Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry 9811637199, 9789811637193

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Fujun Ren Yizhong Zhang Guangbin Liu

Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry

Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry

Fujun Ren · Yizhong Zhang · Guangbin Liu

Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry

Fujun Ren National Academy of Innovation Strategy Beijing, China

Yizhong Zhang Renmin University of China Beijing, China

Guangbin Liu Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology Beijing, China

Research supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China ISBN 978-981-16-3719-3 ISBN 978-981-16-3720-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3720-9 Jointly published with China Science and Technology Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: China Science and Technology Press. Translation from the Chinese language edition:《科普产业概论》Introduction to Science Popularization Industry by Fujun Ren, et al., © National Academy of Innovation Strategy, China Association for Science and Technology 2018. Published by China Science and Technology Press. All Rights Reserved. © China Science and Technology Press 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

With the rise of a new round of the science and technology (S&T) revolution and industrial transformation worldwide, countries are doubling their efforts to increase their public scientific literacy and enhance their capacity for industrial innovation in order to seize the commanding heights of scientific, technological and industrial development. In improving public scientific literacy, it is important to develop the science popularization (SP) industry, in addition to relying on SP public services. At the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CPC Central Committee, participants highlighted efforts to circulate cultural resources nationwide and improve the scale, management and specialization of cultural industries. This has offered a new opportunity to develop the SP industry as an integral part of the cultural industries. Therefore, it is advisable to accelerate the build-up of capacity and raise the level of development of the SP industry by giving full play to the market in allocating resources. The development of the SP industry has been matched by the improvement of public scientific literacy internationally. As efforts to raise public scientific literacy gain momentum worldwide and as the public becomes more scientifically informed and involved in scientific activities, new SP formats have emerged and developed rapidly, such as SP publishing, SP film and TV production, SP exhibition and teaching supplies, SP tourism, SP animation and comics, and online SP. In the US, science fiction is a popular genre of Hollywood movies, which makes the transfer of sci-fi books a big business in the publishing industry. Sci-fi tourism under many different themes is also an important branch of the tourism industry. In Japan, which is known as a ‘kingdom of animation and comics’, space and robots are important themes of animations and comic books, which have even fostered a ‘giant robot culture’, as represented by popular works including Astro Boy, Mobile Suit Gundam, The Five Star Stories, The Super Dimension Fortress Macross, Transformers and Ghost in the Shell. In addition, there are works in other genres that carry sci-fi elements, such as Sky Castle. In Korea, SP animations and comics emphasize the in-depth development of learning materials and the provision of practical scientific knowledge. Survival Science, the bestselling comic in Korea, has been reprinted more than 20 times and sold more than 1 million copies. The Fantasy Math Wars series, which was recently introduced into China, is another typical case of comic-based SP. v

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In China, since the promulgation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Popularization of Science and Technology in 2002, the SP industry has gained a solid and legitimate foundation for development. The importance of SP has been highlighted in various policy documents, including the National Plan for Scientific and Technological Development, National Program for Public Scientific Literacy Development, the National Plan for SP Capacity Development, the National Plan for the Development of Public SP Services, and local SP regulations and rules, which has driven the rapid development of the industry. The China Association for Science and Technology (CAST) and Anhui Provincial People’s Government have jointly held five sessions of the National Fair of Science Popularization Products, which have hosted more than 20,000 products from nearly 2,000 exhibitors, produced a turnover of CNY 1.61 billion and attracted more than 1.2 million visitors. To facilitate the efficient development of the SP industry, Wuhu City in Anhui Province has established the first industry park dedicated to the SP industry in China. These efforts to develop the SP industry in tandem with the improvement of public scientific literacy have responded to the call for a strong SP industry to support China’s drive to build an innovation-driven nation. They have also met urgent needs for a strong SP industry to develop flourishing cultural industries, in particular. On the other hand, China’s rapidly developing SP industry faces a series of challenges that are hindering its further development. Companies in the industry are generally small, weak and confined to their own limited areas of business. The China Research Institute for Science Popularization is the only centrally administered public institution dedicated to SP research. For many years, the institute has focused on basic theoretical research and case studies on China’s SP industry development and, with the strong support and guidance of CAST, conducted a series of thematic studies on related topics, including SP animation and comics, infrastructure, new media, publishing, exhibition and teaching supplies, industry policy and industry development. On this basis, the institute’s research team in 2011 completed the national Research on Policy Systems to Promote the SP Industry Development soft-science research project and a series of thematic research reports, including the Research Report on China’s SP Industry Development in the 12th Five-Year Plan Period, based on solid field research and data analysis. This book, Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry, is a condensation of the findings of that research. On 12th July 2013, the State Council at its executive meeting discussed and deployed resources to develop information consumption: • Implement the ‘Broadband China’ strategy; • Accelerate the implementation of the ‘Information-for-Citizens’ project and carry out smart city demonstrations in cities where conditions are ripe; • Enrich information products and information offerings and expand emerging formats of services; • Establish a secure and trusted information consumption environment and achieve annual growth of more than 20% in information consumption in the last three years of the 12th Five-Year Plan period.

Foreword

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In August 2013, the State Council promulgated Several Opinions of the State Council on Promoting Information Consumption to Expand Domestic Demand, emphasizing that information consumption had become one of the fastest-growing areas of consumption. In China, with its vast market, information consumption has a good basis for development and huge potential. Accelerating and promoting information consumption can effectively drive demand, foster new drivers of economic growth, stimulate consumption, transform industries and improve livelihoods. It is an important measure that benefits the present and the future and simultaneously helps to stabilize economic growth and adjust economic structures. Developing information consumption has brought a rare opportunity for the SP industry. In China’s efforts to advance industrialization, urbanization and agricultural modernization, information technology (IT) applications are at the core. Today, as emerging technologies find wide application and penetrate everyday life, the public relies on information resources, information content, information services and a variety of media and information service platforms to meet its demand for SP. The development of the SP industry and the development of information consumption converge and overlap in multiple areas. IT advances expand the coverage of the existing SP infrastructure and facilitate the public’s access to and use of SP resources. SP products are increasingly digitalized and delivered to the public in new ways, which will substantially advance and expand the SP industry in serving the public. SP services will benefit from the concepts and practices of information consumption, including customer orientation, channel diversification, convenience, efficient delivery and innovation. IT enables the SP industry to develop and share resources for the benefit of the public by way of advanced cloud computing and bigdata applications. In platform development, the implementation of the ‘Broadband China’ strategy and the ‘information-for-citizens’ project puts the SP industry on a strong foundation of technology so that it can provide equal and inclusive access to SP resources. Growing intelligent technology applications in different sectors, including transport, public health, finance, security and education, which come about through the development of smart community, smart city and smart home applications, will provide diversified intelligent and social platforms for the development of the SP industry. IT advances make it possible for SP products and services to be delivered in new ways in a process that also facilitates collaborative innovation and integration with other industries. As the information industry develops through IT and produces innovative new products and services, it will also provide stronger support for the industrial chain development of the SP industry. Proprietary standards that come about with the development of information consumption will drive the standardization of the SP industry and help it achieve economies of scale, greater efficiency and improved competitiveness. Innovations in information consumption, including in channels, payments, experience and marketing, will provide important routes for the market to play a decisive role in the SP industry. We hope that this book, published against that backdrop, will provide theoretical support and be a decision-making reference for the development of the SP industry. The SP industry is an integral part of the cultural industries, in which the market should be allowed to play its decisive role, as in other industries. It is important

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to activate existing SP resources, add new resources and put in place innovative institutional arrangements and mechanisms in order to revitalize and unleash the potential of the SP industry. We hope that this book will be a valuable source of information for increasing the scale, efficiency and performance of the SP industry. This book may contain errors due to limitations of knowledge on the part of the authors. We appreciate any feedback from our readers and will draw upon that feedback in future editions of this book. Beijing, China

Fujun Ren

Introduction

This book, in nine chapters divided into five parts, provides a fairly systematic study of the science popularization (SP) industry. Part 1 offers a review of the social context and research literature on the contemporary SP industry (Chap. 1). Part 2 expounds on the basic theories and formats of the SP industry (Chaps. 2 and 3). Part 3 introduces practices in China’s SP industry and related case studies (Chap. 4). Part 4 analyzes the foundation and conditions of China’s SP industry development, the current situation and strategies for the industry, and proposes key tasks and policies for promoting the industry (Chaps. 5–8). Part 5 analyzes trends in China’s SP industry development (Chap. 9). This book may serve as a reference for SP workers and enthusiasts to study and understand SP industry theories and practices, as well as an introductory textbook for SP students and trainees.

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Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The Social Context of the Contemporary SP Industry: The Knowledge-Based Development of Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 The Multifaceted Manifestation of the Knowledge-Based Development of Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The Tension Between Knowledge Dissemination and Application in the Knowledge-Based Development of Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 SP Industry Development Is Expedited by Changes in Contemporary SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Legislation Puts SP Industry Development on a Legal Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Social Engagement Provides a Vast Market for the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Equal Access Boosts the Growth and Development of SP Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Livelihood Orientation Maintains the Sustainable Development of the SP Industry with Sound Content and Service Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Literature Review of SP Industry Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Foreign Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Domestic Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Review of Domestic and Overseas Research . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Basic Theory of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Definition of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 The Meaning of Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37 37 37

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4 6 6 9 11

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2.1.2 The Meaning of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 The Service Dimension of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 The Cultural Dimension of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 The Knowledge Dimension of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 The Classification of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 The General Basis of Industrial Classification . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 China’s Standard Industrial Classification System . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 The Classification of China’s Cultural Industries and Related Industries and Their Implications . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 The Purpose and Statistical Scope of SP Industry Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.5 The Classification of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 The Dynamics of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Demand is the Primary Driver of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 The Market (Economic Benefits) is the Secondary Driver of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Innovation is the Third Driver of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . 2.5 The Composition of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Management Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Technology Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Personnel Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Production Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.5 Market Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.6 Resource Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.7 Information Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.8 Knowledge Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 The Basic Principles of SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Unity Between Social Benefits and Economic Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Mutual Reinforcement of Public and For-Profit SP Undertakings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.3 Combination of Overall Advancement and Breakthroughs in Prioritized Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.4 Coordination Between Government Guidance and Market Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies and Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 The Development of the SP Exhibition and Education Supplies Industry in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.1.3 Problems Facing China’s SP Exhibition and Education Supplies Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4 Suggestions for Promoting the Development of China’s SP Exhibition and Education Supplies Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 SP Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 SP Publications and Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Overview of the SP Publishing Industry in China . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Problems in Promoting China’s SP Publishing Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 Strategies for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 SP Animations and Comics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 SP Animations and Comic Books Classifications . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 The Development of SP Animations and Comics in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Problems in the Chinese SP Comic and Animation Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Proposals for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 SP Film and TV Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 SP Films, TV Programmes and Their Classification . . . . . . 3.4.2 Overview of Chinese SP Films and TV Programmes . . . . . 3.4.3 Existing Problems in Chinese SP Film and TV Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Proposals for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 SP Games Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 SP Games and Their Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 The Development of Chinese Online SP Games . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Existing Problems of the Chinese SP Game Industry and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.4 Proposals for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 SP Toy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 SP Toys and Their Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Overview of the Development of the Chinese SP Toy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 Measures to Boost the Development of the Chinese SP Toy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 SP Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1 The Significance of SP Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2 Analysis of Chinese SP Tourism Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3 Categories of SP Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.4 The Significance of SP Tourism Development . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.5 Solutions to Promote the Development of Chinese SP Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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92 96 96 100 106 108 111 111 111 121 123 124 124 125 130 130 131 131 132 137 139 139 139 140 146 147 147 149 151 152 154 156

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4 Case Studies of China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Thematic Research on SP Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Overview of the SP Publishing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Weak Links in the SP Book Publishing Industry . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Suggestions for the Development of China’s SP Publishing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Research on New Media-Based Practices of SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Development of New Media and the Strengths of New Media SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 New Media SP Drives the Development of the New Media SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Problems in the Development of the New Media SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Suggestions for the Development of the New Media SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Case Study on the Wuhu Popular Science Products Expo . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Origin and Background of the Wuhu Science Popular Science Products Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Comparative Analysis of Previous Sessions of the Wuhu SP Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Study on the Interaction Between Wuhu SP Expo and Wuhu SP Industry Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Development Path Selection and Policy Suggestions for the Wuhu SP Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5 About the Shanghai International Popular Science Products Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Case Study on the Wuhu Science Popularization Industry Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Background to and Significance of the Establishment of the Wuhu Science Popularization Industry Park . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Theoretical Analysis of the Development of the Wuhu SP Industry Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 The Organizational Structure and Supporting Policies of the Wuhu SP Industry Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Factors That Ensure the Success of the Wuhu SP Industry Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.5 The Strategy for the Further Construction and Development of the Wuhu SP Industry Park . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Case Study on Zhongke Tanao Technology Co. Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Typical Cases of University–Business Integration . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Organizational Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3 Signature Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

4.6

Case Study on Guoshu Technology Co. Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 Company Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 Signature Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Foundation and Conditions of China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Overseas Experience in SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 The US Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 The Japanese Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 The South Korean Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Overview of the Comics and Animation Industry in Major EU Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 The Existing Foundation for China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 The SP Talent Force Has Developed, Offering Enhanced Support for the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Growing SP Funding Serves as a Financial Guarantee for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 With Remarkable Progress in SP Infrastructure Construction, Demand for SP Industry Development is Strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 SP Publications Are Constantly Expanding in Variety and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5 SP Activities Are Booming, with Growing Consumer Demand for SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 The Urgency of Developing the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 The Development of SP Undertakings Urgently Needs the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 The Implementation of the National Innovation-Driven Development Strategy Urgently Needs the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . 5.3.3 Building a Strong Country Urgently Requires the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.4 The Improvement of the Country’s Soft Power in Science and Culture Urgently Requires the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.5 The Effective Development and Use of SP Resources Urgently Require the Development of the SP Industry . . . . 5.4 A Rare Policy Environment and Market Opportunity for China’s SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 There is Specific National Legal and Regulatory Support for the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 There is Clear Cultural and S&T Innovation Policy Support for the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . .

xv

241 241 242 250 251 251 252 253 255 257 258 258 260

262 263 263 265 265

266 267

268 268 269 269 270

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Contents

5.4.3 Support for the Development of the SP Industry Has Received Great Attention from State Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Relevant Elements for the Development of the SP Industry Are Now Basically in Place, Offering a Good Foundation of Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.5 Huge Potential Market Size Provides a Long-Term and Broad Space for the Growth of the SP Industry . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The Current Situation and Strategies of China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 The Current Situation of China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . 6.2 Problems Facing China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Traditional Ideas of SP Need to Be Changed . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 There Is Insufficient Innovation in the SP Industry . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Policies and Regulations to Promote SP Industry Development Are Incomplete and Unsound . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 Insufficient System and Mechanism Innovation for the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.5 The Institutional Basis for Promoting SP Industry Development Is Missing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.6 High-Quality Managers and Creative Workers Are Urgently Needed for SP Industry Development but Are Lacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.7 Theoretical Research on the Development of the SP Industry Needs to Be Carried Out in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Strategies for Promoting China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . 6.3.1 Position the SP Industry Correctly and Change Our Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Build Public Service Platforms for SP Industry Development to Improve the Innovation Capacity of the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Intensify Government Support and Special Support . . . . . . 6.3.4 Improve the Overall Planning Mechanism to Strengthen Organization and Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.5 Regulate the Access System to Consolidate the Institutional Basis for Industrial Development . . . . . . . . 6.3.6 Establish Talent-Driven Industry Development Bases to Consolidate the Foundation of Human Resources Safeguards for the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.7 Strengthen Relevant Surveys and Research to Boost Theoretical Support for SP Industry Development . . . . . . .

271

272 272 274 275 275 277 278 279 284 284 285

285 286 287 287

288 290 291 292

292 293

7 Key Tasks in Promoting China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . 295 7.1 The Policy Basis Underlying the Key Tasks of SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Contents

7.2

xvii

The Key Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Formulate Macro-policies for SP Industry Development and Establish and Improve the Industry’s Standards System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Build SP Product R&D Centres to Enhance the Innovation Capacity of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Support Backbone SP Enterprises and Cultivate SP Industry Development Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Promote and Accelerate the Construction of SP Industry Parks and SP Demonstration Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Support the Development of Emerging SP Formats and Boost the Influence and Driving Power of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.6 Implement Major SP Projects to Drive the Development of the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.7 Promote the Establishment of a Market System for the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.8 Implement the SP Talent Construction Project . . . . . . . . . . .

8 Policy Suggestions for Promoting China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Policy Review of SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 A Safeguard Foundation Is Laid in the Constitution . . . . . . 8.1.2 The Science Popularization Law Establishes a Foundational Safeguard for the SP Industry . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 A Policy System That Supports and Promotes SP Industry Development Has Been Gradually Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Policy Suggestions for Promoting China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Revise and Improve the Science Popularization Law and Formulate Its Detailed Implementation Rules . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Enhance the Application of Cultural Industry Promotion Policies in the Development of the SP Cultural Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Push Forward the Formulation and Improvement of Local Regulations or Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 Refine the Policy Measures Proposed in the Scientific Literacy Scheme for SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 Formulate a Regulated and Specific SP Certification System to Promote the Implementation of the Preferential Tax Regime for SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.6 Formulate Highly Feasible and Easy-To-Implement Preferential Taxation Measures for the SP Industry . . . . . . .

297

298 298 299 300

301 301 302 303 305 305 305 306

307 312 313

313 313 314

314 315

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Contents

8.2.7 Formulate Measures for Responding to Hotspot and Focal SP to Promote the Development of the Emergency-Response SP Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 8.2.8 Formulate Measures for the Application and Protection of SP IP Rights in the Light of the Actual SP Situation and Support SP Research, Development and Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 9 Future Trends in China’s SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Research on the SP Industry Will Deepen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 The SP Industry Will Expand in More Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 China’s SP Industry Will Be Increasingly Internationalized . . . . . . 9.4 SP Organizations Will Continue to Develop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 The SP Industry Will Be Increasingly Integrated with the Cultural Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Technology Will More Powerfully Drive SP Industry Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 The Sci-Fi Industry Will Soar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 New Formats of the SP Industry Will Keep Emerging . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 New SP Products Will Keep Coming Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.10 Profit Models in the SP Industry Will Be More Diversified . . . . . . 9.11 Totally New Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

319 319 321 321 322 323 324 325 325 326 326 327

Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AI AR CAS CAST CCTV CPC CRISP GDP IoT IP IPTV ISIC IT NMLT S&T Development Plan

OEM R&D S&T Scientific Literacy Scheme sci-fi Shanghai SP Expo

Artificial intelligence Augmented reality Chinese Academy of Sciences China Association for Science and Technology China Central Television Communist Party of China China Research Institute for Science Popularization Gross domestic product Internet of things Intellectual property Interactive personality TV International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities Information technology National Medium- and Long-term Plan for Science and Technology Development (2006– 2020) Original equipment manufacturer Research and development Science and technology National Scheme for Scientific Literacy (2006– 2010–2020) Science fiction Shanghai International Popular Science Products Expo

xix

xx

SP SP Talent Plan UK US VAT VR Wuhu SP Expo

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Science popularization Science Popularization Talents Development Plan Outline (2010–2020) United Kingdom United States Value-added tax Virtual reality China (Wuhu) Popular Science Products Expo

List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6

Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10

Classification of SP exhibition and teaching supplies . . . . . . . . . Chinese citizens’ main means of access to scientific information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proportion of animation fans among interviewees . . . . . . . . . . . . Proportion of interviewees who approved of using animation and other exhibition forms to spread scientific thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proportion of interviewees who sought scientific knowledge while watching animations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s gross output of animations and comics, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User penetration rates of the mobile comic and animation platforms, the second quarter of 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sales revenue and proportions of the market segments of the Chinese game industry in 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sectional statistics of SP book circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Topics of SP books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of SP book writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital reading contact rate of Chinese readers, 2009–2016 . . . . Main channels for the Chinese people to access S&T information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Channels used by the Chinese people to access S&T information from the internet and levels of trust in S&T information communicated through online channels . . . . . . . . . . Organizational structure of the Wuhu SP Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction between the Wuhu SP Expo and the Wuhu SP Industry Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational structure of Zhongke Tanao Technology Co. Ltd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maglev magic balls at the opening ceremony of Expo Shanghai 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85 106 113

113 114 114 120 134 161 162 163 168 176

176 196 208 235 236 xxi

xxii

Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18

Fig. 4.19

Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.21 Fig. 4.22 Fig. 4.23

List of Figures

Maglev golden key in the park opening ceremony of Expo Shanghai 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maglev ancient chimes in the closing ceremony of Expo Shanghai 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exhibits on ecology and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Image recognition and virtual book flipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exhibits of the basic science series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solutions for mobile science museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magic Chain displayed at the Yunnan S&T Museum in November 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Magic Wheel displayed at the main venue of the National Science and Technology Week in Beijing in May 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hand Dance Desktop 3D Reconstruction displayed at the main venue of National Science and Technology Week, Beijing, May 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . People experiencing the Phantom Shadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Music Sphere Matrix in the Foshan Science Museum . . . . . . . . . Kids playing virtual football at the main venue of the 2017 National Science and Technology Week in Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Ribbon displayed at the Sichuan S&T Museum . . . . . . . .

237 238 239 240 240 241 243

244

245 246 247 248 249

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 3.7 Table 3.8 Table 3.9 Table 3.10 Table 3.11 Table 3.12 Table 3.13 Table 3.14 Table 3.15 Table 3.16 Table 3.17

Classification of the SP industry based on product statistics . . . Classification of the SP industry based on industry statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s SP book publishing and market share, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Top three provinces (municipalities) for published SP books, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SP book publishing in Beijing, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s SP journal publishing, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated annual revenues from published SP journals in China, 2013 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Top provinces (municipalities) for published SP journals in China, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s SP newspaper publishing, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated annual revenues from published SP newspapers in China, 2013 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proportion of SP newspapers published in China, by region, 2010 to 2016 (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Publishing of electronic SP publications in China, 2011 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated annual revenues from electronic SP publications in China, 2011 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production of animated films in China, 1987 to 2016 . . . . . . . . Imports and exports of animated TV programmes to and from China’s mainland, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total value of animated TV programmes imported to and exported from China’s mainland, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proportions of estimated annual revenues from SP books in China, 2014 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s pictorial book publishing, 2014 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s animated journal publishing, 2014 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . .

62 63 100 101 102 102 103 104 105 105 105 106 107 116 117 118 118 119 119 xxiii

xxiv

Table 3.18 Table 3.19 Table 3.20

Table 3.21 Table 3.22 Table 3.23 Table 3.24 Table 3.25 Table 3.26 Table 3.27 Table 3.28 Table 3.29 Table 3.30 Table 3.31 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4

List of Tables

China’s science and educational film production, 1987 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Chinese science and education TV channels and other relevant channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Science and educational programmes on science, educational and other relevant channels of CCTV or provincial TV (municipality or autonomous regional TV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major famous SP TV programmes in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number and growth rate of Chinese game users, 2008 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chinese online game users and their use of online games, 2013 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sales revenue of the Chinese games market, 2008 to 2016 . . . . Sales revenue from self-developed online games, 2008 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China’s major toy-exporting provinces and cities and their export values 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Chinese toy-exporting enterprises and their export value, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Top ten countries and regions importing Chinese toys and their import values, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retail sales in the Chinese and global toy markets, 2010 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Chinese SP tourism resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numbers of domestic tourists and income from domestic tours, 2012 to 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SP books published in China, 2008–2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number and proportion of China’s SP creators, 2008– 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes in the number of Chinese internet users and the internet penetration rate, 2008–2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of SP websites built with government funding, 2008–2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Themes and goals of Wuhu SP Expos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of booths and visitors at Wuhu SP Expo . . . . . . . . . . . Transaction volume of Wuhu SP Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SP workers in China (10,000 persons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sources and composition of SP funding in China, 2008– 2016 (CNY100 million) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of various types of SP venues in China, 2008– 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numbers of activities held and participants in China’s S&T Weeks, 2008–2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

126 127

128 129 133 133 134 135 141 141 142 143 149 153 160 162 178 180 198 200 200 259 261 262 264

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract The development of the knowledge economy has driven the knowledgebased development of society. A knowledge-based society is driven to a high degree by information, digital services, intelligent applications and knowledge. Knowledge innovation, knowledge dissemination and effective knowledge utilization become basic drivers of social progress, and people knowledgeable in different fields become the principal actors in achieving the optimal allocation of social resources. In the current stage of the knowledge society, the principal challenge is the contradiction between the knowledge explosion and the knowledge capacity shortage. The effective dissemination, utilization and integration of knowledge has become crucial to the sustainable development of society. The development of knowledge-based society has provided a solid social foundation for the development of the science popularization (SP) industry. The knowledge-based development of society has brought about four major changes in SP: law-based development, social engagement, equal access, and livelihood orientation. These four changes have led to the emergence of SP as an industry. The development of the industry has also promoted research on the industry, although this field of research will have to delve deeper and expand in more dimensions.

1.1 The Social Context of the Contemporary SP Industry: The Knowledge-Based Development of Society 1.1.1 The Multifaceted Manifestation of the Knowledge-Based Development of Society The spread and rapid development of the knowledge economy have made the material foundation and organizational forms of social life increasingly knowledge based. This has brought a social paradigm shift from an industrial society dominated by the production of material products to a knowledge society oriented to and dominated by the production of knowledge [1]. A knowledge society is a highly digital and intelligent world driven by information and knowledge, in which social progress is © China Science and Technology Press 2021 F. Ren et al., Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3720-9_1

1

2

1 Introduction

primarily driven by knowledge innovation, knowledge dissemination and the effective utilization of knowledge. Networks have become ties and bridges enabling quick communication. The development and spread of networks have broken the confines of time and space and, by enabling real-time dissemination of information and knowledge, turned the world into a ‘knowledge-based Earth village’ in which knowledge-based society develops further. A knowledge-based society has five primary aspects, as described below.

1.1.1.1

Knowledge-Driven Organizational Survival

Knowledge innovation, dissemination and use have replaced capital and labour to become the primary driving force of organizations’ performance growth and sustainable development [2]. As knowledge production determines organizational performance and growth, each organization can be seen as a unique knowledge system in which performance depends on the value of its knowledge system for users. Therefore, an organization needs to not only use knowledge but also create it, and be a knowledge producer as well as a knowledge processor. Building knowledgebased organizations oriented to lifelong learning has become a basic requirement for building a knowledge society. Accordingly, the survival and development of SP organizations dedicated to disseminating and popularizing S&T knowledge are becoming even more knowledge-based. Disseminating scientific knowledge, equipping the public with knowledge and skills required in a knowledge society and narrowing the knowledge divide have become important themes of SP content and service innovation in SP organizations.

1.1.1.2

Knowledge-Driven Human Resource Development

In a knowledge society, what drives social and economic development is, on the whole, no longer a system of normalized public symbols but human capital integrating common knowledge, specialized knowledge and specific knowledge. In human resource development, therefore, it is essential to proactively invest in knowledge and skill acquisition in order to improve management. In this society, people should not just passively receive knowledge but also proactively acquire and even create knowledge. The concept of knowledge itself has broadened from knowledge disseminated through public information channels based on normalized symbols to include tacit knowledge that is difficult to code. It is the combination of common knowledge and specific knowledge that determines a worker’s workplace competitiveness and expected income. This explains the increasing emphasis on social investment and personal investment in oneself by building knowledge capabilities.

1.1 The Social Context of the Contemporary SP Industry …

1.1.1.3

3

Knowledge-Driven Human Development

Human nature refers to a set of inherent characteristics that all humans share, which include characteristics common to all individuals and individual-specific characteristics. The common characteristics include mainly the need for survival, the pursuit of freedom, a yearning for equality, a need for respect, the pursuit of wealth, and the pursuit of self-development and actualization. As knowledge society has all-new mechanisms linking knowledge, actions and society that require applying what is learned and learning from applications, people are linked by knowledge and learning in a way that increases their mutual dependence and enhances ties between people and society and between humans and nature. In a knowledge society, people take the centre stage, and lifelong learning becomes a core requirement for continuous self-improvement and self-development. This is a historic new milestone of human development because it elevates humankind even further from the animal sphere where we originated and marks the transition of human evolution from biological evolution to knowledge-driven evolution.

1.1.1.4

Knowledge-Driven Behaviour

The knowledge-based transformation of our society and economy has given rise to different types of knowledge-based entities, such as knowledge workers, knowledge teams, knowledge-based businesses, knowledge-based communities and knowledgebased government. People of knowledge in different sectors are gradually becoming a main force in optimizing the allocation of social resources. Signs are gradually emerging that ‘people of knowledge’ are becoming the human capital foundation of social institutions.

1.1.1.5

Knowledge-Driven Social Development

Today’s social development is facing the contradiction between knowledge explosion and the shortage of knowledge capabilities, making the effective dissemination, use and integration of knowledge resources the key to the sustainable development of society. The growth of knowledge outpacing the growth of knowledge-based innovations and knowledge workers has become a key barrier hindering sustainable social development. Therefore, encouraging knowledge-based innovation, promoting knowledge dissemination and popularization and fostering knowledgebased innovation workers have become important tasks in advancing humankind’s transition into a knowledge society as well as a key part of the contemporary outlook on social development.

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1 Introduction

1.1.2 The Tension Between Knowledge Dissemination and Application in the Knowledge-Based Development of Society The knowledge economy is an economy of knowledge and information production, distribution and use based on the efficient integration of knowledge and technology. When knowledge innovations and technology innovations are effectively integrated into economic activities and deliver their economic value, knowledge’s naturally occurring characteristics automatically translate into economic characteristics, and it changes from a natural resource into an economic resource, thereby assuming the following characteristics described below.

1.1.2.1

Knowledge is Both Scarce and Abundant

Paradoxically, knowledge as a whole is scarce and abundant at once. When new knowledge is created, concealed or kept secret and exists as an invention or patent, it is a scarce resource; however, when it is declassified and put into the public domain, it becomes a free and inexhaustible resource, although people capable of creating knowledge will always be a dynamic and scarce resource. So far, mainstream economic theories have been based on the premise of the scarcity of resources. In principle, scarce resources such as inventions and patents can be optimally allocated through market mechanisms for disseminating and spreading S&T knowledge, with support from relevant industries where necessary. However, due to characteristics of knowledge such as flowability and uncertainty, it is difficult to quantify and price knowledge. Therefore, the expression of knowledge as a productive factor remains an outstanding issue that is yet to be clarified through further research on intellectual property and other related theories.

1.1.2.2

Knowledge is Outpacing Capital, Land and Labour as an Economic Factor

Massive amounts of knowledge have either already been put into the public domain or are entering the public domain rapidly and at very low cost as inexhaustible public resources accessible to everyone. In fact, the digital world has ended the constraint of allocations of scarce resources in the physical world by enabling the infinite reproduction and dissemination of knowledge. In contemporary society, public knowledge is not only very low priced but also continuously available in huge quantities. Knowledge has replaced capital, land and labour to become the decisive factor in economic activity, and its infinite availability has fundamentally challenged traditional economic theories built on the premise of the scarcity of resources. It has become imperative for traditional market mechanisms, which excel in the allocation of scarce and competitive resources, to adapt to innovation-oriented society by

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5

emphasizing the inclusive allocation of public resources. For example, the crossborder flow and integration of knowledge require both the effective protection of intellectual property (IP) and efficient access and utilization of knowledge from different sources. The same is also true for the dissemination and popularization of S&T knowledge, which needs to not only maximize the development and sharing of SP resources across demographic groups, departments and regions in a way going beyond the constraints of time and space but also needs to provide full protection of the lawful rights and interests of the owners of relevant knowledge resources.

1.1.2.3

Ideas Versus Things

The reason why knowledge can play a huge role in economic growth is the infinite potential of the ‘recipes’ provided by it, which enable resources to be configured and used in more profitable ways, and here lies the secret of innovation powered by knowledge and technology in driving economic growth. ‘New growth’ theory posits that there are two basic types of productive inputs: ‘ideas’ and ‘things’. Ideas, which include knowledge and information, are nonrival goods that can be stored in a bit string. Things are rival goods with mass or energy. Things can directly satisfy people’s needs, while ideas inform how things can be rearranged. Traditional economic theories mainly consider the impact of things on economic growth by focusing on the inputs of labour, physical goods and resources and their outputs and by marginalizing the effects of ideas on economic growth. In contrast, new growth theory considers the economic impacts of both things and ideas and sees ideas and knowledge resources, especially innovation resources resulting from the integration of knowledge innovations and technology innovations, as more important resources.

1.1.2.4

A New Field for Investment

Integrated innovation based on the marriage of quickly growing and widely disseminated knowledge and technology has brought about profound changes in all aspects of economic activity. By changing the recipes for how things are arranged, continuously drives productivity, and increased productivity inevitably brings comprehensive savings of productive factors (including labour, capital, land and various physical resources). It brings lucrative returns on investment in knowledge and technology innovation, although at the same time it makes the investment riskier. It allows allocation to break through the constraint of measurements of manual labour over time and brings increasing recognition, both from the public and legally, of intellectual capital investment and performance-related pay. It changes consumption fundamentally because, unlike traditional consumption of diminishing resources, the consumption of knowledge is accumulative: the more it is consumed, the more it increases. In view of the scarcity of integrated innovation based on knowledge and technology, and the flowability, duplicability and uncertainty of knowledge, the market mechanism

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1 Introduction

has assumed a new economic function in driving the dissemination and popularization of S&T knowledge. As integrated innovation based on knowledge and technology gains momentum, knowledge society has fundamentally opened the door to sustainable development and provided a foundation for the contemporary development of the SP industry.

1.2 SP Industry Development Is Expedited by Changes in Contemporary SP As China moves towards a knowledge society, the drive to build a national knowledge innovation system and an innovation-oriented nation has accelerated comprehensively. This has also given a boost to China’s SP transformation marked by lawbased development, social engagement, equal access and livelihood orientation and promoted the rise of the SP industry.

1.2.1 Legislation Puts SP Industry Development on a Legal Foundation On 29 June 2002, the Standing Committee of the 9th National People’s Congress at its 28th meeting adopted the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Popularization of Science and Technology (Science Popularization Law). As the world’s first law dedicated to SP, the Science Popularization Law, which writes into law China’s basic guidelines, major policies and proven practices of SP, provides for the rights and obligations of SP workers and puts SP activity in the country into a legal framework. It is a milestone in the history of SP in China and the rest of the world. First, it fully shows the great importance attached by China to SP and expressly states that it is the country’s long-term task to popularize S&T. Second, it marks the beginning of putting SP on a legal basis with clear provisions. Third, it has increased public scientific literacy as its legislative purpose and highlights the importance and urgency of that task. Fourth, it legislatively identifies the various groups of SP actors for the first time, specifically emphasizes S&T associations as the primary social force of SP work and assigns important responsibilities to S&T associations in advancing SP. The Science Popularization Law and its concepts and institutional arrangements have provided clear guidance and an important basis for authorities at various levels for formulating SP regulations and policies. Its promulgation has brought about a new situation in China’s SP legislation through the mechanisms described below.

1.2 SP Industry Development Is Expedited by Changes …

1.2.1.1

7

Other Relevant Legislation

The promulgation of the Science Popularization Law has greatly promoted law-based SP work in fields including environmental protection; water and soil conservation; agriculture; food hygiene; earthquake disaster prevention and mitigation; the prevention and treatment of occupational diseases; and emergency responses. Other relevant laws and regulations are being amended or introduced to provide for the SP responsibilities of government agencies and other entities in line with the Science Popularization Law. For example, laws such as the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Emergency Response, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Protecting Against and Mitigating Earthquake Disasters and the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Food Safety have provided clear and comprehensive provisions on SP in those fields, including the emergency-response SP responsibilities of relevant departments and the establishment of an effective national emergency response SP and mobilization system. These laws coordinate with each other and provide a comprehensive level basis for emergency response SP work in all relevant fields.

1.2.1.2

The Role of Local and Regional Governments

The promulgation of the Science Popularization Law has prompted local legislatures and governments to amend existing local SP regulations or introduce new ones. Over more than 10 years since the promulgation of the Science Popularization Law, China has gradually put in place a comprehensive legislative system of SP encompassing the national law and departmental and local science popularization laws and regulations, which will be further refined in the future.

1.2.1.3

The Legal Foundation for the SP Industry

The promulgation and implementation of the Science Popularization Law, besides advancing SP legislation, has laid the legal foundation for the development of the SP industry. The law stipulates that ‘The State supports all quarters of society to initiate PST (popularization of science and technology) undertakings. Such undertakings may be operated under market mechanisms.’ According to the provision, SP should rely not just on the state but also on the non-government sector, and SP undertakings initiated by the non-government sector may use market mechanisms. Such provisions provide an institutional and legal framework for the development of the SP industry. In recent years, there have emerged in China quite a few success stories of SP undertakings initiated by the non-government sector that have contributed valuable experience in developing SP under China’s socialist market economy. With the deepening of market economy system reforms, China has increased support for SP undertakings initiated by the non-government sector in order to adapt to the requirements of the development of the socialist market economy. The Science Popularization Law, on

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the whole, positions SP as a public welfare undertaking, supports it as an industry, and provides a legal basis for the development of that industry.

1.2.1.4

Local Regulations Follow Suit

Local SP regulations and rules provide increasingly specific and operational measures to support the development of the SP industry. There were many local regulations and rules on SP before the promulgation of the Science Popularization Law, but those documents generally only expressed in-principle support of the SP industry, without providing clear and specific measures, and in some cases even in-principle support was absent. The promulgation of the Science Popularization Law provides a basis for local legislatures to amend their existing SP regulations in the light of local situations. With the development of the SP system, there will be more specific and operational policies to support and promote the SP industry. The local SP rules or regulations not only restate the support provided in the Science Popularization Law for SP undertakings initiated by the non-government sector and permit their market-based operation but also give more detailed and specific provisions. For example, the Science and Technology Popularization Ordinance of Fujian Province, in Article 21, encourages and supports the non-government sector to initiate SP undertakings by investing in new SP venues, maintaining those venues and providing SP exhibits and teaching supplies, among other activities. Such SP undertakings may operate under the market mechanism with a view to fostering SP exhibitions, supplies and related markets and developing the SP industry. The local regulations clearly provide for the entities engaged in the SP industry and their organizational forms. For example, the Ordinance on Science and Technology Popularization of Gansu Province, in Article 25, encourages and supports domestic and foreign enterprises, social organizations and individuals to establish SP funds, donate SP property and invest in new SP venues and facilities, and it supports social organizations to establish private SP organizations as sole proprietorships, partnerships or joint-stock companies and to conduct SP activity in accordance with the law. Private SP organizations established by social organizations as sole proprietorships, partnerships or joint-stock companies may operate under the market mechanism. By clearly encouraging and supporting domestic and foreign enterprises, social organizations and individuals to start-up business in the SP industry and by clarifying the forms that those businesses can take, the provision makes clear their rights and obligations and puts their activity in a well-defined organizational framework. The local regulations make the tax incentive policy for SP normative, institutional and operational. Providing tax incentives is an important way to encourage and support the development of the SP industry, but national-level policy documents, including the Science Popularization Law, the Outline for National Mediumand Long-term Plan for Science and Technology Development (2006–2020) (NMLT S&T Development Plan) and the Outline of the National Scheme for Scientific Literacy (2006–2010–2020) (Scientific Literacy Scheme) only set out guidelines

1.2 SP Industry Development Is Expedited by Changes …

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for tax policy support for the industry, without providing operational and actionable policy measures. Although the Notice Regarding Tax Incentive Policy for the Development of SP Undertakings jointly issued by the Ministry of Finance and other authorities provides clear and specific measures of the incentive policy for SP undertakings, they are not readily actionable due to the constraints in the time of implementation and criteria for qualification. This issue is fixed by the promulgation of the local regulations that offer detailed provisions that are normative, institutional and operational, thus fulfilling the purpose of the tax incentive policy for SP. For example, the Ordinance of Science and Technology Popularization of Anhui Province has the following provisions: • SP bases are designated by the provincial administration of S&T together with the provincial departments of finance and taxation; • SP education bases are designated by the provincial S&T association and are entitled to tax incentives according to applicable national and provincial regulations; • SP books, periodicals, newspapers and audiovisual publications are entitled to tax incentives according to applicable national regulations; • SP expenditures of higher learning institutions, research institutes and enterprises that directly relate to R&D projects may be recognized as R&D expenditures. This practice of substantiating national SP tax incentive policy with specific operational measures for implementation in local regulations sheds light on future amendments to the Science Popularization Law or the formulation of the Detailed Measures for the Implementation of the Science Popularization Law.

1.2.2 Social Engagement Provides a Vast Market for the SP Industry Social engagement in SP leads to an increased reach of science to the public and improved public scientific literacy, which has a bearing not only on the quality of people’s lives and personal development but also on the innovation capacity and international competitiveness of countries. Public scientific literacy is a quantitative indicator that is used in China to measure the public’s knowledge and understanding of science and make comparisons with other countries. China’s public scientific literacy survey started in 1992 and, according to the 2001 survey, the country’s public scientific literacy ratio in that year was 1.40%, meaning that 140 out of 10,000 Chinese had a general understanding of science, how it works and how it affects individuals and society. Through continuous efforts, China’s public scientific literacy steadily improved, reaching 3.27% in the eighth survey in 2010 and

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1 Introduction

6.20% in the ninth in 2015.1 Although that was still significantly behind the numbers for developed countries, it was an improvement of more than three times from 2001. The effective improvement of China’s public scientific literacy has benefited from the country’s unwavering SP commitment. In November 1999, in the light of the situation and needs of China’s public scientific literacy development and at the proposal of some scientists, China Association for Science and Technology (CAST) proposed a national scientific literacy action plan to the CPC Central Committee and the State Council. In February 2006, the State Council officially promulgated the Scientific Literacy Scheme. Since then, government departments at all levels and all sectors of society have joined efforts to promote public scientific literacy. Actions and programmes were launched to target key groups of people with a view to exploring effective measures for integrating SP with Chinese characteristics and public scientific literacy development. A national system of public scientific literacy development was put in place to coordinate relevant government departments with a well-defined division of work and working rules. Government offices responsible for the work were established at various levels in most parts of the country. In some places, the work was included within the scope of performance evaluations for government officials. Local governments were encouraged to develop work mechanisms in the light of actual conditions under the guideline of establishing a broad-based SP framework led by the government and based on effective interdepartmental collaboration and public engagement. Thanks to those efforts, a well-organized working mechanism led by CAST organizations and driven by extensive collaboration was gradually established. Along with China’s efforts over the past more than 10 years to accelerate economic transformation and pursue innovation-driven development, there has been a shared understanding among all sectors of society of the importance and urgency of increasing public scientific literacy, and equal importance is given to SP and S&T innovation. According to the Implementation Plan for the Scientific Literacy Scheme (2016– 2020), China aims to increase its public scientific literacy ratio to 10% by 2020. As the country embraces scientific development and makes systematic efforts to increase public scientific literacy, mechanisms of promoting SP through social engagement will become more comprehensive and effective. Social engagement is rich soil for the development of the SP industry: • Social engagement allows SP to permeate all sectors of society and provide wideranging support for the growth and development of the SP industry. It places the SP work of the relevant sectors onto long-term stable mechanisms based on institutional arrangements and provides a framework for the various participants to leverage the market mechanism to develop the SP industry; • Social engagement provides the SP industry with access to rich resources. It creates needs for the development of various SP resources, activates the existing 1

Office for the Implementation of the Outline of the National Scheme for Scientific Literacy, China Research Institute for Science Popularization (CRISP), Findings of 2015 China Public Scientific Literacy Survey, September 2015.

1.2 SP Industry Development Is Expedited by Changes …

11

SP resources in various departments and fields, and leads to the optimal allocation of SP resources, which will constantly unlock the growth potential of the SP industry and expand its territory; • Social engagement broadens and extends the value chain and the industrial chain of the SP industry. By increasing the depth and breadth of SP, it gives rise to content and service innovations, diversifies SP products and resources, and creates demand for them from more sources, thus extending the value chain of the industry.

1.2.3 Equal Access Boosts the Growth and Development of SP Services SP services are an important part of public services, and equal access to public services is an important dimension of social equality. Since the implementation of the Scientific Literacy Scheme, China has focused its SP work on scientific literacy development and always adhered to the principle of fairness and inclusiveness, with an emphasis on ensuring the wide coverage and practicality of SP activities and resources. Thanks to the collaboration of SP organizations nationwide on all SP fronts, including education and training, resource development and sharing, communication, infrastructure, community development, IT application and commercialization, there has been a substantial improvement in the availability of and equal access to SP services, and there have been growing opportunities and channels for all people to increase their scientific literacy. First, there are more students trained in SP. Efforts to offer more SP education programmes at normal universities, train more S&T educators and offer master’s programmes in SP have achieved good results. Second, there are more SP resources. Policy and other incentives, including tax exemptions and cuts, competitions and solicitations, have played an effective role in mobilizing all sectors of society to produce and publish a large amount of exhibits, books, animations, comics and film and TV works. According to China Science Popularization Statistics, China published a total of 25,000 books with a total circulation of 270 million copies nationwide during the 11th Five-Year Plan period and 49,000 books with a total circulation of 400 million during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, up 96% and 48%, respectively, from the 11th Five-Year Plan period. At the end of July 2017, the official website of China Digital S&T Museum had a total of 9.79 terabytes of digital SP resources.2 Third, there are more SP media. China has put in place an extensive S&T media network encompassing traditional and internet media. For example, China’s national broadcaster, CCTV (China Central Television) has a series of regular SP programmes that have steadily improved production quality and coverage of subjects. The SP Caravan TV programme has been broadcast by more than 1,300 county-level TV 2

China Science and Technology Museum, A Brief History of China Digital Science and Technology Museum, 2017.

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1 Introduction

stations. In addition, an increasing number of internet platforms provide popular science and scientific information services readily accessible to the wider public. Fourth, there are more SP venues. The Science Popularization Infrastructure Development Plan (2008–2010–2015), jointly issued by the National Reform and Development Commission, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Finance and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, included SP infrastructure development in the work plans of governments at various levels. Thanks to those efforts, SP venues have mushroomed across China in a steadily expanding network that covers both cities and rural areas. According to China Science Popularization Statistics [3], by the end of 2016 China had a total of 473 S&T centres, 920 S&T museums, 596 youth S&T stations, 210,200 SP galleries, 84,800 urban community-based SP activity rooms, and 346,400 rural SP activity rooms. Since the launch of the SP Caravan programme in 2000, a total of 1,898 SP caravans had been dispatched to the country’s 31 provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government). The emphasis on equal access to SP services has promoted the growth and development of a variety of SP services. The widespread development of SP infrastructure has promoted the development of relevant SP services, such as SP education and exhibitions, event planning and design services and has led to the rise of SP service providers specialized in organizing SP events in different fields. The emergence of digital S&T museums has promoted the rapid development of online SP services based on rich SP resources and internet infrastructure. For example, China Science Communication, in cooperation with partners such as Tencent, Baidu and Xinhua news agency, had by March 2017 developed a total of 12 terabytes of SP resources, 4,500 SP videos (animations and comics), 35,000 SP articles and 100 SP games, which had received as many as 8 billion views, becoming a well-known major science communication platform in China.3 The development of the SP industry has also been accompanied and driven by innovation in the way SP services are delivered, such as TV programmes, animations, comics and games, giving rise to new segments of the industry, such as SP animations and comics, SP games and digital SP.

1.2.4 Livelihood Orientation Maintains the Sustainable Development of the SP Industry with Sound Content and Service Innovation Livelihood is the foundation of SP. China’s SP work is geared toward serving the public and improving people’s livelihoods by benefiting them through S&T advances. Therefore, SP innovations and services are supposed to permeate everyday life and meet the needs of the public so as to keep SP going on a sustainable basis. 3

China Science and Technology Museum, A Brief History of China Digital Science and Technology Museum, 2017.

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During the 11th Five-Year Plan period, governments at various levels across China mobilized all sectors of society to launch wide-ranging SP activities on the theme of ‘resource conservation, environmental protection and health protection’. During the period, the National Science Popularization Day and the National Science and Technology Week, for example, organized nearly 200 million popular science activities, which reached more than 500 million people. Education programmes focused on energy conservation, water conservation, grain conservation and low-carbon development involved popular science investigation activities that attracted the participation of more than 5 million teenagers. Events such as ‘Science, Technology and Hygiene Outreach in Countryside’, ‘Nationwide Action of Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction’, ‘Rural Environmental Science Popularization’, ‘Science and Technology Journey’ and ‘China Journey of Meteorological Disaster Prevention and Reduction Volunteers’ have been well established and well known to the public. In addition, CAST organizations also organized various SP activities focusing on topics of concern to the public, such as avian flu, hand, foot and mouth disease, H1N1, earthquakes, snow and ice storms.4 During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, China introduced the ‘Community Scientific Literacy Action’ activity to promote healthy, scientifically informed lifestyles among residents. At the same time, nationwide efforts were made to make disadvantaged groups more scientifically informed, including migrant workers, left-behind children, and women and old people in rural areas. Since the beginning of the 13th Five-Year Plan period, efforts have been stepped up in accordance with the Implementation Plan for the Scientific Literacy Scheme (2016–2020) to strengthen SP outreach, IT enablement of SP and support for the SP industry and brought a significant improvement in China’s overall SP capacity. With the implementation of the Scientific Literacy Scheme, governments at various levels and the general public have attached great importance to the development of SP resources, channels and capabilities with substantially enhanced SP infrastructure, paving the road for more progress in SP industry development and IT enablement of SP. The livelihood orientation is putting China’s SP industry on a fast track of sustainable development, driven by content and service innovation.

1.3 Literature Review of SP Industry Research 1.3.1 Foreign Literature Review There is a rich theoretical research literature on cultural industries, including the SP industry, and cultural industry policy. A major work that has emerged in recent years is The Cultural Industries by David Hesmondhalgh, a professor at the University of 4

Bai Xi, ‘Briefing of Office for the Implementation of the Outline of the National Scheme for Scientific Literacy on Recent Work’, 16 March 2017.

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1 Introduction

Leeds and a leading international expert on the cultural industries, which has become a classic work on the topic [4]. The book presents a thorough examination of the cultural industries, including basic questions such as the origin and definition of the cultural industries, their evolution, significance and characteristics; cultural theory; cultural production theory; cultural policy in the US and other developed countries; ownership, organizational structure, management and control of cultural enterprises; the size of the cultural industries; the globalization and internationalization of the cultural industries; and new media and the digital transformation of the cultural industries. The book provides a fairly comprehensive and systematic framework for analysis of the cultural industries. UNESCO, in Cultural Industries: A Challenge for the Future of Culture published in 1982, discussed the origin and demarcation of the cultural industries, their impact on culture, and their trends in development and outlook [5]. According to British scholar O’Connor [6], the cultural industries are those activities that deal primarily in symbolic goods—goods whose primary economic value is derived from their cultural value. That definition encompasses 16 industries called the ‘classical’ cultural industries (broadcasting media, film, publishing, recorded music, design, architecture, new media) and the ‘traditional arts’ (visual art, crafts, theatre, music theatre, concerts and performance, museums and galleries). British scholar Pratt [7] holds that cultural industries relate to all kinds of cultural activities and constitute a massive industrial chain consisting of content conceptualization, production and import, reproduction and transaction, with the four links combining to form a huge cultural production system. In his book, Cultural Industries, Arts, Culture and Creative Arts, van Graan [8] provides a definition of the cultural industries and a detailed exposition of those industries, the various sub-industries of art, the development of the industries, and the relationship between the cultural industries and economic development. In his paper, ‘Re-thinking science–industry relations along with the interactive model’, Potthast [9] discussed the interaction between science and industry and issues such as the industrialization and commercialization of science. Moore [10] examined the definition of the cultural industries from the perspective of historical development and believed that the cultural industries integrate creative conceptualization, production and commercialization and that the cultural industries should be put in the context of digital transformation rather than just based on culture or creative culture. Other scholars have focused on the relationship between cultural industries and cultural policy. In ‘Cultural industries and public policy: An oxymoron?’ Pratt presented a review and analysis of the definitions of the cultural industries and revealed key concepts underlying cultural policy. In culture management, he proposed an open space that enables policy support of all features of cultural production. He analysed the multifaceted relationships between the cultural industries and cultural policy and suggested that the primary goal of developing the cultural industries is to examine whether policy guidelines expressly state policies for the cultural industries or creative industries. He first explored how the cultural industries become an important concept of cultural policy and then focused on a number of issues of contemporary public policy on the cultural industries, including the definition and scope of the cultural industries and the planning agencies of the cultural industries

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before summarizing key challenges facing contemporary cultural policy and various issues of cultural policy research. Cunningham [11] reviewed the definitions of the cultural industries and the creative industries offered by different scholars historically, explained the significance of differentiating the cultural industries and the creative industries in terms of theory, industry and policy analysis, and concluded that national policy to some extent promotes the aggregation of cultural resources and cultural brands. Ooi et al. [12] thought that the creative industries are at the core of a country’s innovation system and, based on a survey and summary of the views of some scholars on the creative industries and the development of the creative industries of some cities, concluded that government and policy play a crucial role in promoting the creative industries and that policy restricting the industries is futile and useless. Copyright protection in the cultural industries has also received heightened attention and has been systematically researched. In September 2000, the International Conference on IP and the Creative Industries took place at Erasmus University, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and the proceedings were published in Copyright in the Cultural Industries (edited by Ruth Towse), which includes many articles on copyright policy and legal protection in the cultural industries, including ‘Copyright and the cultural industries: the policy-maker’s view’ by Rick van der Ploeg and ‘Choice of law issues in relation to copyright’ by Paul Torremans. The emergence of creative industries that are closely related to the SP industry has provided a new foundation for the development of the SP industry. It has also provided a new direction for academic research on the SP industry. The UK was the world’s first country to include the creative industries in its national industrial policy and strategy. In 1998, the UK’s creative sector task force provided its first definition of the creative industries: those activities that have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and that have the potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of IP. For Florida in the US, creative industries include architecture, TV, broadcasting, film, advertising, music, design, artwork, publishing, software, performing arts, fashion, art, artwork transactions and interactive leisure software. In the view of British economist Howkins [13], the creative industries refer to the economic sectors that are subject to the protection of IP law, in which patents, copyrights, trademarks and designs combine to form the creative industries and the creative economy, in which 15 industries (advertising; software; toy and game consoles; TV broadcasting; video games; architecture; art; film; music; the performing arts; publishing; research and development; arts and crafts; design; and fashion) constitute the core creative industries. The definition naturally includes natural science R&D in the creative industries and expands the scope of the definition. Caves [14] offered a general definition of the creative industries by defining them as products and services that deliver cultural, artistic or merely entertainment value. Although the creative industries are understood differently by different scholars and in different countries, they are generally seen as part of the cultural industries. Chuluunbaatar et al. [15] thought that the ‘cluster’ is a crucial concept for the cultural and creative industries. The cluster concept, which is heavily based on economic

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geography, is widely used to explain the drive behind cultural and creative industry development, neglecting the social aspects of creative professionals working in those industries. Their study integrated social aspects to the cluster theory to explain the key drivers in cultural and creative industries development from a social capital perspective. Sung [16] reviewed the historical development of the application of IT, its relationships with corporate strategy and its influence on corporate performance and confirmed that the application of IT provides several kinds of competitive advantage, such as efficiency and integration, and that it significantly contributes to corporate performance. In view of those powerful competitive advantages, IT offers huge performance enhancement potential for creative as well as manufacturing businesses. SP industry policy and practices are highly mature in many countries. There is a positive correlation between the level of importance and support given by policymakers to SP and the level of S&T development in those countries. Advanced countries such as the US, the UK, Germany, France, Japan and the Netherlands give strong policy support to SP. Emerging industrialized countries and developing countries such as Korea and India have also attached great importance to developing S&T in recent years and done solid work on SP. In the US in 1994, the Clinton administration issued Science in the National Interest, a policy document that established five goals of the US Government’s S&T work, including raising the scientific literacy of Americans. The 1998 US Congress report Unlocking Our Future: Toward a New National Science Policy also put a particular emphasis on public scientific communication. In 1993, the UK Government issued the Realising Our Potential: A Strategy for Science, Engineering and Technology white paper, which clearly required increasing public awareness of the importance of science, engineering and technology. In 1995, Japan promulgated its Science and Technology Basic Law, which was geared to increasing investment in public science communication and putting the country’s ‘building the nation through science, technology and innovation’ strategy onto a solid foundation.

1.3.2 Domestic Literature Review 1.3.2.1

Demarcation of the SP Industry

The demarcation of the SP industry is a basic theoretical question in research on the industry, which is seen differently depending on perspectives. Of the two primary perspectives, one focuses on the SP culture industry and the other on the SP industry. Lao [17], from the perspective of the cultural industries, defined the SP culture industry as an industry that meets the need for scientific information, products and services. The industry is primarily meant to meet the need for scientific cultural consumption and to improve living standards. The scientific content of cultural life is a basic barometer of living quality. Therefore, the ultimate purpose of developing

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the SP culture is to meet the need for that culture. This demarcation highlights the SP industry as an industry that emerges to meet the public need for SP products and services. Ren et al. [18] examined the SP industry and its characteristics by putting it in the context of the service industry, the cultural industry and the knowledge industry. As part of the service industry, the SP industry has the fundamental purpose of improving and enriching the lives of people and serving the public. In this context, its main function is to leverage the means of modern technology to integrate culture, science and technology, and it manifests as a cultural form. As part of the knowledge industry, the SP industry involves the R&D, production and distribution of products meant to achieve the dissemination of scientific knowledge, scientific method, scientific thinking and scientific spirit. Based on their analysis of the characteristics of the SP industry, Ren Fujun et al. arrived at a definition of the industry: the SP industry is the sum of all market activities of providing the nation, society and the public with SP products and services to meet their need for such products and services; it creates wealth, provides job opportunities and increases public scientific literacy by spreading scientific knowledge, scientific thought, scientific spirit and scientific method. This definition provides a fairly comprehensive picture of the industry by encompassing its market foundation, operating mechanism, scope of activities and purpose. Li et al. [19] analysed the functions of the SP industry on the basis of existing research and presented an in-depth study on its characteristics on the social dimension and the industrial dimension. The SP industry has unique significance and value by performing certain inherent functions as part of the social structure, and those functions also determine its properties and characteristics. Overall, the SP industry possesses social functions, economic functions and political functions and takes on social characteristics (inclusiveness, strategic support, ecology, cultural innovation, novelty and modern service) and industry characteristics (traction, radiation, high added value, eco-friendliness, system circularity, and media), in which the former deliver social benefits (including political benefits) and reflect the industry’s public and strategic nature and the latter deliver economic benefits and reflect its business nature. It can be seen from the above demarcations that research on the SP industry is yet to go deeper and expand in more dimensions.

1.3.2.2

Classification of the SP Industry

Classification of the SP industry is the foundation of SP industry research. A scientific classification facilitates not only the collection of relevant statistics but also the inclusion of the industry in China’s national statistics. Chinese researchers have conducted preliminary research on the classification of the industry. Lao [20] divided the SP culture industry into public, quasi-public and commercial segments according to the publicity and non-publicity of SP culture products.

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1 Introduction

Zeng et al. [21], referring to the Outline of National Scheme for Scientific Literacy (2006–2010–2020), expounded the legitimacy of SP culture industry research in the context of SP as part of culture and the cultural industries in an attempt to establish a four-quadrant system of SP industry research. Ren et al. [18] believed that the classification of the SP industry should be based on the current situation and future direction of China’s SP development with reference to the classification of the cultural industries provided in China’s National Industries Classification in the light of the intrinsic characteristics of SP activity. In other words, the SP industry should be classified in relation to the classification of the cultural industries. They went on to argue that the core of the SP industry is the market-based provision of SP products and services geared to improving public scientific literacy. Accordingly, they divided the SP industry into four segments: the SP content product industry, the SP service product industry, the SP content product related industry, and the SP service product related industry. Zhang et al. [22] examined SP industry development from the perspective of cultural resources and classified SP resources into historical SP resources and intelligent SP resources. It can be seen from the above literature review that the classification of the SP industry is a dynamic process involving different dimensions. With the rise of knowledge-based society, science, technology, and livelihoods become increasingly intertwined, and the development of SP products and services goes deeper and extends to wider territories in a process that will make the SP industry more diversified as more segments of the industry keep emerging.

1.3.2.3

Main Segments of the SP Industry

As SP has covered more people through more channels and at different levels, the SP industry has taken on an increasing diversity of formats as it interacts with many other different industries. It is important for SP researchers to focus more on the main segments of the industry. CRISP (2010) divided the SP industry into seven major segments based on existing SP products and services (SP exhibition and teaching supplies; SP publishing; SP animation and comics; SP film and TV production; SP games; SP toys; and SP tourism) and carried out a preliminary analysis of the industry’s current situation and challenges.5 Zhou Jianqiang et al. (2010), according to the types of SP organizations and SP products and services, divided the SP industry into six segments (SP exhibition and teaching supplies; SP publishing; SP education; SP toys; SP tourism; and online SP services and resources).6 5

Ren Fujun, Zhang Yizhong, Zhou Jianqiang et al., CAST Report on the Development of the SP Industry during the 12th Five-Year Plan Period, 2010. 6 B. Zhou Jianqiang et al., Research Report on the Development of the Science Popularization Industry, 2010.

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Long et al. [23], based on an in-depth analysis of China’s SP animation and comics market, believed that China still lags behind developed countries in this field and that the main manifestations include fewer publications, lower quality, lack of artistic sophistication, immature industrial chains and underdeveloped profit models. Wu et al. [24] presented a comparison between China and Japan in their animation and comics development and identified China’s weaknesses as including the development model, brand building, content production and talent development, and the corresponding strengths of Japan that China can learn from. Liu et al. [25] examined China’s SP game industry based on a literature review and an online survey to determine its current situation and challenges, argued for the need to develop the industry and proposed policy suggestions to drive the industry.

1.3.2.4

The Relationship Between the For-Profit SP Industry and Non-profit SP Undertakings

The Science Popularization Law stipulates that SP undertakings may be operated under market mechanisms, which legally demarcates the relationship between the SP industry and SP undertakings. The NMLT S&T Development Plan promulgated in 2005 emphasizes the need to: … encourage the development of business oriented popular science activities by relaxing restrictions to allow private and overseas capital to access popular science activities and by formulating preferential policies for establishing diversified investment mechanisms; and to advance the reform of the public good popular science system in order to activate vitality, increase service conscientiousness, and enhance sustainable development capability.

The National Public Literacy Scheme promulgated by the State Council clearly highlights the concept of the ‘for-profit SP industry’ and requires ‘formulating policies and measures to foster the SP market, support the for-profit SP industry, and drive the development of the SP culture industry’. In 2010, the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee set the guideline for promoting both public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings and further pointed out the direction of development of the SP industry. Against this backdrop, scholars have explored the relationship between for-profit SP undertakings and public SP undertakings. Ren Fujun et al. (2010) examined the relationship between SP undertakings and the SP industry in terms of their respective functions, properties, purposes and tasks.7 They argued that public SP undertakings are meant to conduct not-for-profit SP activities by providing SP public services (including goods) as a public function assigned or encouraged by the state, and those for-profit SP undertakings, which constitute the SP industry, are meant to provide consumers with SP products and services that meet SP demand under market mechanisms. The fundamental task of SP 7

Ren Fujun, Zhang Yizhong, Zhou Jianqiang et al., CAST Report on the Development of the SP Industry during the 12th Five-Year Plan Period, 2010.

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1 Introduction

undertakings is to adhere to the principles of charity, fairness, equality, inclusiveness and convenience and to join forces, including with the public and private sectors, to establish an SP service system covering all citizens, in which SP programmes target different groups, such as juniors, migrant workers, urban workers, urban residents and public servants. SP undertakings provide citizens with basic SP public services and safeguard their basic SP rights. In contrast, the fundamental task of the SP industry is to leverage the market mechanism to optimize the allocation of SP resources, improve the supply of SP products and services, supplement the weaknesses of public SP undertakings, promote SP development, and meet diversified and more specific SP demands. Public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings are mutually reinforcing and develop together. The two can be integrated with the focus placed on the development of the former and the social performance of the latter in order to inject a new dose of energy into China’s SP development. Public SP undertakings emphasize the public nature of SP, and their main challenges are the high cost and low efficiency that have characterized SP activities organized by government departments at various levels over many years. The SP industry also has a public nature, which is determined by the peculiarity of SP products, which are closely related to the scientific aspects of everyday life. Therefore, the SP industry has to be beneficial to the public, which is the minimum and basic requirement for the activity of any SP businesses; in other words, no SP products or services shall spread pseudoscientific and anti-scientific information or unwholesome content. Gu et al. [26] introduced the public good theory and analysed why public SP undertakings and private SP undertakings should develop together and how they can do so, which to some extent clarified the theoretical foundation of their development. They argued that SP resources are quasi-public goods. For example, rural SP and SP festivals are goods with a fairly strong public nature, and SP games are less public goods. If products in the SP culture industry are seen as a sequence of quasi-public goods arranged in descending order of their scientific content and in ascending order of their other content, the sequence also shows a descending order in public nature, in which SP venues represent a typical SP good with a strong public nature and sci-fi works such as Astro Boy are SP products of a weak public nature. In general, in both SP resources and quasi-public SP products in the SP culture industry we can see coordination between government and the market and between public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings. Handy examples include: • SP festivals organized by the government but with participation by for-profit SP undertakings; • SP policies encouraging the development of the SP industry; • SP products and services offered in the market that supplement the public SP goods. All of these represent the integration of public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings. On the more specific levels, these three above also have fundamental differences in the integration of public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings and represent two fundamental types of integration.

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The first type is integration of approaches, or internal integration, as is the case in the first and second examples. In internal integration, public SP undertakings are not merely about the provision of SP public goods by the government but the act of the government coordinating the non-government sector to improve SP services. For internal integration, while for-profit SP undertakings follow the market mechanism, the government also plays an important role in guiding and supporting the SP industry. This in essence is a win–win integration of public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings as two approaches to SP. The second type of integration is the external integration of public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings as two distinct categories of entities, in which the former is dominated by the government and the latter is dominated by the nongovernment sector, as is the case in the third example. These two types of integration supplement and reinforce each other and develop side by side. Based on the above analysis, in driving their integration, it is necessary to choose supply strategies according to the different purposes of public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings. For both internal integration and external integration, there should be a clear understanding of the respective roles played by public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings and by the government and the market. Overemphasis on some aspects at the cost of other aspects will undermine SP industry prosperity and development. This is because the three parties—the public, the market and the government—have needed the integration of public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings, which, furthermore, have all the enabling conditions. Analysis based on the public good theory shows that it is not only necessary but also fully possible to integrate public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings and that, in driving the integration, efforts should be made on both fronts of internal integration and external integration in order to advance SP work and the development of SP resources. Zhang [27], from a historical policy perspective, examined China’s policy evolution behind the emergence of the SP industry and observed that, under academic advocacy and policy support, for-profit SP undertaking has become a general and stable concept term, and that it has become the consensus to develop public SP undertakings dominated by the government and for-profit SP undertakings dominated by the market side by side. Based on comprehensive analysis and comparison between the SP industry and the cultural industries, Zhang accurately demarcated them qualitatively and quantitatively and concluded that the SP industry is part of the cultural industries and is entitled to all policies for the cultural industries. Yang [28], examining the necessity to develop the SP industry with a focus on modern S&T venues, discussed the policy basis for developing the industry and pointed out that the purpose is to allow venue operators to derive profit from SP products and services, to meet consumers’ demand, and to increase public scientific literacy. Yang emphasized the public orientation of such venues and argued that for-profit SP undertakings help better support public SP services.

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1.3.2.5

1 Introduction

Driving Forces of the SP Industry

For any industry to develop, there must be certain well-coordinated driving forces, and the same is also true for the development of the SP industry. Ren et al. [29] looked into the system of driving forces of the SP industry. They classified the driving forces into primary, secondary and tertiary forces: market demand is the primary driving force, profit is the secondary driving force, and innovation is the tertiary driving force. They observed that the SP industry is here to meet demand and it develops with demand. The knowledge-based development of society creates a massive demand for SP, that demand is from the state, society and the public, and it constitutes the primary driving force of the SP industry. This demand represents a vast, bourgeoning market with profitable business opportunities, providing the secondary driving force of the industry. Innovation is the tertiary driving force by delivering SP products and services in more efficient ways, thus continuously driving the growth of the SP industry. Xiao et al. [30] examined the current situation and trends in the mobile internetbased SP market by analysing the structure and characteristics of the mobile communications industry and the SP demands of different user groups, including teenagers, migrant workers and white-collar workers, and concluded that the market is driven by demand, oriented to the market and enabled by technology, in addition to identifying factors and new opportunities expected to drive the market’s further development, including the development of mobile devices and apps, the integration of different carrier networks, and the entry of the private sector into the telecom industry. Liu [31] argued for SP as an industry in a market economy and, based on that argument, proposed and analysed the fundamental conditions and norms for the innovation-driven development of the industry. Li et al. [32, 33] used the triple helix model of innovation to analyse the innovation contributions of government, industry and academia to the development of the SP industry. They argued that government is the principal actor of institutional innovation of the industry and plays an important role in improving the SP innovation ecosystem and optimizing the SP market environment; that SP enterprises are the principal actor of SP service innovation and a key factor for the flourishing of the SP market and will further consolidate the SP service system and the industry’s foundation of innovation; and that academia is the principal actor of SP product innovation and plays an important role in knowledge creation, talent development and theoretical research and will provide a key support for the innovation-driven development of the SP industry. The study cited Anhui Association of Science and Technology as an example and gave a detailed analysis of the innovation contribution of government to the development of the SP industry. Song et al. [34] analysed the market need and marketing approach of the SP industry with the focus on children’s theme parks. According to the Indoor Children’s Play Centres Development Report (2013–2015), China had 220 million children aged from 1 to 12, accounting for 15% of the national population, that the number would increase by 16 million annually by 2025, that spending on children accounted for approximately 30% of household expenditure, and that the children’s industry was

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worth approximately CNY1 trillion. The study saw a golden period of explosive growth unfolding for children’s play centres and observed that it would bring market opportunities for the SP industry as well.

1.3.2.6

Challenges Facing the SP Industry

Problems facing China’s SP industry and how to address them are key topics that have been examined by Chinese SP scholars, who have produced a sizable amount of literature on those topics, using research methods including field studies, policy analyses, case studies and comparative studies, presenting multidimensional discussions of the challenges. On the basis of a survey of China’s overall SP industry, Ren et al. [18] systematically examined the key problems facing the industry: • Outdated concepts: products are still emphasized over services and public SP undertakings over for-profit SP undertakings • Lack of innovation: innovation is insufficient in content, service and business model • Underdeveloped policies, regulations and mechanisms and weak operability and implementation • Insufficient institutional and mechanism innovations: there is not a regulator responsible for planning and managing the SP industry, leading to a lack of guidance and oversight on the industry’s development; • Absence of relevant systems such as certification and accreditation systems, an SP IP protection system, and codes and standards for SP products and services; • An urgent need of high-level managerial talent; • Outdated theoretical research. Mo et al. [35] summarized and analysed the problems facing China’s SP industry policy: • China’s SP industry policies are scattered in different laws, regulations and policy documents are not systematic enough; • A dedicated policy programme for promoting the industry is yet to emerge, so that the public does not have a clear understanding of the significance of the industry; • A favourable environment for the industry is yet to emerge; • There is also a lack of mechanisms that coordinate different functions and effective operational plans. In the view of Mo Yang et al., the industry still faces a lot of challenges, including the absence of policies to manage and plan the industry; limited tax incentives; an absence of mechanisms to encourage investment and give financing support; a lack of SP talent policies that cover the entire industry; and standards for entry into the industry. These limitations have constrained the sound development of the SP industry.

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Some researchers conducted case studies to identify problems facing the SP industry in different regions. Yang [36] analysed the factors that hindered the development of the SP industry based on a case study of SP education bases in Shandong. He thought that: • China’s SP industry lagged far behind market demand; • Popular science books account for only a tiny fraction of books published in the country annually; • There is a lack of SP journals with large circulations, and many journals still operate at a loss; • SP venues mostly focus on entertainment and exotic experiences and some even contain pseudoscientific or vulgar content and fail to effectively perform their SP and education functions. • Taking a closer look at the issues, Yang identified a number of reasons: • There is not an adequate understanding of the SP industry; • The mechanism to coordinate policies for the SP industry lags behind; • Incentive, financial and tax policies for the industry are yet to be improved; • There is not yet an effective mechanism to develop SP talent. Zhang et al. [37], taking the agricultural SP industry in Meizhou as an example, analysed the current situation and identified a number of problems facing the industry: • • • • •

The agricultural SP industry was not yet fully featured; It did not have sufficient funding or a skilled workforce; The industry was not well supported by technology; Policies for the industry were not well targeted or coordinated. Some researchers conducted comparative studies to identify problems. Pan et al. [38], taking S&T museums as an example, introduced foreign companies specializing in planning popular science exhibitions, drew a comparison between China and overseas markets in popular science exhibitions, identified the gaps between them, and summarized overseas practices that China’s SP industry could draw upon.

Wei [39] and Zhang et al. [40] analysed China’s SP industry development from the tax policy perspective and held that China’s tax policy was not supportive enough for the SP industry and the country was yet to put in place a comprehensive incentive tax system for the industry with an emphasis on policy continuity and clear goals. They analysed the tax incentives for the industry in four developed countries (the US, the UK, Australia and Japan) and identified China’s areas of weakness in supporting the industry, including lack of targeted and systematic policies, lack of sophistication of tax incentives, which were confined to direct tax exemptions and reductions; and insufficiency of tax incentives.

1.3 Literature Review of SP Industry Research

1.3.2.7

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Measures to Promote the SP Industry

Existing research on measures to promote the SP industry emphasizes the need to take a combination of effective measures. Reflecting the different factors underlying their understanding of the SP industry and its challenges, researchers also differ in the measures they propose to drive the industry’s development. Lao [20], after offering a definition of the SP culture industry, divided the industry into three segments (public, quasi-public and commercial), expounded 10 relationships relating to the industry’s development, proposed two models of the industry’s development (micro and macro), and gave 17 policy suggestions for the industry: • Adhering to economic development as the central task and meet people’s evergrowing material and cultural needs; • Fostering operating entities in the SP culture market; • Improving regulations for the SP culture market, improving the IP protection system, and stepping up a clampdown on IP infringements; • Establishing a sound policy system and regulatory framework to promote exportoriented enterprises and production; • Establishing SP culture industry websites and demonstration bases; • Strengthening macro-control and formulating master plans; • Fostering major cultural industry groups; • Establishing diversified financing channels; • Launching a talent development programme for the industry; • Formulating policies and regulations geared to protecting the national SP culture industry; • Establishing industry associations to strengthen self-regulatory management and orderly competition; • Promoting SP culture industry research and development; • Advancing reform of state-owned SP culture enterprises; • Gradually relaxing policy for entry into the market; • Fostering key SP culture industry projects for demonstration and guidance; • Integrating the SP culture industry and tourism; • Accelerating the development of modern logistics enterprises in the cultural industries. Zhou Jianqiang (2010), based on an analysis of China’s policy environment of the SP industry, proposed seven policy measures to support the industry: • Strengthening policy guidance and fostering a favourable environment for the development of the industry; • Encouraging collaboration to develop and share SP resources and optimizing the industry’s structure; • Formulating market entry policy and strengthening market oversight; • Increasing investment and expanding financing channels; • Establishing and improving incentive mechanisms; • Implementing tax incentives;

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• Stepping up SP talent development.8 Ren et al. [18], following an analysis of the main tasks of developing the SP industry, proposed nine policy measures to promote the industry: • Maintaining a correct positioning and changing thinking with a focus on strengthening service awareness in the SP industry; • Supporting R&D and encouraging innovation by introducing policy incentives for SP enterprises and service providers to step up R&D and supporting SP enterprises with necessary conditions to establish enterprise technology centres or engineering technology centres; • Formulating and implementing relevant policies, laws and regulations to put the industry’s development within a rigorous regulatory framework; • Formulating and improving mechanisms to coordinate resources and efforts to promote the industry’s development; • Increasing fiscal support and expanding financing channels by setting up earmarked funds and supporting SP products, services and projects in prioritized areas; • Expanding the areas of SP services and driving demand in the SP market by making full use of networks, fostering a system integrating different marketing networks across sectors, and encouraging for-profit SP undertakings to diversify into more SP areas, foster new business models and develop a modern marketing system for SP products and services; • Putting in place a sound market system geared to optimizing resource allocation, promoting the development of SP industry clusters across the country, and designating a number of key SP enterprises and encouraging them to develop generic technologies and marketing mechanisms towards the establishment of an SP public service platform; • Strengthening research to theoretically support the SP industry by increasing surveys on SP demand in the SP industry, releasing regular SP industry development reports and guiding the industry’s sustainable development; • Strengthening IP protection for SP innovations and works by establishing SP IP licensing and benefit-sharing mechanisms, protecting the lawful rights and interests of SP practitioners and establishing an SP IP remediation mechanism. Ren et al. [41] analysed the urgency for China to put in place a comprehensive SP industry policy system, examined the existing policies for the industry, identified problems present in those policies, and proposed policy suggestions in terms of regulatory improvement, policymaking and policy implementation. Mo et al. [35], based on their analysis of the existing problems of China’s SP industry policies, offered nine policy suggestions for promoting the industry: • Including the SP industry in the national strategy for emerging industries and formulating the corresponding plans;

8

Zhou Jianqiang et al., Research Report on Science Popularization Industry, 2010.

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• Expanding government procurement and outsourcing of SP services to drive demand; • Identifying prioritized segments and increasing support for them; • Developing innovative enterprises, establishing R&D centres and advancing the SP innovation system; • Establishing SP industry demonstration bases and zones and fostering SP industry clusters; • Implementing major projects driving the development of the industry; • Supporting and fostering a number of competitive SP enterprises and brands; • Improving and implementing tax incentive policies for the industry; • Strengthening IP protection in the industry. In addition, they proposed: • Accelerating safeguard measures to accelerate the industry’s development; • Establishing SP industry management mechanisms and operating mechanisms compatible with the market economy; • Stepping up fiscal support of prioritized segments capable of driving the industry as a whole; • Improving the investment and financing environment, expanding investment and financing channels, and establishing a well-guided diversified investment mechanism involving different sectors; • Fostering a strong SP workforce and industry leaders; • Strengthening SP industry public services. Some researchers believe that tax policy can play an important role in promoting the development of the SP industry. Zhang et al. [42] examined China’s criteria for SP publications in its tax incentive policy for the SP industry, discussed the role of tax incentives in promoting the SP industry and public SP undertakings, identified the main problems and offered response suggestions. Wei et al. [39] held that, in using tax policy to promote the SP industry, it is important to clarify prioritized segments, make regionally differentiated policies and offer tax cuts for specific consumer groups. Wei et al. [43] made a comparative study of the SP industry tax policies in China and the US and identified three implications for China’s tax policy for the SP industry: • Establishing an independent and complete tax incentive policy system for the SP industry; • Providing incentive tax policy for for-profit SP undertakings; • Differentiating regions and enterprises of different sizes for tax incentives. Zhang et al. [40] reviewed tax incentive policies for cultural industries, including the SP industry, in developed countries and gave three suggestions on China’s SP industry tax policy: • Differentiating tax policy design; • Encouraging capital and technology investment;

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• Encouraging domestic SP consumption and SP exports. Some researchers have made recommendations based on case analyses in the light of the development of the SP industry in different regions of China. Zhang et al. [37, 44], using the agricultural SP industry in Meizhou as an example, made recommendations on accelerating the local industry, including establishing a funding mechanism, strengthening technological innovation, and encouraging and guiding areas with necessary conditions to establish specialized agricultural SP bases. Li et al. [45], in the light of the development of the SP industry in Hebei, proposed measures to develop the industry. Zhang [46] analysed the necessity and feasibility of fostering and developing the SP industry in Shanghai and proposed measures to develop the industry during the 13th Five-year Plan period, including fostering market participants, stimulating demand, concentrating industry talent, expanding financing channels, establishing industry bases, constructing service platforms and optimizing industry policy.

1.3.2.8

Case Research on the SP Industry

Case research is a microscopic approach, based on the analysis and exposition of specific cases, to get a more nuanced understanding of real-world industrial development. It is a widely used method of empirical research in industrial economics and involves case analysis on specific typical examples such as enterprises, research institutes, industry parks, industrial chains and key products or services. This research method has always been adopted in research on China’s SP industry development by looking at the specific issues or links of the industry in individual cases. Ma et al. [47], by way of a historical review of the classic Japanese manga series Astro Boy (or Mighty Atom by its original name), analysed its commercial and cultural success and offered a reflection on the integration of SP and industry. The study attributed the success of Astro Boy to four key factors: envisioning scientific development by drawing inspiration from traditional culture; expanding reach to the audience by adapting the manga series into anime; working out from the studio to society by way of commercialization; embracing internationalization and becoming a cultural and industrial symbol. The study’s implications for China’s SP comic and animation industry were that, although China has a profound traditional culture, that culture is not well exploited in a way that is abreast of the changing times with the future in mind. After analysing the factors contributing to the success of Astro Boy, the study concluded that SP should be integrated with culture in a way that is not only informative and educational but also engaging, entertaining and inspiring, which should be the philosophical basis on which to foster and grow the SP industry. It should be integrated with the cultural industries to spread the scientific culture as an important advanced culture and play a full role in leading the cultural industries. Advanced cultures are capable of not only leading the cultural industries and social cultures but also promoting industrial development.

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Zhou [48], using the inaugural Beijing Science Carnival held in September 2011 as a case, analysed the event’s implications for SP activities: • The key to public engagement in SP is the matching of SP resources where the market mechanism is the most effective means in terms of resource development, allocation, sharing and utilization; • The human factor is the soul of SP; • It is important to conduct SP in the light of local conditions; • Enterprises have the legal obligation to participate in SP; • It is imperative to increase the appeal and competitiveness of SP products by switching to the market mechanism, embarking on industrialization, and encouraging for-profit SP undertakings with an emphasis on service orientation. Zhou et al. [49], using the Wuhu Science Popularization Industry Park as a case, analysed the problems facing the industry park and proposed a number of suggestions. They held that the park had achieved significant development but still left a lot to be desired in meeting public demand. The main problems and issues were as follows: • The park lacked an administrative organization. It was still in the early stage of development and was put under the centralized administration of the Administrative Commission of Wuhu High-Tech Zone without having an administrative organization of its own, which made it difficult to innovate in park administration; • The industrial clustering effect was not significant. Wuhu High-tech Zone hosts enterprises in similar industries in which the limited SP resources lack coordination and cooperation and did not form their unique industrial advantages. Therefore, the park was yet to form a full-featured SP industrial cluster; • There were limited platforms connecting SP exhibitions. The existing platforms were underdeveloped and unable to effectively mobilize stakeholders and develop resources. In view of these problems, the study offered the following suggestions in response: • Give full scope to the industrial concentration effect and build leading enterprises; • Improve the government support system and expand market channels; • Improve the social service system to provide a favourable environment for SP entrepreneurship and business growth; • Increase investment in SP public service and R&D platforms; • Explore innovative ways of publicity and establish an industrial cluster; • Accelerate the organizational development of the park and advance scientific management. Liu et al. [50], using Wuhu Popular Science Products Expo as a case, analysed the event’s editions over the years in terms of theme, scale, turnover, activities, characteristics and significance. Their main findings included the following: • Policy support and government initiative were decisive factors underlying the creation and development of the event, but the industry was not yet well developed and was not supported by comprehensive policy measures such as tax and

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financing support and should seek further development by leveraging policy for other relevant industries; • Economic support was an important factor underpinning the event’s development, driven by China’s robust economic development and increasing investment in SP undertakings, which stimulated the development of the SP industry and the event. However, the SP industry still accounted for only a tiny proportion of the national economy, and most SP enterprises were small in scale. The first six editions of the event recorded a cumulative turnover of only CNY2 billion. The SP industry as a whole was weak; • Market demand and social recognition were driving forces of the development of the event. China’s rising public scientific literacy fostered a massive SP market and drove the development of the event as well as the SP industry. However, the event was still not well known and lacking in funding and social collaboration. Bao [51] observed that the public communication of S&T advances not only facilitates innovation and expands the utilization of S&T resources but also accelerates the development of public SP undertakings and the SP industry. On the basis of summarizing previous studies on the topic, he clarified the definition and role of SP, analysed the advantages of Zhongguancun High-Tech Park in disseminating S&T advances, identified problems facing SP in China with reference to the Chinese Academy of Sciences tour of major S&T achievements, and proposed specific SP strategies. Some researchers have examined the development of local SP industries at the municipal or provincial levels. Zhou [52] wrote a research report on the development of the SP industry in Anhui, which summarized the situation, strengths and characteristics of the industry in the province. Liu [53] conducted a survey of SP resources and tourism in Henan using a combination of methods including analytical hierarchy processes, fuzzy mathematics and multiple linear regression for a comprehensive assessment of the industry. The study mainly covered the classification of SP resources, assessments of regional enrichment of SP resources, assessments of individual SP resources, assessments of regional potential for SP industry development, assessments of SP industry competitiveness, and policy recommendations to develop SP tourism. Zhang [46] analysed the current situation and conditions of the SP industry in Shanghai and proposed the overall approach to fostering and developing the industry during the 13th Five-Year Plan period, including development concepts, strategic goals, prioritized areas and policy recommendations. Some researchers have studied the different segments of the SP industry and explored issues facing the industry’s development. Wang [54] discussed the significance and practice of the integrated development of new media, animation and SP education in the era of the new media. Qi [55], using the business model canvas to examine the Journal of UFO Research in a case study with a view to analysing the business difficulties and resources of SP journals, proposed exploiting and utilizing core resources to push business transformation and participation in the SP industry.

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1.3.3 Review of Domestic and Overseas Research Progress in the research on the SP industry in the eight areas listed in Sect. 1.3.2 shows that SP industry research has been carried out on multiple dimensions with a series of research results. According to CNKI, more than 400 papers and reports on the SP industry were published in the period from January 2001 to December 2017. Those studies effectively supported China’s SP industry policymaking. However, it should also be noted that research on the industry is far from meeting the national need to develop the SP industry or the need of society and the general public for the development of the industry. Looking forward, research on the SP industry needs to deepen in the following aspects.

1.3.3.1

International Comparative Research Will Be Conducted on a Full Scale

With increasing international exchanges between the business community and the SP community, there has been a rising trend of China’s SP industry going international, driven by international collaborations and international exchange platforms. This will provide a valuable opportunity for the development of international comparative research on the SP industry. By comparing the SP industries in different countries in terms of classification, organization, policy, industry service and industry park development, such comparative research can identify common challenges and industry growth patterns and unveil effective mechanisms and policy practices that will benefit the industry’s development. This is a high-priority area of research that will shed valuable light on China’s SP industry development and internationalization.

1.3.3.2

Basic Theoretical Research on the SP Industry Will Go Deeper

The SP industry’s development cannot go on without being guided by theory. The research to date has produced preliminary work on relevant theoretical issues, including the SP industry’s definition, classification, dynamics and segments, but is insufficient to provide a substantial and effective theoretical support for the development of the industry. The development of the SP industry calls for breakthroughs on a number of important theoretical issues: • The relationship between public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings needs to be further elucidated, and how for-profit SP undertakings relate to the cultural industries, the service industry and the knowledge industry needs to be clarified; • The division of the SP industry into different segments needs to be further examined and validated;

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• The industrial chain composition of the SP industry and its optimization road map need to be scrutinized, and the value chain of SP products and services needs to be illuminated; • The market demand in the SP industry needs to be defined; • The components of the SP industry need to be detailed, and how they relate to and interact with each other needs to be made clear; • The industry’s standards system and certification system should be examined; • Investigation is also needed into important basic theoretical questions, such as how the SP industry fits into the national system of industry classification and the statistical system of the national economy, how to theoretically guide statistical compilation for the SP industry, how to develop the industry organizationally, how to establish a self-regulatory mechanism for the industry, and how to establish alliances in the industry. 1.3.3.3

Research Will Be Widely Conducted on the Integrated Development of the SP Industry and the Cultural Industries

With the promulgation and implementation of the Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Deepening Reform of the Cultural System and Promoting the Great Development and Flourishing of Social Culture, further promoting the great development and flourishing of the cultural industries and promoting the integration of S&T with culture has become an important national task in developing the cultural industries. Developing the SP industry is an inherent requirement in developing the cultural industries. However, due to different reasons, SP and culture have not been well integrated in China, and the effort to integrate the SP industry with the cultural industries is still facing extensive theoretical issues. It is imperative to conduct research on a range of related issues, including the foundation of the integration of SP and culture, the inherent mechanism of integrated development of the SP industry and the cultural industries, the mechanism, organizational system and road map for integration of the SP industry and the cultural industries, and institutional innovation.

1.3.3.4

There Will Be More Quantitative Research on the SP Industry

Currently, there is almost no quantitative research or statistical analysis of the SP industry. The main underlying reasons are that there is a serious lack of researchers and the industry, which started rather late, has not accumulated much statistical data or put in place practical statistical indicators, making it difficult to conduct data analysis or build relevant mathematical models. Therefore, it is very necessary to quantitatively analyse the SP industry and establish China’s SP statistical indicator system. As the SP industry is emphasized at both national and local levels, and with the accumulation of statistical data, it is expected that research on the industry will gradually introduce quantitative methods of analysis.

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Researchers have conducted some case studies on the SP industry, but that is far from enough. With the development of the industry, it is necessary to conduct indepth case studies on different segments of the industry. On the one hand, diagnostic investigation into such questions is much needed; on the other hand, researchers’ findings will help inform policymaking and guide the industry’s development. The existing SP policy research has been basically confined to qualitative research, such as policy surveys, because of the lack of relevant data required to examine the issues quantitatively. Therefore, it is an important task to empirically validate the theories about the SP industry and measure and assess the industry both qualitatively and quantitatively.

1.3.3.5

Business and Academic Interest in the SP Market and Industry Will Increase

Innovation in SP content and services will inevitably drive the emergence and development of new segments of the SP industry and expand the industry, which, together with the requirements for public scientific literacy in China’s drive to become an innovative nation, will bring extensive opportunities for the SP market. This will create a huge demand from policymakers and market participants for forecasts and analyses of the SP industry and market. There is not yet any annual research report offering analyses and forecasts of China’s SP market demand and industry development. As the need increases for scientific, targeted policymaking on the SP industry and for insights into the industry and market, business and academic communities will pay more attention to research on SP demand forecasting and market analysis.

1.3.3.6

There Will Be More Systematic Policy Measures to Support the SP Industry

While some studies have been conducted on SP policy, they were not conducted in a systematic way and were lacking in depth. As China gears up to develop the cultural industries in general, a whole set of well-thought-out policy measures will be needed to promote the SP industry, in particular. This will require a systematic examination of the country’s existing policies for the industries and assessments of their effectiveness in supporting the development of the SP industry. Therefore, wide-ranging and thorough research will be needed to analyse the theories, practices and policies of the SP industry, covering topics including the SP tax incentive system, the SP funding system, the SP earmarked funding system, the system of SP industry demonstration bases, the SP industry entry system, the SP industry investment and financing system, the SP industry innovation support system, SP industry certification and accreditation, SP industry standards and norms, the SP IP rights system, and so on.

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References 1. Jin W (1986) Greeting the advent of knowledge society. Sociol Stud 6:1–10 2. Yang X, Gou X (2005) The significance of different human nature assumptions in improving management performance. J Northwest A&F Univ (Soc Sci Ed) 5:86–98 3. Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (2008–2017) China science popularization statistics, 2008–2017 editions. Scientific and Technical Documentation Press, Beijing 4. Hesmondhalgh D (2016) The cultural Industries, 3rd edn (trans: Zhang F). Renmin University of China Press, Beijing 5. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1982) Cultural industries: a challenge for the future of culture. UNESCO 6. O’Connor (1999) The definition of ‘cultural industries’ [EB/OL]. http://www.pedrobendass olli.com/pesquisa/icc1.pdf.1999 7. Pratt AC (2000) New media, the new economy and new spaces. Geoforum 31(4):425–436 8. van Graan M (2006) Towards an understanding of the current nature and scope of the creative industries in the Western Cape, paper 1, Western Cape Micro-economic Development Strategy 9. Potthast J (2009) Re-thinking science–industry relations along the interactive model. The case of academic spin-offs. Discussion paper, WZB Berlin Social Science Center 10. Moore I (2014) Cultural and creative industries concept—a historical perspective. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 110:738–746 11. Cunningham S (2005) From cultural to creative industries: theories, industry, and policy implications. Int J Cult Policy 11(1):25–26 12. Ooi C-S, Stöber B (2011) Creativity unbound-policies, government and the creative industries. Cult Unbound 3:113–117 13. Howkins J (2001) The creative economy: how people make money from ideas. Penguin Books, London, p 30 14. Caves RE (2004) Creative industries. Xinhua Press, Beijing 15. Chuluunbaatar EO, Luh DB, Kung SF (2014) The role of cluster and social capital in cultural and creative industries development. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 109:552–557 16. Sung TK (2015) Application of information technology in creative economy: manufacturing vs. creative industries. Technol Forecast Soc Change 96:111–120 17. Lao H (2004) A strategic study on the development of popular science in China. Sci Technol Rev 8:55–59 18. Ren F, Zhang Y, Liu X (2011) Research on science popularization industry development relevant issues. Stud Sci Pop (3):5–13 19. Li L, Sun W, Tang S (2012) A research on functions and characteristics of the science popularization industry. Stud Sci Pop 7(3):21–29 20. Lao H (2005) Study on the strategic framework for the development of China’s SP cultural industry. Stud Sci Sci (2):213–219 21. Zeng G, Gu H (2010) Thoughts on science popularization—culture industry. Stud Sci Pop 5(1):5–11 22. Zhang Y, Gao X (2017) On the industrial development of science popularization—from the perspective of cultural resources. Technol Ind Across Straits (8):107–110 23. Long J, Guo J, Wu D (2010) Study on the problems and suggestions for the development of science popularization cartoon industry. Stud Sci Pop 5(5):13–18 24. Wu D, Yao Y (2011) A comparative study on the development of animated cartoons for science popularization in China and Japan. Stud Sci Pop 6(1):22–26 25. Liu Y, Fei G, Jiang K (2011) A study on online-game science popularization and its industrial development. Stud Sci Pop 6(6):34–38 26. Gu H, Zeng G (2012) The integration of science popularization enterprises and the science popularization industry: a study based on the theory of public goods. Stud Sci Pop 7(1):23–28 27. Zhang J (2014) The legitimacy of cultural industry policies applying to science popularization industry. Stud Sci Pop (2):18–22

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28. Yang D (2015) Discussion on the development of the SP industry of modern science and technology museums. Sci Technol Econ Inn Mong (13):25–26 29. Fujun R, Xie X (2011) Three ‘ignore-nots’ in the development of the SP industry. Study Times 7 30. Xiao Y, Wang R, Wang Y et al (2011) Research on the development and trend of the mobile science communication industry. Stud Sci Pop 2(S1):90–97 31. Liu L (2013) The communication between science and public in the context of market economy: basic conditions and specifications of industrial innovation and development in science popularization. Stud Sci Pop (2):15–20 32. Li L, Sun W, Tang S (2014) Triple helix based study on the coordination innovation mechanism of the popular science industry. Sci Technol Ind 14(5):17–20 33. Li L, Sun W, Tang S (2014) Analysis of innovation contribution of Anhui Association for Science and Technology in the development of the science popularization industry—based on the perspective of triple helix theory. Econ Res Guide 10:40–42 34. Song X, Liu M (2016) On the marketing path for the science popularization industry from the perspective of the rapid development of children’s theme parks. Mod SOE Res 7(Part 1):218– 219 35. Mo Y, Zhang L, Wen C (2014) On policy for promoting the science popularization industry. Stud Sci Pop (5):41–48 36. Yang G (2010) Analysis of problems in the development of the for-profit science popularization industry and research on countermeasures—thoughts arising from the current situation of science popularization education bases. Stud Sci Pop 5(1):15–19 37. Zhang L, Ye X, Huang J (2015) Development status, problems and countermeasures of the agricultural science popularization in Meizhou City. Anhui Agric Sci Bull (9):26–27 38. Pan W, Chen F (2014) On the current situation and development of the science popularization industry in China. Ke Xue Zhi Xun (1):11–12 39. Wei J, Qian C, Guo J (2015) Development of the science popularization industry and tax policy options. Econ Manag (11):208–210 40. Zhang W, Guo J, Wei J (2016) The reference of tax experiences of the developed countries for the Chinese science popularization industry. Forum Sci Technol China (4):90–95 41. Rei F, Ren W, Zhang Y (2013) Research on policy systems to promote science popularization industry development. Stud Sci Pop 2(1):5–12 42. Zhang Y, Ren F (2010) A survey on identified institution of the publications for science popularization in China. Stud Sci Pop 5(3):63–67 43. Wei J, Sang Z, Guo J (2016) A comparative study on the tax policies of science popularizationrelated industries between China and the United States. Reform Open (1):49–50 44. Zhang L (2016) Problems and path selection of agricultural science popularization industry development in Meizhou City. South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 45. Li C, Cui H (2015) Development measures of the science popularization cultural industry in Hebei Province. Ke Ji Feng 8(Part II):5–6 46. Zhang R (2017) Research on the thinking of cultivating and developing the science popularization industry in Shanghai during the 13th Five-Year Plan period. Shanghai Econ (1):32–40 47. Ma L, Zeng G (2009) Rethinking Astro Boy: a classic piece of science popularization culture. Stud Sci Pop (3):44–50 48. Zhou L (2012) How the science popularization industry goes to the market: some thoughts on the First Beijing Science Carnival. Stud Sci Pop 7(1):29–31 49. Zhou R, Pan L (2012) A study on the development and countermeasures of industrial park themes in science popularization: taking Wuhu, Anhui as an example. Stud Sci Pop 7(3):60–63 50. Liu L, Zhou R, Liu G (2015) A preliminary research on the development of the China (Wuhu) Popular Science Products Expo. Stud Sci Pop 4(2):78–85 51. Bao M (2017) Study of the countermeasures of science popularization of high-tech achievements in high-tech parks: a case study of Zhongguancu. J Hefei Univ Technol (Soc Sci) (3):45–49

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52. Zhou J (2015) Survey and research report on the development of the science popularization industry in Anhui Province. Sci Technol Assoc Forum (2):40–43 53. Liu X (2016) Classification, evaluation and development research of science popularization tourism resources in Henan Province. Henan University, Kaifeng 54. Wang R (2017) Research on the significance and practice of the integrated development of new media, animation and science popularization education. Sichuan Drama 3:79–81 55. Qi L (2017) Research on transformation of SP journals based on business model canvas— taking the Wormhole Space Project of the Journal of UFO Research as an example. View Publ 3(1):17–20

Chapter 2

Basic Theory of the SP Industry

Abstract Industries are the sum of social organizations engaged in the production of material goods, social goods and intellectual goods for the purpose of meeting human needs and promoting the comprehensive development of humans. The SP industry is the sum of the activities of providing SP products and SP services to the state, society and the public on the basis of market mechanisms and their related activities. The characteristics of the SP industry can be grasped in terms of the characteristics of the service industry, the cultural industries and the knowledge industry to which it is related. According to the forms of the core SP products and their ways of production, the SP industry may be divided into SP content products, SP service products, SP content-related products, and SP service-related products. The SP industry is driven by three forces: demand, the market (economic interests) and innovation. Management, technology, personnel, production, marketing, resources, information and knowledge are the main elements of the SP industry. In developing the industry, it is important to combine social benefits and economic benefits, promote both public and for-profit SP undertakings, pursue overall progress while implementing targeted measures, and balance government guidance and market regulation.

2.1 Definition of the SP Industry 2.1.1 The Meaning of Industry Industry in China’s cultural tradition literally means private property (that is, owned properties such as land, housing and factories). In industrial economics, the industry is the product of the social division of labour. It is the inevitable result of the continuous development of social productivity, the sum of corporate economic activities with some similar attributes, and the meso-economy, which falls between the macro-economy and the micro-economy. Industry has many layers of meaning, which continuously evolve and develop with the development of social productivity. According to modern industrial economics, ‘industries’ refers to all industries of the national economy, which form a structured system composed of units of economic and social activities of the same nature in the national economy. They © China Science and Technology Press 2021 F. Ren et al., Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3720-9_2

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include all fields, including agriculture, industry and services, and each industry comprises enterprises of the same type [1]. Both international and Chinese standards of industrial classification classify some non-economic sectors or non-enterprise entities as industries. For example, the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), promulgated by the United Nations in 1988, includes public administration, defence, education, and social and personal services as industries. The Stipulation on the Three Economic Sectors released by the National Bureau of Statistics in May 2013 clearly states that the ‘tertiary’ sector refers to industries outside the primary and secondary sectors, including transportation, warehousing, postal services, education, health, social security, social welfare, public administration and social organizations, international organizations, and so on. A deep understanding of the nature of industries can also find answers from human needs, as well as the relationships between humans and nature, between humans and society, and between individual humans. Industries are not a purely natural occurrence. Industries have come about as the result of human activity in their efforts to meet people’s diversified needs as an organized society and profoundly reflect the social relationships. They show the natural essence and human essence of social and economic relationships and manifest the tension of human activity [2]. First, industries reflect the relationship between humans and nature and show the natural essence of humans by providing people with materials and supplies required for survival and development through the production and reproduction of natural material products. From the viewpoint of the evolution of human society’s production of material goods, industries started with those in which products can be derived directly from nature, such as agriculture, husbandry and horticulture and then became increasingly sophisticated to create new products. Second, industries produce social goods to enable an orderly system of production and life and reflect the relationships between humans and between humans and society, reflecting the social essence of humans. People in the production and reproduction of material goods not only influence the natural world, but also influence themselves through the formation and construction of various social relations. Humans have to be organized in a certain way that allows them to collaborate and exchange in order to keep production and reproduction going. It is within the network of the various relationships formed between them that they are engaged in production and influence the natural world. All activities of production carried out by humans are social production and always take certain forms of social organization. In the process of social production, it is inevitable that there will emerge all kinds of economic, political and cultural relationships that conflict with each other and lead to various institutional arrangements in the form of public authorities to address those situations. As Friedrich Engels wrote: The division of labour between the different branches of production—agriculture, handicrafts (in which there were again innumerable subdivisions), trade, shipping, and so forth—had been carried further with every advance of industry and commerce; the population was now divided according to occupation into fairly permanent groups, each with its new common

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interests; and since the gens and the phratry made no provision for dealing with them, new offices had to be created.

With the emergence of cities, it is inevitable for administrative organs, police and taxation authorities—public political institutions—to arise: At a certain, very primitive stage of the development of society, the need arises to co-ordinate under a common regulation the daily recurring acts of production, distribution and exchange of products, to see to it that the individual subordinates himself to the common conditions of production and exchange. This regulation, which is at first custom, soon becomes law. With law, organs necessarily arise which are entrusted with its maintenance—public authority, the state. With further social development, law develops into a more or less comprehensive legal system … With the development of the legal system into a complicated and comprehensive whole the necessity arises for a new social division of labour; an order of professional jurists develops and with this legal science comes into being.1

The ‘legal system’ here is essentially what we call the product of social relations, in which the ‘new public offices’ and ‘public political institutions’ are industries engaged in production based on social relations and the full development of the division of labour, the common interests of different groups, and the need for production and exchange combined to underpin and drive the emergence of such industries. It can be seen that the production of social goods is not the form of external production activities, but the organic integration in the process of production activities, and is an important part of the production activities; this kind of production socialization meets the need for production, life and harmonious mutual relations and is an important part of the social production system. Third, industries also produce products that meet intellectual needs, advance selfactualization and reflect the relationship between humans and themselves, which makes the unity of humans’ natural, social and spiritual attributes possible and a reality. Human beings, while engaging themselves in the production of material and social goods, also reproduce naturally and culturally. With the development of productive forces, a series of production and service activities (medical, healthcare, education, communication, etc.) geared to improving human reproduction and development gradually developed into independent industrial sectors. Humans are different from animals in that they not only live in society but also have self-consciousness and spiritual pursuits. Industries engaged in the production of material goods represent the most fundamental human activity to understand and transform nature and play a fundamental role in sustaining the growth of the industrial system. They determine the breadth and depth of social goods and intellectual goods. The production of social goods is a fundamental human production activity that adjusts complicated social relations, resolves disputes and conflicts, allocates natural and social resources, maintains an orderly society and provides a harmonious social environment and strong institutional support for the production of material goods and intellectual goods. 1

Central Compilation and Translation Bureau, Marx and Engels: Selected Works: Volume 4, Beijing: People’s Press, 1995.

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The production of intellectual goods is an intellectual activity geared to enhancing humans intellectually and increasing their ability to understand and transform nature, understand, adapt to and transform society, and understand and improve themselves, and it provides intellectual support for the production of material goods and social goods. The three are intertwined and interact with each other to form an organic whole. The above analysis shows that industries are the sum of social organizations geared to meeting human needs and promoting the comprehensive development of humans by providing material goods, social goods and intellectual goods. Accordingly, ‘industrialization’ refers to the use of science, technology and management to organize production in an efficient way and deliver superior benefits (including social benefits as well as economic benefits).

2.1.2 The Meaning of the SP Industry SP generally means the use of appropriate communications media and activities to disseminate scientific knowledge to the public and increase public awareness and understanding of the science behind social phenomena, social processes and social activities. SP allows people to have the necessary S&T knowledge, grasp basic scientific methods, acquire scientific thought, uphold the scientific spirit, enhance their awareness, appreciation and understanding of S&T, raise their scientific awareness and literacy, and empower them to employ S&T to solve real-world problems and engage in public affairs [3]. Progress in S&T has laid an unprecedented foundation for the development of human civilization and corresponding spiritual production, and accelerated the integration of SP and culture. This underscores the inevitability of the existence and development of the SP industry in modern society. In the era of the commodity economy, S&T first played a role in the production of material products by improving the quality of workers and expanding the breadth and depth of knowledge of labour objects, among others. It is for precisely that reason that the observation is made that ‘Science and technology constitute a primary productive force’. The transformation of S&T from the production of material products to the production of cultural products is a gradual process. When the relative utility of a cultural product is increased and demand increases, S&T will move from the field of material product production to the field of cultural product production. When S&T is extracted from the practice of economic development and applied to the production of cultural products, it becomes an important driving force for the development of the cultural industries. The application of S&T in the field of cultural product production is the process of increasing the S&T content in cultural products and gradually expanding the scope of application of S&T in the production of those products. The production of cultural products is part of social production, the purpose of which is to meet the growing cultural needs of people. With the improvement in the utility of SP cultural products

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and the increase in demand, it becomes necessary to improve the mode of production and improve the production efficiency of cultural products through the application of S&T. Therefore, the application of S&T in the field of cultural product production is an inherent requirement of the production purpose of human society. Since the 1990s, with the wide application of IT, the media of S&T have been constantly updated, so that the cultural industries have become the gathering point of new technology, and the adoption of high-tech industry has created a vast growth potential for the SP cultural industry. The progress of the production of cultural products from primitive manual operations and oral narratives and circulation to the application of film, TV, laser, satellite and other advanced technology shows not only the development of the production of SP cultural products but also the interaction between the production of SP cultural products and S&T development. In adapting to the demand for SP cultural products, S&T progress not only changes the way SP cultural products are produced and disseminated but also continuously enriches and diversifies SP cultural products. The SP industry is an important part of the cultural industries, especially as SP becomes a new social atmosphere with keen public participation, which further solidifies the social foundation for the development of the industry. In developing SP cultural products as branded products, it is important to have industrialization in mind and grow the industry under the market mechanism in accordance with the Science Popularization Law. This is a question of value realization and maximization of science dissemination. For S&T workers with concerns for the real world, developing the SP industry is not a theoretical topic to talk about but a practical enterprise of accelerating the industry’s development by leveraging the market mechanism. There is a worry that the market approach to SP will lead to overcommercialization. The fact is that this approach will magnify benefits and increase output. While the market has its own mechanisms which may affect traditional SP concepts, it will also transform SP in terms of themes, content and formats through changes that make SP transactions possible. The traditional condescending SP approach of simply imparting information puts the public in a passive position of receiving information. In recent years, there have emerged new concepts of SP such as ‘public engagement’ with the emphasis on equality, exchange, interaction and experience, but those concepts are still not public-centred or geared to the promotion of paid SP products or services. Therefore, the market mechanism of producing and distributing SP products and services will bring a thorough transformation of SP. In meeting the huge SP demand, a diversity of SP products using modern technologies such as audio, laser, electronics, computers and artificial intelligence (AI) have been developed. SP products integrate science, technology and art in a vivid, graphic and intuitive way to demonstrate scientific principles, show S&T achievements, and enable people to acquire scientific knowledge through enjoyable, engaging and interactive experiences. Products with these SP attributes and functions naturally become a new means and carrier to popularize scientific knowledge and spread scientific ideas.

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The rise and development of SP products and the increasing availability of SP services have given birth to a new huge industry—the SP industry—which has become an important part of the development of advanced cultural industries. The SP industry, with its unique scientific, humanistic and intellectual dimensions, meets people’s intellectual needs, increases their scientific literacy, empowers their selfactualization and reflects not only the relationship between human and human but also the organic unity of humans’ natural, social and spiritual attributes. This is a process involving the production, dissemination, acceptance, digestion and absorption of S&T knowledge, scientific thought and scientific spirit. The key to this process is the formation and establishment of a full-featured SP industry. The contemporary development of SP and the organic integration of S&T and culture urgently need the development of the industry, which, with its unique functions, is indispensable to the development of contemporary society. Although the SP industry has a profit orientation, it can and should be developed hand in hand with public SP undertakings. This has become a consensus and a main trend of contemporary SP development in China. Because of the differences between national conditions and scientific and cultural backgrounds, countries and regions vary in their definitions and statistics of the SP industry, but it is generally agreed that the industry is the sum of different industries that provide SP products and SP services and promote social progress and economic development by spreading S&T knowledge and increasing public scientific literacy. Therefore, the SP industry can be understood on the two dimensions of the production of SP products and the provision of SP services. As far as the production of SP products is concerned, the SP industry first involves the production and reproduction of SP products based on objective materials that embody certain scientific thought, scientific principles, scientific spirit and scientific culture and provide SP content products required for SP activities and behaviours, and the production of SP products reflects the relationship between humans and nature and shows the natural and scientific attributes of SP products. With the advance of S&T, SP products have become increasingly diversified and sophisticated in accelerating iterations. They first took the form of primary and basic products required to further learn S&T and spread scientific knowledge, enable SP activities and the provision of SP services, and support the production of other such products. Today, SP products have become much more sophisticated in their technical content and expanded to include new product types such as SP movies, SP games, SP animations and comics, and SP electronics. The production and reproduction of SP products include the development and design of SP products, production, sales, consumption and other transactions. They encompass human pursuits of truth, kindness and beauty in clothing, food, housing, travel, education, music and other aspects and reflect a society’s underlying value orientations. As far as SP services are concerned, the SP industry involves a variety of social activities at the material and spiritual levels, which has a great impact on the development of human society as a whole. SP services show the spiritual dimension of the SP industry. They involve the provision of spiritual food to meet people’s spiritual needs, delight them with the corresponding scientific culture, and empower

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their self-actualization. They reflect the relationship between human and human in industrial development. The effective provision and development of SP services facilitate the organic unity of the natural, social and spiritual attributes of humans. SP services involve a full range of links and processes, including the dissemination of S&T knowledge, the use of scientific methods, the promotion of scientific ideas, and the production, dissemination, acceptance, digestion and absorption of the scientific spirit. The provision of SP services, as well as SP products, serves the ultimate purpose of meeting the public’s growing demand for S&T culture and promoting the continuous improvement of public scientific literacy through effective allocation by way of the market mechanism. Based on the foregoing, we offer the following definition of the SP industry: The SP industry is the sum of the activities in providing SP products and SP services to the state, society and the public on the basis of market mechanisms and their related activities; it is an industry that has SP content and services as its core products and involves the four links of creation, production, dissemination and consumption of SP products; it not only spreads scientific knowledge, thought, spirit and methods but also creates jobs and increases the public’s scientific literacy.

2.2 Characteristics of the SP Industry The SP industry’s characteristics are based on its inherent features as an industry and can be examined and analysed on different dimensions and from different perspectives. Such research helps to clarify the relationship between the SP industry and other related industries and arrive at a comprehensive picture of the SP industry.

2.2.1 The Service Dimension of the SP Industry As knowledge-based development of society gains momentum and as increasingly diverse knowledge products become available, culture, knowledge, information, S&T and even mental factors play an increasingly important and even decisive role in the economy. The SP industry has been serving the public by providing diversified SP products and thoughtful SP services that increase public scientific literacy and help develop a strong workforce for the building of an innovative nation, and it is in essence geared to improving the living standards of people both materially and intellectually. As far as this mission is concerned, the SP industry, in the final analysis, is for the purpose of serving society and the public. SP products are no longer confined to general material products, as in the past, but are increasingly spiritually, recreationally and mentally focused. With improved living standards, the public demand for these kinds of spiritual products has been steadily increasing. All SP products in the market (such as books, movies, TV dramas,

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toys, animations and online games) are subject to many uncertain factors, including fashion trends, individual hobbies, the media environment, timing, the social environment, cultural differences and regional characteristics and related risks. Therefore, this necessitates a cluster of sectors and enterprises focused on the production and sales services of SP products (that is, SP services). In China, SP activities may be divided into for-profit SP undertakings and public SP undertakings. At the state level, the ultimate goal of SP is to improve national public scientific literacy and, ultimately, to improve the quality of people’s lives. This goal overlaps with the public goal in this regard. In fact, both for-profit SP undertakings and public SP undertakings are fundamentally meant to make life better for people, both materially and spiritually. With knowledge-based social transformation and development, major changes have taken place in SP concepts, and one of the most prominent is respect for the public’s right to know and right to participate. There is an increasing emphasis on SP being accessible to the public and friendly to public engagement, and the scope of SP has been expanded to the technological, intellectual and spiritual dimensions. In adapting to those changes, the SP industry has assumed an increasingly salient service dimension. Because of the rise of the knowledge society, the SP industry has been upgraded to new levels in its inherent cultural, knowledge, information, S&T and even psychological structures and transactional processes and has achieved a technologically and cognitively more sophisticated way of existing and developing. The production factors of the SP industry are information and knowledge, especially intangible assets such as culture, science and technology, which makes the industry a technology- and knowledge-intensive high-value-added industry. Contemporary SP is the product of interactions and integrations of technology, economics and culture in a process of knowledge-based development of society as SP products, being objectified forms of new thoughts, new technologies, new knowledge and new content, permeate an increasing number of other industries, especially with the integration of digital technology and cultural arts. By extension, the SP industry covers a wide range of links, including R&D, design, production, marketing and consumption, like a tree that is grown in the tertiary sector and has its branches and twigs extending to the secondary sector. It has the typical characteristics of a service industry. The service dimension of the SP industry can also be explained from the perspective of the transformation of contemporary SP concepts. With the development of SP concepts, the SP industry has assumed increasingly marked characteristics of a buyer’s market, which requires the industry to depart from the traditional providercentred approach to SP, quickly switch from a product orientation to an audience orientation, and introduce concepts and practices of modern service industry with a view to advancing the public’s right to know and participate.

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2.2.2 The Cultural Dimension of the SP Industry In the organic integration and development of modern S&T and culture, the SP industry has picked up a stronger cultural attribute. Traditional SP is often considered to focus more on purpose and results, while modern new SP concepts emphasize the process of exchange and communication based on a certain cultural foundation. SP in the new era has been informed by new cultural concepts such as pluralism, equality, openness and interaction. SP cannot be separated from books, TV, mass media and other channels of cultural exchange. This shows that modern SP is dependent on certain cultural communication channels and is, in a sense, a cultural activity. Therefore, the SP industry is one that displays certain cultural forms and has cultural implications, and the scientific concepts, knowledge systems, scientific spirit and scientific methods expressed by it contain certain cultural values. The essence of developing the industry is to tap its cultural potential and make SP products more serialized, diversified and objectified. It is important to cater to the cultural needs of different groups in different regions, attract and foster a stable audience, extend the industrial chain and innovate in SP cultural products, with a view to industrializing the industry, creating new SP practices, advocating new S&T life, offering a rich variety of SP products and services, and fostering the corresponding public scientific culture. For example, vigorously developing SP creative industries is a new way of content innovation in the SP industry. Based on knowledge, creativity, cultural resources, information, data, S&T and the internet as a carrier, and through the new model of integrating creativity, processing, production and circulation for the community to create spiritual and cultural products and material wealth, it is the product of a high degree of integration of science, technology and culture. From this point of view, we can think of the SP industry as an industry based on rich elements of S&T culture to meet the needs of SP and the demand for SP consumption. Its main function is to leverage modern S&T means to combine rich cultural elements and modern S&T knowledge in order to meet the SP consumption demand of the public.

2.2.3 The Knowledge Dimension of the SP Industry The term ‘knowledge industry’ was first used by Fritz Machlup in his book The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States, in which he set out a general category for the knowledge industry and the earliest classification model [4]. In his view, the knowledge industry is an organization or institution engaged in information services and the production of information products. It includes manufacturers, institutions, organizations and departments, and even individuals or families, who either consume knowledge or produce it for the consumption of others.

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Information products refer to tangible products (or functions), the primary purpose of which is the production, dissemination or acceptance of knowledge, such as documentaries, research papers, newspapers, periodicals, books, records and tapes. They include office supplies and information equipment, which is the machinery, apparatus, devices and facilities used to produce, disseminate and receive knowledge or provide information services. Knowledge producers are creators of new information that use the wealth of information from others and add much of their own creativity and imagination, and they are able to discover new interactions and connections between things that have been accepted and exchanged, thus forming new knowledge or information. The knowledge industry involves the processing and dissemination of knowledge. The core process of the SP industry is to realize the dissemination of scientific knowledge, scientific methods, scientific thought and the scientific spirit through product development, production and corresponding services. The SP industry manifests its cultural dimension in two aspects. The first aspect is content communication, which involves conveying scientific knowledge, scientific thought, the scientific spirit and scientific methods in specific engaging ways. As part of SP creativity, knowledge-intensive talent resources and creative knowledge become the core elements of the SP industry. The second aspect is the communication process, in which the various links of both product formation and final consumption contain the factors of some high-tech outcomes and the corresponding high-tech knowledge communication. Although SP products do not just emphasize the novelty of technology, it is an indisputable fact that they usually have high technology content, and their communication processes involve rich knowledge.

2.3 The Classification of the SP Industry 2.3.1 The General Basis of Industrial Classification Industrial classification refers to the division of all or part of the national economy in accordance with certain standards. The division of industries with different characteristics into different types of industries is for the purpose of studying the interrelations between industries through the proportions of and changes in industrial structure, and further explaining the various phenomena of industrial economic development, which reveals the various laws behind the industrial economic phenomenon and facilitates industrial management and research. Industrial classification consists of two aspects: the breakdown of economic activities and the combination of economic activities. Whether it is to break down an industry according to different characteristics or to combine industries with the same characteristics, it is important to first determine the standards of industrial classification. The standards vary depending on the research question.

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The Three-Sector Model

The three-sector model was first proposed by Australian economist AGI Fisher for classifying economic activities according to their natural order of development and relationships with nature. The model identifies three phases in the development of economic activities. In the first phase, humans’ main production activities were agriculture and husbandry. The second phase started in the UK during the Industrial Revolution and was marked by the rapid development of the machine industry. The third phase started in the early twentieth century when a large amount of capital and labour flowed into the non-material sector. Fisher classified industries in the first phase as the primary sector, those in the second phase as the secondary sector and those in the third phase as the tertiary sector. According to the three-sector model, the primary sector is directly derived from nature; the secondary sector involves the processing of natural products; both the primary and secondary sectors involve tangible physical goods; and the tertiary sector mainly involves intangible wealth. The three-sector model is simple and practical and lends itself well to statistical analysis, and it also reflects the general trend of the development of productive forces. Therefore, it has been widely adopted worldwide. However, this method also has its limitations, in that its classification of all social and economic activities outside domestic activities of households into three sectors is too general to reveal changes in the three sectors. At the same time, there are also questions that cannot be adequately explained by the model. For example, the mining industry is an industry derived from nature and should be classified into the primary sector, but it is logically unreasonable to put it together with agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishing; and utilities can be classified into the secondary sector or the tertiary sector, which is highly debatable.

2.3.1.2

Standard Industrial Classification

Standard industrial classification is a method of industrial classification formulated and promulgated by a competent government authority to unify the statistical basis of the national economy. Standard industrial classification mainly considers three factors: the types of social products and services, the similarity of production processes and technologies, and statistical needs and convenience. The method, which is used for the purpose of statistically measuring a national economy, has three characteristics: it is authoritative, complete and widely applicable. This method divides the national economic activities into several sectors, which are further divided at lower levels subject to corresponding statistical coding for the facilitation of computer processing. When using standard industrial classification to divide economic activities, the main considerations include the types of products and services of the society, the similarity of production processes and technologies, and the convenience of statistics. Because this method regulates the division of economic activities and delivers statistical convenience and excellent comparability, it is widely used in industrial classification.

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The Classification of Agricultural, Light and Heavy Industries

Classification into agricultural, light and heavy industries take the different characteristics of material production as the standard of industrial classification. The differences are mainly in the way of production and processing and the products of labour. Agriculture includes farming, animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries; light industry includes textiles, clothing, food, beverages, printing, furniture and tanning; and heavy industry includes smelting, steel, coal, electricity, petroleum, chemicals, machinery and other industries. The advantage of this classification method is that it is intuitive and easy to use. Therefore, it is widely applied. However, its limitations are also obvious. On the one hand, its coverage is not comprehensive. Although it includes most of the activities of material production, it fails to include all production activities and does not include non-material production. This brings problems to industrial economic analysis. On the other hand, with the rapid development of S&T, the boundary between agriculture, light industry and heavy industry is blurred, making division more difficult. For example, the machinery industry, which belongs with the traditional heavy industries, is increasingly producing cars, household appliances and other consumer goods; in addition, industrial sectors now also make investments in high-tech agriculture, and some traditional rural sideline productions have gradually developed into rural enterprises.

2.3.1.4

The Classification of Factors of Production

This classification method classifies industries according to the proportion of labour, capital, knowledge and other factors of production in the production process of different industries, or the degree of dependence on the various factors of production. The factors of production are labour, capital, land, knowledge and technology, and natural resources. Depending on the intensity of factors of production, industries can be divided into labour-intensive, capital-intensive, technology-intensive and knowledge-intensive industries. The intensity is relative and changes dynamically with the development of S&T and the organic composition of capital. This classification method is conducive to comparing industries in terms of the composition of factors, determining the economic development level of countries, and formulating response strategies according to the differences in the dependence of various industries on factors of production. However, it is difficult for this method to determine the scope of different industry types. The reason is that the various factors of production can be substituted to some degree, which leads to differences in the degree of intensity of need in the same industry for different factors of production in different samples. As a result, the same industry may be classified into different groups in different regions.

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The Uses of the Classification Systems

The various industrial classification methods have their own research purposes and division bases: • The purpose of the three-sector model is to reflect the sequence of economic sectors and to study the laws linking economic development and industrial structure. • The purpose of standard industrial classification is to unify the calibre of economic statistics, to divide all economic activities and to standardize and facilitate statistics. • The purpose of the classification of industries into agricultural, light and heavy industries is to highlight the characteristics of material production of industries. • The basis for the classification of factors of production is that industries differ in their reliance on resources, and its implication is that countries and regions may develop resource-intensive industries according to their resource structures.

2.3.2 China’s Standard Industrial Classification System China’s industrial classification can be divided into two stages: before and after the reform and opening up period. Before that period, China adopted the material product system for industrial classification and economic statistics, which divides the national economy into five material production sectors of agriculture, industry, construction, transportation and commerce. With the rapid development of the tertiary industry, the five-sector classification method began showing its limitations. Since the reform and opening up, China has attached great importance to the standard industrial classification of its national economy. In the early 1980s, China introduced the three-sector classification method. Then the National Bureau of Statistics, in reference to the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) and the actual situation of China’s industrial development, divided the country’s industries several times and put in place a statistical reporting system. In 1984, the National Bureau of Statistics divided the country’s three economic sectors and issued the Industrial Classification and Codes for National Economic Activities. In 1985, the National Bureau of Statistics established the boundaries of threesector classification in the Report on the Establishment of Statistics of the Tertiary Sector. In 1987, the National Bureau of Statistics issued the Classification and Codes for Input and Output Sectors. In 1988, the China Statistical Yearbook used the method of three-sector statistics for the first time, which made China’s industrial statistics consistent with those of most other countries.

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In 1994, the National Bureau of Statistics promulgated the revised Industrial Classification and Codes for National Economic Activities (GB/T4754–1994), with reference to the international standard industrial classification system. In 2002, the National Bureau of Statistics formulated and promulgated the Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities (GB/T4754–2002) in the light of the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC/Rev. 3) and the development of China’s socio-economic activities. This standard contained 20 categories, 95s-level categories, 396 third-level categories and 913 fourth-level categories. Compared with the 1994 edition, it had 4 additions at the first level, 3 at the second level, 28 at the third level, and 67 at the fourth level. In 2011, the National Bureau of Statistics promulgated the further revised Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities (GB/T4754–2011), which included adjustments and changes made to the categories in the light of the country’s economic development and trends [5].

2.3.2.1

Content and Scope

The standard defines the principles of classification of national economic industries and the basic units, coding methods and codes for dividing the industries. The standard applies to the industry classification of economic activities in the macro-management and departmental management of national macro-management and departments such as planning, statistics, finance, taxation, and industrial and commercial administration.

2.3.2.2

Principles and Regulations

The standard uses the principle of homogeneity of economic activities to divide the national economy. Each industry category is divided according to the nature of the same economic activity, rather than the preparation of accounting systems or departmental management. According to the principle of classification of the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities, the basic unit of industry classification is the industrial activity unit, but, due to the different statistical purposes and accounting objectives, the basic unit of industry classification may adopt a legal entity. When using industrial activity units as the basic units of industry classification, attention should be paid to the following two situations: • A legal entity principally engaged in one type of economic activity in one place is itself an industrial activity unit; • A legal entity that is engaged in different types of economic activities through entities in different places that have relatively independent organizational forms and revenue and expenditure accounts should be further divided into industrial activity units according to the type of economic activities.

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Coding Methodology and Structure

The standard uses classification and hierarchical coding and divides economic activities into four-level categories. First-level categories are coded in English letters, and second- through fourth-level categories are coded in Arabic numerals. First-level categories are marked in an English letter in an ‘A, B, C …’ sequence. Secondthrough fourth-level categories are represented by four Arabic numerals in a threelevel format, based on registration and full decimals. Second-level categories are coded in two digits, third-level categories in three digits, and fourth-level categories in four digits, all in sequential order.

2.3.3 The Classification of China’s Cultural Industries and Related Industries and Their Implications On 31 July 2012, the National Bureau of Statistics promulgated and implemented the national Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012), which revised and improved the original classification according to the needs of the development of the country’s cultural industries. The classification of cultural industries is based on the Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities (GB/T4754–2011) and rearranges the relevant industrial categories according to the characteristics of cultural industries. Therefore, it is an offshoot of the Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities. This classification takes into account administrative needs and operability, emphasizing the need to accommodate the reality of China’s cultural system reform and development, the characteristics of SP industrial production, and the administrative needs of government departments, and has the existing statistics system and methods as its basis, along with full consideration of category-based operability. At the same time, the classification also takes full account of international standards, integration with international classification standards, and the UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics (2009) classification methods in terms of definition and scope. This classification provides a reference for the current socialist cultural construction and cultural macro-management and provides a unified definition and scope for cultural and related industrial statistics.

2.3.3.1

Definition and Scope of the Cultural Industries

The classification of cultural industries must first divide cultural undertakings and cultural industries and scientifically and reasonably define the connotation and scope of cultural industries. Based on China’s standard industrial classification of economic activities, the main criteria for dividing industries and undertakings are public welfare and business. Industry is the sum of all units engaged in economic activity of the same

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nature. It is important to differentiate between two terms—‘industry’ and ‘undertaking’. In China, ‘industry’ is used with an emphasis on an activity’s for-profit nature or scale of business, while ‘undertaking’ is used with an emphasis on an activity’s public nature. In 2012, the term ‘cultural and related industries’ was used in China’s classification of cultural industries, and the scope covered both public and for-profit entities, which was basically consistent with the UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics (2009). In fact, when the state formulated the classification of cultural and related industries in 2004, it had already clearly differentiated between cultural industries and cultural undertakings. At that time, as the reform of the cultural system had just started, it was difficult to distinguish the two in terms of their industrial attributes. In many industries, there were both public and for-profit enterprises, and statistical indicators for the two types of enterprises had not been established. Today, great progress has been made in the reform of the cultural system, and it has become easy to determine the public or for-profit nature of an enterprise, especially after two national economic censuses that established the principle differentiating between a for-profit enterprise and a public undertaking in the industry by determining whether the enterprise accounting standards applied to them. Therefore, since the publication of the classification of cultural industries and related industries in 2012, the statistical term ‘cultural and related industries’ has been used to refer to all units covered by the classification, with ‘cultural industries’ referring only to the sum of for-profit cultural enterprises and ‘cultural undertakings’ referring only to public cultural institutions. On the basis of differentiating between cultural industries and cultural undertakings, the Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012) clearly defines the connotation of cultural and related industries, emphasizing that the cultural and related industries refer to the sum of production activities that provide cultural products and culture-related products to the public. The standard classification of cultural industries formulated by the state in 2004 defines the cultural and related industries as ‘the sum of the activities of providing cultural and entertainment products and services for the social public and the related activities’. Since then, China’s cultural industries have developed rapidly. In July 2009, China issued and implemented the first special plan for the cultural industry—the Revitalization Plan for the Cultural Industries. It came as another major industrial revitalization plan following previous national strategic plans for the revitalization of 10 industries, including steel, automobiles, and textiles. The plan clearly stated that the state would step up efforts to advance 10 prioritized cultural industries, including the cultural and creative industry; film and TV production; publishing and distribution; printing and reproduction; advertising; entertainment; cultural exhibitions; digital content; and animation and comics. In 2011, the Sixth Plenary Session of the 17th Central Committee of the CPC adopted the Decision on Major Issues Pertaining to Deepening Reform of the Cultural System and Promoting the Great Development and Flourishing of Social Culture, which emphasized accelerating the development of the cultural industries as a pillar of the national economy and made clear deployments in four aspects:

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• Build a modern system of cultural industries: building a well-structured, comprehensive, modern system of cultural industries that has considerable S&T content and is highly creative and competitive to accelerate the development of cultural industries; implementing major projects in key areas; carrying out the restructuring of cultural industries; developing and expanding traditional cultural industries and accelerating emerging cultural industries; strengthening the planning and construction of cultural industry bases; providing more support to cultural industries that have their own IP rights; and integrating the development of cultural industries with the development of tourism, sports, information, logistics and architecture; • Create cultural industries in which public ownership is dominant and cultural enterprises under diverse forms of ownership develop side by side: unswervingly supporting and expanding state-owned cultural enterprises and those with a controlling share held by the state, and encouraging and guiding the sound development of non-public cultural enterprises to accelerate the development of cultural industries; cultivating large and highly competitive state-owned cultural enterprises or enterprise groups and those with a controlling share held by the state, and getting them to play a leading role in developing cultural industries and making the cultural market flourish; guiding non-government capital to invest in cultural industries in various ways within the limits set by the state; and creating an institutional and legal environment in which all market players compete fairly and are equally protected by law; • Promote S&T innovation in the field of culture: making full use of the role culture and S&T play in stimulating each other; thoroughly implementing the strategy of having S&T serve as a driving force; improving independent innovation capabilities; tackling problems in core, key and generic technologies; relying on national new- and high-tech zones and national capabilities; and including major cultural S&T projects in relevant state-funded S&T development plans and programmes; • Expand cultural consumption: making innovations in business models; expanding markets for mass cultural consumption; cultivating unique kinds of cultural consumption; boosting consumption of cultural services; raising the level of cultural consumption at the grass-roots level; providing cultural consumption subsidies to poor people and rural migrant workers where conditions permit; and energetically developing cultural tourism and leveraging tourism’s role in stimulating cultural consumption. In 2012, on the basis of the above deployments, the state rolled out the Outline of the National Cultural Reform and Development Program During the 12th Five-Year Plan Period, which emphasized building a system of modern cultural industries: • Promoting the development of the cultural industries by leaps and bounds, making them an important fulcrum for the strategic adjustment of economic structure and an important focus of transforming the mode of economic development, and providing an important support for promoting scientific development;

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• Accelerating the transformation of the cultural industries, advancing the transition from the extensive mode to the intensive qualitative and efficient mode, strengthening the overall strength and competitiveness of the cultural industries; • Implementing a number of major projects, promoting the adjustment of the cultural industries, developing traditional cultural industries (such as publishing and distribution; film and TV production; printing; advertising; the performing arts; entertainment; and exhibitions) and accelerating the development of emerging cultural industries such as cultural creativity, digital publishing, mobile multimedia, animation and games. As research on the cultural industries has gradually deepened, the definition of the cultural industries has become more scientific and rational. According to the Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012), the cultural and related industries are defined as ‘the sum of production activities that provide cultural and cultural-related products to the public’; in addition, the classification provided an explanation of the production activities of cultural products and those of culturerelated products. According to the definition of cultural and related industries, the scope of culture and related industries in China includes: • The production activities of cultural products (including goods and services) that are carried out with culture as the core content and directly meet the spiritual needs of the people; • Production activities (including manufacture and sale) of cultural goods as physical carriers of cultural products or tools for their production (use, dissemination and display); • Production activities (including manufacturing and sale) of specialized equipment required for the production of cultural products. It can be seen that the scope of cultural and related industries includes four aspects of the content: production activities of cultural products; auxiliary production activities of cultural products; production activities of cultural supplies; and production activities of culture-specific equipment. Among them, the production activities of cultural products constitute the main body of the cultural and related industries, and the other three aspects are the complement of the cultural and related industries.

2.3.3.2

The Classification Methodology and Basis of the Cultural Industries in China

According to the classification principle of the cultural industries, the cultural and related industries are divided into five tiers: • On the first tier are the production of cultural products and the production of culture-related products at the first level, designated as ‘Part 1’ and ‘Part 2’;

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• On the second tier are 10 categories classified according to administrative needs and the characteristics of cultural production activities and designated as I through X at the second level; • On the third tier are 50 third-level categories designated as (I) through (XXXXX); • On the fourth tier are 120 fourth-level categories representing the specific types of activities of cultural and related industries and designated according to the Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities (GB/T4754–2011). Some fourth-level categories are marked with the asterisk symbol (*) to mean that they contain some cultural production activities; • On the fifth tier are fifth-level categories that follow fourth-level categories with ‘–’ and are not coded. Activities falling under them are described in a table. Based on the above definition and classification of the cultural and related industries, it can be seen that the classification of the cultural industries encompasses the following aspects. Aspect 1: Main product forms of the cultural industries According to the definition of the cultural and related industries, the main product forms of the cultural industries include cultural products, cultural supplies and cultural equipment. These three product forms summarize the product types of the cultural and related industries. With the product form as the carrier, this clarifies the scope of the main segments of the cultural industries. Aspect 2: Production activities of main product forms of the cultural industries Industry is the sum of large-scale, organized, specialized and market-oriented activities. The same is true of cultural industries, the main product forms of which are produced through productive activities. Those activities reach a certain scale and form a collection of specialized productive activities that constitute the cultural industries’ major business forms. This is also one of the important bases for the classification of cultural industries. Aspect 3: Business model innovation and trends in the development of the cultural industries The classification of the cultural industries takes full account of the innovation and development trend in the cultural industries, which can be demonstrated by the increase of categories in the Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012). Emerging categories of the cultural industries that were added to the Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012) mainly include: • Cultural and creative services, including architectural design services and professional design services; • New cultural segments, including digital animation production and game design and production of digital content services, and other telecommunications services in value-added telecommunications services (cultural section);

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• Software design services, including software and multimedia animation and game software development; • Production of specialty products with cultural content, including fireworks and firecrackers manufacturing, jewellery manufacture and sale, display art ceramics manufacturing and other related articles; • Other, including cultural and artistic training; book printing, binding and printingrelated services; slide and projection equipment manufacturing; and stage lighting equipment wholesale. These new categories reflect innovations and development trends of the cultural industries in China in recent years.

2.3.3.3

Implications of the Classification of the Cultural Industries for the Classification of the SP Industry

The spirit and culture of the SP industry determine that the industry has distinct characteristics of the cultural industries, and also determine that the classification of the cultural industries can shed a valuable light on the classification of the SP industry. First of all, the cultural industries are the sum of economic activities that mainly operate in symbolic commodities and information. The basic economic value of those commodities derives from their cultural value. This is consistent with the cultural connotation of the SP industry, and it is also the cultural basis on which the SP industry learns from the classification of cultural industries. Second, the cultural industries include both traditional industries such as traditional radio, TV, publishing, painting, visual arts and performing arts, and emerging industries such as computer games and internet services. These industries cover the main business patterns of the SP industry, especially some of the emerging industries, which are highly consistent with the innovation and development trend in the SP industry. This is the basis for the SP industry to draw upon the cultural industries for classification. Third, in the era of globalization, the cultural industries have formed a complete industrial chain from content creation to production, circulation and consumption, and have become an important driving force for national and regional economic development. Finally, the production, operation and sale of culture-related products are the essence of the cultural industries, which determines the status of the cultural industries in the national economy. In this regard, the SP industry mainly involves the breadth and depth of the communication of cultural products and scientific knowledge and mainly falls in the territory of the cultural industries, which have a high requirement for a scientific basis and a reach to a wide audience. Culture has many functions, such as education, aesthetics and entertainment, and the SP industry also has those functions. In today’s social conditions, the normal consumption of the masses is also the largest mass consumption. In the SP industry

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as well as the cultural industries, the pursuit of this kind of cultural consumption emphasizes cultural experience and entertainment. In their product forms, the cultural industry and the SP industry are mainly geared to ‘producing knowledge’ or ‘producing happiness’, thus minimizing the difficulty of social spiritual consumption and catering to the needs of the multifaceted, multilevel needs of the public. Both industries meet the public’s cultural consumption needs through their integration into the daily life of the public, and both industries can give the public a certain degree of sensory experience and spiritual enjoyment in consumption. This is the content basis for the SP industry to draw upon the classification of the cultural industries. Specifically, the classification of the cultural industries informs the classification of the SP industry mainly in the following aspects. First, clarify the objectives of classification. The Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012) clearly states that the classification of the cultural industries has two objectives: • To thoroughly implement the spirit of the Sixth Plenary Session of the 17th CPC Central Committee on deepening the reform of the cultural system and promoting the great development and flourishing of socialist culture, and to establish a scientific and feasible statistical system for the cultural and related industries; • To provide the basis for defining the production activities of the country’s cultural and related units, to provide reference for the current socialist cultural construction and cultural macro-management, and to provide a unified definition and scope for the statistics of the cultural and related industries. The SP industry is an important part of China’s cultural industries. It is an important carrier for the realization of the scientific, technological and cultural needs of the public. In classifying the SP industry, therefore, it is important to draw upon the classification of the cultural industries and be guided by the objectives of classification. Second, determine the principles of classification. The main purpose of industrial classification is to implement the relevant national industrial policies and regulate industrial statistics scientifically and rationally, which necessarily requires industrial classification to follow certain principles. The Classification of Cultural and Related Industries (2012) clearly sets out the principles to be followed by the classification of the cultural industries, emphasizing that classification should be based on the Industrial Classification for National Economic Activities by taking into account the needs and operability of sectoral management and linking them with the international standards of industrial classification. In fact, these three principles also provide a principled guidance and value orientation for the classification of the cultural industries. The classification of the SP industry involves not only the implementation of the national policy of developing the cultural industries but also the implementation of the national S&T innovation policy, as well as the implementation of the relevant national education policy, so that the implementation of the SP industry classification

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should clearly establish the corresponding principles and ensure that the classification not only advances the relevant national industrial policies but also takes into account the needs of industrial management and international development. Third, determine a reasonable and feasible basis of classification. The classification of the cultural industries has determined a practical and operational basis of classification, which fully embodies the characteristics of cultural products and cultural production activities and reflects the innovation and development trend in the cultural industries. The classification of the SP industry should draw upon the basis on which the cultural industries are classified, clearly identify the types of SP products and their unique attributes, reflect the production characteristics of SP products and related derivative products, and reflect the innovation and development trend in the main segments of the SP industry.

2.3.4 The Purpose and Statistical Scope of SP Industry Classification 2.3.4.1

The Purpose and Significance of SP Industry Classification

Industrial classification is an important basis for the orderly development of industrial norms. There has been preliminary research on the classification of the SP industry in China, but the existing research lacks depth. The classification of the SP industry should be based on the strategic needs of the country to deepen the reform of the S&T system and the reform of the cultural system, and to build an innovative country and become a global power in S&T. The classification of the SP industry should also be geared to providing a basis for defining SP activities in China, providing reference for the construction of public scientific literacy and macro-management of the SP industry, providing a unified definition and scope of the SP industry for the establishment of a scientific and feasible statistical system for SP and related industries, and providing a standard, unified, comprehensive and reliable data basis for industrial development. Standard industrial classification is conducive to not only the establishment of a scientific, systematic and feasible statistical system of industry by providing a standardized, unified, complete, accurate and reliable database for industrial development, but also industrial administration by relevant departments of the state, the specific implementation of relevant industrial policies, and category-specific guidance on industrial development. The same is true of the classification of the SP industry. On the one hand, a normative and orderly statistical system is yet to be established for the SP industry, and there is a serious lack of data to support relevant policymaking. The classification of the SP industry can not only integrate the existing statistics of the industry, but also enable the accumulation of new statistics according to well-defined scope and standards to provide reliable data for sound policymaking

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for the development of the SP industry. On the other hand, an administrative framework is yet to be established for the SP industry, and there are not organizational mechanisms for the management of different segments of the industry. The classification of the industry not only clarifies the main product pattern types of the SP industry, but also clarifies the productive characteristics of the main products and is conducive to the management of the industry by relevant government departments, to the establishment of suitable alliances in the industry, and to the establishment of collaborative mechanisms to promote the industry’s development.

2.3.4.2

The Statistical Objects and Scope of the SP Industry

A clear scope is the foundation of industrial classification by setting the boundaries of classification. The scope cannot be too broad, which would render classification meaningless, or too narrow, which would be unable to cover all the necessary elements of the industry, provide a comprehensive picture of the industry, and provide effective support for the macro-management of the industry. Therefore, the scope of the industry should be appropriately defined to not only cover the main product forms and business patterns of the industry with a certain degree of inclusiveness, but also to take into account the needs of macro-management and innovation-driven development of the industry with a certain degree of extension. According to the characteristics and essential features of activities in the SP industry, the industry, as stated earlier, is the sum of activities that provide SP products and SP services to the state, society and the public, as well as activities associated with those activities. The statistical objects of the SP industry should be the legal entities, industrial activities and individual operators covered by that sum. One point about the statistical objects of the SP industry needs to be explained. According to the statistical objects of the SP industry, there are two approaches to defining the statistical scope of the industry: • The scope of the SP industry refers to the sum of enterprises and organizations engaged in SP activities; • The scope of the SP industry refers to the sum of enterprises and institutions specializing in SP activities and providing products or services. These two approaches differ in their statistical scopes and indicators. The former holds that all SP activities should be included in the statistical scope of the SP industry, which is a much wider scope with more complicated requirements and has a lot in common with the existing statistical data; the latter, which includes only enterprises and institutions engaged in professional SP activities and their outcomes traded in the market, has a narrower scope. From the theoretical point of view, the two approaches both have their case to make; however, from the perspective of industrial classification and statistical accounting, the latter approach with a narrower statistical scope is more reasonable. Institutions and units engaged in professional SP activities are defined as those that are principally engaged in producing SP products or providing SP activities.

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SP activities and SP departments that belong to enterprises or research institutions are not for the purpose of exchange, and their service objects are the enterprises themselves, with the aim of improving the scientific literacy of their employees. Their SP achievements are not traded and converted through the market, and such activities may be excluded in the statistical scope of the SP industry for the time being. The SP industry is the economic form of SP and the physical representation of the SP economy. It comes as the result of the development of the division of labour, productivity, logistics and consumer markets. It is an industry with diverse dimensions, including R&D, business operations, distribution and circulation, and consumption. Based on the scope of the cultural industries and the definition of the SP industry, we think that the definition of the SP industry should fully consider the main product forms of China’s SP industry and the main industrial status of the SP industry; at the same time, we should also consider the types of SP activities in China and their development trends, and take into account the reality of the integration of SP with many other industries and the needs of macro-management. Accordingly, the scope of the SP industry and related industries can be defined as follows: • Production activities oriented to the popularization of S&T knowledge that directly meet SP demand by producing, manufacturing, communicating and displaying SP content products; • Auxiliary production activities that enable the production of SP products; • Production activities (including manufacturing and sales) of SP supplies that serve as media or tools for the use, communication and display of SP products; • Production activities that produce special equipment used to produce SP products (including manufacturing and sales). This definition highlights the productive activities and main product patterns of the SP industry.

2.3.5 The Classification of the SP Industry Even with the statistical objects and scope of the SP industry being clearly defined, it is still necessary to determine the classification of the industry in order to conduct statistical work on the industry under the existing statistical system. Many emerging SP activities qualify as part of the SP industry, but it is difficult to define them clearly because of the integration of SP with many traditional industries. There is a large amount of SP activities in traditional industries such as culture, tourism, leisure and entertainment. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly define the classification of the SP industry. Generally, there are two approaches to industrial classification: classification based on product statistics, which is accurate but technically difficult; and classification based on industry statistics, which is easier to implement but less accurate.

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In view of the current development and statistical status of the industry, we take an eclectic approach by combining the two for the statistics of the SP industry.

2.3.5.1

The Classification of the SP Industry Based on Product Statistics

Using the product statistics approach, based on the development status and development direction of SP in China at this stage, and based on the principle of homogeneity of SP activities and the inherent characteristics of SP, the SP industry can be classified accordingly. According to this approach, the core of the SP industry lies in providing SP content products and SP service products to society through the market. According to the core product forms of the SP industry, the industry is divided into four categories: the SP content product industry, the SP service product industry, the SP content product-related industry, and the SP service product-related industry, as shown in Table 2.1. The first category is the SP content product industry, including industrial formats mainly based on SP content production and communication, such as the SP exhibition and education industry, the SP book publishing industry, the SP film and TV industry, the SP animation industry, the SP toy industry and the SP gaming industry. The second category is the SP service product industry, including industrial formats mainly based on the provision of SP services, such as the SP exhibition industry, SP tourism, and the SP leisure and entertainment industry. The third category is the SP content product-related industry, including industries mainly supporting the completion and realization of SP content products, such as SP products, SP equipment and related design, manufacturing and other industries and SP animation derivatives. The fourth category is the SP service product-related industry, which is also an important department of the SP industry and mainly includes industries related to SP services, such as SP intermediary agents, exhibition services and SP platform development. It can be seen that this directory of SP industry statistics covers a wide range of categories of the industry and provides a fairly comprehensive picture of the industry. According to the needs of research and macro-policymaking, we further summarize these four categories of the SP industry into the core layer (the production of SP products and provision of SP services) and the related layer supporting the core layer (production and services relating to the production of SP products and the provision of SP services).

2.3.5.2

The Classification of the SP Industry Based on Industry Statistics

Industries featured in the classification of the SP industry and its related industries are mainly placed there with reference to the Industrial Classification for National

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Table 2.1 Classification of the SP industry based on product statistics Category

Industry form

SP content product industry

SP exhibitions, SP news, SP books, SP periodicals, SP radio, SP communications, SP audiovisuals, SP animations, SP film, SP drama, sci-fi movies, SP games, SP toys and other SP creative products

SP service product industry

SP venues and network services

SP bases, SP galleries, SP activity rooms, S&T museums, natural science museums, S&T activity centres, SP network services, online S&T museums, online museums, SP product display and trading network platforms, etc

SP tourism resource services SP tourism services (modern enterprise parks, S&T parks, university and research institutions, tourism resources, etc.) SP cultural entertainment services

SP leisure centres, SP art performances, etc.

SP content product-related industry

SP content product production equipment, related product design, manufacturing, sales, services and SP animation derivatives, etc.

SP service product-related industry

Agents, advertising, exhibition services, SP platform development, infrastructure development, construction, and maintenance related to SP service products

Economic Activities (GB/T4754–2011) [5]. It should be noted that the classification of the SP industry does not fully dovetail with the current four-tier classification of the national economy; the four-tier system applies to only some categories of the SP industry, such as SP book publishing under book publishing. This is explained in Table 2.2. Industry is classified according to economic activities of the same nature. In classifying the SP industry, all activities of providing services or products meant to improve public scientific literacy are included in the industry, regardless of whether the providers are public or for-profit entities. No particular distinction is made between the two. The reason is that this investigation into the SP industry and its related industries is for the purpose of understanding the size of the industry and its position and role in the national economy. In the real world, it is indisputable that public and

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Table 2.2 Classification of the SP industry based on industry statistics Category name

Industry code Note

(I) Press and publication distribution services 1. SP press services Science and technology journalism

8510

Science and technology, SP news production

(1) SP book publishing

8521

Refers to S&T books geared to spreading scientific knowledge, scientific methods, scientific thought and the scientific spirit that are registered with the press and publication authority with official publication numbers

(2) SP newspaper publishing

8522

Science and technology newspapers, such as Beijing Science and Technology Daily and Science Times

(3) SP journal publishing

8523

Refers to SP publications distributed to the public that are registered with the press and publication authority with official publication numbers or internal circulation numbers

(4) SP electronic publishing

8525

Refers to SP electronic publications officially published on CD-ROM, audio, video and other media with the aim of popularizing S&T knowledge, advocating scientific methods, disseminating scientific ideas and promoting the scientific spirit

(5) Other SP publishing

8529

Refers to other SP publications aimed at popularizing S&T knowledge, advocating scientific methods, disseminating scientific ideas and promoting the scientific spirit

2. SP publishing services

3. SP distribution services (1) SP book wholesale

5143

(2) SP newspaper wholesale

5144

(3) SP electronic publication wholesale

5145

(4) SP book and newspaper retail

5243

(5) SP electronic publication retail

5244

(II) SP radio, television and film services 1. SP radio and television services (continued)

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Table 2.2 (continued) Category name

Industry code Note

(1) SP radio

8610

Refers to radio programmes mainly geared to spreading scientific knowledge, scientific methods, scientific thought and the scientific spirit to the public

(2) SP TV

8620

Refers to TV programmes mainly geared to spreading scientific knowledge, scientific methods, scientific thought and the scientific spirit to the public

2. Film and TV audio recording services (1) SP film and TV production

8630

(2) SP film and TV distribution

8640

(3) SP film screening

8650

(III) SP cultural and art services 1. SP literary production and performance services (1) SP literary production and performance

8710

(2) SP art performance venue

8720

2. Library and archive services Library

8731

3. Science and technology museum services Science and technology museums

8750

Science and technology halls (entities of the same nature under various names, which are meant to spread and popularize science); S&T museums (including S&T museums, planetariums, aquariums, specimen museums and comprehensive museums with natural science departments); youth S&T museums, stations and centres; non-venue SP bases, such as zoos, botanical gardens, youth summer (winter) camp bases, national geological parks and S&T farms, and so on

6420

SP websites

(IV) SP information transfer services 1. Internet information services SP internet information services

2. Value-added telecommunications services (cultural component) SP value-added telecommunications services

6319

SP mobile news, SP Weibo, SP WeChat, etc (continued)

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Table 2.2 (continued) Category name

Industry code Note

(V) Cultural creativity and design services 1. SP software services (1) SP software development

6510

SP multimedia, animation and game software development

(2) SP digital content services

6591

SP digital animation, game design and production

7482

SP venue engineering survey and design service

7491

SP venue design services

2. Architectural design services Engineering survey design 3. Professional design services Specialized design services

(VI) Cultural leisure and entertainment services 1. Scenic tour services Tour scenic management

7852

SP tourism

(VII) Auxiliary production of SP products 1. Copyright services Intellectual property services

7250

Copyright and SP software services

2. Cultural trade agency and auction services Trade agencies

5181

SP trade agency services

7292

SP Exhibition services

3. Convention and exhibition services Exhibition services (VIII) Production of SP supplies 1. SP exhibition and education supplies manufacturing Teaching instruments manufacturing

4026

SP exhibition and education supplies manufacturing

2450

SP toy manufacturing

2. SP toy manufacturing Toy manufacturing

Note The notes in the table are mainly based on China Science Popularization Statistics

for-profit SP entities coexist, and that will not change substantially in a short time. Even though public SP entities do not reach consumers directly through the market channel, they are fundamentally still part—and indeed an important part, in view of China’s peculiar national conditions—of the SP industry.

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2.4 The Dynamics of the SP Industry 2.4.1 Demand is the Primary Driver of the SP Industry Without the demand for SP, there would be no SP industry to speak of. With the development of technology that transforms knowledge dissemination by spreading knowledge via a huge network that breaks the boundaries of time and space, the world has seen the rise of the knowledge society—a society that generates, shares and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. In view of increasing knowledge asymmetry and a widening knowledge divide despite progress in the knowledge-based development of society, it has become an important task in the transition of human society to a knowledge society and an important content of social transformation to encourage knowledge innovation, promote knowledge dissemination and facilitate knowledge sharing. The knowledge-based development of society has given rise to massive SP demands from the state, society and the public. Those three demands are relatively independent and also interwoven and combine to serve as the primary driving force of the SP industry. The SP demand from the state is based on the national development strategy and the need to provide SP content for the public. The fundamental purpose is to foster a social, cultural and public opinion atmosphere in alignment with the strategic will of the state, improve the public scientific literacy, develop a more competitive workforce, and facilitate the achievement of strategic national goals and the implementation of strategic deployments. China has implemented a series of national strategies, including the strategy for invigorating China through science and education, the strategy to make China a talent-strong country, and the strategy of innovation-driven development, which are geared to increasing indigenous innovation, implementing national knowledge innovation and technological innovation projects, strengthening technologies that benefit livelihood improvement, and raising national scientific literacy. These will inevitably create a great demand from the state for SP products and services, including the need to procure SP products and SP infrastructure and outsource SP services. The SP demand from society is mainly from non-government organizations and enterprises. The ultimate goal of the SP demand from non-government organizations is to promote their own development as organizations. The SP demand from enterprises is on the one hand for the purpose of growing business and on the other hand oriented to paying back to society as part of their corporate social responsibility, which benefits their business over the long term. As enterprises’ core competitiveness shifts to the competition for knowledge resources and knowledge workers with the mushrooming of knowledge enterprises and organizations, there has been an expanding workforce of personnel engaged in S&T services, including technology consulting and technology transfer intermediaries, which directly or indirectly drives the SP demand from enterprises. At the same time, the wide growth of knowledge enterprises and organizations has also prompted those enterprises to focus more on

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improving the scientific literacy of local communities, and some enterprises have introduced initiatives to establish community SP universities and facilities. From the point of view of the SP demand from the public, it is important for everyone to continuously learn and acquire new knowledge and skills to keep abreast of the changing times, the knowledge explosion and rapid technological development. Therefore, scientific literacy is a basic requirement for every member of the public as people strive to enhance themselves and seek better development in a quickly changing and increasingly competitive world. This will create an increasing demand for diversified SP products and services.

2.4.2 The Market (Economic Benefits) is the Secondary Driver of the SP Industry The SP demands from the state, society and the public eventually translate to market demand for SP and the formation of the SP market and its corresponding economic benefits, which drive the development of the SP industry. This is what underlines the competition and interest mechanism of participants in the SP industry. Under the conditions of a market economy, the development of the SP industry should follow the norms of the market. The rules of the game of market economics are ‘profit is everything’ and ‘capital flows to where money is made.’ This is determined by the profit-seeking nature of capital. Where does China’s SP market lie? A look at the extraordinary development of SP infrastructure in China in recent years points to: • A burgeoning SP market as efforts intensify to increase the public’s scientific literacy; • Increasing government efforts to procure and share SP products; • Extraordinary development of SP venues (such as S&T museums and community SP venues) in need of many SP products and services; • Strong demand for innovation in SP products and services. These are set to create huge market potential for the development of the SP industry.

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2.4.3 Innovation is the Third Driver of the SP Industry 2.4.3.1

Knowledge Innovation Promotes the Growth and Sustainable Development of the SP Industry

Only through knowledge innovation in the SP industry can the SP demands of the state, society and the public be met continuously. Therefore, knowledge innovation is a driving force of the SP industry. From the perspective of the history of human civilization and S&T, innovation is the hallmark of knowledge, and knowledge innovation has been an activity dating back to the very beginning of human knowledge and its applications. In one sense, the history of S&T development, of the production of human labour, of economic development and social development is the history of knowledge innovation. Knowledge has gradually become a key resource for economic development, and knowledge innovation and creative applications of knowledge are becoming the primary driver of the knowledge economy and the knowledge society. In today’s world, knowledge innovation has not only taken a fundamental leap in quantity, quality, efficiency, mechanisms and scope over historical times but has become a rational self-consciousness of contemporary society. In the broad sense of the human activity of cognition and practice, knowledge innovation is an activity dominated by knowledge progress and meant to improve the real world through the proactive use of knowledge. As a knowledge industry that meets the public demand for the scientific culture and improves the public’s scientific literacy, the SP industry derives its impetus from knowledge innovation. As the most common socially conscious behaviour in today’s society, knowledge innovation is consciously undertaken not only by individuals for the purpose of self-improvement and comprehensive development but also by organizations for the purpose of organizational learning, innovation and development and by states to improve comprehensive national strengths and implement various development strategies. Therefore, knowledge innovation is needed by individuals, society and the state and expresses the demand for knowledge in the current times in the process of their development. It can be seen that knowledge innovation is at the core of the growth and development of the SP industry. The SP industry has come about as the result of the rise of a vast body of emerging industries related to science, technology and culture and expresses a series of new concepts and business models and human progress in science, technology and culture. Therefore, every step of development of the SP industry, as well as every new type of its products and activities, is attributable to knowledge innovation. Knowledge innovation is the lifeline of the SP industry. The scientific and cultural dimensions of the industry determine that it will stay active at the interface between tradition and modernity and keep bringing into being new SP offerings presented in new ways. From the individual to the community, from yesterday to today, and from traditional SP to modern science communication, SP has stayed abreast of the times by continuously breaking new ground. All SP practitioners continuously renew themselves,

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just as the SP industry keeps renewing itself, which is how the industry is sustained. Therefore, the SP industry has to focus on knowledge innovation for development. The emphasis on knowledge innovation as a key to the development of the SP industry requires emancipating the mind, respecting the science, attaching importance to talent, and fostering a favourable policy framework and market environment. Innovation in all areas of the SP industry, including content innovation, format innovation, technological innovation, business model innovation and institutional innovation, calls for more attention, support and understanding from all stakeholders.

2.4.3.2

Service Innovation Expands the Scope and Growth Potential of the SP Industry

Service innovation promotes the diversification and sophistication of SP services and increases the growth potential of the SP market by better meeting the SP demands of the government, society (including enterprises) and the public. Service innovation in the SP industry increases the growth potential of the industry mainly in the following ways: • Innovation in SP service concepts. In essence, the development of SP as an industry represents a revolution of SP concepts, in which SP organizations and public institutions break from the traditional public service framework and come to the full realization that they have become part of the industries related to science, technology and culture with the knowledge-based development of society and should proactively provide SP services for society, and that shift in self-positioning has greatly expanded the scope and scale of their SP activity; • Innovation in SP service content. Against the background of knowledge-based social development, innovation in SP service content involves not only the means to deliver SP information but also SP information itself. This is mainly shown in two ways: on the one hand, digital transformation delivers up-to-date SP content and reduces the negative impact of the dissemination of information or knowledge not reflecting the latest reality; on the other hand, the scope of SP services is continuously expanded to include new genres, such as SP animations, comics and games. In a word, it is important to deliver a diversity of high-quality SP services, which in turn will increase demand for SP services from government, society (including enterprises) and the public; • Innovation in the way SP services are delivered. From the perspective of the unity between history and logic, the development of SP services follows three progressive phases, moving from specialized SP services to comprehensive SP services to on-demand and self-help SP services. In the transition towards a knowledge society, innovation in the way SP services are delivered requires a transition towards on-demand and self-help services while appropriately retaining the traditional ways of SP services. In other words, there will be a paradigm shift in SP services from traditional SP services initiated by the provider to modern SP

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services readily available and proactively sought by the public. This points to the profound revolution in SP services towards diversity, flexibility and intelligence; • Innovation in SP service resources and processes. The sharing of SP services enabled by the internet and digital technology reflects the infinity of SP resources and services beyond geographical constraints and across industries, as well as the potential for cross-sector, cross-region collaboration in SP resource development and sharing, which tears down the barriers and walls of traditional SP services. Innovation in SP service resources and processes requires a shift from providercentred SP services to user-centred SP services, with a view to making SP service resources and processes a bridge and tie connecting the provider and the user, so that the two can effectively interact with each other and jointly shape the allocation of SP service resources and the delivery of SP services. This also requires SP service providers to continuously improve their ability to integrate SP service resources in innovative ways; • Innovation in SP service management. This refers to innovation in the management of the SP service system comprising institutions and organizations related to SP service innovation according to the development of SP service providers and changes in internal and external environments. Innovation in SP service management can be carried out by optimizing the administrative authorities of SP service providers and their administrative procedures towards the establishment of an effective administrative system informed by modern management principles and techniques in order to support and strengthen the innovation activity of SP service providers. Due to changes in the internal and external environments of traditional SP services and the standardization of SP business management with the knowledge-based development of society, the management of SP services has begun shifting its focus as well. This is marked by three transitions: • A transition from management centred on traditional imparting of scientific knowledge to management centred on modern knowledge access service facilities; • A transition from the management of tangible SP resources such as SP exhibition and education products to the management of intangible SP resources; • A transition from the management of limited administrative SP service targets to complicated social SP service system management. In view of these changes, innovation in SP service management has assumed particular importance, and the direction of innovation is towards achieving selfmanagement of SP services and comprehensive quality management of SP services. The self-management of SP services under the conditions of the network environment and digital technology emphasizes focusing on the needs of SP service users, improving the participation awareness and management awareness of SP demanders, reducing the burden of SP service personnel, and reflecting the function of service guidance and supervision and management of SP service personnel, which can greatly improve the management efficiency of SP services. The self-management

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of SP services also strengthens the popularization, professionalization and specialization of SP service education, and, as an industry, SP services must put quality first in order to survive and continue to develop. Therefore, comprehensive quality management is needed to continuously improve the quality of SP products and services and meet the evolving and growing demand from SP users. To sum up, with the rise of the knowledge society, it is a realistic choice for China to push SP service innovation as a way to drive the country’s SP industry. The industry must adhere to the principle of integrating social, economic and ecological benefits and, on the basis of effectively providing existing SP services, highlight the important position of SP service innovation in the industry by raising SP service innovation to the strategic height of the survival and development of the industry, steadily advancing SP service innovation, strengthening the social service function of the industry, striving to increase the economic contribution of the industry and enhancing the overall performance of the national SP service system.

2.4.3.3

Cultural Innovation Increases the Soft Power of the SP Industry

Cultural innovation is an important part of the construction of the national innovation system, which covers a broad range of areas at different levels, including concepts, institutional mechanisms, content, communication methods and business models. SP cultural innovation can not only promote the development and prosperity of SP, but also lay a solid cultural foundation for the development of the SP industry and enhance the cultural soft power and increase the vitality of SP industry development. Cultural innovation enhances the soft power of the SP industry mainly in the following ways: • Innovation in cultural content. At the core of the cultural dimension of the SP industry are the scientific concepts, scientific thoughts, scientific spirit and the system of scientific knowledge represented or expressed by it, wherein lies the cultural value of the industry. In essence, cultural content innovation in the SP industry is about unique integration, development and condensation of SP content expressions or representations, which requires not only focusing on the serialization, scientific basis and objectification of SP product development but also on customization according to the SP cultural needs of different audiences and in different regions, attracting and fostering a stable audience, reinventing SP industrial processes, extending the industrial chain, and driving the innovation and industrialization of SP cultural products and services; • Innovation in cultural form. Innovation in cultural form breaks down into two main aspects. The first aspect is innovation in the development model. On the one hand, it is important to give full scope to the role of major SP projects and SP brands in driving the SP industry by building a number of distinctive SP cultural brands, in order to increase the social influence of innovation in SP cultural forms and the corresponding brand value in the SP industry; on the other hand, efforts should be made to leverage SP project and brand operations to foster ways for SP to

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integrate with other sectors, such as tourism, games, animations, comics, creative production and health care, with a view to orienting the development of the SP industry to inclusively benefit the public. The second aspect is innovation in the form of representation. Innovation in the cultural form of the SP industry requires promoting the use of modern technology in the SP cultural field with a view to improving and expanding the ways of cultural representation of SP, diversifying the SP culture and, in particular, pushing innovation in such aspects as the digital transformation of SP resource management, network-based SP culture communication, information-based SP services and personalization of SP consumption in order to adapt to changes in consumer preferences and needs in SP cultural consumption; • Innovation in the means of communication. In the development of the SP industry, it is important to not only vigorously promote the combination of science, technology and culture, but also to use modern S&T means (information technology, network technology, digital technology, AI technology, etc.) to improve the way science and culture are communicated, expand communication channels, enrich communication means and enhance communication capacity; • Innovation in cultural business models. In the development of the SP industry, it is important to actively use high-tech and modern business models to transform the traditional SP business and cultural industry and foster new segments of the SP cultural industry. This will involve vigorously developing emerging segments, including SP creative production, SP animations and comics, SP tourism, SP conventions and exhibitions, SP games and digital SP, and by accelerating the development of regional thematic SP cultural industry parks or blocks, fostering and strengthening SP cultural industry clusters, and capturing favourable opportunities in the rapid development of the cultural industries in China to rapidly establish a well-thought-out network of unique SP cultural industry parks and industry demonstration bases. 2.4.3.4

Scientific and Technological Innovation is an Important Driver of the SP Industry

S&T innovation can not only promote breakthroughs in generic and key technologies in the SP industry, but also upgrade the SP industrial chain and value chain, and is therefore, an important engine of SP industry development. For SP and S&T to reinforce each other, it is necessary to thoroughly implement a strategy of leveraging S&T to fuel technological innovation in the SP industry. At present, efforts can be made to implement a number of systemically important and strategically significant SP industry projects with a view to developing core, key and generic SP technologies to support the R&D of SP exhibition and education products and common technology systems while emphasizing the formulation of relevant technical standards and accelerating the real-world applications of S&T innovations. In this regard, it is important to improve technology and equipment in relevant segments of the SP industry, such as publishing, printing, media, movies, TV,

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networks, animations and comics, in order to strengthen the core competitiveness of the industry. Measures include: • Establishing national demonstration bases for the integration of SP and S&T on the basis of national high-tech parks and national sustainable development experimental zones; • Including major SP projects in relevant national S&T development plans and programmes; • Improving the technological innovation system of the SP industry, which centres on enterprises, is oriented to the market and facilitates industry–research collaboration; • Fostering a number of distinctive innovation-driven SP enterprises; • Establishing industry–research collaboration and public service platforms.

2.5 The Composition of the SP Industry The SP industry is a complicated economic system comprising a number of component systems, including the SP product system, the SP service system, the SP industry innovation system and the public communication system, among others. In accordance with the principle of the factor-based division of the industrial system, the SP industry can be divided into the following eight factors.

2.5.1 Management Factor An industrial system is a complicated, evolving economic system and industrial ecosystem. For any industrial system to exist and operate efficiently, the management factor plays a crucial role. Management is a coordination activity for the purpose of the industrial system’s development. It supports the industrial ecosystem’s evolution and development by coordinating, organizing, commanding and controlling other factors of the industrial system. The efficient operation of the SP industrial system has an even greater need for the management factor to function effectively because the SP industry involves many other industries and needs to achieve the effective allocation and use of SP resources and not only pursue the industry’s development but also serve the public. This requires the management factor to effectively play its unique role. The management of the SP industry is an activity of industrial management that should be carried out in accordance with the basic laws and requirements of industrial management, rather than following the management methods of public SP undertakings. First, it requires the establishment of regulatory agencies and self-regulatory organizations of the SP industry and the optimization of the industry’s geographical

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distribution management and cluster management. At the same time, efforts should be made to strengthen the areas of weakness of China’s SP industry by strengthening regulation, high-quality management of SP products, safety management and scientific management. Second, the management of the SP industry involves knowledge management, which aims at the sharing and effective transfer and spread of knowledge. In view of its ultimate purpose being to increase public scientific literacy, the SP industry, as an industry producing knowledge products, should focus on knowledge management with a view to promoting the effective dissemination and sharing of knowledge. Third, the management of the SP industry as well as innovation management, whether in the production of SP content products or in the production of SP services, cannot go without innovation in SP content, SP services, S&T and culture, which requires stronger innovation management in the SP industry.

2.5.2 Technology Factor The technology factor reflects the main characteristics of an industrial system and is a key factor that distinguishes different industrial systems. The technology factor is the primary driver of the evolution of an industrial system; without technological innovation, an industrial system cannot stray far from the equilibrium state and will gradually vanish. The SP industry is a highly knowledge-based industry that involves spreading scientific knowledge, carrying forward the scientific spirit, fostering the scientific culture, and promoting S&T and S&T applications. Therefore, the technology factor is an important factor of the SP industry. First, the development of the SP industry cannot go on without the support of technology. The development of the industry requires R&D of generic technologies such as system simulations, 3D technology, multimedia, animation and data transmission. It requires industry–university collaboration in the R&D of key technologies powering the development of key segments, such as SP animations and comics, SP online games, SP film and TV and SP publishing, and it requires the support of enterprises in applied technology R&D for creative production and delivery to consumers. Second, the infrastructure of the SP industry cannot go without the support of various technology platforms. The development of the industry requires different types of technology platforms. Efforts include: • Integrating different types of S&T innovation resources of the SP industry and enabling the sharing of them via an efficient system; • Constructing a public innovation service system that provides small and mediumsized SP enterprises with common development and testing tools; • Establishing SP industrial bases dedicated to various themes, such as SP entertainment demonstration bases, SP creative industries pioneering bases and new SP

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media industrial bases, which requires funding and other support for the establishment of SP industry incubators that offer professional incubation services based on extensive technological resources. Third, the development of the SP industry cannot go on without the organizational support of technology. Efforts include: • Encouraging enterprises to establish industrial technology alliances in different fields of the SP industry, such as animation and comics, online games, film and TV, industrial design and publishing, and various industrial standards alliances geared to strengthening industry standards; • Improving the industry’s regulatory framework, further strengthening IP protection, normalizing the order of the market and optimizing the technological innovation environment of the industry; • Strengthening the R&D cooperation of SP enterprises; • Leveraging S&T projects to involve small, medium-sized and large enterprises for industrial chain and technological chain cooperation and technological innovation cooperation to form SP industry clusters.

2.5.3 Personnel Factor The personnel factor is the most dynamic factor of an industrial system. Any industrial system includes personnel responsible for different areas of work, such as managerial personnel, technical personnel and production personnel. All these different types of personnel have their own subjective initiatives, and their behavioural results cannot be added up in a straightforward way, which causes the industrial system to assume non-linear characteristics. Highly skilled talent is the fundamental driver of the knowledge-driven SP industry. SP talent is a decisive factor in a series of important activities of the SP industry, including SP resource development, SP enterprise development, SP market development, SP value chain development, SP industrial chain development, SP product marketing, and environmental stewardship. Currently, SP talent is needed across all segments of China’s SP industry, rather than in just a few fields. In other words, the development of the SP industry needs skills across the board, including not only talent in creative production, technology and business management along with the SP industrial chain but also talent in relevant government departments responsible for guiding, coordinating and scientifically managing the industry, as well as talent engaged in applied research and exploring ways to accelerate the development of the industry.

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2.5.4 Production Factor An industrial system is an open system with input and output functions, in which the production factor serves as an input–output switch for the open system. In turn, this switch involves a number of factors, including production processes and equipment and product quality, which combine to determine the output level of the industrial system. The SP industry has complicated production systems that vary in their production processes and equipment and product quality because of SP products’ diversity, knowledge-based nature and cross-sector nature. For example, there are significant differences between SP exhibition and education products and SP animation and comic products in their production processes and equipment and product quality requirements. The former focus on the correct display and representation of scientific knowledge and have relatively simple production processes, while the latter employ a combination of modern technologies such as sound, light and electronics and new media communication to create vivid characters and emphasize the quality of the production and content.

2.5.5 Market Factor The market factor guides the evolution of the industrial system. Previous studies considered the market as an external variable of the industrial system; in fact, the market factor is closely related to other factors of the industrial system, and a slight change in the market factor is capable of causing huge changes in other factors. Therefore, it is appropriate to include the market factor in the scope of the industrial system. The market factor of the SP industry refers to the whole organic SP industrial market formed by the interaction of the SP product market, the SP service market and the various SP production factors. The market factor is not fragmented or scattered but united. This unity is shown as the consistency of rules and free flow of the SP industrial market, the price equilibrium of that market, and the price linkage between different SP industrial markets. In the development of the SP industry, it is important to strengthen the unity of the SP industrial market system, develop public and forprofit SP undertakings side by side, and achieve the unity of economic benefits and social benefits. It is also necessary to give full scope to the fundamental role of the market with a view to rationally allocating SP production factors and guiding the flow of SP products and the optimal combination of productive factors. The SP industrial market should be open rather than closed and should meet the needs of socialization and internationalization of SP production and align with the modern market economy. This requires the various markets in the SP industrial market system to be open and integrated with each other and keep abreast of the times by continuously advancing content and service innovation. For that purpose, it

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is important to construct an open and diversified SP industrial market and maintain and increase its vitality, and integrate SP innovation with S&T system reform in order to continuously enrich and innovate in SP products and services. This is a competitive market in which many entities compete with each other in offering their products and services in different segments. To increase the competitiveness in the market, efforts can be made to: • Support the diversified development of the market, break departmental, sectoral and regional barriers, accelerate mergers and acquisitions of SP enterprises, and encourage individuals and small and medium-sized enterprises to start up SP businesses; • Reduce entry restrictions for the SP industry and form a diversified investment situation led by the government; • Implement guidance-oriented supervision of the market and encourage producers to develop marketable SP products and services; • Deepen market-oriented innovation in SP products and services and increase the core competitiveness of SP enterprises. The SP market should be normative and orderly. Trading and competition in the SP product market should be well regulated to provide equal opportunity and rights for all participants, transparent prices and standard procedures. The market order should be based on unified market rules, a comprehensive credit system, strong property and IP rights protection, flexible and diversified distribution of SP products, and good trading order. Only in the presence of an orderly SP industrial market system can the contractual relationships of different participants in the market be guaranteed and safeguarded, the vigour of SP trading activity be maintained, fair competition be ensured and the effective allocation of SP resources be achieved. Effective regulation is indispensable. In this regard, it is important to gradually improve the relevant laws and regulations, normalize the various industry organizations, enhance the SP market rules, strengthen the protection of IP rights, gradually establish an information network for SP industrial market management, and enhance the role of modern S&T in SP industry and market regulation.

2.5.6 Resource Factor The resource factor determines the input level of the industrial system. With the development of the knowledge economy, SP becomes increasingly economically viable by playing a greater role in competition in the knowledge economy. How to understand and tap the knowledge, spiritual and cultural dimensions of SP resources and integrate them into creative industrial elements in the form of SP content products by means of modern production and artistic representation is an urgent question for reflection on the development of the SP industry. SP resources are spiritual as well as material and have a potentially huge value. They are valuable not only materially, scientifically, culturally and spiritually, but also

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economically and in terms of utility and consumption, and they have the attributes of internationality, benefaction, communicability and changeability. However, the spiritual value of SP resources is not automatically valuable economically or in terms of consumption and has to be transformed to be so in a process in which knowledge and scientific, spiritual and cultural elements are developed to be offered as products in the market. In today’s world of ‘content is king’, innovation in SP content is a core driver of the SP industry. In the evolution of S&T civilization, different countries and ethnic groups have formed scientifically and culturally significant SP resources informed by their unique historical and cultural heritage, which provides a fertile soil for the development of unique SP content products and the SP industry at large. In developing the SP industry, it is important to fully tap and use SP resources’ attribute of being able to be shared. With accelerating globalization and the expansion of the global information superhighway, countries, regions and people have been increasingly connected, making exchanges and communication across borders unprecedentedly easy. This provides a favourable environment for the productization of SP resources, despite the fact that they have a geographical identity and may be protected as intellectual properties in some cases, by providing the products with a vast worldwide market as soon as they are brought into being. This means that those who are stronger in drawing upon worldwide SP resources and making innovations will secure more SP resources. In fact, cases of companies developing SP products by drawing upon SP resources from other countries are too many to enumerate. SP resources are also renewable. Compared with most natural resources, their renewability is their most salient feature; indeed, it is often the case that the more frequently SP resources are used, the greater value they have. Even unique scientifically, technologically or culturally significant heritage items and relics can be digitalized to reach wider audiences, thus magnifying their value. It is this feature of SP resources, in particular, that creates a vast potential of the development for the SP industry in the knowledge society.

2.5.7 Information Factor Human society has entered the information age, in which information is omnipresent and plays an increasing role. Therefore, the information factor plays an important role in the industrial system. In growing and optimizing an industry, the effective allocation of the information factor aims at the balanced and rational allocation of information in all sectors of society and the maximization of social and economic benefits in a well-thoughtout way that balances between fairness and efficiency and takes into account the information needs of the state, different regions, departments, organizations and individuals. The allocation of information resources in the SP industry should be based on social demand for SP information. It must reflect that demand, because only by doing so can the purpose of SP information production be fulfilled, and because the public’s

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demand for and use of SP information are the fundamental basis of SP information resource allocation. The public’s demand for SP information is a complicated social demand that is subject to a wide variety of factors and varies greatly. While SP information resources are numerous and widely available, the demand for them at a given time in a given place is nevertheless always limited. The result of SP information resource allocation is shown as the degree to which social demand for SP information is satisfied. The more the demand is satisfied, the more effective the allocation of SP information resources, and vice versa. If social demand for SP information is shown only as quantifiable satisfaction, the effective allocation of SP information resources is about providing as rich information products and services as possible; if it is also shown or mainly shown as qualitative satisfaction, then the effective allocation of SP information resources should involve and even focus on improving the quality of information products and services. If the quality requirement is not met, there is no effective or optimal allocation of information resources to speak of. The allocation of SP information resources in time, space, type and quantity have to be oriented to the public’s demand for SP information resources. Therefore, the rational and effective allocation of those resources has the maximum satisfaction of the information needs of all walks of life as its essence and ultimate purpose. The effective allocation of SP information resources aims at the effective use by the public of information resources. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct timely suitability surveys of SP information services and explore new ways to provide those services in order to achieve the effective utilization of information resources. It is also important to reduce the cost of allocating SP information resources. Because the purpose of SP information resource allocation is to create more SP products and services, a higher allocation cost inevitably leads to a lower allocation efficiency. Therefore, cost minimization is a basic requirement for that allocation. The characteristics of SP information resources determine that their allocation cost cannot be measured in terms of fixed costs and variable costs and should instead be divided into existing costs and the incremental costs of allocation. The existing cost is the sum of social wealth consumed to complete the existing resource distribution and the social wealth consumed to maintain the SP information resource structure. The incremental cost is the sum of social wealth consumed to increase SP information resource allocation. It is obvious that the existing SP information infrastructure, including communication networks, computer networks and information networks, and the number of SP or public databases have an impact on the allocation costs of SP information resources. In view of the social nature of the SP industry, SP information resources should be allocated in a way that facilitates the sharing of information resources. This is a unique requirement for the allocation of SP information resources and is also determined by the inherent characteristics of those resources. The sharing of SP information resources is a basic requirement for the knowledge-based development of society. The effective allocation of SP information resources is geared to establishing an efficient, full-featured, well-structured information resource system that meets the needs of scientific, technological, economic and social development and enables the

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sharing of SP information. In the development of the SP industry, the allocation of SP information resources must not use the traditional fragmented closed-end model, but should use a new model that prioritizes collaboration and coordination.

2.5.8 Knowledge Factor Through the sharing of knowledge, the knowledge factor is materialized in specific industries. This is a process of continuous integration of heterogeneous knowledge, in which knowledge is a combinative factor: it catalyses industrial development and makes that development cohesive. Knowledge integration promotes the integration of industries, and knowledge gains a dominant position in industrial integration. Knowledge integration is also a process of knowledge innovation. Out of the pursuit of their particular interests in knowledge cooperation, industries also achieve their own integration. Industrial integration is essentially industrial innovation and helps reduce transactional costs between industries, creates new cooperative residential interests, optimizes industrial structure, and improves industrial competitiveness. Therefore, it is important to strengthen the knowledge- sharing system and provide an efficient knowledge-sharing platform for industrial integration. The evolution of the modern industrial system is driven by two almost simultaneous processes: industrial integration and knowledge sharing. On the one hand, different industries involve different bodies of knowledge, which, however, are complementary and compatible with each other and may find their way into each other through exchange and sharing. On the other hand, industrial integration is a process of finding the interfaces between industries where their bodies of knowledge may be fused. Industrial integration puts forward specific requirements for knowledge, and knowledge sharing provides knowledge needed by industrial integration. Industrial integration emphasizes the knowledge bases on which different industries can be integrated. Knowledge sharing meets the specific knowledge requirements of industrial integration. The interfaces of industrial integration and the potential requirements of knowledge sharing are inherently consistent. Industrial integration gives purpose to knowledge sharing, and knowledge sharing provides the enabling knowledge foundation for industrial integration. The SP industry is an industrial complex integrating multiple industries, in which knowledge sharing is the foundation for the integration of SP with other industries. The SP industry is the sum of different types of knowledge, and the integration of SP with other industries is the exchange, sharing and integration of knowledge. Knowledge sharing that underlies the integration of SP and other industries involves the sharing and use of the same knowledge across segments or industrial chains within the SP industrial system in a process that facilitates efficient knowledge use by different industrial entities. What is more important is that, through knowledge sharing, the cycle of knowledge externalization, integration and internalization accelerates the systematic organization of knowledge, leading to the integration of specialized knowledge that was once scattered among different industries. The systematic

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organization of knowledge directly advances the systematic organization of the SP industry itself. In other words, by enabling the exchange, accumulation and integration of complementary knowledge, knowledge sharing drives the rapid growth of knowledge resources in different industrial segments, fuels knowledge innovation in the SP industry, and links seemingly heterogeneous industries into a well-knitted industrial complex.

2.6 The Basic Principles of SP Industry Development 2.6.1 Unity Between Social Benefits and Economic Benefits For the flourishing of public SP undertakings and the development of for-profit undertakings, we must prioritize the principle of benefiting the public while appropriately defining the relationship between public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings. It is important to continuously increase fiscal expenditure on public SP undertakings. At the same time, as the SP industry is an integral part of the national economy and SP products are commodities, it is also important to emphasize the economic sustainability of SP products while adhering to the principle of benefiting the public and strive to strike the best balance between the two.

2.6.2 Mutual Reinforcement of Public and For-Profit SP Undertakings In policymaking, public SP undertakings and for-profit SP undertakings should be differentiated so that they can reinforce each other and achieve common development. This means that we must both continuously increase expenditure on public SP undertakings to guarantee the public’s right to basic scientific literacy and encourage the development of for-profit SP undertakings to provide diversified SP products and services in the market.

2.6.3 Combination of Overall Advancement and Breakthroughs in Prioritized Areas In developing the SP industry, there should be a realistic road map and forwardlooking vision with a view to increasing public scientific literacy and advancing China’s efforts to build an innovative nation through scientific planning, holistic coordination, step-by-step implementation and comprehensive advancement. Efforts should be made, on the basis of establishing SP industry service platforms and

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creating the basic conditions for the industry’s development, to make breakthroughs in strengthening the resources of the industry, develop emerging segments of the industry, push ahead in prioritized areas while advancing progress across the board, and seek the common development of both public and for-profit SP undertakings.

2.6.4 Coordination Between Government Guidance and Market Regulation In developing the SP industry, China should depart from the approach of traditional public SP undertakings and follow a new road map that meets the requirements of the socialist market economy by: • Making policies for the SP industry that enforce market-based competition and foster a vibrant SP business environment; • Giving full consideration to the characteristics of the production of SP content and services and respecting their respective laws of development; • Strengthening the vibrancy of the SP industry in line with the requirements of increasing public scientific literacy and developing both public and for-profit SP undertakings; • Accelerating development while strengthening regulation, allowing the market to play a decisive role in SP resource allocation, giving better scope to the role of government, fostering participants in the SP industry, and promoting the sound sustainable development of the industry.

References 1. Zhou X et al (2005) Industrial analysis and industrial planning: methods and applications. Economy & Management Publishing House, Beijing 2. Peng F, Liu H (2008) Thinking on the industrial concept and classification. J Hunan Univ (Soc Sci) (5):64–67 3. Ren F, Zhai J (2014) Introduction to science and technology communication and popularization (revised edition). China Science and Technology Press, Beijing 4. Fritz M (2007) The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States (Trans. by Sun Yaojun). Renmin University of China Press, Beijing 5. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China (2011) Industrial classification for national economic activities: GB/T4754-2011. China Statistics Press, Beijing

Chapter 3

The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Abstract The SP industry is a complicated system incorporating the contents and forms of multiple industries. Having developed from integration with other industries, the SP industry continues to embrace new formats as its products become increasingly diverse, services are perfected and innovation in its content and services is steadily improved. China, for example, has gradually developed industries of SP exhibition and education supplies, publishing, animation, comics, film, TV, games, toys and tourism. All these popular science industries have core products that play an important role in the innovation of industrial content and services. To satisfy the people’s growing and increasingly diversified needs for SP, issues hampering the SP industries should be promptly addressed and effective measures should be taken to facilitate industrial development in a continuous, rapid and benign manner.

3.1 SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies 3.1.1 SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies and Classifications SP exhibition and teaching supplies have yet to be defined and interpreted, but they are, according to dictionaries, showpieces or items for display. Therefore, SP exhibition and education supplies should be exhibits with SP functions and values. They are important media for the display of SP information, the basis and support for SP activities, and the embodiment of exhibition purposes and assignments. They are usually found at SP venues such as S&T centres and museums in the form of exhibition and education resources, including exhibits and collections, educational kits, textbooks, syllabuses, audiovisual products, multimedia items, online works and so on. Audiences are educated while they enjoy exhibits and collections and attend activities at experiential exhibitions. Not much research has been done on the systematic classification of SP exhibition and teaching supplies, but researchers have had preliminary discussions about studies on the classification of items at S&T centres. © China Science and Technology Press 2021 F. Ren et al., Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3720-9_3

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Based on marketing theories, Xiao [1] categorized the items into core products, add-ons and derivatives. Core products include collections and exhibits, add-ons are gifts, souvenirs and promotional products; and derivatives include scientific and educational software, SP film and TV works, publications, animations and animation products. Based on research on the development of China’s S&T museums and the relevance of SP exhibition and education (the museums’ core activities), Zeng Guoping and other scholars categorized items in S&T museums into ‘core’, ‘peripheral’ and ‘relevant’ layers. The core layer is directly linked with the museums’ SP functions, including SP exhibitions and education, exhibit R&D and exhibition design; the peripheral layer is indirectly linked with those functions, including SP souvenirs, toys and audiovisual products; the relevant layer is not obviously related to those functions, but includes catering services, other exhibitions, conventions, venue leasing and technological consultations.1 Liu Shifeng combed through the classifications from science museums in his postdoctoral workstation report, in which he indirectly showed evidence of exhibit classifications through content-based showroom classifications. Li [2] discussed the relevance of what was displayed at garden museums, natural history museums, S&T museums and centres, and other museums of natural science, and laid a theoretical foundation for exhibit classification based on their fields. Based on the above discussions and referring to research on the development of China’s science museums and the authors’ experience in exhibit classification, as well as the consensus that exhibitions at comprehensive science museums should reflect basic sciences, scientific histories, cutting-edge technologies and natural life, this paper categorizes SP exhibition and teaching supplies in four dimensions: exhibition content, form, means of audience participation and mode of exhibit, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

3.1.1.1

Classification According to Exhibition Content

SP exhibition and teaching supplies can be categorized into exhibits of natural sciences, scientific histories, cutting-edge technologies and life (or nature). Basic sciences are natural sciences with strong theoretical bases, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology, and their exhibitions mainly reflect scientific knowledge, principles and explorations. Exhibits of the natural sciences are usually items transferred from scientific experiments, equipment and the principles of basic subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology and the life sciences, especially the popular and widely acknowledged classical exhibits of mechanics, acoustics, optics and electromagnetics preserved by world science centres after decades of development.

1

Zeng Guoping et al., Study on Public Welfare and the For-profit Nature of Science and Technology Museums and their Relations, 2010.

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Fig. 3.1 Classification of SP exhibition and teaching supplies

Scientific history includes both the development of particular sciences and the process of scientific applications affecting humans’ lives. Exhibitions of scientific history include those with local features and industrial characteristics. Incorporated with local natural ecology, climate and meteorology, industry and social resources, exhibits with local aspects feature the most distinctive natural, scientific, industrial and humanistic items that are closely linked with people’s work and lives. Exhibits with industrial characteristics display manufacturing, information, marine, aerospace, transportation and agricultural technologies. Some science museums have not yet set up showrooms or galleries to display Chinese or local ancient science and technologies. Cutting-edge technologies are new technologies that have only recently been put into use or have not yet been applied, and also the latest scientific achievements that arouse widespread public attention or that have or may have a great impact on human life. Among them are the latest achievements in transgenic technology, IT, intelligent manufacturing, robotics, aerospace technology, transport, energy, materials, bioengineering, marine technology, life sciences, climate change and cognitive science. Exhibits of cutting-edge technologies display the frontiers and trends in modern scientific development, especially the latest technologies and achievements in certain fields important to the public. These exhibits could contribute to the popularization and application of cutting-edge technologies as well as the public’s understanding of and support for scientific development. As cutting-edge technologies

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develop rapidly and are updated frequently, the frequency of future updates should be fully considered when the content and form of exhibits are decided. Exhibits of life or nature display science-related, commonsense, natural knowledge on the basis of natural history and taxonomy, as well as local information about the countries or regions where museums are located.

3.1.1.2

Classification According to Exhibition Form

SP exhibition and education supplies can be categorized into display items, multimedia and immersive exhibits. Display items (the earliest exhibits at museums) are collections that are ordered and displayed for particular purposes. They are the most basic form of exhibits and are usually seen at venues such as history and art museums. As the information conveyed by display items is mainly informative data and there are few interactions, this form of SP is basically one-way. Multimedia exhibits supplement or complement display items with screens, buttons, sound effects, emerging virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) and other means to fill the showroom from different ‘dimensions’, including through virtual book flipping, interactive projections, phantom imaging, suspension imaging, electronic messaging, interactive sandboxes and multimedia story walls. Comprising display items and multimedia exhibits, immersive exhibits aim at putting the audience personally on the scene. They are characterized by the shaping of situations through exhibit combinations, and their meanings mainly lie in situational components.

3.1.1.3

Classification According to the Means of Audience Participation and the Mode of the Exhibit

SP exhibition and teaching supplies can be categorized into interactive, noninteractive and partially interactive exhibits. As the name suggests, interactive exhibits are classified by their interactions with the audience, and can include hands-on or experiential items such as the classical Van de Graaff generator electrostatic demonstration and double-cone rolling uphill, multimedia exhibits selected or operated manually by the audience (such as by touch screen and operable VR and AR displays), and exhibits that the audience uses to design activities, programmes and devices (such as circuit combination and programming design modules). By means of interactions and experiences, designers of interactive exhibits fully consider human cognitive psychology and emphasize the enhancement of the audience’s feelings, understandings and experiences to maximize people’s interest. Interactive and experiential activities vary in their types. Some focus more on interaction so that the audience gains experience through hands-on operations, such as simulated aircraft flying; some stress experience, such as simulated earthquakes; others are more complicated, such as simulated celestial phenomena.

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According to specific presentations, non-interactive or partially interactive exhibits include specimens, posters, objects, display boards, models, devices, artificially designed scenes and on-site scientific demonstrations by science museum staff.

3.1.2 The Development of the SP Exhibition and Education Supplies Industry in China China’s SP exhibition and education supplies come mainly from two channels: previously unavailable SP exhibition and teaching supplies are produced by companies, and other resources, such as animal and plant specimens at museums, are transformed for use as exhibition and teaching supplies. The Plan for the Development of SP Infrastructure (2008–2010–2015) pointed out that China had a vital need to develop its SP infrastructure to: facilitate the transformation of social educational resources into SP exhibition and teaching supplies, promote the collaborations among the science, education and media industries, tap the potential educational resources of nature, technology, and arts and social sciences, and focus on exploiting educational resources from scientific institutions, universities, enterprises, zoos, botanical gardens, natural reserves and observatory stations and converting them into SP exhibition and teaching supplies.

SP exhibition and teaching supplies are developed so that S&T knowledge can be popularized and scientific concepts, principles and approaches can be revealed by vivid objects. At the initial stage of SP development, SP exhibition and teaching supplies were in the simplistic form of displays or exhibits, such as static showpieces or posters. Apart from some large items, most supplies were low-cost and could be popularized in remote areas. Audiences are often not much impressed by these exhibition and education forms because they are just one-way, without any interaction.

3.1.2.1

The Rise of Interactive Exhibits

As information technologies thrive, SP exhibition and teaching supplies have been unfettered from past monotony and stiffness and developed in a large-scale and intelligent way by applying electronic devices, multimedia and network technologies. They are usually incorporated with the latest industrial intelligent technologies, especially automatic control, electronic computer, AI and network technologies. Electronic SP exhibition and teaching supplies now focus more on interactions and the fun side of SP activities and are no longer one-way science dissemination. Electronic supplies interact with the audience to some extent with the help of man–machine interactive systems, in which the audience understands the science clearly and intuitively through

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hands-on experiences. Using approaches in line with modern cognitive science, audience members’ attention is drawn and their enthusiasms are aroused. In this way, an idea pops into their minds: ‘This is science’. SP exhibition and teaching supplies are now at the core of science museums, and interactivity is the trend for their development. During interactions, the audience communicates with the exhibits in a friendly and barrier-free manner. These supplies are increasingly used by science museums in Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin and other large and medium-sized cities. For example, the China S&T Museum, the Shanghai S&T Museum and the Beijing Planetarium use many kinds of electronic SP exhibition and teaching supplies.

3.1.2.2

Work at the Provincial Level

One way to effectively develop the SP industry is to expand and enlarge the coverage of exhibition and education resources at science museums. Some regional science museums use local resources and add local features to exhibition and teaching supplies during R&D. For example, more than 30 exhibits at the Sichuan S&T Museum are indicative of Sichuan scientific and cultural features. The ancient model of the Dujiangyan irrigation system, the modern model of the Ertan Hydropower Station and the Huanglong geological model of Jiuzhaigou incorporate scientific and cultural elements with local features into SP exhibits and expose the public to the charm of sci-tech civilizations by showing the evolution of local S&T; Miss Hibiscus and the Face-changing Robot at the robotics showroom boast Sichuan features and exemplify local cultural distinctions; the ancient model of Zigong well salt drilling shows the grandness of ancient salt mining and the effectiveness of Sichuan and Chongqing folk techniques, and manifests local scientific and cultural features. In another example, the new Shanxi S&T Museum, Hangzhou Low-carbon S&T Museum, Qinghai S&T Museum and Ningbo Scientific Exploration Center have also tapped exhibition resources with Chinese, regional and professional characteristics or established showrooms with distinctive themes. Based on innovations in exhibition and teaching supplies and the development of the SP industry, S&T museums continue to enrich and innovate in SP educational activities: • The Sichuan S&T Museum regularly presents scores of fun science experiments and puts on self-produced, directed and performed SP dramas with SP exhibits such as The Sun, the Earth, the Moon and Adventures of the Prince at the ‘Crazy Scientific Show’, arranges youth science studios with various kinds of activities (handicraft workshops, robot studios and general-purpose machine studios), and organizes festival, parent–child and numerous thematic activities. • The Chongqing S&T Museum arranges educational activities in its showrooms, including SP theatre, fun science labs, exhibition studies and youth science workshops, and organizes various thematic SP activities and science experiential training centring on scientific hotspots and exhibition themes.

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Some science museums develop and integrate their own and other resources with school education: • Since 2010, the Sichuan S&T Museum has been ‘taking SP to six destinations’ by promoting SP in schools, villages, communities, institutions, enterprises and military camps in the form of exhibits, SP dramas, demonstrations of science experiments, small-robot performances, educational toys and SP posters; • In the project of ‘taking science museum activities to campus’, the Chongqing S&T Museum proactively collaborates with multiple primary and secondary schools in Chongqing and takes SP to school students in the form of SP caravans and dramas. 3.1.2.3

Entrepreneurial Research and Development

As cultural undertakings thrive in China, science museums and galleries are increased rapidly, which has prompted the formation and development of manufactures in SP exhibition and teaching supplies. As the market for SP exhibition and teaching supplies takes shape, the R&D units of some science museums and manufacturing enterprises are beginning to take into account their resource advantages, R&D capacities and market orientations and begin to research and develop exhibits with relevant focuses: • Beijing Tianqiang Science Co. Ltd focuses on the development of large exhibitions for public spaces and innovative exhibits of various types, including electromagnetism, energy and the environment; • Guoshu Technology Co. Ltd emphasizes the design and production of exhibits at science museums, R&D of interactive displays of electromechanical new media and SP animation and animation software for large exhibitions at science museums; • The Shanghai Center of Science Popularization Exhibition specializes in the design, research and development of exhibits of natural sciences; • Shanghai Foremost Group boasts both the overall design of science museums and the R&D of multimedia exhibits; • Shanghai Wisgarden Co. Ltd is positioned at the R&D end of educational exhibits and supplies for children and adolescents; • Anhui Zhsho Co. Ltd is engaged in the planning and design of large and mediumsized science museums and the research, development and production of SP exhibits based on technological support from the University of Science and Technology of China; • Incorporating production, study, research and application with talent, technologies and funds from SP industries in Anhui Province, the National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Popular Science Products is engaged in the design and planning of SP venues and museums, the research, development and production of new SP caravans and vehicle-mounted exhibits, as well as the provision of experimental research bases and technological supports for upstream and

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downstream technological research, development and production teams through accessible services. 3.1.2.4

Upgrades and Renovations

As a developing country, China is developing slowly in most regions except for Beijing, the provincial capital cities and some prosperous areas. That also applies to SP exhibition and teaching supplies. In most regions, supplies at science museums are in the traditional form of static exhibits, specimens, boards and posters, without electronic SP exhibitions and teaching. Countries such as the US and Japan have basically eliminated boards, posters and other static exhibition and teaching supplies at their modernized science museums, except for some animal and plant specimens. China, however, is still using and will continue in the foreseeable future to use a number of static exhibition and teaching supplies at its science museums in most regions. Due to the differences in cost and service life, exhibition and teaching supplies vary greatly in their update frequencies. The Report on the Development of China’s SP Infrastructure (2009) found that boards are updated the most frequently of all the exhibition and teaching supplies, followed by posters, and that exhibits (specimens) are upgraded the least frequently [3]. According to Research on the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Directions and Approaches to Developing China’s Science and Technology Museums: • There were 19,000 exhibition pieces at China’s science museums by the end of 2013; • Some science museums updated and renovated existing permanent exhibitions purposefully; • From 2009 to 2013, 45 qualified science museums updated and renovated 3,602 exhibition pieces [4]. This means that an average of 720 exhibits was upgraded or renovated annually and that the average annual update frequency is 3.8%. Through upgrades and renovations of permanent exhibitions, science museums have their exhibition themes deepened, exhibit contents increased, display forms enriched and exhibition qualities improved, thus embracing reliable and sustainable development.

3.1.3 Problems Facing China’s SP Exhibition and Education Supplies Industry Development To dive deep into the research, production and application of SP exhibition and education supplies and related obstacles, as well as the R&D industry of SP exhibition and education supplies, the research team of China Research Institute for Science Popularization carried out researches in Beijing, Shanghai, Anhui, Sichuan, Chongqing

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and other regions and discussed specifically with local governments, associations for S&T, S&T museums, and manufacturers of SP exhibition and teaching supplies about obstacles in the way of developing and utilizing the supplies. China’s SP exhibition and education supplies industry faces or has the following obstacles:

3.1.3.1

Exhibition and Teaching Supplies Are Not Innovative But Greatly Homogeneous

Homogeneity in the content and form of SP exhibition and education supplies is a barrier to the development of China’s science museums: • • • •

Their designs lack ethnic, professional and contemporary features; There is little innovation in R&D and professional R&D teams are rare; Design and production qualities need to be improved; Most SP information is presented not by using high technologies but by traditional techniques that are behind the times and technological and industrial development; • Exhibits are updated slowly. Nowadays, exhibits at China’s science museums are mainly developed by the R&D (or management) teams of the museums, together with socialized tech companies. However, many science museums have no choice but to resort to domestic or international companies for designs, as they are weak in designing exhibitions and collections. Some domestic companies have made great progress recently when designing and producing exhibitions for science museums, but there is still a long way to go with regard to design innovation.

3.1.3.2

Industrial and National Standards Remain to Be Established

As there is no industrial or national standard for SP exhibition and teaching supplies in China, no technical criteria or specifications can be referred to when the supplies are produced and manufactured, and no inspection certificates can be provided for the supplies, as is the common practice for standardized products. Because SP exhibits developed by different manufacturers can vary in their quality, R&D for SP exhibits is hindered in developing in a standardized and orderly way, and museums face hazards in relation to quality and safety when they carry out activities with SP exhibition and teaching supplies.

3.1.3.3

The Market for SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies is Too Confined to Embrace Challenges

There are few S&T museums in China, particularly large ones, and the market for SP exhibition and teaching supplies is smaller than that for many other products. Most SP exhibits used by science museums are non-standard products that cannot

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

be put into mass production, so their sales volume is relatively small, affecting the expansion of the market. Because the R&D of SP exhibits requires high technologies and long cycles, their costs are so high that R&D companies cannot get tax credits in the same way as other high-tech companies. Thus, China’s S&T museums are not ready for market challenges during exhibition research and industrial development.

3.1.3.4

There is a Lack of Favourable Conditions for Development

As the R&D industry for SP exhibition and teaching supplies in China is still at its initial stage, there is no sound or development-specific support for it or policies such as incentives, subsidies, talent support or targeted assistance. Therefore, it is hard to get favourable conditions for the sector’s growth and development when considering public welfare at the same time.

3.1.4 Suggestions for Promoting the Development of China’s SP Exhibition and Education Supplies Sector 3.1.4.1

Establish an R&D Centre for SP Exhibition and Education Supplies

With the development of S&T, SP exhibition and education supplies are developing rapidly. Meanwhile, their concepts are also changing, in that they are no longer subject to singular collections but are placed at SP galleries and theatres with various modern new technologies. One good example of contemporary SP exhibition and teaching supplies is the most distinctive Zeiss Sky Hall at the China S&T Museum. It simulates a real night sky within the latest 23-m diameter Zeiss Universarium IX, where city dwellers are exposed to the brilliance of a starry sky with 9,000 stars inside the planetarium. Apart from hardware, Zeiss, the German enterprise, is also specialized in researching and developing software for SP devices. To welcome the International Year of Astronomy (1999), Zeiss established Exploring the Universe, Probing the Heavens with Galileo, the world’s first well-made dome theatre programme with 3D computer-animated graphics and scripts specially for a planetarium with a projector and digital projection system. The trend in international SP exhibition and teaching supplies made it theoretically and practically feasible for Zeiss to establish its R&D centre in China. A national R&D centre for SP exhibition and teaching supplies needs to be promptly established in China, with government support. By establishing a R&D centre for SP exhibition and teaching supplies, China will not be trying to eliminate existing manufacturers but setting up a national platform where SP institutions, such as S&T museums, can interact with manufacturers of

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supplies. In this way, information such as scientific knowledge and data on market needs can be better circulated, and the designs and technologies of SP exhibition and teaching supplies in China can be perfected. Instead of producing supplies, the R&D centre will analyse market needs, design appropriate products, plan the production and promote the technologies and products, and benefits to manufacturers can be increased. For China’s SP undertakings, the improved designs and technologies of SP exhibition and teaching supplies will contribute to the public’s scientific literacy and help achieve the objectives for SP activities; for Chinese manufacturers of SP exhibition and teaching supplies, high technologies and skilled designs will increase the added value of their products and therefore add to their profits. Since China’s SP industry is still newly born, the national R&D centre for SP exhibition and teaching supplies will require government investments. In line with experiences in developed countries, where the R&D of new industries using high technologies and with high added value account for over one-third of the total running costs of companies, the cost to run a national R&D centre for SP exhibition and teaching supplies will also be substantial, since the SP industry is highly technical and value-adding. Funds can certainly be obtained from China’s projects in developing SP exhibition and teaching supplies, but China’s supplies industry requires fixed funding, as it is still at an initial stage. A rough estimation is that annual funding of CNY200 million is needed. The R&D centre for SP exhibition and teaching supplies can run smoothly only when there is sufficient and long-lasting funding, for the following reasons. • The national R&D centre is the direction in which China’s SP exhibition and teaching supplies should develop. It should be established and developed from a long-lasting, fundamental and strategic perspective that exemplifies China’s scientific, technological, industrial and innovative powers. It should centre on the market and contribute to the development of the SP industry in China, while at the same time being an important part of long-lasting, fundamental and strategic SP undertakings in China. Thus, adequate long-term funding is indispensable; • The international trend towards large-scale media and network-based industrial development increases the demand for R&D personnel with technological, social scientific and artistic literacy, and the cultivation of such personnel is time and cost consuming. China has few R&D personnel for SP exhibition and teaching supplies, so the cost of cultivation will certainly be high; • The SP exhibition and teaching supplies industry is highly technological and value-adding, which means that it is characterized by high inputs, risks and profits. If China invests considerably in the R&D centre for SP exhibition and teaching supplies on the premise of strict management, the SP industry can be expected to generate considerable profits and social benefits. After establishing the national R&D centre, China will gradually get over its dependence on developed countries for their high-end SP exhibition and teaching supplies, and can expect to have its own well-developed industry. This not only

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

complies with the needs of SP undertakings in China but also contributes to longlasting and steady social, economic and cultural development in China as a new growth engine. Based on the status quo of social, economic and technological development in China, this national R&D centre should be set up in Beijing, because that city is home to many versatile people with impressive technological, social scientific and artistic literacy. Those are precisely the qualities needed from the personnel of the centre.

3.1.4.2

Set Up a Contingent of R&D Staff for SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies Through Cultivation and Training

As the demand for more and higher quality SP exhibits increases, manufacturers and science museums are paying increasingly more attention to cultivating R&D personnel. In recent years, Zigong Technology Co. Ltd, a company involved in robot development, has cultivated a contingent of frontline R&D staff who are passionate about new technologies and the development of new exhibitions so that its team of planning, design, testing, R&D, production and after-sales staff remains stable and balanced. It has benefited from its long-term practices and managerial approaches, such as the accountability of the chief engineer’s office and midday review meetings, proactively set up its own contingent of experts to supervise the design and development of professional exhibits, and requested experts from relevant industries for demonstrations and guidance on exhibition design ideas, means of expression and scientific content. The Sichuan S&T Museum and Chongqing S&T Museum have their own technical departments for exhibition planning, development and design. In the long run, universities and colleges with educational foundations in science, technology and museum curation should be encouraged to open undergraduate and graduate courses for related majors so that science museums in various regions can be staffed with people specialized in exhibition curation, education, management and theoretical studies. Qualified science museums should be prompted to establish ‘bases for specialized science museum education’ in collaboration with suitable universities and colleges.

3.1.4.3

Standardize SP Product Criteria and Increase Studies on the Certification and Standards Systems

Based on sufficient research and scientific studies, an outline of standards systems for SP products should be established as a guide and reference for final industrial and product standards as well as the foundation for the brand culture of SP enterprises. A catalogue of SP products should be prepared on the basis of standards and criteria

3.1 SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies

95

so that both governments and the public can easily place an order. An informationbased platform should be set up so that supplies and demands can be published and circulated freely and a benign, flexible and standardized operational mechanism can be created for the SP exhibition and teaching supplies industry.

3.1.4.4

Enhance Government Financing and Encourage Social Support

As important media for scientific dissemination, well-developed SP exhibition and teaching supplies as well as science museums, if equipped by grass-roots organizations such as communities, schools and villages where SP activities are carried out, will not only resolve the problem of unbalanced and underused SP infrastructure but also create the possibility of developing the formats of SP exhibition and teaching supplies. CAST’s mobile S&T station and community-based SP programmes, supported by the Ministry of Finance, have gained popularity among the public and successfully popularized science ever since their establishment. On the one hand, China should continue to offer support and help to establish mobile S&T stations in communities, schools, remote areas and villages for the convenience and benefit of various groups; on the other hand, funds should be allocated to procure SP exhibition and teaching supplies for the community-based SP programme, and to research, develop and produce SP products from government-supported social fund-raising.

3.1.4.5

Facilitate R&D of SP Exhibition and Teaching Supplies and Industrial Development with Policy Support

The establishment of an innovative culture and country requires the improved scientific literacy of the nation as well as the shared development of SP undertakings and industry. SP undertakings are the integration of scientific and cultural undertakings, and the emerging SP industry is also part of the scientific and cultural industries. Among them, the most distinctive is the R&D of SP exhibition and teaching supplies and their industrial development, which are important means of enriching the public’s scientific and cultural life. Therefore, this type of cultural industry should be developed and supported with priority so that its influence and driving force can be reinforced to stimulate the development of relevant service and manufacturing sectors.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

3.2 SP Publishing 3.2.1 SP Publications and Categories As one of the main forms of SP mass media, SP publications, including SP books, journals, newspapers and electronic publications, are the major carrier for disseminating scientific knowledge, advocating scientific approaches, spreading scientific thoughts and advancing the scientific spirit.

3.2.1.1

SP Books

SP books are scientific books registered and officially numbered at publication agencies, targeted at non-professional readers and aimed at disseminating scientific knowledge, advocating scientific approaches, spreading scientific thoughts and advancing the scientific spirit. They include scientific essays, stories, poems, biographies of scientists, children’s SP books, pragmatic technical interpretations and fictional works. As important carriers and media for SP, SP books reflect a profile of modern scientific popularization. SP books in foreign countries have developed over centuries and generations of authors, including Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Sagan and Hawking, whose works are treasures of knowledge and ideologies for our generation. Influenced by foreign countries through the import of scientific masterpieces and principles, SP books in China have obviously transited from translations to originals (or a combination of translation and original) and from professional works to popular ones in the course of their development. In China, influential popularized books did not emerge until some 100 years ago. Chinese SP authors shared similar writing styles with their foreign counterparts: traditional SP books in earlier years were vivid, elegant and lofty, such as the works of Gao Shiqi, Dong Chuncai and Jia Zuzhang; mathematical books were exquisite, lively and fun, such as the works of Liu Houyi, Tan Xiangbai, Ye Yonglie and Zhang Jingzhong. SP books written after the founding of the People’s Republic of China have attached great value to thoughts and ideologies: works eulogizing the country’s thriving scientific undertakings are passionate and zealous; works disclosing superstitions and pseudoscience are critical and harsh [5]. In recent years, a number of scientists have been engaged in SP writing. Among them, I Wonder Why (6th edition) is compiled by more than 700 scientists and SP authors: Academician Han Qide acts as the editor-in-chief, 21 academicians from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the Chinese Academy of Engineering serve as chief editors of the installments, and more than 110 academicians make up the editorial committee. SP works written by Academician Yang Huanming, Academician Cao Fuliang and other scientists were awarded the National Prize for

3.2 SP Publishing

97

Progress in Science and Technology. Contemporary SP authors such as Xia Zi also publish new works continuously. In recent years, there have been new developments in science fiction writing with the publication of a variety of excellent works by sci-fi authors such as Pan Jiazheng and Wang Jinkang. The Three-Body Problem, written by Chinese author Liu Cixin, remarkably won the Hugo Award on 23 August 2015, setting off a wave of sci-fi writing in China. Before Liu’s award, sci-fi works were usually called sci-fi novels and were considered to be a minor form of literature that was undervalued. As the public becomes aware of the SP functions of sci-fi works, sci-fi writing also becomes an important part of SP writing. SP books appear to be clearly identifiable, but it is often hard to determine whether a specific book belongs to SP. What we call an SP book today is still an ambiguous concept. The classification of SP books is rarely studied domestically or internationally: other countries often put scientific and artistic books in the same category; best-selling books are usually categorized into fiction and non-fiction, and sci-fi books are always seen as fiction. SP books are often classified according to their subjects, but no separate categories have been found for SP books in foreign countries. China has sporadically produced articles that study the classification of SP books, but no systematic studies have been done yet. Xue Jin conceptually categorized children’s picture books from the perspectives of content or theme, function or purpose, material or carrier, and packaging or form [6]. Children’s SP books are becoming increasingly innovative in their forms, including pop-up books, audiobooks, playbooks and electronic books. Based on the research on SP books in Japan, Yao Lifen noted the forms and features of Japanese SP books based on series, stylistic features and printing [7]. SP books have also been categorized into general SP books and sci-fi works, or into first-edition, republished and reprinted books. In the ratings for SP books, or Top SP Books in China, hosted by CAST, the Publishers Association of China, the TaoFen Foundation and the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, the classifications were ‘Top Original SP Books’ and ‘Top Imported SP Books’. SP books can be classified according to subject, complexity, targeted reader, genre or editing style, and such classifications will help in the understanding, studying and publicizing of SP books.

3.2.1.2

SP Journals

SP journals are periodicals of an SP nature that are registered and officially numbered or internally licensed for printing at publication agencies and released to the public. Well over 100 years ago, SP journals emerged in other countries: • Scientific American was first issued in the US in 1845 and is now a globally known and authoritative SP brand; • Nature, initiated in the UK in 1869, is the earliest international scientific journal and also one of the world’s most authoritative scientific magazines; • Science and Technology was first issued in Germany in 1897;

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

• Kagaku Asaki was initiated in Japan in 1897. In China, journals emerged in the late eighteenth century and took on varied features during different periods. After the reform and opening-up period, society attached more importance to science, and SP journals were revived and developed: journals such as Knowledge is Power, Science Pictorial and Wuxiandian had more than 100,000 issues after their publication resumed [8]. Life World, co-founded by CAS and the Higher Education Press in recent years, centres on the life sciences and covers medicine, health, plants, environmental protection, tourism and other fields. It has gained popularity among the public as educators in the life sciences transfuse their ideas into the journal. Chinese National Geography has occupied a considerable share in the market for human geographical SP magazines; Newton and Scientific American (Chinese Edition) are professional SP journals targeted at educated groups; Encyclopedic Knowledge takes the civilian route and strives to present its content in plain language. According to the Report on the National Press and Publication Industry, journals are classified into general; philosophy and social science; natural science and technology; culture and education; and literature and art. They can also be categorized into periodicals; publications for children and adolescents; pictorials; and animations and comics.2 Based on the specialization of journal articles, Wu Dan and other scholars divide Chinese SP journals into general SP journals and professional SP journals. General SP journals are mainly general and encyclopaedic works; professional SP journals are categorized according to the subject into works of sciences; engineering; agriculture and forestry; medicine and health care; military sciences; and public security [8].

3.2.1.3

SP Newspapers

Newspapers are printed publications featuring news and commentary that are issued regularly to the public. SP newspapers, including Beijing Sci-Tech Report and China Science Daily, are scientific papers aiming at disseminating scientific knowledge, advocating scientific approaches, spreading scientific thoughts and advancing the scientific spirit. Newspapers were once an important medium and the main channel through which scientific information could be accessible to the public. In the US, where SP grew rapidly from the late 1970s to the early 1980s, many newspapers followed the example of the New York Times after it established a weekly column for SP in 1978. The UK boasts a variety of newspapers, among which high-quality papers have at least one dedicated scientific journalist for scientific dissemination and most papers, such as The Times, The Guardian and the Financial Times, have a special or weekly scientific column. 2

Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2016, National Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 25 May 2017.

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In Germany, all the high-quality papers have scientific columns, and most regional papers publish a column of scientific information at least once a week. China has published an annual volume of nearly 2,000 papers in recent years, most of which have scientific pages or columns [8]. According to the Report on the National Press and Publication Industry, China’s varied newspapers are classified into general papers, professional papers, papers of life services, audience-targeted papers and paper digests, or into national and provincial papers; municipal or prefecture-level papers; and county-level papers.3

3.2.1.4

Electronic SP Publications

Electronic publications are replicable publications, which, by means of digital code, store information such as pictures, texts, sounds and images after editing and processing on magnetic, optical, electrical and other devices in a fixed physical form so that the information can be read and used through computers or devices with similar functions for the expression of thoughts, the popularization of knowledge and the accumulation of culture.4 Electronic media include CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CDI, CD-R, CD-RW, photo-CD, floppy disk, hard disk, ICC and other media recognized by the national press and publication agency. These publications are characterized by the medium, interactivity, high capacity and easy retrieval. Modern electronic and information technologies have greatly accelerated the dissemination of information. Electronic books and online systems have reduced the cost of knowledge diffusion, increased capacity and improved efficiency, indicating the prospect of boundless development. Electronic SP publications are the officially published electronic publications aiming at disseminating scientific knowledge, advocating scientific approaches, spreading scientific thoughts and advancing the scientific spirit. With the arrival of information age and the availability of intelligent communication terminals such as smart TVs, computers and smartphones in China’s urban and rural areas, a great number of SP media, both new and old, have been formed. Having inherited merits from traditional media such as TV and radio and offset their demerits, the new media are characterized by easily accessible resources, effective promotion, the availability of repeated viewing, convenient editing and portability, and immunity to time and region, so the public can refer to them more easily. According to the Report on the National Press and Publication Industry, electronic publications are classified into CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CD-I and other media, and

3

Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2016, National Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 25 May 2017. 4 Regulations on the Administration of Electronic Publications, General Administration of Press and Publication, 21 February 2008.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Table 3.1 China’s SP book publishing and market share, 2010 to 2016 Year

Kinds of published SP books

Proportion of the kinds of published books (%)

Published SP books (10,000 volumes)

Proportion of the books published (%)

2010

7,043

2.14

6,520

0.90

2011

7,695

2.86

5,696

0.74

2012

7,521

1.82

6,571

0.81

2013

8,423

1.89

8,860

1.07

2014

8,507

1.90

6,160

0.76

2015

16,600

3.49

13,357

1.54

2016

11,937

2.39

13,487

1.49

Annual average

9,675

2.36

8,664

1.04

adolescents and children’s CD-I and other media, or into newly published electronic publications and republished electronic publications.5

3.2.2 Overview of the SP Publishing Industry in China 3.2.2.1

SP Book Publishing

Because books are the traditional format of the SP industries in China, the SP book publishing industry boasts rich content and wide-ranging themes: • Rural SP books have remained an important force in developing SP undertakings in rural areas; • SP books on medicine, health care and lifestyle have always been a vital theme in SP book publishing, catering to people’s quest for scientific and healthy living; • Children’s SP books have remained a significant base for SP work among youth. Among specific scientific fields, earth science, aviation, aerospace, military science, environmental protection, new technology and new materials are the main and much-talked-about fields for SP books. After years of progression and development, the SP book publishing industry has reached a certain scale in China. According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, China’s SP book publishing and market share in recent years are as shown in Table 3.1 [9]. It can be seen that SP books are published at a steady pace in China: there were relatively substantial increases in 2015 and 2016, while other years showed little change. The market for SP books is confined in China, where the kinds of published 5

Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2016, National Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 25 May 2017.

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Table 3.2 Top three provinces (municipalities) for published SP books, 2010 to 2016 Year

Kinds of published SP books

Proportion of the kinds of SP books published (%)

2010

Beijing (2,044), Shanghai (764), Zhejiang (891)

52.52

2011

Beijing (2,830), Shanghai (897), Zhejiang (958)

60.88

2012

Beijing (2,864), Shanghai (1,021), Zhejiang (468)

57.88

2013

Beijing (3,747), Shanghai (1,046), Zhejiang (166)

58.87

2014

Beijing (3,605), Shanghai (1,072), Zhejiang (650)

62.62

2015

Beijing (4,595), Shanghai (1,074), Zhejiang (593)

37.72

2016

Beijing (3,572), Shanghai (972), Zhejiang (1,719)

52.47

Average

54.71

SP books only account for 2% of those of published books in China in the same year, and the number of published SP books accounts for only 1% of the total number of published books in China that year. China has always centred its SP book publishing industry in the eastern part of the country: both the kinds and numbers of published books in the east are much more than those in the central and western regions. According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, Beijing, Shanghai and Zhejiang are the provinces (municipalities) with the most kinds of published SP books in the country, accounting for over a half of the kinds in China, as shown in Table 3.2 [9]. Beijing has remained at the top and held a safe lead in the kinds and numbers of published SP books. In recent years, over one-third of SP books in China have been published in Beijing. Beijing’s influence as the cultural centre is also shown in SP book publishing (Table 3.3).

3.2.2.2

SP Journal Publishing

SP journals refer to a variety of fields in China, including sciences; engineering; agriculture and forestry; medicine; health care; military sciences; public security; firefighting; and the general field. Among them, SP journals on medicine and health care have more types and make up a bigger percentage. According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, China’s SP journal publishing in recent years has been as shown in Table 3.4 [9]. In general, the types and numbers of SP journals published in China are steady, but they do not occupy a large share in the market. The kinds of published SP journals

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Table 3.3 SP book publishing in Beijing, 2010 to 2016 Year

Kinds of published SP books

Proportion of the kinds of books published (%)

Published SP books (10,000 volumes)

Proportion of all books published (%)

2010

2,044

29.02

1,445.6

22.17

2011

2,830

36.78

1,308.1

22.96

2012

2,864

38.08

1,888.3

28.74

2013

3,747

44.49

5,158.5

58.22

2014

3,605

42.38

2,795.4

45.38

2015

4,595

27.68

7,334.5

54.91

2016

3,572

29.92

2,869.5

21.28

Average

3,322

34.34

3,257.1

7.59

Table 3.4 China’s SP journal publishing, 2010 to 2016 Year

Kinds of published SP journals

2010

822

2011

892

2012 2013 2014

984

2015 2016 Annual average

Proportion of kinds of journals (%)

Published SP journals (10,000 volumes)

Proportion of all journals published (%)

8.31

15,522

4.82

9.06

15,722

4.79

1,007

10.21

13,909

4.09

1,036

10.49

16,970

5.20

9.87

10,826

3.49

1,249

12.47

17,850

6.20

1,265

12.54

15,970

5.93

1,036

10.42

15,253

4.93

account for 10% of all types of journals published in China, and there were some increases in 2015 and 2016; the numbers of published SP journals account for a relatively low 5% of all published journals, and there is no obvious growth trend. The estimated annual revenue from SP journals is around CNY1 billion per year, as shown in Table 3.5. China has also centred its SP journal publishing industry in the eastern part of the country: both the kinds and numbers of published journals in the east are much more than those in the central and western regions. According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, Shanghai, Beijing, Zhejiang and Jiangsu are the provinces (municipalities) with the most kinds of SP journals in China, accounting for around one-third of all kinds; Beijing, Guangdong and Shanghai are the provinces (municipalities) with the highest numbers of published SP journals in China, accounting for nearly a half of the numbers in China, as shown in Table 3.6 [9].

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Table 3.5 Estimated annual revenues from published SP journals in China, 2013 to 2016 Year

Published SP journals (10,000 volumes)

Proportion of journals published (%)

Revenue from journals published in China (CNY100 million)

Estimated revenue from published SP journals (CNY100 million)

2013

16,970

5.20

222

11.5

2014

10,826

3.49

212

7.4

2015

17,850

6.20

201

12.5

2016

15,970

5.93

194

11.5

Annual average

15,404

5.21

207

10.8

Due to a lack of statistical data on revenues from published SP journals, these figures are estimated based on the proportion of all published SP journals to journals published in China in that year

3.2.2.3

SP Newspaper Publishing

According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, SP newspaper publishing in China is as shown in Table 3.7 [9]. About 300 million issues of scientific newspapers have been published annually in recent years, accounting for 0.8% of the national newspaper volume, and that percentage dropped greatly in 2016. Table 3.8 shows that the annual revenues from scientific newspapers in recent years in China are only around CNY500 million. China has also centred its SP newspaper publishing in the east; publishing in the east, west and central regions are shown in Table 3.9 [9]. The SP newspapers published in the east account for 70% of all SP newspapers published in China. In an era of thriving new media, newspapers and other printed media have been suffering substantial challenges to their survival and development. According to three recent research papers on the scientific literacy of Chinese citizens, people have been turning to newspapers less and less frequently for access to scientific information in recent years, and newspaper-based access fell far behind TV and networks to third place in 2015, as shown in Fig. 3.2 [10–12]. This also shows how the further popularization of digital reading and changes in information spread and access have been affecting newspapers and other printed publications.

3.2.2.4

Electronic SP Publishing

By the end of 2016, China had 309 publishers of electronic publications, which published 9,836 kinds and 290.65 million copies of electronic publications.6 The publishing of electronic SP publications in recent years is shown in Table 3.10 [9].

6

Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2016, National Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 25 June 2017.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Table 3.6 Top provinces (municipalities) for published SP journals in China, 2010 to 2016 Year

Kinds of published SP journals

Proportion of the kinds of journals published (%)

Published SP journals (10,000 volumes)

Proportion of all journals published (%)

2010

Shanghai (77) Beijing (84) Zhejiang (118) Jiangsu (49)

39.9

Beijing (3,526.7) Guangdong (2,575.1) Shanghai (2,269.4)

53.9

2011

Shanghai (78) Beijing (80) Zhejiang (129) Jiangsu (53)

38.1

Beijing (3,041.7) Guangdong (2,431.0) Shanghai (2,191.5)

48.7

2012

Shanghai (102) Beijing (81) Zhejiang (41) Jiangsu (61)

28.3

Beijing (4,451.8) Guangdong (1,934.1) Shanghai (2,525.3)

64.1

2013

Shanghai (119) Beijing (67) Zhejiang (47) Jiangsu (59)

28.2

Beijing (4,355.0) Guangdong (1,479.7) Shanghai (2,604.2)

49.7

2014

Shanghai (126) Beijing (68) Zhejiang (51) Jiangsu (59)

30.9

Beijing (1,378.8) Guangdong (1,039.8) Shanghai (2,138.2)

42.1

2015

Shanghai (129) Beijing (111) Zhejiang (62) Jiangsu (101)

32.3

Beijing (1,888.5) Guangdong (6,968.0) Shanghai (2,199.5)

61.9

2016

Shanghai (133) Beijing (130) Zhejiang (85) Jiangsu (48)

31.3

Beijing (3,702.6) Guangdong (4,050.5) Shanghai (1,923.9)

60.6

Average

–

32.7

–

54.4

The volume and percentage share of electronic SP publications have decreased in China recently, and a substantial drop occurred in 2016. Table 3.11 shows that the annual revenue from electronic SP publications in recent years in China has been only around CNY40 million.

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Table 3.7 China’s SP newspaper publishing, 2010 to 2016 Year

Kinds of published newspapers

Published newspapers (100 million volumes)

Published SP newspapers (100 million volumes)

Proportion of published SP newspapers of all newspapers published in China (%)

2010

1,939

452.14

3.40

0.75

2011

1,928

467.43

4.11

0.88

2012

1,918

482.20

4.11

0.85

2013

1,915

482.41

3.85

0.80

2014

1,912

463.90

3.02

0.65

2015

1,906

430.09

3.92

0.91

2016

1,894

390.07

2.67

0.68

Annual average

1,916

452.61

3.58

0.79

Table 3.8 Estimated annual revenues from published SP newspapers in China, 2013 to 2016 Year

Published SP newspapers (100 million volumes)

Proportion of all newspapers published in China (%)

Revenue from all newspapers published in China (CNY100 million)

Estimated revenue from SP journals (CNY100 million)

2013

3.85

0.80

776.7

6.21

2014

3.02

0.65

697.8

4.54

2015

3.92

0.91

626.2

5.70

2016

2.67

0.68

578.5

3.93

Annual average

3.37

0.76

669.8

5.09

Due to a lack of statistical data on revenues from SP newspapers, these figures are estimated based on the proportion of published SP newspapers to all newspapers published in China in the given year Table 3.9 Proportion of SP newspapers published in China, by region, 2010 to 2016 (%)

Year

Eastern regions

Central regions

Western regions

2010

68.81

17.62

13.57

2011

55.50

31.17

13.33

2012

57.73

31.08

11.19

2013

76.86

13.90

9.24

2014

72.71

15.56

11.73

2015

70.13

14.62

15.25

2016

69.29

23.22

7.49

Annual average

67.29

21.03

11.68

106

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry 2007 Book Journal

2010

11.4%

2015

13.3% 11.5% 22.7% 11.9% 22.9% Internet

53.4%

87.5% 93.4%

26.6% 10.7%

90.2%

Television

60.2% 59.1% 38.5% Newspaper

Fig. 3.2 Chinese citizens’ main means of access to scientific information

Table 3.10 Publishing of electronic SP publications in China, 2011 to 2016 Year

Electronic publications in China (10,000 items)

Electronic SP publications in China (10,000 items)

Proportion of electronic SP publications to total number (%)

2011

22,900

1,489

6.5

2012

26,000

1,473

5.7

2013

35,000

1,442

4.1

2014

35,047

619

1.8

2015

21,438

989

4.6

2016

29,065

433

1.5

Annual average

28,242

1,074

3.8

3.2.3 Problems in Promoting China’s SP Publishing Development China has a small number of SP publications with small market share and revenue. This is attributable to many factors, including authors, works and publishers, as well as production mechanisms and the business environment. This section explores the industry’s problems.

3.2 SP Publishing

107

Table 3.11 Estimated annual revenues from electronic SP publications in China, 2011 to 2016 Year

Revenue from electronic Proportion of electronic publications in China SP publications of all (CNY100 million) electronic publications (%)

Estimated revenue from electronic SP publications (CNY100 million)

2011

6.2

6.5

0.4

2012

9.2

5.7

0.5

2013

10.2

4.1

0.4

2014

10.9

1.8

0.2

2015

12.4

4.6

0.6

2016

13.2

1.5

0.2

Annual average 10.4

4.0

0.4

Due to a lack of statistical data on revenues from electronic SP publications, these figures are estimated based on the proportion of electronic SP publications to all electronic publications in China in the given year

3.2.3.1

Understaffing

According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, the small number of SP authors in China accounts for the low proportion of writers among the total SP staff, and there is no visible growth trend [9]. SP authors are not highly educated or brought into full play, since communications are rare among them. SP writers’ associations of all the regions develop in a varied manner, but they are generally plagued by understaffing and a team of aging authors. SP editors should be increased steadily, especially those with graduate degrees.

3.2.3.2

Works

SP works aiming at spreading scientific knowledge make a big portion of sales, and pragmatic SP books have more variety and sell in good volume. However, SP reading materials with advanced ideas and those advocating scientific literacy and humanistic thinking are rare. SP writing remains invariant, and traditional expressions lack contemporaneousness and novelty. Without a strong brand influence, scientific newspapers do not sell well: only a few have sales volumes of more than 100,000 [8]. Because their influence is weak and no influential brand has been built, their readers are scattered. SP works, especially original SP resources, are generally not highly qualified or elegant. Without laudable originals, SP writing is desperate for momentum and finds it hard to satisfy the public’s needs. These issues have hampered SP development and constrained the scientific literacy of Chinese citizens to an extent.

108

3.2.3.3

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Publishing

Rare eminent authors, narrow topics, low-level repetition, publishing difficulties with theoretical SP books, a shortage of publishing funds and obstructed publishing channels are issues that loom large. Most SP journals have not planned special topics or their quality is inferior, and there appears to have been no intention or competence to shape and establish the brand of SP journals. High-quality imports are obstructed, as the translations are inferior.

3.2.3.4

Mechanisms

Information asymmetry is caused by obstructed publishing channels, since SP authors have difficulties in contacting or communicating with publishers and readers. As SP works cannot satisfy readers’ diverse needs, they fail to retain readers. New media are rarely involved due to poorly constructed websites with weak foundations and incomplete functions. A mechanism that facilitates the sustainable development of SP writing remains to be established, but talent and funds are insufficient and social participation are rare.

3.2.3.5

Impacts of New Media on Traditional Publications

As thriving new media shock the traditional publishing industry, the SP publishing industry is also affected. SP new media started late, and most websites simply publish SP texts and pictures from paper versions, and thus have little traffic. New media such as Weibo, WeChat and APPs have been undervalued.

3.2.4 Strategies for Development SP writing is an integrated process of writing, publishing, issuing, selling and reading, so difficulties and issues arising in this field are never isolated. Instead, a problem at one point will affect the other points and lead to a non-virtuous cycle. Therefore, inputs or improvements at one point are far from enough. The key is to establish a mechanism for the sustainable development of SP writing. From this perspective, we put forward the following suggestions.

3.2 SP Publishing

3.2.4.1

109

A Mechanism Should Be Established for the Joint Participation of Various Parties in SP Writing

From the perspective of policy orientation, national government departments or research and SP institutions can function as guides by making policies favourable for the development of SP writing. For example: • Research institutions and organizations should take on participation in SP writing as one of their obligations; • Those that achieve good results should be rewarded; • High-level guidance on the management of SP publications and publishing plans should be reinforced; • Regulations should require high-tech enterprises to carry out SP promotions as a condition for their applying for tax exemption or other favourable policies. From the perspective of funding support, national government departments or research and SP institutions should increase funding for SP writing, or a cost-sharing principle should be applied whereby the funding organizations sponsor only part of the needed SP writing expenditure while the rest will be obtained by the executing organizations from corporate and private foundations: • SP books, newspapers and periodicals, news and programmes as well as individuals engaged in SP writing should be supported through a variety of awards; • Groups or individuals should be sponsored by research and SP institutions and foundations to join in scientific and SP activities such as science-related conferences, reports and investigations; • A foundation for SP publishing should be established to better financially support the publishing of SP reading materials. From the perspective of collaborative development, relevant government departments should collaborate with other institutions in the regular execution of supporting activities related to SP writing. For instance: • The Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the CPC can cooperate with the Press and Publication Administration to carry out SP reading activities by setting up an SP Reading Day apart from the yearly National Reading Day; • The Ministry of Education can implement activities in collaboration with secondary and primary schools, universities and colleges, including donations and sales of SP publications and the hosting of SP lectures and forums in response to new scientific issues; • Short-term training classes on SP writing should be held in universities so that students are given a chance to intern at newspapers and publishing houses and to publish their graduate works.

110

3.2.4.2

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

A Mechanism Should Be Facilitated for the Industrialized Development of SP Writing

Although SP is a non-profit undertaking, SP writing can still be helped to prosper by effective industrialized development measures so that the public is motivated to participate and useful resources are integrated. For example: • A series of associated resources should be tapped for outstanding SP work, including image products and conceptual designs, as well as for the development of relevant TV programmes, films, animations, comics and exhibitions; • SP publications should be marketed and sold in a way similar to other best-selling works; • SP theories should be publicized through the media. 3.2.4.3

A Mechanism Should Be Set up for Sharing SP Writing

A platform on which the suppliers of SP writing can discuss content and style with those requesting the writing. The platform should allow: • Information sharing, such as the uploading of electronic SP works and timely publishing abroad; • Sharing of human resources, such as by establishing a pool of talented SP authors, and conveying needs between authors and publishers; • Sharing of previous successes, such as the introduction of successful practices in SP writing. 3.2.4.4

A Mechanism Should Be Established for the Research and Evaluation of SP Writing

A system of regular research on SP writing, publishing and marketing should be set up. It should include regular evaluations to accurately reflect the latest changes, identify shortcomings and sum up experiences for continuous improvement.

3.2.4.5

Multimedia Should Be Used Increasingly in SP Works

People’s reading habits and styles are being changed by new media, so SP works should also advance with the times. They should be digitized and multimedia-based, and the features of new media should be used to diversify SP works. SP publishers should deeply explore the content of SP works, obtain the copyrights of SP works, spotting excellent SP authors, and cooperate with new media companies to transform their content into new-media-based SP works.

3.3 SP Animations and Comics

111

3.3 SP Animations and Comics 3.3.1 SP Animations and Comic Books Classifications The animation and comic books industry develops, produces, publishes, broadcasts, performs and sells products for inclusion in books, newspapers, periodicals, films, TV shows, audiovisual products, stage plays, clothing, toys and video games.7 It is a ‘sunrise’ industry with a promising future. Thriving technologies and national policy support are allowing it to develop rapidly, increase its audiences and expand its influence. Animations and comic books bring not only aesthetic pleasure but also function as a necessary means of spreading scientific knowledge, approaches, ideologies and spirit. The development of SP animations and comic books will contribute to national scientific competence, the public’s enthusiasm for science and people’s scientific literacy.

3.3.2 The Development of SP Animations and Comics in China China’s animation industry had an early start. In the early 1920s, animated films were launched by the Wan Brothers of Shanghai, whose feature-length animated film Princess Iron Fan (1941) was an instant hit among Southeast Asian and Japanese audiences. In 1949, the Shanghai Film Studio, formerly an animated film team of the Northeast Film Studio, produced The Conceited General, The Magical Brush and other blockbusters, ushering in the first creative climax in China’s animated films. As domestic animation products were increasingly acknowledged by the international animation industry, the Chinese School of Animation was established. There were some notable successes: • Little Tadpoles Look For Mamma, a water–ink animation produced in the 1960s, won a dozen international awards, including a Silver Sail Award for short films at the 14th Locarno Film Festival in Switzerland; • In 1965, Uproar in Heaven was hailed as a milestone in world animation history; • Three Monks, a world-renowned animation produced in 1980, received numerous awards, including a Silver Bear Prize at the 32nd Berlin International Film Festival. From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, however, American and Japanese animation products flooded into China in the wake of the reform and opening-up policy and took over 90% of the share in China’s animation market. Later, their derivatives (toys, stationery, food, clothing, books, journals and audiovisual products) crippled the domestic animation industry. 7

Report on In-depth Researches and Trends of the Industry of Animation and Comic Works in China from 2017 to 2023, Grail Insights, July 2017.

112

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

The Publicity Department of the CPC Central Committee and the General Administration of Press and Publication required the Chinese Children’s Animation Publishing Project (5155 Project) to revitalize the domestic animation industry by establishing five animation publishing bases in the east, north, central south, northeast and west regions, but Chinese animators still found it difficult to carve out a niche in the struggle with their American and Japanese counterparts. Since 2004, China has formulated a further series of policies in support of SP animation and comics: • In 2004, the State Council issued an instructional paper, Suggestions on Further Strengthening and Improving the Ideological and Moral Development of Minors, which facilitated the development of animated films and TV in China through systems, policies and market administration; • After that, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television formulated Suggestions on the Development of China’s Animated Films and Television, which required children’s animation channels to be increased, and animation and comics accounted for larger numbers and proportions of children’s programmes; • In 2006, the State Council produced Suggestions on Promoting the Development of China’s Animation and Comics, which was issued by 10 ministries, including the Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Culture. This was the first time that animation and comics were to be developed at the national level. Small and medium-sized animation and comics enterprises were included in the scope of Foundation for Small and Medium-sized Technology-based Enterprises on Technological Innovations and allowed to enjoy favourable policies in relation to income tax and value-added tax; • In 2014, the State Council published Suggestions on Promoting the Integrated Development of Cultural Innovation and Design Services with Related Industries; • In the same year, Suggestions on Further Informationalizing Science Popularization, published by CAST, pointed out that: SP should transit from readable to visible, static to dynamic, one-dimensional to multidimensional, single screen to multi-screen, and print media to omni media through the integration of texts and pictures, animation and comics, audios and videos, games and virtual reality, in response to the video and game-based, mobile and socialized trend of scientific spreading in an information society.

• In 2015, the Outline of China’s 13th Five-year Plan for National Economic and Social Development stated that the cultural industries, including animation and comics, should be developed into a backbone of the national economy. The Ministry of Culture, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance and the State Bureau of Taxation, provided favourable tax policies to accredited animation companies, including deducted and exempted value-added tax and income tax, reduced the corporate income tax rate, and exempted enterprises from import and export duties. Those policies contributed to the development of animation and comics in China and led to unprecedented prosperity in the industry.

3.3 SP Animations and Comics

113

Do you like watching animations? Like very much Don’t like Not to matter Did not answer

Fig. 3.3 Proportion of animation fans among interviewees

Will you seek Scientific Knowledge by watching animations? Yes No Not care No answer spread scientific thought Fig. 3.4 Proportion of interviewees who approved of using animation and other exhibition forms to spread scientific thought

By 2015, China had 730 accredited animation companies, among which 43 were key enterprises. According to the data from China’s three economic zones, the east had 462 animation companies (63.3% of the total), the central region had 176 (24.1%), and the west had 92 (12.6%).8 The core of the animation and comics industry in China is in Guangdong, Shanghai and Beijing; other strong regions are the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and the area around the Bohai Sea Region. The largest enterprises are Alpha Animation, Huaqiang Animation, Tencent Animation, Zoland Animation, Toonmax Media, TAOM and CCTV Animations.9 China now has the world’s largest audience for animations. CAST’s SP research team used the Questionnaire on SP Animation and Comics to investigate the attitudes of randomly selected students from primary, middle and high schools and universities as well as adults in the job market. Some results are shown in Figs. 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5. Among the interviewees: • Those who were passionate about animation and comics accounted for 41%; 8

Development of China’s Animation and Comics in 2016, China’s Hall of Report (www.chinab gao.com), 10 January 2017. 9 Blue Book on Animation and Comics: Report on the Development of China’s Animation and Comics, Beijing Film Academy and Social Sciences Academic Press, 2014.

114

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry Animations Popular science films Others Wall pictures

Fig. 3.5 Proportion of interviewees who sought scientific knowledge while watching animations

• Those who merely liked animation and comics accounted for 31%; • Over 50% sought scientific knowledge when watching animations and reading comics; • Over 50% thought that animations and comics, such as posters, scientific and educational films, make it easier for audiences to accept and understand science. China saw a continuous increase in its gross output of animations and comics from 2010 to 2016 (Fig. 3.6). The industry had an annual average growth rate of over 30% and a gross value of 132.8 billion in 2016, indicating a market with huge potential. As the generations born after 1990 grow older, the groups that grow up with animations will become the main consumers in the animation market. According to Development of China’s Animation and Comics in 2016 and Predicted Trend, the 330 million people born from 1990 to 2010 are a large audience and a driving force for SP animations and comics. A Report on In-depth Researches and Trend of the Industry of Animation and Comic Works in China from 2017 to 2023, Grail Insights, 2017–07. 140

132.8 120

Gross output / billion yuan

120 100

100

87.1 76

80 62.2 60

47.1

40 20 0 2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Fig. 3.6 China’s gross output of animations and comics, 2010 to 2016

2015

2016

3.3 SP Animations and Comics

115

Although China’s animation and comics sector has been developing steadily and rapidly in recent years, only a few of its products are related to SP, and those SPrelated works that are popular among the large audience, especially teenagers, are even fewer. Thus, SP animations and comics in China are not developing as well as they could.

3.3.2.1

Animated SP Films and TV Shows

From the perspective of animated films, the production of animated films in the past 30 years is shown in Table 3.12, which is based on data from the Statistical Yearbook of China [13]. More than 40 animated films were produced annually in most of the years before 1997, but the figure dropped after 1997, and only one or two per year were produced from 1999 to 2004. A number of policies, issued in China from 2004 to support and develop the industry of animation and comics, facilitated the revival and growth of animated films: 49 were produced in 2016, of which 42 were made domestically. China’s TV stations broadcast 328,900 h of animated programmes in 2016, which was 20,000 h more than in 2015. Broadcasts of imported animated TV programmes totalled 8,900 h in 2016, while the figure for 2015 was slightly larger at 9,700 h [13]. Table 3.13 shows the number of animated TV programmes imported to and exported from mainland China in 2016 [13]. China relies heavily on imported programmes: the 7,752 h of imported animations in 2016 accounted for 85% of the total hours of animations, while there were only 1,407 h for export. The dominant source of animation imports is Japan (about 42% of total imports), followed by the US (about 37%). Exports of Chinese animated TV programmes go to Europe (about 38% of total exports), followed by Southeast Asia (about 19%). Few animated TV programmes are imported from South Korea, and China’s exports to South Korea are even less. A few Chinese animated TV programmes are exported to Africa, where there are potential markets. The value of animated TV programmes imported into China’s mainland in 2016 was around CNY1.06 billion, accounting for nearly 97% of the total value, while the figure for exported programmes was about CNY37 million, as shown in Table 3.14 [13]. The imported volume accounts for 85% of the total volume, while the value of imports accounts for nearly 97% of the total value; the exported volume accounts for 15% of the total volume, while the value of exports makes up only 3% of the total value. Calculations from Tables 3.13 and 3.14 show that China’s imported animated TV programmes cost an average of CNY136,000 per hour, while exported programmes bring in only CNY26,000 per hour. This calculation might not be scientifically accurate, but it demonstrates the Chinese industry’s lack of competitiveness in the international market. Of China’s imports of animated TV programmes, those from Japan account for up to 78% of the total import value, while those from other countries account for much less. Of China’s exports (not including internal transactions among the mainland,

1987

45

2002

2

Year

Number of animated films

Year

Number of animated films

2

2003

38

1988

4

2004

53

1989

7

2005

51

1990

13

2006

46

1991

Table 3.12 Production of animated films in China, 1987 to 2016

6

2007

56

1992

16

2008

47

1993

27

2009

32

1994

16

2010

37

1995

24

2011

58

1996

33

2012

28

1997

29

2013

9

1998

40

2014

3

1999

51

2015

1

2000

49

2016

1

2001

116 3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

3.3 SP Animations and Comics

117

Table 3.13 Imports and exports of animated TV programmes to and from China’s mainland, 2016 Country or region

Imports

Exports

Volume (h) %

Volume (h) %

Total Proportion imports and of imports exports (h) to total volume (%)

Proportion of exports to total volume (%)

Japan

3,259

42.04 137 9.74 (estimated)

3,396

95.97

4.03

Korea

210

2.71

6

0.43

216

97.22

2.78

Southeast 61 Asia

0.79

263

18.69 324

18.83

81.17

Hong Kong, China

478

6.17

112

7.96

590

81.02

18.98

Taiwan, China

687

8.86

130

9.24

817

84.09

15.91

Total in Asia

4,695

60.57 648

46.06 5,343

87.87

12.13

Europe

153

1.97

37.74 684

22.37

77.63

America (the US)

2,900

37.41 154

10.94 3,054

94.96

5.04

Oceania

4

0.05

2

0.14

6

66.67

33.33

Africa

0

0

72

5.12

72

0

100

Total

7,752

100

1,407

100

9,159

84.64

15.36

531

Hong Kong and Taiwan), those to the US have the largest value (about 21% of the total export value), followed by those to South Korea (about 9%). Few well-known animated films or TV programmes are related to SP. Exceptions include the early Haier Brothers and 3000 Whys of Blue Cat. Some recent animated series, such as Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf and Boonie Bears, make some reference to S&T.

3.3.2.2

Animated SP Books

According to Statistics of Science Popularization in China, the market for SP books in China is relatively small, as shown in Table 3.15. Both the kinds and numbers of SP books in China account for a low percentage of total book sales, and annual revenues from SP books are only CNY1 billion. Animated SP books make up only a small proportion of SP books.

118

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Table 3.14 Total value of animated TV programmes imported to and exported from China’s mainland, 2016 Country or region

Imports

Exports

Total value % (CNY10,000)

Total value % (CNY10,000)

Total imports Proportion Proportion and exports of imports of exports (CNY10,000) to total to total value (%) value (%)

Japan

82,237

77.84 190 (estimated)

5.19

82,427

99.77

0.23

Korea

156

0.15

343

9.37

499

99.77

68.74

Southeast 11 Asia

0.01

173

4.72

184

5.98

94.02

Hong Kong, China

15,183

14.37 1,905

52.02

17,088

88.85

11.15

Taiwan, China

4,608

4.36

0.33

4,620

99.74

0.26

Total in Asia

102,195

96.73 2,623

71.63

104,818

97.50

2.50

Europe

1,168

1.11

2.29

1,252

93.29 (69.49)

6.71 (30.51)

America (the US)

2,281 (2,232) 2.16 931 (752) (2.11)

25.42 3,212 (2,984) 71.01 (20.54)

28.99

Oceania

1

0.17

33.33

Africa

0

0

18

0.49

18

0

100

Total

105,645

100

3,662

100

109,307

96.65

3.35

0

12

84

6

7

66.67

Table 3.15 Proportions of estimated annual revenues from SP books in China, 2014 to 2016 Year

Proportion of kinds of SP books (%)

Proportion of numbers of SP books (%)

Revenue from book publications in China (CNY100 million)

Estimated revenue from SP books (CNY100 million)

2014

1.90

0.76

791.2

6.0

2015

3.49

1.54

822.6

12.7

2016

2.39

1.49

832.3

12.4

Annual average

2.59

1.26

815.4

10.4

Due to a lack of statistical data on revenues from SP books, these figures are estimated based on the ratio of SP books to all books published in China in the given year

3.3.2.3

Animated SP Journals

Based on the Report on the National Press and Publication Industry, China’s pictorial book publishing (children-oriented pictorials are not included) in recent years is shown in Table 3.16; publishing of animated journals is shown in Table 3.17.10 Both

3.3 SP Animations and Comics

119

Table 3.16 China’s pictorial book publishing, 2014 to 2016 Year

Kinds of pictorial Proportion of the books kinds of pictorial books published (%)

Numbers of pictorial books published (10,000 volumes)

Proportion of pictorial books of all books published (%)

2014

61

0.61

1,182

0.38

2015

53

0.53

938

0.33

2016

55

0.55

886

0.33

Annual average 56

0.56

1,002

0.35

Table 3.17 China’s animated journal publishing, 2014 to 2016 Year

Kinds of animated Proportion of the Numbers Proportion of journals kinds of journals animated journals animated journals published (%) (10,000 volumes) of all journals published (%)

2014

32

0.32

12,915

4.16

2015

36

0.36

12,118

4.21

2016

40

0.40

8,218

3.05

Annual average 36

0.36

11,084

3.81

pictorial books and animated journals account for low percentages of the total kinds of publications in China: they add up to less than 1%. The numbers of pictorials and animated journals are also low, accounting for only 4% of the total number of publications. According to the Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2016 published by the General Administration of Press and Publication, China published 10,084 kinds of journals in 2016, but only a dozen animated professional magazines were published, most of which had a special column for animations and comics. However, professional animated SP magazines account for a low percentage of all animated magazines. According to incomplete statistics from the Beijing Post website, there were 38 kinds of animated magazines in 2010, among which only Comic of Science and Technology, PS Comics, Science Exploration and Storybook of Science Popularization were clearly defined as animated SP magazines.

10

Analyses on the Press and Publication Industry in China from 2015 to 2016, http://www. chyxx.com/industry/201612/477231.html; Analytical Report on the Press and Publication Industry in 2016, http://www.360doc.com/content/17/0726/00/8102575_674246884.shtml; Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2015, National Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 1 September 2016; Report on the National Press and Publication Industry of 2016, National Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 25 July 2017.

120

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry Comikon

12.99%

www.dmzj.com

13.14%

Icartoons

15.63%

Migu Comic

16.17%

Rage Comic

19.77%

U17 Comic

22.72%

Buka Comic

27.44%

Comic Bird

27.99%

Tencent Animation and Comics Kuakian Comic

41.91% 58.12%

Fig. 3.7 User penetration rates of the mobile comic and animation platforms, the second quarter of 2016

3.3.2.4

Online SP Animations and Comics

The proliferation and development of the internet, especially the mobile internet, has led to the emergence and growth of a horde of online comic and animation platforms and new media, laying a solid foundation for the development of the online comic and animation industry. Nowadays, the common forms of comic- and animation-related new media are animated video sites, comic and animation channels of video sites, comic reading apps, video sites featuring bulleted screen comments, comic reading websites and mobile animation platforms.11 The comic and animation platforms enable comic and animation producers to publish their work. The platforms’ relatively low-cost and convenient communications allow them to become gathering and sharing places for a significant number of comics and animated video makers and fans, thereby promoting the rapid spread of high-quality comic and animation products. Figure 3.7 shows user penetration rates of the mobile comic and animation platforms for the second quarter of 2016.12 With the thriving of the comic and animation industry, SP comics and animated films have become important SP tools. These readily accessible, easy-to-understand and easy-to-remember means of communication have made remarkable progress. However, according to incomplete statistics, only a few major web portals in China have set up comic and animation channels, and they post very few SP comics and animations. A survey of 50 anime websites indicated that comics and animation about S&T are rare. A study of more than 600 SP websites revealed that, except for 11

Prediction of the Situation and Development Trend of the Chinese Comic and Animation Market in 2017, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201610/459604.html. 12 Prediction of the Situation and Development Trend of the Chinese Comic and Animation Market in 2017, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201610/459604.html.

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121

several individual websites such as the China Digital S&T Museum, few of them provide relevant comics and animations. SP comics and animations have two main sources: customized products produced by comic and animation companies with orders from ministries, commissions and companies that need those products; and comics and animations focusing on children’s education. According to statistics from the 2016 China Association for Science and Technology Year-book, science associations at all levels and other national and provincial societies produced 620 SP comics and animations in 2015, with a total airtime of 659 h. That figure includes 79 comics and animations from CAST and its subsidiaries, 110 from provincial S&T associations, 17 from sub-provincial and capital city S&T associations, 124 from prefectural S&T associations, 83 works from countylevel S&T associations, and 207 works from other national and provincial societies (41 from national societies and 166 from provincial societies), which have been aired for 119 h. Based on this data, we conclude that the development of China’s SP comic and animation sector is not satisfactory. The volume and quality of SP comics and animations badly need to be improved.

3.3.3 Problems in the Chinese SP Comic and Animation Industry In comparison with its foreign counterparts, the Chinese animation sector falls below international standards in creation, design, market prediction and operation. Domestic SP comic and animation is a crucial part of the SP industry but is underdeveloped. We identify the following major problems.

3.3.3.1

Lack of Policy Support

Since 2004, China has issued a string of policies to boost the development of the comics and animation industry, and remarkable achievements have been made. But none of those policies has mentioned the positioning of SP comics and animations and relevant incentive measures. As a branch of the comics and animated film sector, SP comics and animations have not been given enough attention and their particularities have not been considered in the supporting policies for general comic and animation production. Given the current situation of SP comics and animations, targeted policies for this niche market are needed to build up a favourable environment and to provide guidance for its development.

122

3.3.3.2

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Very Few Enterprises Focus on SP Comic and Animation Creation

While China boasts a great number of animation producers, hardly any of them are specialized or regularly engaged in SP comic and animation production. A few companies create SP works as short-term projects demand, but they do not have specialized departments for that production. Most animated films made by these companies emphasize storytelling and entertainment, but very few combine S&T knowledge with those two factors. The small number of works and their poor quality significantly limit the growth of the SP comic and animation sector. Most Chinese SP animated films are quite short, ranging from tens of seconds to a couple of minutes. There are only a handful of influential feature-length animations, the most prominent of which is 3000 Whys of Blue Cat. As China’s first feature-length SP animation series, it has blazed a unique path for SP comic and animation creation. However, the work also shows imbalance between aesthetics and S&T knowledge and thus leads to its mixed reputation. Due to its public benefit nature, SP animations attract little attention and are very scarce, which causes difficulties in the sector’s development.

3.3.3.3

Insufficient Use of New Media

Today, the internet and mobile media are growing rapidly, and there has been a spike in users’ numbers, but the coverage of SP comics and animations on those platforms is limited. Very few major web portals, comic and animation sites and SP websites in China have set up SP comic and animation channels or provide animated SP programmes. Traffic on the China Digital S&T Museum and other websites dedicated to SP is relatively low. How to make full use of new media to develop SP comics and animations is a major question that needs to be addressed.

3.3.3.4

Shortage of Funds

Most comics and animation enterprises face shortages of funds. Animated film production requires a large investment, and it is impossible to produce high-quality animations without enough funds. The funding problem is also a major factor hindering the development of SP comics and animations.

3.3.3.5

Lack of Talented People

The shortage of talented people in SP comic and animation creation is a crucial factor behind the underdevelopment of the sector in China. According to the data from the Cartoon Art Commission of China Television Artists Association, the domestic comic and animation sector needs 150,000 professionals, but only 10,000 people

3.3 SP Animations and Comics

123

are fully engaged in the profession, which is only 30% of the total number of their counterparts in South Korea. A shortage of professional teachers is also a problem for animation production education. The lack of talented people and teachers is the most crucial factor restricting the development of the Chinese comic and animation industry. Moreover, producers of SP comics and animations are required to show strong aesthetic values and to create skillful fusions of S&T knowledge and storytelling to be effective.

3.3.4 Proposals for Development Based on our analysis of existing problems, we make the following proposals for the development of the SP comics and animation sector.13

3.3.4.1

Clarify the Sector’s Positioning

State authorities should enact policies to clarify the sector’s positioning and spur its growth. Currently, the Chinese SP animation industry is highly dependent on government support. Government policies, mechanisms and projects are of great importance to the entire SP comic and animation sector. Clear positioning and incentive measures offered by the state authorities could be endorsed by the national government and also provide a bright prospect for further development. These efforts would provide strategic guidance to the sector and draw the attention of other enterprises to SP comics and animation works, vigorously boosting the increase of SP comics and animation products and the growth of the industry. State authorities could also include supporting measures aimed at the SP sector in animation promotion policies.

3.3.4.2

Provide Greater Financial Support

Greater financial support for SP comics and animation creation should be provided. Given the public welfare purpose of Chinese SP comics and animations and the sector’s current situation as a late starter, providing government financial support is a feasible way to expedite the growth of SP comics and animated film production. In the 2010 funding programme for encouraging SP works production, CAST gave grants for the production of relevant comics and animations, while schemes supported by government agencies such as the Ministry of Culture and the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television are underway. We are looking forward

13

Analysis of the Existing Problems of the Chinese Animation Industry and Solutions in 2015, 8 October 2016, http://www.360doc.com/content/16/1008/00/37009808_596557325.shtml.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

to more supporting programmes for the sector, such as special funds that stimulate SP works creation and encourage more enterprises to engage in relevant production.

3.3.4.3

Build the Resource-Sharing Platform

The resource-sharing platform for SP animations should be built up. Internet and other forms of media should be fully used to publish SP animations. Animations should be published in accordance with the hit rate and social response, so as to expand this niche market to more people.

3.3.4.4

Assist Leading Enterprises

Efforts should be made to assist leading enterprises in SP animation production and branding.

3.3.4.5

Establish R&D Centres

Relevant R&D centres should be established. Targeted efforts should be made to train talented people in SP comics and animation production, while building various creation platforms such as an alliance of SP comic and animation professionals.

3.4 SP Film and TV Industry 3.4.1 SP Films, TV Programmes and Their Classification SP films and TV programmes are works mainly aiming to popularize S&T knowledge, promote scientific methods and scientific thoughts and advocate the scientific spirit among the public, including science and education films, animated films and TV programmes, and TV programmes focusing on science and education. As animated films and animated TV programmes are discussed in the SP animations and comics section, this section focuses on the analysis of science and educational films and TV programmes.

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125

3.4.2 Overview of Chinese SP Films and TV Programmes 3.4.2.1

Science and Educational Films

Science and educational film is an important form of the SP film and TV industry. In the middle of the twentieth century, three major bases specialized in science and educational film production were set up across China: China Agriculture Film Studio, Shanghai Scientific and Educational Film Studio and Beijing Scientific and Educational Film Studio. Over the decades, these three studios produced a large number of relevant movies, making significant contributions to the growth of the Chinese science and educational film industry. In the 1990s, this industry integrated with general film and TV programme production. In April 1995, Beijing Scientific and Educational Film Studio merged into CCTV and changed its name to the CCTV Science and Educational Program Production Center. Its production pattern switched from science and educational movie production to an integrated model of producing TV programmes, animations, dubbed movies, science and educational films at the same time. At the end of 1995, China Agriculture Film Studio started to make agriculture programmes for CCTV-7, which is a cooperative project of the Ministry of Agriculture and CCTV. Meanwhile, Shanghai Scientific and Educational Film Studio became a part of Shanghai Oriental Television. Nowadays, these studios remain the major producers of Chinese science and educational films. Apart from them, some comprehensive film studios and private film companies, such as Henan Film and TV Group, also produce or take part in the production of some science and educational films. According to the 2017 China Statistical Yearbook, the production of science and educational films in China has been as shown in Table 3.18 [13]. The table shows that several hundreds of science and educational movies were produced in China each year before 1994. Due to the merging of the two sectors, the annual number of works slumped to dozens after 1995. Before 2007, the production of science and educational films gained price difference subsidies from governments. In 2007, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television adjusted the management of relevant movie production and replaced price difference subsidies with government procurement systems. Since then, science and educational films have entered the market with a slight increase in annual output year by year. Several influential science and educational films have been produced in China: • Universe and Humans, produced by Beijing Scientific and Educational Film Studio in 2000, broke the rating record for programmes in its category. • A Thunderstorm Night, Prevention of Gas Explosion Accident in Coal Mine and Weapons over the Century won the second prize in the National Science and Technology Progress Awards. Many other science and educational films won all kinds of national awards, such as the Huabiao film awards and the Golden Rooster Awards. Since this sector became

1987

353

2002

60

Year

No. of science and educational films

Year

No. of science and educational films

53

2003

344

1988

30

2004

344

1989

33

2005

326

1990

36

2006

351

1991

Table 3.18 China’s science and educational film production, 1987 to 2016

34

2007

354

1992

39

2008

252

1993

52

2009

182

1994

54

2010

40

1995

76

2011

33

1996

74

2012

34

1997

121

2013

30

1998

52

2014

20

1999

96

2015

49

2000

67

2016

56

2001

126 3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

3.4 SP Film and TV Industry

127

market-oriented, remarkable achievements have been made. For instance, Prevention of Gas Explosion Accident in Coal Mine and seven other science and educational movies on coal mine safety produced by Henan Film Studio and Henan Film and TV Group in 2008 emphasize the hot topic of mining safety. These works won multiple prizes and good social response, gaining a handsome return. Prevention of Gas Explosion Accident in Coal Mine was screened for a total of 25,000 times in 23 coal-producing provinces across China, attracting 8 million viewers. It serves as a reference model for the development of science and educational films. However, in general, the quantity and quality of movies in this category need further improvement. And there is a lack of Chinese sci-fi blockbusters. It takes time to expand the market and build up a good industrial chain.

3.4.2.2

SP TV

Television as a traditional media form remains as the means of mass communication with the highest coverage and is also most people’s first choice for receiving information about S&T. With the development and proliferation of TV, SP TV becomes an important driving force in the SP film and TV industry. By the end of 2016, 21 science and educational TV channels had been launched in the Chinese mainland, including 1 national channel, 10 provincial (also including municipality level and autonomous regional) channels and 10 municipal channels. The distribution of Chinese science and educational TV channels and other relevant channels is shown in Table 3.19 [8]. Based on a study of science, educational and other relevant TV channels, by the end of 2016, CCTV-10 had the most regular SP and original programmes, followed by Tianjin Science and Education Channel and Chongqing Science and Education Channel (as shown in Table 3.20). Municipal Science and education TV channels air Table 3.19 Distribution of Chinese science and education TV channels and other relevant channels Level

Distribution of science and educational TV channels

HD documentary channels

National level

CCTV Science and Educational Channel (CCTV-10)

CCTV documentary channel (CCTV-9)

Provincial level (municipality level and autonomous regional)

10 science and educational channels in Beijing, Tianjin, Chongqing, Zhejiang, Shanxi, Anhui, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Guangxi and Guizhou

BTV documentary channel Shanghai DOCUTV

Municipal level

Science and educational channels in cities Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Anhui, Shanxi, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Henan and Hunan provinces

–

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Table 3.20 Science and educational programmes on science, educational and other relevant channels of CCTV or provincial TV (municipality or autonomous regional TV) Channels

Number of regular science and educational programmes

Number of regular and original science and educational programmes

CCTV-10

6

5

CCTV-9

3

0

Tianjin TV science and education Channel

6

4

Chongqing TV science and education Channel

6

2

Guizhou TV science and education Channel

5

1

Anhui TV science and education channel

4

1

Sichuan TV science and education Channel

3

2

Guangxi TV science and education Channel

3

1

BTV education and science channel

1

1

BTV documentary channel

2

1

Shanghai DOCTV

3

0

ZJTV education and science channel

0

0

Shanxi science and education channel

0

0

very few SP programmes. Some other TV channels and documentary channels also offer regular SP programmes or air shows about S&T and SP. They include CCTV-7, SDTV-7, HEBTV Farmer Channel and ZJTV-7 New Village Channel. Based on a study of statistics for the period from 13 to 19 February 2017, national level channels rank first in the playback frequency of SP programmes. For the proportion of average numbers of daily playing of SP programmes as part of the total playing times of all programmes, CCTV-10 accounted for 44.6% and CCTV9 recorded 51.7%. The playback time of SP programmes on provincial (municipality and autonomous regional) channels is not fixed. For the proportion of average numbers of daily playing SP programmes as part of the total playing times of all programmes, Tianjin TV Science and Education Channel and Guizhou Science and Education Channel ranked at the top, with 42.8% and 44.3%, respectively, followed by Shanghai DOCTV (34.3%), Anhui TV Science and Education Channel (29.1%), Chongqing TV Science and Education Channel (25.3%), BTV Documentary Channel (18.8%), BTV Education and Science Channel (7.1%) and Sichuan TV Science and Educational Channel (6.1%) [8].

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129

Table 3.21 Major famous SP TV programmes in China Premiere channel

Programme name

Premiere year

Form

Source

CCTV-10

Path to Health

1996

Talk show

Self-produced

CCTV-10

Approaches to Science

1998

Interview

Self-produced

CCTV-10

Exploration and Discovery

2001

Documentary

Self-produced

CCTV-10

Legend of Nature

2001

Documentary

Imported

CCTV-10

I Love Invention 2009

Interview

Self-produced

CCTV-1

Animal World

1981

Documentary

Imported

CCTV-1

Glamorous Documentaries

2012

Documentary

Self-produced + imported

CCTV-1

Man and Nature

1994

Documentary

Imported

CCTV-7

Technology Garden

1996

Interview

Self-produced

BTV education and science channel

Discovery

1997

Documentary

Imported

BTV

Healthcare

2009

Talk show

Self-produced

Synchronous broadcasting on TV channels in China

Fantastic Nature 1998

Documentary

Imported

Authorized to TV channels in China

National Geography

2000

Documentary

Imported

Shanghai DOCTV

Huaxia

2014

Documentary

Self-produced

SP TV as a whole is developing steadily; several SP programmes have increasing influence and have achieved good effects. Some famous Chinese SP TV programmes are listed in Table 3.21 It can be concluded that most of these widely known programmes are produced by CCTV. Other original SP programmes and imported programmes account for a small proportion. Over recent years, state authorities have worked to optimize the environment for the development of SP films and TV shows. As a result, the industry has gained momentum for steady growth. However, lots of problems pop up during this process, requiring further improvements.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

3.4.3 Existing Problems in Chinese SP Film and TV Production In view of the CPC’s and the state’s new requirements for and expectations of public scientific literacy, some urgent SP film and TV development problems need to be solved.

3.4.3.1

Improve Production Standards

Production standards of SP films and TV require improvement. Both science and educational films and SP TV programmes have to enhance their production ability, since there are only a handful of capable producers such as CCTV-10. How to improve product quality is a key challenge in front of us.

3.4.3.2

Balance Entertainment and SP

Good SP films and programmes require a balance between entertainment and SP. Unfortunately, most of them are boring, similar and poorly produced. Many programmes either overemphasize entertainment or focus too much on science knowledge. Few of them perfectly combine the two elements. This has emerged as another major factor that hinders the growth of the SP film and TV industry.

3.4.3.3

Solve Problems in the Production and Broadcasting System

Problems exist in the production and broadcasting system. So far, the Chinese TV industry is far from perfect. Contradictions emerge between programme resources and airing channels. The industrial chain of education and science films is impeded. These are problems that need to be addressed.

3.4.3.4

Shortage of Good Producers

There is a shortage of excellent SP producers. The shortage of talented people is a common concern for SP work in all sectors. We need to figure out how to better combine professions with SP and how to establish stable creative teams.

3.4.4 Proposals for Development For the growth of the SP film and TV sector, efforts should be made to:

3.4 SP Film and TV Industry

131

• Establish a production and supply platform for science and education TV programmes; • Set up an exchange platform for talented people in S&T and professionals in film and TV production; • Foster key enterprises specialized in science and educational programme produced in the existing candidate pool; • Build up an SP film and TV R&D centre.

3.5 SP Games Industry 3.5.1 SP Games and Their Classification Video games are a form of entertainment that users play using electronic terminals such as computers, mobile devices (smart phone, laptop, etc.) and specialized gaming devices. According to the type of carriers, they can be categorized into computer games, mobile games and games played with specialized devices. Depending on the need for network connectivity, computer games and mobile games can be divided into online games and single-player games.14 Online gaming, as a brainchild of the times, has become one of the most popular entertainment forms, and China’s online game industry is taking shape. Some scholars have defined the concept of online game from various perspectives: • In 2016, Liang Jiahua pointed out that an online game is a sustainable and customized game played by multiple players, using the internet as a means of transmission and the servers of game operators and personal computers as processing terminals, with the aim of entertainment, relaxation, communication and obtaining virtual rewards [14]; • In 2017, Chen Yujie held that an online game is a game with computer code, preset programs and relevant data has shown on the screens of computers and mobile phones, allowing players to operate and control their actions in the game [15]; • In the same year, Chen Yan et al. divided online games into four categories: leisure and entertainment; stimulation and competition; role-playing; and other games with special functions [16]. The development of the SP industry calls for a reform on the means of SP production, and video games could involve new forms of the industry. Exciting gamer plots could enhance gamers’ understanding of S&T, while the virtual world constructed in games could show users scientific processes and principles in a more vivid and complete manner, so that they can imperceptibly receive S&T knowledge. In 2016, China had 566 million game users. Through computer games, some of those users can be transformed into SP game users, who will form a large base of SP users.

14

Games Daily, 21 March 2017, http://biz.265g.com/media/201459.html.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

There is no clear definition of an SP game so far. During the first China SP Animation and Game Competition held in 2008, the concept of ‘SP animation game’ was put forward, and many works of SP animation, flashes and games were collected. Experts such as Liu Yuhua believed that online SP games have both general and narrow definitions. In the general definition, an online SP game is one with certain SP functions, which can promote scientific knowledge, scientific thought, scientific means and the scientific spirit to users who participate in the game. Although some online games have not been defined as online SP games, they have content and plots with certain SP functions. For example, several educational games, serious games and green online games contain scientific knowledge and show the significance of healthy and online educational gaming from different aspects. Some online games have SP functions but are not designed for SP purposes, so they are categorized as online SP games in the general sense. Some well-known educational games and leisure games also fall into this category. According to the narrow definition, an online SP game is a network-based game that is designed for SP purposes. It uses the internet as the means of data transmission, allowing users to gain scientific knowledge, scientific ideas, scientific means and the scientific spirit. An online SP game in the narrow sense features an SP purpose and scientific and educational knowledge. Such games are interesting and entertaining with attractions for users and could subtly spread SP knowledge during the course of gaming [17]. Unlike ordinary games, SP games are more easily accepted by the entire society. They are especially favoured by parents and teachers who worry about the negative influence of bad games on teenagers. A report on SP games categorizes SP games in both the general and narrow senses.15 So far, very few SP games in the narrow sense are found in China or elsewhere, but there are many SP games in the general sense, such as ‘Mental Exercises’, which is produced by a foreign company, and ‘SEER’, which is made in China. In R&D, the industry is more developed in foreign countries than in China. Developed countries in Europe and America where independent games are thriving boast a long history in the game industry. Many of their games, including ‘KAMI’ ‘Monument Valley’ and ‘Tengami’, contain rich S&T knowledge.

3.5.2 The Development of Chinese Online SP Games 3.5.2.1

The Development of Chinese Online Games

Online games play a crucial role in the digital entertainment industry. Since the rise of the Lianzhong Game in 1999, Chinese online games have been growing for nearly 20 years, ranking at world’s forefront for the number of players and the scale of the industry. 15

Science Game Industry Report, 9 December 2016, http://games.qq.com/a/20161209/029684.htm.

3.5 SP Games Industry

133

Table 3.22 Number and growth rate of Chinese game users, 2008 to 2016 Year

Number of game users (100 million)

Annual growth rate compared from previous year (%)

2008

0.67

–

2009

1.15

71.6

2010

1.96

70.4

2011

3.30

68.4

2012

4.10

24.2

2013

4.95

20.7

2014

5.17

4.4

2015

5.34

3.3

2016

5.66

6.0

Table 3.23 Chinese online game users and their use of online games, 2013 to 2016 Year

Number of online game users (100 million)

Annual growth rate from previous year (%)

Use of online games of netizens (%)

2013

3.38

–

54.7

2014

3.66

8.28

56.4

2015

3.91

6.83

56.9

2016

4.17

6.65

57.0

The number of Chinese gamers has been constantly increasing in recent years (as shown in Table 3.22). From 2008 to 2016, the number increased by more than eightfold. From 2008 to 2011, the number grew rapidly, with an annual growth rate of about 70%. From 2012 to 2013, it maintained a growth rate of more than 20%. However, with the development of the game industry, the growth in the number of users slowed down. The period from 2014 to 2016 recorded growth rates ranging from 3 to 6%. The number of Chinese online game users continues to expand. According to statistics calculated by the China Internet Network Information Center, the number reached 422 million by the end of June 2017. The numbers for recent years are shown in Table 3.23.16 The Chinese computer game market has performed well in sales revenue and growth, as shown in Table 3.24.17 It is apparent that the sales revenue of the

16

China Business Research Institute, ‘Analysis of the scale of online game users in China in June 2016: 55.1% of the total netizens’, www.AskCI.com, 4 August 2016, http://www.askci.com/news/ hlw/20160804/17520850396.shtml. 17 Game Industry Network, ‘2016 China game industry market status and 2017 development trend forecast’, www.AskCI.com, 22 December 2016, http://www.askci.com/news/chanye/20161222/ 16530584394.shtml.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Table 3.24 Sales revenue of the Chinese games market, 2008 to 2016

Year

Sales revenue (CNY100 million)

Annual growth rate from previous year (%)

2008

185.6

–

2009

262.8

41.6

2010

333.0

26.7

2011

446.1

34.0

2012

602.8

35.1

2013

831.7

38.0

2014

1,144.8

37.6

2015

1,407.0

22.9

2016

1,655.7

17.7

market maintained rapid growth in recent years. In 2016, revenue went up to CNY165.57 billion, nearly ninefold the revenue in 2008. Based on data announced at the 2016 Annual Conference of Game the Industry, Chinese gaming habits and the shifting focus of game producers’ R&D, the online game sector is adjusting its industry mix. The scale of mobile gaming maintained a rapid growth rate, accounting for 49.5% of the market and rising quickly as the fastest growing market segment with the largest market share. Both client games and web games have had declining market shares. Client games accounted for 35.2% of the market, whereas web games accounted for 15.3%, as illustrated in Fig. 3.8. Sales revenue from self-developed online games has risen year by year, while the competitiveness and influence of domestic game products continue to increase. In 2016, the revenue from self-developed online games reached CNY118.25 billion, almost 1s1 times that in 2008, as shown in Table 3.25. CNY25.33 billion 15.30%

CNY81.96 billion 49.50%

CNY58.28 billion 35.20% Total: CNY165.57 billion

Mobile game

Client game

Web game

Fig. 3.8 Sales revenue and proportions of the market segments of the Chinese game industry in 2016

3.5 SP Games Industry Table 3.25 Sales revenue from self-developed online games, 2008 to 2016

135 Year

Sales revenue (CNY100 million)

Annual growth rate from previous year (%)

2008

110.1

–

2009

165.3

50.1

2010

193.1

16.8

2011

271.5

40.6

2012

368.1

35.6

2013

476.6

29.5

2014

726.6

52.5

2015

986.7

35.8

2016

1,182.5

19.8

In terms of product types, the industry is shifting focus from games with large investment to those with small investment. More competitors have emerged for traditional online games. MMORPGs (massively multiplayer online role-playing games) that cost a large amount of time and money are losing users, while ACG (anime, comic, and game) and small-budget mobile games maintain good growth momentum. More devices are now engaged in the industry. With the development of mobile internet, games can be played on a variety of devices. Apart from personal computers, laptops, smartphones and even TV sets can serve as game terminals, offering users new ways of playing and new experiences.

3.5.2.2

The Development of Chinese Online SP Games

In the Chinese game industry, client games, web games and mobile games are losing some of the gamer demographic, have higher user costs and face more severe competition. In this context, SP games could be a new direction for development and exploration. According to the 2016 Science Game Industry Report, most online game players are aged between 19 and 30. A survey by Tencent in 2015 found that the mobile phone usage rate of Chinese children reached 44.5%. In April 2014, the Communist Youth League Guangzhou Municipal Committee and Guangzhou Children’s Palace, after cooperating with 15 cities across China, issued a report titled Media and Children: Survey on Media Usage of the Members of China’s Children and Youth Palaces in 2013. The report indicated that, for Chinese families with children, the most popular communication device is the mobile phone (97.58%). Some 44.5% of children have mobile phones, 90.1% of them have experience with online games, and 42% pay for online games each month.18 Statistics showed that gaming has huge appeal for users, especially young users. As a new form of culture spreading and entertainment, online 18

Science Game Industry Report, 9 December 2016, http://games.qq.com/a/20161209/029684.htm.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

games can include content on different topics and with various intentions. Online games have become effective ways to popularize scientific knowledge. Online SP gaming grows with the development of other online games. In recent years, a type of game called the ‘serious game’ has emerged. It has a close tie with SP. Serious games are those imparting knowledge and providing professional training and stimulation experiences. Since their birth in 1980s, serious games are widely used in the military, health care, industry, education, scientific research, training and many other sectors. As software tools, serious games feature stimulation, human–computer and people-to-people interactions, self-exploration, endless trials, auto-prompting, instant response and hypertext links. Network-based serious game software also offers systematic calculation, allowing managers to know the exact progress of game players promptly and correctly. The core role of a serious game is to facilitate learning. The game can yield a wide and high-quality learning result. Moreover, it is less time consuming and in most cases more economical. For game participants, whether they are students or practitioners in various sectors, serious games can offer them an intriguing, customized, interactive and new self-learning experience, which helps to spur their creativity and innovative ideas. Some serious game software can even foster users’ strategic and coordinating skills. For employers, serious games are attractive not only because they help to generate extraordinary learning effects but also because of their low cost and risk-free learning environment. Currently, serious games are making progress in China and elsewhere: • In China, large online game companies such as Shengda Group have participated in serious game production. The localized version of ‘Food Force’ coproduced by Shengda Group and the United Nations World Food Programme is a game of this type; • The China S&T Museum uses a series of mini web and flash games to teach children how to escape in earthquakes and how to protect themselves in the face of a SARS pandemic; • The Zhenzhi Education Game is an online role-playing game, offering teaching materials in mathematics, physics, English and learning materials such as Chinese poetry. There are many other kinds of serious games that can be categorized as SP games. In 2014, the market research service Ambient Insight published a report and claimed that, thanks to the popularization of learning apps on mobile devices, educational games or serious games will enjoy a certain degree of rejuvenation.19 In the report, Ambient Insight predicted that the market scale of serious games (or gamebased education) would surge from US$1.5 billion in 2012 to US$2.3 billion in 2017, while the market scale of stimulation-based educational games was expected to soar from US$2.3 billion in 2013 to US$6.6 billion in 2017. In September 2015, the China Science Communication—Master Science channel coproduced by CAST and Tencent was launched. Under the theme of ‘Enjoy science 19

Ambient Insight, Cross-media Lab: Report on Serious Games in Cross-media Lab, March 2009, http://www.zgcagi.com/fhqnew/UploadFiles/2009/12/2009112617204560.pdf.

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137

in fun games’, the channel has innovated in SP education models using IT, exploring ways of using SP games to allow people to accept scientific knowledge while having fun. The channel promotes the growth of SP games through four aspects, gathering strength for SP information construction: • It has built up a specialized zone for SP games, customized featured webpages, placed a portal on the front page of the Tencent Game Channel and promoted the channel through Tencent News and WeChat accounts; • The channel has integrated excellent SP game resources. It sorted and put together the available outstanding SP games produced by the China Digital S&T Museum and another SP institutions, as well as those with SP value designed by Tencent; • It made efforts to encourage the development of SP games. The channel selected excellent game development teams and gave them support, encouraging and guiding them to develop SP games. It then selected outstanding games and awarded prizes to them; • The channel ran promotion activities that were targeted at players and covered by a wide range of media. An SP games exhibition themed on ‘Brain Master’ was held to arouse public attention and attract people to take part in SP games. The China Science Communication—Master Science programme can build a better and more complete SP game ecology and solve multiple problems faced by the SP game sector. Using the powerful influence, channels, resources and huge number of users of Tencent, the programme works vigorously to promote SP games, advance relevant R&D, and strengthen promotion and media coverage. It also has put together excellent SP games and established a special zone. All these efforts have led to a good ecological cycle. Serious gaming has developed in China for a while, but the SP game industry as a whole has just got started. Developing SP games on a large scale requires policy support and also the active engagement of online game producers.

3.5.3 Existing Problems of the Chinese SP Game Industry and Solutions The Chinese SP game industry has problems in the following aspects.

3.5.3.1

Games Are Designed by a Single Group of People

So far, the development and promotion of Chinese SP games have been led mainly by institutions in SP, education and other relevant areas. Few game producers have offered to take part in the process. As a domain that needs further exploration, SP gaming lacks ideas for development and experience in design. Video game companies have insufficient understanding of the market prospect for SP games and the

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development of the industry. They have not realized that rich SP content with educational meaning could be a new direction for market expansion, so most professional game developers have not been involved in the SP field.

3.5.3.2

Product Homogeneity

There are not enough SP games in the market, so product homogeneity is a serious problem. Homogeneity is not a fit state for any market, and has become a bottleneck that seriously jeopardizes the development of the game market. Multiple market factors are responsible. The most important reason is that enterprises overvalue profit and undervalue the quality of games. This is also a major reason for the lack of rich culture and intriguing plots in Chinese online games. Most of the existing SP games in China are flash games, and there are also some single-player games, but SP products such ‘Brain Master’ that feature full interaction and social elements are rare, and those such as ‘Monument Valley’ with intricate gameplay and beautiful backgrounds are rarer still.

3.5.3.3

Talent Shortage

There is a shortage of talented people in SP game development and planning. Online gaming is a highly intelligence-intensive industry, and its further development requires the best personnel, sufficient funding and an enabling environment. The industry faces a severe shortage of development ability and a talent pool for planning, art design, R&D and operations. The creation of SP games is more demanding, as it requires both the ability to develop games and correct S&T knowledge. Very few people are qualified, and it is difficult to form comprehensive teams for planning SP games. As a result, even though some game companies show interest in SP games, they may find it difficult to find qualified developers and planners to create outstanding products.

3.5.3.4

Poor Cooperation and Communications

Without good cooperation and communications, it is difficult to develop attractive SP games, which need both S&T knowledge and entertainment value. Particular theories must be applied in SP game design to better impart scientific knowledge through play, but most game companies have insufficient understanding of the rules and content of SP game development. The task requires scientists, SP writers and game developers working together on topic selection, planning and content creation. Due to a lack of interindustry discussion and communication, game companies rarely cooperate with talented SP practitioners and gain the support of relevant resources during planning and development. SP writers find it difficult to get help from professional game producers while working on SP projects.

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3.5.4 Proposals for Development Before developing the SP game industry further, we should first expand the market space to promote the development and profitability of SP games, and then work to foster market entities and key enterprises among the existing online game producers. Second, SP game R&D centres should be set up to train outstanding SP game developers and excellent creative teams. Third, governments should give support to SP game development, creating a good market environment. Currently, most teams engaged in Chinese SP game development are small and are limited by both financing and technologies. In this context, government should provide them adequate financial and policy support. For instance, the TEA programme jointly implemented by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and game developers have gained support from the education authorities of the US.20 In the programme, motion sensing, AR and other emerging technologies are used in SP game development. Through a mobile device with GPS, players of ‘Environment Detector’, a stimulation game with AR technology, accept tasks to take measurements at particular locations using an air monitoring system set in the game and gain awards. Players enjoy playing the game and acquire knowledge of the environment, while data collected through their mobile phones can help environmental monitoring agencies to assess the pollution index of the region. The programme can thus kill three birds with just one stone. With changes in people’s viewpoints, the public’s opinion about gaming is becoming increasingly positive. SP games could play a key role in enhancing the game industry’s reputation and influence, so they should be seen as an effective method for public learning. We recommend that governments, colleges and relevant companies and departments actively engage in the sector, cooperate and work together to spur the growth of the SP game industry.

3.6 SP Toy Industry 3.6.1 SP Toys and Their Classification For years, toys have been mainly targeted at children but, with the development of S&T and the cultural industries, they have taken on a variety of other functions, so there has been a steady rise of toys designed for adults and the elderly. Toys are no longer limited to objects that children play with, but start to have a richer meaning. In general sense, ‘toy’ refers to any article or appliance that can be played with to gain personal satisfaction. There is a wide variety of toys. They can be classified: 20

‘2017 Overview of the Chinese Toy Market and Industry Development Trend Analysis’, www. chyxx.com, 16 June 2017, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201706/533018.html.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

• According to their constituent material: metal toys, plastic toys, paper toys, stuffed toys, cloth toys, wooden toys, bamboo toys and so on; • By the age of the targeted users: infants’ toys, toddlers’ toys, children’s toys and adults’ toys; • According to their function: intelligence toys, sports toys, science and education toys, decorative toys and so on.21 ‘SP toys’ refers mainly to a toy that is designed and developed with an SP purpose. It is a newcomer in the toy industry and combines S&T and entertainment functions. This category includes intelligent toys, miniature models, mini-tool toys, mini S&T instruments, toys requiring hands-on experience and artistic creation toys. A higher demand for toys’ functions is a development trend in the toy industry. As the society focuses more on developing children’s intelligence with toys, parents pay more attention to toys’ intelligence-development functions. The SP toy sector thus has a broad market and bright prospects.

3.6.2 Overview of the Development of the Chinese SP Toy Industry 3.6.2.1

Overview of the Chinese Toy Industry

In primitive societies and the following handicraft age, before the Industrial Revolution, humans handmade primitive toys for infants, children and adolescents to play with. The emergence and rise of the toy industry took place after the Industrial Revolution. In the early twentieth century, toys’ production hub was in Europe, but it later moved to the US before World War II. Around a decade after the end of the war, toys’ production centre was relocated again to Japan and later to South Korea and Hong Kong SAR of China after 1960. In the past 20 years, the hub has moved to the Chinese mainland. The most important toy production and export bases in China are in Guangdong (the top toy producer), Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong and Fujian. Customs statistics show that the total toy imports and exports into and from the Chinese mainland were valued at US$18.889 billion in 2016.22 The export value was US$18.393 billion (97.4% of the total), while the import value was US$496 million (2.6%). Exports from the six provinces mentioned above accounted for over 91% of the total, while those from Guangdong accounted for US$11.4 billion, or more than 62% of the total, as shown in Table 3.26. 21

2017 Overview of the Chinese Toy Market and Industry Development Trend Analysis, www. chyxx.com, 16 June 2017, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201706/533018.html. 22 China Business Research Institute, ‘Big data on toy exports: China’s toy exports amounted to nearly 19 billion in 2016’, www.AskCI.com, 11 March 2017, http://www.askci.com/news/chanye/ 20170311/16444593105.shtml.

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Table 3.26 China’s major toy-exporting provinces and cities and their export values 2016 Province or city

Export value (US$100 million)

Proportion (%)

Guangdong

114.09

62.03

Zhejiang

27.37

14.88

Jiangsu

12.06

6.56

Shanghai

7.02

3.82

Shandong

3.67

1.99

Fujian

3.62

Subtotal

91.25

16.10

8.75

183.93

100

Other provinces Total

1.97

167.83

Table 3.27 Types of Chinese toy-exporting enterprises and their export value, 2016 Private enterprises

Foreign-invested State-owned companies (solely enterprises foreign funded)

Enterprises of other types

Total value

Export value (US$100 million)

98.25 (94.91)

71.14 (58.82)

14.18

0.36

183.93

Proportion (%)

53.42 (51.60)

38.68 (31.98)

7.71

0.19

100

Among the toy-exporting enterprises, private manufacturers are the major players, producing more than half of the export products by value, followed by foreigninvested enterprises, which produce just over one-third, as shown in Table 3.27. Among the countries importing Chinese toys, the US took the most by value, accounting for one-third, as listed in Table 3.28. We note that most Chinese toy-exporting companies, are processing and manufacturing for foreign brands. China is the world’s hub for toy manufacturing. The manufacturing section of the toy industry is typically labour intensive, so manufacturing is usually relocated from countries and regions with high labour costs to those with lower labour costs. In the toy industry chain, Chinese toy manufacturers monopolize the industry’s manufacturing, but Chinese toy production typically uses the OEM (original equipment manufacturer) business model. The OEM model is a necessary path in large-scale social production and coordination and an effective way to rationalize resource use. Basically, most Chinese toy companies are at the lower end of the global industrial chain, and seldom participate in product design, warehousing, transportation, order processing, or wholesale and retail sales. Therefore, they do not have pricing powers in the global toy market. Amid the 2008 global financial crisis caused by the subprime mortgage crisis in the US, Chinese toy manufacturing went through a very rough time. As the price of toys in Europe and the US increased much more

142 Table 3.28 Top ten countries and regions importing Chinese toys and their import values, 2016

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry Country

Export value (US$100 million)

Proportion (%)

United States

58.81

32.0

United Kingdom

10.28

5.6

China’s Hong Kong SAR

10.08

5.5

The Philippines

9.64

5.2

Singapore

7.89

4.3

Japan

6.77

3.7

South Korea

6.26

3.4

Germany

5.99

3.2

The Netherlands

5.01

2.7

Australia

4.4

2.4

Total volume of the top ten countries

125.13

68.0

Other countries and regions

58.8

32.0

183.93

100.0

Total

slowly than the manufacturing cost, many Guangdong toy manufacturers found that the more orders they handled, the more money they lost. Competition in the Chinese toy market is becoming increasingly intense. The top end of the market (which produces higher quality, more expensive toys) is monopolized by foreign-owned companies, and the mid- and low-end markets are dominated by domestic brands. Today, most globally known toy enterprises, including Mattel, Hasbro and SEGA Corporation, have either set up branches or cooperated with local manufacturers in China. Chinese toy enterprises have taken measures in response to this crisis, and the pattern of Chinese toy manufacturing is undergoing change. Some toy companies have started to stress the need for independent development. Many key enterprises with independent IP and self-developed brands are rising up, including Auldey, Bluecat, Goodbaby and Dove. Several domestic toy companies have made attempts to transform themselves. They intentionally change their business strategies and shift their focus to product R&D, the retail end of the business and other links of the value chain. With a large price differential from the international brands, domestic toy brands are highly competitive in the middle and low-end markets, monopolizing the domestic wholesale market and small businesses. Retail sales in the Chinese and global toy markets over recent years are listed in Table 3.29.23 There has been steady growth in retail sales in China, and that growth

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Table 3.29 Retail sales in the Chinese and global toy markets, 2010 to 2016 Year

Chinese toy market retail sales (US$100 million)

Growth rate (%)

Global toy market retail sales (US$100 million)

Growth rate (%)

Proportion of the retail sales of Chinese toy market in global market (%)

2010

56.47

–

637.88

–

2011

67.58

19.67

660.77

3.59

10.23

8.85

2012

76.88

13.76

681.63

3.16

11.28

2013

86.86

12.98

702.98

3.13

12.36

2014

94.18

8.43

737.91

4.97

12.76

2015

102.55

8.89

781.74

5.94

13.12

2016

104.41

1.81

820.08

4.90

12.73

has been much faster than growth in other countries.

3.6.2.2

The Current State of the Chinese SP Toy Industry

The growth of the SP industry offers new opportunities for the Chinese toy industry, as SP toys are an emerging industry that could bring Chinese enterprises out of the lower end of the industrial chain. Some domestic companies have started to develop SP toys. SP toys are usually developed using one of two approaches. The first approach is to directly adopt or make minor modifications to scientific experiments and teaching instruments to produce toy versions. Examples include toy telescopes, microscopes and simple pendulums and other teaching apparatus used in physics, chemistry, astronomy and biology experiments. Toys such as these do not require high cost inputs, but they fail to play a prominent role in SP, as there is no essential difference between the toys and the common scientific and research equipment that they are modelled on. This type of SP toy is usually sold at a low price. For instance, a Chinese toy microscope with cost ranging from 100 to several hundred yuan is a cheap and simplified version of a laboratory microscope with a low product value. Unlike their Chinese counterparts, toy microscopes made in other countries have high-quality optical lenses and can sell for the equivalent of several thousand yuan. Experimental and teaching instruments can be miniaturized into portable articles. For example, ‘Readboy’ and ‘Biology World’, which are selling well online, are 23

‘2017 Overview of the Chinese toy market and industry development trend analysis’, www. chyxx.com, 16 June 2017, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201706/533018.html; ‘2017 global toy industry demand supply situation and future development trend analysis’, www.chyxx.com, 17 January 2018, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201801/604666.html.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

in fact portable biology labs. Their experimental instruments include a microscope (100x, 450 × and 900 × magnification), a double-lens magnifier, a pair of tweezers, a scalpel, a slicer, a Petri dish, 12 object slides, 24 cover slides, 4 pieces of filter paper, 2 graduated cylinders, a glass rod, a pair of goggles, 2 droppers, a germ incubator, 4 collection bottles, a set of animal specimens, a set of plant specimens, 16 blank labels, a medicine spoon, a projector lamp and a set of experimental ingredients (eosin, methylene blue, salt, yeast, eggs of saltwater shrimp, mung beans, corn). The manufacturer’s advertisements claim that ‘Biology World’ is suitable for children aged between 8 and 16 years. ‘Biology World’ and other similar microchemical and physical labs sell for CNY100–300 online. In other countries, similar products sell for prices ranging from a few dozen US dollars to several hundred dollars. After all, these toys are mini-sized teaching and educational instruments and do not work very well in SP. Since the purposes, targets and methods of SP and S&T education vary greatly, we cannot use the same SP methods and tools in all SP activities. In the case of ‘Biology World’, the cognitive ability and knowledge it requires are beyond those of most school pupils. Most middle school students will perform better using relevant knowledge acquired from class and lab and from teachers’ guidance. The second approach is to independently develop SP toys. Self-developed SP toys are toys in a real sense, but with certain SP functions. With more emphasis on toys’ entertaining function, these products are usually not for serious scientific, educational and experimental purposes, but they are occasionally used as teaching tools in other countries to arouse students’ interest in S&T. The SP toy industry in developed Western countries is more mature in its ideas and technologies, and emphasises entertainment and enjoyment. Chinese SP toys, however, are dull, as most of them are static models and modified versions of scientific teaching and experimental instruments rather than self-developed products. Multiple factors have led to this situation. The most important reason is that the SP toy industry in the West is comparatively mature, has a large market scale and employs regular SP toy production teams. The Chinese SP toy industry remains at the stage of concepts and proposals and is short of creative teams and practical experience. It is worth noting that the different levels of SP toy development in China and the developed world is correlated with their differences in SP and education supplies. These two sectors are closely linked, as SP toys are mini-sized SP exhibition and education products.

3.6.2.3

Development Trends in the Chinese SP Toy Industry

The SP toy industry is a high value-added industry that brings handsome income and benefits to its employees while creating more job opportunities. The industry has laid a good material foundation that contributes to the harmonious development of society. The Chinese SP toy sector is still in its infancy, but it has built momentum for further development, so we can be cautiously optimistic about its growth.

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First, the development trend in the world’s toy industry is consistent with that in China’s SP industry. According to market analysis by the Toy Industry Association of the US, the production of computer-based and electronic toys, merchandise based on popular animated film characters and educational and intelligent toys are the main trends in the global toy industry. Among those products, electronic toys and educational toys are closely related to the SP industry. A report by Zhiyan Consulting Firm has shown that a new type of intelligent toy that combines IT with traditional toy features has been growing in popularity in recent years.24 It is estimated that the growth rate of the intelligent toy sector will reach 75% annually within five years, which is much higher than the expected 6% average annual growth of the entire toy industry. The application of speech recognition, human–machine interaction and other technologies in intelligent toys will significantly improve their price and gross margins. As a major toy exporter, China will see a greater development space for intelligent and high-tech toys in overseas market. Advanced and new technologies could not only make toys more entertaining and interesting, but could also better achieve the goals of SP. Second, there will be a huge demand for SP toys in the near future. China is a major consumer of toys and, in toy sales, the fastest growing economy among the world’s top five countries, although China’s per capita spending on children’s toys remains low. Statistics indicate there were 230 million children in China aged 14 years or under in 2016, but the average household expenditure on toys of the year was only US$22.70.25 That means there is much room for market development. A huge market potential has led to the accelerated growth of the Chinese toy industry. Table 3.29 shows that the proportion of retail sales of the Chinese toy market to sales in the global toy market is increasing year by year, accounting for over 12% since 2013. Since China’s two-child policy was issued in 2016, the toy industry has become one of the largest beneficiaries. The change becomes more noticeable as the post-1980 and post-1990 generations become parents. A large proportion of these people have received higher education. With richer knowledge, they pay more attention to their children’s entertainment and are more willing to spend on toys. It can be concluded that expenditure on toys will have much greater potential to increase in the near future. However, expenditure on SP products in China could not catch up with the growth rate of spending on the toys mentioned above. This result indicates the existing problems in the development of Chinese SP toys and shows the enormous potential for the industry in China.

24

Research Report on the Market Operation Trend of Chinese Intelligent Toys in 2017–2022, Zhiyan Consulting Firm, www.chyxx.com. 25 ‘2017 China’s toy industry development status and market capacity analysis’, www.chyxx.com, 17 January 2018, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201801/604670.html.

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

3.6.3 Measures to Boost the Development of the Chinese SP Toy Industry 3.6.3.1

Policy Support

To promote the growth of the Chinese SP toy industry, governments could issue policies to spur the development of SP toy enterprises with high technologies and high added value. Through tax reductions and other measures, authorities could cultivate SP toy companies, foster the industrial chain for Chinese SP toys, and guide the market to gradually eliminate labour-intensive companies using low technologies. A venture capital system should be set up, allowing emerging small and medium-sized SP toy enterprises to survive and grow. The state authorities should also strengthen the management system and issue hard-and-fast rules to guarantee that venture capital can be obtained only by the small and medium-sized companies engaged in high-tech SP toy development and those with plans to get involved in the whole toy industrial chain.

3.6.3.2

Promotion and Public Opinion

Promotion activities and guidance of public opinion could enhance the S&T consciousness of the masses and particularly that of young parents, who tend to have a strong willingness to spend and a stronger spending power. In the past, the Chinese SP toy industry was underdeveloped. People were forced to settle for toys with no educational function. With the growth of the Chinese SP industry, particularly the SP toy industry, the national authorities should promote SP toys and guide consumers to pay more attention to them.

3.6.3.3

Establishment of SP Toy R&D Centres

Setting up SP toy R&D centres could improve the technologies and designs of Chinese SP toys and stimulate the sector’s development. The R&D centres should fully consider regional advantages, resource advantages and the existing R&D foundation. A national SP toy R&D centre should be built in Guangdong Province, which boasts concentrated resources in toy development and a developed toy industry. Guangdong is a leading player in China’s toy industry, and the value of toys produced there accounts for more than half of the national total and one-third of the global total, while Beijing, Shanghai and other major Chinese cities have only a handful of toy companies with small outputs. Some enterprises in Guangdong have set up their own R&D centres. For instance, Guangdong Qunxing Toys Joint-stock Co. Ltd is a renowned toy enterprise in Shantou’s Chenghai District that has its own R&D centre and a series of brands including ‘Rainbow Cat and Blue Rabbit’. At

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147

Jinping District National SP Demonstration Zone of Shantou, Guangdong BanBao Co. Ltd is a famous high-tech enterprise in block toys production. It is also an R&D base for plastic SP and educational toys in China and the SP demonstration base of Guangdong Province.77 However, overall, and compared with the R&D centres of international corporations such as Disney and Discovery, the R&D centres of Chinese toy companies are smaller, with less investment, fewer original products and a large proportion of copycats. Therefore, setting up a national SP toy R&D centre in Guangdong is an urgent task. Since SP toys have lower technological content than SP exhibition and education supplies, SP industry R&D centres should not overemphasize new and high technologies but focus more on fostering an SP toy industrial chain. SP toy research centres can directly participate in the design of SP toy products and also provide various services, including consultation services and project management, to help enterprises develop materials procurement, warehousing, transportation, order handling, wholesale business, retail sales at terminals and many other links of the industrial chain. Because the SP toy industry is a knowledge-intensive industry, the R&D cost usually accounts for more than 20% of the total output value. It is impossible for the state to cover all of that expenditure, so most of it should be paid from profit earned in market. To be more specific, the money could come from technology transfer fees, patent fees or profit earned by the SP toys that are jointly produced by the national SP toy R&D centre and toy manufacturers. However, until the SP toy industry develops a market on a suitable scale, the national SP toy R&D centre cannot maintain its survival or development with market profit. Therefore, it requires financial support from the state.

3.7 SP Tourism 3.7.1 The Significance of SP Tourism SP tourism is a new recreational form that aims to popularize science through travel. It is a product generated when S&T reaches a new stage of development. The effective development and use of new and high technologies is an inevitable trend in tourism development. Due to economic development, social progress and the wide application of modern science and technologies in daily life, how to strengthen understanding of S&T and improve scientific literacy have become increasing concerns for governments and individuals. SP tourism conforms to the demand of the times and is becoming more popular among tourists. Chinese SP tourism has already begun and has entered the early stage of development. The definition of SP tourism is a basis for research. So far, there has not been an accurate and complete definition of this concept, but some scholars have defined it from different perspectives. Experts such as Deng Wei have defined SP tourism from

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

the perspective of product and development philosophy and believe that it is both a special tourist product and a development idea. In terms of product categories, SP tourism refers to a recreational product that integrates SP education with tourism and aims to let tourists receive education during travel. With a purpose of learning through play, this new tourism form takes tourist activities as carriers and tries to add S&T education into tourism products, allowing participants to cultivate their minds and improve the quality of their lives during the process. From the perspective of development philosophy, SP tourism is a travel form that adheres to the important rule of guiding the overall development of tourist destinations with S&T education [18]. Various scholars have added to our understanding of SP tourism: • In a study of the relationship between tourism and the SP industry, Liu Jitang held that SP tourism takes advantage of the management mechanism of tourism enterprises to pool SP resources so as to attract more investment into SP facilities, improve the quality of SP products and enhance the quality of SP personnel. Those efforts can activate the operation mechanism of the SP industry, create and make maximum use of SP resources, generate SP benefits and achieve a win–win result for both tourism and the SP industry [19]; • Yu Hongxian and other scholars studied this from the perspective of resources. They pointed out that SP tourism is a new type of travel form that makes full use of existing S&T resources and combines S&T construction, scientific experiments, S&T knowledge lectures and tourists’ participation through planning and designing tourism themes and events and allowing tourists to fully understand the charm of modern technologies while increasing their scientific knowledge [20]. • Li Shaogang believes that SP tourism can be defined in both general and narrow senses. In a general sense, it is a travel form that takes tourist activities as a carrier to spread and popularize scientific knowledge, while in a particular sense it refers to any travel form that attempts to cause people to acquire scientific and cultural knowledge through travel. With sightseeing as its main purpose, the tourist activity combines entertainment, participation, knowledge and education and tries to teach and learn through travel and fun [21]. To sum up, SP tourism is a travel form that organically integrates the popularization of scientific knowledge with tourist activity in the following aspects: • SP tourism is a tourism product designed for leisure travellers who pay attention to knowledge acquisition, with the intention to popularize scientific knowledge and promote the scientific spirit. With scientific and educational knowledge as its main attractions, SP tourism makes use of scientific approaches to reveal the significance of science in tourism resources and to improve the S&T content of tourist activities and products, allowing tourists to receive scientific education, increase their scientific knowledge and improve their scientific literacy through travel; • SP tourism involves tourism activities at multiple venues, such as S&T exhibition halls; science and education centres; natural scenic spots; historical and

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149

cultural scenic spots; zoos and botanical gardens; geo-parks; scientific research institutions; colleges and universities; and modern high-tech parks; • Depending on natural and manmade SP tourism resources, SP tourism is developed on the basis of the scientific elements and components of tourist destinations, as well as the scientific knowledge, thoughts and spirit that humans acquired while transforming nature; • SP tourism is a recreational form integrating knowledge, education, amusement and entertainment. Taking interesting and entertaining activities as carriers, SP tourism adopts the approach of teaching through travel and fun to reach the goals of SP and scientific spirit promotion.

3.7.2 Analysis of Chinese SP Tourism Resources China boasts a large territory, a long history and rich tourism resources. Depending on the levels and types of SP education bases and the patterns of SP tourism activities, Chinese SP tourism resources can be divided into eight categories, as shown in Table 3.30. Table 3.30 Classification of Chinese SP tourism resources Categories of SP tourism resources

Explanation

Comprehensive S&T halls and museums

National, provincial, municipal S&T halls, museums of natural history, etc

Professional S&T halls, museums

Professional S&T halls devoted to geology, astronomy, aviation and the military; museums, planetariums, observatories and professional herbariums

Science, culture and education centres

High-tech cities, S&T parks, technology halls of fame, culture and education centres, S&T exhibitions, etc

Natural, historical and cultural scenic spots

Various natural scenic spots, historical and cultural attractions (reserves), geo-parks, etc

Zoos and botanical gardens

Zoos, botanical parks, gardens, aquariums, seaquariums, forest parks, etc

Scientific research institutions, colleges, universities, high-tech enterprises

Scientific research institutions, research centres, labs of colleges and universities, high-tech enterprises, etc

Various demonstration venues

Industrial technology parks, agriculture technology parks, high-tech farms, S&T towns, etc

Others

Industrial heritage, ancient architecture, cultural relics with high SP value

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3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

As China speeds up industrialization, several industrial heritages and cultural relics with high SP value that could represent the history of S&T development have emerged. They can also be deemed as SP tourism resources. SP tourism products developed on the basis of S&T resources and local conditions have become new tourism highlights in many cities: • Tourist routes through Shanghai World Expo Park, Wuhan’s Optics Valley and Mianyang’s Western Silicon Valley of China have become popular; • There are now ‘space technology exploration tours’ to the once mysterious Xichang and Jiuquan satellite launch centres; • In April 2010, Shanghai announced its plan to launch two or three demonstration SP routes that cover the entire World Expo Park and major SP venues, so as to realize interactions among museums and the park; • In June 2010, Hainan provincial authorities put forward five SP tourism routes: a tropical agriculture tour, a tropical rainforest tour, a marine aquaculture tour, a natural science tour and a high-tech tour; • In Beijing, Zhongguancun Science and Education Tourism Festival grows increasingly popular; • Also in Beijing, apart from the traditional tour destinations such as Tsinghua University and Peking University, the headquarters of corporations such as New Oriental Education and Technology Group, Hanvon Technology and Lenovo are also open to tourists26 ; • On the Space Day of China on 24 April 2018, the lab module of ‘Lunar Palace I’ at the Lunar Palace I SP base in Beihang University opened to the public for the first time, allowing people to take a close look at the facility and probe its secrets.27 China has a variety of SP tourism resources that cover an extensive range, but few of them have been turned into SP tourism products. Therefore, there is an urgent need for those resources to be integrated, used and exploited. SP tourism is an emerging industry segment. Its quality can only be guaranteed when relevant resources are scientifically planned, developed and managed. Attention has to be paid to the integration of resources across the country and to rational allocations and coordinated development between the eastern and western parts of China. Unique brands should be built in different regions and provinces so as to allow the public to make choices according to their preferences. In the construction of SP venues, governments should rationally allocate resources and avoid building monotonous museums with similar functions and contents. The authorities should encourage innovation in designs, display frameworks and themes, urging governments at all levels to establish distinctive SP venues in accordance with local conditions and to hold more interactive, lively and interesting exhibitions.

26

Shen Zejin, ‘Experiencing the charms of science in SP tourism’, Economic Daily, 2 August 2010. ‘“Lunar Palace I” opened to the public for visits for the first time’, Chinese Education Report, CETV, 24 April 2018.

27

3.7 SP Tourism

151

3.7.3 Categories of SP Tourism SP tourism comes in multiple forms and categories. Wang Yuxin classified SP tourism into six types: • Tours to modern high-tech industrial parks, such as industrial technology parks, agriculture technology parks and ecological science parks; • Tours to manmade S&T venues, such as S&T museums, natural science museums, planetariums, observatories, SP amusement parks, zoos and botanical gardens; • SP tours of natural phenomena and natural landscapes, observing astronomy, weather, geology, landforms and fossils; • Visits to scientific research sites, such as scientific research institutions, labs and colleges; • Travels to S&T exhibitions, such as S&T expos and relevant exhibitions; • SP summer camps [22]. Yang Mingduo and his team studied the model of SP tourism and divided it into three categories: • SP sightseeing tours consist of tours to theme parks and S&T parks. This type of SP tourism takes natural substances and phenomena or modern industrial areas, agriculture parks and high-tech parks as attractions with the purpose of learning and experiencing scientific knowledge; • Experimental SP tours visiting exhibition venues and observation sites such as S&T halls, museums, planetariums and observatories. Visits to S&T halls and museums in people’s spare time to acquire scientific knowledge have become an indispensable part of their lives; • SP tours with research purposes are deeper-level exploitation of SP tourism resources. This type of tour includes tourist activities to various research institutions, natural research tours and participation in S&T forums. It targets S&T professionals and enthusiasts, providing tourist products that can fully present the value of S&T [23]. Other scholars categorized SP tours into natural and ecological tours; tours of historical relics; visits to S&T museums; tours to SP bases; and tours of high-tech industry. Given the SP tourism resource and the existing patterns of SP tourism activities, SP tours fall into the following types: • • • • •

Comprehensive tours to S&T halls and museums; Tours to professional S&T halls and museums; Tours to science and education centres; Tours to technology halls of fame and culture and education centres; Tours to all kinds of natural, historical and cultural scenic spots (reserves) and geo-parks; • Tours to zoos and botanical parks; • Tours to scientific research centres and labs of colleges and universities;

152

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

• Tours to high-tech enterprises and research centres; • Tours to industrial parks, agricultural parks, scientific demonstration plantations and farms, and S&T towns; • Others. Apart from those, SP summer camps and winter camps can also be considered as a type of SP tour. Held during summer and winter vacations, they are aimed at children and teens and take advantage of SP education bases so that young people can acquire knowledge, be entertained, receive education and have opportunities to participate.

3.7.4 The Significance of SP Tourism Development SP tourism is an industry that develops SP tourism products using SP tourism resources and S&T facilities in order to attract and receive tourists and provide them with sightseeing, amusement, shopping and other services. It integrates SP with various components of tourism activities, allowing tourists to gain more scientific experiences during their travel. The rise of SP tourism has expanded the domain of tourism. SP tourism is an important form of the SP industry. Its development suggests that tourism is moving to a higher level. SP tourism first emerged in developed countries in the West. It was marked by the establishment of the Deutsches Museum, which was the first new type of S&T museum in the world, in 1906. In the 1930s, the three major automobile manufacturers in France (Renault, Peugeot and Citroën) promoted their corporate images by organizing tours to automobile production lines and other sites for the public and achieved good returns. This led to the birth of SP tourism. Today, SP tourism is maturing in developed countries and has become an important component of tourism. The development of SP tourism mainly focuses on SP theme parks, SP exhibitions and high-tech industrial sites [24]. Every year, the Natural History Museum in London attracts 2–3 million visitors; French industrial SP tourism programmes, such as visits to automobile corporations, receive 10 million people annually. The top five SP tourism destinations in the US (the California Academy of Science, the National Museum of Natural History, Disneyland, Hollywood and the National Air and Space Museum) receive more than 400 million visitors a year. In the US, France and other developed countries in the West, SP tourism plays a very important role in domestic tourism. Governments and private investors in those countries emphasize investment in SP tourism because it brings them handsome returns in social reputation, economic benefits and ecological effects. It is a giant industry that attracts the attention of investors. S&T tours in Western countries have truly formed into a virtuous circle in which tourist destinations, the public and society support and coordinate with each other. Apart from direct investment and funds from governments, S&T tours in foreign countries have the bulk of expenses covered by the sponsorship of companies and individuals. Some departments and enterprises

3.7 SP Tourism

153

Table 3.31 Numbers of domestic tourists and income from domestic tours, 2012 to 2016 Year

Number of domestic tourists (100 million)

Growth rate from previous year (%)

2012

29.57

2013

32.62

10.31

26,276.12

15.72

2014

36.11

10.70

30,311.86

15.36

2015

40.00

10.77

34,195.05

12.81

2016

44.40

11.00

39,390.00

15.19

–

Income from domestic tours (CNY100 million) 22,706.22

Growth rate from previous year (%) –

even offer to cooperate with S&T museums to carry out R&D projects and provide those institutions with research funding [25]. In developing countries such as China, SP tourism has enormous market potential. It is a new and fashionable form of tourism and tourism product. The values of developing SP tourism in China are as follows. • The development of SP tourism can better meet people’s needs for diversified, multilayer and multiform spiritual and cultural content. With economic and technological development, pure sightseeing and tours of relics can no longer meet the demand of modern people for a higher quality experience. The advanced features and mysteries of S&T pique people’s curiosity and thus attract a host of tourists to explore those secrets. To some extent, SP tours can meet the demands of common people for broadening horizons and increasing scientific knowledge. Because SP tourism, with its rich S&T content, can enlighten people and satisfy their hunger for knowledge, it is becoming increasingly popular; • The development of SP tourism could make the SP industry more market-oriented and thereby boost the development of the sector. In recent years, China’s tourism has been thriving, and there has been a constant increase in tourist numbers and income from tourism (the basic situation in domestic travel is shown in Table 3.31 [13]). SP tourism can improve the recreational value of tours, attract more tourists and increase income from tourism, thus attracting more people to engage in the industry. As the industry develops, more people will receive SP education. On the one hand, it creates conditions for S&T to go to market and for the application of research results in industrial production. On the other hand, SP tourism plays a leading role in the industry and could generate a new business model in the near future. Meanwhile, SP tourism can help in exploring new tourism resources and creating new economic growth points for the tourism industry. SP tourism also prompts different SP venues to work together, complementing each other’s advantages, forming companies and carrying out company management. These efforts to develop S&T venues and S&T bases into scenic spots and tourism products can revitalize those venues and bases; • The development of SP tourism could promote the ethical values of the public. On the one hand, SP tourism is able to popularize scientific knowledge and strengthen scientific education by arousing the interest of tourists, teens and

154

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

children, and by allowing people to receive information during pleasant travel experiences. These efforts could help build a favourable environment for loving science, learning science and using science and create an atmosphere of advocating science and opposing superstition. On the other hand, through accessing various tourism resources, people can understand the secrets of and develop a respect for science. This could help extend the values and roles of natural and cultural tourism resources and help advance the construction and protection of various tourism resources.

3.7.5 Solutions to Promote the Development of Chinese SP Tourism The 13th Five-year Plan for National Economic and Social Development explicitly put forward the idea of vigorously developing tourism, working hard to improve the quality and efficiency of the industry and supporting the development of ecological tours, cultural tours and leisure tours. SP tourism reflects the increase in China’s comprehensive strength and progress in national technologies and people’s living standards. While catering to people’s need for customized and recreational services, it can also promote the sustainable development of tourism. We put forward the following suggestions.

3.7.5.1

Take a Larger Perspective

We should take a larger perspective to build new types of SP facilities and to develop and exploit SP resources in order to meet people’s needs to acquire all kinds of S&T knowledge. Over recent years, many places have adopted this idea and established a great number of theme parks, ecological parks, modern agriculture trial parks, botanical gardens, aviation museums, aquariums, planetariums, museums of medical history, military museums and other SP facilities. In March 2010, Shanghai S&T Museum, which is China’s largest comprehensive S&T museum with the most investment, was named a national 5A tourist attraction by the National Tourism Administration of China. It is the first national 5A SP tourist attraction in China, which is an endorsement of the new development pattern initiated by a public science and educational institution. As important SP tourism resources, S&T venues and some S&T educational bases form a crucial basis for the integration and development of tourism and the SP industry. The development of SP tourism can greatly improve the performance of these facilities and bases and yield a better SP result. Driven by the market and in the face of the increase in the number of SP tourists and the growing demand for relevant products, the SP tourism industry should do whatever it can to use and exploit SP resources.

3.7 SP Tourism

3.7.5.2

155

Build SP Towns

The construction of SP towns will be an important measure to boost the growth of SP tourism in the future. SP towns are those that highlight S&T elements. Vigorously developing SP towns conform to the trend of accelerated urbanization and the rise of distinctive towns after the successful holding of the 19th National Congress of the CPC. It hints at a broad development prospect. State authorities should carry out surveys and research on the feasibility of building SP towns across the country. Indepth studies on relevant policies and plans should be carried out, and scientific and feasible development and establishment plans for SP towns should be drawn up as soon as possible, to avoid chaos and guarantee an orderly and healthy development of the towns nationwide. According to the principle of ‘highlighting unique features, conforming to local conditions, carrying out trials at pilot zones, promoting joint efforts and steady development’, SP town construction plans should be implemented on the basis of large scientific facilities such as FAST (500-m Aperture Spherical Radio Telescope), major projects with high-tech content, hubs of high-tech enterprises, relevant S&T resources, distinctive industry resources, and indigenous cultural, agricultural and ecological resources. Starting with joint efforts to build SP pilot towns, we should construct and summarize experience at the same time and implement plans while promoting the brands so as to spur SP tourism development, improve cultural soft power and boost the development of local economies and society. During the process, special attention should be paid to the early investment of social capital in order to foster a new growth area for the sustainable development of SP tourism.

3.7.5.3

Combine SP Tourism with Traditional Tourism

The combination of SP tourism with traditional tourism programmes can advance the development of the entire tourism industry in China. We have to work hard to tap the SP value in natural landscape resources, so that tourists can experience the mysteries of natural science during sightseeing. However, cultural scenic spots need to train a group of SP professionals, while SP content should be introduced for national historic relics, technological sites, famous colleges and universities, research institutions, key labs and the production lines of high-tech enterprises, which could offer rich resources for the growth of Chinese cultural SP tourism. Interesting SP tourist routes around key scenic spots should be rationally designed. SP culture should be designed into the core of SP tourist routes, while well-developed tourist attractions can serve as demonstration windows for SP tours to drive the growth of each tourist route.

156

3.7.5.4

3 The Main Formats of the SP Industry

Improve Services and Facilities

SP tourism services and facilities should be improved to highlight regional and cultural features. We should build scientific and complete guiding sign and interpretation systems to fully demonstrate each site’s rich content of S&T knowledge, to ensure the integrity of interpretation and to showcase the advanced technologies adopted by the systems. Regional authorities should participate in the construction of SP tourist attractions in order to better show the regional characteristics of those attractions and present customs and traditional practices in a scientific way. The tourist market should be divided into different segments, and SP tourism products should be developed to cater for the needs of different groups. In accordance with certain standards and approaches (regional features, socioeconomic characteristics, psychological features, tourist behaviours and so on), we can differentiate tourists into various consumer groups and design targeted tourism products for them.

3.7.5.5

Integrate the Roles of S&T, SP and Tourism Experts

CAST, S&T societies and associations at all levels, scientists and experts in tourism should play important roles in the effort to boost the development of SP tourism. They could put forward targeted ideas and suggestions for the development of SP tourism resources so that SP tourism products can offer relevant scientific knowledge and also imperceptibly cultivate the scientific ideas, scientific thoughts and scientific approaches of tourists. In this way, the goal of teaching through fun can be achieved. First, the full-time staff of SP tour enterprises (administrative staff and designers and so on) play a crucial role in advancing the development of SP tourism, so staff training activities should be held to improve their quality. Second, we should then focus on part-time personnel of SP tour enterprises (such as experts, professors and volunteers), who can enhance the cognitive ability of tourists in various ways. For instance, astronomers can explain the formation of stars with slides and videos. Volunteers, apart from meeting basic requirements such as having a passion for public welfare, an upright character and dedication to the job, are also expected to have a good command of relevant S&T knowledge and strong service awareness.

References 1. Xiao W (2007) Exploring the marketing system of science and technology museums. Reform Strategy S1:154–159 2. Li X (2017) The ‘science-centerizing’ of science and technology museums: based on the case study of the UK. Stud Dialect Nat 5:46–50 3. Ren F et al (2010) China science popularization infrastructure development report (2009). Social Sciences Academic Press, Beijing

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4. Qi X, Zhao Y, Cai W (2016) Research on the development ideas and countermeasures of science and technology museums in China for the 13th Five-Year Plan period. In: Paper presented at the 22nd national science popularization theory seminar. SP Press, Beijing, pp 240–248 5. Yin L (2009) Selected works of SP creation research. Popular Science Press, Beijing 6. Xue J (2014) Research on the creation and compilation of popular science cartoon books (picture books). In: Paper presented at the 22nd national science popularization theory seminar. Popular Science Press, Beijing, pp 454–460 7. Yao L (2016) A preliminary exploration of the compilation of popular science books in Japan. In: Paper presented at the 22nd national science popularization theory seminar. Popular Science Press, Beijing, pp 308–312 8. Wu D, Zhong Q (2017) Media, science and technology, communication—research on the current situation of science and technology communication by mass media. Science Press, Beijing 9. Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (2008–2017) China science popularization statistics, 2008–2017 editions. Scientific and Technical Documentation Press, Beijing 10. Ren F et al (2010) China citizen scientific literacy report: volume I. Popular Science Press, Beijing 11. Ren F et al (2011) China citizen scientific literacy report: volume II. Popular Science Press, Beijing 12. Office for the Implementation of the Scientific Literacy Scheme (2015) Main results of the 2015 China citizen scientific literary survey. China Research Institute for Science Popularization 13. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China (2017) 2017 China statistical yearbook. China Statistics Press, Beijing 14. Liang J (2016) The significance and ways of ideological and political education through online games. Guide Technol Educ (Mid-month issue) (5):77–78 15. Chen Y (2017) On the legal attributes of online games. Law Soc Dev 1(Mid-month issue):164– 165 16. Chen Y, Wang Y (2017) An analysis of the concept and characteristics of online games. Legal Vis 6(Mid-month issue):294 17. Liu Y, Fei G, Jiang K (2011) A study on online-game science popularization and its industrial development. Stud Sci Popul 6(6):34–38 18. Deng W, Su Y, Li P et al (2002) Research on science popularization tourism in Northeast China. Science Press, Beijing 19. Liu J (2003) Travel science popularization—new trends in science popularization in China. Forum Sci Technol China 2:125–127 20. Yu H, He Z, Zhu J (2004) Current situation and countermeasures of popular science tours in China. J Northeast For Univ 3:94–96 21. Li S (2006) Analysis on the development strategy of science popularization tourism in Jilin Province. China Sci Technol Inf 12(320):322 22. Wang Y (2007) Research on science popularization tourism experience design. Huaqiao University, Quanzhou 23. Yang M, Chen K, Lv Q et al (2013) Preliminary thoughts on the development of the science popularization industry based on the combination of science popularization and tourism. In: Paper presented at the 19th national science popularization theory seminar. Popular Science Press, Beijing (5):15–21 24. Liu X, Liang L (2013) The progress of domestic popular science tourism and its enlightenment. J Henan Univ (Soc Sci) 53(3):49–55 25. Peng J, Gone Q (2009) Study on the development of popular science tourism in tourism city. Sci Technol Ind 2:17–19

Chapter 4

Case Studies of China’s SP Industry Development

Abstract The development of the SP industry has been explored in many fields and at various levels in China. The construction of SP resources in China has been continuously advanced, as evidenced by expanded types of SP work with both increased quantity and enhanced quality. The extensive application of new media technologies supported by the internet has created new demands for the SP industry. Seizing this important opportunity, China has taken multiple measures to promote the development of the new media SP industry. The successful holding of the China (Wuhu) Popular Science Products Expo (Wuhu SP Expo) in 2004 benefited from the development of the country’s economy and technology, progress in S&T and the support of various policy incentives. The improvement in the public awareness of SP products provided an important social foundation for the expo. Following the Wuhu SP Expo, the first Shanghai International Popular Science Products Expo (Shanghai SP Expo) was held at the Shanghai Exhibition Center in 2014. In order to facilitate the development of SP industry clusters, the China (Wuhu) Science Popularization Industry Park (Wuhu SP Industry Park) was launched in 2010. SP industry parks have played a leading and exemplary role in the development of the SP industry. Some S&T companies have committed themselves to the R&D of SP products. Through collaboration with colleges and universities, they have designed some classic SP exhibits that have triggered much interest in society. By pooling resources from various quarters, adopting the strategy of public–private partnerships and the coregulation of government and market and encouraging more enterprises, universities and scientific research institutes to join the research, development and production of SP products, we can expect a period of rapid development of the SP industry.

4.1 Thematic Research on SP Publishing SP books are a traditional and important part of SP resources. The investigative analysis of the creation and publication of SP books can influence the creative focus of SP writers, and even provide reference for the government to formulate relevant policies; at the same time, it can also influence and shape the public’s reading preferences to a certain extent and cultivate the public’s interest in science. In recent years, the © China Science and Technology Press 2021 F. Ren et al., Introduction to the Science Popularization Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3720-9_4

159

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4 Case Studies of China’s SP Industry Development

construction of SP resources in China has been continuously advanced, as evidenced by expanded types of SP works with both increased quantity and enhanced quality. The SP publishing industry has also taken an increasingly prominent position in the whole SP industry. That said, certain weak links still exist in the SP publishing industry and need to be strengthened.

4.1.1 Overview of the SP Publishing Industry 4.1.1.1

Overview of the Publication and Distribution of SP Books

Table 4.1 shows data on the SP books published in China in recent years, as provided in China Science Popularization Statistics [1]. In the statistics, the types of SP books are recorded on a yearly basis; the number of SP books owned by every 10,000 people is calculated based on the average population of the country released by the National Bureau of Statistics at the end of each year; the average number of SP books of each type is calculated by dividing the total number of SP books published each year by the types of SP books. From 2009 to 2014, the increase in the types of SP books published in China was by and large stable and moderate, reaching the highest number in 2015 after a substantial yearly increase; the number of published books stayed in a fluctuating growth trajectory, reaching the highest number in 2015 and 2016 after a jump in growth. The average number of SP books owned by every 10,000 people fluctuated year by year and experienced the same rapid expansion in 2015 and 2016. The average number of SP books of each type dropped year by year before 2011 and then fluctuated upwards, reaching a peak of 11,299 books/type in 2016. The number of Table 4.1 SP books published in China, 2008–2016 Year

Types

Year-on-year growth in the number of types (%)

Books published (10,000 books)

Year-on-year growth in the number of books published (%)

SP books owned per 10,000 people

Average number of books of each type (books/type)

2008

3,888

–

4,539

–

342

11,674

2009

6,787

74.56

6,869

51.33

515

10,121

2010

7,043

3.77

6,520

−5.08

486

9,257

2011

7,695

9.26

5,696

−12.64

423

7,402

2012

7,521

−2.26

6,571

15.36

485

8,737

2013

8,423

11.99

8,860

34.83

651

10,518

2014

8,507

1.00

6,160

−30.47

450

7,241

2015

16,600

95.13

13,357

116.83

972

8,046

2016

11,937

−28.09

13,487

0.97

975

11,299

4.1 Thematic Research on SP Publishing

161 Below 3000 3000-5000 5000-10000 10000-100000 Above 100000

Fig. 4.1 Sectional statistics of SP book circulation

SP books published in each type shows the popularity of SP books, which also has a major impact on the market for the production of SP content in the future. In 2009, to determine sectional statistics of SP book circulation, the SP Department of CAST and the Department of Publication Management of the General Administration of the Press and Publications jointly conducted a survey on the publication of SP books from 2002 to 2008, which collected data from 135 publishing houses in China. According to the results, the number of books with a circulation of under 3,000 copies made up the largest share, accounting for 29.44% of the total, while the share of books with a circulation of over 100,000 copies was only 2.17%. This shows that the majority of published SP books have only limited circulation, and that the share of bestsellers is still minimal (Fig. 4.1).

4.1.1.2

Overview of the Topics of SP Books

According to the results of the national survey on SP books in 2009, medicine and health, industrial technology and agricultural science are the topics followed most closely by the public. Those three categories occupied the top three positions in the list of preferred topics of SP books (Fig. 4.2).

4.1.1.3

Overview of the Production Teams of SP Books

Table 4.2 shows the numbers and changes in China’s SP creators in recent years [1]. The overall number of SP creators is relatively small in China, at just a little over 10,000 people each year, and is growing very slowly; SP creators account for about only 0.6% of all SP practitioners and 1.3% of senior SP practitioners. The lack of SP creators limits the output of SP media and affects the quality of SP content. Figure 4.3 provides basic information about the writers of SP books. Most SP creators are young or middle-aged male teachers and researchers. Most of them have a bachelor’s degree or above, and about half of them have senior titles. In addition, some of them have never participated in the certification of professional titles.

162

4 Case Studies of China’s SP Industry Development Medicine & hygiene

24.73%

Industrial technology

18.01%

Agriculture

17.38%

Theories of natural sciences

8.91%

Culture, science, education & physical education Math, physics & chemistry

5.26% 2.51%

Comprehensive knowledge

2.49%

Biology

2.16%

Astronomy & earth sciences

1.73%

History & geography

1.53%

Transportation

1.47%

Environment & safety

1.36%

Others (