Jewish Art from the Bible to Chagall 0498061833, 9780498061837

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JEWISH ART By Ludwig Gutfeld Translated from the German by William Wolf Jewish Art is a stunning array of nearly 200 art reproductions — many in color — that will introduce you to the many rich and varied artistic creations that the Jews have produced during their 4000-year history — from the almost legendary times of the Old Testament patriarchs to the flourishing Jewish art movement of the twentieth century. Jewish works of aiL quently been connected with religious ritual; therefore the brief text serves for the most part to explain and interpret the origin and usage of the wide variety of objects that are pictured here. The arrangement of this handsomely designed book is simple; its four-sections give the feeling of touring an art gallery in which the various objects have been placed on display in a logical order. The first section is entitled “From the World of the Bible.” As the title implies it gives a great deal of insight into Jewish art from the times of the patriarchs to the Bar Kochba rebellion. You will see ex¬ amples of the objects excavated from the Temple Beth Shean in Egypt, and also mint symbols on Maccabean coins — con¬ sidered by many experts to be the most beautiful objects ever created in this field. You will also be shown such fascinating creations as pottery from the era of the patriarchs and oil lamps from the times of the Roman Empire. The second part is entitled “Art and Writing.” Its purpose is to display and (Continued on back flap) /

55s

SAN FRANCISCO PUB.L$

1223 01377 5789

709.56 G982j Gutfeld, Ludwig.

'39

3it

Jewish art, from the Bible to Chagall. Translated from the German by William Wolf. New York, T. Yoseloff [1968]

128 p.

illus. (part col.)

29 cm.

$8.50

Translation of Von der Bibel bis Chagall; Judentum und Kunst. Bibliography: p. 128.

1. Art, Jewish—Hist.

1.

Title.

850 N7415.G7813

709'.176'6

68-14821

\

JEWISH ART

JEWISH ART From the Bible to Chagall by Ludwig Gutfeld

Translated from the German by William Wolf

Thomas Yoseloff New York • South Brunswick • London

©

1963

Ner-Tamid-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main

©1968 by A. S. Barnes and Co. Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 68-14821

Thomas Yoseloff, Publisher Cranbury, New Jersey 08512

Thomas Yoseloff Ltd 18 Charing Cross Road London, W.C. 2, England

SAN FRANCISCO PUBLIC LIBHmNY

6183 Printed in the United States of America

FOREWORD This book does not claim to be a scientific work

Bible,” and it grants the reader an insight in Jewish

of research. It is merely conceived as an art book,

art from patriarchal times to the Bar Kochba re¬

which intends to introduce those who are interested

bellion.

in art into the artistic creations of the Jews from the Biblical times to our own. For this reason we

The second part, “Art and Writing,” is meant to explain Jewish scriptures of various times.

have intentionally refrained from adding scientific

The third part, “Art and Worship,” deals with

explanations of the art objects, which speak for

the beauty and the rich forms of sacral objects.

themselves.

The fourth and last section, “Painting,” will re¬

Jewish art is frequently connected with religion

veal the completeness and manysidedness of Jewish

and its rites. Therefore we have explained the ori¬

creation in this field. Many productions illustrate

gin and the usage of the various objects in the

the work of Jewish artists, from the mosaics and

text, which we have deliberately held to a mini¬

frescoes of ancient synagogues to Israel’s modern

mum.

painters.

The work consists of four sections: The first part is called “From the World of the

We hope that this book will cause our readers to delve into Jewish art.

CONTENTS

FOREWORD FROM THE WORLD OF THE BIBLE

11

ART AND WRITING

14

WORSHIP AND ART

18

PAINTING

22

REPRODUCTIONS

25

SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY

128

7

JEWISH ART

1 FROM THE WORLD OF THE BIBLE

“Now the Lord said unto Abram: Get thee out

In the thirteenth century Moses led his people

of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from

out of Egypt, back into the land of Abraham.

thy father’s house, unto the land that I will show

The Bible describes the struggles of the Children

thee.”

(Genesis 12:1). It was in the first half of

of Israel with the Canaanites. These battles were

the second millennium before Christ that this call

fought in many places, and eventually, through

went out to the tribal father of the people of

conquests and treaties, the people acquired a dwell¬

Israel. God had promised him a country, Palestine

ing place. For a long time they lived in a peaceful

or Canaan, situated between the two great civilized

coexistence with the Canaanites. Later on the Isra¬

countries of the ancient Orient, Egypt and Baby¬

elites conquered several Canaanite cities, Hazor in

lonia. It was approximately in the year 2000

the North for example.

b.c.

Israeli archeologists of

that many peoples migrated through that country,

modern times have made excavations to confirm

which became the scene of many battles. It was

this.

certainly not easy to live and to develop there.

In the twelfth century olfshoots of the great

The land was open to cultural influences as well

Aegean migration swept over Canaan. These peo¬

as to hostile armies. During the seventeenth century

ple, who were finally stopped in Egypt, are called b.c.

Jacob mi¬

grated to Egypt. At that time Canaan was a highly civilized country, which consisted of many city states.

Phoenicians by the Egyptian sources. They are known to us from Roman history. In Canaan the Children of Israel were constantly

Egyptian documents prove that between

warring against the polytheism of the Canaanites

1600 and 1300 and in the subsequent late-Canaan-

and the Philistians, who frequently invaded the

ite period Palestine was ruled by Egyptians.

country. Nevertheless the Israelites knew how to

11

maintain their spiritual and physical existence. The Bible tells us how nomad groups, who had

with Jerusalem as its capital. At that time autono¬ mous coins were minted.

In

the

year 70

a.d.

only loose connections with each other, developed

Titus besieged the city of Jerusalem and destroyed

into a state under one administration. This ascent

the Temple. Sixty-five years later the Jews, with

was the work of the first three kings, and King

Bar Kochba as their leader, revolted again against

Solomon put the final touch to it by building the

the Romans, for they had been advised that Em¬

Temple in the capital city of Jerusalem. Thus the

peror Hadrian planned to erect a pagan temple

unified and sedentary people received a political

at the spot where their own Temple had stood.

and religious center. After Solomon’s death his

In spite of initial successes the Jews had to yield

realm was divided into two monarchies: Judah with

to the mightier power, and their situation was

capital of Jerusalem in the South, and in the North

worse than before. After 135 no Jew was allowed

the State of Israel, whose kings ruled in the capital

to live in Jerusalem. Encountering different cultural forms is of course

city of Samaria. One hundred and fifty years later King Nebu¬

reflected in art. It was important to protect oneself

chadnezzar of Assyria destroyed Israel. For a short

against the influence of alien religions. Such a pro¬

while Judah was safe, but in the year 586 B.c. it

tective measure was the commandment of the dec¬

was conquered by the Babylonians, who destroyed

alogue: “Thou salt not make to thyself an image.”

the Temple, removed all of its sacred vessels and

Thus the idols of the neighboring and hostile

exiled the Children of Israel.

nations were not copied, and for a long time the

Forty years after the destruction of the Temple the Persians under Cyrus conquered many parts of

sculpture and the painting of the Jewish people did not have any human images.

Asia, among them Palestine. In 563 he permitted

From the beginning the art of the Israelites was

the Israelites to return to their country and to re¬

not I’art pour I’art, but rather a handmaiden to

build the Temple. That structure, completed in

religion. According to the Bible, the artists Bezalel and Oholiab, who manufactured the vessels for the

560, was later renewed by King Herod. In the year 323 Alexander the Great made an

sanctuary which was carried ahead of the people

end to the rule of the Persians. Conquering Egypt,

during their wanderings through the wilderness,

he also became the ruler of Palestine. Under his

were masters inspired by God.

generals, who divided the country among them¬

Modern Israeli archeologists have made their ex¬

selves, the people of Israel lived in constant rest¬

cavations with the Bible in their hand. There they

lessness.

found proofs not only of Jewish art but also of

In 320 Palestine came under the rules of the

that of other nations.

Ptolomeans. Their King Ptolomaeus Philadelphus

Canaan must have already been a religious coun¬

tolerated the Jewish religion and he even had the

try even before the conquest by the Israelites. This

Bible translated into Greek. But all this changed

is testified to by the great number of amulets and

when,

figurines found through excavations.

in 198

the

b.c.,

Seleucids

followed

the

Ptolomeans. The Jewish religion was persecuted vehemently, and it was not until 146

b.c.,

when

The outstanding place of excavation for the pro¬ ducts of Egyptian art is Beth Shean.

Relics of a

the Maccabees under Judah Maccabee had con¬

vast Egyptian temple and small Egyptian statues

quered Jerusalem, that the Temple service was

reveal to us the worship of Egyptian divinities.

restored. After his death the Maccabees succeeded

Gezer and Megiddo, too, are important. In Meg-

in seeing the State recognized. During the Parthian

iddo ointment jars were found, made of faience

wars — 66 to 33

Judah was ruled by the

and having animal shapes. Faience ducks and doves

the Jews revolted against

are typical of Egyptian art. Then there are a great

the Roman rulership and regained the country

number of round, small bricks — imitations of the

b.c.

Romans, but in 66

12

—

a.d.

holy scarab beetle. They too are mostly of faience.

political situation was unfavorable to art. There

Frequently the names of kings are inscribed below.

were no sponsors. The Temple was poorer than

The Bible and Homer consider Phoenician art

ever. Those who administered the State and the

the best of its time. It spread from Assyria to

Temple were busy defending what they had. Great

Greece and France. All Oriental styles are mixed

achievements were only made in the field of small

in that art. There we find stylized rings, griffins

arts. Now the coins of the Maccabees were created.

and lions and Egyptian demons, also female deities

Here for the first time the inclination towards

with plant stems. These figures of Astarte have

symbolism was visible, an inclination which was to

been excavated in great numbers. Besides naked

remain with Jewish art.

idols there is also the image of the same goddess,

Fhe concept of Judaism was incarnated through

her hands clasping her breasts. Most probably the

Maccabeen mint symbols. Thus the vessels of di¬

oldest Astarte images of Palestine had been already

vine worship were represented: the wine cup and

created in Canaanite times before the Children of

the festival flowers. What is still missing is the

Israel entered the country.

seven-armed candlestick, which a little later was to

In Palestine too mixed creatures were known —

become the main symbol. The artists took their

those Phoenician animal fantasies. Thus in Meg-

motives from the nature around them:

iddo an oval-form signet was found, shaped of

corn, fig leaves, grapes, and above all the palm tree

white chalk, and representing such a fabulous crea¬

became symbols.

ture. In the same city a ruin reveals architectural

ears of

The art of minting lived through another climax

creativity. That structure was certainly a masterly

at the time of the Bar Kochba rebellion.

creation. A pillared capital makes us assume that

coins are the most beautiful thing Jewish artists

Those

it was quite elegantly furnished. Two volutes con¬

have ever created in that field. They show the

nected by a triangle, mark it as the successor to

Temple itself, its vessels, the amphora and the oil

the Egyptian form and the forerunner of the Ionic

jar, and the musical instruments used by the priests

capital of Greece.

in the Temple. The coins bear inscriptions which

Strangely enough, ornamented vessels are rare

have to do with the time of war: “First year of

in Phoenician times. A censer made of chalk has

the redemption of Israel.” And later on: “For the

been found in Megiddo. It is surrounded by a

freedom of Jerusalem.” It was always times of

wreath of open and closed lotus flowers. It is borne

suffering which brought the art of minting to its

by a stem which is crowned by leaves hanging

fullest development. Those were the years when the Jews became

downward. Under Alexander the Great Greek art entered

conscious of their national essence: that national

the conquered countries. But the East did not just

consciousness called for outer signs and indepen¬

take this art over;

it created a Greek style, in

dence. People minted money of their own. Those

which architecture and the art of the ornament

coins were not merely an outer sign but the re¬

gain a victory over logic.

presentations showed also an inner independence.

To Judaism the Greek spirit was a pagan one.

Art forms of their own, the inclination towards

The Jews’ objection to pagan religion was at the

symbolism and genuinely Jewish criteria — these

same time an objection to its art. At no other time

were to characterize Jewish art for all times from

did Jewish art avoid pictures and sculptures as

then on.

much as at this one. At the same time the unsafe

13

2 ART AND WRITING

It is not for nothing that the jews are called the People of the Book. It refers to two things — the people of the Bible and the people of the books.

(Proverbs 3:18).

The text must be written by

hand. The strict laws governing the writing of the Torah scroll forbid ornaments and illustrations.

The Bible, which to the Jews means the Five

The stern square writing, which is to be measured

Books of Moses, the Prophets and the Holy Scrip¬

so that every column contains the same amount of

tures, has determined the life and the meaning of

letters, makes a solemn impression. The beauty of

the Jews from the very beginning of Judaism to the

the parchment and the relation of the margin to

modern State of Israel.

the script are to be considered aesthetic features.

In the course of time other books appeared — commentaries

and

philosophical

Tradition and the loyalty to the Torah created in those scrolls the masterpieces of writing.

prayer

books,

works.

Even after the invention of the art of

The best-known scroll is the Megillah, the Scroll

printing manuscripts played a role, and except for

of Esther, which is read during the festival of

the Torah scroll they were richly and artfully or¬

Purim. This festival is celebrated in gratitude for

namented. Depending upon their form, all of these

the miraculous rescue of the Persian Jews by the

manuscripts can be called scrolls, books or single

hand of Esther and Mordecai, at the time of King

sheets.

Ahasuerus. Since the Book of Esther is the only

The scrolls are made of leather or parch¬

ment, less frequently of paper.

Speaking of their

content, we find the following divisions: The Torah — the Five Books of Moses — is the

Biblical book in which the name of God does not occur, the scribe could show here all of his artistic abilities in ornaments and illumination.

But this

foremost and holiest basis of the Jewish religion.

was only true if and when the Scroll of Esther was

It is “a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her”

used in the home. In the synagogue, on the other

14

hand, the scrolls had to remain without ornamen¬

festival begins with the Seder. The purpose of the

tation.

Usually the Scroll of Esther is placed in a

Seder ceremony is above all to leave the child with

container made of richly ornamented leather, ivory

a strong impression. Thus the youngest child at the

or silver.

The writing itself, too, must be men¬

table asks the question: “Why is this night different

tioned because of its artistic value. The lines of the

from all other nights?” The father then replies by

text are surrounded by a richly illuminated frame.

reciting the Haggadah, which is read at home and

Sometimes the text is not written in columns but

not in the synagogue. This book has more pictures

within circles or ovals.

than any other Hebrew book. We find there many

The scrolls are accompanied by blessings — some¬

representations, be it from the history of the people

times written at the head of the scrolls, at other

of Israel, or from Jewish customs. The Haggadah

times on separate sheets — and these blessings,

is the picture book of the Jewish home.

which are recited before and after the reading of

Among other manuscripts worth mentioning are

the scroll of Esther, show the same artistic treat¬

volumes of religious prescriptions with glorious

ment as the scroll itself.

illustrations, the book of circumcision which des¬

Rarely do we find other scrolls. Among these are

cribes that ceremony, and other liturgical books

the Haftara scroll, the Siddur scroll, the Omer

which present religious acts in colorful illustrations.

scroll and the cabbalistic scroll. They too have cer¬

Philosophical

books,

too,

like

Maimonides’

tain ornamentation, but they have no special mean¬

Guide of the Perplexed, have drawings and rich

ing.

ornaments.

Among the Jewish manuscripts which have the

Single sheets of various sizes served different pur¬

form of books are: the Bible, the festival prayer

poses.

book, the Haggadah, the daily prayer book and

amulets, diplomas and certificates, and above all

other liturgical books, the Talmud, and philosophi¬

the richly ornamented Mizrach plaques and mar¬

cal works.

riage contracts (Ketuboth) .

Ony a few of the many Bible manuscripts are illuminated.

But those few have not only colored

There are memorial tablets and prayers,

During their prayers Jews of the Western world turn to the East, and the Mizrach (“East”) plaques

ornaments and artistic initial letters but even small

are meant to indicate that direction.

drawings and presentations as large as leaves.

Mizrach is in the center of the tablet. The tablets,

The festival prayer book has been created out of a religious need of the Jews.

The word

fixed to the Eastern wall of the synagogue or the

For the prayers, es¬

home, are paintings or cutouts. They give either a

pecially those recited during a holiday, became so

symbolic representation of the city of Jerusalem or

voluminous that prayer books had to be made.

the Temple or else scenes of the Old Testament.

They are richly illuminated and ornamented with

They are made of paper, metal, leather or stone. The Ketubot appear as single sheets, too. These

various illustrations. Especially in Italy, Germany and France the art

marriage contracts are usually written on parch¬

of different epochs is reflected in the illumination

ment and decorated in many colors. Often they are

and ornamentation

Moreover,

masterpieces of writing and of miniature painting.

prayer books were created for domestic use, and

Since the Jews did not have any official registration

those received very rich decoration.

of births and marriages, in the early times these

of

those

books.

Just like the Scroll of Esther, the Haggadah is a

Ketubot played a major role in family arguments.

It is meant for the holiday of Pass-

The marriage contract was concluded by the parties

over and contains the account of Israel’s rescue

in the presence of two witnesses. The document is

from Egypt. Again like the festival of Purim, that

framed by ornamental

of Passover has been shaped for the sake of the

also by pictures. It is sometimes complemented by

children, for their enjoyment and their education.

the family’s animal signature and weapon.

festival book.

On the first evening of the Passover week, the

presentations, sometimes

The invention of the art of printing had a great

15

influence upon the dissemination of Jewish scrip¬

mental

tures, religious as well as secular ones. The oldest

penetrate Jewish manuscripts. Numerous fantastic

Jewish printers came from Italy, where many of

figures and complicated compositions in the Gothic

the first Italian printing presses were in Jewish

style are also found in Torah scrolls.

hands.

Nevertheless the newly imprinted books

nings of some Biblical books especially are provided

took over the decorations and illustrations of Jew¬

with such compositions. The first words frequently

ish manuscripts. The illuminated Haggada books

show a blue color. The letters of Biblical texts are

were most frequently printed, as was the Bible.

in the form of decorations made of animals and

The pictures were mostly woodcuts.

arabesques, and we even find scenes covering entire

When mentioning Jewish writing we must not

pages.

background

and

architectural

elements

The begin¬

In the Gothic style we find in Germany

forget the gravestones, the most ancient ones of

human representations, for instance an entire page

which in Germany are of the eleventh century. Al¬

picturing a bridal couple.

though the inscriptions were very similar to each

At the turn of the thirteenth century we find

At

especially in France beautiful Bible manuscripts.

that time the stones were without any ornamenta¬

The decorative elements consist of plants, geomet¬

tion; only the Hebrew letters bore some kind of

ric figures, or comic presentations. One whole page

embellishment.

shows a golden menorah against a blue background.

other, they hardly ever had the same words.

Jewish decorative writing can also be frequently

On both sides of its stem there are Biblical scenes —

found on various domestic or sacred vessels, be they

Solomon’s judgment and

the sacrifice of Isaac.

made of metal, wood, ceramics, or textiles.

The

Other French Bible manuscripts have the seven¬

inscription and the decorations on those objects

armed candelabra, Aaron’s staff, the jar of Manna,

were almost always the expression of their own

angels, the Tables of the Law, the altar, the laver,

epoch.

and vessels used in connection with the offering of

In the centuries of the middle ages, when almost

sacrifices. Those vessels are overlaid with gold and

every book was written by hand, this was not only

stand on a black background of parchment. A Bible

done for a spiritual enjoyment; it also became a

from Provence shows similar objects.

work of art and an aesthetic experience. The num¬

stance they are only in gold, and the background is

ber

patterned in blue and red.

of Jewish

illuminated manuscripts

of

the

middle ages is really imposing. The works of Jew¬

In this in¬

In medieval France and Spain there are Hagga-

ish scribes of tenth-century Egypt are of a classical

dah illustrations for almost all topics.

beauty. The drawing is also the text. Plant orna¬

genuine pictures represent Jewish life; they are

ments frame the writing. The main color is gold,

genre pictures, hitherto unknown. Presentations of

but sometimes we find dark blue and red. Human

the synagogue service, preparations for the Pass-

representations were deliberately avoided.

over and the distribution of Matzah are well ob¬

Starting with the thirteenth century the orna¬

served and executed.

The most

Special mention must be

ment wa$ transformed into a Moorish style. The

made of the Spanish Haggadah of the Seraillero

branches and the trellis work became thicker and

museum. It is of the fourteenth century and artis¬

more massive, and the colors were lighter.

tically speaking it is certainly one of the most valu¬

In

Spain we have pictures and text illustrations be¬

able of its epoch.

sides the ornament. The initials end up in colored

After the Jews had been driven out of Spain, the

heads of animals and grotesque creatures. To dec¬

Italian Jews became their successors in the field of

orate the margin strange fabulous creatures are

art. In the atmosphere of freedom, that character¬

sometimes used.

izes the blossoming time of Italian art — the Renais¬

At the height of Gothic art — from the middle of

sance — the creations of Jewish artists became so

the thirteenth to the fourteenth century — an orna¬

Italian in character that, from a Jewish point of

16

Maimonides, Guide of the Perplexed, Barcelona, 1348.

trcii|^u'l.n,-T.\u,

Zodiac, Synagogue of Beth Alpha.

view,

There are

tion of the initials refer merely to the festival or

hardly any differences between native and Jewish art.

they are sometimes colorless.

else they possess a clearly decorative character.

A book of Psalms — a Jewish manuscript from

fied impression, and thus this Haggadah deserves

Italy of the fifteenth century — shows us typical

to be called the noblest of all Haggadoth of the

Italian Renaissance ornaments: flowers, angels, and

early North German period, and the most represen¬

birds. The picture itself also adopts the new char¬

tative of all.” (August L. Mayer.)

Everything is intended to give a solemn and digni¬

acter according to the time. The picture is firmly

The age of the Baroque and the Rococo are best

held within a frame, space and the scenery are re¬

reflected in the Scrolls of Esther. Italian Megilloth

produced perspectively, and man is placed in the

of the seventeenth century contain presentations of

center.

the Book of Esther, as well as medallions with lions

There are no longer any linear drawings

or golden backgrounds.

and branches. At the same time middle European

Genuinely Jewish book painting in Germany be¬

manuscripts show scenic presentations of the holy

gins in the second half of the thirteenth century

and secular life of the Jews, done in a delightful

and reaches its climax in the fourteenth century in

and popular style.

a festival prayerbook (formerly in the Kaufmann

Although the art of printing had not yet sup¬

collection). In illuminated Haggadoth too the idea

planted manuscripts, printed Hebrew books ap¬

of the German Jews finds its artistic expression.

peared simultaneously adorned with illustrations,

The Haggadah of Darmstadt “is so to speak a type

and by the sixteenth century it had already become

all by itself; it stands between the older Spanish and

the custom to decorate the title pages of Hebrew

the latter German ones. It shows neither the Bibli¬

books.

cal pictures of the South nor the marginal illustra¬

veloped rapidly, too.

The art of decorated printed letters de¬

Outside of the two purely

In the modern State of Israel a young generation

worldly drawings at the end, which have no im¬

is continuing the best tradition of graphics, and the

mediate connection with the illustration of the

Hebrew book experiences a Renaissance.

tions of the North.

text, the full paged pictures as well as the decora¬

17

3 WORSHIP AND ART

In order to have a proper worship service, Jews

turies. Thus an Ark dating from the beginning of

require the presence of ten adult men. In the room

the eighteenth century has on its four corners twist¬

used for such worship there must be certain objects,

ed pillars.

with which we shall deal now.

and three symbolic crowns.

It is decorated with flower ornaments

The Torah Scroll is found in the Holy Ark. The

The Ark, built into the Eastern wall, had to be

oldest representations of such Arks are already to be

covered with a curtain, the size of which depended

seen on golden tumblers discovered in the Jewish

on that of the door of the Ark. There are various

catacombs of Rome. Here we see already two lions

colors. On New Year’s Day and the Day of Atone¬

opposing each other. They have remained a favor¬

ment a white curtain was preferred. We found also

ite symbol on various Jewish cultic objects.

The

blue, red, brown, and even green ones, depending

oldest extant Holy Ark is from Cairo (thirteenth

on the donor’s taste. The motives used have the

century) . Another one was manufactured for the

same variety as the pillars of the Ark: lions carry¬

synagogue of Modena in 1505.

ing the Tablets of the Law, crowns, and sometimes

As is the case with all other Jewish cultic objects,

a ram or a unicorn.

The curtains, especially the

the style and the appearance change with the times

horizontal parts on top, are richly embroidered.

and places. The Holy Ark, too, thus has the attri¬

Almost always we find the vessels of the Temple, a

butes of style of its time of origin and its surround¬

candelabra, the altar, the Tablets of the Law, and

ings. We find frequently lions, a crown, the Tab¬

the Ark of the Covenant. The curtains are usually

lets of the Law, pillars decorated with leaves and

made of brocade or velvet.

other ornaments. The most impressive Torah Arks

done with silver and golden threads. A fine ex¬

were made in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen¬

ample of a Torah curtain is one of the first half of

18

The embroidering is

eighteenth century from Germany.

It is done of

brown brocade with a many-colored pattern of flow¬ ers.

In addition it has the seven-armed candela¬

brum and texts from the Book of Psalms.

pierced. Everywhere they are engraved and present a genuine form of artistry. The Torah scroll is held together by means of a wrap. It is usually a domestic creation and reflects

The Torah is wrapped in a piece of cloth, and

genuine folk art. At first these wraps were embroid¬

covered with a mantle. The latter has two poles on

ered, but since the eighteenth century they have

the top so that the rolls can be put through. The

been painted.

mantle, too, is made of brocade or velvet.

besques and branches, sometimes also real figures.

In the

Near East the mantle is substituted by a cover made of metal or wood.

Large synagogues have many

The decoration shows flowers, ara¬

Jewish cultic vessels are not only to be found in synagogues but also in the Jewish home.

To the

such mantles of various colors according to the sym¬

Jews the Sabbath, which is introduced by the light¬

bols of the holidays on which they are put to use.

ing of the Sabbath candles, is the climax of the

Strange silver ornaments are placed on top of the

week. Lamps suspended above the table served as

Torah rolls. They are called rimmonim

(literally

Sabbath lamps; originally these were in the form

pomegranates) ; here the goldsmith could show off

of brass rings with small glass jars for the oil and

the best of his art. Refined, cast and chiselled work,

the wick. In the late Middle Ages there developed

sometimes in connection with precious stones, give

a starlike type, sometimes decorated plastically. In

them an especially festive appearance.

reality each country developed its own type.

Different

In

countries have developed different forms of rim¬

Holland we find long suspended lamps consisting

monim. In the Near East we have the round form,

of several parts which are tied to each other by

which brings pomegranates to mind, whereas in

means of chains. In Germany the stem of the lamp

the West we find the architectural form of a tower.

was in the form of a three-storied high tower. The sanctity of the Sabbath is announced by the

Bells have been added, particularly in Italy. Above the two rimmonim there is often a silver

blessing over vine and two loaves of bread. Such

crown, which, while in itself showing architectural

wine cups were mostly made of silver, rarely of

features, is decorated with flowers and branches,

other metal or glass. They were always decorated

and sometimes also with birds, animals, and bells.

with engravings which corresponded to the style of

A Torah crown which comes from Vienna (eigh¬

that time. We also find inscriptions on such cups.

teenth century)

The cups had the forms of cylinders, of bells or else

represents Biblical scenes.

The

they stood on a base.

crown is often carried by six lions. The Torah is almost always decorated with a sil¬

After the Sabbath sunset the ceremony of Hav-

ver shield, which is held up by means of a silver

dalah

chain. The basic form of that shield changes with

symbol of the Havdalah is a sweet-smelling spice

the style of the time. The earliest ones are square,

which is kept in special spice boxes. The form and

whereas later ones have round or oval endings. The

furnishing of the spice boxes enable the artist to

decoration is done in filigree or relief.

develop his entire imagination.

Besides

(“separation”)

is performed.

The proper

The form of the

leaves and branches there are frequently figures or

box varies so much that it comprises the fauna, the

Jewish symbols.

flora and even the world of technology. For several

Since the Torah reader must not touch the let¬

centuries, starting with the Middle Ages, the over¬

ters, a pointer is used, the handle of which has

whelming majority of spice boxes kept to the form

various forms. Sometimes it is round, at other times

of a tower.

twisted or square; it may be short and thick or long

sometimes they are so naturalistic that one imagines

and thin, massive or pierced; often it is overlaid

one recognizes definite structures.

At times there

with jewels. The Dutch type is typical for its long

are also human representations.

The boxes are

and slim form.

made of silver. Often we find extremely precise fili-

The German pointers are mostly

They have often different stories, and

19

gree work, which is particularly true of Italy.

holiday at home. This called for a larger type, and

In addition to the Sabbath the Jews celebrate

therefore the seven-armed Menorah was used. That

other festivals, which lead to the use of various

type was subsequently introduced into the home

vessels and objects.

recalls the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt, begins

too. The French Chanukka candelabras of Gothic

with an evening on which the entire family par¬

times show window roses and Gothic pillars in the

takes of a meal (Seder) . Every place at the table

middle of the wall triangle. In Italy the decorations

has its own wine cup, made of glass or silver. The

became increasingly richer. We find armorial lions,

table is covered with a special Seder cloth, and the

Renaissance vases and rich ornaments.

Matzoh lie on the so-called Matzoh plate. These

standing Chanukka Menorah is often found in Ger¬

plates are made of silver or tin. The plate reflects

many.

representations of Biblical scenes and persons from

crowned with flowers and bells, in addition to ani¬

the Old Testament.

mals in relief.

branches.

The Passover festival, which

The rim shows fruit and

Some Seder plates portray a Passover

meal in a popular style. Another Jewish holiday which is connected with

It

is decorated with angels’

The free¬ heads and

The Menorah often ends up in a

representation of Judith with the head of Holofernes. During the Purim festival friends send each other

the home is Chanukka (Feast of Dedication or of

fruit and Purim cake. For these gifts special plates

Lights).

are used, called Purim plates.

The Talmud states as follows: “On the

Most of them are

25th day of Kislev is the beginning of the Chanukka

made of tin.

The mirror of the plate shows por¬

festival. It consists of eight days, and it is forbidden

trayals from the Book of Esther or other ornamen¬

to mourn or to fast. The basis for the festival is the

tal decorations.

following event: When the Syrians entered the

Other Jewish customs and ceremonies too are

Temple by force, they desecrated its oil supply.

closely connected with the religion and require

When the Hasmoneans had solidified their victory

special vessels.

and the Syrians had been defeated, they found, after

a qualified man who uses a special knife.

a long search, one single little jar which had been

knives, which are sharp on both sides, have a handle

sealed with the seal of the High Priest. It contained

made of rock-crystal, jasper, sometimes of ivory,

oil for one single day. But a miracle occurred, and

more rarely of metal. The handle is carved or en¬

it burnt for eight days. In the following year those

graved; the sacrifice of Isaac is a favorite motive.

The circumcision is performed by These

days were instituted as holidays with songs and

Thus the handle of a circumcision knife which

praises.” The climax of the Chanukka festival is

dates from seventeenth-century Italy shows the sac¬

the kindling of the lights. On the first night one

rifice of Isaac. The entire knife is done in the style

light is kindled, and one is added each night as the

of early baroque.

week proceeds.

The Jewish marriage

From the very beginning Chanukka candelabra have been domestic vessels.

ceremony has

its own

special form. The wedding, performed by a rabbi,

In the early Middle

takes place under the Chuppa (canopy). The climax

Ages a type of wall candelabrum developed. In the

of that ceremony is the handing over of the ring.

Middle Ages and during the Renaissance the back

Jewish wedding rings belong to the most precious

wall had the form of a triangle.

in this type of art, the traditional form having been

Later centuries

loosened the form through volutes, etc., and the

maintained for centuries without a change.

back wall has already become an oval or square

since the Renaissance filigree and granulation have

form.

They are made of silver or other metals.

been preferred. Often the rings show a small house

Medieval sources tell us also of Chanukka candel¬

as a symbol of the new home or that of the Temple.

abra in the synagogues. They Were meant for the

The rings are made of gold and contain ornaments

strangers and the poor, who could not celebrate the

of enamel, and are often provided with lions’ heads

20

Ever

and inscriptions reading Mazal tov (Good luck) .

capsule of metal or wood, which is either simple or

The bride wears a bridal girdle made of various

richly decorated. It is supposed to protect from sin.

strands.

Only one word of the text is visible in the capsule;

It is often decorated and has small en¬

graved silver plates.

this is the word Shaddai, which means Almighty.

Among the Jewish population who lived around

The containers are of various forms — a small struc¬

the Mediterranean and in the Near East it was

ture with an open gable, others have an architec¬

quite customary to wear amulets.

tural fragment surrounded by columns, and some¬

They were not

only worn as a protection from misfortune, sickness

times they are topped by lions or crowns.

On

In the course of the centuries the Jew could ex¬

Jewish amulets, which were mostly of silver, we

press his sense of the beautiful only in an art which

and the “evil eye,” but also as an ornament.

Sometimes they

served his religion, and thus the works of religious

are written on parchment and kept in special con¬

artistry did not have the purpose of being pure art,

tainers. Such containers are the work of the art of

but they were the expression of the praise of God,

engraving, and the execution shows the style of

just as had been the case of the lyre and the Psalms

their period.

of that great artist of the Jewish people, King

find the word Shaddai engraved.

In the homes of pious Jews a small

scriptural scroll is fixed to the upper part of the

David.

doorpost. This is called a Mezuza. It is placed in a

21

4 PAINTING Post-exilic Jewry, driven out of their homeland, existed only as a community of faith.

In the dia¬

nean, and there we find the first traces of Jewish art, part of which is painting.

spora the Jews went on living as an organic unity

One of the first testimonies of Jewish painting

which grew and relied on the soil of the tradi¬

in the first centuries a.d. is to be found in the

tional instructions and customs, whether they had

Jewish catacombs in the vicinity of Rome. Those

been handed down orally or in writing. The mean¬

wall paintings do not differ from neighboring non-

ing of Jewish life during the millennium of the State was to be found in the relationship to God,

Jewish ones. In the Jewish catacomb of Torlonia one finds a representation of an Holy Ark between

and this goal was responsible for the life form

two seven-armed candelabra or the lighted Me-

out of which arose a civilization with all its branch¬

norah and to the right and left of it pomegranates

es,

living

and a horn. Those are definitely Jewish symbols.

among strange peoples and civilizations influenced

In the second Jewish catacomb of Vigna Randani-

the Jewish people so strongly that they did not

ni one already encounters representations which

always remain loyal to their law but yielded to

have nothing to do with Judaism. A winged goddess

their surrounding culture. They did not always

of victory crowns a young man; a rooster, a lamb,

abide by the commandment: “Thou shalt not make

peacocks, but also a falling Menorah are shown

like

art,

ethics

and

tradition.

But

for thyself an image of what is in the heaven

there. Jewish and pagan elements and symbols are

above or on the earth

intermingled. The formal division of the ceiling

below or in the water

underneath the earth.” As mentioned above, the Jews were driven out of Jerusalem after the Bar Kochba rebellion. They went first to the countries around the Mediterra¬

22

and the walls in circles and squares corresponds exactly to the general style of catacomb painting of those days. The House of God — the Temple of Jerusalem

— had been destroyed by the Romans; and, having

charming because of the light colors and the lively

emigrated to many countries, the Jews began to

type of story-telling. The second example — the

erect houses to their Lord. The first synagogues of

Book of Psalms — is also of the fifteenth century,

post-exilic Jewry — in Palestine as well as in other

but this time from Italy. One of the decorated

countries around the Mediterranean — looked for

pages of the work shows four small fields portray¬

their architecture to the style of their days. The

ing scenes from the life of King David. In this

synagogue of Dura Europos (in modern-day Syria)

case, however, it seems that the artist was not

was conquered and destroyed by the Persians in the

Jewish, since the king’s pose is a Christian one.

third century

Nevertheless

a.d.,

but the excavations permit us

the illumination done during the

to admire the synagogue frescoes which remain.

Italian Renaissance belongs to the Jewish circle.

Those frescoes represent events and figures of

As a mattter of fact up to the time of the Baroque

the Old Testament. Nor is there a lack of Jewish

manuscripts were the main painting done by Jews,

symbols: a Menorah with its accessories and the

although there

Temple. Of special interest, however, are the group

painting.

is in addition

another kind of

scenes which portray a prophetic vision. The proph¬

The wooden synagogues of Eastern Europe were

et addresses the elders of the exile. The resur¬

painted in light colors, with plant ornaments and

rection of the dead leaves a mighty impression.

animal pictures. Some wooden synagogues in Ger¬

The contrast of the colors make an imprint on the

many show similar features. One example is the

viewer. Later synagogues — from the fourth to the

prayer room of the congregation of Horb.

seventh centuries — were decorated with mosaics,

wooden beams at the Western wall there is a me¬

which here too refer to Biblical tales and Jewish

dallion, carried by two lions who blow trumpets.

symbols. Their light colors were also intended to

The center group is flanked by a city with many

illuminate the synagogues and fill them with glory

towers — supposedly Jerusalem — on the one side,

and festivity. The synagogue of Beth Alpha is par¬

and on the other a fruit basket with palm branches.

ticularly impressive through its colorful mosaics.

On the ceiling there are Baroque flowers and fruit

In the center of the mosaic we see the zodiac, and

arabesques in addition to animals and birds. It is

in its center the sun god Helios is seen in his char¬

a beautiful example of popular Jewish painting.

iot. The other fields of the mosaic are devoted to

Up to the emancipation we have commissioned

the sacrifice of Isaac, the Holy Ark with lions, and

art. In more modern painting, when art was per-

the Menorah. Other objects too are visible.

sued for art’s sake, the Jewish element is not so evi¬

On

Another mosaic of the synagogue of Aegina

dent any longer in the works of Jewish painters.

shows patterns in the form of a carpet. A finely

Thus Israels was a genre painter as were others

done ornament and the precise division of the

of his time. Liebermann’s pictures are to us typical

fields give an example of a well-thought-out com¬

for German impressionism. His art is first of all

position. As was the case with other peoples, the Jews of

German — just as that of the impressionist Pissaro

the Middle Ages also employed painting for their

Modigliani, with their imitation of the Gothic

manuscripts. The great creations which the Jews

style, are as little Jewish. They symbolize the lone¬

displayed in this field have been dealt with in the

liness of modern urban man, be he Jewish or non-

chapter on Art and Writing. But as an example

Jewish.

is first of all French. The pictures of the Italian

I would like to mention two manuscripts which

There are some Jewish painters who do choose

are paintings rather than illuminations. A German

Jewish topics for their pictures, but their style,

festival prayerbook of the fifteenth century is dec¬

form and color do not differ from those of other

orated with very original miniatures.

artists.

The paint¬

ing is done in a rather popular style, but very

Contrary to such Jewish painters Marc Chagall

23

is completely and visibly Jewish. He is a type by

This unique art of painting has been called sur-

himself, who never belonged to a certain school.

naturalism by Guillaume Apollinaire. It is said

In his paintings the same elements reoccur again

that this word created the subsquent term surreal¬

and again, although in ever-changing forms: the

ism. But the surrealistic paintings known to us are

couple in love, a watch, a horse, a cow, goats, fish,

not similar to Chagall’s. His is a unique style,

birds, a street in Vitebsk, the seven-armed candela¬

which is not shared by any other painter of his

brum, the Rabbi, and the Torah scrolls.

time.

In these paintings the laws of gravity are done

When he was told of the persecutions of the

away with, as well as those of central perspective

Jews, the crucified Christ appeared more and more

and causality.

often in his paintings. This Christian figure, often

In his autobiography Chagall wrote: “I try to

wearing a green soldier’s cap, and placed side by

create a world in which everything is possible,

side with Jewish elements — the rabbis and the

where there is no reason to be surprised at any¬

seven-armed candelabrum — is to him a symbol of

thing nor for stopping to be surprised.” What is

human suffering.

reflected here is the world picture of the Hassidim,

Perhaps in the phenomenon of Chagall there is

who are characterized by a joy in the world as it

something miraculous which characterizes the his¬

exists, and also a joy in wondrous tales.

tory of Jewish creative art. As has been mentioned

At the same time impressions from the artist’s

previously, in times of the greatest danger to the

childhood come here to the fore, and that child¬

Jews, when their physical and spiritual existence

hood had been spent in a believing Jewish home,

was at stake, something genuinely Jewish found

surrounded by those who shared the same faith.

expression in their art.

24

REPRODUCTIONS

Reconstruction of a cultic place at Hazor, fourteenth to thirteenth century b.c.

Stele with hands from Hazor.

26

Canaanite goddess from Naharia. Form and cast.

Scarabs from Ginossar (Genezareth). Period of the Hyksos.

27

Oil lamp, period of Patriarchs.

Censer made of chalk. Megiddo, beginning of first century B.c.

28

Capital from Ramath Rachel. Ninth to eighth cen¬ tury B.c.

Balsam flasks, Herodian epoch.

Pot, Herodian epoch.

29

Jewish and Roman coins 68-69, and 132-135

A.D.

Parts of a linen garment, a sandal and a hand bas¬ ket. Period of the Bar Kochba rebellion, found at Nachat Chever.

31

Jewish coins. 1st and 3rd row: coins from the time of the Bar Kochba rebellion 132-133 a.d. 2nd and 4th row: coins from the years 68—69 A.D.

32

Bible, Provence (? ), 1301

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47

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48

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49

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52

Scroll of Esther, Netherlands or France, about 1700.

53

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