Iroquoian: Mohawk

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chapter 31 ....................................................................................................................................................

I RO Q U O I A N : M O H AW K ....................................................................................................................................................

marianne mithun

Mohawk is a language of the Iroquoian family of northeastern North America, spoken in Quebec, Ontario, and New York State. Like other Iroquoian languages, it is polysynthetic: words, particularly verbs, can consist of many meaningful parts (morphemes). Often what is said in a single verb in Mohawk would be expressed in a multi-word sentence in other languages such as English. This fundamental diVerence in grammatical structure raises interesting questions about the boundaries between morphology and syntax. Perhaps the most intriguing involve a robust kind of noun þ verb compounding called noun incorporation.

31.1 Mohawk words

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Because Mohawk has such elaborate morphology, words are usually classiWed according to their internal morphological structure. Words fall into three clear morphological types: particles, nouns, and verbs.

31.1.1 Particles By deWnition, particles have no internal structure, apart from some formed by compounding. Particles serve a wide variety of syntactic and discourse functions,

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among them various kinds of adverbials (a´:re’ ‘again’, a´tste’ ‘outside’, o´:nen ‘at this time’), pronominals (ı`:’i ‘I myself, me, we ourselves, us’, o´nhka’ ‘someone, who’), qualiWers and quantiWers (akwa´h ‘quite, just, very’, e´:so ‘much, many’, a´hsen ‘three’), grammatical markers (ia´h ‘no, not’, ke´n interrogative), conjunctions (ka´ton ‘or’, ta´non’ ‘and’, tsi ‘as, how, while’), and other expressions (ha´nio ‘Come on, let’s’, io´: ‘you’re welcome’, ko´h ‘Here!’ [oVering something], kwe´: ‘hi’). Some words that are used as nominals syntactically are particles, that is, they have no internal morphological structure, such as tako`:s ‘cat’ (from Dutch de poes), and raso´s ‘gravy’ (from French la sauce). Some particles can be seen to be shortened forms of verbs. The particle wa´:s ‘Go away!’ is from an old verb wa´:se (wa-s-e tloc ‘away’-2sg.imp.agt-go). In this form the original verb root -e- has completely disappeared. A number of particles are actually compound forms. The tag kwi’ is a shortened form of two particles, ki’ ‘just’ and the tag wa´hi’ ‘isn’t it’. Both the full and contracted forms are in current use. The proximal demonstrative kı´:ken ‘this’ was formed from the combination ken’ ‘here’ and the verb ´ı:ken ‘it is’. The long form is now heard only in one community. The shorter form is often further reduced phonologically to kı´: and even ki. Its distal counterpart shows a parallel history: tho ´ı:ken (‘there it.is’) > thı´:ken > thı´: > thi. The compound particles are not the result of the kind of word-formation process we usually classify as prototypical compounding. No speaker decided to create a new particle by combining two old particles. They are, rather, the descendants of frequent collocations, which have, over time, come to be thought of as single units.

31.1.2 Nouns Basic Mohawk nouns have clear morphological structure. They consist of a gender preWx, a noun stem, and a noun suYx. The stem may be a simple monomorphemic root, like -kar- ‘story’ in (1), or derived from a verb, like -wisto-hser- ‘butter’ in (3).1 (1)

1

Basic nouns a. oka´:ra’ o-kar-a’ Neut-story-nsuff ‘story’

b. oko´nhsa’ o-konhs-a’ Neut-face-nsuff ‘face’

Examples are given in the community orthography. It is essentially phonemic. Most of the symbols represent sounds close to their IPA values. In addition, the digraphs en and on represent † ] respectively. i represents a palatal nasalized vowels: a nasalized caret and nasalized high back vowel [u glide before vowels, the apostrophe ’ represents glottal stop, and the colon: represents vowel length. An acute accent over vowels (a´) represents high or rising tone on a stressed syllable, and a grave accent (a`) a tone that rises higher then descends steeply on a stressed syllable.

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Possession can be indicated by a possessive preWx in place of the gender preWx. Alienable and inalienable possession are distinguished by the preWx paradigms. (2)

Possessed nouns a. akka´:ra’ ak-kar-a’ 1sg.al-story-nsuff ‘my story’

b. kkonhsa`:ke k-konhs-a’-ke 1sg.inal-face-nsuff-place ‘my face’

An example of a complex noun stem is in (3). The stem for ‘butter’ was derived from the verb root -wisto- ‘be cold’ plus the nominalizer -hser-. (3)

Derived noun stem owisto´hsera’ o-wisto-hser-a’ Neut-be.cold-noml-nsuff ‘cold one’ ¼ ‘butter’

Morphological nouns serve as referring expressions and syntactic arguments. For various reasons they are much less frequent in speech than nouns in many other languages. One is that many lexical expressions for entities are actually morphological verbs. Another, as we shall see, is the existence of noun incorporation. There is essentially no noun þ noun compounding at the root or stem level. One and only one noun root or stem can serve as the base of a morphological noun. There are, however, some word þ word compounds. These are generally recent creations, probably coined under the inXuence of English. The terms below are from Kahnawa`:ke, near modern Montreal. (4)

Nominal compounds a. ka´tshe’ ka´hi jug fruit ‘pear’ b. akohsa´:tens ohso`:kwa’ horse nut ‘horse chestnut’ c. arawe´:n othe`:sera’ oat Xour ‘oatmeal’

The term ka´tshe’ ‘jug’ originated in Mohawk, but it was apparently derived from a verb. This verb root no longer occurs on its own, but it requires the nominalizer -’twhen it is incorporated, as in katshe’tı´:io (ka-tshe-’t-iio neut-?-noml-be.nice) ‘nice jug’. The term akohsa´:tens ‘horse’ is actually a morphological verb ‘it carries one on the back’, but it has been lexicalized as a nominal. The term arawe´:n ‘oat’ was

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borrowed from French avoine. Each of the terms in (4) designates an introduced item.

31.1.3 Verbs The most common words in speech and the largest portion of the lexicon are morphological verbs. All verbs contain minimally a pronominal preWx referring to the core arguments of the clause and a verb stem. Verbs other than commands also contain an aspect suYx. (5) Basic verb a. Shehro´:ri b. Khehro´:rihs she-hrori khe-hrori-hs 2sg /fem.sg-tell 1sg /fem.sg-tell-hab ‘Tell her!’ ‘I tell her.’ Morphological verbs can also be more complex. (6) More complex verb Aonsakonwaia’tisa´kha’. a-onsa-konwa-ia’t-isak-ha-’ opt-rep-3pl /fem.sg-body-seek-and-prf ‘They should go back to look for her.’ They may contain various pre-pronominal preWxes, like the optative ‘should’ and the repetitive ‘back’ in (6) and various derivational suYxes, such as the andative ‘go and’ here. They may also contain a noun stem incorporated immediately before the verb root, such as -ia’t- ‘body’ in (6). Morphological verbs serve a wider variety of syntactic functions than nouns. As in other languages, they can serve as predicates, accompanied by lexical nominals and other elements. Since they contain pronominal reference to their core arguments, they can serve as complete grammatical sentences in themselves. They can also serve as syntactic nominals and adverbials. In the example below, p identiWes morphological particles, and vverbs. (7) Morphological verbs in use (Rita Konwatsi’tsaie´n:ni Phillips, speaker, p.c.) p v p v ´Isi’ no´nhskwati she’s niio´:re’ isi’ na’-w-ahskw-ati she’s ni-io-r-e’ yonder prtv-neut-bridge-be.beyond formerly prtv-neut-extend-sta yonder so it is bridge beyond formerly so it is far v niekonne´htha’

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n-ie-konn-e-ht-ha’ prtv-tloc-zo.pl.agt-go-inst-hab over there they go with purpose p v ne tionnho´nhskwaron. ne te-io-onnhonhskwar-ont-e’ the dup-neut.zo.pat-jowl-be.attached-sta the it is doubly jowl attached ‘The cows used to pasture way over on the other side of the bridge.’2 There is essentially no verb þ verb compounding in modern Mohawk at the root, stem, or word level. There is evidence that there may have been verb þ verb compounding in the past. A very few modern verb roots show traces of two verbal elements. One is the root -oha- ‘remove from water, Wsh out’, which appears to be composed of the verb roots -o- ‘be in water’ and -haw ‘take’, both of which persist in modern Mohawk. Noun þ verb compounding, like that seen in (6) aonsakonwaia’tisa´kha’ ‘they should look for her’ (-ia’t-isak- ‘bodyseek’), ´ısi’ no´nhskwati ‘it is on the other side of the bridge’ (-ahskw-ti ‘bridge-be. beyond’), and tionnho´nhskwaron ‘cow’ (-onnhonhskwar-ont ‘jowl-be.attached’) is, by contrast, pervasive, productive, and powerful. It is this construction that will be our focus here.

31.2 Noun incorporation

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Mohawk noun incorporation consists of the compounding of a noun stem with a verb stem to form a new verb stem. As was seen earlier, basic Mohawk nouns consist of a gender preWx, a noun stem, and a noun suYx. Only the noun stem is incorporated, not the whole noun word. (8)

2

Basic incorporation a. oka´:ra’ b. wa´kien’ o-kar-a’ wak-ien-’ neut-story-nsuff 1sg.pat-have-sta ‘story’ ‘I have it’

c. wakka´:raien’ wak-kar-a-ien-’ 1sg.pat-story-jr-have-sta ‘I have a story.’

Genders are masculine, feminine/indeWnite, neuter, and zoic. Feminine forms are used for indeWnite persons (‘one’) and for certain female persons. Neuter forms are used for inanimate objects, and zoic for larger animals and other female persons. For the most part, neuter and zoic pronominals have the same forms.

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If an incorporated noun stem ends in a consonant, and the following verb stem begins in a consonant, a stem joiner vowel -a- is inserted between the two, as in -kara-ien ‘story-joiner-have’ above.3 (The verb root -ien- ‘lie, have’ begins with a palatal glide, represented by orthographic i. In penultimate position, the joiner vowel does not bear stress unless the preceding syllable is closed.) Only morphologically wellformed noun stems can be incorporated. Verbs that have become lexicalized as nominals must be overtly nominalized before they can be incorporated. The word atekhwa`:ra ‘table’ originated as a morphological verb: ‘one’s meal is set on it’ (w-atekhw-a-hra neut-mid-meal-jr-set.on). It can be incorporated, but only with the overt nominalizer -’tsher-: watekhwahra’tsherı´:io ‘it is a nice table’ (-iio ‘be nice’). It was noted earlier that Mohawk verbs often correspond to full, multi-word sentences in other languages, such as aonsakonwaia’tisa´kha’ ‘they should go back to look for her’ and wakka´:raien’ ‘I have a story’. One might wonder whether these are in fact single words. Mohawk word boundaries are actually clear from a variety of criteria. The Wrst is the view of speakers. If speakers are asked to repeat a sentence word by word, they do it without hesitation and without variation from one time to the next or from one speaker to the next, whether or not they have ever read or written their language. The sole exceptions are some compound particles like those described in section 31.1.1. When speakers hesitate with those, they are accurately reXecting the transitional status of the forms. There are also phonological clues to wordhood. Each word (except certain unstressed particles) contains one and only one primary stress. Stress is basically penultimate, apart from epenthetic vowels. Words end after the syllable following the stress. Furthermore, phonological processes operate across morpheme boundaries in ways they do not operate across word boundaries. The word iontenonhsatariha’ta´hkhwa’ ‘one heats one’s house with it’ > ‘heater’, for example, begins with the preWxes iaw-ate- (indef.agt-mid-), but the combination is pronounced ionte-. Most pronominal preWxes containing a masculine participant begin with r- word-initially but h- word-internally: rak-hro´:rihs ‘he tells me’, wa-hak-hro´:ri’ ‘he told me’. There are clear morphological cues to word boundaries. Both nouns and verbs have strong internal morphological structure. They are essentially templatic: morphemes are strictly ordered within the word. One cannot, for example, shift preWxes or suYxes around to alter scope relations, as in some languages. If one hears a negative, contrastive, coincident or partitive preWx, one knows this is the beginning of a verb. If one hears a post-aspectual suYx, it is the end. Mohawk words are strong cognitive units. Speakers know the meanings of words of course, but they do not necessarily have a conscious knowledge of the identities of individual morphemes (unless they have become linguists). Speakers are often initially surprised to learn that atekhwa`:ra ‘table’ contains the root -khw- ‘food, 3

The term ‘stem joiner’ is used in the Iroquoianist literature for linking elements similar to the vowels that join elements of compounds in languages like German and Greek.

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meal’, though after a moment’s thought, they realize that it is true. Few would be able to identify the root -khw- however. Speakers never pause within words to choose a morpheme then continue, as one might pause between words in a sentence. If for any reason they are derailed mid-word (something that rarely happens), they simply begin the word again. They have a strong sense of words as units: they know which words exist in the language and which do not. The inventory of existing words varies from community to community and even from speaker to speaker, something speakers notice immediately and comment on. The morphology is highly productive, but speakers are generally aware of innovations. All of these criteria converge to delineate words in the same way. The strength of the Mohawk verb as a phonological, morphological, and cognitive unit, alongside of its correspondence with multi-word sentences in many other languages, raises interesting issues about the boundaries between morphology and syntax. For this reason, the Mohawk construction has been the subject of an extensive literature, including but by no means limited to Mithun (1984, 1986a, b, 1996, 1999, 2001a, b, c), Baker (1988, 1996, 1999), and Rosen (1989).

31.3 Determiner phrases?

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Cross-linguistically, markers of deWniteness, gender, number, and case are not included when nouns are incorporated into verbs. Mohawk provides no exception. We do Wnd Mohawk constructions like those in (9), (10), (11), and (12) where demonstratives, quantiWers, and other modiWers appear outside of verbs containing incorporated nouns. (9)

Demonstrative kı´:ken ‘this’ (Awenhra´then Joe Deer, speaker) Ne: ki: wa`:kehre kı´:ken ki: it is this I thought this this akenikarato´nhahse’. a-keni-kar-aton-hahs-e’ opt-1/2.du-story-say-ben.appl-prf ‘I thought that I would tell you guys this story.’

(10) Quantifier e´:so’ ‘much, many, a lot’ (Watshennı´:ne’ Sawyer, speaker, p.c.) Tho´ ne: ki: iah e´:so’ teionkwahwı´staien’ tho ne: ki: iah eso’ te-ionkwa-hwist-a-ien-’ there it.is this not much neg-1pl.pat-money-jr-have-sta there it is this not much did we money have ‘At that time we didn’t have much money.’

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Modifier o`:ia’ ‘other’ (Watshennı´:ne’ Sawyer, speaker, p.c.) She´:kon o`:i wakka´:raien’. shekon o-hi-a’ wak-kar-a-ien-’ still neut-other-nsuff 1sg.pat-story-jr-have-sta still other I story have ‘I have still another story.’

(12) Modifier iohste´:ris ‘it is funny’ (Watshennı´:ne’ Sawyer, speaker, p.c.) Wakka´:raien’, wak-kar-a-ien-’ 1sg.pat-story-jr-have-sta ’I have a story, iohste´:ris io-hsteris neut.pat-be.funny a funny story.’

wakka´:raien’. wak-kar-a-ien-’ 1sg.pat-story-jr-have-stative

The existence of examples like (9)–(12) might suggest that noun incorporation constructions are built up from sentence structures much like those in English, in which the noun originates as a constituent of a determiner phrase (‘this [story]’, ‘much [money]’) and is then moved into the verb by syntactic rule, ‘stranding’ any demonstratives, quantiWers, or other modiWers. In fact these sentences do not in the end constitute evidence for such a process. Words like kı´:ken ‘this’, e´:so’ ‘many, much’, o`:ia’ ‘other’, and iohste´:ris ‘funny’ all occur on their own in construction with verbs that contain no incorporated noun. (13) Kı´:ken ‘this’ alone (Rita Konkwatsi’tsaie´n:ni, speaker, p.c.) E’tho´ ki’ kı´:ken ronahstoro´ntie’. e’tho ki’ kı´:ken ron-ahstor-on-tie’ there anyway this masc.pl.pat-be.fast-sta-prog ‘These (boys) were hurrying along.’ When there is an incorporated noun, the external elements are not necessarily coreferential with or even pertinent to it. In (14) ‘many’ has nothing to do with the incorporated ‘mind’. (14)

E´:so’ ‘many’ alone (John Maracle, speaker) E´:so nı´: sewake’niko´nhrhen eso’ ne i’i se-wake-’nikonhr-hen many the myself rep-1.sg.pat-mind-fall.sta ‘I’ve forgotten many [tree names] myself.’

The word o`:ia’ is a perfectly formed morphological noun meaning ‘other one(s)’. It occurs on its own as a lexical argument.

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(15)

` :ia’ ‘other’ alone (Frank Natawe, speaker, p.c.) O ´ :nen O waho´nttoke’ onen wa-hon-at-tok-e’ then fac-masc.pl.agt-mid-notice-prf ‘Then they noticed

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o`:ia’ ohna`:ken’ taho´n:ne’. o-hi-a’ ohna’ken’ ta-honn-e-’ neut-other-nsuff behind cis-masc.pl.agt-go-sta other behind they are coming another (group) coming along behind them.’ Mohawk has no lexical adjective category. Concepts expressed by adjectives in other languages are typically expressed by stative verbs in Mohawk. The word iohste´:ris is a stative verb ‘it is funny’. It can stand alone as a predicate or a clause and, like other verbs, it can serve as a referring expression with no further marking: ‘funny one’. (16) Iohste´:ris ‘it is funny’ (Joe Awenhra´then Deer, speaker) Ah tsi iohste´:ris ki:. ah tsi io-hsteris kiken oh how neut.pat-be.funny.sta this ‘Oh how funny this is.’ Since all of these words can function as referring expressions on their own, there is no evidence that they represent the remnants of a larger determiner phrase that contained a noun at some earlier stage of derivation which was subsequently moved into the verb.

31.4 Possession

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As seen earlier, possession can be expressed on nouns by means of possessive preWxes. (17)

Possessed noun (Charlotte Bush, speaker, p.c.) Tanon’ tho´ iehona´tie’s kı´:ken tanon’ tho ie-hon-atie’-s kiken and there tloc-masc.pl.pat-lose-hab this ‘And they would throw their ball in there.’

raonahthe´n:no. raon-ahthenno masc.pl.al-ball

Such constructions are much rarer than their English counterparts, however. Often verbal constructions are used instead.

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(18) Verb (Charlotte Bush, speaker, p.c.) Ne´:’e tehonta’enhrane´:ken wa´he. ne’ te-hon-at-a’enhr-a-nek-en wahe’ it.is dup-masc.pl.agt-mid-fence-jr-be.adjacent-sta tag ‘Their fences were next to each other, you know.’ (19)

Verb (Ida Nicholas, speaker, p.c.) Khehsennahro´nkhahkwe’ se’s. khe-hsenn-ahronk-hahkwe’ se’s 1sg/3-name-hear-hab.pst formerly ‘I used to hear her name.’

It has sometimes been proposed that such constructions can be understood as the result of syntactic movement, of a ‘possessor raising’ process whereby possessed nouns in constructions like that in (17) are incorporated into the verb and the possessor moved into an argument position (Baker 1999). In fact these constructions do not actually express possession. A better translation of (18) is ‘they were neighbours’, and of (19) ‘I used to hear about her’. The noun þ verb compound stems are recognized lexical items with meanings ‘be neighbours’ and ‘hear about’. The sentence in (18) is about neighbours, not their fences, and (19) about a woman under discussion, not her name. Possessors of entities evoked by incorporated nouns often do appear as core arguments of the clause, particularly where inalienable possession is concerned, such as body parts. This is not surprising. An event or state that aVects a part of my body (having a headache, breaking my leg) signiWcantly aVects me. In Mohawk, the most signiWcantly aVected animate participant is typically cast as a core argument. As can be seen in the examples above, however, the incorporated noun need not be an inalienable possession. In fact, it need not be a possession at all. The structure itself does not specify or even imply a possessive relationship. The pronominal preWxes in the three verbs in (20) are all the same: -honwa‘they/him’. It could be argued that in the second verb iahonwaia’te´nhawe’ ‘they took him’ the masculine singular element refers to the possessor of the incorporated noun stem -ia’t- body’. It is clear, however, that in the third verb wahonwanho´:ton ‘they locked him up’ the masculine pronominal ‘him’ does not refer to the possessor of the door. It refers to the one primarily aVected by the jailing, the prisoner. (20)

Verb (Watshennı´:ne Sawyer, speaker, p.c.) Wahonwaie´:na’. wa-honwa-iena-’ fac-3pl/masc.sg-grab-prf ‘They arrested him.’

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iroquoian: mohawk Iahonwaia’te´nhawe’ ia-honwa-ia’t-enhaw-e’ tloc-3pl/masc.sg-body-take-prf ‘They took him to the police station . . .’

karihto`n:ke ka-rihton-’ke neut-police-place

tanon’ wahonwanho´:ton tanon’ wa-honwa-nh-oton-’ and fac-3pl/masc.sg-door-close-prf ‘. . . and they locked him up.’ The incorporated noun -ia’t- ‘body’ in the second verb iahonwaia’te´nhawe’ ‘they took him away’ actually reXects an interesting lexical pattern. A large number of compound verb stems have as their Wrst member one of three noun roots: -ia’t‘body’, -’nikonhr- ‘mind’, or -rihw- ‘matter, aVair, idea, word, news, reason, time, etc.’. We saw another verb with -ia’t- ‘body’ in (6): aonsakonwaia’tisa´kha’ ‘they should go back and look for her’. The verb root -isak ‘seek, look for’ is used alone for looking for an inanimate object, but in combination with -ia’t- ‘body’ when it means looking for a person or animal. This particular verb was used in (6) to describe two boys looking for their cow. There are thus two verb stems in the lexicon: -isak ‘seek (an inanimate object)’ and -ia’t-isak ‘seek (an animate being)’. We saw an example of the incorporated noun -’nikonhr- ‘mind’ in example (14): E´ : o nı´: sewake’niko´nhrhen ‘I myself have forgotten a lot’ (‘I am mind-fallen again’). Forgetting is classiWed as a mental activity, but the mind is not a core argument of the clause. The speaker was talking about forgetting names of trees. An example of the third noun root, -rihw-, is in (21). (21) Incorporated -rihw- ‘matter, idea, etc.’ (Tiorhakwe´n:te’ Joe Dove, speaker) Wahe`n:ron ia´h teharihwano`n:we’s wa-ha-ihron-’ iah te-ha-rihw-a-nonhwe’-s fac-masc.sg.agt-say-prf not neg-masc.sg.agt-matter-jr-like-hab ‘He said he doesn’t approve [of people speaking Mohawk in that place].’

31.5 The noun–verb relationship

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If noun incorporation is to be described as a syntactic process, a precise speciWcation of the syntactic role of the noun at each point is necessary. Syntactic accounts of noun incorporation have generally taken as their point of departure transitive clauses with lexical direct objects. The direct object is then moved to a position inside of the verb. Many Mohawk clauses with incorporated nouns are indeed

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translated into English clauses with transitive verbs and direct objects, like that in (22). A group of friends had been discussing the poor corn crop. (22)

Incorporated object? (Josephine Horne, speaker, p.c.) Ta´non’ karı`:wes tsi niio´:re’ tanon’ ka-rihw-es tsi ni-io-r-e’ and neut.agt-time-be.long as prtv-neut.pat-reach-sta ientewane´nhstake’ i-en-tewa-nenhst-a-k-e’ tloc-fut-1pl.ex.agt-corn-jr-eat-prf ‘And it will be a long time before we’ll eat corn.’

Intransitive verb roots also occur with incorporated nouns: (23)

Intransitive root: (Tiorhakwe´n:te’ Joe Dove, speaker) Konkwe’ta´ksen ke´n? k-onkwe’t-aks-en ken 1sg.agt-person-be.bad-sta Q ‘Am I a bad person?’

It is diYcult to argue that ‘person’ in (23) is structurally a direct object. An attempt to identify the root ‘be bad’ as an ‘unaccusative’ verb runs up against the problem that it occurs with pronominal agents rather than patients. There is actually no consistent syntactic or even semantic relation between incorporated nouns and the verb roots that incorporate them. The verb stem -atkenni ‘compete’ can be seen on its own in (24). The same stem appears with the incorporated noun ‘garden’ in (25). The garden is not a syntactic argument. It simply indicates a kind of competition, qualifying the competing. (24)

Verb ‘compete’ (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) Tio´tkon ok naho`:ten’ tioriho´n:ni. tiotkon ok naho:ten’ t-io-rihw-onni always some thing cis-neut.pat-matter-make tehonatke´nnion. te-hon-at-kenni-on dup-masc.pl.pat-mid-compete-sta ‘Always for some reason they were competing with each other.’

(25)

Verb ‘compete’ with incorporated noun (Tiorhakwe´n:te’ Joe Dove, speaker) Sok ne´: wa’thonthehtake´n:ni sok ne: wa’-t-hon-at-heht-a-kenni-’ so it.is fac-dup-masc.pl.agt-mid-garden-jr-compete-prf ‘So then they competed with their gardens.’

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The incorporated noun ‘hand’ in (26) is also not a direct object. The closest semantic characterization of its role might be as a source. (26)

Source noun: (Watshennı´:ne Sawyer, speaker, p.c.) To´hsa kı´:ken tesatsha’ne´n:tonhk tohsa’ kiken te-s-at-hsi-a’nenton-hkw proh this dup-2sg.agt-hand-fall-caus-inst.appl ne ohwı´sta’ ne o-hwist-a’ the neut-money-noun.suffix ‘Don’t let the money just slip out of your hand, slip through your Wngers.’

The incorporated noun ‘container’ in (27) is also not a direct object or semantic patient. If anything, it indicates a location. (27) Location noun (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) Wahohonwı`:sere’ wa-ho-honw-i’ser-e’ fac-masc.sg.pat-boat.shaped.container-drag-sta ‘He was container-dragged’ ¼ ‘He rode oV.’ The incorporated noun ‘wind’ in (28) represents a kind of instrument or means. (28) Instrument noun (Rita Konwatsi’tsaie´n:ni Phillips, speaker, p.c.) Wahonatewera´:ienhte’. wa-hon-ate-wer-a-ien-ht-e’ fac-masc.pl.pat-mid-wind-jr-fall-caus-prf ‘They were hit by a wind.’ One might argue that the problem is one of translation of the verb root. The same Mohawk verb root can, however, occur with incorporated nouns with quite diVerent semantic roles. The verbs in both examples in (29) are based on the root -itahkhe-. The Wrst incorporates the noun -ia’t- ‘body’; the second hah- ‘road’. (29) Verb root -itahkhe- ‘be moving’ (Charlotte Bush, Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speakers, p.c.) a. To´ka’ o´tia’ke a´kte’ nihatiia’tita´hkhe’. toka’ otia’ke akte’ ni-hati-ia’t-itahkhe-’ maybe other nearby prtv-masc.pl.agt-body-be.in.moving-sta ‘Maybe some of them were riding in another car.’ ´ :nen ni’ b. O ken’ tahonathahita´hkhe’ onen ohni’ ken’ ta-hon-at-hah-itahkhe-’ now also here cis-masc.pl.agt-mid-road-be.in.moving-sta ‘And now here they come, walking down the road.’

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The variety of relations that hold between the members of these noun þ verb compounds is much like what we Wnd with noun þ noun compounds in English. There is no constant semantic relation. The Wrst noun must simply be ‘appropriately classiWcatory’ in the sense of Zimmer (1972) and Downing (1977). It is no accident that so many incorporated nouns in Mohawk are translated as direct objects or intransitive subjects in English. These are the kinds of participants that tend to shape the nature of an action or state, such as eating meat but drinking water. Incorporation also fails to show a consistent syntactic eVect on the argument structure of the resulting complex verb stem. Both transitive and intransitive verb roots incorporate. When a transitive verb incorporates, the resulting stem can be intransitive, transitive, or both. When it is transitive, the incorporated noun may or may not have anything to do with any core arguments of the clause. In ‘They should body-seek her’, the body is that of the cow being sought. In ‘The boys were wind-hit’ the only argument is the boys. Such grammatical Xuidity is typical of word formation: speakers extend existing patterns to create labels for the concepts they wish to name. After a noun þ verb stem has been formed, it can be extended to new contexts with diVerent argument structure. The verb stem -nh-oton ‘door-close’ (actually ‘opening-cover’) is used as an intransitive verb meaning ‘close the door’, as might be expected. As we saw in (20), it is also now used as a transitive ‘lock someone up’. The verb -renn-ot- ‘song-stand’ was originally used intransitively for singing. It can be seen in (30) as a transitive. (30)

Argument structure shift (Tiorhakwe´n:te’ Joe Dove, speaker) O’no´:wa’ ne:’ thaterenno´tha’. o-’now-a’ ne’ t-ha-ate-renn-ot-ha’ neut-dome-nsuff that dup-masc.sg.agt-mid-song-stand-hab ‘He plays the guitar.’

Speakers could create such a sentence only if the verb stem ‘song-stand’ was stored as a lexical whole to mean ‘sing, play’, not as a predicate with direct object.

31.6 Semantic transparency and idiomaticity

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A feature sometimes cited as a diVerence between morphological and syntactic formations is semantic transparency. Noun incorporation structures show a cline of semantic transparency. Some noun þ verb compounds have meanings that are

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exactly what would be predicted from the meanings of the parts, such as ‘personbe.bad’ ¼ ‘be a bad person’ and ‘corn-eat’ ¼ ‘eat corn’. For perhaps the majority, the original semantic basis for the formation can be discerned after the fact, but the meaning could not be predicted precisely. An example is in (31). (31) Idiomatic ‘go to church’ (Charlotte Bush, speaker, p.c.) Ri’ke`n:’a wahaterennaie´nhna. ri-’ken ¼’a wa-ha-ate-renn-a-ien-hna-’ 1sg/masc.sg-be.sibling.to ¼ dim fac-masc.sg.agt-mid-song-jr-lay-purp-prf I am older sibling to him he went to lay down his songs/prayers ‘My younger brother went to church.’ The verb is understood as the label for the event as a whole. This speaker would have used the same construction even if her brother had simply sat in the back with no intention of praying. Another example is ‘word-be.good’ ¼ ‘be free’. The speaker was saying that livestock was not fenced in. (32) Idiomatic ‘be free’ (Watshennı´:ne Sawyer, speaker, p.c.) Akwe´:kon katshe´:nen akwekon ka-tshenen all neut-domestic.animal ‘All the animals enhskontatewennı´:iohne’. en-s-kont-atate-wenn-iio-hne-’ fut-rep-zo.pl.agt-refl-word-be.good-purp-prf they were going to be word good were free.’ Noun incorporation constructions are generally formed for a purpose, so their meanings are not necessarily precisely equivalent to the meanings of their components even at the moment of their creation. Once they have become lexicalized, they are continually being extended to new contexts, and their meanings can shift accordingly, without regard to their original components. Such processes are typical of Mohawk incorporation. The verb -hsw-a-neta’ ‘back-layer’ is used for putting another blanket on: Takshwa’ne´ta’ ‘Put another blanket on me’. The same verb has been extended metaphorically to mean give someone moral support, covering their back. The verb -’nikonhr-iio ‘mind-be.good’ means ‘be patient’: ro’nikonhrı´:io ‘he is patient’. The same verb stem with incorporated noun ‘mind’ is used for geraniums: ioti’nikonhrı´:io ‘they are patient’ because they are so hardy. The verb tontahshako’nikonhrotakwenha´tie’, based on the stem -’nikonhr-ot ‘mindstand’, was used to describe a man who was very controlling to his wife: ‘he goes along un-standing her mind’ ¼ ‘he rules her at every turn’.

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The set of noun þ verb compounds in the lexicon is a repository of idiomaticity, the ways ideas are conventionally expressed. The noun root -nonhs- ‘house’ appears in numerous noun þ verb compounds. It actually rarely occurs in an independent noun. It is almost always incorporated into one verb or another, the default being the verb -ot ‘stand’: kano´nhsote’ ‘standing house’. When one talks about burning a house, however, a diVerent noun is incorporated: -non’kw-. (33) House burning (Tiorhakwe´n:te’ Joe Dove, speaker) Ne´: ki’ thı´:ken ne´: rotenon’kwate´kton ne: ki’ thiken ne: ro-ate-non’kw-atek-t-on that in.fact that it is masc.sg.pat-mid-house-burn-caus-sta ‘That’s the guy that burned the house.’ The root -non’kw- does not seem to appear in any other constructions with this meaning. Its meaning here is only inferred from the meaning of the whole verb (33). The same noun root is not necessarily incorporated into every verb pertaining to a particular referent. The verb stem usually used to talk about possession of livestock or pets is -nahskw-a-ien- ‘domestic.animal-jr-have’. The kind of animal can be speciWed with a separate nominal: akohsa´:tens wakena´hskwaien’ ‘I have a horse’, e`:rhar wakena´hskwaien’ ‘I have a dog’. Two men had been discussing how people used to help each other out. Those who had horses would take them around to help others plough their gardens. One of the men mentioned a particular individual he had known. (34)

Horses (Awenhra´then Joe Deer, speaker) Tio´tkon’s ne:’ rona´hskwaien’. tiotkon ¼’s ne:’ ro-nahskw-a-ien-’ always ¼ formerly that.on masc.sg.pat-domestic.animal-jr-have-sta ‘He always had animals (horses). A: sok ki ne:’ ah and.the this.one it is Oh yes, then this guy enhaia’taniio´n:ten’ ne:’ en-ha-ia’t-a-niionten-’ ne’ fut-masc.sg.agt-body-jr-suspend-prf that.one would hitch the horse(s) up [and then they’d plough].’

No separate lexical nouns were necessary, because horses were an ongoing topic of conversation. In the Wrst sentence the incorporated noun is -nahskw- ‘domestic animal’, while in the second, it is -ia’t- ‘body’. The reason is simple: the verb stem for keeping livestock is -nahskw-a-ien-, while the verb stem for hitching up horses is -ia’t-a-niionten-.

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31.7 Productivity

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Another diVerence sometimes cited between morphological and syntactic processes is their productivity. Word-formation processes show a wide range of productivity, from those barely or no longer productive (like English -th of warmth) to those used so pervasively in new formations that speakers barely notice the neologisms (like -ness of political correctness). Mohawk noun incorporation shows a similar range of productivity. The productivity of noun incorporation is not characteristic of the process as a whole, any more than the productivity of derivation is constant for all derivational aYxes. Each noun stem and verb stem has its own degree of productivity with respect to incorporation. Some nouns occur only incorporated, such as -nahskw- ‘domestic animal’. Some are usually incorporated, some occasionally, some rarely, and some never. A similar continuum can be seen with verbs. Some verbs always incorporate, some usually incorporate, some sometimes incorporate, and some never incorporate. The diVerence is not purely semantic: the root -ı´io ‘be good’ always incorporates, while the root -ianer- ‘be good’ never does. If noun incorporation were fully productive in the way syntactic processes have been assumed to be, we would expect it to occur consistently in a given syntactic context. It does not. One speaker was describing the events in the Pear Film, created by Wallace Chafe and his collaborators with the goal of eliciting parallel narratives in diVerent languages without translation. The Wlm shows a sequence of events but contains no language. The Mohawk speaker’s description opened with the sentences in (35). (The description was entirely in Mohawk.) (35)

The Pear Story (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker) [‘What I watched took place in the morning, I believe, because I heard a rooster crow.’] Kı´:ken ro´n:kwe, kwah ´ı:kehre’ this man just I believe ka´tshe’ ka´hi rahia´kwahs ka-tshe’ ka-ahi ra-ahi-akwa-hs neut-jug neut-fruit masc.sg.agt-fruit-pick-hab ‘This man was picking pears.’ [‘He was wearing something like a bag’] Tho ki’ iehre´ta’s kı´:ken ka´tshe’ ka´hi. tho ki’ ie-hr-eta’-s this jug fruit there in.fact tloc-masc.sg.agt-insert-hab ‘And he was putting the pears in there.’

The lexical nominal ka´tshe’ ka´hi ‘pear’ was used to direct special attention to this signiWcant referent, around which the story revolves. The nominal appears early in

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the Wrst clause, when it is Wrst introducing the pears, but late in the second, when it is simply reiterating the reference. Interestingly, the noun root -ahi- ‘fruit’ is incorporated into the Wrst verb ‘pick’ but not the second verb ‘insert’. The reason is simple. There exists a lexical item ‘fruitpick’ but no lexical item ‘fruit-insert’. Fruit-picking is a nameworthy activity, but fruit-inserting has apparently not achieved this status. The verb ‘insert’ does appear with other incorporated nouns, as in the stem for burying a person: -ia’t-a-ta’‘body-jr-insert’. In this speaker’s description of the Wlm, the noun -ahi was also incorporated into other verbs. At a certain point, while the pear picker is up in the tree, a boy comes along on a bicycle, steals one basket of pears, and rides oV. (36)

Further incorporated fruit (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) rohianenhskwenha´tie’ ro-ahi-nenhskw-en-hatie’ masc.sg.pat-fruit-steal-sta-prog ‘he was going along having stolen the fruit.’

The boy hits a rock and falls, scattering the pears all over the ground. The noun ‘fruit’ is not incorporated because there is no stem ‘fruit-scatter’ in the lexicon. Reference to the fruit is reiterated after the verb with the more general independent noun ‘fruit’ suYcient in this context: (37)

Independent ‘fruit’ (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) Sok wa’teware´:ni’ kı´:ken ka´hi. sok wa’-te-w-areni-’ kiken ka-ahi and fac-dup-neut.agt-scatter-prf this neut-fruit ‘And it scattered, this fruit.’

As the story progresses, the noun ‘fruit’ appears incorporated in various other verbs. Three boys come along and help the pear thief up from his fall. In gratitude, he gives each a pear. The scene then shifts as we watch the three trudge oV. (38)

Further incorporated fruit (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) Akwe´:kon skatshon ronahiaienta´tie’ akwekon skat-shon ron-ahi-a-ient-atie’ all one-each masc.pl.pat-fruit-jr-have-prog all each they were fruit having along o´tsta’ tsi nihonahia´:kon ki: ka´tshe ka´hi. otsta’ tsi ni-hon-ahi-ak-on this jug fruit gee how prtv-masc.pl.pat-fruit-eat-sta gee how so they were fruit eating ‘They were each going along with a fruit, really eating the fruit, the pears.’

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Much later, after a series of events centring on the pears, we return to the pear picker, who climbs down out of the tree to Wnd one of his baskets of pears missing. At this point the fruit is mentioned only with the incorporated root -ahi-, part of the lexicalized stem, -ahi-nenhskw- ‘fruit-steal’. An external nominal was unnecessary because the pears were such a well-established part of the scene, but the presence of the incorporated root does help to keep reference alive. (39) No lexical nominal (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) [‘This man couldn’t Wgure out what had happened,’] o´nhka’ wahonwahiane´nhsko’. onhka’ wa-honwa-ahi-nenhsko-’ who factual-3.indef/masc.sg-fruit-steal-prf ‘who had stolen the fruit’ Like other languages, Mohawk oVers its speakers a variety of devices for invoking referents, among them full lexical nominals of varying degrees of speciWcity, demonstratives, and pronominals. Mohawk oVers an additional device as well in noun incorporation. Though its occurrence is governed Wrst by the combinations that happen to be established in the lexicon, it can help to keep reference alive over the course of speech.

31.8 Reference

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Incorporated nouns in Mohawk are not usually referential. They typically serve as qualiWers, narrowing the semantic scope of the verb: -onkwe’t-iio ‘be a good person’, -enhniser-iio ‘be a good day, be Wne weather’. In some cases, however, incorporated nouns do introduce referents in Mohawk. Noun stems may be incorporated into ‘light’ verbs, verbs with minimal semantic content of their own. When the pear picker in the Pear Film has Wlled his apron, we see him climb down out of the tree. There on the ground are three baskets. The speaker introduced them as follows. (40) Referent introduction (Kaia’tita´hkhe’ Jacobs, speaker, p.c.) ´ hsen nı´:kon A wa’the´:raien’ ahsen ni-k-on w-a’ther-a-ien-’ three prtv-neut.agt-number.sta neut.agt-basket-jr-lie-sta ‘There are three baskets lying kahenta`:ke tho. ka-hent-a’ke tho neut-ground-place there on the ground there.’

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The incorporation allows the expression of a single idea, the presence of baskets, in a single word. The light verbs such as ‘sit’, ‘stand’, ‘lie’, ‘have’, etc. provide a vehicle for moving referents onto the scene. Such constructions are not uncommon.

31.9 Conclusion

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The fact that Mohawk verbs with incorporated nouns are usually translated into multi-word sentences in English has understandably prompted some descriptions of them as syntactic formations. It is important, however, to distinguish the formation process from its eVects. Replacing a simplex verb with a complex verb can indeed have syntactic consequences, shifting the argument structure of the clause. But replacing one lexical verb with another can have syntactic consequences in any language. In this sense, incorporation is not signiWcantly diVerent from word-formation processes like that linking able and enable. The recognition that the products of Mohawk noun incorporation are not always perfectly regular semantically or syntactically has prompted some analysts to distinguish two types of incorporation, one syntactic and one morphological. The Wrst is described in the same terms as sentence formation. The second consists of the irregular residue. But such a theoretical distinction is diYcult to reconcile with the range of formations that actually occur. Mohawk verb stems formed by incorporation fall along a continuum of semantic transparency, much like those formed by other derivational processes. Even when they are fully transparent like ‘domestic.animal-have’, speakers recognize them as lexical items in their language. Substituting a synonym for the component noun or verb stem would not yield a usable lexical item. Similarly, it is diYcult to specify the exact syntactic structures that serve as input to incorporation, or consistent, predictable syntactic structures that result. Both input and output possibilities are Xuid, with no sharp distinction between ‘regular’ and ‘irregular’. Mohawk incorporation also shows a continuum of productivity. The productivity is tied to individual noun and verb stems rather than to the process as a whole, just as the productivity of derivational processes is tied to individual aYxes or other word-formation processes. It remains to be seen whether a sharp distinction can ultimately be maintained between processes of word and sentence formation. Nevertheless, Mohawk noun incorporation clearly shares the fundamental properties of other word-formation processes. It provides a tool for creating lexical items, verb stems that are learned and used as units. Many excellent speakers never create new stems on their own, but the lexical inventory is available to all.