Japan A Country Study 0844407313

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area

handbook

series

Japan a country study

Japan a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress

Edited by Ronald E. Dolan and Robert L. Worden Research Completed September 1990

On

the cover:

The sun

rises

over the islands of Japan.

Fifth Edition, First Printing, 1992.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress edited by Ronald E. Dolan and Robert L. Worden. (Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294) (DA cm. p. pam 550-30) "Supersedes the 1983 ed."— Pref. Includes bibliographical references (pp. 511-571) and index. ISBN 0-8444-0731-3 1. Japan. I. Dolan, Ronald E., 1939II. Worden, 550-30. Robert L., 1945III. Series. IV. Series: DA pam 91-29874 1991 DS806.J223 CIP 952— dc20

Japan

:

;

—

;

.

.

;

Headquarters, Department of the

DA Pam

Army

550-30

For

sale

by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402

Foreword

This volume

one in a continuing

is

series of

books prepared by

the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under

—

Country Studies Area Handbook Program sponsored by the Department of the Army. The last page of this book lists the other the

published studies.

Most books

in the series deal with a particular foreign country,

describing and analyzing

economic, social, and national and examining the interrelationships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social security systems

scientists.

The

and

its political,

institutions,

authors seek to provide a basic understanding of dynamic rather than a static

the observed society, striving for a

is devoted to the people who make dominant beliefs and values, their common interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and

portrayal. Particular attention

up

the society, their origins,

political order.

The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States government position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be welcomed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540

iii

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge their use and adaptation of information from various chapters in the 1983 edition of Japan: A Country Study, edited by Frederica M. Bunge. The authors are also indebted to a number of individuals and organizations who gave their time and special knowledge of Japanese affairs to provide research data and perspective. Among those who gave generous and timely help were Warren M. Tsuneishi, Chief of the Asian Division, Library of Congress, who commented on the completed manuscript. Also instrumental in providing timely and useful data were Shojo Honda and other staff members of the Japanese Section of the Asian Division. Others who provided insight and research materials to the authors were Haruyuki Furukawa of the Japanese National Diet staff and Col. Isao

Mukunoki

of the Japanese

Embassy

in

Washington.

Yoriyoshi Naito of the Asahi Shimbun and Rikuo Sato of the Mainichi

Newspapers, both in Washington, were extremely helpful in providing photographs for use in the book.

Various members of the

staff of the

Federal Research Division

of the Library of Congress assisted in the preparation of the book. Timothy Merrill reviewed the maps and geographical references

David P. Cabitto prepared the artwork for the cover and coordinated the production of all maps and figures. Alberta J. King provided research and word processing assistance for sections of the book and contributed to the final proofreading. Janie L. Gilchrist provided word processing assistance on parts of the book, and Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson performed final word processing for the completed manuscript. Sandra W. Meditz made helpful suggestions during her review of all parts of the book and coordinated work with Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Country Studies Area Handbook program for the Department of the Army. Marilyn L. Majeska managed editing and production of the book, with assistance from Andrea T. Merrill and Martha E. Hopkins. Other Library of Congress staff who assisted with the preparation of the book were Ewen Allison and Carol Winfree, both of in the book. illustration

—

the Congressional Research Service,

who provided

research as-

and word processing support, respectively, for the chapter on foreign relations. Malinda B. Neale of the Library of Congress Composing Unit prepared camera-ready copy, under the direction of Peggy F. Pixley. sistance

v

The

authors also want to thank other individuals

who contributed

Marcie D. Rinka of John Carroll University for word processing support for the chapter on society and environment; Greenhorne and O'Mara for preparation of the map drafts; Reiko I. Seekins and Marti Ittner, who designed the illustrations on the tide pages of chapters one and chapters two through eight, respectively; and Wayne Home for his graphics support. Additionally, special thanks go to Ann H. Covalt, to the preparation of the manuscript:

who

edited the manuscript; Catherine Schwartzstein,

formed the final prepublication who prepared the index.

editorial review;

who

per-

and Joan C. Cook,

Finally, the authors are especially grateful to those individuals

and organizations who donated photographs and artwork for the illustrations used in the book, many of which are original work not previously published. They are acknowledged in the illustration captions.

VI

Contents

Page

Foreword

iii

Acknowledgments

v

Preface

xv

Table A. Chronology of Major Historical Periods

Country

xvii

Profile

xix

Introduction

Chapter

1.

xxvii

Historical Setting

1

Robert L.

Worden

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS

4

Ancient Cultures

Kofun Period,

NARA

4

A.D. 300-710 AND HEIAN PERIODS, A.D. 710-1185 Economic, Social, and Administrative Developments Cultural Developments and the Establishment of Buddhism The Fujiwara Regency

The Rise

ca.

of the Military Class

KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI

10

11

12 15

PERIODS,

1185-1573

17

The Bakufu and the Hqjo Regency The Flourishing of Buddhism Mongol Invasions Civil

6 10

War

17

19

20 21

Ashikaga Bakufu

21

Economic and Cultural Developments Provincial Wars and Foreign Contacts

22

REUNIFICATION, 1573-1600 TOKUGAWA PERIOD, 1600-1867 Rule of Shogun and Daimyo Seclusion and Social Control Economic Development Intellectual Trends Decline of the

Tokugawa

23 25 27 27

29

30 31

32

vii

THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN JAPAN,

1868-1919

36

The Meiji Restoration

36

Foreign Relations

40

Opposition

to the

The Development

Meiji Oligarchy of Representative

41

Government ....

41

Modernization and Industrialization

45

Overseas Expansion

46

Political Rivalries

48

World War

50

I

BETWEEN THE WARS,

1920-36

51

Two-Party System Diplomacy

51

The Rise

55

WORLD WAR

53

of the Militarists

II

AND THE OCCUPATION,

1941-52

60

TOWARD A NEW CENTURY, Chapter

2.

1953-84

The Society and

Its

61

Environment

69

Susan 0. Long

PHYSICAL SETTING

72

Composition, Topography, and Drainage

72

Geographic Regions

77

Climate

82

Earthquakes

83

Pollution

84

POPULATION

86

Population Density

86

Age

87

Structure

Migration

89

Minorities

90

VALUES AND BELIEFS

93

Values

93

Religious and Philosophical Traditions

99

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

110

Family

Ill

Neighborhood Workplace

114 115

Popular Culture

Gender Stratification and the Lives of Age Stratification and the Elderly

HEALTH CARE AND SOCIAL WELFARE

Vlll

117

Women

118 121

123

Health Care

123

Social Welfare

125

Chapter

3.

Education and the Arts

129

EDUCATION

132

Robert L. August Historical

Background

133

Education Reform

136

Contemporary Setting Preschool and Day Care Primary and Secondary Education

137

After- School Education

151

Higher Education Social Education

161

141 141

152

THE ARTS

162

Jane T.

Griffin

Visual Arts

168

Performing Arts

180

Literature

187

Films and Television

191

Chapter

4.

The Character and Structure

of the

Economy

195

Daniel A. Metraux and Kellie

Ann Warner

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

198

Revolutionary Change

The Evolving Occupational

198 Structure

THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS

204

204

Industrial Policy

206

Monetary and

207

Fiscal Policy

THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM PUBLIC CORPORATIONS PRIVATE ENTERPRISE THE CULTURE OF JAPANESE MANAGEMENT EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR RELATIONS Employment, Wages, and Working Conditions The Structure of Japan's Labor Market Aging and Retirement of the Labor Force Social Insurance and Minimum Wage Systems Labor Unions

INFRASTRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

209 212

213

216 218 219

220 223

224 225

226

Construction

227

Mining Energy

228

Research and Development

229

227

ix

INDUSTRY

231

Basic Manufactures

232

Domestic Trade and Services

234

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

236

Railroads and Subways

236

Roads

239

Maritime Transportation

240

Civil Aviation

240

Telecommunications

243

AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND FISHING LIVING STANDARDS Chapter

5.

International

244 247

Economic Relations Edward J.

253

Lincoln

POSTWAR DEVELOPMENT TRADE AND INVESTMENT INSTITUTIONS The Ministry of International Trade and Industry The Japan External Trade Organization Trading Companies

256 258 ...

259 260 261

Financial Institutions

Foreign Aid Institutions International

Trade and Development

258

262 Institutions

.

.

.

262

FOREIGN TRADE POLICIES

264

Export Policies

264

Import Policies

265

LEVEL AND COMMODITY COMPOSITION OF

TRADE

267

Exports

267

Imports

269

Balance of Merchandise Trade

272

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ACCOUNTS Services

and the Current Account

Capital Flows

The Value

of the

273 275

Yen

TRADE AND INVESTMENT RELATIONS

x

273

280 282

United States and Canada

283

Noncommunist Asia

285

Western Europe The Middle East Oceania Latin America

286 287

288 289

Africa

290

Communist Countries

290

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC COOPERATION

AND AID MAJOR INTERNATIONAL INDUSTRIES

292

294

Motor Vehicles Consumer Electronics Computers

294

Semiconductors

299

296 298

Iron and Steel

300

Industries of the Future

301

Chapter

6.

The

Political

System

303

Donald

M.

THE POSTWAR CONSTITUTION The The

Status of the Article 9

Emperor

"No War"

Clause

Rights and Duties of Citizens

THE STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT

Seekins

306 308 312 313

314

The Legislature The Cabinet and Ministries Local Government The Electoral System The Judicial System

314

CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL VALUES

329

317

318 320

324

Community and Leadership

330

Consensus Building

334

INTEREST GROUPS

335

Business Interests

337

Small Business

338

Agricultural Cooperatives

339

Labor Organizations Professional Associations

339

and Citizen and

Consumer Movements

340

THE MASS MEDIA AND POLITICS THE LIBERAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY

341

Party History and Basic Principles

343

Party Structure

344

The

343

Liberal Democratic Party in National

347

Elections

BUREAUCRATS AND THE POLICY-MAKING PROCESS The

350 Civil Service

351

Policy-Making Dynamics

354

The Budget

356

Process

xi

THE OPPOSITION PARTIES

356

Japan Socialist Party Komeito Japan Communist Party

358

Democratic

362

Other

360 361

Socialist Party

Parties

and Independents

362

POLITICAL EXTREMISTS Chapter

7.

363

Foreign Relations

367

Robert G. Sutter

MAJOR FOREIGN POLICY GOALS AND STRATEGIES

371

Early Developments

371

Postwar Developments

375

FOREIGN POLICY FORMULATION

378

Institutional

The Role

Framework

378

of Domestic Politics

381

AN OVERVIEW OF JAPAN'S FOREIGN RELATIONS

...

Relations with the United States

384

384

Relations with China

393

Relations with the Soviet

Union

400

Relations with Other Asia-Pacific Countries

406

Relations with Other Countries

412

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

414

United Nations

414

Other Organizaitons International Banks Policy after the Cold

415

Chapter

8.

415

War

416

National Security

419

Ronald E. Dolan

MILITARISM BEFORE

1945

The Bushido Code The Modernization World War II

422 of the Military, 1868-1931

THE SELF-DEFENSE FORCES

423

424 427

Early Development

428

Strategic Considerations

429

Place in National Life

431

Missions

434 435 444

Organization, Training, and Equipment

Recruitment and Conditions of Service Uniforms, Ranks, and Insignia Defense Spending

Xll

422

447 447

The Defense Industry

451

Military Relations with the United States

454 456 456

PUBLIC ORDER AND INTERNAL SECURITY The Police System The Criminal Justice System Crime

465 467

469

Civil Disturbances

Criminal Procedure

471

The Penal System

473

Appendix. Tables

477

Bibliography

511

Glossary

573

Index

577

List

of Figures

1

Administrative Divisions of Japan, 1990

2

The Japanese Empire During World War

xxvi II

3 Topography and Drainage 4 Age-Sex Distribution, 1988 5 Structure of the

Education System, 1987

6 Transportation Network, 1989 7

Structure of National Government, 1990

8 Structure of Local Government, 1990 9

House

of Representatives Elections, 1958-90

62 76

88 142

242

316 320 348

10 Principal Organizations, Foreign Policy Formulation and

11

Execution, 1988 Northern Territories Dispute, 1990

12 Organization of the Defense Establishment, 1990 13

Deployment of the Ground, Maritime, and Air

14

Ranks and Insignia of

Self-Defense Forces, 1990 the Self-Defense Forces, 1990

15 Organization of the National Police Agency, 1989

380 402

438 440

449 460

Xlll

Preface

This edition supersedes the fourth edition of Japan: A Country published in 1983. It provides updated information on one of the most economically powerful nations in the world in a period of significant economic change. Although much of what was reported in 1983 has remained the same in regard to traditional behavior and organizational dynamics, world events have continued to shape Japanese domestic and international policies. Improved relations with virtually all countries of the Asia-Pacific region, democracy movements in Eastern Europe, the general improvement in East- West relations, volatile changes in the Middle East, economic uncertainty throughout the world, competition for international markets, high-technology developments, and the whole panoply of Japanese relations with its major business and security partner, the United States, have all affected Japan as it moves toward a new century. The aim of the authors of the new edition of Japan: A Country Study has been to analyze Japanese society with respect to its ancient traditions and postwar transformation. Both its long historical and societal evolution and its emergence in the second half of the twentieth century as a major actor on the international political and economic scene are considered in depth. The Hepburn system of romanization is used for Japanese personal names, which generally appear in standard order, with the family name first. In cases of certain well-known historical figures, such as Tokugawa Ieyasu (Ieyasu), or members of famous families, such as the Fujiwara, the individual is referred to by given name. The spelling of place names follows usage of the United States Board on Geographic Names. The pinyin system of romanization is used for most Chinese names and terms. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table is provided to assist readers unfamiliar with metric measurements (see table 1 Appendix). Users of this book are encouraged to consult the chapter bibliographies at the end of the book. Selected specialized bibliographies have been listed in the Bibliography for those wishing to do further reading and research. Additionally, users may wish to use other bibliographies, such as the Japan Foundation's Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-81 (Tokyo, 1986) and An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies (4 vols. Tokyo, 1975-82), which covers Japanese-language materials; the Association for Asian Studies' Bibliography of Asian Studies (Ann Arbor, annual) and Frank Joseph Study,

,

,

xv

Shulman's Japan (World Bibliography Series, 103; Santa Barbara, ABC -CLIO, 1989), both of which include entries in English, Japanese, and other languages; and the Kokusai Bunka California:

Shinkokai's K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies (Tokyo, semiannual editions), a comprehensive listing of Japanese-language materials. Other useful bibliographies of Japanese-language sources are John W. Hall's Japanese History: A Guide to Japanese Reference and Research Materials (1954) and Naomi Fukuda's Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories (1984-86), both of which were published by the Center for Japanese Studies at the University of Michigan.

xvi

Table A. Chronology of Major Historical Periods Period

Dates

ca

Jomon

ca.

Yayoi

10 000-300 B C! 300-B.C.-A.D. 300 ca. A.D. 300-710 A.D. 710-94 .... A.D. 794-1185 1185^1333

Kofun Nara Heian

The

last

Reign

Azuchi-Momoyama Meiji (Mutsuhito) Taisho (Yoshihito) Heisei (Akihito)

four periods are identified by reign

titles

Yamato)

Kamakura

1333-36 1336-1573 1573-1600 1600-1867 1868-1912 1912-26 1926-89 1989*

(also called

*

titles;

the

name

of the emperor

is

given in parentheses.

are used only after the death of the emperor.

XVII

Country Profile

Country Formal Name: Japan (Nihon Koku or Nippon Koku, literally, Source of the Sun Country or Land of the Rising Sun). Short Form: Japan.

Term

for Citizens: Japanese.

Capital:

Tokyo

Geography Size: Total 377,835 square kilometers, land area 374,744 square

kilometers.

xix

—

Topography: Mountainous islands with numerous dormant and active volcanos. Four main islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu) and numerous smaller islands to north and south, all

prone

to earthquakes.

Highest point

Mount Fuji (3,776

meters).

Numerous, rapidly flowing rivers largely unnavigable but provide water for irrigation and hydroelectric-power generation. Climate: Generally rainy, high humidity. Diverse climatic range:

warm summers,

humid summers, humid summers, mild winters

long, cold winters in north; hot

short winters in center; long, hot, in southwest.

Society Population: 124,225,000 in July 1990; in 1988 about 77 percent in urban areas. High population density 324 persons per square kilometer for total area, 1,523 persons per square kilometer for habitable land, more than 50 percent of population lives on 2 per-

—

cent of land.

Ethnic Groups: 99.2 percent Japanese, 0.8 percent other, mostly Korean, some Chinese. Ainu and burakumin comprise native Japanese minority groups.

Language: Japanese. Emphasis on English

as second language.

Most (84 percent) observe both Shinto and Buddhist rites, 16 percent other religions, including 0.7 percent Christian.

Religion:

Health: In 1988

life

expectancy 81.3 for women, 75.5 for men,

mortality rate 6 per 1,000. Health-care system in late 1980s in-

cluded 8,700 general hospitals, 1,000 mental hospitals, and 1,000 comprehensive hospitals with total capacity 1.5 million beds, plus 79,000 outpatient clinics and 48,000 dental clinics. More than 190,000 physicians, nearly 67,000 dentists, and 333,000 nurses, primarily in urban areas.

Education: Compulsory, free nine-year education (elementary grades one through six; lower- secondary grades seven through nine) followed by public and private upper- secondary schools attended by about 94 percent of all lower- secondary school graduates (grades ten through twelve); supplemented by preschool and after- school education. In 1988, 490 universities of which 357 were private, formed the top echelon of the 7,430 institutions of postsecondary education. Supervised by Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture. Literacy rate 99 percent in 1990.

—

xx

—

Economy Gross National Product (GNP): US$2.9 trillion in 1989. Per capita GNP (US$23,616), first among major industrial nations in 1989.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): ¥343.2 ¥ see Glossary). of the yen

trillion in

1987 (for value

— —

Resources: Coal reserves in north and southwest; otherwise minerals negligible. Most resources, including almost all non- renewable energy sources, imported. Industry: 32.6 percent of GDP in 1987. Basic industries: automomanufacturing, consumer electronics; nonferrous metals, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, bioindustry, aerospace, textiles, and processed foods also important; older heavy industries mining, steel, and shipbuilding in decline but still important worldwide; high-technology industries prevalent (for example, semiconductors, computers, optical fibers, optoelectronics, video discs, facsimile and copy machines, industrial robots). bile

—

Services: 56.6 percent of GDP in 1987. Wholesale and retail trade dominant; advertising, data processing, publishing, tourism, leisure industries, entertainment grew rapidly in 1980s.

Agriculture: 2.8 percent of GDP in 1987. Intense cultivation of diminishing arable land, already in short supply. Rice grown on most farmland, intercropping common. Heavy use of fertilizers,

mechanization, experimental high-yield crops. Wood abundant about 70 percent of country covered with forests; large lumber industry. World's largest fishing nation; seafood essential to food industry.

Exports: Approximately US$265 billion in 1988. Major partners United States, Federal Republic of Germany, Republic of Korea,

Taiwan. Imports: Approximately US$187 billion in 1988. Major partners United States, Republic of Korea, Australia, China, Indonesia, Taiwan.

Balance of Payments: Large and growing positive trade balance since early 1980s. Exports represented 59 percent, imports 41 per-

cent of total annual trade in 1988.

Transportation and Communications Maritime: Primarily on coastal seas. Inland Sea (Seto Naikai) serves major industrial areas of central Japan. xxi

Railroads: In late 1980s, about 18,800 kilometers of routes run by Japan Railways Group; another 3,400 kilometers operated by private companies; and small, new companies financed with private and local government funds. Electric-powered Shinkansen 'bullet' trains operate at speeds up to 240 kilometers per hour on special track.

Key bridges and

tive transportation link four

tunnels carrying trains and automo-

major

islands.

Subways: Major cities served by full metro systems, Tokyo Supplemented by light rail in suburbs.

larg-

est.

Roads: In 1987 some 1,098,900 kilometers of road, 65 percent paved. Extensive expressway and highway network.

Yokohama, Nagoya, and Kobe; other major facilChiba, Hakodate, Kitakyiishu, Kushiro, Osaka, Tokyo, and Yokkaichi.

Ports: Largest at ities at

Airports: International facilities at Tokyo (Narita and Haneda), Osaka, Nagoya, Nagasaki, Fukuoka, Kagoshima, and Naha. Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways major world carriers. Both, along with Japan Air System and South- West Air Lines, also serve domestic

routes.

Telecommunications: World-class radio and

television systems

citizens, those living in

remote and moun-

available to virtually

tainous areas via

all

satellite.

There were 64 million telephones

in use

in 1989.

Government and

Politics

Government: Constitutional monarchy with emperor symbol of state.

Parliamentary form of government, elected bicameral

lature (Diet: resentatives

House

of Councillors

legis-

— upper house, House of Rep-

—lower house), majority party president serves as prime upon

minister. General elections every four years or

dissolution

of lower house, triennially for half of upper house.

Administrative Divisions: Country has

forty- seven administra-

tive divisions: forty-three rural prefectures {ken),

— Kyoto and Osaka), one metropolitan and one — Hokkaido). Large

tures (fu

district (do

(ku),

two urban prefec-

district (to

cities (shi)

— Tokyo),

divided into wards

then into precincts (machi or cho) or subdistricts (shicho) and

counties (gun). Justice: Civil law system heavily influenced by British and American law. Independent judiciary with Supreme Court, high courts, district courts,

xxii

and family courts

in late 1980s.

Democratic Party (LDP) majority party, with major parties: Japan Socialist majority in House of Councillors in 1990), Democratic Party (held Socialist Party, Komeito (Clean Government Party). Politics: Liberal

numerous

factions, since 1955; other

Foreign Affairs:

A major aid donor to developing countries.

tains diplomatic relations with virtually

Closely aligned since

World War

II

all

Main-

countries of world.

with United States policies but

issues. Member of Asian Bank, Plan for Cooperative Economic and Development Colombo Social Development in Asia and the Pacific, International Whaling Commission, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the United Nations and its affiliated agencies, and

neutral and independent stand on

a

number

some

of other internaitonal organizations.

National Security

Armed

Forces: Article 9 of Constitution precludes existence of

numbered about 247,000 in 1989: Ground Self-Defense Force 156,200, Maritime Self-Defense Force 44,400, and Air Self-Defense Force 46,400. Reserves 48,000. offensive military forces. Self-Defense Forces

Military Units: Five armies, five maritime districts, three air defense forces. Main bases in Hokkaido, eastern Honshu, central and western Honshu and Shikoku, and Kyushu.

Equipment: Ground forces: medium tanks, reconnaissance vehicles, armored personnel carriers, towed and self-propelled howitzers, mortars, single rocket and multiple rocket launchers, air-defense guns, surface-to-surface missiles, antitank missiles, fixed-wing aircraft, at-

tack helicopters, and transport helicopters. Maritime forces: sub-

marines, guided missile destroyers, frigates with helicopters, frigates, patrol

and

coastal combatants,

mine warfare ships, amphibious ships, and helicopters. Air forces: ground

auxiliaries, fixed- wing aircraft,

attack aircraft, fighters, reconnaissance aircraft, airborne early-

warning

aircraft, transport aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-

air missiles,

and air-defense control and warning

units.

Military Budget: Approximately US$2.8 billion in FY 1990. Efforts made for political reasons to keep direct defense expenses at

around

1

percent of

GNP.

Foreign Military Treaties: Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security with United States (1960); can be revoked on one-year's notice by either party, updated by minutes periodically.

xxiii

Police Forces: Independent municipal and local police forces; National Rural Police at prefectural level; all under supervision of National Police Agency in 1990.

xxiv

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