In the sandstone

hill of

of a deep black colour,

conceives centre

to

filled

is

Damuda,

he a

it

Indica, R.

;

is

Won, Mr. Malcolmson

and having a compact

portion

of a hollow

with sandstone.

well known, contain

of

Browniana, Ad.

Sphenophyllum Brongniart ;

(?)

leaf.

discovered a fossil

which he

structure,

compressed vegetable

;

its

The carboniferous sandstones of fossil

remains of the Vertebraria R.

speciosum,

;

of

Calderiana

Pustularia

Glossopteri Precopteris

;

Lindleyana, &c.

Age

.

—With

regard to the age of the diamond sandstone and

limestone, geologists are of conflicting opinions. latter to

Christie referred the

the transition period, and the former to the old red sand-

stone, without further evidence than mineral character,

been disturbed, with the hypogene schists,

by

Franklin 2 has referred the limestone to the 1

2

and

their having

plutonic rocks.

lias,

Major

and the sandstone

Conybeare’s Report to British Association, 1832. Geological Transactions, Second Series, Vol. III., Part

I.

to

OF SOUTHERN new

the

INDIA.

171

Mr. Malcolmson* has already refuted the opinion of

red.

they belong to the more

the latter, and states his conviction that

ancient secondary, or even transition rocks.

Major Franklin’s theory

appears to have been principally founded

on the saliferous seams

occurring in the sandstone

;

but in Southern India, as Mr. Malcolm-

son justly observes, salt occurs in alluvium, and

all

the formations, from granite to

the blue limestone, classed as

lias,

almost invariably

red.

A

track in Russia, long supposed identical with the

new

underlies the sandstone classed as the

of its interstratified gypseous

proved by

from

its

MM.

and

large sandstone

on account

red,

saliferous beds, has

recently been

Murchison and Verneuil 2 to belong to the old red,

imbedded

ichthyolites.

a well-known

It is

red in the north of Scotland

is

English coal measures, in the

lias of

stones of

new

saliferous

Egypt and Greece, and

:

the old

fact, that

salt springs

occur in the

Switzerland, in the tertiary limein

the

old

transition

of

slates

America.

The frequent horizontal

position of the

diamond sandstone and

limestone strata must not be regarded as a proof of recent origin. Granite,

it is

well known, has tilted up, and disturbed rocks of a period

more modern than the chalk guished geologists

first

;

while, on the other hand, the distin-

quoted found the older silurian rocks, cover-

ing a considerable portion of Russia, in perfectly horizontal str atifi-

Until the further discovery of organic remains enables the

cation.

geologist to see his

way more

clearly, it

from any hasty and premature

With

would be advisable

respect to their age, relatively to other Indian rocks,

been clearly shown, from superposition, unconformability of tion,

gene

to refrain

classification. it

has

stratifica-

and imbedded pebbles, that they are posterior to the oldest hyposchists, and anterior to the latest outbreaks of granite and basaltic

A

greenstone, which have penetrated and altered their structure.

pebbles of an older greenstone occasionally occur imbedded.

already stated

my

I

few

have

opinion of an interval having taken place between

the deposition of the limestone and the sandstone sufficient for the

consolidation of the former, from the fact of a slight uncouformability of dip,

and of the

latter’s

containing imbedded pebbles of a fossiliferous

chert evidently derived from the limestone. 1

2

Geological Transactions, Second Series, Vol. V., pp. 568, 569. Ibid.

Ibid.

Vol. V., Report of

Anniversary Speech, 1841.

\To

be

Continued .]

Buckland’s

172

Art. VIII

—A

.

few Observations on the Temple of Somnath ; by

Captain Postans. [Read June

As

15, 1844.]

a strong feeling has been evinced by the Society that by means

monuments

of graphic illustration the curiosities and

liberally

met by the Honourable Company,)

what conducive

of antiquity in

most

rescued from oblivion, (a wish that has been

India should be

I

have considered

view to print the sketch which

to the object in

Somnath during my

of the celebrated temple of

it

1838*, and of which a description was given

visit

someI

took

Girnar

to

in

the Royal Asiatic

in

Society’s Journal for October, in that year.

The

principal historical

notices of

Somnath which have reached

us are comprised in the well-known accounts of Mirkhond,

(in his

Rozat-as-safa,) Firishtah, in his great History, and a curious and quaint

two centuries after the

storv of the poet Sadi’s visit to the temple, about

invasion of the Saurashtra by

Mahmud

well as collateral accounts,

certain, notwithstanding a great discre-

it is

pancy as to the peculiar form of the

Mahmud our

found on his

era, that the

visit in the

and renown formed no the

these, as

idol or object of adoration

which

beginning of the eleventh century of

temple of Somnath was one of the richest and most

gorgeous shrines then existing little

Mohammedan march

in

Western

India,

and that

this wealth

portion of the inducements which influenced

to that

extreme corner of the Gujarat penin-

Like everything of an historical character

sula.

From

of Ghazni.

in India, the

Hindus

themselves are totally ignorant respecting the interest which attaches to

Somnath, and certainly

and near the

in

invasion, startling though itself

looked upon

in its

it

was,

I

am

How

Bombay

did

ever hear a syllable indicative

interest in the

who

in their

and appear

apathy

far this

may extend

into

Presidency, or amongst the Rajput tribes of Saurashtra.

of

an acquaintance with an

Somnath, except amongst the Jain

crude historical records designate

to consider

history they

Mahmud’s

unknown, and the building

not prepared to state, but certainly in no part

of the I

the fact of

spot,

quite

ruined state without the slightest approach to

respect or interest of any kind.

the interior of India

is

know

it

it

as

as one of their shrines

nothing.

The

;

priests of Girnar,

Chandra prabasa, but of

its

political

vicinity lias shared the veneration of

pilgrims (with the neighbouring shrine of

Dw arkanath r

Published by Messrs. Smith and Elder, Curuhill.

and the whole

THE TEMPLE OF SOMNATH.

173

from the legend which ascribes the death of Krishna

line of coast,)

from the arrow of

brother Vali, to a spot near Somnath, but to

his

the temple itself they pay no respect.

Upapurana

In an

it

men-

is

tioned as one of the twelve Lingas of Siva, and hence a great difference

of opinion between learned commentators as to the Budhistical or Brah-

manical character which should be assigned to the place when found

Mahmud the able discussions on this point printed in May and June, 1843, must be referred to for

and pillaged by

:

the Asiatic Journal for

every information on this head

and recorder of question

;

refer to

them

my

but as

here,

;

it

would

myself to

facts like

offer

ill

become

mere observer

a

any opinion on so erudite a

impressions w ere given in 1838, so r

and

will

I

venture to

conclude this notice with the description

then gave of the actual appearance of the temple.

Colonel

I

Tod has

the neighbourhood of Somnath,

some

of which I saw, and which appear to record repairs or additions

made

quoted

found

inscriptions

to the temple

in

by petty princes or

chiefs of Anthilwara;

and the modern

temple raised by Ahalia Bhye, near the ruin of the greater,

is

rather a

proof that the Mahrattas considered the neighbourhood imbued with a certain degree of sanctity, as

it

attached any interest to Somnath Pattan, and

now under city

of

itself offers

its

Hindus, than that they

to

ruler,

Nawaub

the

and buildings, despite

it

I

character, preserved throughout

Mohammedan

to obliterate the traces of

paganism

is

situated,

is

of Junagurh, and the

the most curious specimen of any

Hindu

original

is

itself.

the part of the country wherein

all

Mohamedan

a

certainly

have ever seen its walls,

gates,

innovations and a studied attempt

even the very musjids, wdiich are

;

here and there encountered in the town, have been raised by materials

from the sacred

edifices of the conquered, or, as

it

is

said by the histo-

rians of Sindh, “ the true believers turned the temples of the idol wor-

shippers into places of prayer.” city in all

but

its

torical spots in

inhabitants

—

Old Pattan

is

to this

day a Hindu

perhaps one of the most interesting his-

Western India.

Mahmud, we know,

left

a

Hindu

or a

native ruler here, but successive changes have taken place since then,

and various

mention

historians

spoliations

and conversions of the

temples to mosques by succeeding conquerors, until Somnath assumed the appearance ginal altered

tecture in

it

now

I

Mohammedan

various portions, but leaving

features unmolested.

structure

temple evidently of pagan

presents, of a

by the introduction of a

now

stands as

would beg to leave

Whether any it

to

was seen by

its

ori-

style of archi-

general plan and minor

or what portion of the

Mahmud

original

in the eleventh century,

more learned commentators

to decide; I can

only say, that in various portions, particularly the western front, where

174 most

is

it

FEW OBSERVATIONS ON

A perfect,

restored, the

prompted the labour. its

ornament, and by whomever raised or

rich in

it is

work must have been done Its material

at a period

altogether

is

when

zeal

and wealth

cyclopean, and even in

present state would, unless wilfully demolished, stand for centuries,

though exposed

damp

the trying effects of

to

sea

and for some

air,

portion of the year to the whole violence of the monsoon.

here express a hope that

monument

it

may

of Indian history, replete with an interest of which

or partial former demolition cannot deprive

used for the purposes to which

and any

I

would

long be allowed to stand as a remarkable

it

it.

its total

It can never be again

has heretofore been appropriated;

slight efforts for its preservation could not, therefore, be mis-

construed.

The racter,

is

the translation of an inscription in the Cufic cha-

transcribed

by Major Rawlinson, which was found on the

following

reputed gates of Somnath, brought,

1843, by our victorious troops

in

from the tomb of the champion of the

Ghazni.

faith at

—“ In

the

name of the most merciful God (may there be) forgiveness from God for the most noble Ameer the great King who was born to become the Lord of the State, and the Lord of religion, Abdul Kassim Mahmud, ,

the son

of Sabuktagin,

lished,

but

the

mercy of God be upon him," (remainof these gates has,

curious to observe, whatever

is

it

may

A sketch

ing phrase illegible.)

believe, been

I

may have been

architectural character or material, as applicable to Somnath,

vague tradition has assigned their removal, that there to the exploit in the above, unless the illegible phrase

The

following

is

the description of the

whence

no allusion

is

may

pubtheir

contain

it.

appearance of Somnath,

which I have elsewhere ventured to de scribe with pen and pencil. “ This famous shrine occupies an elevated site in the north-western of the city of Puttan, on the western coast of the Gujarat

corner

peninsula, overlooking the sea

mutilated state idea of tecture

it

may

Somnath,

may

still

general effect

is

for

be

and close

difficult to

though

its

In

to the walls.

convey any very

present

its

distinct or correct

original design and gorgeous archi-

be traced even in the complete ruin likely to be better

it

understood from an

presents,

its

effort of the

pencil than the pen.

“ The temple consists of one large hall

in

an oblong form, from one

end of which proceeds a small square chamber, or sanctum. centre of the hall

arches pillars.

;

is

occupied by a noble

dome over an octagon

The

of eight

the remainder of the roof terraced and supported by numerous

There are three entrances.

The

sides of the building face to

the cardinal points, and the principal entrance appears to be on the eastern side, (the view

is

taken from this quarter.)

These doorways

175

THE TEMPLE OF SOMNATH. are unusually high and

wide,

decreasing towards the top

;

in

the

they add

Pyramidal or Egyptian form,

much

to the effect of the build-

Internally, the whole presents a scene of complete destruction

ing.

the pavement

is

everywhere covered with heaps of stones and rubbish every portion

the facings of the walls, capitals of the pillars, in short,

possessing anything approaching to ornament, having been defaced or

removed,

(if not

temple into

by Mahmud, by those who subsequently converted

On

semi-Mohammedan appearance).

present

its

this

a pillar

beyond the centre arch, and leading to the sanctum, is an inscription which, anxious as I was to learn anything connected with the temple,

much

my

excited

On

curiosity.

translation, however,

it

proved to be

merely a record of a certain Selat or mason, who visited the place some

300 years since. I learnt, to my inexpressible regret, that an ancient whose unoccupied niche was pointed out to me, had been removed from Somnath some years ago by a European visitor. I need hardly quote Col. Tod’s remark on this mistaken, though I fear too frequent tablet,

practice

;

but

if

what he says be applicable

ornaments of a building, how much more similar to that which

is

to the

mere architectural

so to

engraven records

here wanting.

“ Externally the whole of the buildings are most elaborately carved

and ornamented with figures, single and in groups of various dimensions. Many of them appear to have been of some size; but so laboriously was carried on here, that of the larger

the work of mutilation scarcely

a trunk has been

remain uninjured. pillars is

The western

and ornaments are

ornamented with a

— ornaments

so

left,

side

is

the most perfect

in excellent preservation.

portico,

much

in the

figures

whilst few even of the most minute

The

:

here the

front entrance

and surmounted by two slender minarets

Mohammedan

style, that they, as well as

The two some height from the ground, were gained by

the domes, have evidently been added to the original building. side entrances, flights of steps

which are :

at

of these latter the remains only are to be traced.

whole space, for a considerable distance around the temple,

by portions of

Such

is

pillars, stones,

is

The

occupied

and fragments of the original building.”

a brief description of the present appearance of the re-

nowned Somnath which, notwithstanding its original spoliation and subsequent alterations, must always prove an object of great interest to ,

all

who have

studied the history or antiquities of India.

I

must not

omit to mention, as a proof of the wonderful solidity of this structure, that within a few years pieces of ordnance,

its

roof was used as a battery for some heavy

with which the neighbouring port of Virawal was

defended from the pirates who previously infested the coast.

176

Art. IX.

— Report on some of

the Rights,

of the Hill Population in Meyu-ar

of the

Meywar Bhil [

;

Privileges ,

by Captain

and Usages

W. Hunter,

Corps.

Read February

25, 1843.]

Respective Rights op Sovereign Chiefs and Subjects on the

Hilly Tract between Sirohi and Doongurpore. This question appears

to

have been

first

seriously agitated in 1826, in

consequence of a reference from the Acting Political Agent

in

Meywar,

Capt. Sutherland, to Sir C. Metcalfe, regarding certain Grasya chiefs of the Hill principalities, nominally independent, but from

whom

alle-

giance was claimed by the Oodeypore Government. In reply to the above reference, Sir C. Metcalfe expressed himself of opinion that

those chiefs

whom

he found independent when our

mediation was established in this part of India, and

who might he

able

show that they had not for a considerable period prior to our mediation acknowledged submission to any power, should he recognised as still independent; and that in that case we ought not to lend our aid this was the general principle established by Sir to reduce them Charles Metcalfe, upon which to regulate our conduct towards these hut for a more particular solution of the question in each case, states the Political Agent at Oodeypore was desired to have recourse to an investigation of the claims to allegiance set up on the one hand, and to

:

;

of the grounds of denial on the other.

Consequent on these instructions, Capt. Cohhe, conversation with the Minister of

Rana Bheem

in

the course of

Sing, endeavoured to

ascertain whether, within the period of his Highness’s existence,

chout,

tunkhwah, or other tributary payment, had been made

any

to the

durbar by the chiefs of the Grasya tribes of Joora, Meerpoor, Oguna, and Panurwa, and whether any engagements of the kind had existed during the same period.

The

Minister’s

answer was such as

to satisfy Capt.

Cobbe that the

supremacy over these chiefs had been in abeyThe Rana exceeding the term adverted to. period far ance for a during revenue from them collection of any the disavowed Sing Bheem claims of the

Rana

to

his long reign of nearly half

a century, and admitted that during that

HILL POPULATION IN MEYWAR,

177

period the Grasya chiefs had never voluntarily afforded, nor had he

been able to enforce any service or tribute from them. considered

therefore

that the

Oodeypore chief had

supremacy over the

stantiating a claim to

Oguna, and Panurwa; and

that,

Capt. Cobbe failed

chiefs of Joora,

in

sub-

Meerpoor,

on the principles laid down

in Sir

Charles Metcalfe’s letter of instructions under date 9th December, 1826,

was indisputably established. Assuming this point to be fully settled, the next subject of consideration was what course it might be prudent and necessary to adopt the independence of these chiefs

to

oblige these chiefs to afford protection to travellers against the

violence and outrage of those over jurisdiction,

and

whom

they claimed unqualified

to induce them, whilst respecting the rights of their

neighbours, to afford every encouragement to the cultivation of such resources as they possessed within the limits of their respective territories.

Capt. Cobbe, in consequence of the poverty and weakness to which

had been reduced by a long period of anarchy and conrecommended that to carry these views into execution, some assistance should be afforded them by the British Government, more especially as in their unsettled and disorganised state, if left to themselves, they were avowedly and manifestly unable to control their subjects, or to obtain from them anything more than a scanty and these chiefs

fusion,

uncertain income, granted rather to hereditary claims than exacted

by

the power of the chiefs.

In

common

cases of real or pretended inability on the part of the

chiefs to repress the outrages

power

whom

and aggressions of

their subjects, the

Capt. Cobbe was entitled to assume the management of the estate; and though, owing to the extreme poverty of the country, such an assumption would in all probability prove anything but profitable to the paramount power, still, from the position of the states bordering to

the

general tranquillity

is

confided,

argued,

on Edur, Gujarat, Sirohi, and Palhanpore,

it

was, in Capt. Cobbe’s

opinion, of the highest importance that such arrangements should be

adopted by the British Government as would effectually insure the suppression of the constant predatory irruptions of the Bhils, and oblige the chiefs themselves to refrain from committing aggressions on

the neighbouring principalities.

In reply to these observations, Sir Charles Metcalfe, in a letter

dated 18th December, 1826, remarked, that as the Grasya chiefs were independent, and did not acknowledge allegiance to Oodeypore, or any other state, that

it

it

would be necessary

did not, however, appear to

VOL. VIII.

to negotiate

him

with them on our part:

that the chiefs in question had

N

REPORT ON THE

178 any claim

own

of our

and that they were not even

to our assistance,

our protection

people over

we

that

:

and

subjects

whom

entitled to

required nothing from them but the security allies

against the predatory irruptions of the

they professed to have sovereignty, and a safe

passage through their territories for travellers and merchandise.

The

first

entitled to,

of these demands, if not both, Sir Charles observes,

and even bound,

in justice to

others, to

insist

we

on

are

and

;

should the chiefs be unable to give us satisfaction on that point,

have an unquestionable

right,

in

defence of our subjects and

we

allies,

to

subjugate the country of the offenders.

Such

be the proper and only

Sir Charles Metcalfe conceived to

any negotiation to be opened with these chiefs. “ We hereby,” he says, “ask nothing but what we have a right to require: if, therefore, they withhold it, they become public enemies: if they be unable to effect it, they virtually abdicate the sovereignty to which principles of

they pretend over

all

whom

they cannot restrain from outrage.”

In conformity with these principles, Sir Charles recommended that the Grasya chiefs should be called on to state distinctly of territory they could

beyond the exercise of

be responsible

for,

what portion

and what portion was

He

their efficient sovereignty.

did not think

it

desirable that the expectation of assistance should be encouraged, but in the

event of their soliciting

it,

they were to be called on to state in

what particulars, and for what purposes, what equivalent they might be prepared

would be wanted ; as

it

to

pay

for assistance

also

which

they could not in equity expect gratuitously.

On

the above principles, as far as they could be acted upon without

involving a violation of any manifest rights appertaining to the of Oodeypore, Capt.

with the Grasya

Cobbe was authorised

chiefs,

to

Rana

enter into negotiations

himself directly, or to entrust the business to

Capt. Black as a part of the duties of a deputation on which he was

about to be employed under the orders of the Political Agent. Capt. Black proceeded towards the Hills in January, 1827, but

unfortunately owing to the rebellion of the celebrated Dowlut Singh, the

manager

of Jowass, all his efforts to overcome the disaffection of

was accomplished when Capt. Speirs, supported by a force 2000 of our own men from Neemuch, under the com-

the Grasya chiefs proved till

unavailing, and nothing

the cold weather of 1828,

of upwards of

mand

of the present

Major-General Burgh, succeeded

in

persuading

Dowlut Singh, together with the chiefs of Joora, Oguna, and Panurwa, to render their submission, and to acknowledge the supremacy of the British

Government.

The claims of the Grasya

chiefs to independence

were

at this period

HILL POPULATION IN MEYWAR. fully established on the principles laid

down

in Sir

179

Charles Metcalfe’s

and the justice of a claim thus recognised by the GovernorGeneral’s Agent for the affairs of Rajpootana, and afterwards ratified by the Supreme Government, would seem to be supported by the instructions,

authority of Capt. Tod, who, in regard to the states under discussion,

remarks as follows

:

“ The principalities of Oguna, Panurwa, and Meerpoor, are inha-

by communities

bited

of the aboriginal races, living in a state of pri-

meval and almost savage independence, owning no paramount power, paying no

Panora

tribute,

but with

the sole

is

spot

all the simplicity of

“

Republics'.”

Oguna

India which enjoys a state of natural

in

freedom ; attached to no state ; having no foreign communications living under its

whom

own

patriarchal head,

obey, can

if

with the

title

of Rana,

head of 5000 bows. He is a mixed blood, from the Solanki Rajpoot on the old

requisite appear at the

Bhoomia Bhil

of

“

stock of pure (oojla) Bhils 2 .” the

its chief,

one thousand hamlets scattered over the forest-crowned valleys

Oguna and Oondree

The descendants

of Baleo

and Deeva,

Bhils, celebrated as the faithful guardians

and

companions of the fugitive Bappa Rawut, the great ancestor of the

Oodeypore royal family,

still

claim the privilege of performing the

teeka on the inauguration of a

new

sovereign, on which occasion,

making the teeka of blood drawn from the finger of a Bhil, the Oguna chief is entitled to take the prince by the arm, and seat him on the throne 3 .” Though the Rana of Panurwa disclaims the feudal supremacy of besides

the Rana, owing to the long time

has been in abeyance, as well as

it

on account of the uncertain and indefinite nature of such claim when it

has been temporarily recognised,

Speirs that his ancestors,

many

still

he acknowledges to Capt.

generations back, had a certain gate in

where they were bound to keep up number of horse and foot, and for the performance of this duty the Rana of Oodeypore bestowed upon them several villages. the Hills entrusted to their charge,

a stipulated

These villages at a subsequent period having been resumed, the above service

was

discontinued, and their dependent condition again wholly

disappeared.

The Oguna Rawut

is

a younger branch of the Panurwa family,

and acknowledges the supremacy of

Oguna house can take

his

seat

its chiefs.

on the Gaddi

No member till

of the

placed therein

by the chief of Panurwa, who girds on his sword, and receives the Whether any engagements have been entered usual fine of investure. 1

Tod, Vol.

I., p. 10.

2

Ibid. p. 224.

Ibid.

N

2

180

REPORT ON THE

into subsequent to the treaties settled

by Capt. Speirs

in 1828,

I

have

not had the means of ascertaining.

The valley in which Joora is situated, as also the Oguna and Panurwa, extends from north to south about varying is

of

in

The population

breadth from five miles to three and two.

considerable,

and the

extremely

soil

wheat and barley as are

to

fertile,

villages of fifteen coss,

producing as

fine fields

be seen in any part of India.

many

inhabitants cultivate the sugar-cane and ginger, and

The

valuable

drugs used by native physicians are also produced on these Hills.

The

chiefs themselves are said

to derive little benefit

from

advantages, their share of the revenue or produce being very the proportion to the power they possess of exacting

all

these

much

them from

in

their

more powerful of whom have been in the habit of giving what they do, more as a benefaction to the chiefs, than from any acknowledged or inherent right on their part to enforce it. The country is by nature exceedingly strong, and the difficulty subjects, the

attending military operations

is

much enhanced by

the great scarcity

of water, the absence of every species of cattle and carriage, and the difficulty

of procuring supplies and information.

March and April

are perhaps the most favourable months for military operations, when, in consequence of the scarcity of

water

in the Hills, the Bhils

and

their

cattle are compelled to descend to the valleys;

and on these occasions

they are easily surrounded ; but

to

their hamlets,

is

very

they once get to their

this,

difficult, if

owing

the scattered site of

not impossible, to accomplish

when

Nothing alarms the Bhils more than the probable loss of the Indian corn, or Kharif crop, which is cultivated during the rains, and on which they chiefly subsist. Their dread on this score has often

Hills.

induced the rebellious Bhils to surrender, and to

give hostages or security for future good conduct,

have

failed to reduce

them

when

all

other means

to subjection.

In the Grasya Hills, as well as in the Jowass District, there exist

numerous petty

chiefs of the

same caste

as,

and acknowledged by the

population; which, with the exception of a few Baniyas in the principal villages of each

chief,

consists

almost entirely of Bhils and

The whole body of the governed are there naturally conwith their rulers and were these only more solicitous of the nected public welfare, and more disposed to exert themselves, their influence and power would no doubt avail much to suppress the indefensible outrages so frequently committed by their turbulent and unruly Grasyas.

;

subjects.

In

Chupan and Doongurpore

the

subject are on a very different footing.

relations

between chief aDd

In those tracts, no chief of

HILL POPULATION IN MEYWAR. Mina

Bhil or

extraction

to

is

181

The people have there been

be found.

between whom and the Bhil no bond of union or attachment, except that of community of crime, ever appears to have existed. Moreover, owing to the for ages

partial subjection to the Rajpoot chiefs,

in

constant residence of these chiefs on their estates, the population in that quarter has naturally become very

some parts of Chupan,

by

the

it

other classes

mixed

—

so

much

so,

that in

supposed that the Bhils are outnumbered

is

of inhabitants,

—Rajpoots,

Baniyas,

artisans,

traders, &c.

Amongst the tribes which had made themselves particularly conby their predatory habits in these Hills are the Moghias. They are mercenary foot soldiers, usually armed with tulwars and matchlocks. They have the reputation of being a bold, hardy, and spicuous

but very

enterprising, fatigue,

and

They

bidder.

debauched

at all times willing

race:

to

sell

trained

plunder

to

and

their services to the highest

are originally from Joudpore,

whence they were ex-

by Raja Bajee Sing. They eat every kind of flesh, even to the cow and jackal, and are sadly addicted to strong liquors. Their Jamadars or leaders, whom they obey implicitly, are usually mounted, and, like most Hindus, they have the pelled about seventy years ago

reputation of being true to their

salt,

return to their plundering habits the

or employers, but never fail to

moment they

are released from

service.

A

strong

party of Moghias, under the orders of their leader

Humauth, were

in

the

service of

Dowlut Singh, the Manager of

Jowass, during the period he was in rebellion in 1828, information was received dering expedition he

made

of the death of

into Gujarat.

the most dangerous and turbulent had, on various

occasions,

given

He had

characters in

much

In April

1827-28.

Humauth,

in a plun-

long been one of this

and Government

quarter,

trouble to the

officers.

General Remarks regarding the Bhil Tribes. The fabulous

traditions of the

Hindus have supplied us with the Mahadeo,

following extravagant account of the origin of the Bhils.

when

was one day

sick,

appeared, the

first

reclining in a forest,

sight of

whom

when a

effected a complete

beautiful damsel

cure of all his

The result of this interview was the birth of many children, one of whom, distinguished for his ugliness, slew the favourite bull of Mahadeo, for which crime he was expelled to the woods and mountains and his descendants have ever since been stigmatised with the names of Bhil and Ushaster, or Outcast.

complaints.

;

REPORT ON THE

182 The

Bli'ils,

has been remarked,

it

have ever been considered a

degraded race, the very refuse of society ; and the estrangement and despair which such a notion

is

sure to generate, whilst

it

tends to cut

more kindly and humane feelings which, in other classes of even the Indian community are generated between man and man, naturally prompts them to acts of outrage against their fellow-creatures, and reconciles them to those habits of rapine and plunder which their traditions teach them they were created to follow, and which for ages have rendered them a scourge to society. Without any fellow-feeling for the rest of the community, who hold them so low and so degraded, with such an impression as to off all those

their destiny

from their

in the open

air,

and

birth, inured to hardships, especially

to the

use of arms, and caring

little

to live

for

a

life

which, under the most favourable circumstances, affords few comforts

and

beyond that enjoyed by the brute the course of and wanton cruelty they have always pursued cannot

little gratification

reckless violence,

excite

much

The

astonishment.

Bliils are

cultivating,

;

usually divided into two classes,

and the wild or Mountain

Bhils.

—

the village or the

They

generally, how-

same usages, and the same forms of religion ; but of the country where the Bhils appear more huparts in those mane and less reckless of their own and others’ lives, it has gene-

ever, preserve the

rally been found that they are not so destitute of the

ence

;

and that

they are generally more or

essentials,

means of

exist-

in proportion to the abundance, or otherwise, of these less

disposed to live in peace

and quietness.

A

vicinity to the Hills in every country has invariably been found

favourable to the systematic aggressions of plundering tribes possess-

ing retreats

among

fastnesses of mountains

and extensive jungles; and

to repress the outrages of such local banditti has at all times proved a It has been very justly task of no common labour and difficulty.

remarked, that

it is

no reflection on the

irresistible

nature of the power

and policy of the Indian Government, that we have not succeeded at In more civilized countries, in Greece, Spain, and once in this object. Italy, the best efforts of Government have failed in effecting the extirpation

of such illegal communities;

and even England does not

consider herself disgraced, notwithstanding all the efforts of her navy,

a ll

t] ie

activity

and discipline of her trained bands and military on

shore, have been ineffectual to put down the system of smuggling. We can therefore but too well conceive that among clans such as the Bhils, plunged as they are in the grossest and most debasing ignorance unshackled by any laws ; in many parts of the country ;

HILL POPULATION IN MEYWAR.

183

Government ; and accustomed to set every principle it must prove a very difficult and even by the application of the wisest and gentlest mea-

recognising no

but that of violence at defiance, delicate task,

replace with the forbearance of civilized

sures, to

and that

feud,

barbarous

lust for

plundering

existence

of his

they designate

:

the

prospect

of

driving

a

off

few

common

is

to a Bhil, has hitherto

Plunder,

tribes.

that desire for

life,

unlawful possession which

shikar,

sport

possessing

bullocks,

to all

been the charm

and

;

them-

selves of the property of travellers, or of a field of ripe grain, hitherto, in the estimation of these strange people,

weigh to

has

been found to out-

the advantages which have at different times been held out

all

them by the

offer

of regular

in the

disinterested experiment

British

Government,

physical condition,

I trust,

however, that

which, under the authority

now being made

is

we

employment.

are in a fair

way

to ameliorate their

of the

moral and

to establish a better order of

The mild and humanizing spirit of these measures, aided by the cementing influence of good and regular pay, can hardly fail to produce the usual effects in this quarter and after the several Bhil things.

;

corps shall

have been successfully organized, as we gradually suc-

new aim, chawe gradually succeed in

ceed in bending the people to our sway, by giving a racter,

and

interest

to

their

existence, as

soothing their exasperated passions, and in awakening them to habits of discipline, industry, and sobriety,

we may hope

to obtain a very

powerful pledge against future irruption, and that constant disturbance of the public tranquillity which has hitherto been the bane of

misgoverned country.

this

That the Bhils in this tract, by long giving license to the most lawless and predatory habits, should have rendered themselves obnoxious to the severest penalties, can hardly excite surprise, when

we

reflect

on the moral and political disorganization

—

I

may

say, the

almost irremediable confusion of every portion of the Rana’s dominions at the period of our mediation. this

Captain Cobbe, in adverting to

lamentable subject, does not hesitate to affirm that, in his time,

from the prince to the peasant,

all

were thieves and robbers through-

out the province ; and remarks, there perty.

The Government

is

is

no security for person or pro-

a tissue of cheating and oppression, withinfluence

and

are but too glaringly manifest in the shocking depravity

and

out even the semblance of law and justice;

example

demoralization of

all classes of

and

its

the people.

Thus the Bhils and Grasyas, occupying the tract between Sirolii also those in Chupan, have at one time been encouraged to the commission of outrage by the example of those

and Doongurpore, as

REPORT ON THE

184

whom whom

they have been accustomed to recognise as their

chiefs,

and to

fruits of

they have been obliged to surrender a portion of the

At other times, they have been goaded into rebellion and oppressive administration of the Rana’s Kamdars, as well as by the overbearing, and often cruel conduct of the irregular troops which, under the control of those state harpies, have been depredations.

by the

violent

stationed

at

the

different

thannas to enforce the

the

of

orders

Durbar.

Another cause of the violent and vindictive

spirit

which has occa-

amongst the Bhil population, may the attempts on the part of the Durbar to deprive the

sionally hitherto exhibited itself

be traced to

Bhils of the privileges of levying rakhwalee, or black-mail, on travellers

and merchandize.

The Bhils have the reputation of being parand hitherto any attempt

ticularly tenacious regarding this privilege; to

abolish

When when

has been productive only of disastrous consequences.

it

their

dues are paid the Bhils seldom commit depredations

:

withheld, no native power has yet been able to coerce them.

Travellers and merchants pass through their Hills without molestation or interference, after paying the usual tax, and property under their

charge

is

rarely plundered or touched.

On

the other hand,

if

any

attempt be rashly made by travellers to force a passage without paying the dues,

warlike

they are certain to be pillaged.

spirits,

as their war-scream

is

Thousands of these

re-echoed from

hill to

hill,

immediately collect from every hamlet in the neighbourhood to this,

or

will

resist

any other innovation.

Privileges, Customs, and Habits of the Bhils, more particu-

larly THOSE INHABITING KuRRUCK, KlIAIRWARRA, AND THE Hilly portion of Chupan between Doongarpore and OoDEYPOOR.

As

I

have before observed, one

which the Bhils lay claim, differently rakhwalee,

of the

a right

is

to

most important privileges

to

levy a tax denominated in-

chowkee, and holaee, on

all

travellers

and

traders passing through their country, in return for which they are responsible for their safety and protection.

The sum paid on these

occasions appears never to have been exactly defined different parts of the country,

the

known

When

:

it

varies in

and has sometimes been regulated by

or supposed wealth of the parties.

the Rajpoot chief

was powerful enough

to

keep the Bhil

population in due subjection, this tax was levied by him directly, either at the borders of his district, or in

the town where he resided

:

but such Bhil Pals as did not acknowledge obedience to the Rajpoot

HILL POPULATION

IN

MEYWAR.

185

chief (though nominally his dependants), assumed the right of en-

own account; and

forcing the above tax on their

this

custom now

obtains over a great portion of the Hill Districts.

Tn addition to the above tax, the Chief has been in the habit of grain and merchandize passing through his

exacting customs on

all

districts; as also the

Mafra, which

one village

another within the

to

is

a tax on

all

produce taken from

district.

The Bhils of powerful Pals, who are in the habit of plundering the Meywar, Doongarpore, Pertabghur, Sedur, &c., frequently enter into engagements with certain Ryot villages to receive chowkee

villages in

or rakhwalee.

By

this

arrangement the Bhils are secured a certain

quantity of grain, or a specified number of cattle from the village, in return for which they are under an engagement,

from the future plunder of

its

not only to abstain

them

inhabitants, but likewise to afford

protection against the depredations of others.

This protection

is

not

by the Bhils keeping a watch for the protection of the Ryots, but by the power which the Bhils receiving the rakhwalee possess of attacking and forcing the members of any other Pal to

secured on

make

all

occasions

restitution of all property plundered

from the village under their

The Ryot villages, however, have sometimes been under the necessity of paying two or more Pals for this protection and in addition to the above tax, the Ryot villages often give a quarter of their guardianship.

;

crops to the Rajpoot chiefs, either in for the

money

or kind

;

maintenance of a certain number of horses; pay a

provide also fine for the

marriage of any individual of the family; supply funds for the repair of the Chief’s house, wells, &c., and are, besides, subject to other com-

pulsory

fines.

The Rajpoot of the Bhil Pals

chiefs also claim a fourth of the agricultural ;

but this

is

produce

seldom paid in kind by any of the Bhil

communities, excepting those in the immediate vicinity of the Chiefs residence.

The sum claimed

in lieu thereof it has

been usual

to dis-

charge every two or three years from a portion of the cattle they for that purpose

may have

driven from the adjoining states.

Frequently,

however, in order to obtain his dues, the Chief has himself been obliged to attack the rebellious Pals

lowers can lay hands upon children,

and

;

on which occasion everything

is

cattle are generally

seized

and carried

restored,

on the payment of a sum

of money, amounting to about five rupees per head.

is

A

certain por-

by the by the Chief, who, in some instances, has with his been known to accompany the marauding parties.

tion of all property, such as

Bhils

his fol-

but women^

off:

money, jewels,

cloths, captured

also claimed

followers

In the year 1818 , in consequence of the alliance of

Meywar

with

REPORT ON THE

186

summoned

the British Government, the Rajpoot Chiefs having been

Durbar by Captain Todd, they were induced to submit to His Highness; who, on redeeming that portion of the Khalisa-lands

to the

which had been forcibly usurped, and granting them sunnuds original estates, thought

fit

to prohibit these chiefs

rakhwalee and tax which had only been submitted lisa villages in

for their

from exacting the

by

to

the

Kha-

consequence of the inability of the Rana’s government

them the protection to which they are entitled. The engagements entered into between the Rana and

to afford

the above occasion, are detailed in the following treaty

his chiefs,

on

:

Charter given by the Rana of Meywar, accepted and signed by his Chiefs, defining the duties of the

Maha Rana

Seid Sree

Nobles

my

Dheroj,

Contracting Parties, a.d. 1818.

Maha Rana Bheem

Sing, to all the

brothers and Kin, Rajas, Patels, Jhalas, Chokans, Chon-

dawuts, Pawars, Sarangdests, Suktawuts, Rahtores, Rawuts,

See.,

& c.

Samvat 1822 (a.d. 1776) during the reign of Sree Wur Singh-ji, when the troubles commenced, laying ancient usages aside, undue usurpations of the land have been made ; therefore on this day Bysakk Badi 14, Samvat 1874 (a.d. 1818) the Maha Rana assembling all his chiefs, lays down the path of duty in new ordinances. 1. All lands belonging to the Crown obtained since the troubles, and all lands seized by one chief from another, shall be restored. 2. All Rakhwalee, Bhoom, Sagat (dues) established since the

Now,

since

troubles, shall be renounced. 3.

Dhan

Bisioo (transit duties) the right of the

Crown

alone, shall

be renounced. 4.

No

of their

chiefs shall states.

commit

They

shall

or thieves of the country, shall adopt

may

their old pursuits, their heads

the limits of which 5.

Home

entertain no

;

those

off.

All pro-

the proprietor of the estate within

plundered.

or foreign merchants, traders, kafilas, brinjarries,

enter the country, shall

molested or injured

;

who

remain, but should any return to

shall instantly be taken

made good by

it is

Thugs, foreign thieves,

as Mogees, Baories, Skories

peaceful habits

perty stolen shall be

thefts or violence within the boundaries

be

protected

:

and whoever breaks

in

who

no wise shall they be

this

ordinance, his estates

shall be confiscated. 6.

According to command, at home or abroad, service must be Four divisions (Chokies) shall be formed of the chiefs,

performed.

and each division shall remain three months in attendance at Court, when they shall be dismissed to their estates. Once a-year, on the

HILL POPULATION IN

MEYWAll.

festival of the Dussera, all the chiefs shall

187

assemble with their quotas,

ten days previous thereto, and twenty days subsequent they shall be dismissed.

On

urgent occasions, and whenever

their services

are

required, they shall repair to the Presence.

Every Pattawut holding a separate patta from the Presence,

7.

perform separate service.

shall

They

under

shall not unite or serve

the greater pattawuts; and the subvassals of all such chiefs shall remain with and serve their immediate Pattawuts *.

The Maha Rana

8.

shall

maintain the dignities due to each chief

according to his degree. 9.

The Ryots

shall not be oppressed

tions or arbitrary fines

What

10.

:

:

there shall be no

new

exac-

this is ordained.

has been executed by Thocoor Ajeet Sing and sanc-

by the Rana, to this all shall agree'2 11. Whoever shall depart from the foregoing the Maha Rana shall punish in doing so the fault will not be the Rana’s ; whoever fails, on him be the oath (an 3 ) of Eklinga, and the Maharana. The result of the above arrangement, though not effected without much ill-blood, as was to be expected when so many conflicting interests were to be reconciled, was a temporary move towards peace and repose. But it was of short duration. Several of the turbulent chiefs, who, under various pretences had on the above occasion declined tioned

.

:

attending the durbar, continued to enforce the collection of the rakhwalee, or, in the event of non-payment, to plunder the villages; and as the chiefs

who tendered

their submission declared their

incompetency

country was soon thrown back into a state of anarchy; and to so dangerous extent as to render it expedient to restrain their Bhils, the

to aid the

government of Meywar by the employment of a British

Force.

The

Bhils,

by

these measures reduced to submission,

entered into written engagements to deliver up abstain from plunder, first

all their

and having arms, and to

and from the exaction of rakhwalee, were

in the

instance placed under the immediate control of his Highness’

officers.

Shortly after this arrangement the greater portion of the Bhil Pals

were restored by the Rana to the Rajpoot 1

chiefs,

on their promising to

This Article has become especially necessary, as the inferior

chiefs, particu-

had amalgamated themselves with the head of the clans, to whom they had become more accountable than to their prince. 2 This alludes to the treaty which the chief has formed, as Ambassador to the Rana, with the British Government. 3 An, oath of allegiance. Tod, Vol. I., p. 172. larly those of the third

class,

REPO RT ON THE

188

be answerable for the conduct of the Bhils, as well as for the pro-

and

tection of travellers

traders.

It

was very

soon, however, apparent

that the Rajpoot chiefs were neither willing nor able to

fulfil

engagements ; and several who were notoriously disaffected

their

to

the

Rana’s cause, hesitated not to aid in openly obstructing the measures

These circumstances, combined with the frequent

of government. defeats

which the Rana’s troops sustained from the rebel Dowlut

Singh and

his Bhils,

gave great confidence to the

latter; the result of

which was the re-establishment of the rakhwalee system on its former footing ; when all traders and travellers refusing to pay his compulsory tax were invariably plundered, and sometimes murdered.

In 1828 sion

by the

notwithstanding the Bhils were again reduced to submis-

,

force under the orders of Capt. Speirs, the abolition of the

rakhwalee tax does not on that occasion appear on

;

and the system

is

now

in force not

road between Oodeypore and Doongurpore, but

most parts of these hilly

tracts.

have been insisted

to

only along the whole line of believe obtains in

I

In bad seasons,

appears to be

it

almost the only means the Bhils have of supporting themselves without plunder; and, accordingly, as

I

have before observed,

of this privilege only tends to excite the flame guish,

and

to render the Bhils

more

intractable,

is

deprive them to extin-

and more determined

to set the authority of their sovereign at defiance.

tax the traveller

to

we would wish

In return for this

furnished with a guide and protection, the Pal in

the receipt of the bolaee becoming accountable for any

loss.

Appearance of the Bhils. The

Bhils of the

featured race.

Vindya range have been described

In this tract of the country

many

are particularly good-looking; and some of their

as a very hard-

young men women handsome,

of the

and remarkable for the elegance of their figures. They are said to be and very faithful to their husbands, whom they often accom-

prolific,

pany on their marauding excursions, and even to battle, carrying proand water, and sometimes themselves facing the enemy, and armed with slings, in the use of which many of them are very skilful. They cheerfully undergo great labour in these plundering expeditions; are generally, both men and women, very abstemious as regards food, visions

though addicted

to liquor;

and have few wants which are not easily

supplied by night attacks upon villages from any range of

which they may take up

their position.

hills

on

HILL POPULATION IN MEYWAR.

189

Fidelity of the Beils.

The

the Bhils

fidelity of

remarkable.

This feeling

is

to

their

acknowledged

very

chiefs is

what we should owing to their igno-

quite independent of

consider the justice of their cause, the Bhils,

rance, being totally disqualified for the discussion or comprehension

The

of such matters. so wonderful

is

direction of their chief

all

is

they look to ; and

the influence of the chief over this infatuated people,

that in no situation, however desperate, can they be induced to betray

him.

and incapable of action they

If old

No

safety.

convey him

will

hope of reward or fear of punishment

under the orders of their master they exult

in the

classes

by whom they are considered and treated

human

race.

to places of

affects

them

plunder of

;

and

those

all

as the lowest of the

During the period Capt. Black was employed in this quarter, all his movements was conveyed to the rebel Dowlut Singh, he was never himself able to obtain any inthough instant intelligence of formation positions,

regarding the

better than quote Capt. Black’s

own

the

numbers,

this subject I

cannot do

the country,

nature of

and motions of the enemy.

But on

or

language, who, in reference to the

proceedings in Kurruck and Chupan in 1827, remarks as follows “Intelligence

is

not procurable for

any sum

:

money; whilst not

of

a single guard can quit this post without the strength and destination of

it

being instantly reported to the rebels,

the jungles or tion

hills,

ready

to take

To counteract

they receive.

who remain

concealed in

advantage of the excellent informathis,

I

frequently attempted to

change the position of a guard during the night, but generally without success.

In some instances

my men

move

refused to

till

daylight

but whenever they did, the intelligence was instantly conveyed from hill to hill.”

Capt. Tod, in illustration of the faith which

may

—

be placed in the

pledged word of the Bhils, relates as follows “ Many year ago one of my parties was permitted to range through this [Aravulli] :

tract.

In one of the passages of their lengthened valleys the lord of

the mountain

was dead ; the men were

[My

alone in the hut.

servant]

all

abroad ; and his widow

Madarri told

his story,

and claimed

her surety and passport, which the Bhilni delivered from the quiver of her late lord

;

and

his arrow, carried in his hand,

nised as the cumbrous traveller in

roll,

with

all

its

Europe Tod, Vol.

I., p.

11.

seals

was

as well recog-

and appendages,

of a

REPORT ON THE

190 In some of the for

Bliil districts,

the arrows are used in lieu of drafts

The Selput Bliil chief, on the occasion of a visit from the Native Government Agents, wishing to make them a regretted that a fire had destroyed all his cloth, &c., & c.

money.

some of present,

—

But, never mind,” he said, “ take this,” drawing an arrow from his “ take this to any village of Kotah, and demand well -filled quiver “•

,

To

nine rupees.”

another, he gave one on a second village to

demand

rupees; which on being presented were honoured at sight; the

five

Patels stating that they

knew

too well

what would be the consequence

should they refuse the arrows as drafts for money.

Owing

to the

impossibility of obtaining

any authentic records

regarding this strange race, the information which collect

from different sources

superficial description

now

venture to

make

;

is

I

have been able

to

and and the very defective communication which I is

necessarily of a very cursory

not offered as one to be depended upon, but

merely as a rough statement supposed to approach nearly to the truth

and which may,

in

some measure, serve as a guide, till a local invesand a more thorough knowledge of the history,

tigation of the country,

customs, and character of these tribes shall enable us to form a better

judgment, and authorise subject with

my

offering

more confidence than

present very limited experience.

Khairwarra, 20 th July, 1841.

I

an opinion on

this

important

can presume to do with

my

HILL POPULATION IN MEYWAR.

191

APPENDIX. No.

made

I.

— Comprises copies of

in the beginning of 1828,

are generally

engagements

to

treaties with Grasya chiefs of Meywar by mediation of Major Speirs. These cease from disturbance and plunder, and to attend the government in its

and from entertaining rebels; service when called upon; to hold themselves responsible for losses sustained by travellers and traders within their territories ; and to collect their revenues according to a regulated system.

No.

II.

Miscellaneous Remarks on the Character

and Customs of

the

Bhils

by Colonel Robertson, formerly Collector in Candeish.

The Bhil nesses,

banditti are a timid race; screening themselves in fast-

and only, like beasts of prey, venturing abroad under cover of

The men as well

the night, or in the absence of forces.

The

are very hard-featured.

clothing of the

They can

than the calls of decency require.

men live

for

they can

terately idle,

all

This

is

cultivate

women, more

on the products of

the wilds, for a considerable time; but generally they of being badly fed.

as the

often not

is

show every sign

not because they cannot find employment,

they choose, but because they are inve-

if

and would rather eat half a meal of

indifferent food, pro-

vided they are not obliged to work, than a good and substantial meal procurable by labour. in the fields, at their

In their plundering expeditions they often live

stock and effects consist generally of not buffalo,

a few fowls, a small fishing-net,

bow and

matchlock, with a

very cruel and regardless of trifling

and all their more than a wretched cow or and now and then a sword or

appointed stations, with their families

plentiful

life

;

will,

;

supply of arrows.

any day, become

They

are

assassins for a

recompense, and are very revengeful; they themselves com-

They are immoderately expended that the marriage Rather than be deprived of this luxury

paring their enmity to the bite of a snake. fond of liquor; and of a Bhil owes all for

any time, they

cow, and have

except

it is

to the quantity

its eclat.

They kill and eat the They share equally in plunder,

will resort to every excess.

little

or no religion.

when under an

hereditary chief, whose share

The term Tarvi, applied

to the

Mohammedan

is

then a chowth.

Bhils, supposed to

REPORT ON THE HILL POPULATION OF MEYWAR.

192

have been converted to that religion J.

Malcolm erroneously supposed

in the reign of

Aurungzeb, Sir

to be a title.

The Mohammedan Bhils are cleaner in their persons than the Hindu have better features; and are more civilised, speaking Hin-

Bliils;

dustani.

The

Patels often encourage the Bhils in plunder,

in order to share

in their spoils.

The

different classes of Bhils

Kokanis, Dorepass, Munchas.

The

are the Turvo, Nahallo, Bhilalas,

very superstitious,

latter race are

changing their place of residence at the slightest ill-omen, such as Their honesty is surprising on quitting the death of a dog or a fowl. :

a

temporary residence,

dues, they have been

The Bhils

if

they have been unable to pay the government

known

be attached to their word. offender

may

seized,

is

to send the

sum

the next year.

are kind and affectionate fathers, and great faith

Their simplicity

he not only confesses his

have committed ; and

is

extraordinary

;

may

if

any

but any others he

fault,

details his adventure with the

most appa-

rent sangfroid and innocence, stating the names of his associates, be

they friends or near relatives.

The

seizure of their

women

is

one of

the best means of bringing the husbands to terms.

There is little religion among them. They keep all feasts, Hindu and Mussulman, with equal zeal ; and the most solemn form of oath is that of mixing salt, cowdung, and jowarree, and lifting up the mixture If a Bhil perjures himself on this this is called the meat gowree. oath he is deemed execrable, and abandoned by his caste. :

No.

III.

—Consists

on Central India, Vol.

of Extracts from Sir I.,

John Malcolm’s Memoir 576; Vol.

II.,

Company and

the

pp. 516, 517, 524, 526, 550,

pp. 155, 179, 450, 469.

No. IV.

—

Is

a treaty between the East India

Maharana Bheem

Sing,

of Oodeypore,

concluded at Delhi on the

13th January, 1818, whereby the Maharana entrusted his dominion to See Treaties, printed by

the protection of the British Government.

Parliament, February, 1819,

—

p. 38.

No. V. Contains a statement of the dues levied by the Bhil Pals between Oodeypore and Khairwarra, and a list of the Grasya Hill chiefs of Babul and Khairwarra.

193

Art.

X — On

M.D., F.R.S., L.S., and G.S.,

Medica and Therapeutics

,

what

as well as

proofs in, such enquiries.

which

mine.

This

London.

,

15, 1844.]

for, and the upon what we should admit as

considered to be the requisites

I

of pursuing,

plant,

Materia

Mustard Tree of Scripture,

observations on

mode

&c., Professor of

had the honour of reading a paper before the I ventured to make some

I lately

Society, on the

best

RoYi.e,

King's College

[Read June

When

by J. Forbes

Hyssop of Scripture;

the

.

I

proceed

now

another Biblical

to treat of

not less interesting than the Mustard Tree to deter-

is

the Hyssop, frequently mentioned in the Old, and twice

is

independently in the

New

Testament, and which,

the numerous attempts which have been

cular plant that

is

meant,

is

not less

made

if

we

are to judge

by

to ascertain the parti-

difficult to

determine, than any

one of the several unascertained plants of the Bible.

That

I

may

not seem to exaggerate what appeared to others the

quote the commencement “ De

difficulties of ascertaining this plant, I will

of the

on Hyssop of the learned and judicious Celsius

ai’ticle

plantis plerisque in Hebraso Veteris Testamenti codice

imprimisque de

Veritatem

hie, si

recte

pronuntiare, res

est

:

commemoratis,

longe

difficillima.

uspiam, Scruposis sequimur vadis.

Fronte exile negotium,

Et dignum pueris

putes.

Aggressis labor arduus,

Nec tractabile pondus ut loqui

amat Terentianus.”

It

was not

est,

to Celsius

appeared to be a difficulty; for he says farther on, “

alone that this

Aben

Ezra, inter

suam ignorantiam, circa banc stirpem, palam, et ingenue fatetur ad Exod. xii. 22;” and he thus translates the passage from the Hebrew of Aben Ezra: “ Qucenam “ eastern, quanta est, Rabbinorum turba hcec sit plantar urn, ignoro ,” modo banc, inodo aliam conjectando, satis declarant, hujus plant® Ebraeos commentatores facile princeps,

notitiam pp.

sibi,

Ebraeaeque genti periisse.”

Celsius Hierobotanicon,

i.

407 et 409. Trusting that according to the acknowledged

difficulties

of the

undertaking, so will be the indulgence accorded to any attempt to VOL. VIII.

0

ON THE HYSSOP

194 unravel

adduce the

intricacies, I proceed, in the first instance, to

its

passages in Scripture referring to Hyssop.

The

first

mention of Hyssoj)

Old Testament,

in the

is

immediately

previous to the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt, and at the of the Passover,

first institution

Israel

when Moses

and said unto them, (Exodus

of hyssop, and dip

it

xii.

22,) “

called for all the elders of

And ye

lintel

and the two side posts with the blood that

From

this

nous

in

and

passage

it is

fit

and

bunch

strike the

in the bason.”

is

evident that the plant must have been indige-

Lower Egypt, and that

leafy, to be

shall take a

in the blood that is in the bason,

it

must have been

sufficiently large

for sprinkling the door posts as directed.

The

2.

next notices of the hyssop are in Leviticus and in Numbers, which

books having been written by Moses, indicate that the substances

which he

directs to be

been procurable is,

employed

in the situations

Israelites

Lower Egypt and

countries between

in the

for sacrificial purposes,

where the

must have

wandered, that

Thus

Palestine.

in

the ceremony practised in declaring lepers to be clean, the priest

is

directed (Levit. xiv. 4) “ to take for

him that is to be cleansed, two birds alive and clean, and cedar wood, and scarlet, and hyssop.'' These are again all mentioned both in verse 6 and in verse 52. So in Numbers xix. 6, in the ceremony of burning the heifer and preparing the water of separation, the directions are

:

And

“

cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast

burning of the heifer;” and take hyssop, and dip

and upon &c.

it

in

in verse 18, “

it

the priest shall take into the midst of the

That a clean person it upon the

the water, and sprinkle

the vessels, and upon the persons

all

that were

shall tent,

there,”

Here we again see that the hyssop must have been large to be suitable for the purposes of sprinkling; that it must

enough

have been procurable on the outskirts of Palestine, probably plain

of Moab.

Hebrews

ix.

19:

It

is

in the

to this passage that the Apostle alludes in

“For when Moses had spoken every

precept to

all

the people according to the law, he took the blood of calves, and of goats, with

book and

water and scarlet wool, and hyssop, and sprinkled both the the people.”

all

In

this

passage

we

obtain no additional

information, but as in the Septuagint the application of the

term uo-owor as the equivalent of the Hebrew name next passage where hyssop

is

mentioned

throughly from mine iniquity, and cleanse

sin;” and in verse 7, “Purge

wash me, and sidered

I

me with

hyssop,

shall be whiter than snow.”

by Bishop Horne (and

also

by

The

in chronological order is in

the beautiful psalm of David, where the royal penitent says

“Wash me

Greek 3.

esof.

and

I

me

2),

my

shall be clean:

This expression

others), in his

(li.

from

is

con-

Commentary on

OF SCRIPTURE.

195

the Psalms, to refer to the rite described in the above passages, as the ceremony of sprinkling the unclean person with a bunch of “ hyssop,”

dipped

in the “

water of separation.”

But though the passage no doubt has a yet,

with

sion

is

due deference

all

so direct, as to

was supposed

to

figurative

such high authorities, the

appear to me, as

to

have some cleansing properties. to its selection for the different

may have

fication, or sucli properties

consequence of

in

events, if the plant

can bear

which we suppose

this signification,

next notice of hyssop

wisdom

the

out of the wall things,

and of

Kings

I

is :

in later ages,

At

iv.

all

be the hyssop of Scripture

to

33,

where

in the

4.

The

account of

“ And he spake of trees, from the it is said Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping

Solomon

of

cedar tree that

it

such ceremonies.

in

will not be less appropriate.

it

in

is

might

If so, such

ceremonies of puri-

been ascribed to

having been employed

its

of expres-

the hyssop itself did possess,

if

have led originally

or

signification,

mode

fishes.’’

alluded to by _the

:

in

In this passage

name

of esob,

must

we

find that the plant

though not necessarily to the exclusion of

which

is

have grown upon a wall,

also

all

Some

other situations.

commentators have inferred that the plant alluded

must have been one of the smallest, to contrast well with the cedar of Lebanon, and thus show the extent of the knowledge and wisdom of Solomon. But nothing of this kind appears in the text. The last passage which we have to adduce occurs in the New Testament, where in the crucifixion John

of our Saviour the Apostle

a vessel

set

put

it

full of

vinegar

:

relates (xix. 2.9):

and they

upon hyssop, and put remarks of various

it

filled

to his

to

“Now

there

was

a sponge with vinegar and

mouth.”

This passage has

and inferences have been drawn respecting the nature of the plant, from the use to which it was applied. Others have observed, that the Evangelists Matthew and Mark, in relating the same circumstance, make no mention of the

elicited the

hyssop,

him

critics,

but state that the sponge was put upon a reed, and given

The deductions which we may legitimately draw from was a plant of Judea, found

to drink.

the above passage are, that the hyssop

indeed in the immediate neighbourhood of Jerusalem, and that to

have been used as a stick to which the sponge was

plant which it

I

suppose to be hyssop

will likewise

vfToromov

If the

calculated to answer this purpose,

Salmasius, as quoted by Celsius says

feceris, et licet in

Evangelistse

seems

it

answer for the elucidation of the parallel passages

the other Evangelists.

cunque

is

fixed.

omnia

explicationem

tete vertas,

adplicare

non

:

in

“ Quod-

probabilcm aliam verbis possis,

prseter earn,

quae

pro calamo, vel virga hyssopi, cui alligata erat spongia Christo

0

2

ON THE HYSSOP

196 porrigenda, accipit.

vcraunrov

Tbi

locum plane occupat Ka\ayov, cujus

eandem ad rem usus apud alium Evangeli.stam.” Before proceeding to ascertain the particular plant which to, in

the above passages,

it is

necessary to notice the

the Hebrew, as also those which were considered

For

several ancient versions of the Scriptures.

and esof

root

HTN

:

“

also

by some

alluded

is

of hyssop in

synonvmes

HUN

quod Hebr.

est,

I

am

esobh, written

Hebrew

azub, Celsius derives from a

Nempe Arabum^^y! idem

in the

this information

The Hebrew name

indebted chiefly to Celsius. also esob

its

name

HU

fluere,

quo nostrum HUN referri solet; ut ab aspergendo nomen acceperit.’’ The Greek he derives from the Hebrew name: “ab HUN esob derivandum esse Grajcorum vatrumav, unde Latiui hyssopum liabent, nulla est ratio, cur dubitemus,

Ebraeorum, et

nominibus

va-aatnov

non

illis

nam equidem

frustra sunt, qui

HUN

Graecorum, re et nomine differre volunt, ac

in

unde conclu-

esse nisi fortuitam soni vicinitatem;

dunt, baud esse necessarium, ut, quae planta Ebraeis est H1TN>

sit

omnino

statueuda va-aanros Graecorum; ex qua hypothesi tot diversae plantae

ab unica

HUN

Homonymis Hyles

Bochart Geogr. Sacr. 494, “duumviros simos:” and Celsius adds,

“Neminem

hujus veritatem in dubium I

In this

in versionibus interpretum propullularunt.”

derivation agree Salmasius de

T

A

reipmblicae

literariae

claris-

puto fore tarn morosum, ut etymi

ocare sustineat.”

Notwithstanding which,

cannot help thinking with the authors above alluded

similarity in the sound of the

and

Iatricae, p. 19,

two names

is

accidental,

to,

that the

and has

dis-

tracted the attention from other plants, to one which does not answer to all that

may

is

required.

in later times

certain period

But

it

is

quite possible that the

have been applied

same

to the

was indicated by the term esob

name hyssop

plant,

or esof.

which at a

Celsius further

from Ovidius Moutalbanus in Horto Botanigrapliico, pp. 47 et Hyssopus Salomouica, que erumpit e pariete, Hebraice esof, et Also that according to Maimonides, Saadias, KimChaldaice esofa.” states,

48, “

chius,

and Bartenora, H1TN This

Arabs.

is

esob

variously translated,

origanum, thymbra,

serpyllum, in different Lexicons; but majorana, dicis doctoribus,’’ (Celsius,

diramne

is

1.

c.

p.

marum,

See.,

satureia,

“ Talrnu-

409); while in the Persian A’ersion

given as the synonym of esob, which

Castellus to refer to Absinthium ponticum. in the

of the

of the Hebrews, is satur

It

is

is

said

by

translated muscus

Latin version of Junius Tremellius; in that of Piscator,

liba-

Bos marinus; Origanum in dissertations of Anguillaria, &c. “His adde vcraiv, et wowo v et diavnov, qua? in EA’angelista Jolianne pro hyssopo legendo, superioris oevi Aristarclii censuerunt. Sed non raro notis v.

OF SCRIPTURE.

197

interpretum conjectures, ut ait Cicero, magis ingenia eoruni, Celsius,

consensumque natures declarant.'’

to

1.

c.

p.

quam vim

410.

The several plants which have been considered by different authors are enumerated by Celsius under

be the Hyssop of Scripture,

eighteen different heads.

These we shall group together according to

their natural affinities. 1. Adiantum Capillus Veneris, or Maidenhair, a native of South Europe and of the East, is adduced as the hyssop of Solomon, by Lemnius, but he thinks that this is distinct from the hyssop of the other

“Quoniam itaque exiguus est, atque e parietinis Hysopo designari arbitror.” (Herb. Bibl. Expl. p. 68.) Asplenium Ruta muraria, L., or Wall Rue, formerly called Salva

passages of Scripture

:

erumpit, hunc pro 2.

common

Vitae, or Salvia Vitae,

in the fissures

adduced by Deodatus in the notes

to

of rocks in

Europe,

the Italian version.

is

Both of

these are of the class of Ferns. 3.

some measure the opinion of Lemnius,

Tremellius, adopting in

yet translates esob by muscus, and considers Polytrichum commune, or

common Hair Moss, found both 4.

Ovid. Montalbanus (in

in Asia and Europe, to be the plant. Horto Botanigraphico, pp. 47 et 48),

by Celsius, that esob is the small plant German, and which Celsius ascertained to be

conceives, in a passage quoted called klosterhysops in

the Alsine pusilla, graminea, flore tetrapetalo, of Tournefort, Sagina

procumbens,

and moist

Of the

Procumbent Pearlwort, a native of Europe

L., or

of

tribe

Composite, and genus

have been thought to be hyssop.

5.

esse Graecorum, et L., or

of Asia Minor,

hyssop,

probably

this

vinegar.

vir,

Romanorum Abrotonum.”

existimabat ( Abratliam )

This

is

the Artemisia

Southernwood, a native of the South of Europe and

and which was, according

by some

Artemisia, two species “ Joh.

Abreta or Abrotonum.

Mercerus, profundse in Hebraicis doctrinse

abrotonum,

in sterile

of the natural family of Caryophyllese.

fields,

of the

Hebrew

doctors.

to Celsius,

thought to be the

Casaubon remarks that

it

was

kind of hyssop which was given with the sponge and

“ Idque eo consilio, ut potionem Domino pararent penitus

amaram, penitus ingratam.”

6.

Artemisia Pontica (including probably

South of Europe, Syria, and Central semen contra vermes colligitur et ex Chorasan deportatur Halebum;” It. Seme santo, Lat. sementina, is adduced by Castellus

also A. Judaica), a native of the

Asia, “ unde

as a translation of the

hut which

is

Diramne which

occurs in the Persian version,

usually translated Thymbra, Satureia Tliymbra.

The majority

of plants

which have been adduced as the hyssop of

Scripture belong to the natural family of Labiatse, of which

“ are

known

for their uses in seasoning food, as

many species

thyme, sage, savory.

ON THE HYSSOP

198

marjoram, and mint, while others, as lavender and rosemary, are more

Many

celebrated for their uses as perfumes.

of these having been

described in the works of the ancients, have found their

may

those of the Asiatics, where Lavandula stmchas

name

the

rosemary under ukleel

oostalchoodus

hasha; hyssop, zoofae ydbisj

ool-jibbul

nana; and sage under the names salbiah and

sefaJcus,

evident corruptions of salvia and elisphacos .” p.

into

thyme

marjoram, satur

rihan

basil,

way

be found under

which

as

mint, last are

Himal. Bot.

(Illustr.

302.)

The

Labiatae which

the family of

several plants of

haA- e been

adduced by different authors, are as follow, Prosper Alpinus figures as Hyssopus Gnccorum, a plant he as “ plantain nobilissimam,” having grown it from seeds

7.

describes

obtained from Crete, and “Origano Oniti” (pot-marjoram) “adprime similem, esse legitimum hyssopum visum est.”

Some

8.

of the

by the Arabs

Hebrews

(v. Celsius) call

a plant esob javan, which

and of which the leaves resemble The Arabic name is probably a cor-

called istuchudus,

is

the plant called zatar (v. infra).

ruption of Stsechas, which

is

Lavandula

Staechas, L.

;

a plant found in

the Mediterranean region.

Rosmarinus

9.

officinalis,

or

Mediterranean region, and which “

Quod

in

Dappero.”

Galilea etiam (Cels.

1.

c.

common Rosemary, a native of the may perhaps be found in Palestine

frequens

p.

418.)

sit,

Some

auctoribus of the

Radzivilio et

older

P.

authors have

selected this plant, because being a shrubby species, a stick might easily be obtained, to which the sponge dipped in vinegar could

been

tied.

10.

Origanum Majorana, was considered

of the Talmud, (Stirp.

Advers.

Onites.

have

It is suitable also for sprinkling.

(Spr.

p. ii.

It is

212.)

of the Greeks, and schomschok to be the hyssop

by Pena and

Lobel.

doubtful whether this be not Origanum

507.)

11.

Mentha, or a species of mint,

12.

Mentha Pulegium, another species

is

adduced

in the Ethiopic version.

same genus, the yXrjx^v and foodnuj of the Arabs, and siah of the Talmud. Teucrium Polium, or Teucrium pseudoliyssopum, Schreb. a of the

of the Greeks, 13.

native of the Mediterranean region, and found

by Bove

in the desert

brought forward by Columna, not only as the hyssop of the Greeks and Romans, “ sed ipsius quoque Mosis et Salomonis veram

of Sinai,

et

is

genuinam hyssopum.” 14.

Thymus

serpyllum,

mountainous situations Arabs, and

in

or

common Thyme, widely

diffused

in

Europe and Northern Asia; kasha of the

Talmudieis.

Cels.

1.

c.

p.

423.

OF SCRIPTURE. In the Arabic version of the Books of Moses, esob

15.

by

lated

199

writers

y'jto salur or zatur

name

the Arabic

;

is

the

of

Arabs,

trans-

is

Talmudical

of

zitri

considered by them to be synonymous

with oplyavos of the Greeks, supposed to be Origanum heracleoticum, L., but several different species or varieties are included under the Arabic

name

satur,

which

similar in nature

Some

needless here to inquire into, as they are all

it is

and

properties.

Marum

other names, as, 16. Hyssopus cochaliensis, and, 17.

album, Maruchivara Talmudicis, are adduced by Celsius, pp. 416 et 419, which

have not yet traced.

I

597,) mentions that in Greece the

Satureia graeca and to spicata

may

cillata, L.,

be the

S. j uliana.

is

pp. 596,

i.

applied both to

He himself conjectures that Thymbra

vcro-conov dptivpv

Thymbra

of Dioscorides.

verti-

was similarly adduced by Dalechamp.

The only plant which remains

common

Sibthorp (FI. Graeca,

name vaadmos

or garden Hyssop,

supported by Celsius himself. frages, apparently

be accidental.

whether the

of those adduced

Hyssopus It

esob of the

the

first

is,

18. the

which

This

may

or

may

not

place desirable to know, not only

Hebrews, the vaadmos of the Greeks, and the

hyssopus of the Romans, was the same plant, but also whether what

now

call

believe,

hyssop

is

the same plant as any one of these.

with Sprengel, and others, there

The account given that

we have no

But

in

is

we

this, I

is

so

imperfect,

points of comparison given in the article on this plant.

describing opiyavov ;

hyssop.

Of

no proof.

by Dioscorides

of the hyssop

(

Origanum

heracleoticum), the leaves are

described as being similar to those of hyssop, but that rotate, as if he

is

has had the greatest number of suf-

from the similarity of name.

It is in

by Celsius

officinalis of botanists,

wished

its

umbel

is

not

such was the inflorescence of the

to indicate that

In the chapter on Chrysocoma

it is

said that

it

has a corymboid

Nicander moreover has stated that the hyssop marjoram (o-a^ti^or) and the Arab Isaac Ebn Amram compares

coma, like the hyssop. is

like

with marjoram.

zoofa

Besides

this,

Dioscorides mentions that

two kinds, one mountain, and the other garden hyssop, and that the best is produced in Cilicia; Pliny adds ‘•in Pamphylium

there are

The Arab

Abu’l Fadli and Al-Olaji, as two kinds, the mountain and the In the Talmud authors, that which is found in the desert garden. Maimonides, as quoted by is distinguished from the garden kind. et

Smyrneum.”

authors,

quoted by Celsius, also mention

Celsius, says

:

“ Hyssopi multm sunt species, in legem autem

qua homines plerumque utuntur solemus.”

That

it

in

cibum,

quam

liaec

nos melle condire

was employed by the Greeks and Romans

as a

200

ON THE HYSSOP

condiment bitter is

is

evident from

and fragrant

;

its

mention by Apicius

others describe

;

it

Dioscorides mentions only the diseases in which

as it

useful.

The modern hyssop (Hyssopus genus of which

itself is

officinalis,

the only species.

usually very smooth; (but a variety

L. Sp. 796) belongs to a It is

a perennial plant,

described by

is

De

Candolle, in

the Flore Fra^aise, Suppl. 396, which he calls H. canescens, from its

being covered with short rigid hairs.)

leafy stems,

which are woody

The branches site, sessile,

The

up several and much branched. The leaves are oppo-

root throws

at the base, diffuse

are from one to two feet in length.

rather thick in texture, narrow, linear, lanceolate, in one

variety elliptical

;

margins very

both sides ; below, one-nerved

entire,

flat,

or subrevolute; green on

held up to the light and looked at

;

with a magnifying glass, they seem to be obscurely dotted. flowers, of a bluish or reddish colour, are

the stem in closely approximated whorls in a terminal spike. floral

lanceolate, linear, acute.

The calyx

tubular, fifteen-nerved, with five

is

The

corolla, of a reddish-purple its

upper

and emarginate; the lower one spreading and

trifid,

colour, with its tube equalling the calyx, lip erect, flat,

The Bracts

leaves are similar to those of the stem, but smaller.

equal teeth, with the throat naked.

The

arranged along one side of

middle lobe largest; stamens

is

four, exserted,

bilabiate,

with

didynamous, diverging;

the lower ones the longest; anthers two-celled; cells linear, divaricate;

apex

style nearly equally bifid at the

lobes subulate, with the stigmas

;

The four achenia (or seeds with their coverings) ovoid, three-cornered, compressed, and rather smooth. The localities of the hyssop, as given by Mr. Bentham, the latest and most accurate author on the family (Labiataj) to which it belongs, are as follow: “ Hab. in Europa australiori et Asia media; in Hispania \Pavoii\, Gallia australi, Italia, Germania australi, rarior in Germania at the apex.

media [.

[

Reichenba.ch ], in

Prescott ], in Tauria et

Belgio

Caucaso

[Dumortier\, in

in

Rossia meridionali

Jugo Altaico [Bunge]”

M. Bove

mentions a hyssopus within three leagues of Jerusalem, and the rose-

mary. I myself have obtained it, and the specimens have been examined by Mr. Bentham, from Kanum and the Ganthung Pass in Kunawur, a tract along the Sutledge on the northern face of the Himalayan Mountains, and which

may

be considered a part of Tibet.

The hyssop is remarkable for its fragrant and aromatic properties, hence its employment as a condiment and a sweet herb, and as a moderate excitant in medicine were formerly ascribed.

Of

all

these plants,

:

to

it,

we need only

however,

many

other virtues

say, as Celsius has already done

OF SCRIPTURE.

201

respecting a plant which he thought to be less eligible than

commonly known by

the

name

“Nam

of hyssop,

cum

vera hyssopo aliqua dicenda erunt, Abrotonum

what

is

postmodo, ubi de reliquis, hyssopi

umbris, uno falcuke ictu succidetur.”

The plants adduced by

the latest writers are,

1st,

Phytolacca

decandra, by Mr. Kitto in the Pictorial Bible in Exod. “ The hyssop of the Sacred Scriptures has opened a wide conjecture, but in no instance has

xii.

22.

field

for

any plant been suggested, that

at

same time had a sufficient length of stem to answer the purpose of a wand or pole, and such detergent or cleansing properties, as to render it a fit emblem for purification. Our wood-cut represents a shrub remarkable in both these respects, which is the Phytolacca decandra .” Roserimiiller says, the Hebrew word esobli does not denote our hyssop, the

but an aromatic plant resembling

Germans

call dosten or

marjoram, which the

the wild

it,

wohlgemuth, the Arabs

zater,

and the Greeks

origanon. Dr. Robinson, in the ascent of Jebel

Smith, says

:

“ In

all this

monks

of the fragrant plant jcc’deh, which the i.

p.

157)

here in

Musa by

call hyssop,” (Bibl. Res.

and on the ascent of St. Catherine, “The ja’deh or hyssop was great plenty ; and especially the fragrant zater, a species of ;

thyme, (Thymus serpyllum of Forskal,)”p. 162. that the hyssop of aspersion

was hyssop

Wiuer, (Biblisches Real Worterbuch,

ii.

Lady

tied to

p. 820,)

name

“We

esobli;

his observations

were included under on Ysop by saying:

must, however, wait for more accurate observations upon the

species of hyssop

the

and concludes

Calcott suggests

a stick of cedar.

admits the same plant

as Rosenmiiller, but considers that several plants

the

himself and Mr.

part of the mountains were great quantities

and origanum indigenous

in

Western Asia, before

meaning of the Hebrew esobli can be finally settled.” My attention was first directed to the subject when

ing the

list

lately collat-

of drugs in the Latin edition of Rhases, with those in

own MS. Catalogue

before alluded

as indeed in that of Dioscorides,

to.

c.,

It is stated in that

that there are

my

work,

two kinds of

hyssop, the one a garden, the other a mountain plant; but Rhases further adds, that the latter

that

is,

of Jerusalem

majorana.

These two

:

Sylvestri

found on the mountain of the Temple,

montanus

kinds are also noted

Hierosolymorum,

“Hyssopus

is

“est herba quse oritur in montibus Templi, folia ut

sicca,

fortior,

by

‘

ysop us

altaris.’”

Celsius as “ Hyssopus in montibus (jjj

\j^j

et dicitur

zoofa bu jibal al kuds,” and

zoofa yabis.” Jerusalem

is

now

called

Arabs El-kuds, “ the Holy,” and also by Arabian writers

by

the

Beit-el-

202

ON THE HYSSOP

Mukdis, or Beil-el-Mukuddus, the Sanctuary, &c.

(Robinson’s Biblica

Rhases again, in the article Epithymum “ Caret radice sed suspendit supra ( Cuscuta or Dodder), says of it Researches,

p.

i.

380.)

:

arborem yssopi magni bus Templi.”

et folia ysopi colligitur

cum

eo

et

fit

in

So Seraj)ion, quoting Aben Mesuai, says of

it

domo

;

monti:

“

Ex

and of the hyssop, he quotes Isaac Eben Amram as saying, “ Laudatissima, ex domus sanctae inontibus.” Whether these expressions refer to the common hyssop, or to that which Creta ac

we

sancta, allatum

j”

conceive to be the true plant,

must have been a very

is,

to the

is

not easy to determine, as the

size of

one kind indicates that

it

from the common hyssop.

One

that the translators of these Arabic

works

different plant

troublesome circumstance

do not always adhere

it

But the large

accounts are confused.

arrangement of their authors, as they some-

times convert the arrangement according to the Arabic alphabet, into

one according

to the Latin

names and the Roman alphabet.

great work of Rhases, called Hawi, or “Continens,” hyssop

Thus is

in the

described

and the name in the Latin translation is written work Ad Mansor, we have hyssop under the letter “Ze id est, Z,” and two kinds mentioned, one called “Cyfe, id est, hyssopus qu;o vegetatur,’' and the other written “CEsypus autem humida, These two varieties qu:e et cerotes dicitur, qua? ex lanm sordibus fit.”

under the

letter ain,

ysopus; but in

liis

refer to the

zoofa yabis, or kliooshk, that

IJyJ

the other to

|j a

zoofa rutub,

Lana

is,

dry hyssop, and

succida, oi'owor of Diosc.

j,

Here we have very clear evidence, 2. c. 84. (N. 98. 2. Av. c. 364.) that two very different things have been treated of under one name, Hence apparently only because the Greek names are a little similar. it

is

not impossible but that similar confusion

may

have taken place

with the Greek vaaairos, hyssopus, and an oriental name like the

Hebrew esob or esof. Having suspected the existence of a I was led to what appears to me its

plant distinct from the hyssop,

by a passage from in his work entitled The Physical Geography and Natural History of the Holy “ Among trees and shrubs known only by native Land, p. cclii. names and imperfect descriptions The aszef is spoken of this month by Burckhardt, while travelling in the Sinai Peninsula. On noticing its presenco in Wady Kheysey, he describes it as a tree which he had Burckhardt’s

Travels

in

discovery,

quoted by Mr. Kitto

Syria,

:

:

already seen in several other wadys. the rocks, and

its

parasitical plant. size

It springs

from the

fissures in

crooked stem creeps up the mountain side like a

According to the Arabs

it

produces a fruit of the

of the walnut, of a blackish colour, and very sweet to the taste.

203

OF SCRIPTURE. The bark of the

tree

white, and the branches are thickly covered

is

with small thorns; the leaves are heart-shaped, and of the same shade (Syria, 536, 537.)”

of green, as those of the oak.

The above description, though apparently incorrect

the appli-

in

some terms, as that of tree, to a plant creeping like a parasitical plant, yet will strike most botanists, as a characteristic description of the Common Caper Bush, which is indigenous in these resrions, and which I was aware had an Arabic name, in sound someof

cation

The caper plant

thing like the aszef of Burckhardt.

which It is

in the copious

well

known

one of those

is

language of the Arabs has more than one name.

that

most common name

its

j.xT kibbur or kubar.

is

Greek KaWapw, and the Latin capparis, appear to have In referring to one of the Persian works on Materia been derived. Medica, which has been published with an English translation by Mr. Gladwin, that is, the Ulfaz Udwiyeh, we are referred from capers in the

From

this the

Index

to

The

Nos. 1271. 175 and 184.

the second

name

same thing,

is

it is

translated, root of the caper bush.

another

sources, that asuf

for the

in

asuf,

or

tree

names

to be one of the

word

Thus

name

in

my own

capparis

translated

is

in the

So also in

al kubber.

That

this

we have

has long been is

evident from

Multilinguis; where

we have

of capparis, taken from the fol.

I

;

and English Dictionary,

of the caper plant

of Avicenna, editio Veneta, 1564. find the

No.

learn also from other

Hindustani Dictionary,

root.”

Nominum Plantarum

alasif given as an Arabic

to

Arabic,

Persian,

in Shakespear’s

“the caper

Mentzel’s Index

is

Arabico-Latinum, asuf

Richardson’s

London, 1829, and

known

We may

one of the names of the caper bush.

is

Lexicon

Freytag’s

or capers,

is

usul al asuf, as

or Great Arabic Dictionary, asuf

likewise

of these

ussul ul kubir, root of the caper bush.

is

184

Kamus,

first

quote

this, as

I

am

Index unable

copy of Avicenna, Venice, 1555.

It

appears to be a corruption of alasif that Forskal heard applied to the caper plant which he found at Taas near Mocha, as a shrub growingout of a wall (Flora TEgyptiaco-Arabica), and of which he says,

“Si hsec vera est Capparis spinosa, competit

This written

it

convert

it

may

be a corruption of

simply into

asuf, lasuf,

illi

nomen Arab.

or Forskal

and the mere junction of the

letters

a mistake which might easily be

Lasaf,

may have would

made even

by the celebrated Niebuhr, as he published the work from Forskal’s notes after his death.

In

my own MS.

Materia Medica, asuf

is

given

ON THE HYSSOP

204 as a

Yoonanee

or

evidently intended for Kiimrapis, as the letter

p

synonym

which

is

of kibbur, with kifarus, as the

Greek name, is

wanting

in

the Arabic alphabet.

The

Arabs and the

similarity in sound between the asuf of the

Hebrews, cannot

esof of the

would extend equally

A

of the other.

fail to

and

strike every one,

to the writing of

the two names

this similarity

in the

language

Hebrew

degree of similarity has in other cases of

less

and Arabic names, been considered

indicate identity of origin in

to

words in these two languages. This similarity might certainly be accidental, but it cannot be accidental that the plant called asuf by the Arabs, answers to every particular which is required for the due elucidation, not of one, but of every passage of the Bible in esof

is

This

mentioned.

we

we hope

shall proceed,

which

satisfactorily, to

prove. First with respect to

its

geographical distribution, the asuf like the

Lower Egypt,

esof ought to be found in

in

between the Red Sea and Palestine, and also

The Caper botanists, it

plant, Capparis spinosa of Linnseus

well

is

the Desert or country

in Palestine itself.

known

to

be abundant

appears to be indigenous.

in the

found also

It is

and of

in the islands of the

Mediterranean and generally on the coasts of that ranean region, of botanists.

It

is

specifically

modern

all

south of Europe, where

sea, the

Mediter-

mentioned as found in

Lower Egypt, by Forskal in his Flora ./Egypt. -Arab, as Capparis by the Arabs, growing wild in the neighbourhood of Alexandria. The same facts are stated by De Lile, in his Illus-

spinosa, called kabbar

tratio FI. /Egypt, pp. 8

and

forming the botanical portion of the

16,

great French Avork on Egypt.

Previous to these authorities, Prosper

Alpinus had stated that the capers of Alexandria were larger than those of other

places:

inveniantur proveniunt,

“Capparis Alexandria} majores quam alibi quos cappar quoque appellant.” (De PL

So Pliny, “ Likewise

/Egypti, p. 60.)

in

/Egypt growetb capparis, a

known commonly eaten with meats, and

shrub of a harder and more woody substance: well

for the

seed and fruit that

for the

carrieth,

it

most part the capres and the stalke are plucked and gathered together. The outlandish capres (not growing in /Egypt) we must take good heed of and beware

:

for those of

Arabia be

pestilentiall

and venomous

they of Africke be hurtful to the gumbs, and principally the Marmarike are

enemies to the matrice, and breed

capres cause vomit, and

Some

call

the

Translation,

kabar

in the

make

shrub cynosbatos:

lib. xiii.

c.

xxiii.)

A’entosities.

lubricite both of

others ophiostphayla.”

So

in

Av.

c.

Rubro Mari defertur.”

2.

c.

166,

bellie.

(Holland’s

141, capparis

margin, with a reference to Diosc.

est species, qua} c

The Apulian

stomack and

is

called

“qusedam

205

OF SCRIPTURE. In Lower Egypt

is

also found another species, first discovered

Lippi, the Capparis JEgyptia of Lamarclr. FI. /Eg. p. 93.

31.

t.

f.

It is figured

by De

by

Lile,

and described by him as a spreading shrub, it grows in the moun;

3,

of which the branches are slender but firm tains

This species was also found

of the desert opposite Minyeh.

by M. Bove, and by Aucher-Eloy,

in the desert in the

neighbourhood

of Suez.

wansome of the species of capparis resembling it general appearance, are no doubt found in many places. The In the deserts and tract of country in which the Israelites

dered, the caper plant, or in

notices of

many

in

however, are few, but the

it,

we

rated that

that

is,

widely sepa-

might be found

it

and it would be so by competent by those having some knowledge of Natural

intermediate situations

travellers,

localities are so

are warranted [in considering that ;

History.

From saw

description of Burckhardt already quoted, in which he

the

the aszef in the Sinai

Peninsula, springing from the fissures of

up the mountain side like a bark and the branches thickly covered

rocks, with its crooked stem creeping parasitical plant, with a white

with small thorns, and heart-shaped leaves,

—there can be

little

doubt

of this being a species of capparis, and probably the caper plant.

It is

interesting to observe that he mentions

already seen in several other wadys.

as a plant

it

We

which he had

have however very

definite

information respecting the caper plant in this situation, as M. Bove, in his “Relation d’un

Voyage Botanique en Egypte, dans

en Palestine eten Syrie,” (Ann. des

Nat.

Sc.

mont

Sainte Catherine est au sud-sud-ouest du qui environnent

Belon (Ohs. in

ii.

Capparum

c.

ces

montagnes

xxi.) mentions

j’ai

dinem aequantes,

Arabies,

says:

“Le mont

Sinai'.

Dans

les deserts

trouve Capparis spinosa,

“Capparis non spinosa

stirpibus spinosis nascuntur

istos colies oberrautes,

les trois

p. 72,)

i.

.

.

.

&c.”

—minores enim

and at

c.

lx. “ Per

cappares invenimus, pumilarum ficuum altitu

—semina

instar piperis calida.”

So Dr. Shaw, “Cap-

paris Arabica, fructu ovi magnitudine, semine piperis instar acri.” Belon.

Obs.

1.

ii.

c.

60.

“Nostra

tricubitalis est.

Folia habet glauca, crassa,

succulenta, rotunda, uncialia, Fructus, quern vidi, pollicis fait magnitudine, oblongus cucumeris forma, quern i. e.

vol.

Arabes appellant

Piper montanum. Copiose crescit in via ad ii.

p. 355.)

More

to the

eastward

montem

we have no

Filfal jibbel,

Sinai.” (Travels,

distinct notices of

the true caper plant, but other species are found, as C. heteracantha

and

C. leucophylla, 'between

12 et 13.)

Aleppo and Bagdad by

Olivier.

(D.C. Sp.

So Aucher-Eloy mentions the banks of the Tigris as

covered with “la plus vigoureuse vegetation;” that

is,

with Tamarix,

ON THE HYSSOP

206

Salix, Capparis leucophylla.

If

we

trace

already mentioned, that Forskal found

it

it

to the

southward, we have

growing out of

as a small shrub

a wall near Taas in the neighbourhood of Mocha.

Dr. Falconer, late

East India Company’s Botanical Garden at

Superintendent of the

me

Saharunpore, has informed

that

when

at

Aden on

his

way home,

he

saw the rocks

there covered with a species of capparis, which appeared

very like the

common

among

caper.

the plants collected

A

sjjecies

very similar to

by Lieutenant Wellsted

it

also

is

in the island of

Socotra.

We

have, thirdly, to find the caper indigenous in Palestine and

This there would be no difficulty in doing,

Syria.

which distinguish

featuies notice of

if

travellers took

vegetation of a country, as one of

trouble of noting the

the

its

the

Some omit all a plant only when first met with.

physical geography.

common plants. Others notice

Mr. Kitto, who has made an abstract of nearly

the natural history

all

information of most of the travellers in the Holy Land, mentions the as observed by Dr. Russel. M. Aucker-Eloy mentions a species of capparis (C. effusa) in the neighbourhood of Mount Tabor. Dr. Clarke found “ Capparis spinosa, common caper tree, at Cyprus, and in the Holy Land (Jaffa).” M.

caper, oidy in the fields near Aleppo,

Bove, entering Palestine from Egypt, mentions on his arrival at Gaza,

“Au nombre

des plantes

paris spinosa .”

spontanees, je citerai les suivautes: Cap-

Again, on his arrival at Jerusalem, he says,

p. 173,) “

coriaria,

Dans les ruines croissent le Momordica Elaterium,

les

Rhus

et le

coriaria,

Capparis spinosa."

had previously mentioned finding the caper plant Jerusalem,

(v.

Rauwolf,

p.

In the above references asuf, being

found

That

Bible.

c.

Belon

in the vicinity of

269.)

we have ample

in all the situations

grows out of the

it

(1.

l’Hyoscyamus

proofs of the caper plant, or

where the esof

fissures of rocks,

mentioned

in the

and the ruins of

build-

is

Thus De Candolle gives as its habitat, “ In muris et rupestribus Europm australis et orientis.” When at Aleppo, Rauwolf says (Travels, p. 49), “ There grew also in the ings

is

evident from some of the above extracts.

road and on old walls such plenty of capers, that they are not at

all

esteemed ; they take these flowers before they open, and pickle them,

and eat them near

it

in old

for sauce

with their meat;” and again, at

decayed brick-walls and stony places.”

Plant, p. 1629,) “ Locis arenosis et ruderatis gaudet.

p. 75,

“and

So Ray, (Hist.

Nos

in

muris et

ruderibus Romaj, Senarum, Florentim et alibi in Italia observavimus

spontaneam; cultam circa Tolonani

in

Gallo-provincia, ad muros et

macerias.”

We

proceed

now

to

show that capers were supposed

to be possessed

207

OF SCRIPTURE. This

of cleansing properties.

evident from the following quota-

is

Thus Murray (Apparatus Medicaminum, ii. p. 381,) in summing up the account of its uses as given by the ancients, says “ Et quae veteres, quibus insigni in pretio fuit, de eo recensent, ad aperiendi vim tions.

:

Nempe

potissimum et abstergendi pertinent. nibus

lienis,

mensium

in

cutiendis, porro

Med.

lib.

ii.

precipue in obstructio-

suppressione, malo ischiadico, in strumis dis-

ulceribus expurgandis, praeceperunt.

in

Galen de Simpl.

cap. 204.

1.

Diosc. Mat.

Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. 20.

7.

cap. 15.”

Dr. Alston (Mat. Med. it

as a detergent

sputum

in

i.

p.

371,) observes, “Hippocrates even orders

concham majorem

casperit ari

‘Postquam autem purum esse

peripneumonia. et

sesamum

.

.

.

educere voles radicis capparis corticem his admisceto.’ p.

493.

lin.

23.”

who exhausted

Pliny,

Quod si magis De Morb. 1. in.

all

the sources of information to give us in

Natural History, a view of the knowledge of his times, has a

his

curious observation on the utility of the root of capers in a disease

which esof was employed by

closely allied to leprosy, the complaint in

Thus

the Israelites.

“The

root of capres

in

the translation of Holland,

away

singular good to take

is

morphew, (cousin germane

to the leprosie,) in case

quantitie of two drams, and drinke

it

Take the rind

the place affected rubbed therewith. it

in wine,

it

we

learn

that

the white spotted

be stamped, and of the root, the

helpeth the swelled

splene; provided alwaies that the patient forbeare the use of baines

and hot-houses

:

for (by report)

this course

continued 35 daies will

cause the said splene to purge away, partly by urine and partly by seege.

and

The same,

be taken in drinke, allaieth paine in the loins

if it

The seed

curetli the palsey.

and applied

assuageth the tootk-ach. the ears,

of capers sodden in vinegre, brused

to the teeth, or otherwise the root thereof

A

decoction of capers in

mitigateth their paines.

The

chewed only,

oile, instilled into

leaves and the

root

newly

gathered, and so applied as a cataplasme with honey, healeth the corrosive ulcers that eat to the very bone. all

those glandular swellings which

the

and

same be sodden riddetli

away

the

to chase

Boiled in vinegre, the

mouth

:

Likewise the root resolveth call

in water, it discusseth the

infirmities of the liver.

and honey for

wee

it

howbeit,

all

:

and

tumors behind the

if

ears,

wormes breeding within. It curetli also the The manner is to give the same in vinegre

away

is

the King’s evill

the vermin engendered within the guts.

singular for the cankers or ulcerations within

authors doe accord, that they be not good for

the stomacke.” 20 Book. ch. xv.

In modern works which have derived

much

of their information

ON THE HYSSOP

208

from the more ancient, we find it noticed, even in a botanical work, that “ Les capriers excitent l’appetit, et sont regardes comme aperipropre pour tuer

tives, antiscorbutiques, et

les

Botanique,

art.

Lecorce de la

vers.

racine est aperitive, diuretique et emmenagogue.”

Lamarck. Encycl.

Caprier.

So capers formed one of the “ Quinque radices aperientes minores,” or the five lesser aperient roots, as Caper, Dandelion, Eryngo, Madder,

and Restharrow.

It still holds

German Phar-

a place in some of the

macopoeias as well as in the Spanish, and continues to be employed

throughout Eastern countries, where old remedies In Europe,

pristine repute.

condiment,

its

now almost

it

New

Testament

appears to me, that

is

it

in

known

as a

in vinegar.

remains only to consider whether the caper plant

It

enjoy their

still

universally

unexpanded flower-buds being preserved

the passage of the

and

it is

which the hyssop

is

suitable to

is

mentioned,

any other that has been

as well so, as

proposed.

The passage in which hyssop is mentioned has been much commented on, in consequence of the difficulty which commentators have experienced in finding a plant which should answer in all points Thus it is said, John xix. 29, SxeCos ov v ckcito to what is required. Oi 8e 7r\r]cravTes anoyynv ogovs,

ogovs pearov

T)veyKav avrov to)

“Now

was set a with vinegar, and put there

some) and put gelists

it

vaaanrco ircpidevres, npocr~

(cat

aropan, or as translated in the authorized version.

to his

vessel full of vinegar,

and they

upon hyssop (fixing

it

mouth.”

Matthew and Mark,

One

Thus Matthew

with vinegar and put

(xv. 36,) in like

it

manner

same occurrence, making and they

“filled

Mark

on a reed, and gave him to drink.”

writes, xai yeptaas onoyyov ogovs, nepedeis re

“and one filling a sponge with vinegar, and placing gave him to drink.”

we have

In all the three accounts

and given

stalk of

from the evan-

KciXapM reed,

a sponge

(xxvii. 48,) describes one,

as bringing a sponge, ir^o-as re ogovs, kch ncpeGeis KaXapio, it

filled

on a hyssop

difficulty has arisen

in describing the

no mention of the hyssop.

it

to our Saviour to drink

;

it

about a

the sponge filled with vinegar,

Matthew and Mark

stating

it,

as

being raised on a reed, while John omits all mention of the reed, but By some comdescribes the sponge as being put on or about hyssop.

mentators

it

has been supposed that the sponge and hyssop were fixed

and that one evangelist has omitted all notice of the and the two other evangelists of the hyssop. Other commentators argue, that in the relation of the same circumstances by these witnesses, it is evident that the reed or stick must be the same as a to a reed or stick,

latter,

stick of hyssop.

As John

is

the more particular in his description

OF SCRIPTURE.

209

and usually supplies what has been omitted

in

our Saviour, and as he expressly states, xix. 35, bare record, and his record

true,” so are

is

the other accounts of

“And

he that saw

we bound

make

to

it

our

explanation suit his description.

The difficulty has been to find a plant fitted for the purpose and which the name hyssop was applied; for it is acknowledged on all hands that the common hyssop is too short and too slender to be used to

Some commentators

as a stick.

pUo

vrrcro),

vel veruto,

therefore have proceeded so far as to

Thus Camerarius

suggest alterations in the text.

“javelin or dart.”

“ a spear or pike,” and also

asta,

words

as the

quam

vo-o-conov

by Arab

well as

oi'owos,

Wow

a>

proposes

Heinsius suggests

Wo-,

for

lana succida, vel sordida;

and dlavnov are often confounded by others as apud auctores tam Grsecos,

authors, “ multis locis

Latinos, errore scribarum esse permutatas.’’ (Celsius.

1.

c. p.

444.)

Bochart again, retaining the name, has proposed changing the case of “et pro

hyssop,

Johannes:

giam

Wowm

legendum censuit vaaomov.

rrepidevTes vcro-anov ,

quoa explicatio est violenta :

cum

sponte

phraseos, vaadmep, Celsius.

liic i.

1.

offerat

se

;

accusativus

contraria vero

X

294

EXCURSION FROM PESHAWER me

presented

with the six yards of calico entirely covered with cha-

was manifest that the impressions had been very imperfectly taken, but I was ingenuously told by my agent that the task exceeded his ability, and required my own presence and superintendence ; and that the impressions had been made at hazard in various racters.

It

spots to afford

me an

idea as to the extent of the Inscriptions.

I

now

learned that they were of very considerable magnitude, which did not

diminish

man

my

from two or three of the Maleks, or petty

happy

to see

me

chiefs, that

it

first

behoved me

to

do

my

they would be

Mahomed Khan, the Durani

we had

with the people of the country,

I

derations to interfere with

my

memorials, which could not

fail to

in the characters

we

and copies

tidings that Sirdar Saiad

chief of Haslitnagar, with his little army,

immediate vicinity of the place, and involved

in the

considered

I

best to take impressions

of these Inscriptions, and although

was

young

assurances

me.

In October, having decided on quitting Peshawer, that

My

desire to be better acquainted with them.

reported favorably of the inhabitants, and brought

find so

in hostilities

would not allow prudential

consi-

purpose of ascertaining the nature of be of importance, from their being

prominent

in the native legends of our

Bactrian and Indo-Scythic coins.

Accordingly on the morning of the

6th of October, I left Pesha-

1

wer, attended by a native of that place,

two of

my

servants, all mounted.

We

who

officiated as guide,

and

crossed the Dasht Sakka, an

extensive plain to the north of Peshawer, commemorated in Afghan history by the battle fought in 1808 between Shah Sujah-al-Mulk

and the Shazada Kaisar, and thence passing the village of Mir Guzar, crossed at Landi,

by a

ferry, the river

From

Naguman.

ceeded to the river of Kabul, of which the preceding

and crossed junction.

it

also

At

by a

is

this

we

pro-

but a branch,

ferry at the point where the Jiud river effects

the village of Parang placed on

its northern bank The castle of Hashtnagar, picturesquely seated on an eminence, was distant about a mile and a half to the north, and separated from us by the course of the Jind, which winds round its eastern front. We occupied a musjid, finely

its

we

took up our quarters for the night.

shaded by some noble plane

Malek Azzad Khan, the Our party also gained an

trees,

and received the

principal of the village,

civil attentions of

and of

his people.

young lad of the village, who was acquainted with the Yusufzai districts, and volunteered to accompany us; as he was a good pedestrian, we suffered him to do as he wished. Parang is inhabited by the Mahomedzai tribe of

accession in the person of a

Afghans, and by computation

is

distant from

Peshawer seven

TO SHAH-BAZ GHARI. cosses (ten miles

the

and a

half)

Y usufzai country, is

;

295

the distance to Hotti, the

first

village in

The

reckoned twelve cosses (eighteen miles).

latter distance is entirely over

an uninhabited

plain,

extremely dan-

gerous to traverse, from the predatory incursions of the surrounding

whom

tribes, of

the independent and lawless Baizai tribes dwelling at

the skirts of the hills to the north are most notorious.

come mounted and

dators

Many were

These depre-

numbers, armed chiefly with spears.

in

the efforts of our village friends to dissuade us from cross-

ing the plain with so small a party; and abundant were the conjectures as to our probable fate,

and

we might

as to the figure

to

we should we were not

cut, if

have an encounter with the Baizai adventurers; however

he diverted from our purpose, and recommending ourselves to the

good wishes of our

friends,

we

retired to rest, anxious for the morning,

and the adventures the day might bring with 17th October. like ourselves

—At

sunrise

we were on

it.

our march, and our animals,

apparently invigorated by the cool healthy breeze of

Our young lad

the morning, proceeded at a rapid pace.

of the village

with trowsers tucked up and his shoes under his arm, kept steadily in

and

front,

he had made to keep pace with our

verified the promise

As we passed along

horses.

the plain,

its

surface

sprinkled with

and diminutive bair bushes, we observed to our right and many circular mounds, and we found that similar objects are

tufts of grass left

interspersed not only throughout

Yusufzai country: pottery,

its

and many of them have a

had, attached to them.

well,

we

human

industry

our path, upon a buried earthen jar;

and with our knives we dug around

horse,

them probably once

passed two or three spots overspread

with the same humble indications of fell in

as all of

Their vicinities are alike covered with pottery

fragments, and in our progress

we

extent, but generally over the

they are invariably strewed with fragments of

it,

I

until

:

in one instance,

descended from

we were

was a funeral jar of the ancient inhabitants of the country. this incident

these tumuli,

because

it

serves, in

and would lead us

my

I

note

opinion, to explain the nature of

to infer that they are ancient places

of interment, or that they are kilns

where funereal jars and other

arti-

pottery were fabricated.

cles of

As we advanced on until

my

satisfied it

at

length

it

the plain, the quantity of grass

entirely

became merely an alley between right hand, nearly a mile

increased,

covered the surface, so that our road it.

About mid-way, we had

to our

from the road, on a large tumulus or mound

called Do-Sir (the double-headed), a tower, denoting the location of

a collector on the part of the Hashtnagar chief, fees

who

collects transit

on the merchandise passing from the Yusufzai districts and the

X

2

EXCURSION FROM PESHAWER

296

country west of Attok to Haslitnagar.

mound were some

fifteen or

twenty huts.

or five miles, alike conspicuously seated

At the eastern base of this To our left, but distant four on a mound, was observed the

inclosed village of Darghai, where also a collector of the Haslitnagar chief

stationed,

is

who

exacts transit fees on the merchandise passing

between the Yusufzai

what

is

districts

We

and Sohat.

were now entering

esteemed the more dangerous part of the road, and had passed

The grass was

the limits of the jurisdiction of Haslitnagar.

intensely

and attained the height of six or seven feet ; we who were mounted could indeed look over it, aud had around us the same unthick,

varied view of one immense field of brown autumnal grass, extending to the base of the

low black

the north, and to an undefined

hills to

distance to the south, clouds having arisen over the Khattak hills

which bound

same

in that direction the great plain of

the distance, and

was apparently ing

Peshawer;

in front the

dull scene presented itself, but the Yusufzai hills appeared in

among

the grass

immediately on our

it

We

in our route.

we

descried a large mound, which

soon neared the tumulus, and pass-

peering above the waste of

right, beheld

marking the boundary of the cultivated lands of the Yusufzai, while the more prominent and lofty clusters pointed out the sites of Mirdan, Hotti, Turu, Meyar, and other villages.

grass, a line of trees

We

low range of

also distinctly beheld the

rock

is

would

found, and the latter,

fain persuade

We

me

my

hills

on which the inscribed

young mau, who had

visited

it,

he recognised.

soon reached Hotti, the

first

Yusufzai village in this direction

and inhabited by the Kamalzai tribe; we found it a large village of perhaps four hundred houses, and situated on the western bank of the Kala-pani rivulet (Black water), a small stream which after an inconsiderable course from the Baizai hills and defining the eastern limits of the Yusufzais, falls into the

After some rest and refreshment

Kabul

we

river.

started for

Shah-Baz Ghari,

my young man bad visited in his former trip. From Hotti its computed distance was four cosses (six miles). The road led through a thick grass the

village

jungle; half

nearest to the

way we

inscribed

passed the village of

hundred houses, and beyond

it

extensive old burial ground.

Ghari of one hundred and the rivulet of

bed, entered on

its

which

Moab Banda, with about two

a copse of trees and

We

ziarat,

with an

then gained the village of Ber

placed on the western bank of and crossing the stream, which is inmagnitude, and flows like the Kala-pani in a sunken

Sudim

considerable as to

rock,

fifty houses,

or Sidim,

eastern

bank the

sing about two hundred houses.

village of

Shah-Baz Ghari, compri-

These two neighbouring villages are

TO SHAH-BAZ GHARI. inhabited

by the Amanzai

tribe

the river separating them, joins the

;

Shah-Baz Ghari

Kala-pani below Turu.

297

a

is

name derived from a who formerly dwelt

fakir or mendicant saint of dissolute notoriety

and

at this place,

The more Ghari,

said corrupted

is

it

by inducing them

of the country,

name

correct or ancient

contradistinction

in

to

said to be

Ler

opposite neighbour

Ber

of the village

that

to

the morals of the people

imitate his licentious example.

of

its

is

Ghari, Ler and Ber being Pashto terms for

Lower and Upper, and

equivalent to the Persian Bala and Payin.

These distinctive terms

are

much

in use in the

villages of the

between them.

arrived at Shah-Baz Ghari in excellent time, having

or three hours of day-light.

my

countries with reference to contiguous

same name, but which generally have some physical

line of separation

We

Afghan

We

enquired for Malek Peru,

still

two

who by

young man’s account was the principal Malek, and who had before him with civility; in answer to my enquiries, some said, he was

received

not at

home

;

others said, he was.

for the night, willing to let

me with

it

I directed the horses to

his presence or not, I did not intend that the

should affect

my

This done, I called

stay.

be picketed

be seen, that whether the Malek favoured

my young

circumstance

man, who had

him to take in his hand a lunghi had brought as a present from Peshawer, and by going to his

before seen the Malek, and told

which

I

house, to ascertain whether he

was there or

not.

went; and in a few minutes appeared, evidently Deru, a

little

dimmed by

old man, with sharp twinkling eyes,

The young man Malek somewhat however

in great joy,

was the Faringhi (European) I had come on no mission prejudicial to himself or to his village, gave him confidence and satisfaction, increased moreover by the acceptable present of the age.

His discovery that

he had before heard

of,

I

with the conviction that

lunghi. his son and nephew at the disposal of my commands, and to assist them in procuring whatever might be needed; he was incessant in his attentions, and gave me much of his company. Towards night many of the other Maleks of the village assembled around us, and our conversation naturally enough turned upon the stone, or khan, as they called it.

The Malek placed

people, to await their

found, that in the singular state of society which here existed, a Malek was appointed by every ten or twelve families, who had a voice in consultations on the affairs of the village; and that the most respected was decidedly my friend Malek Deru, both from seniority and wisdom, as well as affluence. I ascertained too, that he had influence beyond his village and tribe, and generally throughout the I

EXCURSION FROM PESIIAWER

298

As

Yusufzai country.

to

was

the stone, I

told that

many

attempts

had been made to take impressions from it, for the Faringhis; and that only a day or two before, Badinath, a Hindu, had visited it on behalf of M. Court, and that the same man had taken away with him a marble slab with a Persian Inscription, from a Musjid at Kote.

my

To

whether they had any tradition respecting the stone and inscription, they answered, that they believed the latter to inquiries, as

to

have been written by Shah Baz Kalendar. The greatest good will prevailed, and although it was very late before the company broke up, we had arranged everything so as to commence our labours upon the stone in the morning, by procuring some implements in addition to those

us, and by engaging two or three of the vilyoung man, on his former visit, had removed the moss which had grown over the greater part of the surface

we had brought with

My

lagers to assist us.

some of

of the rock, and had discovered characters beneath

process and to develope the entire inscription course,

and

for

it

18 th October.

we

was

it;

to perfect this

clearly our

first

prepared.

— Early

morning we repaired

in the

to the stone,

which was distant about one thousand yards from the village, and lying about mid-way up the ascent of a small ridge of hill, at the point

where

idea that

it

it

subsides

into

superior rock being intercepted

among

the plain.

has fallen from above;

by an

I]. There is an would account for the

[Plate

so, it

if

inferior

fragment at a point

lower lines of the large inscription and thereby con-

the

cealing a few of the characters.

It

is

manifest this juxta-position

and contact of the two rocks must have taken place since the inscription was engraved, or the characters affected by it could not have been

me

that

set

to

A

inserted.

glance at the surface of the rock convinced

would be recompensed, and my people speedily remove the moss which obscured the principal in-

my journey

work

to

This was found on the northern face of the was with much satisfaction I found the southern face had The surface of the rock did not appear to have also its inscription. been artificially formed or fashioned, but its tolerably smooth and even Many of the fragaspect was entirely owing to natural fracture. ments of rock about the sides of the hill, and at its skirts, had fronts as scription.

[Plate II].

rock, and

it

well calculated to receive a graven

them, and they are

all of

record

as

the one which bore

the same rock, mineralogically considered,

an arenaceous argillaceous compound.

On

looking direct at the in-

was evident that the upper lines were formed of characters a little larger and more carelessly fashioned than those of the lower lines ; the lines were also more apart from each other than the scription,

it

STONE.

INSCRIBED

OF

VIEW

1 g

STONE.

INSCRIBED

OF

VIEW

FRONT

TO SHAH-BAZ GHARI.

were due to the greater

latter ones; in all probability these deviations

On

irregularity of surface.

the opposite side too, the upper lines

were

of the smaller inscription there,

The in

lines

299

liable to the

same observation.

moreover were not continuously straight, being carried out

an undulating course, as

the engraving had been influenced

if

by

the inflections of surface, which has produced a confused appearance,

and was embarrassing when throughout their

wished to trace

I

Two

full extent.

many

of the lines

or three horizontal fissures also

occurred, which alike disturbed the clear course of the lines, one of

M.

which nearly traversed the whole breadth of the rock. inscription

was

great inscription position

by a perpendicular

and the

distinct one.

fissure

it

:

style of the characters that this inscription

Here then were no

Bactro-Pali characters.

may

It

inducement to encourage

less

my

Court’s

and separated from the was obvious, both from

in a corner of the superior face,

was a

than three inscriptions in genuine

be conceived,

companions

I possessed sufficient

to exertion,

and that

lingly lent a hand to effect the removal of the moss.

I wil-

This was not so

difficult a matter, we discovered, as to cleanse the rock from the green and slimy stains occasioned by the damp of ages. Nearly the whole day was expended in these labours, and after we had fairly succeeded,

we

passed over the surface a covering of prepared ink, as the preli-

minary

to taking

we made our way 19th October.

an impression on

This done

calico in the morning.

to the village.

—Betimes

newed the application

we

repaired to the rock, and having re-

of ink to the surface,

taking an impression.

For

this object, I

we commenced

the task of

had brought a large quantity

and twenty-five yards of which I had hoped from the representations of young man would have sufficed for two impressions. We soon

of paper, of the stoutest fabric of Peshawer, fine

my

British calico,

found that the paper would not answer the purpose, and

was plain however was effected, and constituted the labour of the day. The toil was great, as it was necessary to employ the palm of the hand, and forcibly that

we had

too, to

calico

enough only

for one impression;

enable the gently moistened calico to accommodate

irregular surface of the rock, racters.

Of our

success

we

and

to

I

was not altogether

itself to

the

produce the outlines of the cha-

could judge by the external appearance of

the impressed calico, which ou a black ground precisely as they stood

it

this

upon the rock, but as

satisfied

with the

result,

showed the characters so many blank spaces.

though as a

was

first

attempt,

and the

first

effort.

Having disposed of the superior inscription, we found that more serious than we could surmount, prevented us from

difficulties

impression that had ever been taken,

it

still

a tolerable

EXCURSION FROM PESHAWER

300

The

repeating the process on the inscription at the opposite side.

lower part of the rock, on which the soil on which

it

engraved, slopes inwardly, while

it is

rests inclines outwardly,

thereby forming an angle After fruitless endea-

too acute to permit the free use of the arms.

vours to effect our purpose here also, to carry off a

As

found that

I

I

must be contented

copy only.

purposed to devote the morrow to taking copies of the

I

inscriptions

by

sight,

we

this

evening exercised the ingenuity of the

village smith in preparing half a dozen sharply pointed instruments,

that

we might

ters.

possess

He ;

the better trace and cleanse the channels of the let-

converted for our use as

and before we went

many

to sleep,

files,

which he chanced to

gave them

and

to us prepared

tempered.

—

At sunrise we were again at the stone, and with new implements employed in clearing the letters of the inscription. After completing this part of our labours, we traced the letters on the rock with sharp angular pieces of a somewhat soft stone which we found in abuudance around us. As the marks left by these stones were 20th October.

our

white, while the surface of the rock originally dark, had necessarily

been considerably deepened in colour by the coverings of ink we had passed over

it,

the effect

when

the operation

was terminated, was

ourselves surprising, and to our friends the villagers,

They loudly expressed

magical.

little

to

short of

their feelings, affirming that they

never had a notion that the entire stone was covered with writing,

knowledge having been confined to the obvious insertion of M. Court. They fully agreed with me that the Khan was a wonderful Khan, and that Shah-Bdz Kalendar was a cunning fellow, first to cover the stono with writing, and then to conceal the writing under their

moss. In taking copies of the inscriptions, wdiich was not done without

diffi-

culty from the waving and confused course of the lines, the young lad

from Parang proved serviceable

and long

to

me, by guiding the end of a slender

stick over the letters as

as I directed him.

I

copied them, and

Towards evening,

of the three inscriptions, but after the pains that

clearing and bringing out the characters,

unprovided with

fine calico, that

I

by

had completed

I

I

shifting

my

had been taken

it.

With

little

might take another impression of

village,

and

ascertain whether

fail to

probability of success, but anxious that no

attempt should be untried,

from the

in

could not but regret being

the superior inscription, under the advantages tvhich would not

attend

it

copies

I

directed

to ride over

by chance, any

my young man

to send for horses

with the Malek’s son to Kote, and calico could be procured

among

the

TO SHAH-BAZ GHARI. Hindu

traders of

tlie

During the day,

bazaar.

301 I

had essayed how

far

the coarse cotton fabric of the country would serve to bear an impres-

but

sion,

and

to

it

my

My young man

had not answered.

great satisfaction presented

me with

returned from Kote,

twenty-seven yards of

excellent British calico ; a wonderful piece of good fortune costly an article

had found

its

way

lage, I could scarcely account for

and with

light hearts

21st October.

we

— By

;

sunrise this

but

so

made me happy,

possession

its

morning we were anew occupied by

At noon, we heard

the reports of cannons and small arms, which continued

sustained until afternoon, from which his

how

returned to supper and to rest at the village.

taking a fresh impression of the large inscription.

Mahomed Khan and

;

into the bazaar of a Yusufzai vil-

we

more or

less

inferred that Sirdar Saiad

opponents had met in mortal

conflict.

We

did not on their account remit our labours, but completed our impres-

more

sion in a manner, if not perfect, at least

satisfactory than the

former one.

— This day was spent at the stone,

22nd October. observations on

it,

and

in the

evening

we

in

completing our

retired to the village, with

the intention of starting for Peshawer in the morning.

23rd October.

— Two

or three hours before daylight

were saddled, and we were ready

our horses

Malek Deru and

to start.

the

man

he had commissioned to accompany us to Peshawer were also ready.

was unable, although he was suffering Malek from attending us on the road, and was ague day; I was also unable to send ceeded a reasonable distance; he would I

until

we

from ague, to dissuade the urged to no purpose that it

him back after he had proand did keep us company

reached the Kala-pani rivulet, being determined,

not only to see us safe in his

own

limits,

parted after a good deal of embracing, and

I

he said,

but beyond them;

we

hoped the good old

man He

would be able to reach his village before the ague fit came on. must have been above seventy years of age ; but he was hale, and on horseback active. Riding this morning on a mare, followed, as is the practice,

by

the foal, he dashed

among the high jungle grass with much pleased when I familiarly

great spirit and satisfaction, and was

addressed him as Bai Deru, and alluded to the exploits of his youthful days.

We Hotti,

mound

crossed the Kala-pani at daylight, and without halting at

committed ourselves

to the plain

before noted as between Hotti and

Do

Sir,

we

On

nearing the

descried in the

a number of spears rising above the They might be in hostile or in friendly hands, but we had only encounter what happened as well as we could ; we therefore

distance, but approaching us, grass.

to

before us.

302 EXCURSION FROM PESHAWER TO SHAH-BAZ GHARI. marched firmly

on, taking care to

keep well together.

gradually advanced, and as they came closer

men and

The spearmen

we observed a

multi-

we many engaged in extinguishing the matches of their fire-arms, which by way of precaution they had lighted when they first beheld farious assemblage of

animals ; on our meeting them,

found

our party bullocks.

;

they were a kafila from Sohat, bringing grain laden on

We

kept on our journey, and without farther rencontre

reached Parang.

The Malek’s man was unable to keep farther pace we left him to pass the night there, and to

with our horses ; and

make his way leisurely we resolved to proceed

to

Peshawer the next day.

For ourselves,

Peshawer; therefore dropping a present into the hand of the young lad who had accompanied us to at once to

Shah-Baz Ghari, we crossed the

made

for the city,

river, and,

which we reached a

by

little

the road

we had come,

before sunset ; and took

up quarters at the Bagh-i-Vazir (the Vazir’s garden), from which we had started on our trip. The following day Malek Deru’s man joined us, and after allowing

him due rest, we made over to him a Koran, a lunghi, a postinchi, and two pairs of shoes, the articles desired by the Malek, and due to his civility; in addition wrn made over a few sundries which we judged would be acceptable; due to our own friendly feelings, and to show to him and to his people that attention and courtesy were appreciated, as well as to secure a welcome reception for myself, in case I should again wander that way, and that the traveller who may hereafter visit ShahBaz Ghari should have no reason to complain that I had preceded him. These duties acquitted, a lunghi was bound around the messenger’s head and we dismissed him to rejoin his master.

' •

7— J~

n>

S f_

jT"

n% >=s

"*

-K

f'P-C; 5 ‘^ >^~> r^ >

)

K

*" J_

r

.

,

.

THE ALPHABET.

A

_1_

U

12

'll

o

A

0

T

ytT^iTo

s

Y

M.

v 7;

The vowel a are

r,

made by

R

a^

"ii

n

is inherent

in the

strokes

ki,

below as Jl su 3^ ku Q. hu ,

,

0

R- is

a

,

^

is

I

si

jnade

is

made by two

303

foyether:

as

pri

strokes

,

B

St.

ry

h

tnj

stroke towards the riyht as ** tra,

p

S

Sh.

drawn downwards

,

E is

B

Pi

consonantsy the other oomels, amiswara,

ft

ti,

P

irr'i

a

sti

;

U

crossing

some

line:

as

aijbota.^) 13- sra

*iF»

sc, ft

bho

kan, XI.

Sometimes

-P pur,T? Pram

tine

turns towards the

stroke abooe,

passes downwards, bat does not cross any

marks are found

Vol. 8,

,

Anu.swara

so,-

L

Y

Dll.

J)_

S'

little-

J

CMi

J'R

G.

^ Th

Y.

of the consonant as

^ ne m

Kh

2

-Y

DTi.

K

Am.

71

D:

111.

and

E

,

sc

X\ v.

sail

turn

left

such

*

303

Art.

XV. — On

Rock Mr. E. Norris.

Kapur-di-Giri

the

[Read March

For above a month

1,

1845.]

had been trying

past, I

By

Inscription.

at intervals, but without

decypher the Kapur-di-Giri Rock Inscriptions, which were

success, to

brought to Europe by Mr. Masson ; all of which had been copied by sight, and of which some also were fac-similes impressed on calico, in the

manner which Mr. Masson has

described.

About ten days

ago, on ex-

amining the copy of that portion which forms the back or south side of the rock, I remarked a group of letters of frequent occurrence, represent-

value attached to such of the characters as cor-

ing, according to the

respond with those on the coins of Bactria, the word piyasa

found

I

was repeated frequently, and that in every case it was I had not the preceded by three letters which I could not identify. resource of a cloth impression, as Mr. Masson had found it impractithat the group

cable to apply the calico to that part of the rock all the different

examples together,

always intended

:

read on the coins

make

in ;

some cases the

the second

I

I

;

but on comparing

judged that the same group was

first letter

took the form of

di, as

and the third n; this would supposed this might be a name in

read r

word Diranapiyasa. I the genitive case ; and the supposition was corroborated by finding the same word, but without the final s, at the head of the separate tablet, which formed apparently the title of the inscription, and of which I had made a pretty fair transcript, by collating three calico imA further pressions with the copy made by Mr. Masson on paper. investigation, and an examination of the list of names in Tumour’s Mahawanso, convinced me that the word was Devanampiya. I immediately communicated this discovery to Mr. Dowson, to whom I had before given a corrected copy of the first separate tablet ; and that gentleman, who unites a knowledge of Sanskrit to an acquainthe

tance with the discoveries of Prinsep in Indian antiquities, proceeded to

compare

this tablet

On

Piyadasi.

doing

with the Girnar proclamation of Devanampiya this,

he soon found that the inscription on the

tablet coincided nearly with the seventh division of the Girnar

ment.

He

lost

no time in informing

me

of this coincidence

;

monu-

we

pro-

ceeded to a closer examination, and found no greater difference be-

tween the two than might be expected between two different versions of the

same

original document.

made

this dis-

disappointed at finding that

we had

I confess, that instead of feeling

covery, I

was

at

first

a

little

pleasure at having

THE KAPUR-DI-GIRI

304

probably nothing more than a third edition of the Girnar monument, of which a second had been found at Dhauli, in Cuttack, and published

But

with that of Girnar by Mr. Prinsep.

I

remembered that the two

known had been found to differ in some particulars, I one now discovered might contain some new matter.

versions already

and that the remembered also, that the complete acquaintance with the forms of the alphabet which so extensive a document must afford, would enable us with certainty the legends on the Bactrian

to read

which

still

remain doubtful

;

coins,

in all probability recover the language of the legends.

proceeded to examine the remaining inscriptions, and appointed in the

result.

I

many

of

and that with the alphabet, we should I

I therefore

was not

dis-

began upon the portion which forms the

front of the rock given in Mr. Masson’s drawing, and proceeded, letter

by

through the whole of

letter,

inscription.

it,

collating every

word with the Girnar

found the two documents to be similar, but not exactly

I

half the words are absolutely identical;

alike;

but a considerable

proportion of the remainder are effaced, or too indistinct to be recognised,

though

I

have no doubt that

impressed cloth more closely

the

Girnar tablets from the

I shall 1 .

recover some by examining

This portion contains

all

the

the eleventh, with the exception of the

first to

was cut on the separate tablet before adverted to, and was the one of which a very imperfect copy was furnished to Mr. Prinsep. The second tablet is shorter than that of Girnar; the sixth has much additional matter ; and the ninth differs considerably.

seventh, which

then proceeded to the sheet containing the inscription on the

I

back of the rock, which led me

to the discovery,

and

I

found that

it

contained, in substance, the three remaining divisions of the Girnar inscription,

but at greater length.

Here

I

was

chiefly desirous

verifying the portion of the thirteenth tablet, which mentions

names of three western words

in

the

In this I was deprived of the resource

kings.

of a cloth impression, which

had helped me

other portions

of

the

;

but

to the clearing

up of many

very luckily the line which

I

wanted was, with one exception, perfectly legible it confirmed Mr. Prinsep’s conjecture as to the names of Antioclius and Antigonus, added a fourth name to those of the three kings, and dispelled all doubts as to the meaning of the word Chaptaro, which he thought sig:

nified

Egypt.

besides, 1

I

Mr. Prinsep read the

by whom

have since received Mr. Masson’s in the

:

“

And

the Greek king

the Kings of Egypt, Ptolemaios, and Gongakenos,

the rock, and expect to derive illegible

lines thus

much

first

attempts at taking impressions of

assistance from

them

;

several

portions

second impression, are very clear on the detached pieces, though

these are on the whole the most defective.

ROCK INSCRIPTIONS.

305

and Magas, &c.,” and conjectured that the Greek King was Antioclms. The Kapur-di-Giri inscription reads “ The Greek King Antiockus also, and the four Kings, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, and Alexander.” I have not yet had an opportunity of looking into the historical statements of those dark and troubled times ; and cannot now guess at the monarch called Alexander, (or Antigonus),

:

—

1

unless

who

he Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus,

it

would

he too early

I fear

;

and Europe was not

the East

between

in all probability, the connexion sufficiently frequent

to

maintain in

India any very accurate acquaintance with the changes that were then so rapidly taking place in the

West. some years been in possession of an accurate fac-simile of the Girnar inscription, which was probably taken after the lamented Mr. Prinsep wrote his account. I have examined the pas-

The Society has

for

sage in question in this fac-simile, and

broken

off in the

Alexander

;

I find

there that the stone

is

very part which probably did contain the name of

and that the name of Antigonus

and could not be read GongaTcena, as

is quite distinct upon it, was on the copy read by Mr.

it

Prinsep; though he very ingeniously conjectured the true reading.

The alphabet

in

which the Kapur-di-Giri inscription

written,

is

more complete than that of the Girnar Rock. It contains three very distinct sibilants, and will thus often furnish a clue to the true reading of a word, which is wanting in the others.

is

I

in one respect

think I find the cerebral letters also

however, unfortunately,

but

;

;

It

is,

being so like each

many words

of three letters

be read above forty different ways, each having a real

It appears, also, to be sometimes deficient in vowels,

sense.

arises without doubt

this

2 .

resembling in this the old Cufic

character, in which, according to Marcel,

may

not quite sure

less distinct, several letters

other as to be easily confounded

only,

am

though

from careless engraving, and perhaps

still

more frequently from the imperfect state of the impression; when fully

legible,

each vowel

various positions

is

and

inscription,

written

is

I

carelessly executed through-

name

The language

of the king is

is

written

like that of the Girnar

The name

it looks as if preceded by a making Halexander. Ptolemy, if correctly copied, is Turamaro, and not Turamayo, as in the Girnar tablet ; but the second r

of Alexander is not quite positive;

—perhaps

h,

uncertain. 2

by a little oblique line in made between long and short

but perhaps nearer to Sanskrit than that.

The name

consonant,

is

is

in the very beginning, the

Priyasi, instead of Priyadarsi.

1

expressed

but no distinction

The engraving on the rock

vowels. out;

;

have since distinctly found four of them.

THE KAPU R.-D1-GIRI

306 Piyadasi

dhamma Tt will

made Priyadarsi, always where fully legible dharma and the same forms occur in other cases. be understood that I have had no time for any critical regenerally

is

written

is

marks, even

me

to

make

if

;

my acquaintance

any.

My

as I can, a legible text,

The portion given

with Sanskrit were

which will be better read by

Number. from a copy compiled by

is all

printing in the present

and a

;

others.

that could be got ready for

reduced on a scale of one inch

It is

collating three impressions on cloth

and three on paper, made by Mr. Masson. incomplete

enable

seventh edict, which forms a

in the plate is the

separate tablet on the rock, and

to four,

sufficient to

task will be to furnish an alphabet, and so far

All these impressions are

but each contains some portion wanting in the others,

letter or

two has been obtained from the imperfect copy

fur-

nished to Mr. James Prinsep, which has been obligingly communicated to

may

me by H.

With

T. Prinsep, Esq.

be considered almost a fac-simile.

the reading in

Roman

all

I give

these aids, this part

what appears

corresponding portions of the Girnar and Dhauli inscriptions first

from the copy taken by Mr. Westergaard, and published

number

of the

me

to

characters, parallel with the readings of the

Bombay Branch

Society’s Journal

for

collated with the fac-simile in this Society’s possession,

as read in the fac-simile published

by Mr. Prinsep ;

April,

the

:

in the

1843,

and the second

the letters in Italic

are doubtful.

Girnar. Dhauli. di-G^ri

— Devanampiyo — Devanampiye

Piyadasi

savata

ichbati

save

laja

sachata

ichhati

***

rajo

eavatra

ichhati

sava

raja

Piyedansi

Devanampriyo Priya[dar]si }

sayamancha bhavasudhincha —pasanaa vaseyu save —hananda vase * save paga sachhaman bhavusudhicha sayaman K —pashanda vaseyu save bhavasudkicha uchavacha rago G— janotu uchavacha chhando D— rnunisa wchavala cManda uchavucha laga K. — ichhanti janocha uchavacha chhando uchavacha rago G. — savam vakasanti ekadesam cha kasanti vipu[su]le * * D —sanvam va vidala ekadasa na cha K — savam va kashanti vipule ekadesam G.

te

D.

ti

ite

.

.

ichhati

te

.

ichhanti

te te

tu pi

chati

.

.

t/api

pi pi

ROCK INSCRIPTIONS.

—dane yasa asa K — dane yasa G —vadadhabhatita D— K —niva bhatita G.

nasti

D — dane

naiAi

.

sayame

bhavasudhi

nicha

badham.

.

nicbe

ba!e

old and esteemed acquaintance

longer living to vindicate his

may be convenient

own work,

is

or retaliate upon mine, yet

no it

to put together the results intimated as possible or

probable in the foregoing remarks,

more amenable to

as liable to exception as

Kamala Kanta, who

criticism.

I

if it

were only

to render

them

venture, therefore, to suggest the fol-

lowing as something nearer to the purport of the original than the former translation.

THE KAPUR-DI-GIRI ROCK INSCRIPTIONS.

314 “

The beloved of

unbelievers

the gods, the Raja Priyadarsi, desires that all

may everywhere

dwell (unmolested), as they also wish for

moral restraint and purity of disposition.

For men are of various

purposes and various desires, and they do injury to part.

all

or only to a

Although, however, there should not be moral restraint or

purity of disposition in any one, yet wherever there (or charity), gratitude will

acknowledge merit even

is

great liberality

in those

who were

before that reputed vile.”

Whatever may be thought it

recommend

own example

his

to his subjects of

it

to

every denomination

in

to encourage them to imitate him in the conworks of public ornament or utility, and in the distribution

every part of India, and struction of

of the exact rendering of this part of

seems very likely that the Raja intended by

the inscription,

of charitable

gifts.

315

GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN INDIA. The

Newbold

following Notes have been received from Captain

since the printing of the earlier pages.

Note to Paper on Diamond Sandstone and Limestone (pp.

The

following note

is

156—171).

from Mr. Piddington on a mineral recently

by Captain Newbold

discovered

the shales of the limestone of

in

Gazopilly Eastern Ghats, associated with galena, quartz, calcspar, and sulphate of barytes “ I have the pleasure of informing

you that your red mineral is, as you supposed, an ore of cerium; and moreover, of that most rare kind, carbonate of cerium.

It contains iron, lead, lime, silex,

alumina,

and perhaps, yttria and magnesia.”

Additional Note to Paper on Trichinopoly Fossiliferous Limestone (p. 218 ).

my

Since

first

paper on the Trichinopoly

fossiliferous limestone.

Captain Lawford, of the Madras Engineers, has kindly examined for me, more accurately, the limits and geological relations of these beds,

and

I

have much pleasure

in

forwarding the following abstract of the

notes he sent me, as a valuable

with a few brief remarks of It will

my

addendum

to the paper alluded to,

own.

be right to premise that these notes commence at the N.E.

extremity of these beds, following the strike of their stratification in a S.W. direction from the south bank of the Vellaur towards the valley of the Coleroon.

Kercmoor, Olapaudy, and the right

bank

Varagoor

.

—Proceeding

easterly along

of the Vellaur from Keranoor, a tappal station on the

Madras road about forty miles road distance N.N.E. from Trichinopoly and Vudakaloor, where a deep black hornblende schist loose

is

the

first

rock

rounded blocks; they occur a

naur, a tributary to the Vellaur. vertical strata

acclivity in

seen, little

soil

covers the rocks,

and hornblende rock

to the south of the

The hornblende

schist

is

in

in

Chennearly

running east and west, and forms the base of a gentle

which were

first

seen the beds of fossiliferous limestone,

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGY

316 which

is found about four feet below the surface. The upper soil is a brown mould containing much kunker, which also encrusts the limestone. The dip of the latter is towards the south, at an angle

light

of ten degrees; the thickness of the beds could not be measured, but

may

the height of the ground

stream.

be about one hundred feet above the

Proceeding south-east from

Olapaudy,

Captain

passed along the western base of this acclivity, and

still

Lawford

observed the

hornblende as the underlying rock.

In some quarries in the limeby two and two feet and a half were being cut, the stratification was very distinct dip and direction Three feet below the surface was a layer of limestone with as before. stone,

from which blocks nine

feet

:

fossils

nine inches thick, overlying a layer three or four feet thick of

which no fossils were observed, and which intervened between the upper and lower or main fossiliferous friable calcareous earth (marl), in

beds

;

immediately below the latter was the hornblende.

About a

mile farther the ground declined gradually to the south, and the

became black alluvium.

soil

Three miles farther small rounded blocks of

hornblende were seen: and at Varagoor, where the Olapaudy high

ground terminates, were some rounded blocks of the stone embedded in kunker in the bed of a stream.

From Varagoor

to

Shantanoor

.

— From

fossiliferous lime-

Varagoor

to the S.E.

much

hornblende rock was observed; and at three miles’ distance, on another rising ground,

the black

embedding great quantities of

limestone

and hornblende rock succeeded as far as the bed of a stream, where rounded blocks of the fossiliferous Dark alluvial soil limestone were found embedded in sandstone. shells

was met with.

Black

soil

continued to Shantanoor.

—

From Shantanoor the country continued Garoodamung alum ridge same character as before. At five miles the fossiliferous rocks .

of the

were observed fossil

in the

to the S.E.,

bed of a stream

was found and a ridge

nautilus

south as far as the

here.

:

dip and direction as before.

From

this

stream the ground

of fossiliferous rocks runs due north

They formed

eye can reach.

of the acclivity, on the top of which stands

A rises

and

the eastern slopes

Garoodamungalum, on

a sort of plateau, the western slope of which consists of a ridge of

and similar to the one above mentioned. This plateau and the ridges of rock were described to Captain Lawford as exThe rocks tending about five miles to the south and as many north. rocks, parallel

are a blue fossiliferous limestone

:

dip and direction as before,

soil

reddish brown.

To Pervullapoor

.

—Continuing south, hornblende rock and the lime-

stone were seen occasionally

;

but the

fossils

gradually disappeared,

OF SOUTHERN INDIA. and the

last limestone noticed

and without

schistose,

South base of this,

was

317

at Pervullapoor,

where

it is

yellow,

fossils.

Tract and Valley of the Coleroon.

the Fossil

— Beyond

trap (basaltic greenstone) and quartz prevailed, and in another

high ridge running east and west, overlooking the Coleroon, gneiss

The great valley

and granite.

by numerous

which probably has Granite

is

is

covered with a rich alluvium,

hypogene rocks.

the granite and

basis on

its

seen on the opposite bank near Trichinopoly, occasionally

by

overlaid

of the Coleroon and Cauvery, watered

divisions of those rivers,

laterite,

and occurs

in the rock-islands in the river bed.

—

At the western base of these Western flank of the Fossil Tract. fossiliferous ridges, along the line of Madras road, from the alluvium of the Coleroon on the south, to Keranoor on the Vellaur (whence

on the

started)

The

Samiaveram.

granite

north, soil

rounded blocks of trap

is

with much quartz and occasional between Samiaveram and Siriganoor, black

is ;

red,

cotton soil appears covered with

quartz

beyond the

;

we

between the Coleroon and

seen

much

last place is

loose stone, chiefly trap

a plain of deep cotton

soil,

and suc-

soil containing much kunker and loose trap. About Ootatoor the rock is exclusively hornblende, rounded blocks hence of which literally cover the ground and form small eminences to Toramungalum hornblende is the only rock visible, with abundance of kunker; the soil chiefly black alluvial. The same continues to near Volconda, where a calcareous schist is observed, and also mag-

ceeded by

;

nesite

;

S.W.

:

embedded

the latter in loose nodules and masses

hornblende prevails

The

also.

dip about twenty degrees.

naur, near which

kunker, and

is

we

is

has a direction

From Runjanguddy

soil

in the soil

N.E. and

to the

Chen-

hornblende rock continues with much

seen in the bed of the stream

a plain of deep black

Such

started,

schist

;

extends, above which

thence to the Vellaur, little

rock

is visible.

the drift of Captain Lawford’s notes on these interesting

and partially explored deposits, which have been now traced so far south as the north edge of the Coleroon valley. if

It will

be seen that

a line be drawn from this S.W. point at Pervullapoor, through the

major axis of these deposits,

it

will pass in a

N.E. direction through

or very near to those of Verdachellum and Pondicherry, comprising a direct distance

Map we

N.E. of about one hundred

shall find that

miles.

the larger gaps which

On

referring to the

now

separate these

by the valleys through which flow the principal rivers of this part of India to the Bay of Bengal, viz., the Panaur and Vellaur. Whether the valley of the Coleroon separates the Trichi-

deposits, are occupied

nopoly

deposits

VOL. VIII.

from others

still

further to

the south or

Z

S.W.

at

GEOLOGY OF SOUTHEUN INDIA.

318 intervals to

Cape Comorin, remains

probable, that though there strata,

sil iferous

may

to be

still

they here terminate or have been swept

shown, or whether

by denudation.

It seems be differences in the ages of the fos-

off

they once formed a continuous ridge, or parallel

ridges, elevated gradually with

the land from the bed of the sea to

the different conditions of a sea beach, and subsequently of a coast

and that the gaps we now see in their continuity, inexplicable of the eroding powers of present streams, were for-

ridge,

by the supposition

merly the sea embouchures of ancient

lines of drainage, the directions

of which have since but little changed.

The present height Lawford its

area

states to

is

of the fossil beds above the Coleroon Captain

be about two hundred

undulating.

relatively to that of the rest,

feet,

and that the surface of

The unconformable and smaller amount

of dip

hypogene rocks on which they immediately

shows that the former had suffered great disturbance prior

deposition of the limestone

:

but

it is

to the

evident that the latter has par-

taken of the later disturbances which have affected the hypogene rocks,

and

lastly has

been raised with them from the ocean’s bed.

Fossils collected from the upper layer, described

ford as separated

by a

non-fossiliferous stratum

should be kept distinct, as

it is

by Captain Law-

from the lower beds,

possible they belong to distinct epochs.

319

XVI —Analysis

Art.

of the Ganesa

.

reference

Purana,

By

the History of Buddhism.

to

with the

special

Rev. Dr.

Stevenson.

[Read January

1845.]

4,

Titinking that the Ganesa Purana might throw some light on the origin of the Saiva worship, I lately took relation.

I

had not proceeded far

it

up

examine

to

it

in that

in this investigation before I

was

fortunate enough to meet with two legends, which I conceive have a

and

distinct reference to the rise

these

is

contained in the

division of the

first,

Purana; and

Buddhism

fall of

and the other

to their consideration I shall devote this

paper, after a few brief general remarks on the

The former

called the

One of khanda or

in India.

in the second

Upasana Klianda

work

itself.

of the Purana,

could

scarcely hare been written before the seventeenth century of our era, as Moresvar (Sans. Mayuresvara)

Ganesa; but

till

Morabhatta,

who

is

mentioned as a great Tlrtha of

flourished in the former part of that

and originated the Chincliore (Chinclivad) was a place altogether unknown to fame. The Purana commences with the misfortune of Somakanta, king of

century, gave

it

celebrity,

incarnate Ganapatis,

it

Surat (Sans. Saurarashtra), who, on account of the

home and kingdom

affliction of leprosy,

wander in the wilderness. While roaming about from place to place, he came in contact with the sage Bhrigu, one of his progenitors, who retailed to him what Brahma had in ancient times related to Vyasa in praise of Ganesa. The sum of the whole is, that Gautama, Saubhari, Kaundinya, Visvamitra, and all the Rishis, recommend to sundry applicants for ghostly advice the worship of Ganesa, and the repetition of the two mantras, the one, Sri Ganesdya namah, and the other the mystic Orn. Indra, Siva, Vishnu, his

left

to

Parasurama, Skanda, &c., are projects

were enabled sion,

sends

all

represented as having failed in their

they applied to Ganesa, through whose aid alone they

till

to

perform their exploits.

away

his pupil

Somakanta

Bhrigu, therefore, in concluto get rid of his

consequence of sins committed in a former

state,

disease, the

by worshipping

Ganapati on the 4th of Bhadrajmd, according to the institute in which he had instructed him.

The second Khanda

of the

must have been written after

Purana

it.

Suta

refers to the first, is

and therefore

there introduced as relating

assembled sages what Bhrigu had rehearsed to Somakanta, and Brahma originally narrated at the request of Vyasa. To extol to the

vol. viii.

2

A

ANALYSIS OF

320 Ganesa above

all other objects of religious

adoration

is

equally the

In the Purana, two distinct modes of

purport of this second division.

At one time he

worshipping Ganesa are pointed out.

is

identified

Paramatma, the Brahma of the Vedantists, and is to be worshipped by mystical contemplation alone. The other mode by which religious homage may be paid to him is, the forming with the supreme

spirit,

the image of the god, crowning ings,

The

offer-

it

festival of Gahapati.

particular legend in the

reference has been made,

with flowers, presenting to

it

and celebrating the annual

first

and which

division of the

is

Purana

which

to

interwoven with the principal

theme after the manner of the episodical stories in the Panchopakhyana and the Arabian Nights, commences with the History of Gritsamada. The grandfather of this sage was named Bhima, aud was sovereign of His capital city was named Kauhdinya

Vidarbha, the modern Berar.

The king had no

name.

which so wander in the In his wanderings he met with forests and propitiate the deity. Visvamitra, who directed him to worship Ganesa. The deity proved propitious, and he had a son named Rukmanga, who, after ariving at mauhood, and having been associated with his father in the government, one day lost his way while hunting in the woods, and came to a Rishi’s hermitage. The sage’s wife fell in love with the king, and after the sage of that

children,

afflicted

him, that he

when he

refused to listen to her unlawful request, she cursed him, and

brought on him the

by applying

to

writer seems

the city with his wife to

from which lie was freed only Meanwhile Indra, whose character the Puranic

affliction of leprosy,

Ganesa.

little

left

studious to exalt,

is

made

to

assume the form of

the virtuous prince, and gratify the licentious passion of the Rishi’s wife.

The

was the sage Gritsamada, who, iu mentioned as being the Rishi of certain

fruit of this connection

the Index to the Rig- Veda,

is

portions of these sacred hymns.

unknown

The circumstances

of his origin were

to the sage himself, but not to the other Rishis,

who, when

he had joined himself to their society on the occasion of a Sraddha

performed by the sovereign of Magadha, reproached him with his spurious descent, and calling him the son of quit the assembly.

samada went

Stung

to his mother,

to the

Rukmanga

ordered him to

quick by their reproaches, Grit-

and on her acknowledging her

cursed her, imprecating on her the

guilt,

doom of becoming a J ujube tree

1

he

after

her death, an event which followed soon after. cated on him the of form

however

doom

of

She in return imprebecoming a Brahma Rakshas. No change

befel the sage, nor did he require to die

or

and be born

THE GANESA PUKANA.

321

again; on the contrary, the curse, as far as external circumstances

made any change

He

a blessing.

apparent, seemed to come upon him in the shape of

courted no more the society of the

short 'abode rvith certain

Munis

llishis,

but after a

of a different profession, he betook

himself to meditation on the Supreme Being, standing on his great toe

with his mind intensely fixed on the deity.

The

divinity, identified

Purana with Ganesa, but possessing all the attributes of the Vedantist Brahma, appeared to him, and granted all his requests, Brahma Rakshas as he was, and still styling him Brahman and Sage accorded to him, as he desired, pre-eminence in all his as usual in this

1

,

transmigrations above other Brahmans, divine knowledge 2, along with

a beautiful shrubbery 3 in which he might engage himself in divine ,

meditation.

After this

greatest respect, honoured to

worship him with

the

whole band of sages 4 paid him the

him

as their chief,

Gritsamada

oblations''.

and even went still

One day

tate on the divine essence, absorbed in intense devotion.

he opened

his eyes,

so far as

continued to medias

he saw, at a great distance before him, something

like an infant cast out in its blood, uttering

mournful lamentations.

His merciful disposition was sensibly affected, but after closing his eyes for a little while, he found on opening them again a beautiful

boy coming up

to him,

who

saluted

him

and mother,

as his father

saying that he had been given to him by the deity, and promising

him

if he would adopt him and take him under his proGritsamada complied with the child’s request, taught him

obedience,

all

tection.

the mystic incantation

Om, and sent him away

contemplating the supreme Ganesa.

toe

by

to stand on his great

After some thousands

of

and the victory he had obtained over the senses and passions, appeared to him and desired him to ask a boon. The child asked the power of conquering the

years the deity, propitiated

his austerities

three worlds, which the divinity accorded, promising

at

the

same

time that he should be incapable of falling by any weapon except that of Siva, that he should possess three famous cities, one of iron, one of silver,

and one of

gold,

and that on leaving the world ho should be

absorbed in the divine essence. This child was no other than the famous Tripurasura,

who

spee-

and by the assistance of certain others whom he created, vanquished Indra and all the gods, sent them away to hide themselves in the caverns of the Himalaya Mountains, and reduced them to the greatest state of leanness and distress, by putting a stop dily set to work,

1

2

frW and

7TPJ

Adhyaya

**

3

sHRsTR

XXXVII.

^PT SI.

35

— 39. 2

A

2

322

ANALYSIS OF up

to tlie offering

of the oblations 'which mortals

to present to them.

V aikuhtha,

Brahma

sending

had been accustomed

After taking possession of Bralima-loka and to his lotus bed,

and Vishnu

milk, he went to Kailas and asked Siva to give

to the sea of

up

to him and Mandara, with which request, after a little grumbling, the The gods in this sad predicament apply good-natured deity complied. it

retire to

to

Narada, who, although ready enough to create, on suitable occa-

sions,

a

little

merriment at their expense, was ever ready

to help

them

when they were really in distress. He recommends to them the worship of the Supreme Being ; telling them, that it was by adoration of the supreme Gahesa that the Daitya had attained the pre-eminence he enjoyed, and that their affairs could be retrieved only of the same

and

modo

The gods and

of worship.

at last obtain the favour of the deity,

by the adoption

Rishis take his advice,

who promises

to take their

case into consideration and provide an effectual remedy.

For

this

purpose Gahesa disguises himself in the form of a Brahman, and accosting Tripurasura, told

him

that he could build

him such a

could be equalled neither in heaven nor on earth.

command

Asur’s

famous

cities,

to proceed

one of

iron,

On

city as

receiving the

with the work, he built for him the three

one of

silver,

and one of

gold.

On

being

asked what boon ho required for such a signal service, the cunning in order that ho might bring on a collision between the Asur and Siva requested the marble image of Gahesa called Chintamani, which was placed at the entrance of Kailasa. Tripurasura readily agreed to grant him such a trifling compensation for his im-

Brahman,

Y

portant services.

ct,

although in possession of Kailasa, he considered

remove any of the furniture of the place without first going through the ceremony of asking Siva’s leave, and accordingly The Asur’s sent two messengers to ask the god to give up the image. it

wrong

to

messengers, in making this request in the

no obscure intimations that their

requisition,

force

if

name

of their master, gave

the image were not given

would bo used

to extort compliance.

up on This

Mahadeva, who getting into a rage, refused to was On this Tripuaccede to so unreasonable and uncivil a demand. rasura mustered all his forces and attacked Siva, who advanced to meet him at the head of all the gods. The celestial armies were again routed, and their leader, the great Mahadeva himself, was too

much

obliged to

make

for

off,

and skulk about the

precipices,

and lurk

in the

caverns of the Himalaya mountains, while the Asur bore off the

famous image Chintamani, the subject of the dispute, in triumph to Mortified and downcast at this defeat, Siva made no attempt Patala. to retrieve the affairs of the gods, till the faithful Narada came to him

323

THE GANESA PURANA. and instructed him

had waited

in the worship of the

in the austerest devotion

supreme

After Siva

Spirit.

for ten years

on the supreme

Ganesa, the god appeared to him, and after telling him that neither the divine Rishis, Brahma, the Yedas, the Upanishads, nor the six Sastras,

were acquainted with

his person

’,

informed him that he was

and would grant him the boon he desired, namely, victory over Tripurasura. To make his triumph more certain and complete, Siva extols Ganesa in a hymn, in which every

propitiated

by

his austerities,

one of his thousand names

recited.

is

The Asur can no longer with-

stand the might of the gods, who, through the blessing of the supreme

and the generalship of Siva, obtain a complete victory.

Ganesa,

Maliadeva with his

fiery darts

no longer able to maintain liant meteor,

If

we

consumes the three

his

cities,

and the Asur,

ground on earth, darts away as a

bril-

and mingles with the divine essence.

are to suppose that this legend

is

nothing more than a flight

of Brahmanical fancy, and that no allegory lurks under the external guise of a long subjection particular Asur,

whom

we

shall

and protracted war of all the gods with a little credit to the wisdom of the sage by

do

was conceived; but

it

representation

we have

of the conflict

we

if

suppose

it

to be

an allegorical

between Brahmanism and Buddhism,

a subject worthy of the poet’s genius, and obtain an ex-

tremely interesting, as well as probable account of that memorable struggle.

We

need not question the

events cognizable

strictly historical accuracy of all the

by man which

befel Gritsamada.

The spuriousuess

of his origin, his vast learning, his quarrel with the Rishis, his association

Brahmanical

with Munis of a different order, his devotion to

the worship of the Supreme Divinity, and adoption of a ritual differing

from that esteemed orthodox, are all circumstances that need not be His adopting Tripurasura and teaching him the called in question. science

of Divinity are also

questions are,

what

probable events.

But the important

profession did Gritsamada

adopt after he was

Brahmans ? Did he become a BudBuddhism our author is here giving under

expelled from the society of the dhist,

and

is it

the history of

the veil of the legend of Tripurasura?

To enable us

to

answer satisfactorily these questions; the following

considerations, evidently deducible

from the narrative, require to be

kept in mind.

Adbyaya IV.

SI.

33.

324

ANALYSIS OF During the new state of things introduced by Gritsamada and

1.

Tripurdsura, according to the Purana, an entire stop

performance of the Brahmanical ceremonies.

Adhyaya XL. Sloka

—

This

is

was put

to the

expressly stated

“

Having brought in subjection all the Asur returned to earth, and the powerful Bhimakaya, subduer of the world, by his might brought in subjection all the kings, put the Rishis under restraint, shut up the fire temples broke down 9

12.

gods, the

1

,

everywhere the hermitages and holy places of the devotees, seized the houses erected as refuges to the religious ;

always

set himself

the manes

3

burnt-offerings

,

—and

in opposition to sacrifices to the 4 ,

bloated with pride,

gods 2, oblations to

the study of the Vedas, and religious

ceremonies.”

No

language can more fully describe an entire proscription of

the peculiar rites of the Brahmanical religion than

comment on the aphorism quoted

in

It

this.

all

forms a

a former paper 5, in which the

Agnihotra, the offering of flesh to the manes, &c., are declared prohibited iu the Kaliyuga. If

we

turn from the Brahmanical to the Buddhist records,

in the account of

Asoka

we

find

in the Maliavanso, that at the beginning of

his reign, while following the religion of the

Brahmans, he was

in the

habit daily of sacrificing a multitude of cows, but that he put an

and to The first

entire stop to this, to

Buddhism.

this day,

the feeding of Brahmans, on his conversion edict of this prince, as found engraved to

on stone pillars iu various parts of India, interdicts the

offer-

ing up of any animal in sacrifice, as well as killing them for the sake of food, thus abolishing one essential rite of the ancient Brahmanical ritual, as I

have shown

in a former

paper 6

.

Buddhism then produced

the same effects as the government of Tripurasura in regard to the rites of the 2.

Brahmanical worship.

Iiulra,

in the old

world, and chief

among

Brahmanical system, was the creator of the the gods, sustaining in fact the attributes,

and performing the works of the Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva of modern Hinduism ; while in the system of Tripurasura, Iudra holds a place inferior to the Asur himself, and has no divine honours paid to

him.

The second Mahdala

of the Rig Veda, being the latter part of

the second Ashtaka, consists entirely of hymns, the composition of

Gritsamada,

who makes

such a figure iu the legend under review ;

doubtless composed before

all

2

737 V! 5 6

he had changed his principles and

4

733T

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. XIII., p. 2. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. XIII., pp. 3,

4.

371 Z

THE GANESA PURANA. abandoned the Brahmanical

cannot be unfair then to

It

religion.

325

take1.the character of Indra in the ancient system from those authoritative

hymns

of his, -which have been

Yeda

itself.

It is as follows:

2.

—

deemed worthy of a place

in the

it is Indra, who is the first born, the intellectual, who protected the gods by his meritorious works, whose forces made the two worlds tremble, and who is great in might. It is he who rendered firm the trembling earth, and established on their foundations the shaking mountains, who spread out the firmament, and caused the orb of day to ascend aloft. 3. Who, when he had slain the cloudy demon, made the seven rivers flow, who brought

0

mortals,

the divine,

cows which the Asur Bali had concealed, and produced

forth the

from the midst of the watery cloud, destroying 4.

By whom

all creatures that

the earth were made,

move on

fire

his foe in the conflict.

who

under ground, and conquering the myriads of his foes brought down their power with the

formed the

servile tribe that dwell in caverns

ease a hunter does (a stag

Such of

is

').

the character of Indra given

Brahmanism.

Indra

is

by Gritsamada while a votary

the creator of the earth and sky, and of all

and the destroyer of the

3. inhabitants, the preserver of the pious, their

impious; but the pupil of the same Gritsamada,

system from him after his change of creed,

is

who had

learned his

described in our Parana

knocking his

as ascending to heaven, meeting Indra in hostile conflict,

thunderbolt out of his hand, and after a struggle getting hold of him

by the

feet,

whirling him round and round, and throwing him into a

knew where, and in the end seating himself on Airavata and taking possession of the throne of heaven 2 We have only to turn over a few pages of the Mahavanso to find that Sakko (Indra),

region no one

.

though dignified with the name of god,

is

a being of no esteem

and receives no divine honours, these being Buddha and his Theros.

the Buddhists, for

all

among

reserved

is represented as a mode by Gritsamada and Tripurasura, while

Contemplation of the Supreme Being of divine worship practised

1

Ash taka

YT

II.

?fr

39.

Varga

7-

I

sft

wftsr fwr

Adhyaya

6.

R d id ^N

dlri

to

2

Adhyaya

?r«Wrrr

*ft

'

~

C\

-O

tot ^frwdTTT

\

'

tot h

tot

5?

^5:

u

11

&c.

326

ANALYSIS OF

unknown both to the Brahmans and the Saivas, though afterwards adopted bj both parties for the purpose of subduing the Asur. It is plain

hymns

Hindus of an

known

from a review of the

V edas

that sacrifices,

and singing

Soma, and other gods, now considered by the

to Indra, Agni,

was the highest form of divine worship In the Bhagavat Gita the Sama is of the Vedas. It is preserved by the Brah-

inferior grade,

Brahmans.

to the ancient

considered the holiest

mans with a care, and its hymns sung with a reverence, that plainly mark the veneration in -which it is held. I found far less difficulty in the west of India in obtaining copies of the other Vedas, than

Sama, and yet

in procuring those of the

to the above-mentioned divinities.

mentioned, and Vishnu

is

it

consists entirely of

Siva and

Brahma

I

did

hymns

are never even

rarely invoked, and then only as subor-

dinate to Indra.

On

the other hand, Gritsamada, according to our Purana, practised

fixed contemplation of the ship, only after

Supreme Being as a mode of divine wor-

he had been expelled from the society of the Brah-

mans, and had become a Brahma Rakshas, and made the acquaintance of the Muni,

who dwelt

in the Puslipaka

Vana (Flowery

At

Forest).

that time neither Siva nor any of the Brahmanical gods or sages were

acquainted with this mode of obtaining the favour of the divinity.

This

is

evident from the narrative of Gritsamada’s conversion, or “ Then a voice from heaven was heard, is as follows

apostacy, which

:

and Gritsamada became a demon *.

The same Gritsamada then went commence the practice of devotion 2 As he wandered on he at last came to the forest, named the Flowery 3 filled with various trees and vines, and ornamented with clusters of flowers, adorned also to

.

,

with cascades of water, and the society of eminent sages.

Grit-

samada dwelt awhile with several venerable men, submitting to their commands. Then having bathed he performed japa, standing on the great toe with a fixed mind, contemplating the Supreme Lord, the god Vighnesvara, fixing his eyes on the point of his nose, yet seeing in

all

the ten directions, conquering his senses, restraining his breath, con-

quering the mind, and living on ages he performed severe japa

air.

Thus

for

a thousand divine

4 .”

Such was the religion of Gritsamada, by which he obtained the favour of the Supreme Being and divine knowledge 5

same system that

lie

It

.

the^ gods obtained the

supremacy over heaven and earth, and thrust 2

3

TjxgcPM O

4

Adhyaya

was the

taught Tripurasura, and by which that enemy of

37. SI.

1—5.

5

WWP?

THE GANESA PURANA.

327 Such

lieaven all the Brahmanical deities.

down from

also,

according

Maliavanso, was the system of Buddha, a system of spiritual

to the

and mystical contemplation of the all-pervading

spirit.

Until Narada visited the gods in their distress for the purpose of consoling and instructing them, they remained in entire ignorance of

and mystical system.

this spiritual

them

as follows

:

—

On

that occasion he addressed

I will relate to

you concisely the greatly meri-

He

performed tapa for a thousand

torious actions of the Daitya.

and obtained the favour of Gahesa, the chief of the gods, and

years,

those irresistible blessings which carry dread to all others,

serve

him from

all

harm

at the

Yakshas, Rakshas, Pisachas

Sankara

(Siva).

hands of Devas,

and Nagas,'

and pre-

Rishis, Pitris, Bhutas,

—of

all

except the lord

Therefore, let all seek the favour of the chief of the

and let all worship him who obviates and bestows every needful blessing.” The gods said “0 wise instructor, teach us how to worship that god of gods. Super-

gods, Gahesa, with all respect,

every

difficulty,

tell us how to proceed.” Narada replies: “I will teach you all the one syllable mantra (Om). Repeating that mantra with a pious and fixed mind let all engage in meditating on the Supreme Being As far as I can see Gahesa is the god to whom you must apply. He will deliver you all. There is no other remedy

eminent sage, mercifully

1

.

than this 2 .” In the same manner Narada instructs Siva, ignorant,

in

this

worship

of

the

who was formerly as we have

supreme Gahesa,

shown in the narrative. It was only then, according to this Parana, by the adoption of this new form of worship practised first by the Asurs, that Siva and the gods conquered their enemies and regained the supremacy which they had lost. While the Vedas, as we have seen,

speak only of the worship of a multitude of gods, propitiated by and libations, the Maliavanso introduces Buddha as remain-

sacrifices

ing for

many

years in fixed contemplation of the divinity, and thus

obtaining his favour, an o ^ g

V

Dacoity

Rahzani

.... .... .... .... ....

Wilful Murder

Manslaughter Burglary Theft

Cattle-stealing

Arson Base Coin

Total

2 5 3 102 61

39

14 18

6 142 125 76

c S

H3

®

•g

a,

a

15

6 89 75

8

50

55

1

2 5

2

214

488

247

«

c

o

48 46

1

1

B


d’ Annum, et de Java, &c. -I Chaudoir. Folio. St. Petersbourg, 1843 I

Bemerkungen

iiber

12mo.

Die

Sasaniden-Munzen.

Petersburg, 1844

St.

Von Dr.

B. Dorn. -

-

I

The Author.

-I

Pehlewi-Legenden auf den Munzen der letzen Von D. J. Olshausen. 8vo.' Sasaniden, &c.

Synopsis

-

-

Kopenliagen, 1843

Numorum Rumanorum

-

The

qui in Museo Csesareoj Digessit J. Arneth.

Count

-----

les C’hangements du Corns Inferieur dui Fleuve Jaune. Par M. Ed. Biot. 8vo. Paris,

1843

The Author.

Vollstiindige Uebersicht der Aeltesten Tiirkisclien, Tata-, rischen, und Mogholischen Volkerstamme nacli

I

Rachid-ud-din’s Vorgange, bearbeitet von Franz von Erdmann. 8vo. Kasan, 1841

----------------

die Urspriingliche

und Richtige Schreibung

Afghanischen Benennungen. 1842

The

einiger 8vo.

B. Dorn.

and the African Slave Hodgson. 8vo. New York,

The Author.

The Author.

[

1

The Author.

Foulalis of Central Africa,

By W.

Trade. 1843

Voyage dans

l’lnde.

B.

Par Victor Jacquemont. -

to 45 inclusive.)

Voyage dans

l’lnde.

1843

De

Von

Diet

-I

Refutation of Lieut. Wellsted’s attack upon Lord Valen-i By F. Robinson,' tia’s work upon the Red Sea. R.N. 4to. London, 1842 -J

Ueber

M.

richsten.

Vindobonae. 1842

Mdmoire sur

A utlior.

-

Vindobonensi adservantur. 8vo.

Tie Author.

Par

4to.

St.

(Liv. 23

Paris.

H. Theroulde. 12mo.

Delhi a Bombay; Fragment d’un Voyage, &c, Dr. G. Roberts. 8vo. Paris, 1843

Paris,

Par

the Manners and Cus; Inhabitants, &c,, Ac. By T. Postans, Bt. Capt. Bombay Army. 8vo. London, 1843

The Author. Ministre de

l

In-

struction Puhlique

The Author. The Author.

Personal Observations on Sindh

toms of

its

The Author.

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY OF

vi

Donors.

PHILOLOGY. Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, GrieschYon F. Bopp. Yierte ischen, Latinischen, &c. Berlin, 1842 Abtheiluug. 4to.

The Kamus;

4 Vols. Folio

in Persian.

East India

A Grammar of the Persian med Ibraheem. The

Persian

Language. By Meerza 8vo. London, 1841

Moonsliee, &c.

Smyth, Esq.

Vol.

Moham-

Company.

Revised, corrected, and' character.' By W. C. 8vo. London, 1840

Roman

translated into the

A

The Author.

I.

Dictionary, Hindoostanee and English, abridged from the Quarto Edition of Air. Joseph Taylor, as edited by the late W. Hunter, M.D. By W. C. Smyth, Esq. 8vo. London, 1820

....

The

The Author.

Hindee, or Hindoostanee Jest-Book, &c. Revised and corrected by W. C. Smyth, Esq. 8vo. London, 1840

Lutaifi

The Hindoostanee Interpreter containing the Rudiments of Grammar, &c. Second Edition. By W. C. ;

Smyth, Esq.

8vo.

London, 1841

By

Elements of Hindi and Braj Bhaklia Grammar. R. Ballantyne. 4to. London, 1839

J.\ [

A

Grammar

of the Maliratta Language. Ballantyne. 4to. London, 1839 -

Elements of English Grammar in Gujaratlii. H. N. Ramsay. 8vo. Surat, 1836

By

J.

East India

Company.

R. j

-

-J

By

Lieut.

-

Principles of Gujaratlii Grammar. By Captain Ramsay. 8vo. Bombay, 1842 -

-I

The

H. N.

A Grammar

of the Pushtoo, or AfFglian Language. Lieut. Leach. 8vo. Calcutta, 1839

By

|

-J

A uthor.

East India

Company.

Alberti Hoefer Pomerani de Prakrita Dialecto. Libri duo. 8 vo. Berlin, 1836

Vom

The Author. Infinitiv

Hoefer.

besonders 8vo.

in

Von

Sanskrit.

Berlin, 1840

Dictionnaire Frangais-Turc. Par T. X. Bianchi. I. Seconde Edit. 8vo. Paris, 1843 Alorrison’s Chinese Dictionary. 4to.

Alacao, 1819

Notices on Chinese Grammar 8 vo. Batavia, 1842

;

...

Parts I and II.

Part

Dr. A.

-

I.

By

Tome) 2 Vols. -}

Philo- Sinensis -1

Vindiciae Sinicse. Derniere Re'ponse a AI. Par G. Pauthier. 8vo. Paris, 1842

The Author.

-I

Julien,

&c

William Cotton, Esq. Rev. C. Gutzlaff.

The Author.

Simple Expose d’un Fait Honorable odieusement denature dans un libelle recent de AI. Pauthier, &c.

Par

S. Julien.

8vo.

Paris, 1842

Exercices Pratiques d’Analyse, de Syntaxe et de Lexigraphie Chinoise, &c. Par Stanislas Julien. 8vo. Paris, 1842

The Author.

THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. Philology,

Donors.

&c., continued.

V

Uber

erwandtschaft der Malayisch-Polynesischen] die Spraclien mitden Indisch-Europaischen. VonFranz > -j Bopp. 4to. Berlin, 1841 et de la Litterature de l’Archipel d’Asie, sous le Rapport Politique et Commercial. Par M. Dulaurier. 8vo. 1841

Des Langues

,

The Author.

Memoire, Lettres, and Rapports relatifs au Cours de Langues Malaye and Javanaise, &c. Par E. Dulaurier.

On

A

8vo.

Paris, 1843

The Author.

-

an Introductory the Study of Oriental Literature Lecture delivered at Cambridge, May 22, 1838. By Thomas Robinson, A.M. 8vo. :

The Author.

Dissertation on the very early Origin of Alphabetical Characters, Literature, and Science. By George Smith, F.A.S. 8vo. London, 1842 -J I

M

The Author.

over’s Beleuchtung der Broschiire des Herrn Prof. Dr. “ Die Denunciation der Schrift ; die Unfahigkeitl des Herrn Prof. Seyffarth in Leipzig u. s. w. Eine aktenmassige Darstellung.” Leipzig, 1843 \

The Author.

j '

Saadi,

Auteur des Premieres Poesies Hindoustani.

M. Garcin de Tassy. 8vo. Paris, 1843 Lettre a M. Garcin de Tassy, au sujet de Par M. Newbold. intitulee Saadi, &c.

Par

sa Notice 8vo.

-----

Chapitre Inconnu du Coran, publie et traduit pour lal. 8vo. Par M. Garcin de Tassy. premiere fois. Paris, 1842

M. Garcin

de

Tassy.

Observations de Mirza A. Kasem Beg, sur le Chapitre Inconnu du Coran, traduit par M. Garcin de Tassy. 8vo. Paris, 1844 Essai sur l’Origine et la Formation Similiare des Ecritures Figuratives Chinoise et Egyptienne. Par G. Pauthier. 8vo. Paris, 1842

Ueber das Studium der Rhetorik bei den Alten. Dr. L. Spengel. 4to. Munchen, 1842 Bibliotlieque de M. le Baron Silvestre de Sacy. 8vo. Paris, 1842

ORIENTAL TEXTS,

Von

Tom.

Royal Bavarian Academy.

I.

M.

Merlin.

MSS., &c.

Edidit Dr. Otto Frid. Tullberg. Text, Sanskrit. 8vo. Bonnse, 18401

The Editor.

Naisliada-Charita ; or, Adventures of Nala Raja of Naisliada; a Sanskrit Poem. Part I. 8vo. Cal- /

East India

Malavika et Agnimitra. Fasc. prior.

The

The Author.

>

I

cutta, 1836

Company.

-J

la Be'atitude; Hyrane a Par-| attribue a Cagkara Atcharya. Traduit en/Troyer. 8vo. Paris, 1841 Francais par M.

Ananda-Lahari, ou l’Onde de vati,

A

The Author.

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY OF

Till

Oriental Texts, Mata PariksM;

Donors.

&c., continued.

A

Sketch of the Argument for Chris - n tianity, and against Hinduism. In Sanskrit verse. 8vo. Calcutta, 1840 or,

.... ....

A Bengali Tract,

by the Rev. Krishna Mohun Banerjea; being a Rejoinder to the Reply of a Pundit to the Mata Parikshd. 8vo.

The

Way

to

J. Muir, Esq.

,

Happiness; a Sketch of the true Theory of Life. In Sanskrit verse. 8vo. London,

Human 1841

J

.

the Sacred History of Our Lord' Jesus Christ. In Sanskrit verse. With an EngBy the Rev. W. Mill, D.D. lish Introduction. Calcutta, 1842 8 vo.

Christa Sangita;

or,

The Author.

The Vendiddd Sade, Yayna, and Vispard of the Parsfs. In the Zend language, but Gujarati character, with Bombay Branch R. A. S.

Gujarati translation, paraphrase, and comment, according to the traditional interpretation of the Zoroastrians. By the late Framji Aspandiarji, and other Dasturs. Bombay, 1842 135 Vols. 8vo.

—

Gujarati Bible.

3 Vols. 4to. Surat, 1828 Testament. 8vo. (no title page)-

„

Captai n T. Postans. |

Tamil Regulations of the East India Company, from 18021 4 Vols. Folio

to 1825.

The Koran.

2 Vols. 4to.

-

-

Kasan, 1843

-

Book of Religious and Philosophical al

Cureton, Ilabiclit’s

M.A.

Arabian

XI., XII.

Pars reliqua

1

8vo.

Lihri

^

The Author.

-I

sects,

by

Muhammad W.

Arabic. Vols. Breslau, 1843

As-Sojutii

,,

,

Dr. F. Erdmann.

Edited by the Rev. London, 1842 .

Nights.

12mo.

inscripti

C. J.

Part

Sharistani.

...

Llartte, usq.

Ad

Lipsiae, 1842

4to.

Fliigel.

« ,,

-f

Literarum Ordineml Verborum radices diligenter disposuit Gustavus

Concordantiae Corani Arahicae. et

-

i

The Editor.

-I

IX., X.,1 -

The

-1

Editors.

de Nominibus relativist .. Leyden University. Lug. Bat., 1842

4to.

Tornbergi Annales Regum Mauritania ab Ahull Hasan Ali ben Abdallah ibn Abu Zer. Arab. -j Text. Tom. I. 4to. Upsaliae, 1843

-

The Old Testament translated into Persian. By the Rev. Thomas Robinson 3 Vols. 8vo. London, 1839 -)

The

Editor.

1

.

translator.

The George-Nameh

of Mulla Feruz bin Kawus, Chief Priest of the Parsi Kadmis of Bombay. Edited by his Nephew, Mulld Rustum bin Ivaikobdd. 3 Vols. 8 vo. Bombay, 1837

The

Shulah, or the First Chapter of the Atesh Kedah. Text.) Edited by N. Bland, Esq. 8vo. London, 1844 -I

W

Editor.

1

1

or ’

History of Bahramgur and the Daughter of the Emperor of Russia. (From the Ilaft Paiker of Nizami.). Dr. F. Erdmann. 8vo. -) Kasan, 1844 j

THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. Oriental Texts,

IX

Donors.

&c., continued.

Edited from Extracts from some of the Persian Poets. MSS. in the Library of the East India Company. -I By F. Falconer, M. A. 8vo. London, 1843 j

The Editor.

Edited by M. Jaubert) -) Paris, 1841

The

Editors.

Chrestomathie en Turk Oriental, contenant plusieurs onvrages de l’Emir Ali-Schir, &c. &c. Par M. Qua-, -) tremere. Prem. fasc. 8vo. Paris, 1841

The

Editor.

Chrestomathies Orien tales. Vol. I. and M. Quatremere. 8vo.

Thebat ul Ajezin; the Strength of the Feeble. Kasan, 1841

Yusuf and Zuleikha. Seif ul Mulk.

-

Kasan, 1841

Turkish.

Bridgman.

By

E.l

J. Avdall, Esq.

Book of the Sikhs, called had been presented to Sir

MS, Copy

of the Sacred the “ Granth,’’ which

I

M. Wade by Jowahir Singh, a descendant oi the Ten Priests of the Sikhs. Folio Two Persian MSS. from Herat, containing the Pandl -1 Nameh, &c. C.

List of

The Author.

-)

-

Macao, 1841

4to.

Spelling Books, &c. in Armenian. Printed at Calcutta. 1841

A

Dr. F. Erdmann.

Kasan, 1843

4to.

Chinese Clirestomathy in the Canton Dialect. C.

>

Kasan, 1841

Turkish.

Turkish Calendar.

A

Turkish.

^ ^

Fade

j

l

MS.

Malay Manuscripts.

-

-

fj eu i _CoI

Smyth

j

Malay Fragment on Charms and

Spells.

Persian Fragment on Astrology.

MS. MS.

Fragment on Persian Prosody.

MS.

-

1

-

-

-

-

-j -J

Select Papyri, in the Hieratic Character, in the British]

Museum. Part

II.

Folio.

London, 1842

Captain T. J. Newhold.

-J

Trustees of the British

Museum.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES, PERIODICALS, ETC. Reports of the Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Meet-'i ings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held in 1841, 1842, and 184,3. 8vo. London, 1842, 3, 4 -

The

Association.

(

Philosophical

Transactions

London, 1842

-

(in -

continuation). -

4to>

. j

Pi'oceedings of the Royal Society of ation). 8vo. London, 1842

London

(in continu-

I

Royal

Society.

Catalogue of Miscellaneous Literature in the Library of the Royal Society. 8vo. London, 1842

Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.) Vol. IV. 8vo. London, 1843 -j Transactions of the Institute of British Architects. I., Part II. 4to. London, 1842 -

Vol.

1

The The

Society.

Institute.

-I

Transactions ot the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Vol. LIV. J 8vo. London, 1843 j

The

Society.

’

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY OF

X

Transactions,

Donors.

&c., continued.

Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical 4to. London

Yol. XII.)

Society.

The

Society.

The

Society.

The

Society.

Proceedings of the Geological Society of London (in con-) -/ tinuation). 8vo. London, 1842 -

The

Society.

Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of thej By R. J. MurGeological Society of London. 8vo. London, 1843 chison, Esq.

The Author.

The

Fifty-First

-

-j

Annual Report of the Baptist Missionary) London, 1843

8vo.

Society.

Proceedings

-

London

the

of

continuation).

8vo.

-

-

Electrical

-J

Society

London, 1842, &c.

(in

-

)

_J

!

Transactions of the Linnean Society

XIX.

-

4 to.

Proceedings of di

8vo.

to.

of London.

-

Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature. Series. Vol. I. 8vo. London, 1843 8vo.

i

-l

The

Society.

The

Society.

The

Society.

The

Society.

The

Society.

The

Society.

-

(in continuation)

Annual Report, and Proceedings, &c.

Vol.

-

-

Second -

-

-

-1

^

Journal of the Numismatic Society of London (in conti-) nuation).

1841

8vo.

-)

Journal of the Statistical Society of London (in continu-) 8vo. London, 1842 tion). -J Transactions of the continuation).

Zoological Society

of

London

(in

1

4to.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (in con|

tinuation).

-

8vo.

-

-

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. XV. Part II. 4to. 1842

Proceedings of ditto (in continuation).

8vo.

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. Dublin, 1843 4to.

Proceedings of the Academy.

8vo.

1843

-

Vol. -

-

Yol.)

-

XIX.

i

-V

The Academy.

-

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.) Vol. VIII. 4to. Cambridge, 1842 -J

Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. Second Series. Vol. VI. 8vo.JLondon, 1842-1843

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Society.

The

Society.

-

Report of the Society for obtaining Free Admission to National Monuments and Public Edifices. 8vo. 1842

The

-

j

J.

Hume

.

the Library of the London Institution.) -) Vols. II. and III. 8vo. London, 1842-3

Catalogue of

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (in continua-) -) 8vo. Calcutta, 1842 tion).

,

Esq. ,

M.P.

1

The

Institution.

The

Society.

THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. Transactions,

XI Donors.

&c., continued.

Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. Vol. VIII. 8vo. Calcutta, 1841

Journal of the

The

Society.

The

Society.

Monthly Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Yol.

Society of India.

I.

8vo.

Calcutta,

1842

Journal of the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society.! Nos. 3 and 4. 8vo. 1842 -}

Proceedings of the Bombay Geographical Society 8vo. to August, 1839.

The Chinese

December

Repository.

June

-

-

8vo.

II.,

and

III.

Kunde

des Morgenlandes. Yols. Gottingen, 1837-40 -

8vo.

The

Editor.

The Society

The Institution.

I..

-)

ProfeSSOr :

Part

I.

Yol. IV., Part II. Vol. V., \ -J Bonn, 1842-3

Gelehrte Anzeigen.

Munchen.

2 Vols. 4to. 1841-2

der

Berlin, 1841.

Akademie

‘

Bavaria.

der Wissenschaften zu 1 -

Berlin, 1843

4to.

C Lassen

Academy of

-} )

Abhandlungen

B. Jervis.

i

j,

Proceedings of the National Institution for the Promotion 8vo. of Science. Washington, 1842 -J Zeitschrift fur die

T.

-1

-

-

.

Major

-f

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society held in Philadelphia (in continuation). 4to. -

Proceedings of the Society, &c.

„

I

-j

1841, &c. (in con-)

-

-

tinuation).

;

-I

Bericlituber die zur Bekanntmachunggeeigneten Verhand( lungen der Konigl. Preuss. Akad. der Wissen8vo. 1842-3 schaften zu Berlin. -J

The Academy.

Abhandlungen der PhilosophischPhilog. Classe der Konig-! lich-Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. I Dritten Bandes. Munchen, 1841-43 -\The Royal Academy 55. 1843 of Bavaria. Bulletin der Akademie ; Nos. 1

—

Akademischer Almanach.

1843

_

-

Mernoires de 1’ Academic Impe'riale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg (in continuation). 4to. 1843, &c. Recueil des Actes des Stances Publiques, &c.

Mernoires de

la Societe

1840—1843.

The Academy.

4to.

Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. ) Copenhague, 1843 -j

8vo.

e 1 ne Society. .

Journal Asiatique (in continuation). 8vo. Paris, 1841, &c.

The

Society.

Bulletin de la Socidte de Ge'ograpliie (in continuation). Paris, 1841, &c. 8vo.

The

Society.

...

Mernoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences et BellesVols X. to XV. inclusive. Lettres de Bruxelles. 1842 Bruxelles, 1836 4to.

—

Bulletin de l’Academie Royale, &c.

8vo.

1843

-

Annuaire de l’Academie, &c.

1842, &c.

The Academy.

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY OF

Xll

Transactions,

&.C.,

Donors.

continued.

Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino.) Tom. III. and IV. 4to. Torino, 1841-42 -f L’Eridano. Rivista Scientifico-Litteraria. 24 inclusive. 8vo. Torino, 1841 -

.

,

The Acariem y-

Nos. 13 to

signor

G

.

Michelotti

|

Historia e Memorias da Academia Real das Sciencias de-, Lisboa. Tomo XII. Parte II. 4to. Lisboa, 183b

|

The Academy.

em

22 de Jan. de 1843, na Sessao Publicaj da Academia, &c. 8vo. -

Discurso lido

Annua] Report of the Military Board 1840

of India.

— 41.

to the

Government

-

Folio.

.East India Company

Report (No. 3) from the Military Board, on Public Works. Folio. Dated Fort William, 2nd May, 1842 General Report on

Public

Presidency, for

Instruction in the Bengal 8vo. Calcutta, 1843 -I

)

1842— 43.

Report of the General Committee of Public Instruction ofj the Presidency of Fort William, for the year -I 1839—40. 8 vo. Calcutta, 1841 -

.

..

li.

Bayley, Esq.

The Committee.

Second Report of the General Assembly’s Institution of Madras, containing Four English Essays by Natives. 8vo. Madras, 1841—42 '.Mr. J. Thu-d Report of ditto, with Prize Essay, on “Woman as i

|

she

is

in India.”

li.

Pharaoh.

-J

MISCELLANEOUS. Indische

Von

Alterthumskunde.

Bandes

erste Ilalfte.

C.

Ersten

Lassen.

Bonn, 1843

8vo.

-

-I

The Author. C. Lasseni de

Taprobane Insula

dissertatio.

Bonnae,

4to.

j

1842

A

1

Description of some Ancient Monuments, with Inscriptions, still existing in Lydia and Phrygia, several of which are supposed to be tombs of the early kings. By J. R. Steuart, Esq. Folio. London, 1842

Monumenti

dell’

Egitto,

Da

&c.

Ippolito

Ancient Egypt, her Monuments, Hieroglyphics, &c. G. R. Gliddon. Sm. fol. New York, 1843

By

Von G.

Oriental Cylinders, No. 8vo. 1842 Galleries

of

1.

4to.

Illustrations of Indian

-

Fol.

I

I

Leipzig, 18431

-

selected -

from -

-1

the -

British 1 -1

Architecture, from the MuhamBy Capt. Markham Calcutta, 1838

madan Conquest downwards. Kittoe.

8vo.

The Author.

f

Lithographed by A. Cullimore.

-

Antiquities,

Museum.

SeyfFarth.

The Author.

The Author.

-I

Methodologie der Alten Religions-geschichte und Hieroglyphick.

>

Rosellini.l

Imperial Folio,

Plates. Part 38 (in continuation).

\

The Author. The Author. Samuel Birch, Esq.

The Author.

THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. Miscellaneous,

On

continued

Xlll

Donors.

.

-----

a recently opened Tumulus in the Neighbourhood ofi Asterabad, &c. &c. By the Baron C. A. de Bode, 4to.

The Author.

j

-j

Tradition regarding Mounds of Scoriae and Correspondj enkata Lutchmiah on the ence with Cavelly - > Capt. T.J. subject Newbold. ;

V

Notes, principally Geological, Bellary and Beijapore.

The

between 8voJ

the Tract

on

By

Capt. Newbold.

A

vesta, and Parsi Religion, as contained in the Zend propounded and defended by the Zoroastrians of India and Persia, unfolded, refuted, and contrasted

By John Wilson, D.D.

with Christianity.

Bombay, 1843 The Religion of Ancient Britain

-

8vo.

-

Muhammed’s Geburt und Dr. F. v.

By Edward W. -

r

The Author.

The Author.

-1

Lane, Esq.)

-

The Author.

1

Von)

Abraliah’s Untergang. 8vo. Kasan, 1843 -

Erdmann.

Selections from the Kuran. 8vo. London, 1843

The

or,

> I

-J

A

succinct Account of the several Religious Systems which have obtained in this Island, from the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest, &c. &c. By George Smith, F.S.A., &c. 8vo. London, 1844 ;

.

-

The Author.

-J

Certainty of the Origin of Evil in the World, and' the probable Pre-existence of Mankind in the Fallen Angels, Ac. &c. By a Layman. 12mo. - J London, 1842 I

The

A uthor.

|

Report on the Medical Topography and Statistics of the Centre Division of the Madras Army. 8vo.

M adras,

1

-

843

-

-

East India

-

Company.

Memoir on

the Diseases of the Folio. Calcutta. 1841

On

-

i

Camel and Elephant.

the Diseases incidental to Children in Hot Climates.) -1 By F. A. C. Waitz, M.D. 8vo. Bonn, 1843

Der Veitstanz keine Kranklieit. mann. 8vo. Kasan, 1843 Pandectm Justinianem. 4to.

Parisiis,

Von

Auctore R.

1818

-

Dr. F. -

v.

J. Pothier. -

Erd-|

-

-j

5

Tom.

-

-)

Report upon the Tenures and Forms of Transfer of Landi By Major Walker. Folio. 1801 in Malabar. -

(2 Copies.)

-

-

-

8vo. Paris

-

-

-

I

By

A. Booth.

Col. Barnewall.

R. Clarke, Esq.

The Author.

-J

Suppression of Spontaneous Combustion in Wool Ships, -I &c. By W. Bland. 8vo. Sydney, 1848

The Smoke Nuisance.

The Author.

-

Catalogue des Cometes observers en Chine depuis l’anj Par M. Ed. 1230 jusqu’a l’an 1640 de notre ere. Biot.

The Author.

London, 1843

Catalogue of the Manuscript Music in the British Museum.) 8 vo. London, 1842 -J

The Author. The Author. Trustees of the British

Museum.

DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM.

XVI

Donors.

Two Specimens

small Mummied Crocodiles, fromj Maabdeh, in Egypt (supposed to be the site of the/ ancient Crocodilopolis). -I

A

of

Hindu Astronomical Instrument, ,

,

in

brass, after an) t

ancient model ,

-)

Miniature Portraits, by a Native, of the present Nizam Hyderabad, and of his ex-Minister, Cliundoo Ldl

A

Mrs. Postans. _ _ General Caulfeild. J ,

„ .j^ aP-

,

of)

•

•

Riding Whip, made of the Concrete Milk of a Tree, indigenous in Singapore, called Gueta Percha by the Malays ; also a specimen of the Concrete Milk \Don Joze in the

Lump

:

it is

made

ductile

by being placed

eu

o