Invisible Storytellers: Voice-Over Narration in American Fiction Film 9780520909663, 0520909666

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Invisible Storytellers

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Invisible Voice-Over Narration in American Fiction Film

Sarah Kozloff

| University of California Press | Berkeley / Los Angeles / London

| This book is a print-on-demand volume. It is manufactured using toner in place of ink. Type and images may be less sharp than the same material seen in traditionally printed University of California Press editions.

University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California Press, Ltd. London, England

© 1988 by The Regents of the University of California Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kozloff, Sarah. Invisible storytellers. Filmography: p. Bibliography: p. Includes index. |. Moving-picture plays—History and criticism.

2. Moving-pictures—United States. 3. Narration (Rhetoric) I. Title: Voice-over narration in American fiction film. II. Title.

PN1995.K69 1988 791 .43'0973 87-1246] ISBN 0-520-05861-5 (alk. paper) Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (R 1997) (Permanence of Paper).

To my brother, Daniel Kozloff, who used to read me stories and take me to movies

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Contents

Acknowledgments _1x

Introduction 1 1 The Prejudices against Voice-Over

Narration 8

Images versus Words 8 “Showing” versus “Telling”’ 12 “A Literary Device” 17 **Redundancy”’ 19 “The Last Resort of the Incompetent” 21

2 Ancestors, Influences, and

Development 23 Lecturers and Intertitles in the Silent Era 23

Radio 26 Newsreels, Short Subjects, and

Documentaries 28 Fiction Films, 1930— 1950 31 Television and Postwar Documentaries 35 Fiction Films, 1950 to the Present 37

) 3 First-Person Narrators 41 Genette’s Taxonomy of Narrators 42

Who Really Narrates? 43

viii Contents The Circumstances of Narration 49 Story and Discourse and How Green

Was My Valley 53 Foregrounding the Act of Storytelling and

All About Eve 62

4 Third-Person Narrators 72 Who Really Narrates? 74 The Circumstances of Narration 76

Omniscience 79 Humanizing the “Voice of God” and

The Naked City 82

Gender 99 5 Irony in Voice-Over Films 102

. The Interplay between Narration and Scenic Presentation 102 Voice-Over’s Contribution to Cinematic

lrony 109 Ironic Narrators 111 Unreliable Narrators 112 The Question of Reliability in

Barry Lyndon 117

Conclusion 127 Notes 131 Filmography 141 Bibliography of Works Cited 155

Index 161

Acknowledgments

Many people contributed to this study by recommending films with voiceover, suggesting sources, checking out books, or just by their encouraging interest. To all, I am grateful. Some people’s assistance, however, deserves particular mention. First, since this work’s original incarnation was as a doctoral dissertation at Stanford University, I wish to thank my committee for their guidance: my adviser, David Halliburton, and my readers, William Mills Todd III and Henry Breitrose. Secondly, thanks are due to those who gave me access to the films: William K. Everson, who opened his personal collection to me, and the staffs of the film study centers of the Department of Cinema Studies at New York University, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Library of Congress. I am also grateful to Virginia Clark, Cathy Holter, and Joyce Jesionowski for their as-

sistance with the frame enlargements. :

A number of film professionals graciously took the time to answer my queries, among them the screenwriters Philip Dunne and Malvin Wald and editors Barbara McLean, Ralph Rosenblum, and Denise Sickinger. In addition, I must express a particular debt to those who read portions of __ the manuscript in draft form, and whose thoughtful suggestions ranged from copyediting to prompting me to rethink the most crucial theoretical issues:

Melissa Berman, N6ll Brinckmann, Marian Keane, Susan Ryan, William Rothman, Ian Watt, and—especially—-Seymour Chatman. And I have been fortunate indeed in having the most considerate and expert of editors, Ernest Callenbach. From inception to completion, Leger Grindon and Daniel Kozloff were the

X Acknowledgments ones | turned to with innumerable queries and difficulties. Their contributions cut across all categories. Finally, no list of thanks would be complete without mention of my husband, Robert Lechterman. He helped in many concrete ways—as consultant, photographer, and courier—but it is for his unequivocal, unflagging support that [ am most deeply grateful. A portion of chapter 4 first appeared in Cinema Journal 23, no. 4 (Summer 1984) and is used here with the permission of University of Hlinois Press. Frame enlargements and still photographs are included by courtesy of the following: ABC Pictures International, Inc., Columbia Pictures, Janus Films, the Mark Hellinger Estate, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer / United Artists, the Museum of Modern Art Film Stills Archive, the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Republic Pictures, Twentieth Century—Fox, and Warner Brothers.

Introduction

‘Let me tell you a story,”’ each narrative film seems to offer silently as its opening frames hit the screen: “‘It all started this way . . .” Behind every film we sense a narrating “‘voice,” a master-of-ceremonies figure that presents and controls the text. But in many cases we also hear from off-screen a human voice—a man, woman, or child who explicitly narrates all or part of the story we are about to witness. In Howard Hawks’s Red River (1948), an unseen voice (Walter Brennan) remarks: You see, the story of the Red River D. started this way. Along about August of 1851 Tom Dunson and me left St. Louie and joined a wagon train headed for Californy. After about three weeks on the trail we was to the northern border of

Texas... |

This prototypical “‘old-timer”’ speaks to us as if we were huddled around

a campfire on a lonely prairie, not a flickering screen in our neighborhood theater. Cinematic storytelling is one of the youngest, most technologically depen-

dent, and most expensive modes of narration; oral storytelling, the most ancient, fundamental, and widely accessible. In films with voice-over narration the older form has been superimposed on top of the newer. “‘Narrated’’ films are hybrids—almost implying a mixture of centuries and cultures—halfretrograde, half-pathbreaking, half-dissembling, half-forthright, they call upon the viewer to assume complex, if not contradictory, positions. Adding voice-over narration to a film creates a fascinating dance between pose and actuality, word and image, narration and drama, voice and “voice.” 1

2 Introduction Voice-over narration has been a major element of cinema since the thirties; it is so very common that it probably passes the average moviegoer unnoticed. In keeping with the neglect and abhorrence of film sound in general, for too long scholars and critics have also either overlooked the technique or, influ-

enced by various prejudices, dismissed it out of hand. This study seeks to prove that these prejudices are ill-founded and endeavors to remedy this long neglect by tracing the technique’s historical development and by analyzing its subtleties, especially its capacity for creating intimacy and sophisticated irony. In the course of this analysis I draw on the paradigms of recent narrative theorists such as Wayne Booth, Robert Scholes and Robert Kellogg, Roland Barthes, and Gérard Genette, syncretically applying whichever concepts are most relevant to filmic narration in general and voice-over in particular. For the most part, film scholars have heretofore made rather limited use of nar-

rative theory;' by the same token, although narrative theorists often make broad claims about the applicability of their discoveries to narrative as a transmedia phenomenon, they habitually and almost exclusively draw their examples from literary texts.? By applying “‘literary’’ narrative theory to film, I hope both to further our understanding of cinematic narrative’s specific characteristics and to test the universality of several key tenets of contemporary critical lore.

I have focused my research on American and British narrative feature films, primarily Hollywood products. Since this field extends over nearly sixty years of sound-film history and encompasses thousands of movies, it is already impractically large, yet even these boundaries exclude important texts from direct consideration. Thus, although documentaries both preceded fiction films in their use of voice-over and influenced fictional practices, I shall only touch upon a few; documentaries deserve a full-length study of their own, a study that would take full cognizance of their fluid intermixture of narration with exposition, argumentation, instruction, and poetry. Similarly, while I refer to particularly ground-breaking films by foreign directors, it was patently impossible to cover the use of narration by every national cinema. Besides, the French New Wave and Latin American (or avant-garde) filmmakers often use narration to comment upon or subvert Hollywood patterns, and my priority has been to delineate the dominant American tradition. One of the things we shall see is that although certain formats do recur, far from creating some monolithic “classic”? mold, Hollywood films themselves reveal an infinite variety of uses of narration, from the staid to the downright quirky. Before we can look at any film, however, we need a precise definition of voice-over narration. The term has often been used quite loosely; such casualness can lead to confusion and inaccuracy.

Bascially, in “voice-over narration” all three words are fully operative. Voice determines the medium: we must hear someone speaking. Obviously,

Introduction 3 instances of narration via printed titles or captions do not count; less obviously, one must also separate out all those cases where a text dives directly into a flashback or dream sequence without a framework of overlapping oral statements. Although voice-over narration is often used to couch flashbacks as a character’s memory, the question of subjectivity in film——-what Bruce Kawin calls “‘mindscreen”’ *—1is a larger and somewhat separate issue.

Over pertains to the relationship between the source of the sound and the images on the screen: the viewer does not see the person who is speaking at the time of hearing his or her voice. Narrating asides to the camera (as in John Huston’s The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean [1972]), and those cases when a character does all of his or her narrating on-screen (as in Max Ophuls’ La Ronde [1950]), certainly count as oral narration, but not as voice-over. “Over” actually implies more than mere screen-absence; one must distinguish voice-over from voice-off in terms of the space from which the voice is presumed to originate. In the latter, the speaker is merely temporarily off-camera, the camera could pan around the same scene and capture the speaker. Contrarily, voice-over is distinguishable by the fact that one could not display the speaker by adjusting the camera’s position in the pictured story space; instead

the voice comes from another time and space, the time and space of the discourse. Narration relates to the content of the speech: someone is in the act of communicating a narrative—that is, recounting a series of events to an audience. But a difficulty appears here: in narrated films, instead of hearing a story from start to finish, we may only hear a few sentences. On the basis, sometimes, of just a fragment—a sentence or two in which, perhaps, the invisible speaker never actually recounts a past event—how does one know that the voice is narrating and not just conversing or thinking out loud? To put it simply, how

does one know that a sentence like “I am going to go to the grocery store today even if it rains” is probably not a fragment of narration, while “It was a dark and stormy night, yet 1 decided to go to the grocery store” probably is? Verb tense provides a crucial, though not conclusive, clue. In Language in the Inner City, the linguist William Labov notes that “‘narrative clauses”’ are clauses with a simple past tense verb (or, in some styles, a verb in the simple present). However, as Labov discovered during his research on “natural” narratives—that is, oral, unrehearsed stories recounting a personal experience— a complete narrative is made up of much more than just narrative clauses. In fact, he finds, complete narratives break down into six elements: the abstract (a short summary of the story that 1s about to be provided); the orientation (identification of time, place, characters, and activities); the complicating action (the unfolding of the story’s events); the resolution (the climax); the evaluation (commentary elucidating the point of the story); and the coda (an epilogue, often bridging the gap between story time and the time of narrating). Thus, while the complicating action and the resolution generally use simple

4 Introduction past tense constructions, orientations, for instance, often contain past progressive verbs.*

Accordingly, in considering my two little examples, we may run through a

more complicated—though still instantaneous—program, testing to see whether these sentences could fit into any of the six familiar categories. “I am going to go to the grocery today even if it rains,’ with its future tense construction, may be a promise, a threat, or a bid for martyrdom, but does not immediately fulfill any of the functions that Labov details. On the other hand, “It was a dark and stormy night, yet I decided to go to the grocery store” not only contains a narrative clause, the beginning of the complicating action, but also presents a mini-orientation by describing the weather. Mary Louise Pratt has demonstrated the general applicability of Labov’s work and shown how well his six-part schema can be applied to refined, liter-

ary narratives.* Because voice-over narrators are often supposed to be recounting oral, unrehearsed stories of personal experience, Labov’s findings are even more obviously pertinent here. Note that of the sentences quoted earlier from Red River, “You see, the story of the Red River D. started this way” clearly amounts to an “abstract,” while the next sentence, “Along about Au-

gust of 1851... ,” provides orientating information. With the beginning of the complicating action, the narration fades out, and the ball is passed to the images and dramatic performances. In this film the invisible speaker returns later, sometimes with evaluation, sometimes with narrative clauses, but even if he had never spoken again, we would have identified him as a narrator on

the basis of the opening sentences. Regardless of how much the narrator speaks, and regardless of whether he or she ever actually recounts the action of the story, we are so familiar with the structure of narratives that the speech act as a whole is implied by the presence of any one of the six elements. Which brings us to the point, made by Pratt through her use of speech-act theory and by Jonathan Culler in structuralist terms when he talks about a “code” of narration,® that as viewers, readers, listeners, and narrators, we have all not only unconsciously learned narrative structure, but also the rules and conditions surrounding storytelling. My grocery store examples were offered in a vacuum, yet with Red River a host of surrounding circumstances come into play: we already know that this is a narrative film; we match the voice’s promise to tell us the story of the Red River D. with the film’s title “Red River,” and we recognize such genre considerations as the fact that this is a Western, Walter Brennan a common Western character actor, and his words, pronunciation, and tone appropriate for a Hollywood cowboy. In sum, one recognizes voice-over speech—fragmentary though it may be—as narration on the basis of: first, certain linguistic clues; secondly, our intuitive knowledge of narrative structure; and finally, the entire context in which the speech arises.

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22 The Prejudices against Voice-Over Narration turn to voice-over. Ironically, along with the fundamental anti-sound bias, voice-over narration’s reputation has suffered from the advantages it offers, such as its facility in conveying expositional information. Furthermore, because recording synchronous sound on location is sometimes impossible and always time-consuming, and thus expensive, taping voice-over narration in a controlled studio setting is comparatively simple and economical. The technique is so much easier that it 1s highly recommended for home movies—‘‘Say It with Narration” counsels Super-8 Filmmaker,” and Movie Maker labels it ““The Technique Amateurs Should Make Their Own.” *° Guilty by association, the technique now carries an aura of pennypinching and unprofessionalism. And yet. . . are there aesthetic merit points for doing things the hard way? If using voice-over allows one to include important exteriors, as it does in The Naked City’s use of scenes shot on the noisy streets of New York, so much the better. Another advantage voice-over offers is its ability to rectify mistakes. Even in big-budget features, because it is added during post-production, when the filmmakers may have identified any troubles with the rough cut’s continuity,

intelligibility, or tone, voice-over can be used as last-minute patchwork. Lillian Ross reveals that when John Huston’s The Red Badge of Courage (1951) was shown in preview, the audience responded by laughing at what were supposed to be the most tragic moments. Panic-stricken, the producers decided that the way to instill proper respect for the text was to add voice-over: in the final version, the film opens with an authoritative voice (James Whitmore), giving a mini-lecture about Crane and the novel’s themes; Whitmore also narrates the body of the text with quotations from the novel.*' Similarly, the narration in Red River was a late addition: in previews the film appeared to be overlong, so transitions that had originally been accomplished via lengthy

shots of handwritten pages of “Early Tales of Texas’? were replaced with Brennan’s voice-over. In both cases, production histories expose narration as a last-minute convenience. But what matters is not whether the narration was a forethought or an afterthought, but how well it is thought out. The opening of The Red Badge of

Courage is heavy-handed and schoolmarmish. Yet in Red River, the voiceover not only streamlines the film, but also makes it more intimate and conversational, and less pretentiously pseudo-legendary. ”

I do not believe in prescriptive criticism under any flag, whether ontological or ideological. Ultimately our assessment of the merits of a film’s narration (and other issues of film form) should depend upon the case, not on a priori legislation.

Ancestors, Influences, and Development

In chapter 1, I questioned the conventional notion that films caught voiceover (like the measles?) from novels; it thus behooves me to present an alternate and more detailed account of the technique’s development. Tracing

the birth and history of a cinematic technique is a risky business; without having seen every film made since 1927, I cannot be sure that the trends I perceive from my research on several hundred are accurate for the thousands that have been produced. What follows is necessarily offered only as a working hypothesis. Such hypothesizing is worthwhile, however, because only by sketching in a macrocosmic model can we see how a technique such as voice-over narration becomes part of the cinema’s repertoire, where it came from, when and why its role ebbed or grew, who used it and in what kinds of films. And the answers to such questions provide crucial grounding for aesthetic issues (such

as, how does narration really work in a film? what kinds of effects does it have?) addressed in subsequent chapters.

Lecturers and Intertitles in the Silent Era In a sense, movies started with voice-over narration. During the medium’s very beginnings in the late 1890s, when films consisted of just one unbroken take, and programs were structured by stringing several of these little films together, exhibitors often employed “‘lecturers”’ to provide running commentaries for the audience. 23

24 Ancestors, Influences, and Development The history of the use of these lecturers has been traced by Charles Musser and Charles Berg.' At the turn of the century, as films grew longer and more complex, the need for and use of lecturers grew rather than declined; for instance, lecturers were a standard component of novelty traveling exhibitions such as the popular Hale’s Tours (1905—). As for early fiction films, their story-

lines were often inaccessible to audiences both because of viewers’ inexperience at ‘“‘reading”’ narrative images, and because of the filmmakers’ lack of skill in conveying temporal, spatial, and narrative relationships, thus lecturers could potentially fill a crucial gap. Some major production companies

oral guidance. | issued lecture notes along with each of their films, and film critics, such as W. Stephen Bush of The Moving Picture World, actively campaigned for more

Lecturers reached their peak of popularity in the United States in the early 1910s. Even in their heyday many exhibitors did without; qualified lecturers were hard to find and cost money, and since they didn’t always get a chance to view the films before they were shown (the programs changed so frequently), their commentaries were not always well prepared or helpful. Their decline was precipitated by the fact that by 1912 filmmakers had developed editing and narrative strategies that made visual storytelling more sophisticated and comprehensible (needing less explanation), and these innovations led directly to longer films (more taxing to narrate orally). Moreover, as Charles Berg points out, the subsequent move to larger picture palaces precipitated the decline of lecturers because of the difficulties of voice projection in such large spaces. Finally, the industry turned to more standardization of product and consolidation of editorial control in the hands of film producers, not individual exhibitors. By including intertitles in their films, producers could ensure that no matter where the film was exhibited, or under what conditions, every audience would receive the necessary narrative information. Intriguingly, in Japan, where various forms of drama such as Kabuki and doll plays had traditionally separated dramatic action and narrative information, the marriage of human storytellers and silent films lasted for two more decades. Lecturers, or benshis, were a customary part of performances until 1937. The benshis wielded great power (for example, they had the authority to insist on changes in a print that displeased them), and they effectively delayed the coming of sound in Japanese cinema for years. Their power grew out of their popularity: many spectators would visit theaters not so much to see the film as to see and hear their favorite benshi narrate, and they would greet him by enthusiastically calling out his nickname. Although in the United States lecturers seem to have been employed primarily for clarity and convenience, the fact that Japanese lecturers were more popular with audiences than movie stars demonstrates the affective potential of filmic narration.’ Intertitles (alternatively called ‘“‘subtitles’”) also count as an ancestor of voice-over narration, and they too started with the birth of the cinema. During

| Ancestors, Influences, and Development 25 the industry’s infancy such titles were added by exhibitors, who placed them on lantern slides, but from at least 1903 on producers frequently included inter-

titles in their reels. Once again, film reviews of the time testify to the need: The Dramatic Mirror, for instance, objected to one film because “‘it is not as

clearly told in the pictures as we would like to see. . . . The Edison company | would do well producing complicated dramatic stories of this kind if it would insert descriptive paragraphs at the proper points in the films so the spectators might gain a knowledge of what the actors are about.” * However, titles were not only a means of conveying expository information. The earliest titles were generally spare, merely identifying or temporal indicators presented on plain backgrounds in undistinguished typeface, but as the silent era progressed, and intertitles won out over lecturers as the principal source of narration, filmmakers began to pay more attention to their titling. D. W. Griffith, for one, exploited intertitles effectively early on; William K. Everson reminds us that the titles of Intolerance (1916) skillfully link stories of four different centuries, using different lettering and graphic backgrounds for each.* Moreover, Griffith habitually took advantage of his titles to judge his characters, make personal asides, or draw parallels between the screen ac- » tion and current events—1in short, to open up a direct line of communication between himself and his audience and to suggest a personal tone of voice. Way Down East (1920), for example, begins with titles enforcing Griffith’s moral: “Once man had been polygamous. . . . [but] The truth must bloom that his [man’s] happiness lies in his purity and constancy. . . . If there is anything in this story that brings home to man the suffering caused by our selfishness, perhaps it will not be in vain.” Griffith’s narrating “voice” is unappealing to modern tastes (too florid and preachy), but consider how clearly we hear it, and how much it colors our experience of his works. In the late teens and twenties, title writing became an art in itself. Sometimes overzealousness led to ghastly purplish prose, but the writers often succeeded in creating a legendary atmosphere for Westerns and epics or in adding a witty perspective to comedies. And filmmakers constantly experimented with changes in typeface and graphics, or, as was the case with Soviet filmmakers, with rhythmically integrating the written text into their montage. Intriguingly, critical attitudes to intertitles anticipate the prejudices against voice-over narration. As mentioned above, reviewers initially clamored for

more titles, and the technique has always had advocates. (Iris Barry once wrote: “In employing a chorus . . . to bridge space and time the Greek and the Japanese dramatists alike found a valuable convention. And the sub-title is really to the film what the chorus was to those dramas.”’)° Yet in the later silent era the pendulum swung in the other direction. Critical wisdom decreed that ““The fewer words printed on the screen the better. . . . The ideal film has no words printed on it at all, but is one unbroken sheet of photography.”’® At the very end of the silent era, film grammar and audience familiarity with that

26 Ancestors, Influences, and Development grammar had developed to the point where a film as satisfying as F. W. Murnau’s The Last Laugh (1924) could eschew titles, but this was a late and rare development.’ Thus, far from verbal narration being a belated and supplemental addition to the cinema, from film’s earliest days it was regularly interleaved with dramatic action. Such narration was necessary for clarity, but it also expanded

| the types of material a film could convey, and individualized and personalized the telling of the story. Evidence of its value can be drawn from the fact that titling has persisted into sound films; it was especially common in the 1930s and 1940s, and still figures prominently in current releases. And lecturing has been transfigured and reborn in the sound era by a technique that has solved all the earlier problems with preparation, audibility, and standardization— voice-over narration.

Radio |

Lecturers and intertitles are voice-over narration’s direct kin, but it owes at least as much, if not more, to a collateral relative: radio. In line with film scholarship’s image bias, the compelling connections be-

tween radio and cinema have been generally ignored. The two media are closely intertwined: both profited from the same technical innovations, such as Lee De Forest’s audion tube for sound amplification, with formal radio broadcasting (1920) preceding the talkies (1926-27) by just a few years. Early radio stations were sometimes acquired by the owners of local motion picture theaters, and corporate links connected CBS with Paramount and RCA with RKO. In the 1930s, along with technical and corporate entanglements, the two media shared stars and stories. Several radio series, such as “‘Lux Radio Theater,” which was hosted by Cecil B. De Mille, presented adaptations of current hit pictures with film stars recreating their roles, while the film studios, on the other hand, both produced films such as The Big Broadcast series, which revolved around radio formats, and enticed major radio stars (such

as Bob Hope and Bing Crosby) into features. Directors, producers, and screenwriters who originally worked in radio include Jules Dassin, John Houseman, Howard Koch, Arch Oboler, Abraham Polonsky, Irving Reis, and Orson Welles. Given this close relationship, the development of narration in radio is extremely pertinent. During the middle 1920s radio stations primarily broadcast music recitals and sports events; it was not until later in the decade that radio began regularly to offer serials and other shows with fictional storylines. Although announcers and hosts were part of radio from its very inception, some early dramatic shows avoided narration and “imitated the all-dialogue drama of the theater.”’"* A program such as “First Nighter,’’ which began in 1929,

Ancestors, Influences, and Development af ‘simulated a theater atmosphere. The dramas were billed as being broadcast from “The Little Theater off Times Square’. . . Mr. First Nighter was always shown to his seat by an ‘usher’ just before curtain time. . . . After the commercial a buzzer would sound and the usher would call out “Curtain going up!’”’? But narration soon triumphed: in “Death Valley Days” (1930—45) the Old Ranger figured as storyteller, and ““The Lone Ranger” (1933—54) used an anonymous voice who kept track of what was happening meanwhile back at the ranch. Throughout the 1930s (and into the 1940s) narration appealed to the most creative radio playwrights. Norman Corwin singles out the presenttense immediacy of the narration in Archibald MacLeish’s “The Fall of the City,” the use of multiple narrators in Stephen Vincent Benét’s “‘John Brown’s Body” and the intricate chronology of his own “They Fly through the Air.”’ '° Erik Barnouw cites the use of proxy listeners (1.e., “‘narratees”’) in ““Death Valley Days,”’ stream-of-consciousness in Arch Oboler’s horror series “Lights Out,” and the ‘“‘footnote narration” in Corwin’s charming ‘‘The Plot to Overthrow Christmas.” '' Corwin, Oboler, and MacLeish all won fame for their innovative scripts and for their narration in particular, but for our purposes, the most important figure in radio narration was Orson Welles. Welles was immersed in radio; in the mid thirties he had read for ““The March of Time,’’ “The Shadow,” and other popular shows, and from July 1938, when he and Houseman created ‘The Mercury Theater of the Air,” to March 1940, he adapted, narrated, and acted in nearly eighty radio plays.'*? Welles’s contribution was to turn radio stories towards narrative and decisively away from pure drama. As James Naremore states: Welles always thought of radio . . . as a narrative medium rather than a purely dramatic one. . . . Welles wanted to eliminate the “‘impersonal” quality of such [pseudo-theatrical] programs, which treated the listener like an eavesdropper. . . . The Mercury program would therefore be called “First Person Singular” . . . and all its broadcasts, from A Tale of Two Cities to Hamlet would be done in first-person narrative, together with related devices such as stream of consciousness, diaries and letters."*

‘The Mercury Theater of the Air” produced not only the infamous ““The War of the Worlds,” but also adaptations of Heart of Darkness, Jane Eyre, Drac-

| ula, The Magnificent Ambersons, Sherlock Holmes, and Treasure Island. Critics reacted favorably to Welles’s program,* but overall opinion regarding narration oscillated between suspicious disapproval and enthusiastic adherence, prompting one wag to ask, “Is narration being worn long or short *See, for instance, the New York Times review on 24 July 1938: “The ‘first-person’ [technique] makes his [Welles’s] role more personal than the standard radio narrator; he becomes part of the tale and it moves more smoothly and naturally than it might under the ordinary, rapid-fire announcerial style”’ (sec. 9, p. 10).

28 _ Ancestors, Influences, and Development this year?” '* Max Wylie, director of continuity at CBS, articulated the major complaint when he stated: “‘In a dramatic broadcast, any narration amounts to

an interruption. Continuity of illusion has been dislocated. We have been taken out of our play. . . . And because I know of no broadcast play which was left undamaged by this device, I consider it risky and inadvisable.” '° On the other hand, Archibald MacLeish wrote in a foreword to “‘The Fall of the City”: “The Announcer is the most useful dramatic personage since the Greek Chorus. . . . His presence is as natural as it is familiar. And his presence. . . restores to the poet that obliquity, that perspective, that three-dimensional depth without which great poetic drama cannot exist.” '° Again we see the tussle between “showing”’ and “telling,” between ‘“‘transparency”’ and “‘intrusiveness,”’ and the linkage of narration not to literature but to the theater. The direct influence of radio narration on certain films will be apparent as we proceed. In general, radio provided filmmakers with examples of all flavors of oral narration—folksy, authoritative, poetic, and bland—and of complicated narrative structures. It also showed film how to bring a novel’s narrative voice to life, rather than simply mining the text for plot and charac-

ters. Moreover, given the fact that lecturers, intertitles, and documentary commentators practically always narrated in the third person, other than novels themselves, radio was the cinema’s major role-model for first-person narration. Finally, as anyone who has ever heard thirties radio drama can testify,

radio simply illustrated to one and all the spellbinding power of the human voice.

Newsreels, Short Subjects, and Documentaries Before narration was common in fiction films, it went through an apprenticeship in newsreels, shorts, and documentaries. The limitations of early sound-recording equipment—sound cameras and optical recording devices were enormously heavy and bulky, and microphones nonselective, amplifying background noises as much as the desired audio source—encouraged this turn to narration, since if a filmmaker wanted to take his cameras out of doors, away from the insular and insulated sound studios, his best bet was to shoot the exteriors silent, and add narration, effects, and music later. Certainly shooting silently and adding narration was the cheapest method of production, and these films have always had to cope with low budgets. But convenience and economy were not the only reasons why these films turned to voice-over: narration provided the perfect means of conveying all the discursive and expository information relevant to nonfiction subject matter, of linking materials from various times and locales, and of amalgamating archival, stock, reenactments, graphics, and location footage.

Ancestors, Influences, and Development 29 Radio provided the catalyst. The first sound newsreels were released in 1927; they recorded events in synchronous sound and provided explanations and transitions by means of intertitles. But in January 1930, Universal took out a full page ad in Variety addressed to theater exhibitors: ““Now you can present the world’s most famous radio broadcaster as the Talking Reporter in Universal Newsreel. . . . Now you can have an attraction in your newsreel never before equalled.” '’ Shrewdly recognizing the potential advantages of this device, Variety’s reviewer wrote: ““With its silent newsreel and Graham McNamee giving it sound through speech, Universal appears to have something worth while as a newsreel and a comedy possibility.” '* Needless to say, the competing newsreels adopted narration immediately. And then there was The March of Time. This series started in 1931 as a radio program with dialogue vignettes recreating news events strung together by authoritative narration. In 1935 the program was reborn as a quasi-newsreel

produced by Louis de Rochemont, who had previously been head of short

subjects for Fox Movietone Corp. The March of Time differed from all other , newsreels— it was longer, it gave more focused attention to its topics, it was released less frequently, it used more reenactments, and it was both more partisan and more controversial.'? But perhaps the most distinctive feature of the series was the authoritative, booming narrator making grand statements about world events. Officially, this narrator, Westbrook Van Voorhis, was referred to as “The Voice of Time,” but he came to be known as “The Voice of God.” The March of Time was immensely popular and influential, winning a special Academy Award in 1937, reaching its zenith preceding and during World War II. As John Grierson once noted, “In a world which is sure of nothing, it [the voice] is supremely sure of itself.”’*? The style of The March of Time’s narration was so distinctive and so effective that in many people’s minds it is still synonymous with cinematic narration. Other short-subject films of the thirties made narration an integral part of their modus operandi. Travelogues and educational films used it straightforwardly, but often lighthearted pieces, such as Pete Smith’s Specialties, exploited the comic possibilities Variety had presciently recognized the moment narration came on the scene. Furthermore, from the very beginning of the 1930s, humorous and/or inappropriate narration was frequently laid over compilations of archival footage, providing a cheap means of recycling resources. (This principle lies behind a 1940s series called Flicker Flashbacks, which wedded clips from silent films with incongruous narration and titles.) And previews of coming attractions have consistently turned to narration as the best method of persuading the audience to come back next week. As for documentaries proper, during the early 1930s the creative center was the group gathered in London around John Grierson, producing films first for the Empire Marketing Board and later for the General Post Office. This group not only used narration liberally, but experimented with it, extending its

30 Ancestors, Influences, and Develooment possibilities. The Song of Ceylon (Wright, 1934) drew part of its commentary from the journal of a seventeenth-century traveler to Ceylon; Housing Problems (Anstey and Elton, 1935) had the subjects of the film narrate their own stories straight to the camera; and Coalface (Cavalcanti, 1936) dabbled with

verse narration. But perhaps the most successful of their experiments was Night Mail (Watt, 1936) which simply traces the journey of the night mail train from London to Aberdeen. With a score by Benjamin Britten and narration written by W. H. Auden that is meshed to the pace of the train, Watt made

the simple story into something magical. Over shots of the train speeding through empty countryside we hear: Pulling up feet at a steady climb, The gradient’s against her but she’s on time. Past cotton grass and moor and boulder, Shoveling white steam over her shoulder, Snorting noisily as she passes Silent miles of wind-swept grasses.

Perhaps not Auden’s best poetry, but it serves to capture and ennoble this facet of everyday life.

Narrated documentaries were produced in the United States during the early thirties, but for our purposes, the most important releases appeared later in the decade, when Pare Lorentz directed The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1937) for the U.S. Resettlement Administration. The first presented the history of the despoiling of the Great Plains, the second, the story of the Mississippi River. Both films blended musical scores by Virgil Thomson with lyrical narration spoken by operatic baritone Thomas Chalmers. The voice-over in The River, with its lists and lists of names of rivers, drew comparisons to Whitman’s poetic catalogues, and was greatly applauded. Most important, unlike the British classics and other noteworthy documen-

taries made abroad, through critical acclaim and shrewd publicity, both of Lorentz’s films triumphed over initial distribution problems and reached the general American public. The Plow That Broke the Plains played a circuit of independent theaters, and The River, distributed by Paramount and ‘‘seen by millions of people in more than 5000 theaters . . . at last made the word ‘documentary’ a part of the vocabulary of the nation.”’' In so doing, they began to familiarize the American public with documentary-style narration. Lorentz’s breakthroughs notwithstanding, up until World War II Hollywood had held itself aloof from documentaries both because it wished to avoid

controversial social and political issues, and because it was locked into its studio-based production practices. But when documentaries were assigned crucial wartime tasks-—educating the public as to the reasons behind the conflict, keeping up morale, teaching the troops military procedures—the Dream

Factory could keep aloof no longer. Studios were hired to produce certain

Ancestors, Influences, and Development 31 documentaries, and when the government opened up or expanded its own film units, it recruited or conscripted numerous Hollywood professionals, including Frank Capra, Philip Dunne, John Ford, Carl Foreman, John Huston, Walter Huston, Anatole Litvak, Alfred Newman, Louis de Rochemont, Dimitri Tiomkin, and Malvin Wald. Wartime documentaries employed various styles

of narration: the British A Diary for Timothy (Jennings, 1945) is a lyrical memoir of the war at home addressed to a newborn infant; The True Glory (Reed and Kanin, 1945), a British-American co-production, merges an anonymous, authoritative narrator and voices purporting to belong to General Eisenhower and dozens of common soldiers. But usually wartime documentaries, such as the widely seen and greatly influential Why We Fight series produced by Capra and Litvak, needed to convey a great deal of information with complete conviction. Thus instead of using Lorentz or the Grierson school as a model, their narration is very much in the mold of The March of Time—loud, authoritative, exhortative.

Fiction Films, 1930—1950 Evidence suggests that the earliest experiments with narration in fictional contexts were made overseas: in 1930 Cocteau spoke a voice-over commentary for his Le Sang d’un poéte, and in M (1931) Fritz Lang placed the police commissioner’s telephone conversations explaining his efforts to track down the child-murderer over shots of the detectives following up clues. As for English-language cinema, William Everson has brought to my attention a (quite forgettable) film entitled Forgotten Commandments, directed by Gasnier and Schorr in 1932. This film, like shorts of the time, uses narration for recycling: a priest tells a group of children the story of Moses in voice-over while the screen shows scenes from The Ten Commandments, Cecile B. De Mille’s 1923 silent extravaganza. Yet owing to fossilized remnants of a vigorous publicity campaign, it is easy to pinpoint the earliest extensive use of narration in American fiction film: The Power and the Glory, directed by William K. Howard, written by Preston Sturges in 1933. The film starts with Henry, Tom Garner’s lifelong best friend, returning from Garner’s funeral. That night, in order to counter his wife’s criticism of the deceased, Henry tells her the story of Garner’s life over a series of achronological flashbacks. This story concerns the rise and fall of a powerful man: Garner started poor and uneducated, but through the aid of his first wife became a railroad magnate, only to lose his business, cause his first wife’s death, learn that his son and mistress/second wife have cheated on him, and commit suicide. Henry narrates extensively, bridging ellipses, commenting on events, even speaking the other characters’ dialogue for them during an exterior scene. Sturges wrote to his father, “‘It is neither a

32 Ancestors, Influences, and Development silent film nor a talking film, but rather a combination. It embodies the action

of a silent picture, the reality of voice and the storytelling economy and richness of characterization of a novel.’ ** The publicity people at TwentiethCentury Fox labeled Sturges’s technique “‘narratage,”’ but it is never clear exactly which technique(s) “‘narratage”’ refers to—the structuring of the story out of achronological flashbacks, the use of voice-over, the narrator speaking the characters’ dialogue, or some combination. Nonetheless, the film’s originality was widely heralded: “‘The ballyhoo included putting a bronze tablet in the New York theater where it opened to commemorate ‘the first motion picture in which narratage was used as a method of telling a dramatic story.’”’” Unfortunately, the negative of The Power and the Glory was destroyed in a fire, and all we now have to go on are reconstructions. The print I saw is disjointed and singularly uninspiring, which helps explain why, despite all the publicity, the film was a commercial flop. Moreover, the narration itself is not particularly impressive. One reviewer, Richard Watts, Jr., astutely notes that

Henry is a colorless cipher and his storytelling quite bland; unlike, say, Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the manner of telling the tale does not provide valuable insights into the narrator’s personality or into his relationship with the protagonist.* This intricate use of voice-over seems to have sprung fully formed from Sturges’s brow, but the babe was stillborn. Nevertheless, one can hardly overestimate the importance of The Power and the Glory in the history of cinematic narration. Screenwriters saw and admired it (Philip Dunne has recognized that it was a major influence on his scripting of How Green Was My Valley),™ and the parallels between it and ‘Citizen Kane are compelling (though denied by Welles). But the pathbreaker’s

effect was far from immediate. Although in the years that followed, other films incorporated narration (James Whale’s The Bride of Frankenstein [1935] uses it to recycle footage from the original Frankenstein), voice-over did not

become common in America until 1939. This cannot be explained by technological limitations, because Hollywood films of the thirties were quite able to employ sophisticated sound editing and rerecording.*” Why then? What factors kept it from being used throughout the 1930s, and why did the situation change at the end of the decade? To begin with, when sound was originally developed, Hollywood turned to

the closest role model it could find—the theater. Dialogue coaches, stage actors and actresses, and stage directors were imported wholesale to Califor: nia, and the first decade of sound was filled with adaptations of (non-narrated) plays such as Anna Christie, Ah! Wilderness, and Private Lives. Although one could also point to numerous adaptations of novels, with the studios so * Watt’s comments about “‘narratage” are equally revealing: “This mysterious new method of cinema storytelling . . . turned out last night to be little more than the famous old invention of the cut-back, combined with one of the important functions of the radio announcer” (New York Herald Tribune, 17 Aug. 1933, sec. 1, p. 12; my emphasis).

Ancestors, Influences, and Development 33 oriented towards the theater and towards song and dance, the novels’ narrative voices were either ignored or relegated to intertitles. Also, when sound was a new phenomenon, audiences apparently were fascinated by synchronicity per se. Lewis Jacobs believes that they would have felt cheated if speech had not come from the lips of the actors; thus Mary Ann Doane argues that voice-off and voice-over could only be incorporated once the novelty of synchronous speech had worn off.” The situation changed in 1939 owing to the convergence of several factors. First and foremost, as I mentioned earlier, it was in the late 1930s that radio narration came into its fullest flower, with among other noteworthy programs,

the Mercury Theater’s literary adaptations. Orson Welles’s move to Hollywood in 1939 is symbolic of the migration of the device from one medium to the other. The influence of Welles’s radio experience on his own subsequent film career is marked: in all, two-thirds of Welles’s finished feature films use voice-over. While other directors have also repeatedly favored narration, no one else has used it so much or so creatively. When we consider that along with continuing his connection with radio drama down through the years, Welles has also habitually read the narration tracks of other people’s films (from Edward Ludwig’s Swiss Family Robinson [1940] to Mel Brooks’s History of the World, Part I [1981]), we see clearly the imprint that radio narration made on Welles, and the influence that his delight in narration has had on

the history of American cinema. Arthur Knight’s mistaken assertion that voice-over narration in fiction films began with Citizen Kane (1941) and The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)”’ is both understandable and telling; no one else has so closely associated his work—and his own voice—with narration as Welles. Secondly, as I have taken pains to show above, it was at exactly this moment that classic documentaries such as The Plow That Broke the Plains, The River, and Willard Van Dyke and Ralph Steiner’s The City (the hit of the 1939 World’s Fair) first reached a wide American audience. It was also in 1939 that the start of World War II in Europe gave newsreels topics of great moment to report to news-hungry audiences. In 1939 several major releases incorporating voice-over, including Wuthering Heights, Juarez, The Roaring Twenties, and Confessions of a Nazi Spy, simultaneously appeared, and the ice was broken. At the start of the 1940s the stream of narrated films deepened into a flood; one might think that this turn to narration was just a fad, but the flood lasted throughout the decade without hint of abatement. Indeed, the 1940s were the technique’s golden age, in terms of the sheer number of films that used it, the proportion of narrated to nonnarrated films, and the prestige, budget, and quality of those using narration. Andrew Sarris correctly identifies one of the reasons for this golden age when he ascribes the new popularity of voice-over to the growth of screenwriters’ power and prestige during the 1940s. In the 1930s writers had been

34 Ancestors, Influences, and Development exorbitantly paid, but allowed little authority or freedom; however, in the next decade, ‘“‘As the Screenwriters’ Guild achieved more authority and autonomy

within the film industry, the word became the expressive equal of the image.” * Moreover, during this decade, screenwriters such as Delmer Daves, Philip Dunne, John Huston, Joseph Mankiewicz, Abraham Polonsky, Robert Rossen, Preston Sturges, Orson Welles, and Billy Wilder took matters into their own hands by directing their own scripts. It is no coincidence that these names all figure prominently on my filmography of narrated films. Although one can pick out certain screenwriters (for example, Howard Koch) who appear to have favored narration regardless of which director they were working with, and certain directors (for example, David Lean) who included narration regardless of their screenwriter(s), one must conclude that it always has been screenwriter-directors who have been most likely to use voice-over and to make it an integral part of their texts. This seems only fitting, because as screenwriters such directors are likely to eschew the traditional image bias and cherish verbal communication. Huston once remarked, “It seems to me. . . that the word contains as much action as

| a purely visual scene”; similarly, Welles has admitted, “I know that in theory the word is secondary in cinema but the secret of my work is that everything is

based on the word. I do not make silent films. I must begin with what the characters say.”’”’ In their position as directors, Welles, Huston, Wilder, and others have been able to execute their verbally oriented screenplays. Along with helping us detect the people who favored voice-over, the patterns emerging from the rich abundance of the 1940s enable us to see that the

technique is intimately related to genre. Since every kind of film can, and sooner or later, does, use voice-over, my filmography of the decade ranges widely, yet it also shows distinct leanings towards four types of films: war films and semi-documentaries (which model their narration on that of newsreels and documentaries), and literary adaptations and films noirs (which owe debts to the novel and to radio dramas). There are reasons why these films figure so prominently during these years: Hollywood produced so many adaptations of British novels out of a wish to inspire or express solidarity with our beleaguered ally; semi-documentaries were created after film professionals returned from their service in government documentary units; film noir copied contemporary popular fiction and grew out of postwar unemployment, insecurity, and disillusionment. Yet as regards narration per se, cause and effect may

be impossible to unsnarl. Were the 1940s voice-over’s heyday because of some inherent proclivities of these dominant genres? Or did these genres embrace narration then primarily because of the converging influence of radio,

literary, and documentary narration? Or was there some intangible forties Zeitgeist, some special feeling of loneliness and isolation, that the adaptations and noirs expressed with their intimate memoirs and confessions, and that the war films and semi-documentaries tried to assuage with their reassuring, au-

Ancestors, Influences, and Development 35 thoritative pronouncements? At any rate, these four types of films (strictly speaking, ‘‘adaptations” do not constitute a ““genre’’) have made voice-over a standard—though not invariant—element of their repertoires. By the end of the 1940s, narrative cinema had established its own ways of

handling voice-over, but the industry was not impervious to new outside

influences. |

Television and Postwar Documentaries Radio continued to rely upon narration throughout the 1940s, but by the 1950s radio drama was on its way out, vanquished by television. Television embraced narration instantly, and, encountering relatively little critical resistance, has used it consistently ever since. For the most part, television copied its use of narration from its predecessors, but the new medium also established a few specific strategies to deal with its own formats and requirements. Chief among these specific strategies is television’s tendency to rely upon on-screen narrators. People on television talk straight at the camera all the time, and through it, straight to the viewer in his or her living room. Certainly the dramatic anthology series of the fifties relied upon on-camera “hosts” — for example, “Boris Karloff’s Mystery Playhouse,” ‘Robert Montgomery Presents Your Lucky Strike Theater,”’ and ‘“‘General Electric Theater’’ (hosted by Ronald Reagan)—and this practice has continued down through the years to Alistair Cooke on ‘‘Masterpiece Theater.” Often all of the host’s narration is done on-camera in introductory or concluding segments, but in some cases he or she would also narrate the body of the drama via voice-over. With the replacement of the anthology series by prerecorded continuing series, television shows often found themselves with a problem: the need to give a capsule description of the program’s premise (an abstract and orientation) to new viewers. Radio serials had faced the same problem, and thus had offered such openings as the following: And now, “Our Gal Sunday,” the story of an orphan girl named Sunday, from the little town of Silver Creek, Colorado who in young womanhood married England’s richest, most handsome lord, Lord Henry Grinthrope—the story that asks the question, can this girl from a mining town in the West find happiness as the wife of a wealthy and titled Englishman?”

While some television series have conveyed their situations and characters solely through visual montages, others turned to voice-over introductions, which, because they were repeated week after week, have become indelibly engrained in the nation’s psyche. Try as one might, who can ever forget the openings of “Star Trek,” ““The Beverly Hillbillies,” or ““The Brady Bunch’’?

36 Ancestors, Influences, and Development The cinema has never needed to copy television’s specific strategies, but one may intuit that television has nevertheless had a large indirect influence. The film industry has traditionally looked upon television as an adversary, and its response since the 1950s has been to offer gratifications unavailable on the intimate little screen—more sex and violence, more spectacular visual effects, wide-screen processes, 3-D, anything to make film grander, more exciting. | Television’s unhesitating embrace of narration did not reinforce filmic voiceover: on the contrary, as might have been expected, filmmakers eschewed a technique so utilized by their rival. Perhaps Alfred Hitchcock’s case is paradigmatic: he hosted television shows for more than a decade, but never narrated his own films (though he does introduce The Wrong Man [1957]}), and, in fact, avoided narration in his post-1950 works. Television news programming quietly killed off newsreels and The March of Time, but documentaries survived, partially through television’s sponsorship, partially despite it. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, spurred on by technological breakthroughs—lightweight 16mm cameras that could be handled by one person and portable Nagra tape decks—a new style of documentary filmmaking emerged both here and abroad. “Direct cinema” was born when documentarians such as Richard Leacock and the Maysles brothers took their equipment outside and used their improved mobility and soundrecording capabilities to record their subjects in situ, speaking for themselves. One of the hallmarks of direct cinema, which strives for objectivity and immediacy, is an abhorrence of traditional voice-over commentary, which is thought to be elitist and authoritarian and to interfere with the viewer’s experience of the film. Although documentaries with traditional voice-over tracks have continued to be made, and although many of the films of this school have themselves resorted to explanatory narration, Richard Leacock’s, Albert and David Maysles’, Don Pennybaker’s, and Frederick Wiseman’s documentaries were fresh and engrossing, and demonstrated how much could be conveyed without voice-over. Moreover, as discussed previously, their political/ ideological quarrel with narration, echoed and expanded by the French, has been extremely influential. Actually, the technological breakthroughs that led to direct cinema have also affected the entire spectrum of film and television. Independent films (that is, those produced outside a major studio) received a boost from the availability of cheaper, more convenient 16mm stock and cameras. And while the 35mm format continues as the standard for major theatrical releases, advances in audio technology—the coming of magnetic tape recorders and mixing apparatus after the war, the invention of crystal-controlled motors that keep the tape recorder and camera in sync without their needing to be physically connected, the refinement of bidirectional and unidirectional microphones designed to pick up only preselected sources, and later, the invention of radio microphones that allowed filmmakers to dispense wtih clumsy and limiting sound booms—have facilitated shooting in all sorts of locations. Al-

| Ancestors, Influences, and Development 37 though shooting synchronous sound on location will always entail difficulties - with airplane, traffic, and crowd noises, most of the handicaps that encouraged, if not constrained, fiction films and documentaries alike to use narration over exterior scenes have been eliminated.

Fiction Films, 1950 to the Present The principal 1940s genres that had adopted narration—noir, semidocumentaries, war films, and adaptations—spilled over into the 1950s. Domestic comedies (which were striving for a certain tongue-in-cheek aura) and extremely low-budget science-fiction films (which would try anything to straighten out their disjointed continuity) also began to use narration regularly. New screenwriter-directors such as Frank Tashlin joined the ranks of voice-over aficionados. This decade saw some of the more off-beat experiments: narration from beyond the grave (Sunset Boulevard), before birth (The

First Time [Tashlin, 1952]), and by an Oscar statuette (Susan Slept Here [Tashlin, 1954]). Nevertheless, in comparison with the 1940s, the flood of narrated films

subsided. The studios were reeling from the disruption of the antitrust decrees, from television’s inroads on their audiences, from the baby boom that moved families to the suburbs and kept them housebound, and from McCarthyite witch-hunting, which hit the screenwriting community particularly hard. Production as a whole declined, and narration, now a familiar, traditional technique, was either jazzed up or deemphasized in the scramble for exciting novelties such as 3-D or Odorama, which were supposed to turn the nightmare around. But the slight drop off during the 1950s counts as nothing compared to the dearth of narrated films during the sixties and early seventies. Fewer and fewer films were produced all the time: The Motion Picture Almanac lists the average yearly output of ten major studios as 445 during the 1940s, 373 during the 1950s, and 163 during the 1960s. The statistics reflecting the status of screenwriters over this period are also revealing: in 1945, 490 writers were under contract to Hollywood studios; in 1950 there were only 67, and by

1960, only 48. And because of the changes in the industry and in public taste, forties genres were in eclipse; the big commercial releases tended towards categories that had never found a niche for narration (for example, Broadway musicals) or towards genres that emphasized special effects and action at the expense of any type of dialogue (for example, spy/adventure films such as the James Bond series, and, later, disaster films). Of the blockbusters

on which desperate producers gambled more and more, only the historical epics incorporated narration, and they used it in a rather pedestrian manner. Veteran screenwriter-directors continued to employ the technique at will, but

38 Ancestors, Influences, and Development the films of younger directors, such as Robert Altman, Sidney Lumet, Arthur Penn, and John Schlesinger, often strove for an almost documentary sense of immediacy and translucence. Thus, Altman’s noir, his adaptation of Chandler’s The Long Goodbye (1973), eschews narration. Yet at the same time that narration was out of favor in the United States, it was being enthusiastically embraced in France. Narration has a long tradition

in French cinema, having been frequently and thoughtfully employed by Sacha Guitry, Jean Cocteau, and Max Ophuls, among others. The New Wave directors were critics and/or screenwriters themselves, hardly hostile to allowing words to play a major role in their films, and many of their films are adaptations of novels or homages to traditional Hollywood genres, especially film

noir. Moreover, as we all know, the thrust of this group was towards selfconsciously analyzing and foregrounding, as opposed to effacing, their narrative techniques. The French New Wave’s boundaries have been officially assigned as 1958—63, but from the films that are counted as “‘precursors”’ in the

early 1950s (such as Robert Bresson’s Le Journal d’un curé de campagne [1951]) to the more commercial releases of French directors in later years (which have had major American distribution), this movement is saturated with narration: look at many of Eric Rohmer’s or Bresson’s works, and practically any by Alain Resnais, Francois Truffaut, and Jean-Luc Godard. (L’Année derniére a Marienbad [1961], Les Deux Anglaises et le continent [1971],

and Deux ou trois choses que je sais d’elle [1967] can serve as prime examples.) These directors and their less well-known colleagues Alain RobbeGrillet, Chris Marker, and Marguerite Duras do not fall back on voice-over for convenience or merely to follow a convention, but weave it into their films’ fabrics.” .

From the late seventies onwards, there has been a new stirring in the American film industry. Directors and/or screenwriters such as Woody Allen,

, Francis Ford Coppola, Stanley Kubrick, Terence Malick, John Milius, Paul Schrader, and Martin Scorsese have been influenced both by the New Wave

: and by the film schools that some of them attended, and have been producing films that are both highly self-conscious in their use of cinematic techniques and marked by a certain personal expressiveness. In their films, from A Clockwork Orange (1971) to Taxi Driver (1976) to Days of Heaven (1978) and Apocalypse Now (1979), and through their influence, narration seems to have found new advocates and new audiences. At present writing the use of narration is on a major upswing, not only in the films of the auteurs mentioned above, but, just as happened in the 1940s, in typical releases. Not surprisingly, as the filmography illustrates, many of the films now using narration are literary adaptations: Sophie's Choice (Pakula, 1982), Heat and Dust (Ivory, 1983); others imitate or parody film noir: Blade Runner (Scott, 1982), Dead Men Don’t Wear Plaid (Reiner, 1982). Some, like Jamie Uys’s The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980) satirize documentaries;

Ancestors, Influences, and Development 39 others, such as The Big Red One (Fuller, 1980) and Platoon (Stone, 1986), are serious war films. Epics, such as Sergio Leone’s Once Upon a Time in America (1984) find narration useful, as do the spate of fantasy films exemplified by Conan the Barbarian (Milius, 1982). Comedies, such as Woody Allen’s, are saturated with it. Television programs are going through their own narration revival, primarily due to the popularity of private eye shows such as “Magnum, P.I.,” “Spencer for Hire,” and “Mike Hammer.”’ Even documentaries proper are returning to narration; in recent articles left-leaning critics have called on documentarians not to remain silent and hide behind a cloak of neutrality, but to provide leadership through open expression of their views in voice-over commentaries.” But I believe the way narration is being used today differs from the way it was used in the 1940s. This difference lies in an increased tendency towards a

deliberately nostalgic tone, a certain careful self-consciousness that often slides into overt parody. Whereas in forties films narration might imitate newsreels, documentaries, radio shows, or novels, in current releases the narration seems almost inescapably to refer us back to forties films. Narration now implies a hearkening back not so much to bygone days as to bygone films.

I draw several conclusions from this historical overview. First, the course of development of cinematic narration (like the course of every aesthetic technique?) has been influenced both by the creativity and predilections of certain key individuals—such as Griffith, Lorentz, Welles, Leacock, Bresson, Godard, and Malick—and by the play of much larger forces— film technology, industry finances and power struggles, historical and social

events. Since narration is somewhat dependent both on verbally oriented screenwriters and directors and on certain genres that have adopted the technique as their own, whatever forces have particularly affected the fortunes of these people and these genres have also particularly affected the fortunes of the technique. Unlike color cinematography, for instance, which is now such an industry standard that declining to use it makes a deliberate statement, narration has been and will remain a matter of choice, and thus subject to the winds of change and fashion. Secondly, this overview should put to rest the charge that narration is a ‘‘literary”’ phenomenon and by implication inappropriate in film. Narration has been a component of the medium from its birth and is a major element of radio and television. For film to have adopted narration was more natural than for it to have abstained. But this is not to deny that literary models have contributed to voice-over. A direct link indeed exists between the popular novels of the 1930s and 1940s and first-person voice-over. Adaptations of Eric Ambler’s, James M. Cain’s, or Raymond Chandler’s novels rank among the most well known voice-over films of the forties (and Chandler, in fact, worked as a screenwriter on Double

40 Ancestors, Influences, and Development Indemnity). Even noirs that came from original screenplays imitated the detective novels’ distinctive narrative style. More generally, film professionals and the American culture at large must have been influenced by the large role that first-person narration plays in Conrad and Fitzgerald, or that stream-of-consciousness plays in Joyce, Woolf, and Faulkner. It can hardly be just coincidence that after forty years of modernist literature’s focus on chronology and narrative voice, the cinema, too, should depart from linearity and transparency. Faulkner, Fitzgerald, and West may not have worked on any particularly important voice-over films, but the fact that they were imported to Hollywood at all indicates the movie colony’s

reverence for literature (or high culture prestige). |

But even though literature has undoubtedly been a major model for voiceover, we would do well to remember that the novel does not have a monopoly on narrative techniques, It is intriguing to note that the United States also witnessed a boom in stage narration during the 1930s, from the “Living Newspaper” productions of the Federal Theater Project during the early part of the decade to Our Town in 1938; meanwhile, abroad, Brecht continually experimented with epic theater. While Brechtian devices may seem rather removed from 1940s Hollywood, I would wager that (at least) most American screenwriters were well aware of contemporary drama; and certainly Brecht has had

a direct influence on the French New Wave. Ultimately, film, radio, television, literature, and theater have undoubtedly all fed off one another in a complicated round-robin. Finally, although I have presented the history of voice-over almost as a classic tale of birth, development, apogee, decline, and resurrection, looked at from another perspective, this history has been remarkably static. Almost all of the formal and tonal permutations: first person versus third, univocal versus polyvocal, absent narratee (receiver of the narrative) versus present

narratee, poetry versus prose, authoritative versus lyrical, straight versus ironic, were present in nonfiction or fiction film by the mid to late 1930s. For the most part the contribution of succeeding decades has been in refining the techniques and integrating them in fictional contexts—in making the newborn baby breathe—rather than in breaking new ground. The only major excep-

tions are the question of the reliability of the narrator, a topic that did not become an issue until the mid forties, and which has loomed progressively larger ever since, and the question of the narrator’s gender, which is only now beginning to be addressed. Looking at these structural and tonal variables in detail is the task of the succeeding chapters.

a.

First-Person Narrators

If you close your eyes and think back on movies you have seen, surely you can hear a sound montage of characters’ voices. Marlowe fades in: The joint looked like trouble, but that didn’t bother me. Nothing bothered me. The two twenties felt nice and snug against my appendix.

And then Scout, | Maycomb was a tired old town in 1932 when I first knew it. . . . It was hotter then. A man’s shirt collar was wilted by nine o’clock in the morning... .

And then Joe Gillis, Michael O’Hara, Mildred Pierce, Nick Carraway, Addie Ross, Jane Eyre, and Travis Bickle. Their voices are a major component of our cinematic heritage. First-person narration is the more common form of voice-over in fiction films, cropping up in every genre, from Westerns to comedies, from cartoons to science fiction. In particular, however, it is a staple in literary adaptations and films noirs. We shall see that such narration can serve a variety of functions, including recreating/referring to a novel’s narrative voice, conveying

expositional information, and aiding in the presentation of complex chronologies. We shall also see that this type of narration can greatly affect the viewer’s experience of the text by “naturalizing”’ the source of the narrative, by increasing identification with the characters, by prompting nostalgia, and by stressing the individuality and subjectivity of perception and storytelling. Orson Welles called his radio series ‘First Person Singular.”’ This label is both dead right and dead wrong for first-person films: their narration 1s singularly bewitching . . . partly because it is always plural. 41

42 First-Person Narrators

Genette’s Taxonomy of Narrators Before proceeding, a pause for terminological and structural precision. Although we are all quite familiar with the term “‘first-person”’ narrator, at least since Booth raised objections to it in The Rhetoric of Fiction, we have realized that it is imprecise and misleading. As Gérard Genette notes in Narrative Discourse: ‘‘The narrator can be in his narrative (like every subject of an enunciating in his enunciated statement) only in the ‘first person.’ . . . The novelist’s choice . . . is not between two grammatical forms, but between two narrative postures (whose grammatical forms are simply an automatic consequence), to have the story told by one of its ‘characters’ or to have it told by a narrator outside of the story.” Genette labels narrators who are characters in the story they relate ““homodiegetic”’ (they are of the same order, ““homogeneous”’ with the ‘“‘diegesis,” the world of the story; narrators who are not characters— third-person narrators—he rechristens “‘heterodiegetic.”’ ! All the narrators mentioned above are characters. But because many texts contain stories “‘embedded” within other stories like so many Russian dolls or Chinese boxes, one must also determine from which “narrative level’’ the narrator speaks. Genette thus teaches us to distinguish between narrators of the first level (the frame story), embedded narrators who tell a story-withina-story, and doubly embedded narrators of a story-within-a-story-within-astory. (Genette labels these narrators “extradiegetic,” “‘intradiegetic,’’ and ‘“‘metadiegetic”” respectively, but since “framing’’ and “‘embedded”’ are acceptably descriptive, I see no need to adopt those terms here.) Figure | helps one conceptualize these relationships. Accordingly, one can classify narrators along not one, but two axes (Figure 2). One problem with Genette’s system is that his terms are tongue-twisting and obscure to the uninitiated. Another is that unless one keeps his criteria firmly in mind, confusion can reign. For instance, although Scheherazade is a character in the frame story, The Arabian Nights, as a narrator she is heterodiegetic because she does not figure as a character in the stories she relates; on the other hand, even though she is exterior to the stories she tells, she counts as an embedded narrator in relation to the text as a whole. But Genette’s system makes up for these drawbacks by enabling one to draw important distinctions. It would seem to be a simple matter to substitute examples of voice-over narrators in the chart above. Concentrating, for now, on character-narrators, Scout in Robert Mulligan’s To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) could be termed a frame narrator; Philip Marlowe in Murder, My Sweet is embedded within the

frame of the film as a whole; Norman Clyde in John Brahm’s The Locket (1946) could even exemplify a doubly embedded narrator. All are participants in the stories they relate, but differ in where, how, and to whom they narrate. Yet Genette’s system was designed for literary narratives. Does the same. breakdown of narrative levels hold true for film?

First-Person Narrators 43 Figure 1 framing, primary story

ame embedded narrator embedded, secondary story doubly embedded narrator

doubly embedded | story

Figure 2 Narrative Level

framing embedded Relationship anonymous

heterodiegetic narrator of Scheherazade ,

_

The Arabian Nights Expectations

SourRcE: Adapted from Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. | Lewin (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1980), p. 248.

Who Really Narrates? In literature, and consequently in most writings on narrative theory, we are accustomed to consider the narrator as either the speaker or the mediator (i.e., recorder) of every moment of the story. But a first-person voice-over narrator speaks intermittently—and sometimes only minimally—and ts not in control

of his or her story to the same degree, or in the same manner, as a literary narrator. Voice-over narration is just one of many elements, including musical

44 First-Person Narrators scoring, sound effects, editing, lighting, and so on, through which the cinematic text is narrated. Thus, along with critics such as Edward Branigan, Tony Pipolo, and Ellen Feldman,’ I believe that behind the voice-over narrator there is another presence that supplements the nominal narrator’s vision, knowledge, and storytelling powers. This presence is the narrating agent of all films (with or without voice-over). Such narrating agents are difficult to define, yet as Christian Metz argues in an oft-quoted passage: ““The impression that someone is speaking is bound not to the empirical presence of a definite, known, or knowable speaker but to the listener’s spontaneous perception of the linguistic nature of

the object to which he is listening; because it is speech, someone must be speaking.’’ Because narrative films are narrative, someone must be narrating. As Metz puts it: ““The spectator perceives images which have obviously been selected (they could have been other images) and arranged (their order could have been different). In a sense, he is leafing through an album of predetermined pictures, and it is not he who is turning the pages but some ‘master of ceremonies,’ some ‘grand image-maker.’” ° At present, there is no agreement on what to call this narrating agent. Following Bill Nichols,* I used one of the more common candidates, “voice,”’ in my introduction, but surely Nick Browne is right when he stresses the “basic dis-analogy between the camera and narrative ‘voice.’”’’ On the other hand, although people frequently use ““camera”’ to refer to this agency (to wit, “the

‘camera’ cuts from X to Y”’), the term is misleading in that the film is narrated | not only by what the literal camera does and does not do, but also by editing,

lighting, graphics, processing, staging, and the sound track. “Implied author,” Feldman’s choice, risks confusion with the literary use of the term, where it refers not to a narrating agency but to the moral/ideological image of the author projected by the text. “Implied director’’ and “‘implied narrator” both have advantages, but the former makes auteurist assumptions, and the latter does not serve me here because it risks confusion with voice-over narrators. A term without preexisting connotations would be best, but I hesitate to propose a neologism not already in wide currency. If one returns then, to the seminal and widely known paragraph from Metz quoted above, one has the choice between “master of ceremonies,” which is sexist and circusy, and “grand image-maker,” which slights the sound track. I here choose the second because shorn of the too-colorful adjective, “image-maker’’ clearly captures the activity of the off-screen presence—-making images——where “making” 1s broad enough to encompass all the selecting, organizing, shading, and even passive recording processes that go into the creation of a narrative sequence of images and sounds. The bias of “image-maker”’ towards the visual track is slightly advantageous in this context because it provides a clearer contrast to the aural voice-over narrators; however, one should keep in mind that

First-Person Narrators 45 the image-maker is also the maker/conveyor of all dialogue, sound effects, and music. Thus, if behind the voice-over narrator one can always find the real narrator, the image-maker, and distinguish (in Feldman’s revealing phrase) another level of narrative, voice-over narrators could never actually occupy the catbird seat, could never be responsible for the primary diegesis. They are always embedded within the image-maker’s discourse. In Dickens’ Great Expectations Pip is a frame narrator, but in Lean’s version, even though we never

see Pip narrating, the voice we hear is not the autonomous and consistent mediator of the story, but rather an embedded narrator relayed to us by the image-maker. And yet, in many cases the voice-over narrator is so inscribed in the film as to seem as if he or she has generated not only what he is saying but also what

we are seeing. In other words, films often create the sense of characternarration so strongly that one accepts the voice-over narrator as if he or she were the mouthpiece of the image-maker either for the whole film or for the . duration of his or her embedded story. We put our faith in the voice not as created but as creator. In the final analysis, the structure of each film (and the predispositions of each viewer) influence whether the viewer suspends disbelief and accepts the _ pose of the voice-over. In weighing each case, Feldman would have us consider “the frequency of [the character’s] narration, the kind and degree of coordination between the first-person narration and the represented action of the

narrative, and the method used to imply that the represented action is the ‘product’ of the narration.”® Although Feldman has identified the relevant variables, I believe that she reverses the order of their importance. The single most crucial factor in our acceptance of the pose is that the film emphasize the character’s claim to be telling the story. This connection can be forged in several ways: through showing the character in the act of narrating, through the narrator explicitly telling us that this is his or her story (that is, by the voice providing us a Labovian abstract and/or orientation), or through a combination of conventional indicators such as the camera dollying or zooming in on the character’s face and the image dissolving to another scene, often to the accompaniment of dreamy music. Brian Henderson claims that films redundantly pile up these indicators in order to signal time shifts;’ actually, it is not, or not only, the chronological liberty that needs to be so loudly trumpeted, but the figurative switch in narrating agents. In order for us to suspend disbelief, the film must tie the story to the character—the tighter, the better.

But frequency of narration per se does not make that much difference; voice-over is like strong perfume—a little goes a long way. Critics charge that voice-over preludes that anchor a film to a character who never narrates again, as in Hitchcock’s Rebecca (1940), are a cheap trick for creating instant nostal-

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are in the position Or spying on their activities. If Laura Mulvey and her folOwers are rig t in their ar gument that the pleasure of the classic Hollywood film is predicated on a certain voyeuristic thrill,'* voice-over narration is a mechanism for assuaging the guilt involved by such voyeurism. One is no longer spying on unconscious characters. Instead, the tale is being deliberta

cal

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ately addressed to us, or—at worst e are overhearing a tale deliberate! ;

y*

addressed to another. Even in the latter case, however, we know that t narrating character is not being caught totally off-guard Perhaps this attribute of A

voice-over narration explains why it 1s generally eschewed by certain directors

(such as Hitchcock in his later fil d Brian De Palma) and certai SiaSner an orror hims) that want to expiore or exp oit the ynamics oO

“slasher” and horror fil h t | loit the d f *

voyeurism. Another facet of a narrator’s situation involves his purporte narrative medium. Romberg finds that the great majority of first-person novels pose their narrators as writers of one t pe Or another, and couch their tales as ‘“‘havin

lead ical [ fe ypl l : y novel, |]

as opposed to being told aloud or merely “thought ombeen-written, ’s insight him di hStatushas,author h erg S insig t leads nim intoleads discussing the way the1 narrators eads to t cal novel formats: the memoir novel, the diary novel, and the

epistolary novel.

o2 First-Person Narrators Type of

Text Author Reader Voice-over Kind Hearts and memoir Mazzini Mazzini Mazzini Coronets

Missing diary Charles Beth Beth

Letter from an letter Lisa Stefan Lisa Unknown Woman

Which media do voice-over narrators favor? How do they couch their stories? Often audiences are supposed to accept the stories as “having-beenwritten.” Frame narrators of adaptations often speak in conjunction with shots of pages from their novels, and embedded narrators often present their stories as memoirs, diaries, or letters. Such anchoring of the voice-over to writing constitutes yet another reason why voice-over is so often categorized as a “‘literary technique.’ But it is curious that in most films the narrators are either not currently in the act of writing or not the authors of the stories. In other words, such flashbacks have two epic situations: their original written composition and their oral reading aloud; it is by means of the second that they figure in the film. (As the table above indicates, the voice-over can belong to either the writer or the reader.) With frame narrators of adaptations, even though we see pages from the novel and recognize that they are supposed to be in the midst of writing their autobiographies, because we actually hear their voices, instead of just seeing silent titles, it feels as if the written texts have thrown off their inky cloaks and reverted to what has been termed the most fundamental epic situation: “‘a narrator present[ing] a story orally to a listen-

ing public.” In fact, voice-over films will go to all sorts of lengths to create oral epic situations. The modification of Double Indemnity may be emblematic: in the novel Walter Neff writes his memoir, in the film he dictates it into a dictaphone. Even when the epic situation is unspecified and no clues are dropped about the mode of narration, because we hear the narrator’s voice, we think of him or her as transmitting the story orally. A significant asymmetry appears here. If it is most common and feels most “natural” for first-person narrators of novels to have written their stories down-——thus forging a match between the narrative pose and the actual textual

medium, then one might expect that the most common pose for a voice-over narrator would be ‘‘filmmaker.”’ However, because of the strangeness and ambiguity involved in “telling a film,” it is extremely rare for a homodiegetic narrator to encourage us to believe that he or she is narrating through cel-

First-Person Narrators 93 luloid. In mainstream American cinema, Sunset Boulevard, narrated by a screenwriter who makes one self-conscious reference to the narrative’s status as film, may be the only (minimal) case; one has to look further afield to independent or foreign films for additional examples.* Not the least major effect of using voice-over is that, instead of emanating from an undefinable blend of

script, direction, acting, and technical wizardry, the story seems simply to

: spring from a person speaking aloud.

Story and Discourse and How Green Was My Valley Non-voice-over films are narrated, but their image-makers’ nonverbal narration is not as conspicuous as voice-over; indeed one of the hallmarks of the classic Hollywood style has been to make the narration invisible and promote the illusion that one is watching an unmediated reality. By making the “voice” more obvious and exploitable, voice-over films highlight the double-layering _ effect discussed by narrative theorists—the text can now clearly be seen as the interplay between the narrative action, the story, and the process of telling it, the discourse. The character who narrates is also doubled, inhabiting the story as the experiencing-I while providing the discourse as narrating-I. Furthermore, as Christian Metz notes, ‘““One of the functions of narrative is to invent one time scheme in terms of another time scheme.” And it is precisely the duality of story and discourse that “renders possible all the temporal distortions that are commonplace in narratives.” '* Of course, even without oral narration, films can and do create complex chronologies, so much so that flashback and flashforward have been adopted by literary theorists. Inasmuch _ as certain temporal relationships can be conveyed through verbal tense structure more precisely or more economically than through “tenseless”’ visual images, the addition of a spoken narration track only greases the wheels, only. increases a film’s opportunities to manipulate chronology. Thus voice-over

films can flash forward with “prophetic narratives” of what a character is going to do (e.g., in Preston Sturges’s The Lady Eve [1941] Joan anticipates the moment of Charles’s proposal: ““One day, two weeks from now, we’ll be riding in the hills . . . and the sunset will be so beautiful I’1l be overcome and have to get off my horse to admire it’’); they can indicate synchronicity between discourse and story (as in the present-tense opening of Anthony Mann’s Raw Deal [1948], where Pat begins, ‘“‘This is the day, this is the day, the last time I shall drive up to these gates, these iron bars that keep the man I love *See, for instance, Nagisa Oshima’s The Man Who Left His Will on Film or Jim McBride’s David Holzman’s Diary.

54 First-Person Narrators locked away from me’’); and they can not only flashback at will, but also precisely locate story time by a simple phrase (e.g., in Robert Wise’s House on Telegraph Hill [1951]: ““My story begins eleven years ago and two thousand miles away in my native Poland’).

The above examples all pertain to the “order”? in which the discourse presents the events of the story. As Eric Smoodin also demonstrates,'? voiceover is also useful in conveying Genette’s categories of “‘frequency” and “‘duration.”” Thus, for instance, voice-over is a handy means of communicating that a certain event took place several times, as when in Letter from an Unknown Woman, Lisa notes that “‘Night after night [she] returned to the same spot.’’ It also is perfect for compressing story events, as in Herbert Biberman’s Salt of the Earth (1954) where Esperanza tells us, ““Ramon was in the hospital for a week. And then in jail for 30 days for assault.” It is by exploiting the double-layer of story and discourse, the dual status of the narrating character, and this ease of temporal manipulation, that firstperson voice-over has found one of its major missions: couching a film as a remembrance of things past. Certainly flashbacks (which have been used since the early days of filmmaking, but figure so prominently during the 1940s) and voice-over fit together like hand in glove. Michael Wood has written: “The flashback of the Forties and Fifties was . . . acompulsion, the instrument of a constant, eager plunging into the past. A slow, misty dissolve, and off we went into the day before yesterday, when things were different; into a time before all this (whatever all this might be in any given movie) happened to us.”’?? What exactly prompted this constant, eager plunging into the past ts obscure—the war and postwar disillusionment perhaps, or resistance to the dizzying pace of technological progress and upheaval, or maybe the example of modernist literature’s yen for temporal experimentation. At any rate, in scores of films (many of them literary adaptations), the voice-over is used both to move us into the past “when things were different’’ and to create a contrast to the present: the story’s significance is only clear in relation to the discourse-now. At the same time, the voice-over is employed to make the viewer compare the youthful or unworldly experiencing-I and the older and wiser narrating-I, in other words, to detail an innocent’s coming to knowledge from his or her grownup perspective. How Green Was My Valley not only provides a perfect example, but, since it was made in 1941, may well have set the mold. The film adapts Richard Llewellyn’s novel recounting the life of a Welsh boy, Huw Morgan, and manages to remain generally faithful to its source, despite a great deal of compression. It dwells on the warmth of the Morgan family life and the destruction of that family, its community, and its environment because of the exploitative practices of the mine owners. Huw’s father and eldest brother are killed in mining accidents, his other older brothers emigrate in search of greater oppor-

First-Person Narrators 55 tunity, his sister’s romance is thwarted, and his once beautiful valley is de-

spoiled by the effluences of the coal mine. :

_ The history of the production provides an interesting example of voice-over as forethought.”! The producer, Darryl Zanuck (himself an erstwhile screenwriter), had the technique in mind from the beginning of the project. He wrote to the first screenwriter, Ernest Pascal: I think we should take a revolutionary viewpoint of the screenplay of this story and we should tell it as the book does—through the eyes of Huw, the little boy. We should do much of the picture with him as an off-stage commentator, with many of the scenes running silent and nothing but his voice over them. And then, of course from time to time we will let the voice dissolve into scenes. If we use this technique we can capture much of the wonderful descriptive dialogue of the book, particularly when the boy talks about the valley and about his father and mother.”

Zanuck later hired Philip Dunne as screenwriter and William Wyler as director (Wyler had used voice-over in Wuthering Heights in 1939); Dunne and Wyler cast the film and worked on the set design. But the New York office of Twentieth Century—Fox raised objections and the project was presumed dead, so Wyler went on to other commitments. John Ford—a natural replacement

because he had just had a great success with another film about laboring - people, The Grapes of Wrath—was hired a few months later when he promised to bring the film in on a budget of a million dollars. Dunne records that he felt the property called for narration, that it was useful in compressing a very long novel into movie length, and that, following

| Sturges’s lead with The Power and the Glory, he called the technique “‘narratage.”” Although he recalls that Wyler had some influence on the script, Ford requested only minor adjustments and then proceeded to shoot it as written.* Ford’s own talents and interests lay in another direction. Ford once told Peter Bogdanovich: ‘‘There’s no such thing as a good script really. Scripts are dialogue, and I don’t like all that talk. Pve always tried to get things across visually.” > Ford’s contribution was to use his skill with actors, his feel for gestures and staging, and his unique eye for composition and camera movement to imbue the script with meaning and emotion, to make the words reso*Once when Dunne visited the set, Ford teased him by having the entire cast and crew line up and chant to the tune of ““The Farmer in the Dell”: We haven’t changed a line, We haven't changed a line, Its just the way you wro-ote it, We haven’t changed a line. (Philip Dunne, Take Two: A Life in Movies and Politics [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980], p. 100.)

i

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56 First-Person Narrators *

hots th d and lify thei ing, in sh |

nate over snots that extend an ampilry their meaning, in short, to create an

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Third-Person Narrators 93 +

immediacy. Instead of events seeming unalterable, tidily contained by the past, : or regurgitated with a biased slant, the story is unfolding now, and the narrator, like a radio sportscaster, is just looking on, calling the shots. But perhaps the most unusual rhetorical strategy employed by the film is the narrator’s habit of addressing comments fo the characters, as if he were off to the side, watching every move they make and reacting with teasing, questions, or advice to which they are oblivious.* Hellinger uses this technique throughout the film, but it plays a particularly important role at the climax (another portion that departs from the published script). When Garzah

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Tough luck. But you can’t wait for the next one. How about the subway?

*Similar apostrophes can be found in A Letter to Three Wives, where Addie Ross laughs wickedly at characters who are oblivious to her, and in John Sturges’s Old Man and the Sea, where the heterodiegetic narrator tries to encourage the old man. Television commercials have pioneered a twist—allowing direct exchanges between anonymous announcers and on-screen characters, thus punching holes in the barriers that separate homodiegetic and heterodiegetic.

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