Islam in China 9781463243296, 1463243294

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Islam in China

Islam in China

A History of European and American Scholarship

Alimu Tuoheti (Alim Tohti Uyghur)

gp 2021

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2021 by Gorgias Press LLC

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. ‫ܒ‬

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2021

ISBN 978-1-4632-4329-6

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A Cataloging-in-Publication Record is available from the Library of Congress. Printed in the United States of America

For my people

This work was supported by the “Leading Young Researcher Overseas Visit Program” (Tohoku University, Japan), February 1, 2020 to January 31, 2021 (one year), Research University: University of Oxford (Faculty of Oriental Studies).

TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ........................................................................ ix Acknowledgments ..................................................................... xiii Introduction ................................................................................. 1 1 Western Scholars and the study of Islam in China............ 1 2 A brief introduction to the history of Islam in China ...... 6 Part One. Before the 20th Century .............................................. 15 1 Historical background ..................................................... 15 2 Russian Orthodox missionaries ....................................... 20 2.1 Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin .............................. 22 2.2 Archimandrite Palladusu ........................................ 24 2.3 Vasili P. Vasilev ...................................................... 26 3 The China Inland Mission (CIM) and China’s Millions ... 28 3.1 About the China Inland Mission (CIM) ................... 29 3.2 China’s Millions ........................................................ 31 3.3 The relationship between Christianity and Islam in Modern China .......................................... 32 4 The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal ............... 36 5 The Society of Jesus and Studies by French Orientalists ................................................................. 45 5.1 The Society of Jesus ................................................ 46 5.2 French Orientalism and related studies .................. 48 Part Two. The First Half of the 20th Century ............................. 51 1 Historical background ..................................................... 51 2 Studies by French and German scholars ......................... 54 2.1 Edouard Chavannes ................................................ 55 2.2 Paul Pelliot .............................................................. 57 2.3 Other French Orientalists ........................................ 58 2.4 Martin Hartmann .................................................... 60 ix

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3 Samuel M. Zwemer and The Moslem World ..................... 61 3.1 Samuel M. Zwemer ................................................. 61 3.2 About The Moslem World – the study of Chinese Islam ........................................................ 68 4 China Inland Missionaries: George Findlay Andrew and Marshall Broomhall ............................................. 76 4.1 George Findlay Andrew .......................................... 76 4.2 Marshall Broomhall................................................. 79 5 The Society of the Friends of Moslems in China and Friends of Moslems ....................................................... 83 5.1 The Society of the Friends of Moslems in China ..................................................................... 83 5.2 Friends of Moslems ................................................... 84 5.3 Claude L. Pickens .................................................... 85 5.4 Isaac Mason ............................................................. 90 5.5 Mark Edwin Botham ............................................... 93 5.6 Others ...................................................................... 95 Part Three. 50 years after the founding of New China .............. 97 1 The low tide of academic research and its turn .............. 97 2 Research before the end of the Cultural Revolution ..... 100 3 New opportunities ......................................................... 107 3.1 Raphael Israeli ...................................................... 108 4 Academic works based on fieldwork............................. 116 4.1 Dru C. Gladney ...................................................... 116 4.2 Other academic work based on fieldwork ............ 121 5 The development and deepening of research of literature, history, and other aspects........................ 122 5.1 Joseph Fletcher and his student Jonathan Lipman................................................................. 123 5.2 Donald Daniel Leslie ............................................. 125 5.3 Michael Dillon ....................................................... 127 5.4 On the study of history and other aspects ............ 130 Part Four. The 21st Century ...................................................... 133 1 Research opportunities against the backdrop of the “dialog among civilizations” .................................... 133 2 “Muslim Confucian” Studies ......................................... 136 2.1 Sachiko Murata and William C. Chittick .............. 137 2.2 Other scholars ....................................................... 141

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3 Academic works based on fieldwork............................. 145 3.1 Maris Boyd Gillette ............................................... 145 3.2 Maria Jaschok ....................................................... 147 3.3 Others .................................................................... 149 4 Research in the political field ....................................... 150 5 Research on History, Religion, and Culture .................. 155 5.1 A study on history ................................................. 155 5.2 Research in religion, ethnicity, culture, and other fields .......................................................... 158 Summary. Historical Studies of Chinese Islam in Western Academic Circles .............................................................. 165 1 Before the 20th century .................................................. 165 2 The first 50 years of the 20th century ............................ 168 3 The 50 years after the founding of New China ............. 169 4 The 21st century............................................................. 170 Appendix. The History of Chinese Islamic Studies in Japan.... 173 1 Early Period ................................................................... 173 2 The Tense War Period ................................................... 175 3 Post-war Period of Reform ............................................ 181 4 Period of Reconstruction ............................................... 184 Bibliography ............................................................................. 187

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am immensely grateful for the research environment provided by Tohoku University of Japan, in particular the Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, and the teachers and administrators of the Institute. I especially want offer thanks to Prof. Toshiyuki Hayase (Director of the Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tohoku University) and Prof. Takashi Kuroda (Graduate School of International Cultural Studies, Tohoku University). Thanks are also due to the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford, in particular, Prof. Christopher Melchert. This project would not have been completed without the Faculty’s help and support. Thank you very much! I would also like to thank my wife. The unique circumstances of 2020’s pandemic meant that while I was at Oxford, she and our two children had to remain in Japan. We were apart for one year, and all of the childcare fell to her. This was not easy. I am grateful to her beyond measure.

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INTRODUCTION 1 WESTERN SCHOLARS AND THE STUDY OF ISLAM IN CHINA

In recent years, academic circles in Europe and America have achieved a great deal in the study of both China and Islam and Muslim issues, and have established a specific methodological approach. In the field of Islamic and Muslim issues, building on these academic ideas and religious methods, Chinese Islamic studies has emerged, opening up an unprecedented new area of research. The study of Chinese Islam in the modern sense started at the beginning of the 20th century, as research was conducted against the backdrop of the introduction of Western learning to the East. The second half of the 20th century saw the final stage of the establishment of contemporary Islamic studies in the West. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, due to various political movements and other factors, there was a long pause before reform and development took place. Religious cultural theory and other debates during this period also brought certain influences to Western Islamic studies in China. The study of Islam is now no longer limited to the study of the religion’s history, but is regarded as a cultural phenomenon comprising an immense system and rich content. In the 21st century, contemporary Chinese Islamic academic research has gradually matured and research theory has diversified. Islamic studies can apply the theories and methods of religious teaching, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, history, philosophy, linguistics, culturology, politics, and other disciplines to interpret and analyze the thoughts, historical phenomena, and practical problems of classical Islam. 1

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Islam was introduced to China from Arabia and Central Asia in the middle of the 7th century. As a result of the different times, practices, social and historical environment, and cultural background of various ethnic areas, different systems of Islam and its culture were formed in the process of dissemination, development, and evolution. Special attention to these national and regional characteristics of Chinese Islamic academic history is therefore required. More specific international analysis of Chinese Islam began in the latter half of the 19th century. With the opening up of China, Western missionaries, ambassadors, and merchants entered the inner Chinese region and encountered Chinese Muslim society and culture. Early works include those of Russian Orthodox Vasili P. Vasilev and Archimandrite Palladusu, French sinologists Aronld Vissière, Darby de Thiersant, Georges Cordier, and the German scholar Martin Hartmann. Since the 20th century, British and American scholars have been more prominent. They include British missionary Marshall Broomhall, followed by American missionaries George Findlay Andrew, Isaac Mason, and Claude L. Pickens, all of whom wrote important books or papers on Chinese Islam. Beyond this, French sinologists incorporated Chinese Islamic perspectives into their study on Chinese history. After the People’s Republic of China was established, due to the global situation of the Cold War, the link between the Western academic world and Chinese society was broken, almost freezing research on Chinese Islam. In the West, waves of anti-Chinese sentiment flowed. Despite working in risky circumstances, some scholars have been able to make objective and fair assessments on Chinese culture and history; for example, works by the American scholar Joseph Fletcher. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Israeli scholar Raphael Israeli began to publish extensively on Chinese Muslims. His works have greatly influenced Western academia. After the opening up of China in the 1980s, it became possible for Western scholars to rebuild their links with the Chinese academic world. Some of these scholars went to China and conducted fieldwork on Chinese Muslim society, including British scholars Andrew Forbes and Michael Dillon; Australian scholar Donald Daniel Leslie; American scholars Jon-

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athan Lipman, Morris Rossabi, Barbara L. K. Pillsbury, and the highly influential scholar Dru Gladney. The recent joint works of Sachiko Murata and William C. Chittick are regarded as the most significant contemporary achievements in the field of Chinese Islam. Today, Western scholars are beginning to shift their research to the characteristics and localization of Chinese Islam. Young Western scholars are now enthusiastically researching Chinese Islam, and their works will open a new chapter in this exciting field. *** Few scholars, however, have made case studies or carried out a systematic investigation of the studies of Chinese Islam by European and American academics. Writing in the 1980s, Bai Shouyi (白寿彝) 1 and Ma Tong (马通) 2 published, respectively, on the study of the history of the Hui people 3 and offered a review and perspective of Islamic studies in the five provinces (regions) of

Bai Shouyi (1909–2000) was a prominent Chinese Muslim historian, thinker, social activist, and ethnologist who revolutionized recent Chinese historiography and pioneered the heavy reliance on scientific excavations and reports. Philosophically a Marxist, his studies thus take a very class-centric view and reasoning. Born a son of a Hui merchant in Kaifeng, he became learnt Arabic from his mother and aunt. His principal work is A History of Chinese Muslims, Zhonghua Book Company. 2 Ma Tong (1927–) is one of the best-known experts in the study of Islam and Hui history in China. He used to be a professor of Lanzhou University and Northwest University for Nationalities. He is the author of A Brief History of Chinese Islamic Sects and the Menhuan System (Ningxia People’s Publishing, 2000), and other academic monographs. His main research is into Islam in China and Hui nationality. The research involves many fields such as ethnic religious theory and policy, and its style pays attention to macro and theoretical research on the basis of micro and empirical research. 3 Bai Shouyi, 1984, “Opinions on the study of the history of the Hui people”, Social Sciences in Ningxia, Vol. 1, pp. 8–14. (白寿彝, “有关回族史工作的几点意见”, 宁夏社会科学,1984 年第 1 期, pp. 8–14.) 1

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Northwest China. 4 Bai Shouyi, introducing the notion, said, “We don’t know the situation abroad. We know that in capitalist nations are some scholars who do research on the history of Hui people and the history of Chinese Islam, but we are yet to discover how many of them there are.” He also noted: “Regarding international documents and research, ever since the Ming dynasty, missionaries continuously came to China. They wanted to meet Chinese Muslims [and] were eager to introduce them to their work. As a result, they produced and left behind material that is still useful today. We should collect that material, and research and analyse it.” 5 Ma Tong lamented: “What on earth did international scholars get from their research on Chinese Islam? We have no idea. We need to translate some of the works on Islam in other countries, but there still remains a shortage of foreign works on Chinese Islam.” 6 In short, these two famous Islamic scholars felt that research on Chinese Islam by international scholars was largely unknown. Fang Jianchang (房建昌), sought to collate and organize this body of research by international scholars in his “Overview of International Studies of the Hui People and Chinese Islam.” 7 The Japanese scholar Kazutada Kataoka (片岡一忠) similarly gathered material in his work “A Brief History of Chinese Islam-

Ma Tong, 1987, “Review and Perspective on the Research of Islam in the Five Northwestern Provinces,” Ethno-National Studies in Gansu, Vol. 2, pp. 1–5. (马通, “对西北五省（区）伊斯兰教研究的回顾与展望,” 甘肃民族研究, 1987 年第 2 期, pp. 1–5.) 5 Bai Shouyi, 1984, “opinions on the work about the history of Hui people,” Social Sciences in Ningxia, Vol. 1, pp. 8–14 6 Ma Tong, 1987, “Review and Perspective on the Researches of Islam in the Five Northwestern Provinces,” Ethno-National Studies in Gansu, Vol. 2, pp. 1–5. 7 Fang Jianchan, 1988, “Overview of International Studies of the Hui People and Chinese Islam”, Journal of Guyuan Teachers College, Vol. 4, pp. 82–87. (房建昌, “国外研究回族及中国伊斯兰教概况,” 固原师专学报, 社科版, 1988 年第 4 期, pp. 82–87.) 4

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ic Studies in Japan.” 8 Later, scholar Wang Jianping published several papers on the study of Chinese Islam outside China in his “Brief introduction to international research on Chinese Islam.” 9 In today’s era of English hegemony, works in this language have a privileged position in the international academic circle, which to a great extent affects and influences the world’s understanding of Islam in China. The study of Islam and Muslims in China has been conducted predominantly by scholars from countries such as France, Russia, Germany, the United Kingdom, America, and Japan. The use of the English language can be regarded as the most important link in the construction of Islamic research in China and scholars rightly pay close attention to works in English. However, it is a pity that in this respect, except for a few papers, no systematic research has been carried out relating to Western research literature. To address what remains of this desideratum, this book provides a survey of the historical studies that have been conducted on Chinese Muslims and Islam in China, summarizing their research and achievements, and providing a starting point for researchers to engage in Islamic studies and other related fields. Furthermore, as a Uyghur scholar, I am determined to explore the history of my own ethnicity and religious culture, and provide assessment and critique, which I hope in turn will offer some points of reference to Western scholars. This book divides the historical study of Chinese Islam into four major periods: the initial period (before the 20th century), the empirical period (the first 50 years of the 20th century), the period of New China including the Cold War (the 50 years after the founding of New China), and the period after the opening-up Kazutada Kataoka, 1980, “A Brief History of Chinese Islamic Studies in Japan”, Memoirs of Osaka Kyoiku University II, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 21–42. (片岡一忠「日 本における中国イスラーム研究小史」『大阪教育大学紀要』第二部門第二九巻第 一号、一九八〇年、二一－四二頁。) 9 Wang Jianping, 2001, “Brief introduction to international research on Chinese Islam”, Shanghai Muslim, Vol. 1, pp. 56–59. (王建平, “国外学界研究中国伊斯兰著 述简介”, 上海穆斯林, 2001 年第 1 期, pp. 56–59.) 8

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(after the 21st century). In each period, scholars and their works constitute special characteristics of their times, which often shine light on the changing international circumstances. Studies of Chinese Islam by European and American academics include field research, literature research, translation research, folk research, and more. I have gathered all the works and related materials of each research subject as effectively as possible, classified and summarized them, and then analyzed and synthesized them. Since most of the works and thoughts of these people are unfamiliar to the domestic academic, the regular use of quotations has been employed to avoid misunderstanding.

2 A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF ISLAM IN CHINA

Islam in China has a history stretching back over 1300 years. Introduced during the Tang dynasty, the religion was also spread through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, undergoing different stages of development. During the Tang dynasty period, Chinese Muslims were confined to just one area, but the northwest border of the Yuan dynasty was in an open state, conducive to the spread and development of Islam in China. Unlike during the period of the Tang dynasty, these Muslims lived all over China: “In the Yuan dynasty, there were many people who lived in Gansu” (“元时, 回 回遍天下, 及是居甘肃者尚多”). 10 The social cells of Islam increased dramatically. In the Ming dynasty, Islam finally had a relatively fixed name – “Huihui Jiao” (回回教), “Huigui Jiaomen” (回回教门), and “Hui Jiao” (回教), etc. In the Ming dynasty, Islam finally had a solid social conveyor – “Huihui people” (回回民). This is a milestone event in the development of Islam in China. The formation of the Muslim community in the Ming Dynasty marked the end of the stage of Islamic communication in 10

“明史 西域传” (The History of Ming Dynasty: Biography of the Western Regions).

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China. In this respect, Sha Zongping writes: “At the end of the Yuan dynasty and the beginning of the Ming dynasty, based on common belief and common customs of life, the Hui nationality, today’s Hui nationality, was formed with Islam as the link. The formation of the Hui nationality means that Islam has a solid national foundation in Northwest China, just like in Xinjiang.” 11 Generally speaking, Muslim society emerged. The transmitting force of Islam in the spreading period (Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties) was the individual, while the spreader in the Ming period was the community. The community played an important role in the religion’s development in the Qing dynasty. Then, the Qing dynasty was marked by a more predominant Islam, so the degree of social infiltration was more profound. Saliently, in the early Qing dynasty, the early history of localization and contextualization of Islam in China was over. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, a group of scholars engaged in the study of Islam appeared, marking an important point in the history of Chinese Islam. They wrote in Chinese on the Islamic doctrines and cultural thinking, called “Yi Ru Quan Jing” (以儒诠经 – interpreting scriptures by Confucianism), “Yuan Ru Ru Men” (援儒入回 – assisting Confucianism into Hui), “Fu Ru Yi Xing” (附儒以行 – attaching Confucianism to practice), or “Yi Ru Jie Hui” (以儒解回 – interpreting Hui by Confucianism). Their works are rich and wide-ranging. According to Bai Shouyi (白寿彝), the activity of Chinese Islam scholars in the Ming and Qing dynasties is divided into two stages: “From Wang Daiyu to Liu Zhi, is one stage. Ma Dexin and Ma Lianyuan are another stage. In the first stage, Jinling (金陵) is the main setting for translation and expression, and its content is either a special translation or a special description of a theoretical sys-

Sha Zongping, 2004, Arab-Islamic Studies in China, Beijing University Publishing. (沙宗平: “中国的天方学”, 北京大学出版社, 2004 年, p. 49.)

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tem. Its interests are mostly limited to religious philosophy and the system of religious canons.” 12 Wang Daiyu and Liu Zhi were proficient in both Islam and the traditional culture of Confucianism. They explained Islamic classics in Chinese and explained Islam in traditional thought, creating several Chinese and Islamic classics, outlined below: Author 王岱舆 Wang Daiyu (1580– 1660) Born Nanjing

Work 正教真诠 Zhengjiao Zhenquan

清真大学 Qingzhen Daxue

Brief description of the work This book is divided into two volumes. The first volume mainly discusses the problem of recognizing the Lord, and the second volume mainly discusses the religious lessons and personal cultivation from the theoretical significance. This book presents a systematic theory of “Trinity”, specifically, “Zhenyi, Shuyi, Tiyi”. The book systematically and comprehensively interprets Islamic doctrines and doctrines with Confucianism, representing the beginning of “interpreting Islam with Confucianism”. A work of religious philosophy, divided into five parts: “Outline,” “Zhenyi,” “Shuyi,” “Tiyi,” and “General introduction.” This work makes a comprehensive and in-depth explanation of the theory of “Trinity” proposed in Zhengjiao Zhenquan, involving ontology, epistemology, and many other aspects, with a strict logical argument and profound content. Under the influence of the four

Bai Shouyi, 2000, A Brief History of Islam in China, Ningxia People’s Publishing House. (白寿彝: “中国回教小史”, 宁夏人民出版社, 2000 年, p. 75.)

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希真正答 Xizhen Zhengda

张中 Zhang Zhong (1584– 1670) Born Suzhou

四篇要道 Sipian Yaodao

归真总义 Guizhen Zongyi

伍遵契 Wu Zunqi (1598– 1689)

归真要道 Guizhen Yaodao

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books, the purpose of writing is to use Confucianism consciously to expound Islamic doctrines, a process called “interpreting Islam with Confucianism”. Wu Liancheng, Wang Daiyu’s disciple, reorganized and compiled the works under Wand’s name according to the records of his classmates’ comments on his ancestors. The content of his book mainly pertains to the “life of heaven and man” and other issues. It is a popular interpretation of the relevant themes of the true interpretation of the “Zhengjiao Zhenquan”. Zhang Zhong once explained international classics to his disciple, Shaweichong, and others, and his disciples made notes. There are four volumes in total, covering, among other things, faith, Allah and Islam, worship, and customization. As the book was written earlier, its status corresponded to the opening of the mountain in the Chinese translation of Islam in the Qing dynasty. This work is based on the contents of Ashge’s lectures and other classic translations. In the book, the way of knowing Allah, human nature, and so on, reflect the philosophy of Sufism characterized by poverty and asceticism. Mirsad was written by Najm al-Din Razi, a Persian, (d.1256) in the middle of the 13th century. This is a famous work on religious philosophy

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Born Nanjing

马注 Ma Zhu (1640– 1711) Born Yunnan

清真指南 Qingzhen Zhinan

刘智 Liu Zhi (1662– 1730) Born Nanjing

天方性理 Tianfang Xingli

and cultivation in the Middle Ages, of a clearly Sufi theoretical hue. Wu Zunqi adopted the language of Chinese classics and the Confucianism of Chinese scholars, and added brief notes to translate it into the vernacular. He made full use of his knowledge and opinions, so it extended beyond the scope of general notes. This work comprises ten volumes, about 200,000 words. It is rich in content, involving history, scriptures, philosophy, laws, astronomy, legends, and other aspects of Islam. Every insight and explanation is based on Arabic classics. This book further developed the discussion of the relationship between Islam and Confucianism. It asserts that the two have almost the same social role. This is one of the early works to interpret and expound Islamic doctrines in Chinese and traditional thinking. It has the same purport as Wang Liu’s works and is one of the signs of the formation of Chinese Islamic doctrines. This paper discusses the Islamic theory of life and nature from a philosophical point of view. In Liu Zhi’s words, it is “the book of reason” and “the book of understanding”. The book is divided into two parts: “Beijing” and “Tuzhuan”. Ten general plans are attached to illustrate the contents of this Sutra, which is similar to Zhou Dunyi’s on his thoughts.

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Indeed, like other Islamic works in China, they use Confucianism to expound the “Hui Confucianism” of Islamic doctrines. 天方典礼 This book consists of 20 volumes and Tianfang 28 chapters. It was compiled by Liu Dianli Zhi and concerns Arabic and Persian classics, as well as Chinese (especially Confucian) classics, and was then elaborated in his style and language. The work is a masterpiece of Islamic principles and Confucianism. This book “although contained in the book of heaven, [is] not different from the Confucian code”. Therefore, it has been listed in the general catalog of Siku Quanshu. 天方至圣实 This book consists of about 20 vol录 umes, and nearly 300,000 words. It Tianfang zhi describes in detail the experiences Shengshilu and achievements of Muhammad’s life. Volume 17 of this book is a Ma Zhu work annotated by Liu Zhi. Liu Zhi said that book, together with “Xingli” and “Dianli”, proves itself the most important “Hankitabu”. 真境昭微 (Zhenjing Zhaowei), 五功释义 (Wugong Shiyi), 真功发微 (Zhengong Fawei), 天方礼经 (Tianfang Lijing), 礼书五功义 (Lishu Wugongyi), 天方字母解义 (Tianfang Zimu Jieyi), 天方三字经注解 (Tianfang Sanzijing Zhujie), 续天方三字经 (Xu Tianfang Sanzijing), 天方三字幼义 (Tianfang Sanziyouyi), 教典释难 (Jiaodian Shinan), 五更月偈 (Wugengyue Jie), 醒世归真 (Xingshi Guizhen),

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马德新 Ma Dexin (1794– 1874)

蓝煦 Lian Xu (?)

This book has four volumes and about 50,000 words. The so-called “four classics” refer to these four volumes. The so-called Yaohui, is “the key to entering the Tao”. Like Wand Daiyu, Ma Zhu, and Liu Zhi, Ma Dexin contributed his whole life’s energy to establishing the ideological system of “Hui Confucianism” of Islam in China. 大化总归 This book, about doctrinal theory, Dahua was written by Ma Dexin and Ma Zonggui Kaike, and is divided into two volumes. The discussion, in combination with the Confucian viewpoint, is of great value. Ma Kaike spoke highly of the book and talked about its significance from the ideological standpoint of Hui and Confucianism. 宝命真经（古兰经）直解 (Baoming Zhenjing (QURAN) Zhijie), 回归要语 (Huigui Yaoyu), 天理命运说 (Tianli Mingyunshuo), 性命宗旨 (Xingming Zongyi), 天方信源蒙引歌 (Tianfang Xingyuan Mengyinge),祝 天大赞 (Zhu Tian Dazan) His works involve many fields such as epistemology, life science, dogmatism, pedagogy, linguistics, and history, which have greatly influenced modern Chinese Islam and theory. 天方正学 A work of religious philosophy on Tianfang doctrinal theory, consisting of seven Zhengxue volumes and more than 800,000 words. This book’s purpose is to demonstrate that “Hui” and “Ru” can coexist in the world. 四典要会 Sidian Yaohui

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These works embody an ideological, theoretical system. Logical thinking, theoretical discourse, and values all apply Confucianism to explain Islamic doctrine. Spanning more than 1350 years, it can be said that the understanding and research of Islam by Chinese scholars, including Chinese Muslim scholars, actually includes multi-perspective and multi-dimensional research processes such as “external description” and “internal interpretation”, “objective transcendence”, and “subjective intervention”. Their work constitutes a forerunner of modern research. In the 20th century, the revolution of 1911 overthrew the rule of the Qing dynasty, ushering China into a new historical period, that of the Republic of China. In a short period of little more than 40 years, great changes took place in China’s social politics, economy, and culture: the overthrow of the autocratic monarchy, the abolition of the bureaucratic system, rituals, and the imperial examination system, and the gradual transition of China from a semi-feudal, semi-colonial society to a modern one. This period was not only one of turbulence, internal and external troubles, but was also reflective of the growing revolutionary movement. Since Chinese Muslims dispensed with the high-pressure policy of the Qing dynasty and were influenced by revolutionary thought, they gradually emerged from being a closed state, and their national consciousness gradually increased. They began to demand political equality, the improvement of their economic life, cultural and educational development, and freedom of religious belief. During this period, due to the development of social and sectarian contradictions, certain groups spread the religious ideas and literature of the Wahhabi school, founding the Ihwani school in Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia in the northwest, and later spread it to Henan, Shandong, Hebei, and Xinjiang. This was the second sectarian differentiation of Islam in China since the introduction of Sufism in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. After these two divisions, the pattern of the modern Chinese Islamic factions was apparent. By 1949, the components of Islam in China were Gedi, Sufism Menhuan (including hufeiye, jiadilinye, zhehlinye, and kubulinye), Xidaotang, Ihwani, Selefiye, and Yichan. Most Chinese

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Muslims belong to the Suni Hanafi school; the basic beliefs and doctrines of the various schools are the same, but some differences exist in the details of certain disciplines and rituals. Under the influence of the national bourgeoisie in modern China, a group of Muslim scholars advocated the reform of religious education, the implementation of “two links of scriptures”, and the establishment of new schools. This promoted the transformation of Chinese Muslim Temple Scripture education to modern education. When Islam was introduced into China, due to the different era, way of life, social and historical environment, and cultural background of various ethnic areas, Islam and its Chinese (e.g. Hui) and Turkic (e.g. Uyghur) cultures were formed through the process of transmission, development, and evolution, producing two major systems of Islam with national characteristics. Today, as an international and national religion, Islam in China has become one of the five major religions in the country, and has had a certain historical impact on, and exercises contemporary influence in, the Chinese nation.

PART ONE. BEFORE THE 20TH CENTURY 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In the Middle Ages, Christianity provided the main channel of communication between the West and China, Christianity having been introduced to mainland China from West Asia via Central Asia. In the Tang period, Christianity was called “Jing jiao” (景教). In the 14th century, the Vatican sent Catholic missionaries to mainland China to preach. At that time, during the Yuan period, Christianity was called “Ye li ke wen jiao” (也利可温). After the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, the “ye li ke wen” religion – well treated by the ruling class – vanished, its disappearance coinciding with the Western Schism in the Vatican. Central Asia was plagued by wars and diseases, and the eastwest land transportation line was blocked. However, after the Ming dynasty replaced the Yuan dynasty, a closed-door policy was implemented, slowing Christian missionary activity in the mainland. However, with the opening of the new route, the ships of the Portuguese, Spanish, and other colonial powers not only brought trade to the coastal areas of the Ming dynasty but also founded strongholds for Catholic missionaries. In the past two hundred years, the Holy See had undergone religious reform and the Catholic Church had produced a confrontation between Jesuits and Protestants. The Pope wanted to take advantage of the Jesuits’ missionary activities to occupy the parish

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in the East for himself. In the middle of the 16th century, the Jesuit Shabu tried and failed to preach in China’s interior. Subsequently, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci 1 knocked at the door of the Ming dynasty, marking the beginning of Catholicism’s first small climax of missionary work in China. These Catholic missionaries, represented by Matteo Ricci, called themselves “Western monks” when they first entered China, and dressed in Buddhist monk clothing. Later, under the influence of local literati, they exchanged their monks’ clothing for Confucian clothing. Their missionary aim was to adapt to Chinese culture and to spread Western learning. Therefore, to mitigate obstacles to the spread of Christianity in China, they studied ancient Chinese classics, used Confucianism to demonstrate Christian doctrines, recognized Chinese etiquette and customs, and strove for the support of the ruling class. At the time of Matteo Ricci's death, there were more than 2000 Catholics China. Churches had spread to Zhaoqing, Shaozhou, Nanchang, Nanjing, Beijing, Shanghai, Hangzhou, and other places, attracting more believers. But the longhuamin who succeeded Matteo Ricci as the president of the Jesuits in China, insisted on a different way of preaching from his predecessor. He insisted that Chinese Catholics abandon their traditional customs, which led to many counter-preaching movements. Nevertheless, Catholicism succeeded in establishing the independent Far East Missionary Province in China, and by the end of the Ming period, there were more than 100,000 Catholics. Despite a dispute over the old and new calendars, the missionaries won the trust of the ruling class, and were able to revise the calendars after the reign of the Qing dynasty. By 1701, China’s Catholicism had three dioceses – MaItalian Pronunciation; Latin: Mattheus Riccius Maceratensis (6 October 1552– 11 May 1610). Ricci was an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions. He created the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu, a 1602 map of the world written in Chinese characters. He is considered a Servant of God by the Catholic Church.

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cao, Nanjing, and Beijing – with 130 missionaries and about 300,000 believers. However, the contradiction between Catholicism and Chinese traditional culture again reached a critical point, coming to a head in the “etiquette dispute” of 18th century over whether the Catholics should adapt to Chinese culture. The focus of the debate was on the name of “God”, and the rituals and customs of the worship of ancestors and Confucius. The second debate, in particular, provoked conflict between the Jesuits and the Holy See: the Jesuits tried to protect the rationality of their preaching ideas and methods, while the Pope repeatedly stressed his own authority and that of the Holy See. The Qing dynasty also needed to affirm the legitimacy of traditional culture, which finally led to Kangxi's (康熙) ban in 1717 and the suspension of all Catholic missionary activity in China. The debate lasted for nearly a hundred years. From the Yongzheng (雍正) dynasty until the Opium War, the European Catholic missionary cause in China was greatly hit. As a legacy of the border dispute between the Great Qing dynasty and Russia, the Russian Orthodox Church formally sent the Orthodox missionary group to China, with the consent of Emperor Kangxi. In 1716, the Chinese Orthodox Church was established in Nicholas Church in Beijing. However, it was different from the organization of the Catholic Church’s missionary activity, such as that of the Jesuits. China’s Orthodox Church was also the diplomatic agency of the tsarist government in Beijing, and later provided the venue for tsarist envoys and businessmen who came to China. After the Yongzheng dynasty, the Jesuits were disbanded by the Holy See; the Catholic missionary activities weakened, and secret missionary activity was maintained in only a few places. At the beginning of the 19th century, with the rapid development of colonization and expansion of new capitalist countries, Protestant preaching first entered China. Morrison was the country’s first Protestant missionary, but because the Qing dynasty maintained its policy of banning religion, his activities were as low-key as possible, and writing was a more appropriate way of conducting missionary work. Morrison learnt Chinese and translated the New and Old Testaments, publishing Chinese ver-

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sions – the first time the missionaries had produced a complete Chinese version of the Bible. Early Protestants such as Morrison were unable to preach in mainland China due to Qing’s restrictions. Accordingly, they were mainly engaged in the translation of Christian books or the promotion of Christian thinking and doctrine by writing books in Chinese. Other effective methods included practicing medicine or running a school. Morrison’s school, the first Western-style college in China, was founded in Macao in 1839. In 1834, American Pastor Bojia, an American, arrived in Guangzhou to engage in medical missionary work – the first missionary doctor. He established organizations such as the ophthalmic medical bureau and the Chinese Medical Missionary Association, which won the trust of the local people. After the Opium War, the policy of banning religion – over 100 years – began to loosen. The Huangpu Treaty between China and France, in addition to paving the way for building churches at trading ports, allowed the restoration of previously destroyed chapels and cemeteries, etc. In this way, although the missionaries had not yet gained the right to preach in mainland China, Catholicism and Protestantism jointly ushered in a new era of Christian missionary activity in the country. By the end of the 19th century, with China opening its doors to the West, both archbishops and Protestants had strengthened missionary activities in the mainland. In this context, Catholicism mainly absorbed the middleand lower-classes as believers; Protestantism, meanwhile, paid more attention to cultural, educational, medical, and other aspects of work to expand the influence of Christianity in society. During this period, the feudal system of most European countries was undergoing a critical period – from prosperity to decline – but the momentum of the capitalist economy was very promising, and the social economy was flourishing. Culturally, in post-16th century Europe, there had been a strong trend of reform within the church. Europeans had viewed the ancient East as mysterious, and the pagan countries in particular. However, when The Travels of Marco Polo was published and translated into many European languages, tens of thousands of Europeans became interested in Ancient China. China’s political sys-

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tem and economic prosperity became a major attraction for Europeans, and more directly China became a suitable venue for missionaries’ dreams and endeavors. In this context, missionaries came to China to collect myriad kinds of information pertaining to ancient oriental civilization, at the same time that the European continent was providing excellent learning resources for political systems requiring change. Chinese ideas played an important role in European renewal and the construction of European culture. Before the 19th century, records of Hui Islam in China existed in Europe – one of the most famous was in Marco Polo’s travelogue – but at that time, there was no academic research in the contemporary sense. The development of natural science and the emergence of the Enlightenment in the 19th century gradually gave birth to the social sciences of modern Europe. By the middle of the 19th century, the eyes of Western scholars also turned to China. Subsequently, Western theories and methods were gradually introduced into China and accepted by Chinese scholars. It is generally acknowledged that the international study of Chinese Islam began in the second half of the 19th century. By 1840, China, which had long been closed, was opened by Western warships. Henceforth, a large number of Western missionaries, scholars, and explorers followed the army and businessmen into the hinterland of China, witnessed the life of Chinese Muslims, and made contact with them. Gradually attention began to be paid to Chinese Islam. Most saliently, some Christian missionaries and Orientalists began to conduct a more serious study of Islam in China, publishing several corresponding works and papers. On one hand, the missionaries’ attention to Islam in China derived from the requirements of missionary work; conversely, Islam was a religion that missionaries were familiar with and regarded as an important competitor. Russian Orthodox missionaries were the first to collect information about Chinese Islam. Two groups first began to collect information about the Islam of Hui nationality in China: Christian missionaries and Orientalists.

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Upon entering China, Western missionaries discovered the presence of a large Muslim group, which they began to study and targeted with their missionary work. Although this missionary activity was not successful in terms of the number of the converts to Christianity, it produced a certain positive significance regarding objective religious and cultural exchange and civilizational interaction. Documents recording the encounter between Christianity and Islam in China in modern times are scattered in the following journals: Chinese Repository 中国丛报 The Chinese Recorder 教务杂志 Friend of Moslems 穆斯林之友 The Moslem World 穆斯林世界 China’s Millions 亿万华民

These journals reflect the Western perspective, as well as related works of missionaries, records of missionaries’ conferences, Hui newspapers, and local Chinese historical records, and more.

2 RUSSIAN ORTHODOX MISSIONARIES

The development of Chinese Islamic studies is closely related to the activity of missionaries from different countries. In the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church – one of the three major Christian factions – became the first to gain the privilege of preaching in China, although the scale and impact of its development were not as prominent as that of the Protestant churches of the same denomination. However, the Russian mission still made considerable achievements in the study of Chinese Islam. The earliest contact between the Russian Orthodox Church and modern China can be traced back to the middle and late 17th century. However, due to the Qing government’s increasingly strict policy of banning religion and closing customs, for more than a hundred years after first contact, Russia’s overall concern and understanding of China was quite limited. By the 19th century, the situation had changed dramatically. Russia had a positive interest in the Far East. In 1801, a new constitution was established for trade between Russian merchants and the Chinese in

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Chiaktu. In 1805, a fleet was dispatched to sail around the world and it was arranged for a new mission headed by Count Glovkin to be sent to China. 2 Around 1807, the tsarist government also subordinated its mission in Beijing. It was adjusted to be run by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs from the jurisdiction of the Siberian governors, and additional guardians were sent to the Beijing mission. In 1818, the tsarist government issued an order to its missions in China, stipulating that “the main task in the future is not religious activities, but to conduct a comprehensive study of China’s economy and culture, and to report major events in China’s politics to the Russian Foreign Ministry promptly”. 3 In the 19th century, the tsarist government’s need and desire to understand China seemed to be more pressing. As a result of these economic, military, political, and cultural factors, Russia’s interest in and attention to China reached an unprecedented level in the 19th century. There had already been one hundred years of continuous missionary activity in China, involving Chinese business, politics, geography, customs and culture, religion, and history. In this context of the Russian Orthodox Church entering China, the missionaries launched multiple successful studies on China. A group of outstanding sinologists – and for Russia, the development of modern sinology in China – laid a solid foundation with a bright future. Prominent scholars of Islam and western regions in China included Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin (尼基塔·雅科夫列维奇·比丘林斯基), Vasili P Vasilev (瓦西里·帕夫 洛维奇·瓦西里耶夫), and Archimandrite Palladusu (彼得·伊凡诺 维奇·卡法罗夫).

P. K. I Quishtad, 1979, 1857–1960 Russian expansion in the far East, The Commercial Press. (P. K.I. 奎斯特德, 1857–1960 年俄国在远东的扩张, 北京: 商务印书 馆, 1979.) 3 Wu Keming, 1985, A Brief History of Russian Orthodox Invasion of China, Gansu People’s Publishing House. (吴克明, 俄国东正教侵华史略, 兰州: 甘肃人民出版社, 1985.) 2

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ISLAM IN CHINA 2.1 Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin

As the founder of Russian sinology and Orientalism, sinologist Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin (Никита Яковлевич Бичурин, 尼基塔·雅科夫列维奇·比丘林斯基, 1777–1853) spent a lengthy period in Beijing as the ninth head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in East China and published nearly one hundred works on China. He was the first person in the hundred-year history of the Russian Orthodox Mission in East China to bring Chinese scholars and their academic achievements to the attention of all sectors of Russian society, and in Russian. His Russian translations of works by European missionaries significantly increased Russian familiarity with China, and he is considered the pioneer of many research fields of Russian sinology. Bichurin’s in-depth research on Chinese society and culture is meticulous, making effective use of important Chinese classics and laying down a reliable foundation for later Russian sinologists in terms of historical data. This focus on Chinese classics also indicated that the Russian sinology tradition he established differed from contemporary missionary writing in Europe. At the time, European sinology was dominated by the writing of missionaries and travelers, which largely drew on what the authors saw and heard, and even on hearsay. The studies of Bichurin and later Russian sinologists were based on Chinese classics, which were more scientific and rigorous, and were therefore more in line with the norms of modern disciplinary research. His academic vision and position earnt him not only the admiration of Russian scholars but also the respect of Europe. The research based on Chinese classics initiated by Bichurin influenced the sinologists who broadly made up the members of the Orthodox Mission in East China at that time. The works in four volumes published in the second half of the 19th century, Works of members of the Russian Spiritual Mission in Beijing, 4 conAs head of the mission, Palladusu initiated, organized, edited, and published a collection entitled Works of members of the Russian Spiritual Mission in Beijing, which enjoyed a wide influence in international sinology circles. The book con-

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tain studies of Chinese history, geography, and the astronomical calendar, based on different Chinese classics. In the study of the history and geography of Islam in western regions, the representative translations are as follows: 1 In 1833, Bichurin published The History of Tibet and Qinghai (2282–1227BC) 5 in St. Petersburg. The contents of the book are mainly translated from Twenty-Three Histories (廿三史) and History as a Mirror (资治统签纲目). The book is divided into two parts: the first part involves the origin of tanggute, the political relationship and war with China, the conquest of China, China and tanggute, and the origin of Tibet; the second part details tanggute, Qidan, and Chinese. At the end of the book are maps of various historical periods in the northeast and west of Tibet, as well as a list of ancient and modern place names. Also, several articles are attached which serve as introductions to the chronology, system of measurement, and coins of China. Compared with previously published works on Tibet, this book attracted more attention from orientalists. Although Bichurin’s translation is not strictly a historical work on Tibet and Qinghai, it is still of great reference value to historians. 2 In 1829, Bichurin published another work on the study of the history and geography of ethnic minorities in China’s border areas: The Ancient and Present Records of Junggar and East Turkestan, based on The History of the Former Han Dynasty (前汉书), Memoirs on the Western Regions (西域传), Records of Western Regions (西域闻见录), and A Survey of Geography and Figures of the Western Region (钦定西域同文志). At the end of the book, an ancient place names index and a table for comparison with the place names of the 19th century are attached. Bichurin’s ground-

sists of four volumes and was published by the printing house of St. Petersburg Military Academy. 5 Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin (Никита Яковлевич Бичурин), 1833, The History of Tibet and Qinghai (2282–1227BC), St. Petersburg.

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breaking book was the first in Russia on the history of western China. 3 In 1834, Bichurin published The History of the Irutos and Kalmecks since the 15th Century 6 and in 1851, The Compilation of the Historical Materials of the Ancient Central Asian Nations. 7 These books was based on Xinjiang Knowledge (新疆认略), and Records of Western Regions (西域闻见录). He used a large number of Chinese materials, making the book an essential reference for scholars of Mongolian history. Additionally, Bichurin founded the first Chinese language school in Chiaktu in 1831. This school trained several talented Chinese translators for Russian business, politics, culture, and other fields. Bichurin widely used Chinese documents in his study of Muslim ethnic history and geography in the border areas, and collected and translated a large amount of invaluable material. Since the disciplines of archaeology and anthropology were in their infancy at the time and could not, therefore, provide auxiliary materials for his research, Chinese classics became the only rich and reliable source of information. Using Chinese documents, he made a great contribution to the development of Russian sinology and Islamic studies, and was highly praised by all sectors of Russian society. 2.2 Archimandrite Palladusu

The 12 member of the Russian Orthodox Mission to China, the 13th and 15th foreman Palladusu (Архимандрит Палладий, 彼得 ·伊凡诺维奇·卡法罗夫) (1817–1878), was also a sinologist who was highly valued by the Russian government in the middle and late 19th century. A graduate of St. Petersburg Seminary, he visited China several times and was active in the country for more th

Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin (Никита Яковлевич Бичурин), 1834, The History of the Irutos and Kalmecks since the 15th century, St. Petersburg. 7 Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin (Никита Яковлевич Бичурин), The Compilation of the Historical Materials of the Ancient Central Asian Nations, St. Petersburg, 1851. 6

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than 30 years. His research contribution to the fields of Chinese linguistics, history, and geography, was extensive. During his first sojourn in China, Palladusu studied Buddhism and translated Buddhist scriptures from Chinese, Mongolian, and Tibetan. In his later years, Palladusu became interested in Chinese Islamic literature and published two articles. The first, “Muslims in China”, was published in The Fourth Volume of the Works of the Russian Missionaries in Beijing in 1866. The second, “Chinese Islamic literature and Interpretation of the Chinese Islamic Anthology Compiled by Liu Zeliang, a Chinese Islamist”, was published in Volume 17 of The Oriental Works of the Russian Geographical Society in 1877. Palladusu’s most famous work on Islamic studies is Selected works of Islamic Chinese, 8 running to a total of 334 pages. It was published in St. Petersburg in 1887 with the help of Belschneider (1833–1901), a former Russian Embassy doctor. The manuscript of the book was found by Father Adoratsky in the archives of the Russian Orthodox mission in Beijing after the Palladusu’s death. Palladusu also studied the history of the introduction of Christianity into China. In 1872, “The ancient traces of Christianity in China” 9 was published in the first volume of Oriental works. Palladium also published work on the history and religion of the border areas. His study of Mongolia, focusing on its early history in the Genghis Khan period, is still valued by historians. In 1866, Palladusu published his translated Secret History of Yuan Dynasty 10 in the fourth volume of the works of the members of the Russian mission in Beijing. The original text came from the Yongle Dadian, with 660 notes and a foreword introducing Archimandrite Palladusu (Архимандрит Палладий), 1887, Selected works of Islamic Chinese, St. Petersburg. 9 Archimandrite Palladusu (Архимандрит Палладий), 1872, “The Ancient Traces of Christianity in China,” Oriental Anthology, Vol. 1. 10 Archimandrite Palladusu (Архимандрит Палладий), 1866, “Secret History of Yuan Dynasty,” Works of Members of the Russian Missionary Group in Beijing, Vol. 4. 8

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its history. His translation and study of the secret history of the Yuan dynasty made him a great master in the study of Russian Mongolian history. He also translated and annotated The Legend of Genghis Khan in China, The Pilgrimage to the West of Changchun, and The Pilgrimage to Mongolia of Zhang Dehui in the First Half of the 13th Century. Most of these works contain information that relates to Islam and Muslims in the western regions. During his mission in Beijing, he collected information about Islam in China, which was translated and published in Australia in 1977. Palladusu also set up a continuous journal devoted to the study of China, some volumes of which were translated into German. 2.3 Vasili P. Vasilev

Vasili P Vasilev（Василий Павлович Васильев, 瓦西里·帕夫洛 维奇·瓦西里耶, 1818–1900), a member of the 12th Russian Orthodox Mission to China, was an important figure in the field of Russian sinology in the middle and late 19th century. In 1834, he entered the Oriental Department of Kazan University to study Manchu, Chinese, and Mongolian. In 1837, he obtained a master’s degree for his thesis, On Principles of Buddhist Philosophy. In 1840, he traveled to Beijing. Subsequently, Vasiliev began to study the languages, history, geography, culture, religion, statistics, commerce, customs, and other elements of various ethnic groups in China, including Han, Manchu, Mongolian, and Tibetan, and produced a large research corpus. In 2014, China’s Publishing House published Vasili P Vasilev’s History of Chinese Literature (中国文献史), 11 which comprises 15 consecutive sections. This work introduces Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, as well as ancient Chinese texts on history, geography, religion, and literature. Vasili’s introduction, data collection, and guiding research of Chinese literature had Vasili P Vasilev, 2014, “History of Chinese Literature”, China’s Publishing House. (瓦西里·帕夫洛维奇·瓦西里耶夫 著 赵春梅 译: “中国文献史”, 大象出版社, 2014 年, p. 168.)

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laid a solid foundation for the specialization of Russian sinology in the 20th century. The Appendix to this book is as follows: 1) Contents of Vasilev’s main works; 2) Vasilev’s relevant archives and their locations; and 3) Vasilev’s manuscripts and their locations, and a detailed summary of his publications. Vasilev’s research is introduced and described in the book Vasili P Vasilev and China. 12 This book gives a detailed overview of Vasilev’s The History and Monuments of Eastern Central Asia in the 10th–13th Century (1859) (10–13 世纪中亚东部的历 史和古迹). 13 For the study of the history and geography of Islam in the western regions, we find “O dvnshenii magometanstva V Kitae” translated as “Islamic Movement in China” (1867) (中国的伊斯 兰教运动). 14 The Edinburgh Weekly published the English translation of Chinese Islamic articles in Russian military journals (1868). Rudolf Lowenthal ( 罗 森 塔 尔 ) translated Vasilev’s work from Russian into English, where it appeared as Islam in China in 1960. 15 After his return from China in 1850, Vasilev was increasingly engaged in the development of sinology in the Oriental departments of Kazan University and St. Petersburg University and won the title of academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1866.

Zhao Chunmei, 2007, “Vasilev and China”, Xuefan publishing house. (赵春梅 “瓦西里耶夫与中国” 学范出版社, 2007, p. 219.) 13 Vasili P. Vasilev, 2007, “The History and monuments of Eastern Central Asia in the 10th – 13th Century” (1859) in Zhao Chunmei: “Vasilev and China”, Xuefan publishing house, (瓦西里·帕夫洛维奇·瓦西里耶夫 “10–13 世纪中亚东部的历史和 古迹”, 载入 “赵春梅 “瓦西里耶夫与中国” 学范出版社, 2007.) 14 Vasili P. Vasilev, 2007, “Islamic Movement in China “ (1867) (瓦西里·帕夫洛 维奇·瓦西里耶夫 “中国的伊斯兰教运动” 载入 “赵春梅 “瓦西里耶夫与中国” 学范出 版社.) 15 Vasili P. Vasilev, 1960, “Islam in China”, Central Asian Collectanea. 12

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In the history of Russian sinology, Hyacinth Yakovlevich Bichurin, and his descendants Vasili P Vasilev and Archimandrite Palladusu, were honored as the “three giants” of Russian sinology in the 19th century and contributed greatly to Russian sinology, surpassing European efforts in the field. Compared with Western Europe, some aspects of the study of Chinese Islam by Russian Orthodox missionaries in the 19th century were weak; however, thanks to the proximity of Russia and China, the support of the Russian government, the preferential policies of the Qing dynasty and the efforts of the missionaries themselves, the Russian Orthodox missionaries not only produced the excellent research described above but also gradually shaped the research characteristics of Russian Islamic studies in general and laid a solid foundation for the subsequent development of the discipline.

3 THE CHINA INLAND MISSION (CIM) AND CHINA’S MILLIONS

In the first half of the 20th century, the missionary work of the Western Christian Church in China reached its peak. The China Inland Mission, or CIM, (a transnational missionary organization in China) was reflective of this. Founded in 1865 by English missionaries, including Hudson Taylor (戴德生, 1832–1905), its missionaries who were sent to China came from different sects and nations, mainly Great Britain, the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. Some were also from Germany, Austria, and Northern Europe (countries such as Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark). The CIM asked missionaries to devote themselves regardless of payment and allow themselves to be sinicized. As a result, they became the vanguard of missionaries in mainland China. They set up missionary stations and then expanded rapidly to the most remote areas. By the end of the 19th century, the CIM had about 650 missionaries, 270 missions, and 5000 believers, becoming the largest Protestant group in China. In this context, missionaries began to investigate and study Islam in China from the perspective of Muslim missionary work. During this period, the study of British and American missionaries in the field of Hui Islam in China peaked.

1. BEFORE THE 20TH CENTURY 3.1 About the China Inland Mission (CIM)

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The CIM was an international Christian missionary organization founded in 1865 by James Hudson Taylor of England. In 1964, it was renamed the overseas mission fellowship or OMF International. In September 1853, Hudson Taylor was sent from England to China by the Chinese Missionary Association of Britain, first preaching in Shanghai, Shantou, and other places. In 1857, he settled in Ningbo and established the Ningbo Mission, until he left following a disagreement with the Chinese Missionary Association. In 1860, illness forced Taylor to return to England, where he spoke widely, calling on people to preach in China. In 1865, Reverend Taylor changed the name of the Ningbo Mission to the China Inland Mission, and established its evangelist policy; specifically, to recruit a group of missionaries who could move to mainland China for long-term work, introducing and disseminating Christianity. In 1867, the Taylor family and 16 missionaries returned to China. They mainly frequented the hinterland to preach, reaching as far as Tibet, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and other distant destinations. In 1890, a philanthropist donated money for the construction of the headquarters of the Mainland Society in Shanghai, to serve as offices and housing for more than 300 missionaries. The public relations and education center of the Mainland China Association was originally located in Hangzhou. In 1890, it moved to Shanghai. Gradually, the public relations and education work stretched further into the interior of China and reached Dihua (now Urumqi) in Xinjiang. It was not until the 1950s that it withdrew from China against the political backdrop of the Cold War. In a broad sense, research on the CIM began in the late Qing dynasty as a result of the evangelist work of the Inland Mission itself. J. Hudson Taylor, the founder, wrote and published the general historical works of the China Inland Mission in 1900. J. Hudson Taylor, Three Decades of The China Inland Mission, Toronto: The China Inland Mission, 1900. Other missionaries, following suit, wrote and published:

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ISLAM IN CHINA F. Howard Taylor, Those Forty Years: A Short History of The China Inland Mission, Philadelphia: Paper Pub, 1903. Marshall Broomhall, The Jubilee Story of The China Inland Mission, London: China Inland Mission, 1915. Leslie T. Lyall, A Passion for The Impossible: The China Inland Mission, 1865–1965, Chicago: Moody Press, 1965.

The Inland Mission also attached importance to the writing and publishing of missionary biographies: Mrs. Mark Botham, Two Pioneers: Life Sketches of Thomas and Mark Botham, London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, 1929. Frank Houghton, George King: Medical Evangelist, London: China Island Mission, 1930. Mildred Cable and Francesca French, The Making of a Pioneer: Percy Ma Ther of Central Asia, New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1935. Mildred Cable and Francesca French, George Hunter: Apostle of Turkestan, London: China Inland Mission, 1948. Most of the CIM’s historical works and biographies were written before they left mainland China. The writing was for public relations purposes and education at the time but nevertheless was founded on rigorous academic research, thus providing important material for this research. Academic research on Islam increased after the reform. To the present day, there have been many dissertations in Chinese academic circles, e.g., Du Yanbo’s The Research on the Activity of the China Inland Mission in the Modern Northwest Muslim Society. 16 Du Yanbo, 2009, The Research on the Activity of the China Inland Mission in the Modern Northwest Muslim Society, Master Thesis of Xinjiang Normal University.

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Some monographs have been published in this field, of which the most important include: Alvyn Austin, China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society, 1832– 1905, 17 and Alvyn Austin’s Only Connect: The China Inland Mission and Transatlantic Evangelicalism. 18 3.2 China’s Millions 19

China’s Millions was the English-language journal of the China Inland Mission, the largest Western missionary organization in China. The journal was one of the most valuable databases for the understanding and study of the missionary cause of the Mainland Society, headed by Thomas Hudson Taylor and the Modern Chinese Society. The full set of the original publication is now in the archives of the Asian African Institute, University of London, UK. In the 89 years from 1875 to 1964, it published more than 90 volumes. An important medium, its growth has had a profound impact on Chinese and Western society. The journal included a number papers or works on Chinese Muslims and Islam: China’s Millions, Vol. 8 (1882), p. 53. China’s Millions, Vol. 9 (1883), p. 65. (杜彦波著: “中华内地会在近代西北穆斯林社会传教活动研究” 新疆师范大学 2009 年硕士论文.) 17 Alvyn Austin, 2006, China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society, 1832–1905, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 18 Alvyn Austin, 2003, “Only Connect: The China Inland Mission and Transatlantic Evangelicalism”, in North American Foreign Missions,1810–1914: Theology, Theory, and Policy, ed. Wilbert R. Shenk (London: Gurzon and Grand Rapids: Eerdmans). 19 Xu Lei, “Study on The Missionary Work of The China Inland Mission in Yunnan Province-based on China’s Millions (1877–1950),” Master's Thesis, Central China Normal University. (许蕾 “中国内地会在云南的传教活动研究-以 China’s Millions 为中心 (1877–1950)”，硕士论文华中师范大学.)

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ISLAM IN CHINA China’s Millions, Vol. 12 (1886), p. 25. “Report on the work of the China Inland Mission (1890–1891),” China’s Millions Vol. 18 (1892), p. 155. “A Tour through Southern Yunnan,” China’s Millions Vol. 24 (1898), p. 37. China’s Millions, Vol. 23 (1897), p. 143. China’s Millions, Vol. 35 (Aug. 1909), p. 127. China’s Millions, Vol. 36 (Dec. 1910), p. 192. “Islam in Yunnan,” China’s Millions, Vol. 67 (MarApr. 1941), p. 29. “Moslems’ Unexpected Request,” China’s Millions, Vol. 68 (July-Aug. 1942), p. 38. China’s Millions, Vol. 76 (Mar. 1950), p. 34. “Entering A Moslem Stronghold,” China’s Millions, Vol. 74 (Jan-Feb. 1948), p. 10. “The Moslems Come to the Missionary,” China’s Millions, Vol. 77 (Mar. 1951), p. 29. “Islam in China,” China’s Millions, Vol. 76 (Mar. 1950), p. 37. 3.3 The relationship between Christianity and Islam in Modern China

The Christian missionary activities aimed at Chinese Muslims are an important aspect of the study of the relationship between Christianity and Islam in Modern China. In this regard, as early as 1985, the Hebrew University developed a subproject to carry out related research. In 1995, its project leader, Raphael Israeli, published the first comprehensive research paper about the interaction between Christianity

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and Islam in China. This paper discusses the Christian missionaries from 1850–1950. 20 Chinese Muslim responses to their work suggest that “the interaction between Christianity and Muslims was not fixed, nor one-way from Christianity to Islam. Rather, they are considered dialectically related, challenging and influencing each other, their ups and downs depending on their destiny in China.” Other publications on the relationship between Christianity and Islam in China include: Francoise Aubin, “L’ Apostolat Protestant en Milieu Musulman Chinois,” in Chine et Europe: Evolution et Particularites des Rapportes Est-Ouest Du XVle ou XXe Siecle, 1991. Ralph R. Covell. The Liberating Gospel in China: The China Faith among China’s Minority Peoples, Grand Rapid: Baker Book House Company, 1995. Fang Jianchan. “Missionary activities of modern Western Christian missionaries in Northwest China and a summary of relevant documents”, Northwest Ethnic Studies, 1994 (1). 房建昌 “近代西方基督教传教士 在中国西北少数民族中的传教活动及有关文献概述” (西北民族研 究) 1994(1). In this 1994 paper, Fang Jianchang briefly introduces the missionary activities and works of several important missionaries. Liu Jiafeng, “Research Review and Prospect of the Interaction between Christianity and Islam in Modern China,” World Religious Culture, 2011 (3), p. 78. Matsumoto Masumi, “Protestant Christian Missions to Muslims in China and Islamic Reformist MoveRaphael Israeli, “The Cross Battles the Crescent, One Century of Missionary Work among Chinese Muslims, 1985–1950,” Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1995.

20

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This paper discusses the missionary activities and Chinese Muslim responses to Christianity. It offers many salient points, for example, Christian missionaries upholding the Western-centered cultural mentality and the sense of Christian superiority, and that the Islamic Reform Movement in Modern China is related to Christian missionary activities. Mildred Cable and Francesca French. George Hunter Apostle of Turkestan. London: China Inland Mission, 1948. Bradshaw, Malcolm R. Torch for Islam A Biography of George K. Harris, Missionary to Muslims. London: China Inland Mission, 1965. Andrew George. Findley. The Crescent in North-West China. London: The China Inland Mission, 1921. Strong, Anna Louise. China’s millions. New York: Coward-McCann. Inc, 1928. 413pp Du Yanbo, 2009, The Research on the Activity of the China Inland Mission in the Modern Northwest Muslim Society, Master Thesis of Xinjiang Normal University. (杜彦波著: “中华内地会在近代西北穆斯林社会传 教活动研究” 新疆师范大学 2009 年硕士论文.) Du Yanbo’s thesis studies and analyses the literature pertaining to the Christianity missionary activities, especially those of the CIM in the northwestern region, which includes our country and other countries. Part 2 introduces the CIM and its background. Part 3, the most important section, describes the position of the CIM in northwest Muslim society, and it points out its typical role and important functions. It also describes specific missionary activity. Part 4 provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the effects of some of the CIM’s exemplary activities. Firstly, it examines the successful contact between missionaries and Muslims, and the more favorable conditions that they constructed. The author concludes that it is not straightforward to

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assess whether the CIM’s contacts and dialog were a “success” or not; instead, we should view the question from multiple angles, which is the primary premise of understanding historical missionary outcomes. Meanwhile, it explores the inner root of the failure of missionary work, which includes society, politics, history, religion, and so on. It then points out that the failure was inevitable. Part 5 concludes the paper by asserting that the historical influence of missionaries is both positive and negative; as well as reflecting on religious dialog and work. Liu Xuha: Study on The Missionary Work by The China Inland Mission to Moslems in Northwest of China (1876–1951), Doctoral dissertation, Central China Normal University, 2012). (刘续华: “基督教内地会 对西北穆斯林的传教活动研究” 华中师范大学, 2012 年博士论文.) The dissertation focuses on the missionary work by the China Inland Mission (CIM) to the Moslems in the northwest of China. Missionary work started in 1876 when the missionaries of CIM entered the northwest and came to an end in 1951. Previous studies on the CIM involved the CIM’s missionary work directed at Moslems, but the analysis was not systematic, profound or complete. Key historical material is also seriously lacking. Meanwhile, the micro-view and macro-view studies on the relationship between Protestant and Islam in modern China are strong but the medium-view study is very weak. Given all of this, the research found in this dissertation is both necessary and an important addition to the study of the CIM, strengthening the medium-view study on the relationship between Protestantism and Islam in modern China. Du Yanbo Master’s thesis and Liu Xuha’s doctoral dissertation are of the highest reference value.

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4 THE CHINESE RECORDER AND MISSIONARY JOURNAL 21

Many research papers on Chinese Islam and Muslims have been published in The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal (教务杂 志). The relationship between this journal and the study of Chinese Islam therefore requires exploring. Protestant missionaries in China founded this Englishlanguage journal in 1867 and it ran for 75 years. It was the predecessor of The Missionary Recorder, published one year earlier. It was reprinted in Shanghai in 1874, two years after its suspension. It was officially named The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal in 1915 and published in both Chinese and English. It was suspended after the outbreak of the Pacific War in 1941. The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal is of great significance to the study of the history of missionaries during the period 1845–1941 and, at the same time, was also the most famous monthly magazine in Western newspapers. The importance of the journal is mainly reflected in the fact that missionaries in China had to not only preach in China, but also provide feedback about the progress to the mother church and communicate with Chinese missionaries. These exchanges involved all aspects of their life and work, including face-to-face introductions. The overview sheds light not only on the missionaries’ situation but also on China’s social circumstances. The journal attracted the attention of a group of influential missionaries, leading to increased circulation and popularity among missionaries in China. Overall, the purpose of The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal was to serve missionaries in China and help them exchange information with each other. Its 75-year publishing history represents the thoughts and insights of mainstream churches and missionaries, which has great value as a historical source. Therefore, research on the relevant literature in this magazine can reveal much. The object of this chapter is academic research history before 1900, but here, given the needs of this specific topic, it extends to 1941.

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The first to write about Muslims in The Chinese Recorder was J. Edkins (艾约瑟), a famous missionary and sinologist, who visited the mosque in Beijing and published “Notes on Mahommedanism in Peking” in 1868. This paper introduced the layout of the mosque, worship, Muslim customs, the Imam’s duties, and so on. 22 Furthermore, missionaries’ work reported the uprising of the Hui Muslim people in the northwest, in addition to opium and alcohol prohibition. With the deepening of missionary activity in the mainland, the differences in missionaries’ understandings of different regions gradually emerged. Missionaries in Nanjing enjoyed harmonious relations with Muslims, often visiting mosques to hold discussions with imams. In the eyes of Guangdong missionaries, however, Chinese Muslims were very much apart. Missionaries located in the areas where Muslims were highly concentrated, in the central and western regions, seemed to pay more attention to the analysis of the characteristics of the communities from the missionaries’ own perspective. For example, missionaries found that many Muslims in Henan were leaders and businessmen who were more receptive to Christianity and that some indigenous mullahs in Gansu could read Arabic. However, the villagers were considered more ignorant, representing an opportunity for preaching. The increasing contact with Muslims amplified missionary interest in the study of Islam. At this time, uninformed subconscious perceptions were gradually replaced by relational research, especially in the early 20th century, and these studies gradually became systematic and mature. In The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, a large number of articles were published on the study and introduction of Islam in China, including the religion’s history in the country, the classic works of Islam in China, the doctrine and culture of Islam, the number and distribution of Muslims, and the current situation of Muslims in ChiJ Edkins, 1869, “Notes on Mahommedanism in Peking” Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1.

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na, etc. With the deepening of understanding and research, missionaries developed a considerable understanding of the problems of Chinese Muslims. Cultural differences meant they were unable to identify with some of these phenomena. The understanding of missionaries described above leads to another logical conclusion: that in China, Islam was the enemy of Christianity and a threat to its spread. A large number of Chinese Muslim groups were determined to be Christianity’s target in the beginning but this attitude gradually softened, partly due to missionaries’ experience in the Muslim-concentrated areas of Africa and Northwest China, and also some church members’ sense of duty. Moreover, in the 1920s, missionaries found that Islam in China was undergoing a reform movement, and this religion that refused to accept Christianity was making new efforts by preaching its position within the country. More than 70 years later, the journal had published 40 or 50 articles about Muslims, mainly along the lines of papers, conference communications, bibliographic information, and introductions to works. Academic papers were the most common publications, mainly discussing the origin and development of Islam in China, Islamic classics, doctrines and regulations, characteristics of Chinese Muslims, and missionary strategies and methods, etc. Moreover, there was a column called Our Book Table, introducing books published by missionaries. Although there are few articles about Chinese Muslims in the Journal of academic affairs, this may reflect the cognition and attitude of Western missionaries toward Chinese Muslims at that time, and also illustrate the situation when the two cultures were engaged in China.

Articles appearing in The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal: J. Edkins, “Note on Mahommedanism in Peking,” Vol. 2, No. 1, 1869. “Correspondence,” Vol. 10, 1878. “Notices of Recent Publications,” Vol. 13, 1882.

1. BEFORE THE 20TH CENTURY Geo W. Clarke, “The Introduction of Mohammedanism into China,” Vol. 17, 1886. H V Noyes, “Mohammedanism,” Vol. 20, 1889. S C Hogg, “Mahommedanism, a Review,” Vol. 22, No. 6, 8, 9, 12, 1891. “The Real Mohammedanism,” Vol. 22, No. 7, July 1891. “Letters,” Vol. 40, 1909. W. B. Pettus, “Chinese Mohammedanism,” Vol. 44, No. 2, 1913. A Symposium: “How to Adequately Meet the Recognized Need of the Chinese Mohammedans,” Vol. 44, No. 2, 1913. F. Herbert Rhodes, “The Pillars of Islam,” Vol. 44, No. 2, 1913. L. V. Soderstrom, “How Can We Best Reach the Mohammedan Women?” Vol. 44, No. 2, 1913. “The Later Mr: William Borden,” Vol. 45, No. 6, 1914. F. Herbert Rhodes, “Among Chinese Moslems,” Vol. 46, No. 1, 1915. E. W. Thwing, “Present State of Mohammedanism in China,” Vol. 47, No. 12, 1916. James Hutson, “The Chinese Moslem Standpoint,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917. Leo kai Lien translated by F. J. M. Cotter and Rev. L. Reichelt, “The Three Character Classic for Moslems,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917. Charles L. Ogilvie and S. M. Zwemer, “A Classified Bibliography of Books on Islam in Chinese and Chinese-Arabic,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917.

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ISLAM IN CHINA Charles L. Ogilvie, “Preaching Christ in a Chinese Mosque,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917. F. Herbert Rhodes, “The Call of the Hour,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917. “Report and Minutes,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917. “Our Book Table,” Vol. 48, No. 10, 1917. “Work amongst Moslems and Tibetans,” Vol. 49, No. 2, 1918. “The Mohammedans in China,” Vol. 49, No. 7, 1918. Translated by A. H. Mateer, “The Present Condition of Mohammedanism,” Vol. 49, No. 8, 1918. “Gleaning from Correspondence and Exchanges,” Vol. 51, No. 10, 1920. “Renewed Effort for Moslems,” Vol. 55, No. 11, 1924. Y. Y. Tsu, “Religion in China: toward a Greater Synthesis,” Vol. 59, No. 10, 1928. Ma ahong. Reasons for Exercising the Five Articles of the Mohammedan Faith. Vol. 63, No. 1, 1932. “Resolutions on Work among the Moslem,” Vol. 64, No. 10, 1933. Ma song Ting, “The Historic Center of Islam,” Vol. 64, No. 10, 1933. “Dr. Zwemer on Conferences on Work for Moslem,” Vol. 64, No. 12, 1933. Claude L. Pickens, “Across China in Two Weeks,” Vol. 64, No. 10, 1933. Claude L. Pickens, “Challenge of Chinese Moslems,” Vol. 68, No. 7, 1937.

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“Personal Work Amongst Ahungs,” Vol. 70, No. 4, 1939. “Work among Moslems in Kweichow,” Vol. 72, No. 6, 1941. “Come over and help us,” Vol. 72, No. 11, 1941. “Work among Moslems,” Vol. 72, No. 11, 1941. “Editorial: Literature for Moslems,” Vol. 48, 1941. Some of the books in “Our Book Table” related to Muslim Studies, however; for example, the 10th issue of 1917 introduced Zwemer’s “The Disintegration of Islam” and “Mohammed or Christ.” This paper introduces the progress of missionary work among Muslims in detail. The articles on Muslim issues published in The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal increased significantly from 1910. In February 1913 alone, the journal published more than 10 papers, newsletters, and symposiums in the form of albums. In the preparation stage, missionaries engaged in some tentative missionary activities among Chinese Muslims and prepared material. The biggest puzzle in this period for the missionaries was working out where Chinese Muslims had come from and identifying the characteristics they held. Regarding the introduction of Islam to China, French scholar Darby de Thiersant (梯尔桑) published his masterpiece Islam in China in Paris. This is the first monograph to comprehensively treat Islam in China. The book explores the history of the religion in China, and details the teaching, beliefs, and cosmology of Islam in the nation. One missionary introduced Darby’s book in his paper “Correspondence.” 23 In 1889, H. V. Noyes, a missionary, introduced a systematic history of Chinese Muslims, with Darby de Thiersant’s book as his main source. He agreed

23

“Correspondence, 1878,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 10.

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with de Thiersant’s point of view that Islam was introduced during the Tang period, about 628 A.D. 24 Geo W. Clarke and W. B. Pettus opposed this view in their paper, asserting that Muslims were persecuted in the Arabian Peninsula at that time, and Mecca had not been conquered; hence, it was unlikely that representatives would be sent to preach in distant China. They also mentioned some other viewpoints in the article: some believed that Islam was introduced to China by Arab merchants during the Sui dynasty. Their trade mainly came into Guangdong, Hangzhou, and other southeast coastal port cities. These trade contacts lasted for hundreds of years; in the process, they brought with them the revelation of the Prophet. 25 Other theories on how Islam may have been introduced to China include the war in the western border area or the idea that astronomy scholars potentially brought Islam with them when exchanging astronomical phenomena and calendars. 26 Another problem for missionaries was the population and distribution of Chinese Muslims. W. B. Pettus quoted the figures in Islam in China, published by Marshal Broomhall, and pointed out that China’s Muslims numbered about 9 million, distributed in China’s northwest and southwest. Nanjing functioned as a center for Muslims in the east of China, with 25 mosques, while a large number of Muslims also resided in Beijing. 27 At this stage, the missionaries focused on the influential ancient books among Chinese Muslims. S. C. Hogg discovered a number of important Chinese Islamic documents, such as “huiH. V. Noyes, 1889, “Mohammedanism,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 20. 25 Geo W. Clarke, 1886, “The Introduction of Mohammedanism into China,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 17. W. B. Pettus, 1913, “Chinese Mohammedanism,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 44, No. 2. 26 W. B. Pettus, 1913, “Chinese Mohammedanism,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 44, No. 2. 27 W. B. Pettus, 1913, “Chinese Mohammedanism”, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 44, No. 2. 24

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huishuo” (回回说), “Xiuzhen Mengyin” (修真蒙引), and “Tianfang Dianli” (天方典礼). These were translated and explained systematically. They were published in The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, and served as important references allowing the missionaries to share knowledge of Chinese Islam and prepare missionary materials accordingly. 28 In October 1917, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal published a set of documents about Muslims in the form of a special issue. This issue mainly comprised four aspects: the exploration of the Muslim spiritual world, an introduction to articles in other journals, the listing of Islamic documents in China, and a general focus on Islam. Herbert Rhodes and James Hutson’s papers described the five contributions of Islam in detail: specifically, reciting the Islamic program, worshiping, fasting, celestial lessons, and Hajji. The basic dogma of Muslims is introduced: the belief in the only true God, the celestial being, the Koran, the Prophet, the Future, the Judgment of the last world, and the Resurrection of faith. The text refers to the seven foundations of Islam: namely, God’s laws, models, extra responsibilities, prescribed acts, proscribed acts, etc. 29 The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal also selected articles from other journals. A Russian Archimandrite’s sermon in 1866 titled “The Mohammedans in China” in Beijing, which was translated from Russian to English by Ms. Figourevaky and published in The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal in 1918. This paper discusses several statements about Islam’s origins in China, introduces famous Chinese Muslims, such as Liu

S. C. Hogg, 1891, “Mahommedanism” (a review), The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal. Vol. 22, Nos. 6, 8, 9, 12. 29 F. Herbert Rhodes, 1913, “The Pillars of Islam,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 44, No. 2. James Hutson, 1917, “The Chinese Moslem Standpoint,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 48, No. 10. 28

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Zhi, and introduces the architectural style of mosques, marriage and burial customs, etc. 30 The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal also published articles written by Muslims. In 1917, Yunnan’s “Qingzhen Yuebao” (清真月报) was published, but it could not be maintained. The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal selected the article “The Present Condition of Mohammedanism” in its founding issue, describing some of the problems encountered by Chinese Muslims at the time. 31 Additionally, the famous Imam Ma Songting’s “The Historic Center of Islam” (伊斯兰的历史中心) 32 and his speech “Reasons for Exercising the Five Articles of the Mohammedan Faith” (伊斯 兰信仰的五功修炼的原因) 33 were also translated and published in The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal. At this stage, the missionaries attached great importance to the collection and collation of Islamic literature in China, such as Liu Zhi’s Tianfang Sanzijing (天方三字经), translated into English. Ogilvie and Samuel Marinus Zwemer, who used to be Secretary-General of the special committee for Muslim work, jointly collated 95 Chinese and Arabic Islamic classics. Their systematic organization and presentation of these influential ancient books has guided Western scholars of Chinese Islam and is also of great value to domestic academics in their further exploration of Islamic literature. 34 “The Mohammedans in China”, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 49, No. 7, 1918. 31 A. H. Mateer, 1918, “The Present Condition of Mohammedanism”, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 49, No.8. 32 Ma song Ting, 1933, “The Historic Center of Islam” (伊斯兰的历史中心), The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 64, No.10. 33 Ma along, 1932, “Reasons for Exercising the Five Articles of the Mohammedan Faith” (伊斯兰信仰的五功修炼的原因), the Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 63, No.1. 34 Chas L. Ogilvie and S. M. Zwemer, 1917, “A Classified Bibliography of Books on Islam in Chinese and Chinese-Arabic”, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 48, No. 10. 30

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From 1937 to 1945, the Second Sino-Japanese war had an impact on missionary work among Chinese Muslims. Missionary activity did not advance significantly and was basically in a state of maintenance. During this period, the number of relevant documents in the Journal of Academic Affairs decreased, but still included a brief introduction to the progress of Muslims’ work in various regions, as well as a reflection on the gains and losses of Muslim missionary work.

5 THE SOCIETY OF JESUS AND STUDIES BY FRENCH ORIENTALISTS

The development of Western sinology can be divided into three periods. The earliest period – travel sinology – developed with the work of a number of travel writers, the most famous of whom being Marco Polo. The second sinology period is characterized by the missionaries: in this period, writings sent back by missionaries were the main source for the West’s understanding of China. Moreover, the solid foundation created by the missionaries’ work enabled the subsequent professional sinology period to develop rapidly. Of the Western countries, France was one of the earliest and most specialized in the development of sinology. French sinology research has a long history, rich content, and active thinking; this has invariably been valued by the international sinology community. With a history of nearly two hundred years, the influence of French sinology is far-reaching. The cross-cultural engagement of Jesuit missionaries was mainly intended to enable the European upper class to learn more about China, in order to attract their support for missionary activities. However, considering the setbacks of previous missionary work, and in a country with a great history of civilization like China, the flexible approach of many Jesuit missionaries exceeded the expectations of those at home. Under such a premise, the Jesuit missionaries were well positioned to understand the local conditions and customs of China, and the translation of Chinese works enabled cross-cultural exchange. In this way, the missionary activities of Jesuits were not only an opportunity for China to understand the West, but

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also a great opportunity for the West to likewise learn from the East. 5.1 The Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus was founded in Paris in 1534 and approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. Its highest authority is the Jesuit guild, which is subordinate to the Pope, and it is divided into provincial capitals, cooperation areas, and independent provincial vice-capitals, etc. Members of the Society of Jesus must make a unique vow of obedience to the Pope. Shortly after its establishment, the Society of Jesus began sending missionaries to Asia, Africa, and America, sending the first missionaries to China in the 16th century. The first Jesuit, Francis Saberi (1506–1552), arrived at Shangchuan Island in Guangdong Province in 1551 and died the next year. Subsequently, early Jesuits arrived in Macao and, in 1576, the Diocese of Macao was established. Before 1633, all European Jesuits bound for China set out from Lisbon and entered mainland China through Macao. In 1583, The Society of Jesus member, Matteo Ricci (利玛 窦 1552–1610), came to Guangdong, After 18 years in southern China, he finally entered Beijing in 1601. Over the next ten years, Matteo Ricci established a positive image among Chinese intellectuals thanks to his knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, and the Chinese classics. This model was also adopted by many other Jesuits who came to China. In 1644, when the Qing dynasty began its rule, Emperor Shunzhi and Kangxi continued to use Western missionaries. Johann Adam Schall von Bell (汤若望, 1592–1666) and Ferdinand Verbiest (南怀仁, 1623–1688) were successively appointed Chief of the Imperial Tianjian. The number of believers in the country reached 270,000. Emperor Yongzheng began to suppress Catholicism and persecute Christians and missionaries in China, but a group of Jesuit scholars and artists were retained in Beijing’s court. Italian painter Brother Giuseppe Castiglione S.J. (郎世宁) and Fr. Michel Benoist S.J. (蒋友仁) were responsible for making maps.

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In the late 17th century, Jesuit missionaries were the highest authority in the West when it came to understanding China. In 1762, France issued the order to disband the Jesuits; and in July 1773, the Holy See announced the disbandment of Jesuits. The Jesuits were not able to recover until 1814. In 1842, three French Jesuits, Fr. Claude Gotteland S.J. (南格禄), Benjamin Brueyre S.J. (李秀芳), and Francois Esteve S.J. (艾方济), returned to China. In 1847, missionary centers were officially established in Xujiahui, Shanghai (then a rural village), and featured an astronomical observatory, library, and museum, etc. As a diocese of Shanghai, the Jesuit Church, centered on Xujiahui, gradually spread Catholicism to the southern pastoral areas (Jiangsu and Anhui provinces) entrusted by the Holy See. By 1920, the number of believers had grown to 200,000. The academic activity of French missionaries in China mainly focused on two aspects: firstly, spreading Western scientific and technological knowledge; and secondly, introducing Chinese history and culture to Europe. Additionally, French Orientalists also worked hard to learn about Chinese culture and convey information about China to Europe. The Society of Jesus missionary, Baijin (白晋), was one of the mathematicians sent to China by Louis XIV. He arrived in Beijing in 1688 and died there in 1730. In addition to a large number of letters, Baijin also wrote 14 works, including travel reports, biographies of Chinese emperors, Chinese dictionaries, and translations of Chinese philosophy. The seventh attachment in the second edition of German philosopher Leibniz’s News from China is the biography of the emperor of China written by Baijin. In the 18th century, the most important contribution of French Jesuits to the field of history was the publication of a 12volume general history of China, based on the compendium of general learning by Zhuxi, a scholar of the Song dynasty. The editor, J.M.A. de Marilla (冯秉正), arrived in China in 1703 and died in Beijing in 1748. For the first time, the book systematically introduced Chinese history to the West, especially the history of the Ming and Qing dynasties. In 1785, the author added volume 13, “China’s General Situation”. Prior to this, the editor had

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already translated the compendium of general knowledge into French, paving the way for the writing of a general history. Thanks to the author’s having participated in the surveying and mapping of China during the reign of Kangxi, the exposition of China’s geography in his book is very precise. In the study of ancient Chinese history, the greatest contribution was made by the missionary Antonius Gouhil (宋君荣). He was a master of literature, history, and natural science. He published a French translation the Confucian classic book of songs, and also wrote The History of the Tang Dynasty, The History of Chinese Astronomy, Genghis Khan and the History of Mongolia, among other things. Gouhil used original Chinese source material to connect the history of China and Western Asia. He held a large collection of unpublished manuscripts at the Paris Observatory, some of which were eventually published between 1809 and 1811. Among the French missionaries who came to China to preach, some had a profound knowledge of Ancient Chinese. They made continual efforts to translate many Chinese scriptures into Latin or French. 5.2 French Orientalism and related studies

The establishment of French sinology can be traced back to the first European sinology chair, established at the Collège de France in 1814; and the Far East and Indian American Religion chair which was established at the Ecole pratique des hautes études in 1889. Today, sinology has been internalized as a part of the French scientific research system. The current research system of “mixed research units” (unités mixtes de recherche) in France also had a significant impact on the development of sinology research. “Mixed research units” are mainly organized and jointly managed by the French National Research Center (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) in universities or other research institutions. This system greatly facilitates resource sharing and academic mobility. As far as Chinese religious research is concerned, the important institutions that belong to the mixed research unit are: the East Asian Civilization Research Center (Centre de Recher-

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che sur les Civilisations de l’Asie Orientale), the Institute of Social, Religious, Political and Religious Relations (Groupe Sociétés, Religions, Laïcités), and the Joint Research Center of China, South Korea, and Japan (Centre Chine-Corée-Japon). The Far East College (Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient) and the Sinology Research Institute of France (Institut des hautes études chinoises) are also important institutions of sinology research. These mainland China-focused research institutions also conduct academic research on religion in China, including Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, and others. Darby de Thiersant (梯尔桑), Gabriel Deveria (德韦理亚), and other scholars were representative Oriental scholars who studied Islam and Muslim issues inside China. 1 French Orientalist Darby de Thiersant’s (梯尔桑) representative works were two volumes of Le Mahometisme en Chine (Islam in China), published in Paris in 1878. 35 During the writing process, which took 15 years to complete, the author enjoyed the assistance of many Chinese Muslims, and also obtained much material from Catholic priests all over China. The first volume of the book discusses the origin of Chinese Muslims and describes the different Islamic characteristics of various regions, such as Gansu, Yunnan, Guangdong, Shannxi, and the Central Plains The second volume describes in detail the doctrines, beliefs, and cosmology of Chinese Islam. The missionaries cited it as an authoritative work on Islam in China. The work quoted many famous Chinese and Islamic classics, including, among others: Zhengjiao Zhenquan (正教真诠), Xiuzhen Mengyin (修真蒙引), Qingzhen Zhinan (清真指南), Tianfang Xingli (天方性理), Tianfang Dianli (天方典礼), Dahua Zonggui (大化总归), Youming Jieyi (幽明释义). An overview can be found in Wei Yingbang’s On the study of Chinese Islam by foreign scholars. 36 Darby de Thiersant, 1878, Le mahométisme en Chine, Paris: Ernest Leroux. Wei Yingbang, “On the Study of Chinese Islam by Foreign Scholars,” in the treatise on Islam in Qing Dynasty, compiled by the Ningxia Institute of Philoso-

35 36

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2 Gabriel Deveria’s (德韦理亚) book, Origine de l’islamisme en Chine (中国伊斯兰教的源头), 37 although relatively brief, aimed to trace the origin of Islam in China by examining popular Chinese Muslims legends. The book was proclaimed “the best and most important of all the published works on this issue to date” by 海恩波. Oriental scholars who have also been engaged in the study of mainland Chinese Islam and Muslim issues include Henri d’Ollone, Arnold Jacques Vissière, Darby de Thiersant, Georges Cordier, and Paul Pelliot. Their research will be introduced in the next chapter. 38 Europeans naturally had a great curiosity about China in this period. The Jesuits took advantage of this curiosity to stimulate European support of missionary enterprise in China.

phy and Social Sciences, Ningxia people’s Publishing House, 1981, pp. 340–364. (魏英邦 “论外国学者对中国伊斯兰教的研究及伊斯兰教之 “五性”” 载宁夏哲学社 会科学研究所编 “清代中国伊斯兰教论集”, 宁夏人民出版社, 1981 年, pp. 340– 364.) 37 Gabriel Deveria, 1895, Origine de l’islamisme en Chine (中国伊斯兰教的源头), Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. 38 Wang Junjun, 2014, “Chinese Culture Communication by French Missionaries in the 17–18th Century,” Liaoning University, Masters Thesis.

PART TWO. THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The signing of the Treaty of Xinchou in 1901 marked the formation of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society in China. The Qing government was corrupt and incompetent; their exploitation intensified. The Muslims who lived under the Qing dynasty, including those in the northwest (Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Xinjiang), were continually oppressed and discriminated against. The contradiction between the ethnic and the religious intensified rapidly, and many armed uprisings broke out. Society was turbulent and poverty was rife. Until the end of the Qing period, Muslim resistance never stopped. Several armed uprisings led to the gradual emergence of local Muslim warlords, who ruled Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai for decades. Before the Opium War, the Qing maintained a policy of banning religion. The treaty of Nanjing allowed Western missionaries to preach in five trading ports in China. With the outbreak of the second Opium War and the signing of treaties such as the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Beijing, missionaries gained the privilege to practice freely throughout China, and members of various Christian missions entered mainland China successfully. The Boxer Movement affected the northwest, and the missionaries from the mainland withdrew to the safety of the east coast with the cooperation of the foreign diplomatic agencies and the Chinese government. After the end of the Boxer Move51

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ment, missionaries returned to the northwest in 1901. After a recovery period of several years, missionary activity in the mainland once again began to develop. Like the ancient Catholic missionaries in China, the approach of modern Chinese Christian missionaries to Muslims was influenced by the global Christian missionary movement. In April 1906, the first conference of missionaries in the Islamic world was held in Cairo, Egypt. This event marked the beginning of a new chapter of the Christian world’s missionary activity toward Muslims. The conference report and missionary literature adopted by the conference clearly emphasized the unity, opportunity, and necessity of missionary tasks in different Muslim regions. At the conference, Rev. W. Gilbert Walshe, a pastor of the Christian Society for China, submitted a report, “Islam in China”, in which he asserted that Christian missionaries were more likely to approach Chinese Muslims than Muslims in other countries. Overall, however, Christian missionary work directed at Chinese Muslims was not very successful. Influenced by the Cairo Conference, the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh in 1910 put the issue of Muslims on the agenda. To promote the Christian missionary movement towards Muslims in China, Samuel M. Zwemer (1867–1952), the first committee president, invited Marshall Broomhall (1866– 1937), a missionary of the Mainland Church, to write the book Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. Zwemer proposed that there were between five and ten million Muslims in China – equivalent to the population of Scotland or Ireland, and maybe as many as the total population of Egypt or Persia. After the meeting, Zwemer also founded the journal, Muslim World, and magazines aimed at promoting the movement. In January 1911, the second Islamic World Missionary Conference was held in Achkan, India. Hebert F. Rhodes (1867–1943), of the Inland Mission, attended the conference on behalf of missionaries in China and submitted a report. In the summer of 1917, Zwemer’s visit to China aroused the interest of the Chinese Christian community in the Muslim Missionary Movement, which directly promoted the establishment of a special organiza-

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tion to preach to the Hui ethnic group, marking a centralization in the approach to preaching to Muslims. In this context, missionaries based on the mainland were becoming more interested in Muslim missionary work. From 1910 onwards, the official journal of the Mainland Society, China’s Millions, regularly published news regarding Muslims. In 1915, four mainland missions focused on Muslim communities. Following their lead, China’s missionary movement toward Muslims gradually developed, and the relatively remote and backward northwest region – the most concentrated area of Muslim settlement – also attracted more attention from missionaries. In 1927, most missionaries of the Northwest China Association were ordered to withdraw to the east. Although activity targeting northwest Muslims did not stop – thanks to the efforts of Chinese Christians and missionaries who remained in the region – momentum was weakened. In 1928, missionaries returned to the northwest, and new missionary centers continued to emerge, ushering in the prosperous period for missionary work focusing on Muslims in the northwest. Between 1927 and 1935, two significant events happened in the northwest. Firstly, two new provinces were set up in what was Gansu Province. The former Gansu Province was divided into three provinces: Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai. Gansu Province was gradually fell under the control of central government, but some areas were separated by the Hui warlords. Ningxia and Qinghai were once controlled by the national army led by Feng Yuxiang; however, with the failure of the national army in the Central Plains War, it soon fell into the hands of the Hui army. Simultaneously, although Gansu Province was divided into three parts, its inland affairs remained integrated, but its name changed from Gansu Dihui to Gan Ning Qing Inland Association, and the director of the inland association remained in Lanzhou. The second significant event was the Ma Zhongying incident, a Muslim uprising which affected the missionary activities towards the northern Muslims on the mainland. During the uprising, a small group of Muslims in Hezhou was forced to disperse, and the hospital in Hezhou was destroyed, and the mission took

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over evangelist work in the area. According to an article written in 1937 by Claude L. Pickens (毕敬士), Secretary of the China Muslim Association, the Mainland Association held a leading position in the field of China’s Muslim education. Despite their strong position at the time, missionary activities with northwest Muslims were on the decline. In 1936, missionaries in the mainland region were forced to withdraw from Xinjiang, marking the beginning of the decline of their activities. As a result, some missions were left unstaffed. For example, in the Gan Ning Qing area, in 1941, there were five missions without missionaries, and in 1944, there were ten missions without missionaries. In this case, although the missionary engagement with the northwest Muslims was vigorously maintained, nevertheless it was in gradual decline. After the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the civil war between the Kuomintang and the Communist party, the establishment of New China, and other events came successively. The Mainland Association found itself in an increasingly unfavorable situation and, finally, it had to choose to withdraw actively, bringing missionary activity toward northwest Muslims to an end. 1

2 STUDIES BY FRENCH AND GERMAN SCHOLARS

In Part One, I introduced the establishment of the Society of Jesus and the academic activities preceding the 20th century. At the start of the 20th century, during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, the southeast pastoral area of Zhili was severely damaged. However, Catholics in Zhili (Hebei) grew in number even more rapidly after this conflict. Before 1925, two Catholic universities in China were founded by Jesuits. In 1903, Zhendan University was founded in Shanghai, and Tianjin Business School was established in 1922. After 1925, there were three Catholic universities in China (only Liu Jinhua, 2012, “Study on The Missionary Work by The China Inland Mission to Moslems in Northwest of China (1876–1951)”, Doctoral Dissertation, Central China Normal University. 1

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Fu Ren University was set up in Beijing, founded by the Benedictine Church, and soon taken over by the Oratory Church). In the field of European Orientalism, French research on the Islam of the Chinese Hui people has been very successful. 2.1 Edouard Chavannes

Edouard Chavannes (1865–1918) made remarkable achievements in sinology, history, literature, and epigraphy in France. He interpreted a large number of ancient sources, especially inscriptions and manuscripts, and produced an impressive research corpus, which included work on Chinese Islam and Muslims. Chavannes graduated from the École Normale Supérieure and specialized in philosophy. He was attracted to Chinese philosophy after finishing his paper on the natural metaphysics of Kant; he arrived in Beijing in 1889 and entered the French Embassy in China. Henceforth, he began to translate Sima Qian’s Shiji (史记 – Records of History). The following year, he published a French version of the 28th Volume of Fengchan Shu (封禅 书). In 1893, Chavannes returned to Paris as a professor of the French Academy. Later, he participated in a tour of the Buddhist holy land. Meanwhile, the records of investigation into the history and geography of Central Asia by Europeans from the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century were compiled. In 1897, Chavannes wrote about the ancient stelae in Orkhon. This was an inscription in the languages Uighur and Han called the Nine Surnamed Uighur Khan Monument (九姓回鹘可汗碑). He further demonstrated that the history of the introduction of Manichaeism to the Uighurs was not recorded in the Muslim records of the Nine Surnamed Uighur Khan Monument. Additionally, from the study of the Uighur and Juyongguan inscriptions (居庸关碑 铭), he identified the difference between Dangxiang writing in the Western Xia dynasty (西夏党项文字) and Nuzhen writing in the Jin dynasty (金代女真文字). From 1898 to 1900, CharlesEudes Bonin sent an emissary to the east to bring back a batch of rubbings, including the inscriptions of Dunhuang, Kuqa, regions of the Hexi and Central Asian countries. Chavannes pro-

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duced a lot of translations and textual research for this purpose, and deepened his study of the western (Uighur) regions. Edouard Chavannes maintained a research relationship with Henri d’Ollone. From 1906 to 1909, the mission led by Henri d’Ollone made a long journey to far-western China, to investigate non-Han areas such as that of the Hui Muslims. They started out from Hanoi (河内), passing through Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Shanxi, and Mongolia, before finally arriving in Beijing. The inscriptions discovered on this trip were very precious, and included the tombstones of Songpan ( 松 潘 墓 碑 ), Chengdu Mosque, Mataishi ( 马 太 师 ), Mayuiting (马雨亭) and Saidianchi (赛典赤) in Yunnan, all of which have an important relationship with Islam. After returning to France, d’Ollone collaborated with other scholars and later published three related works: Recherches sur les musulmans chinois (Chinese Islam Studies) (Paris, E. Leroux, 1911); Écritures des peuples non chinois de la Chine (Chinese Minority Characters) (Paris, E. Leroux, 1912); Langues des peuples non chinois de la Chine (The Language of Chinese Minorities) (Paris, E. Leroux, 1912). The first book reported on the history, population, and community life of Muslims in Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Xinjiang, Beijing, Guangdong, and other places in the early part of the 20th century. It also revealed important inscriptions such as the Songpan and Saidianchi tombstones of the Chengdu Mosque, collected 36 kinds of Chinese Islamic works, and translated and analyzed some selected Islamic works. In 1910, Chavannes wrote an article about the epitaphs of two Turkic princesses, which was a continuation of his previous research on Turkic history. Chavannes trained a number of young sinologists, including Paul Pelliot and Henri Maspero. Victor Segalen, another student of Chavannes, was a poet and artist with a strong interest in sculpture. He completed two long-distance archaeological voyages in China. From 1909 to 1910, setting out from Beijing with the writer Gilbert de Voisins, he passed through Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Guangxi, Guangdong, and finally arrived in Hong Kong. In 1914, he again left Beijing to visit Luoyang, Xi’an, Sichuan, and Yunan, this time travelling with Jean

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Lartigue. The historical materials they collected included many inscriptions relating to Islam and Muslims. The First World War resulted in the stagnation of French research on Chinese inscriptions, though museums and libraries in Paris continue to hold around 7000 different Chinese items. These include engravings and also some items that are thought to be forgeries. 2.2 Paul Pelliot

Paul Pelliot (1878–1945), a world-famous French sinologist, majored in English at the University of Paris, and then studied Chinese at the French Sinology Center, specializing in the history of oriental languages. He studied with Edouard Chavannes and devoted himself to Chinese studies. Equipped with fluent Chinese language skills and a rich knowledge of the country’s history and culture, Pelliot was active in Gansu and Xinjiang during the period 1906–1908. He carried out an extensive investigation of the Kashgar area in Xinjiang, Dekuzisa in Kuqa Tumushuke and the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes in Gansu. He led an archaeological expedition to Xinjiang and arrived at Dunhuang in 1908, where he combined his profound knowledge of sinology and archaeology in his examination of the caves. More than 6000 documents of all kinds were stolen from the Mogao Grottoes of Dunhuang by Pelliot. Additionally, more than 200 paintings and banners of the Tang dynasty were discovered, including fabrics, woodwork, wooden movable-type printing fonts, and other instruments. Pelliot’s sinology research was profound, encompassing many works on language and characters, archaeological art, religious culture, east-west transportation, and frontier history and geography. Later, he devoted himself to the study of Mongolian Yuan history. His works predominantly appeared in academic journals such as the Hanoi Far East Journal and the Asian Journal. According to the statistics of German scholar Hartmann Wallavens’ Catalog of Pelliot and His Life and Works, by 1905, Pelliot had completed more than 100 works, book reviews, and

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papers in just five years. Although the works are collations and translation notes of ancient Chinese documents, by introducing book reviews he greatly exceeded the scope of standard academic papers. In the European sinology community, the study of book catalogs is a noted means of acquiring knowledge. After 1900, Pelliot went to China to purchase books. He reviewed Henri Cordier’s Catalogue of Chinese books engraved by the Westerners in China in the 17th and 18th centuries (L’imprimerie sino-européenne en Chine : bibliographie des ouvrages publiés en Chine par les européens au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle), Maurice Courant’s Catalogue of Chinese, Korean and Japanese books in the National Library (Bibliothèque Nationale, Département des manuscrits. Catalogue des livres Chinois, Coréens, Japonais, etc). Pelliot supplemented the sub-items and versions of new books, and corrected mistakes and omissions. In 1933, Pelliot and Henri Cordier published the “Review of European Publishing Bibliography in China in the 17th and 18th centuries”, adding the Chinese translation of the books written by missionaries in China, including Catholic missionary books, astronomy, maps, calendars, and other works. 2.3 Other French Orientalists Arnold Jacques Vissière

Arnold Jacques Vissière (维希尔), a famous sinologist, published his main work, the two-volume Études sino-mahométanes” (Chinese Muslim Studies) in 1911. This includes his collection of Islamic inscriptions, the introduction of Chinese Islamic literature, and his notes on Chinese Islamic history and civilization. Vissière’s additional works on Islam in China are as follows: Soumission des Tribus Musulmanes du Turkestan par la Chines (1757~1759, 1910) (The Obedience of Turkestan Muslims to China), Recherches sur les Musulamans Chinois (1911) (Chinese Muslim Studies), and Les Musulmans Chinois et la Republique: Littérature Islamique Chinoise (1927) (Chinese Muslims and the Republic: Islamic literature in China). The latter is a work of the

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same title published under the name of Aolong, but it is generally believed that Vissière is the author of the book. Darby de Thiersant

Darby de Thiersant (梯尔桑) was a professional diplomat, serving as Consul General of France in Shanghai, Wuhan, and other places. In August 1878, the following two-volume book was published: Le Mahométisme en Chine (Muslims in China – Mahométisme is sometimes translated as “Mohammedanism” instead of “Islam”, which reflects some Orientalists’ understanding of Islam at that time. They regarded Muhammad as the creator of Islam, so they adopted the word “Mohammedan”. However, this is typical Orientalism and there is a stigma attached to the term.) The first volume numbers 335 pages, discussing the history of Islam in China; the second volume, more than 500 pages long, details the teachings, beliefs, and cosmology of Islam in China. The title is characterized by rich information about Islam in China, as well as the Muslim uprising in Yunnan. Thanks to its level of detail, it has been used as the main source of information for much subsequent research. Examples of works inspired by de Thiersant’s include: British Orientalist E. Sell’s Essay on Islam (1896), which mainly related to de Thiersant; and American missionary H. V. Noyes’ 1889 paper entitled “Chinese Islam” published in The Chinese Recorder, which systematically introduced the history of Chinese Muslims to the missionaries in China. Georges Cordier

Georges Cordier (乔治·高德耶, 1872–1936) arrived in Vietnam in 1898. After studying Chinese and Chinese literature for several years in Hanoi, he left the city in 1908 and arrived in Yunnan. He opened a school of Chinese and French in Kunming and served as its principal until 1927. In his 20 years in Kunming, in addition to continuing his sinology research, Cordier also extensively studied the contemporary folk culture of Yunnan, providing a record of the local customs. Many of the precious documents studied by Cordier referred to Islam and Muslims. Cordier paid close attention to the Muslim uprising in Yunnan. Accord-

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ing to Chinese sources, his article “Révolte melamine au Yunnan” (1909) (Melamine Rebellion in Yunnan) revised Miloshi’s study of revolt. Cordier’s other main work is “Les Musulmans du Yunnan,” published in 1927, in which he wrote about the introduction of Islam in Yunnan, mosques, beliefs and customs, the relationship between Chinese Muslims and the pan Islamic movement, and, again, the Muslim uprising. 2.4 Martin Hartmann

In 1914 Martin Hartmann’s (哈特曼) The History of Islam in China (Zur Geschichte des Islam in China) was published. In 1921, Hartmann was included in Book 10 of the series Materials and Research on Geography and Culture. The book introduces the early relations between China and Arabia, the introduction of Islam into China, as well as the geographical, historical, and social conditions of China, including the religious factions of Muslims in the northwest, and the Qing government’s policies toward Muslims. In addition, the author also discusses the second half of the 19th century and issues during the Qing period, such as the Muslim policy, the sectarian struggle among Muslims, the northwest Muslim uprising in 1864, and the Gansu Muslim uprising in 1894. Hartmann’s main contributions to the study of Islam in China can be summed up as follows. First, he wrote some entries in the Encyclopedia of Islam concerning Muslims and Islam in China, relating to the introduction and development of Islam in China, as well as the outline of Chinese Muslim society in terms of gender relations, language and ethnic relations, trade, war, religious life and political life. This was the basis of his work The History of Islam in China (Zur Geschichte des Islam in China). 2 Second, Hartmann wrote Chinesisch-Turkestan: Geschichte, Verwaltung, Geistesleben und Wirtschaf (Chinese-Turkestan: HistoHartmann, Martin. China Encyclopedia of Islam. I. pp. 839–854, Zur Geschichte des Islam in China (on the History of Islam in China), Leipzig, Heims. 1921: pp. xxiv, 152). 2

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ry, Administration, Spiritual Life and Economy), an in-depth study of the religious classics used by Muslims in the Kashigar region of Xinjiang. This text is of great value when it comes to understanding the Islamic situation in Xinjiang at that time and is also favored by researchers in relevant fields. Hartmann’s study and writings on Islam in China belong to the era of European Orientalists, whose mode of thinking and expression of power discourse fall under the paradigm of Orientalism, permeated with the color of colonialism. Therefore, the Eastern scholars’ motivation for the study of Islam in China slightly differed from that of the missionaries, and was not characterized by some kind of missionary-like enthusiasm, but rather by their concern for their countries’ interests in China. Their system of discourse had a certain impact on the understanding and research of the missionaries.

3 SAMUEL M. ZWEMER AND THE MOSLEM WORLD 3.1 Samuel M. Zwemer

Samuel M. Zwemer was born into a pastor’s family in America in 1867. In Europe and America, there has been relatively little research on Zwemer. Several papers focus on his relationship with the Arab and North African Muslim world, but little attention is paid to his relationship with China. For instance: John Hubers, 2004, “Samuel Zwemer and the Challenge of Islam: From Polemic to Hint of Dialogue”, International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 28, No.3 (July). p. 117. This paper summarizes that the attitude of Zwemer toward Islam changed after the First World War, moving, as the title suggests, from “debate” to “dialogue”. J. Christy Wilson, 1996, “The Apostle Islam: The Legacy of Samuel Zwemer”, International Journal of Frontier Missions, Vol. 13:4(Oct–Dec.), pp. 163–167.

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This article introduces Zwemer’s life and his missionary experience in Arabia, as well as his investigations in China. Bassam M. Madany, “Samuel M. Zwemer: Defender of Apostolic Missions” (www.unashamedofthegospel. org). Thomas S. Kidd, 2008, American Christian and Islam: Evangelical Culture and Muslims from the Colonial Period to the Age of Terrorism (Princeton University Press.) The fourth chapter of this book is devoted to the important role of Zwemer in evangelism among Muslims in America. Three aspects stand out: First, he was active in the Muslim world all year round. Second, he was the first American to systematically organize evangelical material targeting Muslims. Third, he was an influential scholar of Islamic issues. In his book, Kidd presents a brief introduction to Zwemer’s thinking. Ho Wai-Yip, 2010, “Samuel Zwemer in China: Exploration of China’s Early Christian-Muslim Encounters in the Modern Period,” (Symposium on the status, development, and dialogue of Islam and Christianity in China, Hong Kong Jiandao Theological Seminary.) Ho Wai-Yip believes that Zwemer introduced Chinese Muslims in remote areas to Christian and Islamic studies. He believes that Zwemer’s research on Islam in China broke through the limitations of “Han Culture” under the guidance of China’s central view, and gradually realized the importance of different traditional moral concepts and diaspora processes in remote areas of China among non-Han people. In China, several papers have discussed Zwemer’s relationship with Chinese Islam and Muslims: Liu Jihua, 2010, “Zwemer and Christian Church Missionary Actives among Chinese Muslims – Focus on Zwemer’s Travel in Northwest China in 1933,” Journal of Beifang Ethnic University, No.6, pp. 51– 57. (刘续华: “知味墨与基督教教会在中国穆斯林中的

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宣教活动-以 1933 年知味墨西北治行为中心的探讨” 北方民族大学学报, 2010 年 6 期, 51–57 页.) Zhang Chunying, 2011 “Samuel M. Zwemer and Missionary Work Among Chinese Moslems,” Masters thesis, Central China Normal University. (张春 英 “知味墨与中国基督教的穆斯林宣教事业,” 华中师 范大学硕士学位论文.) Fan Jing, 2014, “The Moderation of Samuel M. Zwemer’s Islamic Critique and its Evangelical Effect” Qinghai Journal of Ethnology, Vol. 25, No.4, Oct., pp. 184–188. (樊静: “论基督教传教士字威默对伊斯兰的 认识转变及其影响,” 青海民族研究, 25 卷, 4 期, 2014, 184–188 页.) Fan Jing, 2018, “A study on the recognition of missionaries to Muslims in mainland China and their missionary activities in the Republic of China – centered on the English Quarterly “Muslim world” (1911–1947), doctoral dissertation, Shaanxi Normal University. (樊静: “民国时期来华传教士对中国内地 穆斯林的认识及传教活动研究—以英文季刊 “穆斯林 世界” 为中心 (1911–1947),” 博士论文, 陕西师范大 学, 2018 年.) In 1906, Zwemer oversaw the Cairo Conference in Egypt – the first Christian conference to preach to the Islamic world. In 1910, Zwemer presided over the universal missionary conference in Edinburgh, the Edinburgh Conference. The conference decided to set up the Journal of the Muslim World, with Zwemer as its editor in chief. In January 1911, Zwemer held the second session of the general assembly of preaching to the Islamic world in India, namely the Rakkan Conference, and became the leading preacher in the Arab world. In 1911, the Journal of the Muslim World was founded by Zwemer. At this time, Western studies of Islam in China were beginning to occupy a very important position in academic history. From 1911 to 1949 the journal published nearly 133 articles about Chinese Muslims, including missionary strategies

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among Chinese Muslims, history, and details of the current situation and population of Chinese Muslims. Zwemer compiled 12 representative papers of the Cairo Conference in The Mohammedan World of Today. Among them was a special introduction to Chinese Islam, including its history, its adherents’ living practices and social customs since the Tang dynasty, and the differences between Chinese Muslims and Muslims elsewhere in the world. At the 1910 Edinburgh Conference, Zwemer again stressed that the Christian Church should not ignore the Chinese Muslim community and called on more churches to preach the gospel to Chinese Muslims. His enthusiasm for preaching to Chinese Muslims greatly encouraged a group of missionaries to visit China and devote themselves to the cause. This group included, among others, G. Findlay Andrew, Mark Botham, Marshall Broomhall, Isaac Mason, Claude L. Pickens, M. G. Griebenow, and Jr. F. W. Martin Taylor. In 1917, Zwemer visited China for the first time and established the Special Committee for Muslim Work to study Islam in the China Continuation Committee, marking the official start of missionary work aimed at Chinese Muslims. The Committee had three objectives: firstly, to investigate the population and distribution areas of Muslims and map them; secondly, to issue Chinese Christian and Arabic leaflets and books, including the Koran, for Muslims; and thirdly, to draw attention to the importance of Muslim missionary work in China. At the Lanzhou missionary conference, which Zwemer attended during his visit to China, it was suggested that bilingualism (Arabic and Chinese) should be used in missionary texts. Unnecessary offense to Muslims should be avoided. In 1926, although the Special Committee for Muslim Work was dissolved, a group of missionaries in China who remained interested in working with Muslims established a new organization in Shanghai in 1927: the Society of the Friends of Moslems in China. In 1936, Zwemer – then teaching on the history of Religion and Christian missionaries at Princeton Theological Seminary – revisited China. The archives of Yanjing Society Library of Har-

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vard University still hold a large number of pictures taken by Zwemer while he preached. Several pictures show the discussion of Islam and Christianity with Muslims in the mosque of Huajue Lane in Xi’an.

Zwemer’s lifelong pursuit was his devotion to missionary work with Muslims in the Arab world. His publications include: Samuel M. Zwemer, 1917, “Chinese and ChineseArabic Islamic classics catalog” (斯维默的 “汉文和 汉文 – 阿拉伯文伊斯兰教经典文献目录” (1917 年)) Samuel M. Zwemer, 1918, “Chinese Muslim Literature” (奥基勒维的 “中国穆斯林文献” (1918 年)) Samuel M. Zwemer, 1934, “The Fourth Religion of China,” The Moslem World, Vol. 24, No.1, pp. 8. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1918, “Islam in China,” The Moslem World, Vol. 13, No.1, pp. 1–4. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1918, “A Chinese Moslem Primer,” The Moslem World, Vol. 8, No.1, pp. 7. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1900, Arabia: The Cradle of Islam, New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1902, Raymund Lull, First Missionary to the Moslems, Funk & Wagnalls. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1905, The Moslem Doctrine of God. New York: American Tract Society. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1906, The Mohammedan World of Today, New York Chicago, Fleming H. Revell Company. Samuel M. Zwemer, Annie Van Sommer, 1907, Our Moslem Sisters, New York Chicago Toronto, Fleming H. Revell Company, London and Edinburgh. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1907, Islam: a Challenge to Faith. New York: Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions.

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ISLAM IN CHINA Samuel M. Zwemer, Arthur Judson Brown, 1908, The Nearer and Farther East: Outline Studies of Moslem Lands, and Siam, Burma, and Korea, The Macmillan Company. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1911, The Unoccupied Mission Field of Africa and Asia, New York: Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1911, Our Book Table, The Chinese Recorder, (2). Samuel M. Zwemer, Annie Van Sommer, 1911, Daylight in the Harem: a New Era for Moslem Women, Edinburgh, and London, Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1915, Childhood in the Moslem World, New York Chicago, Fleming H. Revell Company, London and Edinburgh. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1920, The Influence of Animism on Islam: An Account of Popular Superstitions, Macmillan. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1920, A Moslem Seeker After God, New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1920, Call to Prayer, London: Marshall Brothers. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1920, The Moslem Christ, Edinburgh & London: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier. Samuel M. Zwemer,1926, Moslem Women, the Central Committee on the United Study of Foreign Missions West Medford, Mass. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1941, The Cross Above the Crescent, Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1946, The Allah of Islam and the God of Jesus Christ, Theology Today.

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Samuel M. Zwemer, 2003, The Glory of the Cross, Marshall, Organ & Scott, ITD. London and Edinburgh. Samuel M. Zwemer, 2004, Arabia, the Cradle of Islam, New York Chicago Toronto, Fleming H. Revell Company. Samuel M. Zwemer, 2004, The Law of Apostasy in Islam, Marshall Brothers, London, Edinburgh & New York. Samuel M. Zwemer, 2007, C.G. Mylrea, Islam and Missions, Kessinger Publishing. Samuel M. Zwemer, 2012, Childhood in the Moslem World, Create Space Independent Publishing Platform. Samuel M. Zwemer, 2012, Disintegration of Islam, New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. The Moslem World (伊斯兰世界), an English publication, was founded by Zwemer with the Christian Church in Egypt in 1911. This was not the first journal to be dedicate to the study of Muslims and Islam, as Zwemer noted in his special introduction to the journal, 3 referring in particular to Revue du Monde Musulman and Der Islam. Both publications are devoted to the study of Islam. However, there was no English publication to introduce the current affairs, literature, and popular ideas of Islam. The Edinburgh Conference in 1910, after discussing this issue, deciding to start a Moslem World journal. Its full name is The Moslem World: A Quarterly Review of Current Events, Literature, and Thought among Mohammedans, and the Progress of Christian Mission in Moslem Lands. It became the longest lasting and most influential publication among missionary journals in the Muslim

3

S. M. Zwemer, 1911, Editorial, The Moslem World, Vol. 1 (January), p. 1.

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world. From 1911 to 1949, they published quarterly, covering papers, book reviews, and communications on Islam in China. The Moslem World was initially published by Egypt’s Nile Church Press for six years and later moved to New York in 1917 due to the First World War. It was published by Missionary Review Publishing until 1932. From 1933 to 1937, it was published by the Muslim World Press in New York. Since 1938, it has been published by the Harvard Seminary Foundation in New York. 3.2 About The Moslem World – the study of Chinese Islam

In addition to the direct contributions of missionaries, information about Chinese Muslims in The Moslem World also came from other sources, some of which were reprinted from journals founded in China or abroad, including the academic Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, China’s Millions, Hainan Newsletter, Friends of Moslems, and even the Muslim newspaper Yuehua. Other publications, including South Baptist, India Social Reformer, and Moslem originated from the translation of Chinese Islamic literature, which was represented by Pastor Isaac Mason of the Shanghai Broadcasting Society. The contents of the reprints include the teachings and codes of Islam, the general state of affairs of Muslims around the country, the customs and the development of Islam in the local area, and the history of Islam in China. Additionally, the contents encompass the methods, effects, existing problems and the attitude of Muslims to the gospel, and books on Muslim education, the influence of international Muslims and the development of Islam on China, Koranic research, and the revival movement of Chinese Muslims in the 1920s. The Moslem World focuses on Muslims in the Arabicspeaking world. West Asia, North Africa, and Southeast Asia are its main areas of interest. However, China, which is located in East Asia, is also an area of focus. Notably, in The Moslem World, in addition to the founding words published by Zwemer, the

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first article in the first issue pertains to the survey of the Muslim population in China written by Broomhall, who was active in Chinese Muslim public relations. 4 In The Moslem World, 133 articles relate to China. From 1916 to 1920, and from 1934 to 1936, there were 49 Chinesefocused articles, accounting for approximately 38% of the publication. In 1918, in a special edition reporting on Chinese Muslims, many articles about Chinese Muslims were published. This kind of intensive introduction to Chinese Muslims in The Moslem World was mainly due to the influence of Zwemer’s two visits to China in 1917 and 1933. (1) Evangelist literature was the most important tool for missionaries to penetrate deep into Muslim areas, and also the ultimate goal of The Moslem World. Therefore, The Moslem World published a large number of articles about how to preach among Chinese Muslims. Most authors of these articles were missionaries who were actively working with Chinese Muslims. Their practice played an important role in guiding readers. There were several ways of preaching: direct evangelical preaching, medical preaching, educational preaching, and literary preaching. Direct evangelical preaching involves missionaries preaching to individual Muslims, and was the method advocated by Zwemer. This is more effective than any other method for directly teaching Christianity to Muslims. Usually, the first place the missionaries would go was the mosque, trying to make the Ahon accept them. Generally speaking, in China, the attitude toward missionaries was very friendly regardless of whether or not the Ahon and other Muslims accepted Christianity. Medical preaching is a more effective method of public relations and education. China’s Muslim areas were remote and lacked various resources, especially medical resources. Medical

Marshall Broomhall, 1911, “The Mohammedan Population of China”, The Moslem World, Vol. 1, p. 32.

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missionaries, playing an important role, were most famously represented by George E. King of the China Inland Mission. 5 Educational sermons could be said to be a modern form of sermon, which often achieve the goal, but also have an unexpected impact. Educational sermons came from the understanding of the current state of education in Muslim areas. Most of the education in Muslim areas was along the lines of traditional Koranic education, and each mosque could be regarded as a school. Pupils studied Koranic scriptures and the teachings of Islam. After the revolution of 1911, a large number of Western ideas were introduced into China, with an accompanying modern curriculum. This impacted the old curriculum system of China, and the Muslim areas also changed. This shows that Chinese Muslims were receiving secular education as well as traditional church education. 6 Missionary work to Muslims paid special attention to writings, according to the different class and cultural levels of Muslims. Christian publications were also divided between those aimed at educated Muslims and those aimed at Muslims in general. The more profound Christian scriptures were for Muslims with a certain level of education, while some simple principles were published in pamphlets for ordinary Muslims. 7

George E. King, 1925, “Opening a Moslem Hospital in China”, The Moslem World. Vol. 15, p. 367. S. M. Zwemer, 1911, The Unoccupied Mission Field of Africa and Asia, Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions, New York, p. 103. 6 George K. Harris, 1935, “The Moslems of China Today”, The Moslem World, Vol. 25, p. 400. 7 F. G. Onley, 1941, “Literature in Chinese for Moslems”, The Moslem World, Vol. 31 (October). p. 421; Claude L. Pickens, 1939, “The Christian Church and Chinese Islam”, The Moslem World, Vol. 29S; S. M. Zwemer, The Law of Apostasy in Islam, Marshall Brothers. LTD, London, Edinburgh & New York, pp. 16–18; S. M. Zwemer, 1932, “Islam in North-west China Today”, The Friends of Moslem, (July), p. 42; Ku Ho-lin, 1936, “Why I am a Christian”, The Moslem World, Vol. 26, pp. 83–84. 5

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(2) A large number of articles about Chinese Muslims in The Moslem World were derived from the records of missionary visits to various Muslim areas. Field research on Muslims was conducted, and first-hand data relating to the general state of Chinese Muslims were obtained and passed on to the readers. The purpose was to provide data based on experience for later arrivals and arouse the missionaries’ interest in Muslims. During the field visits, the missionaries made general surveys of the population, geography, family status, religious belief, economic status, customs, and organization of Muslim areas. They also paid attention to public relations and the education situation in Muslim areas, including the distribution of missionary texts, the attitude of Muslims to missionaries, and the numbers of people suffering hunger. These findings, published in The Moslem World, were used as a reference for missionary work subjectively and have also provided rich supporting materials for the study of Islam in China objectively, although to some extent with Christian prejudice. Regardless, it is still a worthy source of reference. The articles published by Broomhall and Zwemer all considered the Muslim population in China more broadly. 8 Because of its special status among Chinese Muslims, Gansu also plays an important role in Muslim studies. Many wellknown missionaries visited Gansu and preached there. Mark E. Botham, a missionary active in Gansu Province, was recruited as a volunteer by the Muslim Committee in 1921. He was responsible for the extensive investigation of 28 Muslim centers in northern and central China and accomplished the task excellently. His report was published in the form of a two-part article: Mark E. Botham, 1923, “Modern Movement among Chinese Mohammedans,” The Moslem World, Vol. 13 (July); and Mark E. Marshall Broomhall, 1911, “The Mohammedan Population of China”, The Moslem World, Vol. 1, p. 32; S. M. Zwemer, 1914, “A New Statistical Survey”, The Moslem World, Vol. 2, p. 155; M. E. Botham, 1920, “Islam in Kansu”, The Moslem World, Vol. 10, pp. 377–388.

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Botham, 1924, “Chinese Islam as an Organism,” The Moslem World, Vol. 14 (July). The group that missionaries strove for most were Muslim women. They carried out many investigations on this group in the hope that more female missionaries could devote themselves to this neglected field. There are six articles pertaining to them in The Moslem World. 9 In addition to Muslim women, the most important aspect for missionaries was to visit mosques and communicate with the Ahon. According to articles published in The Moslem World, the Imam was very friendly to missionaries, who were shown around the mosque and presented with Arabic brochures; the Imam would also discuss certain doctrines with them. Imams were also interested in Christian pamphlets and asked missionaries for them. Some of them even visited churches to show their strong interest in the gospel. Of all the missionaries, the one who was most active in Peiping, Lyman Hoover, had the closest relationship with the mosque. 10 (3) The Moslem World was interested in the history of early Islam in China. In terms of the number of articles published, Isaac Mason and Claude L. Pickens of the Mainland Association produced the most contributions and in-depth research. 11

J. E. Thor, “The Moslem Women in Siandu”, The Moslem World, Vol. 8 (January 1918), p. 33; Olive M. Botham, “Moslem Women of China”, The Moslem World, Vol. 28, p. 360, 1938. 10 Matsumoto, 2005, translated by Ding Kejia, “Hu Laiming/Hu liman in the religious dialogue between Islam-Christianity and obituary in modern China”, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Zheng He’s voyages to the West and dialogue among civilizations. ( 松本真诚著, 丁克 家译 “现 代 中国伊一斯 兰 与基督 教和讣毕共处一宗 教对 话中的 胡籁 明 ·胡理 门”, “郑和 下西洋 与文 明对 话国际研讨会论 文汇编” 2005 年.) 11 Isaac Mason, 1929, “How Islam Entered China,” The Moslem World, Vol. 19 (July), p. 249; Claude L. Pickens, 1936, “Early Moslem Leaders in China,” The Moslem World, Vol. 26 (July), p. 232. 9

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(4) The Moslem World also considers the Chinese Islamic revival movement launched by Muslims in the early 20th century. Beginning in Peiping, the movement later expanded to major Muslim cities. Its focus was on the establishment of publications, the translation of the Koran, the opening of new schools and organizations, the strengthening of foreign exchanges, and the conduct of research. E.W, Thwing, Charles L. Ogilvie and H. D. Hayward were among those who provided key studies of these aspects. 12 These are the papers published in The Moslem World on Chinese Islam and Muslims: Marshall Broomhall, 1911, “The Mohammedan Population of China,” Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 32–53. “A Chinese Moslem’s Judgment on the Christ,” 1911, Vol. 1, No.3, pp. 342–343. Di. Agnes Cowan, 1912, “Moslems in Manchuria,” Vol. 2, No.4, pp441–442. “Islam in China,” 1913, Vol. 3, No.1, p. 85. L. V. Soderstrom, 1914, “The Mohammedan Women of China,” Vol. 4, No.1, pp. 79–81. Charles L. Ogilvie, 1914, “The Present Status of Mohammedanism in Peking,” Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 165–172. “Karkand as a Moslem Centre,” 1915, Vol. 5, No.1, p. 79. Robert. H. Glover, 1916, “Kansu, China, As a Strategic Moslem Center,” Vol. 2, No.1, pp. 89–90.

E. W. Thwing, 1917, “Islam in China Today,” The Moslem World, Vol. 7 (January), p. 76; Charles L. Ogilvie, 1916, “The Mohammedan Conference at Peking: 1916,” The Moslem World, Vol. 6 (April), pp. 302–303; H. D. Hayward, 1933, “Chinese-Moslem Literature: A Study in Mohammedan Education,” The Moslem World, Vol. 23 (October), p. 377.

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ISLAM IN CHINA James W. Inglis, 1916, “Islam in Manchuria,” Vol. 6, No.2, pp. 260–300. D. A. Gordon Harding, 1916, “Notes on the Moslems of S.E. Kansuh,” Vol. 6, No.4, pp. 422–423. George K. Harris, 1927, “Literature for Chinese Moslems,” Vol. 17, No.2, pp. 190–193. Mrs. J. E. Thor, 1918, “The Moslem Women of Sianfu, China,” Vol. 8, No.1, pp. 33–35. H. Frech Ridley, 1918, “News from Kansuh,” Vol. 8, No.2, pp. 196–197. “Islam in Hainan Island,” 1918, Vol. 8, No.4, pp. 428. George K. Karris, 1919, “Touring in Kansu,” Vol. 9, No.1, pp. 94–95. “The Moslems of Kansu,” 1919, Vol. 9, No.1, pp. 95–96. “Islam in Kaifeng,” 1919, Vol. 9, No.4, p. 426. James Hutson, 1920, “The Sz’chuan Moslem,” Vol. 10, No.3, pp. 251–261. Mark E. Botham, 1920, “Islam in Kansu,” Vol. 10, No.4, pp. 377–390. F. H. Rhodes, 1921, “A Survey of Islam in China,” Vol. 11, No.1, pp. 53–68. C. A. Gimblett, 1922, “The Moslems of Canton,” Vol. 12, No.2, p. 200. George W. Hunter, 1923, “Islam in Northwest China,” Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 203–205. “Moslem Women of Kansu,” 1923, Vol. 13, No.3, p. 410. L. H. Dudley Buxton, 1924, “Islam in Inner Mongolia,” Vol. 14, No.1, pp. 93–94.

3. 50 YEARS AFTER THE FOUNDING OF NEW CHINA Mark E. Botham, 1924, “A Saint’s Tomb in China,” Vol. 14, No.2, pp. 185–186. George K. Harris, 1925, “On the Borders of Tibet,” Vol. 15, No.2, pp. 164–167. Olive M. Botham, 1926, “Moslem Women of China,” Vol. 16, No.2, pp. 172–175. A. H. Francke, 1929, “Islam Among the Tibetans,” Vol. 19, No.2, pp. 134–140. George K. Harris, 1933, “Spiritual Results among Moslems in China,” Vol. 23, No.2, pp. 165–63. George K. Harris, 1933, “Northwest China – A Challenge for Today,” Vol. 23, No.2, pp. 228–35. A. C. Hanna, 1931, “The Panthays of Yunan,” Vol. 21, No.1, pp. 69–74. Mark E. Botham, 1931, “Moslem Names in Kansu,” Vol. 21, No.1, pp. 119–120. Lyman Hoover, 1933, “The Mosques of Peiping,” Vol. 23, No.1, pp. 84–85. George K. Harris, 1935, “The Moslems of China Today,” Vol. 25, No.4, pp. 399–403. Samuel M. Zwemer, 1934, “The Fourth Religion of China,” Vol. 24, No.1, pp. 1–12. Harold. D. Hayward, 1934, “The Kansu Moslems,” Vol. 24, No., pp. 68–80. George K. Harris, 1935, “The Moslems of China Today,” Vol. 25, No.4, pp. 399–403. Harold. D. Hayward, 1936, “The Han and Hwei in the Kansu-Sinkiang Marches,” Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 62–67. Mr. & Mrs. Martin Taylor, 1936, “A Visit to Moslems in Ningxia,” Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 87–88.

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ISLAM IN CHINA Marion. G. Griebenow, 1936, “Islam in Tibet,” Vol. 26, No.2, pp. 127–129. Claude L. Pickens, 1937, “A Journey through Northwest China,” Vol. 27, No.2, pp. 112–114. “Chinese Moslem Women,” 1937, Vol. 27, No.2, pp. 319–320. J. Hogetveit, 1938, “Islam in Manchukuo,” Vol. 1, No.3, pp. 310–311. Olive M. Botham, 1938, “Moslem Women of China,” Vol. 28, No.4, pp. 360–364. Paul. A. Contento, 1940, “Islam in Yunnan Today,” Vol. 30, No.3, pp. 292–294. Y.P. Met, 1941, “Stronghold of Muslim China,” Vol. 31, No.2, pp. 178–184. “A Lanchow Moslem Cooperative,” 1941, Vol. 31, No.4, pp. 422–423. “New Development in Sinkiang, China,” 1942, Vol. 32, No.2, p. 185. Robert H. Glover, 1943, “Islam in China,” Vol. 33, No.3, p. 228.

4 CHINA INLAND MISSIONARIES: GEORGE FINDLAY ANDREW AND MARSHALL BROOMHALL 4.1 George Findlay Andrew

The missionary George Findlay Andrew (安献令, 1887–1971) paid close attention to Muslim groups in China ever since his first visit to the country. After having studied in Oxford, he was appointed as a preacher by the British Inland Mission. In 1908, he visited China again, settled in Lanzhou Gansu Province, and engaged in evangelist activities. After witnessing the Muslim celebration of Eid al Fitr in Xining, Andrew became interested in the northwest Muslims and was long engaged in the observation and investigation of Islamic

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religion and society. In 1920, he compiled a report on the issue of Chinese Muslims at the annual meeting of the Inland Mission in London. In 1921, his book The Crescent in North-West China was published. From 1922 to 1924, Andrew assisted the Swedish geologist, archaeologist, and prehistoric researcher Johan Gunnar Anderson (1874–1960) who traveled to China for research and data collection in the fields of prehistory and archaeology. In 1931, he delivered a speech in New York on Chinese Muslims, and in the same year, he delivered another, entitled “Islam in NorthWest China Today”, to the Royal Society of Asia. In 1933, Andrew went to the border of Gansu and Tibet to conduct research. Later that year, he returned to England and displayed in London two volumes of the Koran from the Salar region of Qinghai Province which were more than 630 years old. He left China on the eve of the liberation of Shanghai in 1949. Later, he worked in education in South East Asia and elsewhere. In 1959, he and his family settled in Saskatoon, a city in south central Canada. Andrew’s book The Crescent in North-West China became another study of Islam in China (Islam in China: A Neglected Problem) after Marshal Broomhall (1866–1937). 13 Having strong repercussions in Western academic circles, it became one of the essential texts for Western studies of Islam in China. Andrew was assisted by many missionaries in the process of writing the book, including H. French Ridley, G. Rogers, and Marshall Broomhall – scholars studying Islam in China. The body of the book is divided into ten parts, described as follows. The first chapter pertains to the general situation of Islam in north-west China. The author points out that about 3 million Hui people lived in Gansu, accounting for one third of the Province’s total population. Although some areas had very few Muslim inhabitants, in many places the Muslim population exceeded the Han population, and most business in Gansu was in the George Findlay Andrew, 1921, The Crescent in North-West China, the Inland Mission of London. 13

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hands of Muslims. Because of the relationship of commercial interests, the contradiction between the Hui people and the Han people had been very deep. The second chapter relates to the origin of the Hui people. Using previous studies and practical investigation, the author concluded that Hui people in Gansu came from three backgrounds: namely, the Mongolian Hui, the Arab Hui, and the Salar Hui. Their ethnic origins and historical development are discussed in detail. The third chapter is about the characteristics of the Hui people. Andrew asserted that although the Hui lived in Gansu for a considerable time, they always maintained their religion. Their ethnic identity had formed its own cultural characteristics and customs, clearly different from those of the Han people. The fourth chapter encompasses Islam and religious practice. The author noted that imams played an important role in religious life, before introducing the Hui people’s “Wu gong” (al-Arkan al-Khmash, the Five Pillars of Islam) practices. He had personally witnessed religious activities such as the Xining Muslim Gorban Festival. The fifth chapter pertains to the Huihui factions, first explaining that the different factions in Huihui were the result of new ideas and religious practices brought back by those who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca. The author contended that the consequences of internal disputes were very serious, and not only caused great loss to the lives and property of ordinary Muslims but also resulted in some Muslims converting to other religions. The sixth chapter discusses the relationship between the Huihui and Han people. Andrew explained that Hui people were good at business, and then asserted that this was one of the most important factors in the relationship between the Hui and Han. Although Hui people believed in Islam, some were also influenced by traditional Chinese thoughts or customs. The seventh and eighth chapters relate to the revolt of the Huihui. The seventh chapter mainly analyzes the process and development of the Hui uprising in Tongzhi (同治) and Zuo Zongtang’s (左宗棠) suppression of the process of righteousness. The eighth chapter notes the origin, development, and suppression of the Hehuang (河湟) incident from 1895 to 1896. The ninth chapter records the situation of Huihui in the years before

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publication. The author asserted that since the founding of the Republic of China, Ma Anliang had become the governor of Gansu Province, and the Hui people in charge gained a high degree of authority. After Ma Anliang’s death, the Hui people in Gansu Province lost their political power; however, one Hui still held political influence in Gansu Province: Ma Yuanzhang, the leader of Zhehrenye. Chapter ten is about the church, mainly putting forward how to develop the gospel among Muslims in Gansu Province. In addition to the above content, the book includes several precious photos, mainly of the three Muslim communities in Gansu Province (Mongolian Hui, Arab Hui, and Salar Hui), along with photos of a mosque and Huihui officials (including Ma Anliang and Ma Fuxiang). Although the study of Islam in the domestic academic circle had not officially started – naturally did not cause widespread concern – the book attracted the attention of the Japanese academic community. Professor Zhihe Mian translated the book into Japanese and published it in 1941. In the late 1970s, the book attracted the attention of Western academics. Some scholars have begun a new round of Chinese Islamic studies based on G. Findlay Andrew’s works. 4.2 Marshall Broomhall

Marshall Broomhall, whose Chinese name is 海思波 (Hai Sibo), was a missionary of the British Inland Church. He was born in London in 1866 and his father worked as General Secretary of the China Inland Mission for almost 20 years. In 1890, after graduating from the University of Cambridge, Broomhall began work in the London office of the Mainland Association. In the same year, he was sent to China for missionary work. First, he studied Chinese in a language school in Anqing. A year later, he was sent to Taiyuan, Shanxi Province for public relations. In 1896, he was in charge of the missionary work around Shanxi. In 1900, according to the requirements of the Mainland Society, Broomhall returned to London to serve as Editorial Secretary, a position he held for 27 years. In addition, he was also responsible for teaching Chinese to missionaries in China. After the 1911

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Revolution, he paid a short visit to China. This could be said to be the beginning of Broomhall’s most productive period, during which he published intensively. In 1910, he was invited to participate in the Edinburgh Missionary Conference, during which he advocated the research and statistics of mission work in China. In 1891, Broomhall visited a mosque at the junction of Henan (河南) and Anhui (安徽) provinces for the first time, and was deeply impressed. He noted that the mosque was neat and without any idols, in sharp contrast to traditional Chinese temples. 14 In 1910, he published Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. This book became an essential text for Western scholars studying Islam in China. The book was reprinted in the UK in 1987. The Chinese translation of the book is 清真教 (qingzhen jiao). The book was translated by Tu Lexin (图乐新) and reprinted by the Ningxia Academy of Social Sciences in 1992. However, the translation does not have a good grasp of place names and terms, so scholars should be careful when quoting and referring to them. Islam in China: A Neglected Problem’s focus is the study of the spread of Christianity among Chinese Muslims. For Western missionaries, the book is an invaluable resource for the history of preaching to Chinese Muslims, and all aspects of Muslim life in China. Both Zwemer and John R. Mott, the leader of the missionary movement in the Christian world, spoke highly of the book: “This book marks a new stage in China’s missionary investigation and is the first book published in English in this field.” Since its publication, Islam in China has been considered highly significant by Western academics, who regard the book as essential to the study and understanding of Chinese Muslim culture. In researching the book, Broomhall traveled widely: he investigated the Central Plains and south-east coastal areas, especially Guangzhou and other places where the Hui and Han Marshall Broomhall, 1987, Islam in China: a Neglected Problem [M]. London: DARF Publishers Limited.

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peoples coexisted, and examined the similarities and differences between the two groups. In the process of compiling, Broomhall referenced a large number of relevant materials in English, French, German, Russian, and Turkish. Simultaneously, the author distributed more than 800 questionnaires in different regions. Although only about 200 questionnaires were recovered, these are precious materials. On this basis, it has formed the interpretation of Chinese Hui Muslims and their unique Islamic culture. The book is divided into two parts. The first half talks about the history of Chinese Muslims and the second discusses their current state of affairs. The historical part refers to the communication process between China and the Arab world and the early Muslim missionaries who came to China to preach; it also describes the Hui uprising in Yunnan and Northwest China at the end of the Qing dynasty. It includes a collection of many photographs of Chinese and Arabic inscriptions, especially at the mosque in Guangzhou. Of particular interest is the analysis, from an etymological perspective, of the meaning and formation of the term “Hui hui” (回回). In the second section, the modern material includes hundreds of communications between Broomhall and other missionaries in China, a collection of notes on missionaries’ experiences, research into the religious rituals at mosques around the country, and estimations of China’s Muslim population at the time. It also describes the way of life and religious beliefs of the Muslim communities. Much of the material is difficult to comprehend or discern, especially the photographs and rubbings of inscriptions. As the first published work on Hui Islam, its main value resides in its collection and preservation of many important materials. Examples include: materials from the first year of Tianbao (天宝元年); engraved stone tablets from the Xi’an huajue temple (西安化觉 寺); engraved stone tablets on the building of a mosque (创建清 真寺碑); Arabic literature; the stone tablet of the Hongwu holy edict (洪武旨碑); Daxueshiguang Mosque (大学习巷清真寺); the rubbings and inscriptions of the Qianlong Holy Edict (乾隆圣 旨碑) and Beijing’s Huihui Yingpuning Temple (北京回回营普宁 寺). One hundred years later, effectively identifying the mosques

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and discerning the inscriptions listed in the book is difficult. Beijing Huihuiying was built for the Uighurs in Xinjiang who were attached to Beijing. Puning Temple is related to Xiangfei (香妃). The mosque, which today is located opposite Xinhuamen in Zhongnanhai (中南海新华门), was destroyed in Yuan Shikai’s (袁世凯) time. However, photographs and rubbings of inscriptions have been completely preserved in Broomhall’s books. The mullah in the picture reflects the dress and image of the Xinjiang Uighur people. Nevertheless, after the formation of the Republic of China, these Uighur were assimilated into the Hui people. This book is the first to feature a comprehensive introduction to the history and current situation of Chinese Muslims. Since the book was based on both previous research and modern investigations, it represents the academic status and values of the time. Arguably, the book represents the pinnacle of Western studies on Hui Islam in China in the first half of the 20th century. However, there is one very obvious flaw to Broomhall’s book, which is the author’s evident Western political position and Christian missionary mentality. He made it clear that his works were written to preach to Chinese Muslims. 15 Marshall Broomhall also researched Chinese Muslim numbers and, accordingly, published “The Mohammedan Population of China.” 16 In this article, Broomhall summed up the total Muslim population of 21 provinces in China according to the data provided by the Chinese authorities. Broomhall questioned the data provided by Chinese Muslims because of their subjectivity and his suspicions of exaggeration; he also questioned the data provided by local government officials regarding Chinese Muslims because he feared they were not interested in the Muslim population; so the data were quite different. Broomhall wanted Marshall Broomhall, 1987, Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. London: Darf Publishers Limited. 16 Marshall Broomhall, 1911, “The Mohammedan Population of China”, The Moslem World, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 35–53. 15

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to try to come up with a more accurate number from an objective point of view, but even he admitted that the number could not be completely accurate. Broomhall not only investigated the data provided by Chinese officials but also Western writers’ summaries of the Muslim population in China. According to his survey and research, he listed the largest and smallest Muslim populations in China’s major Muslim provinces. Regardless of whether or not these data were more reliable than other data, he had an extensive knowledge and a rigorous academic approach. He believed that the total Muslim population in China was between one million and ten million. This article demonstrates that the author’s aim was to call on the missionaries to pay attention to the large number of Muslim communities in China and the cause of Muslim education in the country. However, the article has further significance as it provides precious data for modern researchers into Chinese Muslim demographics.

5 THE SOCIETY OF THE FRIENDS OF MOSLEMS IN CHINA AND FRIENDS OF MOSLEMS 5.1 The Society of the Friends of Moslems in China

The Society of the Friends of Moslems in China was founded on May 10, 1927 and was dissolved in 1951 when missionaries left China. It was a cross-sectarian organization, composed of missionaries who were interested in evangelizing Chinese Muslims in various Christian missionaries. This organization was specifically established by Protestant missionaries to focus on Chinese Muslims. In January 1927, the preparatory committee chaired by H. J. Molony (麦乐义) was held in Shanghai. The Preparatory Committee had 11 members, including Isaac Mason (梅益盛), H. J. Molony (麦乐义), Claude L. Pickens and Mrs. Pickens (比敬士 和夫人), J. Hodgkin (窦乐安), Zia Sung-Kao (谢颂羔), W. J. Drummond (董文德), H. T. Hodgkin (霍德进), Ma Feng-po (马逢 伯), Hsiung Hung-Chih, and C.K. Li.

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The committee planned to set up and publish the journal of the conference in 1927 and decided to hold a founding conference in Shanghai in May of the same year to announce the establishment of the Society. Molony was elected chairman, Pickens as secretary, and Mrs. Pickens as journal editor. The committee decided to hold an annual meeting in Shanghai. In May 1928, at the second annual meeting in Shanghai, the articles of the Society of the Friends of Moslems in China were submitted and adopted. The constitution further emphasized the purpose of the Society, set out the requirement for Christians to establish friendly exchanges with Muslims, and called on Chinese and foreign workers to cooperate to carry out the work of evangelizing Muslims. In addition to spreading the gospel, the Society of the Friends of Moslems in China was also responsible for the study of Chinese Islam. In 1933, Samuel M. Zwemer, a missionary with rich experience of working among Muslims, was invited by the Muslim People’s Association to visit China. He gave speeches on various aspects of Islam in different regions of China. His speech aroused the interest of the members of the communication society into the study of Islam in China. Later, the Society gradually formed numerous study groups. Before the SinoJapanese War, a library was also set up by the Muslim People’s Association, which made it more convenient and easier to study Islamic issues in China. 5.2 Friends of Moslems

Friends of Moslems is the English-language journal of the Society of the Friends of Moslems which was jointly founded by Protestant missionaries. Its main aims were to convey information and exchange work. Through the platform of Friends of Moslems, Chinese and international missionaries who were interested in the work of evangelizing Muslims could learn about the progress of mission work and exchange their experiences. It was the main publication of the authors’ research institute and also provided important historical data on the encounters between Christianity and Islam in modern China. To attract the interest of Chinese missionaries, a Chinese-language version of

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the quarterly was issued from 1936, but due to language difficulties and printing complications, it was only published for three years and closed in 1938. From its founding in 1927, the Society of the Friends of Moslems’ development was relatively stable. But in 1937, when Japan launched declared war, many of the Society’s members left China. After the fall of Wuhan, the Society’s Hankou headquarters ceased to exist, and the work of the communication meeting was affected. After victory over the Japanese in 1945, the Society’s committee members held a meeting in Chongqing and gradually resumed their work. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, due to ideological differences, most missionaries returned to China, and the Muslim People’s Association was dissolved in 1951. In the same year, Friends of Moslems also regretfully announced the end of the work of the Society of the Friends of Moslems in China. 5.3 Claude L. Pickens

Claude L. Pickens was born in 1900 in America. He later became a missionary of the China Inland Mission (CIM). In 1923, he graduated from the University of Michigan. Two years later, he married Elizabeth, the daughter of Samuel M. Zwemer. In 1926, he and his wife were sent to China by the CIM, first arriving in Nanjing. Pickens began to evangelize Chinese Muslims because of the influence of Zwemer and early missionary Isaac Mason. In 1927, Pickens joined the Society of the Friends of Moslems in China in Shanghai and served as Secretary. His wife, Elizabeth, was in charge of the editing and publishing of the quarterly journal Friends of Moslems. In 1937, the Society moved its office to Hankou, and the couple subsequently moved there. In 1933 and 1936, Pickens visited Muslim communities and cities in China, taking many photographs, keeping a diary, and, therefore, generating a lot of precious research material. From 1937 to 1938, because of the war, he left Hankou to serve in the Philippines. In 1939, he returned to China. Unfortunately, during the Second World War, the family of the reverend was taken hostage by the Japanese. After being rescued in 1942, he re-

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turned to America. Following the war, the family went to China once again and remained until 1950. Visiting communities in person, Pickens made a detailed investigation of the Muslim settlements in China. Meanwhile, he carried out extensive research on the development of Islam in China and published a number of articles. Pickens studied the historical relationship between Christianity and Islam in China. In The Moslem World, Pickens published an article on Christianity and Islam in China. 17 He believed that Christianity and Islam spread to China almost simultaneously. During the period from the Tang dynasty to the Yuan dynasty, Christianity and Islam shared the same fate. In the Tang period, followers of the two religions, as foreign groups, both suffered persecution from several generations of Tang Emperors. During the Kublai Khan period of the Yuan dynasty, foreign religions were allowed to enter China freely. China’s Muslims gained an important position with the Chinese emperor, some of whom served as government officials. Pickens found that, in the Ming period, the fates of Christianity and Islam were very different. The Chinese government’s peaceful attitude toward Christianity ended with the coming of the Ming dynasty, and within a few years, all traces of Christianity were eliminated. Islam spread rapidly during this time, however, and engraved stone tablets in many mosques reflect the favor of the Ming government towards Islam at that time. In the next century, Pickens found that most Protestant missionary activity in China was recorded in Christian journals, such as Chinese Repository 中 国 丛 报 , The Chinese Recorder 教务杂志, Friends of Moslems 穆斯林之友, The Moslem World 穆斯 林世界, and China’s Millions 亿万华民. When missionaries arrived in western Yunnan, Shaanxi, and Gansu, they evidently felt overwhelmed by the powerful Muslim presence. Although

Claude L. Pickens, 1939, “The Christian Church and Chinese Islam”, The Moslem World, Vol. 29.

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they tried to get close to them, there is little evidence that missionaries had won over the Muslim Sakai in China. Pickens’ research on the academic history of Chinese Islam was mainly concentrated in his article “Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China”. 18 In his opinion, Chinese religious books either did not attach importance to Islam, regarding it as nothing more than a historical reference, so research in this field is not particularly rich. In the eyes of Pickens, Broomhall’s Islam in China: A Neglected Problem 19 was the best English book about Islam in China at that time, comprehensively collecting relevant Englishlanguage materials. These materials mainly came from the collection of the Church of the Mainland of China. Since the missionaries of the Church of the Mainland were concentrated in the places where Chinese Muslims lived, the works of Broomhall reflected the attitude of Protestant missionaries toward Chinese Muslims, and they advocated spreading the gospel to Muslims. This work also made an enduring contribution to the study of Islam for later generations. According to Pickens, the longest and most comprehensive work of this kind is Islam in China written by French scholar Darby de Thiersant. As a French consul, de Thiersant completed his works using source material from Roman Catholic missionaries, but he lacked the academic vision to make full use of the materials. He believed that Islam in China would eventually come to an end. In addition to these general studies, Pickens also found that some scholars had conducted in-depth research on one aspect of Islam in China. For example, based on his rich knowledge of Chinese Muslims, Mason wrote: “Chinese Mohammedanism.” 20 Claude L. Pickens, 1948. “Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China”, Friend of Moslems, pp. 3–6. 19 Marshall Broomhall, 1987, Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. London: Darf Publishers Limited. (Marshall Broomhall, London, Morgan & Scott Ltd., 1910.) 20 Mason, Isaac, 1919, “Chinese Mohammedanism”, Chinese Recorder, pp. 176– 187, 242–247. 18

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Pickens found that since the 1930s, Chinese scholars had also begun to study Chinese Islam, adopting a modern approach. Examples include Fu Tongxian’s History of Chinese Islam (傳统先 “中国回教史”), Jin Jitang’s Study of Chinese Muslim History (金吉 堂 “中国回教史研究”), and Bai Shouyi’s Outline of Chinese Islamic History (白寿彝 “中国伊斯兰史纲要”). The authors of these books are Muslims. Each book has a rich bibliography, including references in Chinese and foreign languages. However, Pickens pointed out that none of the three authors was interested in when Islam was introduced into China. Pickens also conducted research on the situation of Chinese Muslims during this period, publishing: “Early Moslem Leaders in China,” 21 and “China and Arabia before the Tang Dynasty.” 22 The latter is a reflection on the relationship between the Arab region and China in the Tang Dynasty. In terms of the study of the development and spread of Islam in China, Pickens divided the relevant research results into three periods: before the Yuan dynasty; the Yuan dynasty and the Ming dynasty; and the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Pickens found that scholars’ research on the development of Islam in China during the Yuan and Ming dynasties focused more on the relationship between China and Arabia during this period. He found they were also very interested in the history of Muslims entering China through trade and the mosques built in China during this period. Pickens noted that during the Qing dynasty, the relationship between Muslims and the Chinese government changed considerably and was no longer as harmonious. Scholars’ research also had focused on the Muslim uprising.

Pickens. C. L., 1936, “Early Moslem Leaders in China”, The Moslem World, Vol. 26, pp. 232–239. 22 Pickens. C. L., 1942, “China and Arabia before the Tang Dynasty”, The Moslem World, Vol. 32, pp. 195–211. 21

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Farrer studied the insurgency in northwest Gansu and central Xinjiang. His research provided an important source for the study of the confrontation between Muslims and the Chinese government in the Qing period. 23 Pickens wrote two articles introducing the influential Muslims in the Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties respectively, hoping to address certain questions through the study of these characters, such as why Islam flourished in China in the Ming period while Christianity was suppressed. 24 These two articles drew on relevant Chinese-language materials and found that these rebellions were also mentioned in the chronicled documents of China, such as Sheng Wu Ji 圣武记, Ping Hui Jilu 平回记略, General Examination of Qing Dynasty Documents 清朝文献通考, Real Record of Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty 大清高宗纯皇帝实录, and others. These were an important reference for understanding the role of the Qing emperor in these rebellions. Chinese documents, such as the General Plan of Pacifying Shanxi Gansu Xinjiang 平定陕甘新疆回匪方略, the Records of Guangxu 光绪平回记, the Biographies of the Qing Dynasty 清史列传, and the General Survey of Qing Dynasty Documents 清朝文献通考 recorded the Muslim uprising and the Qing government’s suppression activities in the north-west China throughout the whole century. This was important for later generations to fully understand the development of Islam in China from the Qing period to modern times. However, it is important to note that these documents mainly reflect the Qing government’s views on Islam. Pickens’ study pays careful attention to Western views and research of Chinese Islamic issues, and makes thorough use of the English-language materials he had at his disposal, providing Farrer. R., “The Moslem Problem in China”, Journal Royal Central Asian Society (JRCAS) pp. 59–72. 24 Pickens. C. L., 1936, “Early Moslem Leaders in China”, The Moslem World, Vol. 26, pp. 232–239. Pickens. C. L., 1942, “China and Arabia Before the Tang Dynasty”, The Moslem World, Vol. 32, pp. 195–211. 23

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a summary of Islamic studies during the period from the Tang dynasty to the Republic of China. As a comprehensive study, it provides an important understanding of Chinese Islamic studies in this period as a whole. Furthermore, both Isaac Mason and Pickens carefully studied the inscriptions of mosques in Xi’an and Yangzhou and published relevant articles in Friends of Moslems. 5.4 Isaac Mason

Isaac Mason (梅益盛) was a missionary sent to China by the British Friendship Mission Association, a Protestant sect introduced into China in 1886. Mason’s missionary activities began around 1892 in Sichuan, Chongqing, Suining, Tongchuan, and other regions in Western China. When he preached in Sichuan, Mason became acquainted with and befriended some local Muslims. Because most Muslims in Sichuan are mixed with Han people, and the worship of idols in the Han culture is contrary to the doctrine of the Koran, most Muslims cannot identify with the Han people in terms of belief culture. When Muslims in these areas discovered that the Christian faith of missionaries was also monotheistic, they tended to have positive sentiments towards them. Such observations and understanding ignited Mason’s enthusiasm for further understanding Chinese Islam and Hui Muslim society, as well as for preaching to Hui Muslims. In 1915, Mason was sent to the Christian Literacy Society for China to write evangelical books for Muslims. It was during his 1917 visit that Mason began to understand and study Hui Muslims in real depth. Mason began to collect and organize Chinese Islamic literature to help missionaries in China to gain a more comprehensive understanding of Islam in the nation and to promote the work of gospel writing for Muslims. He published the “List of ChineseMuslim Terms”. The Chinese Islamic terms, compiled by Mason and published by the Guangxue Society, were arranged from letter A to Z. 191 terms pertained to the transliteration of Islamic names and place names; 118 related to other Islamic terms. Mason also translated many Chinese Islamic documents influential among Hui Muslims, including “The Life of Mohammed” (天

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方至圣实录), “Sweet First Fruits” (穆民宗仰福音记), “Ghulam’s Renunciation” (重道轻财记), “Christ in Islam” (回经中的麦西哈), “Jesus Christ” (麦西哈尔萨), “The Forgiveness of Sin” (真主恕罪 法), and “Warning Against Intoxicants” (回圣对于酒毒之训词) in order to help missionaries and Western scholars to better understand and study Islam in China. In 1925, Mason published his Chinese Muslim Bibliography, collecting 318 books. In his later years, he completed his book Islam in New China, which not only covered Marshall Broomhall’s Islam in China: A Neglected Problem but also added research on Chinese Islam from the first visit of Zwemer to the year of Mason’s death. Unfortunately, the book was never published. From 1921 to 1945, Mason published 11 articles on the history of Islam in China, missionary activity, the translation of the Koran into Chinese, the latest Chinese Islamic books, and periodicals in China, as well as on popular Muslim reading material. His articles published in The Moslem World include an introduction to Chinese Islamic literature and Chinese Islamic publications. “Christian Literature for Chinese Moslems,” Vol. 10, No.2, 1920. “Arabian Stories for Chinese Readers,” Vol. 11, No.4, 1921. “Muslim Publications in Chinese,” Vol. 11, No.4, 1921. “Two Chinese Moslem Magazines,” Vol. 15, No.3, 1925. “How Islam Entered China,” Vol. 19, No.1, 1929. Mason, Isaac, 1929. “How Islam Entered China,” The Moslem World, Vol. 19, pp. 259–263. This paper introduces two most likely ways Islam entered China in the Muslim record, i.e., by sea to Guangzhou and by land to the north-west. Mason mainly studied three different theories on when Muslims arrived in China: the Sui dynasty in 586 A.D., the

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Tianbao era in 742 A.D., and the Yuan dynasty in 1352 A.D. The author rejected previous assertions, and believed that Islam’s first appearance in China should be traced back to China’s earliest commercial ties with Arabia, and that during the Tang and later dynasties Muslims strengthened and further developed ties. “Chinese-Moslem Chronology,” Vol. 22, No.1, 1932. “The Koran in Chinese,” Vol. 23, No.1, 1933. “A New Chinese Translation of the Koran,” Vol. 25, No.2, 1935. “Yet Another Chinese Translation of the Koran,” Vol. 25, No.3, 1935. “Moslem Chronology in China,” Vol. 27, No.3, 1937. “The Future of Islam in China,” Vol. 30, No.1, 1940. This list shows that Mason wrote many articles on the history and current circumstances surrounding Islam in China. Particularly during the 1920s and 1930s, he collected and organized a large number of Chinese Islamic translation documents. During this period, he also studied the development of influential contemporary books and magazines among Hui Muslims, including the Chinese translation of the Koran. Mason’s research helped missionaries and Western scholars to understand the history and current state of affairs of Islam in China, and promoted missionary work aimed at the Hui Muslims. Additionally, it provided precious research materials on the history of Islam in China, especially the translation of Chinese Islamic texts. Regarding the question of when Islam was introduced into China, Pickens referred to several of Mason’s articles on the issue. Mason’s “Chinese-Moslem Chronology”, 25 can be said to be 25

9.

Mason, Isaac, 1931, “Chinese-Moslem Chronology”, JNCBRAS. LXII, pp. 177–

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a new contribution, presenting the history of Muslims in China very clearly. Mason’s view differed in some respects from the Chinese tradition, which posits that Muslims came to China in 628 A.D., during the reign of Li Shimin, Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty. This differed from Mason’s view on his first visit to China, when he believed that the earliest possible arrival of Muslims in China was in 651 A.D. 5.5 Mark Edwin Botham

Mark Edwin Botham (濮马克) was born in Shaanxi Province in 1892. His parents were mainland missionaries who were keen to bring the Christian gospel to Hui Muslims. His father, Thomas Earlum Botham (濮司满), went to China in 1885, working as a missionary in the Yangtze River Valley before taking his family to the north-west one year later. After he came to Gansu, Thomas Botham engaged in itinerant preaching activities and had frequent contact with Muslims during his trip, which gradually deepened his understanding of Muslims, and he was optimistic about the prospect of preaching to them. Thomas Botham died in Lanzhou in 1898 and his son Mark was sent back to school in England in 1901. He studied at Bedford Grammar Preparatory School and Eltham College. After graduation, Mark worked for a bank in London for some time, while his mother and sister were engaged in missionary activities in Ninghai, Shandong Province. However, Mrs. Botham wrote to Mark more than once about the missionary activity in China among Hui Muslims, and reminded him of his father’s missionary endeavors. These letters played a decisive role in Mark’s later determination to do as his father would have wished and head to China to preach. In 1924, Marshall Broomhall published the article “Mark Edwin Botham in China” in The Moslem World, detailing the Botham’s missionary work to Hui Muslims in the nearly 10 years from his arrival in China in 1915 to his death in 1923. Botham arrived in Shanghai in 1915. After several months of language courses in Anqing, Anhui Province, he went in Lanzhou, Gansu Province, in 1916, and began his missionary career among the Hui Muslims. At that time, the Lanzhou Boden Hospital was also under construction. In the next few years, Botham devoted him-

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self to preaching in Gansu Province and made in-depth contact with Muslims in north-west China during his arduous journey. Over the course of his several years in Gansu Province, Botham accumulated rich experience through itinerant preaching and exchanges with local Muslims, and was gradually accepted by local Muslims. While Botham devoted himself to preaching in Gansu, he also served in the Muslim Evangelical League under the National Christian Council of China and actively contributed to the newspaper published by the organization. He made contact with missionaries all over China who were interested in working with Muslims, and promoted the development of the missionary cause. Unfortunately, however, during a tour of sermons, he caught a cold and died in Lanzhou in 1923. In 1921, he had been entrusted by the China Renewal Commission to investigate the Muslim situation in the central and eastern regions. During this work, he visited at least 28 Muslim communities in seven provinces, carefully observing and studying the Muslim internal organizational structure, social status, faith factions, and attitudes toward missionaries in these areas. He collected much relevant material and wrote two articles: “Modern Movements among Chinese Mohammedans” and “Chinese Islam as an Organism”. In the first paper, Botham analyzed of the current state of Chinese Islam in the Republic of China, illustrating that the new cultural movement of Hui Muslims had improved the quality of Muslim culture and promoted Chinese Islam across the whole country. In this period, Hui Muslims not only awakened their national consciousness but also their religious consciousness under the influence of Islamic thoughts and Christian missionary activities from the Arab world. In the second paper, Botham sought to identify why Muslims scattered all over China seemed united. He also realized why some trades in China, such as the sheepskin trade in Shandong Province, were completely monopolized by Muslims. This was due to the essential difference in the belief values of Hui Muslims and those of the Han people: unity among Muslims was encouraged, as were close trading connections. The first paper illustrates the change and development of Chinese Islam under the new cultural movement

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of Hui identity in the period of the Republic of China, while the second discusses the characteristics of “unity” and “separation” in the internal organization of Chinese Islam. During the same period, using his knowledge of Islam and Arabic, and undertaking extensive fieldwork, he wrote numerous articles about Muslims in Gansu Province, such as “Moslems in Kansu”, 26 “Islam in Kansu”, 27 and “Among the Moslems”. 28 These were published in The Moslem World, China's Millions, and Friends of Moslems. These articles illustrated the life and belief practices of Hui Muslims, Salar Muslims, and Tibetan Muslims in Gansu Province; including details on their geographical distribution, population, physical characteristics, livelihood, Islamic sects, language characteristics, and the relationship between religion and politics in their communities. Based on his many years of missionary experience, Botham also wrote a detailed commentary on the four main approaches to missionary work in the article “Methods of Evangelism among Chinese Moslems.” 29 These included direct preaching, medical ministry, educational ministry, and literary ministry, which provided valuable advice for missionaries in China on how to preach to Hui Muslims. 5.6 Others Walshe, W.G., “Religious Toleration in China,” Mohammedanism Contemporary Review, Vol. 56 (1904), pp. 127–133. Pettus, W. B., 1913, “Chinese Mohammedanism,” Chinese Recorder, Vol. 44, pp. 88–94.

Mark Botham, 1981, “Moslems in Kansu”, China’s Millions, Vol. 1, pp. 21–24. Mark Botham, 1920, “Islam in Kansu”, The Moslem World, Vol. 10, No.4, pp. 377–90. 28 Mark Botham, 1919, “Among the Moslems”, China’s Millions, Vol. 10, pp. 323– 326. 29 Mark Botham, 1921, “Methods of Evangelism among Chinese Moslems”, The Moslem World, Vol. 11, No.2, pp. 169–178. 26 27

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These two articles demonstrate the authors’ independent perspective and research, and provide more than a repetition of the basic data mentioned earlier. Each author provides a unique discussion on specific issues, and these articles are considered valuable resources for the further study of Islamic issues in China. Noyer. H. V., 1889, “Mohammedanism in China,” Chinese Recorder, Vol. 20, pp. 10–18:68–72. Rhodes. F.H., 1921, “A Survey of Islam in China,” The Moslem World, Vol. 11, pp. 53–68. Rudolph, 1938, “Islamic Publications in China” (based on the work of many people) (鲁道夫依据多 人的成果汇集的 “中国伊斯兰教出版物” 1938 年)

PART THREE.

50 YEARS AFTER THE FOUNDING OF NEW CHINA 1 THE LOW TIDE OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH AND ITS TURN

The People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. The Korean War broke out soon after, as did the proxy war with America. Following 58 years of the Great Leap Forward and 60 years of natural disasters, China began a difficult three years of hunger. The Cultural Revolution took place between 1966 and 1976. It ended the policy of “class struggle as the key link” and replaced it with a policy of economic construction. With the historic convening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, the second generation of leaders came into being. After the Cultural Revolution, China’s economy lagged, and culture and education deteriorated. The “reform and opening-up” became China’s most important motto on entering the 1980s. The second generation of leaders vigorously developed the southern coastal cities, with a “special zone” with a designated focus on economic construction. In the 1980s, China’s economy recovered rapidly. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration made Hong Kong’s return clear. At this time, the third generation of leaders emerged. In the 1990s, the planned economy was transformed into a market economy. At this time, the third generation of leaders introduced the Three Represents. The transformation of “citizens’ moral standards” and “governing the country by law” into “governing the country by virtue” marked the moment China became a country of high moral education. This involved com97

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prehensively improving economic construction, and improving the spiritual aspect and moral standards of the whole nation. In 1997, Hong Kong was returned to China. In 1999, Macao was returned. Numerous momentous international events occurred between 1949 and 2000. These include the Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union, the Afghanistan War, the Vietnam War, the Korean War, the rise of the Non-Aligned Movement, China’s recovery of its legitimate seat at the United Nations, the Western economic crisis, the upheaval in Eastern Europe, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the first Gulf War, the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, and the Kosovo War. This era of globalization saw a shift from two political superpowers to one superpower, with many other smaller powers in a multipolar world. Such seismic historical events were not conducive to a stable academic research environment. After 1949, Westerners withdrew from China. Regardless of whether these international actors were missionaries or Orientalists, they ceased to enjoy research opportunities in mainland China. In the 20th century, the China Inland Mission (CIM) continued to develop: with more than 1000 members, it became the largest missionary organization in China. By 1949, Chinese believers baptized by the Inland Mission numbered over 90,000. In the 1950s, the CIM began to withdraw from mainland China, completing its withdrawal in 1953. Missionaries were redeployed to the East and other parts of South East Asia. In 1964, the CIM was renamed the Overseas Missionary Fellowship, with its headquarters in Singapore. They inherited James Hudson Taylor’s strong missionary aspirations, and preached to overseas Chinese and other ethnic groups in South East Asia. After the Inland Mission’s withdrawal from China, it continued to publish its English-language journal China’s Millions until 1964. The papers published in the journal at the time reveal that the research activities of the CIM had significantly weakened. After the liberation of Qinghai in 1949, George K. Harris worked with other missionaries for one year. At that time, N. C.

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Pateman, a missionary in Yunnan, called for a national movement of contact with Muslims for 15 days from April 1950. 1 Harris, seeking to help non-professional missionaries participate in the movement, published the articles “The Moslem Mind” 2 and “Attempt Great Things for God: The Campaign of April 14th– 18th”. 3 In December 1950, Harris held a special gathering for Muslims. 4 In 1951 Laurie C. Wood published “The Reproach of Islam in Northwest China” in China’s Millions to remind the Christian church that the two northern areas were the most powerful and the weakest places for Chinese Muslims. 5 After leaving mainland China, Laurie C. Wood was sent to the south of Sima (i.e. Taiwan) to investigate the potential for carrying out missionary work. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, due to ideological differences, most missionaries left China, and in 1951 the Society of the Friends of Muslims (founded by Claude L. Pickens in 1927) was dissolved. The journal Friends of Muslims, which Pickens had also founded, also closed in 1951. The journal did however manage to publish some detailed and valuable information about the Hui people in the years 1949–1951. 6

N. C. Pateman, 1950, “Islam in China”, China’s Millions, Vol. 76, No. 4, p. 37. George K. Harris, 1950, “The Moslem Mind”, China’s Millions, Vol. 76, No. 5, p. 58. 3 George K. Harris, 1950, “Attempt Great Things for God: The Campaign of April 14th–18th”, Friends of Moslems, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 18–20. 4 George Harris, 1950, “A Church Filled with Moslems”, China’s Millions, Vol. 76, No. 7–8, pp. 80–81. 5 Laurie C. Wood, 1950, “The Reproach Islam in Northwest China”, China’s Millions, Vol. 77, No.11, pp. 104–106. 6 George K. Harris, 1950, “Attempt Great Things for God: The Campaign of April 14th–18th”, Friends of Moslems, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 18–20. 1 2

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2 RESEARCH BEFORE THE END OF THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION

Given the geopolitical circumstances of the Cold War, the study of Islam in China in the West inevitably declined. After the Second World War, with the independence of colonial countries, Western disciplines, such as Orientalism and anthropology, which considered the study of “barbarians” and the “backward” East their duty, gradually lost influence in the field. Disciplines such as anthropology, for example, began a more promising academic era. After the 1960s, structuralist anthropology with the characteristics of theoretical construction emerged. Various works, including bibliographies and papers were published. (1) Prominent bibliographies include Claude L. Pickens’ Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China”, 7 which is divided into eight sections: introduction, the introduction of Islam to China, history and development, denomination and association, literature, inherent culture, terminology, and statistics. It introduces the literature of Europe, America, and China with explanations. Its disadvantage is that it does not introduce Japanese and Russian research. Also of note is Rudolf Loewenthal’s paper “Russian Materials on Islam in China: A Preliminary Bibliography”. The introduction sets out its scope, “Russian research on Muslims and Islamic countries is little known outside of Russia because the pertinent literature is widely scattered. This bibliography concerns the study of Islam only in China and will be extended later to other Muslim areas. The compiler hopes that it will be possible to assemble all of the listed items (books, pamphlets, and periodical articles) in one central depository in the United States, either in the original or in reproduction. The compiler collected these materials during research trips to American libraries under the auspices of Cornell University, with grants Claude L. Pickens, 1950, Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China, Published by Society of Friends of the Moslems in China.

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from the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations (1952/53).” 8 In this paper, 142 Russian documents are listed, which are summarized into four items, including annals, history, economy, ethnography, and population. At the end of the paper, there are names of people and the index of papers. Ludmilla Panskaya and Donald Daniel Leslie’s Introduction to Palladii’s Chinese Literature of the Muslims also contains valuable information, claiming: “This is the twentieth volume to appear in the Oriental Monograph Series of the Faculty of Asian Studies at Australian National University. It is not a monograph according to customary American usage since it goes in several different directions at once, but that is a minor point. More important by far is the opportunity it gives its readers to learn something about the history and the quality of Russian work on China.” The volume includes: 1) a brief history of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Peking; 2) a biographical sketch of Palladii Kafarov and a summary of his sinological work; 3) the translated preface by Nikolai Adoratskii to Palladii’s Chinese Literature of the Muslims; 4) Adoratskii’s introduction to the same; and 5) an appended bibliography of Palladii’s writings with additional references used by the author.” 9 The paper first describes the situation of the Beijing mission of the Russian Orthodox Church, before introducing the biography and works of Baladi, a Russian missionary who studied Islam in China. Finally, it attaches the catalog and notes of Baladi’s works.

Rudolf Loewenthal, 1957, “Russian Materials on Islam in China: A Preliminary Bibliography”, Monumenta Serica Journal of Oriental Studies, Vol. 16, No.1/2, pp 449–479. 9 Ludmilla Panskaya and Donald Daniel Leslie, 1977, Introduction to Palladii’s Chinese Literature of the Muslims, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University Press (Oriental Monographs Series No.20), Book Reviews. 8

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(2) Significant books published at this time include Vasily Pavlovich Vasilyev’s Islam in China. 10 This pamphlet was given by Archimandrite Palladius (the Head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in Beijing) in 1862 to the Russian sinologist Vasilyev, who translated, edited, and published it. It is not the only book of this name. Islam in China by M. Rafiq Khan, was published in 1963, 11 but has not quite the same stature: “The story of Islam in China, and especially its position under the present Chinese leadership, is of crucial significance in light of the Communist plan to remold man and society within China and of the direct influence that this plan has on the policies of Moslem states vis-à-vis China. This book by M. Rafiq Khan, co-director of the Mewat Survey Project at Jamia Rural Institute in New Delhi, which sets out to tell this story, cannot be considered a serious effort.” 12 Cohesion and Cleavage in a Chinese Muslim Minority by American scholar Barbara Pillsbury, from her doctoral thesis, is based on her fieldwork in Muslim communities in Taiwan after 1949. 13 Richard V. Weekes’ Muslim Peoples 14 is a book about ethnographic surveying. It has been described as: “the first attempt to examine all the major Muslim communities of the world and to place the results within the covers of one book. The declared aim is ‘to discover what they have in common, what distinVasily Pavlovich Vasilyev (Translated from the Russian by Rudolf Loewenthal), “Islam in China” (Central Asian Collectanea, No.3), Published by Washington, D.C (1960), 37 pages. 11 M. Rafiq Khan, Islam in China, Delhi: National Academy (1963), 144 pages and Map. Rs.5. 12 H. Schwarz, 1965 “Islam in China. By M. Rafiq Khan. [Delhi: National Academy, 1963, 144 pp. and Map. Rs.5.]” Reviewed in The China Quarterly, 22, 204– 205. 13 Barbara L. K. Pillsbury, 1973, Cohesion and Cleavage in a Chinese Muslim Minority, Columbia University. 14 Richard V. Weekes, 1978, Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey, Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut. 10

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guishes them from each other, and what they feel is important’. Amongst the 720 million-plus Muslims on the planet some 300 ethnic groups are identified, and of these ninety-six with populations of over 100,000 receive an entry. The size of the groups covered varies hugely from the Arabs and the Bengalis, consisting of 112 and 82 million respectively, to the Divide of the Maldives and the Vai of Wes Africa with about 100.000….” 15 The book also comments on the Hui, Uyghur, Kazak, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Tatar, Uzbek, and other ethnic minorities who believe in Islam in China. It is very convenient reference book. China’s Forty Million: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China, 16 by June Teufel Dreyer, was reviewed as: “The most comprehensive study yet of Chinese Communist policy toward the strategically located national minorities. The author concludes that the party’s most conspicuous failures have been in Xinjiang and Tibet, where major rebellions occurred in 1962 and 1959 respectively, and where the participation of minority groups in party and government organs has consistently lagged behind that of minority groups elsewhere. The goal of Communist policy seems to be the abolition of minority culture and forced assimilation although the pace of assimilation has varied from period to period.” 17 While studying the Hui and other ethnic minorities in China, the author also introduces their related beliefs, including Islam in China, but there is some inaccuracy. (3) Regarding the papers in English, “Islamic Culture in China” includes these chapters: The Rise and Fall of Islam in China; The Muslim Community; Islam and Confucianism, Taoism, and BudFrancis Robinson, 1980. “Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey. Edited by Richard V. Weekes. Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut, 1978. Pp. xli, 546.” Reviewed in Modern Asian Studies, 14(2), 348–349. 16 June Teufel Dreyer, 1976, China’s Forty Millions: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China, Harvard University Press. 17 Donald S. Zagoria, 1977. “China’s Forty Millions, by June Teufel Dreyer, Harvard University Press, 1977, 333pp.” Reviewed in Foreign Affairs, July 1977. 15

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dhism; Religious Organization of Chinese Muslims; Chinese Muslim Religious Practices; and Education and Culture of Chinese Muslims. It briefly summarizes Chinese Muslim customs, daily life, the relationship between Islam and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, religious organizations, forms of worship and so on. However, its historical value is questionable. 18 Two other important papers in English are Loewenthal’s “Russian Contributions to the History of Islam in China” and Rossabi and Morris’ “Muslim and Central Asian Revolts”. 19 Loewenthal’s paper mainly introduces four works from tsarist Russia and two from the Soviet Union. “Some ten to twelve million Muslims are residing in China according to the latest census (1959); about two-thirds of them live in Sinkiang province, where they form an almost solid ethnic bloc. The Russian literature on Sinkiang is extensive and includes translations from various European languages; most of the titles deal with history, archaeology, economics, politics, or military strategy. The Russians have been in touch with Sinkiang sporadically since the second half of the eighteenth century. Their interest became more active after the conquest of Russian Central Asia in the 1860s. This period coincided with severe internal upheavals in China which almost dislodged the Manchu Dynasty: the T’aip’ing Rebellion (1850–1864); the Nien-fei revolt (1853–68); the almost simultaneous Muslim uprisings of the Panthays in Yunan province (1855–73) and the subjects of Yakub Beg, who made himself ruler of Kashaaria (1865–77), as well as of the Chinesespeaking Muslim Tunganis (1861–78).” 20 Dawood C.M. Ting, 1958, “Islamic Culture in China” Islam the Straight Path; Islam Interpreted by Muslims, edited by Kenneth W. Morgan, New York: Ronald, Chapter 9. 19 Rossabi and Morris, 1979, “Muslim and Central Asian Revolts.” From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China, edited by Jonathan D. Spence and John E. Wills, 167–199. New Haven: Yale University Press, 167–199. 20 Rudolf Loewenthal, 1962, Russian Contributions to the History of Islam in China, Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 7, No.4, pp. 312–315. 18

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Three key papers were published in French by Francois Joyaux: “Les Musulmans en Chine Populaire”, “Les Minorités Musulmanes en Chine Populaire”, and “Les Musulmans de Chine et la Diplomatie de Pekin”. The first paper includes historical and geographical descriptions but focuses on the situation of Islam in China after the founding of the People’s Republic. Compared with the description of the Hui people in mainland China, more details are given about the conditions of all ethnic groups in Xinjiang who believe in Islam and belong to the Turkic language family of Altaic. 21 The second paper describes China’s policy toward ethnic minorities, particularly Muslim groups, especially in light of the regional autonomy policy. 22 The third paper mainly describes the role of Balkan and others in the implementation of China’s policies toward Islamic nationalities. 23 Key papers in German include Jesef Trippner’s “Dir Salaren, Ihre Ersten Graubeans- Streitigkeiten und Ihr Aufstand 1781” and “Islamiche Gruppen und Druberkult in Nord-west Chine”. The first paper not only describes the name, origin, relevant records, and area of Salar but also describes the uprising caused by the struggle among various sects in 1781. From 1929–1953, Trippner lived in Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai, especially in Lanzhou, Wuwei, Zhangye, and Xining. He communicated with local Muslims directly and obtained a lot of original material. In the paper, he also lists some rare locally published historical materials. 24 The second paper mainly narrates the genealogy Francois Joyaux, 1962, “Les Musulmans en Chine Populaire: Problèmes Politiques Sociaux et Economiques des Minorités Musulmanes de la Chine Populaire, 1950–1960”, In The review and research of literature, No. 2915, published by the French government, 76 pages in total. (French) 22 Francois Joyaux, 1964, “Les Minorités Musulmanes en Chine Populaire”, L’Afrique et L’Asie, No.68, pp. 3–12. (French) 23 Francois Joyaux, 1967, “Les Musulmans de Chine et la Diplomatie de Pekin”, L’Afrique et L’Asie, No.77, pp. 17–24. (French) 24 Jesef Trippner, 1964, “Dir Salaren, Ihre Ersten Graubeans- Streitigkeiten und Ihr Aufstand 1781”, Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 9, pp. 241–276. (German) 21

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and history of the six Menhuan in the “Menhuan system” of the Muslims in Gansu Province. 25 Another important paper is Herbert Franke’s “Eine Mittelaterliche Chinesische Satire auf die Mohammedaner” (A Medieval Chinese Satire of the Muslims). Based on the study of the relevant historical data in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, this paper enumerates various viewpoints discriminating against the Han Muslims. 26 A paper in Russian by Sushanlo, “Dungane; Istorko-ethnograficheckiiocherk”, uses the term “Dongguan people” to refer to all Muslim ethnic groups of the Altaic Turkic language as family, such as Uyghur, Uzbek, and so on, who live in Xinjiang, China and parts of Central Asia and the Soviet Union. During the uprising of the Hui people in the late Qing Dynasty, Bai Yanhu and other Hui people in Shaanxi were hunted by the Qing army and fled. Sushanlo believed that the Muslims who migrated to China during the Yuan dynasty exchanged with the main ethnic party members of the Xixia state as a whole, leading to the formation of the new ethnic Dongguan people in northwest China (i.e. Dongguan people are formed from local ethnic groups with the party members at the core). Many people currently share Sushanlo’s view. They divide the Chinese Hui people, who use the common Chinese language, into two parts: those who live in the Central Plains of Hebei, Shandong, and Henan; and those who live in the northwest of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai. They believe that the former are Han people who believe in Islam, while the latter are a mixture of Turkic Muslims and Han, namely, Dongguan people. Sushanlo

Jesef Trippner, 1961, “Islamiche Gruppen und Druberkult in Nord-west Chine”, Die Welt des Islams. pp. 143–171. (German) 26 Published in the collection of “Der Orient in Forschung: Festschrift fur Otto Spies Zum 5 April 1966, ed Wilhelm Hoenerbach (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1967), 202–208. 25

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proposed a number of new theories, which still require discussion. 27 Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer published several papers during this period: “Soviet Dungan: the Chinese Language of Central Asia: Alphabet, Phonology, Morphology”; 28 “Soviet Dungan Nationalism: A few Comments on their Origin and Language”; 29 “Soviet Dungan Weddings: Symbolism and Traditions” 30; and “Muslim Life in Soviet Russia: the Case of Dungans”. 31 She was an expert on the Dongguan people who lived in Central Asia during its Soviet Union period. Beginning with the Dongguan people’s language, she conducted fieldwork and a comprehensive study of the Dongguan people.

3 NEW OPPORTUNITIES

Following the end of the Cultural Revolution, the policy of “reform and opening-up” marked China’s return to the international community in the 1980s. In the 1990s, The Cold War era ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union. The era once again provided an opportunity for academic transformation. There are three characteristics to be noted in this period: first, the emergence of academic works based on fieldwork; second, the further development and deepening of research into earlier literature; third, the emergence of a large number of monographs. These will be discussed separately.

Muk-hammed Sushanlo, 1971, “Dungane: Istorko-eth-nograficheckiiocherk”, FRUNZE, pp. 305. (Russian) 28 Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, 1967, “Soviet Dungan: the Chinese Language of Central Asia: Alphabet, Phonology, Morphology”, Monumenta Serica. (Russian) 29 Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, 1977–1978, “Soviet Dungan Nationalism: A few Comments on their Origin and Language”, Monumenta Serica. (Russian) 30 Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, 1977–1978, “Soviet Dungan Weddings: Symbolism and Traditions”, Monumenta Serica. (Russian) 31 Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, 1980–1981, “Muslim Life in Soviet Russia: the Case of Dungans”, Journal of the Muslim Minority Affairs Society, Vol. 2, No.2 and Vol. 3, No.3, p. 42–54. (Russian) 27

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Since the 1970s, there has been a tendency to study and construct the theory of Chinese Islam using sociological and anthropological methods. The most notable proponent of theoretical construction is Raphael Israeli. 3.1 Raphael Israeli

Raphael Israeli received his Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley. Since then, he has been engaged in the study of Chinese and Islamic history at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Since the 1970s, he has published continuously on Chinese Muslims, and his work has greatly influenced Western academic circles. In addition to several monographs, he has published more than 20 papers on Chinese Muslims and Islam. Israeli’s research on Islam in China is not only fruitful but also has formed his unique theoretical position, providing influence and representation in Western academia. His research on Islam in China mainly concentrates on Chinese Muslims, and his achievements in this field are mainly reflected in the book: Muslims in China: A Study in Cultural Confrontation. Raphael Israeli, 1979, Muslims in China: A Study in Cultural Confrontation, London: Curzon Press. This book principally discusses the following issues: 1. The relationship between Han and Hui; 2. Are Hui people Han? 3. Han, Hui and Chinese Muslims; 4. Hui Society in China; 5. Muslims in China and Islamic Groups around the World; 6. Muslim and Han; 7. Islam and Judaism in China; 8. Islam and Christianity in China; and 9. Islam in India and Islam in China. Based on the sociological theory of ethnic relations, the book proposes that the Han and Islamic cultures encounter each other in a typically firm relationship between the main ethnic groups: the host culture and the guest culture, respectively. The derived problems are arranged from acculturation to confrontation, which can be divided into three stages of cultural change. The syllogism of this cultural conflict presupposes the tragic ending of Islam in China, specifically, that Muslims cannot survive peacefully in China for a long time. In one regard, his re-

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search provides ample inspiration, that is, to understand the history of Islam in China from the perspective of Hui culture; conversely, it also shows its arbitrariness and superficiality, namely, its theory cannot explain the reality of Hui Islam. The book received generally positive reviews: “Muslims constitute China’s largest religious minority and include the single most widely distributed of all China’s minority nationalities. Throughout the Islamic world, however, no major community of Muslims is so little understood by outsiders as is China’s. Dr. Israeli is to be complimented, therefore, for attempting the first book-length overview of this complex subject to be published in any western language since 1910. Unfortunately, however, while the book provides an intriguing glimpse into the conflicts that have occurred between Han Muslim Chinese, readers seeking either a clear understanding of those conflicts or of the contemporary relationships, will have to continue to wait.” 32 The book uses sociological methods to analyze the relationship between the ethnic minorities who believe in Islam and the Han nationality, the predominant ethnic group in China. Simultaneously, it places Chinese Islam in the context of global Islam. Widely recognized by the academic community, it is regarded as one of the most representative works between in the 1950s and 1970s. In 1994, Israeli published a detailed reference book on the study of Hui Islam in China: Raphael Israeli, 1994, Islam in China: A Critical Bibliography, With the assistance of Lyn Corman, London: Greenwood Press. Review: “Bibliographies are the lifeline of the researcher and for those interested in studying and writing on China’s largest miB. Pillsbury, 1982. “Muslims in China: A Study in Cultural Confrontation. By Raphael Israeli. [London and Malmö: Curzon Press; Atlantic Highlands, U.S.A.: Humanities Press. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series No. 29, 1978. 272 pp.]. The China Quarterly, 91, 521–522.

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nority, the annotated bibliography Islam in China: A Critical Bibliography by Raphael Israeli is an excellent place to start. With the help of Lyn Gorman, this reference work, the Greenwood Press Bibliographies, and Indexes in Religious Studies series are logically organized and easy to use. Few people, if anyone, are better suited than Israeli to produce such a helpful volume. The author index (there are also the title and subject indexes) quickly reveals that there are more entries under his name than any other scholar. The care with which the annotations are done makes it clear that he has used much of the material included in the volume in his research. Reference works are not intended to be read from cover to cover; this book is no exception. One can easily utilize the 10 main categories (Bibliographies and Inscriptions; General Works, Imperial China, Republican China; the People’s Republic; Culture, Religion, and Theology; Social Discontent and Political Upheaval; Local Reports [by geographic regions]; Jews in China; Missionary Reports) and the helpful indexes to guide the search to needed materials. In this case, however, the brief Introduction and essay on “Islam in China,” offers the user a general context for all the topics referenced in the volume and also guides the reader to specific entries (unfortunately, there are some transposition errors that may cause come confusion e.g., on p. xviii the reference to 1019 should be 0019). Furthermore, these introductory materials make clear the limits of the undertaking by specifying that selections included are those deemed most significant on the western language sources and directs the user to other works that deal with sources in Arabic, Chinese and Japanese (p. xvii). The detailed catalog, detailed classification, and convenient retrieval provided by this book make it an important reference book in this research field. For those who need to un-

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derstand the western academic research on Hui Islam in China, there is no doubt that this book can play a role.” 33 Raphael Israeli, 1995, “The Cross Battles the Crescent: One Century of Missionary Work among Chinese Muslims (1850–1950)”, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No.1. In this paper, the Israeli examines the 100-year history of Christian missionaries working among Chinese Muslims from 1850– 1950. It is believed that the responses of Chinese Muslims to Christian missionaries fell anywhere on the scale between the two extremes of “acceptance” and “rejection.” Additionally, the Western missionaries’ attitude toward Chinese Islamists was contradictory: in one regard, they believed that Chinese Muslims were accessible; however, the missionaries also considered them difficult to deal with. The author discusses the interaction between Muslim and Christian missionaries in different cases. The author believes that although the Christian missionaries tried to make their work with Chinese Muslims focus on the gospel, on the whole, the relationship between the two was neither fixed nor one-way from Christianity to Islam. The two were dialectical. They challenged and responded to each other symbiotically, and faced each other directly. This article has great value, particularly in its inclusion of numerous kinds of publications relating to the relationship between Christianity and Islam within China. Raphael Israeli, “The Muslim Revival in 19th Century China”, Studia Islamica, Vol. 43, 119–138, 1976. Abstract: “For the Muslims in China, communal survival in a Chinese environment had been of paramount importance throughout their history. Up to the advent of the Ch’ing Dynasty Dorothea A. L. Martin, 1995, “Islam in China: A Critical Bibliography by Raphael Israeli” Reviewed in Journal of Third World Studies, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 290– 292. 33

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(1644–1911), Chinese Muslims had attempted to abide by a lowprofile image, they avoided friction with the Chinese, and they refrained from any overt missionary work which would have exposed and indicted them as heterodox. Their existence in China was not easy but it was not untenable. As long as they could live as Muslims, in their communities, they were prepared to incur inconveniences, smooth over difficulties, and conform, at least outwardly, to the requirements of the Chinese host culture.” Raphael Israeli, 1978, “Muslims in China: Incompatibility between Islam and the Chinese Order”, T’oung Pao, Vol. 63, 296–323. Abstract: “Muslim presence in China, which dates back to the T’ang Dynasty, has always posed a challenge, at times even a threat, to the Chinese establishment. This was due to the fact that Islam, far from willing to acculturate into Chinese society, on the contrary, nurtured its distinctive traits and stressed its superiority, something almost unheard of in other minority cultures in the Middle Kingdom.” Raphael Israeli, 1978, “Established Islam and Marginal Islam in China: From Eclecticism to Syncretism”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 21, No.1, 99–109. Abstract: “When Islam came to China during the Tang Dynasty (7th–10th centuries), and for a long period thereafter, there was no question of the Muslims Sinicizing or the Chinese Islamizing. For Islam was brought to the Middle Kingdom by Persian and Arab traders who remained in constant contact, until the end of the Mongol rule in China (14th Cent.), with their countries of origin. Although they settled in China, they remained out of it, so to speak, because of the virtual extra-territorial rights accorded to them, together with the freedom to conduct their lives as they wished. Neither did the Muslims in China attempt to spread their faith overtly, because they must have been aware, from the very outset, of the vitality of the Chinese system and of the strength of the unitarian Chinese state attached to that system,

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which would make any mass Islamization unlikely if not impossible.” Raphael Israeli, “Ahung and Literatus: A Muslim Elite in Confucian China”, Die Welt des Islams, Vol. 19, 212–219, 1979. Abstract: “Religion in China was closely intertwined with intellectual life and with the political and social institutions of the nation. Confucianism was identified with scholarship and was deeply entrenched in the habits of thought, affections, and loyalties of the educated people. The state was committed to the existing faiths, especially Confucianism. Confucian classics were the basis for education and the examination system. Ceremonies were associated with Confucianism and maintained at public expense. Officials, including the Emperor, performed many of the duties usually assigned to the priesthood in other cultures. The very political theory on which the state rested derived its authority from Confucian teachings. Religion also formed part of the village life. Temples were maintained by villagers, and festivals and ceremonies took place through general contribution. Guilds had patron-Gods and other religious features. Above all, the family, the strongest social unit, had as an integral part of its structure the honoring of ancestors by rites that were religious in origin and retained religious significance.” Raphael Israeli, 1977, “Muslim in China: Islam’s Incompatibility with the Chinese Order”, T’OUNG PAO, Second Series, Vol. 63, Livr.4/5, pp. 296–323. Abstract: “Muslim presence in China, which dates back to the T’ang Dynasty, has always posed a challenge, at times even a threat, to the Chinese establishment. This was due to that Islam, far from willing to acculturate into Chinese society, on the contrary, nurtured its distinctive traits and stressed its superiority, something almost unheard of in other minority cultures in the Middle Kingdom.” Raphael Israeli, 1992, “An Arabic Manuscript on China and Tibet”, Arabica, Vol. 39, pp. 207–215.

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Abstract: “Ever since western orientalists took interest in Arabic geographic accounts, a score or so of Arab geographers who had either traveled to the Far East or, more often, collected hearsay and stories from secondary sources about the marvels of those lands, have been translated into European languages. More texts of this sort, in Persian and Turkish, were translated, edited, and published over the years. The most recent of Arabic manuscripts touching upon China was published by Richard Frye in 1949.” Raphael Israeli, 1995, “The Cross Battles the Crescent: One Century of Missionary Work among Chinese Muslims (1850–1950), Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No.1, pp. 203–221. Abstract: “Much has been written and published about Christianity in China, less has been known about the particular interest that the Mission had evinced toward the Muslims of China, much less has been recorded about the Muslims’ reactions to this activity, and almost nothing has been concluded in terms of the dialectical interaction between Christianity and Islam in that part of the world.” Israeli’s other relevent publications: “The Muslim Minority in Traditional China,” Asian and African Studies, Vol. 10, No.2(1975):1010–126. “Muslim Versus Christians in China,” Asia Quarterly, Vol. 4(1976):327–335. “Islam and Judaism in China: The Merger of Two Cultural Subsystems,” Asian Profile, Vol. 5, No.1(1977):31–42. “The Hui under the Manchu,” Studia Islamica, Vol. 49(1978): 159–179. “Islamization and Sinification in Chinese Islam,” Conversion to Islam, edited by N. Levtzion, 159–176, New York: Holmes and Meir, 1979. “Muslim Minorities under Non-Islamic Rule,” Current History, (April 1980):159–164,184–185.

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“Islam in China,” Abingdon Dictionary of Living Religions, 358–359, Nashville: Abingdon, 1981. “The Muslim Minority in the People’s Republic of China,” Asian Survey, Vol. 21, No.8 (August 1981):901–919. “The Crescent in the East,” ed, Riverdale: The Riverdale Company, 1981. “Islam in China,” Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, 330/332, Cambridge: Magnes Press, 1982. Islam in Asia, Vol. 2: Southeast and East Asia, Israeli and Johns A., eds, Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1984, (5016)se “Les Musulmans chinois,” Mythes et Croyances du Monde entier, Paris: Edition Lidis, vol. 2(1985):442– 449. “Muslim Rebellions in Modern China: A Part of, or a Counterpart to, Chinese Revolution?” Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, edited by M. Sharon, 291–303, Leiden: Brill, 1986. “China’s Muslims,” The World’s Religions: Islam, edited by P. Clarke and F. Hardy, 102–118. London: Routledge. 1998. “Is There Shi a in Chinese Islam?” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 9, No.1, (1988–89):49–66. “The Naqshbandiyya and Factionalism in Chinese Islam,” Naqshbangdis, edited by M. Gaborieau, The. Zarcone and A. Popovic, Paris: Editions Isis, 1990. Raphael Israeli was not the only scholar to continue working on Chinese Islam and Muslims after China’s relations with Europe and America changed in 1949. In what follows, we will turn to some of the other scholars who conducted research at this time.

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4 ACADEMIC WORKS BASED ON FIELDWORK

Since the 1980s, thanks to China’s economic reform and “opening-up,” Western scholars were once again able to carry out fieldwork in mainland China. Since the 1990s, with the continuous expansion and exchange of academic research between China and the international community, Western study of Hui Islam in China has entered a new stage. Theoretical improvements in research and practical investigation have allowed significant progress, and disciplines and research paradigms in this period have diversified. Traditional historical research has combined with anthropology, political science, gender research, and other disciplines. 4.1 Dru C. Gladney

Among Western scholars who have studied Chinese Islam and Muslims, Gladney is the most influential to date. In his early years, Gladney studied Chinese and traveled to Hong Kong and other places, discovering the complexity and diversity of Chinese society. During his university studies in anthropology, he chose to study Islam and Muslim issues in China. In 1981, Gladney, then a doctoral student in anthropology at the University of Washington, went to Beijing University to study Chinese. Subsequently, he has focused on Chinese Muslims. In 1983–1985, as a Fulbright scholar, he visited China again for fieldwork, and for the following six years, he traveled in China every year. His book, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic, was based on his doctoral thesis. 34 His work, with its careful use of first-hand materials and unique research perspective, is worthy of being considered among the most important of the 1980s and established his position in the Western Chinese Islam research community. In the next few years, the book was reprinted, and at least eight scholars referred to it within three years of Dru C. Gladney, 1991, Qingzhen: A Study of Ethnoreligious Identity among Hui Muslim Communities in China, Harvard University Press published its revised monograph based on Gladney’s doctoral dissertation.

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its publication. In 1998, he published a new book based on this work: Ethnic Identity in China: The Making of a Muslim Minority Nationality. In addition to the above two monographs, Gladney also published many papers on the study of Chinese Islam and Muslim Chinese in various magazines, with great influence. Dru C. Gladney, 1990, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic, Harvard University Press. Contents: The book contains seven chapters, encompassing: nationalism of Chinese Muslims; ethnography and Chinese society; the revival of national religion in the Sufi community in Northwest China; national identity of Niujie: the urban experience of Hui nationality; the internal marriage system of a Hui autonomous township; the Southeast Hui’s identification and state involvement; and national identity in China. Gladney’s work is based on an investigation of four different types of Hui communities, namely: Najiahu (纳家户), a village in Ningxia represented by the village community; Niujie in Beijing (北京牛街), represented by the Hui community in the Eastern city; Changying Hui Township (常营回族乡) in the suburbs of Beijing, represented by the Hui rural community in North China; and Chendai Hui town (陈埭回族镇) in Quanzhou Fujian, represented by the Hui community on the southeast coast. To explain the differences of Hui culture and the unity of Hui national identity using the theory of relationship approach, Gladney made the Najiahu Hui community Sufei (Sufei means Islamized), and the Chendai Hui community Sinicized, thus denying the common cultural basis of Hui existence, to build his theory on Hui nationality. Consequently, in the specific interpretation of the Hui nationality in China, Gladney’s relationship theory has laid a subjective foundation for study of Hui nationality. Review: “Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic by Dru C. Gladney is a highly acclaimed anthropological study of the Hui Muslim ethnic minority of China. Based on over three years of fieldwork in China, the book is a detailed analysis of the influence of China’s ethnic, religious, and foreign policies on the Hui’s nationalist ideology, local ethnic, and reli-

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gious identity, as well as transnational ties with the Islamic world. Gladney shows that the Chinese state has not only played a central role in maintaining and defining the Hui people, but it has inadvertently placed itself in the position of fostering the Hui’s ethnoreligious revival.” 35 There is much to be learnt from Gladney’s work. Firstly, he deconstructed the homogeneity of Hui nationality and revealed its diversity, transcending Israeli’s view of Hui nationality as a whole. Secondly, he did a great deal to promote the study of the Hui nationality in international ethnic theory circles, refuting Huntington’s theory of the Clash of Civilizations using the Hui nationality as an example. Thirdly, he had a solid understanding of Hui identity: he took the word Qingzhen-halal (清真) and then sought different interpretations of the term from Hui people all over the country: religious beliefs in the northwest, dietary taboos and professional characteristics in the city, marriage networks in the rural areas of North China, and lineage on the southeast coast. Finally, he is the first Western scholar to have fully based his studies of Hui Islam on field investigation. Dru C. Gladney, 1998, Ethnic Identity in China: The Making of A Muslim Minority Nationality, Orlando: Hardcourt Brace & Company) In this book, Gladney addresses the common misperception of China as a monolithic nation-state, when, in fact, it is a potentially threatening country due to its size and homogeneity. Following the revolution and Chiang Kai-Shek’s retreat to Taiwan, over 400 separate ethnic groups applied for state recognition. Of the 55 officially recognized, the Huis are the largest Muslim nationality and third-largest minority group. Gladney explores the complexity of Hui identity, affirming China as a multicultural and ethnically diverse nation, whose potential ethnic separatism J. J. Rudelson, 1993. “Gladney, Dru C., “Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic” (Book Review) A Journal of Church and State; Waco, Texas Vol. 35, Iss. 3, (Summer): 614.

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has increasingly become a great concern. This case study is one of a series in cultural anthropology, designed for the student in the beginning and intermediate stages of social sciences. Abstract: “This case study introduces students to the problems of ethnic diversity in China, modern nation-states that are normally thought of and taught as culturally monolithic. By introducing students to the wide diversity of identity within one nationality, they are exposed to the ethnic complexities as well as to the larger issue of ethnic pluralism in modern nationstates. Students’ perceptions regarding other societies, as well as our own, are challenged and broadened.” Contents: Introduction – The uniting of China. Creating Muslim identity in China; Inventing the Hui nationality in the Chinese state; Ethnoreligious resurgence in a northwestern Sufi community; Chang Ying – Marriage and identity maintenance in a Hui autonomous village; Niujie – the urban Hui experience in Beijing; Chendai – ethnic revitalization in Quanzhou, Fujian; and Conclusion – ethnic national identity in the contemporary Chinese state. Since 1991, Gladney has published four books and dozens of papers, most of which treat the issue of Hui or Chinese Muslims. Dislocation China: Muslims, minorities, and other subaltern subjects, University of Chicago Press, 2004. “Muslim tombs and ethnic folklore: Charters for Hui identity,” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 46, No.3, 1987, pp. 495–532. “Relational alterity: Constructing Dungan (hui), Uyghur, and Kazakh identities across China, central Asia, and Turkey,” History and Anthropology, vol. 9. No.4, 1996, pp. 445–477. “Making Muslims in China: education, Islamification and representation,” China national minority education: Culture, Schooling and Development, 1999, pp. 55–94.

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“National Identity in the Chinese Nation-State,” Muslim Chinese, 1996, pp. 293–337. “Hui Islamic Orders in China,” Muslim Chinese, 1996, pp. 385–392. “Ethnographic Research and the Chinese State,” Muslim Chinese, 1996, pp. 65–116. In one regard, Gladney’s work challenges the “imagination” of Chinese and foreign scholars on the definition of the Chinese nation. Simultaneously, it also discusses how a nation’s identity is shaped at the local social level by these “social images” and “derivative discourse” of nationalism and ethnicity in China (Dru Gladney 1996, Preface p. XVI). Gladney’s research comes from a strong motivation for cultural anthropology and political science. Additionally, the study of modern Chinese Muslims from multiple sides and perspectives could be said to be a study of cultural anthropology, which examines the characteristics of Hui nationality, nationalism more broadly, the status of ethnic minorities, and other issues. To study the Hui nationality, the author spent around three years in China, witnessing first-hand the situation of Hui people in Gansu and Ningxia. Gladney’s research not only provides a great revision to existing popular ethnic group theory in the West but also differs from traditional anthropological research because of his approach to fieldwork. It has inevitably attracted special attention and debate. 4.2 Other academic work based on fieldwork Wang Jianping, 1996, Concord, and Conflict: The Hui Communities of Yunnan Society in a Historical Perspective, Stockholm International Book Company. In 1996, Wang Jianping published his doctoral dissertation, Concord and Conflict: The Hui Communities of Yunnan Society in a Historical Perspective, which was based on the author’s life and investigation in the Yunnan Hui region. Review: “Yunnan Province is home to roughly half a million Hui: Muslims whose mother tongue is Chinese and who

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share much of their cultural inventory with the Han majority. Concord and Conflict, as the title indicates, seeks to examine the degree to which this Chinese-speaking Muslim minority is socially and culturally integrated with the non-Muslim majority, and the degree to which its alien origins and religious beliefs keep it separated from, and potentially in conflict with, Han Chinese society and civilization. Islamists, as well as historians, anthropologists, and political scientists who specialize in China’s national minority peoples and Yunnan’s social and cultural affairs, should be interested in this volume. Wang, a son of Yunnan, persevered with an alien language in a strange environment (see p. 12), and although his book is written in less than elegant prose, it is packed with important data, most of it hitherto available only in Chinese. (The Chinese language section of Wang’s bibliography, with some three hundred titles, constitutes a major bibliographic resource on the subject of Islam and Muslims in southwest China.)” 36 A Japanese scholar noted in the journal Eastern that Wang’s book was the “first systematic study on the Yunnan tribe” and that it is of very high quality. 37 The publication of his book represents a new stage of field research on Chinese Islam and Muslims since 1949.

5 THE DEVELOPMENT AND DEEPENING OF RESEARCH OF LITERATURE, HISTORY, AND OTHER ASPECTS

In the geopolitical situation of the Cold War, Western study of Chinese Islam declined as Orientalism and anthropology gradually lost their traditional prestige. In the field of research on Chinese Islam and Muslims, the same change has taken place: during this period, research mainly focused on literature. The scholars who proved proficient at literature research in this field Anthony R. Walker, 1998, “Book Review”, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 57, No.1, pp. 167–169. 37 Matumoto Masumi, First systematic study on the Yunnan tribe, Eastern (松本 ますみ “雲南回族についての初めての系統的研究”『東方』211, pp. 34–37. 36

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were the American Joseph Fletcher and the Australian Donald Daniel Leslie. 5.1 Joseph Fletcher and his student Jonathan Lipman

With his rich knowledge of language and profound historical background, Joseph Fletcher translated into English a number Islamic works written by Wang Daiyu (王岱舆) and Liu Zhi (刘智), as well as Ma Zhu (马注) and Ma Dexin (马德新), and briefly introduced their academic works and insights. Unfortunately, Ford’s English translation has never been officially published, although some scholars later used his translation in their research. Fletcher has several publications, including “Chinese Sufism Taoism” and Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia. Joseph F. Fletcher, “Chinese Sufism Taoism”, In the mystical order in Islam and its development and current situation, edited by Popovich and Van Stein, Paris Academy of Social Sciences (1986), pp. 13– 26. This paper was supported by sources in classical Chinese (the official document of the Muslim uprising in Northwest China in the second half of the 19th century), Persian, Arabic, Turkic, and Japanese. With a kind of authoritative reliability, this paper brings Chinese Sufism onto the world stage, providing the twists and turns of local history. Joseph F. Fletcher, Beatrice Forbes Manz., Studies on Chinese and Islamic inner Asia, Alder shot: Variorum, 1995. This book makes a detailed study of the Naqshbandiyah (纳格什 班底耶教团) order of Sufism in China and the Hufeiyah (虎非耶 派) and Zhehlinyah (哲赫林耶派) groups of Hui people in the northwest. He has also written papers including “The Naqshbandi order in Northwest China” (中国西北的纳格西班底 教团). Fletcher died relatively young, and a large number of his collected materials have remained unstudied. Therefore, this book represents only a part of his academic achievements. The

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remaining materials were inherited and developed by his student, Jonathan Lipman. Jonathan N. Lipman inherited and developed Joseph Fletcher’s research tradition. In his doctoral dissertation “The Border World of Gansu, 1935–1985”, he used much original Chinese material. He conducted unique research on the relationship between the local and central governments and the Hui nationality, and the legal application of the feudal dynasty to the Hui nationality. In more recent years, based on his doctoral dissertation, he published the book: Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China. 38 Lipman’s injection of theory into the literature research takes him further than Fletcher. In the era of post-modern deconstruction, Lipman positioned his research on Hui nationality in the northwest on the reflection and query of academic discourse such as race. He tended towards analysis of specific historical events and figures, rather than trying to build a grand narrative of the history of Hui nationality. Lipman describes the Muslim society in Northwest China as a society with dual characteristics on the edge of China, which is not only a largely Muslim society lacking an Islamic social adjustment mechanism but also a Chinese society lacking East China’s social adjustment mechanism, especially the gentry class. His use of the term “familiar stranger” reveals a unique form of interaction between Muslims and Chinese society at large. Lipman also published the papers “Nationality and Politics of the People’s Republic of China: The Malanite Warlords in Gansu Province” and “Pieced Together and Meshed Society: A Study of the Chinese Muslim Order”. 39 The first paper describes the relationship between the three most powerful Muslim families in Northwest China and the Chinese government from the Jonathan N. Lipman, 1997, Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China, University of Washington Press. 39 Jonathan Lipman, 1984, “Pieced Together and Meshed Society: A Study of the Chinese Muslim order”, Islam in Asia, Vol. 11 (Special issue of Southeast Asia and East Asia (edited by Raphael Israeli), Jerusalem, pp. 246–274. 38

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end of the 19th century to 1920. One family converted to Sufism, while the second family supported a kind of Islam which had been influenced by Confucianism, and the third maintained a semi-independent military force under the influence of Wahhabism. 40 5.2 Donald Daniel Leslie

Donald Daniel Leslie, an Australian scholar, is a key representative of literature research in Chinese Islam. He is a very able linguist and organizes historical materials effectively. In 1981, he published the book Islamic Literature in Chinese Late Ming and Early Qing: Books, Authors and Associates”. 41 In 1982, Leslie published “The Identification of Chinese Cities in Arabic and Persian Sources”. and “Arabic and Persian sources used by Liu Chih”. The first paper studies the names of Chinese cities in Arabic and Persian. 42 The second provides two lists of Arabic and Persian sources used by Liu Chih, the leading Chinese Muslim writer of the early 18th century, in writing two of his key works, the T'ien Fang Hsing-lion Muslim Philosophy, c.1704, and the T'ien-fang Tien-li on Muslim Law and Customs, c.1710. Pelliot described these lists as “en somme un catalogue des ouvrages arabes et persans connus en Chine vers 1700.” Written in cooperation with Wassel, Leslie examined the original titles of the Islamic documents quoted in Liu Chih’s “天方典礼, 天方性理.” Leslie concluded that the Islamic documents quoted by Liu Chih were mainly of Sunni Hanafi schools, and the Persian language was mainly a Shafei instrument. Generally speak-

Jonathan Lipman, 1984, “Nationality and politics of the People’s Republic of China: The Malanite Warlords in Gansu Province”, Modern China, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 285–316. 41 Donald Daniel Leslie, 1981, Islamic Literature in Chinese Late Ming and Early Qing: Books, Authors, and Associates, Canberra College of Advanced Education. 42 Donald Daniel, 1982, “The Identification of Chinese Cities in Arabic and Persian Sources”, The History of the Far East, Vol. 26, pp. 1–18. 40

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ing, Persian is used more than Arabic. 43 In sum, these were very professional studies of Chinese Islamic classics. Donald Daniel Leslie, 1986, Islam in Traditional China: A short History to 1980, Canberra College of Advanced Education. In 1986, Leslie published his masterpiece Islam in Traditional China: A Short History to 1980. The main body of the book is divided into four parts: the first part, “China and Western Asia”, studies the relationship between China and Western Asia in the Tang period and earlier; the second part, “The Beginning of Islam in China”, mainly examines the history of Islam in the Tang and Song dynasties; the third, “Under the Rule of Mongolians”, discusses the history of Islam in the Yuan dynasty; and the fourth part, “Sinicization: Ming and Qing Dynasty”, investigates the history of Islam in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The book takes a unique approach to writing the history of Islam in China and fully reflects the author’s ability to interpret Chinese, Arabic, Japanese, and European texts. Leslie also published “Islam in China to 1800: Bibliographical Guide” covering a wide range of works. It not only introduces the literature but also the catalog of the books in the library, making it an irreplaceable bibliography. 44 François Orban’s paper, “The Origin of Islam in China”, is a useful supplement to the Muslim collection catalog compiled by Leslie in the world’s major libraries. 45

Donald Daniel Leslie, 1982, “Arabic and Persian Sources Used by Liu Chih”, Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 26, pp. 78–104. 44 Donald Daniel Leslie, 1976, “Islam in China to 1800: Bibliographical Guide” Abr Nahrain, Vol. 16, pp. 16–48. 45 Francois Orban “The Origin of Islam in China”, Knowledge Dissemination around the Muslim World, Vol. 3, pp. 144–147, 1985. 43

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5.3 Michael Dillon Michael Dillon, China’s Muslims (Images of Asia), New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Dillon’s work, China’s Muslims (Images of Asia), is the first major book on Chinese Muslims. It includes six chapters, an appendix of terminologies, and a biography. Dillon offers new perspectives on the research of Chinese Islam from a Western point of view: First, that Chinese Islam is composed of two systems. One is that of the Turkic-speaking peoples such as the Uyghur, and the other is that of the Chinese-speaking peoples such as the Hui. They obviously differ in religious culture, education and so on. Second, mosques in the Xinjiang area can be classified into different functional groups. These mosques differ from each other in terms of scale and social function, but they connect in religious and social life. Therefore, they form a special network of religious communities. Third, Chinese Islam is greatly influenced by Arab-Islamic and Persian cultures. This is manifested in language, mosque education, religious rites, and customs. Fourth, even though Chinese Muslims are scattered throughout China, their dispersion over a large area and their relative lack of aggregation means that every Muslim community has loose internal connections that constitute various independent religious centers. These centers exercise an invisible influence on Muslims’ cultural education, tradition, and customs. Fifth, Chinese mosques present diversity in their architecture. The complexity and variety come from the contemporary cultural atmosphere and geographic environment. This book illustrates Chinese Islam with pictures and words, which helps readers outside China to better recognize the culture, life, history, and status quo of Chinese Muslims. Abstract: “Muslim communities are found in every Chinese province and Muslims play a prominent part in the modern Chinese state. In an illustrated book directed at scholars and travelers alike, Dillon examines each of the country’s ten Muslim groups: he sketches the history of its arrival in China, explains its languages and customs, and describes the work and daily life of its members. Dillon includes portraits of the most important

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Muslim centers, from Hui towns of the Ningxia region to the Uyghur city of Kashghar near China’s western boundary.” Michael Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement, and Sects, Richmond, London: Curzon Press, 1999. Republished by Routledge, 2013. Dr. Dillon’s China’s Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects should be considered the first comprehensive and systematic work in the research of Chinese Hui history. In addition to the Acknowledgments, Chinese and Arabic Terms, Preface, Appendix: Jews and the Blue-capped Hui, Bibliography, and Index, this book has eleven chapters: 1) Ethnicity and Hui history; 2) China and Islam before the Ming Dynasty; 3) Setting in China: the Hui during the Ming Dynasty; 4) Hui Communities under Manchu Rule; 5) Hui Insurrections in the Nineteenth Century; 6) Hui Communities in Early Twentieth Century China; 7) Sects and Sufism (1): the Islamic Background; 8) Sects and Sufism (2): Sufi Orders in China; 9) Sects and Sufism (3): the Xidaotang; 10) Language and the Hui; 11) Hui Communities in Contemporary China. The 2013 edition adds a great deal of material to the content of the first edition. Abstract: “This is a reconstruction of the history of the Muslim community in China known today as the Hui or often as the Chinese Muslims as distinct from the Turkic Muslims such as the Uyghurs. It traces their history from the earliest period of Islam in China up to the present day, but with particular emphasis on the effects of the Mongol conquest on the transfer of Central Asians to China, the establishment of stable immigrant communities in the Ming dynasty and the devastating insurrections against the Qing state during the nineteenth century. Sufi and other Islamic orders such as the Ikhwani have played a key role in establishing the identity of the Hui, especially in northwestern China, and these are examined in detail as is the growth of religious education and organization and the use of the Arabic and Persian languages. The relationship between the Chinese Communist Party and the Hui as an officially designated nation-

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ality and the social and religious life of Hui people in contemporary China are also discussed.” Dillon disagrees with American anthropologists that the “Hui people” as a “new nationality” only came into being after the establishment of the New China. On the contrary, Dillon believed that a Hui nationality was formed before the Ming dynasty, which was promoted by an official statement “On the Questions on Hui People” issued by the Communist Party of China in 1941. In the statement, the Hui people are a single and independent ethnic community. While in the past Western scholars have quite often confused the Uyghur and Hui peoples, in his work, Dillon points out that although Hui people have a certain connection with Uyghur people in their historical development, nevertheless both peoples possess their own identity and independence. The same confusion also surrounds the origin of the Hui people in the Western academic world. Dillon uses historical data as a source of reference and declares that Persia and middle Asia represent the principal origin of the Hui people. Many Muslims in Persia and middle Asia were forced to migrate to China as early as the 13th century, and there is linguistic evidence that the dialect of the Hui people preserved many Persian words and Persianized Arabic words. Regarding Islam during the Ming dynasty, Dillon puts forth further evidence that this was a crucial period when Muslims to adjusted to Chinese culture and formed their nationality as “Hui”. Moreover, he sheds some light on the relation between Chinese Islamic sects and Sufism in middle Asia. Dillon’s English translation of Ma Tong’s A Brief History of Chinese Islamic Sects and the Menhuan System, 46 however, has little reference value for Chinese scholars.

Ma Tong, 2000, A brief History of Chinese Islamic Sects and the Menhuan System, Ningxia People’s Publishing house. (马通, “中国伊斯兰教派与门宦制度史略” 宁夏 人民出版社, 2000, p. 391) 46

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Key publications in the study of history are as follows:

Barbara L. K. Pillsbury, 1981, “The history of Muslims in China, a Chronology from 1300”, Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 3, No.2, pp. 10–29. This paper gives a comprehensive introduction to the chronology of Chinese Muslims. The author is a political scientist concerned with China and an expert on the issue of “ethnic minorities” in China. Andrew. D.W Forbes, 1986, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang (1911–1949), Cambridge University Press. Contents: the administration of Yang Tsenghsin; the economy of Sinkiang under Yang Tsenghsin; the annexation of the Khanate of Kumul; the first invasion of Ma Chungying; the outbreak of rebellion in the south and the collapse of the Chinese administration; Turkic factionalism at Kashgar and Yarkand; Tungan invasion, Turkic secession and Soviet intervention; the Muslims under Sheng Shihtsai; Muslim separatism under the Kuomin; the Muslims on the eve of the communist takeover; the constitution and composition of the “Turkish-lslamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan”; and Schemes of Romanization. This is a particularly incisive work of political science, based on new materials in different languages. It depicts a grand picture of the turmoil in the Republic of China, in sharp contrast to what had been previously produced. Historical figures such as Yang Zengxin, Jin Shuren, and Sheng Shicai in the modern history of Xinjiang are discussed. Religion in this area is not in a position of antagonism with the Central Plains. This is also indicative for both nonbelievers and Muslims. It also includes several articles about the transportation of the Hui horse gang in Yunnan. Morris Rossabi, 1985, “China and the Islamic World”, Comparative Civilizations Review, Vol. 13, No.13, pp. 269–283.

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Morris Rossabi is an expert on Ming history and Kublai Khan. His research focuses on the history of Chinese Muslims in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. In addition to his “China and the Islamic World,” he also wrote a large entry entitled “Islam in China” for the Encyclopedia of Religion. 47 Abdul Wahid Radhu, 1997, Islam in Tibet & Tibetan Caravans, Edited by Gray Henry, Translated by Jane Casewit, Fons Vitae, Louisville. Abstract: “This book is the most complete and definitive work on the subject of Islam in Tibet to date. It will be of interest to both scholars in the field and general readers interested in the Islamic community at large, as well as those interested in Buddhist and Muslim spirituality. It features numerous photographs of the present Muslim community in Lhasa today, as well as photographs from the past. Included in its entirety is Tibetan Caravans by Abdul Wahid Radhu, describing his family’s centuries-old trading business between India, Central Asia, and Tibet – focusing especially on the fascinating interplay between the traditional cultures of Islam and Buddhism.” 48 Islamic scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr of George Washington University, wrote in praise of the book: “Traditional Tibetan life was a rich tapestry woven of several strands, of which one was Islam. This is the first work in the English language to make this an as yet little-recognized aspect of Tibetan culture and society known through a narrative that rings with the highest degree of authenticity and is, at the same time, of great general appeal. This work is also a stark reminder of how religions as diverse as Islam and Buddhism lived in peace at the matrix of a traditional society such as that of Tibet.” 49 Morris Rossabi, 1987, “Islam in China” in Mircea Eliade, ed, The Encyclopedia of Religion, New York: Macmillan, 7:384. 48 Abdul Wahid Radhu, 1997, Islam in Tibet & Tibetan Caravans, Editor by Gray Henry, Translated by Jane Casewit, Fons Vitae, Louisville. 49 From the publisher’s website (https://fonsvitae.com/product/islam-in-tibet/). 47

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ISLAM IN CHINA Benson, Linda and Svanberg, Ingvar, 1998. China’s Last Nomads: The History and Culture of China’s Kazaks. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Review: “China’s Last Nomads is the latest addition to the publications by Linda Benson and Ingvar Svanberg on the history and modern development of the Kazak people in China. While Benson’s research focus has been on Xinjiang’s Moslem minorities, Svanberg’s interest is concentrated more on the history and culture of the people of Kazak nationality, be that in Kazakhstan, China, or elsewhere. This new work represents the convergence of their research interests and represents further fruition of their collaboration.” 50 Karl W. Luckert, Mythology and Folklore of the Hui, A Muslim Chinese People, State University of New York Press, 1994. Contents: The First Ancestors of Hui Muslims; Muhammad and His Companions; The Quests of Culture Heroes and Saviors; Glimpses of Paradise and Wealth; Islam and Other Religions; Muslims Under the Emperor; Origins of the Hui Nationality; Hui Leaders With and Against the Empire; Family Affairs; Love and Courtship; Poor and Rich – Good and Bad; Social Satire; Tricksters and Wise Guys; and Stories about Animals.

Larry N. Shyu, 1999, “Reviewed Work: China’s Last Nomads: The History and Culture of China’s Kazaks by Linda Benson”, China Review International, Vol. 6, No.2, pp. 378–380.

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PART FOUR. THE 21ST CENTURY 1 RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THE “DIALOG AMONG CIVILIZATIONS”

Dialog between Islamic cultures and other civilizations – and between Islam and other religions – has come to the fore in recent years, and the study of religious pluralism is increasingly significant. The Clash of Civilizations was published along with other articles in 1996 by the American political theorist, Samuel P. Huntington (1927–2008). He later compiled relevant theories into the far-reaching The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. 1 The book was translated into 39 languages, and its repercussions are still felt around the world. The 9/11 incident forced people to return to Huntington’s ideas, which remain relevant for a number of reasons. First, future international conflicts will be mainly cultural in origin rather than ideological or economic. The main global political clashes will be between countries and groups of different civilizations. The conflicts of civilizations will dominate global politics. The (geopolitical) fault line between civilizations will become the future front line. Second, the clash of civilizations is the greatest threat to world peace. A world order based on civilizations is the most reliable Samuel P. Huntington, 2002, The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order, Simon & Schuster UK.

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guarantee to avoid world war. Therefore, it is very important to cross boundaries among different civilizations, while at the same time recognizing their existence and respecting them. Third, for the first time in history, we see multipolar and multicivilizational global politics; generally speaking, countries with different cultures are liable to be alienated from and indifferent – or even highly hostile – to each other, while civilizations are more likely to maintain a certain competitive coexistence, allowing cold war, cold peace and ethnic conflict to prevail. Conflict among the different civilizations in the world means Islamic civilization and Confucianism may jointly threaten or challenge Western civilization. Huntington’s point of view is surprising and unacceptable to many people, not just international experts. His theory specifically involves the notion that the main source of future instability and the possibility of war comes from the revival of Islam and the rise of East Asian societies, especially China; the relationship between the West and these challenging civilizations may be extremely difficult, and the relationship between the United States and China may be the most dangerous of all. Tu Weiming, a professor at Harvard University who has worked closely with Nanjing University, Yunnan University, Ningxia Academy of Social Sciences and other institutions to publish a variety of research, criticizes Huntington’s perspective and believes that the “clash of civilizations” is not main direction of the world’s cultural development. He asserts that Huntington’s understanding of culture is very one-sided, based on a narrow political standpoint, reflecting the unhealthy mentality of some people in American society after the end of the Cold War. Although the “Clash of Civilizations” theory has had considerable influence, and this kind of thought is still developing, its influence will be increasingly weaker in the future, because its rationale is questionable. Now, early in the 21st century, there should be more communication and exchange between different ethnic groups and different civilization systems to form a global “dialog of civilizations” between various products of Eastern and Western civilizations. These encompass Hinduism, Islamism, and Jainism in East Asia and South Asia, Confucian-

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ism, Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism in China, Judaism, and Christianity. In the context of an upsurge in research on the “Clash of Civilizations” and the “Dialog of Civilizations,” research on the dialog between Chinese Islamic civilization and other civilizations has also been productive. Many academic conferences comprising different levels of dialog have been held in China, including the International Symposium on the Dialog of Civilizations, with a focus on the dialog between Hui and Confucianism, held in Yinchuan, Ningxia, Kunming, Yunnan; and the International Symposium on “Life and Death: The dialog between Hui and Buddhism” held in Beijing. Meanwhile, some important research has been carried out on the interaction between Islamic and Chinese civilizations, especially between Islam and Chinese Confucianism. This directly relates to the study of “Chinese Islamic studies”. In a broad sense, Islamic teaching can include, among other things, the fields of classics (classics, sermons, etc.), pedagogy, dogmatism, and sectarianism. Dogmatism is a traditional Islamic discipline formed from the process of Muslims’ rational and speculative interpretation of faith. Islamic dogmatism has always been accorded great importance by Chinese Muslims, and it has been the main thrust of scripture education and Chinese translation since the Ming and Qing dynasties. Islamic law is also an important part of Islamic teaching. The study of Islamic law in contemporary China has formed a disciplinary system, focusing on specifically Chinese characteristics and dimensions. At present, the discipline is undergoing a methodological transformation in order to become more useful within the framework of contemporary research. Under the influence of traditional Islamic jurists and modern Western Islamic jurists, there are two academic traditions in this field, namely “traditionalists” and “academics.” Islamic society in China evolved entirely from Muslim immigrants from Arabia, Persia, Turkic regions, and Central Asia. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Chinese Islamic community experienced a long period of Sinicization and localization, and its cultural thinking and Chinese Islamic consciousness

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underwent a critical period of development. During this period, a number of intellectuals emerged who were proficient in Islamic classics and Confucianism, culturally influenced by both faiths. These intellectuals, with Islamic philosophy as their foundation but under the overall influence of Chinese Confucianism, especially Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties, have created a new theoretical system in Chinese Islamic studies. The development of the discipline of Chinese Islamic studies is not only a contribution to Chinese Islam but also to Chinese civilization more broadly. In a special sense, it also proves the close relationship between Confucianism and Islam. Its representatives include Wang Daiyu, Zhang Zhong, Wu Zunqi, Ma Zhu, Liu Zhi, Ma Dexin, and Ma Lianyuan. They drove the enlightenment movement, with its great historical significance in the history of Chinese Islamic thought. Wang Daiyu and Liu Zhi, in particular, are Islamic scholars who have made great contribution to the creation of the Chinese Islamic system. Wang Daiyu, the most important pioneer of this academic system, creatively explored the purpose, task, content, and direction of the ideological enlightenment. Liu Zhi’s thought followed the direction shown by Wang Daiyu, combining Islamic doctrine with Chinese Confucian doctrine, and standardizing it, refining it, and making it more speculative. Wang Daiyu and Liu Zhi’s thinking was built on the foundations of Islam and Islamic theology, philosophy, ethics, and politics, critically absorbing Confucianism, especially Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties.

2 “MUSLIM CONFUCIAN” STUDIES

In recent years, international scholars have begun to study the works of representatives of the Chinese Muslim “Han Kitabu” movement. As a result of the intersection of Chinese traditional culture and Islamic culture, Chinese Islamic literature and records have attracted increasingly more attention. Scholars have proposed that, because of the contribution of Chinese Islamic literature to diversified Islamic thought, it should enjoy the same important status and close attention as similar content in

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other languages has received. Key proponents include the American scholar Sachiko Murata (村田幸子) and William C. Chittick. 2.1 Sachiko Murata and William C. Chittick

Sachiko Murata (村田幸子) received her B.A. from Chiba University, Japan, and later attended Iran’s University of Tehran, where she was the first woman to study Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). She received her Ph.D. in Persian Literature, but shortly before completing her Ph.D. in Fiqh, the Iranian revolution caused her husband William Chittick to leave the country. Murata resettled at the State University of New York in Stony Brook, New York, where she teaches Islam, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. William Chittick studied at the College of Wooster in Ohio and then completed a Ph.D. in Persian literature at the University of Tehran under the supervision of Seyyed Hossein Nasr in 1974. He taught comparative religion at Tehran’s Aryamehr Technical University and left Iran before the revolution. Chittick is currently Distinguished Professor in the Department of Asian and Asian American Studies at Stony Brook University. He was awarded the Guggenheim Fellowship for his academic contributions in 2014. Sachiko Murata, William C. Chittick, and Tu Weiming jointly published Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light: Wang Tai-yu’s Great Learning of the Pure and Real and Liu Chih’s Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm” and “The Sage Learning of Liu Zhi: Islamic Thought in Confucian Terms.” Sachiko Murata, 2000, William C. Chittick, Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light: Wang Tai-yu’s Great Learning of the Pure and Real and Liu Chih’s Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm, State Univ of New York Pr. Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light investigates, for the first time in a Western language, how Chinese Muslim scholars adapted the Chinese tradition to their own needs during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The book surveys the 1400-year history of Islam in China and explores why the four books translated from

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Islamic languages into Chinese before the twentieth century were all Persian Sufi texts. The authors also carefully consider the two most important Muslim authors of books in the Chinese language – Wang Tai-yu, and Liu Chih, showing how they assimilated Confucian social teachings and Neo-Confucian metaphysics, as well as Buddhism and Taoism, into Islamic thought. The book presents full translations of Wang’s Great Learning of the Pure and Real – a text on the principles of Islam – and Liu Chih’s Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm, which in turn is a translation from the Persian Lawa’ih,’ a famous Sufi text by Jami. A new translation of Jami’s Lawa’ih’ from the Persian by William C. Chittick is juxtaposed with Liu Chih’s work, revealing the latter’s techniques in adapting the text to Chinese language and thought. Contents: The Works of Wang Tai-yu (The True Answers, The Real Commentary on the True Teaching, Adam and Eve: From Chapter Two of the Real Commentary, The Real Solicitude); Wang Tai-yu’s Great Learning (The Chinese Background, The Islamic Concepts, The Text); The Great Learning of the Pure and Real (Synopsis: Comprehensive Statement, The Real One, The Numerical One, The Embodied One, General Discussion); Liu Chih’s Translation of Lawa’ih (The Oneness of Existence, Liu Chih’s Appropriation of Lawa’ih, The Translations); Gleams; and Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm. Sachiko Murata, 2009, William C. Chittick, Weiming Tu, The Sage Learning of Liu Zhi: Islamic Thought in Confucian Terms, Harvard University Asia Center, 678 pages. Contents: The introduction of the book is divided into discussing Liu Zhi and the Han Kitab (Liu Zhi, The Persian and Arabic Sources, The Arabic Translation of the Root Classic); The Islamic Background (The Quest for Realization, Fields of Understanding, Wisdom, The Real, The World Map, Sovereignty and Kingdom, Origin and Return, Microcosm and Macrocosm, Names and Attributes, Spiritual Anthropology, Actualization of the Divine Form, The Divine Presences); Liu Zhi’s Adaptations of Islamic Thought (Nature and Principle, Spirit, Xingli Li and Ruh, Xing

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and Tabi’a, Mandate, Former Heaven and Latter Heaven, Complete Substance and Great Function, Prophethood and Sagehood, One Body with Heaven and Earth); and The Structure and Argument of Tianfang Xingli. Islamic scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr wrote the foreword: “The first product of this collaboration, the remarkable work Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light, contains the translation of two Chinese texts in English, their analysis, a new English translation of Abdal-Rahman Jami’s Lawa’ih’ (one of the texts studied in its Chinese translation) from the Persian by Chittick, and in-depth comparisons. The work became a landmark study in comparative philosophy, mysticism, and religion as far as the Islamic and Chinese traditions are concerned. “During these efforts, the group became aware that they were dealing only with the tip of the iceberg and many other important texts of the Han Kitab deserved to be studied indepth. Accordingly, they turned their attention to the more extensive and highly influential work of Liu Zhi, the seventeenthcentury master of this school: Tian-fang xingli (Nature and Principle in Islam). This was first published in 1704 and represented the result of several years of effort to study and translate this work and to provide detailed commentaries and references to Islamic sources. Among the most interesting features of this treatise is the explanation of metaphysical and cosmological ideas through the use of numerous diagrams. Perhaps the author’s extensive use of diagrams can nevertheless remind us of diagrams in the philosophical and metaphysical works of such Islamic authors as Ikhwan al-Safa, Ibn Arabi, and Sayyid Haydar Amuli.” 2 Tu Weiming’s epilogue reads: “I would like to conclude with four observations: 1. Liu Zhi’s accomplishment is widely acknowledged by Chinese Muslim theorists and practitioners as Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 2009, “Foreword”, In The Sage Learning of Liu Zhi: Islamic Thought in Confucian Terms, Edited by Sachiko Murata, William C. Chittick, Harvard University Asia Center, pp. V–X.

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one of the most sophisticated, systematic, original, and creative articulations of Islamic philosophy in the golden age of Islam in China. He will be recognized as a profound resource for Chinese Islamic intellectual self-definition. 2. Islamic Nature and Principle is a major contribution to Confucian thought in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties as well as to Muslim-Han dialog. It will broaden the philosophical horizons of Confucian thinkers and compel Chinese intellectual historians to reexamine their underlying assumptions about the Three Teachings. 3. It has enriched and enlarged the Confucian discourse comparable to and in several areas more significant than the great work of the Jesuits, notably the endeavor of Matteo Ricci. 4. It will undoubtedly stimulate new research and interpretation in the comparative study of religion and philosophy as well as in Chinese and Islamic studies.” 3 This may be compared with the original work of Jami (加米), a mystical Persian Sufi poet. The research is based on a thorough archaeological investigation of the literature and is closely related to the dialog between the Hui and Confucianism advocated by Du Weiming (杜维明). In fact, in one regard, the book reflects the author’s hold of the research tradition of Japanese scholars on Chinese Sufist literature – his research on Sufi and Taoism, for example; simultaneously, it reflects recent Western research, mainly initiated by the neo-Confucians, concerning and interested in the translation of Chinese Islamic works during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This remains a research area with great potential. In 2012, Sachiko Murata and William C. Chittick were visiting scholars at Peking University, specializing in the study of Islam in China, and I had the opportunity to work with them to hold an academic seminar there, on “The Contemporary Value of the Worldview of Huiru and Islamic studies in China”. Murata Tu Weiming, 2009, “Epilogue”, 581–617, in The Sage Learning of Liu Zhi: Islamic Thought in Confucian Terms, Edited by Sachiko Murata, William C. Chittick, Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 581–617. 3

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and Chittick’s presentation at the seminar, “Why Study the Worldview of the Huiru?”, pointed out that their interactions with Chinese scholars and students of Islam had revealed that many Chinese were unable to see the teachings of the Huiru as continuous with those of mainstream Islam. The major reason for this seems to be the break in the transmission of Huiru thought brought about by events in the twentieth century. Chinese Muslims have had to re-learn their religious tradition because of the disappearance of the educational systems that sustained it. Mostly they rely on outside sources, often written by Western historians. The Chinese Muslim philosopher Liu Zhi sets down the Huiru worldview in his Tianfang Xingli in a systematic and meticulous manner, with a philosophical vision unparalleled among Huiru authors. It is doubtful whether any Islamic language text can rival Tianfang Xingli in portraying the various dimensions of Islamic thought and practice in such a systematic, succinct, and all-comprehensive manner. So, Murata and Chittick ask, “what then is the Huiru worldview? In short, it is identical to the worldview discussed by countless books written in Arabic, Persian, and other languages by great Muslim teachers, people who were known as theologians, Sufis, or philosophers, and sometimes as all three. In theoretical terms, this worldview is expressed most briefly as the three principles of Islamic thought: unity, prophecy, and return.” 4 2.2 Other scholars Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, 2005, The Dao of Muhammad: A Cultural History of Muslims in Late Imperial China, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center.

Sachiko Murata, “Why Study the Worldview of the Huiru? (1) ”, Huizu Yanjiu『 回族研究』, Vol. 32, 2012, pp. 9–10.) and William C. Chittick, “Why Study the Worldview of the Huiru? (2) ”, Huizu Yanjiu『回族研究』, Vol. 32, pp. 11–12, 2012.

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Contents: The Islamic Educational Network; Self-Perception and Identity among the Scholarly Constituency; The Han Kitab Authors and the Chinese Islamic School; Muhammad and His Dao; and Knowledge and Identity in the Han Kitab. Abstract: “This book documents an Islamic-Confucian school of scholarship that flourished, mostly in the Yangzi Delta, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Drawing on previously unstudied materials, it reconstructs the network of Muslim scholars responsible for the creation and circulation of a large corpus of Chinese Islamic written material – the so-called Han Kitab. Against the backdrop of the rise of the Manchu Qing dynasty, The Dao of Muhammad shows how the creation of this corpus, and of the scholarly network that supported it, arose in a context of intense dialog between Muslim scholars, their Confucian social context, and China’s imperial rulers. Overturning the idea that participation in Confucian culture necessitated the obliteration of all other identities, this book offers insight into the world of a group of scholars who felt that their study of the Islamic classics constituted a rightful “school” within the Confucian intellectual landscape. These men were not the first Muslims to master the Chinese classics. However, they were the first to express themselves specifically as Chinese Muslims and to generate foundational myths that made sense of their place both within Islamic and Chinese culture.” James D. Frankel, 2011, Rectifying God’s Name: Liu Zhi’s Confucian Translation of Monotheism and Islamic Law. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Contents: The World of Liu Zhi; Chinese Muslim Tradition and Liu Zhi’s Legacy; Liu Zhi’s Concepts and Terminology; Ritual as an Expression of Chinese-Islamic Simultaneity; The Spirit of Ritual and the Letter of the Law; and Allah’s Chinese name. Abstract: “Islam first arrived in China more than 1,200 years ago, but for more than a millennium, it was perceived as a foreign presence. The restoration of native Chinese rule by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), after nearly a century of Mongol domination, helped transform Chinese intellectual discourse on ideological, social, political, religious, and ethnic identity. This

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led to the creation of a burgeoning network of Sinicized Muslim scholars who wrote about Islam in classical Chinese and developed a body of literature known as the Han Kitab. Rectifying God’s Name examines the life and work of one of the most important of the Qing Chinese Muslim literati, Liu Zhi (ca. 1660– ca.1730), and places his writings in their historical, cultural, social, and religio-philosophical context. His Tianfang danli (Ritual law of Islam) represents the most systematic and sophisticated attempt within the Han Kitab corpus to harmonize Islam with Chinese thought. “The volume begins by situating Liu Zhi in the historical development of the Chinese Muslim intellectual tradition, examining his sources and influences as well as his legacy. Delving into the contents of Liu Zhi’s work, it focuses on his use of specific Chinese terms and concepts, their origins and meanings in Chinese thought, and their correspondence to Islamic principles. A close examination of the Tianfang Dianli reveals Liu Zhi’s specific usage of the concept of Ritual as a common foundation of both Confucian morality and social order and Islamic piety. The challenge of expressing such concepts in a context devoid of any clear monotheistic principle tested the limits of his scholarship and linguistic finesse. Liu Zhi’s theological discussion in the Tianfang Dianli engages not only the ancient Confucian tradition, but also Daoism, Buddhism, and even non-Chinese traditions. His methodology reveals an erudite and cosmopolitan scholar who synthesized diverse influences, from Sufism to NeoConfucianism, and possibly even Jesuit and Jewish sources, into a body of work that was both steeped in tradition and, yet, exceedingly original, epitomizing the phenomenon of Chinese Muslim simultaneity.” Islamic Thought in China: Sino-Muslim Intellectual Evolution from the 17th to 21st Century. Edited by Jonathan Lipman. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016. Lipman wrote contributed an Editor’s Introduction and an article to the book. Other articles in the book include:

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ISLAM IN CHINA James D. Frankel, “Liu Zhi: The Great Integrator of Chinese Islamic Thought” (pp. 34–54) Roberta Tontini, “Tianfang Sanzijing: Exchanges and Changes in China’s Reception of Islamic Law” (pp. 55–80) Kristian Petersen, “The Multiple Meanings of Pilgrimage in Sino-Islamic Thought” (pp. 81–104) Wlodzimierz Cieciura, “Ethnicity or Religion? Republican-Era Chinese Debates on Islam and Muslims” (pp. 107–146) Yufeng Mao, “Selective Learning from the Middle East: The Case of Sino-Muslim Students at al-Azhar University” (pp. 147–170) Masumi Matsumoto, “Secularization and Modernization of Islam in China: Educational Reform, Japanese Occupation and the Disappearance of Persian Learning” (pp. 171–196) Leila Chérif-Chebbi, “Between ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Liu Zhi: Chinese Muslim Intellectuals at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century” (pp. 197–232)

From Lipman’s Introduction (pp. 1–12): “Muslims have lived in the Chinese culture area since the seventh or eighth century – the mid-Tang dynasty – and have acculturated, as all immigrants do, to live comfortably in what began as an alien environment. Over a millennium, through ordinary social processes, including intermarriage with local women, they ceased being utterly foreign and became local but different, Sinophone but not entirely Chinese.” From Lipman’s article in the volume, titled “A Proper Place for God: Ma Zhu’s Chinese-Islamic Cosmogenesis” (pp. 15–33) “In the Ming period (1368–1644), Chinese Muslim writers began to explain their ancestral religion of Islam in the language and conceptual schema of their contemporary Chinese culture. That is, they participated fully in two literate, self-confident, and, at least potentially, exclusive cultures, so they had to produce a

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textual justification that allowed them to be legitimate insiders in both. This will be a constant theme in this book, for the same impulse has continued to motivate Chinese Muslim intellectuals to think and write for the past 400 years.” Tontoni, Roberta, 2016, Muslim Sanzijing: Shifts and Continuities in the Definition of Islam in China. Leiden: Brill. In Muslim Sanzijing, Roberta Tontini traces the history of Islam and Islamic law in China through a rigorous analysis of popular Chinese Islamic primers from the 18th to the 21st century. Contents: Tianfang Dianli: Norms and Rites of Islam in Imperial China; Tianfang Sanzijing: A Regional Theory on Islamic Law; Islamic Law in the Aftermath of the Anti-Qing Rebellions; Rethinking Liu Zhi’s Legacy in Postimperial China; Islam’s Filiative Transmission to Modernity; and Conclusion: The Great Learning of Islam in China. Yiming Shen, 2015. Chinese Islamic text studies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: A case study of Chinese translations of Jami’s Persian Sufi prose (Ph.D. Thesis. SOAS, University of London) A case study of two Chinese translations of Naqshbandiyya Shaykh Jāmī’s (1414–1492) Persian Sufi prose: Liu Zhi’s 劉智 (c. 1655–1745) Zhenjing zhaowei 真境昭微 (Displaying the Profound Meaning of the Real Realm), a translation of Lavāyiḥ; and She Qiling’s 舍起靈 (1638–1703) Zhaoyuan mijue 昭元秘訣 (Secret Key of exposing the Origin), a translation of Ashi‘at alLama‘āt.

3 ACADEMIC WORKS BASED ON FIELDWORK 3.1 Maris Boyd Gillette

Maris Boyd Gillette, a student of Dru C. Gladney, inherited his research methods. Gillette completed her research in Xi’an, which involved 18 months of fieldwork, collecting extensive first-hand information. She published her research on Xi’an Huifang in 2000:

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ISLAM IN CHINA Maris Boyd Gillette, 2000, Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption Among Urban Chinese Muslims, Stanford: Stanford University Press.

This book is another Western scholarly anthropological work on the Muslim community in China after Dru C. Gladney’s Chinese Muslims. Differing from Gladney, Gillette, from the perspective of “modernization and consumption”, uses economic anthropology, sociology, and the theory of consumerism culture to study the Muslim community of China’s Hui nationality in a city. Following Gladney, Gillette has again expanded the research field on the Hui nationality. However, the author’s interpretation of the Xi’an Hui’s consumption and modernization hides the Western “modernity” complex and values. 5 Review: “Based on fresh and solid ethnographic materials, the study demonstrates that even though the majority of Xi’an Hui desire and embrace the modernization paradigm promoted by the Chinese party-state, the specific vision of modernization and meaning of being modern differ greatly from the officially sanctioned ideology. In other words, this group of people may have adopted the goals and language of modernization and consumerism offered by the state, but they frequently draw inspiration and social imagination from a quite different source “Arabized Islamic modernity” as their index of civilization and an alternative vision of modernization. This tendency is most clearly manifest in the Arabization of the architectural style of recently built mosques in the community. Because this alternative way of defining and pursuing modernization is located outside the state’s purview and direct control, it often invokes anxieties and creates tensions between this Muslim community and local government (largely dominated by Han Chinese). The author shows nicely both the continued salience of state power and its limits in an increasingly marketized consumer society. Jiang Jianing, “An anthropological return visit to Niujie (Oxen Street) hui Community”, Masters thesis, Minzu University, 2011.

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On the one hand, the Chinese party-state can instill a metanarrative of progress among its citizens and presents itself as the sole legitimate director of state-guided modernization. On the other hand, there have emerged several unintended consequences in everyday practices of modernization that go beyond state control. With increased wealth, consumption power, and access to trans-local and transnational flows of material goods, Xi’an Hui, as well as other Chinese citizens, have gained more personal freedom and space in their consumption choices and private life. Yet, often caught between the practical consideration of economic gain and the concern for social control, local government’s response to these new consumption practices is largely ambivalent.” 6 3.2 Maria Jaschok

Professor Maria Jaschok of Oxford University, UK, has carried a great deal of fieldwork on issues of religious and secular identity, and implications of growing female membership of both officially sanctioned religions and local cults for women’s participation in, and contribution to, civil society in contemporary China. In 2000, Jaschok collaborated with Chinese scholars to publish The History of Women’s Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own. The Chinese version of the book was also published in 2002 by Sanlian Bookstore (三联书店) as a kind of Sanlian-Harvard Yanjing (哈弗燕京) academic series. Maria Jaschok and Shui Jingjun (水镜君), 2000, The History of Women’s Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own, London: Curzon Press. Contents: Muslim Women, Chinese Islam and Sexual Equality; Islamic Faith, Innovation (bida) and Constructs of Femininity; The Beginnings and History of a Female Religious Culture; Li Zhang, 2002, Book Reviews: Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption Among Urban Chinese Muslims, Journal of Political Ecology, Vol. 9, pp. 3–4.

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Growth and Expansion of Women's Mosques and Schools; Women’s Mosques, Nu Ahong and their Religious Culture; ‘The Road to Allah’s Commandments’ – Conflicts of Loyalty under Chinese State Law; Women’s Mosques, Islamic Patriarchy and the State; Re/Engendering the Past; Xiuti, ‘From Head to Toe’ – Shaming and Concealing the Body; Mediating Spiritual Faith and Equality; Communitas, Choices, and Conversion; Living in God’s Shadow; Nusi in the Republican Era 1912–1949; and Unpublished Documentation on Central China. The book has been praised for its method of dialog, and the way in which it has added the voice of Chinese Muslim women to the theoretical discussion of international feminist scholars. For the Hui research community in China, this book may also have the benefit of introducing feminism into Hui research. Jaschok has also published: “The History of Women’s Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own,” The China Journal, (2002) “Gender, Religion, and Little Traditions: Chinese Muslim Women Singing Minguo,” Women in China. The Republican Era in Historical Perspective, M Leutner, and N. Spakowsiki, eds. (LITT Verlag Berlin, 2005) “Women’s Mosque Education, Female Ignorance and Chants to Save Souls: Chinese Hui Muslim Women Remembering Jingge, Remembering their History,” Studies in Adult and Community Education, 52 (The Japan Society for the Study of Adult and Community Education, Tokyo, 2008) “Education, gender and Islam in China: The place of religious education in challenging and sustaining ‘undisputed traditions’ among Chinese Muslim women,” co-authored with. M. V. Chan, International Journal of Educational Development, 2009. Women, Space, and Religion in China: Islamic Mosques & Daoist Temples, Catholic Convents & Chi-

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nese Virgins, co-authored with Shui JJ (Routledge, NY, 2011) “Chinese Hui Muslim Pilgrims – Back Home from Mecca: Negotiating Identity and Gender, Status and Afterlife,” The Changing World Religion Map: Sacred Places, Identities, Practices, and Politics, edited by Stanley D. Brunn. (Springer, 2015) “Education, gender and Islam in China: The place of religious education in challenging and sustaining ‘undisputed traditions’ among Chinese Muslim women,” Walking the Tightrope: Asian Muslim Women and their Lived Realities, edited by-Huma AhmedGhosh. (New York: State University of New York Press, 2015) (With Rachel Harris) “Introduction: Sounding Islam in China,” Performing Islam (3)1&2:11–21(2014 Intellect Ltd. Doi:10.1386/pi.3102.11-2.2015) “Sound and Silence in Chinese Women’s Mosques – Identity, Faith and Equality,” Performing Islam (3)1&2:59–82.(2014 Intellect Ltf.doi:10.1386/pi.31-2.11-2.11.2015) 3.3 Others S. Frederick Starr (ed.), 2004. Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. Contents: Historical Background; Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region Through the Late Nineteenth Century; Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978; Chinese Policy Today; The Chinese Program of Development and Control 1978–2001; The Great Wall of Steel: Military and Strategy in Xinjiang; The Economy of Xinjiang; Education and Social Mobility among Minority Populations in Xinjiang; A Land of Borderlands: Implications of Xinjiang’s Trans-border Interactions; Costs of Control and Development; The Demography of Xinjiang; The Ecology of Xinjiang: A Focus on Water; Public Health and Social Pathologies in Xinjiang; The Indigenous Response; Acculturation

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and Resistance: Xinjiang Identities in Flux; Islam in Xinjiang; Contested Histories; and Responses to Chinese Rule: Patterns of Cooperation and Opposition. Abstract: “This comprehensive survey of contemporary Xinjiang is the result of a major collaborative research project begun in 1998. The authors have combined their fieldwork experience, linguistic skills, and disciplinary expertise to assemble the first multifaceted introduction to Xinjiang. The volume surveys the region’s geography; its history of military and political subjugation to China; economic, social, and commercial conditions; demography, public health, and ecology; and patterns of adaptation, resistance, opposition, and evolving identities.” Elisabeth Allès, 2000, Musulmans de Chine: Une anthropologie des Hui du Henan, Paris: EHESS. Review: “Allès’ book makes contributions of both a methodological and an interpretive sort. Methodologically, her study is valuable in that it provides an examination of the several types of Chinese Muslim communities in one central eastern province, Henan. Henan, which has a large concentration of Chinese Muslims (the third largest of any Chinese province), is home to some of the earliest Chinese Muslim settlements, dating from the Tang period on. While other works have provided a useful broad overview of all of China's Muslims (Gladney’s, for instance) or a detailed snapshot of one community (Gillette), Allès’ study surveys an entire province, locating within it both the diversity and the commonality of the Muslim population.” 7

4 RESEARCH IN THE POLITICAL FIELD

Islam has a deep connection with its adherents’ lives, especially in contemporary social and political life in China’s Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia and other Islamic areas, where the relationship between Islam and social politics is closer. Contemporary scholZ. A. Ben-Dor, 2003. “Review of Musulmans de Chine: Une Anthropologie des Hui du Henan”, China Review International 10, no. 1: 84–86.

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ars even call it “the Islam of politics,” “the Islamization of politics,” and “the politicization of Islam,” etc. The evolution of modern Islamic politics in the 20th century formed three major schools: nationalism, modernism, and fundamentalism; and the evolution of these schools in the 21st world is clear. Nationalists regard country and social outlook as the political cornerstone, Islam as ideological belief, and the separation of politics and religion as basic state policy. The modernists consider the early Islamic political tradition as an example and advocate the political principles of nationality, freedom, and equality. Fundamentalists believe that the invasion and expansion of Western powers has coincided with the decline of Muslim national politics in modern times; only by reviving the Islamic tradition, including its political principles, ideas, and ethical norms, can Muslim countries enjoy peace and stability. The study of Islam and Muslims in China by international scholars involves different ethnic groups, and different economic and political conditions. It encompasses not only the research field of religious teaching but also the academic frontier characteristic of interdisciplinary research. At present, many events in China’s Muslim region are related to Islam; but, then, not all events are Islamic, nor are they always religious in nature. Ten ethnic groups in China believe in Islam, and their Islamic religious issues inevitably affect the country’s political and social conditions, among other things. International Islamic unrest also naturally affects Chinese Muslim society. From the research perspective, these situations have aroused the attention and of scholars – both at home and abroad – to the Islamic political and social issues in China. Recently, problems related to the politics of Islam in China have materialized, as well as academic research on Islamic social thought and social movements. An important political consideration of the early 21st century is China’s major contemporary development strategy: the Belt and Road Initiative (Belt refers to the Silk Road Economic Belt and Road refers to the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road), which has been the focus of much recent study. Islam is an important factor that cannot be dismissed in the Belt and Road Initiative.

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As Islam remains an important factor in the stability of Xinjiang’s social development, and Belt and Road relies on Xinjian’s scientific research, intellectual expertise, and effective governance, the future of the initiative, the region and the religion are all closely intertwined. Michael Dillon, 2004, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Far Northwest, London: Routledge. Contents: Part One, Introduction to Xinjiang (Xinjiang’s Geographical Position; Xinjiang before 1949: A Historical Outline; Ethnic Groups in Northwest China and Uyghur Language and Culture in 20th Century Xinjiang; The Three Districts Revolution and ‘Peaceful Liberation’: The Chinese Communist Party Takes Political and Military Control; and The Economy of Xinjiang in the Reform and Opening Era); Part Two, Turkic Opposition and CCP Response (Political and Religious Opposition to CCP Control (1949–1995): Cultural, Nationalist or Islamist; Beijing’s Response to Opposition in Xinjiang (1980–1995); Leadership Changes in Xinjiang; ‘Strike Hard’: The Long Hot Summers of 1996 and 1997; Underground Fires: The Struggle Continues); Part Three, The Changing International Context (New Great Games: Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan; Newly Independent Central Asian Republics; Xinjiang and the ‘War against Terror’); and Conclusion: Xinjiang in the Twenty-first Century. Abstract: “Xinjiang, the nominally autonomous region in China’s far northwest, is of increasing international strategic and economic importance. With a population that is mainly nonChinese and Muslim, there are powerful forces for autonomy, and independence, in Xinjiang. This book provides a comprehensive overview of Xinjiang. It introduces Xinjiang’s history, economy, and society, and above all outlines the political and religious opposition by the Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of Xinjiang to Chinese Communist rule.” Erie, Matthew S., 2016, China, and Islam: The Prophet, the Party, and Law, New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Contents: Introduction: The Party-State Enters the Mosque; History, the Chinese State, and Islamic Law; Linxia at the Crossroads; Ritual Lawfare; Learning the Law; Wedding Laws; Moral Economies; Procedural Justice; and Conclusion: Law, Minjian, and the Ends of Anthropology. Abstract: “China and Islam examines the intersection of two critical issues of the contemporary world: Islamic revival and an assertive China, questioning the assumption that Islamic law is incompatible with state law. It finds that both Hui and the Party-State invoke, interpret, and make arguments based on Islamic law, a minjian (unofficial) law in China, to pursue their respective visions of ‘the good’. Based on fieldwork in Linxia, ‘China’s Little Mecca’, this study follows Hui clerics, youthful translators on the ‘New Silk Road’, female educators who reform traditional madrasas, and Party cadres as they reconcile Islamic and socialist laws in the course of the everyday. The first study of Islamic law in China and one of the first ethnographic accounts of law in post-socialist China, China and Islam unsettles unidimensional perceptions of extremist Islam and authoritarian China through Hui minjian practices of law.” Gillette, Maris, 2008, “Violence, the state, and a Chinese Muslim Ritual Remembrance” Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 67, No.3:1011–1037. Abstract: “This article discusses how contemporary Chinese Muslims in the city of Xi’an remember a massive conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims that devastated Northwest China in the Tongzhi period (1862–74) of the Qing dynasty. Every year on the seventeenth day of the fifth lunar month, local Hui hold a series of mourning rituals for the Muslims who died at that time. They recount stories about these events during the ritual and in other settings. The author uses Bakhtin’s concept of “social heteroglossia” to explore the discursive features of three accounts of the violence, arguing that Xi’an Hui memories of this past show the influence of state-sponsored ethnic policies, a religious model of Hui identity, and a less formally articulated collective sentiment (what Raymond Williams calls a “structure of feeling”) based on shared experience. The author discusses how

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these discourses are disseminated and which factors generate the “structure of feeling” that colors contemporary Muslim accounts of the Tongzhi period, and reflects on the consequences of Xi’an Hui’s internalization of the state’s framework for ethnic identity.” Lipman, Jonathan N. “White Hats, Oil Cakes, and Common Blood: The Hui in the Contemporary Chinese State.” in Governing China’s Multiethnic Frontiers, edited by Morris Rossabi, 19–52. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004, 19–52. Contents: A Story of Violence, Now, 1990; A Story without Violence, 1990–1997; Who are the Huizhou?; The People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Huizu; Structures and Personnel of Authority: The Mosque and the Minzu Ganbu; The Primacy of the Local: Hui as Middlemen; The Hui vs. the State: Negotiating Urban Renewal; Confronting Hui: Various Locales, Various Solutions; and Conclusion. Excerpt: “How can we explain the differences between rebellious Shadian or Donggouzhai and overtly compliant Najiaying? Between Shadian’s fate in the 1970s and that of Yuxi two decades later? Why was the Zhengzhou Muslim quarter able to negotiate the construction of Xincun to salvage its neighborhood’s location and structure, while the Xi’an Muslim quarter’s efforts have thus far produced no results (though their neighborhood has not yet been razed or “renewed”)? It seems to me that all of the stories in this essay can only be understood through the localness of Hui communities, which endures despite their common Muslim religion and (state-defined) minzu identity. Chinese scholars unify all of these phenomena in a conceptual universe dominated by the notion of minzu. Indeed, they posit two simultaneous interlocking processes – ethnicization (minzuhua) and localization (diqhua) – as responsible for the formation of the Huizu within the Chinese cultural matrix.” An analysis of the content of this paper suggests that the current circumstances of Hui Muslims in China should be studied from a political point of view.

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Ho, Wai-Yip, “Mobilizing the Muslim Minority for China’s Development: Hui Muslims, Ethnic Relations, and Sino-Arab Connections.” Journal of Comparative Asian Development, Vol. 12, No.1, 84–112, 2013. Abstract: “In forging the growing trade tied between the Arab world and China, this paper observes that the Hui Muslim minority underwent an ethnic turn in the revival of the Silk Road connections, which shifted from being the Han man’s burden to a potential asset of the PRC. Firstly, this paper introduces how cultural perceptions shape the treatment of ethnic minorities in China by reviewing the historical background of the national policy on ethnic minorities. Secondly, it discusses why the Hui Muslims in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the largest Hui Muslim settled area, were mobilized to foster Sino-Arab trade rather than the Uyghurs in Xinjiang. An example is the transformation of the Qingzhen food industry of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region into a hub of China’s Islamic food (Halal) production. This paper argues that the management of food safety among Muslim minorities is not only significant to the local public health and inter-ethnic harmony, but also a key foreign strategy in improving China’s global image, especially in building strategic international relations with the Muslim world. Given the ethnic unrest in domestic politics and the trend of the state’s initiative in strengthening international relations with the Arab world, this paper concludes that Hui Muslims today have been, on one hand, demonstrating the “good citizen” model and, on the other, playing “cultural ambassador,” mediating between the postsocialist China and the Muslim world along the new Silk Road.”

5 RESEARCH ON HISTORY, RELIGION, AND CULTURE 5.1 A study on history Kim, Hodong, 2004, Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia 1864– 1877. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

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Contents: The Background; Xinjiang in Revolt; The Emergence of Ya’qub Beg’s Regime; Muslim State and its Ruling Structure; Formation of New International Relations; Collapse of the Muslim State; Appendix A: Treaty between Russia and Kashghar; Appendix B: Treaty between Britain and Kashghar; and Appendix C: Table of Contents in Tas and THs. Abstract: “In July 2009, violence erupted among Uyghurs, Chinese state police, and Han residents of Urumqi, the capital city of Xinjiang, in Northwest China, making international headlines, and introducing many to tensions in the area. But the conflict in the region has deep roots. … Holy War in China remains the first comprehensive and balanced history of a late nineteenth-century Muslim rebellion in Xinjiang, which led to the establishment of an independent Islamic state under Ya’qub Beg. Then independence was lost in 1877 when the Qing army recaptured the region and incorporated it into the Chinese state, known today as the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. “Hodong Kim offers readers the first English-language history of the rebellion since 1878 to be based on primary sources in Islamic languages as well as Chinese, complemented by British and Ottoman archival documents and secondary sources in Russian, English, Japanese, Chinese, French, German, and Turkish. His pioneering account of past events offers much insight into current relations.” Atwill, David G., 2005, The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856–1873. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Contents: Muslim Yunnanese; Rebellion’s Roots: Hanjiansim, Han Newcomers, and Non-Han Violence in Yunnan; Spiraling Violence: The Rise of Anti-Hui Hostilities; “All the Fish in the Pond”: The Kunming Massacre and the Rise of the Panthay Rebellion; Du Wenxiu and the Creation; The Aftermath of Rebellion; and Chinese Characters. Abstract: “The Muslim-led Panthay Rebellion was one of five mid-nineteenth-century rebellions to threaten the Chinese imperial court. The Chinese Sultanate begins by contrasting the

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views of Yunnan held by the imperial center with local and indigenous perspectives, in particular looking at the strong ties the Muslim Yunnans had with Southeast Asia and Tibet. Traditional interpretations of the rebellion there have emphasized the political threat posed by the Muslim Yunnanese, but no prior study has sought to understand the insurrection in its broader multiethnic borderland context. At its core, the book delineates the escalating government support of premeditated massacres of the Hui by Han Chinese and offers the first in-depth examination of the seventeen-year long rule of the Dali Sultanate.” James A. Millward, 2007, Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. London: Hurst. Contents: Shrine at Qumartagh south of Khotan; City Walls of Kashgar, 1926; Yaqub Beg; Ferry on the Yarkand River, 1920; British Consulate in Kashgar, c. 1935; Soldiers of the Eastern Turkestan Republic c. 1933–1934; Between China and the Soviet Union, 1910s–1940s; In the People’s Republic of China, 1950s– 1980s; Livestock Section of the Kashgar Sunday Bazaar; Uyghur and Han Tradesmen; Between China and the World, 1990s– 2000s; Vendor of Sheep Lungs and Entrails in Former Urumchi; Balancing Acts; Adil Hoshur Performing on a Tightrope in Xinjiang; and Xinjiang Historical Timeline. Abstract: “Xinjiang, the vast northwestern region comprising one-sixth of the PRC today, borders India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia. Since antiquity, it has stood at the crossroads between China, India, the Mediterranean, and Russia. In recent decades, its historic Silk Road linkages have grown increasingly global, with issues of energy, development, separatism, and terrorism bringing the region into mainstream international news. James Millward draws on primary sources and scholarly research in several European and Asian languages to provide the first general account in English of the history of Xinjiang and its peoples from the earliest times to the present. He discusses Xinjiang’s worldhistorical role as a commercial entrepot and cultural conduit by which Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam entered China and its

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interactions with Tibetan, Mongol, and other Inner Asian empires as well as with Chinese dynasties.” 5.2 Research in religion, ethnicity, culture, and other fields

1)

The study of Islamic sects and Menhuan

In China, the study of sects and Menhuan plays an important role. After its introduction into the country, Chinese Islam has gradually evolved its own unique sectarian system, known as “three major sects” and “four gate officials”. The apparent “three major sects” are Gdimu, Ihwani, and Xidaotang. The “four gate officials” or “four Sufi schools” include Hufu ye, Gadlin ye, Zhehren ye, and Kuburen ye. Research in the field of sects and Menhuan was discontinued during the economic reform and “opening-up. ” Since the turn of the 21st century, however, there have been a number of innovations in research in this field: not only several new achievements but also the creation of a relatively systematic approach. Some papers also explore the study of Sufism, merging with the study of international Islam. Because it is believed that Menhuan is a branch of the Sufi order in Northwest China, the difference between Menhuan and sects is not clear. Gedimu is called “Laojiao” and “Zungu” sect in China, which means that it maintained the tradition of Islam formed after it entered China. This differs from the Chinese Muslim community formed after the end of the Ming dynasty and the beginning of the Qing dynasty. 2)

China’s Muslim religious education

The first proponent of China’s Muslim religious education system was Hu Dengzhou, a Confucian teacher in Shaanxi Province in the Ming period. He was the founder of what was called “Jingtang” education because of the teaching of classic Islamic texts. The aim was to train teachers and imams for mosques, and to impart religious knowledge to Muslims. Its more than 400year history, from its early development to the present day, took in the late Qing dynasty, the early Republic of China, and the 1911 revolution. Throughout the different periods of its development, Jingtang education has always adapted to suit the

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times. However, since the 20th century – especially in the northwest – it has not undergone further improvements and developments; this is due to its difficulty in being accepted by the mainstream education system because of its medieval status. Much academic research, both from inside and outside the church, has focused on Muslim religious education. 3)

The relationship between Islam and Chinese culture

In the history of Chinese civilization, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, religious culture not only played a central role in the spiritual life of believers but also had an impact on the spiritual and cultural life of society in general. In the 21st century, as part of the global upsurge in religious culture, Islamic culture and related fields have been much studied, and many important works have been published. In terms of papers published, there has been a significant increase in publications on Islamic culture and related fields since the 1990s, and there has been much innovation in the areas of research and the methodologies employed. The attributes and characteristics of Islamic culture have been explored from the perspective of world history and world culture, but much research has also examined various aspects of Islamic culture from much more specific perspectives. Israeli, Raphael, 2002, Islam in China: Religion, Ethnicity, Culture, and Politics, Landan, MD: Lexington Books. Contents: Introduction: Islam in China, A Millennial History; Identity and Survival (1. Muslims in China: The Incompatibility between Islam and the Chinese Order. 2. Ahung and Literatus: A Muslim Elite in Confucian China. 3. Muslim Minorities under Non-Islamic Rule. 4. Ethnicity, Religion, Nationality, and Social Conflict: The Case of Chinese Muslims. 5. Myth as Memory: Muslims in China between Myth and History); Normative Islam and its Derivatives (6. Established Islam and Marginal Islam in China from Eclecticism to Syncretism; 7. Islamization and Sinicization in Chinese Islam; 8. The Naqshbandiyya and Factionalism in Chinese Islam; 9. Is There Shi’a in Chinese Islam?; 10.

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Translation as Exegesis: The Opening Sura of the Qur’an in Chinese); Unrest and Rebellion (11. Muslim Rebellions in Modern China: A Part of, or a Counterpart to, the Chinese Revolution?; 12. The Islamic Republics of Central Asia and the Middle East); Into the Modern World (13. The Cross Battles the Crescent: One Century of Missionary Work among Chinese Muslims; 14. The Muslim Minority in the People's Republic of China; 15. A New Wave of Muslim Revivalism in Mainland China); Surveys (16. Al-Sin; 17. Islam in China; 18. Islam in the Chinese Environment); and Bibliography. Abstract: “‘Are they really Muslims?’ Islam in China reveals the struggle for identity of the small yet vital Muslim community of China, a little-studied minority on the fringes of the Islamic world now thrust into the spotlight by the opening of China to the world and the rise of independent Muslim republics on China’s western borders. Both timely and important, the multifaceted essays – a collection of over twenty years of Raphael Israeli’s scholarship on Chinese Muslims – offer detailed insight into the relationship between China’s non-Muslim majority and an increasingly self-confident guest culture. The work uncovers a history of uneasy ethnic, philosophical, and ideological coexistence, the gradual Sinification of the Chinese Muslim creed, and the increasing accommodation of Islam by a modern, westernizing China. In addition, it highlights a religious group riddled with sectarianism; factional rifts that reveal the doctrinal, social, and political diversity at the core of Chinese Islam.” Mackerras, Colin, 2005, “Some Issues of Ethnic and Religious Identity among China’s Islamic Peoples,” Asian Ethnicity, Vol. 6, No.1, 3–18. Abstract: “The paper considers the growth of identity among Muslim ethnic groups in China, especially the Sinic people called the Hui. It asks whether this identity springs primarily from ethnicity or religion. While affirming that Islam has grown in influence in China since the 1980s, the paper argues in favor of seeing the balance more strongly in favor of ethnicity. The paper also discusses the impact of the September 11 Incident on Muslims in China. Addressing the issue in terms of ethnicity and

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religion, it discusses the ramifications of the recognition of the Uyghur based East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) as a terrorist organization by the US and the United Nations. It explores important issues relating to morality and human rights and concludes that the Chinese have cause to worry about separatist terrorism based on Islamic fundamentalism in southern Xinjiang, but criticizes using recognition of ETIM as a terrorist as a weapon against the general religion of Islam or Uyghur identity.” Al-Sudairi, Mohammed Turki A., 2016, “Adhering to the Ways of Our Western Brothers: Tracing Saudi Influences on the Development of Hui Salafism in China,” Sociology of Islam, Vol. 4, no.1, 27–58. Abstract: “This paper attempts to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between Saudi Arabia and Chinese Salafism. The paper traces, based on a historical approach, how Wahhabi influences – doctrinal, ritual, and financial – have been transmitted into China since the late 19th century. It focuses specifically on the channels that had emerged following the 1970s and which have facilitated the spread of these influences including the Hajj, the impact of the Saudi-Chinese diaspora, the work of Saudi organizations and preachers operating within China, and study opportunities in the Kingdom. The paper argues that these influences have led to the strengthening of Salafisation tendencies within Muslim Chinese society on the one hand, and intensifying fragmentary pressures within Chinese Salafism on the other.” Friedrichs, Jorg, 2017, “Sino-Muslim Relations: The Han, the Hui, and the Uyghurs,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 37. This lengthy paper of 60 pages studies Hui Muslims in China, as well as Turkic Muslims such as the Uyghurs. The study is conducted from an interdisciplinary perspective, especially relating to politics, economy, and society. The paper also refers to numerous previous publications.

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Abstract: “Sino-Muslim relations rest upon an informal socio-spatial hierarchy according to which some Muslim groups are more of an asset and others more of a liability. In this informal hierarchy, Hui Muslims are closer to the center than any other Muslim group because they are Sinicized, seen as religiously moderate, and mostly live in proximity to non-Muslim Chinese neighbors. Central Asian Muslims, most notably Xinjiang’s Uyghurs, are more distant from China’s notional center and seen as culturally more alien and prone to religious extremism. The article discusses the historical roots of this socio-spatial hierarchy and systematically examines Sino-Muslim relations in political, economic, and societal terms. It concludes that, despite some problematic features from a western- liberal perspective, the hierarchy continues to enable the Chinese majority to manage a set of otherwise challenging relationships.” *** Various papers have also been published in the Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs magazine on Islam and Muslims in China: Fan Ke. “Maritime Muslims and Hui Identity: A South Fujian Case.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 21, No.2 (2001):309–332. Fan Ke. “Ups and Downs: Local Muslim History in South China.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 23, No.1 (2003):63–87. Chuah, Osman. “Muslims in China: The Social and Economic Situation of the Hui Chinese.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 24, No.1(2004): Taynen, Jennifer. “Interpreters, Arbiters or Outsiders: The Role of the Min Kao Han in Xinjiang Society.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 26, No.1 (2006):45–62. Hajji Yusuf Chang. “Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 8, No.1 (2007):63–87.

4. THE 21ST CENTURY Frankel, James D. “‘A politicization’: One Facet of Chinese Islam.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 28. No.3 (2008): 421–434. Cooke, Susette. “Surviving State and Society in Northwest China: The Hui Experience in Qinghai Province under the PRC.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 28, No.3 (2008):401–420. Frankel, James D. “Chinese-Islamic Connections: An Historical and Contemporary Overview.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 36, no.4(2016):569–583.

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SUMMARY. HISTORICAL STUDIES OF CHINESE ISLAM IN WESTERN ACADEMIC CIRCLES Western studies on Islam and Muslims in mainland China can be divided into two groups according to geographical and linguistic boundaries: 1. British and American research, written in English; and 2. Research in continental Europe, predominantly French, Russian, and German; and into four stages.

1 BEFORE THE 20TH CENTURY

Prior to the 19th century, there was no academic research in the modern sense of the word. In the 19th century, the development of natural science and the emergence of the Enlightenment gradually gave birth to social science in modern Europe. As Europe opened the door to China in the middle of the 19th century, Western academia began to pay attention to China, and Western theories and methods progressively entered China and were accepted by Chinese scholars. In particular, a number of Christian missionaries and Orientalists completed more serious studies of Islam in China, and published their research. The missionaries’ attention to Islam in China derived from the needs of missionary work. They were familiar with Islam and regarded it as an important competitor to Christianity. Russian Orthodox missionaries were the first to collect information about Chinese Islam, and after the turn of the 20th century, Brit165

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ish and American missionaries began to turn their attention to this area. When Western missionaries entered China, they discovered the presence of a large Muslim group, so they began to study them and organize missionary work aimed at them. Although this missionary activity proved unsuccessful in terms of the number of converts to Christianity, it had a certain positive significance regarding religious and cultural exchange, and crosscivilizational interaction. In the field of Orientalism, French academics have had a profound impact in Chinese Islamic studies. Originally, the cultural contact made by Jesuit missionaries was mainly intended to enable the European upper classes to learn more about China – a remote country – and thereby attract their support for missionary work. Considering the setbacks of previous missionary activity, and in a country with a great civilizational history like China, the Jesuit missionaries’ flexible approach often proved favorable. The Jesuit missionaries were well placed to study and understand the local conditions and customs of China, and the translation of Chinese literature was an important feature of their work. In this way, the missionary activities of Jesuits represented not only an opportunity for China to understand the West, but also a great opportunity for the West to learn from the East. The establishment of French sinology can be traced back to the establishment of the first European sinology chair, at the Collège de France in 1814. In 1889, France also saw the launch of a religious research chair in sinology: the “Far East and Indian American Religions” chair at the École pratique des hautes études. The French system greatly facilitated resource sharing and academic mobility. These mainland China-related research institutions also conducted research on the Chinese religions, including, among others, Buddhism, Taoism, and Islam. Important Oriental scholars of Islam and Muslim issues in China include the likes of Darby de Thiersant (梯尔桑) and Gabriel Devéria (德韦理亚).

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Valuable French research material includes the collection of a number of inscriptions on mosques in China, including Arabic rubbings and photos, which vividly describe the life of Chinese Muslims at that time. The missionary work of the Western Christian Church in China reached its climax in the 19th century. In 1865, the China Inland Mission, or CIM (a transnational missionary organization) was founded by English missionaries, including Hudson Taylor (戴德生). The missionaries sent to China came from different denominations, mainly from Britain, the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. Some missionaries also hailed from Germany, Austria, and Northern Europe (from countries such as Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark). The CIM asked missionaries to devote themselves regardless of payment and submit themselves to “Chinization”. As a result, they became the vanguard of missionaries in mainland China. Everywhere they went, they set up missionary stations and then expanded rapidly in to the most remote areas. By the end of the 19th century, the CIM had about 650 missionaries, 270 missions, and 5000 believers, becoming the largest Protestant group in China. This is the context in which missionaries began to investigate and study Islam in China, with the objective of the advancement of their missionary work to Muslims. Some missionaries wrote about the uprising of the Hui Muslim people in the northwest, in addition to articles on opium and alcohol prohibition. With the deepening of missionary activity in the mainland, the differences in missionaries’ understandings in China’s regions gradually emerged. The missionaries in Nanjing found that they and Muslims could maintain good relationships: missionaries often visited mosques to discuss with imams and the relationships were relatively harmonious. In the eyes of Guangdong missionaries, however, Chinese Muslims were very much apart. Missionaries located in the areas where Muslims were highly concentrated, in the central and western regions, seemed to pay more attention to the analysis of the characteristics of the communities from the missionaries’ own perspective. For example, missionaries found that many Muslims in Henan were leaders and businessmen who were more recep-

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tive to Christianity; some indigenous mullahs in Gansu could read Arabic. However, the villagers were considered more ignorant, representing an opportunity for preaching. Generally speaking, in the second half of the nineteenth century, Western academics had begun to contact and pay attention to Muslims and Islam in mainland China. During this period, missionaries and Orientalists completed much data collection work. However, a lot of this material was not published at the time, and therefore did not have an impact. However, the pioneering value of this work should be recognized, representing, as it did, the first contemporary academic study on Islam in China. Indeed, many articles in this period related to the Muslim uprising in the late Qing dynasty. Generally, Western study of Islam in China was connected with the study of China as a whole.

2 THE FIRST 50 YEARS OF THE 20TH CENTURY

In the first half of the 20th century, the study of Islam and Muslims in mainland China by Anglo-American missionaries reached its peak. A number of important academic journals and societies were either founded, or flourished at this time, publishing large quantities of valuable research. These include The Moslem World, founded in 1911, which became the longest lasting and most influential publication among Muslim missionary journals. The Society of the Friends of Moslems in China was founded in 1927, and was dissolved in 1951 when missionaries left China. It was a cross-denomination organization, composed of missionaries who were interested in evangelizing Chinese Muslims in various Christian missionaries. This organization was specifically established by Protestant missionaries to focus on Chinese Muslims. Key figures active in Chinese missionary circles at this time include Samuel M. Zwemer, George Findlay Andrew, and Marshall Broomhall. Their publications shed light on the relationship between mainland Chinese and Arab, Persian, Turkic, and other Islamic regions and ethnic groups; the question of the earliest Muslims to arrive on the mainland; Chinese and Arabic inscriptions; the late Qing dynasty Yunnan and Northwest Hui

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uprising; and the meaning of Hui. Reports can be found of, for example, a visit to a mosque, estimates of populations, details of social and religious conditions, and guidance on how to preach the gospel to Muslims. As some of the earliest published works on Islam, their main value lies in the collection and preservation of important materials. However, much of the preserved material is hard to discern now, especially the photographs and rubbings of inscriptions. For example, after 100 years, it is difficult for make out the mosques and inscriptions listed in the book. Nevertheless, some photographs show mullahs whose attire and general appearance identify them as Uyghur people. After the Republic of China was formed, these Uyghurs became integrated with the Hui people. Before 1949, Western scholars also collected and studied Islamic books and documents in Chinese, publishing a number of bibliographies and introductions. However, with the Japanese invasion of China, Western research activity in China declined.

3 THE 50 YEARS AFTER THE FOUNDING OF NEW CHINA

Academic research in the second half of the 20th century can be divided into two periods: before and after the 1980s. The characteristics of the two periods are very different Research after 1949 was at a low ebb as Westerners withdrew from China. Regardless of whether they were missionaries or Orientalists, they were no longer permitted to conduct research in mainland China. Given the geopolitical impact of the Cold War, Western research on Chinese Islam inevitably declined. Furthermore, after the Second World War, with the independence of colonial countries, Western disciplines, such as Orientalism and anthropology, gradually lost their traditional prestige. This trend persisted until at least the 1960s, when structuralist anthropology characterized by theoretical construction emerged. In the field of Islamic Studies in China, the same shift took place and Islam in China began to be looked at from the perspective of sociology and anthropology. One of the main characteristics is that, during this period, research was mainly conducted into literature and a number of bibliographical studies

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were published (as other avenues of research were curtailed). These include bibliographies by Claude L. Pickens, Rudolf Loewenthal, Ludmilla Panskaya and Donald Daniel Leslie, and significant publications by The Russian sinologist Vasily Pavlovich Vasilyev. Since the 1970s, and the new opportunities offered by the “Reform and opening-up”, Raphael Israeli’s works on Chinese Muslims have been published continuously, and have greatly influenced Western academia. In addition to several monographs, he has published more than 20 papers on Chinese Muslims and Islam. Since the 1980s, with the change in China’s national policy, Western scholars have once again been able to carry out fieldwork in mainland China. From the 1990s, with the continuous expansion and exchange of academic research between China and the international community, Western study of Hui Islam in China has entered a new stage. Theoretical improvements in research and practical investigation have allowed significant progress, and disciplines and research paradigms in this period have become more diversified. Traditional historical research has combined with anthropology, political science, gender research, and other disciplines.

4 THE 21ST CENTURY

In the context of an upsurge in research on the “Clash of Civilizations” and the “Dialog of Civilizations,” research on the dialog between Chinese Islamic civilization and other civilizations has also been productive. Tu Weiming, a professor at Harvard University, has worked closely with Nanjing University, Yunnan University, Ningxia Academy of Social Sciences and other institutions to publish a variety of research. Many academic conferences comprising different levels of dialog have been held in China. Meanwhile, some important research has been carried out on the interaction between Islamic and Chinese civilizations, especially between Islam and Chinese Confucianism. Regarding “Muslim Confucian” studies, in recent years, international scholars have begun to study the works of representatives of the Chinese Muslim “Han Kitabu” movement. As a re-

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sult of the intersection of Chinese traditional culture and Islamic culture, Chinese Islamic literature and records have attracted increasingly more attention. Scholars have proposed that, because of the contribution of Chinese Islamic literature to diversified Islamic thought, it should enjoy the same important status and close attention as similar content in other languages has received. Regarding research on religion, ethnicity, and culture, the study of denominations and Menhuan plays an important role in China. The first proponent of China’s Muslim religious education system was Hu Dengzhou, a Confucian teacher in Shaanxi Province in the Ming period. He was the founder of what was called “Jingtang” education because of the teaching of classic Islamic texts. The aim was to train teachers and imams for mosques, and to impart religious knowledge to Muslims. Its more than 400year history, from its early development to the present day, took in the late Qing dynasty, the early Republic of China, and the 1911 revolution. Throughout the different periods of its development, Jingtang education has always adapted to suit the times. However, since the 20th century – especially in the northwest – it has not undergone further improvements and developments; this is due to its difficulty in being accepted by the mainstream education system because of its medieval status. At the beginning the 21st century, one of the characteristics of research in the political field is China’s Belt and Road initiative (Belt refers to the Silk Road Economic Belt and Road refers to the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road), which has been the focus of much study in recent years. Islam is an important consideration in the Belt and Road initiative, and we should fully consider the religion’s influence in order to profit from its advantages, prevent risks, promote regional common development, and maintain social prosperity and stability. The Belt and Road initiative is China’s current major development strategy, and Islam is an important factor in the construction and in the stability of Xinjiang’s social development. Islam has a deep connection with its adherents’ lives, especially in contemporary social and political life in China’s Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, and other Islamic areas. Contemporary

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scholars refer to “the Islam of politics,” “the Islamization of politics,” and “the politicization of Islam,” etc. The evolution of modern Islamic politics in the 20th century formed three major schools: nationalism, modernism, fundamentalism; and the evolution of these schools in the 21st century is clear. Nationalists regard country and social outlook as the political cornerstone, Islam as ideological belief, and the separation of politics and religion as basic state policy. The modernists consider the early Islamic political tradition as an example and advocate the political principles of nationality, freedom, and equality. Fundamentalists believe that the invasion and expansion of Western powers has coincided with the decline of Muslim national politics in modern times; only by reviving the Islamic tradition, including its political principles, ideas, and ethical norms, can Muslim countries enjoy peace and stability. The study of Islam and Muslims in China by international scholars involves different ethnic groups, and different economic and political conditions. It encompasses not only the research field of religious teaching but also the academic frontier characteristic of interdisciplinary research. At present, many events in China’s Muslim region are related to Islam; but, then, not all events are Islamic, nor are they always religious in nature. Ten ethnic groups in China believe in Islam, and, therefore, Islamic religious issues inevitably affect the country’s political and social conditions, among other things. International Islamic unrest also naturally affects Chinese Muslim society. From the research perspective, these situations have aroused the attention and of scholars – both at home and abroad – to Islamic political and social issues in China. Recently, problems related to the politics of Islam in China have materialized, as well as academic research on Islamic social thought and social movements.

APPENDIX. THE HISTORY OF CHINESE ISLAMIC STUDIES IN JAPAN This book has focused on Western studies of Chinese Islam. In what follows, we will briefly survey the parallel history of research on Chinese Islam in Japan. The history of Chinese Islamic studies in Japan is closely related to the history of Sino-Japanese relations, originating neither in an interest in Islamic religious faith and culture nor the Muslim religious life, but in the context of a period of aggressive overseas expansion in the Meiji era.

1 EARLY PERIOD

Chinese Islam only started to attract attention in Japan after the beginning of the twentieth century. At the end of the Meiji era, Japan, influenced by the West, identified a need to understand the Islamic world, and developed various “movements” for Muslims in regions such as Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa, including Muslims in the Chinese region. At first, Japan’s motivation to learn about the politics and economy of the various Islamic countries lay in its policy of aggressive overseas expansion in the Meiji period, rather than out of an academic interest in Islamic faith and culture or the Muslim religious life. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan began to invade China, and in 1931, the “Manchurian Incident” (満洲事変) occurred. In 1932, Fugi (溥儀, the last Emperor of the Qing dynasty) established the “Manchukuo” or State of Manchuria (満洲国). Japan’s increasing interest in the north of mainland China made them 173

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aware of the Hui people who lived there, and that they were directly connected to the religiously distant regions of the Steppes of Central Asia and the Arabian Desert. This served as the impetus that finally led to the earnest study of the religion of Islam in Japan. In the Early Period (in the 25 years from the beginning of the 20th century to 1931), the first Japanese paper on Chinese Islam and the concerns of Muslims was published in 1906: Hirondo Tomizu’s (戸水寛人) “Muslims among the Beijing Zhangjiakou”. 1 However, Sasaki Endo’s (遠藤佐々喜) “On China’s Muslims”, 2 published in 1911, marks the real beginning of the history of research in this field. Most of the research on Chinese Muslims in this period, especially on Huizu Muslims, was undertaken by private organizations unaffiliated with political and military activities. However, the motivation and purpose were, understandably, closely related to Sino-Japanese relations at that time. Two reports, namely, Problems of Chinese Muslims 3 and “Mantetsu Chosa Shiryo (South Manchuria Railway Research Documents) Volume 26-Research on Chinese Muslims”, 4 are especially important in research into this period. These reports present systematically organized historical sources of Chinese Islam and concerns of Muslims from a sociological and anthroHirondo Tomizu, “Muslims among the Beijing Zhangjiakou”, Diplomacy Times, Vol. 6, 1906, pp. 14–15. (戸水寛人「北京張家口間の回々教徒」『外交時報』第 六一号、一九〇六年、一四―一五頁。) 2 Endo Sasaki, “On China’s Muslims”, The Oriental Library, Vol. 1, No.3, 1911, pp. 417–421. (遠藤佐々喜「支那の回回教に就て」『東洋学報』第一巻第三号、 一九一一年、四一七―四二一頁。) 3 Kazuyuki Omura, Problems of Chinese Muslims, Qingdao Defense Forces Staff, 1922, p. 90. (大村一之『支那の回教問題』青島守備軍参謀部、一九二二年、九 十頁。) 4 Matususaburo Dazai, Mantetsu Chosa Shiryo (South Manchuria Railway Research Documents) Volume 26-Research on Chinese Muslims. Minamimanzu Railway Co., Ltd., General Affairs Department Research Division, 1924. (太宰松 三郎『満鉄調査資料第二十六篇――支那回教徒の研究』, 南満洲鉄道株式会社 庶務部調査課、一九二四年) 1

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pological perspective, and incorporate various international publications. The period of research began with translation and annotation, and the basis of the research was established. Rokuro Kuwata (桑田六郎) was a major researcher into Chinese Islamic texts and had a great influence on Chinese scholars, especially with his 1925 paper “Minmatsu Shinsho no Kaiju (Chinese Muslim scholars from the End of the Ming Period to the Early Qing Period)”. 5 Also of note is the research of Japanese Muslims who converted to Islam. According to Fujio Komura’s (小村不二 男) History of Islam in Japan, 6 Muslims in the early period referred to as researchers on Chinese Islamic studies include Bunhachiro Ariga (有賀文八郎), Kotaro Yamaoka (山岡光太郎), Torajiro Yamada (山田寅次郎), Ryouichi Mita (三田了一), Teijiro Sakuma (佐久間貞次郎), Ippei Tanaka (田中逸平), and Kyodo Kawamura (川村狂堂). Field research on Chinese Islam and Muslims in the 1920s and 1930s in Japan was politically related to the history of Japan’s invasion of China; however, from the academic perspective of current Islamic studies in China, they have great value and significance.

2 THE TENSE WAR PERIOD

The 1930s was a period of military tyranny: for example, the Manchurian Incident (満洲事変) of 1931, the Shanghai Incident (上海事変), the establishment of Manchukuo (満洲国建国), the May 15 Incident (五・一五事件) in 1932, the February 26 Incident in 1936, the 1937 Marco Polo Bridge Incident (盧溝橋事件), the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War (日 Rokuro Kuwata, “Minmatsu Shinsho no Kaiju (Chinese Muslim scholars from the End of the Ming Period to the Early Qing Period)”, Haku Doctor 60th Anniversary Memorial Oriental Paper, 1925, pp. 377–386. (桑田六郎「明末清初の回儒」 『白博士還暦記念東洋論冊』一九二五年、三七七―三八六頁.) 6 Fujio Komura, History of Islam in Japan, Japan Islamic Friendship Federation, 1988, p. 554. (小村不二男『日本イスラーム史』, 日本イスラーム友好連盟、一 九八八年、五五四頁.) 5

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華事変), and Japan’s imperialistic expansionism. From 1932 to the end of World War II a number of notable events occurred. As evaluated in the “The First Boom of Islamic Studies in Japan”, 7 during this period, research, pedagogy, and awareness programs on Islam were actively conducted; and researchers, Japanese Muslims or international Muslims residing in Japan, practitioners, and military personnel also participated in these activities. Various Islamic research institutes, with diverse characteristics, were founded as a result of these national policies. First, the Dai Nihon Kaikyo Kyokai (大日本回教協会/Greater Japan Muslim League) was established; next, the Islam Bunka Kyokai (イスラ ー ム 文 化 協 会 /Association of Islamic Culture), KaikyokenKenkyujo (回教圏研究所/Institute of Islamic Area Studies), East Asiatic Economic Investigation Bureau of the South Manchurian Railways Company Islam Division (満鉄東亜経済調査局回教班), and Ministry of Foreign Affairs Research Department Islam Division (外務省調査部回教班) were established; and Islam (Islamic Culture) (イスラム（回教文化）), the World of Islam (回教世界), Islamic Area Studies (回教圏), Islamic Affairs (回教事情) and New Asia (新亜細亜) were published. The Association of Islamic Culture was established to study, research, and introduce an “accurate understanding of Islamic culture and facts about its people,” and its primary purpose was to conduct research on Islam in China and Muslim matters. Papers on Chinese Islamic studies and Muslim matters made up a third of the total number of papers published in magazines. The Institute of Islamic Area Studies and the magazine Islamic Area Studies were developed to facilitate and publish research, pedagogy, and philological work related to Islam in China, including the following works: “On the Daido Kiyozane Temple’s ‘Mikotonori Ken Kiyozane Temple Monument RecHirofumi Tanada, Research Results and Evaluation of Islamic Studies in Japan during the War Period―An Analysis of the Waseda University (Research Report, 2003–2004, Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research KAKENHI C, Number 15530347), 2005, p. 123.

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ords’” (Tazaka Kodo), 8 “Some Considerations on the Dungan People” (Eiichiro Ishida), 9 and “Muslim Merchants of Beijing and Friendly Relations (Noboru Niida). 10 However, the majority of the research papers and materials introduced were on the theme of northwest Chinese Muslims and ethnic problems. In addition, in Islamic area studies, information on northwestern Islamic organizations and the circumstances of the Muslim people were actively introduced. The research objective of the Greater Japan Muslim League was to explain the situation of Islam in China and the concerns of Muslims, and to raise the importance of research in Islamic regions, including the Central Asia region, Turkey, Iran, and various countries of Africa. In the institute’s magazine Kaikyu Seikai (The Islamic World), publishing research on Islam in China and on Muslims was the most important objective. The material it published included the introduction of international research, such as “The Muslim People in China” (Bai Jinyu); 11 research using philological methods such as “Arabian Records on China” (Mikinosuke Ishida) 12 and fieldwork in Japan’s military-occupied areas, such as “Trend and Development of Various Peoples in Kodo Tazaka, “On the Daido Kiyozane Temple’s ‘Mikotonori Ken Kiyozane Temple Monument Records’”, Islamic Area Studies, Vol. 6, No.2, 1942, pp. 22– 32.(田坂興道「大同清真寺の「勅建清真寺碑記」に就いて」『回教圏』第六巻第 二号, 一九四二年, 二二－三三頁.) 9 Eiichiro Ishida, “Some Considerations on the Dungan People”, Islamic Area Studies, Vol. 7, No.4, 1943, pp. 9–30. (石田栄一郎「東干にたいする若干の考察 」『回教圏』第七巻第四号, 一九四三年、九－三〇頁.) 10 Noboru Niida, “Muslim Merchants of Beijing and Friendly Relations”, Islamic Area Studies, Vol. 8, No.6, 1944, pp. 2–27. (仁井田陞「北京の回教徒商工人とそ の仲間的結合」『回教圏』第八巻第六号, 一九四四年、二－二七頁.) 11 Bai Jinyu, “The Muslim People in China”, The Islamic World, Vol. 2, No.12, 1940, pp. 37–44. (白今愚「中国の回教民族」『回教世界』第二券第十二号, 1940 年, 三七―四四頁.) 12 Mikinosuke Ishida, “Arabian Records on China”, The Islamic World, Vol. 2, No.8, 1940, pp. 47–56. (石田幹之助「支那にかんするアラビアの記録」『回教世 界』大日本回教協会発行, 第二巻第八号, 四七～五六頁.) 8

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Manchuria”. 13 The majority of these works were developed based on the theme of Islamic Muslims and ethnic problems in China. Research carried out by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Research Department Islam Division focused on the themes of Islam in China and Muslim matters. Most of what the magazine Islamic Affairs published were anonymous studies by researchers at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the papers generally presented an analysis of the contemporary situation from a sociological perspective. However, there was no detailed analysis, sources were not cited, and the content requires careful consideration when being used for research purposes. Papers can be divided into: the introduction of international research findings; studies using philological methods, such as “The Great Learning of Islam (Qingzhen Da Xue) by Wang Daiyu” 14 and “Clarifying Misunderstandings about Islam (Qing Zhenshiyi) by Jin Tianzhu”; 15 historical research, such as “The Anti-Islam Policy of the Early Qing Period – Especially about moukyu Muslim Huimin”; 16 and sociological field surveys, such as “The Northwest Han Hui

Editorial staff, “Trend and Development of Various Peoples in Manchuria”, The Islamic World, Vol. 1, No.4, 1939, pp. 1–16. (編集部「満蒙に於ける諸民族の 動向」『回教世界』第一券第四号, 一九三九年, 一―六頁.) 14 Anonymous studies, “The Great Learning of Islam (Qingzhen Da Xue) by Wang Daiyu”, Islamic Affairs, Vol. 2, No.2, 1939,pp. 67–68. (無記名「王岱與著「清真 大学」」『回教事情』, 第二券・第二号, 一九三九年, 六七－六八頁.) 15 Anonymous studies, “Clarifying Misunderstandings about Islam (Qing Zhenshiyi) by Jin Tianzhu”, Islamic Affairs, Vol. 2, No.2, 1939, pp. 59–66. (無記 名「金天柱著「清真釈疑補輯」」『回教事情』, 第二券・第二号, 一九三九年, 五九－六六頁.) 16 Anonymous studies, “The Anti-Islam Policy of the Early Qing Period - Especially about Xinkyu Muslim Huimin”, Islamic Affairs, Vol. 2, No.4, 1939, pp. 33– 53. (無記名「清初の対回教政策―特に新彊纏回について」『回教事情』, 第二券 ・第四号, 一九三九年, 三三－五三頁.) 13

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Society”. 17 Most of the literature and documents introduced were developed based on the themes of Islamic Muslims and ethnic issues. Certain publications reflect the East Asiatic Economic Investigation Bureau of the South Manchurian Railways Company Islam Division and the studies it conducted. Following the 1939 expansion of the South Manchuria Railway Research Department, the Bureau was again integrated into the South Manchurian Railways Company and came under the management of the Major Research Department and also the division in charge of the domains of the Islamic world, South East Asia, and Australia. Shumei Okawa (大川周明), a Japanese philosopher who conducted research on Islam, guided the research activities of the East Asiatic Economic Investigation Bureau of the South Manchurian Railways Company. He was the author of reports such as “Introduction to Islam” 18 and published on Islam in China. Results of studies on the Huimin in moukyu (蒙彊), conducted by Shinobu Iwamura (岩村忍), Toru Saguchi (佐口透), and Shinobu Ono (小野忍) at the Minzoku Kenkyujo (Institute of Ethnology), were published in 1944 as “Survey Items of the first period of research moukyu Huimin” (第一期蒙彊回民調査項目), which was jointly edited by the Minzoku Kenkyujo (Institute of Ethnology) and Seihoku Kenkyujo (Northwest Research Institute). In 1945, Iwamura published the “Social Structure of the moukyu Huimin” (蒙彊回民の社会構造) in the Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology (Volume 3) (民族研究所紀要) based on research and interim reports, and compiled these into two volumes after the war. 19 This group also presented the most research findings in Anonymous studies, “The Northwest Han Hui Society”, Islamic Affairs, Vol. 1, No.1, 1938, pp. 84–88. (無記名「西北漢回の社会」『回教事情』, 第一券・第一 号, 一九三八年, 八四－八八頁.) 18 Shumei Okawa, Introduction to Islam, Keio Library, 1942, p. 167. (大川周明『 回教概論』, 慶應書房, 一九四二年, 一六七頁.) 19 Iwamura Shinobu, The Structure of Chinese Islamic Society, Japanese review publishing, 1964. (岩村忍 『中国回教社会の構造』（上・下）」日本評論社版, 一九六四年.) 17

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the form of papers even after the war. After the war, Saguchi continued his research on a specialized area of Oriental history and asserted that his time at the Institute of Ethnology had helped to establish the foundations of his research. The Toa Kenkyujo (東亜研究所/Center for East Asian Studies), established as the national institution in the Imperial Academy of Japan in 1940 by the Toa Shominzoku Chosa Iinkai (東亜 諸民族調査委員会/Research Committee on East Asian Peoples), aimed to study the ethnic groups of all East Asian regions. In 1942, the same committee dispatched Eiichiro Ishida (石田英一 郎), Masayoshi Nomura (野村正良), Akiyoshi Suda (須田昭義), and others to conduct research on the Huimin of moukyu (蒙彊). The reports were destroyed by fire in the war, but an outline of the studies can be found in the Reports of Research Projects on East Asian Peoples for the Years 1941 and 1942. 20 Additionally, Ishida Eiichiro’s “Some Considerations on the Dungan People”, 21 published in Islamic Area Studies, and Masayoshi Nomura’s “Records of 23 Islamic Narratives Regarding the moukyu”, 22 were based on these research findings. Regarding research trends in this period, the translation of studies on Chinese literature and the results of Western studies were a critical aspect, and philological research was even more actively conducted. Historical research on the introduction of Islam in China drew attention as a new research area in the

The Toa Kenkyujo, Reports of Research Projects on East Asian Peoples for the Years 1941 and 1942, Center for East Asian Studies publish, 1943. (東亜研究所『 昭和十六・七年度東亜諸民族調査事業報告』東亜研究所, 一九四三年.) 21 Eiichiro Ishida, “Some Considerations on the Dungan People”, Islamic Area Studies, Vol. 7, No.4, 1943, pp. 9–30. (石田英一郎「東干に対する若干の考察」 『回教圏』第七巻第四号, 一九四三年、九－三十.) 22 Masayoshi Nomura, “Records of 23 Islamic Narratives Regarding the Moukyu”, Islamic Area Studies, Vol. 7, No.4, 1943, pp. 58–62. (野村正良「蒙彊に 於いて採録せる二三の回教説話」『回教圏』第七券第四号, 一九四三, 五八－六 二頁.) 20

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1920s and 1930s. A representative work is Kodo Tazaka’s Islam in China: Its Introduction and Development (Volumes I and II). 23 After 1930, Japanese researchers advanced their work on Islam and Muslims in China from sociological and ethnological perspectives. The nature of these studies differed from the historical and philological research, and focused on the range of actual societies, ethnicities, economies, and customs of Chinese Islam and Muslims. These publications are critical reference materials for research on Islam in China and the concerns of Muslims prior to the establishment of the Chinese Republic.

3 POST-WAR PERIOD OF REFORM

Chinese Islamic studies had gained momentum during the war but this changed dramatically after the defeat in 1945. The various institutions of the South Manchurian Railways Company on the continent were requisitioned by the Soviet Union or China. In Japan, the Kaikyoken-Kenkyujo (Institute of Islamic Area Studies) had been burnt down in the war, and various research institutions, including the Center for East Asian Studies and the Institute of Ethnology, established due to the demands of the situation and related to the implementation of national policies, were closed, their researchers dispersed, and their literature and research documents either damaged or removed from their official locations. However, as Kataoka notes, “one can say that although they were scattered, given that the collection of the East Asia Economic Research Bureau was seized by the United States Army and taken away to the United States, there is some comfort in that they were stored again in other research institutes and libraries in the country”. 24

Kodo Tazaka, Islam in China: Its Introduction and Development, The Oriental Library, 1964. (田坂興道『中国における回教の伝来とその弘通』 (上・下) 東洋 文庫, 一九六四年.) 24 Kazutada Kataoka, “A Brief History of Chinese Islamic Studies in Japan”, Memoirs of Osaka Kyoiku University II, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1980, pp. 21–2. 23

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Although doors to the various institutions established during the war were closed after the war and their staff dispersed, However, Islamic studies in post-war Japan began to reestablish itself with the founding of the “Islamic Association of Japan” (日 本イスラーム協会), who attempted to continue the academic research of the Greater Japan Muslim League, which had been dissolved. 25 The association’s connections between its pre-war and post-war periods are a notable topic for exploration. Had pre-war research not been related to the war, the situation of the new research trends after the war would have been completely different. Norio Suzuki’s (鈴木規夫) paper published in China states that “Research on Islam and the Middle East in Japan has developed with resolute steps in terms of both quality and quantity since the 60s of the 20th century”. 26 Additionally, “Exchanges between the academic community in Japan and Chinese Muslims began before the war, and continue till today. Naturally, it was temporarily interrupted because of the postwar ‘cultural revolution’, but since the start of the opening of reforms in China the relations between both have completely recovered”. 27 In other words, the stagnation in Chinese Islamic studies in Japan after the war was closely related to the political situation; for example, the “cultural revolution”, and revival of interest following Chinese reforms. Post-war studies in Japan on Islam in China and Chinese Muslims encountered a variety of problems. As people involved in the study of, and research on, Islam in China before and durHirofumi Tanada, Research Results and Evaluation of Islamic Studies in Japan during the War Period―An Analysis of the Waseda University (Research Report, 2003–2004, Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research KAKENHI C, Number 15530347), 2005, p. 123. 26 Norio Suzuki, “Review and Reflection on the Study of Islam in Japan” (Translation by Gao Mingjie), The Journal of International Studies, Quaternary Period, 2004, pp. 68–75. 27 Ze Masaki, “The Study of Chinese Muslims in Japan – Focusing on the Study of Hui Nationality after 1980” (Translated by Wang Rui), Religious Anthropology (Series III), Beijing: Social Science Literature Press, 2012, pp. 286–302. 25

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ing the war shifted their research focus to other themes, or indeed died, new researchers of the post-war generation appeared. Among the experts on Islam were some who had left this field of study because of the defeat in the war; however, there were others who had not abandoned research on Islam in China despite the difficulties they encountered. The most representative of these experts is Kodo Tasaka (田坂興道). The most important academic journal in Japan on the Islamic world and Muslim matters, The Islamic World, was launched in 1964; however, during this period, papers on Chinese Islam and concerns of Muslims were few, and there was an indifferent attitude toward this field of study in Japan. However, for researchers of Islam in China, the concerns of Chinese Muslims are a notable feature of the Islamic world, and the awareness that the study of Islam in China would be critical for studying the Islamic world gradually began to emerge. Research in the post-war period was in a state of stagnation, but various studies were conducted based on pre-war resources, and some research papers and works were published. One of the characteristics of these studies was that they were conducted from a philological approach, which advocated the collection, organization, and analysis of pre-war research materials. In summary, because the war was over, researchers had no opportunity to conduct research and fieldwork in areas such as Central Asia and China, and promoting sociological and ethnographical research was difficult. However, conducting research from a philological perspective was not significantly difficult. One of the key publications of this period is Shinobu Iwamura’s (岩村忍) The Structure of Chinese Islamic Society (Volume I and II, 1949–1950). 28 After the war, Japanese researchers lost the opportunity to conduct field research in China, and certain types of studies, for Iwamura Shinobu, The Structure of Chinese Islamic Society, Japanese review publishing, 1964. (岩村忍 『中国回教社会の構造』(上・下) 」日本評論社版, 一 九六四年.) 28

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example, sociological and ethnological research, were temporarily stopped. Notably, studies based on pre-war resources progressed.

4 PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION

Since the 1980s, the field of Islamic and cultural studies in Japan has welcomed new research trends. Various research institutes have been established, the number of researchers has increased, and academic exchanges have deepened. Islam and Muslims in China have come to be studied as an integral part of the Islamic and Muslim world. Beginning with Kazutaka Kataoka’s (片岡一忠) “Brief History of Chinese Islamic Studies in Japan” 29 in 1980, documents that organized, analyzed, and evaluated the history and achievements of pre-war research, appeared one after another. Akira Usuki (臼杵陽) asserts of this period that Islamic research in Japan “disintegrated both organizationally and conceptually with the collapse of the Empire of Japan”, and “one had to wait till the 1970s to the 1980s for the resurgence of Islamic studies in post-war Japan when it came to be recognized both by itself and others as an economic power”. 30 Although cultural exchange activities between Japan and China were limited to the private sector from 1945 to 1979, the passage of the “Agreement between the Japanese government and the government of the People’s Republic of China for the promotion of cultural exchanges” in 1979 provided political security to the cultural exchanges between the two countries, ushering in a new phase. Although there is no direct relationship between the history of Chinese Islamic studies in China and the Kazutada Kataoka, “A Brief History of Chinese Islamic Studies in Japan”, Memoirs of Osaka Kyoiku University II, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1980, pp. 21–42. 30 Usuki Akira, “A Legacy of Wartime Islamic Studies: As a Prototype of Islamic Area Studies in Post-war Japan”, Shiso, Vol. 941, 2002, pp. 191–204. (臼杵陽「 戦時下回教研究の遺産―戦後日本のイスラーム地域研究のプロトタイプとして」 『思想』第九四一号, 一九一－二〇四頁, 二〇〇二年.) 29

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history of research in Japan, an ideal research environment was established by this agreement, and a succession of institutes for research on Islam were established. The Chinese Muslim Research Association (中国ムスリム研 究会) aims include research on the various concerns related to Muslim minority groups in the People’s Republic of China and on immigrants from China to Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and West Asia, and the promotion of mutual exchanges among members. The members’ fields of specialization are wideranging, encompassing, for example, historical studies, cultural and social anthropology, geography, sociology, education, and regional studies, and active discussions are held in regular meetings. In addition, Studies in Chinese Islamic Thought, edited by the Association of Studies in Chinese Islamic Thought (回儒の著作研 究会/Association for Research and Publishing by Chinese scholars on Islam), features excellent young researchers, such as Takashi Aoki (青木隆), Gao Kuroiwa (黒岩高), Minoru Sato (佐藤 実), Tatsuya Nakanishi (中西竜也), and Hiharu Niko (仁子寿晴). Islamic area studies is a new field of research that aims to create a system of empirical knowledge about Islam and Islamic civilization. For the development and promotion of this field, the National Institutes for the Humanities (NIHU) started the NIHU Program (Islamic Area Studies [IAS]) in 2006, a collaborative research network linking the five bases: Waseda University, University of Tokyo, Sophia University, Kyoto University, and Toyo Bunko. This program aims to combine research on Islam as a religion and a culture, and new regional studies, and analyze the relationship between Islam and its regions in a multifaceted manner while deepening overall understanding. After the war, and especially after the 1980s, the ideas, social background, and research methods of studies in Japan on Chinese Islam developed entirely different characteristics from the pre-war period. The pre-war and wartime research was closely related to Japan’s military strategy, whereas research in the post-war period has regarded Islam in China as a relevant part of the Islamic regions.

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