Japan: A Short Cultural History 9781503621220

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JAPA N A Short Cultural History

JAPAN A Short Cultural History

G. B. SANSOM

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS STANFORD, CALIFORNIA

Stanford University Press, Stanford, California ©1931, 1943, 1952 by G. B. Sansom Originating publishers: D. Appleton (New York), Cresset (London), 1931. Second edition published in 1943 in New York, in 1946 in London; revised in 1952 Stanford University Press edition published in 1978 Cloth ISBN 978-0-8047-0952-1 Paper ISBN 978-0-8047-0954-5

PUBLISHER'S NOTE Japan: A Short Cultural History was first published in

1931 by the Cresset Press in London and D. Appleton in New York. A revised edition, without the original plates and with the revisions indicated in the Preface, was issued in New York in I 943 and went out of print in the United States in I977; an essentially identical edition, retaining the plates, was published in England in I 946. Further minor revisions were made by the author in I 952. The present Stanford edition, the first to appear in paperback in the United States, is reproduced photographically from the British edition except in two particulars: eight of the original twenty plates have been dropped, and the maps have been redrawn by Margaret Kays. In redrawing the maps, it was decided to retain the author's terminology, orthography, and dating even where these have been discarded or superseded by more recent scholarship.

PREFACE was first published in 1931. In a revised edition, prepared in wartime and published in 1946, only a few changes were made. Some obvious errors were corrected; the first chapter was rewritten; and at the end of most chapters some notes were added for the benefit of students. There were still omissions which I wished to repair and themes which I might have developed. Thus, although I paid special attention to the plastic arts I did not bring out clearly enough the important part played by aesthetic feeling in the enrichment of Japanese life. Among Japanese of all classes an instinctive awareness of beauty seems to compensate for a standard of material well-being which to Western judgment seems poor and bleak. Their habit of finding pleasure in common things, their quick appreciation of form and colour, their feeling for simple elegance, are gifts which may well be envied by us who depend so much for our pleasures upon quantity of possessions and complexity of apparatus. Such happy conditions, in which frugality is not the enemy of satisfaction, are perhaps the most distinctive feature in the cultural history of Japan. They are conditions likely to disappear, being incompatible with modern industrial society; but it is worth while to mark and learn a lesson in the art of living, even if only from the past of a people among whom there once flourished a great refinement and virtuosity, coupled with superb accomplishment in the arts and crafts. Another shortcoming is perhaps more pardonable. I tried to chart the main intellectual currents in Japanese history, but I fear I did not succeed in showing the characteristic attitude of the Japanese towards moral and philosophical problems-their intuitive, emotional approach and their mistrust of logic and analysis. Yet perhaps I may be excused for this failure, seeing that the quintessence of japanese thought is to be found in Zen Buddhism or in other philosophical systems whose doctrines are by definition incommunicable by the written word and can be made clear only by some inner illumination. This is a state of things which one cannot explain but can only record, observing that it accounts for a number of religious and political beliefs that to the Western mind THIS BOOK

PREFACE

Vll

may seem to have no rational foundation but are none the less genuine sources of behaviour. But to deal fully with these and other neglected topics would have impeded the flow of a narrative already none too brisk, or it would have called for a complete rewriting of the book. This I could not face; and so I decided to make only a few minor changes. The work as it appears in this edition remains substantially as it was when first written more than twenty years ago. A thoughtful reviewer of the first edition suggested that in my treatment of Japanese history, by omitting such episodes as the feudal wars of the twelfth century I neglected those romantic or dramatic elements which would have invested it with "the colour and music of a pageant". I have some sympathy with that point of view, since I have a taste for dynastic quarrels, political strite, treason, conspiracy, plots, battles, murders and other public and private adventures and crimes. Though they went out of fashion some decades ago, I think they are as much the proper stuff of history as economic discourse and description of cultural trends. But once you have said something about panache and pointed out the current methods of slaughter, one feudal war seems very like another and romantic incidents begin to pall. Moreover, I do not, like my friendly critic, see history as a pageant, but rather as a motley procession, with some bright banners but many dingy emblems, marching out of step and not very certain of its destination. It has been pointed out to me by several readers that they are left in the air by the last chapter, which comes to a sudden end without explaining the steps by which Japan emerged from seclusion and entered the modern world. This phase I have since treated in considerable detail in a recent volume (also in the Cresset Historical Series) entitled The Western World and Japan, which is in part an expansion and continuation of the last hundred pages of the present work. For their assistance in preparing the revised edition for the press I am much indebted to my friends and colleagues at Columbia University, in particular to Mr. Harold G. Henderson; to Mr. R. Tsunoda; and to Mr. Eliot Sarasohn, who generously undertook to compile the index.

PREFACE

Vlll

I should like to repeat here the thanks which I expressed in the Preface of the first edition to the late Professor C. Seligman, F.R.s., whose death, in I 940, was a sore loss to learning and to friendship.

G.B. S. Columbia University New York, 1952 NOTE ON PERIODS IN JAPANESE HISTORY THE periods usually distinguished by historians of Japan are fairly well marked and correspond well enough to phases in political and cultural development. They are of course arbitrary divisions, but most J~panese scholars agree with them and they can be defended on grounds of convenience. As to periods of Art History, there is less uniformity among specialists, and in this book I have therefore confined myself to a very general treatment of the progress of the arts during each political period. But I take this opportunity of recommending the following classification, which has been adopted by the Art Research Institute of Tokyo and other authorities.

Art Period Asuka Nara, Early , Late Konin Fujiwara, Main , Late Kamakura, Early .. , Late .. Ashikaga .. Momoyama Tokugawa

Date, A.D.

552-646 646-710 710-794 794-897 897-1086 1086-1185 II85-1249 1249-1392 1392-1568 1568-1615 1615-1867

PREFACE

Vlll

I should like to repeat here the thanks which I expressed in the Preface of the first edition to the late Professor C. Seligman, F.R.s., whose death, in I 940, was a sore loss to learning and to friendship.

G.B. S. Columbia University New York, 1952 NOTE ON PERIODS IN JAPANESE HISTORY THE periods usually distinguished by historians of Japan are fairly well marked and correspond well enough to phases in political and cultural development. They are of course arbitrary divisions, but most J~panese scholars agree with them and they can be defended on grounds of convenience. As to periods of Art History, there is less uniformity among specialists, and in this book I have therefore confined myself to a very general treatment of the progress of the arts during each political period. But I take this opportunity of recommending the following classification, which has been adopted by the Art Research Institute of Tokyo and other authorities.

Art Period Asuka Nara, Early , Late Konin Fujiwara, Main , Late Kamakura, Early .. , Late .. Ashikaga .. Momoyama Tokugawa

Date, A.D.

552-646 646-710 710-794 794-897 897-1086 1086-1185 II85-1249 1249-1392 1392-1568 1568-1615 1615-1867

CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER

Preface Note on Periods in Japanese History

Vl Vlll

PART ONE-EARLY HISTORY

I II

The Origins Early Myths and Chronicles I • Native Tradition and Chinese Notices 2. Native Institutions and Foreign Intercourse III The Indigenous Cult IV The Introduction of Chinese Learning v Cultural Relations with China and the Political Reform of Taikwa

22 22 36 45 63 83

PART TWO-NARA VI Confucianism and Buddhism VII Art and Letters 1. The Native Literature 2. Art VIII Law and Administration IX A Summary of Political Events in the Nara Period

108 138 138 143 161 178

PART THREE-THE HEIAN PERIOD X The New Capital and the Provinces XI The Development of Chinese Institutions on Japanese Soil XII Religion and the Arts I. Early Heian Buddhism 2. Chinese Learning .. 3· The Native Literature 4· Late Heian Buddhism 5· Heian Art

188 206 224 224 232 237 243 248

CONTENTS

X

PAGE

CHAPTER

XIII

A Summary of Political Events in the Heian Period r. The Fujiwara Dominance 2. The Rise and Fall of the Taira

260 260

267

PART FOUR-KAJ\IAKURA XIV XV XVI

The Growth of Feudalism

274

The Hojo Regents

300

Religion, Art and Letters 1. Buddhism .. 2. Art and Letters PART FIVE-MUROMACHI

XVII XVIII

The Ashikaga Shoguns

351

Religion and the Arts

37 1

PART SIX-SENGOKU XIX

XX

The Country at \Var 1. The Political Scene 2. First Contacts with the West

404 404 4I6

Adzuchi and J\1omoyama I. New Feudal Institutions 2. The Cultural Scene

429 429 434

PART SEVEN-YEDO XXI

XXII

The Tokuga wa Regime .. I. The National Policy of Exclusion 2. Administration and Law 3· Economic Conditions

444 444 458 465

Genroku

474

CONTENTS

Xl

PAGE

CHAPTER

XXIII The Breakdown of Feudalism 1. Intellectual Currents 2.

Index

Economic Movements

532

LIST OF PLATES FACING

PAGE

The Emperor being carried in procession. Part of a picture-scroll (illustrating the Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon), the property of the Marquis Asano, by whose kindness it is here reproduced

272

Part of the Genji A1onogatari Scroll

273

Yoritomo, the first Minamoto Shogun. Detail of a Portrait (a National Treasure) belonging to the Jingoji 1\.-Ionastery and ascribed to Fujiwara Takanobu, I 142-I205. (Photograph kindly furnished by the Art Research Institute of Tokyo)

304

Part of the Hell Scroll (] igoku soshi) in the collection of Baron l\1asuda. (Photograph by the

Yamato-e Doko-Kwai)

305

Part of the so-called Toba Sojo Scroll (a National Treasure) owned by the Kozanji Monastery

368

Portrait of the Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimochi, belonging to the Jingoji 1Ionastery. (A National Treasure)

369

Portrait of Dait6 Kokushi, belonging to the Daitokuji :rvionastery. (A National Treasure)

400

Portrait of Shoitsu Kokushi (died I 280) by l\1incho. (Property of the Tofukuji Monastery)

401

Portion of a celebrated Landscape Scroll painted by Sesshii for the Mori family. (Photograph by Shimbi Shain, Tokyo)

464

Another portion of the same

465

A Feudal Castle of the Y cclo Period

496

"The Three Saints," by Kano l\Iasanobu ( 1439go). It represents Shaka, Confucius and Lao-tzu, a favourite theme, showing the syncretic habit of the time. (Reproduction by the Kokka l\fagazine)

497

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG.

2

3 4 5 6 7 8

9

IO I I

12 I

3

I4 I

5

I6 I 7 I

8

I9 20

PAGE

Picture incised on Yayoi neolithic pottery found in Japan. Represents a man standing in a boat . . Picture incised on Yayoi neolithic pottery found in Yamato. Represents deer Map of Japan and the mainland Haniwa (female figure). The original has a cinnabar pattern on face and neck Heads of Haniwa, showing patterns on the face (red).. Haniwa representing a horse Haniwa representing an armed man. "Yamato" Dolmen Period. (From Imperial Museum Collection, Tokyo) Detail of Chinese stone monument of Northern Wei dynasty. Compare the dress with that of the Haniwa of an armed man (a) Portion of helmet-iron and bronze, gilt. Unearthed in Eastern Japan. Conjectured date, czrca A.D. 400. (b) The pattern chiselled at A Magatama from Sepulchral Mound, actual size Bronze sword pommels from the age of Sepulchral Mounds . . Map of early Korea Map showing the Eastward movement of the Emperor Jimmu, as recorded in the ancient chronicles The Kingdoms of Korea, circa A.D. 4oo-8oo.. Himorogi. Sacred tree in its enclosure. A primitive form of consecrated site Conjectured style of primitive Japanese dwelling Sketch showing design of main shrine (shoden) at Yamada, province of Ise Gohei. Paper strips, symbolising offerings of clothing made from mulberry bark Nusa. Wand for purification. Paper strips and hempen fibre The opening lines of Prince Shotoku's commentary on the Lotus, thought to be in his own handwriting..

2

2

3 5 5 6 7

7

8 9 IO

I3 28 34

55 56 57 58 58 I20

XlV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

flG. 2I

22

23

24

25

26 27 28 29 30

3I 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

PAGE

A scdbe in the Sutra Copying Bureau. (Taken from a caricature on a piece of waste copying paper dated 745 and preserved in the Shosoin) Map showing Central Asian traffic routes in the seventh century Front elevation of the Golden Hall (Kondo) of the Horyiiji Monastery. (Drawing kindly furnished by Professor Sekino, of the Imperial University, Tokyo) Diagram showing the arrangement of buildings form· ing the Kofukuji Monastery The Pagoda of the Yakushiji Monastery at Nara. (Architectural drawing, kindly furnished by Professor Sekino, of the Imperial University, Tokyo) . . Finial of Yakushiji Pagoda, circa 720 . . Map of the area of Kosami's campaign in 789 Court uniform of a General of the Guards in the Heian period. (From an early MS. book) Map showing the Provinces The Plebs in the Heian period. (Mter the Ban Dainagon scroll, circa I I 70) Diagram to show the development of the Kana syllabary The Phrenix Hall of the Byodo·in. (Front elevation) A feudal warrior in the field. (Mter a scroll of the Kamakura period) Bannerman (Hatasashi) of a feudal warrior. (After a scroll of the Kamakura period) The encounter between Yoshitsune and Benkei on Gojo Bridge. (From a theatrical poster) Kyoto ladies in outdoor dress. After a Kamakura period scroll representing the life of Honen Shonin Attendant (probably a Falconer) of a Kyoto noble. (From a scroll of about I 270) Serving-man (Hakucho) of a Kyoto noble. (Mter a scroll of the Kamakura period)

I42 I

45

I49

15 I

153 I 54 200 2 I4 2I 6

220

238 254 282 290 298

303 308 3I 2

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

flG.

39 Map of routes of the Mongol attacks 40 The Mongol Invasions, I 274-1281. Mongol soldiers behind a wall of shields. (After a contemporary Japanese scroll) 4 I The Mongol Invasions, I 2 74- I 28 I. A Mongol Bowman (After a contemporary Japanese scroll) 42 Part of the Daijoe or Accession Ceremonies. The Emperor in procession. (After a MS. book, probably eighteenth century) 43 The poet Narihira and one of his verses. Drawing and calligraphybytheEmperorTobaii (reigned I I83-I I97) 44 Map of the Home Provinces and important cities 45 The Harbour of Onomichi. (From an eighteenth century guide-book) 46 A performance of dancing (sangaku?) at the dedication of the Great Buddha of the Todaiji at Nara, A.D. 752 4 7 Side elevation of upper storey of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku) . . 48 Honda Tadakatsu (I548-I6Io). A comrade of Ieyasu in his campaigns. (After a contemporary portrait) . . 49 Fragment of a broadsheet sold in the streets ofYedo in I 6 I 5, announcing the fall of the Osaka Castle 50 Graph of rice prices in terms of silver . . 51 Popular Buddhism in the Yedo period. A cheap print of the type called Otsu-ye. It represents the entry into Nirvana 52 A doll representing the actor Danjuro I. Such dolls were popular in the Genroku period . . 53 A street scene in Yedo in the eighteenth century. The entrance to a theatre . 54 The Green Room of a Puppet Theatre (Genroku period), showing a joruri singer.. 55 A street scene in Yedo in the eighteenth century. Samurai brawling outside a theatre . .

XV

PAGE

3I 4

318 323

326 346 359 361

387 398 4I5 446 4 72

482 488 492 493 50 I

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PART ONE-EARLY HISTORY Chapter I-THE ORIGINS THE ongms of the Japanese are still in dispute, but a priori reasoning in the light of known facts of geography and history leads to the conclusion that the Japanese race is a compound of elements drawn in prehistoric times from different parts of the Asiatic mainland. The order in which these elements arrived and the proportions in which they are mixed cannot be definitely stated, but it seems probable from the position of the Japanese archipelago, lying in a curve across the coast of north-eastern Asia, and almost touching it at two points, that there is a strong if not a predominant northern strain, and that shores adjacent to the mainland were peopled in neolithic times by Mongol tribes arriving through Korea. At the same time there are reasons for supposing that some features of early Japanese civilisation, notably the wet method of rice culture, originated in South China; and there is nothing improbable in the belief that the Japanese race includes elements from that region. As to the Ainu, a people who now inhabit the northern island of Japan (the Hokkaido), philological and other evidence shows that they were at one time spread over the whole archipelago. There is some disagreement about their origins, but modern anthropologists regard them as of early Caucasic stock. The archreological evidence so far collected, while furnishing a picture of prehistoric culture in Japan, does not throw any direct light on the problem of racial origins, but it is worth reviewing briefly because it gives colour to certain plausible conjectures as to the peopling of the Japanese islands. No traces of a palreolithic culture have yet been found in Japan, but two main types of neolithic culture are distinguished. One is known as the Jomon ("rope-pattern") type, because the pottery which characterises it was made by coiling or has a coil as conventional decoration. The other is known as the Yayoi type, because of certain characteristic pottery first found in a neolithic site at a place of that name. Both types are found in neolithic sites all over Japan, butJomon

JAPAN

pottery Is more frequent in the North and East, where Yayoi pottery is relatively scarce. Where they occur together, Jomon pottery is generally below Yayoi pottery and is therefore thought to be older. Technically it is inferior to Yayoi pottery and yet it is artistically more advanced, showing much greater freedom of design and variety of shape. Also the stone artifacts which occur with Jomon pottery are on the whole more advanced than those

Picture incised on rayoi neolithic pottery found in Japan. Represents a man standing in a boat.

FIG. I.

Picture incised on rayoi neolithic pottery found in ramato. Represents deer.

FIG. 2.

which occur with Yayoi pottery. From these and other data it is inferred that the neolithic culture represented by Jomon pottery, after a long development in isolation, was gradually displaced by the later (Yayoi) culture in Southern and Western Japan and reached its zenith in the North and East. The Yayoi culture on the other hand was, perhaps already by the time when the two cultures came into contact, declining as a neolithic culture and about to pass into a metal phase, as is shown by the occurrence in many sites of bronze articles associated with Yayoi pottery.

THE ORIGINS

(SIBERIA)

3

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(MANCHURIA)

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